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UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH
Dan
NAlttO
Darlington .Memorial Libr;
FEBRUARY MDCCCXLV.
A Series of Encyclopaedias and Dictionaries,
forming Special and Independent Works,
edited by Writers distinguished in tlie
various departments,
©ontcntg.
No.
1. Blaine's Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports
2. Brande's Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art
3. Copland's Dictionary of Practical Medicine
(In course of publication
4. Gwilt's Encyclopedia of Architecture
5. Johnson's Farmer's Encyclopedia
6. Loudon's Encyclopedia of Agriculture
7. Loudon's Encyclopedia of Rural Architecture
. 8. Loudon's Encyclopedia of Gardening
9. Loudon's Encyclopedia of Plants
10. Loudon's Encyclopedia of Trees
11. M'Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce
12. M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary
13. Murray's Encyclopedia of Geography
14. Ure's Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures
15. Webster and Parkes's Encyclopedia of Domestic
Economy .......
pages.
12
16
4
10
15
14
13
13
15
11
6
11
7
V The Series contains upwards of 22,000 Woodcuts.
5^ The Fourteen Completed Works at present form Fifteen Volumes, Svo.
price ^39. 16s. M.
MESSRS. LONGMAN AND CO. PURPOSE EXTENDING THIS SERIES UNTIL IT EMBRACES
EVERY BRANCH OF KNOWLEDGE.
LONDON:
PRINTED FOR
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS.
II.
Notice of a Series of Encyclopeedias,
OPINIONS OF THE TRESS ON THE SERIES.
The Times.
" These book! are not only full of information of the best kind, arranged and presented in the
oxer, but ire kept current in all cases with the latest discoveries in their various depart-
4 knowledge, b] the help Of Appendices and Supplements. They promise to realise a
imptete Library of Practical Knowledge on the various subjects of hnman inqniry than we
attempted with mecew, and they bare the manifest advantage of giving each reader
Ml i ption of selecting the rabjecta that will be useful to hiin, and of rejecting those that would
. encumber Ma book shelves."
The Athenreum.
» A series of encyclopedical volumes, wherein a great quantity of information is condensed
...ill compaaa, and arranged in a form the most convenient for frequent reference. Such
- will, when completed, form a valuable library of practical knowledge. The specimens
\ . bfcve already sen, of these works are such as do great credit to the publishers who formed the
. and to the authors who bave executed the respective divisions. Loudon's Encyclopaedia
. : v ^ri culture has now given proof of its value by a third edition ; his Encyclopaedia of Gardening is
leen open on the table of every scientific gardener, and of every man who values his garden,
from one end of this garden-covered island to the other— from the region of the heath to that of the
U'CuOoch'a Dictionary of Commerce and Commercial Navigation is to be found in the
libri'iy equally of the merchant and the man of general information. Of the Dictionary of
;■ ••»! 1 1 . -;il Medicine, by Dr. Copland, we heretofore expressed our approbation. Taken as a whole,
ami lodging by the specimens already published, we consider this series of works to beoneof the
duable produced for many years; and we look forward to the publication of the Dictionary
of Seience, Literature, and Art, with confidence and special pleasure, as a work much wanted.
rs'ohe can conceive, who have not witnessed them, the difficulties encountered in the attempt to
| el up Bterling substantia] works of this kind; few are aware of the extent of knowledge, of
use ling, and of sustained effort, in collecting, writing out, and digesting such works."
Examiner,
" We think it a worthless, because an impracticable design, to aim at embodying in any one
work an epitome Of every branch of human knowledge. All the general encyclopaedias that we know
. f are general failures. Some portions of them have been admirably done, but at some point
or Other in all of them the necessary alternative has forced itself on the projectors— to leave the
design unfinished, or the book unfinished.— This is a better plan of the Messrs. Longman and Co.
and deserves all encouragement and support. They purpose to publish a series of encyclo-
iinl dictionaries, each edited by a competent person, each in itself complete, condensed
Into as small a compass ns possible, and arranged for the utmost convenience of simple and
i eference."
The Statesman.
• I In- authors and publishers of most of the great Dictionaries and Encyclopaedias that have
hitherto appeared in this and other countries, have endeavoured to concentrate into a single work all
ittered elements of universal knowledge. Hut success in such an undertaking could not
'ii b< looked for \ in such works it is uniformly found that those departments with which
itors ami principal contributors are best acquainted, are treated at great length, and often
with much care and research j while those equally important, and far more numerous, depart-
. with which they are less familiar, or in which they take less interest, are dispatched in a
. omparativel] brief and ilovenly manner, it is clear, too, that if all the various branches of
human knowledge wi re treated in a single work, with that completeness which the interest at-
tached to the greater number demands, it would be of the most gigantic dimensions, and could
n.,t be afforded, excepl at a price thai would preclude the great bulk of readers from becoming
its purchasers. We have, therfore, always approved of the valuable encyclopedias which have
■ rare In the course of publication, by Messrs. Longman. They seem to form a series of
.. am- [MDEPKND] M DlOTIONAXXBS, each being the work of pi rsons distinguished by
Mention to, and proficiency in, the departments of which it treats. The advantages of this
ement are obvious. Bach subject must have the best chance of being well and carefully
treated. The publication Of a series Of independent Dictionaries is farther advantageous, by its
giving individuals the optii f purchasing such only as they may have occasion for, without
encumbering themselves with the others. The success of the works already published on this
plan, ahows thai it baa been full] approved of by the public."
III.
Printed for Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans.
WEBSTER AND PARKES'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY.
An Encyclopaedia of Domestic Economy: comprising such subjects as are most immediately
connected with Housekeeping, as —
The Construction of Domestic Edifices, with
the modes of Warming, Ventilating, and
Lighting them ;
A Description of the various articles of Furni-
ture, with the nature of their materials ;
Duties of Servants;
A general account of the Animal and Vegetable
Substances used as Food, and
The methods of Preserving and Preparing them
by Cooking;
By Thos. Webster, F.G.S. &c. ; assisted by the late Mrs. Parkes, Author of " Domestic Duties."
1 thick vol. 8vo. illustrated with nearly 1,000 Woodcuts, £2. 10s. cloth.
The Chemical Nature and the Preparation of
all kinds of Fermented Liquors used as
Beverage ;
Making Bread ;
The Materials employed in Dress and the
Toilette ;
Business of the Laundry;
Description of the various Wheel Carriages ;
Preservation of Health ;
Domestic Medicine, &c. &c.
BOOK I.
(6 Chapters.)
On the Domestic Resi-
dence.
BOOK II.
(3 Chapters.)
On Warming Domestic
Edifices.
BOOK III.
(3 Chapters.)
On Ventilation.
BOOK IV.
(5 Chapters.)
Artificial Illumination.
BOOK v.
(18 Chapters.)
On HouseholdFurniture.
BOOK VI.
(2 Chapters.;
On the Establishment of
Household Servants,
and their Duties.
BOOK VII.
(10 Chapters.)
On Food.
BOOK VIII.
(15 Chapters.)
On the various Beverages
used in the British
Isles.
BOOK IX.
(3 Chapters.)
On making Bread.
Summary of Contents.
BOOK X.
(4 Chapters.)
On the Preservation of
Food.
BOOK XI.
(6 Chapters.)
On the general Arrange-
ment of a Kitchen, and
on the Culinary Pro-
cesses, and Apparatus
for Cooking.
BOOK XII.
Practical Household De-
tails connected with
Cookery.
BOOK XIII.
Receipts for English
Cookery.
BOOK XIV.
(3 Chapters.)
French Cookery.
BOOK xv.
(3 Chapters.)
Confectionery for Des-
serts, Routs, and Balls.
BOOK XVI.
(2 Chapters.)
Cooking for the Econo-
mist and Invalid.
BOOK XVII.
(13 Chapters.)
On the various Textile
Fabrics for Clothing
and Furniture.
BOOK XVIII.
(0 Chapters.)
Details respecting va-
rious articles of Dress.
BOOK XIX.
(9 Chapters.)
The Toilette, and sub-
jects connected with it.
BOOK XX.
(7 Chapters.)
Still-Room,and theman-
ner of Fitting up a
Domestic Laboratory.
book xxr.
Jewellery.
book xxii.
(12 Chapters.)
Economy of the Laundry.
book xxiii.
(6 Chapters.)
Carriages.
book XXIV.
(2 Chapters.)
Of Stables, and the Ma-
nagement of Horses.
book xxv.
(10 Chapters.)
Dairy, and Management
of Domestic Animals.
book xxvi.
(7 Chapters.)
Preservation of Health,
and Domestic Medicine.
" There is in this volume scarcely a line which may not be made useful in extending the expe-
rience of young and old housekeepers, and in helping to increase the comfort, convenience, and
economy of every household, whether large or small. The work is as nicely produced as the
materials are carefully collated and ably digested and arranged." — Britannia.
" This Mentor for domesticity is truly the best compiled, as well as by far the most ample work
of the sort that ever was published. There is no kind of information necessary in housekeeping
which is not found in it : to the scientific is added the practical, and a thousand explanatory
woodcuts make both as familiar as household words."— Literary Gazette.
" Essentially a practical work, in which everything has been made subordinate to the great
object of rendering it completely useful, and superseding a library of works on domestic economy.
It is a domestic cookery-book, a domestic gardener, a domestic physician, a domestic nurse; "a
IV.
Notice of a Scries of Encyclopaedias,
H , „,,,,. MEBTII 1'.' 0MOM1 —COnti
>t,,ri.|.. ,,| information, beginning with the choice of a resideuce, and ending with the
tick-room."- Juhn hull.
of everything bearing any relation to the necessities, comforts, and
■ W|, life. Prom the Inmate of the Ducal haU,to the Inmu scatter n. ithe
liun hush, readers have onl> to consult the index rder to find all that can be imparted
i ud directioa needful in their respective household circumstances. Tatt i uag.
•• The editor's obiei i has been to combine science with practice s knowledge of principles with
theordinan details and iluil) duties of domestic life. We strong!] recommend ever] lady, and
all who are coucerned in the management of domestic affairs, to become familiar with Mr.
W< lister's Encyclopedia, which must speedil] be regarded as an indispensable book of reference
rj bousekei | I B< '"''''•
•• The reneral object of the book is to exhibit an entire view of household economy in its most
extensive sense, and in all its phases; it- main utility will be to the younger heads of establish-
ments »beiier largeorsmaU, not bj teaching them how to do everything, but, m indicating Aoto
things should be done, bj Inculcating the meat law of order."— Spectator.
■■ Another and most Important addition to that admirable series of Dictionaries and Encyclopae-
dias to which we have to often referred with the praise the) have thoroughly deserved. The por-
tions ire have examined under each division appear very ably and carefnllj executed, and to
exhibit the work of pains-taking, conscientious, and clever pa pie -competent domestic econo-
mists." i.iaininer.
•• Building! warming, ventilation, the choice and preservation of household furniture, from the
sideboard to the gridiron, -the discipline and duties of servants,— the selection and composition
of i i and beverages, with all the varieties of cooking; in short, everything in domestic economy,
from the erection of a house to the doctoring of a small family, is to be learnt from this admirable
work." — Atlas.
(.WILT'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ARCHITECTURE.
An Encyclopaedia of Architecture, Historical, Theoretical, and Practical. By JOSEPH Gwilt.
Illustrated with upwards of 1000 Engravings on Wood, from Designs by J. S. Gwilt.
1 Thick vol. mo. containing liuo closely-printed pages, £1. 12s. 6d. cloth.
In a work whose object is to compress, within a comparatively restricted space, so vast a body
of information as is implied in an account of what is known of historical, theoretical, and prac-
tical architecture, it is of the highest importance to preserve a distinct ami precise arrangement
Of the subjects, so that they may be presented to the reader in consistent order and unity. Without
order and method, indeed, the work, though tilled with a large and valuable stock of information,
would be but a useless mass of knowledge. In treating the subject in detail, the alphabet has
not been made to perform the timet ion of an index, except in the glossary of the technical terms,
winch parth serves at the same time the purpose of a dictionary and that of an index to the
principal subject-, noticed in the work. The following is a synoptical view of its contents
exhibiting its different parts, and the mode in which they arise from and are dependent on each
other:—
Boos I. BISTORT? OP ARCHITECTURE, considered in—
Chapter t. < mucin.
1. Wants of .Man. 2. Origin and Progress. 3. Different Sorts of Dwellings
arising from different Oc-
cupations of Mankind.
chapter it. Various Countries.
i Dmidica] and Celtic. 7. Egyptian. 14. Byzantine & Romanesque.
>. Petasgic & Cyclopean. 8. Chinese. 15. Pointed.
:t. Babylonian. 9. Mexican. 16. Italian.
i. Persepolitan. 10. Arabian or Saracenic. it. French.
(.Jewish. II. Grecian. 18. German.
<"'• Indian. 12. Etruscan. 19. Spain and Portugal.
18 Roman. 20. Russia.
< hapter in. British Isles,
l. British Architecture from 8. Early English. 7. James I. to Anne.
an earl] period. 4. Ornamented English. 8. George I.
■j. Norman. 5. Florid English or Tudor- 9. George II.
B. Elizabethan. 10. George III.
Boos ll THEORY OP ARCHITOCTURE, founded on knowledge of—
Chant r i. Construct ion.
i. Arithmetic and Algebra, i. Plane Trigonometry. B. Mechanics and Statics.
2. Geometry. .".. Conic Sections. 9, Arches.
:i. Practical Geometry. 6, Descriptive Geometry. 10. Wails.
7. Mensuration. n. Mechanical Carpentry.
V.
Printed for Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans.
Gwilt's Encyclopaedia of Architecture— continued.
BOOK III— continued.
Chapter n. Materials.
1. Stone. 5. Iron.
2. Granite. 6. Lead.
3. Marble. 7. Zinc.
4. Timber. 8. Slates.
Chapter in. Use of Materials in—
5. Joinery.
6. Slating.
7. Plumbery.
8. Glazing.
6. Plastering-.
Chapter iv. Medium of Expression by —
1. Drawing in general. 2. Perspective.
Foundations and Drains.
Bricklaying and Tiling.
Masonry.
Practical Carpentry.
9. Bricks and Tiles.
10. Lime, Sand, Water, Ce-
ll. Glass. [ment.
12. Asphalte.
10. Smithery& Ironmongery.
11. Foundery.
12. Painting and Gilding.
13. Specifications.
14. Measuring & Estimating.
3. Shadows.
4. Working Drawings.
Book III- PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE as a Fine Art consists in —
Chapter I. Knowledge of principal Parts of a Building.
1. Beauty in Architecture.
2. The Orders.
3. Tuscan Order.
4. Doric Order.
5. Ionic Order.
6. Corinthian Order.
7. Composite Order.
8. Pedestals.
9. Intercolumniations.
10. Arcades and Arches.
11. Orders above Orders.
12. Arcades above Arcades.
13. Basements and Attics.
14. Pilasters.
15. Caryatides and Persians.
16. Balustrades and Balusters.
Caapter n. Combination of Parts by —
1. General Principles of 3. Caissons in Hemispherical
Composition. and Cylindrical Vaultings.
2. Drawings necessary in 4. Horizontal & Vertical Com-
Composition. binations in Buildings.
Chapter in. Application of Combination in —
1. General Observations. 10. Museums.
11. Observatories.
12. Lighthouses.
13. Abattoirs, or Public
Slaughter-houses.
14. Exchanges.
15. Custom-Houses.
16. Theatres.
17- Hospitals.
2. Bridges.
3. Churches.
4. Palaces.
5. Government Offices.
6. Courts of Law.
7. Town Halls.
8. Colleges.
9. Public Libraries.
17. Pediments.
18. Cornices.
19. Profiles of Doors.
20. Windows.
21. Niches and Statues.
22. Chimney Pieces.
23. Staircases.
24. Ceilings.
25. Proportions of Rooms.
5. Subdivisions of Apartments
and Points of Support.
6. Combination of Parts in
leading Forms.
18. Prisons.
19. Barracks.
20. Private Buildings gene-
rally.
21. PrivateBuildingsinTowns.
22. Private Buildings in the
Country.
23. Farm-houses.
24. Cottages.
Appendix.— Laws relating to Building: Building Act— Chimney-Sweepers' Act— Dilapidations.
— Compound Interest Tables,.and Valuation of Property.
Glossary ; containing also List of principal Architects and their Works, &c. — Index.
"This valuable encyclopaedia embraces a complete body of architecture, which ha hitherto
been a desideratum in the literature of the fine arts ; since, though many are the treatises on
separate departments of the art, this is the first attempt which has been made to embody its several
branches into one complete whole. The object has been to present the student with the knowledge
indispensable to the exercise of his profession, and this end Mr. Gwilt seems fully to have
attained. But the use of the work is not confined to the architect. As a guide to the formation of a
correct taste on the part of the amateur, it will be found for the most part an equally sure and
delightful one. The opening chapters, in which architecture is traced from its origin, and through
all its varieties, down to the time of George III., form a volume of themselves, full of curious
and instructive details, and profusely illustrated with plans and elevations of the principal buildings,
ancient and modern. Of a different interest, but possessing a more immediate practical utility, are
the sections treating of the most desirable constructions of edifices at the present time. Much of
the information embodied will not readily be found elsewhere, while nothing of importance, to be
found in preceding writers, is omitted.
"The work is completed by an index; and by a Glossary, which is a work of itself, and might
almost serve alone as a dictionary of architecture. The illustrative cuts are of the first order of
art, and upwards of one thousand in number." — John Bull.
" There is not a subject which applies to architecture but what has been carefully collated and
dilated upon in this valuable encyclopaedia ; a work, which not only to the practical man must be
of use, but of interest to every reader who wishes to inform his mind upon a subject fast becoming
a necessary portion of elegant education. The remarks upon the laws relating to buildings, dilapi-
dations, and valuations of property, would alone justify a strong recommendation ; and the
glossary, containing a list of the principal architects of all times and countries, and their works,
adds to its value as a book of reference. Upwards of 1000 illustrations adorn its pages, all of which
appear to be drawn with the greatest care, and are engraved upon wood with artistic clearness
VI.
Notice of a Series of Encyclopaedias,
Cmi.r's F.ncyci.oim: i>i a cr a*0H»T»OTDE« tOntimud.
and effect. ThOM In iii-.^t ,-r.t i..., of the Olaabethan period are as beautiful as any we have had of
lair tiir satiafai tion oft ailing attention to."— standard.
•• Tins elaborate and learned wort constitutes a complete body pf »«Wtecl^, and givea «ncn
Inlbnnati amcerning its biatory, theorj practice, aa studente and . ;' ' '.' ,f „ ,.,,
acquire, and which the amateur and general [reader maywiah to rtferto. Tb< vast i . - > «
i, ■ , imimi.lv arranged, put Into a condenaed and clear form, and dlustrated mtn " """ .,,.',
01 SSSaVrtrL aTe Sole example., Independently of the text The history* architect ■
the earUeataa^ie traced througnvariouaomntnea | and periods, am ti ie r etafaoi serf these ' i
,tylc* to eactfother are distinctly shown; tins portion may be nad throng rat aai . nipte te
treatise. Mr. Gwilt is eminently qualified for &is laborious task, which he wmrtMini
ability and con amove. The gloisary al ; is a dictionarj ol mbrtscuun suthciei. 1 1 b re. u ual use.
and I Includes a chronological list of architects, with their V™f^g°^jf£^J2E^
catalog on the subject. An index completes the ralue qfthe book as on . ' . .!;
, are beautifully executed. Weahallbave occasion to return tothe considera-
Uonofoni ortwopo i by the perusal of thia volume."— spectator.
M'CULLOCirS GEOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY.
A Dictionary, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of the various Countries, Places, and
principal Natural < rejects in the World. Illustrated with Maps. By J. R. M'CtJLLOCH, Esq.
■2 Quel Mils. BVO. QluBtratedwith six large important Maps, £i. cloth.
Tlie following are the Maps: —
1. The World, on Mercator's projection ; with enlarged scales introduced of Canton River. Van
Dieman'a Land, Hooghley River, Island and Town of Singapore, and Colony of Good Hope.
•J. taia on a rerj large scale, embracing every recent survey (coloured).
8. Great Britain and Ireland, exhibiting the Navigable Rivers, and completed and proposed
Railways; with Dublin Bay, the Caledonian Canal, and the River Thames, introduced on
an enlarged Bcale.
4. The British Possessions in North America, with part of the United States, compiled from
official sources ; with Plans of the Cities and Harbours of Montreal, and the Island of New-
foundland, introduced on an enlarged scale.
i tral and Southern Europe, with the Mediterranean Sea"; the Mouth of the Scheld intro-
duced on an ('.tended scale.
5, Central America and the West Indies, from the last and best authorities; with the Island of
Jamaica, the Harbours of Port Royal and Kingston, and the Harbour and City of Havana,
introduced on an enlarged scale.
" We have noticed on former occasions parts of this truly important publication, with the appro-
It has obtained from every quarter capable of appreciating its character and worth. The
completion of the wort demands an announcement of the fact; and affords an opportunity of
renewing our testimony to its merits, which can only be fully known by an examination of its
contents. The extent of information it affords on the subjects referred to in its title is truly
surprising. Derived, as the facts and documents undoubtedly are, from sources of unquestion-
able authenticity, this wort can nut fail to prove a vade-mecum to the student, whose inquiries will
be guided by it's light, and satisfied by its clear and frequently elaborated communications.
Bj condensation Ol the facts which are essential to his purpose, and the order in which they are
arranged, an infinity of labour will be apared to him by the facility with which the materials of
knowledge and the bases of reasoning are supplied. The political writer will be prepared for dis-
n, when he must otherwise have been nt a loss for data. No library will be deemed com-
plete which has not M'Culloch't Dictionary on its shelves. Every public room in which com-
merce, politics, or literature, forma the subject of discussion, ought to be furnished with these
rolumea ; bj which much time will be s&\ ed, which would otherwise be occupied in endeavouring
tain statistical, historical, and other facts, on winch a difference of opinion may arise, and
which are absolutely essential to arriving at a satisfactory conclusion respecting other facts and
circumstances that are suggested when reading the journals of the day, or in argument ref p
events which are transpiring in our own and other countries. The labour, care, and patii n(
research which the author lias bestowed upon his work, entitle him to the gratitude of the public,
1 1. 1 M i whose extensive pal ron:c_'e we hope he will receive substantial testimony of the high estimate
formed of the wort, on which he has bestowed persevering toil io render it worthy of his own high
reputation, and of public confidence. We again say, we know of no publication, in the department
of literature to which It pertains, so valuable. Most earnestly do we desire for it the perpetuity
o| lUCCeaS commensurate with its commanding excellence."— Globe.
" Unwearied research, excellent taste and tact, diatingu ishthe editorial conduct of this valuable
ii > . Inatead of applying, in the time-honoured fashion of so many of his predecessors, to
the well-tnnnibed pages of some ancient Gazetteer, and appropriating by wholesale all the facts,
. and blunders to be found therein, Mr. M'Cullocb ha gone to the fountain- head : consulting
rerj Individval authority on ever) individual subject, lie has examined and com-
pared he haa pruned and winnowed and he has thus deduced the concentrated essence, so to
speak, of all the principal worka which have Issued from the press during the last twenty years,
prolific as that period has been in contributions to geographical science. But laborious Compila-
VIL
Printed for Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans.
M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary— continued.
tion is not the only distinguishing feature of this Dictionary : original sources of information have
been drawn upon to a great extent. In our own towns and cities the local historians and savans
have been enlisted as contributors ; and of the more important countries abroad, the accounts are
written expressly for this work by eminent travellers, who communicate the results of their own
personal investigations. As a mere reading book, the style in which the Encyclopaedia is got up
is in the highest degree attractive ; whilst as a book of reference, and a compendium of know-
ledge, it must prove all but inexhaustible." — St. James's Chronicle.
" This Dictionary exhibits the most perfect tableau of the world, as it is at present, in a judiciously
condensed and arranged form, ever offered to the public. Mr. M'Culloch stands at the head of
the statists of the day, and to no other hands could this vast undertaking have been committed
with such assurance of adequacy to the task. Along with the Commercial Dictionary by the same
author, Dr. Ure's Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures, and Brande's Dictionary of Scienco,
Literature, and Art, all recently published, it presents the most comprehensive body of useful
knowledge ever produced in so compendious and cheap a form : completing the counting-house
library of the man of business, and affording, at an instant's reference, the most copious and use-
ful information on every worldly topic, commercial, political, and economical. We would warmly
recommend Mr. M'Culloch's Dictionary as especially adapted for the family library, mechanics'
institutions, and the counting-house ; and also as a very suitable prize in academies and public
schools." — Glasgoiu Scottish Reformers' Gazette.
4.
URE'S DICTIONARY OF ARTS, MANUFACTURES, fo.
A Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines; containing a clear Exposition of their Prin-
ciples and Practice. By Andrew Ure, M.D. F.R.S. M.G.S. M.A.S. Lond.; M. Acad. N.S.
Philad. ; S. Ph.;Soc. N. Germ. Hanov. ; Mulii, &c. &c, 3d Edit, corrected. 8vo. illustrated
with 1241 Woodcuts, 50s. cloth.
"To the manufacturing districts of England, to practical engineers, chemists, and inventors in
all the branches of science, and, indeed, to all classes concerned in industrial pursuits, this
work promises to be one of the most valuable epitomes of information that has probably ever been
published Dr. Ure is perhaps better qualified than almost any other writer to render a work
of this varied and useful description every thing that it ought to be ; and in the part now before
us he displays his qualifications in very clear and full expositions of some highly important topics.
It will form an indispensable work of reference to men of science and manufacturers, for
practical purposes, and to every reader who is incidentally interested in any of the numerous
subjects of which it treats." — Atlas.
" We cannot allow this excellent work to reach its completion without offering to its inde-
fatigable writer the tribute of our thanks and admiration. To say that there is no other general
work so good on the great subjects which it embraces is but poor and inadequate commendation..
It is in every respect worthy to rank with that Encyclopaedic Series of which it forms a part-
namely, the Dictionary of Commerce, &c. by M'Culloch ; the Dictionaries of Agriculture and
Gardening, by Loudon ; Dr. Copland's Dictionary of Practical Medicine, &c. The progressive
results of such works as these on the national wealth and civilization of the country which
produces, and renders them producible, are incalculable ; and they afford the strongest evi-
dence that our day has witnessed of the deep and permanent spirit of improvement which
pervades our social system, and places it beyond the rivalry of that of any other contemporary
nation, and still more beyond comparison with that of any other of times past."
New Monthly Magazine.
RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN ARTS, MANUFACTURES,
AND MINES ; being a Supplement to his Dictionary. By Andrew Ure, M.D. F.R.S.
M.G.S. M.A.S. Lond. ; M. Acad. N.S. Philad. ; S. Ph. Soc. N. Germ. Hanov.; Mulii, &c. &c."
8vo. with numerous Wood Engravings, 14s. cloth.
V* Amongst many articles entirely new, and others treated at greater length in this Supplement
than in the former editions of the Dictionary, will be fonnd- Alcohol; Arrow Root (as a Manu-
facture) ; Artesian Wells (with a notice of the successful labours of MM. Arago and Malot, at
Grenelle, near Paris) ; Bavarian Beer ("the mystery of Brewing is more philosophically stu-
died, and incomparably better understood in Munich than in London, and throughout Bavaria than
in England"); Biscuits (with a complete description, with figures, of the large Automatic Bake-
ries at Deptford and Portsmouth); Bread; Brick-making; fuller information of the recent
applications of Caoutchouc to the Arts, under Bookbinding, Braiding-Machine, and Elas-
tic Bands; Calotype, ; Chocolate (a new article); Daguerreotype; Electro-metal-
lurgy; Fermentation; Gas Light; Guano; Iron and Smelting (new contributions, with
descriptions and figures of improved Smelting Apparatus); Photography; Seed-crushing
(the Manufacture of Oil); Pepper; the Saccharometer Table (now first inserted); Smoke Pre-
vention ; Spinning; Spirits (with a new cable) ; Sugar of Potatoes ; Tobacco; Ventila-
tion, &c. &c. : with an Appendix entitled Chemistry Simplified, a Guide to Practitioners in
testing Alkalis, Acids, and Bleaching Substances, in several departments of tiie Chemical Arts.
VII L ____===_=^======
Notice of a Series of Encyclopaedias,
■'».
BRANDED DICTIONARY OF SCIENCE, LITERATURE, fa.
a Di, ....,, ,,i Science,! terature, and Artj comprising the History, Description, and
ol everj branch of Human Knowledge: with the Derivation and
D Bnition of all the Terms in general use. General Bditor.W.T. Brandk, F.R.8.L b E j ol
ii Mint; Professor ofChemistrj in the Royal Institution of Great Britain;
and Materia ttedica to the Apothecaries' Company, fec.&c. Assisted
h\ Joseph Cai vim, .m.a.
km mi i. 1 1 in ., Mi -i. , ami Tin. Fink a ins Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A. & r -R.A.S.
(J. LlNDLBY, I'll. D. F.R.S. US. &c.
II,, I in •! 1' ' I niyemity
( e, and in the Royal Institution.
CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, MSDICiNB, AND 1
Till. ARTS ami Sell. Nil- DEPEMOINO ON CHEMICAL . W. T. BRANDS, Esa.
Principles i __ _
Gardsnino ami Agriculture J- C. Loudon, r.L.b. H.a. &c.
J Herman Meritale, A.M.
"ATI I Late FeUow of Baliol College.
(J. R. M'Culloch, Esa. : and
sal Literature {Joseph Cauvin, Esa.
MATHEMATICS, \M> THE ARTS AND SCIENCES DE-> Thomas GALLOWAY .M.A. F.R.S.
. Mathematical Princi ples )
Politk \i. Economy, 8TATI8TH s, & Commerce J. R. M'Culloch, Esa.
I ii i ,,,,,,, v The Rev. Charles Merivale, M.A.
Zoology, Anatomy, ind Physiology Richard Owen, l'.R.S. &c.
Railroads, Sti im, Steam Engines, Steam Navi-; >d Lakon,;i (1, >c iL .f .r .g .l.&E .&c.
oation, &c. etc J
Nai riCAL Science Lieutenant Rapes, R.N.
1 very thick volume, 8vo. illustrated by wood engravings, d.%, cloth.
PREFACE.
The advantages of Encyclopedias arc now so universally acknowledged, that it would bewholly
superfluous to endeavour to recommend the present work by dwelling on their peculiar merits.
Bnl though the utilitj ol bucd works be no longer in dispute, it may, notwithstanding, he reason-
ably supposed thai at a period when so many voluminous Encyclopaedias, and special Dictionaries,
have recentl) issued, and are still daily issuing from the press, this department of literature must
be fall) occupied, and thai there can be no well- founded call for any farther addition to the number.
It will be found, however, on a little consideration, that this is not the case. By far the greater
number, or rather, perhaps we might say, all the Encyclopaedias and Dictionaries of modern times,
are either too voluminous or too special for ready reference and general use. The Bncyelope'die
FranfaUe, Reefs Cyclopmdia, the Encyclopaedia Britannica, the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana,
and the Penny Cyclopaedia, are all works of va t extent, comprising many volumes, and embracing
mi infinite variety of articles, or rather treatises, which, if published separately, would each make.
lerable work. Now it is obvious that such voluminous public at ions, whatever maybe their
ii other respects, want that facility of reference and precision of statement which ought to
be the disl i ruishing features of a useful Dictionary. No man can carry about with him any of
tbegri i Dcyclopaediaa ; while the extensive plan on winch they are compiled renders
tii m at once far too expensive for general circulati mil v. holly unsuitable for ready consultation.
pply, Indeed, of that concise and am hen tie information on the various subjects of science,
literature, and art, which a book of reference should furnish with the utmost facility to all classes
been but a secon ' ith the compilers of our gnat Encyclopaedias; and
i been Otherwise, the length, theoretical character, and frequent obscurity of the
- in such WOrka, must have effectually precluded their ev< r being used far mere purposes of
i he) are valuable as substitutes for libraries, as repositories of the various knowledge
ted with the different departments of which they treat ; and being so, they cannot be con-
venienl mai
al Dictionaries, on the other hand, though they may exhaust someone branch or depart-
ment of science, literature, or art, and be invaluable to thi d in its cultivation, and to
th. k who wish to become acquainted with its details, are not intended to supply information on
other branches. A work, therefore, like thai now offered to the public, possessing the compre-
• character of ■ general encyclopaedia without Its amplitude, and affording in a convenient
IX.
Printed for Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans.
Brande's Dictionary of Science, &c. — continued.
form an abstract of the principles of even' branch of knowledge, and a definition and explanation
of the various terms in science, literature, and art, which occur in reading- and conversation,
appears to be still wanting.
May we hope that this desideratum which has been long feltto exist in encyclopedical literature,
has been at length supplied ! Such at least will be the case, should the present work answer the
expectations of its authors and publishers. They have endeavoured to produce a condensed and
compendious Dictionary, of a convenient size, and adapted to the wants and means of all classes,
that may be advantageously used as a manual or reference book in every department of science,
literature, and art : and they flatter themselves that by rejecting all discussion and details not
indispensable to the proper elucidation of the different topics, the work will be found, notwith-
standing its comparatively narrow limits, to furnish, in the readiest possible manner, precise and
accurate information on the all but infinite variety of subjects which it embraces. Great pains
have been taken to make the definitions and explanations correct, clear, and concise. The princi-
ples of the most popular and important departments of science, literature, and art, are also dis-
tinctly though briefly explained ; and notices are given of their rise, progress, and present state.
Neither must it be supposed that because these articles are for the most part brief and com-
pendious, they are either flimsy or superficial. On the contrary, they have been compiled through-
out with the greatest care. Popularity has not been sought for at the expense of science, nor brevity
by the sacrifice of useful facts or appropriate illustrations. The work contains not a few new
and original views ; and it is confidently believed that in every department it will be found to
embody the latest information, and to be on a level with the most advanced state to which know-
ledge has attained, not merely in this but also in other countries. No statement has been made
as to any unusual or doubtful matter, without referring to the authority whence it has been derived ;
and when subjects of general interest and importance are noticed, the reader is referred to the
works relating to them in which they are handled with the greatest ability. Not only, therefore,
will those who may consult this work have a guarantee for the authenticity of its information,
but they will learn the sources to which they may resort with the greatest advantage, should they
wish to make farther inquiries.
Such, in a few words, is the design of this work ; and, unless its publishers be greatly deceived
as to its execution, it can hardly fail to be useful to individuals of all ranks and conditions — to
the man of business and the man of pleasure, the student and the superficial reader, the busy and
the idle. Every one who takes any share in conversation, or who dips, how cursorily soever, into
any newspaper or other publication, will every now and then find the advantage of having access
tothe Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art.
In finally submitting the work to the judgment of the public, the publishers may, perhaps, be
allowed to say that they have left no means untried that appeared likely to insure the accuracy
and excellence of the work. It was distributed into divisions or departments, each embracing a
single subject, or a class of closely allied subjects ; and these were respectively assigned to gentle-
men distinguished by their attention to, and proficiency in, the topics to be treated of. This
seemed the most likely means to avoid mere compilation ; to insure accuracy and adequate
information : and to make the work not only a comprehensive and correct, but in some measure
also an original, digest and synopsis of human knowledge.
"This Encyclopaedia, for such it is indeed, is the production of an eminent literary corps, whose
compilations and treatises have been edited and arranged by Air. lirande, himself an extesive
contributor. It will prove of the greatest v&iue as a book of reference, and deserves to find a
place on every library table. Clear and auth ntic, copious without prolixity, it does not furnish a
bald explanation of facts and terms, but a development of principles, well illustrated and
explained." — The Times.
"An admirable work, supplying what all scientific and literary men must have long felt to be a
desideratum in our literature. He who has no encyclopaedia will find it an excellent substitute
for one ; and he who has, will find it a valuable supplement. Whilst it is sufficiently full and
copious to supersede the necessity for the more gigantic works of an encyclopaedic character, no
cyclopaedia can supply its place. We predict for it, therefore, an extensive circulation — a circu-
lation at least equal to any of the voluminous dictionaries on special subjects issued by its pub-
lishers ; of which series ic forms the twelfth." — Eclectic Reiietc.
"Compactness of form, clearness of definition and explanation, and great facility of reference,
are strong and essential points in favour of this Multum in Parvo of dictionaries, which supplies
what has long been a desideratum -a complete table-book of reference on all subjects connected
with art, literature, and science. Its condensation of matter, as well as its lucidness and precision
of statement, is wonderful ; and under every head for which we have consulted it, we have found
the fullest and most satisfactory information brought down to the present time— information
which would be sought in vain, or at least require to be 'read for,' in even the most voluminous
encyclopaedia extant."— Naval and Military Gazette.
Notice of a Series of Encyclopaedias,
JOHNSON'S PARMER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Tli.- tanner's I-'.iir>e|op.i dia. ami Dictionary of Rural A flairs: embracing all the most recent
i - In Agricultural Chemistry, adapted to the comprehension of Unscientific Readers.
i-,\ Cj mi. i ki W.Johnson, Baq.,F.R.S. Barrister at Law, Editorofthe Farmer's Almanack,
kcte. i thick voL 8vo. illustrated by Wood Engravings of the best and most improved
iltoraJ Implements, bound in cloth, afi. LOs.
Many yean have nowelspsed >in.<- an alphabetically arranged work, of easy reference, has been
produced for the service of the Bnglisb farmers and country gentlemen; and yet, within the
present century, agricultural discoveries, and rural improvements of all kinds, have been making
progress \uth ■ rapidity and to an extent which has long rendered obsolete the greatest portions
of all the existing Agricultural Dictionaries. The present work is the result of many years'
careful and laborious experimental researches, observations, and collections, by an author whose
successful public elicits have long been favourably received by the English farmers. It is
chiefly devoted to the details of practical agriculture, and to the results of those scientific
inquiries by which this Important pursuit is assisted and illustrated. It includes also, many
other details interesting to the fanner: such as the law with regard to certain parish and other
public and private duties, which he is often called upon to fulfil- the kitchen and tlower garden—
11 herbal Of native plants, &c &c. The endeavour has, in short, been made to produce a new and
useful book of reference, to which the farmer may readily resort under all ordinary circumstances.
" During the progress of this unique work, we have from time to time expressed our high
approval <~\ its arrangement, and the good judgment displayed iii the selection of matter for the
different articles, it now com< s before us in a complete and finished form in one large volume,
and «e venture to affirm advisedly, that no encyclopedia on husbandry will be found so useful to
agricultural libraries, farmers' clubs, or the cultivators ol the sod in general, as .Mr. Johnson's
elaborate work. The labour of arranging and compiling this volume must have been immense,
more especially as the author has himself extensively contributed to its pages learned and prac-
tical essayi on even branch of science. The alphabetical arrangement of the articles will be
:., I",.- of si'derable advantage to those who will have to turn very frequently to it for
information. Bverj subject of interest to the cultivator of the soil has been touched upon with
the hand of a master. Chemistry, botany, vegetable physiology, entomology, agricultural me-
chanics, rural economy, and the management of the farm, are all copiously treated of, and, what
is of infinite value, reference is continually made to the most modern and very best authorities,
should the reader wish to guTsue the subject further." — Jkfor A Lane Express.
"\ most useful publication, the appearance of which in this country might have been looked
for long ere the present ti ; and due to the pen of a writer who has been long and autlionta-
tativelj conversant, as such, with agricultural subjects, and who was consequently fully competent
to undertake the difficult task of composing and compiling a work of the Kind. Withinits exten-
sive circle of information are embraced all topics of interest to the British farmer, treated more
or less at length according to their practical importance, and in the usual alphabetical
arrangement ol an encyclopedia. The clear unaffected character of Mr. Johnson's style will
commend this volume to the approbation of I he class for whose more particular use it is designed.
1 1 also contains the attraction of a most liberal contribution of well-executed woodcuts, representing
the forms of improved agricultural Implements. The volume has been got up in the most sub-
stantial manner in all its accessories ol binding, 8tCM— Morning tlfiald.
" I Ins \ aluable work being now completed, we feel it our duty to o-ir readers, especially to our
agricultural friends, to take a brief general survej of its objects and contents. Its chief object
Is to place before the agricultural public a complete panoramic view of the present state of agri-
culture m the British Islands, and the most recent improvements, with such Suggestions as the
editor himself can supply, or t he latest works of the Lest agricultural writers may alford. To
BCCOmpUsh this Important object, no pains have been spared by the learned editor, whose
v :n em, works on agricultural subjects have obtained for him a well -men ted celebrity. The best
writers have been carefull) consulted, and frequent!) and copiously Quoted, and engraving
given Of the latest unproved machinery of even description. In particular, the subjects of drainage
ami manures are copiouslj treated of, and the vast improvements lately introduced by the exten-
sive application of chemical science to agriculture, are full) developed. A vast variety of other
us. -nil knowledge ol every kind coming within the range of rural affairs and interests, will also
be found iii its pages, judiciously selected, arranged, and condensed, so as to render this work a
complete dictionar) ol useful knowledge, and universal book of reference to the agricultural
reader. To persons employed or interested in agricultural pursuits, we recommend ^Johnson's
Farmer's Encyclopedia,' as comprising tin- moat complete body of useful knowledge upon such
topics ever laid before toe public." Scottish Reformer'* Qaxette,
1 -*—
XI.
Printed for Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans.
M'CULLOCH'S DICTIONARY OE COMMERCE.
A Dictionary, Practical, Theoretical, and Historical, of Commerce and Commercial Naviga-
tion. Illustrated with Maps and Plans. By J. R. M'Culloch, Esq. Member of the Institute
of France. An entirely New Edition, corrected throughout, enlarged, and improved. 1 very-
thick vol. 8vo. 50s. cloth ; or 55s. strongly half bound in russia, with flexible back.
Extract from the Preface to this Edition.
" The last edition of this work that underwent a complete revision was published in 1834. Since
that epoch several considerable impressions have been exhausted ; the more important changes in
the commercial laws and regulations of this and other countries, and in the channels of commer-
cial intercourse, that took place in the interval, having been specified in successive Supplements.
These, however, notwithstanding the limited plan on which they were compiled, had become
rather voluminous; and the changes made in our commercial policy by the Tariff Act of 1842, and
the late Acts for regulating the corn and colonial trades, &c. were so very important, and affected
so many articles and interests, that it would have been difficult to notice them and the other subjects
that required to be brought under the reader's eye in a new Supplement, without extending it to some-
thing like the size of the original work, which would thus have been rendered clumsy, costly, and
inconvenient. Under these circumstances, we had no choice, except to abandon the work altoge-
ther, or to undertake the laborious task of its reconstruction. Having determined upon the
latter, we have endeavoured to make it a Digest and Repertory of the most useful and authentic
information respecting the past and present state of the commerce of this and most other coun-
tries, including the means and devices resorted to for facilitating commercial operations, and the
laws and regulations under which they have been carried on. The various details are brought
down to the latest period ; and such additional subjects and statements have been introduced as
had been overlooked in the former editions, or have since come into existence or have grown of
importance. We have tried to effect these improvements without adding, very materially, to the
size of the work, by subjecting it to an unsparing retrenchment, and rejecting whatever was
superseded by late changes, or appeared to be unnecessary."
" Without exaggeration one of the most wonderful compilations of the age. The power of con-
tinous labour, the wide range of inquiry, and the power of artistical finish, which have been brought
into play by this work, are probably unrivalled in the history of literature Compared with all
previous attempts to compile a commercial dictionary, Mr. M'Culloch's appears as the realisation
of an idea which former projectors had conceived too vaguely to be able to carry into execution.
It is superior to them all, quite as much for the spirit of judicious selection brought by the author
to his task, as for any other quality. The great merit of the work is, that, while omitting nothing
of essential importance, it contains nothing that is useless or merely cumbrous The success of
the earlier editions of Mr. M'Culloch's Dictionary is, after all, the best proof of its merit ; the facts
attending it, prove that the mercantile, political, and literary public were in want of such a work,
and that they were satisfied with the maimer in which Mr. M'Culloch had performed his task. No
reader can arise from the perusal of any one of the larger articles without feeling that no previous
writer has concentrated so much valuable information within so small a compass, or conveyed his
information in so agreeable a style. And the remark is equally applicable to all the numerous
articles of which this crammed volume is composed It is, indeed, invaluable as a book of refer-
ence to the merchant, the insurance-agent, the statesman, and the journalist ; and its articles, from
the care and talent with which they are executed, are as well calculated to supply the wants of the
patient inquirer as of the hurried man of business. Mr. M'Culloch occupies a high place amongst
the authors of the day as a hard-headed original thinker in political economy ; a still higher, as one
of the most zealous and successful labourers in rendering that science popular ; but, of all his pub-
lications, his Commercial Dictionary is one least likely to encounter the rivalry of a work of supe-
rior or even equal value." — Abridged from the Spectator.
MURRAY'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF GEOGRAPHY.
An Encyclopaediaof Geography; comprising acomplete Description of the Earth. Exhibiting its
Relation to the Heavenly Bodies, its Physical Structure, the Natural History of each
Country, and the Industry, Commerce, Political Institutions, and Civil and Social State of all
Nations. By Hugh Murray, F.R.S.E. : assisted in Astronomy, &c. by Prof. Wallace;
Geology, &c. by Prof. Jameson; Botany, &c. by Sir W. J. Hooker; Zoology, &c. by
W. Swainson, Esq. New Edition, brought down to 1840, with 82 maps, drawn by Sidney Hall,
and upwards of l,000other Engravings on Wood, from drawings by Swainson, T. Landseer,
Sowerby, Strutt, &c, representing the most remarkable objects of Nature and Art in every
Region of the Globe. New Edition, with Supplement, bringing down the Statistical Infor-
mation contained in the work to December 1843 ; with 82 Maps, drawn by Sidney Hall, and
upwards of 1000 other Engravings on Wood, from Drawings by Swainson, T. Landseer,
Sowerby, Strutt, &c. representing the most remarkable Objects of Nature and Art in every
Region of the Globe. 1 very thick vol. 8vo. £Z, cloth.
*** The Supplement, containing the most important Recent Information, may be had sepa-
rately, price Is.
EXTRACT FROM INTRODUCTION.
This important and extensive subject seems to divide itself naturally into three parts: —
The First Part treats of the " History of Geography ;" the origin and progress of the Science ;
and the steps by which man, who seemed fixed by nature in a local and limited position, has
XII.
Notice of a Series of Encyclopaedias,
Mr mi ay's 1'.ncvclop.*dia of Geography— continued.
made himself acquainted with the Immense circuit of the globe. This part is divided into—
l. Ancient Geography \ n graph; of the Middle Ages j— III. Modern Geography.
Tb9 Second Part comprises the Principle* ot the Science. Theaeare— I. Mathematical: those
which relate i>> the form of the earth, its movements, its place in the Solar System, the great
circlet by irhieh it la divided, the operation! by which it is surveyed, and the modea in which its
■pnerical outline can be represented on the plane surface of a map. II. Phgtieal: thosewhich
treai of the lubatances which cover the earth's surface, the elements which compoaeand surround
it •, rock, earth, water, air, as they appear under the various (terms of mountain, plain, river, sea,
and present all the changing phenomena of the atmosphere III. Geography may be considered
in its relation to other objects and sciences, l. To Zoology, or the distribution of animals over
., . 2. To Botany, or the diffusion of vegetable productions. 3. To the human race, and
the various branchi ■ into which it has hem formed, considered in relation to numbers, wealth,
political Union, social, intellectual, and moral condition.
The TMrd Pari considers Geography in detail, as it applies to the various quarters and countries
into which the world is divided, the outline and extent of each, its natural features, the revolu-
tions through which it has passed, its political constitution, the industry and wealth, the civil
and social condition of its inhabitants. The description of each country will conclude with a
local and topographical survey of its districts, cities, and towns.
This part will divide itseh* into fire general heads : I.Europe. II. Asia. III. Africa. IV.
America. V. Australia.
An Index is added, which, being extremely copious, and containing references to all the places
mentioned in the work, will answer in a great degree the purposes of a Geographical Gazetteer.
9.
BLAINE'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RURAL SPORTS.
An Encyclopedia of Rural Sports; or, a complete account, Historical, Practical, and De-
scriptive, of Hunting, Shooting, Fishing, Racing, and other Field Sports and Athletic Amuse-
ments of the present day. By DBLABBRB I'. Blaine, Esq. Author of "Outlines of the
Veterinary Art," "Canine Pathology," &c. &c. Illustrated by nearly 600 Engravings on
Wood, by it. Branston, from drawings by Aiken, T. Landseer, Dickes, &c. l thick vol. 8vo.
±2. 10s. cloth.
CONTEXTS.
Part I.— The Origin, Progress, and Present State of Field Sports.
Booh I.— Historj of the Chase.
Honk 2.— The Progress of Field Sports after
Mankind had Peopled the lour Quarters of
the Globe.
Hook 3.— The History of British Field Sports,
accompanied with occasional Notices of such
other Rural and \ctive l'.\ercisesasarc common
amongtbeSportingClassesofourCounti j men.
Paut II.— The Philosophy of Field sports.
Hook 1.— The Moral Character of Field Sports,
and the Benefits derived from them.
Part III.— Horse Racing, &c. &c.
— IV. Hunting.
— V.— Coursing.
— VI.— Hawking.
Books — The Natural History of the Living
Objects of Field Sports.
Part VII. —Shooting.
—VIII.— Fishing.
— IX.— Cock Fighting.
— X — Boxing.
" This book is a perfect library for all lovers of country sports, for all country gentlemen, and
for all persons who delight in the manlj and health} recreations which are afforded to the inha-
bitant Of no country in such perfection as to the inhabitants of the British Isles. It is true the
book treatl of the field Sports, and the sports by flood, of all the countries in the world ; and is,
for that reason, so much the more valuable : but its principal value With Knglishmen will he the
gTI at BCCUrac) with which it describes the spoils of which they can partake in their fields, woods,
and waters, and the plain ami agreeable manner in which intelligence on subjects with which
they want to be acquainted is conveyed. The book is a large one, and so tilled — indeed, so
era milled -wiiii information, that it becomes s matter of conjecture as to how the whole can have
been brought together. It is, what ii professes to be, 'an Bncyclopttdia of the Anvuiementt of the
Country.'' 'I he book is illustrated b> an immensity of engm n>".s on wood, by Mr. it. Branston,
from drawings b) Aiken. T. Landseer, Dickes, and other artists, n is at once a manual and
libnu j I met.
"i he stud] "i ■ portaman would be incomplete without it." —Sporting Magazine.
"Tin- three great beads of ' guns, dogs, and horse-,' could not be treated in a fuller, more
• te, Or in.. re effective manner, than lhe\ haw been by .Mr. Blaine in this publication."
Observer.
)*~r~
XIII. __
Printed for Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans.
10.
LOUDON'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF GARDENING.
An Encyclopaedia of Gardening ; presenting-, in one systematic view, the History and Present
State of Gardening in all Countries, and its Theory and Practice in Great Britain: with the
Management of the Kitchen Garden, the Flower Garden, Laying-out Grounds, &c. By J. C.
Loudon, F.L.S. &c. A New Edition, enlarged and much improved, 1 large vol. 8vo. with
nearly 1000 Engravings on Wood, £2. 10s. cloth.
The object of this Encyclopaedia is to present, in one systematic view, the History and present
State of Gardening in all countries, and its Theory and Practice in Great Britain. Under the term
Gardening, we include Horticulture, or all that relates to the kitchen-garden and the orchard ;
Floriculture, or all that relates to the flower-garden, the botanic garden, the shrubbery, and the
culture of flowers and ornamental shrubs and trees ; Arboriculture, or the formation of useful and
ornamental plantations, and the culture of the most valuable timber trees ; and Landscape Gar-
dening, or the art of laying out grounds.
CONTENTS.
Part I. — Gardening considered in respect to its Origin, Progress, and Present State, among
different Nations, Governments, and Climates.
Book 1. History of Gardening among Ancient and Modern Nations.
— 2. Gardening considered as to its Progress and present State under different Political
and Geographical Circumstances.
Part II.— Gardening considered as a Science, and as an Art.
Book 1. On the Study of the Vegetable Kingdom.
— 2. On the Study of Natural Agents of Vegetable Growth and Culture.
— 3. Mechanical Agents employed in Gardening.
— 4. Of the Operations of Gardening.
Part III. — Gardening as practised in Britain.
Book 1. Horticulture.
— 2. Floriculture.
— 3. Arboriculture, or Planting.
— 4. Landscape-Gardening.
Part IV.— Statistics of British Gardening.
Book 1. Of the Present State of Gardening in the British Isles.
— 2. Of the Future Progress of Gardening in Britain.
Calendarial Index. — General Index.
" Every writer on gardening must feel infinitely obliged to Mr. Loudon for his valuable Ency-
clopaedia."— Quarterly Review, No. 139.
11.
LOUDON'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 0E PLANTS.
An Encyclopaedia of Plants ; including all the Plants which are now found in, or have been
introduced into, Great Britain ; giving their Natural History, accompanied by such descrip-
tions, engraved figures, and elementary details, as may enable a beginner, who is a mere
English reader, to discover the name of every Plant which he may find in flower, and acquire
all the information respecting it which is useful or interesting. The Specific Characters by an
eminent Botanist ; the Drawings by J. D. C. Sowerby, F.L.S. A New Edition (1841), with a New
SUPPLEMENT, comprising every desirable particular respecting all the Plants originated in,
or introduced into, Britain, between the first publication of the work, in 1829, and January
1840 : with a new general Index to the whole work, edited by J. C. Loudon, prepared by
W. H. Baxter, Jun. and revised by George Don, F.L.S. ; and 800 new Figures of Plants, on
Wood, from Drawings by J. D. C. Sowerby, F.L.S. 1 very large vol. 8vo. with nearly 10,000
Engravings on Wood, £Z. 13s. 6d. cloth.
*** The New Supplement, separately, 8vo. 15s. cloth.
In this Encyclopaedia are included all the indigenous, cultivated, and exotic Plants which are
now found in, or have been introduced into, Britain. The object of this work is to give a Natural
History of these Plants, accompanied by such descriptions, engraved figures, and elementary
details, as shall enable a beginner, who is a mere English reader, to discover the name of every
Plant which he may find in flower, refer it to its proper place, both in the natural and artificial
Systems of Classification, and acquire all the information respecting it which is useful or interesting.
The work is divided into Two Parts. The First Part contains the Linnean or Artificial Arrange-
ment of all the genera and species, with all the details comprehended in botanical description, and
XIV.
Notice of a Series of Encyclopaedias,
Loudon's Encyclopedia of Plants— continued.
natural nncl artificial botanical history, and w itli engra\ ed portraits of one or more species of each
genua. The Becond Part contains the Juasieuean or Natural Arrangement of all the genera,
without repetition of the ipedaa or any details connected with them ■■ l>ut as the names of the
natural oiden are added after each genua in the Artificial System, and as each genus in both
amenta ia aumbered, a direel reference may be had from the second arrangement to the
Drat, and from the finl to the second ; reference may also be had indirectly, through the medium
ot' the- Contents or Index.
An Introduction is given to each system of arrangement, and a General Introduction to the
whole work, in which its us, s are explained. When the beginner has a plant in tlower and would
ascertain its name, he will turn to the Linnean System, as explained in the Introduction to that
system ; and, when he has hut a small part of any plant, he will turn to the Natural System, as
directed in the General Introduction.
All the Technical Terms, or words not usually found in an English Dictionary, are explained in
the Glossary, and engravings are given of such of the objects designated as might occasion any
difficulty to a in-inner. This Glossary and the two Introductions form together a complete
Gra iar of Botany.
The Table of Sj oonymes in various languages may, to a certain extent, be considered as pre-
senting the Popular Floras of the various countries where these names are used; since it is only
to the remarkable plants of a country that vernacular names are given.
" the beginner's gardening library would be complete. He would afterwards like to add
the Encyclopaedia of Plants and Gardening: the first of which is a typographical as well as scien-
tific wonder, the second a perfect treasure-house of information on every subject connected with
horticulture."— Quarterly Review, Xo. 139.
12.
LOUDON'S COTTAGE ARCHITECTURE.
An Encyclopedia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture and Furniture; with about 1,326
pages of letter-press, and upwards of 2,000 wood engravings ; containing designs of Cottages,
Villas, Farm Houses, Farmeries, Country Inns, Public Houses, Parochial Schools, &c. ;
with the requisite Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture, and appropriate Offices, Gardens,
and Garden Scenery; eaeh Design accompanied by Analytical and Critical Remarks illus-
trative of the Principles of Architectural Science and Taste, on which it is composed, and
General Estimates of the Expense. By J. C. Loudon, F.L.S. &c. New Edition (1842),
corrected, with a Supplement containing 100 additional pages of letterpress, and nearly 300
new engravings, bringing down the work to 1842. 1 very thick vol. 8vo. £Z. 3s. cloth.
*** The New Supplement, separately, 8vo. 7s. Cd. sewed.
The main object of this Encyclopaedia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture, is to improve
the dwellings of the great mass of society, in the temperate regions of both hemispheres: a
secondary object is to create and diffuse among mankind, generally, a taste for architectural
comforts and beauties.
The means by which we propose to accomplish these objects are the following :—
By submitting a series of Designs for human dwellings, embracing every appropriate comfort
and the greatest variety of beauty; and by accompanying these designs with analytical anil
critical remarks, pointing out in what this comfort and beauty consist, and on what principles
both are founded.
By submitting a series of Designs for the finishing, fittings up, fixtures, and furniture, suitable
to the different descriptions of Cottage, Farm, and villa Buildings; and by accompanying these
\\ ith remarks on their fitness for the end in \ lew, such as lighting, heating, ventilating, &c, as
well as with analytical and critical remarks on their style or beauty ; thus showing the necessity
of Architects including the study of furniture in that of their profession, so as to be able to give
tor furnishing a house, as well as for building one.
By accompanying manyoftheDesigns with gardens, as well small kitchen and flower gardens for
the cottager, as pleasure ground and park scenerj for the occupant of the villa ; and by explaining
the connection of Villa Architecture with Landscape Gardening, and pointing out thi' necessity
which exist slur V ilia Architects possessing a considerable know ledgcoflheart of lay ingout grounds.
By avoiding, when it is not absolutely necessary, the use of terms peculiar to Architecture ; by
explaining all such as are used, when they first occur ; and by adopting such a style as will render
the work easily understood by the uninitiated reader, as well as subservient to the purpose of
educating young persons, especially those of the female sex, in Architecture as an art of taste.
" The late Mi. London has the merit of having conveyed more information upon Architecture,
in ■ popular style, aa adapted for general readers, than was ever attempted before, or than lias
I n accomplished since. Mis Encyclopaedia of Cottage and Village Architecture is indispensable
to tin library Of all non-professional readers, who may at some time of their lives propose to build
a cottage or country-house."— Westminster Review.
XV.
Printed for Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,
13.
LOUDON'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AGRICULTURE.
An Encyclopaedia of Agriculture ; comprising the Theory and Practice of the Valuation,
Transfer, Laying out, Improvement, and Management of Landed Property, and of the Culti-
vation and Economy of the Animal and Vegetable Productions of Agriculture : including all
the latest Improvements, a General History of Agriculture in all Countries, a Statistical View
of its Present State, with Suggestions for its Future Progress in the British Isles; and
Supplement, bringing down the work to the year 1844. By J. C. Loudon, F.L.G.Z. and
M.S. &c. 5th edition. 1 large vol. 8vo. with upwards of 1100 engravings on wood, by
Branston, jt'2. 10s. cloth.
The Supplement, bringing down Improvements in the art of Field-Culture from 1831 to 1844
inclusive, comprising all the previous Supplements, and illustrated with 65 Engravings on Wood,
may be had separately, 5s. sewed.
CONTENTS.
Part I.— Agriculture considered as to its Origin, Progress, and Present State, among different
Nations, Governments, and Climates.
Book 1.— History of Agriculture among Ancient
and Modern Nations.
Book 2. — Agriculture as Influenced by Geogra-
phical, Physical, Civil, and Political Circum-
stances.
Book 1.— Of the Study of the Vegetable
Kingdom with a View to Agriculture.
Book 2. — Of the Study of the Animal King-
dom with reference to Agriculture.
Book 3. —Of the Study of the Mineral Kingdom
Part II.— Agriculture considered as a Science.
and the Atmosphere, with reference to Agri-
culture.
Book 4.— Of the Mechanical Agents employed
in Agriculture.
Book 5.— Of the Operations of Agriculture.
Book 1. — Of the Valuation, Purchase, and
Transfer of Landed Property.
Book 2.— Of the Laying Out, or General Ar-
rangement of Landed Estates.
Book 3.— On Improving the Culturable Lands
of an Estate.
Part III.— Agriculture as practised in Britain.
Book 4. —Management of Landed Property.
Book 5. — Selection, Hiring, and Stocking of
Farms.
Book 6.— Culture of Farm Lands.
Book 7.— The Economy of Live Stock and the
Dairy.
Part IV. — Statistics of British Agriculture.
Book 1 . — Of the Present State of Agriculture in I Book 2.— Of the Future Progress of Agriculture
the British Isles. | in Britain.
Calendarial Index.— Glossarial Index. — General Index.
" Though certainly a supplementary work, the Supplement itself is nevertheless to a great
extent complete, inasmuch as the practice, and our knowledge of the science, of agriculture, have
improved to an unprecedented degree within the period of the improvements of which it professes
to detail. AVe therefore recommend this work, even to those who may not be in possession of the
original edition. It contains a great mass of useful information on agricultural subjects, carefully
arranged, and fully illustrated by woodcuts, where these are necessary."
Dr. Lindley, in The Gardener's Chronicle.
" To know that this Supplement is by the author of the justly-popular Encyclopaedia of Agricul-
ture and Gardening, is a sufficient recommendation for its general excellence. Independently of
Mr Loudon's long practical experience, every available authority on agriculture, and works on •
other sciences in connection with it, have been consulted, and the result is, one of the most useful
works on rural affairs either in our own or in any other language." — British Farmer's Magazine.
14.
LOUDON'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF TREES AND SHRUBS.
An Encyclopaedia of Trees and Shrubs ; containing the Hardy Trees and Shrubs of Great
Britain, Native and Foreign, scientifically and popularly described: with their Propagation,
Culture, and Uses in the Arts ; and with Engravings of nearly all the Species. Adapted for
the use of Nuserymen, Gardeners, and Foresters. By J. C. Loudon, F.L.S. &c. 1 large
vol. 8vo. with upwards of 2000 engravings on wood, i£2. 10s. cloth.
This Abridgment of the Arboretum et Fruticctnm Britannicum contains —
1. Characters and short Popular Descriptions of all the species and varieties of hardy trees and
shrubs now in British gardens, with directions for their culture ; including the soil most suitable
for them, their propagation, and their uses in the arts, &c.
2. Engravings of all the species which are described, with the exception of half a dozen. The
whole arranged according to the Natural System; all the engravings being to the scale of two
inches to a foot, or one-sixth of the natural size.
3. The Scientific Names and Scientific Synonymes of all the species; and their Popular Names
in the languages of the different countries where they are indigenous or cultivated.
4. An Alphabetical Index to all the species and varieties, with their synonymes.
5. A Tabular Analysis of the Leaves, by which the name of any species of tree or shrub described
n the work may, in general, be discovered, from a small portion of a shoot with the leaves on.
6 Specific Characters, Descriptions, and Figures of some species, more particularly of pines,
firs, and oaks, which were not in the country in 1838, when the large work was completed.
The most remarkable circumstance connected with this Abridgment is, that the author has been
able to obtain figures of nearly all the species. For the drawings or specimens from which these
additional figures were taken, he is indebted to the kind assistance of various Public Institutions,
and of several of the most eminent botanists and possessors of herbariums and living collections
in Europe and North America.
XVI.
Notice of a Series of Encyclopaedias, printed for Longman 8e Co.
Loudon's Encyclopedia of Trees and Shrubs — continued.
"The original of this work, in eight 8vo. volumes, was one of the many extraordinary instances
of industry which Mr. Loudon's career as an author has produced, and which have given him great
claims to the gratitude of gardeners. But the price of the book placed it beyond the means of
ordinary buyers. Ten pounds for a single book is a sum not to be thought of by the mass of
garden lovers, and therefore the original, with all its'merit, could only be seen in the libraries of
the wealthy, in all of which, however, it ought to be found. We, therefore, announce with satis-
faction the appearance of this valuable abridgment, not costing more than a quarter the price of
the original, and containing all the most valuable of the woodcuts, with illustrative letterpress.
In its present form it is within the reach of thousands who could not before hope to obtain it, and
we strongly recommend it to universal patronage."— Dr. IAndley, in The Gardener's Chronicle.
15.
COPLAND'S DICTIONARY OF PRACTICAL MEDICINE.
A Dictionary of Practical Medicine ; comprising General Pathology, the Nature and Treatment
of Diseases, Morbid Structures, and the Disorders especially incidental to Climates, to the
Sex, and to the different Epochs of Life, with numerous approved Formulae of the Medicines
recommended. By James Copland, M.D., Consulting Physician to Queen Charlotte's
Lying-in Hospital ; Senior Physician to the Royal Infirmary for Children ; Member of the Royal
College of Physicians, London ; of the Medical and Chirurgical Societies of London and
Berlin, &c. 8vo. Parts I. to IV. 9s. each ; Parts V. to IX. 4s. 6d. each ; Vols. 1 and 2, £Z. cloth.
Vols. 1 and 2, 8vo. 30s. each, cloth.
Parts 1 to 9— Abdomen to Ozena.
Parts 1 to 4, 9s. each ; Parts 5 to 9, 4s. 6d. each.
*** Part X. will shortly be published.— To be completed in One more Volume.
The Preface, with a Pathological Classification of Diseases, &c. forming a Key to the Syste-
matic Study of Practical Medicine, as well as an arranged Table of the Contents of the Work, will
accompany the last Part.
An Index of the Individual Topics comprised under the various Chapters and Sections of each
article will also be given in the last Part.
"We feel it a great duty to record our opinion— that, as there is no medical practitioner in this
country, old or young, high or low, who will not derive great pleasure and great profit by consult-
ing Dr. Copland's Dictionary, so we think there is no one who should not add the work to his
library. The information amassed in these volumes is literally enormous, and contemplated
simply as an accumulation, it must excite astonishment as the production of an individual; but
when it is further considered, that the whole of the materials have been most carefully selected
from all existing sources, most patiently studid, valued, winnowed, digested, elaborated, and ar-
ranged into compact and simple forms, easily accessible, and readily available in practice, it is
not easy to point out, in the whole range of medical literature, any work by a single hand so much
calculated to excite admiration of the industry and talents of the author. On every article con-
tained in the volumes, the reader cannot fail to be struck with the writer's most extensive learning,
which has enabled him to collect knowledge from all authorities, ancient and modern, foreign and
domestic ; and he will, at the same time, be no less surprised than gratified at the singular power
which has arranged the whole so lucidly and in such systematic order."
British and Foreign Medical Review.
This work is now in course of publication in Parts, nine Parts, forming Vols. 1 and 2, having
appeared. It contains, in an abstract and condensed, yet comprehensive, form, the opinions and
practice of the most experienced writers, British and Foreign, so digested and wrought up with the
results of the Author's practice, that the Student and Young Practitioner will not be bewildered in
the diversity of the opinions and facts adduced for their instruction, but be guided in the difficult
path on which they have entered, and enabled, with a due exercise of their powers of observation
and discrimination, to arrive at just conclusions and successful practical results. To the expe-
rienced Practitioner, also, the work presents a diversified range of opinions, methods of cure, and
authorities, which his matured judgment will enable him to apply, in an appropriate manner, to
particular cases. It also comprises the complications and modified states of Disease, which are
even more frequently met with in practice than those specific forms too often described by
Nosologists as constant and unvarying types, to which morbid actions, occurring under a great
variety of circumstances, can never closely adhere. When discussing the methods of Cure, the
Author gives Formulae of the Medicines recommended, in the most efficient and improved forms
of combination. He likewise furnishes numerous References to the best Works and Treatises on
the topics discussed in each article.
In conclusion, the work will contain the results of many years of laborious study and research,
and of twenty years' extensive and diversified experience.
Wilson & Ooii.vt, Printers, 57, Skinner Street, Snowhill, London.
AN
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA
ARCHITECTURE
AND
FURNITURE ;
CONTAINING
NUMEROUS DESIGNS FOR DWELLINGS,
FROM THE VILLA TO THE COTTAGE AND THE FARM,
INCLUDING
FARM HOUSES, FARMERIES, AND OTHER AGRICULTURAL BUILDINGS ;
COUNTRY INNS, PUBLIC HOUSES, AND PAROCHIAL, SCHOOLS :
WITH THE REQUISITE FITTINGS-UP, FIXTURES, AND FURNITURE;
AND
APPROPRIATE OFFICES, GARDENS, AND GARDEN SCENERY:
EACH DESIGN ACCOMPANIED BY
gnalntiral autt Critical ftcmaritf.
BY THE LATE J. C. LOUDON, F.L.S. H.S. G.S. Z.S.
ILLUSTRATED BY
MORE THAN TWO THOUSAND ENGRAVINGS.
A NEW EDITION, EDITED BY MRS. LOUDON.
LONDON:
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS,
PATERFOSTER-ROW.
1S46.
London :
Printed by A. Sfottiswoodb,
New-Street- Square.
PREFACE.
In preparing for the press this, the first new edition of the " Encyclo-
paedia of Rural Architecture" that has been printed since Mr. Loudon's
death, I have endeavoured, as closely as possible, to act as I think he
would have done if he had been alive. I have carefully read over and
corrected the whole work, and I have made a few additions to the Supple-
ment, most of which, however, were either prepared or indicated by Mr.
Loudon shortly before his death. The only part of the present edition
■with regard to which I have acted entirely on my own judgment, is in
re-writing the Glossarial Index, and giving the explanation after each
term, instead of merely referring to the paragraph where it might be
found ; and I have done this because I have heard complaints frequently
made of the difficulty of finding the explanation of the terms, from the
great length of the paragraphs referred to.
J. W. LOUDON.
Bnyswater, April, 1846.
PREFACE
TO THE FIRST EDITION.
A.ll the arts of life have had their origin in some simple natural want, supplied, in the
first instance, by every man for himself; till, with the progress of civilisation, from these
wants sprang those desires and wishes, which gave rise to that division of skill and labour
in supplying them, which is one of the characteristics of civilised society. Hence the
origin of all the different professions, most of which, in their first existence as such,
were practised by distinct associations as mysteries, unknown to, or concealed from,
general society.
It is in the nature of all knowledge held as mystery, to remain in a great measure
stationary, because the minds which are engaged in it are necessarily few ; and because
the great object of such associations is, to keep their peculiar knowledge, and the exercise
of their craft, among themselves. Hence the little progress which has been made in
Domestic Architecture, the science and rules of which have been almost exclusively
confined to Architects, from the earliest ages to the present time. On examining into
the actual state of this art, it will be found that the improvements which have been
made in it in modern times, are chiefly confined to those departments which are open to
the understanding, and amenable to the judgment, of mankind generally ; we mean,
such as relate to comfort and convenience in the arrangement, warming, lighting, heat-
ing, &c, of rooms ; whereas the department of taste in building is little in advance oi
what it was two thousand years ago.
To what can this be owing, but to the circumstance, that the knowledge of Archi-
tecture, as a fine art, is much less familiar to the public, than it is as an art of utility ; or,
in other words, that the Architect is under the control of public opinion much more
in matters of usefulness, than in matters of taste ?
This is a state of things by no means peculiar to Architecture. The greater portion
of mankind, in even the most civilised countries, has hitherto been kept in the dark
with regard to what constitutes truth and excellence in all arts or professions, the prac-
tice of which has been limited to certain associations or corporations of individuals.
Hence the sciences of government, law, medicine, theology, education, &c, have been in
all countries comparative mysteries, and have, consequently, like Architecture, remained
nearly stationary for ages. The profound and exclusive attention, which is requisite to
enable the professors of any art to become eminent in it, necessarily precludes them, while
engaged in its pursuit, from acquiring a proportionate stock of knowledge upon other
subjects. Unless, therefore, this stock of knowledge has been previously laid in by a
scientific education in early youth, professional men and artists are very apt to assign
an undue importance to the facts and views connected with their professions ; and to
regard as general truths, those which are, in fact, only particular. Hence, universal
principles and extended views are much more likely to be entertained by persons who
have studied several arts and sciences, though perhaps none of them profoundly, than
by those who have confined their attention to only one. Hence, also, we rarely find
great reformations made in any art by its professors.
Another cause which has retarded the progress of all arts and professions is, the prac-
tice, common in most of them, of implicitly following precedents ; or of adhering rigidly
to rules (made perhaps in a former age, and consequently adapted to a less advanced
state of civilisation), instead of testing those precedents and rules by fundamental prin-
ciples, and adapting the latter to the state of society for the time being. No art has had
its progress more retarded by these means than Architecture ; whether by the old idea
that the whole of its science was included in the knowledge of the five orders ; or by the
modern one that Architecture, as an art of taste, is one of imitation, like those of sculp-
ture and painting ; and that there is no manner of building worthy of the name of
Architecture but the Grecian.
According to our views of this subject, all arts, whether of design and taste, or of utility
and convenience, like every thing else relative to man, are progressive, and change with
the changing condition of society. In like manner, the knowledge of all arts, from being
exclusive, is calculated, through the spread of education, ultimately to become universal;
and, the art of printing and the use of the steam-engine being discovered, the time
will ultimately arrive, in every country, when all knowledge will be common to all
vi PREFACE.
mankind. No avt or profession will then be a mystery ; but, eacb being reduced to
the comprehension of youth, forming a part of that general education which will
ultimately be every where established, and being consequently subject to the criticism
of the whole of society, the improvement in it will be great, in proportion to the demand
which there may be for its exercise and for its productions. Though scarcely any
country has arrived at this stage in social progress, even in any one of the arts or pro-
fessions, yet all countries are advancing towards it with different degrees of rapidity,
according to the circumstances in which they are placed, geographical and political.
In accordance with these views, our intention, in producing the work now submitted
to the reader, is, to prepare the way for rendering general, a knowledge of Domestic
Architecture; for the immediate purpose of increasing the comforts of the great mass
of society ; and for the more remote objects of improving the knowledge and the taste
of the public in Architecture, and of inducing Architects to study their art on general
principles, and on a theory formed on the nature of the human mind, and on the
changing condition of society, rather than on the precedents and rules of former ages,
or on any hypothesis whatever. The means by which we have endeavoured to effect
these objects will be found explained at length in our Introduction, to which we refer
the reader.
We have only been enabled to accomplish our purpose by the cooperation of a number
of Architects, of scientific men, and of men of taste. Several of these we are proud
to call our personal friends ; and others, who, before we received their contributions to
this work, were known to us only by name, have proved themselves friends by their
actions. Before proceeding to return our sincere acknowledgments to the various
artists and others, whose names will be found in the list, p. xix., it may be advisable
to reply to an objection which has been made to us by some Architects, viz. that, by
laying their profession open to the world, we were acting so as to injure their pecuniary
interests. The same objection was made to Dr. Buchan many years ago, when he
first published his Domestic Medicine; and to John Abercrombie, when he wrote his book
entitled Every Man his own Gardener. Now, without going into details, we shall only
ask, what have been the progress of medicine and gardening, and the prosperity of medical
men and gardeners, since the time these works appeared, compared to what they were for
a similar period previous to their publication? The answer, undoubtedly, is, that their
improvement has been great beyond all former example. To what can this be owing,
but to the more general diffusion of knowledge on these subjects ? The truth is, that
public attention can never be turned to any art or science, without benefiting all its
professors. A little knowledge of any given subject makes us desire to know more;
and, though we first apply to books to acquire this further knowledge, we must ulti-
mately have recourse to living professors to carry it into effect. No book can be framed
so as to suit the exigencies of every particular case : all that can be done by any author
is, to lay down general principles, and to deduce rules from them. The application of
these rules must be learned from experience ; and it is evident that a knowledge of the
principles from which they arc deduced will enable the amateur more thoroughly to
appreciate and profit by the skill of the professor.
Among the important uses of this work will be that of pointing out the various capa-
cities for improvement in comfort and beauty, of which each class of building, and each
kind of furniture, is susceptible. Now, so far from this having a tendency to injure
Architects, it will not only enable those who wish either to build or to furnish, to express
more clearly, to the Architect or upholsterer, those wants which they already have ; but
it will elicit new ones, of which they had previously no idea, and which the Architect,
the builder, and the upholsterer will be called upon to supply.
In expressing our acknowledgments to our contributors, it was originally our in-
tention to thank, in an especial manner, those who, by their early contributions, when
the work was commenced in monthly parts, in April, 1832, encouraged us to proceed
with it ; but, on due consideration, lest we might inadvertently appear partial in our
acknowledgments, we think it best to return our sincere thanks generally to tiie whole
of our contributors as enumerated in the list, p. xix. to xx. How much we feel
indebted to the Architects and others, whose names are included in that list, can be only
understood by those who are duly aware that the value of a work consisting principally
of graphic designs, depends upon those designs being the production of a number of
different minds. For the liberality which has been thus shown us, we have made the
best return in our power, by publishing this work at such an unprecedentedly low price,
as must insure, to the names and talents of our contributors, an extensive circulation ; and,
for our own labour, we have earned the consciousness of having produced a book, which
must inevitably have an important influence on the rural Architecture of the temperate
legions of both hemispheres.
Bai/swater, June 1. 1833. J- C. L.
CONTENTS.
Preface
List of Engravings
Page
List of Books quoted
List of Contributors
Page
. xv
. xix
Introduction - - . 1
BOOK I.
DESIGNS FOR LABOURERS' AND MECHANICS' COTTAGES, AND FOR DWELLINGS
FOR GARDENERS AND BAILIFFS, AND OTHER UPPER SERVANTS, AND FUR
SMALL FARMERS AND CULTIVATORS OF THEIR OWN LAND.
Chap. I.
Model Designs for Cottages, exhibiting in each
Model all the Accommodations and Ar-
rangements for Comfort and Convenience
of which the smallest Dwellings of this Class
are susceptible . . . - 8
L A Cottage of One Story ; combining all the
Accommodation and Conveniences of which
human Dwellings of that Description are
susceptible ... 9
II. A Cottage of One Story; combining the
Accommodations and Conveniences of De-
sign I., differently arranged, and with the
Addition of a Veranda - - -21
III. A Cottage of Two Stories ; combining the
Accommodations and Conveniences of De-
sign L, differently arranged, and with an
additional Bed-room - - - 23
Chap. II
A miscellaneous Collection of Designs for Cot.
tage Dwellings, with Critical and Analytical
Remarks - . - . - 2G
IV. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with-
out Children . . . .27
V. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with
Two or more Children, with a Cow-house
and Pigsty - - ... 31
VI. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with
an Apprentice, Servant, or grown-up Son
or Daughter - . . - 35
VII. A Dwelling of Two Rooms, and a Back
Kitchen, for a Man and his Wife - - 35
VIII. A Dwelling of Two Rooms, for a Man
and his Wife - - - - 44
IX. A Dwelling in the Swiss Style, for a mar.
ried Couple and Family, with a Cow-house
and Pigsty . . - 44
X. A Dwelling for a married Couple and One
Child, with a Pigsty . - - 48
XI. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, and
One or Two Children, with a Cow-house
and Pigsty - - - -52
XII. A Dwelling of Two Stories, for a Man and
his Wife, with a Servant and Two or Three
Children, with a Cow-house and Pigsty . 54
XIII. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with
Two or more Children - - - 5"
XIV. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with
One Servant, and a grown-up Son or
Daughter . . . .58
XV. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with-
out Children - - - - 63
XVI. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife,
without Children - . - 65
XVII. A Dwelling with Two Rooms and a
Bed-closet, for a Man and his Wife, with
an Apprentice or Servant . . 71
XVIII. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife,
without Children - . . 74
XIX. A Dwelling of Two Rooms, for a Man
and his Wife, without Children - - 80
XX. A Dwelling tor a Man and his Wife, with
Children, and having a Cow-house, Pigsty,
&c, attached - - . S3
XXI. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife,
without Children - - .87
XXII. A Dwelling for a Gardener, or other
Servant, on a Gentleman's Estate, who has
a Wife, but no Children - - 88
XXIII. A Dwelling of One Story, for a Man
and his Wife with a Family of Children ;
having a Cow-house and Pigsty attached - 93
XXIV. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife,
without Children, having Two Rooms, and
other Conveniences - - -94
XXV. A Dwelling for a Working Man, with a
Family of Children . - . . 97
XXVI. A Cottage Dwelling in the German
Swiss Style, for a Man and his Family, with
Accommodation for two Horses and a Cow 98
XXVII. A Dwelling for a Man and his Wile,
with Children, or a Servant, with the usual
Conveniences in a detached Building . 101
XXVIII. A Cottage in the Old English Man-
ner, containing a Kitchen, Living Room,
and Two Bed-rooms ... 102
XXIX. A Cottage Dwelling of Three Rooms,
with various Conveniences - . 105
XXX. A Cottage Dwelling with Five Rooms,
and various Conveniences - . Iu7
XXXI. A Dwelling with Five Rooms, with
Conveniences, in the Old English Style,
where the building Material is chiefly Stone 108
XXXII. A Cottage Dwelling with Two Sitting.
Rooms, in the Old English Manner, where
Timber, Brick, and Slate are the Materials
used lor the Walls and Roof - . Ill
XXX 111 Two Cottage Dwellings, under the
same Roof; each having Two Rooms and
other Conveniences . . . 136
XXXIV. A Cottage Dwelling of Two Rooms,
intended as a Gate Lodge . - 137
XXXV. A Cottage Dwelling of Three Rooms,
with Back Kitchen, Cow-house, and other
Conveniences .... us
XXXVI. A Dwel ing with Four Rooms, a Back
Kitchen, and other Conveniences - - 141
XXXVII. A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with
other Conveniences, intended as a Lodge,
or a House for a Bailiff or Head Gardener 141
XXXVIII. A Dwelling of Three Rooms, with
a Back Kitchen, and other Conveniences,
intended as a Porter's Lodge, or Gardener's
House - .... 143
XXXIX. Two Dwellings for Country La-
bourers, under One Roof, with Two Rooms
in each, and other Conveniences - - 144
XL. Two Cottages of Three Rooms each, under
the same Roof, with Cow-house, Pigsty,
and other Conveniences io each - . 146
XLI. Six Cottages grouped together, with a
view to Economy in building them . 147
XLI I. A Cottage of Three Rooms, in the Eliza-
bethan Style - . . - 157
XLI1I. A Cottage of Three Rooms, with Back
CONTENTS-
Page
Kitchen, Cow-house, and other Conve-
niences .... 158
XLIV. A Cottage of Three Rooms and a Back
Kitchen on the Ground Floor, with various
Conveniences .... 163
XLV. A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with Back
Kitchen, and other Conveniences - - 163
XLV1. A Cottage Dwelling of Four Rooms,
with a Back Kitchen, Cellar, and other
Conveniences .... 164
XLVII. Two Cottages for Country Labourers,
under One Roof, with Four Rooms in each,
Back Kitchen, Pigsty, and other Con-
veniences ..- - 168
XLVI1I. A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with a
Back Kitchen, and other Conveniences - 175
XL1X. A Dwelling suitable for a Lodge or
Toll-house, having Three Rooms, and other
Conveniences .... 176
L A Cottage Dwelling of Four Rooms, with
other Conveniences - - - 176
LI. A Cottage Dwelling of Six Rooms, with
other Conveniences ... 179
LI I. Ideas for altering the Front of an old
Cottage, at present in a dilapidated State - 181
LIII. A Cottage for a Village Tradesman -182
LIV. Two Cottage Dwellings for Labourers,
under One Roof ... - 184
LV. A Cottage of One Story, with Four Rooms,
a Kitchen, and other Conveniences - 186
LVI. A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with other
Conveniences, and a large Rustic Portico . 190
LVH. Two Dwellings under One Roof, Two
Stories high, with Four Rooms in each, and
other Conveniences - - - 191
LVI 1 1. A Labourer's Cottage of Two Rooms,
with other Conveniences ... 192
LIX Two Cottages of One Room and a Back
Kitchen each, under the same Roof - 196
LX. Two Dwellings under One Roof, each
containing Four Rooms, with a Back
Kitchen and other Conveniences - - 196
LXI. A Duelling of Three Rooms on the
Ground Floor, with a Back Kitchen and
other Conveniences - - 19"
LXI I. A Dwelling of Four Rooms on Two
Floors, with various Conveniences - "01
LXI II. Two Dwellings of Two Rooms each,
under One Roof - - ■ - 202
LX1V. Two Dwellings under One Roof, each
Three Stories high, and having Three
Rooms, and other Conveniences - - 202
LXV. A Dwelling of Three Rooms, with
other Conveniences ... 205
LXVI. A Cottage Dwelling of Two Rooms,
with a Smithy, Shoeing-shed, and Three-
stalled Stable - - - - 205
LXV 1 1. A Cottage Dwelling of Five Rooms, in
Two Floors - - ... 211
LXVIII. A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with
other Conveniences - - - 211
Page
LXIX. A Cottage Dwelling, in the Old English
Style, with Kitchen, Parlour, Business
Room, Three Bedchambers, and other
Conveniences - - - - 212
LXX. A Cottage Dwelling of Four Rooms,
with other Conveniences ... 214
LXXI. A Castellated Lodge, as a Dwelling for
a Gardener or other Upper Servant, on a
Gentleman's Estate - 214
LXXII. A Dwelling of Six Rooms, with vari-
ous Conveniences ... - 223
LXXIII. A Dwelling, Three Stories high, with
Four Rooms, and various Conveniences - 224
LXXIV. Design for aCottage Dwelling, in the
Old English Style, and of a Construction
suitable for having Part of the Walls cover-
ed with Weather Tiling - - - 227
LXXV. A Cottage in the Old English Manner,
containing on the Ground Floor a Living-
Room, Kitchen, and other Conveniences,
with Two Bed-rooms over - - 231
LXXV I. A Cottage Dwelling One Story high,
containing Six Rooms, a Wash-house, and
other Conveniences ... 2S6
LXXV1I. The Model Cottages of the La-
bourer's Friend Society, as erected at
Shooter's Hill, Kent - - - 237
LXXVIII. Six Cottage Dwellings, built at
Abersychan, near Pontypool, in South
Wales, with One common Wash-house and
Bakehouse - - - - 238
LXX1X. Twelve or more Cottages in a Row,
with a Kitchen, Wash house, and other
Conveniences in common ; the whole heat-
ed by the Fires in the Public Kitchen - 241
LXXX. Eighty Dwellings of the humblest
Class, placed together, with a view of being
heated by One common Fire, and enjoying
other Benefits, on the Cooperative Sys-
tem 244
LXXXI. A portable Cottage for the Use of
Emigrants and others ... 251
Chap. Ill
Designs and Directions for Exterior and Inte-
rior Finishing, as connected with Furnish-
ing, and for the Fittings-up, Fixtures, and
Furniture of Cottage Dwellings - -258
Sect. I. Designs and Directions for the Exterior
Finishing of Cottage Dwellings - -259
Sect. II. Designs and Directions for the Inte-
rior Finishing of Cottage Dwellings - 272
Sect. III. Designs and Directions for Internal
Fittings-up for Cottage Dwellings - 281
Sect. IV. Designs and Directions for Fixtures
for Cottage Dwellings - - - 282
Sect. V. Designs and Directions for Cottage
Furniture and Furnishing - - 298
BOOK II.
DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES, COUNTRY INNS AND
PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS.
Cuap. I.
Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries, ex-
hibiting various Degrees of Accommo-
dation, from the Farm of 50 to that of 1(!00
Acres, suitable to different Kinds of Farm-
ing, and in different Styles of Architec-
ture - - - ... 354
Sect. I. General Principles and Model Designs
for Farm Houses and Farmeries - - 355
1. General Principles and Model Designs for
the Arrangement of a Farm House - 355
2. Fundamental Principles, Directions, and
Model Designs, for the Construction and
Arrangement of the various Parts which
compose a Farmery . - 373
Chap. II.
A Collection of miscellaneous Designs for
Farm Houses and Farmeries, in different
Styles of Archi'.ecture, and adapted to
different Kinds of Farms; with Specifica-
tions, Estimates, and accompanying Re-
marks ..... 418
Sect. I. Miscellaneous Designs - - 418
I. A Bailiff's Cottage, in the Old English Style,
intended for the Manager of a Farm in the
Neighbourhood of London - - 418
II. A Farmery in the Old English Style, chiefly
calculated for Dairy Husbandry, and con-
ducted by a Bailiff, for the Proprietor of the
Land .... - 434
III. A Farm House and Farmery suitable for
a Farm of 600 Acres of Turnip Soil, ex-
ecuted at Halstone, in Dumfriesshire - 441
IV. A Farm House and Farmery suitable for
an extensive Turnip Farm, executed at
Gatestack, in Dumfriesshire - - 445
V. A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of
150 Acres of Arable and Pasture Land in
Buckinghamshire - - - - 448
VI. A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm
of 600 Acres of Turnip Soil, in Ayrshire,
under a Rotation of Five Years, and em-
CONTENTS.
Page
ployed partly in breeding and partlv in feed-
ing Stock ..... 452
VI L A Farm House and Farmery for Three
Ploughs, erected at Ingliston in Dumfries-
shire - - - - 454
VIII. A Farm House and Farmery tor Three
Ploughs, erected at Alton, in Dumfries-
shire - - - 457
IX. A Farm House and Farmery for a small
Farm for breeding Sheep and Cattle, erected
at Holecleugh, in Dumfriesshire - - 457
X. A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm or
Two Ploughs, erected on the Grebten Es-
tate, in Dumfriesshire ... 459
XI. A Farm House and Farmery for Four
Ploughs, designed, and in Part executed in
Dumfriesshire .... 460
XII. The Villa Residence and Farmery of Rid-
denwood, in the Parish of Kirkmahne,
Dumfriesshire, in the Occupation of the
Proprietor, James Kerr, Esq. - - 462
XIII. A Farm House and Farmery for 100
Acres of Land, to be cultivated on the
Norfolk System, with a Flour Mill driven
by Wind ..... 471
XIV. A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm
of Two Ploughs, in the County of North-
umberland ..... 475
XV. The Farm House and Offices at Cocklaw
East Farm, on the Beaufrom Estate, North,
umherl md .... 476
XVI. A Farm House and Farmery for Seven
Ploughs, executed at Newnham Barns, in
Northumberland - ... 47"
XVII. A Farm House and Farmery for Four.
teen Ploughs, suited to the Northumbrian
Husbandry .... 479
XVIII. A Farm House and Farmery for Ten
Ploughs, Ten Cows, Twenty Young Cattle,
and other Live Stuck, adapted to the Hus-
bandry of Northumberland - . 482
XIX. A Farmery of Five Ploughs, with Cows,
Cattle, and other Stock in Proportion,
suitable for the Northumbrian Husban-
dry - - - - . . is;
XX. A Farm House and Farmery fur Three
Ploughs, adapted to the Northumbrian
S\*tom of Culture ... 485
XXI. The Farm House and Offices for a Farm
of Six Ploughs, called HaHington New
Houses, on theBeaufront Estate, in North-
umberland . - - .486
XXII. The Farmer; at Caller, in Kirkcud-
brightshire, suitable for a Galloway Crop
and Pasture Farm of* 10 Acres - -496
XXIII. A Farmery for a small French Farm,
as given by Morel- Vindt - - - 497
XXIV. A Farm House and Farmery suitable
for a Farm of from 300 to 500 Acres in
France - 499
XXV. For a Court of Feeding-houses, built for
the late Thomas Hibbert, I^sq., at Chalfont
Lodge, Buckinghamshire - - - 508
XXVI A Farmery for extensive Ironworks,
erected at Abersychan, near Pontypool, in
South Wales - - - - 511
XXVII. A Farmery for a Farm of ""ill Acres,
in the Valley of Strathmore, where a Rota-
tion of Seven Crops is followed, the firass
Division being pastured the Second Year . 512
XXVIII. A Farmery for a particular Situation,
suitable for 80 Acres of Arable Land, and
300 Acres of Pasture, in the Carse of
Gowrie ..... 514 I
XXIX. The Farm House ana Farmery of
Starston Place, near Harleston, in Norfolk,
suitable for a Farm of 350 Acres under the
Norfolk System of Culture . - . 516 j
XXX. A F'armery for a Farm of 300 Acres of
Arable Land, and 500 of Pasture, in the
West Highlands . - 519
XXXI. A Farmery for £00 Acres of Arable
Land, and 300 of Pasture, in the West of
Scotland ..... 520
XXXII. A Farm House and Farmery for 800
Acres of Arable Land, and 300 of Pasture,
in Ross-shire - 522
XXXIII. A Farm House and Farmery for 500
Acres, half Pasture and half Arable, erected
at , in the Parish of Tarbat, Ross-shire 523
XXXIV. The Farmery at Greeridykes, in
Page
Haddingtonshire, consisting of 500 Arable
Acres under a Six-course Shift - . 5£g
XXXV. A Farm House and Farmery at Elcho
Castle, Perthshire, adapted for a Farm of
Six Ploughs, under the Turnip Husbandry 537
XXXVI. A Public House and Farmery; the
Publican being, at the same time, a small
Farmer ana a Butcher ... 544
XXXVII. A House and Out-buildings for a
Cheese Dairy Farm of from 300 to 350 Acres,
in Cheshire - ... 545
XXXVIII. A Mixed Stock Farm, in a high
(hilly) Country, employing only One Pair
of Horses . - . 546
XXX IX. A Farmery for a Garden Farm of 200
Acres, situated near a Town, employed
wholly in Tillage, where no Stock is kept
but Horses and Family Cows, and where
the whole Produce is sold - . -549
XL. A Farmery for a Farm of 500 Acres, kept
in a Rotation of Corn Crops and Pasture,
producing Turnips, and employed partly in
breeding and partly in feeding Stock " . 551
XLI. A F'armery for a Farm of 500 Acres of
Arable Turnip Land, kept under alternate
Corn and Pasture, and employed in breed-
ing and in feeding Stock, as well as in
tending Corn to Market ... 552
XLII. A Dairy Farm of 500 Acres, kept in a
Rotation of Corn Crops and Grass; One
half being supposed to be in Hay or Pasture 352
XLI 1 1. A Farmery for a Clay Land Arable
Farm of 500 Acres, not producing Turnips,
and kept chiefly, or wholly, in Tillage - 554
^CLIV. A Farmery for a Farm of 150 Acres,
kept in a Rotation of Crops and Pasture,
producing Turnips and Potatoes ; and em-
ployed partly in feeding and partly in
breeding Stock .... ~,:;;,
XLV. A Farmery for a Cottage Farm of
25 Acres . . . - - 556
XLVi .v Farmery for a Cottage Farm of
SO Acres, with Remarks, showing how it
may be extended bo as to serve for a Farm
of .V 1, , SO, or 100 Acres . . .5.57
I Samples -bowing the Manner of dis-
poning Architectural St vie in Farm Build-
ings - - - . .560
Sect, 111. On constructing temporary, portable,
and ambulatory Farmeries; and on altering
lions, Monasteries, Manufactories, and
Other buildings, so as to render them tit for
Agricultural Purposes ... 566
:•: 1 1 IV. Designs for various Buildings, such
as Corn Mills, Kilns, Malt-houses, Cider,
houses, ,Vc., connected with Agriculture
and Rural Economy ... 568
I. The Construction of a Building for contain.
ing the Machinery of a Com Mill to be
impelled by Water, with introductory Ob-
servations on Buildings for Mills generally,
on Flour Mills, and on the different Kinds
of Water-wheels .... 568
II. The Construction of a Building for con-
taining the Machinery and Apartments
nging to a Vertioal Windmill, with
Remarks on the different Kinds of Wind.
mills - - - . .583
III. A Malt Kiln, with the requisite Append.
ages, and Directions for their Use - 5R9
IV. A Hop-oast, or Kiln for drying Hops . 592
V. A Hop-kiln, or Oast, on an improved Prin-
ciple, erected in 1832, at Teston, in Kent - .V'i
VI. An improved Limekiln - - . 600
VII. A Kiln for burning Bricks or Tiles, or
other Earthenware used in the Construc-
tion of Buildings ; and which may also be
used as a Kiln for burning Lime or Clay
for Manure, or coking Coal or Peat, or
charring Wood, impregnating Timber with
Pyroligneous Arid, Kiln-drying Corn, or
drying Corn in the Sheaf in Wei Se Sons,
and for other Agricultural Purposes - C05
VIII. A Cider house, Mill, and Press, according
to the Plan most generally approved of in
the Counties of Hereford and Worcester - 609
IX. A Cider-house, Mill, and Press, with the
different Implements connected with Cider-
making - . . . - 615
X. A House for breedingand fattening Poultry
on a large Scale, with Remarks on then
CONTENTS.
Page
Management, and on the Suitableness of
Poultry as Live Stock for the Farm La-
Dourer ; and Designs for altering or build-
ing their Cottages accordingly - - 622
Sect. V. Designs for Farmery Dwellings for
Ploughmen and other yearly Servants em-
ployed on the Farm ... 627
I. Two Ploughmen's Cottages, such as are in
common Use in the Carse of Gowrie ; with
a Notice of the Bothies, or Lodges for
single Men, in the same District - - 629
II. Two Country Labourers' Cottages, built at
Showerdown Braes, on the Beaufront
Estate, in Northumberland - - 631
III. Two Ploughmen's Cottages, in a Village
near Salisbury, Wiltshire - - 632
IV. A double Cottage for Farm Labourers,
erected in Gloucestershire, on the Estate
of William Lawrence, Esq., near Ciren-
cester ----- 634
V. A double Cottage, intended for Farm La-
bourers, in Gloucestershire - - 635
VI. A Cottage for a Farm Labourer and his
Wife, without Children - - - 639
VII. A Cottage for a Farm Labourer with
several Children ; or a Bothy (a Booth ie,
or little Booth) for three unmarried Plough-
men - - - - - 642
VIII. The improved Farm Labourer's Cottage
of France, as given by Morel-Vinde - 643
IX. A double Cottage for Farm Labourers,
with Places between the Two Dwellings for
hatching and fattening Poultry early in the
Season - - - - 64
Sect. VI. Of the Exterior and Interior Finish-
ing, and the Fittings-up and Furniture, of
Farm Houses and Farmeries - - 650
1. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, and Furni-
ture of the Farm House, and the Offices of
the Kitchen Court - - - 650
2. Of the Finishing, Fixtures, Fittings-up, and
Furniture of Farmeries - - - 662
Chap. III.
Designs for Country Inns and Public Houses of
various Degrees of Accommodation, from
the Hedge Alehouse to the Mansion Inn,
with its Gardens, Farm, and Park - 675
Sect. I. General Principles for composing
Model Designs for Country Inns and Pub-
lic Houses - - - 676
Sect. II. Miscellaneous Designs for Country
Inns and Public Houses - - - 678
I. A Country Inn in the Italian Style ; having,
Page
besides public Rooms, Thirty Bed-rooms,
and Stabling for Twenty Horses - - 678
II. A small Country Inn, with Stabling,
Skittle-ground, Tea-garden, and Bowling-
green - ... 680
III. A small Village Inn, or Alehouse, in the
Italian Gothic Manner - 682
IV. An Inn in the Italian Style - - 685
V. A Suburban Public House in the Old English
Style - - - - - 686
VI. A Hedge Alehouse of the smallest Size - 690
VII. A Country Public House in the Italian
Style - - - - 692
VIII. A small Inn or Public House in the
Swiss Style - - - - 693
Sect. III. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fix-
tures, and Furniture of Country Inns and
Public Houses .... 695
1. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and
Furniture of the Bar of an Inn or Public
House - - - - - 695
2. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and
Furniture for the other Offices of Inns - 698
3. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and
Furniture of the Inn generally - -702
4. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and
Furniture of the Kitchen and Scullery of
Inns and Public Houses ... 707
Chap. IV.
Designs for Parochial Schools ... 726
Sect. I. Of the Fundamental Principles, and
the Rules derived from these Principles, for
designing and fitting up Schools for the
Education of Children in Masses - -727
1. Fundamental Principles, and General Rules
deduced from them, for designing Schools
for Infant Instruction ... 727
2. Fundamental Principles, and Rules deduced
from them, for designing Schools for
Mutual Instruction ... 730
Sect. II. Miscellaneous Designs for Parochial
Schools ----- 740
I. A Parochial School, in two Stories, for 400
Children, with a House for the Master and
Mistress ----- 740
II. A Parochial School, in One Story, for 100
Boys and 80 Girls, including a Residence
for the Master and Mistress - _ 751
III. A Country School, in the Italian Style, in-
cluding a Dwelling for the Master and
Mistress ----- 757
Sect. III. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fix-
tures, and Furniture of Parochial Schools 758
BOOK III.
DESIGNS FOR VILLAS, WITH VARIOUS DEGREES OF ACCOMMODATION, AND IN
DIFFERENT STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE
Chap. I.
The Fundamental Principles of laying out a
Villa, including the House and the Grounds 763
Sect. I. Of the Choice of a Situation for a Villa
Residence ----- 763
Sect. II. Of the Position of the House, and the
Arrangement of the Grounds of a Villa
Residence ----- 767
Sect. III. Of adapting the Architectural Style
and interior Arrangement of the House to
the Character of the Situation - - 773
Chap. II.
The Beau Ideal of an English Villa - - 790
Sect. I. The Beau Ideal of an English Villa
described .... - 790
Sect. II. Map of the Demesne and Park, and
Ground Plan and Elevations of the House
of Beau Ideal Villa - - - 813
Chap. III.
Miscellaneous Designs for Villas, with various
Degrees of Accommodation, and in differ-
ent Styles of Architecture - - 821
I. A Grecian Villa, of a medium Size, for a
Gentleman of Fortune ... 821
II. The Ao< ommodations of a Villa of moderate
Size, exhibited in the Ground Plan of the
House and Offices, and their relative Con-
nection with the Gardens and Grounds - 823
III. A Suburban Villa of Two Acres and a
half, the House and Grounds built and laid
out by an Architect for his own Residence 826
IV. A Villa in the Anglo-Italian Style, with
Three principal Rooms, and with a Stable
and Coach-house ... 834
V. A Parsonage House for a particular Situ-
ation in Somersetshire - - - 841
VI. A Cottage Villa in the Gothic Style - 844
VII. A Villa in the Old English Manner,
adapted to a gently elevated Situation, with
good Views on three Sides - - 846
VIII. The Villa of Hannayfield, the Residence
of Hannaj'j Esq., in the Neighbourhood
of Dumfries - - - - 850
IX. A small Villa, or Parsonage, in the Italian
Style - - - -853
X. A Cottage Villa, showing how Advantage
may be taken of a sloping Bank - - 855
XI. A Villa in the Modern Style of Archi-
tecture, Fire-proof, and suitable for a Ma-
rine Residence, for the occasional Occu-
pation or the permanent Abode of a small
Family of Fortune ... 859
XII. A double Suburban Villa, adapted for
a particular Situation in the Suburbs of
Leicester: ... - 870
CONTENTS.
Page
XIII. A small Grecian Villa or Casino, to be
placed on an Eminence, commanding ex-
tensive Prospects in two Directions only - 877
XIV. A Villa in the Old Scotch Style, erected,
in 1831, at Springfield, near Glasgow - 879
XV. A Mansion in the Style of a Scotch Ba-
ronial House of the Sixteenth Century,
with the Accommodation and Arrange-
ments suitable to a Villa of the Nineteenth
Century ----- 885
XVI. A Cottage Villa, built at Chailev, in Sus-
sex, for General St. John - - 890
XVII. A Villa in the Old English Style, the
Idea taken from the Ruins of Berwick
House in Wiltshire - - - 893
XVIII. A Villa Residence in the Tudor or Old
English Style - - - .897
XIX. A Villa in the Grecian Style, for a large
Family, residing chiefly in the Country,
with an Income of from 6000/. to 10,000/. a
Year - - . . - 914
XX. A Villa for a small Family, in the cas-
_ tellated Style of Gothic Architecture - 919
XXI. A Villa in the latest Style of pointed
Architecture, with an Essay on the Appli-
cation of that Style to domestic Purposes - 920
XXII. A Villa in the Gothic Style
XXIII. An Italian Villa on a considerable Scale 946
Chap. IV.
Designs for Appendages to Villas
Sect. I. Stable Offices - .
Sect. II. Riding-Houses -
Sect. III. Dog-Kennels -
Sect. IV. Ornamental Dairies and Poultry-
Houses . . . .
Sect. V. Aviaries and Menageries
Sect. VL Architectural Conservatories
Sect. VII. Terrace Parapets and other mural
Ornaments - -
Sect. VIII. Ornamental Garden Structures
Sect. IX Entrance Lodges and Gates
997
Chap. V.
Page
Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, and Fixtures
of Villas .... 1007
Sect. I. Of the Exterior Finishing of Villas -1007
Sect. II. Of the Interior Finishing of Villas - 1010
Sect. III. Of the Fixtures and Fittings-up of
Villas .... 1018
1. Of the Fittings-up and Fixtures of Villa
Offices ... , 1018
2. Of the Fittings-up and Fixtures of the
Dwelling-rooms of Villas - . 1027
Chap. VI.
Of the Furniture of Villas - . -1039
Sect. I. Grecian and Modern Furniture for
Villas .... - 1039
1. Furniture for Villa Offices - . 1040
2. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the
Porch, Entrance Hall, and Billiard-room 1040
3. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the Par.
lour and Dining-rooms - - . 104.;
4. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the
Library . - . - 1053
5. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the
Drawingroom and Music-room - . 1058
6. Grecian and Modern Furniture for Bed-
rooms and Dressing-rooms
7. Nursery Furniture
Sect. II. Gothic Furniture for Villas - ! ^
1. Gothic Furniture for Halls
2. Gothic Furniture for Parlours and Dining.
rooms . . . -1089
3. Gothic Furnituie for a Library - - 1092
4. Gothic Furniture for a Drawingroom . 1> • 4
5. Gothic Furniture for Bed-rooms
Sect. III. Elizabethan and Mixed Ancient
Furniture for Villas - . . 1098
BOOK IV
THE PRINCIPLES OF CRITICISM IN ARCHITECTURE
Chap. 1.
Of the Principle of Fitness as applied to Archi- 1106
tecture ....
Chap. 1L
Of the Expression of the End in View, in
Architecture - - 1112
Chap. HI.
Of the Expression of Architcctui.il Style - 1114
Sect. I. Of the universal and inherent Beau-
ties of Architectural Composition - 1114
Sect. II. Of the different Styles of Architec-
ture - - . . 119*
SUPPLEMENT.
Page
Chap. I.
Cottages for Country Labourers and Mecha-
nics, and for Gardeners, Foresters, Bai-
liffs, and other upper out-of-door Servants
in the Country, including Gate-Lodges
and Gates (Encyc. of Cottage Arch., p. 8.) 1125
Sect. I. Designs for Model Cottages (Encyc.
of Cottage Arch., p. 8.) - - -1127
Sobs. 1. Agriculturist's Model Cottage, No. I. 1131
Subs. 2. Agriculturist's Model Cottage, No.
II. 1133
Subs. 3. Mechanic's Model Cottage - - 1135
Subs. 4. Placing the Model Cottages in Rows 1138
Subs. 5. Forming Combinations of Dwellings
of the humblest Class - - -1139
Sect. II. A Selection of Plans of Cottages
which have been erected in different Parts
of the Country - - - - 1140
Sect. III. Miscellaneous Designs for Cottages
(chiefly ornamental) ... 1145
Page
I. A Cottage, with ornamental Elevations, in
the Style of the ancient half-timbered
Houses of England ... 1145
II. A Gate-Lodge, combining a Stable in the
Swiss Style - - - - - 1148
III. A Gate-Lodge and Gates - 1151
IV. A Gate-Lodge at Ravensworth Castle - 1152
V. A Cottage in the Style of the Wingfield
Statiou House, on the North Midland
Railway 1154
VI. A Cottage in the Style of the Eckington
Railway Station .... 1155
VII. A Cottage in the Modern Italian Style - J 156
VIII. A Cottage in the Style of the Belper
Railway Station - - - - 1157
IX. A Cottage in the Style of the Ambergate
Railway Station - 1158 •
X The Edensor Gate-Lodges and Gates at
Chatsworth - - - - - 1159
XL to XIV. Four Ornamental Cottages,
CONTENTS.
with the same Accommodation as in the
Model Cottage, No. I., p. 1137. -
XV. A Cottage in the Style of Heriot's Hos-
pital, Edinburgh
'1.
1100
1162
XVI. The Dairy Lodge, erected at Chequers
Court, Buckinghamshire, for Sir Robert
Franklaiul Russell, Hart. -
XVII. to XXVI. The Cottages in Cassiobury
Park
XXV II. A Gate- Lodge or Cottage -
XXVIII. A Turnpike Lodge -
XXIX. A Cyclopean Cottage -
XXX. Thei'enshurst Gate-Lodge at Redleaf,
the seat of William Wells, Esq. -
XXXI. The Home Lodge at Chequers Court
XXXII. The Keeper's Lodge at Blubor-
ll.MISOS -
XX XI II. A Cottage in the Gothic Style for
an upper Servant - - - -
XXXI V. Double Cottages for two upper
Servants -
XXXV. A Cottage in the Old English Style
Sect. IV. Construction and Materials of
Cottages -
Sect. V. Cottage Fittings-up and Furniture
Sect. VI. Villages -'-'-.*'
Chap. II.
Cottage Villas and Villas - - -1185
I. A Villain the Swiss Style - 1185
II. A Villa adapted for a Situation in the
Neighbourhood of Ayr - - - 1186
III. A small Villa in the Modern Style - 1187
IV. A small Villa for a Gentleman much at-
tached to Gardening - 1187
V. Annat Cottage, near Errol, Perthshire - 1189
VI. A Cottage in the Old English Style - 1190
VII A small Roman Villa - - -1193
VIII. A Roman Villa, designed for a particu-
lar Situation - - - - 1194
IX. to XII. Small Villas in the Gothic Style 1195
XIII Sir John Robison's House, Randolph
Crescent, Edinburgh ... 1197
XIV. A Land-Steward's House in the Neigh-
bourhood of Inverness - 1205
XV. A Villa in the Italian Style - - 1207
- 1103
line
1168
1169
1171
1172
1173
- 1174
r
- 1175
1177
1178
1179
1179
1180
Page.
XVI. A small Gothic Villa, suited to the
Suburbs of a large Town - - -1213
XVII. An Anglo-Grecian Villa - -1219
Farm Buildings 1224
Chap. IV.
Schools, Inns, Workhouses, and Almshouses - 1231
I. A Sehool in the Italian Style - - 1231
II. Description and Specification, with De-
tails, of Dunchurch Sunday School - 1233
III. A Union Workhouse ... 1239
IV. The Almshouses at Oving - - 1242
V. A Public-House .... 1243
VI. The Hand and Spear Hotel, at Wey-
bridge, Surrey .... 1244
Chap. V.
Details of Construction applicable to Cot-
tages, Farm Buildings, Villas, &c. - 1245
Sect. I. Foundations and Walls - - 1245
Sect. II. Roofs and Floors - 1249
Sect. III. Windows and Doors - - 1253
Sect. IV. Chimney-Tops and Smoky Chim-
neys 1258
Sect. V. Ventilation - - - - 1260
Sect. VI. Tanks and Cottage Privies - 1262
Sect. VII. Construction and Arrangement of
a Bath Room - . - - 1263
Sect. VIII. Gates and Fences - - -1265
Sect. IX. Miscellaneous Details - - 1267
Sect. X. Materials - - - - 1269
Chap. VI.
Fittings-up, Finishing, and Furnishing - 1271
Sect. I. Modes of Heating ... 1271
Sect. II. Interior Fittings-up and Finishing - 1272
Sect. III. Kitchen Fittings-up and Furniture 1276
Sect. IV. Bed-room Furniture - - 1281
Sect. V. Furniture for Living-Rooms - 1282
Chap. VII.
Hints to Proprietors desirous of improving
the Labourers' Cottages on their Estates 1283
Glossakial Index
General Index
1297
1308
LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
Model Cottages.
Plans. Design I. p. 10 ; fig. 3 ; II. p. 22 ; fig. 21 ;
III. p. 24.
Elevations. Figs. 6, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 26.
Sections. Figs. 5, 22.
Cottages of One Story
Plans. Design IV. p. 29 ; V.p.30; VI. p.3.3; VII.
p. 31; VIII. p. 45 j XI. p. 50: XIV. p. 61 ; fig.
99; XV. p.6'J; XVI. p. 70; fig. 116; XVIII.
p. 75; XIX. p. 76; XX. p. 85; fig. 154 ; XXI
p. 86; XXII. p. 89 ; XXIII. p. 90 ; XXIV.
p. 95 ; XXVII. p. 100; XXIX. p. 104; figs. 193,
197,201; XXXIII. p. 103; figs. 249, 252, 253,
254-, 255 ; XL. p. 140 ; fig. 258 ; XLII. p. 159 ;
XLIII. p. 160; fig. 297; LI. p. 178; fig. 315;
LV. p. 187; figs. 338, 3X, 340, 341, 342, 346;
LXVI. p. 204; figs. 366, 377; twelve cottages, 433;
college for working men, 440, 441, 442 ; portable
cottages, 445, 477 ; gardener's house, 1454 : lor
farm labourers' cottages, see p.
Elevations. Design I V. p. 29 ; figs. 29, 30 ; V. p. 30 ;
figs. 31, 35; VI. p. 33; VII. p. 34 ; figs. 38, 42,
79; VIII. p. 45; XI. p. 50 ; fig.86; XlV.p.61;
figs. 112, 113,114, 115; XVI.p.69; XVIL p. 70;
figs. 117, 125; XVIII. p 75; XIX. p. 76; figs.
133, 135, 144, 145, 157; XX. p. 85 ; XXI. p. 86;
XXII. p. 89; XXIII. p. 90; XXIV. p 95;
XXVII. p. J00; XXIX. p.104; fig. 194; XXXIII.
p.133; XXXIV. p. 134; XXXV. p. 134; XXXVI.
p. 134; figs. 250, 251 ; XXXVIII. p. 139 ; XL.
p. 140- XLII. p. 159; XLIII. p. 160, XLIV.
p. 165; XLV p. 166; figs. 300,301; LI. p. 178;
fig. 316 ; LV. p. 187; LVIII. p. 194; L1X.
p. 194; LX p. 194; LXVI. p. 204; LXX.p.215;
LXXVl p. 226 ; twelve cottages, fig. 4 9 ; col-
lege for working men, 444 ; portable cottages,
454,456; gardener's house, 1455.
Sections. Design IV. p. 29; V. p. 30 ; VI. p. 33 ;
VII. p. 34; VIII. p. 45; XI. p. 50 ; fig. 136 ;
XX. p. 85; XXIII. p.90; XXIV. p. 95; XXIX.
p. 104; XXXIII. p. 133; XL. p. 140; XLII.
p. 159; XLIII. p. 160; LV. p. 187 ; LXVI.
p. 204.
Cottages op Two Stories.
Plans. Design IX. p. 46; X. p. 49 ; XII. p. 55;
XIII. p. 56; fig. 95; XV. p. 62; figs. 98, 105,
106,107; XXV. p. 96; XXVI 1 1, p. 103; XXX.
p. 109; XXXI. p. 110; XXXIL p. 117; figs. 256,
261, 267, 292, 305; XLVI. p. 169 ; XLVII.
p. 170; XLVIII. p. 173; XLIX. p. 174; L.
p. 177 ; figs. 314, 319, 325, 327 ; LVI. p. 188 ;
LVII. p. 193; figs. 336, 345; LXV. p. 203;
LXVII. p. 209; LXVIII. p. 210; figs. 361, 362,
367 ; LXXII. p. 216 ; fig. 368 ; LXXIII. p. 225 ;
figs. 390, 391, 407, 408, 420, 421, 425, 427,429,
433.
Elevations. In the Swiss style, Design IX. p. 46 ;
Old English, X. p. 49 ; XII. p. 55; XIII. p. 56;
figs. 94, 97 ; XV. p 62; figs. 102, 108, 109, 138,
139, 140; XXV. p. 96; Old English, XXVIII.
p. 103; fig. 203; XXX. p. 109 ; XXXI. p. 110 ;
XXXII. p. 113; XXXVII. p. 139; XXXIX.
p. 139: figs. 268, 291, 293; XLVI. p. 169;
XLVII. p. 170; XLVIII. p. 173; XLIX. p. 174;
L. p. 177; figs. 317, 318, 320, 326, 328; LVI.
p. 1*8; LVII. p. 193; fig. 337 ; LXII. p. 199;
LXV. p. 203 ; LXVIL p. i'09 ; LXVIII. p. 210 ;
LXIX. p.215 ; castellated, LXXI. p.215; LXXII.
p. 216; fig. 387. ; LXXlII. p. 225 ; LXXIV.
p. 226 ; LXXV. p. 226 ; figs. 423, 426, 428, 458,
459, 460.
Sections. Swiss, fig. 80; XXXIL p. 113 and 114;-
XLVI. p. 169; figs. 363, 364, 365, 372, 403, 404,
40.5, 406, 412.
Cottages of Three Stories.
Plans. Design XXVI. p. 99 ; LXIV. p. 200.
Elevations. German cottage, Design XXVI. p. 99 ;
LXIV. p. 200.
Cottages for Farm Labourers.
Plans. Figs. 1203, 1204, 1205, 1207, 1208, 1211,
1212, 1218, 1219, 1223, 1225, 1226, 1228, 1229,
1230, 1236, 1237.
Elevations. Figs. 1206, 1209, 1210, 1213, 1214, 1215,
1220, 1224, 1227, 1232, 1235, 1241.
Sections. Figs. 1231, 1233, 1234.
Farm Houses and Farmeries.
Plans. Figs. 749, 754, 757, 758; of ceiling joists,
759, 847, 848, 849, 899, 900, 901, 902, 906, 916,
918, 920, 922, 924, 925, 927, 931, 932, 936, 937,
948, 949, 952, 9.34, 956, 960, 963, 967, 971, 973,
987, 997, 999, 1000 to 1002, 1008, 1009, 1034, 1045.
1046, 1062 to 1064, 1066, 1070, 1071.
Elevations, and Perspective and Isoynetrical Views.
Figs. 751, 752, 753, 756, 761, 763; Design I.;
850 to 853, 85.5, 856; Design III. p. 443; IV.
p. 444; fig. 944, 917, 919, 921, 923, 926, 928, 929,
930, 9J3, 934, 935, 938, 939, 940, 943, 955, 961,
962, 966, 970, 972, 988, 996, 9! '8, 1004, j006, 1012,
1033; with windmill, XIII. p. 473; XIV.
p. 474; XV. p. 474; fig. 1041, 1049, 1051;
XXXV. p. 535; XXXVI. p. 536; figs. 1065,
1067, 1068, 1069.
Sections. Figs. 750, 735, 760, 762, 854, 903, 904, 909
to 911, 914, 915, 946, 950,951, 953. 974, 1003,
1005, 1007, 1010, 1011, 1013, 1047, 1048.
Farmeries alone.
Plans. Figs. 8S7, 969, 989, 990, 991 , 1020, 1027, 1032,
1041, li)43, 1054, 1055, 1072, 1078, 1079, 1080,
1081, 1088, 1089, 1090, 1092, 1095.
Elevations, and Perspective and Isometrical Views.
Figs. 886 to 894, 968, 992, 995, 1018, 1026, 1029,
1031, 1040,1042, 1042, 1053; Design XXXIV.
p. 525; figs. 1077, 1091, 1093, 1094, 1096 to 1098.
Sections. Figs. 895 to 897, 993, 994, 1019, 1021, 1022,
1029, 1030, 1084.
Sheep Houses
Plan. Fig. 803.
Elevation. Fig. 806.
Sections. Figs. 804, 805, 807.
Barns and Granaries
Plans. Figs. 808, 816, 817, 1085.
Elevations. Figs. 812, 820.
Sections. Figs 809, 810, 811, 813, 814, 815, 818, 819,
821, 1028, 1082, 1083, 1086.
Piggery and Meal House.
Fig. 912.
Hovels. «
Circular Hovel for Cattle. Figs. 907, 908.
Mills.
Plans. Figs., Water, 1108 to 1111 ; Wind, 1114 to
1118 ; Cider, 1170, 1173, 1176.
Elevations. Figs., Water, 1104 to 1106; Wind,
1113, 1120, 1122, 1123; Cider, 1179, 1181, 1185;
Portable Corn Mill, 1288.
Sections. Figs., Water, 1107, 1112; Wind, 1119,
1121,1124; Cider, 1171,1172, 1174,1175,1176,
1177,1178.
Cider Presses. Figs. 1179, 1185.
Cider Instruments. Figs. 1182 to 1184, 1186 to 1190.
Malt Plough. Fig. 1126. Water MU1 Wheels. Figs.
1101 to 1103.
Kilns.
Plans. Figs., Malt, 1129; Hop,1136 to 1138,1141,
1142, 1143,1148, 1152,1153, 1158; Lime, 1161,
Brick, 1164, 1168.
Elevations. Figs., Hop, 1139, 1 140, 1 1 44, 1 1 47, 1 1 63.
Sections. Figs., Malt, 1134; Hop, 1145, 1149, 1150,
1151, 1154, 1155, 1156; Lime, 1157, 1159, 1160,
1162; Brick, 1165, 1166,1167,1169.
Poultry Houses.
Plans. Figs. 1191, 1197, 119S, 1199, 1200, 1201, 1723.
Elevations. Figs. 1192, 1194, 1195, 1723.
Sections. Fig. 1193, 1196, 1198, 1199.
LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
Daisies.
Plan. Figs. 741, 17522.
Elevation. Figs. 744, 745, 740, 1721.
Sections. Figs. 742, 74 >■ 1724
Icehouse.
Plan. Fig. 748.
Section. Fig. 747.
Stables.
Plans. Figs. 774, 794 ; of flooring, 798, 1007, 1008,
1009, 1024, 1512, 1683, 1700; circular, 1702.
Elevations. Figs. 777, 778, 759, 1006, 1012, 1023,
102"), 1584, 1613,1699; Circular Italian, 1703;
Gothic, 1704.
Sections. Figs. 776, 779, 796, 797, 799, 957 to 959 ;
1010, 1011, 1013, 1050, 1087.
Riding-house.
Plan of that at Monaco, Fig. 1705.
Sections of Roofs. Figs. 1705 to 1717.
Doc Kennels.
Plan. 1718.
Elevations. 1719, 1720.
Farm Furniture.
Threshing-machine. Figs. 1285 to 1287.
Barley-chopper. Fig. 1289.
Turnip-cutter. Fig. 1291.
Oat-crusher. Fig. 1290.
Apparatus for steaming Potatoes. Fig. 1292.
Sheep-racks. Figs. 802, 1036, 1037, 1038, 1283.
Hacks and Mangers for Stables. Figs. 770 to 773,
780 to 786, 942, 943, 944, 1014, 1015, 1016, 1035.
Draining-grating. Fig. 775.
Corn Measure. Fig. 1701.
Gruel-manger. Fig. 1272.
Pig-troughs. Figs. 801, 913, 1281, 12S2.
Rick-stands. Figs. 825 to 837, 1039.
Rack for Cattle. Fig. 1279.
Tethering Stake. Fig. 1280.
Rabbit-trough. Fig. 1284.
Cow Trough. Fig. 1273.
Cow Ties and Brechin. Figs. 1274 to 1278.
Fodder Cribs. Fig. 965.
Saddle and Harness Pegs. Figs. 1269 to 1271.
Gates. Figs. 359, 360, 841 to 846, 871 to 873, 898,
1076.
Cheese-press. Fig. 1261.
Weighing-machine. Fig. 1260.
Sparrow-pot. Fig. 468.
Pumps. Siebe's, figs. 9, 10 ; Cottam's, 1294.
Liquid Manure Tanks. Figs. 840, 1073 to 1075.
Posts, &c. for Drying Clothes. Figs. 166 to 171,
1353.
Inns and Public Houses.
Plans. Figs. 1296, 1297, 1298, 1300, 1301, 1303, 1304
1310, 1312, 1313, 1314, 1319, 1322, 1323, 1324.
Elevations. Figs. 1295, 1299, 1302, 1309, 1311, 1318 ;
Italian, 1321 ; Swiss, 1326.
Section. Fig. 1320.
Interior of a Liquor Shop. Figs. 1315, 1316.
Schools.
Plans. Figs. 1374, 1375, 1376, 1377, 1380, 1382, 1383,
1384, 1385, 1387, 1389, 1395, 1399, 1403.
Elevations. Figs. 1386, 1390, 1391, 1392, 1393, 1394,
1398.
Sections. Figs. 1378, 1388, 1396, 1397.
School Furniture. Figs. 1379, 1381, 1400 to 1411.
Villas.
Maps and Plans. Figs. 1435, 1439 to 1442, 1444 to
1448, 1450, 1451, 1453, 1456, 1457, 1459 to 1463,
1470, 1471, 1473, 1474, 1480 to 1482, 1488 to 1491,
1496, 1498, 1501, 1504, 1505, 1506, 1509, 1510,
1511,1538, 154(1, 1541, 1543,1545, 1548 to 1550,
1565, 1567, 1571, 1573, 1580 to 1582, 1585, 1590,
1591, 1592, 1597, 1598, 1600, 1601, 1602, 1603,
1606, 1608, 1609, 1645, 1652, 1653, 1662.
Elevations and Views. Figs. 1412 to 1434, 1436 to
1438, 1443, 1449, 1452, 1458, 1464 to 1467, 1469,
1472, 1475, 1479, 1485, 1486, 1487, 1492, 1493,
1497, 1503, 1508, 1513 to 1516, 1539, 1544, 1546,
1547, 1551, 1552, 1566, 1568 to 1570, 1572, 1574,
1586, 1587, 1588, 1589, 1599, 1604, 1605, 1607,
1610, 1611, 1612, 1646, 1658, 1659, 1660, 1661,
1663.
Sections. Figs. 1483, 1184, 1491, 1495, 1507, 1553,
1593, 1614.
Illustrations of Gothic Architecture. Figs. 1593 to
1596, 1615 to 1644, 1647 to 1651.
Illustrations of Italian Architecture. Figs. 1670 to
1698.
Conservatories
Plan, Fig. 17-5.
Elevation*. Figs. 1729, 1730, 1731, 1732, 1733
Sections. Figs. 1726, 1727.
Villa Gardens and Scenery.
Villa Scenery. Figs. 1441, 1445, 1480, 1489, 1800,
1543, 1571, 1585, 1653.
Gardens. Figs. 1448, 1452, 1456, 1496, 1652.
Architectural Gardens. Figs. 1734, 1735, 173f.
Temples and Covered Seats.
Figs. 1758, 1759, 1760.
Cascade.
Fig. 1761
Fountains.
Figs. 1762, 1763, 1764, 1765, 1766, 1767, 1768.
Ruins and Ancient Castles.
Figs. 1769, 1770.
Sundial.
Fig. 1771.
Vases.
Figs. 1240, 1772 to 1777.
Urns.
Figs. 1778, 1779, 1780.
Pedestal.
Fig. 1781.
Cenotaphs and Tombs.
Figs. 1782, 1783, 1784.
Entrance Lodges and Gates.
Plans of Lodges. Figs. 1786, 1788, 1790, 1792, 1794.
1796, 1798.
Elevations of Lodges and Gates. Figs. 1785, 1787,
1789, 1791, 1793, 1795, 1797.
Gates and gateways. Figs. 1799 to 1805.
Details of Construction.
Roofs. Figs. 33, 54, 121 to 124, 226, 227, &)9; of
corrugated Iron, 348 to 354, 1670 ; for Riding-
houses, 1705 to 1717, 1726, 1727, 1821, 1822.
Eaves of Roofs and Gutters. Figs. 27, 36, 40, 55, 56,
59, 63, 77, 101, 103, 120, 127, 142, 155, 159, 160,
173,174; Design XXXII. p. 118; figs. 248,
263 to 265, 304, 335. 371, 388, 389, 800, 864, 945,
1125, 1216, 1217, 1306, 1468, 1670, 1672.
Barge-boards and Gables. Figs. 181, 185, 299, 321,
378 to 385, 863, 865, 1476 to 1478, 1627.
Pinnacles. Figs. 78, 1626.
Water Trunks, or Spouts. Figs. 60, 61.
Thatching. Fig. 89.
Tiles, Quarries, and Slating. Figs. 23, 24, 43, 146,
163, 164, 434, 885, 947; Slating, 1099, 1100;
Kiln, 1135, 12.-38, 1239, 1242, 1517 to 1529, 1670
to 1673, 1809 to 1813.
Modes of Joining Pieces of Timber. Figs. 49, 50,
57, 238, 239, 376, 422, 447, 448, 450 to 453, 455,
595, 1180.
Walls. Figs. 7, 39, 44, 48, 216, 306 to 312, 329 to
334, 463, 975, 976, 1056, 1057, 1674.
Partition Walls. Figs. 46, 58, 266.
Weather Tiling. Figs. 392 to 402, 466.
Mathematical Tiling. Figs. 461 to 465, 467.
Chimney-tops. Figs. 32, 33, 84, 88, 91, 92, 100, 104,
131,132,141, 165, 172, 176, 190, 196, 20 ,294,
303, 324, 313, 347, 373, 409 to 41 1,435, 436, 879 to
882, 1305, 1308, 1531 to 1537, 1579, 1675 to 1682;
Slates for ditto, 430 to 432.
Tessellated Pavements. Figs. 1517 to 1529 ; 1809 to
1813.
Watchtowers and Bell-turrets. Figs. 1692 to 1695.
Windows. Figs. 28, 45, 73, 85, 90, 180, 188, 191, 192,
235, 237, 257, 262, 283 to 288, 322, 323, 344 ;
Storm-head, 386, 47S to 489, 787,876, 976,977,
1307, 1595, 1616, 1617, 1619 to 1624, 1628 to 1635,
1647, 1681 to 1688, 1728.
LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
xv
Canopies for Windows. Figs. 496 to 500.
Mullions. Figs. 87, 177.
Sash-bar. Fig. 126.
Doors and Porches. Figs. 64, 232; Corrugated
Iron, 355 to 358, 4139 to 476, 51!), 875, 1575, 1576,
1593, 1594, 1596, 1616, 1689 to 1691, 1696 to 1698.
Door Bracket. Fig. 34.
Sills. Figs. 216, 218, 981.
Gauge-box for hollow Walls. Figs. 1221, 1222.
Curb for a Well. Figs. 229, 230.
Verandas. Figs. 128 to 130.
Stairs and Staircases. Figs. 137, 241, 242, 1643, 1644,
1648.
Chimneys and Chimney. pieces. Figs. 47, 210 to 214,
219, 220, 245, 518, 541, 542, 1542, 1578, 1650, 1817,
1847, 1848.
Chimneys for Steam-engines. Figs. 1267, 1268.
Floors. Figs. 52, 62, 231, 446 ; Parqueted, 1814 to
1816.
Modes of Heating Floors, &c. Figs. 4, 11, 276 to
282, 295, 296, 313, 1202.
Ventilator. Fig. 1381.
Finishings, Fittinos-up, and Fixtures.
Panels for Rooms. Figs. 518, 519, 1849, 1850.
Ceilings. Figs. 1640 to 1642, 1651.
Mouldings and Skirtings. Figs. 71 , 195, 200 ; De-
sign XXXII. p. 118 ; figs. 233, 234, 240, 418, 514
to 517, 859 to 861, 877, 1554 to 1564, 1618, 1625,
1636 to 1639, 1649.
Window-fasteners. Figs. 72, 236, 985.
Plaster Ornaments for Ceilings. Figs. 511 to 513.
Cornices. Figs. 41, 93, 178, 179, 182, 183, 186, 204 ;
Design XXXII. p. 118; figs. 302, 501 to 510,
869, 1683.
Filters. Figs. 8, 119, 275.
Tanks for Water. Figs. 1, 118, 822 to 824.
Water-closets. Figs. 13 to 16, 269, 413 to 415, 437,
438, 1325, 1336 to 1338.
Stink-traps. Figs. 215, 222 to 224, 838, 839, 1499,
1500.
Door-spring. Fig. 274.
Cranks and Pulleys. Figs. 270 to 273, 520, 1818
Blinds. Figs. 788 to 793, 1806 to 1808.
Breweries. Figs. 1830 to 1833.
Kitchen and different Apparatus. Figs. 1819 to
1829 ; Sinks for, figs. 416, 544, 1259, 1332 ; Roll-
ers for Towels, figs. 546, 547 ; Dressers for,
figs. 557 to 566 ; Cupboards, figs. 567 to 572.
Gas-pipes for Cooking. Figs. 1317, 1373, 1825 to
1829.
Gas-pipes for Lighting. Figs. 1835 to 1837.
Movable Cupboards. Figs. 1327 to 1329.
Nails and Wall-hooks. Figs. 51, 76, 221, 244, 246.
Brackets. Figs. 81, 82, 161, 162, 553, 554, 556, 983,
1249, 1250, 1333, 1339 to 1341, 1865, 1866, 1867.
Balusters. Fig. 184 ; Design XXXII. p. 118; figs.
584, 858, 870, 874.
Parapets. Figs. 83, 134, 147 to 154, 175, 189 ; De-
sign XXXII. p. 119; figs. 862, 1330, 1577, 1737
to 1757.
Ornamental Nails. Figs. 477, 1854, 1855.
Ornamental Shutters. Figs. 490 to 493.
Locks. Figs. 69, 70.
Bolts. Figs. 68, 494.
Hinges. Figs. 37, 65, 66, 187, 298, 495, 606, 731.
982, 1058, 1059, 1060, 1061, 1851.
Latch. Fig. 67.
Handles for Doors. Figs. 1852, 1853.
Modes of hanging Pictures. Figs. 1856, 1857.
Grates. Figs. 521 to 527, 533 to 539, 978, 979, 1243,
1244, 1245, 1252 to 1255, 1256, 1257 ; American,
1258 ; Folding, 1330, 1331, 184.3 to 1848.
Heating-Stoves. Figs. 1838 to 1842.
Cooking-Stoves. Fig. 5;-'8 to 530, 1354 to 1360.
Ovens. Figs. 531, 532, 1361 to 1372.
Ash-pan. Fig. 540.
Register. Fig. 543.
Interiors.
Dining-rooms, Grecian. Fig. 1900; Gothic, fig-
2009 ; Elizabethan, fig. 2037.
Drawingrooms, Grecian. Fig. 1980 ; Gothic, 2021 ;
Elizabethan, 2038.
Library, Gothic. Fig. 2012.
Kitchen Furniture.
Sinks. Figs. 544, 545, 1259, 1332.
Rollers, Ac. for Towels. Figs. 546, .547
Tables. Figs. 550 to 556, 596, 601, 1348 to 1350.
Dressers. Figs. 557 to 565.
Cupboards. Fig. 567 to 572.
Kneading-trough. Fig. 593,
Settles. Fig. 636, 1346.
Chairs. Figs. 643 to 650.
Stools. Figs. 623 to 630, 1379.
Clocks. Figs. 729, 730, 1247.
Stand for brushing Clothes. Fig. 733.
Washing-machines. Fig. 1262, 1335.
Wringing-machines. Fig. 1262, 1858.
Mangles. Figs. 1263, 12(34, 1265, 1834.
Knife-cleaner. Fig. 1266.
Napkin-press. Fig. 1334.
Cooking Apparatus. Figs. 1354 to 1373, 1822 to
1829.
Hall Furniture.
Hat and Cloak Pins and Stands. Figs. 548, 549,
724 to 727.
Benches. Figs. 632 to 635, 637 to 639, 1863, 1864,
2003.
Table. Fig. 2034.
Chairs. Figs. 640 to 642, 651, 718, 1343 to 1347,
1859 to 1862, 2004.
Mats and Scrapers. Figs. 719 to 723.
Dining-room Furniture.
Sideboards. Figs. 573 to 575, 1868 to 1877, 1880,
2005 2035.
Tables. 'Figs. 602, 613 to 615, 1882 to 1890, 2006.
Castors. Fig. 603; Table Flap-cases, 1878 to
1881.
Screens. Figs. 732, 1896, 1899.
Window-curtains. Figs. 705, 708, 710, 711.
Chimney-glasses. Figs. 712, 713.
Chairs. Figs. 1891 to 1895, 2007, 2008.
Leg. rest. Fig. 1897; Candlestick-stand, 1898.
Library Furniture.
Bookcases and Writing-tables. Figs. 576 to 582,
1901 to 1904, 1906, 1907, 2010, 2011.
Library-table. Figs. 1905, 2014
Book -stands. Figs. 583, 584.
Window-curtains. Figs. 705, 708, 710, 711.
Chimnev-glasses. Figs. 712, 713, 1914.
Desks. 'Figs. 610, 1908, 1909.
Chairs. Figs. 1911, 1912, 1913, 2013, 2029, 2033.
Drawingroom Furniture.
Chimney-glass. Fig. 1975.
Curtains. Fig. 1976 to 1979
Stool. Fig. 2020.
Tables. Fig. 604 to 609, 611, 612, 1938 to 1941, 1943,
1944, 1947 to 1958, 2019.
Footstools. Figs. 631, 1921, 1922.
Chairs. Figs. 652 to 660, 1923 to 1937, 2015 to 201S,
2U23 to 2028, 2030 to 2332.
Fire-screens. Figs. 1972 to 1974.
Chiffonier. Fig. 1942.
Sofas, Couches, Ottomans, and Sofa Bedsteads.
Figs. 674 to 6S0, 1915 to 1920.
Devonports. Figs. 1945, 1946.
Piano-fortes, Music-stands, &c. Figs. 1961 to 1966,
1968.
Book-stands. Figs. 583, 584, 1959, 1960.
Portfolio-stand. Figs. 1967, 1969.
Flower-stands. Fig. 1970, 1971.
Nursery Furniture.
Figs. 734 to 740, 1997 to 2002.
School Furniture
Figs. 1404 to 1411.
Bedroom Furniture.
Bedsteads. Figs. 681 to 699, 1981, 1982, 1984, 2022.
Bed Pillars. Figs. 1983, 2036.
Cribs, &-c. for Children. Figs. 700 to 703, 1997.
Wardrobes. Figs. 585 to 591, 1987 to 1989.
Looking-glasses. Figs. 714 to 717, 1991 to 1994.
Chest of Drawers. Fig. 592.
Towel-stands. Figs. 728, 1351, 1352.
Chairs. Figs. 661 to 673.
Tables. Fig. 619 to 622, 1986.
Washhand-stands. Figs. 616 to 618, 1910, 1995,
1996.
Bed-steps. Fig. 1985.
Dressing-table. Fig. 1990.
XVI
LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
SUPPLEMENT.
Model Cottages.
Plans, Agriculturists', figs. 2041. 2043.
Mechanics', 2047 to 2050.
Elevations. Agriculturists*, figs. 2040. 2042. 2044,
2045., in rows, 2052. ; Mechanics', 2046. 2051.
College for Single Working Men.
Plan. Fig. 2053.
Miscellaneous Plans.
Closeburn Cottage, fig. 2054 ; Dalmeny, 2057 ;
Holkham, 2058; Culford, 2059; Harlaxton,
2060 to 2062.
Ornamental Cottages.
Plans. Figs. 2103, 2104 ; Ancient half-timbered
style, fig. 2063; Gate Lodges, 2079. 2122;
Swiss, 2071 to 2073 ; Ravensworth, 2083 ;
Edensor, 2100, 2101 ; Penshurst, 2130 ; Che-
quers Court, 2133. 2135. In the style of Wing-
field Railway Station, 2088 ; of the Eckington
Railway Station, 2090 ; of the Belper Railway
Station, 2095; of the Ambergate Railway
Station, 2097. Modern Italian, 2093; in the
style of Heriot's Hospital. 2109 ; Chequers
Dairy Lodge, 2111; Cassiobury Park, 2112 to
2120; Turnpike Lodge, 2123; Cyclopean, 2128.
Keeper's Lodge, 2138, 2139; Gothic, 2141;
Gothic Double Cottage, 2143; Old English,
2145.
Elevations. Fig. 2102. 2105 to 2107 ; Ancient half
timbered style, 2064 to 2068. Gate Lodges,
2080.2121.2126; Swiss, 2070. 2077; Ravens-
worth, 2082. 2084 ; Edensor, 2098, 2099 ; Pens-
hurst, 2i29; Chequers Court, 2131, 2132. In
the style of Wingtield Railway Station, 2087.
2089 ; of the Eckington Railway Station, 2091 ;
of the Belper Railway Station, 2094 ; of the
Ambergate Railway Station, 2096. Modern
Italian, 2092 ; In the style of Heriot's Hospital,
2108; Chequers Dairy Lodge, 2110; Turnpike
Lodge, 2124, 2125; Cyclopean, 2127 ; Keeper's
Lodge, 2136, 2137 ; Gothic, 2140 ; Gothic Double
Cottage, 2142 ; Old English, 2144.
Sections. Ancient half-timbered style, 2069.
Farmeries.
Plans, Model, figs. 2195 to 2197; at Goodwood,
2198.
Elevations, Model, figs. 2195, 2196.
Inns and Public-houses.
Plan. Fig. 2221.
Elevations. Fig. 2222. Hand and Spear, Wey-
bridge, 2223.
Almshouses and Workhouses.
Plans. Almshouses at Oving, fig. 2219 ; Union
Workhouse, 2215 to 2218.
Elevations. Almshouses at Oving, fig. 2220 ; Union
Workhouse, 2214.
Schools.
Plans. In the Italian style, fig. 2201 ; Duuchurch
Sunday School, Gothic, 2202.
Elevations. In the Italian style, fig. 2199, 2200;
Dunchurch Sunday School, Gothic, 2203.
Cottage Villas and Villas.
Plans. In the Swiss style, fig. 2147 ; for a flat
situation near the sea, 2149 ; modem style,
2151; for a lover of gardening, 2153, 2154;
Annat Cottage, 2155; Old English, 2158;
Roman, 2162,2164; Gothic, 2166, 216S, 2170,
2172; Land-steward's near Inverness 2186,
2187; Italian, suburban. 2188, 2189; Gothic,
suburban, 2192 ; Anglo-Grecian, 2194. Sir
John Robison's House, Edinburgh, 2175 to
2177.
Elevat'ons. In the Swiss style, 2146 ; for a flat
situation near the sea, 2148 ; modern style,
2150 ; for a lover of gardening, 2152; Annat
Cottage, 2157; Old English. 2160: Roman,
2161, 2163; Gothic, 2165, 2167, 2169, 2171;
Land-steward's near Inverness, 2185; Italian,
suburban, 2190; Gothic, suburban, 2191 ;
Anglo-Grecian. 2193.
Sections. Annat Cottage, fig. 2156 ; Sir John
Robison's House, Edinburgh, 2174, 2177, 2179.
Gates and Fences.
Lodge Gates. Fig. 2081.
Cottam's Iron Field Gate. Fig. 2280.
Buist's Fan Wire Gate. Fig. 2281.
Burst's Fan Wire Park Gate with Wickets. Fig.
2282.
Gate Fastening Styles, and Braces. Fig. 2278,
2279.
Gate Latch. Fig. 2283.
Gate Stopper. Fig. 2284.
Cap for upper Rail of a wooden Fence. Fig.
2285.
Details of Construction.
Mode of supporting stone partitions. Fig. 2173.
Section of floor, showing mode of ventilation. Fig
2178.
Drawingroom Fireplace. Fig. 2181.
Kitchen Fireplace in Closeburn Cottage. Figs.
2055, 2056.
Section of Chimney throat. Fig. 2182.
Doors. Figs. 2204, 2*10.
Chimney Shaft. Figs. 2078, 2205, 2264, 2265.
Mitllions. Fig. 2206.
Stone Coping. Fig. 2207.
Vergeboards. Figs. 2208, 2209.
Walls. Figs. 2211 to 2213.
Prevention of Damp. Figs. 2224 to 2226.
Hollow Walls. FIg8. 2227 to 2229.
Hitch's patent rebated Brickwork. Figs. 2230 to
2233.
Hitch's Brick Drain. Figs. 2234, 2235.
Balustrade. Fig. 2076.
Weather-boarding. Fig. 2074.
Bracket for Gables. Fig. 2075.
Roofing Tiles. Figs. 2085, 2086 ; French, 2236,
2237.
Eaves trough for Cottages. Figs. 2238 to 2240.
Cast-iron Gutters for Roofs. Figs. 2241 to 2243.
Formation of Cement Floors. Figs. 2244, 2245.
Cottage Windows. Figs. 2246 to 2248; Belper
window, 2249 to 2256.
Granary window. Figs 2257 to 2259.
Door Stay-bar. Fig. 2260.
Cast-iron Angles for outer Doors. Fig. 2261.
Cast-iron Sockets for Wooden Posts. Fig. 2262.
Device to prevent a door from slamming. Fig. 2263.
Chimney-pots for preventing smoke. Figs. 2266 to
2269.
Tank for filtering roof-water. Figs. 2070. 2071.
Cottage Privy, with Liquid-manure Tank. Figs.
2272, 2273.
Bath-room. Figs. 2274 to 2277.
Method of preventing the rattling of Sash Win-
dows. Fig. 2287.
Fire-proof Floors and Partition Walls. Figs. 2291
to 2293.
Air and Vermin Drain Trap. Figs. 2294, 2295.
Finishings, Fittings-up, and Fixtures.
Water Cistern. Figs. 2183, 2184.
Sash-fastener. Fig. 2286.
Jib-door Hinge. Figs. 2288 to 2290.
Fold-up Step-Ladder. Figs. 2296, 2297.
Fender fitted to a Fireplace. Fig. 2298.
LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
Kitchen Fittings-up and Furniture.
Gas-cooking Store Table. Fig. 2180.
Strutt's Roasting-Oven. Figs. 2299 to 2301.
Bruges Stove (Cottam and Hallen's). Figs. 2302
to 2304.
Brown's Kitchen-range. Fig. 2305.
SmuI's Cottage Fireplace. Fig. 2306.
Moveable Hot Closet. Fig. 2307.
American Portable Ice-house. Fig. 2308.
Temporary Cottage Table. Fig. 2309.
Bed-room Furniture.
Improved Box Bedstead. Fig. 2310.
Travelling Bed. Figs. 2311 to 2313.
Towel Bracket. Fig. 2314.
Portable Shower Bath (Milne's). Figs. 2314,
2315.
Portable Pneumatic Shower Bath. Fig. 2317.
Dressing-table with Bag Drawer. Fig. 2318.
Swing-Glass Fastening. Fig. 2319.
Furniture for Living-Rooms.
Sideboard. Fig. 2320.
Chiffonier. Fig. 2321.
Sofa. Fig. 2322.
Reading-Seat. Fig. 2323.
Circular Ottoman. Fig. 2324.
Footstool. Fig. 2325.
Child's Well-chair. Fig. 2327.
Hourglass Seat. Fig. 2328.
Card Table. Fig. 2326.
Elizabethan Table. Fig. 2329.
Poys. Figs. 2330, 2331.
Work- Tables for Ladies. Figs. 2332, 2333.
Piano. Fig. 2334.
Architect's Desk. Fig. 2335 to 2339.
Ash-Pan with Venetian Blinds. Figs. 2340 to
2342.
LIST OF BOOKS QUOTED.
The Abbreviated Title, or the Name of the Author, is given, with the Number of the Paragraph where the
work, or the Author, (S first mentioned, and afterwards the Till ■ of the Books at length. All the Works
tn this List, with the exception of one or two which are out ofprnt, may be had of Messrs. Priestley and
Weale, Architectural Booksellers, High Street Bloomsbury, London, to whom we beg thus publicly to
acknowledge our obligations for the loan of several of the volumes enumerated.
Aberdeen's Inquiry, S;c. 2222. An Inquiry into
the Principles of Beauty in Grecian Archi-
tecture, with an Historical View of the Rise
and Progress of the Art in Greece By George,
Earl of Aberdeen, K. X., &c. ; London, 18*2.
small 8vo.
Alison's Essays, 190. Essav on the Nature and
Principles of Taste. By Archibald Alison,
LL.D. F.R.S. Edinburgh, 1790. 4to. 1811,1815.
2 vols. 8vo. 1816.
An Amateur's History and Analysis, Sec, 2231.
A concise History and Analysis of all the prin-
cipal Styles of Architecture, &c. By an Ama-
teur. London, 1829. small 8vo.
Anderson's Recreations, $&, 2229. Recreations in
Agriculture, Natural History, Arts, and Mis-
cellaneous Literature. London, 1799 to 1802.
6 vols. 8vo.
Arnott's Elements of Phusics, 667. Elements of
Physics or Natural Philosophy. By Neil Arnott,
M.D. London, 1829. 2 vols.
Bake well's Travels in the Tarcntaise, 864. Observ-
ations on the Alps, Savoy, &C. By Robt. Bake,
well. London, 1825. 2 vols. 8vo.
BartelVs Hints, 533. Hints for Picturesque Im-
provements in ornamented Cottages, &c. By
Edmund Bartell, junr. London, 1S04. 8vo.
Bath Society's Papas, 1222. Letters and Papers
on Agriculture and Planting, &c, selected from
the Correspondence Book of the Bath Society.
Bath, 8vo, 1780 to 1832.
Biitancourt's Description, &c, 1943. Description de
la Salle d'Exercice de Moscow. Par M. de Be-
tancourt. St. Petersbourg. Folio, 1819.
Borgnis, Traits, S;c, 1816. Traite Eltmentaire de
Construction appliquee a 1' Architecture Civile.
Par M. J. A. Borgnis, Ingenieur, et Membre de
plusieurs Academies. Paris, 1823. 4to.
Braidwood on Fire-engines, 1793. On the Con-
struction of Fire-engines and Apparatus, &c.
By James Braidwood, Edinburgh, 1830. 8vo.
Brewster's Mechanics, 1261. Lectures on Me-
chanics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, and Optics.
By James Ferguson, F. R.S. A new Edition, by
David Brewster, LL.D. F.R.S. Edinburgh,
1805. 2 vols. 8vo.
Britton's Works. 2150. Architectural Antiquities
of Great Britain, 4 vols. 4to. ; Descriptive
Sketches of Tunbridge Wells, &c, 1 vol. 8vo.
Architectural Dictionary, 1 vol. 8vo. and other
works published from 1801 to 1833.
Brown's Infant Mind, 1517. A Essay on the Culti-
vation of the Infant Mind, &ft By J. R. Brown,
Master of the Spitaltielda Infant School.
London, 1832. 12mo.
Buchanan's Economy of Fuel, 600. Treatise on the
Economy of Fuel in Dwellings anil Maim.
factories, &c. By R. Buchanan, Civil En-
gineer. Glasgow, 1802. 8vo.
Biirneton Colouring, $c., 2012. Hints on Colour in
Painting. London, 1830. 4to.
Cab. Diet. 2100. The Cabinet Dictionary, con-
taining an Explanation of all the Terms used in
Upholstery in all its Branches, &c. By T. She-
raton. London, 1803. Bvo.
Cardonnd's Views of Scotland, 1821. Picturesque
Antiquities ot Scotland, By Adam de Car-
donnel, F.A.S. Edinburgh. London, 1788 and
1793. 2 vols. 4to.
Carlisle's Hints, &c., 2222. Hints on Rural Resi-
dences. By Nicholas Carlisle. London, 1825.
4to. (Not published.)
Carter, 2222. Ancient Architecture in England.
Nos. I to 27. folio, 1780 to 1796. By John
Carter, F.S.A.
Caus, S(C., 1990. Hortus Palatinus a Heidelherga?
extructus. By Solomon Caus. Frankfort fol.
1620.
Chad. Chimneys, 602. A Treatise on the Form-
ation of Flues of Chimneys, &c. By J.
Chadley. London, 1832. 8vo.
Chappie's Survey of Devon, 839. A Review of
Risdon's Survey of Devon, containing the ge-
neral Description of that County, &c. By
William Chappie. Exeter, 1788. 4to.
Choix d' Edifices Publics, 1974. Choix d'Edifices
Publics construits on projetes en France; ex-
trait des Archives du Conseil des Batimens
Civils, &c. Par MM. Gourlier, Biet, Grillon,
et Tardieu, Architectes, et grave sous la direc
tionde M.Clemence, Architecte. Paris, 1826. fol.
(Havering, 2191. A Essay on the Construction and
building of Chimneys, including an Inquiry
into the Cause of their Smoking, and the most
effectual Remedies for removing so intolerable
a Nuisance. With a Table to proportion Chim-
neys to the Size of Rooms, illustrated with
proper figures. By Robert Clavering, Builder.
London, 1793, 8vo.
Cottingham, 2222. Gothic Ornaments (working
Drawings for) selected and composed from the
best Examples. Bv L. N. Cottingham, Archi-
tect. Atlas folio, 1828, 38 plates.
Cours Complet d'Agr. 1289. Nouveau Cours complet
d'Agriculture Theorique et Pratique, &c.
Nouvelle edition. Paris, 1823. 16 vols. 8vo.
Cousins' Genie d'Arch., 1974. Du Genie d'Ar-
chitecture, ouvrage ayant pour But de rendre
cet Art accessible au Sentiment commun, en
le rapcllant a son Origine, a ses Proprietes, et fi
son Genie; et contenant une Doctrine Ge-
nerate puissee dans des Faits, &c. Par J. A.
Cousins, Architecte, &c. Paris, 1822. 4to.
Dearn's Hints, S,-c, 25. Hints on an improved
Method of Building, Sec. By Thomas D. W.
Dearn, Architect. London, 1821. 8vo.
De C/arac, 8jc, 1974. Musee de Sculpture, &c. Par
M. de Clarac. Paris, 1811. 4to.
De Lille, Les Jardins, poeme. Par Jacques De
Lille. 1765, Paris. 12mo.
Denson's Peasant's Voice, 128. A Peasant's Voice
to Landowners, on the best Means of benefiting
Agricultural Labourers, and of reducing the
Poors' Rates. By John Oenson of Waterbeach.
Cambridge, 1830. pamph. 8vo.
Des Etablissemens pour f Education en Baviere
S;c. 1573. Par J. C. Loudon. Paris, 1829. 8vo.
Des. of Tremont House, 1944. A Description of
Tremont House, with Architectural Illustra-
tions. Boston, 1830. 4to.
Descriptions of the London Zoological Gardens, SfC,
1951. Eight Views in the Zoological Gardens
in the Regent's Park. London, 1832. ob. fol.
Illustrations of the Surrey Zoological Gardens.
By W. H. Kearney. London, 1832. In monthly
parts, 4to.
Dietionnaire Technologique, 1261. Dictionnaire
Technologique, ou Nouveau Dictionnaire Uni-
LIST OF BOOKS QUOTED.
six
versel des Arts et Metiers et de I'Economie
Imlustrielle et Commerciale. Par une Societe
de Savans et d'Artistes. Tome I. — XX. 8vo.
et Planches 4to. Paris, 1822—32.
Diettcrlin's Archilectura, S[C., 1990. Architectura
de Constitutione, &c. Wendelino Dietterlin.
Nuremberg. 1598. fol.
Donaldson's Gateways, Sfc, 1990. A Collection of
the most approved Examples of Doors, from
Ancient and Modern Buildings in Greece and
Italy. By Thomas Leverton Donaldson, Ar-
chitect. London, 1S33, 4to.
Duppa, 2214. Observations on France and Italy,
made in 1818. London, 1819. 8vo.
Durand's Cozirs d' Arch., 2231. tours d' Archi-
tecture faits a l'Ecole Koyale Polytechnique,
depuis sa Reorganisation ; precede d'un Som-
mairedes Lecons relatives a ce nouveau Travail.
Par J. N. L. Durand, Architecte, &c. Paris,
1821. 4to.
Durand, Lecons, SfC, 2231 . Legons d' Architec-
ture. Par J. N. L. Durand, Architecte, &c.
Paris, 1817. 2 vols. 8vo.
Dwig/it's Trav., p. 3. Travels in America. By
Dr. Dwight, 4 vols. 8vo. London, 1820.
E/mes's Lectures, p. 5. Lectures on Architecture ;
comprising the History of the Art from the
earliest Times to the present Day. By James
Elmes, Architect. London, 1823. 8vo.
Emerson's Mechanics, Sfc. 2181. Principles of Me-
chanics ; explaining and demonstrating the
general Laws of Motion, theLaws of Gravity,&c.
Motion of des ending Bodies, Projectiles, Me-
chanic Powers, Pendulums, Centres of Gravity,
&c, Strength and Stress of Timber, Hydro-
statics, and the Construction of Machines. By
William Emerson. London, 1754. 8vo.
Encyc. of Dom. Econ.,7\l. The Domestic Encyclo-
paedia ; or, a Dictionary of Facts and Useful
Knowledge, &*c. London, 1802. 4 vols. 8vo.
Epistle to Lord Lowther, 476. On Planting and
Buildings, in a Poetic Epistle to Lord Lowther.
London, 1776. 4to.
Essay on Gothic Architecture. An Essay on the
Origin and Progress of Gothic Architecture,
traced in and deduced from the Ancient Edifices
of Germany, with references to those of Eng-
land, &c. By Dr. George Moller, first Archi-
tect to the Duke of Hesse ; translated from the
German. London, 1824. 8vo.
Facts and Illustrations, Sfc, 480. Facts and Illus-
trations, demonstrating the important Benefits
which have been and still may be derived by
Labourers from possessing small Portions of
Land, &c. London, pamph. 8vo. Monthly,
continued.
Fa/da's Fountains, SfC, 1973. contained in Nuova
Teatro delle Fabriche et Edificii di RomaMo-
derna. Rome, 1665, 4to. ; and in Gli Giardini di
Roma. Rome, fol. and Norib. foL
Farey's Derbyshire, 1377. General View of the
Agriculture and Minerals of Derbyshire, pub.
by Order of the Board of Agr. By John Farey,
Senr., Mineral Surveyor, vol. i. London, 1811.
8vo. vol. ii. 1813. Maps and sections.
Flaxman's JEschylus, Sjc 2168. A Series of Engrav-
ings from his Compositions to illustrate the Iliad
and Odyssey of Homer, 1793, 4to. Compositions
from the Tragedies of JEschylus, 1809, fol.
Fontaines de Paris, Sfc, 1794. Les Fontaines de
Paris, Anciennes et Nouvelles. Par M. Moisyet
M. A. Duval. Paris, 1812. fol.
For. Quart. Rev., p. 2. Foreign Quarterly Review.
London, 11 vols. 8vo. 1833. Continued.
Forsyth's Beauties of Scotland, 1821. Beauties of
Scotland, &c. By Robert Forsyth, Esq. Edin-
burgh, 1809. 5 vols. 8vo.
Forsyth's Remarks, <§rc, 2212. Remarks on An-
tiquities, Arts, and Letters, during an Ex-
cursion in Italy, in 1802-3. London, 1813,
8vo.
Franklin's Letter, %c, 2181. Observations on smoky
Chimneys, their Causes and Cure, &c. In a
letter to Dr. Ingenhausz. London, 1793, 8vo.
Frcnd's Universal Education, 1613. A Plan of
Universal Education. By William Frend, Esq.
London, 1832. 12mo.
Girardin, 1674. La Composition des Paysages sur
le Terrein, on des moyens d'embellir la Nature
autour des habitations, en y joignant l'utile a
l'agreable. Par L. R. Gcrardin. Paris, 1777.
8va
Gilpin's Practical Hints, $c., 1987. Practical Hints
on Landscape Gardening, &c. By S. Gilpin,
Esq. London, 1832. 8vo.
Gilpin's Wye, 533. Observations on the River Wye,
and several Parts of South Wales, relative
chiefly to Picturesque Beauty, made in the
Summer of 1770. London, 1783. 8vo.
Gregory's Mechanical Dictionary, 1261. A Treatise
on Mechanics, &c. By Olinthus Gregory, LL.D
of the Roy. MiL Acad., Woolwich, and Teacher
of Mathematics, Cambridge. London, 1806.
3 vols. 8vo. plates.
Gwilt's Architecture, 2181. Rudiments of Archi-
tecture, Practical and Theoretical. By Joseph
Gwilt, F. A. S. London, 1826. Large 8vo.
Gwilt's Chambers, §c, 2212. A Treatise on the
Decorative Part of Civil Architecture. By Sir
William Chambers, K.P.S. F.R.S. F.S.A.
F.S.S.S. ; with Notes, &c, and an Examination
of Grecian Architecture. By Joseph Gwilt,
Architect, F.S.A. London, 1825. 2 vols. imp.Svo
Hall's Hypothesis, 2229. Essay on the Origin, Prin.
ciples, and History of Gothic Architecture.
Edinburgh, 1813. 4to.
Hasscl, 2012. The Speculum ; or, the Art of Draw,
ing in Water Colours; and Instructions for
Sketching from Nature. London, 1809. 12mo.
Hay's Laws of Colouring, 2012. The Laws of Har-
monious Colouring, adapted to House Painting,
and other Interior Decorations. By D. R. Hay,
House Painter. Edinburgh, 8vo. 1829.
High. Soc. Trans., 99. The Quarterly Journal of
Agriculture, and Prize Essays and Transactions
of the Highland Society of Scotland. Edin-
burgh, 1832. 8vo. Continued.
Hiort's Chimneys, p. 2191. A Practical Treatise on
the Construction of Chimneys, &c. By John
William Hiort, Architect. London, 1826. 8vo.
Hirschfeld's Thiorie des Jar., 1674. Theorie de
l'Art des Jardins. Par C. C. L. Hirschfeld.
Leipzig, 1785. 5 vols. 4to.
Hoare's Artist, fyc, Sjc. A Collection of Essays
relative to Painting, Poetry, Sculpture, Archi-
tecture, &c. Edited by Prince Hoare. London,
18 10. 2 vols. 4to.
Hoare's Wiltshire, 1831. History of Ancient Wilt-
shire. By Sir Richard Colt Hoare, Bart., F.R.
and A.SS. London, 1810. 3 vols. fol.
Hofland's White Knights, Sjc, 1969. A Descriptive
Account of the Mansion and Gardens of W hite
Knights, a Seat of his Grace the Duke of Marl-
borough. By Mrs. Hofland. London, 1811.
Large 4to.
Hogarth's Analysis of Beauty, 864. The Analysis
of Beauty. By William Hogarth. London,
1754, 4to.
Hope's Essay on Ornamental Gardening, 1649.
Published in the Review of Art, and in Hof-
land's White Knights.
Hope's Furniture, SfC, 2024. Household Furni-
ture and Interior Decoration. Executed from
Designs by Thomas Hope. London, 1807.
foL
Hope's Observations on Downing College, 2169.
Observations on the Plans and Elevations,
designed by James Wyatt, Architect, for Down-
ing College, Cambridge, in a Letter to Francis
Annesley, Esq., M.P. By Thomas Hope, Esq.
London, 1804. 4to.
Hosking's Treatises, 2209. Treatises on Archi-
tecture and Building, from the Encyclopaedia
Britannica. By William Hosking, Esq.
London, 1832. 4to.
Hunt's Tudor Architecture, 2148. Examples of
Tudor Architecture, adapted to Modern Habit-
ations, with Illustrative Details, selected from
Ancient Edifices and Observations on the Fur.
niture of the Tudor Period. By T. F, Hunt,
Architect. London, 1830. 4to.
Jameson's Journal, 1980. The Edinburgh New
Philosophical Journal; exhibiting a View of
the progressive Discoveries and Improvements
in the Sciences and the Arts. Conducted by
Professor Jameson. Edinburgh, 1833, 14 vols.
8vo. continued.
Knight's Inquiry, 117. An Analytical Inquiry into
the Principles of Taste. By R. P. Knight, Esq.
London, 1805. 8vo.
Knight's Landscape, 117. The Landscape; a Di-
dactic Poem, in Three Books. By Richard
Payne Knight, Esq. London. 1794. 4to.
Krafft, SfC, 1943. Plans, Coupes, et Elevations dc
LIST OF BOOKS QUOTED.
diverses Productions de 1' Art de la Charpente.
Par KrafTt. Paris, 1811, large fol. 202 plates.
Laing's Hints, 118. Hints for Dwellings, consisting
of Original Designs for Cottages, Farm Houses,
and Villas, &c, including Ten Designs for
Town Houses. By D. Laing, Architect and
Surveyor. London, 1800. 4to.
Lairesse, 2012. The Art of Painting, in all its
Branches, methodically demonstrated by Dis-
courses and Plates, &c. By Gerard de Lairesse.
London, 1738. 4to.
Lamb, 2221. Etchings of Gothic Ornaments. By
Edward Buckton Lamb, Architect. London,
1830. 6 numbers, fol.
Landesverschonerung, 1005. Monats'olatt fur
Bauwesen und Landesverschonerung. Munich,
3 vols. 4to. Continued monthly.
Lasteyrie's Rural Architecture, 10<6. Traits de la
Construction Rurale, &c. Paris, 1802. 4to; and
Recueil des Machines et In'strumens d' Agri-
culture, &c, de tous les Pays, &c. Par M. Le
Comte Lasteyrie. Paris, 1815. oblong 4to.
Laugier's Essai, p. 5. Essai sur 1' Architecture, &c.
Par le fere Laugier. Paris, 1755. 8vo.
Lawrence's Practical Directions, 128. Directions
for the Management of Cottage Gardens. By
Charles Lawrence. London, 1831. pamph. Svo.
Laxton's Builder's Price Book, 302. The improved
Builder's Price Book. By W. Laxton, Sur.
veyor. London, 1833. Svo.
Le Jardinier des Fenitres, 1963. Le Jardinier des
Fenetres, des Appartemens, etdespetits Jardins.
Paris, 1825. 1 vol. 18mo.
Libra/ y of the Fine Arts, 1664. Library of the Fine
Arts. London, 1832. 2 vols. 8vo.
Loch's Improvements in Sutherland, 1047. An Ac-
count of the Improvements made on the Mar-
quess of Stafford's Estates in Sutherland, &c.
By J. Loch, Esq. London, 1819. Svo.
London Journal of Arts and Sciences, 685. Journal
of the Arts and Sciences. London, 8 vols. 8vo.
Continued.
Loudon, J. C. A Manual of Cottage Husbandry,
Gardening, and Architecture. London, 1830.
Svo. 2s. Supplement to Loudon's Cottage
Manual, with 30 Designs, for Dwellings of from
Five to Ten Rooms, on 24 Lithographic Plates.
London, 1833 Svo. 7s.
Loudon's Treatise on Country Residences, 340. A
Treatise on Forming, Improving, and Manag-
ing Country Residences, &c. By J. C. Loudon.
London, 1806. 4to.
Motion's Works, 117. Essay on British Cottage
Architecture, &c. By James Malton, Architect
and Draughtsman. London, 1798. 4to. The
Young Painter's Maul-stick. London, 1802. 4to.
Marriage's Letters on the Agricultural Labourers,
1368. Letters on the Distressed State of the
Agricultural Labourers, and suggesting a
Remedy. By Joseph Marriage. Chelmsford,
1832. pamph. 8vo.
Mason, G., 1674. Essay on Design in Gardening.
By George Mason, Esq. London, 1768. Svo.
Mason, 1674. The English Garden, a Poem in Four
Books. By the Rev. William Mason. London,
1772, 4to.
Meason's Landscape Architecture of Italy, 330.
The Landscape Architecture of the Ancient
Painters of Italy. London, 1830. 4to.
Mechanics' Magazine, 142. Mechanics' Magazine,
London, 1832. 18 vols. 8vo, continued.
Milizia, p. 5. Principi di Architettura Civile. Par
Francesco Milizia. Bassano, 1785. 3 torn. Svo.
Model Schools of the School Society, 1517. Manual
of Model Schools of the British and Foreign
School Society. London, 1831. 8vo.
Morel, 1674. Tlieorie des Jardins, ou l'art des
Jardins de la Nature. Par N. Morel Paris,
1776, 8vo.
Morel Vinde, S. A., &c, 743. Essai sur les Con-
structions Ruralcs Economiques, contenant
leurs Plans, Coupes, Elevations, Details, et
Devis, etablis aux plus bas prix possibles. Par
M. le Vicomte de Morel Vinde. Les details
par A.L Lussan, Architecte. Paris, 1824. folio.
Morris, 2194. Lectures on Architecture. Two parts,
1734. Svo.
Murphy, 2222. Plans, Elevations, Sections, and
Views of the Church of Batalha, in Portugal.
By J. Murphy. Fol, 1792. 27 plates.
New Monthly Mag., 493. New Monthly Magazine.
London, 37 vols. Svo, 1833. Continued.
Newton's Vitruvius, 77. The Architecture of VL
truvius Pollio, translated from the Latin by
William Newton, Architect, London, 1791 —
1791, 2 vols, royal folio.
Nicholson's Practical Builder, 2007. The New-
Practical Builder, &c. By Peter Nicholson.
London, 1823. 4to.
Papivorth, 2222. Rural Residences, and Hints on
Situation, &c. By J. B. Papworth, Architect.
London, 1820. imp 8vo.
Partington's Builder's Guide, 571. The Builder's
complete Guide, comprehending the Theory
and Practice of the various Branches of Archi-
tecture, Bricklaying, &c. By C. F. Partington.
London, 1825. 8vo.
Percier and Fontaine, Decorations Intt'rinires,
2005. Recueil de Decorations Interieures, &c.
Paris, 1812. fol.
Perrault, 2169. Les dix Livres d'Architecture de
Vitruve, corriges et traduits nouvellement en
Francois ; avec des Notes et des Figures. Paris,
1673. fol.
Plan for a National Education, Sjc, 1573. Paro-
chial Institutions, or a Plan for a National Sys-
tem of Education, &c. London, 1830, Svo.
Price's Essays, 1674. Essays on the Picturesque,
&c. By Uvedale Price, Esq. London, 1816.
3 vols. 8vo.
Principles of Design, $c, 2131. Principles of
Design in Architecture, traced in Observations
on Buildings, &c. In a Series of Letters to a
Friend. London, 1809. 8vo.
Puckler-MUskau, Sjc, 2126. Tour of a German
Prince. London, 1832. 4 vols. 8vo.
Pugin's Works, 2222. Antiquities of Normandy,
4to. Gothic Examples, 4to. Gothic Ornaments,
4to, &c. London, 1828 to 1833.
Quatremere de Quincy's Diet. p. 5. Diction-
naire Historique d'Architecture ; comprenant
dans son Plan les Notions historiques, descrip.
tives, archaeologiques, biographiques, theo-
riques, didactiques et pratiques de cet Art : par
M. Quatremere de Quincy, de l'lnstitut Royal
de Fiance (Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-
lettres), et Secretaire perpttuel de 1' Academie
des Beaux Arts. Paris. 2 vols. 4to. 1832.
Quat. de Quincy's Essai sur I'Imitation, 2213.
Essai sur la Nature, le But, et les Moyens de
I'Imitation dans les Beaux Arts. By M. Qua-
tremtre de Quincy. Paris, 1825. 8vo.
Reade, 2012. A Theory of Colours. Experimental
Outlines for a new Theory of Colours, Light,
and Vision ; with Critical Remarks on Sir Isaac
Newton's Opinions, and some new Opinions on
radiant Caloric. Dublin, 1816. 8vo.
Recueil des Fondntions, S(C, 1990. Recueil des
Fondations et Etablissemens faits par le Roi de
Pologne, Due de Lorraine et de Ear. Lune-
ville, 1762. foL
Repton, 1674. Observations on the Theory and
Practice of Landscape-Gardening. London,
1803. 4to. Observations on the Changes in
Landscape-Gardening. London, 1806. Svo. By
Humphry Repton, Esq.
Revolt of the Bees, 1613. The Revolt of the Bees.
London, 1830. 12mo.
Repertory of Arts, 119. The Repertory of Arts and
Patent Inventions, New Series. London, 15 vols.
8vo, 1833. Continued.
Reynolds's Lectures, 105. Lectures on Painting.
By Sir Joshua Reynolds. London, 1796. 8vo.
Rickman's Essay, 2222. An Essay on Gothic
Architecture, &c. By J. Rickman. Liverpool.
1825. 8vo.
Robinson's Gate Lodges, &c, 1990. Rural Archi-
tecture ; a Series of Designs for Ornamental
Cottages, Lodges, Dairies, &c. By P. F. Robin-
son, Architect, F.S.A.
Robi7ison's Hatfield House, 2168. A New Vitruvius
Britannicus. By P. F. Robinson, Architect.
Part II. containing Hatfield House, the Seat of
the Marquess of Salisbury. London, 1833.
Imp. fol.
Rondelet's Art de Batir, 1943, Traite de l'Art de
Batir, &c By M. Rondelet. Paris, 5 vols. 4to.
Rumford's Essays, 1483. Essays, Political, Econo-
mical, and Philosophical. By Benjamin
Thompson, Count Kumford, LL.D., F.R.S.,
&c. &c. London, 1796. 3 vols. Svo.
Schimmelpennick, 2012. Theory of the Classification
of Beauty and Deformity, and their correspond-
ent physiognomic Expression; exemplified in
LIST OF BOOKS QUOTED.
xxi
various Works of Art and Natural Objects.
London, 1815. 4to.
Seroux d'Agincourt, fyc, 2229. Histoire de l'Art par
les Monumens, depuis sa Decadence au IV.
Sifecle jusqu'a son Renouvellement au XVI.
Par J. B. L. G. Seroux d'Agincourt Ouvrage
enrichi de 325 Planches. Paris, 1823. 6 vols.
foL
Shaw's Furniture, 2174. Specimens of Ancient
Furniture, drawn from existing Authorities, by
Henry Shaw, F.S.A., Author of the " History
and Antiquities of the Chapel at Luton Park,"
" Illuminated Ornaments of the Middle Ages,"
&c. London, 4to. 1833.
Shenstone, 1674. Unconnected Thoughts on Land.
scape-Gardening, liy William Shenstone, Esq.,
in his Works, published after his Death. Lon-
don, 1764. 3 vols. 8vo.
Smeaton's Works, 1261. Various Works on Me-
chanics, &c, published from 1750 to 1814, and
collected, in 1814, in several quarto volumes.
By John Smeaton, F.R.S., Mech. and Civil
Engineer.
Smith's Art of House Painting, 536. Smith's Art of
House Painting, improved by Butcher. Lon-
don, 1825. 12mo.
Somervile, %c, 1945. The Chase; a Poem. By
William Somervile. London, 1735, 4to.
Stewart's Essays, 119. Philosophical Essavs. By
Dugald Stewart, F R & Prof, of Moral Phil,
in the University of Edin. Edinburgh, 181U.
4to.
Stoat's Circulating Classes, 1517. System of Cir-
culating Classes, as an Improvement on the
Madras System, &c. By G. Stoat, Islington.
London, 1826. 12mo.
Stuart's Athens, 2221. Antiquities of Athens
measured and delineated. By James Stuart,
F.R.S., &c, Painter and Architect London,
1825, 4 vols. foL
Sulzer, p. 6. A General Theory of the Polite Arts,
delivered in single Articles, and digested ac-
cording to the Alphabetical Order of their
Technical Terms. Leipzig, 1771. 4to.
Swiizer, 1972. Ichi.ographia; or, the Nobleman's
and Gardener's Recreation ; Directions for the
general Distribution of a Country Seat, &c fcc.
London, 1718. 3 vols. 8vo.
Sylvester's Phil, of Horn. Econ. 1464. The Philoso-
phy of Domestic Economy. By Charles Syl-
vester. London, 1821. 4to.
Syme, p. 2012. Werner's Nomenclature of Colours,
with Additions. Arranged so as to render it
highly useful to the Arts and Sciences, particu-
larly Zoology, Botany, Chemistry, Mineralogy,
and Morbid Anatomy, &c. &c. Edinburgh,
1814. 8vo.
The Theory and Practice of Warming and Ventilat-
ing, 600. The Theory and Practice of Warming
and Ventilating Public Buildings, Dwelling.
Houses and Conservatories, &c. By an Engi.
neer. London, 1825. 8vo.
Trans. Soc. Arts, 5*9. Transactions of the Society
instituted in London, for the Encouragement
of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce. Lon-
don, 1827. 8vo. 68 vols. Continued.
Tredgold's Carpentry, %c, 1943. Elementary Prin.
ciples of Carpentry, &c. By Thomas Tredgold,
Civil Engineer, &"c. London, 1832. 4to.
Tredgold's Warming, Sjc.,601. Principles of Warm-
ing and Ventilating Public Buildings, Dwelling-
houses, Manufactories, Hospitals, Hot-houses,
Conservatories, &c. By Thomas Tredgold.
London, 1824, 8vo.
Unedited Antiquities of Attica, 1925. The Unedited
Antiquities of Attica. By the Society of Dilet-
tanti. London, 1833. 6 parts.
Union of Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting,
1832. The Union of Architecture, Sculpture,
and Painting, exemplified in a Series of Illus-
trations, Sec. of the House of John Soane, Esq ,
Prof, of Arch, in the Koy. Acad, F.K.S., ixc.
By John Britton, F.S.A. F.R.S. L &c
Uphol. Accel., 2130. The Upholsterer's Accele-
rator ; being Rules for cutting and forming
Draperies, Valances, &c. By an Upholsterer of
Forty-five Years' Experience. London, 1833. 4to.
I'arni.-iher's Guide, 2012. The Varnisher's Guide,
being a practical as well as theoretical Treatise
on the Art of making and applying Varnishes,
&c. By F. P. Tingry, Prof, of Chem , Sec, in
the Acad, of Geneva. London, 1832. 12mo.
Vingboon's Nouvelles CEuvres, fyc, 1990. Les
Nouvelles CEuvres d'Archi^ecture de Philippe
Vingboon, Architecte de la Ville d' Amsterdam,
Leide, &c, fol.
Waislclis Designs, 151. Designs for Architectural
Buildings, Labourers' Cottages, and Farm
Houses. By Charles Waistell, Esq., and edited
by Joseph Jopling, Architect London, 1827.
4to. 12 plates.
Walker's on Rem. Vent., $c. 2064. A few Re-
marks on the Subject ot Ventilation, addressed
to the Governors of St. George's Hospital, &c.
By the Rev. VV. H. Walker, B. D. &c. London,
1832. Pamph. 8vo.
Ware's Architecture, 1293. A complete Body of
Architecture, &c, containing some Designs by
Inigo Jones, not before published. By Isaac
Ware, Esq., of His Majesty's Board of Works.
London, 1757. foL plates.
Watelet, 1674. Essai sur les Jardins. Par Claude
Henri Watelet Paris, 1774. Svo.
Wcinbrcnmr's Formen und Schonheit, SfC. In the
Architektonisches Lehrbuch von Friedrich
Weinbrenner, Grossherzoge Badischem Ober-
baudirector. Tubingen, 1810. 2 vols. fol.
Whately's Obs., 1970. Observations on Modern
Gardening, and laying out Pleasure Grounds,
Parks, Farms, Ridings, &c, illustrated by de.
scription. To which is added, an Essay on the
different natural Situations of Gardens. A
new edition, with Xotes by Horace Earl of Or-
ford. London, 1801. 4to.
White's Art of Baking, 155. The History of the
Art of Baking in all Ages and Countries, &c.
&c. By David White, Baker. Dunbar,1824.8vo.
WTiittock's Decorative Painter's Guide, 579. The
Decorative Painter's and Glazier's Guide, &c.
By Nathaniel Whittock. London, 1832. 4to.
Wilder spin's Infant Education, 1517. Infant Edu-
cation, &c. By J. Wilderspin. London, 1812.
12mo.
Wtlkins's Magna Grwcia, 2221. Antiquities of
Magna Greecia. By William Wilkins, M. A.
F.A.S. Camb., 1807. fol.
Wilson's Infant Schools, 1517. On the System of
Infant Schools, &c. By C. Wilson. London
1826. 8vo. ;
Wood's Chigin of Building, p. 5. The Origin of
Building; or, the Plagiarism of the Heathens
detected; in Five Books. By John Wood,
Architect. Bath, 1741. fol.
Woods's Essay on Villas, 1862. Contained in
Essays of the London Architectural Society.
London, 1808. 2 vols. 8vo.
Woods's Letters, p. 3. Letters of an Architect from
France, Italy, and Greece, &c By Joseph
Woods, Esq., Architect. London, 1828. 2 vols.
4to.
SUPPLEMENT.
Arch. Mag., 2433. The Architectural Magazine.
By J. C. Loudon, F.L.S., H.S., &c. London,
5 vols., 1839.
Brit. Farm. Mag., 2534. The British Farmer's
Magazine. London, 1845. Continued.
Combe's Principles of Physiology applied to the Pre-
servation of Health, 2475. 1841. 12mo.
Diet, of Arts, 4rc, 2447. A Dictionary of Arts, Ma-
nufactures, and Mines. By Andrew Ure, M.D.
London, 1839. 8vo.
Donaldson's Treatise on Manures, SfC, 2233. A
Treatise on Manures, their Nature, Prepara-
tion, and Application. With a Description and
Use of the most approved British Grasses. To
which is added a Miscellaneous Article on
Farming. By John Donaldson, Professor of
Agriculture in the Agricultural College, Hod-
desdon. London, 1842. 8vo.
Gard. Chron., 2349. The Gardener's Chronicle. A
weekly Journal. 4to. London, 1845. Continued.
XXII
LIST OF BOOKS QUOTED.
Gard. Mag., 2327. The Gardener's Magazine. By
J. C. Loudon, F.L.S., H.S., &c. London, 1843.
19 vols. 8vo. Concluded.
Gillys Peasantry of the Border, SfC, 2233. The
Peasantry of the Border. An Appeal in their
Behalf. By the Rev. Dr. Gilly, Canon of Dur-
ham. 1841. Pamph., 8vo., 5 plates.
Gilpin's Cumberland, p. 1254. Observations on
several Parts of England, particularly the
Mountains and Lakes of Cumberland and West-
moreland. By William Gilpin, A.M. London,
1808. 2 vols. 8vo.
The Grainer's Guide, 2520. By Charles Moxon.
Edinburgh, 1842. fol. 21. 2s.
HakewelV s Attempt to determine the exact Charac-
ter of Elizabethan Architecture, 2308. 1835.
8vo.
History of Cassiobury Park, 2313. The History and
Description, with Graphic Illustrations, of Cas-
siobury Park, Hertfordshire. The Seat of the
Earl of Essex. By John Britton, F.S.A. Lon-
don, 1837. folio.
Minutes of the Committee of Council on Education,
p. 1241. London, 1840. folio.
Parker's Villa Rustica,y. 1241. 1842. 4to.
Proceedings of the British Association for 1838.
2442. 8vo.
Pugin's Christian Architecture, 2327. The true
Principles of Pointed, or Christian, Architec-
ture. By A. Welby Pugin, Architect. Lon-
don, 1841. 4to.
Railway Stations, 2299. By Francis Thompson,
Architect. London, 1842. folio. 25s.
Ricauti's Rustic Architecture, 2278. By T. J. Ki-
cauti, Architect. London, 4to. 1840.
Sanitaru Report of the Poor-Law Commissioners,
2233. London, 1842. 8vo.
Stuart's Diet, of Arch., 2283. A Dictionary of
Architecture. By Robert Stuart, Architect
and Civil Engineer. London. 3 vols. 8vo.
Suburban Architecture, $c, 2474. The Suburban
Architect and Landscape-Gardener. By J. C.
Loudon, F.L.S , H.S., &c. London, 1838.
8vo.
Suburban Horticulturist, 2297. The Suburban
Horticulturist. By J. C. Loudon, F.L.S.,
H.S., &c. London, 1842. 8vo. 16s.
The London Farmer's Magazine, p. 1224. London,
1839. 8vo. Continued.
Trans. Ent. Soc, 2528. Transactions of the En-
tomological Society. 1845. 8vo. Continued.
Trans. Inst. Brit. Arch., 2446. Transactions of
the Institution of British Architects. London.
Vol. i. 4to. Continued.
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.
A — , Thomas, Esq., Architect, London. Design I.
p. 821; III. p 826, and the lodges, fig. 1785 to
fig. 1796.
Anderson, Mr. John, Agricultural Engineer, Lon-
don. The remarks in \ 1339.
Austin, Mr. Felix, Artificial Stone Manufacturer,
NewRoad.London. Various chimney-tops.vases,.
fountains, mignonette boxes, and other archi-
tectural decorations for cottages and gardens.
Bardwell, William, Esq., Architect, Exeter Hall,
Strand, London. Design LXXV1I. p. 237;
IX. p. 853; XIII. p. 877.
Barry, Charles, Esq., Architect, Foley Place,
London. The revisals of figs. 1436 and 1440 ;
Design V. p. 841 ; the revision of the elevations
of the stables, figs. 1698, 1702, 1703.
Blunt, Henry, Esq., Architect, Liverpool. Design
LXIV. p. 200.
Brewer, Peter, Esq., Architect and Civil Engineer.
Design XLIII. p. 160; LI. p. 178; LV. p. 187;
LXVII. p.209.
Brown, John, Esq., Land Steward at Calley in
Kirkcudbrightshire. Design XXII. p. 496.
C — , John, Esq., an extensive Farmer in North-
umberland. Designs XVIII., XIX., and XX.,
p. 482 to 485.
Capper, Charles, Esq., Engineer, Birmingham. Fig.
1268.
Chalmers, James, Esq., Land Surveyor and Land
Steward, at Muithly in Perthshire. Design
XXVII. p. 512.
Coltam and Halten, Messrs., Engineers and Iron
Manufacturers, Winsley Street, Oxford Stra '
London. Wrought-iron bedsteads, p. 3
333, 335; the rick. stand in p. 406 ; the street
air-trap in p. 410; the field gate in p. 412 ; figs.
1280 to 1284, and 1351 to 1353.
Cottam, George, Esq., Engineer. Figs. 1269 to 1273.
Cottam, G. II., Esq., Engineer. The Bruges stove,
p. 285.
Cousin, David, Esq., Architect, Edinburgh. De-
sign X. p. 855; and figs. /655 to 1670.
Dalxiel, Mr. W. F., Upholsterer and Cabinet Manu-
facturer, Great James Street, Bedford Row,
London. Nearly all the Designs for modern fur-
niture not specified as having been supplied by
other Contributors. These Designs were, for the
greater part, drawn by Mr. George Fildes, Profes-
sional Draughtsman, 12, Lamb's Conduit Street.
Donaldson, John, Esq., Land Steward to the Mar-
quis of Hastings, Loudon Castle, Ayrshire.
The farmery, Design IV. p. 452.
E-, the Rev. W. T. The construction of cob-
walls in Devonshire, p. 416.
Field, Marriott, Esq., Architect, Christ's Hospital,
London. Figs. 1696, 1697, 1698, and 1758.
Fowler, Charles, Esq., Architect, Gordon Square,
London Design VII. p. 846.
Gorrie, Archibald, Esq., Land Steward, Annat,
near Errol, Perthshire. Design XXVIII.
p. 514 ; the remarks in p. 543 ; V. p.627 ; I. p 629.
Green, John, Esq., Architect, Newcastle. Design
XIV. p. 475; XV., XVI., and XVII. p. 476 to
481 , XXI. p. 4S6; the specification, p. 487 to
496; figs. 1252 to 1257.
H., Lady F., fig. 2032.
Hadfield, M. E., Esq., Architect, in the office of
Messrs. Woodhead and Hurst, Architects, Don-
caster. Design III. p. 682.
Humphreys, Mrs. A. D. Design LXX. p. 215. The
corner cupboard in p. 301 ; the settle, p. 317.
Hurdis, James, Esq. See Mantcll, Joshua.
Jeal.es, Mr. W., Ironmonger, Great Russell Street,
London. Figs. 1359 to 1364.
Jones and Wilcox, Messrs., Builders Bristol. Design
LXXV1II. p.238.i
Kempshot, William, Esq., Architect, Pentonville,
London. Design IV. p. 685.
Kent, J. C, Esq., Levant Ix)dge, near Worcester.
Design IX. p. 615.
Kent, I. J. Esq., Architect, Great Marlborough
Street, London. Design I. p. 740, with the
details and specification, extending to p. 751 ;
II. p. 751, with the details extending to p. 757.
Lamb, Edward Buckton, Esq., Architect, Little
James Street, Bedford Row, London, Author
of Etchings of Gothic Ornaments. Design
VIL p. 692; III. p. 757 ; XXII. p. 94> ; XXI II.
]i Mil; and the details and observations on
Italian architecture, extending to p. 971 ; figs.
1719, 1720, and many others , including most of
the Designs for Gothic and Elizabethan Furni-
ture, and all the Villa Interiors.
Lawrence, Charles, Esq., the Quearns, near Ciren-
cester. Design IV. p. 6>4, and the details and
remarks extending to 639.
Laxton, William, Esq., Surveyor, Oxford Street,
London. Design XLI. p. 147 ; V. p. 68a
I.axtons, W. and H., Surveyors and Architects,
Oxford Street, London. Design LXXI. p. 215;
LXXV. p. 226.
Levett, Mr. John, Bury St. Edmunds. The gate
with a puzzle latch, p. 414.
Leeds, W. H., Esq., Leigh Street, Burton Crescent
Design XVIII. p. h97, and its description, ex-
tending to p. 913.
Mac Kenzie, W.M., Esq., Architect, Perth. Design
XXXV. p. 537, with its descriptive particulars
and estimate, extending to 543.
Main, James, Esq., Landscape-Gardener, Union
How, Chelsea. On Farmeries, p. 414 ; V. p. 448 ;
XXV. p. 508; X. p. 622, and the remarks in
p. 624, 625 j II. p. 823.
Ma/let, Robert, Esq , Engineer, Capel Street,
Dublin. A cottage kitchen-grate, p. 283 ; sinks,
p. 291 ; fixed flaps, 293 ; cast-iron table and
castors, ;;07 ; cast-iron stools, p. 315; chairs,
p. 318, 320, 321 ; the tank in p. 404 ; figs. 1249,
1250, 1251 ; fig. 1259 ; figs. 1332, 1333 ; figs. 1339
tii 1345; the article on roots for riding-houses,
\ 1939. &c.
Mallet, William, Esq , Engineer, Dublin. Patent
wrought-iron half-tester bedstead, 331 ; other
bedsteads and bed-couches, 332 ; fig. 1293.
Manning, Mr. William, Carpenter and Builder, Hol-
born, London. Design LXXXI. p. 251 ; and a
portable cottage as a substitute for a country
residence, p. 256.
Mantell, Joshua, Esq., Newick, Sussex, and James
Hurdis, Esq, Architect of the same place. De.
sign XVI. p. 891).
Menteath, James Stuart, Esq., Jun., of Closeburn,
Dumfriesshire. 2029.
Miller, F. 8., Esq., Railway, Warwickshire The
View of Railway Grange. Fig. 1768.
Xetra/l, Walter, Esq., Architect, Dumfries. De-
sign III. p. 443; IV. p. 444; VII. p. 454; VIII.
and IX. p. 454; X. p. 459; XI. p. 460 ; XII.
p. 462 ; the specification, p. 466 ; VIII. p. 850.
Nott, G. B., Esq., Engineer, Mecklenburgh Square.
The account of his stove, 2057 ; figs. 1840 to
1842.
Ogilvic, Alexander, Esq., of the Mere, near Knuts-
ford, Cheshire. Design XXXVII. p. 435;
fig. 1261.
Parsons and Gill, Messrs., Architects, Leicester.
Design XII. p. 870, with its conditions and
specifications.
Peake, Mr. Thomas, Tunstall Pottery, Newcastle
under Line. The Tiles and Vase figured in
p. C4S. and fig. 1813.
Perry, Miss Elizabeth. The Fire-screen, p. 350.
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.
Perry, Miss Sarah. The Lady's Wash-hand Stand,
p. 311.
Perry, John, Esq., Architect, Godalming. The
Specification and Estimate, p. 36 to 43. The
Stable in p 384, 385 ; I. p. 419, with the detads,
particular-;, and estimates, p. 418 to 434, inclu-
sive; II. p. 434, with the details, particular
estimate, &c, to p. 441, inclusive; the Water-
mill, p. 573, with its details, specification, and
estimate, extending to p. 583.
Prosser, Thomas, Esq., Architect, Worcester. De-
sign VIII p. 409.
Read, Mr. John, Regent Circus, London. Design
V. n. 595.
Keid, William, Esq., Architect, Glasgow. Fig. 1267;
Design XIV. p. 879.
Robertson, John, Esq., Architect, Bayswater, near
London. Design V. p. 30; VII. p. 35; VIII.
p. 45 ; IX. p. 46; X. p. 49 ; XI. p. 50; XII. p.
55; XIII. p. 56; XIV. p. 61 ; XV. p. 62 ; XVII.
p. 70 ; XVIII. p. 75 ; XIX. p. 76 ; XXIII. p. 90 ;
XXIV. p. 95: XXV. p. 96; XXVI. p. 99.
XXVII. p. 100 ; XXVIII. p. 103; XXX. p. 109;
XXXI. p. 110; XXXIII. p. 133; XXXIV,
XXXV, and XXXVI. p. 134; XXXVII.,
XXXVIII., and XXXIX. p. 140 ; XLII. p. 159 ;
XL1V. p. 165; XLV. p. 166; XLVI. p. 169;
XLVII. p. 170 ; XLVIII. p. 173 ; XLIX. p. 174;
L. p. 177 ; LVI. p. 188 ; LVII. p. 193 ; LVIII.,
LIX.andLX. p.194; LXI., LXII., and LXIII.
p. 199; LXV. p. 203; LXVI. p. 204; LXVIII.
p. 210; LXXII. p. 217; LXXIII. p. 225; IX.
p. 646; I. p. 678; VIII. p. 693; figs. 1323 to
1326, and figs 1348 to 1350. In general, all the
explanatory diagrams, and all the Designs made
from our suggestions, were drawn by Mr. Ro-
bertson, who has been in our office, as Archi-
tectural Draughtsman, since March, 1829.
Robison, John, Esq., Secretary to the Royal Society,
Edinburgh ; The Remarks in \ 1334, p. 637 ;
$ 1373. Remarks on the introduction of cast
iron in building, in S 1409, 1445, 1793, &c.
Ross, William, Esq., Architect, Pritchard Street,
Bristol. Design XXX., XXXI., XXXII., and
XXXIII. p. 519 to 523; the specification and
estimate, p. 524 to 528 ; II. p. 680 ; VI. p. 690.
Route, James, Esq., Architect Design XII. p. 55;
XXI. p. 86; XXII. p. 89; XXIX p. 104.
Rowley, Mr. William, Fountain-maker, Howland
Street, London. The Fountain, fig. 1767.
Saul, Mr. Matthias, Cabinet Manufacturer and
Joiner, Lancaster The Gates in p. 413 ; fig.
1247 ; fig. 1265.
Sclane, Mr., German Stove Builder, VaUxhallRoad,
London. Design for a Stove ; figs. 1838 and
1839.
Selim, an Amateur Architect, residing in Wiltshire.
Design LII. p. 181; LIII. p. 182; LIV. p. 184;
III. p. 632 ; \ 1676 to 1734; figs. 1435 to 1440 ;
XVII. p. 893.
Shaw, Henry, Esq. F.S.A., Percy Street, Bedford
Square, London, Author of the History and
Antiquities of Luton Park, and other Works.
Some Designs for Ancient Furniture in
Chap. IV. p. 1099, and 1101.
Sheriff', Patrick, Esq., Mungo's Wells, near Had-
dington. The Remarks in p. 534, 537.
Siebe, Mr., Denmark Street, St. Giles's, London.
The Rotatory Pump, figs. 9, 10.
Smallwood, William Froome, Esq., Architect, Cam-
berwell, London. Design VI. p. 844.
Sylvester, Charles, Esq., Engineer, Great Russell
Street, Bloomsbury, London. The Stove, figs.
1845, 1846.
Swinton, James, Esq., Architect, Haddington. De-
sign XXX IV. p. 528; and the specification,
p. 529 to 534.
T. S. T. Design III. p. 589.
Taylor, Samuel, Esq., Amateur Architect, Stoke-
ferry, Norfolk. Design LXXVI. p. 2226 =
XXVI. p. 411 ; XXIX. p. 516 ; fig. 1298.
Thompson, Henry Augustus, Esq., Architect, Li.
verpool. Designs IV. p. 29; VI. p. 33; XVI.
p. 69 ; XX. p. 85.
Thorold, William, Esq., Architect and Engineer,
Norwich. Design XIII. p. 471 ; XIII. p. 473;
XXXVL p. 544; figs. 1288 to 1291 ; figs. 1715,
1716.
Trotman, E., Esq., Architect, Furnival's Inn,
London. Design XXI. p. 920, with the Essay
on Gothic Architecture, extending to p. 943.
Varden, Richard, Esq., Architect, Godalming.
Design XXXII. p. 118, and the particular
or specification, 111 ; LXIX. p. 215; LXXIV.
p. 226; I. and the discussion on Mills, p. 568
to 573 ; II. p. 583 ; IV. p. 592; IV. p. 834; XI.
p. 859 ; $ 1794 to 1798.
Vokins, Charles, Esq., Architect, Wilton Road,
Pimlico, London. The Bookcase Front,
p. 1246 ; XIX. p. 914 ; XX. p. 919. ; the Brew-
ery, figs. 1830 and 1831 ; and the very ingenious
mode of hanging pictures described in § 2068,
and illustrated by fig. 1856.
Wright, Mr. S., Shelton, near Newcastle, Stafford-
shire. Figs. 1809, 1810, and 1811.
SUPPLEMENT.
A—, C— , W. P. Griffith, Esq., Architect, St. John's
Square, Clerkenwell. p. 1169.
Curtis, John, Esq.. Norfolk, p. 1248. and 1253.
Dobson, John, Esq., Newcastle-upon-Tyne. p.
1176, 1177, 1178.
Donaldson, John, Professor of Agriculture, Agri-
cultural College, Hoddesdon. p. 1224.
Eales, C, Esq., Architect, London, p. 1239.
E. R. p. 1259.
Elliott, John, Esq., Architect, Chichester, p. 1242.
F. H. p. 1151.
G. R. W. p. 1168.
Gorrie, Archibald, F.H.S., &c, Land-Steward,
Annat, near Errol, Perthshire, p. 1189. and
1259.
Hay, D. R., Esq., George's St., Edinburgh, p. 1205.
Henderson, John, Esq., Architect, 16. London
Street, Edinburgh, p. 1162.
Hunt, Mr. Joseph, Ironmonger, Derby, p. 1278.
J. M. p. 1269.
J. R. p. 1258.
Lamb, Edirard Ruxton, Esq., F.I.B.A., Architect,
26. Charlotte Street, Portland Place, London.
p. 1160. 1161. 1163. 1173, 1174. 1185, 1186, 1187.
1193, 1194, 1195, 1196. 1205. 1207. 1213. 1219.
Liddell, Hon. Thomas, Ravensworth Castle, near
Durham, p. 1153.
Menteath, James Stuart, Esq., Closeburn, Dum-
friesshire, p. 1141.
Milne, John, Esq., Architect, Princes Street, Edin-
burgh, p. 1197.
Parker, Charles, Esq., F.I. B. A., Architect, Tavis-
tock Street, Bedford Square, London, p. 1231.
Ricauti, T. J., Esq., Architect, deceased, p. 1145.
Robertson, John, Esq., Architect, Chatsworth. p.
1152. and 1190.
S. p. 1274.
S. T. p. 1253.
Thompson, Francis, Esq., Architect, Market-Place,
Derby, p. 1154, 1155, 1156, 1157, and 1158.
T. W. p. 1258.
Varden, R , Esq., Architect, Worcester, p. 1148.
Wild, J. W., Esq., Architect, 130. Piccadilly, Lon-
don, p. 1243.
Wilds, W., Esq., Architect, Hertford, p. 1251.
Wilson, Thomas, Esq., Crimbles House, Leeds,
p. 1135.
Wood, Frederick, Esq., Architect, Rugby, p. 1233.
W. T. p. 1253.
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA
ARCHITECTURE.
INTRODUCTION.
THE main object of this EnctclopjEdia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture,
is to improve the dwellings of the great mass of society, in the temperate regions of both
hemispheres : a secondary object is to create and diffuse among mankind, generally, a taste
for architectural comforts and beauties.
The means by which we propose to accomplish these objects are the following : —
By submitting a series of Designs for human dwellings, embracing every appropriate
comfort and the greatest variety of beauty ; and by accompanying tnese Designs with
analytical and critical remarks, pointing out in what this comfort and beauty consist, and
on what principles both are founded.
By submitting a series of Designs for the finishing, fittings up, fixtures, and furniture
suitable to the different descriptions of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Buildings ; and by ac-
companying these with remarks on their fitness for the end in view, such as lighting, heating,
ventilating, &c, as well as with analytical and critical remarks on their style or beauty ;
thus showing the necessity of Architects including the study of furniture in that of their pro-
fession, so as to be able to give Designs for furnishing a house, as well as for building one.
By accompanying many of the Designs with gardens, as well small kitchen and flower
gardens for the cottager, as pleasure ground and park scenery for the occupant of the villa ;
and by explaining the connexion of Villa Architecture with Landscape Gardening, and
pointing out the necessity which exists for Villa Architects possessing a considerable know-
ledge of the art of laying out grounds.
By avoiding, when it is not absolutely necessary, the use of terms peculiar to Architec-
ture ; by explaining all such as are used, where they first occur ; and by adopting such a
style, as will render the work easily understood by the uninitiated reader, as well as sub-
servient to the purpose of educating young persons in Architecture as an art of taste,
especially those of the female sex.
To attain the end proposed, we commence our work with Designs, as rendering it
more attractive to a general reader, as well as of more immediate practical utility to persons
intending to build or furnish, than it would be if commenced with abstract principles ; and
because, in the analytical and critical remarks, with which we mean to accompany these
Designs, we intend to develope, as it were, incidentally, and by little and little, all the
principles of Architecture, and also those of Landscape Gardening as connected with
Buildings.
The improvement of the dwellings of the great mass of society throughout the world,
appears to us an object of such vast importance, as to be well worth attempting, even though
B
?:
2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
we may not all at once succeed to our utmost wishes. In ameliorations necessarily involving
considerable expense, much cannot be expected to be performed immediately ; yet, by
making known the various particulars in which these ameliorations consist, to those
who are to derive important benefits from them, we may rest certain, that, sooner or
later, they will be effected. The efforts of Architects, in all ages and countries, have hitherto
been, for the most part, directed to public buildings, and to the mansions of princes,
noblemen, and men of wealth ; and what have hitherto been considered the inferior orders
of society, have been, for the most part, left to become their own architects. Hence the
tardiness with which the improvements made in the accommodation, arrangement, and
exterior beauty of the mansions of the wealthy, have found their way to the dwellings of the
poor. The great object of this work is, to show how the dwellings of the whole mass of
society may be equalized in point of all essential comforts, conveniences, and beauties.
By implanting in the minds of general readers, and especially of the youth of both sexes,
some knowledge of the good and bad of Architecture, as an art of Design and Taste, it is
evident that this main object will also be promoted. Teach the young what architectural
beauty is, and they will admire it; show them how it may be produced in their dwellings,
and they will desire to possess it. Whatever is generally and ardently desired, and
unremittingly pursued, is certain of being ultimately obtained
Independently of the usefulness of the study of Architecture, its pursuit, as a fine art,
recommends itself, like the study of painting and sculpture, as a rational source of intellectual
entertainment ; easily indulged in, since buildings occur every where, and form one of the
principal sources of interest in all towns and cities, and in travelling. The great use of the
study of any of the fine arts is, to polish and refine the taste, and divest the mind of vulgar
and common-place feeling. Architecture is the only fine art open to the inspection of all,
and interesting to all ; and could we only succeed in raising the taste of the mass of society in
this art, we should not only effect an universal improvement in Architecture, but materially
contribute towards the universal adoption of correct and elegant habits of thinking and acting
generally.
As the buildings of every country are open to all its inhabitants, it may be asked, why
all have not already a correct and elegant taste in this art ? To this we answer, by asking
how it happens that all persons have not a correct knowledge of their native language ; or a
good taste in written compositions ? The truth is, that but a very slight knowledge of any
subject can be obtained without studying its first principles. There is a grammar in
Architecture which must be taught, no less than the grammar of language ; and when that
grammar is mastered empirically, there remains to be acquired the principles of human
nature, upon which its rules are founded. It is on Architecture, as founded on these
principles, that we chiefly rest our hopes of creating a general taste for the art, and of
rendering architectural criticism as common among all classes of society, as the criticism of
general literature.
" It is not," says a clever architectural writer, (Foreign Quarterly Revieio, April, 1831,)
when advocating the study of Architecture by women, " in order that they may be able to drav;
columns, for that is merely the means, not the end of the pursuit, that we would suggest the
propriety of ladies applying themselves to what has hitherto never been included within the
circle of female acquirements; but that they may thereby cultivate their taste, and ground it
on something less baseless and shitting than mere feminine likings and dislikings. And
when we consider how wide is the province, how influential the authority, which the sex are
apt to claim in such matters; how much, in all that regards ornamental furniture and interior
embellishments, depends on the refined or trivial taste of our fairer halves ; it must be acknow-
ledged that to initiate them into such studies would not be an act of perfect disinterestedness."
Independently of its subseauent advantages, the study of the Grammar of Architecture, or,
in other words, " the elementary practice of architectural drawing, would be highly bene-
ficial to the youthful pupils, inasmuch as it affords an immediate application of the simpler
principles of geometry ; as it forms the hand to correctness, the eye to a scrupulous examina-
tion of forms, and, consequently, implants habits of careful deliberation and attention, as well
as the seeds of taste."
We entirely agree with this writer in his opinions of the influence which women would
have on the public taste in Architecture; believing, as we do, that the improvement which,
within the last fifty years, has taken place in landscape gardening, is, in a great measure,
owing to the more general adoption of the art of sketching landscapes from nature, as a branch
of female education. If the study of landscape drawing, by ladies, has led to the improvement
of landscape gardening, why should not the study of architectural drawing, on their part,
lead to the improvement of domestic Architecture 1
INTRODUCTION. 3
The influence of Architecture on taste and morals has been argued, in a masterly manner,
by Dr. Dwight, when speaking of what he saw of its influence in the towns of New England.
Speaking of a city which had, when he saw it, in the beginning of the present century, been
twice ravaged by fire, this admirable author observes, that though the tenants of the houses
which were burned were, in many instances, sufferers, yet the town and the proprietors gained
much. " The town," he says, " has already been improved not a little in its appearance,
and will probably be much more improved hereafter. There are persons who will imagine
this to be a matter of little consequence. I wish them to consider for a moment the following
hints : —
" There is a kind of symmetry in the thoughts, feelings, and efforts of the human mind.
Its taste, intelligence, affections, and conduct, are so intimately related, that no preconcertion
can prevent them from being mutually causes and effects. The first thing powerfully operated
on, and, in its turn, proportionally operative, is the taste. The perception of beauty and de-
formity, of refinement and grossness, of decency and vulgarity, of propriety and indecorum,
is the first thing which influences man to attempt an escape from a grovelling, brutish cha-
racter ; a character in which morality is effectually chilled, or absolutely frozen. In most
persons, this perception is awakened by what may be called the exterior of society, particu-
larly by the mode of building. Uncouth, mean, ragged, dirty houses, constituting the body
of any town, will regularly be accompanied by coarse, grovelling manners. The dress, the
furniture, the equipage, the mode of living, and the manners, will all correspond with the
appearance of the buildings, and will universally be, in every such case, of a vulgar and debased
nature. On the inhabitants of such a town, it will be difficult, if not impossible, to work a
conviction, that intelligence is either necessary or useful. Generally, they will regard both
learning and science only with contempt. Of morals, except in the coarsest form, and that
which has the least influence on the heart, they will scarcely have any apprehensions. The
rights enforced by municipal law they may be compelled to respect, and the corresponding
duties they may be necessitated to perform; but the rights and obligations which lie beyond
the reach of magistracy, in which the chief duties of morality are found, and from which the
chief enjoyments of society spring, will scarcely gain even their passing notice. They may
pay their debts, but will neglect almost every thing of value in the education of their children.
" The very fact, that men see good houses built around them, will, more than almost any-
thing else, awaken in them a sense of superiority in those by whom such houses are inhabited-
The same sense is derived, in the same manner, from handsomer dress, furniture, and equipage.
The sense of beauty is necessarily accompanied by a perception of the superiority which it
possesses over deformity ; and is instinctively felt to confer this superiority on those who can
call it their own, over those who cannot. This, I apprehend, is the manner in which coarse
society is first started towards improvement ; for no objects, but those which are sensible, can
make any considerable impressions on coarse minds. On these grounds I predicted to my
friends in this town a speedy change for the better in its appearance, and in the character
and manners of its inhabitants. I have since seen this prediction extensively fulfilled." —
(Travels in New England, vol. ii. p. 202.,)
" The connexion of Architecture with the other fine arts," says the critic, in the Foreign
Quarterly Review, " and the convenience of knowing at least as much of it as will enable us
to judge how far the accessories in a picture are correct, where buildings are introduced, are
too obvious to be insisted upon ; neither is it necessary to expatiate on the superior advan-
tages possessed by the traveller who has qualified himself, by a competent study oi
the subject, for enjoying the local beauties of the cities he visits. It might be conceived that
the additional interest which an acquaintance with the various styles of Architecture imparts
to historical studies, and the kind of memoria technica furnished by the various reminiscences
connected with celebrated buildings, would alone form a sufficient reason for directing the
attention of the youthful pupil to such studies." — Foreign Quarterly Review, April, 1831.
" He who criticises every fine building which he sees," observes one whom we consider
the most philosophical of British architectural authors, " with a sincere desire to find
out whatever in it is excellent, bringing everything to the test of his own unbiassed feelings
and judgment, will form to himself a habit, profitable, not only when applied to Architecture,
but to every subject on which the human understanding is exercised." — Wood's Letters of an
Architect, Preface.
By the principles of Architecture, many persons understand nothing more than
certain established rules and precedents, drawn from the ancient buildings of Greece and
Rome ; and, for the greater part, comprehended in the study of the orders used in Grecian
and Roman temples. ' Are not those orders everything — the all in all of Architecture?'
say such persons. " The whole science," observes the critic before quoted, " is commonly
4 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
thought to consist in knowing a few cabalistic words derived from the Greek, and a
few mechanical rules for the proportioning of columns ; while, for those who would wish to
acquire such a knowledge of Architecture, as would enable them to appreciate its beauties
as they do those of its sister arts, there is hardly a single elementary work, that is not either
too superficial, or merely technical. Instead of anything like generalization of principles, or
originality of views, we meet with insulated rules, and the dull quackery of monotonous
routine : while peurile trifling, or anile superstition, is suffered, in many cases, to exclude
even a glimpse of common sense. In almost every other branch of knowledge, the student
is able to provide himself with theoretical and critical, as well as practical, works ; but here,
he ought to be endued with more than ordinary ardour and perseverance, if he would
collect for himself the insulated scraps of criticism, and the few really useful, original
remarks that, ' few and far between,' are scattered over a wide expanse of almost unvaried
sameness." — Foreign Quarterly Review, April, 1S31.
But a knowledge of the rules of Grecian Architecture, can no more be considered the
principles of the science, than the art of mixing colours can be called the principles of paint-
ing. " The great object of an Architect," says Wood, " is to determine in what manner, with
means always in some degree limited, either by the nature of the material to be employed,
the customs of the country, the expense, or the taste or no taste of the employer, he can
combine beauty with utility. The connexion of beauty, as an effect, with the composition
of the parts of buildings, as the cause of that effect, is the great end and object of the
Architect." — Letters of an Architect, Preface.
After studying with care all the various opinions delivered by different architectural
writers on the subject of the principles of their art, and divesting ourselves, as much as
possible, of all accidental associations and temporary prejudices, we have arrived at the fol-
lowing conclusion : — that the leading principle of Architecture, as a useful art, is fitness for
the end in view ; as an art of design, expression of the end in view ; and, as an art of
taste, expression of some particular Architectural style. Those beauties or effects which are
the result of the first and second principles, are in their nature permanent ; those which are
the result of the third principle, are in their nature temporary and accidental.
All the various principles which come into operation, in the design and construction
of buildings, easily range themselves under these three fundamental principles. The fitness
of a design for the end in view, comprehends, not only the fitness of the size, shape,
number, relative position, and other particulars of the interior divisions of a building, for the
uses for which they are intended; but the fitness of the materials and construction, with
reference to the strength and durability which may be required ; and the fitness of the
expenditure for the means at the command of the builder. In like manner, the principle of
the expression of the purpose, or end in view, applies not only to unity of expression in a
building as a whole, but to the separate expression of all the different parts of a building for
the purposes for which they are intended. So also the expression of architectural style
applies, not only to the building taken as a whole, which must be in the same style
throughout, but to all its component parts, which, even to the most minute details, must
belong to that style, and exhibit its characteristics.
Thus, as there are various uses to which buildings are devoted, so are there various
kinds of beauty of which they can be rendered expressive. But, as all the uses to which
buildings can be applied, all the arrangements which are requisite for convenience or
luxury, and all mechanical or chemical processes which enter into their construction,
are referable to the principle of fitness ; so all the different kinds of beauty of which they are
susceptible, are referable either to the expression of purpose, or to the expression of style.
A cottage or a barn, which are recognized to be such at the first glance, are so far perfect, as
to the expression of purpose ; but they may also be specimens of Grecian or Gothic
Architecture, in which case, to the expression of purpose is added the expression of style.
As fitness and the expression of purpose are principles applicable to all buildings
whatever; so fitness, the expression of purpose, and the expression of architectural style,
comprehend all the beauties of which buildings are susceptible.
The principle of expression of purpose, is of universal application in Architecture ; and
whatever building will bear the test of examination according to it, cannot but prove
satisfactory to every unprejudiced mind, though it may not possess any of the beauties of
architectural style. The minds of all men, however, are more or less subject to the
prejudices of the age and country in which they live ; and the prejudices of European
Architects and their employers, seem long to have been in favour of the expression of
architectural style in building, rather than of the expression of use or purpose. This
circumstance has influenced the general taste ; and hence it is, that the critical observer,
INTRODUCTION. 5
when looking at what is considered a fine building, instead of first examining whether it is
expressive of the purpose for which it is applied, considers only whether it is intended to
be in the Grecian, Roman, or Gothic style ; and, having determined to which of these styles
it belongs, he next examines whether the details of the building are in strict conformity with
the best practice and precedents in that style. But according to the principles we have
laid down, it will be seen that the Grecian and Gothic styles are mere accidents in Architec-
ture ; and are nothing more than the language which the Architect makes use of to convey
his ideas. The expression of the purpose, for which every building is erected, is the first
and most essential beauty; and should be obvious from its Architecture, altogether inde-
pendently of any particular style ; in the same manner as the reasons for things, are alto-
gether independent of the language in which they are conveyed. As in literary compositions,
no beauty of language can ever compensate for poverty of sense ; so, in architectural compo-
sition, no beauty of style can ever compensate for the want of expression of purpose. Every
reasonable mind must feel this ; for, as we have said before, the foundation of all true and
permanent beauty is utility.
But though it is necessary to study the expression of purpose, as the first and fundamental
beauty in all Architecture, it is by no means either necessary or advisable to neglect the study
of style; on the contrary, the judicious artist will take advantage of the prejudices in favour
of this kind of beauty already fixed in the minds of mankind, and will employ it, so as to
co-operate with and heighten the expression of purpose; because there are many persons
who can admire the beauty of style, by whom the more simple and universal beauty of ex-
pression of purpose, would neither be relished nor understood.
Most authors, from Vitruvius to the present time, divide the subject of Architecture into
use and decoration; and, by decoration, it is evident that they mean what we denominate
style ; though scientifically considered, style and decoration are essentially different. Any
building may be decorated, by fixing on it ornamental objects of different descriptions; but
for a building to be in a particular style, all its principal parts must be characteristic of that
style, and must co-operate in producing one effect, or expression.
Anotlie» class of architectural writers, Laugier, John Wood, Milizia, and especially Qua-
tremere de Quincy (whose opinions have been adopted by a number of English writers,
without the slightest acknowledgment), maintain, that Architecture, in so far as it is an art
of taste, is to be considered an art of imitation. According to this doctrine, the type of
the Egyptian Architecture is a cavern; of the Chinese, a tent; of the Gothic, a grove of
trees ; and of the Grecian, a rectangular hut. An opinion of this sort, adopted by such a
profound metaphysical author as Quatremere de Quincy, deserves to be examined with the
utmost attention. That there is truth in it, cannot be denied : man, whether in a state of
barbarism or of civilisation, is alike an imitative animal; that is, he cannot act otherwise
than according to general laws, which have influenced all his predecessors from the earliest
ages, and which will control all his posterity to the latest period. To say, however, that
Architecture is an imitative art, like the arts of Painting or of Sculpture ; that is " purely
imitative," as Mr. Elmes calls it in his Lectures, strikes us to be by no means a correct use of
language. That the more ancient of the different manners of building have had their
origin in certain rude types, there is very little doubt; at all events, this is sufficiently clear
with respect to Grecian Architecture, all the principal members of which may be traced to
the props and roof of a hut constructed of timber : but where is the type for the semicircular
arch ? But why should a people, living in a country where stone was almost the only building
material, be induced, by the instinct of imitation, to adopt a mode of building suited only for a
material altogether different? May not a stone or mud hut serve as a model, as well as a wooden
one ? If Egyptian or Indian Architecture may have had its origin in caves or excavations in
the face of an upright rock, and Grecian Architecture have taken its rise from a rectangular
hut, why may not Gothic Architecture have had its type in the conical huts otvturf and stone,
or of sticks and mud, formed by the northern nations of Europe ? We think this, at all events,
just as likely to have given rise to Pointed Architecture, as a tent to that of the Chinese.
The origin, however, of the different styles of art, appears to us a matter of very trifling
importance. All Architecture may be reduced essentially to two kinds; viz. that where the
openings are covered with horizontal planks or blocks ; and that where they are covered with
arches, either curved or pointed. Now, provided a system founded on any of these three
principles be developed in a uniform, harmonious, and consistent manner, with reference to
strength, durability, and fitness for the end in view, and to the general laws which
govern all compositions of lines and forms, what objection can there be to it, in any
reasonable mind ? On the other hand, simi>osinj>; an Architect to take any of the alleged
6 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
types as the foundation of his system, to what kind of result would he attain, without the
exercise of reason at every step? Without reason, indeed, and that too continually exercised.
Architecture would be an art of absurdity. As well, in our opinion, might agriculture and
gardening be called imitative arts, as the art of Architecture; because there must have been
some origin for cultivation as well as for building. The truth seems to us to be, that, viewed
with reference to their origin, all arts are imitative; and, with reference to their adaptation
to the state of man for the time being, all arts are founded on reason or human improvement.
How far Architecture is to be considered one of the fine arts must, as it appears to us,
(and our opinion is in consonance with that of Alison, Dugald Stewart, Sulzer, and other
writers) depend, not on its being either an imitative or an inventive art, but on its powers of
creating in the mind, emotions of sublimity or beauty.
Notwithstanding the seeming difference of opinion on this subject among architectural
writers, it appears to us in the highest degree probable, that, if the language of each writer
were explained with reference to one fixed standard, they would all be found nearly to
agree; the expressions, "art of imitation," and "art of imagination," being used by many
of them as synonymous. A-t all events, hypothetical differences of this kind should never
prevent us from profiting by the excellent works of such writers as Quatremere de Quincy and
Milizia. — But it is time to turn from a speculative digression to the main purpose of this
introduction, which is, to explain the general nature of our work.
1. Our grand object being to introduce improvement into Cottage, Farm and Villa
Architecture, in the temperate regions of both hemispheres, by numerous examples of Designs,
with different degrees of accommodation, and in different styles of Architecture, we have
adopted, as the first term in our ascending series, a simple dwelling of two rooms, suitable for
a man and his wife, without children; and, as the last term, the villa or country house of an
English gentleman of wealth and refinement. We have fixed on the English villa, as com-
bining more of the comforts and luxuries of life than the villa of a man of wealth and taste in
any other country in the world.
2. The first step towards the introduction of improvements in the practice of any art, is to
familiarize the minds of the practitioners with the deviations from usual practice which con-
stitute these improvements. In rural Architecture, almost the only means of doing this is by
published Designs ; for no local builder can be supposed to have had either leisure or opportu-
nities to inspect the various improvements which have taken place throughout his own country,
and in other countries. Unless he has recourse to books of Designs, therefore, he can do little
more than repeat himself, or copy what he has seen ; probably with some improvement —
possibly with deterioration. To supply the country builder, therefore, with numerous
Designs, at a moderate price, must be rendering him an acceptable service.
3. The use of published Designs to an experienced Architect is to furnish him with ideas
for composition ; that is, with different modes of connecting the various parts of which a
building is composed; of varying the forms of those parts ; of devising new forms from them ;
and, finally, of composing the exterior as well as the interior details ; subject always to the
guiding principle of unity of expression, whether of purpose or of style.
4. The same use of published Designs may be made by a young Architect; but in order that
he may profit to the fullest extent, either from viewing buildings actually executed, or from
studying published Designs, he should be able to analyze them, and to trace the cause of what-
ever they may display of the beauties of fitness, of expression, or of style, to first principles of
composition. To assist him in doing this is the object of the analytical remarks which we have
made on each Design. The amateur Architect, and general reader, will also find these remarks
useful as a means for improving their taste, by enabling them to refer the beauties or defects
of buildings to their true causes. This is, indeed, the chief use of Designs to a general reader;
but an Architect or builder may profit much from the careful inspection of a book of Designs,
merely as a collection of models, without being able to analyze them ; or to trace the causes
of the pleasure or dislike, which he may receive from them, to first principles. Such an
Architect, or builder, however, though he may be a very efficient empirical practitioner, can
never be considered as possessing a scientific knowledge of his art. " The uneducated
Architect," says Wood, "judges by his feelings ; the half-educated, by rule ; but the master,
from feelings, trained and purified by study and reflection."
5. In delineating these Designs, we have, instead of geometrical elevations, given in
every case, correct perspective views ; and we have not accompanied these views by trees, or
landscape scenery of any kind, considering the practice of doing so as of no real use ; and, on
the contrary, as calculated to mislead the inexperienced eye. For, as the beauty of every
whole, is necessarily made up of the beauties of all its component parts ; and as the size and
shape of the trees, and the style of the scenery which form conspicuous parts in pictorial views
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 7
of Designs for buildings, are beyond the power of the Architect, whatever part of the effect of
the picture depends on them, cannot be realized in the execution. In every landscape
composed of a house surrounded by verdant scenery, the beauty or deformity of the house
may easily be heightened or obscured, at the pleasure of the artist, by the management of
the other parts of the picture ; but where a building is exhibited in perspective by itself, its
beauties or deformities are more easily detected ; and the latter can be corrected before
proceeding to carry the Design into execution. If, indeed, the introduction of verdant
scenery in the picture, would serve as a guide for planting and arranging the ground about
the house, then, indeed, it would not only be allowable, but advantageous ; but every landscape
gardener knows that instruction in this department can only be conveyed graphically, by
plans and sections of the surrounding grounds, showing the disposition of the trees and
shrubs to be planted, and enumerating their kinds.
6. The Details of Construction, or Specifications, as they are technically called, which ac-
company some of these Designs, are for the purpose of assisting the young Architect in
making out similar Specifications for all the rest; and also for instructing the employers
of Architects and builders, as to the sort of details which ought to be entered into and settled,
before any building, however small, is undertaken to be executed. Engravings on wood,
of the details on a large scale, are given with each Design, for the like purpose of facilitating
execution.
7. TJie Estimates, with the exception of those cases, in which detailed Specifications are
made out, can only be considered as approximations ; but as, in every case, the data are
given from which the estimate has been made, an experienced builder, who knows the
difference between the price of labour and materials in his own locality and that of London,
will always be able to calculate from these data, so as to form an estimate sufficiently accurate
for general guidance. Every builder, or even carpenter, when he has laid before him a plan,
a perspective or isometrical elevation, and a section, such as we shall give, can make out a
specification of the details of construction, on which he can form an estimate suitable for
contract and actual execution.
8. In the Analytical and Critical Remarks on each Design, we nave illustrated all the
different kinds of construction, and all the principles of architectural composition. In doing
this, we have preferred, as the most useful mode, and as the one least likely to restrain the
freedom and extent of our remarks, to give such details, and offer such criticisms, as naturally
arose out of the subjects as they came successively under review, without much regard to
the order of their succession.
9. In illustrating the Principles of Landscape Gardening, as connected with Buildings,
we have, in like manner, limited ourselves to the development of one principle at a time ;
showing, in some cases, how the ground ought to be disposed in the neighbourhood of
a building ; in others, how it ought to be approached by roads or walks ; sometimes, how
fences ought to be disposed ; and, in various cases, not only how the trees or shrubs ought to
be arranged, but the particular situations for different sorts, with the different heights
to which they grow, the soils they require, their suitableness for particular climates, and their
character as ornamental, useful, or fruit-bearing plants.
10. Plans of small Gardens have been given along with several of the humbler Designs ;
and, in describing these, we have not only shown how they may be planted, with fruit and
ornamental trees and shrubs, to most advantage ; but, in some cases, we have given
courses of cropping, labouring, and manuring. But as this subject is likely to be much more
generally understood than Landscape Gardening, as connected with Architecture, we have
taken care to restrain our remarks, so as to keep them within due limits.
11. In our Designs for Farm Buildings, we have always taken care to state the extent of
the Farm, and the kind of culture, for which they are adapted; taking chiefly, as precedents,
the climate and farming of the best districts of Great Britain ; but partly, also, the circum-
stances of France, Holland, Belgium, and Germany. The same countries have been kept in
view, in arranging our Designs for Country Inns and Public Houses, and for the Workshops
of Country Tradesmen and Mechanics.
12. The Order in which we have arranged these Designs, is as follows : —
Book I. — Designs of Cottages for Labourers, Mechanics, Country Tradesmen, and Small
Farmers ; of Lodges for Gardeners, Bailiffs, Land Stewards, and other Superin-
tendants on Landed Estates.
Book II. — Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries; Country Inns, with Farm Buildings
attached ; Fermes Ornees, and Villa Farms.
Boole III. — Designs for Cottage Villas, and Villas of the highest class, with their accom-
panying Offices, and other Buildings.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
BOOK I.
DESIGNS FOR LABOURERS AND MECHANICS* COTTAGES, AND FOR DWELLINGS FOR
GARDENERS AND BAILIFFS, AND OTHER UPPER SERVANTS, AND FOR SMALL FARMERS
AND CULTIVATORS OF THEIR OWN LAND.
13. The Designs of this Book are calculated for what, in countries having a privileged
aristocracy, are called the lower and middling classes of society ; but which, in self-governed
democracies, like North America, or in newly-colonized countries, like Australia, constitute
nearly the whole rural population. We have arranged these Designs in two chapters : the
first contains three Designs of what may be called Model Cottages, as each combines all the
accommodations and arrangements for comfort and convenience of which buildings of the
lowest class are susceptible. Each of these Designs contains the same quantity of accommo-
dation, but differently arranged to suit different situations and climates. The second chapter
includes a miscellaneous assemblage of Designs, each combining more or less of the comforts
and conveniencies of the Model Designs, joined to various kinds of architectural beauty
and style.
Chap. I.
Model Designs for Cottages, exhibiting in each Model all the accommodations and arrangements
for comfort and convenience of which tlie smallest dwellings of this class are susceptible.
14. The Accommodations and Arrangements of these Designs are presented as the beau
ideal of what we think every married couple, having children of both sexes, and living in the
country, should possess ; while, at the same time, we have included in them all that is
essentially requisite for health, comfort, and convenience, to even the most luxurious of
mankind." In such dwellings every labourer ought to live, and any nobleman might live. All
that in any dwelling exceeds the accommodation and arrangements here given, must either be
required for a larger family and extended hospitality, or for the display of either superfluous
wealth or highly refined taste. The necessaries, and even comforts of life, are contained in a
small compass, and are within the reach of a far greater portion of mankind than is generally
imagined. But one room can be used at a time, by either the poor man who has no other,
or the rich man who has several ; and that room can only be rendered comfortable by being
warm, dry, light, well ventilated, and convenient: qualities which depend not so much upon
the materials used in its construction, as on the manner of applying them. All that is
wanting is knowledge ; first, of what is necessary and desirable ; and, secondly, of the means
of obtaining it at a small expense. To communicate this knowledge is the main purpose of
the present Book; but more especially of the Designs contained in this chapter.
15. In the composition of these Designs, we have, in every case, adopted the following
arrangements :— First, We have placed every dwelling-house, or the floor containing its living-
rooms, upon an elevated platform, with a view of keeping it drier, and consequently,
warmer and healthier; as well as to procure greater dignity of effect, as an object in
landscape, and as a station for the eye to survey the surrounding scenery. Secondly, We
have placed the chimnies in the interior walls, rather than in the exterior ones ; because
when the chimnies are so placed, a greater portion of heat is retained within the house; and
because, from the greater degree of heat contained in the mass of masonry through which
the flues are carried up, the smoke always ascends faster, or, in common language, the flues
draw better. Thirdly, We have, in every Design, kept in view the practicability of the most
economical application of fuel ; of the collecting, filtering, and preserving the water which
falls on the roofs ; and of the collecting and economizing the liquid and other manure pro-
duced in or about the cottage. We have shown the various details for effecting these objects
in plans, sections, and perspective elevations, with copious descriptions and various graphic
illustrations; and we wish the Architect to keep them continually in view in judging of the
Designs in Chapter II., and to imagine them applied, more or less, to each Design given in
that chapter, as circumstances may admit or require. We have before published these Model
Designs of Cottages in our tract entitled, A Manual of Cottage Husbandry, Gardening, and
Architecture ; but we consider the details which they exhibit as of so much importance, and
all the Designs which are to follow in this work as depending so entirely upon many of
MODEL COTTAGES. \)
them for their chief excellencies in a useful point of view, that we have felt we should not
be doing justice to our readers if we did not repeat these Designs, with their descriptions, in
the present work. This we have now done in a much more clear and systematic form
than was compatible with the plan of the pamphlet alluded to, and with very considerable
additions both of descriptive matter and engravings.
Design I. — A Cottage of One Story, combining all the Accommodation and Conveniences of
which human Dwellings of that description are susceptible.
16. In the Ground Plan of this Design, marked I. in page 10, a represents the kitchen, or
living room. The floor of this apartment may be of tiles ; or paved ; or laid in a composition
of lime, sharp sand, and Roman cement ; or of lime, sharp sand, and scoria from a smithy.
Composition floors of this kind are much warmer than those of stones or tiles. In the
ceiling, nearly over the hearth, is a trap-door to the loft; which door may, in summer, be
partially opened to promote ventilation, there being a false flue in the chimney for that
purpose, which will hereafter be described.
b, A small parlour, with a fire-place and boarded floor: as it will receive a good deal of
heat from the kitchen fire, it will seldom require a fire made on purpose for it. It ought to
have a small ventilator in the ceiling, near the stack of chimneys, communicating with the
false or air flue, for summer use.
c, Family bed-room; the floor of tiles, or paved, or of the same material as that of the
kitchen.
d, Bed-room for girls ; the floor boarded.
e, Bed-room for boys ; the floor boarded. There may be a door in the partition between
these small rooms, which it may be convenient in some cases to use instead of the door be-
tween the girls' bed-room and the family bed-room.
J, Water-closet for the mother, girls, and females, supplied by water as to be hereafter
described. The basin may be of brown earthenware or of cast iron, so as to cost very little ;
the door ought to open inwards, and the small window outwards, so that every movement of
the door may act as a ventilator. There might also be a water-cock and wash-hand-basin.
g, Tool-house, and man and boy's water-closet, with an opening to the loft for ventilation :
supplied with water from the same source as the other water-closet. The basins of both
closets communicate with an earthern pipe, which empties itself into the reservoir of the cess-
pools for liquid manure. The liquid manure thus gained will be of so much value to the
garden, as alone, independently of cleanliness and decency, to justify the expense of two
closets, and both of these M/a/er-closets.
h, Cow-house, with a tying-post and trough for food in one corner, and a loft for hay and
straw over: this loft may be got at through a trap-door, by the use of a common ladder.
i, House for fuel, lumber, or for various other purposes, such as roots or other food for the
cow and pigs. In cases where the cottager grows corn, it may be made his barn ; and if it
were desired to have this barn larger, it could easily be made so, by projecting the whole
lean-to two or three feet farther from the main body of the house.
k, Place for ducks or geese, with a small poultry-stair or ladder to hen-loft formed over
/ and g. This loft ought to be lined with straw on the top and sides, in order to keep the
poultry warm in winter and cool in summer.
/, Cistern for receiving half of the water which falls on the roof.
m, A pump for pumping water from the tank below, either for use in the back yard or in
the house, or for raising the water into the water-closet cistern above. Siebe's rotatory pump
is the best adapted for these different purposes, being at once a lifting-pump and a forcing-
pump. It costs no more than a common pump, may be worked in far less room, and with
greater ease, by a female or a boy, and is much less likely to go out of order.
n, The open yard, which should have a gentle inclination from all sides towards the
dungpit (/}).
o, Pigsty, with a rubbing-post in the open area or feeding-place. Two old barrels, for
pigs' food, will require to be placed under cover, where they can be kept from freezing
in winter, and from being extremely hot in summer. One of these ought to be filling while
the other is emptying, and the contents should not be made use of before fermentation has
commenced. The fuel-house, i, will be a very good situation for these tubs in summer,
and a corner of the cow-house, h, in winter.
q, Shed for faggot-wood, o, p, and q, may be roofed with one lean-to, or pavilion roof of
uniform height and width ; or, if corn be grown by the cottager, then, instead of a roof of
slates, tiles, &c, may be substituted a floor of joists of the same width as required for the
10
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE,
I.
MODEL COTTAGES.
11
roof; and on this floor may be laid, first, a layer of faggots, and on these built the corn or
hay as a stack or stacks, and thatched in the usual manner. This would save the expense
of tiles or slates, and also the ground that would otherwise be requisite as a rick-stand.
r r, Two cesspools for liquid manure, i. e. for all the drainings of the open yard after
they have passed through the dung-pit, p, for the water of the two closets, and that pro-
ceeding from the sink to be described hereafter, including soap-suds and all waste or foHl
water made on the premises. As it is found advantageous that liquid manure should
undergo fermentation before it is used, two cesspools become necessary, and also an
arrangement by which the supplies from the different sources can be turned into either cess-
pool at pleasure.
s, The situation of two plug-holes, for regulating the admission of water to the cesspools.
The well containing these plug-holes is, in horizontal dimensions, one foot square, and in
depth, three feet. The sides are built of brick or stone, and the bottom is formed of one
stone, containing the two holes, each of which is three inches in diameter ; the left hand hole
communicating with the left hand cesspool, and the right hand hole with the other cesspool.
A plug, with a handle four or five feet long, is to be used for stopping the communication
with the cesspool which is filled and undergoing fermentation : and as these pools are
alternately filled and emptied, the plug can be removed from the one hole in the regulating
well to the other. These pools are placed without the open yard, in the supposed garden,
for the greater convenience of emptying them.
1 1, The level part of the platform, or terrace, on which the house appears to stand, and
which will be better understood by referring to figs. 6 and 17, or to Designs IV. and V.
u, Point at which this platform commences to incline gradually till it terminates at v.
w, Sloping sides of the platform; the slope being 45° in stiff" loamy soils, and 30° or
less, in loose soils. The platform may be covered with turf, or ornamental plants, and
finished with a parapet or low hedge, as will be afterwards described.
.r, Steps for ascending the platform, opposite the principal door of the cottage.
y z, Entrance porch: y represents the steps leading up
to the living floor, and z the steps leading down to the
cellar floor. If the front of such a porch were to any other
quarter than the south-east, the porch should be larger,
with an exterior door; if it fronted the south-west, the
entrance to the porch ought to be on its south side, for
the sake of protection from the weather.
S(, Shelves for bee-hives ; the upper part of which may
be fitted up as a dove-cote, and the lower part as a dog-
kenncl.
17. The Section A B of jig. 3, is represented in fig. 1.
It shows the reserve tank, a; the opening for inserting the cock for drawing supplies from
it, b ; and the sink, c.
18. The Section C D of Jig. 3, is represented in fig. 2.
with the open area before it, e, covered with a grating,/.
19. The Plan and Section of the Cellar floor, shewing the
heating flue, and the foundations, are given in figs. 3 and 4.
a, Steps of descent to the cellar. These steps are
represented in Design I. by the letter z.
b, Apartment serving as a back-kitchen, wash-house,
brew-house, bake-house, &c, as well as for boiling or
scalding food for the cow, pigs, and poultry.
c, Store cellar and larder for potatoes, beer, home-made
wines, fresh and salt meat, and similar articles of provision.
d, Milk-house and pantry ; in the farther corner in the
ceiling ought to be a small grated opening, communicating
with the air-flue in the wall, to promote ventilation ; the exterior window ought to be of
wire or hair cloth, which both excludes air and heat or cold.
e, Copper for brewing, washing, heating water for the bath, &c, unless a copper pot or
iron box is fixed over the oven, when a separate copper becomes unnecessary.
/, Oven for baking, and also for heating the floor of the living-room and family bed-room.
g, Termination of the double covering of the flue, commencing at the oven,/. (See also
letter g, in fig 4.)
h, Brick-on-edge work, for strengthening the sides of the flues.
i, Loose round stones between the flues, for the purpose of retaining heat
It shows the cellar window, d,
12
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE
k, Sunk area,
before the cellar
windows.
/, A situa-
tion in which a
bath may be
placed, to be
supplied with
hot water from
the boiler, e, or
thecast-ironbox
over the oven,
f, or with cold
water from the
reserve tank, q.
m, The re-
ceiving tank,
which, in ad-
dition to the
pipe from the
roof, has ano-
ther pipe from
the inside, with
a funnel, into
which a supply
may be poured
for nitration,
from the pump
(;«,in Design I.),
in times of great
drought, or at
any time when
the reserve tank
is exhausted.
n, Waste pipe
from this tank,
communicating
with the drain
pipe.
-holes connected with the cess-
o, Drain pipe, communicating with the well, with pluc
pools (s, in Design I).
p, Filtering tank, consisting of sand and charcoal, placed on a false bottom, raised three
or four inches above the bottom of the tank.
q, Reserve tank for the filtered water, communicating by a cock with the sink, r, and
the sink having a stink-trap (see fig. 13, d, in p. 18,) connected with a waste pipe, s, which
joins the drain pipe, o.
t, Foundations of the out-buildings, shown in Design I. by/, g, h, i, k, I, and m.
u, Tank, or well of water for general purposes, and for supplying the filtering tank in
times of extraordinary drought.
20. The Section showing the depth of the flues and the cast-iron box over the oven for heating
water, is represented in fig. 4. This section is
taken in the line G H, in fig. 3, and the object
is to show the depth of the flues ; the double
cover and vacuity between the covers at g ; the
cast-iron box of hot water, k ; the cock for draw-
ing water from it, and for emptying and cleaning
it, / ; the situation of the small lid for filling it,
m ; the oven, n ; the copper, o ; the natural sur-
face of the ground, p ; and the surface of the
platform, or terrace, q.
2 1 . The Section showing the height of the rooms,
and other particulars, is given in fig. 5. This section
is taken in the direction of the line I K, in Design I, and it shows the following particulars :—
Ft. 5
MODEL COTTAGES.
1
Ft. 10
a, Natural surface of the ground.
b, Surface of the platform.
c, Level of the foundation of the cellar.
d, Foundations of the other walls.
e, Foundation of the oven.
/, Foundation of the partition wall between
the living room and family bed-room.
g, Well or tank.
h, Siebe's pump, with an ascending pipe
into the cistern, i.
i, Cistern for the water-closets, and for
supplying the yard.
k, Place for ducks or geese beneath.
/, Hen-house, with tool-house and man's
water-closet under.
m, Family bed-room.
n, Loft, with ventilator, or trap-door, from
the kitchen, and opening near the
air or ventilating flue.
o, Kitchen.
p, Porch.
q, Cover to the air flue, which is only
kept open during summer to prevent
excessive heat at that season : it is
simply a square paving tile supported
by an iron shank, in order to exclude
rain.
r. Oven.
s, Water-box over.
t, Commencement of flue from oven.
u, Continuation of flue.
v, Cornice to chimney top, made large for
the purpose of encouraging swallows to
build their nests there ; these birds
being of great importance to cultivators
or possessors of gardens, as destroyers
of winged insects, on which they live
entirely.
22. The perspective elevation of the entrance front and south-east side of Design I. is
shown in fig. 6. The object of this elevation is to show the general appearance of this
description of cottage. The steps to the level part of the platform are seen on the left, and
the gradual inclination of the surface from the south corner to the south-east corner to the
yard-wall. The shelves for bee-hives are shown with the dog-kennel under, but the dove-
cote is placed over the entrance porch.
23. General Form. The most economical form in which a house can be built, is well
known to be the cube. Not only does this form afford the greatest quantity of accommo-
dation, with the least quantity of walling and roofing, but it is easier warmed; and, when
warmed, it retains the heat better than any other form, more especially when the chimneys
are placed in the interior walls, the reason being that a smaller extent of surface is exposed
to the exterior atmosphere.
24. Aspect. With reference to Britain, and to the flat countries of most parts of Europe,
the mildest aspect is the south-east, and, therefore, the door of a cottage should, if possible,
be placed on that side. The next best side is the south ; and the two worst are the north-
east and the south-west. It is very desirable, in a cold moist climate, that the sun should
14
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
6
shine on all the exterior walls of the cottage, and also in at all the windows, every fine day
in the year, for the sake of keeping the walls dry, and the interior warm and cheerful. This
ohject may he accomplished hy placing any building, which is, or can be, resolved into a
square, or parallelogram, on the ground plan, so as that a north and south line will form
the diagonal figure. This being done, the out-offices should be placed on the north-west side
of the square, or parallelogram, as in Design I. The dairy and the pantry should always, if
possible, be placed on the same side, or with a north-east aspect, for the sake of coolness.
Tanks for water should also be on the same side, and under ground, for the same reason.
25. Construction. The walls of this cottage may be built of stone, or brick, or earth ;
but either of the two former are, undoubtedly, preferable to the latter, both in point of
strength and durability. In situations, however, where these materials are too expensive,
or cannot be obtained, every part of the walls here shown above the platform, may be formed
of earth, either in the pise manner, by compressed blocks, or by lumps of loam or mud
mixed with straw. Each of these modes will be described hereafter. In Design I. we have
shown the walls as if built of brick, eleven inches wide, with a vacuity in the centre. This
we propose to be done by keeping the width of the wall at eleven inches, working the out-
side fair (even) ; and, on the inside, keepir.g the headers or cross bricks, fig. 7, a, one inch
within the line of the stretch- 7
ing or lengthway bricks, b,
and keeping these length-
way bricks two inches apart
along the centre of the wall,
c. Walls built in this way
are much handsomer on the
fair side ; at least equally
strong with solid walls ;
always dry, and less easily penetrated by the cold in winter, or the heat in summer. The
inner surface, being uneven, is peculiarly favourable for receiving and retaining the plaster.
Hollow cottage walls may also be built by placing the bricks, both headers and stretchers, on
edge, as first practised by Mr. Silverlock, of Chichester. They may be also built with bricks
halved lengthways, by cutting with a knife or wire before burning, as recommended by Mr.
Dearne. (Hints on an improved Method of Building, Sfc. London, 8vo. 1821.) Both these
modes will be afterwards described. The roof may be covered with tiles, slates, thatch,
&c, at pleasure or convenience. Other ordinary particulars of construction and arrange-
ment have been incidentally mentioned in describing the ground plan, § 16, and in figs. 1
to 5, § 17 to 22. Some which are less common follow.
26. Platform, or Terrace. The principal use of this part of our plan, is to keep the
living floor of the cottage dry, and to prevent the necessity, in moist situations, of much ex-
cavation for the sunk apartments. Secondary advantages are, that it furnishes a neat and
comfortable walk round the house, and adds to the dignity and stability of its appearance.
To have the walls of so artificial and important an object as a house, rising abruptly from a
plain flat surface, whether that surface be dug or covered with turf, — in short, whether it be
a garden or a field, cannot be considered as either in harmony with nature or reason. Every
work of art is recognised as such by the appearance which it displays of design ; and the
MODEL COTTAGES. 15
preparatory terrace may be considered as enhancing this appearance, and raising its character.
Independently, therefore, of the platform being useful, its importance on the principle of en-
hancing the character and dignity of the design to be raised upon it, ought, in our opinion,
to ensure its almost universal adoption in buildings erected in the country. The platform,
in Design I, is five feet broad, and includes a border of one foot for wall-trees and flowers
next the house, and a margin of one foot, which should be of turf, on the outer edge, leaving
a walk between of three feet, which ought to be gravelled. The exterior sides of the plat-
form may have different degrees of slope, according to the nature of the soil, and the culture
or application of the slope. For a loamy soil, the platform may be covered with turf,
with a furze or a box hedge, about two feet high, along its upper angle, and the slope may be
45° j where a loamy soil is to be cultivated as a flower border, the slope may be from 35° to
30°; a sandy soil should have a still greater slope. Where stones are abundant, the slope
may be formed into rock-work, with a small hedge at top, or a dwarf wall, or a row of rough
stones. In some situations, it might be worth while to form a rough trellis over the roof,
about a foot above it, and on this trellis to train either apples, pears, plums, or vines, for
their fruit ; or, in severe climates, ivy, for the sake of retaining heat, by its evergreen leaves,
in winter. On the side walls of the cottage there might be trained fruit trees, or vines,
together with ever-flowering roses, honeysuckles, and a variety of climbing shrubs and
flowers ; but, at the same time, there is danger of indulging in these to such an extent as to
keep the walls damp, and to encourage flies, and other insects, which are disagreeable in the
house. The small border of one foot wide, under the wall, may always be planted with low
flowers, and great might be their variety and beauty, if the taste of the occupant lay in this
way ; but the number and kind of shrubs and trees to be planted among these, with a view
of training up the walls, must depend on the climate, aspect, and other circumstances. We
shall afterwards give a list of climbing shrubs, and fruit trees, suitable for the purposes in
view, in different climates.
27. The outer margin of the platform may either be finished with or without a low hedge,
or by a low parapet, or other fence of wood or iron. If with a hedge, the sameness of the
line may be broken by small standard trees, four or five feet high, at the angles ; and we see
no reason why these standards should not be cut (not clipped,) into shapes, as well as the
hedge, if the cottager's taste inclines him to do so. The standards may either be of the
same species of tree as the hedge, but in a state of variegation, — say a green box hedge, with
variegated box standards, — or of a different species. Green, and variegated box, are among the
best shrubs for this purpose, in point of utility; because every time the box is pruned, the
twigs may be used as a substitute for hops, in brewing. But, in most cases, an architectural
parapet will have a better effect than a dwarf hedge, and this may always be made an object
of great beauty at very little expense. We shall afterwards show in how many different
ways common bricks and tiles, and stones, rough or hewn, may be formed into these para-
pets. We shall also show various forms of iron and wooden parapets for the same purpose.
28. Entrance Porch. No edifice whatever, in our opinion, is complete, unless some dis-
tinctive mark is placed on the opening by which it is entered. What a portico is to a palace
or a public building, a porch is to a cottage. A porch is not only the distinctive mark of the
entrance door, but, being a protection to it from the inclemency of the weather, it must tend
to preserve the warmth of the apartment within. No cottage, therefore, ought to be without
its porch. In many cases, the porch may be a wooden structure superadded to the cottage ;
in others, a vestibule within may serve the same purpose ; but, for stability, durability, and
dignity of effect, the porch should always project from the main body of the edifice, and be
built of the same materials, and in the same taste or style as the cottage itself.
29. Chimney Tops. In every human dwelling, these ought to be conspicuous objects,
because they are its essential characteristics. They distinguish apartments destined for
human beings from those designed for lodging cattle. They also distinguish a dwelling-
house from a manufactory or workshop, by their size, form, number, and disposition. Inde-
pendently of these qualities, they ought, in dwellings, to be dignified by a greater attention
to design, than the less important parts of the edifice. On this subject we shall have much
to say in describing succeeding Designs, but we have deemed it necessary thus early to state
our guiding principle with respect to this part of the cottage, in order that it may never be
supposed, for a moment, that we approve of concealing chimney tops, or of leaving them in
their present mean and trivial form.
30. Collecting and Filtering Water. Considering it to be desirable that every cottager
should be perfectly independent in respect of water, and also that rain-water is the purest of
all water, we propose to show the manner in which all the water which falls on any dwelling
may be collected ; how to filter and preserve one part of it, in a tank, for cookery purposes ;
16
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
and to preserve the other part unfiltered, in a cistern and in a large tank, for the purposes of
the water-closets, for the use of the cow and pigs, for washing and cleaning, and for the garden.
It is calculated by Waistell, that the average quantity of water which falls on a square yard of
surface in Britain, in a year, is 12G gallons; which, for this building, containing upwards of
100 square yards of roof, will give 12,600 gallons ; an ample quantity for the purposes
mentioned. A cottage constructed on this principle, therefore, may be set down in any
situation, without reference to a natural supply of water. The cistern, I, in Design I, may be
of cast-iron ; or of slabs grooved into each other, and made water-tight with Roman cement ;
or of plates of Welsh slate ; or of large flat paving tiles set in cement ; or it may be made of
wood, plastered inside with cement ; or of bricks set in cement, and plastered within with the
same material ; or in countries where timber is abundant, as in America, or Australia, it may
be formed of thick planks, well pitched ; or it may be simply an old liquor cask. However
constructed, it must have a waste-pipe ; which, when the cistern is full, will flow over into the
tank or well below, shown in fig. 5. This well or tank is to be considered as the grand
reservoir of the premises ; and if there should be a natural spring in it, so much the better.
Should the culinary, or filtering tank, fig. 8, /, fail at any time, water may be drawn from
this tank, and introduced into the filtering tank.
31. The mode of filtering is very simple, and will be easily understood from the section
E F, of Design I. In this section, fig. 8, a, represents a vacant space of three inches from the
bottom to b; b, is a slate, stone,
^H^^nu^
or board, pierced with numerous
holes, say at the rate of three to -
an inch, of about the eighth of an
inch in diameter; c, is a mixture of
clean coarse sand and powdered
charcoal, or coarse burnt clay, with-
out either sand or charcoal ; d, a
filtering stone; or in default of a stone of this porous nature, a plate of lead thickly
pierced with holes, of one twentieth of an inch in diameter ; e, an opening by which the
water of the receiving tank,/, communicates with a, at the bottom of the filtering tank;
g, an opening by which the water after it has ascended through the filter, runs over into
the reserve tank, h. The filtering of the water may be effected in a more simple manner, by
placing a layer, about six inches thick, of round stones, about the size of eggs, in the bottom
of the filtering tank, and over this either burnt clay, or sand and charcoal, covered by a
pierced leaden plate, as before ; or by a stratum of sponge, which may be substituted for the
plate. It must be evident by inspecting the section (fig. 8), that when the water supplied
from the roof to the receiving tank,/, rises above the level of d, it will run over, by g, into the
reserve tank, h; and that the water in all the three tanks will always stand at the same level,
provided the water in the tank,/, be above the level of d.
32. The filtering material may be
cleaned by having a large cock in the
bottom of the receiving tank, com-
municating with the waste drain ; by
opening which, when the reserve cis-
tern is full, the water in that cistern
will rush through the filter in a con-
trary direction to what it did before ;
and will carry off all the impurities,
either in the filter, or in the space at
the bottom, a. The filtering might
also be effected by placing the filter
in the tank /, instead of in the centre
tank ; and by introducing the water
from the roof, direct to the space, a,
by a pipe, through the filter; the water
would then rise through the filter, and
fill the tanks, e and h. A larger re-
serve of filtered water would thus be
obtained ; but the filter would require
cleaning oftener. The great advantage
of the mode we have recommended is, that the water will deposit the greater part of its
impurities in the bottom of the tank,/.
MODEL COTTAGES.
17
33. For pumping up the water from the main tank or well, g, in fig. 5, we have recom-
mended Siebe's rotatory pump. This pump, fig. 9, operates by the rotation of a roller,
on its axis, a, having paddles or pistons, b, b, b, b, by which, when the roller is turned,
a vacuum is produced within the barrel, c. In consequence of this vacuum the water
flows up the rising trunk, d, into the barrel, and as the paddles go round they force it into
an opening which conducts it wherever it may be wanted, and by that means produces
a continual stream. By having an ascending tube, e, this water
may be forced to any height, and, by having a horizontal tube
with a cock,/, it may be let out at pleasure, as in a common
pump. By having several pipes branching from e as many cisterns
or reservoirs might be supplied. The appearance of this pump
is very neat and simple, fig. 10 ; but, as in the case of other
pumps, the tubes must be covered with straw or matting, during
frosty weather, otherwise the freezing of the water will make
them burst.
34. The mode of heating by a flue below the kitchen flo r we con^
sider a most valuable plan for ensuring and economizing heat,
particularly in cold countries, where fuel is scarce. Indeed, we
shall afterwards show how, with this arrangement, and an extra
quantity of land, say an acre, besides garden ground, every cot-
tager may grew all his own fuel. Whenever there is a back
kitchen adjoining the principal kitchen, or cottager's living room,
and both are on the ground floor, this mode of heating the floor
by a flue may be adopted. All that is necessary is to have a sunk
area in the back kitchen for the oven, as will be shown in
Design IV. When there are two rooms on the ground floor, and one of these rooms is over
a cellar, as in Design I., then the oven or furnace can be made in the cellar. In either case
the courses of the flue are to be so contrived, as to allow the covers, supposing them to be
one-foot tiles, to form the floor of the two rooms which it heats. The flues may be of any
convenient depth exceeding eighteen inches, their sides built of brick-on-edge not plastered,
and the intervals between the flues filled up with loose stones or rough gravel. If the flues
are made deep, which in some cases may be found cheaper than preparing a raised solid
basis on which to build shallow flues, then the side walls may be tied together by brick-on-
edge work, (Design l.,h,) and the foundation of the partition wall, which separates the family
bed-room from the kitchen, will contribute to the same end. To equalize the heat given out
by the flue, and to prevent the kitchen floor from being too hot where the flue proceeds from
the oven, a double covering is there shown, with a vacuity of six inches between the under
cover and the floor, from the oven,/, tog ; a section of which may be seen in fig. 4, aX g. —
As faggots are intended to be burnt in the oven, the soot produced will be very trifling ; but
the flues may be cleaned once a year by taking up a tile at each end of the different courses
of the flue. Except when there is a fire in the oven, its door must be kept perfectly close,
and a damper in the upright flue, nearly so. In many cases, instead of a flue, a vault may
be made under the kitchen, and the smoke from the oven or furnace allowed to spend the
principal part of its heat in this vault, and afterwards ascend a flue proceeding from near its
bottom, fig. 11, a. As the walls, from the superincumbent
weight, would form abutments of very great stability, the
arch might be made very flat, and would thus cost less in
execution than the flues.
35. The immense superiority of this mode of heating the
air of a room, over any other whatever, will be obvious to
every one acquainted with the nature of heat. By open
fire-places, by stoves, steam-pipes, or water-pipes, (unless
indeed these are in the floor,) and, by heated air, the coldest
stratum of air is always found immediately on the floor, where, for the sake of the feet and the
legs, the air ought to be hottest ; by the method of under-ground flues, or a smoke vault, as in
fig. 11, the lowest stratum is necessarily the hottest, which must be preferable for the feet and
legs of grown persons, and for the whole bodies of little children. The heat being diffused
over the whole surface of the floor, must contribute greatly to the equality of the temperature
throughout the apartment, and the mass of loose stones, or the materials of the arch will con-
tinue to give out heat for a day or two, according to the season of the year, after every time
that the oven is heated. The heat from the floor, in its ascent to the roof, will warm what-
ever it meets with ; but this is not the case with either raised stoves or open fires. In heating
11
18
COTTAGE FARM AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
by open fires or common stoves, the heat ascends directly to the ceiling, and is there in a
great measure wasted, as far as it respects the persons in the apartment ; but by this mode
the ceiling will not in general be hotter than the floor.
36. Hot water for domestic purposes may always be obtained by a very simple arrangement
connected with the oven and flues. Over the oven, and as a cover to it, instead of brick-work,
might be placed, or huilt in, a cast-iron box or iron pot for heating water, as shown by the
dotted lines in the plan fig. 3, and by k, in fig. 4. The upper surface of this box or pot might
form a part of the kitchen floor, as at e, in fig. 22; and might have a properly secured flat
lid on that side, to admit of putting in and taking out water ; or the box might be entirely
buried in masonry, as in fig. 4, and in that case a part of it should project from the wall into
the back kitchen, or cellar, and should have a lid to open, for the purpose of filling and cleaning
out, and a cock, /, in fig. 4, for the purpose of drawing off" the water. If this box were two
feet, or two and a half feet square, and nine inches or ten inches deep, it would supersede the
necessity of the copper, fig. 3, e, and in summer, when the heat of the flue was not wanted, a
damper withdrawn would admit the smoke to ascend directly through a flue to the chimney
top. A family with a pot or box of this kind over their oven, the box or pot either opening
only from the kitchen above, or both from above and from the back kitchen, would, throughout
the year, scarcely require any other fire than what was made in the oven ; all their roasting and
baking would be done in the oven, and all their boiling in the pot or box over it. As it might
not be always convenient or desirable to boil the large box or pot full of water, there might
be a well of six inches diameter, and nine inches deep, cast in its bottom, and the small quantity
of water which this well would contain would be boiled with very little fuel ; for tea, or any
similar purpose, a tin jug of water might be set in among the water in the well, which would
keep the former perfectly pure. A very small quantity of fuel consumed in such an oven will
have a powerful effect in heating the water above it, from the difficulty of the heat escaping
by the sides. By this mode of heating and cooking a smaller quantity of fuel may be made
to suffice for the wants of a family than by any other method that we are aware of; since no
more can escape by the chimney than is absolutely necessary to carry up the soot.
Water might easily be drawn out of the well, or out of the box or pot when in com- \2
mon use, from the upper kitchen, without stooping, by inserting a long tube, like a
trumpet, fig. 12, made of tin, and open at both ends. When plunged in the water,
if the thumb be placed on the upper orifice, a, and retained there, the water in
the lower part, b, may be transferred to any other vessel.
37. IVater-closets and tanks for liquid manure. A water-closet or privy ought to be
attached to every human dwelling, and in all cold countries it should form part of
the edifice, and be approachable under cover. No cottage is, therefore, in our
eyes, complete without this appendage under the same roof, or under a lean-to.
The well or tanks for liquid manure connected with it, are as advantageous, in point
of profit, to every cottager who has a garden, as the water-closet or privy itself is
essential to cleanliness and decency.
38. The IVater-closets may be variously arranged ; but as one of the best and cheapest
modes, and as one the least likely to go out of
order, we give the following. The cistern,
fig. 13, a, may be at any distance from the seat,
6, provided it be on a higher level, by four or
five feet. The basin, c, may be an inverted
hollow cone, truncated, and joined to a piece of
cylindrical tube, inserted in a closed leaden
vessel, technically called a stink-trap, d. In the
side of c, at e, is a hole, or vertical slit, passing
obliquely through the sides of the basin, and
communicating with the cistern, a, by the pipe,/.
The water in the cistern is prevented from run-
ning off through this pipe, by the valve, g, shown
in fig. 14, on a larger scale. When it is desired
to allow the water to rush down into the basin,
it is only necessary to pull the string, h ; which,
if the cistern be at a distance, may pass over
several pullies, according to the number of
angles in its course. In order to ensure the
descent of a quantity of water to the basin every
time it has been used, a cord, t, may be joined to
MODEL COTTAGES.
19
15
h, and passed over a pulley at k, and the end of this cord may be fixed to the upper part of the
door of the water-closet, at such a distance from the hinge, say a foot, as will suffice to
lift up the valve, g ; or the same purpose
might be effected by a lever, fig. 15, /,
which would be acted on every time the
door was opened.
39. When the cistern is unavoidably
placed on a level with the basin, the
opening for the admission of water must
be much larger than in the first case.
This opening may be closed by a valve,
similar to that marked g, in fig. 13 ; but
a better mode is to have a lever valve,
fig. 16, m, which will also be operated
upon by the door every time that it is
either opened or shut. In every case
in which it is intended that a common
or lever valve should be operated on by
a door, the latter ought to have a spring
bolt (a contrivance for shutting the
door, which will be afterwards figured
and described), to shut it, lest at any time it should be left open by neglect. There are
different methods of constructing a privy to be used without water. One is, to have a basin,
as in a water-closet ; and to continue
down from it, a tube so far into the
cesspool below, as to prevent the rising
through it of air, and consequently of
smell. If all the waste water of the
house is, as it ought to be, poured into
the basin, neither that nor the tube will
ever be choked up ; and, in that case,
this construction may be considered one
of the best for preventing smell. The
next mode is to have no basin ; but to
take care that the surface of the cess-
pool exposed to the air, is no larger
than is necessary ; and that no crevices
are left in the seat, so as to admit of a
current of air passing over the surface
of the cesspool. There ought, both in this case and in the other, to be two covers to the
hole in the seat; one of a circular form, to fit into the opening, and the other, larger
and square, to be affixed by hinges to the back board, so as to shut down over the
whole seat. The windows in all water-closets ought to be close to the ceiling ; both to
prevent the persons within from being seen, and to admit of a more effectual ventilation.
40. General Estimate. What is called a general estimate of the expense of a building is
calculated at a certain rate per cubic foot, while a specific estimate is made up of the separate
estimates of each particular article. The rate or price at which a general estimate is calcu-
lated, depends upon a variety of circumstances ; but in every situation, the principal points
by which it is affected (all others being the same) are, — first, the irregularity of the outline of
the ground plan, and of the elevation ; secondly, the number of angles in the roof, or the
number of separate roofs ; and thirdly, the ornamental or carved work, both within and
without the building. The nearer the whole mass of a building approximates tc the form of
a cube, and the nearer all its separate parts approach to that form, the lower will be the rate
per foot. One roof of the simplest form may always be calculated at a lower price than a
varied roof, or several roofs. In Britain, buildings are divided into three classes: called, first,
second, and third-rate buildings. Cottages, and such dwellings as are contained in this
Book, belong to the third-rate class, and are generally calculated at from four-pence to six-
pence a foot for London. From the amount thus obtained, fifteen or twenty per cent, is
generally deducted, and the total thus found is the amount of the general estimate.
41. The cubic contents of this building are 16,833 feet ; and the following is the manner
in which these contents are calculated : —
d2
20 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Length of the front of the main building 24 feet.
Width of the main building 23 feet.
Height from the bottom of the foundations to the middle of the roof 23 feet.
Then, for the contents of the main building 24x23x23 = 12,696 feet.
Length of the lean-to building 23 feet.
Width of the lean-to 9 feet.
Height, including cistern, pump, and well . . 16 feet.
Then, for the contents of the lean-to 23X9X 16 = 3,312 feet.
Length of tanks 10 feet.
Width 5 feet.
Height 5 feet.
Then, for the contents of the tanks, and yard walls 10x5x5 = 250 feet
Length of sheds and piggery 23 feet.
Width of sheds, &c 5 feet.
Say five feet high, as the sheds have no fronts
and include the yard wall 5 feet.
Then, for the contents of the sheds, &c 23x5x5= 575 feet.
Whole amount 16,833 feet.
16,833 cubic feet, at 6d., £420:16s:6d.; at 5d., £350 :13s: 9d.; at 4d., £280: 11*. and
at Zd., £2\0:Ss:M.
42. Expression. This dwelling has no pretensions to any particular style of Architecture,
but it is obviously expressive of the subject or purpose in view ; and, as all its details are
well adapted for their various uses, whether as respects the convenience of the occupant of
the cottage, or as component parts of the structure, it is also expressive of fitness. This
Design may be ornamented by the addition of pillars to the porch, by a vase over it, by
ornamental chimneys, and by a parapet on the terrace, fig. 17 ; or, if an architectural
parapet is considered too expensive, a low hedge, fig. 18, may be substituted.
^cg
MODEL COTTAGES.
21
Design II. — A Cottage of One Story, combining the Accommodations and Conveniences of
Design I. differently arranged, and with the addition of a Veranda.
43. Accommodation and Construction. This Design contains the same number of rooms,
and of the same dimensions, as Design I. The communication with the cellar, by means
19
of the stair, a, in the lean-to, and the direct entrance to the yard, b, is, however, more con-
venient. The size of the cow-house, c, though somewhat diminished, is still large enough for
a small cow ; the space, d, for ducks or geese, and for a ladder to the hen-house, is not quite
so commodious as in the other plan ; but, on the whole, notwithstanding these drawbacks,
this plan exhibits what we think a better arrangement than the preceding one. Exteriorly
the platform is level as far as the steps to the porch, e, and thence it forms an inclined plane
to the natural surface. The veranda,/ (see fig. 19), which is supported by trunks of larch or
spruce fir trees, with the bark on, set on plinths of stone, or brick, will add much to the com-
fort and economical uses of this residence.
44. Aspect. The difference in the aspect of this cottage will be ascertained by observing
the points of the compass marked in the ground plan ; the north and south line being in the
direction of from left to right ; whereas, in Design I. it is from right to left.
45. General Estimate. Cubic contents 17,440 feet, at 6d. afoot, £436; at id., £290 : ]3s:4d.;
and at 3d., £218.
46. Expression. Though no marked features of any style appear in this elevation, yet ic
must be acknowledged to exhibit something more than the mere expression of purpose ;
because it would be equally, and to all appearance, as much a human dwelling, without the
columns as with them. It may, therefore, be said to exhibit the expression of improved
design. This expression would be further heightened by ornamental chimney pots, and a
light iron parapet to the terrace, fig. 20.
22
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
MODEL COTTAGES.
2S
Design III. — A Cottage of Two Stories, combining the Accommodations and Conveniences of
Design I. differently arranged, and with an additional Bed-room.
47. Accommodation. The same general accommodations are here given as in Designs I.
and II. ; but there is a second story, and this contains four bed-rooms. There is no cellar-
floor, but there is a back kitchen, the floor of which is a few steps lower than that of the
principal one. Into this sunk kitchen the oven opens, from which the flues proceed which
heat the best kitchen and the parlour ; unless it be considered desirable to have a boarded
floor in the latter apartment ; in which case, the courses of the flue will be confined to the
floor of the kitchen. The following are the details of the ground plan, as exhibited in
Design III. : —
a, Kitchen.
b, Parlour.
c, Back kitchen, the descent to which is
by five steps.
d, Bed-room staircase, under which are the
oven and boiler; the former with its
flue under the kitchen and parlour
floors, which are both paved with tiles
or stone.
e, Sink, supplied as in Design I. from a
filtering-tank.
/, Dairy and pantry.
g, Women's water-closet.
h, Tool-house and men's water-closet.
i, Cistern for water-closets, with tank or
well under, place for ducks and geese,
and ladder to poultry-house at one side.
k, Cow-house.
I, Place for wood, or other fuel.
m, Open yard.
n, Pigsty.
o, Dung-pit.
p, Faggot-shed.
q, Well, for the regulating plugs to the
manure tanks, or cesspools.
r r, Cesspools.
s, Shelves for bee-hives, with dove-cote
over, and dog-kennel under.
48. The Bed-room Floor is exhibited in detail in fig. 21. In this figure, the bed-rooms,
a and b, over the back
kitchen and dairy, are on
a lower level than the bed-
rooms, c and d, over the
Kitchen and parlour. The
positions of the different
beds, chests of drawers,
and dressing-tables, in the
different rooms, are indi-
cated by outlines, as in
Designs I. and II. ; and the
vacuity in the exterior wall
is shown as in the ground
plan. The vertical profile of
the lean-to, containing the
cow-house, water-closets,
and wood-house, is also
shown. By vertical profile,
is to be understood a view,
looking down vertically
upon any object. The walls
and ceilings of the bed-
rooms are supposed to be
finished with two coats of
plaster,without cornices, but
with the usual fittings and
finishings of joiner's work,
as given in detail in the spe-
cification of DesignVII. The
bricks used in the exterior
surface of the outer walls,
should not be of a harsh red
colour. Ft. 10
i i i i 1
49. The Levels of the different Floors are shown by fig. 22, which is a section on the lines
A B, in Design III., and in fig. 21. In this section may be seen the level of the open yard,
O.L
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
III.
St. 10
MODEL COTTAGES. 25
a /passage from the back kitchen, b; sunk area under the stair, to give head-room for
22
attending the oven, c ; oven, d; water-box over it on a level with the kitchen floor, e; flues
for heating the kitchen, /'; platform, g ; natural surface, h ; lower bed-room, i ; larger loft
over, 1c ; closet, I; situation of openings to the false flue for ventilation, m n; cornice foi
swallows, o o.
50. Construction. The walls are shown as of brick, and of the same thickness as hi
Designs I. and II. The floors of the
kitchen and parlour are formed in
the same manner as those in Design
I., with flues for heating. The roof
may be either covered with Italian
tiles, fig. 23, or with Grecian tiles,
fig. 24. In putting on either of these
tiles, the broad tiles, a, are laid side
by side, and the semi-cylindrical tiles,
b, are bedded in mortar, or in cement,
over the joints. The advantages of
these tiles are, that they admit of a
roof being made so flat, that it may
be walked on, and used as a terrace ;
while, at the same time, it is per-
fectly water-tight, and of great
durability, novelty, and characteristic beauty. In Staffordshire, these tiles are made from a
stratum of clay, containing a large proportion of iron ; and when this clay is burnt, the
tiles, or other articles formed from it, are almost
as hard and heavy as cast-iron. The articles
made from this clay are called terro-inetallic.
51. Situation and Aspect. This Design, from
having the sleeping-rooms on the second story,
is more particularly calculated for low, moist,
shady or confined situations ; in which, how-
ever, cottages should never be built if it can
be avoided. By observing the position of the
points of the compass in the ground plan (Design
III.), it will be seen that the entrance porch
is on the south-east; and that the sbelves for bee-hives front the north-east.
26
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
52. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 19,040 feet, at Gd. per foot, £476; at Ad.,
£317: 16*:8rf; and at 3d., £238.
53. Ex/n-ession. The tiles and the cornice of the chimney stack, give the elevation of
this Design, fig. 25, something of an Italian air ; and therefore, in addition to the expression
25
of purpose, this cottage may be said to have something of the expression of architectural
style. The beauty of such a dwelling would be greatly heightened by the addition of a
terrace parapet, and by ornamental chimney tops, fig. 26 ; and quite a different character
might be given to it, by having the roofing a good deal flatter, and adding cantilevers,
(pieces of wood framed into the side of a house, to support such mouldings as may be placed
over them,) under the far projecting eaves, so as to form an Italian cornice.
Chap. II.
A Miscellaneous Collection of Designs for Cottage Dwellings, with Critical and Analytical
Remarks.
54. The Designs which follow exhibit various modifications of all, or of several of the
comforts and conveniences contained in each of the Model Designs, joined to various degrees
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STILES.
27
of architectural style. The object is to show how some of the improvements in the Model
Designs, may be applied to even the smallest dwellings ; and, how with all, or with any of
these ameliorations, or without them, various degrees of architectural style or beauty may
be produced in cottages. For the attainment of these objects, we have accompanied each
Design by such remarks, as we think calculated to enable the reader to form an opinion of
his own ; grounded on sound principles, as to what is, and what is not, beauty in Cottage
Architecture. These Designs might have been arranged according to the degrees of accom-
modation, or their scale in respect to architectural style ; but considering that the first
appearance of this work will be in periodical portions, we have preferred giving a miscel-
laneous selection in each portion.
Design IV. — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, without Children.
55. Accommodation. This dwelling, we consider as exhibiting the minimum of accom-
modation, which ought to exist for a man and his wife without children, even in a country
where there is an unequal distribution of civil rights. It contains one room, a, in %vhich the
cooking and ordinary avocations of the family are carried on, and which serves at the same
time as a sleeping-room ; a wash-house, b, which must also serve as a store-room, pantry,
and for various other purposes ; a porch, c, for wood or other fuel, and for tools of husbandry
and out-door work ; a privy, d, and an enclosed yard, with a dung-pit, e, forming a circular
basin, and having a well in the centre for liquid manure from the privy.
56. Description. The house is placed on an artificial platform, which is ascended by four
stone steps, seen on the plan, near the entrance door. The surface of the platform, which
may be laid with gravel, or paved, forms a walk, on three sides of the house, leading from
the door of the house, to the door of the court-yard. The greater part of this court-yard is
on a lower level than the platform ; the descent to this level being by an inclined plane
from/ to g. The pit, under the seat of the privy, communicates with the well, e, four or five
feet deep, by an under-ground drain, which may either be formed in the usual manner, by
bricks or stones, or by earthenware pipes ; so that whenever the well is emptied for the
purpose of taking out the manure, (formed by what is thrown in from above, and what is
communicated below by the drain from the cesspool, under the privy-seat,) the privy will
be emptied also. In consequence of this arrangement, the seat will never require to be
removed for the purpose of emptying the cesspool ; and the opening in the seat may com-
municate with the cesspool by means of a tube, either of boards, or earthenware, which,
with double covers, will prevent the rising of smell. In the section of this cottage (p. 29),
it will be seen that the floor is laid on loose stones ; if it be desirable to heat this mass of
stones with a view to the economy of fuel, horizontal flues can be built among them, commu-
nicating with an oven, in the wash-house, at one end near the boiler, and with an additional
flue in the chimney stack at the other, in the manner shown in describing the model
cottages. To every dwelling there must be some source for supplying water for the purposes
of food and cleanliness. The common resource is a well, from which the water is drawn
either by a windlass, or lever and bucket, or a pump ; but the water which falls on the roof
may be applied to domestic purposes, as described in the preceding chapter.
57. Construction. The walls of this cottage are here shown eighteen inches thick, with a
view to their being built of rubble stone (stones rough from the quarry); of pise (to be
described hereafter) ; of mud blocks
27
\
(which is nearly the same thing as build-
ing in pise) ; or of compressed blocks of
common earth (also described hereafter).
The footings, or lowest parts of the foun-
dations of the walls are shown, in this
Design, and most of those which follow,
as only a few inches below the surface
of the ground, h ; partly because the
footings being covered and surrounded
by the platform, are not likely to be after-
wards disturbed ; and partly because
very little depth of foundation is wanted
for buildings, generally of one, and sel-
dom of more than two stories high. The
roof may be covered with flag-stones, or slates, or Grecian tiles ; the eaves being sup-
ported by wooden blocks, or cantilevers, as shown more clearly for the purposes v( th
28
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
carpenter, by the section of a portion of the wall and roof, drawn to a scale of half an
inch to a foot, fig. 27, i. The wall of the court-yard in countries where flag-stones abound
may be formed of a continuous line of these stones fixed in the earth, edge to edge ; or it.
may be constructed of boards, or pales ; or built of wood, pise, or blocks of compressed
earth. If formed of earth, the wall ought to have a coping either of stone or boards. The
raised platform may be made of the earth dug from the dung-pit and well, or from any
other convenient source, taking care not to employ any earth for this purpose, rich enough
to be used for the garden, if it can possibly be avoided ; the entrance door may be formed
of what carpenters call bead and batten (bead, a circular moulding, stuck on the edge
of a batten, i. e. a scantling or piece of wooden stuff, from two to four inches broad, and one
inch thick), with cross back bars inside.
58. General Estimate. The cubic contents of this building are 4,000 feet, and the following
is the manner in which these contents are calculated :
Length of the front of the main building, 14 feet 4 inches.
Width of the main building,14 feet 4 inches.
Height from the bottom of the foundations of the main building to the middle of the
roof, 14 feet. Feet In. lines
Then for the contents of the main building 14 : 4x 14 : 4X 14=2,876 2 8
Length of the front of both wings, 8 feet
Width of both wings, 11 feet.
Height of both wings, 10 feet.
Then for the contents of both wings 8x11x10= 880
Add for the wall round the court yard, and to make an even sum
3,756
243
4,000 0 0
28
4,000 feet at 6d.,h £'iQQ ; at 4d., £66 : 13s : Ad ; and at 3d., £50.
59. Garden. The dung-pit and well show that
this cottage is intended to have a garden, which
ought, if possible, to be around it ; but as dwellings
like this in Britain are often placed as lodges to
entrance gates, and stand on the margin of a planta-
tion or shrubbery, the garden in that case should be
on the side of the house which has windows ; because
that side only in such dwellings is generally left open
to the air and light. High trees or shrubs near a
house, if on a side which may happen to have no
windows, do comparatively little injury in the way of
obstructing the ventilation and lighting of the house,
to what they do on the windowed side. It is a com-
mon practice in Britain to place the kitchen gardens of lodges of this sort in the interior of
the plantation or shrubbery, so
29
that they may be concealed
from the road; and to have
only a flower garden on the
front or open side of the house ;
but in this case the kitchen
garden is of very little use to
the occupant ; the surface being
overshadowed by the trees, and
the soil exhausted by their roots.
Whatever is decidedly contrary to utility and convenience, must be in bad taste, though it
may seem to a superficial observer to be other- ,'30
wise.
60. Expression. A plain cottage, like the
present, cannot be said to be in any particular
style of architecture ; though it belongs more
to the Grecian than to the Gothic, from the
proportions of the windows, and from the
blocks or cantilevers, fig. 27, i, supporting, or
seeming to support, the eaves of the roof. If the door and the two windows had Grecian
architraves and mouldings (masonry supposed to be in imitation of the original beams
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 29
IV.
30 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
V.
^r^Tl
' ■■MMIWMWWWP
" ' "1
jJro^WW^^
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
:i
which, in rude huts, formed the sides and covers to openings, fig. 28), the building would
then lay claim to be called a cottage in the Grecian style ; but being without these, it has
little or no expression of style, but simply an expression of the subject, or purpose, for
which it was built ; that is, to serve as a cot-
tage, or human dwelling of the humblest kind.
The glass windows, the door for security, and
the chimney top, clearly show this edifice to be
a human dwelling; and its size, as decidedly
determines it to be one of the humblest
description, or what is called a cottage. Re-
move the windows and the chimney top,
leaving the entrance opening without a door,
fig. 29, and it might be taken for a cattle-
shed and yard. Remove the roof, and replace
the door, fig. 30, and it might pass for a place
of burial. Restore the glass windows, in-
crease the height of the principal one, and
replace the roof with a little alteration, adding
on its summit a turret and bell, fig. 31, and this structure might be mistaken for a chapel.
We state these things simply for the purpose of showing what is meant by expression of
the subject, in contradistinction to what is meant by expression of architectural style.
Design V. — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife with Two or more Children, with a Cow-house
and Pigsty.
61. Accommodation. This is a simple, economical, and comfortable dwelling, without
pretensions either to ornament or style. It contains an entrance lobby, a ; kitchen, b ; back
kitchen, c ; children's bed-room, d ; bed-room for the father and mother, and the infant chil-
dren, e ; tool house,/; pantry, g; place for fuel, h ; privy,?'; cow-house, k ; and dairy, I.
There is a yard behind the house containing a pigsty and the manure well. This yard is
entered from the back kitchen, c ; and also by doors in its boundary fence, m.
62. Construction. The walls may be of stone, brick, or earth ; the two former materials
will not only be found more suitable in reality, but more satisfactory to the eye ; for walls of
earth, when not whitewashed, have always a mean appearance, from the inferiority of the
material ; and when whitewashed, this meanness, though concealed, is still known to exist ;
for no building was ever whitewashed, but for the purpose of concealing something, and every
one must feel, with Wood, that the grandeur or the beauty of any building is never heightened
by this operation. " The world in general," says this philosophical artist, " is exceedingly
unwilling to acknowledge beauty of form when the material is bad ; and, on the other hand,
where the materials are good, it is ready to praise the form also ; the one is a much more
obvious and indisputable merit than the other." {Letters, fyc. Vol. II.p.96.) Where white-
washing or lime-washing a building, with any colour, contributes to the preservation of the
wall, it is justifiable ; but no genuine lover of truth will ever admit that this operation can
add to the beauty or character of a building. The idea which it conveys of the neatness and
cleanliness of the inhabitant is its principal recommendation ; and yet it is a fact, that where
lime-washing is most employed, as in Wales and Scotland, the interiors of the cottages
are less orderly and clean, than in the unwhitened mud and rough stone cottages of
England.
63. The Cow-house in this Design is placed under the same roof with the dwelling apart-
ments, but with its floor a few inches lower, so as to be on a level with the platform. That
part of the platform on which the cow-house opens ought always to be connected with an
enclosed yard ; and instead of sloping down to the general surface level at an angle of 45°
or 50°, it ought to slope, as shown in the Section on the line A B, at an angle not exceeding
15°. The whole of the enclosed yard ought either to be paved, macadamized, or gravelled ;
and the surface ought to be so inclined as to carry all the water which falls on it, to the
manure pit and well. The floor of the cow-house ought to be perfectly level and smooth, so
as that it may never be necessary to employ litter. The gutter ought to be formed about a
foot broad, and four inches deep, and exactly behind the cow's heels. This will be from
seven to eight feet from the feeding-trough at her head, according to the size of the cow ; but
the details on this subject will be found in our second Book.
64. The Roof is shown of a low pitch, and covered with slates. The chimney tops are
quite plain ; and, in our opinion, they, and most of the other chimney tops in the Designs
32
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
ora
f
liithcrto published, are too short. The principle of truth, or a thing appearing to be what it
is, and the expression of purpose, alike require that, in all human dwellings in temperate
climates, intended to appear as such, the chimney tops should be con- 32
spicuous objects. We would, therefore, recommend them, in all cases,
to rise boldly into the air above the roof, and to form a conspicuous
feature in the outlines of all buildings against the sky. As a palliative
for the evil of a stack of chimneys being too short, architectural
chimney pots may be employed. Of these there are a great variety of
forms made of cement, artificial stone, or earthenware. We shall give
numerous specimens in the couree of this work, and, in the mean time,
present one, fig. 32, which may answer very well for the Design before
us, and which was furnished us by Mr. Austin, from his artificial
stone manufactory, in the New Road, London. Much of the effect of
chimney pots, vases, and all ornaments of this sort, depends on their
being raised on suitable plinths (a square plate, origir.ally a square 1
tile, placed under the base of a column, or other object), fig. 33, n.
65. The Door-way in this Design is protected from the perpendicular rain by what is
called a door-bracket,
fig. 34, which, consi-
dering that there is
a lobby or vestibule
within, may, perhaps,
serve as a substitute
for a projecting porch;
for, as we have be-
fore observed, when-
ever comfort is the
object, there ought
either to be a porch,
or a lobby ; and in
every exposed situa-
tion, both are desira-
ble. That the porch
should always par-
take of the expres-
sion of the main body
of the building is suf-
ficiently obvious; and not less so that it should be enhanced in the expression of Design,
in order that it may be rendered conspicuous and inviting.
06. Situation. This building is not calculated for being placed in a situation where it will
be seen from all sides ; because the yard-wall, and the irregular size and position of the
openings which look into it, have less of the character of architectural design than the front
and ends. If it be placed near a road, therefore, the entrance side and end should first meet
the eye as in the perspective elevation before us.
67. General Estimate, 11,700 cubic feet, at 6d. per foot, £292 : 10s. ; at id., £195 ; and at
3d., £146 : 5*. „r
68, Expression.
Nothing here can be
considered as super-
added to the expres-
sion of the subject.
A degree of orna-
ment and elegance
illicit be conferred
by handsome chim-
ney pots as sug-
gested above, and
by a low fence round
the terrace, fig. 35 ;
but, for the latter,
might very well be substituted a box hedge, which the cottager might keep neatly cui and
o) i lamented by verdant figures at the corners, &c
"i r
i
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES- 33
VI.
34 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
VII.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
35
Design VI. — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife with an Apprentice, Servant, or grown-up
Son or Daughter.
69. Accommodation. This neat little dwelling contains only one large room or kitchen,
a; a small bed-room for the master and mistress, b ; and
a store closet, c. Included under the lean-to at one end,
is a privy, d, and a place for fuel, e, and there is a porch
in front,/. The servant, or grown-up son, or daughter,
is supposed to sleep in the large living room, or kitchen,
in which, the situation of a bed is indicated ; it being
frequently requisite in the case of gate-houses, ferries,
or bridges, to have one of the inmates sleeping near
the door, for the convenience of rising in the night-time
to open the gate, take toll, &c. The use of the space
between the ceiling and the roof may be obtained by having a trap door over the porch.
70. Construction. The walls may be either of
brick or of stone. The roof may be covered with
slates, projecting a few inches over the walls, and
delivering the water into a gutter, fig. 36. The
doors are ledged, and hung with ornamental hinges
(fig. 37, to a scale of three quarters of an inch
to a foot), fixed on the outside.
71. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 5,230 feet,
at Gd. per foot, £130 : 15*. ; at Ad., £87 : 3s : id. ; and
at 3d., £65 : 7s : 6d.
72. Expression. There is obviously something more intended here than the mere ex-
pression of the subject. The peculiarity of the hinges of the door, the small loop-hole opening
over it, and the pinnacle by which the gable end is terminated, are intended to give
some character or expression of
style to this cottage ; though
we cannot refer to any known
sub-style or manner which may
be considered its prototype. The
elevation, however, presents a
very neat whole, and though not
striking, is at least agreeable.
It might be enriched by suitable
chimney pots, and to be complete,
ought to have a parapet on the
terrace, fig. 38.
Design VII.— A Dwelling of Two Rooms, and a back Kitchen, for a Man and his Wife.
73. Accommodation. This dwelling is deficient in closets, which are always more or less
useful, either in a small house or a large one; it is, however, substantially built, and com-
fortable. There is an entrance lobby, a ; a room, b, containing a bed, which may serve also
for a working room, and which, in Scotland, very generally serves for a parlour; a kitchen,
c, well lighted, and with two cupboards ; and a back kitchen, d, which forms part of a
lean-to. One end of this back kitchen may be partitioned
off as a pantry. In the lean-to there is also a place for
fuel, e, and a privy,/; which last communicates by a drain
with the well of the dung-pit.
74. Construction. The walls may be built of rubble stone,
with rusticated corners (that is, the joints channelled, or
cut in grooves), as shown in the elevation ; and as is very1^
generally practised in countries abounding with free stone. ;
There is an obvious propriety in the practice of building -
the corners with large and square stones ; because the
corner of a building, from being exposed to the weather,
and to accidents from coming in contact with persons or
objects on two sides, in order to be equal in durability
with the general face of the wall, must be formed of a more solid, homogeneous material.
It is not, as some might suppose, that the corners require to be built thicker than
39
V
36
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
the other parts of the walls in order to be stronger; for the corner, from its very position, is
always the strongest part of the wall. Thus, a
force applied to the wall, g, in the direction of
/*, fig. 39, is resisted only by the thickness of the
wall ; but a force applied at » or k, is resisted by
the thickness of the wall, backed by its length ;
and a force applied at /, is resisted by the length
of both walls. The walls in this Design are
finished with what is called a blocking course,
fig. -10, m, over which the slates of the roof project
so as to throw the water into a gutter, formed in
the upper surface of what is called the wall head
plinth, n. This is a very common mode of roofing
and finishing stone-built, slate-covered cottages,
in Scotland ; where it is found both economical
and durable. The chimney stacks are formed of
hewn stone, finished with a simple cornice (fig. 41, to a scale of one inch and a half lo a
41
foot). In the section A B, in Design VII. it will be observed that the part
of the platform which is under the house, is formed of stones ; the
object being to keep the floor dry, and to admit, if it should be thought
necessary, of forming a flue in it.
75. Situation. A cottage with this description of roof is peculiarly
adapted for an elevated situation, much exposed to storms ; it being
impossible for the wind to get under a roof like this, which has no eaves.
76. Fitness. A great fault in this dwelling is, that the fire-places are
in the side wall, and though they are in part protected by the lean-to,
yet the heat thrown into that part of the building may be considered
in a great measure lost, or of no great use. It would be an improve-
ment to transpose e and /, as the heat given out behind the fire-place
of b, would then be turned to some account.
77. Expression. There is very little more here than the expression of
the subject. What there is, belongs to local manner, and that manner
being common in Scotland, the dwelling before us may very well be
termed a stone cottage in the common Scotch manner. This manner
can by no means be commended in point of beauty ; but it might be improved both in ap-
pearance and usefulness, by the ad- 40
dition of a porch ; a parapet to the
terrace, and a vase over the porch,
to bring those on the parapet, and
the chimney pots into harmony,
fig. 42. Vases for these purposes, of
various forms and dimensions, are
to be had from the potters, at a few
shillings each.
78. Specification. In the follow-
ing detailed specification, the walls
are supposed to be built of stone,
with brick coins instead of squared
stones. As a number of technical terms are necessarily made use of in these details, we
have explained them as they occur ; and the engravings which we have made use of in aid
of this purpose, are to be considered as merely expla-
natory, and not drawn to any scale, like those illus-
trative of the construction of the different Designs.
79. Specification of Bricklayer's Work. To dig out
the several trenches for the foundations of the respec-
tive depth and width required ; and to fill in and well
ram in the earth round the foundations when built.
To dig and steen (to line with brick or stone) in four-
inch brick-work, a cesspool for the privy four feet
in diameter in the clear, and six feet deep ; and to
dome (arch over) the same in nine-inch brick-work ; and put in four feet of twelve-
inch hollow tile drain, fig. 43, with a proper fall to convey the soil to it. To build
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
37
all the foundations and the cross-wall under the bed-room floor, and the external walls
with stones properly headed (squared at the ends) and prepared (so as to lie flat), laid in
random courses (courses of unequal height, fig. 44) ; the external face with a neat garreted
i : 45 4G
-rV
joint (the joint stuck with small pieces of stone), with brick coins (corners) and common
skewback (a bevelled abutment, fig. 45, o o,) brick arches, set in Roman cement, over the
doors and windows. The back kitchen, fuel-house, and privy, to be carried up in four-inch
brick-work. To fill in the cross partitions with four-inch brick nogging flat (bricks laid flat,
or in bed, fixed between, and flush, i. e. even, with the stud-work, fig. 46). To build nine-
inch brick spandrils and steps to the front door, with proper foundations. (The span of an
arch is the distance between the two points from whence it springs, and spandrils for door
steps are the arches, or the walls, which support the ends of the steps). To build the
47
V^ \ /"'/
-4
It-
:■'/
! <f
V
T
T11
chimney jambs (sides, fig. 47, p), breasts (fronts, q), backs, r,
and shafts, s, in brick-work, with flues, nine inches by fourteen
inches in the clear ; properly gathered and pargetted (plastered
in the inside with a mixture of common lime mortar, fresh cow-
dung, and loam) ; and provide an additional flue for a copper
(boiler). The fire-places to have each a strong iron chimney-bar
(bar for supporting the breast-work, or front side of the flues).
All the door and window-frames to be properly bedded (placed
in mortar), and pointed (the joints neatly closed) with good lime
and hair mortar. To pave the kitchen and entrance with good
paving bricks, bedded and jointed in mortar ; wheeling in stones
and gravel, which are to be well rammed in and consolidated, in
sufficient quantity to raise the floor to the level shewn in the
section ; and to pave the back kitchen, fuel-house, and privy,
with common stocks, bedded in sand : the whole to be properly
currented (laid to such a slope as to carry off the water). The
bricklayer is to find scaffolding and ladders, and to fix and refix
the same, as occasion may require ; and to cut the chasings (to cut
into the brick-work) for lead, and all rakes (to cut a rake, is to
reduce to a smooth slope the face of brick-work which has been
left in a rough slope, as indicated by the dotted line, fig. 48, t),
and splays (a splay signifies a return of work deviating from a
right angle, and is generally applied to the bevelled jambs of T" P f
windows and doors, as at u, in fig. 48) required ; and make good (reinstate what may have
been deranged during the operations) ; and, from time to time, to clear away the rubbish
arising from the work during its progress. The bricklayer is to find all materials; lime, sand,
tackle, carriage, and labour, for the completion of the foregoing works in a sound and
workmanlike manner.
80. Specification of Plasterer's Work. To colour
twice over, in a good warm-tinted stone colour, the
brick coins, arches, chimney shafts, and the exterior
of the back kitchen, fuel-house, and privy. To lathe
(to nail on the laths), lay, set, and whiten, the ceilings
of the kitchen, bed-room, and entrance ; and render
set (first and second coats of plaster in two-coat work)
the walls and partitions, and lime-white (whitewash)
twice over the back kitchen, fuel-house, and privy
inside. The plasterer is to find all materials, tools,
carriage, and workmanship required for the comple-
tion of his work ; and to do the same in a workmanlike manner.
48
X
JZE
j£
!3r.
38
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
81. Specification of Slater's Work. To cover the whole of the rooting with Countess
slating (the third size of Welch slut.-, tee Slates, in Glossarial Index), nailed with painted
iron nails, and the eaves to be laid double. The whole to be laid with a sufficient lap, and
to be carefully sorted in courses (laid so as that the joints may form regular lines), so as
effectually to exclude the weather. The slater is to find all materials, tools, carriage, and
labour required for the completion of his work, and to do the same in a workmanlike
manner.
82. Specification of Stone- Mason'. i Work. To put Yorkshire stone quarry sills, eight inches
wide, bevelled (sloped), throated (grooved underneath), and tooled (hewn, but not rubbed
afterwards, as is done occasionally to produce a finer surface), to all the windows. To put
a Yorkshire stone hearth and slab to the bed-room fireplace ; and plain Portland stone
mantels (the cross pieces which bear on the jambs), jambs, slips (sides of the jambs), and
shelves to both the fireplaces. The mason is to find all materials, carriage, and work,
required for the completion and fixing of his work, in a sound and workmanlike manner.
83. Specification of Carpenter's and Joiner's Work. Carpenter's work. The work to be
done with sound, well-seasoned, Quebec red pine timber, except where otherwise specified.
The whole to be framed in a workmanlike manner, with the stuff (pieces of timber) sawed
square of the several scantlings (dimension of breadth and thickness), and descriptions as
follows: — all the carpenter's work, as well as the joiner's work, to hold the several scantlings
(dimensions, see Glossarial Index), and thicknesses herein ■ i
named, when finished. To put oak lintels (correctly, the
head pieces over doors or windows, which rest upon the
jambs ; in brick buildings generally a short beam over the
head of a door or window resting on the jambs, to carry work
that does not receive support from an arch), three inches and
a half thick, to all the openings, of the width of the respective
walls, less the thickness of the brick arches, so as to lay nine
inches on the walls at each end. Oak wood bricks (pieces of
oak timber, cut to the size and shape of bricks, and built into
the inner surface of walls for the purpose of nailing joiner's work to them, when finishing
the rooms), to be provided in the jambs for fixing the linings (thin boards) where required.
— Bed-room floor. To put oak joists, four inches 50
by three inches, and twelve inches apart, laid on
two-inch oak sleepers, four inches wide. — Ceiling s~ s— - v k
floor. To put an oak wall plate, four inches by two V \\\i M ^Bj <
inches and a half, dovetailed (see fig. 57) at the
angles, and halved and spiked (a mode of joining,
fig. 49) at the laps ; and ceiling joists, joggled on (fixed, as shown in fig. 50), and spiked
:.l
.52
(nailed with spike nails, fig. 51) at each end, to the
top of the plate, four inches by two inches, and
twelve inches apart ; the two end bays (spaces be-
twixt the girders, or principal timbers in a floor) to be
framed at one end into the binding joists, five inches
by three inches, fig. 52, v. — Roofing. To put one inch
and half yellow deal hip rafters (rafters at the angles of
a pavillion roof), and ridge pieces, nine inches deep (fig.
53, w), rounded on the top for lead. Common rafters,
four inches by two inches and a half, and thirteen
inches apart; with two pair of couplings, five inches by three inches, fig. 54, x,
framed to the binding joists, or tie beams (horizontal pieces of timber, y), and spiked to the
face of them at each end, having king-posts (perpendicular posts, z), six inches by two inches
and a half. The whole properly trimmed (framed round, leaving a clear opening,) to the
chimney shafts. The shed roof over the back kitchen, fuel-house, and privy, to have
53 rafters, wall plates (pieces of
timber on the walls, on which
the rafters rest, fig. 54 Sf §), and
ties of the same scantling as
above described. The whole of
the roofs to be covered with
three quarters of an inch thick
yellow deal slips (boards), two
inches and a half wide, for Countess slates ; with proper tilting fillets (tilting fillets are used
3K
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
39
to give a slight inclination to the verge or border-slates, where they butt against brick-work,
as at a, in fig. 55, in order that the water may be directed from the brick-work; they are
56
57
n
likewise employed to steady and support the lower edges of slates finishing against vallies ;
the usual size is three inches wide, three-eighths of an inch thick, and feather-edged) ; and
one inch and a quarter feather-edged (thin edged) eaves' board, eight inches wide. Put one
inch yellow deal gutters, and bearers (pieces of scantling to support the gutters, fig. 56, b,) to
the chimneys. The internal partitions to be made for
nogging flat (the same as in fig. 46, but with the bricks
set on edge). Put heads, four inches by three inches,
dovetailed, fig. 57, into the plates; sills of oak, four
inches by two inches and a half; common charters,
fig. 58. c, four inches by two inches, and eighteen inches
apart ; door-posts, d ; principal quarters (principal up-
right pieces of timber in the partition, e), and braces
(diagonal pieces of timber, /), four inches by three
inches ; nogging pieces, g, four by two inches.
84. Specification of Joiner's Work. All the inside
framing, and all the outside work, to be of sound, well-
seasoned, dry, yellow deal. To put one inch and a
quarter moulded fascia (fig. 59, /(), with an inch thick gutter having a false bottom, i, to current
the water (to slope the bottom, so as to make it run), put together with white lead, all round
50 61
59 €f3p5s=. r~\ 62
\k<
%
the eaves, with two three-quarters of an inch yellow deal water trunks, four inches and a
half square (wooden pipes to conduct the water down, fig. 60, k), with head, I, and shoes,
fig. 61, to deliver the water to the ground. To lay in the bed-rooms one-inch folding floors,
(a particular mode of laying down the boards ; but
when finished, the appearance presents nothing
particular; fig. 62. See folding floors, in Glos-
sarial Index), with border to the slab.— [In the
specification of the gutter for carrying off the
water from the roof, there is a deviation from the
section, fig. 40, in p. 36, in which the gutter is
formed in stone, being hollowed out of the wall-
head plinths. The reason why this deviation has
been made, is, that the specification was drawn up
with the view of erecting the cottage in the
neighbourhood of London, where a stone gutter
would have added greatly to its expense. The
wooden gutter shown in the section, fig. 63, will
produce the same effect, and correspond with
the specification.] — Doors. To put proper door-cases (door-cases are called proper, when
wrought, i. e. planed, framed, rebated, and beaded,) of fir (fir is generally applied by builders
40
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
on
""l — n
DD
.5^:
to Baltic timber ; what they call pine generally comes from America, and is of inferior quality),
four inches and a half by three inches, and oak sills to all the external 64
doors, with one inch and a half six-panelled bead, butt and square door
(a door framed on one side without any moulding ; on the other the panel
is flush with the stiles, and has a bead run on the edge, butting against
the rails, fig. 64, m, m, m,) to the entrance, hung with three-inch butts
(hinges, fig. 65) ; and one and a quarter inch proper ledged door (a proper
ledged door has the boards planed, tongued into each other, see Index,
and beaded ; they are placed vertically, and nailed to horizontal pieces at
the back, called ledges,) to the back kitchen, fuel-house, and privy, hung
with sixteen-inch cross garnet hinges (a hinge with a bar, fig. 66) ; the whole
to have Norfolk thumb latches (latches lifted by the thumb, fig. 67), and
eight-inch rod bolts, fig. 68; and, except the privy, eight-inch fine plate
stock locks (locks with a wooden back, or stock, fig. 69). The internal doors to be one inch
and a quarter six-panelled, both sides square, with two inches and a half butt hinges, an.'
six-inch iron rim brass knob locks, fig. 70. — Windows. To put an oak 65
solid two-light proper frame, three inches by two inches, with cast-iron
casements, made to open with strong hinges, latches and spring stay-irons
(irons to keep the window open) to the back kitchen. — [We have shown
in the elevation, sash windows, greatly preferring them to casements ; but
as the object was to erect the building at as little cost as possible, case-
ments were substituted in the scullery window, &c] — The windows in the
kitchen and bed-room to have deal cased frames (frames with wooden cases formed at [he-
back of the pulley stiles for the sash weights to hang in) oak sunk sills (the upper part of
the sill sunk, or grooved out, in order to prevent the irvrnnn 06
rain from driving under the sash) one inch and a half
ovolo sashes (the sash-bars with ovolo mouldings, fig.
71) ; double hung, with white lines, iron weights, and
brass pulleys, with brass spring fastenings, fig. 72. All the windows to have inch wrought
and rounded window boards, (a narrow shelf in the interior at, the bottom of the sash, li .
73, n,) with three quarters of an inch splayed lining and
soffits, o, with ogee mouldings, and fillets on the edge, p.
The doors also inside to have one inch and a quarter
single rebated jamb linings, with mouldings to match.
To put inch clamped (cross-headed, q) folding shutters,
with rule joints (joints like those of the common foot
rule), and proper hinges to the window, with iron bar
fastenings. To put three quarters of an inch square
68 skirting, (a skirting-board
tr"^ *jT /7T ~~i without any moulding at top),
CQ four inches high, fig. 74, in the
bed-room, with inch narrow bevelled grounds (slips of wood to fix the skirting to, having
the upper edge bevelled back, in order to retain the margin of the plaster, fig. 75, r), plugged
«9 r
0
©
0
" 9
69
IS
to the walls (nailed to plugs of wood driven
into the walls). To put an inch deal seat /If
1 I riser (the front board on edge), and bearers
(cross pieces), with water board hole and P
a cover, to the privy, and three quarters of f]
• i an inch skirting at back of the seat, six
inches high.— [We have before, in Chapter /
!., recommended a hinged flap, or lid, in addition to the round cover which fits into the hole,
with a view the more completely to exclude smell ; an object which ought, if possible, to be
effected, at whatever cost. For this reason, we would always recommend the introduction of a
71
i
mood) earthenware basin, with a tube, which may read-, down into the soil, under the seat,
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
41
in order to diminish the evaporating surface, and prevent the possibility of a current of air
rising through the opening.] — To put three tier of inch shelves in
each of the recesses in the kitchen. The carpenter and joiner to
find all materials, ironmongery, carriage, and labour for the com-
pletion of his work, and to do the whole in a sound and workman-
like manner.
85. Plumber's, Painter's, and Glazier's Work. To put flashings
(strips) of milled lead (lead that is pressed out to the required
thickness by a machine), eight inches wide, five pounds to the foot
superficial, chased (let) into the brick-work, and fixed with wall-
hooks, fig. 76, to the chimney shafts, with proper aprons (pieces of
lead to overlap the flashings, fig. 77, s), and cover the gutters with
lead seven pounds to the foot superficial. To cover the hips and
ridges with milled lead, fifteen inches wide, five pounds to the foot
superficial, properly lapped, dressed, and nailed with lead-headed
nails (nails with their heads enveloped in lead, by dipping them in melted lead, in order to
prevent their rusting). To glaze and back putty, (to remove the putty
pressed out of the rebate by the pane), all the sashes and casements with
good second (second in quality) Newcastle crown
glass. To paint the whole of the external wood-
work, and the gutters, and shoots (spouts), inside
four times in good white lead and oil ; the external
doors to be finished in an oak, or in a stone colour.
To paint the sashes, frames, shutters, linings,
and skirting, inside the house, three times in oil.
The plumber, painter, and glazier, to find all workmanship, materials, and
the carriage thereof; and everything requisite for the performance of his work, and to do the
same in a perfect and workmanlike manner.
86. Well, Pump, and Platform. The
above specification is exclusive of a well and
pump, also of a copper boiler, and setting it
and of the bringing of the earth, and forming
the platform or terrace round the house.
87. Estimate. The following is the form of an estimate,
framed on the above specification, as made by surveyors and
builders. The architects about London and Edinburgh, as
we have before observed, generally estimate by the cubic con-
tents ; first making a calculation of what a cube of ten feet
square will cost on each separate story ; but the surveyor,
whose business it is to measure buildings, and to estimate the value of
the labour and materials, goes into minute details. He does not, however,
in giving in an estimate, specify to his employer the value which he puts on every particular
item ; but only the total amounts of the different works generally executed by separate
tradesmen, in the following form :
88. Estimate of Bricklayer' s Work.
Nine cubic yards of digging, filling, and ramming ; seven cubic yards of
wheeling in stones and gravel, to level the ground under the kitchen
floor
One hundred and ninety-seven feet of reduced brick-work, (in estimating
the price of brick-work in Britain, the quantity, of whatever nature
and thickness it may be, is always reduced to walls of one and a half
brick in thickness, two hundred and seventy-two and a quarter square
feet of which form a rod of brick-work)
One rod, eighty-two feet of reduced stone-work (the stone walls are re-
duced to one and a half brick in thickness)
Two rods, two hundred and twenty-five feet of reduced stone-work above
ground, with brick coins and garreted joints
Twenty-nine yards of brick nogging flat
Ten and a half yards of common stock paving in sand
Sixteen yards of paving bricks bedded and jointed in mortar
Eight feet run (lineal measure) of chasings for lead
12 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Forty feel of cutting splays
Four feet of twelve-inch hollow tile drain
Digging and stecning in four-inch brick-work a cesspool, four feet
diameter in the clear, and six feet deep
Paved slope to the drain in the privy
Two iron chimney bars
Twelve common brick arches, set in cement
Nine window and door frames, bedded and pointed
£70
89. Estimate of Plasterer's Work.
Thirty-two yards of whitewashing to new work
Sixty-two yards of whitewashing twice over
Forty-five yards of stone-colouring twice over
One hundred and twenty-one and a third yards of render-set plastering.
Thirty-two yards of lathlay set plastering
£*10
SO. Estimate of Slater's Work.
Eight squares (one hundred square feet each) of Countess slating,
with painted nails
£13
91. Estimate of Stone- Mason's Work.
Twelve feet four inches, superficial, of Yorkshire hearth-stone
Twenty feet eight inches, superficial, of Portland stone chimney pieces
Sixteen feet three inches, lineal measure, of quarry Yorkshire sills,
eight inches wide, bevelled and throated
£4 :
92. Estimate of Carpenter's and Joiner's Work.
Sixteen cubic feet four inches of oak timber in lintels, plates, &c. . . .
Thirteen cubic feet eleven inches of oak timber, framed in joists, &c.
Ninety-one cubic feet one inch of Quebec red pine timber, framed in
roof and ceiling floor
Nine superficial feet of one-inch gutter-board and bearers
Seventy-one superficial feet nine inches of one and a quarter inch
feather-edged eaves board rounded
Forty-eight superficial feet nine inches of one and a half inch yellow
deal hips, and ridge rounded
Four superficial feet of two inch oak sleepers
Six squares and fifty-seven feet, superficial measure, of slips for
Countess slates, two and a half inches wide
Wooden bricks
One hole cut, one water board, and one cover
£30 : 15 : 4
93. Estimate of Joiner's Work.
Six cubic feet seven inches fir timber in proper (according to specifi-
cation) door-cases
One cubic foot four inches of oak timber, in sills
Ten cubic inches of oak, proper, in two light frames ,
Seventeen superficial feet nine inches of three-quarters of an inch
square skirting
Ninety-three superficial feet ten inches of three-quarters of an inch
splayed linings and soffits
Thirteen superficial feet six inches of inch shelves
Twelve superficial feet of inch seat and riser
Twelve superficial feet nine inches of inch wrought and rounded
window board
Eighty-six superficial feet of inch clamped folding shutters and hinges
Sixty-four superficial feet six inches of inch gutter, with false bottoms
and bearers, put together with white lead
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. t3
One square and fifty-seven superficial feet of inch yellow deal folding
floor
Forty-nine superficial feet four inches of one and quarter inch fascia
wrought
Fifty-three superficial feet three inches of one and a quarter inch proper
ledged doors
Fifty-eight superficial feet six inches of one and a quarter inch six-pr-
nelled bead butt and square doors
Twenty-one superficial feet of one and a half inch six-panelled bead,
butt, and square door
Eighty-one superficial feet ten inches of one and a half inch deal cased
frames, oak sunk sills, with one and a half inch ovolo sashes, double-
hung with white lines, iron weights and brass pulleys
Thirty-nine lineal feet six inches of narrow grounds and plugging ....
One hundred and fifty-seven lineal feet of ogee and fillet moulding.. ..
Twenty-two lineal feet of three-quarters of an inch deal water trunk,
four and a half inches square
94. Estimate of Ironmongery and Fixings.
Three pair of two and a half inch butt hinges, and screws for fixing them
One pair of three-inch butt hinges, and screws for fixing them
Three pair of sixteen-inch cross garnet hinges
Four Norfolk latches
Three eight-inch Stock locks
Four eight-inch bright rod bolts
Three six-inch iron rim brass knob locks ,
Four spring sash fastenings
Two cast-iron casements
Two stay-irons
Five shutter bars
.£38 : 8 : 7
95. Estimate of Plumber's, Painter's, and Glazier's Work.
Four cwt. two quarters of milled lead
Fifty-two superficial feet three inches of second Newcastle crown glass. .
Fifty-one and a half yards three times painted in oil
Twenty-eight yards four times painted in oil
Eleven yards four times painted in oil, of a stone or oak colour
Thirty-nine lineal feet six inches of inch skirting, four and a half inches
wide
Four dozen squares and frames, three times painted in oil
One two-light square and frame, three times painted in oil
Two casements, three times painted in oil
Four dozen squares and frames, four times painted in oil
One two-light frame, four times painted in oil
Two casements, four times painted in oii
Two stay-irons, four times painted in oil
£14 : 13 : 4
96. Summary of Estimates.
Bricklayer £70 : 3 • 3
Plasterer 10: 7: 2
Siater 13 : 12 : 0
Stone-Mason 4: 0: 6
Carpenter, Joiner, and Ironmonger G9 : 3:11
Plumber, Painter, and Glazier 14:13: 4
£182 : 0 : 2
97. Estimate from the Cubic Contents. This dwelling contains 7,305 cubic feet, which, at
£182 for the whole, is between 5Jrf. and fid. per foot ; but, as before observed, contractors
about London generally deduct a per centage from their estimates, according to the kind of
building to be erected : this percentage, for ornamental buildings, is about ten per cent. ; but
plain buildings, such as the one above given, may admit of a deduction from the estimate of
fifteen per cent., which would reduce the amount to about £155.
44
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Design VIII. — A Dwelling of Two Rooms, for a Man and Ids Wife.
98. Accommodation. This dwelling, though small, will be found suitable for those
situations where neatness, with some little appearance of improved design, is an object. It
contains a kitchen, a, well lighted, and with two closets ; a bed-room, b, with a recess for a
cupboard; a porch, c; a back-room, d, in which there might be a boiler and an oven for
baking, and also for heating water, and the flues in the floor ; a place for the fuel, e ; and a
privy, f. The section, A B, shows that the kitchen floor, and that of the back kitchen and
porch, are on a bed of stones. The bed-room floor is of boards laid on joists, and hollow be-
neath. The whole is surrounded by a platform, which may either be paved or laid with
gravel ; and along its outer margin, there may be a small parapet, with Gothic ornaments
on it at the angles.
99. Construction. The walls may be built of stone or brick ; and the roof covered with
slates or flat tiles, projecting a few inches over the walls, so as
to deliver the water which falls upon it into the gutter. The
chimney tops are round, terminating with small capitals. The
pediment over the entrance terminates in a small ornament or
pinnacle, formed of oak (fig. 78, on a scale of half an inch to a
foot), characteristic of old English cottages in districts abound-
ing in timber.
100. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 7,430 feet, at 6d. per
foot, £185 : 155. ; at 4d., £'123 : 18s. ; and at 3d., £'92 : 17s.
101. Expression. From the pointed top of the entrance-
door, from the ornament on the summit of the pediment over
it, and from the cylindrical chimney tops, it is evident that
something more is intended than mere expression of the subject.
Yet there is no great unity of style, for the tops of the windows
are square, and there is nothing out of the usual course in the
appearance of the roof. All that can be said of this elevation is, that it is pleasing and
picturesque ; that is, very well calculated to look well in a picture, though it is not in any
very marked architectural style. The space between the tops of the windows and the eaves
of the roof, is sufficient to admit of a veranda ; and this, with a suitable parapet on the
terrace, fig 79, would render this
cottage a very ornamental object.
Placed in a garden, and surrounded
by low and round-headed fruit trees,
such a building would produce a
better effect than in a forest of pines
or firs; as the pointed forms of those
trees would not contrast so well
with it, and they would overpower
it by their size. In planting trees
near dwellings of any kind, if it be
desired to conceal the building, to
diminish its importance in the land-
scape, and to render it an unhealthy abode for its occupants, then tall evergreen shrubs and
large trees ought to be planted close to the edifice; but, if on the contrary, it be intended
that the cottage should have some dignity of character, and that its occupants should keep
their health, no tree, that under any circumstances grows higher than the building itself,
should be planted within the distance of several yards of it.
Design IX. —A Dwelling in the Swiss style, for a Married Couple and Family ; with a
Cow-house and Pigsty.
102. Accommodation. The rooms in this dwelling are of a good size, and there is a
sufficient number of them for the comfort of the occupants. On the ground-floor, there is
an entrance lobby, a, containing the staircase; a kitchen, b; a back-kitchen, or wash-
house, c ; a parlour, d ,■ a light closet, e ; a pantry,/; a coal closet, under the stairs, g ; a
cow-shed, h; a piggery, i; a wood-house, k; and a water-closet, or privy, /. The windows
and doors of all this lower range are protected by a far projecting balcony, which, in point
of comfort and effect, is equal if not superior to a veranda. The bed- room floor contains one
best bed-chamber, m ; a light closet, n ; staircase, o ; bed- room for boys, p ,- and for girls, q.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
VIII.
45
46 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
IX.
4J»
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
47
The balcony is entered from a glass door on the ianding of the staircase ; and in countries
subject to snow and rain, is valuable for the protection which it gives to the windows anil
the boarded walls ; as a place in which children and invalids may take exercise ; to hang
up corn seeds, herbs, tobacco, and various articles from the eaves ; and more especially,
to dry clothes on lines during wet weather.
103. Construction. The foundations, as high as about two feet above the platform, and
the two interior walls containing the flues and the chimney stacks, are of brick or stone.
All the rest of the building is of wood, being framed work, covered with boards, outside and
in. In Switzerland, the native country of such buildings, these boards are seldom painted,
though those on the outside are sometimes tarred, in order to preserve them from the
weather. The roofs in that country are generally covered with shingles (wooden tiles),
usually of larch or
oak, as being the most on I — . 1
durable, six or eight
inches broad, and a
foot or eighteen inches
long ; but in a country
where slates or earthen
tiles can be got, they
are far preferable, not
only on account of their
durability, but because
the shingles are very
apt to be blown off by
high winds. The bal-
conies are supported
by the continuation of
the flooring joists, as
appears by the cross
section, fig. 80 j under
which are the further
supports of brackets
(fig. 81, to a scale of half an inch to a foot). The projecting part of the roof at the sides is
supported by the continuation of the rafters, as may be observed in fig. 80; and the ends are
supported by solid brackets (fig. 82, to a scale of half an inch to a foot). The railing is
generally simple, and characterized by perpendi- 83
cular lines ; the ornaments may be notched with
the axe and chisel, fig. 83. The chimney has a
coping of two broad flat stones or tiles, to exclude
the rain ; and the openings for the escape of the
smoke are consequently lateral. The windows
may be sashes hung in the English manner ; or they may be hinged, opening inwards,
according to the Italian and French taste, and as they most commonly are in Switzerland.
msmm
48
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
104. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 23,026 feet, at 6d. per foot, £575 : 13*. ; at id.,
£3S3 : 155 : id. ; and at 3d., £287 : 16s : 6d.
105. Expression. This Design assumes a decided character or style, which no one, who
has been in Switzerland, can doubt is in imitation of the timber-built dwellings of that country.
As a picturesque object, it is most agreeable ; more especially in its native situation on the
side of a hill, where it is frequently accompanied by firs, or pines, or other spiry topped trees,
which contrast well with the long horizontal line of the roof. It frequently happens that
cottages of this sort are placed on the side of a steep slope, so that while the lower end is
entirely above the surface the upper end is half sunk into it. In this case, the sloping line of
the hill contrasts admirably, both with the horizontal and perpendicular lines of the building,
and the appearance of stability is heightened by the one end being sunk or bedded into the
hill. The balcony in this case, terminating on the surface, may be entered on the outside.
The same cottage placed across the slope would appear much less stable, as well as less
picturesque. In imitating the style of any particular country, the Architect ought to take care
not to imitate peculiarities or defects. It is common, both in Switzerland and in Kinsigthal,
in the Duchy of Baden, to see the roofs of dwellings of this sort, loaded with stones, with
turves, with planks, or with roots of trees, to keep on the shingles, and even, in some cases*
to prevent the roof itself from being blown off by the wind. A landscape painter in taking
views in Switzerland or Baden, would, very properly, copy these circumstances, and a moral
traveller would describe them ; but for an Architect to introduce them as component parts of
a Design in the Swiss style, would display a great want of discrimination, and would be, what
Sir Joshua Reynolds, in his Lectures on Painting, calls, " imitating a peculiarity." It fre-
quently happens, with such buildings in Switzerland, that being situated in narrow valleys,
they are subject to partial inundations from sudden thaws ; and also to have the rain thrown
more violently against some parts of the building than against others, when the wind is in a
particular direction. To guard against these incidents, barriers of boards are put up in the
first case, and an exterior protection of weather boarding (boards overlapping each other), in
the latter. For an Architect to imitate these, would be to copy defects in the construction,
rendered necessary by an error in the choice of situation, and would remind one of the story
of the Chinese tailor, who imitated the patches on a coat sent him for a pattern.
106. The fitness of a building of this construction for a human dwelling may deserve some
consideration. It is certain that wooden buildings of any kind are never erected (excepting
now and then as a matter of fancy), by those who can afford to use stone or brick. Their
liability to accidents by fire, is an objection for which no architectural or picturesque beauty
can ever compensate. The balcony also surrounding the building, liable to be constantly
used, and commanding the bed-room windows, takes away all idea of privacy from these
apartments. We, therefore, by no means, recommend this style for any country. For
our own part, indeed, rather than bestow so much labour on so perishable and combustible
a material as wood, we would prefer walls of earth.
Design X.—A Dwelling for a Married Couple and One Child, with a Pigsty.
107. Accommodation. This is a dwelling of the lowest
class, consisting .of three rooms in two stories, and dif-
fering only from the commonest cottages in England by
the completeness of its appendages, and the architecture
of its exterior. It contains, on the ground-floor, an
entrance porch or lobby, a ; a wash-house, with a place
for an oven to heat the kitchen-floor by a flue, b; a
kitchen or living room, c ; a large closet under the stair-
case, d ; a pantry, e; fuel-house,/; water-closet or privy,
g ; and pigsty, h. The chamber-floor contains a bed-
room, i; a clothes or lumber-closet, A" ; child's bedroom,
/; and the staircase, m.
108. Construction. The walls, as high as the bed-room
floor, may be built of stone or of brick, with a vacuity in
the centre, as explained in describing Design I. Above,
the walls may be of brick nogging; the principal timbers
of which may be like those shown in the elevation. These
walls should be plastered within and without. A much
better plan of construction, however, is to carry up the
brick walls to the roof; unless the object of the Architect be the imitation of an accident \w
xm.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 49
X.
50 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
XL
Si.\
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
51
85
\xz~
a style, rather than its essentials ; or economy, rather than strength, durability, and comfort.
The roof may be covered with plain tiles ; and some care may be bestowed on the chimneys,
fig. 84, (scale, a quarter of an inch to a foot). These
chimneys may be built of brick, and covered with
cement; or be formed of cement only. The windows
may have wooden mullions, fig. 85, and wooden case-
ments ; but we cannot recommend these casements
being filled in with lattice-work ; for that, like ex-
terior walls of brick nogging, is an inferior mode of
construction.
109. Situation. As this building admits of being
viewed on every side, it is suitable for an open space.
A few fruit trees are its appropriate accompaniments ;
and at a distance of a hundred yards, it may have as a
back ground, a wood of oak, or other round-headed
trees, to contrast with its upright and angular lines. It is not meant by this remark,
however, either that such a wood should be planted on purpose ; or that it is worth while
to give up any point of utility or convenience, in order to place a cottage of this character
near such a wood. The comfort of the occupant of the cottage should take precedence
of every other object, either respecting it, or its accompaniments. It has been too much
the practice, hitherto, for Architects and for their employers to set down cottages, more
with a view to their effect in the landscape, than to any thing else whatever ; but the
habitation of a human being, however humble, ought not to be trifled with, either in respect
to its accommodations, or its locality.
110. Aspect. From what we have already advanced on this subject in Chapter I. it will
be understood, that in all practicable cases, we intend that the dwelling should be so placed as
to admit of the sun shining on all its walls every fine day in the year, with the exception of
a few weeks at the winter solstice. This, we need hardly repeat (were it not for the great
importance of the subject), is to be done by imagining the general form of the ground-plan
reduced to a square, and letting its diagonal be a north and south line. In most parts of
Europe the door should face the south-east. When cottages are detached, and built either
singly, or in pairs, and set down in a garden, the adherence to this rule of position, with respect
to the sun, will add to the picturesque beauty of a village; whatever may be the direction of
the road, along the sides of which the houses and gardens are built and laid out. This fact
must never be forgotten ; and indeed it should be considered, like the introduction of the
platform, as a law, which in building detached cottages, ought never to be violated. In
building long lines of connected dwellings of this sort, this law cannot be applied; but if the
lines be in the direction of south and north, the same advantages, in point of heat and dry-
ness, are obtained as by the diagonal position of detached cottages ; for the sun will shine
throughout the year on the east and west sides of every dwelling ; and the south and north
sides being party-walls (walls of division between different houses), will be necessarily both
dry and warm.
111. General Estimate. Cubic contents 9,528 feet, at 6d. per foot, £238: 4s.; at 4d.,
£158 : 16s. ; and at 3d., £119 : 2s.
112. Expression. This cottage is in what is called the old English manner, which is
haracterized by windows not
much higher than they are
broad, and divided perpendicu-
larly by mullions (vertical divi-
sions) ; by high, conspicuous,
and sometimes ornamented
stacks of chimneys ; by steep
roofs generally covered with
plain tiles, projecting at the
eaves, and sometimes also at
the gable ends ; and, finally, by
more or less of Gothic forms or
mouldings in its details. In this
imitation of the old English cot-~=s™>
tage, an erroneous manner of
arrangement is conspicuous in the stacks of chimneys, which ought not to have been in the
outside walls ; and the introduction into these outer walls of brick nogging, is an inferior
g2
ZQ
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
mode of construction, undeserving of imitation. A peculiarity, which in respect to use Is a
great deformity, is introduced in the principal window, in the form of the head of a Gothic
arch supporting the nnillion. This Gothic arch crosses the window in such a manner as to
intercept the most valuable portion of the light. Nevertheless, we have given this Design a
place, from its being characteristic of the style which it affects to exhibit ; but we shall after-
wards give other Designs in the same style not liable to the same objections. It is also proper
to remark, that in new countries, where building materials and labour are scarce and dear,
this would be exactly the sort of cottage that would be most suitable for a dwelling in the
English cottage style ; and in temperate climates rather milder than Britain, such, for
example, as many parts of Australia, there could be no objection to the chimneys being in
the outside walls. Their effect there, rising boldly into the air, and contrasting with the
sloping surface and horizontal line of the roof, is excellent. A low box hedge, with
standards at the angles, cut into architectural shapes, would be in perfect harmony with this
style of cottage, fig. 86.
Design XI. — A Dwelling fur a Man and his Wife, and One or Two Children, with a Cow-house
and Pigsty.
11.3. Accommodation. This hermitage-looking dwelling contains a porch, a; a work-room
or parlour, b ; a bed-room communicating with it, c ; a kitchen, d; and an outer kitchen or
wash-house, with an oven, e ; communicating with a pantry and dairy,/. The wash-house
has a back door, near which, in the lean-to, is a privy, g ; a cow-house, h ; and a place for
wood, or for a pig, i. In the section the floors are shown as laid over a bed of stones, and a
gravelled terrace surrounds the whole building, on a level six inches lower than the floors of
the rooms. In the bed of stones may be a flue connected with the oven placed in the angle
of the back kitchen, e, as before described.
114. Construction. The walls are of stone, hewn at the coins (corners), and with the barge
stones (a corruption of verge, and signifying the margin of any thing), also hewn. The
roof is of a high pitch, in conformity with roofs in the Gothic style, and may be covered
with pan (hollow) tiles, or plain tiles; it pro-
jects a few inches at the eaves, so as to deliver r—
the water into a gutter. The windows and the '
door are surrounded by plain architraves ; \
the principal windows have pointed tops, and )
are divided by mullions (fig. 87, k, to a scale \
of half an inch to the foot). The stack of <
S7
chimneys, fig. 88, may either be executed in
free-stone, or what in Britain will cost much less and yet be sufficiently durable, cement.
The door is formed of bead and batten with exterior hinges, similar to those in Design VI.
The gable ends are surmounted by crosses, which may either be
formed of stone or cement, and if a description of that article, used
in forming stone ornaments by Austin, of the New Road, London,
be employed, there can be no doubt of their durability.
115. Situation. It is evident that a building of this sort is erected
chiefly with a view to its ornamental effect, and, therefore, wherever
it is placed, it ought not to be obscured by trees. It may be considered
as a sort of hermitage, and, in this point of view, it should be placed
in a solitary situation.
1 1 (i. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 1 1 ,700 feet, at Gd., ,£292 : lO.v. ;
at 4d., £VJ5 ; and at 3d., £146 : 5.5.
117. Expression. This being the first Design in which we have
made a great departure from symmetry, that is, a correspondence of
parts in the general form, it may be useful to offer a few remarks on
the principle of irregularity in Architecture. It is evident that to introduce irregularity of
form in buildings, is an architectural refinement of the present age ; for, though in ancient
buildings of every description, there is much more of irregularity than of symmetry, yet
this irregularity has always been the result of accident ; of additions made from time tc
time as they were required, or of subtractions or mutilations, according as certain parts might
be done without, or as the ability to keep them in repair diminished. We find no ancient
author on Architecture recommending irregularity ; and from this we may conclude that
no ancient Architect ever designed a building of an irregular form when he could help it.
The first in Britain who decidedly recommended irregularity in buildings, was Uvedale Trice,
in the first edition of his admirable Essays on tlie Picturesque, published in 17'J4; and he was
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 53
soon followed by Mr. Knight, in his poem The Landscape ; by Malton,in his works on Cottage
Architecture, and subsequently by various others. Uvedale Price, who was a great admirer
of Sir Joshua Reynolds, and of the works of the great painters of Italy, probably was
strengthened in his ideas in favour of irregularity, by the following passage in one of Sir
Joshua's Discourses :—" Architects may take advantage sometimes of the use of accidents to
follow where they lead, and to improve them, rather than always trust to a regular plan. It
often happens that additions have been made to houses at various times, for use or pleasure.
As such buildings depart from regularity, they now and then acquire something of scenery
by this accident, which I think might not unsuccessfully be adopted by an Architect in an
original plan, if it does not too much interfere with convenience. Variety and intricacy is a
beauty and excellence in every other of the arts which address the imagination ; and why
not in Architecture ?" This passage is quoted by Knight, in his Analytical Inquiry into the
Principles of Taste, as an authority for the praise which he also has bestowed on irregularity
in Architecture. The practice at present needs no recommendation ; being, as every one
knows, followed in dwellings of every description, of extent, and of every kind of style. All
that we are anxious to remark on the subject is, that irregularity can seldom or never be
adopted in cottage dwellings where economy is a main object. On this subject we entirely
agree with Laing, who, in the preface to his Hints on Dwellings, has the following remarks :
118. The nearer the plan of a building approaches to a square, says Laing, " the greater
are its conveniences, and the cost proportionably less. A square, equal in superficial extent
to a parallelogram, requires less external walling, and, consequently, less internal finishing.
By compactness, convenience is produced, and expense is saved : when the apartments are
scattered and lie wide from each other, with long passages between, much unpleasantness
must be experienced ; and a much larger expense must be incurred from covering a larger
space of ground than is absolutely necessary." This objection, he adds, " may fairly be urged
against some schemes, which I have lately seen by an ingenious artist, in which his anxiety
to produce variety and want of uniformity, has led him to devise plans void of convenience
and economy ; how far void of taste, I will not say ; yet, surely, uniformity is essential to
beauty. I say this merely to oppose a taste which I consider false, and an economy which
is profusion." (Hints on Dwellings. Preface.)
119. Irregular Buildings please their admirers partly with reference to their picturesque
effect ; and partly as being characteristic of some particular architectural style, as it is found to
exist in ancient buildings. The castellated architecture of the present day is evidently more
an imitative style, than one of picturesque beauty ; and the irregular cottage style depends more
on its picturesqueness, than on its being an imitation of any thing that has previously existed.
Dugald Stewart, in one of his Essays on the Beautiful, has traced the progress of the taste for
the several kinds of beauty from that of the rudest appearance of Design, to the greatest
irregularities of form. He notices the pleasure which children very early manifest at the sight
of regular forms and uniform arrangements. The same love of regular forms and of uniform
arrangements, he says, " continues to influence powerfully in the maturity of reason and
experience, the judgments we pronounce on all works of human art, whose regularity and
uniformity do not interfere with purposes of utility. In recommending these forms and
arrangements in the particular circumstances just mentioned, there is one principle which
seems to me to have no inconsiderable influence, and which I shall take this opportunity of
hinting at slightly, as I do not recollect to have seen it anywhere applied to questions of
criticism. The principle I allude to is, that of the sufficient reason, of which so much use is
made (and in my opinion sometimes very erroneously made), in the philosophy of Leibnitz.
What is it that, in any thing which is merely ornamental, and which, at the same time, does
not profess to be an imitation of nature, renders irregular forms displeasing ? Is it not, at
least in part, that irregularities are infinite ; and that no circumstance can be imagined which
should have decided the choice of the artist in favour of that particular figure which he has
selected ? The variety of regular figures (it must be acknowledged) is infinite also ; but
supposing the choice to be once fixed about the number of sides, no apparent caprice of the
artist in adjusting their relative proportions, presents a disagreeable and inexplicable puzzle
to the spectator. Is it not also owing, in part, to this, that in things merely ornamental,
where no use, even the most trifling, is intended, the circular form possesses a superiority
over all others ?
120. In a house, which is commonly detached from all other buildings, and which stands
on a perfectly level foundation, why are we offended when the door is not placed exactly in
the middle ; or when there is a window on one side of the door, and none corresponding to
it on the other ? Is it not that we are at a loss to conceive how the choice of the Architccc
could be thus determined, where all circumstances appear to be so exactly alike 1 This
54- COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
disagreeable effect is, in a great measure, removed, the moment any purpose of utility is
discovered ; or even when the contiguity of other houses, or some peculiarity in the shape of
ground, allows us to imagine, that some reasonable motive may have existed in the artist's
mind, though we may be unable to trace it. An irregular castellated edifice, set down on a
dead flat, conveys an idea of whim or of folly in the designer; and it would convey this idea
still more strongly than it does, were it not that the imitation of something else, which we
have previously seen with pleasure, makes the absurdity less revolting. The same, or yet
greater irregularity, would not only satisfy, but delight the eye, in an ancient citadel, whose
ground-work and elevations followed the rugged surface and fantastic projections of the rock
on which it is built. The oblique position of a window in a house, would be intolerable ;
but utility, or rather necessity, reconciles the eye to it at once, in the cabin of a ship." —
Stewart's Philosophical Essays, p. 240.
Design XII. — A Di,
illing of Two Stories for a Man and his Wife, with a Servant and Two or
Three Children, with a Cuw-lwuse and Pigsty.
<
E2
121. Accommodation. This may be considered a comfortable dwelling for a gardener or
bailiff in Britain; or for a small pro-
prietor in America, or Australia. It
contains, on the ground-floor, an en-
trance lobby, a ; staircase, b ; kitchen,
c ; parlour, d ; tool-house or office for
paying men, e ; pantry and dairy, j;
back kitchen, g ; shed for wood and
fuel, h ; dubthole, i; privy, k; and
cow-house, with hen-house over, /.
The cow-house is connected with a
court-yard, which contains a shed for
hay and straw, piggeries, and dung-
pit, with a manure well, connected with the privy. The platform, on three sides of this
dwelling, forms a handsome walk, from which there is a door into the court-yard. The
bed-room floor contains a best bed- qQ
room, m ; a second bed-room, n ; a
third bed-room, o ; and a stair, p.
122. Construction. The walls may
be of brick, or stone, or of brick nog-
ging plastered externally, as shown in
the elevation ; care being taken, what-
ever material may be used, that the
colour is neither a glaring red, nor a
glaring white. The roof may be
covered with reeds, or with combed
v, heat straw (straw from which the ears
of grain have been cut, or combed off,
in consequence of which, the culms
are unbruised by the flail). The inter-
preting lines shown at the ridge of the
roof, and which may appear to many,
not accustomed to see reed-covered
buildings, as a mere ornament at the
fancy of the thatcher, are formed by
rods, generally of hazel, for the pur-
pose of keeping down the layer of
reeds, which are spread across the
ridge tree of the roof. The intersecting
rods, fig. 89, q, are kept in their places
by the horizontal rods, r r ; and these
are fastened to the thatch, by staples,
or spits, or broaches, s, which are
nothing more than short pieces of rod, previously well steeped in water, to render them
flexible, bent in the form of a staple hook, and stuck in the thatch or reeds. The forked
piece of wood represented on the upper part of the gable end, should only be employed if the
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
XII.
55
56 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
XIII.
fT
£2
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COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
57
"alls are of brick nogging. The entrance door is ledged ; and the bed-room windows,
which are broad rather than high, show two perpendicular and fixed bars or mullions; the
casements being hinged to open inwards. The small windows in the lean-to are round-
headed, with Gothic labels over them, fig. 90. The chimney shafts may be executed in
cement, in a decorated style, (fig. 91, to a scale of the fourth of an inch to a foot), such as is
sometimes found in the better description of old cottages and farm-houses.
123. Situation. This dwelling being intended as an orna-
mental object, should not be crowded with trees ; at the
same time it is not calculated for a very exposed situation.
124. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 14,904 feet,
at 6d. per foot, £372 : 12*. ; at id., £248 : 8*. ; and at 3d.,
£186 :6s.
125. Expression. The style aimed at here is some-
thing of what is called the old English manner. Whatever
interest may be excited by associations connected with
this style, the specimen here represented, has evidently
/ery little merit, taken by itself as a system of building.
When a cottage is throughout in one system or style, all
the parts of which it is composed, will seem to be the
result of the mode of its construction ; and to follow each
other so obviously, that the eye and the mind are naturally
led from one to the other throughout the whole super-
structure. This is Wood's doctrine ; and, tried by it, the
Design before us will certainly be found wanting. There
may be historical or accidental associations between the
form of the door and that of the window over it ; that is, it
may have been usual to have such doors and windows in the
same building in some old English cottages ; but certainly
the form of the one does not naturally arise out of the form of the other. Neither can it be
said that the projection of part of the bed-room floor, as shown over the door-way, has any-
thing to do with the mode of construction ; on the contrary, to the eye of reason, it appears
an inferior method ; while, as a projection, it not only has not the merit of real utility, but
the pretension which it might have had of forming a shelter to the entrance door, is destroyed,
by that door having a small roof of its own ; a superfluity which ought to have been avoided,
since the walls of the porch evidently do not stand out beyond the line of the projection ot
the bed-room story. The small wing, or lean-to, shown below this last-mentioned window,
seems to be in a different style from the rest of the building ; both as regards the projection
of its roof, and the labels to its two small windows. On the whole, though we acknowledge
the ensemble of this Design to present a picturesque appearance, yet as a piece of Archi-
tecture, we consider it a deformity. Where the form of any one part of a building, says
Wood, does not seem to depend upon that below it, but might as well be substituted by
something different, the principle of arrangement is wanting. In looking at any building we
endeavour to trace some simple principle of arrangement, the want of which can never be
made up by good parts forced into service, or by superfluity of ornament. Profusion of
parts, or of ornaments, without obvious connexion and propriety, produce confusion and
absurdity. (Letters of an Architect SfC. vol. i. p. 6). We have presented this Design for the
purpose of showing how easy it is to captivate the eye in matters of this kind, without in
any one point completely satisfying the judgment.
Design XIII. — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with Two or more Children.
126. Accommodation. Here we have a colonnade which serves as a porch ; a vestibule, a ;
a parlour, b; a kitchen, with a stair to two bed-rooms in the roof, c ; a bed-room on the
ground-floor, d ; a pantry, e; two closets, f, g ; and water-closet or pantry,/;. The two
bed-rooms over c and d may be lighted by dormer windows (windows made in the roof)
and by the small opening seen in the upper part of the gable end.
127. Construction. The platform on which this dwelling is built, is sustained by masonry ;
which, on three sides, supports the columns of the veranda or colonnade. These columns
may either be of stone, of brick stuccoed, or of timber ; in either case, set on stone plinths,
and with stone caps. The roof should be slated, with barge courses at the gable ends,
terminating in pinnacles. The chimney tops (fig. 92, on a scale of three eighths of an inch
to a foot), are plain, like the columns.
5$
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1
-^1
128. The Harden, containing about three fourths of an acre, is hero shown surrounded
by a hedge. This hedge might, in many cases, be formed of fruit-hearing shrubs, such as
plums, apples, sloes, service or mountain ash, the berries of 92
which afford an excellent spirit; or elders, the berries of
which make a well known wine. Whichever description
of fruit-bearing plant is used, the branches must he pruned
with a knife, and not clipped with shears ; because clipping,
by producing an exuberance of weak, young shoots, pre-
vents the plants from forming blossom buds. If it should
be desirable to have a very formidable fence, the hedge
might consist of two rows; the inner one of fruit-bearing
plants, and the outer one of hawthorns or hollies. There
is scarcely any situation, cither on hills or by the sea-shore,
in which the elder will not thrive, and its fruit is always
valuable. The same may be said of the sloe, and the
mountain ash, and service, in respect to all inland situ-
ations. The mode of labouring and cropping the ground
may be as follows : trench compartment i three spits deep,
and plant with the cabbage tribe ; manure and dig k, and
plant with potatoes ; trench I two spits deep, and sow with
root crops, such as turnips, carrots, parsnips, onions, &c. j
manure and dig m, and crop with peas, beans, and kidney
beans. According to this rotation, in the second year, i will
be manured and dug only, and will be under potatoes ; k will
be trenched two spits deep, and under root crops ; I will be
manured, dug, and under leguminous plants ; and m will be trenched three spits deep, and
under the cabbage tribe. Thus, a new stratum of soil will be brought up to the surface every
other year : in the first year, what was the bottom becomes the top ; in the second, the top is
turned over ; in the third, the middle becomes the top ; and, in the fourth, this middle is turned
over. ■ Manure is applied every second year. This is enough to give a general idea of how a
garden ought to be laboured, manured, and cropped ; but more minute and accurate details
will be found in our Collage Manual; in Benson's Peasant's Voice ; and in an excellent little
work, by Mr. Charles Laurence, entitled Practical Directions for Cottage Gardens, eye. The
smaller compartments may be cropped as follows: n, with gooseberries; o, with currants
and raspberries ; ]), with strawberries ; q, with asparagus ; r, with sea-kale ; s, with tart rhu-
barb ; t, with Jerusalem artichokes ; and u, with perennial, or what is called Good Henry
spinach (Chenopodium Bonus Henricus). The border which surrounds the garden may be
devoted to the smaller crops, such as salads, herbs, &c. ; and to early crops, such as peas and
potatoes. The space immediately surrounding the cottage should be ornamented with flowers
and flowering shrubs. The trees at the corners of the compartments should be standard
apples, pears, cherries, and plums.
129. Situation. It is evident that the main purpose of this building is effect ; and if placed,
as shown, on a raised architectural platform, in the centre of a garden not over planted, i*.
cannot fail to look well from every point of view.
130. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 14,568 feet, at 6d., £364 : is. ; at id., £242 : 16*. ;
and at 3d., £182 : 2s.
131. Expression. It can hardly be said that this edifice resembles a cottage dwelling ;
and, at all events, it is certainly not one of the humble class. There is an obvious desire for
display ; and as this has produced a comfortable colonnade for the exercise of children, for
hanging up Indian corn, tobacco, or seeds, and for drying clothes during rainy weather, it
need not be much objected to. As far as respects style, the building is mixed ; but, as the
mixture is agreeable, a whole of some merit is produced.
Design XI V.—/1 Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with Une Servant and a grown-up Son or
Daughter.
132. Accommodation. There is a kitchen, a ; a scullery and sink, b ; pantry, c ; closet, d ;
two bed-rooms, e and/; a closet, g; a water-closet for women, h; and a water-closet for
men. i. These accommodations are surrounded by an uninterrupted arcade, for the sake of
effect, and for air, exercise, and drying clothes during inclement weather. An arcade
necessarily throws a much greater shadow on the windows than square pillars, or round
columns ; but to compensate for this, it may be executed in brick-work, without the aid of
lintels of stone or wood, or of cement.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
59
133. Construction. The arcade, which may support the roof independently of the inner
wall, should be of brick or stone. The inner walls may be of earth, or brick, or clay
nogging, or of stud-work (frame-work), lathed and plas-
tered. The pitch or rise of the roof is low, and the cover-
ing is supposed to be of slates of the largest size ; the slop-
ing joints being covered with narrow strips of slate, in the
manner known in Britain by the term Wyatt's Patent, to
be afterwards described. The chimney stack has a far pro-
jecting cornice (fig 93, to a scale of half an inch to a foot).
134. Situation. This dwelling is calculated for being
placed on a platform supported by masonry, in the midst of
a garden, on an elevated situation, because it will look well
from every point of view.
135. Garden. Contents, two roods, thirty-five poles,
and fifteen yards. The square in which the house stands is
devoted to flowers and other ornamental plants. The com-
partment to the left of this square, to the perennial crops,
such as asparagus, k ; sea-kale, I ; rampion, m ; tart rhubarb,
n, n; strawberries, o,o; American cranberries, p; Jerusalem
artichokes, q ; and common artichokes, or perennial spinach, as may be preferred, r. The
two squares to the right are devoted, s, to gooseberries, and t, to currants and raspberries.
The two Jong squares, u and v, may be subjected to four years' rotation, as described in the
preceding Design. There may be a well, or a sun dial, at w, and a small court of offices beyond
the garden for other conveniences.
130. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 26,824 feet, at 6d. per foot, £670 : 12s. ; at id..
£447 : 1« : Ad. ; and at 3d., £335 : 6s.
137. Expression. Small dwellings
in this manner of architecture are
generally considered as belonging to
the Italian style. There can be no
question of the excellence of the
general effect; but we naturally ask
how it happens, that in a building
so studiously uniform, the entrance
stairs should not have been placed
in the centre of the front? If the
answer be that there is not a central
opening, the question occurs, why
was not this provided in arranging
the plan ? Here, then, we have the
Architect setting out on a principle,
viz., that of uniformity, pursuing it
through the main body of the build-
ing, and afterwards defeating all his
labours by abandoning it in an im-
portant feature. If we consider this
60
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
06
building as a human habitation, there is also an obvious absurdity in expending so much
lor appearance, and yet paying so little attention to internal comfort, as to almost exclude
that essential requisite to every dwelling, light. It is evident that all the rooms in this
house must be very much darkened ; not merely by the arcade, but by the great projection
of the roof beyond it. No man, who exercises his reason for a moment, as to what he sees
before him, can feel satisfaction on looking at a structure like this ; at least with reference
to such a climate as that of Britain. Perhaps in Italy, so much shade as this Design would
produce may be desirable ; and the want of light may not be so great an object in the present
state of civilization in that country, since the people are not readers, and are far from being
cleanly in either their persons or houses. But even for Italy, this Design is bad; because,
in the warmest climates there must be times when more light is desirable than can be ad-
mitted into any of the apartments of this dwelling. Still the Design possesses a degree of
simplicity and grandeur, and may afford useful hints for
something better. The basement raised so as to include a
sunk story, fig. 94, vrould be a great improvement, in point
of convenience, and this would admit of lighting the rooms
above from two sides instead of one, fig. 95 ; because, in that
case, the back kitchen and store closet would be under ground.
Another mode of improving this Design would be to retain
ttie ground-floor in its present state, and to raise a bed-room
story over it, roofing the arcade or veranda with glass, con-
cealed by a parapet, and supporting the bed-room story on
the inner walls. The removal of the projection of the roof
would of itself admit more light ; but when to this is added the
light which will pass through the glass roof of the veranda,
iig. 96, the house will be rendered habitable in any climate.
In proportion as the height of the verandas and their openings
are increased, the more light will be admitted to the windows beneath them; and if we
imagine a veranda raised six or eight feet higher than the tops of the windows which it pro-
tects, the rooms would be as light as if there were no veranda at all. In all cases, therefore,
of introducing arcades, colonnades, or verandas, before living rooms, they ought either not
to project far from the walls, or to have their openings carried up higher than the archi-
tra\es of the windows. This last *rangement, however, can very seldom be carried into
T^
effect in buildings of more than one story, without violating some principle of utility or
fitness. The arches in the Design before us being somewlut higher than the windows, a
balcony might be formed over the veranda, which, by getting rid of the projection of the
roof, would admit more light, and this, with a bed-room story added, would produce a good
tffect, fig. 97. There remains to be noticed another great defect in the expression of this
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 61
XIV.
(>2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
XV.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
63
building as a human dwelling, and that is, the want of a porch. Independently of the
addition which a porch would make
to the expression of purpose, it
would add to the actual comfort and
propriety of the building; for, surely,
there is a great inconsistency in
{brining so extensive a veranda, and
yet leaving the steps of ascent to it
not only uncovered, but without any
architectural appendage to enhance
their interest as a main entrance.
To introduce a porch in the best
manner in a building so entirely
uniform, some alteration would be
required in the position of the win-
dows in the ground plan, so as to
admit of preserving the character of
symmetry, by having a porch in the
centre of one side, fig. 9S. Were
this done, the width of the piers
somewhat diminished, and some-
thing added to their height, the
building would not only have a much
better effect, but become more ha-
bitable, fig. 99. Edifices of this sort are much better calculated for orname"'.il purposes, such
as a garden banqueting house ; in pleasure-grounds, with a fruit and wine cellar under ; or to
be placed on a rock or small island, in a lake or river, as a place to fish from under covei-
100
Design XV. — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, without Children.
138. Accommodation. This cottage, though very small, con-
tains a good many comforts and conveniences. The entrance, a,
is by a lean-to at one end, which serves as a porch, and at b,
may also be used as a place for fuel. There is a good kitchen,
c ; a pantry, d ; back kitchen, e, with an oven and a flue to heat the
floor of the principal kitchen ; a stair-case with a closet under, f ;
water-closet, g ; and place for poultry, h. The upper story contains
only one bed-room, «. There is a small yard behind, k, which may
contain a cow-house and a pigsty, and which must include a manure
well and dung-pit.
139. Construction. The walls are here represented of rough stone
plastered, and the roof as covered with Grecian or Italian tiles. The
terrace is of masonry, and the chimney tops (fig. 100, on a scale of
three-eighths of an inch to a foot), are of brick and cement. The pro-
64
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
jection of the roof is considerable, and it is finished with a gutter, supported by short pieces let
i:ito the wall, fig. 101, /, and by cantilevers, w. The blocks supporting the sill of the kitchen
window are of stone,and
soisthesilL The mul-
lions which divide the
windoware of wood, and
the casements which fit
into them are hinged so
as to open inwards. The
windows of the pantry
and back kitchen are
sash windows. The
principal objection which
we have to the construc-
tion of this cottage, is
the placing the fire-
places in the outside
walls. For cold climates,
this is always with us,
a very great objection ; though, as this building is in the Italian style, it may be supposed
to be adopted for the south of Europe, the most southern parts of North America, or for
Australia. With a view to these countries, our objection falls to the ground ; and in truth,
we have raised it chiefly for the purpose of showing that some objections to buildings of
this description, and indeed to all buildings, are relative. Of positive, or absolute objections,
which have no relation to either country, climate, or situation, we see none in this Design.
It is on a dry foundation, of sufficient strength in construction, and of sufficient durability
in its materials. It is securely roofed ; the rooms are sufficiently lofty, well lighted, and
may be, if the occupant think fit, well ventilated.
140. Situation. This building having no windows behind, is calculated for being placed
upon the side of a hill, and viewed from below. If surrounded by a good garden, and with
no trees within a hundred yards of it higher than fruit trees, it can hardly fail to have a
good effect. In general, trees which stand close to any building, more especially to one of
small size, should either be decidedly larger or decidedly smaller than the building itself.
The chief reason for this is, that objects of the same size, or apparently so, do not co-operate
well in forming a whole; which always must consist of one principal or prominent part, and
of two or more subordinate ones.
141. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 8,206 feet, at Gd., £205 : 3s. ; at 4d., £136 : \5s : 4</.;
and at 3d., £102 : lis: Gd.
142. Expression. The style at- 102
tempted is evidently Italian; but
why a deviation was made in the
wings from the Italian Gothic win-
dow, to the common English sash
window, is not obvious. The fault
is not a great one ; because so far
from interfering with utility, a su-
perior article is introduced instead
of an inferior one. But in respect
to appearance, these windows cer-
tainly diminish the force of the
style. Reduced to their proper
form, and a parapet added to the
terrace, fig. 102, this dwelling would
produce a very good effect, and might serve for one of those which a recent writer in
the Mechanic's Magazine, recommends to be substituted for mile-stones along the public
roads of Great Britain. To the cottages so placed, he proposes to attach large gardens ; and
those, with the cottage, are to serve as models for neatness and order in their appearance and
management to the agricultural labourers in the vicinity. The occupier of the cottage is to
bit rent-free, on condition of keeping the sides and fences of one mile of road neat and orderly,
and as free from weeds and all obstructions as the approach road in a gentleman's park ;
a labour which might occupy him fifty or sixty davs in the year. Mech. Mag. Vol. XVI.
p. 410.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
05
Design XVI. — A Dwelling for a Man and Ms Wife without Children.
143. Accommodation. This building contains a commodious kitclien, twelve feet by six-
teen feet ; and it has two windows, in order to admit of a tailor or shoemaker, with his ap-
prentice, carrying on work at one window, while the woman's work is going on at the other.
A large porch, a, which is lighted by a fanlight from the upper part of the doorway, forms
both the entrance to the dwelling, and the
passage of communication from the kitchen, b,
to the bed-room, c. There is a pantry and
store-closet, d, opening from the kitchen, and
a light closet, e, partitioned off the bed- room.
The privy, and other conveniences, are sup-
posed to be placed at a short distance from the
house, and to be concealed by bushes.
144. Situation. This building, having one
side with only a small window in it, may be
placed against a wood, and so that the en-
trance-door may front the south-east. The
roof, being of thatch, indicates that it is not
intended for a country subject to high winds.
145. Construction. The walls may be
formed of stone or mud ; or, in a country where bricks are abundant and cheap, (hey may
be built hollow of brick-work (sec § 25). The thatched roof will project over the walls,
as shewn in the accompanying sketch, fig. 103 ; in which is shewn the rafter, f placed at
an angle of 30°, and also a wooden moulding, g, under the projecting thatch. The chimney-
stack consists of two circular columns with plain heads, as in the annexed drawing (fig. 104,
on a scale of half an inch to a foot).
146. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 10,328 feet, at 6d., £258 : 4s. ; at id.,
£172 : 2* : 8d, ; and at 3d., £129 : 2s.
147. The Garden contains two roods and a half, and is divided into eight compartments,
with a surrounding border ; the boundary fence being a wall of mud, brick, or stone, against
which may be planted fruit trees, or currants and gooseberries, according to the climate in
which the design is executed. The compartment, h, is intended for a plantation of goose-
berries, surrounded by a row of dwarf apples ; i, is a plantation of currants and raspberries,
surrounded by a row of pears, plums, and cherries ; k, a grass plot ; /, strawberries ; 7??, pe-
104
rennial spinach ; n, peas ; o, beans ; p, potatoes ;
q, the cabbage tribe ; r, onions, turnips,
carrots, and other surface and fusiform roots.
In continuing the rotation, the compartments
n and o, will, of course, be considered as one,
and cropped, after (1) the leguminous vege-
tables, with (2) potatoes, (3) the cabbage
tribe, and (4) roots. The borders round this
garden may be devoted to small crops, such as
salading, annual spinach, pot-herbs, tart
rhubarb, which ought never to be omitted in
the cottager's garden, a few plants of hops for
their tops as asparagus, and their flowers for
putting in beer, and, near the house, flowers
and flowering shrubs.
148. Remarks. This Design may be con-
sidered as imperfect in point of accommoda-
tion, but we introduce it because there are
many persons who may be able or willing to
build such cottages for themselves or their de-
pendents, who, from particular opinions or
want of means, might be unable or unwilling
to build a dwelling of a better description. If at any future time it were desired to enlarge
this cottage, two rooms under a lean-to roof might easily be joined to the wall, s, t, which has
but one small window, a communication being opened to such rooms by changing the destina-
tion of the kitchen closet. This will give the ground plan, fig. 105, which may be considered
a tolerably commodious cottage ; not only two additional bed-rooms, u, v, being obtained, but
GG COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
105 106
age. If
the closet, w, as a substitute for
it were desirable to add four
rooms instead of two, a passage
and staircase might be formed
between the two rooms, and
two bed-chambers obtained in
the floor above. This might be
easily effected by turning round
the partition wall of tv, to a
line with the door of that closet,
and by removing the centre
division wall between u and v,
to a line with the door of the
right hand bed-room, v ; a space
of seven feet wide would then
be left in the middle for the
staircase, fig. 10G, x. Sup-
posing the party who had made
these alterations to have in-
creased in prosperity, and to
be desirous of one handsome
dining-room in which to re-
ceive his friends, it might
readily be attained by extend-
ing the building from the ex-
tremity of the staircase passage,
as in fig. 107, in which a hand-
some room, y, is obtained ; and
over this it would be easy to
form a corresponding drawing-
room, or two additional bed-
rooms. As it would be no
longer desirable to pass through
the kitchen to such apartments,
a porch, z, might be added, so
as to enter the dining-room
and the staircase direct from
the terrace or platform. The
elevation, in the case of such
alterations, may very properly
be in a somewhat different
style of building from the ori-
^ C
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
67
ginal cottage, because the builder may justly be supposed to have become possessed, not
only of superior means, but of a higher degree of taste, or of consciousness of deficiency in
taste, and consequently have called in professional assistance since his former erection. But
whether he employs another, or proceeds on his own opinion, he will be justified by historical
truth, as well as by the natural love of mankind for variety of character, in building two
different additions, at different times, in different styles, or substyles of architecture. The
elevations in this case will, in our opinion, be in perfect good taste, either as ki fig. 10S,
110
which shows only the first addition ; or as in fig. 109, which shows the dining-room added, but
not a drawing-room ; in lieu of this a flat roof is shown, over which an awning may be placed
in the summer season, a practice particularly suitable for America and Australia. For the
sake of variety, we have shown the centre building in a different style in fig. 109 to what it
is in fig. 108. We have also shewn
fig. 109, three descriptions of
.terrace parapets, with three styles
of ornamental vases ; the vases for
the original cottage may be stone
pots, in shape not materially dif-
ferent from the common flower-
pot; those for the first addition
may be as in fig. 110, manufactured
by Mr. Peake, of Tunstall, in Staf-
fordshire, and sold at 15s. each ;
and those for the second addition may be a tazza (cup) vase, like fig.
Ill, manufactured by the same potter, at 18s. The progressive improvement of cottages in
this manner, we consider as particularly suitable for the inhabitants of new and prosperous
countries.
149. Expression. The lofty proportions of the doors and windows, and the height of the
-=at*«iii!l![
08
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
walls from the platform to the roof,
give a certain expression of dignity
to the exterior of this dwelling which
every one must feel. Hut this ex-
pression is sadly counteracted !>y the
mean, crouching appearance of the
thatched roof, which, both as regards
the material of which it is made, and
the form in which it is disposed, is
altogether unsuitable for the walls.
In general, the truncated gable ends,
such as are seen over the entrance-
door, and at both ends of this cottage,
convey the idea of imperfection of
form, "of restricted resources, and of meanness and tameness of character. If we suppose the
pediment of the gable ends completed,
even though the building continued
to be covered with thatch, the effect
(fig. 112) will be superior, and will
leave much less to be wished for.
Hut still the expression of a thatched
cottage, as such cottages are gene-
rally seen and formed in Britain, is
not complete ; the walls continue to
be too high, and the roof too low in
the pitch, or not sufficiently steep on
the sides ; that is, the proportion be-
tween the walls and roof to which we
are accustomed is violated. Lower
the walls, and increase the surface of the roof, as in fig. 113, and the proportion is restored,
the eye satisfied, and the ex-
pression of a thatched cottage
comparatively complete. Let it
not be supposed, however, that
we prefer these proportions to
those given in fig. 112 with a
view to the principle of use; but
for the sake of maintaining the
beauty of style, we would, with
windows of these proportions,
introduce the Italian or Grecian
roof of low pitch, similar to that
of Design XV. Cottages with
truncated gable ends, and with
roofs, sometimes thatched and
sometimes of slates, seem to be
much approved of by many British architect
built, but several Designs in
this manner have been pub-
lished. We have no doubt they
plea id at the time of their
fust introduction, from the no-
velty of the form, and they
still please some ; but we
doubt much if the pleasure
they communicate will stand
the test of time. There is
scarcely any architectural land-
scape painter who, if he were
jeft to his free choice, would
introduce Design XVI. into his
composition in preference to
fig. 113; at the same time we
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 69
XVI.
'*£§ '
70 COTTAGE, FARxM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
XVII.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
71
allow that the truncated gable ends may occasionally be
The same ground plan, and ge-
neral proportion of the different □ Q o
parts, including the door and win- O
dows, may be easily adapted to
different elevations, according to
the circumstances of country, cli-
mate, and locality, where it is to q
be built ; and the wealth, good
taste, or peculiar taste of the
builder. In the suburbs of a
country village it may be thought .
desirable, as a mark of distinction,
to give it a highly architectural
character, fig. 11-1 ; or on an ele-
vated situation some might prefer
finishing the walls with Gothic O
battlements with narrow embra- LIO
sures, fig. 115, a taste which we
have been rather surprised to
learn is not uncommon in Ame-
rica. In the south of Europe, the southern parts of
Australia, the great luxury of a portico might lead to a
structure, fig. 116; the columns being either rude trunk
worked timber, with square stone plinths as bases, and
introduced for the sake of variety.
116
o o oa
o
o
on
oo
oo
the American continent, and in
continuation of one all round the
s of trees, rude blocks of stone, or
plain capitals, fig. 117. Indeed a
colonnade or veranda, when it does not obstruct light or impede ventilation, is a great source
of comfort and enjoyment in all countries; it excludes rain and cold in the north, and a
burning sun in the south.
Design XVII. — A Dwelling with Two Rooms and a Bed-closet, for a Man and his Wife, with
an Apprentice or Servant.
150. Accommodation. From the vestibule, a, a door leads to the kitchen, b, from which
is partitioned off the room for the servant or apprentice, c, barely sufficient for a bed.
The bed-room, d, has a dark closet, e, and a light one, /. There is a closet for fuel, g, and
some use may be made of the roof, by having an opening in the ceiling, with a trap-door
over the porch, and a suitable ladder as will hereafter be described. In the garden are two
small yards, surrounded by fruit tree hedges ; one of which, h, is for wood, poultry, pigs, a
privy, and in the centre, a tank for liquid manure ; and the other, i, is for a drying-ground,
wash-house, place for tools, &c. At a short distance from the house, is shown the situation
of the spring water well and pump, k, it being never desirable to have this near the
dung-pit, or liquid manure tank. The pump in the garden may be considered, by some, as
too far from the house, but that well is supposed to be of hard water, and principally for
use in the garden. For washing, and other domestic purposes, soft water may be collected on
the roof, and filtered as described under the Chapter of Model Cottages, Design I. § 31, or
below, in § 151. There is a small building in the corner of the yard, «', which covers a tank
for containing the filtered water, and it may be drawn to the house from that, or from any
distance, by Siebe's pump, § 33, fig. 10. Various plans for constructing such a tank may be
72
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
given, but the following, by Waistell, is one of the most complete, either for a farm-house 01
for a substantial cottage.
151. Waistell' s Tank is circular in the ground plan, with the sides built like a well. " The
bottom should be in the form of a flat dome reversed, and the top also domical, with an
opening left in the centre of sufficient size to admit a man to clean it out occasionally ; the
top of this opening should be a little above the surface of the ground, and should be covered
with an oak flap, with several holes bored in it for ventilation ; or the cover may be an iron
grating, horizontal and a little elevated, or conical. These tanks may be constructed of
various dimensions ; the depth and width should be nearly equal ; a hole should also be left
for the service-pipe, or that which conveys the water into the 118
tank, and also for the pipe for the pump, if the water be drawn
out by that means. The water may be filtered previously to its
entering the tank ; the hole for the service-pipe ought, therefore,
to be near the top, and on that side most convenient for the
filtering chamber ; this may be about four feet in diameter, and
three feet deep ; across this, about twelve inches from the side
next the tank, as at fig. 1 18, /, a slate partition from the top to
within about six inches from the bottom should be fixed ; at the bottom of the box should
be put clean coarse sand or pounded charcoal, about a foot in thickness. The pipe or
opening from the filter to the reservoir should be of ample dimensions, and be made at about
eighteen or twenty inches from the bottom, in the small division or space behind the slate.
Above this opening, and in any part most convenient, as at m, in the large division of the
filter, should be an opening or drain to carry off the water when the H9
tank is full. This filter should also have a cover, that it may be
cleaned out, and fresh sand, or some other purifier, put in as often
as may be found requisite. Of course, the water, as it comes from
the roof, is to be first conveyed into the large division of the filtering
chamber, on the opposite side to the slate partition, as at fig. 119, n,
and passing through the sand it rises in the small division purified,
when it is fit to pass into the tank by the tube, o. If there are two
or more of these filtering chambers, or if they are of greater depth,
the water may be passed through the greater quantity of sand, &c. in them, and be still more
purified. Both the tanks and the filtering chambers should be water tight ; if constructed of
brick, the inner course may be built in Roman cement, and afterwards the whole of the
inside covered with a coat of about three quarters of an inch thick of the same material.
Water from drains formed in the ground for the purpose of collecting it for domestic pur-
poses, may be purified by passing it through a sand filter previously to its entering the tank
or reservoir. Sponge and flannel may also be used as filters. In constructing tanks of the
above description, care must be taken to have the earth closely filled around the brick-work,
and to allow sufficient time for the work to
get properly settled previously to admitting
any great weight of water. Cisterns for
water formed of blue slate, or Yorkshire
paving stones, are much better than those
made of wood, and lined with lead." —
Waistell' s Designs for Farm Buildings.
152. The Construction of the Walls andt.
Roof of this dwelling is very similar to that j |
of Design VII. The wall is carried up with
a parapet or blocking course, fig. 120, p, be-
hind which is the gutter, q. This gutter is
usually covered with lead ; but in countries
like Russia, where cast-iron is abundant, it
may be very conveniently formed of that metal, in connexion with the entire covering of the
roof. A patent was some time ago taken out for this mode of covering roofs in England,
by Carter, of Exeter, of which it may 1*1
be useful here to give the substance. j^amsimmm imfMMpywa / ]■ j
153. Carter's Cast-iron Jioofs are ffl g /..^„Z~^_J' frw-
formed of three descriptions of cast-iron l ' ;• '"" ^ «
plau?s, fig. 121, r, s, t. These forms answer every purpose for flat roofs which have not
pavilion ends. One of them, r, is formed with three of its sides turned up and one turned
down, and is called the roof plate. This plate is tapered narrower towards the lip by twice
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IS VARIOUS STYLES.
=¥
IT
the thickness of the plate. A second, *, is called the low ridge plate, and has two of i I •
turned up, and the other two turned down.
The third, t, is the high ridge, or cap plate,
having all its sides turned down, and formed
with an angle in the middle, so as to slope
each way of the roof. This roof may be
made very flat, so much so, that, for a house
twenty feet wide, the height of the roof in the middle need not exceed two feet. v.
boarding is required, but the plates, fig. 122, a, may rest without either cement or nai!>,
on the rafters, v. The appear- _______
ance may be considered massive
and handsome, fig. 123; and it
is evident, from the manner in
which the plates overlap each
other, as shown in figs. 123 and-
124, that there can be no risk of
inconvenience from contraction or expansion. If a number of buildings were to be erected,
it might become worth while to have plates cast on purpose for hips and angles, so as to com-
plete pavilion roofs on
T 124
the same principle.
Probably, also, tiles,
especially of the terro-
metallic kind, manu-
factured from a stra-
tum of clay almost peculiar to Staffordshire, might be formed of the same shapes as these
plates, and be found strong enough, after burning, to serve as substitutes for cast-iron.
154. The Garden contains about two roods and a half, and is divided into four large
compartments, w, w, w, w, for the usual four course rotation ; there are several smaller
compartments, viz., x, x, for grass plats surrounded by flowers ; y, y, for strawberries ;
and z, s, for gooseberries, currants, and raspberries. The boundary fence is a hedge, which,
in suitable climates, may be formed of figs ; in more northern latitudes, of apples, quinces, or
plums ; and in cold, ex-
posed situations, of sloes,
elders, services, or moun-
tain ash. The fruits of the
sloe, and the berries of the
elder, are valuable for wine
and those of the service and
mountain ash afford an ex-
cellent spirit. The three
last named trees must never
be clipped, otherwise they
will produce but few blos-
soms. Whenever a cot-
tager has the power of
choosing the sort of hedge
which shall surround his
garden, he may, in all cases, if he chooses, render it productive of useful fruit ; for every climate
has its fruit shrubs, and its low edible fruit-bearing trees. It must always be recollected that
the ground inside of the fence being under garden cultivation, and well manured, it would be
a pity to let any part of this enriched soil be exhausted by barren trees or shrubs. Even
where a powerful fence is required, by planting a double row of hedge plants, the outer one
of thorns, and the inner one of fruit shrubs, the riches of the soil will not be altogether lost.
155. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 1,089 feet, at 6d. per foot, £272 :5s.; at -id.,
£181 : 10«. ; and at 3d., £136 : 2s : 6d.
156. Expression. It must be confessed that this, though a substantial looking dwelling,
which promises not to be without comfort within, has nothing elegant in its appearance. If
it has any character of style, it is that of the Scotch stone cottage, and it might very fitly
form a pair with Design VII. What can be done to render such a cottage elegant? A
veranda might be added, more especially if it were roofed with glass, otherwise, it would
darken the windows. The chimney top might also be enriched by ornamental chimney pots.
The greatest improvement would be a substantial porch, fig. 125, which would add to the
74
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
interior accommodation and comfort. The veranda may be constructed of wrought iron s:is|i
12G bars, of which fig. 120 is a section full size, cut to
the proper length, the upper end let into the wall,
and made secure by cement, and the lower ends
notched into a cast-iron gutter, fig. 127. The
veranda may have an apron in front, formed of cast-
iiun ornaments, fig. 128, screwed to the under side of
the gutter, or to the upper part of the iron props
which support it, fig. 129. No simpler or more
durable form of veranda can well be constructed ;
its roof may be glazed with panes of crown glass,
from five inches to ten inches wide, according as the
country is more or less subject to violent hail storms. In those countries where
there is no duty on glass, the bars may be placed a foot or more apart, and plate
glass may be employed ; the panes, in that case, being from a foot to eighteen inches in breadth.
Where light is not an object, and blue slate 128
abounds, it may be used in plates of any con- r-,
venient size, stucco, or Roman cement, being 11
employed instead of putty. Sheets of copper,
zinc, tinned plates, or rolled iron, may be fixed
in the same manner as the glass, or even tar-
pauling well painted, or oil-cloth, may also be
fixed between the bars. The lightness of ap-
pearance may be increased, by bending the bars so as to g've a concave form to the upper
129
surface of the roof, fig. 130 ; con-
; cave surfaces, whether of ground
J or of roofs, reflecting more light,
and therefore being always lighter,
or more varied to the eye, than
plain or convex ones. In this,
and in various other cases of a like
nature, where the width of the
veranda is not more than four feet,
it may be supported with cast-iron
brackets of elegant architectural
design, firmly built into the wall.
130
Design XVIII. — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, without Children.
157. Accommodation. The man, in this case, is supposed to be a working mechanic, a
shoemaker or weaver, who works at home in one room, a, while the business of the house is
carried on by his wife in the other, b. There are two small rooms, e and d, one of which
may be used as a bed-room, and the other as a store-room. In the kitchen, b, is an oven,
which will contribute materially to warm the whole house, when baking is going forward
during winter ; and in summer, during the same operation, the apartment may be kept cool
by opening both the windows. There is a good closet in the work-room, a, and also in the
kitchen, b, so that, on the whole, there seems something like comfort in this dwelling, pro-
vided the man and his wife continue without children. In a small yard, which may be seen
at e, in the plan exhibiting the garden, are contained a privy, pigsty, a place for fowls, a
long narrow open shed for fuel, a manure tank and pump, and other conveniences.
158. Construction. The great art in building an economical cottage, is to employ the
kind of materials and labour which are cheapest in the given locality. In almost every part
of the world the cheapest article of which the walls can be made, will be found to be the
earth on which the cottage stands, and to make good walls from this earth is the principal
art of the rustic or primitive builder. Soils, with reference to building, may be divided into
two classes : clays, loams, and all such soils as can neither be called gravels nor sands ; and
sands and gravels. The former, whether they are stifFor free, rich or poor, mixed with stones,
or free from stones, may be formed into walls in one of the three modes already mentioned,
viz., in the pise manner, by lumps moulded in boxes, and by compressed blocks. Sandy and
gravelly soils may always be made into excellent walls, by forming a frame of boards, leaving
a space between the boards of the intended thickness of the wall, and filling this with gravel
mixed with lime mortar ; or, if this cannot be got, with mortar made of clay and straw. In
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 7<5
XVIII.
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76 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
XIX.
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COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
all cases when walls, either of this class or of the former, are built, the foundations should he
of stone or brick, and they should be carried up at least a foot above the upper surface of the
platform. In the course of this work, we shall describe all the various methods of building
earthern walls, and we shall here commence by giving one of the simplest modes of con-
struction, from the work of a very excellent and highly estimable individual, Mr. Denson, of
Waterbeach, Cambridgeshire, the author of The Peasant's Voice, who built his own cottage
in the manner described below.
159. Mode of building the Mud Walls of Cottages in Cambridgeshire. After a labourer has
dug a sufficient quantity of clay for his purpose, he works it up with straw ; he is then pro-
vided with a frame eighteen inches in length, six deep, and from nine to twelve inches
in diameter. In this frame he forms his lumps, in the same manner that a brickmaker forms
his bricks ; they are then packed up to dry by the weather ; that done, they are fit for use,
as a substitute for bricks. On laying the foundation of a cottage, a few layers of bricks are
necessary, to prevent the lumps from contracting a damp from the earth. The fire-place is
lined, and the oven is built with bricks. I have known cottagers, where they could get the
grant of a piece of ground to build on for themselves, erect a cottage of this description at a
cost of from £15 to £.30. I examined one that was nearly completed, of a superior order ; it
contained two good lower rooms and a chamber, and was neatly thatched with straw. It is a
warm, firm, and comfortable building ; far superior to the one I live in ; and my opinion is,
that it will last for centuries. The lumps are laid with mortar, they are then plastered, and
on the outside once rough cast, which is done by throwing a mixture of water, lime, and small
stones against the walls before the plaster is dry, which gives them a very handsome appear-
ance. The cottage I examined, cost £33, and took nearly one thousand lumps to complete
it. I believe a labourer will make that number in two days : the roofs of cottages of this
description are precisely the same as when built with bricks, or with a wooden frame. Cow-
house sheds, garden walls, and partition fences, are formed with the same materials ; but in
all cases the tops are covered with straw, which the thatchers perform in a very neat manner.
— Denson' s Peasant's Voice, p. 31.
160. The Roof of this cottage is shown 132
as if thatched with reeds or straw ; it pro-
jects considerably on every side, and forms
a truncated pyramid, terminating in the
chimney-tops which are of stone, and of
a very simple form, (fig. 131, to a scale
of half an inch to a foot,) easily executed.
Nearly the same form might be produced
in well tempered clay, mixed with straw
and gravel, and afterwards rough cast ;
but it is evident that it would not be so
durable. When chimney-tops are formed
of clay, a shape should be adopted which admits of covering them With
a flag stone, or a large slate, or tiles, in the Swiss manner, fig. 132.
161. Garden. The extent is about three-fourths of an acre. There
are four large compartments, f, g, h, i, calculated for a four-fold succession of crops ; viz.,
potatoes, the leguminous tribe, the cabbage tribe, and turnips and other roots. Two small com-
partments, k and I, are devoted to currants, gooseberries, and raspberries ; and m, to straw-
berries, asparagus, and sea-kale. The garden is surrounded by a wall, with a border for
early and late crops, and for flowers. The rows of shrubs round the compartments, k and /,
are chiefly ornamental, such as roses, honeysuckles, mezereons, Cydonia jap6nica, &c. The
single fruit trees at the corners of the compartments are chiefly apples, with some pears,
cherries, and plums. There is a small summer house at n, from which it may be supposed
there is an extensive prospect.
162. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,362 feet, at 6d. per foot, £284: 1*.; at 4d.
£189 : 7.? : 4d. ; and at 3d., £142 : 0* : 6d.
163. Expression. " I imagine," says Newton, in his preface to Vitruvius, " that every
building should, by its appearance, express its destination and purpose ; and that some
character should prevail therein which is suitable to, and expressive of, the particular end it is
to answer. To effect this, will require the exertion of the powers of the mind, the fire of
genius, and the solidity of judgment ; and without this, a composition is but a compilation of
parts without meaning or end." — Preface. The dwelling now under consideration can hardly
be considered as having any other expression than that of the subject. It is a substantial
looking cottage dwelling, without any pretensions to either elegance or beauty.
i
78
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
164. Alterations and Improve-
ments. The first and most obvious
mode of ornamenting this cottage, is
by surrounding it with a veranda,
either glazed, or finished with sheet-
iron or copper ; and adding a light
terrace parapet, and also chimney
pots; for example, as in fig. 133.
The terrace parapet may be a very
simple wooden palisade, fig. 134 ;
and both it and the veranda may be
painted of a stone colour. In the
suburbs of a town, we should not
object to green ; but in the country
there is green enough ; and the
colour of stone is, by contrast, a re-
lief to the eye. Another, and a very
simple and economical mode of conferring ornament on such a cottage, is by disguising its
roof with a second roof, supported on a screen front
of light trellis work, for the
purpose of being covered with
plants, fig. 135. The con-
struction of this trellis roof
will easily be understood from
the section, fig. 136, in which
o o represent the walls of the
house, and p p the roof, while
q q and r r represent the
trellis roof and trellis screen.
It deserves to be remarked,
that the screen being at the
distance of only three feet
from the walls, the trellis-
work, even when covered with
foliage, will throw very little
shade on the windows, and
therefore not materially darken the rooms,
and even to dine, or receive
visiters, under the veranda of
a house, its distance from the
walls should be double or
treble what has hitherto been
shown in these cottages. At
whatever distance the trellis
screen and roof may be placed,
they ought to be covered with
vegetation ; and for the in-
dustrious cottager, we would
recommend apples, pears, or
vines, as the most profitable
trees. We should even prefer
elders for the roof, in climates
where the apple would not
ripen, rather than to cover the
whole with merely ornamental
plants, though these would do
both roof and screen front being formed
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
very well for the side screen. If heat were the great consideration, no plant couldanswer
the purpose better than ivy ; and it may be observed incidentally, that such a trellis-work
137
138
in>-.
and screen
would form
averyhand-
some cover-
ing for any
building in
a garden
or pleasure
grounds,
which it
might be
desirable to
conceal, though a great ob-
jection to all such coverings is
their harbouring insects, unless
birds are so abundant as to keep
them under. The greatest im-
provement, however, of which
a cottage, such as Design XVIII. is susceptible, is by adding another story to it. This
might be done in various ways ; the cheapest would be by turning the two small closets
into one economical stair-
case, of the kind shown in x39
fig. 137. This description
of staircase occupies exactly
one half the space of a stair-
case on the ordinary plan.
This may be easily con-
ceived, when it is observed
that every step rises twice
the usual height. The space
occupied by these two closets
is four feet by three feet six
inches, and supposing the
tread or width of each step
of the stair to be eight inches,
and the rise eight inches,
then the depth of the closet
being eight feet, it will ad-
mit of carrying the stair
eight feet high. After this, the stair may project into the kitchen till it gains the height
of the surface of the bed-room floor. This height is exactly eleven feet six inches from
the surface of the ground
floor, none of our ceilings
being lower than ten feet. If
the projection of the top of
the stair into the kitchen were
an insuperable objection, then
the bottom might either pro-
ject two double steps into the
bed-room below, the door
shutting against the riser
(perpendicular board) of the
third step ; or a trap stair,
composed of the two lower
steps, and made to fold up,
might be resorted to. This
practice is to be met with in
France, and it is remarkable
that the celebrated Jefferson, when making a tour in that country, was so struck with the
contrivance, that he made a note of it in his journal, which has since been published m hi*
80
CO! MGi:, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Corrupondtwee. The elevation of this cottage, in die event of a second story being added,
will admit of adopting ditierent styles of architecture, and a variety of the decorations or
features belonging to each style. The castellated Gothic may be adopted, as in fig. 138 ; the
monastic Gothic, as in fig. 139 ; the Indian Gothic, the Italian style, with a campanile-like
watch tower, or the Elizabethan style, fig. 140. It may appear improbable to some, that
a person purposing to build so small a dwelling, should think of applying any of these
styles to it ; but in particular situations in Britain, it is sometimes considered desirable to
render such dwellings striking objects in a view ; and in America, we are informed that the
proprietors in easy circumstances are commencing not only to build good, comfortable
cottages, but to display architectural style in them. Sometimes, also, the object is to create
particular associations. It may appear singular to a resident in Britain, that a British
emigrant in Van Diemen's Land should wish to build his dwelling in the form of an English
church tower; but, duly considered, the feeling will be found to be quite natural. The
associations which an object so characteristic of British scenery and civilization is calculated
to raise up in the minds of Britons, resident in far distant, and, as yet, scarcely peopled
countries, surrounded by primeval forests or wastes, can hardly be conceived by those who
have never experienced them.
Design XIX. — A Dwelling of Two Rooms for a Man and his Wife without Children.
165. Accommodation. This dwelling contains what, in our opinion, ought to be the
minimum of apartments for a man and his wife, without children, in any country. It is
certain that, without this degree of accommodation in England, no country labourer considers
himself at all comfortable ; and in new countries, where the first settlers are obliged to put
up with huts, or log houses, if they commence with one room, they never rest satisfied till
they have obtained, at least, two. The room, a, in this design, is supposed to be used as a
kitchen, and as the place for sitting and eating in ; the bed-room is marked b ; and from the
kitchen are divided off a lumber closet, /, and a pantry, e. The bed-room has, in like
manner, separated from it by partitions, two closets, c and d ; one of which may be used as a
store-room, and the other may serve as a place for clothes. The size of all these apartments
is comparatively small ; but they are all well lighted, and ten feet high from the floor to the
ceiling. The privy, dung-pit, and manure tank, to this dwelling, are supposed to be placed
at a short distance from it outside the garden ; in our opinion, not the best arrangement, but
in some particular situations unavoidable. The well for water is also supposed to be placed
outside the garden, but in an opposite direction to, or at all events, at some distance from, the
tank for manure.
166. Situation. This building is well calculated for being placed on the summit of a gentle
elevation, in a situation where it will be seen from all sides. The reasons why it is suitable
for this purpose, are, first and chiefly, the nearly cubical form of the building, which, from
whatever point it is viewed, has a massive, substantial, and secure appearance ; secondly,
from the chimney being in the centre of the roof, thus giving an expression of symmetry, or of
a whole, of which the chimney top is the finishing part ; and thirdly, from the number of
openings being the same
on every side ; for though
these openings are irregu-
lar in size, yet they are
regular in number, and
mere regularity, though a
minor beauty, has the ad-
vantage of being recog-
nised and acknowledged
by ordinary minds, while,
at the same time, it is al-
ways more or less satis-
factory to those even of
the most refined taste.
When we add to these
particulars, the effect of
the elevated platform on
which the cottage stands, it being placed on the flattened summit of a knoll, and forming, as
it were, an architectural plinth to this little cottage castle, it will not be denied that the result
will be a somewhat dignified, though formal expression of purpose. One conspicuous fault
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
81
in the elevation of this cottage is, that the chimney stack rises from the roof without any
preparation, and is far from being sufficiently high. Were this feature properly altered, the
effect would be very different, fig. 141.
167. Aspect. Much of the comfort enjoyed by the inhabitants of every dwelling will de-
pend on the aspect of the windows. Where a house has only windows on one side, as we
have before observed, (§ 24) the best aspect is the south-east, on account of the greater
mildness of the wind from that quarter, the infrequency of south-easterly storms, and the
cheerfulness of the morning sun. The least desirable aspect for a house having the windows
and the door all on one side, is the north ; because at such windows the sun will only enter
during a few mornings and evenings before and after midsummer : the next worst aspect is,
perhaps, the south-west ; because the winds from that quarter are frequently boisterous, and
are almost always accompanied with rain. If the entrance is unavoidably on the south-west
side, then the door should be protected by a close porch, having its door opening to the south ;
if on the north-west or north-east, the entrance should be similarly protected by porches,
having their doors opening to the west or east.
168. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of stone, and the roof to be covered with
Tuscan or Grecian tiles (figs. 23 and 24, § 50). The windows are surrounded by what are
commonly called facings, that is by architraves without mouldings ; and the sills are sup-
ported by small blocks. The window frames may each be in three parts, opening inwards,
with bold perpendicular astragals (from astragalus, the ankle bone ; a bar with a round
moulding resembling the end of that bone), and lighter horizontal ones. The chimney top
may be covered by two pieces of flag-stone, or two laige slates, each chimney flue having
two holes on the sides of the stack
for the smoke to escape. The water
which falls on the roof, is collected
by a gutter, formed in the manner
shown by fig. 142, g, which gutter
ought to be lined with lead ; beneath
this is the cantilever, h. The end of
the wall plate is shown at i, on which
the binders, k, of the rafters, /, rest,
and to which they are fitted. The
poleplate, m, is for the purpose of
supporting the rafters.
169. General Estimate. Cubic
contents, 8,316 feet, at 6d. per foot, £207 : ISs. ; at id., £138 : 12*."7~and at 3^, £103 : 19*.
170. The Garden contains three roods. We have shown the house placed in the middle
of a garden, and this garden is divided into seven compartments. The two small ones on the
entrance front of the house, n, n, may be devoted to flowers, and herbs for seasoning, with a
few rhubarb plants for tarts, and one or two hops. These compartments may be surrounded
by a line of gooseberries, currants, raspberries, roses, and other useful and ornamental shrubs,
three or four feet apart. The compartment, o, behind the house, is shown in three equal
divisions, and is supposed to be cropped with strawberries, for the sake of selling the fruit.
The remaining four compartments, p, q, r, s, two on each side of the house, will stand thus : —
(1) potatoes; (2) peas, beans, kidney beans, and other leguminous crops; (3) the cabbage
tribe ; and (4) turnips, carrots, parsnips, onions, and other root crops. These crops may suc-
ceed each other in the above order in every compartment, and the rotation may thus go on
for ever. The dung should be applied with the first and third crops. The surrounding hedge
may be of plums or sloes, pruned, but not clipped, in order that the plants may produce
fruit for sale, for tarts, or for wine. The fruit trees shown at the corners of the compart-
ments may be chiefly apples, with one or two pears and cherries. The privy, dung-pit, and
well, already noticed, are supposed to be exterior to the garden in the fuel plantation, and
therefore are not shown in the plan.
171. Remarks. On examining this dwelling, we find that though it is deficient in point
of comfort, from having the privy at a distance, it is convenient in respect to in-door enjoy-
ments, from having four light closets in addition to the two apartments which constitute the
main part of the dwelling. It must not be forgotten, however, that the living-room, a, must
also be used as a wash-house, and back kitchen ; and that the room, b, having a bed in it, can
never be considered, by an English labourer, as a comfortable sitting-room. Nothing, indeed,
short of three rooms, viz., a kitchen, back kitchen, and bed-room, can be deemed sufficient
for the comfort of even a labourer and his wife without children. We know a case in which
a cobbler and his wife lived in such a cottage as that represented in the present Design, and
82
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
both these persons being under the usual size, they put a bed in the closet, /, and used the
room, b, as the cobbler's work-room, for which, being lighted from two sides, it was very well
adapted; but this is what is called, in Eng- 143
land, making shift ; a thing not to be recom-
mended in any book written with a view to
human improvement. We may, notwith-
standing, state that a closet may be turned
into a makeshift bed-room for persons of even
the ordinary size, by projecting the foot of the
bed, fig. 143, through a partition, u, into the
next room, or closet, v, enclosing and cover-
ing the projection in such a manner as to give
it the appearance of a chest of drawers or a
press, and making the top serve as a dressing
table, mi. In the space below the bottom of
the bed, a large drawer, x, for clothes or linen
may be obtained, opening into the closet, v.
172. Expression. It is evident, from inspec-
tion, that something more is intended in the
elevation of this cottage than mere expression of the subject. The blocks or dentils under
the window sills, the projecting roof, and its tiles, the cover to the chimney top, the general
form of the windows, and the
arched head of the doorway, 144
show something like an at-
tempt at architectural style.
What, then, is the style at-
tempted? Those who have
viewed the buildings of all the
countries of Europe with an
architectural eye, or those who
have studied the cottage build-
ings in the pictures of the
Italian landscape painters, will
best be able to determine this
question. All will agree that
it seems to belong to the Italian
style. This style, as it is called, though in reality it is only a substyle or manner, is founded
on the Roman variety of Grecian architecture, with some forms, dispositions, and ornaments
belonging to the castel-
lated Gothic, but is by
no means definite in its
characteristics. In build-
ings of the humblest class,
it may be described as
characterised by flat and
far projecting roofs, mas-
sive walls, and windows
broad rather than deep,
which are generally car-
ried up close to the eaves,
in order to be shaded, as
much as possible, from
the sun. In adapting the
Italian style to England,
this last characteristic is
generally somewhat mo-
dified, as in this Design ;
indeed no characteristic
of any style or manner
ought to be servilely
imitated, when that imitation would prove inconsistent with utility or convenience. When
one age or country borrows the architecture of any other, it must be modified in such a
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
83
manner as to suit the new locality to which it is applied ; and the hand of the master is
116
shown in effecting this modification in the
spirit of the original style.
173. Ornament or Variation. A veranda,
and a common Italian parapet, would serve
to decorate this Design, fig. 144 ; while, if it
were desirable to adapt a different elevation
to the same plan, any of the Gothic styles
indicated in figs. 138, 139, and 140, § 164,
might be adopted ; or recourse might be had
to the Indian Gothic, fig. 145. The Italian
parapet is formed by tiles of any kind, but not longer than six or eight inches, fif
148
146, piled
up between piers, as in figs. 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, and 152. It is easy to conceive that
I 1 149 130
numerous other variations of the same kind may be made in the same manner, by tiles of
151 152
these and of other kinds, with or without the aid of bricks and paving tiles. A very hand-
154
some parapet may be made by using small hollow draining tiles or tubes as balusters. To
the Indian cottage, fig. 145, parapets may be contrived of appropriate Indian forms, figs.
153 and 154.
Design XX. — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife with Children, and having a Cow-house
Pigsty, §c. attached.
174. Accommodation. The ground plan consists of an entrance, a; kitchen, b; bed-
closet, c ; wash-house, d ; bed-room, e ; dairy,/; linen closet, g ; pigsty, h; privy, i ;
pantry, k ; and cow-house or wood-house, /. In the roof, there is one large bed-room, which
may be seen in the section A, B; it is lighted from one end, but can only be ascended to by
means of a ladder through the trap-door in the ceiling of the entrance lobby, a. A hen-
house might be formed over the piggery or the cow-house ; and rabbits, in hutches, might
be kept in the latter building.
175. Construction. The inner walls are supposed to be of rubble stone, as being the
cheapest material in the given locality ; the outer walls are of brick, and hollow ; the roof is
thatched. The three-quarter columns shown in the front elevation, are supposed to be of
wood ; and the manner in which they are attached to the walls may be seen in fig. 155, which
is a section through the lean-to from back to front.
176. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,142 feet, at Gd. per foot, £278: Us.; at id.,
£185 : 14*. ; and at 3d., £139 : 5* : 6d.
177. Expression. To the eye which looks only at picturesque effect, this cottage will not
84
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
be unplcasing ; but strictly examined on scientific principles, it is full of faults. The three-
quarter columns, supporting nothing but thatch, are absurdities: they are of no use as piers,
because the wall is strong enough without them ;
and they are the more superfluous, because tliey
are attached to the walls at the angles, which, as
we have beforeshown(§74),are the strongest parts
of the wall. A column is the noblest member of
the architectural body, because it effects, of itself,
and in a simple and striking manner, by one bold
and independent form, what could otherwise be
only effected by a great number of petty details
of masonry or carpentry. As a support, it may
be substituted for a wall ; as a monument, it will
serve the purpose of either a cone, a pyramid, or
a tower ; and placed horizontally over an opening,
in the form of a beam, it takes the place of an
arch. Of what other architectural member can so
much be said ? A column may be considered in
architecture what a timber tree is in the vegetable
kingdom ; the first is one of the grandest objects of architectural art, and the second, one of
the most imposing in the vegetable creation. It is the part of correct judgment always to
adjust the means employed 156
to the end to be attained ;
and in attempting to gain
any end, never to call forth
more energy than the occa-
sion requires. When a wall
is employed to support a
roof, no wise architect will
ever join columns to this
wall ; since, from what has
been said of the uses of
columns, it must be clear
that, to place them there,
would, in point of utility, be
a mere waste of strength ;
and in point of order and
beauty, it would be to de-
grade their character. To
see a column misapplied in a
building, is as offensive to a
correct architectural eye, as
it is to a well regulated mind
to see misapplied wealth or
power in the common affairs of life.
capitals of the columns in
the front of Design XX.
they would have had some
pretensions to fitness, by
appearing to support it, and
having thereby an air of
completeness ; but merely
set against the wall without
any conspicuous superin-
cumbent member of the
roof, and immediately under
the projecting thatch, they
show an apparent disre-
gard, not only of the prin-
ciple of utility, but of that of
congruity. A second fault is the placing of two false windows in the wings, which, in the
elevation, are so shaded that it is impossible to detect them as such. This, in a drawing, is
Had there been an architrave of any sort over the
157
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
XX.
85
ft-tL^
86 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
XXI
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
81
liable to be considered as a deception practised on the inexperienced eye, and an architect
might thereby mislead his employer. Perhaps the architect may say that he intends glass to
be put in these windows, in which case they would not be distinguishable from real ones,
either in the drawing, or in the reality. If so, our objections are less strong ; but still we
disapprove of the expense of false windows in such a building as a cottage. A third objection
to this dwelling is, that sufficient consequence is not given to the entrance. So large a
cottage, and one of so much pretension, ought surely not to be entered as it were by stealth.
One other objection, and we have done : — the window in the roof is too low, and not fit for
ventilating sufficiently, so large a room as the one it opens into.
178. Improvement. We would remove the three-quarter columns and the false windows ;
place a porch over the main door, fig. 156, m, and extend the roof of the back kitchen in such
a manner as to form a covered area for drying clothes, fig. 156, n, which might also serve as
a play-ground for children, or, in hot countries, for occasionally dining under. We would
also enlarge and raise the window in the roof, because there can be no perfect ventilation
unless windows reach nearly to the ceiling. This done, the ground plan would be as in fig.
156, and the elevation (chimney pots and a terrace parapet being added), as in fig. 157.
Design XXI. — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, without Children.
179. Accommodation. We have here, in a compact form, and under a pavillion roof, a
dwelling of the humblest class ; very well calculated for two persons, but not for more. It
contains a kitchen, a, in which is an oven ; a bed-room, b ; two light closets from the
bed-room, c and d ; and two from the kitchen, e and/. In this, as in most of the preceding
Designs, some accommodation for lumber may be obtained in the roof, to which there should
be an opening in the ceiling, closed by
a door, with a hinged ladder, for ascent
and descent. This ladder when not in
use, is easily kept suspended to the
ceiling, by a hook at one end. By
substituting hooks and staples, as in
fig. 158, for hinges, the ladder may be taken off at pleasure, and used for other purposes.
The cow-house and yard, g ; and the pigsty, poultry-house, place between them for fuel;
liquid manure tank, and privy, h, are supposed to be placed in the garden.
180. Construction. The walls may be of
earth, rough stone, or whatever may be the
cheapest material in the particular locality. If
they are built of brick, they should be made
hollow, either according to the method already
mentioned (§ 25), or according to that of
Silverlock or of Dearn ; both of which will be
afterwards described. The roof in this dwelling
is shown as covered with large slates. No
gutter is added round the eaves, fig. 159, in
this, as in many other of the Designs ; because
this essential accompaniment is of the same
form in most buildings of the cottage kind,
and is easily added, either as a tinned, copper, zinc, or cast-iron half cylinder. The most
durable, the most convenient, and, ultimately, the cheapest gutter, is a segment of a hollow
cast-iron pipe, fig. 160; supported by jgO
iron brackets, fig. 161. The brackets are
nailed to the face of the eaves, as at
fig. 159, k, and have sometimes rivetted
to them tinned iron straps, fig. 162, I, the
ends of which are folded over the gutter, to hold it in its place. Each length of gutter
overlaps the other ; and when the slope, for giving a current to the water, is less than one
inch in a yard, the one piece of gutter is bedded on the other
in putty, or in white lead. If the water is not to be preserved for
use, it may be conducted to a drain, by an upright pipe or tube,
in one or two places (§ 84, figs. 60 and 61) ; but, if it is to be
collected for filtration, the slope of the guttering, on all the sides
of the house, ought to be directed to one point, where a descending
tube should conduct the water to a receiving tank (see § 31).
88
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
181. The Garden has four main compartments, m, n, o, and p, for the usual four year
rotation of kitchen crops ; two small compartments, q, q, supposed to be used, the one, as
a yard for faggot wood, &c, and the other as a rick-yard ; and four small compartments,
r, s, t, and u, for fruits, shrubs, and flowers.
182. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,178 feet, at 6d. per foot, £279 :9s.; at id.,
£186 : 6s. ; and at 3d., £139 : 14s : 6d.
183. Expression. This Design, like the preceding one, aims at nothing more than the
expression of the subject. To both, might be given a character of elegance, as well as a
solid addition in point of comfort, by a surrounding veranda. To fit both these Designs for
receiving this addition, the tops of the windows are kept two or three feet under the eaves.
If the veranda were formed with an opaque roof, it would merely serve as a shelter, and a
cover under which to dry clothes, seeds, Indian corn, and tobacco, and to work or walk
under in rainy weather ; but, if the roof were glazed, with a trellis under it, grapes and
peaches might be grown all round the house (the diagonal of the square being a north and
south line), and all the former advantages obtained in equal perfection. The architectural
beauty of this Design, as well as its internal convenience, might be greatly heightened by a
judicious porch, and by a window in the roof over the entrance door; but these improve-
ments we leave to be contrived by our readers ; requesting them to take out their pencils
and make the attempt ; and assuring them, that nothing will contribute more to their
improvement, as architectural designers.
Design XXII. — A Dwelling for a Gardener, or other Servant, on a Gentleman' s Estate, who
has a Wife, but no Children.
184. The Accommodation of vhis cottage consists of a lobby, a ; a small kitchen, b, with
an oven ; a light closet from the kitchen, c ; and a bed-room, d, with a small light closet, e,
which may be used as the gardener's library. This closet will be kept sufficiently dry and
warm by its proximity to the oven. From the lobby, is portioned off a small closet for
fuel, /.
185. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of common brick, or of flints, with
piers and coins, in the form of pilasters, built of brick, of a superior description ; or, if brick
should not be the material employed, the plain part of the walls may 1 r„
be composed of rubble stone, or random jointed ashlar work (free
stone, rough as it comes from the quarry, laid in irregular courses),
and the pilasters of tooled stone. The plain parts of the walls may
also be of earth, and the pilasters of brick or stone ; or both the plain
parts and pilasters may be built of earth ; the former being rough cast,
and the latter covered with cement, scored (lined) in imitation of •
stone, and lime-whited. The roof is framed at a low pitch (low angle of the sides), and
covered with Italian semi-cylindrical tiles, fig. 163, in the manner practised in the neigh-
bourhood of Florence, fig. 164. The chimney top, fig. 165, on a -.p*
scale of half an inch to a foot, is built with a far projecting cornice,
supported by blocks, with intervals between, suitable for swallows'
nests. The windows would have been more in character with this
manner of building, obviously somewhat Italian, if they had been
formed of two frames, lengthways, the whole height of the window,
and hinged at the sides, so as to open inwardly ; but the comfort of
a sash window to a poor man, in a cold climate like that of Britain,
is so great, that the British architect may well feel justified in
adopting it in preference to the Italian form. In a building of a
higher class, or for a warmer country, we should, probably, not so easily have formed an
excuse for him, because there is a real advantage in being able to throw open the entire
space occupied by the window; and this never can
be done in the case of suspended sash-windows,
where no more can be opened than one-half.
186. Situation. If this dwelling be erected for
a gardener, it should, of course, be placed near
the garden ; and, if the health of the gardener,
or that of his wife, be any object to the proprietor,
it ought to be in a dry, open, airy situation ; and
not placed, as such houses very frequently are in
Britain, among dug ground, thickly planted with
tries and shrubs, where there can be neither good
165
\
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 89
XXII.
90 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
XXIII.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
91
air, nor a free circulation of such air as there is. This Design is also well adapted for a
lodge, and is worthy of being exposed to view on three sides, instead of being almost
entirely covered with vegetation. The practice of almost entirely covering buildings in the
country with creepers, can, by no means, be considered as in good taste : a few may be trained
up a plain building, or a ruin ; but to cover a handsome piece of architecture in this way,
is to defeat the very intention for which that architecture was produced. In the country, alj
is vegetation : what beauty, therefore, can be expected from clothing with foliage an object,
which, to produce any effect at all, must operate by contrast ? In the town, all is archi-
tecture ; and there, the introduction of vegetation of any kind on a building, can, in point
of effect, hardly be carried too far. In the country, the white or grey walls of the plainest
cottage, are a relief to the eye from the eternal monotony of green, by which such cottages
are generally surrounded. In addition to this, it should never be forgotten that all vegetation
near a house, especially that of deciduous plants, encourages damp and insects.
1S7. Garden. We have added a garden, on the supposition that this Design might be
tho'\ght worth adoption, as a gate lodge, or by an independent labourer, or small farmer
without children. We have shown in it a building, and yard, for two cows and two
horses, g ; and another yard with a privy, a place for pigs, another for poultry, and a third
between them for wood, h. It is of great consequence that the floors of these buildings should
be raised at least one foot above the surface of the yard, and that their walls should be of
such a thickness as to ensure warmth to the animals. The necessity and advantage of this
will appear in Book II. There are several small borders and angles, round the house and
beneath its terrace or platform, which are supposed to be devoted to flowers and ornamental
plants. There are two compartments, i and A-, which, in the case of horses or cows being
kept, might be devoted to lucerne, saintfoin, Hemerocallis, (see Gard. Mag. Vol. V. p. 451,)
Symphytum, or some other perennial forage plant, according to the soil ; in order that they
may always afford food at a short notice, when it may be inconvenient to send to a greater
distance. To a family of two persons without a servant, in Britain, and to small farmers
in America and Australia, where servants or helpers, are scarcely to be got at any price,
arrangements of this sort should always be kspt in view. The four compartments, /, I, and
166
tubes, fig
m, m, may be used as a kitchen garden ; and the four larger
compartments, n, o,p, q, for growing corn crops. But if the
garden is supposed to be on a smaller scale, and to contain only
a quarter of an acre, instead of five acres, then these four
large compartments may be devoted to the usual rotation
of culinary vegetables ; and the four smaller ones to a grass-
plot for drying clothes, and to strawberries ; either, or both.
The two compartments, r and s, may serve for gooseberries,
currants, and raspberries ; fruits that ought to be in every
' cottage garden, where the climate is suitable for them.
1SS. In forming Grass-plots for drying Clothes, where ap-
pearance is an object, there ought always to be tubes built in
or inserted in the ground, for the purpose of holding the posts,
to which lines, for hanging the clothes on, are attached. These
166, are generally about eighteen inches long and four inches wide
168
»crq>
^rft inn
inside at top, and three inches at
bottom, with a plug, t, to cover
each when its post is taken out
and laid in the dry. Posts for
being so used have a shoulder at
their lower end, fig. 167, u, for pre-
venting them from being wedged
too firmly into the receiving box.
The top of such a line post has
generally two pins, v, passed through it in opposite
directions, for the purpose of fastening the lines.
In some situations, instead of moveable posts, the lines may be tied to fixed posts, ornamented
by creepers ; or to trees with narrow heads, such as the Lombardy poplar ; or for some
description of clothes, cords may be stretched under the far projecting eaves of the roof all
round the house. One end of the cord in this case is fixed, and the other passes over a
pulley, and is made fast to a hook in the wall. The advantage of passing a cord over a
pulley, fig. 168, w, is, that the line may be lowered to receive the articles to be dried,
and then hoisted up again. This mode of drying clothes is very common in Germany
92
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
and Switzerland, and has the advantage of never exposing
the clothes to perpendicular rain; with the disadvantage 169 170
of running the risk of having the larger articles blown ^ *y
against the wall, and dirted and discoloured, in windy
weather. Where very long lines are stretched from tree to
tree, it is customary to support the line in the middle, or
in one or two places by a prop, forked at one end, figs. 169,
or 170; the weight of the clothes keeps these props steady.
The clothes are kept fast on the lines by what are called
clothes' pegs. These are commonly formed of a piece of
cleft wood, held together by a fillet of tinned iron ; but an
elegant improvement on them has lately been made by Mr.
Stenning, of Haslemere, under the direction of our highly
talented contributor, Mr. Perry, of Godalming, fig. 171, by
which the fillet of tin is rendered unnecessary, and all risk of
iron-mould on the linen avoided.
189. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 9,828 feet, at 6d.
per foot, £245 : 14*. ; at id., £163 : 16s. ; and at 3d., £122 : 17s.
190. Expression. It is clear that something more is intended in this elevation than mere
expression of purpose ; else why the pilasters, the far projecting
roof with its cantilevers, the semi-cylindrical tiles, and the swallow
corniced chimney top ? The manner intended to be expressed is
evidently of the Italian kind, which is only diminished a little by the
English sash window. If it were desired to decorate this cottage,
it might be done by placing four ornamental tulip-shaped chimney
pots, fig. 172, on the chimney tops, raising a low wall or parapet in the
Italian manner, in bricks and tiles, at a very trifling expense, round
the outer margin of the platform ; and placing vases in harmony with
the chimney pots, at the corners. An ornamental water-gutter,
tig. 173, ought also to be used instead of a plain one. The dwelling
might then be said to be in the enriched Italian style, and if no more
trees were placed round it than what are shown in the ground plan
of the garden, it could hardly fail to look well froin every point of view. We leave our
readers to embody
these ideas in geo- 170
metrical and per- <£%£> C^M>
spective sketches of =3 ° l(~ ~
their own ; and we F,
may further suggest ~&r ^P
that by increasing
the width of the ter-
race and veranda,
and adding a second story, a very handsome elevation, and a tolerably comfortable habitation
(the walls still of earth), might be produced. The Italian manner of building cottages must
naturally have more charms for such as have been in Italy, or are conversant with the
works of the great painters of that country, than for those who have never travelled, or
paid much attention to prints or paintings ; but even to such persons an Italian cottage may
please, when first erected, from its novelty ; and afterwards, this satisfaction may be con-
tinued on the principle of contrast, or the difference between such a cottage and the
generality of cottages in the neighbourhood. It is evident, however, that the great beauty
of an Italian cottage, that in which the imagination is engaged, can only be fully realized
by those minds in which it will call up associations connected with Italy. An old English
cottage has this great beauty to every Englishman, educated or uneducated, that, in addition
to all its comforts and conveniences, it operates upon his imagination, and recals to mind a
thousand associations connected with his earlier years, with his parents, his kindred, his
school companions, and, in short, with all the vivid feelings of his youth. It ought to be
the business of the young architect, therefore, not only to inform himself on all that relates
to actual fitness in a building, and to whatever contributes to the expression of purpose, but
to those circumstances, in style, which are calculated to operate on the imagination. For
this purpose, we recommend to him the careful and repeated perusal of Allison's Essays on
Taste, Wood's Letters of an /Irehilect, und Dugald Stewart's Philosophical Essays,
k4.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
03
Design XXIII. — A Dwelling of One Story, for a Man and his Wife with a Family of Children ;
having a Cow-house and Pigsty attached.
191. Accommodation. The plan consists of a long broad portico, a, well adapted for
drying clothes under, and protecting the children from the sun or rain while at play ; an en-
trance lobby, b ; a kitchen, c ; a wash-house, d ; three bed-rooms, e, f, and g ; a pantry, h ;
dairy, i; store-closet, k ; pigsty, I; privy, m; cow-house, n ; and open shed for fuel, o.
192. Construction. The walls may be of earth ;
the props of the portico, and of the open shed,
trunks of trees with their bark on ; the roof is
thatched with reeds, heath, straw, or the shavings
and dressings of barrel hoops, made from green
rods, as practised in various parts of England. In
countries where timber is very abundant, and
other materials dear, the roof may be covered
with shingles ; but materials so liable to be con-
sumed by fire, should never be employed if it can I
be avoided. The rustic columns may be placed
on stone plinths, and have square wooden caps,
fig. 174, p. In a country having a long winter,
and liable to heavy falls of snow, it might be de-
sirable to have the roof of such a cottage con-
siderably steeper ; because the melting of snow on
flat roofs, or even any roofs which are under an
angle, or pitch, as the technical term is, of 45°, is generally attended by water penetrating
to the interior. Thatched roofs in snowy countries, unless very steep, are of particularly
short duration; and the same may be said of roofs covered with bark, heath, moss, ferns, or
spray. These kinds of roof occur often in Sweden and Norway, but they are never resorted
to when the builder can afford slate, or flat stone, or iron. One of the best modes of con-
structing flat roofs in a country liable to heavy falls of snow, would be to employ flat brick
arches, tying the abutments together with wrought-iron rods, in the manner which will be
afterwards mentioned. In Italy, and in other countries where stucco, puzzulano earth, or
any other cement is abundant and cheap, flat roofs are not uncommon. The joists, or
rafters, are first covered with boards, then with tiles, or sometimes with reeds ; and after-
wards, first with a coat of stucco, mixed with gravel, or very coarse sand ; and, lastly, with
a finishing coat of finer material.
193. General Estimate. Cubic contents 14,622 feet, at Qd. per foot, £365 :11s.; at Ad.,
£243 : 14s. ; and at 3d., £182 : 15s : 6d.
194. Expression. This
cottage pretends to no-
thing more than what
it is ; a simple, humble
dwelling, but not with-
out comfort. In a cold
country, we should pro-
pose to heat all the
floors by flues conducted
from one fireplace in the back kitchen, d ; thereby rendering the dwelling, at a mere trifle
of expense and trouble, as comfortable as even a first-rate mansion
could possibly be (see § 34). This would also greatly diminish
the expense of fuel, the labour attendant on keeping up fires,
and that of cleaning fireplaces. As a finish to this cottage, the
platform may be bordered with a neat hedge of box, or furze,
or butcher's broom, or an ivied trellis ; or by a rustic fence, com-
posed of the trunks of small pine or fir trees, driven into the
ground at equal distances, sawn evenly over at the height of two
feet and a half, and finished with a horizontal railing of the
same material, or of worked timber painted, fig. 175, to a scale
of a quarter of an inch to a foot. Ornamental urn chimney pots,
fig. 176, and one or two creepers, would complete all the ornaments
proper for such a cottage.
94
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE
Design XXIV. — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife without Children, having Two Ibmms
and other conveniences.
177
195. Accommodation. For a
small family this may be considered
a comfortable cottage. It contains
;i porch, within which is a lobby, a;
kitchen, b ; bed-room, c ; store-closet,
d; back kitchen, from which the
whole house may be heated, e ;
pantry,/; dairy, g ; privy, h; root
cellar, i ; and wood-house, k.
196. Construction. The walls
may be of earth, or of any other convenient material ; the roof we have supposed to be
178
K^si
slated, and the gutter is not shown. The windows are in
the French manner; that is, opening in the middle from
top to bottom, and to render the junction as much as pos-
sible air tight, the styles, fig. 177, half the full size, are
made to fit into each other in the manner shown at /. In
this, as in every case where the house is built of mud, or
compressed earth, the chimney tops are supposed to be of
stone, brick, or other material which will endure exposure to
all weathers. We have said little hitherto of internal
finishing ; but we would not on that account have any
cottage without some sort of cornice, both to its living-
rooms and sleeping-rooms. Ornament enhances comfort,
and tends to refine the mind. For this cottage, which is
somewhat in the Italian manner, fig. 178, to the scale of two inches and a half to a foot,
may serve as the section of a cornice for the
living-rooms, and fig. 179, to the same scale,
for the bed-rooms.
197. General Estimate. Cubic contents
10,920 feet.at 6d. per foot, £273 ; at 4rf.,£l82 ;
and at 3d., £136 : 10*.
198. Expression. Something more than a
common cottage dwelling is here intended ;
but there are, in our eyes, two conspicuous
faults ; the first is the hipped or rather trun-
cated angle of the pediment roof; and the
second, the want of height and boldness in
the chimney tops. These defects supplied,
and a window added to show that some
use was made of the garret, with a veranda
and parapet or balustrade, the effect to us
would be satisfactory. Vve again recom-
mend our readers to attempt to realize these improvements on paper. The benefit they
will derive from so doing, is far greater than may at first sight appear. The mere cir-
cumstance of familiarizing the mind with orderly arrangement, regular figures, symmetry,
means adapted to the end in view, either in buildings, in furniture, or in gardens, must have
an influence on conduct. Order is the fundamental principle of all morals : for what is
immorality but a disturbance of the order of civilized society, a disturbance of the relations
between man and man 1 We do not say that all kinds of drawing have a tendency to pro-
duce an orderly mind, but we do affirm that architectural drawing has that tendency in an
eminent degree. Carpenters and stone-masons are a superior class of mechanics in all
countries.
179
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 95
XXIV.
96 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE
XXV
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
97
Design XXV. — A Dwelling for a Working Man with a Family of Children-
199. Accommodation. The ground plan exhibits a porch, a; staircase and passage, b ;
kitchen, c; closet under the stair, d; back kitchen, e ; sitting-room, with small closet,/;
180
TZL
may be built of brick stud-
privy, g; and wood-house, h. The chamber floor con-
tains a bed-room, i ; closet, k ; another closet, I; abed- —
room, m ; two closets, n ando; and the staircase and
landing, p. The defect in the accommodation here, is
the want of a proper pantry ; but this might be easily _
obtained by enlarging /;, turning its present door into
a window, and opening a door to it from the kitchen.
A substitute for h, may be provided adjoining g.
200. Construction. This cottage, its designer observes,
work, plastered
outside, the roof
to be thatched with
reeds or straw.
The entrance is to
have a ledged door,
and the windows
are to be filled in
with lattice-work,
having oak mul-
lions, or mullions
of other timber,
painted in imita-
tion of stone. The
rabbet heads of the
windows, fig. 180,
q, to be back filled,
(to project beyond
the wall, in the
manner of archi-
traves, but without
mouldings, as at
r)." The chimney
stacks to be form-
ed of, or orna-
mented with, Roman cement
working drawing, fig.
181, made to a scale
of half an inch to a
foot, in which s, s, are
the barge boards, and
t, the pendant. Fig.
182, shows a section
of a suitable cornice
for the living-rooms ;
and fig. 183, one in
the same style for the p
bedrooms ; both these
sections are to a scale ■
of two inches and a half to a foot.
201. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 10,904 feet,
at 6d. per foot, £272 : 6s. ; at M., £181 : 10s : 8d. ; and
at 3d., £136 :3s.
202. The Expression is evidently that of an old
English cottage. We should have preferred the chamber windows in the ends, which would
have been less picturesque in effect, but cheaper to execute, and much easier to keep in
repair. We should also prefer the ground floor windows to have six large panes in each
frame, rather than to have them filled in with lattice-work. This done, and the alteration
made in the accommodation, which we have suggested, § 199, a parapet on the platform
and pinnacles over the pendants, are all that are wanting to render this Design very much
to our taste.
The barge boards and the pendants to be finished as in the
182
"Lz-tf"
vs
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Design XXVI. — A Cottage Dwelling in the German Swiss Style for a Man and his Family, with
accommodation for two Horses and a Cow.
203. Accommodation. This description of dwelling is common in the northern parts of
the continent of Europe, and also in Switzerland. To economize heat, no less than to save
expense in the first erection, the apartments for the domestic animals, and the places for
carts, ploughs, and other country machines and implements, are all contained under the same
roof. The occupier of such a dwelling is commonly a very small farmer, who joins to tms
occupation some description of trade or commerce ; such as a carrier, coach-driver, jobber in
cattle, fisherman, hunter, &c. There is a great objection to having cattle and horses under
the same roof with living rooms for human beings, on account of the smells and insects
generated by the former ; but it must be recollected that in the warm season, the cattle are
seldom in the house, and that during winter in the North of Europe, the great difficulty in
human dwellings is to maintain heat. We have lodged in various dwellings of this descrip-
tion, from Stockholm to Naples, both in summer and winter, and cannot recollect that we
ever felt much inconvenience from smells, but certainly some from insects. We do not,
however, recommend this Design, where the expense of erecting the offices apart from the
dwellings is not an object. — In the ground plan of this building, we have a place for a cart,
waggon, or other carriage, and for ploughs and other implements of agriculture or ttade, a ;
a three-stalled stable for two horses and a cow, b; aback kitchen, c; a privy, d; and a
pigsty, e. On the principal floor, we have an entrance under a porch, ascended to by an
sxterior stair, /; a sitting-room, g ; pantry, h ; light closet, i ; kitchen, k ; closet under
the stairs, I ; bed-room stairs, m; and three balconies, n, n, n. The chamber floor consists of
two bed-rooms, and two bed-closets.
204. Construction. The foundations, and the first story, as high as the floor of the
living-rooms, are supposed to be built of stone, or brick with
rusticated stone corners ; the upper part of the building is en-
tirely of timber. The roof is shown as covered with thatch,
and without gutters. In Switzerland, where timber is abundant,
and labour not high, the railing for the stairs and balconies of
such a building is commonly massive, and very curiously
carved. We have given a specimen, fig. 184, on a scale of half
an inch to a foot, of a suitable railing to such a balcony.
205. Situation. Were such a building to be erected in
England, it could only be for the sake of its character, and
therefore the proper situation for it would be in a romantic,
woody vale, glen, or dingle, like those of the South of Germany,
and especially the valley of Kinzigthal, from a cottage in which,
engraved and published, the idea of the present Design is
taken. There are many situations in Wales, and in the West
of England, and some in Scotland, where the appearance of
such a cottage would raise up interesting associations in the
mind of a continental traveller, and would fill the stationary
inhabitants with surprise, and by exciting inquiry, might lead)
to the improvement of their taste. We are naturally indifferent"
about what we do not understand ; but the moment we begin to have a knowledge of any
subject, we take an interest in it, which incites us to further inquiry, and ultimately brings
us to an acquaintance with what is right or wrong, beautiful or deformed. To teach men to
think is the grand object of every effort for promoting human improvement.
206. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 16,980 feet, at 6d. per foot, £424 : 10*. ; at 4rf.,
£283 ; and at 3d., £212 : 5.?.
207. Criticism. The effect of the walls of the ground story being of stone is good, by
giving the idea of great solidity in itself, and of stability and security in the superstructure.
The three balconies are calculated to be very useful, and are not liable to the same objection
as those exhibited in Design IX. ; because they are not connected with any of the bed-
room windows (see § 106). The outside stair, by artificially increasing the distance between
the living-rooms and the stable, must in some measure diminish the quantity of effluvia
from the cattle, conveyed thither by the clothes of those who attend on them. The eaves
ought to have the addition of an ample gutter ; and for our own taste, we should have pre-
ferred having two windows in each gable end, and none in the roof; dividing%the garrets
lengthways. We should not have truncated the gable, and we should have made a better
preparation for the chimney stack, raising it higher, and in a bolder style.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 99
XXVI.
100 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
XXVII.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
101
^
Design XXVII. — A Dwelling for a Man and his Wife, with Children, or a Servant, with the
usual Conveniences in a detached Building.
208. Accommodation. This plan exhibits a porch, a ; kitchen, b ; back kitchen, c ;
parlour, or family bed-room, d ; and children, or ser-
vants' bed-room, e. The privy, pigsty, cow-house, and
similar appendages are supposed to be placed in a small
yard, opposite the entrance to the garden, f. If this
were the case, a wash-house might also be erected
there ; the apartment, c, being used as a kitchen, and
b, as a parlour. This cottage might then be suitable
for a small farmer, or jobber.
209. Construction. The walls may be of rubble
stone, small land stones, or flints, set in good mortar.
They may be finished at the gable ends with summer
stones (stones placed on a wall, or on piers, for the
support of beams, or on the lower angle of gable ends, fig. 185, g, as an abutment of the
186 barge stones, h), having worked cornices, fig. ISO, and stone pinnacles.
The roof may be of plain tiles or slates ; the windows are shown
as common sashes with large panes, hung in the usual manner.
The door is ledged, with ornamental outside hinges, fig. 187, to a
scale of three-quarters of an inch to a foot. The chimney tops may
be of Austin's cement, or of soft stone.
210. The Garden contains two roods and a half; it is surrounded
by a hedge of fruit trees, within which is a border, and walk ; and
the interior is in four main compartments, i, k, I, m, for the usual
rotation ; with two small plots, n, o, for fruit shrubs ; two still smaller,
/), q, for flowers ; and
three, r, s, t, for straw-
berries, tart rhubarb, and
perennial pot and sweet
herbs.
211. General Estimate.
Cubic contents, 9,024
feet, at 6d. per foot,
£225 : 12*. ; at 4d.,
£150 : 8s.; and at 3d.
£112: 16s.
212. Situation. The designer of this building states, that it will
have a good effect as a gardener's house, placed in the garden, in
cases where the gardener is a single man. The apartment, d, may
be the gardener's library and office ; and e, his bed-room. He also
thinks that it might answer well for a small proprietor in North
America ; the farm lands surrounding the garden ; or the garden placed near a public
road. The house having windows on all sides, it ought evidently to be placed in an open,
airy situation.
213. Expression. Something Gothic ; and, from the cross over the entrance front, bordering
on the ecclesiastical style. This expression is counteracted in a small degree by the modern
windows ; but more is gained to the inhabitant in comfort by those windows, than is lost
to the man of reasoning taste, by this deviation from the details of correct style. However,
as the comfort of a single man, for example, a gardener in his garden, is of much less con-
sequence than that of a family, we see no objection to
completing the effect of such a building by intro-
ducing mullions in the windows with lattice-work, and
labels over them (a label, or hood moulding, is an
outer moulding, crowning a door or window head,
either plain or carved, and always returned at the
ends, when straight, fig. 188) ; or, pointed topped win-
dows may be employed ; and, instead of lattice-work,
with those very small panes, called by glaziers quarries
(perhaps from carre, French, square), large panes may be used
M
U
I **
It would abo be an im-
102
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
provement to carry the chimney tops higher, and to have a panelled entrance door, studded
with cast-iron nails, substituted for the ledged one ; which, with a neat architectural
parapet, fig. 189, would form a finish to the platform. The effect of the whole would thus be
enriched, and rendered more characteristic of the
style so obviously indicated ; and it may be tried
by such of our readers as can use a pencil, for
themselves. We may remark incidentally, that
the mere circumstance of deviating from the
straight line in a very small degree in the window
opening, as in fig. 188, at u, adds materially to the
effect of that window, as a Gothic one. The more
obvious forms of Gothic architecture are so universally known in this country, that the
slightest line in a building which has an allusion to them, operates upon the imagination
and at once gives the idea of style.
Design XXVIII. — A Cottage in the Old English manner, containing a Kitchen, Living Room,
and two Bed Rooms.
214. Accommodation. The ground floor contains an entrance-lobby, a ; back kitchen with
oven, b; best kitchen or living-room, c; closet under 190
the stair, d ; stair to the bed-rooms, e ; privy, f; and
place for wood, pigs, or poultry, g. In the chamber
floor, there are two bed-rooms ; the largest, h, which
is entered from the staircase, i, has a small closet, h ;
the other bed-room, /, has a press near the fireplace ;
and chests, and other articles, may stand in the
passage, m.
215. Construction. The walls, as high as the bed-
room floor, are of brick ; and from the bed-room floor
to the roof, of stud-work, or brick nogging plastered.
The chimneys, fig. 190, are of brick, covered with
composition ; or they may be formed entirely of arti-
ficial stone. The roof is supposed to be thatched ; the
windows of lattice-work, and the doors ledged. The
large projecting window in the centre of the gable
end, is called an oriel, or bay, or compass window,
and is constructed in the following manner, viz. heart
of oak bearers, fig. 191, n, n, are projected from the
walls at the given height in a horizontal position, and
generally so as to form an angle with the wall of 45°.
The ends of these beams are inserted in the walls, and
the brick-work is carried up over them, so that they
are retained in their places by the whole weight of
the superincumbent structure. By these means the
diagonal beams afford a sufficient support to a parallel beam, o, which is dovetailed into the
191
diagonal ones, as
shown a.tp,p. The
opening below the
beams is covered
in by the moulded
boarding, </,in fig.
192, to a scale of
three-eighths of
an inch to a foot,
and the section of the front, or parallel beam, o, is covered by the weather-boarding, r.
The beams, n, n, ought to be of strong sound timber, and not less than fourteen inches by
twelve inches. Oriel windows are generally constructed of wood-work, as being lighter than
any other material ; but beams of the above dimensions are sufficient to support a wall of
brick or stone. The manner in which oriel windows of stone are carried up, is founded on
the same principle, and will be described hereafter. Round the inside of these windows, are
generally formed seats, which commonly open in front, at s ; or at the top, like a ship's
locker ; so as to serve at the same time as a chest and a seat. Formerly these seats were
called binks, bins, or bunkers, possibly a corruption of the French word, banc. The barge
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 103
XXVIII.
104 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
XXIX.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
105
boards, and pendants, both for the gable
ends and windows, may be varied at
pleasure; and they form very fit subjects
of composition for exercising the ingenuity
of our female readers. The enclosure to
the pigsty is of oak pales.
216. General Estimate. Cubic contents,
10,544 feet, at 6d. per foot, £263:12*.;
at id., £175 : 14s : 8d. ; and at 3d.,
£131 : 16s.
217. Remarks. This cottage is dis-
figured, rather than otherwise, by the two
appendages, /, and g, at the end ; not but
what these appendages are essentially re-
quisite, but that they are given in a mean
and common-place manner. The door of/,
is also in too conspicuous a situation, and
193 is too nearly
■ resembling the
^f
192
X
\«_
\\V|
s
\\
tz
door of the main entrance. In other respects the building is pic-
turesque ; expressive of what it
z pretends to be, an old English cot-
tage ; and not uncomfortable with-
in. The mean character of the
lean-to at the end, and the naked-
ness of the door of /, may very
easily be remedied ; as a glance
at the ground plan, in Design
XXVIIL, and anotner afterwards
at the plan, fig. 193, and at the view
of the end of the cottage, as so alter-
ed, fig. 194, will sufficiently prove.
Design XXIX.— A Cottage Dwelling of Three Rooms, with various Conveniences
218. Accommodation.
— \r\ 195
196
There is a good deal of convenience and com-
fort about this cottage, and it must
be allowed to be, externally, rather
an elegant object It contains an
entrance under a handsome recess
to a lobby, a, which opens, on the
left hand, into a sitting-room, b, with a bed-closet, i, and, on the right,
into the family bed-room, d. Directly in front is the kitchen, c ; the
back kitchen, e; dairy,/; place for fuel, g; privy, h ; and place for
poultry, or a cow, lc. Where there is a small yard for a cow, poultry, fuel,
&c, the apartment, k, may be enlarged, and turned into a green-house,
heated by hot water from the back of the fireplace in the kitchen, c;
and d, being changed into a sitting-room, may be connected, by double
glass doors, with the green-house.
219. Construction. This building is well designed for having the
walls executed in compressed earth, because these walls are thick, have
few openings, and the dwelling is only one story high. The roof is of a
low pitch, and should therefore be covered with some description of slate,
tile, or metal, and not by any kind of thatch. Beneath the floors may
be flues heated from a fire under the boiler in the back kitchen. The
windows are shown in the French style, shutting by an air-tight joint, f "
as exhibited ill § 196, fig. 177. The panelled pilasters on each side of
the door, and at the angles, a cross section of which is given in fig. 195,
to a scale of half an inch to a foot, may be finished in plaster or cement.
Fig. 196 shows the plan and elevation of one end of the chimney stack,
which may be executed in brick-work, and covered with cement.
220. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 14,212 feet, at Gd. per foot,
£355 : 6s. ; at id, £236 : \7s : id. ; and at 3d., £177 : 13s.
221. Remarks. The entrance front of this cottage is satisfactory, but the outline of the
106
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
ground plan is by no means so. For what purpose are so many breaks and angles made,
when a plain square, as in fig. 197, would have given the same accommodation, with
increased dimensions, and at less expense ? The answer from the designer will probably be
that the breaks are made to produce shade and variety in the elevation, as well as to mark
the subordinate parts of the building, in order that an excuse may appear for their being
executed in a cheaper manner than the rest With respect to the first reason, we allow that
some perpendicular shadows are by these means obtained ; but no shadows whatever will,
in our eyes, justify so direct a deviation from the principle of utility. Here are no fewer than
five apartments or appendages diminished in size for the sake of getting four breaks and
four perpendicular shadows. Surely this will not bear the test of reason. But it may be said
by the author of this Design, that the breaks are made to show that what is included in
them are appendages or offices, and that they afford a reason why these appendages or offices
are placed under lean-to roofs, and have smaller windows, and thinner and lower walls, than
those of the main body of the house. Here we admit the architect has reason on his
side ; for economy in building a cottage must ever be an important object, and indeed seems
implied in the very name. The question, therefore, between the designer and us is,
whether the superior simplicity and dignity of the exterior elevation that will be pro-
duced by avoiding the breaks, and having the walls and roof of the offices of the same
height and character as the main body of the building, will not compensate for the ad-
ditional expense incurred ? We think it will ; for nothing, in our eyes, adds more to the
dignity of a house, than a general simplicity of form, communicating grandeur to it as a whole,
and giving an elevated character to its 197
appendages. By comparing the ground rn
„i — :„ r\ — : vvtv ...;*k c« 1(17 *U«
plan in Design XXIX. with fig. 197, the
superior degree of simplicity of the latter
figure, one would think alone sufficient to
give it the preference over the other.
222. Improvement. A very suitable
parapet for the terrace of this cottage might
be formed by placing mignionette troughs
of Austin's artificial stone, or of Peake's
Staffordshire ware, such as fig. 198, on the
top of a four-inch brick wall, formed of
open or pigeon-hole brick-work, and car-
ried to the height of eighteen or twenty
inches. At the corner of this wall, solid
square piers might be built, covered with
plaster, and panelled like the pilasters at
ff
-o
L3
the end of the house, and these might be terminated by square mignionette boxes, fig.
199. This done, and corresponding terminations given to the chimneys, the design may then
198
^^--
be considered as tolerably complete. The mignionette boxes for mere admirers of flowers
and lovers of sweet smells, may be filled with earth, and sown or planted with mignionette ;
but tin- botanical amateurs, they may 199
be filled with alpines, or herbaceous
plants in small pots. To a botanist,
even if be had no other resource than
the native plants of Britain, this
would alford a perpetual source of
enjoyment; because the length of the
four sides of the parapet being one
hundred and sixty feet, the oblong
and square troughs would contain six hundred and eighty pots of three inches in diameter, and
of course as many species. These might be changed, arranged, and re-arranged, at pleasure.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
107
Design XXX. — A Cottage Dwelling with Five Rooms and various Conveniences.
223. Accommodation. This may be considered a commodious cottage ; and it might even
be turned into two dwellings, by shutting up the door by which c communicates with e. The
details of the ground floor are two open porches, a, a ; a shop, or business room, b ; a prin-
cipal kitchen or living-room, c ; two bed-rooms on the ground floor, d and e ; dusthole, f;
place for fuel, g ; privy, h ; back kitchen, i ; pantry, k ; and staircase, with closet under, I.
The chamber floor contains two good bed-rooms, m and n, each with two small closets. We
may observe here, that closets in the outer walls of bed-rooms are very apt to become
damp ; and that, in general, it is much better to keep clean clothes in wooden presses, com-
modes, or chests, and dirty clothes in bags. By these modes of keeping, also, less danger is
incurred from the moth.
224. Construction. The walls may be of earth, of flints, or of bricks built hollow. All
the floors may be heated by a flue from the back kitchen, i. Two plain mouldings are iu-
troduced in the principal body
of the front, which will be 200
easily understood from the
cross section, fig. 200, to a
scale of three-eighths of an
inch to a foot. The pro-
jection over this ornament contains a sunk panel, the effect of which, as an architrave to the
perpendicular mouldings, is satisfactory. The eaves of the roof ought to have gutters, as
shown in the section, fig. 36, § 69 ; and the water may be conducted to a filtering tank under
the pantry, from which it may be drawn up for use by one of Siebe's pumps. The roof may
be of thatch. 201
225. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 20,762 feet, at 6d. per foot, £5
£340 : 15s. ; and at 3d., £255 : 10s : 6d.
226. Remarks. The simplicity of this Design must, we should think, be
generally pleasing. The ample sized windows, with their large panes, give
the idea of abundance of light and of cheerfulness within ; and the circum-
stance of their being brought down to the floor, shows that elegance has not
been lost sight of. Such a building would answer well for a bachelor who had
a man and his wife as servants. The former might live in b and e, removing
the bed from the latter room, and sleeping in m or n. The servant and his
wife could sleep in d. The apartment, e, being made the dining-room, it
would be requisite to have double doors between it and the kitchen, in order
to exclude noise and smells ; and the proximity of these two apartments
would be found highly favourable for economising labour, and for what
constitutes the essence of all good eating, having things brought to table
hot. One little alteration in the plan would be requisite to answer the
comfort of all parties, supposing the house turned to this use ; and that is,
that the staircase, I, should enter from e, instead of from d. This would
require no additional expense at the first erection of the house, but merely
forethought. Supposing that the master were desirous of having a bed-room
on the ground floor, it would only be requisite to join /, g, and h, to i, in a
new form, and to open a door from e to o, as in fig. 201. The house would
at 4r!.,
108
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE
be greatly improved by this arrangement, and it might be rendered still more commodious,
by having two steps down to i, so as to get a floor over i, f, g, and It, in which to form
a bed-room for the married servants, to be entered by a stair from i. This would allow
of d being used as a drawing-room. In this way a very simple cottage might, at a very
moderate expense,
and what is of
more consequence,
without injury to
its beauty or cha-
racter, be changed
into a cottage villa,
fit for the residence
of any gentleman
whatever. It would
then deserve some
ornament; and what
we should prefer
would be to sur-
round the whole by
a glass veranda,
placing a light iron
fence on the outer margin of the stone parapet, and ornamental chimney pots, fig. 202, on
the stacks of chimneys; or a somewhat different style may be adopted, as in fig. 203.
Design XXXI. — A Dwelling with Five Rooms, ivith Conveniences, in the Old English Style,
where the building material is chiefly Storie.
227. Accommodation. There is more show than space in this building, from the cir-
cumstance of there being only one room in width in the bed-room story. It is by no means
recommended as a cheap Design, but as one ornamental and characteristic ; and suited for
producing a great effect, at comparatively little cost, in a country where free-stone, soft and
easily worked, is abundant, and the price of labour low. The ground floor consists of an
entrance and staircase, a; a. kitchen, b ; a wash-house, or back kitchen, c ; a bed-closet, d;
a milk-room, e ; a closet under the stair,/; a bed-room, g ; parlour, h ; store cellar, i;
place for coals, k; and privy,/. The chamber story contains two bed-rooms, m and o; a
dressing closet, p; and a staircase and landing, n.
228. Construction. The walls should be of stone, in regular courses, or of brick ; and
the jambs (sides) of the doors and windows, with their sills, and lintels (covering stones)
of hewn stone. These may, or may not, be bevelled at the 204
angles. The mode of executing the summer stones and
pinnacles, will be understood from figures already given,
§ 209, figs. 185 and 186. Great care should be taken in con-
structing the guttering over the bay windows, so as com-
pletely to carry off the water. These windows may have mul-
lions, and iron casements made to open. The roof should be
slated, and the chimneys may be of stone, and polygonal, or
what are commonly called cannon chimneys. The chimney
head cornice may be executed as in fig. 204. Some use may
be made of the roof, to which light and air may be admitted
by the small openings shown in the upper part of the gables.
229. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 23,024 feet, at
Gd. per foot, £575 : 12*. ; at Ad., £383 : 14* : 8d. ; and at 3d.,
£287 : 16*.
230. Remarks. In England, this would be considered a
very suitable house for a gardener or bailiff, where effect was an object ; and it might be
adapted to a small family, in easy circumstances, by rendering g a sitting-room ; and by
raising a floor over c, d, and e, for servant's sleeping-rooms ; and another over i, k, and /, for
a family bed-room ; the dwelling would then be tolerably complete. A light stone parapet
m;iy he placed on the outer margin of the platform with ornaments at the corners somewhat
analagous to those which terminate the gable ends. These, with the other variations and
improvements of which this dwelling is susceptible, we leave to be designed by our
readers.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 109
XXX.
110 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
XXXI.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. Ill
Design XXXII.— A Cottage Dwelling with Two Silting Rooms, in a mixed style, where
Timber, Brick, and Slate are the materials used for the Walls and Roof.
231. Accommodation. This is a very commodious, convenient, and handsome dwelling;
exhibiting every thing requisite for a cottager, whether a gardener, a bailiff, or a small
farmer. It contains three floors ;— for cellars, for living-rooms, and for bed-rooms. The
cellar, or basement story, (see the plate forming page 117), contains a store-cellar, a; beer-
cellar, b; coal-cellar, c ; salting-room, d; and staircase, e. These are lighted by windows
having sunk areas, /. The ground plan of the living-room floor (also in page 117) shews
the principal entrance and staircase, g ; a sitting-room, h ; another sitting-room, i ; a stair-
case, with a closet under it, k ; a kitchen, I; a wash-house, m; a pantry, n; and a store
room, o. This floor is surrounded by a terrace, part of which is covered by an extension of
the roof of the kitchen and wash-house, as may be seen by inspecting the plates in pages
113 and 114. The chamber floor contains a bed-room, p ; staircase and landing, q ; closet,
r; bed-room, s ; closet, t; closet from the passage, u; passage, v; family bed-room, w; and
nursery, or infant children's bed-room, x.
232. Construction. The walls are to be of brick ; the roof covered with slates ; the
chimney shafts of cement, or artificial stone; and the balconies, brackets, posts, and gallery
railings, of oak timber. The details of construction are given in the plate, forming page 118,
in which fig. 1 is the open truncated pediment in front of the house ; and shows the ends of
the ceiling joists, a ; the purlins, b ; the covering of the pediments, c, c; the wall plate, d ;
and the bracket, e. Fig. 2 is a section at the eaves of the roof over the kitchen ; in which
is seen the rafter,/; the wall plate, g ; the brackets, h, h ; and the cross section of the post, i.
Fig. 3 is the chimney top, in which is seen the chimney shaft, k. Fig. 4 is a cross section,
or plan, of the chimney, in which one half, I, represents the plan of the base ; and the other
half, m, the plan of the top. Fig. 5 represents the balcony, in which is shewn the corbel, n,
which supports the bracket, c; also the bracket, o, which supports the balcony; and the
wall of the house, p. Fig. 6 shows the gable brackets to support the roof, in which is seen
the gable wall of the house, q ; and the section of the rafters, r, r. Fig. 7 shows the elevation
of the lower part of the post; in which is seen a balluster, s, with a section of the upper and
under rails. Fig. 8 shows the end elevation of the flower balcony ; in which is seei the
bracket, t, and the section of the wall, u. Fig. 9 shows the front elevation of the flower
balcony. Fig. 10 is the section at the eaves of the front wall of the house ; in which is seen
the rafter, v ; the section of the wall, w ; and the bracket, x. Fig. 11 is the section of the
plaster cornice of the sitting rooms, &c. Fig. 12 shows the section of the grounds (ground
work, or foundation plan) for forming the architraves round the doors, windows, &c. ; in
which is seen the ground, y ; and the jamb lining, z.
233. Particulars, or Specification and Estimate. The contributor of this very elegant and
judicious Design, has sent with it a no less copious and complete specification and estimate.
We consider the former, together with its accompanying explanations of technical terms, of
the greatest value to the young architect, and the amateur. To the general reader, they
will show the manner in which business is done among architects and builders, and their
employers in England. A Design being once agreed on, details similar to those in the
following specification, are first made out by the architect ; and then the builder, who
contracts for the work (either at the estimate made by the architect, or at one made by
himself, after having had the plans and specification some days in his possession for that
purpose), signs this particular, or specification ; and also an agreement made out, according
to certain legal forms. This agreement binds him to execute the work, under a certain
penalty, according to the specification, and to the satisfaction of the architect, or of a
surveyor (for a surveyor, as clerk of the works, is often employed in addition to the
architect). Security for the execution of the work is also sometimes required of the builder ;
in which case, the guarantee also signs the agreement, or a bond for the amount of the
penalty. The particular, or specification sent by our contributor, Mr. Richard Varden, as
a fair specimen of the usual style, bears the following title :— " Particulars of the several
works to be done in building a cottage residence, according to the annexed plans, elevations,
sections, and details, and the conditions subjoined." The work is classed according to the
trades employed to execute it ; and we shall give the specification, for each trade, in a
separate paragraph. We may observe here, that the specifications and estimates of architects,
surveyors, and builders, are frequently composed in a sort of professional, or abbreviated
style, which, independently of its technical terms, is unintelligible to general readers from
want of care in its grammatical construction The terms are unavoidable ; but the employers
of professional men should insist on at least readable language. Another point which we
112
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
207
should always require would be perspective views, undisguised by trees, or gaudy colouring,
of the edifice to be erected, independently of the necessary geometrical plans, sections, and
elevations ; and in works of importance, a model in unpainted wood should always be con-
structed, and maturely considered before a Design is determined upon.
234. Specification of Excavator' s, Well- Digger' 's, and Bricklayer's Work. To dig out the
earth for the basement story, together with the cesspools and drains, and the several trenches
for the foundations of the whole of the building, of the respective depths and widths
required ; and to fill in and well ram the earth round the work. The surplus
earth arising from these excavations, and from the well, together with the rubbish
made in the progress of the work, to be spread round the house so as to form
the terrace, shewn in the Designs (if more earth is required for this purpose,
it must be brought to the spot at the expense of the employer) ; and the whole
to be well rammed and consolidated. — To dig a well four feet clear in diameter,
and forty-five deep, and to steen the same in four-inch brick-work, with the top
properly domed over in nine-inch brick-work ; leaving a manhole, twenty
inches square, covered with a Yorkshire stone, having a strong iron ring on the
top. If a greater depth than forty-five feet should be required, the additions
must be paid for by the employer as an extra; and, if a less depth is sufficient, a
proportionate deduction must be made. To dig a cesspool four feet clear in diameter,
and nine feet deep, and steen it with four-inch brick-work ; leaving a manhole, which is to
be closed with a Yorkshire stone, the same as that used to close the well. All the bricks
to be used in the building, or brought upon the premises, to be sound and good well burnt
grey stocks (bricks made of marley clay ; that is, clay having a certain proportion of marl
naturally, or chalk artificially, mixed with it) ; those to be used in the external parts of
the building to be carefully picked of an
uniform colour ; and the whole laid, and
flushed solid (the joints filled up) in mor-
tar, of the several heights and thicknesses,
with the apertures specified in the draw-
ings : none of the bricks to be brought
upon the premises to be slack burnt (im-
perfectly burned), or overburnt. The
mortar to be composed of the best well
burnt grey lime (grey lime- stone, not
chalk lime-stone), and clean, sharp, pit,
or river sand, well tempered together; and to be sifted through a screen, whose wires
shall be at equal distances, and not less than thirty in every foot in breadth. — The walls
of the foundations and cellars, up to the level of the platform, to be worked in brick-work,
and grouted (fluid mortar poured into the middle joints) with hot lime and sand; the rest
of the walls above ground to be of brick-work, and the external face to be worked with a
neat flat ruled joint (a ruled joint is a joint struck flat with the trowel, with a line drawn
in the centre by means of a small iron instru-
ment, fig. 207, called a jointer, and an iron
straight edge, or flat ruler). The terrace wall
to be built battering (sloping inwards), from
two feet three inches at bottom, to nine inches
thick at top, with a nine-inch upright parapet,
coped with bevelled bricks, and fourteen-inch
brick piers, as shewn by the drawings ; fourteen
common garden pots and pans, twenty inches
high, to be provided and fixed thereon. Four-
inch brick discharging arches (arches built over
lmtels to relieve them from part of the super-
incumbent weight, fig. 208, in which is shown the discharging arch, a, and the lintel which
it is intended to relieve, b), to be turned over all the openings in the interior of the walls ;
twelve-inch guaged arches (bricks reduced by rubbing on free-stone laid on a table, called
a banker, to the shape of truncated wedges, so as to form arch stones, fitting exactly with
each other, according to the curve of the arch ; the faces of these bricks are also rubbed
quite smooth), with eight-inch skewbacks (the space between c and d, in the guaged
arch, fig. 209, is the skewback of that arch), and four-inch soffits (the under side of the
arches) corresponding in width with the reveals (the outside jambs, or rabbets; see q, in
fig. 180), to be put over all the external openings, made of the best grey cutting bricks.
209
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 113
XXXII.
114 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
XXXII.
Front Elevation.
Side Elevation.
Back Elevation.
lo o
Ft. I i l i i I ■ i i I l
20 30
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
115
210
/
Nine-inch brick inverted arches, fig. 210 (fg being the level of the ground, and h
the window or opening over the arch), are to be
turned, the whole thickness of the walls, under all the
external openings and chimney jambs. Inverted
arches are intended to equalise the pressure of the
foundations on the earth, and thus to prevent the
sinking of one part more than another, or what are
called settlements : it is evident that whatever carries
down i i, fig. 210 must also carry down the point k.
The chimney hearths, jambs (see § 79. fig. 47.),
backs, breasts, and shafts, to be of brickwork. All
the flues to be fourteen inches square in the clear,
properly gathered (drawn in above the fireplace,
till they are reduced to the proper size), and par-
geted (plastered with mortar, mixed with cow-
dung) ; and each flue to have a Roman cement
chimney shaft (as shown by figs. 3 and 4, in the
plate of details, page 118,) flanched up (sloped in
a way to throw off wet: in fig. 211, I is a section
of the chimney shaft ; m, a section of the flue ; and
n n, sections of the Handlings) with plain tiles set and rendered (plasteredj in cement.
1
\
1 1 '
1 1
i !
\
\
/
\
\
/ ;
211
J
212
A strong iron chimney
bar (fig. 212,o o. in this
figure, p is the breast;
q q are the jambs ; r, the
inverted arch under them ;
and s, the footing, or first
course of the foundations),
to be put to each of the
fireplaces; and four-inch
brick trimmer arches to
be turned where required.
( Trimmer arches are made
to support the hearth-
stones, abutting at one
extremity on the wall of
the chimney, and at the
other on trimming pieces.
Trimmers are pieces of
timber framed at right
angles to the joists, against
the ways (openings) for
chimneys, and round the
well-holes (openings left
in floors for admitting the
stair) of stairs, &c. Fig. '
213 is a plan in which
are seen the joists, t t ;
the trimming piece, u; and the fireplace, v. Fig. 214 is a section of the same plan, in
213
214
TJ
m
11G
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
which the trimmer arch, w, is shown abutting against the trimming piece, it, and the back
of the- chimney, v.) To build brick foundations for the sink, and for the stone steps ; and
nine-inch brickwork to surround the anas in trout of the basement windows, coped with
brick on edge set in Roman cement, and paved w ith bricks, having sink holes and drains,
to deliver the water into the main drain. To put 100 feet of hollow tile drain,
twelve inches clear in the bore, where directed ; and to lay the whole of the drains with
a proper *'all, and at a sufficient depth to deliver the water away from the lowest part of
the building. To provide nine cast-iron stink-traps eight inches square, anil fix one at
each external aperture of the drain. (The construction and action of a stink-trap will
be easily understood from the section, fig. 215. Water falling into this trap, tluough the
cover, x, escapes by the funnel, ?/, the inverted se- 215
micircle over which prevents all air from ascend-
ing. See figs. 222, 22S, and 224. The terrace to be
paved with pebbles laid insand, properly currented,
and well rammed. To build foundations and enclo-
sure walls, and an oven three feet six inches by
three feet in the clear, properly domed, plastered,
and paved; andtofindandfixtherequisiteironwork
for the same, suchasan iron door and frame, hinges,
latches, &c, complete. To fill in the nogging
partitions with brick nogging fiat (brick on bed).
To pave the wash-house, pantry, and store room,
with dressed paving bricks (smoothed on one side by passing a cylindrical rule, wetted,
over the soft brick when moulded; ; the kitchen to be paved with ten-inch tiles, bedded
and jointed in mortar ; and the rest of the basement story, throughout, with common
stock bricks laid flat in sand : the whole to be properly levelled and currented to the
several drains. The openings of the fireplaces, in the sitting-rooms and in the chambers,
to be three feet high by their respective widths; and that of the kitchen to be four feet
high. All the window and door frames to be properly bedded and pointed in good lime
and hair mortar, and the sills underpinned. (When stone sills are built into any wall,
they are generally made to bear on solid work only in those parts directly above which
the wall is carried up. The reason is, that, in buildings of any height, the solid parts
are apt to sink a slight degree more than those parts in which there are several openings
one above another. Thus, in the sill, fig. 216, a and /> represent those parts of the sill
on which the jambs of the doors 216
or windows are carried up. Now,
if the sill were bedded on solid
walling throughout, from a to
/;, and especially towards c, it is
evident that, if the walling sunk
only half an inch at either a or b,
not having the same superincum-
bent pressure, it would not sink
to the same degree at c, and the
consequence would be a rent in the
stone at d. For this reason sills
are left hollow between the two
points of bearing, until the walling is completed ; and the filling up of the hollows after
is called the underpinning. In brick buildings, the sills, whether of stone or oak, are not
generally put in until the walls are carried up to their destined height, and they are then
let in by cutting away part of the brickwork from the jambs. ) The bricklayer is to find
scaffolding for the use of the carpenter, slater, plasterer, and other trades requiring the use
thereof for the outside work ; and to allow the same to remain until the external part of
the building shall be completed. The walls are to be carried up in an upright, substan-
tial, workmanlike manner ; and, in the progress of the building, no part is to be raised
more than four feet above the other (in order that the whole may settle, or sink equally, and
at the same time), except in gables and chimney-shafts; and the whole is to be built in a
regular and equal manner. To fix the wooden bricks, and to bed all the plates, bond
timbers, lintels, &c, in loam. To cut all the rakes and splays, and all the chasings
required for the lead flashings (strips of lead to cover joints or joinings1, and to make
good and stop the same with Roman cement. To do all the wind-pinnings (filling in
the angle between the wall-plate and the roof) and beam-filling (filling up with brick-
work the interstices in the wall, between the ends of the beams) required. The brick-
layer is to find all the materials, ropes, ladders, boards, tackle, tools, workmanship, and
ironwork, for the completion of his work, and for the carriage thereof; and to do the
~r!l«
*rx
i i j
c
1 i
i- i ill
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
XXXII.
117
118 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
XXXII.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
HI)
217
whole in the best ami most workmanlike manner, subject to the general particulars at the
end of this specification.
235. Specification of Plasterer s Work. Tlie cement chimney shafts to be coloured
twice over, of a good warm stone tint. To lath, lay, float, set, and white the strings
of the principal stairs, and the ceilings of the sitting-rooms, of the passage, and of
the chamber floor throughout. The ceilings of the kitchen, wash-house, pantry, store-
room, and the whole of the basement story, as well as the pediment in front of the house,
to be lath- laid, set, and vvhited. (To lath, plaster, float, and set, is to give what is called
three-coat work ; the first coat, given after nailing on the lath, is called pricking up ; the
second, floating; and the third, setting or giving a coat of line stuff'. The second coat
is called floating, from the tool used in the operation, which is denominated a float.
There are three sorts of these tools; viz., the hand float, the quirk float, and the Derby
or two-handed float. The floated coat is brushed with a birch broom, to roughen the
surface before the setting coat is applied. The first coat of two-coat work is called
laying, when on lath, and rendering on brick. In three-coat work, the first coat on lath
is called pricking up, and upon brick roughing in.) To lime white, twice over, the
walls of wash-house, and the basement throughout. To lath, plaster, float, and set, for
paper or colouring, the whole of the battening (pieces of wood fixed to the bond timber
on the walls at regular distances, on which the lath is to be nailed) of the inside of the
external walls, and partitions for lath of the principal and chamber floors (except the
wash-house) ; and render-float (roughing in would be the more correct term here, but
rendering is generally used, and is understood by the trade), and set, for paper or
colouring, all the internal walls, and Hogging partitions of both floors. All the external
walls, with the exception of the wash-house, will be battened by the carpenter. All the
timbers in the partitions, and the bond (the timber built into the wallsj, to be diagonally
lathed. (Lathing diagonally lessens the risk of cracks in the plaster, in case the timber
should shrink). The two sitting-rooms and passage to have plaster cornices, as shown
in fig. 11, in the plate of details, page 1 1 8. The plasterer is to find all materials, tools,
tressels (a sort of stool, sometimes five or six feet high, fig. 217, used for supporting
scaffolding boards), boards, moulds, rules, car-
riage, and workmanship required for the comple-
tion of his work ; and to run (a term used by
plasterers, meaning to form) such beads, quirks,
arrises (projecting angles;, &c, as may be neces-
sary for the perfect execution of the same ; and to
do the whole in the best and most workmanlike
manner, subject to the general particular at the
end of this specification.
236. Specification of Slater's Work. To cover the whole of the roofing with the best
countess slates, nailed with stout wrought-copper nails; the eaves to be laid double, and
the whole of the slates to have a sufficient overlap, and to be carefully sorted in courses
consisting of slates of equal thickness, so as to exclude the weather effectually. The
slater is to find all materials, tools, carriage, and workmanship required for the com-
pletion of the above ; and to do the same in the best and most workmanlike manner,
subject to the general particular at the end of this specification.
237. Sjxcifi cation of Stone- Mason's Work. All the windows to have York quarry
stone sills, eight inches wide, beveled, throated (in the section of the stone sills, fig. 218,
the throat is represented at e ; fis the bevel of the
sill, and g the oak sill of the window frame, resting
on the stone sill ; and also throated at/*), and tooled
(see § 82). The entrance door to have a landing
(a piece of pavement of larger dimensions than ordi-
nary) over the area, of Yorkshire stone, four inches
thick, rounded at the edges; the terrace to have
Yorkshire pavement laid the width of the stairs at
the entrances ; the steps and the coping of the
spandril (the space between an arch and the member !
over it), together with the coping of the piers (the
solid parts between any arches or openings) of the ' — ^> ,
stairs, and those on the terrace wall, to be of York
quarry stone. The coping of the spandrils to be
twelve inches wide, and that of the piers seven-
teen and a half inches square, properly cramped
and run with lead. Each parlour to have vein marble profile chimney-pieces,
not exceeding seven pounds in value, exclusive of hearths and slabs. {Profile
chimney-pieces are such as have projecting jambs, with their sides covered by slips
218
120 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
n
i
o
1
T
1
fig. 219, »'», of marble, stone, or whatever material the chimney-piece may consist of
When there are
two side slips, 219
t i, and a slip
in front, k, the
chimney-piece is
said to be in pro-
file ; when there
is only one piece
in front, it is said
to be not in pro-
file, and thefront
slip, I, is called a jamb. Such chimneys have generally an inside slip, m; but this rest;
agairfst the brick jamb of the fireplace, n, instead of the stone jamb, o, to which the
slips of the chimney-piece are fixed. Fig. 220 is an elevation of a chamber fireplace
chimney, in which p is the
shelf ; q, the mantel ; r r,
the jambs; and s s, the in-
side slips.) All the fire-
places to have Yorkshire
stone hearths, and Portland
stone slabs. The fireplaces
of the front chambers to have
plain Portland stone mantels,
jambs, slips, and shelves
with rounded corners. The
kitchen to have one inch and
three quarters thick Portland
stone mantel and jambs.
The kitchen, pantry, and n
store-room to have milled _] 11
slate (milled slate is sawed r
out of blocks by machinery ; roofing slate is cleft into lamina; by wedges) skirting
(a bordering to the wall) seven inches high, and one inch and a quarter thick, properly
cramped (by an iron or copper hook, fig. 221, driven into the wall at one end, and let
220
221
Tl
into the slate at the other), backed up, and set in Roman cement. The wash-house to have
a Yorkshire stone sink, five feet long and two feet three inches wide, with a proper hole
for the bell-trap fa kind of stink-trap usually made of bell metal, about three inches
across and round, figs. 222, 223, and 224). The mason is to find all cramps, lead, and
222
all the materials, as well as the carriage and workmanship required for the completion
of the above ; and to do the same in the best, most substantial and workmanlike manner,
subject to the conditions of the general particulars.
238. Specification of Carpenters Work. The whole of the bearing timbers to be sound,
well seasoned, yellow Dantzic or Meniel fir timber, except where otherwise specified.
The whole of the carpentry to be framed in a workmanlike manner; and all the timber
to be sawed square, and to be free from sap (outside wood, not properly matured1, wanes
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
lc2l
(deficiencies, as at t, in fig. 22.5, owing to marking the dimension too near the circum-
ference, instead of making allowance ^- ^ 225
for the sap wood, as at u), shakes (fis- ^,-'' ""s^
sures in the wood), large knots, or other
defects, and of the several dimensions,
scantlings, and descriptions, which
follow ; and all the carpenter's as well
as the joiner's work, to hold the several
scantlings (the term scantling is gene-
rally applied by carpenters to the depth
and width of a piece of timber) and
thicknesses when finished, such which
are named in the particulars : this
must be particularly attended to. The
principal and chamber stories to have
two tiers of oak bond, three inches by
two inches and a half, to pass through
the openings, and not to be cut out /
until the work has become settled; \
and an oak wall-plate under each floor, ^\ _,.-'
four and a half inches by three inches, "" ""
dovetailed at the angles, and halved and spiked at the laps. To put double oak
lintels four inches thick, and of the width of the respective walls, except the reveals
(properly revels, from revelo, to reveal or discover ; the two vertical sides of the aperture
between the outside front of the wall and the window), and to rest nine inches on the
walls at each end. Wooden bricks of oak (see § 83), to be furnished to the bricklayer to
be inserted in the jambs, not exceeding two feet apart, for fixing the linings to, where neces-
sary. The entrance passage and the two sitting-rooms to have heart of oak joists six
inches by four inches. The chamber floors to have fir joists nine inches by two inches and
a half, not more than twelve inches apart ; and trimmed (see § 234, and fig. 213), to the
stairs and fireplaces, with trimmers and trimming joists nine inches by three inches and a
half, with one inch and a quarter yellow deal keys (pieces of timber driven fast between
each pair of joists, with their ends butting against the groin of the joists ; they are commonly
called strutting pieces, and their use is to stiffen the floor), in each chamber. The back
chambers and passage to have ceiling joists four inches by two inches, and thirteen inches
apart, firmly spiked to the common rafters, as shown by the drawings. The front rooms to
have ceiling joists four inches by two inches, not more than twelve inches apart, and
framed into the tie beams. The penthouse !a roof projected from a wall, and not sup-
ported by pillars) in front, to have ceiling joists three inches and a half by two inches,
spiked to the rafters above the purlin. — Roof. Tie beams (see fig. 54 I to be seven
inches by four inches ; framed principal rafters six inches by two inches and a half at
bottom, and four inches by two inches and a half at top ; purlins, five inches by three
inches, to be framed to the principals; wall-plates, five inches by two inches and a half;
pole-plates, four inches by two inches, supported by wrought curved brackets four inches
and a half by four inches, as shown by the drawings ; common rafters to be four inches
by two inches, not more than thirteen inches apart, and properly trimmed to the shafts.
The feet of the rafters which project beyond the brickwork are to be five inches by
three inches and a half, wrought, notched, and spiked to the wall-plate and pole-plates.
The roofing of the back part will be without principals or tie beams. The roof throughout
to have one inch and a half yellow deal hips, nine inches wide ; and ridge pieces of the
same width and thickness, rounded off for the lead; the valleys to have one inch thick
feather-edged flanch boards nine inches wide. (Hips and valleys are formed wherever
roofing meets at 227
a right or other
angle ; the ex-
ternal angles, fig.
226, a a a, form
the hips ; the in-
ternal angle, b,
the valley ; c c,
the ridge ; d, the
gable ; ee e, the
eaves ; f, the
span ; and g, in
fig. 227, which
shows a double
226
^\a
/
a/
/
b%.
C
c
\a
e
e
L£$ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
roof, the gutter between the roofs.) The chimney shafts to have one inch gutter boards
and bearers, with feather-edged flanch boards nine inches wide; the eaves to have one
inch and a quarter thick feather-edged eave boards, with wrought and rounded edge,
ami a wrought fillet between the pole-plate and eave boards, nailed to the feel of the
rafters: three-inch thick cut brackets to be put under the projection of the roof over the
gables as shown by fig. 6, in the plate of details, page lis). The rafters of the root
to be covered with three quarters of an inch thick deal slips two inches and a half wide,
for countess slating, with such tilting fillets see fig. 55), &c, as may be required. The
penthouse in front to have wrought and curved chamfered (the angles planed off, as in
fig. 228, in which h is the chamfer brackets six inches by ten indies, to 228
support the plate, as shown by the drawings, firmly fixed at the lower end
into the wall. Partitions for brick QOgging flat see fig. 58) to have
heads and sills four inches by two inches; puncheons (quarters) and
braces, four inches by two inches and a quarter, and eighteen inches
apart ; door-posts and principal quarters, four inches by three inches ;
nogging pieces, four inches by two inches. Partitions for lath to have >j~n. — ^
heads and sills, four inches and a quarter by three inches; common quarters, three
inches by two inches and a quarter, and twelve inches apart ; braces, three inches
by two inches and a quarter; door-posts and principal quarters, four inches by three
inches. The whole of the external walls of the principal and chamber floors, except
those of the wash-house, to be battened inside with one-inch thick yellow deal battens,
two inches and a quarter wide, and twelve inches apart. The well to have a proper
barrel curb, four feet high, boarded with one-inch thick boards, and oak stages to be
placed in the well for fixing the suction pipe of the pump. A barrel curb is formed
of circular ribs, generally of elm, on the outside of which slips of deal, four feet long, are
nailed so as to form a cylinder, fig. -J'-'O. on which the brick steening is placed ; the rest of
the steening is built above it, as at i, in fig. 'J30 ; and, as the well is sunk, the curb
and superincumbent steening descend.
When the well is in progress, the body
of the earth, k, is dug out to the depth
of two or three feet at a time, according
as the soil may be more or less tenacious,
and drawn to the surface in buckets ; a
band or rim, / /, being left under the
curb; this band is afterwards dug out, when the curb descends, and several courses
of steening are added above, The use of the curb is to keep the well perpendicular, and
truly cylindrical during tiie work; it is left in the well, the interstices between the slips
being tilled in with brickwork. Oak stages are pieces of timber, with their ends fixed
in the steening, which cross the centre of the well, at the distance of eight or ten feet
from the bottom, and from each other; to these the pipe of the pump is tixed, in order
th.it they may support its weight, ami keep it steady. The carpenter to make, fix, and
refix, «hen required, such centring (frames o\' limber bj which the brick or stone work
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
123
of arched vaulting is supported during its erection) as may be necessary for the brick-
layer's or well-digger's use, in forming arches, trimmers, &c
239. Specification of Joiner's Work. All the timber used by the joiner to be the best
well-seasoned yellow deal listed (listing is cutting off a strip of such boards as are blue
and sappy at the edges, so as to leave only the true wood), free from sap, shakes, and
large or loose knots. The whole to be neatly wrought, framed, and finished off (rubbed
after being planed) with firestone (a kind of soft stone, which serves to smooth the sur-
face), in the most substantial and workmanlike manner. — Floors. To lay good one-
inch thick yellow deal straight-jointed floors in the sitting-rooms and passage; and one-
inch thick yellow deal folding floors throughout the chamber story. ( The term folding
is applied to a peculiar manner of laying floors. The first and fourth boards are bradded
down (tacked, or slightly nailed ; from brad, a small nail made without a head, so that
the nail may be sunk into the wood , with an intervening space, n, fig. 231, something
less than the breadth of the two boards, o o, that are to go
between ; so that when these two last are placed with
their edges coinciding with the edges of those fixed, as shown
by the section, m o o m, they rest, as it were, folded toge-
ther in the middle, forming a ridge-; on which ridge two o;j
or more workmen jump, till they force the boards down flat
between the other two, they are then secured with brads.
Theobjectof this process is to procure very close joints.) The
whole of the rooms to have proper borders (narrow slips
forming a margin) to the hearth slabs, &c. — Doors of
Chamber Floor. To put one inch and a quarter thick four-
paneled doors throughout this story, framed square on
both sides, and hung with two inch and a quarter butt hinges
(see fig. 65) ; and to have good iron rim locks, with plain
brass knob furniture, one inch and a quarter single-rebated
jambs (in fig. 232, p is the jamb, q the door, and r the
rebate), with one-inch framed wrought and sunk grounds,
live inches wide, and with quirk ovolo and fillets laid on to
form the architraves. — Doors of Ground Floor. The doors
opening into the entrance passage to be one inch and a half
thick, six-paneled, and hung with three inch and a half
butt hinges; having good mortised locks (locks which are
inserted in a mortise, cut edgewise into the style of the
door), with plain brass knob furniture ; one inch and a
quarter deal single-rebated jamb linings, with grounds (see fig. 1<_>, in page 118) and
mouldings the same as those of the doors of
the chamber floor. The doors that open into
the sitting-rooms to be moulded inside. The
door at the top of the cellar stair, together
with all the other internal doors on the ground
story, that have not been specified, to be finished
in the same manner as those of the chamber
floor The front entrance to have a two-inch
deal sash door ; one inch and a quarter astragal
and hollow sash bar, fig. 233 (tig. 234 is an
ovolo sash bar), circular-headed, with double-
margined and diminished styles, hung with three inch and a half butt hinges, and pro-
P
233
vided with two six-inch bright rod-bolts (see fig. 68),
and a ten-inch iron rim drawback lock (having a bolt
which draws back from the inside by means of a knob),
with brass knobs ; the bottom of the door to be framed
with three reeds, flush on one side, and square on the
back, one-inch thick clamped lifting shutters, with
studs and plates and screw fastenings, and one inch
and a half rebated jamb linings and grounds, with
mouldings to match the others. (Double-margined and
diminished styles will be understood from fig. 235 ; in
which, s is the style of its full breadth ; t the style
diminished ; u the inner margin, for the purpose of
receiving the shutter ; v the sash ; and w the panel.
The section of the diminished style is shown at x, and
the shutter by the dotted lines, y.) The back entrance
door to be one inch and three quarters thick, six-pa-
234
124 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
neled, square on both sides ; and to be hung and fitted 235
as the front entrance door, with jambs, lining, &c, to
correspond : both of the entrance doors to have oak-
framed door cases and sills, five inches by three inches
and a half. — Basement. The basement story to have
one-inch thick deal proper-ledged doors (a ledged
door is called proper, when it is wrought, ploughed
(grooved), tongued (slips which go into the grooves,
so as to make perfect joints), and bedded), and good
oak proper door-cases, five inches by three inches and
a half, ia door-case is called proper, when it is
wrought, framed, rebated, and beaded), hung with
eighteen-inch cross garnet linings, with stock locks
(see fig. 69 , and Norfolk latches (see fig. 67). The
basement story to have solid oak proper two-light
window frames, four inches by two inches and a half,
with one-inch iron stanchion bars (properly, support-
ing bars, but here placed for protection), four inches
apart, wrought-iron casements, and strong hinges,
latches, stay irons (fig. 236), saddle-bars (cross-bars to which theleadwork of the
236
glazing
^ss^
is fixed), &c, complete. The other windows to have deal-cased frames, oak sunk sills, one
inch and a half astragal and hollow sashes, double hung with iron weights, and best white
lines, brass pulleys, and patent spring sash-fastenings. The sash windows, except the
sitting-rooms, to have one-inch wrought hinges, and one inch and a quarter wrought and
rounded window-boards. All the windows, except those of the basement, to have grounds
and mouldings to match the doors. The kitchen, wash-house, store-room, and pantry
to have one-inch thick square framed folding inside shutters, with rule joints, proper
hinges, and iron bar fastenings. The sitting-rooms to have one inch and a quarter pro-
per boxings (the frames which receive the architraves and the outer edges of the shutters
are called proper boxings, when they are wrought, framed, rebated, splayed, and beaded),
and architraves to
match the doors ; one
inch and a quarter
ovolo flat backs and
splayed elbows (in
fig. 237, a a are the
elbows ; b is the cap-
ping, or, as it is called
when of some width,
the window-board),
and soffits (the part
of the architrave
which projects over
the columns, but the
term is used generally
for the under side of
any horizontal pro-
jection), with proper
capping (the coping
or covering to the
elbows and backs of
the windows ; viz., to
a a, as shown at [^ '
b 6 b, in fig. 237) , one-inch bead and butt back linings ; one inch and a quarter ovolo
flat shutters, with one inch bead and butt back flaps (framed in panels, with a bead
struck on the panel sides only), with proper hinges, strong wrought-iron spring shutter
bars, and brass spring fastenings. (Fig. 238 is a section of part of a bead, butt, and
square back door ; in which, c is the style, d the panel, e the bead on the front side
of the panel, and f the square back of the panel. Fig. 239 is a section of part of
S
1
i_
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
125
233
]nr
239
240, c is a torus
240
a bead flush door, in which
the bead, g, is struck upon
the styles, and returned on
the rails, so as to surround
the panel.) — Skirting.
Chamber floor to have three
quarters of an inch square
skirting throughout, four
inches and a half high. The
sitting-rooms and entrance
passage to have one-inch
torus skirting, eight inches
high ; all the skirting to have narrow beveled grounds,
moulding on the skirting, d, which
is nailed to the beveled ground, e ;
fis the wall ; g, the plaster ; and /*,
the floor of the room. The grounds
are beveled, in order that they may
retain the plastering better than by a
horizontal joint.) Principal stair-
case to have one-inch yellow deal
steps, risers, and carriage (pieces
which bear the brackets till the steps
are fixed), with moulded nosings to
the steps to be housed (let in) into the
close stringing, which is to be one
and a quarter inch thick, sunk, and
moulded with a moulded planceer
(a moulded capping to the stringing
into which the balusters are fixed)
with one inch and a quarter raking
(following a slopej torus wall string-
housed to the steps and risers. To
put deal turned newels (posts firmly
framed to which the handrail is
fixed) and moulded handrail, and ■
three quarters of an inch square deal bar balusters, and one inch and a quarter square
framed spandril to enclose the cellar
stairs. (In fig. 241, i is the spandril
of the stairs ; k, the string ; I, the
planceer ; in, the balusters ; n, the
newel ; and o, the handrail. Fig. 242
represents the string board, in which the
dotted lines show the housings.) The
cellar stairs to have one-inch deal risers,
one inch and a quarter oak treads with
rounded nosings and proper carriage,
a deal handrail, newel (turning) post,
and one and a quarter inch string boards
with steps housed in. The pump to
have one inch and a half oak cheeks
(sides) and silis, cased with one-inch deal, with proper cap, &c. ; which is to be fixed in the
wash-house. The angles of the chimney breasts to have proper staff beads (upright corner
beads put at the external angles of chimney jambs, and in similar situations. In fig. 243,
p is the section of the staff bead ; q q, the plaster ; r r, what are called the quirks in the
plastering; and s, the wall.) Two hundred feet (lineal; of one-inch thick wrought
and rounded shelf board, twelve inches broad, to be prepared and fixed with brackets
and iron hold-fasts in the pantry, store-room, and closets, or elsewhere, as may be
directed by the employer. Yellow deal balconies to be put up to one of the front and
two of the side windows, as shown by the drawings ; with moulded handrail, and turned
balusters ; the floor wrought on both sides, moulded on the edge, and two inches and a
quarter thick ; having four cut brackets three inches thick to support each : the whole
to be firmly and securely fixed. Flower-stands of good yellow deal to be put up to the
two front windows as shown by the drawings, and finished according to figs. 8 and 9, in
plate of details, page 118. An oak moulded sill and a deal moulded handrail to be
put round the back part of the building : these are to be framed into the posts, and the
12G COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
turned balusters housed into the same. The posts are to be wrought, framed, and
chamfered, seven inches square, with iron tenons (square 243
pieces of iron fitted into mortises, that is, into holes
cut to receive them) at bottom ; and circular wrought
framed braces at top, to support the eaves of the project-
ing roof of the kitchen, wash-house, &c. The carpenter
and joiner are to find all tools, labour, glue, nails, and
every description of ironmongery, locks, bolts, bars,
hinges, fastenings, and the fixing of the same, and every
thing required for the completion of their works ; which
must be done in the best and in the most substantial
and workmanlike manner; and to prepare and fix all
kind of beads, stops (a term variously applied, but chiefly
to slips nailed on for doors or shutters to shut against, or
for fixing work), fillets, grounds, linings, and backings
(back linings), required for the perfect execution of
the above, whether the same may or may not be minutely
specified in this partieular ; the whole to be done, subject to the provisions in the general
particular at the end hereof.
240. Specification of Plumber s Work. Flashings of milled lead ten inches wide,
weighing five pounds a superficial foot, to be chased into the brickwork (see § 85),
and fixed with wall-hooks (fig. 244.), where the roof abuts against the brick walls, as
well as to each of the chimney shafts,
which must have aprons (strips of
lead, to throw the wet from the joint
between the roof and the chimney
shaft) where they are required. The 244
gutters against the chimney shafts to
be covered with lead weighing seven pounds to the superficial foot. The hips, ridges, and
valleys to be covered with milled lead, fifteen inches broad, weighing five pounds the
superficial foot ; the whole to be properly lapped, dressed (smoothed), and nailed with
lead-headed nails. The sink to have a six-inch brass grate and bell-trap (see figs.
222, 223, and 224), and a two and a half inch lead pipe. A good stout four-inct
lead pump barrel, weighing 2 qrs. 14 lbs., with bucket, sucker, and wrought-iror
thandle, complete, and forty feet of two and a half inch lead suction pipe, to be put up in
he wash-house.
241. Specification of Glaziers Work. The basement story windows to have lead
lights, and Newcastle crown-glass (crown-glass is white or colourless, and is so called
to distinguish it from green glass), in quarries. All the sashes, including that of the
front door, to be glazed with good second Newcastle crown-glass ; the best squares to be
selected for the sitting-rooms.
242. Specification of Painter's Work. To knot (cover the knots with paint, before the
general painting), prime (give the first coat), and paint the whole of the external wood
and iron work four times in oil, with good white lead, and to finish the same in a light
stone colour ; with the exception of the doors, which arc to be finished olive green.
The whole of the joiner's work, internally, with the exception of the floors, shelves, and
the risers and treads of the stairs, to be knotted, primed, and painted three times in good
white lead and oil ; and the sitting-rooms to be flatted (the glossy appearance of the
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 1^7
paint to be taken off by using turpentine in the last coat, instead of oil). The plumber,
the painter, and the glazier to find all materials, workmanship, and carriage, and every-
thing requisite for the performance of their works ; and to do the same in a perfect and
workmanlike manner; subject to the conditions in the general particular at the end
hereof.
243. General Particular. The whole of the foregoing works to be entirely finished
and completed on or before the day of ; and the several portions to be
performed in such order of succession as to insure the final completion of the whole by
that time. Each contractor to be answerable for any damages that may be done to his
respective work during its progress (fire excepted), whether by the inclemency of the
weather, or otherwise ; and to make all good, and to leave the same perfect at the final
completion of the work. The whole of the works are to be paid for within
after the completion of the contract. If the contractor or contractors
shall omit to complete the work by the time specified, a deduction of 1 per cent shall
be made from the amount of his or their contracts, for every week the time shall be
exceeded. The whole of the materials are to be of a sound and good description, and
fit for their several purposes. The works are all to be done in a substantial and work-
manlike manner ; and every thing is to be performed that is necessary for completing
the whole of the work in the usual and customary manner, notwithstanding any
omissions that may have occurred in the foregoing particulars : and if any alteration
shall be made, by the direction of the employer, it shall not vitiate or annul the con-
tract ; but the value of such alterations shall be ascertained at the customary prices of
the neighbourhood, by of ; whose decision between the parties
shall be final. And further, if any or all of the works should be performed in any
way inferior to the description and intention of the particulars and drawings, or shall
be deteriorated below a fair standard of good quality or sound workmanship ; the
same shall also be valued by as aforesaid, and the sum deducted
from the amount of the contract by the employer : the decision in this case also shall
be final. And further, if, in the course of two years from the completion of the said
work, there should become manifest any latent defects, resulting from imperfect or
careless workmanship, or from badly burnt bricks, unseasoned timber, or other materials,
the contractor shall be held to make the same good, upon receiving notice from
to do so ; and in case the said contractor shall neglect or refuse to make
good such defects within one calendar month from the date of such notice, to the satis-
faction of the proprietor, he shall be at liberty to employ such other persons to do the
same as he may think proper ; the expense of which shall be borne by the said con-
tractor or contractors. The contractor or contractors to sign an agreement to perform
the work according to the foregoing particulars and conditions therein ; which agree-
ment shall contain such additional clauses as the solicitor to the employer shall deem
requisite to secure and enforce the fulfilment of the same. Satisfactory security for the
performance of the work to be given by the contractor, if required.
244. Estimate in Detail of the expense of building a cottage residence according to
the annexed plans and particulars of Design XXXII.
245. Estimate of Excavator s, Well-Diggers, and Bricklayer's Work. £ s. d.
One hundred and sixty-eight cubic yards of digging, filling, and
ramming, for the foundations, cellar story, and drains
One cesspool, dug and steened in four-inch brickwork, nine feet
deep, and four feet clear in diameter
One well, dug and steened in four-inch brickwork, forty-five feet
deep, and four feet clear in diameter
Five rods two hundred and fourteen feet of reduced brickwork in
foundations below the level of the plinth (grouted)
Ten rods two hundred and eleven feet of brickwork above ground,
flushed solid, with flat ruled joints
Two thousand and twenty-seven feet six inches, superficial measure,
of extra-labour in picking stocks of equal colour for the facing....
One hundred and ninety feet seven inches of gauged arches
Seventy-five yards and a half of nogging flat
Fifty yards of stock brick paving, laid flat in sand
Fourteen yards of paving bricks, bedded and jointed in mortar
Twenty-four yards of ten-inch tile paving, bedded and jointed in
mortar
Seventy-six yards of pebble paving, laid in sand
Thirty-four feet lineal of cuttings to rakes, &c
Thirty-four feet lineal of chasings cut for lead flashings, and making
them good with Roman cement
128 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Fifty feet extra, to the setting of brick on edge coping in cement
(labour and cement)
Ninety-six feet of beveled brick coping, and fixing the same
One hundred feet of hollow tile drain, twelve inches clear in the bore
(tube or tunnel), and setting the same
Eight feet superficial of Yorkshire stone paving, to cover the well
and the cesspool
Sundries Two iron rings to the cover stones of the well and the
cesspool, and letting in and fixing the same
Fourteen garden pots and pans for the piers of the parapet, twenty
inches high
Twenty-two window-frames bedded and pointed in lime and hair
mortar
Seven door-frames bedded and pointed in lime and hair mortar
Eight Roman cement chimney shafts seven feet high (as shown by
the details), and fixing and fianching up the same with cement and
plain tiles
Eight chimney bars
A cast-iron door with wrought-iron hinges, latch, &c, to the oven, and
fixing the same
Five sink stones in the areas, with five holes cut in each
Nine cast-iron eight-inch stink-traps, and setting them
Redding bond plates and lintels in loam (loam is used in bedding,
because a bedding of lime is supposed to destroy the timber)
£362 : 6 : 4
246. Estimate of Plasterer's Work.
One hundred and fifty-eight yards of lime-whiting twice over
Two hundred and nineteen yards of whiting to new work
Forty-four yards of stone-colouring on cement
One hundred and fifty-five yards of floated render set
Eighty-seven yards of lath-layed and set
Three hundred and eighty-five yards of lath plaster, floated and set
One hundred and fifty feet lineal of plaster cornices, as per drawing
Four extra mitres in the cornices
£64 : 9 : 10
247. Estimate of Slater's Work.
Twenty-three squares and a quarter of countess slating, with wrought-
copper nails
£41 : 17 : 0
248. Estimate of Stonemason's Work-
Seven feet superficial of plain work to the Portland stone shelf
Twenty-eight feet of Portland stone chimney-pieces
Eight feet ten inches of Portland stone, one and three fourths of an
inch thick
Thirty-six feet seven inches of Portland stone slabs
Twenty-five feet six inches of Yorkshire stone hearths
Fifty-nine feet six inches of Yorkshire stone paving, and pier caps...
Eight feet nine inches of four-inch Yorkshire stone landing,
Eleven feet three inches of Yorkshire stone sink, six inches thick....
Forty-six feet five inches of one and a quarter inch milled slate
skirting, fixed with cramps, and set in cement
Ten feet two inches of lineal rounded edge to the Portland stone
shelf
Five feet lineal of rounded edge to the Yorkshire stone landing, four
inches thick
Seventy-three feet four inches of York quarry stone sills, eight inches
(ride, beveled, throated, and tooled (quarry stone is a term ap-
plied to stones prepared at the quarry, for any particular purpose,
such as sills, copings, steps, &c. ; without being very carefully
tooled, or rubbed)
Ten feet of York quarry stone coping, twelve inches wide
Forty-five feet of Yorkshire stone steps
Two veined marble chimney-pieces in the parlours, at £1 each ...
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
Twelve chimney cramps
One hole cutin the sink for a bell-trap
129
249. Estimate of Carpenter's and Joiner's Work.
Four hundred and twelve feet eight inches cubic of Memel, or
Dantzic fir, framed in the roof, the floors, and the partitions
Twenty feet three inches of wrought and framed timber, in brackets,
cut circular
Six feet eight inches of wrought and framed timber, in brackets with
chamfered edges
One hundred and six feet ten inches of oak in the bond-plates and
lintels
Fifty-four feet eight inches of oak, framed in single flooring
Sixty-six feet superficial of feather-edged valley-boards
Sixty-seven feet eight inches of three-quarter inch wrought eaves
fillet
Nineteen squares sixty-eight feet of three-quarter inch slips, two and
a half inches wide, for countess slating
Twenty squares thirty-four feet of inch yellow deal battening, two
and a quarter inches wide, and twelve inches apart
Twenty-four feet superficial of inch gutters and bearers
Ninety-four feet one inch superficial of one and a quarter inch keys
Ninety feet nine inches of hips and ridges rounded
One hundred and thirty-five feet four inches of feather-edged eave-
boards, with wrought and rounded edges
Fifty-three feet one inch of three-inch cut brackets, wrought and
notched to the rafters
Sixty feet of barrel curb to the well
Sundries. — Oak wood bricks
Twenty-three slip centres to the arches (a slip of deal cut to the
intended line of the soffit of the arch, and supported by an upright
piece against each jamb. In fig. 245, t is the slip centre ; u u,
£ 53 : 6 : 8
the upright pieces which support it ; v v, the jambs ; and w, the
arch
£810: 17: 1
250. Estimate of Joiner's Work.
Eighty-five feet cubic of fir, wrought, framed, and chamfered
Two cubic inches of oak- framed pump sill. (This may seem a small
quantity; but the fact is, that surveyors and builders divide the cubic
foot, which contains 1728 cubic inches, into twelve parts, which
they call inches ; so that the two cubic inches in this estimate are
-^of 1728, or 288 cubic inches. This custom is adopted by sur-
veyors, to save them the trouble in calculating the money value of
fractional parts of cubic feet.)
130 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Thirteen feet eleven inches of oak proper door-cases
Six feet six inches of oak proper two-light window-frames
Eighty-six feet superficial of three-quarter inch square skirting
Ten feet four inches of latticing
Two hundred feet of inch wrought shelves
Thirty-five feet one inch of ditto head and butt back linings
Twenty-one feet eight inches of ditto pump casing
Seventeen feet of ditto wrought lining tongued
Five feet of ditto apron lining
Fifty-eight feet six inches of ditto torus skirting
Sixty-six feet of ditto proper ledged doors
One hundred and twenty feet eight inches of ditto square framed
folding shutters, with rule joints
Eleven feet of ditto clamped lifting shutters, circular headed
Two hundred and ninety-four feet six inches of ditto wrought, framed,
and sunk grounds
Fourteen feet seven inches of ditto deal risers and carriage
Seventy feet one inch of ditto yellow deal steps, risers, and carriage
(the piece which carries the steps), with moulded nosings (the edges
of the steps which are exposed to view)
Seven squares thirty-four feet of ditto yellow deal folding floors
Three squares ninety-three feet of ditto yellow deal straight-jointed floor
One foot of one and a quarter inch cap to the pump
Fourteen feet eight inches of ditto square framed piers
Nineteen feet six inches of ditto wrought and rounded window board
One hundred and ninety-six feet four inches superficial of ditto four-
paneled doors, both sides square
One hundred and ten feet eight inches of ditto single-rebated jamb
linings
Twenty-four feet of ditto square framed spandril
Thirty-four feet two inches of ditto proper boxings
Twenty feet of ditto sunk and moulded close strings
Fifty-two feet of ditto raking torus wall strings
Twenty-five feet of ditto treads of oak, and rounded nosings
Ninety-six feet six inches of ditto ovolo flat shutters, with inch bead
and butt back flaps
Forty-four feet nine inches of ditto ovolo flat backs, elbows, and
soffits splayed
Twenty-eight feet nine inches of one and a half inch single-rebated
jambs, with circular heads
Seventeen feet ten inches of ditto six-paneled doors, both sides square
Thirty-five feet eight inches of ditto six-paneled doors, moulded on
one side, and square on the backs
Three hundred and eighty-six feet of ditto deal cased frames, oak sunk
sills, one and a half inch astragal, and hollow sashes ; double-
hung with iron weights, best white lines, and brass pulleys
Nine feet four inches of ditto oak pump cheeks
Twenty-two feet nine inches of one and three quarter inch six-pa-
neled doors, square on both sides, and circular-headed
Twenty feet of two-inch deal floor to the flower balconies
Twenty-two feet nine inches of deal sash doors, one and a quarter
inch astragals, and hollow sashes, circular headed, double-mar-
gined and diminished styles, three reeds, flush fronts and square
back at bottom
Ninety feet of two and a quarter inch deal wrought floor to the bal-
conies c
One hundred and thirty-two feet nine inches of three-inch cut
brackets, wrought
Five hundred and nine feet superficial of mouldings
Ninety-six feet superficial of oak mouldings
Three hundred and seventeen feet three inches lineal of inch narrow
beveled skirting and grounds
One hundred and five feet of staff beads
Five hundred feet of quirked ovolo, and fillets
Fifteen feet of moulded planccer
Six feet of moulded nosings (on the staircase landing to form the edge)
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 131
One hundred and eighty feet of three-quarter-inch square bar ba-
lusters
Twenty-one feet of deal moulded handrails
Six feet of plain deal handrails
'251. Estimate of Ironmongery and Fixing with Screius and Xails.
Four pair of eighteen-inch cross-garnet hinges
Ten pair of rule-jointed hinges
Twenty-four pair of shutter hinges
Twenty-one pair of two and a half inch butt hinges
Nine pair of three and a half inch butt hinges
Four bright rod bolts six inches long
Four stock locks eight inches long
Two iron rim ten-inch drawback locks
Seventeen patent spring sash fasteners
Three mortise locks, with plain brass knob furniture
Seven iron rim six-inch locks, with brass knobs
Nine iron bar shutter fastenings
Eight brass spring shutter fastenings
Two studs and plates
Two shutter lifts
One plate and screw fastening
Four Norfolk latches
Five wrought-iron casements
Five stay irons to the casements
Twenty saddle bars of iron
Twenty iron tenons
Thirty square wrought-iron inch stanchion bars, three feet six
inches long
Forty holdfasts (fig. 246) to the shelves
Twelve iron tie fastenings, to fix the brackets to the balconies
Sundries. — Four elbow caps
Thirty steps housed into the strings at both ends
Four deal turned newels
Four turned knobs and bases, one foot high, and four inches in
diameter
Fifty-four turned balusters, three feet three inches high, and three
inches in diameter
One hundred and ninety-four housings to the balusters ,.
Forty wrought brackets to the shelves
Forty-three turned balusters, three feet seven inches long
.£260 : 1 1 : 7
252. Estimate of Plumber's, Painter's, and Glazier's TTorks.
Thirteen cwt. 8 lbs. of milled lead
Forty-one superficial feet of lead lights and quarry glass
Two hundred and forty feet seven inches of Newcastle second crown-
glass in sashes
Four feet lineal of two and a half inch lead pipe to sink
Forty feet of two and a half inch lead suction pipe
One six-inch brass grate and bell-trap
One stout four-inch lead pump barrel, and fixing the same
One iron handle, bucket, and sucker, for the pump
One hundred and ninety-two yards, three times painted in oil
Forty-eight yards, three times painted in oil and flatted
Three hundred and twenty-three yards, four times painted in oil
Five yards, four times painted in oil of an olive-green colour
132 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
One hundred and five feet lineal of staff heads, three times painted
in oil : .•••"■■.*".;
Twenty-seven feet of handrail, three times painted in oil... .......
TWO hundred and twenty-nine feet six inches of skirting, four inches
hiffh, three times painted in oil •""••
Sixty-seven feet nine inches of torus skirting eight inches high, three
times painted in oil and flatted
Twenty feet of torus skirting, three times painted in oil
Ten lights, five casements, three times painted in oil
Twenty saddle-bars, three times painted in oil
Nine shutter-bars, three times painted in oil.;
Three newels, three times painted in oil
Sixtv balusters, three feet long, three times painted in oil ......
Twelve doze" 'and a half of scares and frames <|>»m^|
Fifcu^dStotSl^'S in oil, and flatted
Sixteen dozen and a half of squares and ^^^^^
Ten Ugh^'fiVe c^n£^ Painted in
oil __.
l £ 98 : 8 : 1
253. Summary of Estimates. 362 ; 6 : 4
Excavator, Well-digger, and Bricklayer ""Z'Z'.'Z'.'.'.'" 64:9: 10
Plasterer ■ "' "'"... 41:17 : 0
Slater ".'.'....'. 53 : 6 : 8
Stone Mason " 441 . g. g
Carpenter, Joiner, and Ironmonger ' gg : 8 : 1
Plumber, Painter, and Glazier ]
£1061:16 : 7
for .he drawing, ; say, m "*<"*?,££*"*%£& ie Architect is content with his
the' drawings. I» man,, perhaps '" ^"^f ™^'f0X fewings, under the
:S2SxSrS 2ss sk~ f £*«*— — »»• -
a certain sunt per annum while the work « g»"Sf»™™/ wi„ se„e in ^
355. An «*^"3^-S^HSffi3& carefully hnished
w Y T T .« about 3'? 000 ; which, at 7f d. per loot, amounts to * .«»". *
sign XXXII. s aboi it ^,uuu , 4 v Q ^ tfie cQst of ^ ft
farthing per foot for the Architect, vvesna be cakulated> m a
and 8tZ. as the rate per cubic foot, at whicn sucn coraa^w
general or guess estimate. . eXDression of a comfortable, and even elc-
256 *««*,. Thi, i Design "^ *^<*£* and wg poi
gant dwelling. There is mucn oi sty . « j do not know what style
to any particular xnanner as its ^^ ^tore^ its details, *« I know of no
it can be said to be in , it is oi so 10.14 rpnuested to analyse ts component
term which expresses their V***^™^ SbSd those tfthe Italian style ;
parts I should f^SZS^SS^G^i manner; and that the large pro-
the balustrading and g^nes, le *'e™ j his with due deference to Architects
jecting eaves partake of the Swiss cl1™^- .V^f derived from books alone. The
who have visited foreign countries, for my ideas are ; ueriv Berkshire
hood over the entrance door is somewhat s.m lar to th^ ™f^ ^ in Mr. Varden's
farm buildings. ™^ *^^£^£1S£^ we have already
Design, all our readers we ^^^^^f ^ is highly picturesque, and
(§ 231 and 233) bestowed on it. .^*^JZ£££ Considering the number of
nothing seems wanting to render the dwelling C^P^ si|e structure, for
rooms, the decorations, &c, it certainly cannot be co nsiacrea a p
the neighbourhood of London. A very £*jf^^f%£ 'fSy feet to an
of a public road, with a lawn in front, fig. 247 (on a scaie 01 ao j
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
XXXIII.
133
134 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
XXXIV.
XXXV
XXXVI.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLE.
13.5
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0
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o
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o
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inch), varied by groups of flowers, a a, and by scattered shrubs, and ornamental trees,
b b ; with two small flower compartments, c c ; a narrow border at the base of the ter-
race, d d ; an orchard of gooseberries, currants, and raspberries, e ; a compartment for
asparagus, sea-kale, tart rhubarb, strawberries, and other perennial crops, f; and
another compartment for common culinary crops, surrounded on three sides by dwarf
fruit trees, g. The boundary borders may be occupied with small and very early crops ;
and the walls should be planted with fruit trees. The walks may have box edgings,
and be gravelled ; or, should the dwelling be in a neighbourhood where flag-stones are
abundant, they may be paved, the pavement resting on stone piers, by which a great
annual expense in keeping the walks and their edgings clean and in repair will be
saved, and the ground underneath them rendered available for the roots of the fruit trees
in the borders.
Design XXXIII. — Two Cottage Diuellings, under the same Roof; each having Two Booms
and other Conveniences.
257. Accommodation. E:ich of these dwellings contains a porch, a ; kitchen, b ; and
bed-room, c, which may be made a sitting-room, by placing the bed in the closet, e.
There is also to each a back kitchen, f; a pantry, g ; and a privy, /;. One of these
dwellings has an extra bed-room, d ; and a very little change in the arrangement, as will
be shown afterwards, would give a light bed-room to the other also. Some use may
be made of the roof, by having trap-doors and ladders, as recommended in § 179.
fig. 158.
258. Construction. This building having only one story, the walls may be made of
earth, smoothed, and lime-whited externally ; and lathed and plastered inside. The
columns of the porch may be portions of the trunks of fir or pine trees, with the bark re-
moved, and the knots and other irregularities reduced. The roof may be of slate ; and,
as it is of considerable span, it may be constructed as in fig. 248, with principal and
secondary rafters.
136 COTTAGK, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
259. General Estimate. Cubic-
contents of the two bouses, 15,868
at 6d. per foot, £396: 14s.; at
'Id., £264 ■ 9s. : 4d. ; and at 3d.,
£198: 7s.
260. Remarks. Looking at
the elevation, we should say that
this is a simple and somewhat
elegant Design ; and at the plan,
that it appears convenient. When
we examine it critically, however,
we perceive that the windows are
not sufficiently high for the pur-
poses of ventilation ; and that their
proportions are not such as are
commonly received as elegant.
On examining the section, it will
be found, that the heads of these
windows are not near so high as the ceiling, and that the window sill is more than the
usual height from the floor. We must, therefore conclude that the designer of this cot-
tage intended it for a warm climate, where it would be desirable to exclude the light ;
but even if that were the object, it might have been effected better, by having windows
of the same font! close under the eaves. The interior of such a cottage, in Britain,
would be gloomy, and the ventilation bad; but its appearance, as well as comfort, would
be improved by changing the proportions of the windows. There is one great fault in
delineating the elevation of this Design, which must not be passed over. It consists in
representing the two false windows in the principal front exactly in the same manner as
the real ones. Let the reader make a sketch without these false windows, or cut out a
bit of white paper, and place it over them in our elevation, and he will see how different an
effect will be produced. Whenever the effect of any design depends mainly on any thing
not essential to its use, the critic may always be certain that there is something wrong.
In general, also, when imitations of the effect of time on buildings are introduced in
architectural designs, they are to be looked on with suspicion ; as well as all accompaniments
of trees, clouds, and figures. A design for a building should always have a distinct and
independent beauty in itself; a beauty which can be conveyed by lines in correct perspective,
without any reference to either shading, colouring, or accompaniments. Examined by
these tests, some of the most showy works on Cottage Architecture, of the present day, will
be found to be little better than pictures for the eye ; or, as some would express it, to
gratify the sense of the picturesque. The Design before us is capable of very great
improvement; and, by altering the ground plan, as in fig. 249, two most comfortable
249
dwellings, of two rooms and two bed closets, with a back kitchen, pantry, and privy, to
each, might be obtained under a very handsome exterior. Fig. 250 shows the perspective
elevation of the principal front, in which a close porch, with square columns, is shown
instead of an open one, with round columns. It is intended that the door shall be placed
on w hichever side of this portico may best suit the prevailing winds of the given situ-
ation. If the building were to stand east and west, the door of the porch ought to be on
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
250
.me side, and that, of course, the south ; if it stood north and south, then the door of
the south porch ought to be on the south side ; and that of the north, on either the east
or west, which ever may be considered the mildest aspect. Fig. 251 shows the back eleva-
tion of these cottages, which will be found as handsome as that of the principal front,
though differently composed. This also is a test of excellence in architecture. When-
ever any one side of a building is not as good in architectural design as another side, it
may infallibly be considered as a proof of either poverty of invention or negligence in
the Arcnitect ; or of want of means or of spirit in the employer. On the whole, for cheap
and yet elegant cottages of the lowest degree of accommodation, we can recommend this
improved version of Design XXXIII. as equal to any thing which has been yet given in
this work. In a recent number of the Gardener s Magazine (vol. viii. p. 263), we have
animadverted on the miserable hovels of one room, recently built on the Duke of
Buccleugh's estate in Dumfriesshire ; and on some still more wretched habitations, built
along the coast in Wigtonshire. We would recommend to the amiable Duchess of
Buccleugh to advocate the substitution of dwellings like those before us, for the cottages
to which we have referred, on her husband's estate.
Design XXXIV A Cottage Dwelling of Two Rooms, intended as a Gate Lodge.
261. Accommodation. In the ground plan of this Design, fig. 252, there is akitchen, a ;
with a bed-room, b ; a light 252
closet to the bed-room, c ; a
bed closet from the kitchen,
d j and a pantry, e.
262. Construction. The
exterior walls may be of earth
or stone ; and the interior of
brick nogging flat, with the
exception of the chimney
stacks. The pitch of the roof
being low, it must be covered
with slates, or with Grecian
or Tuscan tiles.
263. General Estimate.
Cubic contents, 7770 feet, at
6d. per foot, £1941. : 5s. ; at
4d.,£l29: 10s.; and at 3d.,
,£97 :2s. : 6d.
264. Remarks. The ex-
pression is simple and appro-
SJ
138 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
priate ; and it is heightened by the bench under the recess, which may be supposed to be
placed opposite the gate which the occupant is expected to open, and gives an air of
ease and attendance on his part, as a porter's chair does in the hall of a mansion.
Design XXXV. — A Cottage Dwelling of Three Rooms, with Back A'itchen, Cow-house,
and other Conveniences.
265. Accommodation' This is a commodious cottage, and all the accommodations
being got within one roof, with the exception of two small lean-tos, it must be considered
as promising to be economical in its erection. By the ground plan, fig. 253, it appears
\
253
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1
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a
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- — J C
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1 I
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10X12
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to contain an entrance, o, from under a projecting porch ; a kitchen, b, with a bed-
closet from it, c, for a child ; principal bed-room, d ; parlour, e ; back kitchen,y; shed
for fuel, g ; cow-house, h ; dairy, i ; water-closet, lc, with a cistern of water over it,
supplied from the roof; and pantry, I. If the cow-house and dairy can be dispensed
with, or removed to the yard, then g and k may be got out of h, and the whole building
included under one roof; always a most desirable object. This alteration effected,
the back elevation may be rendered symmetrical, and altogether as handsome as the
front or the ends, as exemplified in the improved plan, fig. 254.
254
VL
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 139
XXXVII.
XXXVIII.
XXXIX.
140 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
XL.
J Ft.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
Ill
266. Construction* The walls are for the most part shown thick, as if built of earth
or stone ; and the rocf is covered with Peake's Grecian terro-metallic tiles. These
being heavy, require considerable strength of timber in the rafters; but their durability
we believe to be greater than even that of cast-iron.
'267. General Estimate. Cubic contents 13,904 feet, at 6a. per foot, £'347 : 12s. ; at
4d., £231 : 14s. : 8d. ; and at 3d., £173 : 16s.
268. The expression is somewhat analogous to that of the Scotch stone cottage,
Design VII. ; but the low pitch of the roof, the Grecian tiles, and the porch in front,
are great improvements.
Design XXXVI. — A Dwelling, with Four Rooms, a Back Kitchen, and other Con-
veniences.
269. Accommodation. This is calculated to form a very comfortable habitation, and
all the rooms being on the ground floor, the walls may be built of earth, and the apart-
ments heated by flues in the floor from the back kitchen. The ground plan, fig, 255,
255
shows a porch, a , a kitchen, b ; parlour, c ; two bed-rooms, d and e ; a lobby,y (lighted
from the dairy) ; a root-house, g ; wood or coal house, h ; pantry, i; privy, k; dairy, I;
and back kitchen, m.
270. Construction. The walls may be of stone, finished with blocking courses, after the
manner of Design VII. ; the roof of slate, and the windows of sashes hung with weights
and pulleys. The floors may either be of boards, or paved, and heated by flues from the
back kitchen.
271. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 19,468 feet, at 6d. per foot, £486 : 14s. ; at
4d., £324 : 9s. ; 4rf. ; and at 3d., £243 : 7s.
272. Remarks. The expression is that of an humble but very comfortable dwelling ;
though little care has been taken to create allusions to any particular style. The door
in the porch, and also the entrance to the back kitchen, ought to be varied relatively to
the position of the sun, and the prevailing winds.
Design XXXVII. — A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with other Conveniences, intended as a
Lodge, or a House for a Bailiff', or Head- Gardener.
273. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 256, contains a kitchen, a, entered
from under a veranda ; a parlour, b ; a small bed-room, c ; back kitchen, d, from which
the whole may be heated ; pantry, e ; dusthole, f; place fcr potatoes and other roots,
and for fuel, g ; and privy, h. There is a closet under the staircase ; and in the cham-
ber floor two small bed-rooms, and a garret over the kitchen.
274. Construction. The walls of the main building are shown of extra-thickness, with
a view to situations where the cheapest building material is compressed earth, or rubble
142
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
256
stone. In brick countries,
hollow brick walls will be
found both the cheapest and
the best, both for the main
building and the lean-to,
containing d, e,f, g, and h.
The roof may be of slate ;
the windows latticed ; and
the pillars of the porch of
squared wood ; or, in some
countries, they would be
cheaper and better of slate,
or slate stone. It is not the
custom to form such co-
lumns of earthenware tubes,
such as are made for flues
in hot-houses, both in Bri-
tain and on the continent
of Europe ; but we have
no doubt that such a mode
would answer well, the
weight being carried by a
prop of wood, iron, or brick, in the centre of the tubes. The terro-metallic earth of
Staffordshire would form admirable columns, lintels, summer stones, copings, ornamental
chimney tops, and other component parts of buildings. Indeed, much might be done
with common brick earth ; but, unfortunately for Britain, all articles formed of this
material are heavily taxed, and, to save trouble to the exciseman, the brickmaker is only
allowed to make his bricks of certain forms and dimensions; viz., for building bricks,
nine inches by four inches and a half, and two inches and a half. If he deviates from
these, and makes a brick either longer or broader than usual, or impresses a moulding
on one end, or on one side, he renders himself liable to such an increase of duty as
amounts to a prohibition of the article. Two or three centuries ago, bricks were made
in every form, ornamental and useful, which the Architect could desire; for a proof of
which, we have only to look to the Elizabethan mansions which still exist in different
parts of the country. Even so early as the time of Henry VIII. , the art of making
bricks to serve all the purposes of stone in the jambs and lintels of doors and windows,
appears to have been carried to a great degree of perfection. At Sutton Place, near
Ripley, in Surrey, built by this monarch's brewer, the piers, lintels, mullions, chimney
tops, tracery in tha windows of the chapel, and other parts, some highly ornamented, are
formed of artificial stone or brick ; and are still in excellent repair. Fig. 257, in isome-
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trical perspective, on a scale of a quarter of an inch to a foot, shows the manner in which
the shelf is supported over the window in the gable end.
275. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 10.818 feet, at 6d. per foot, .£270 : 9s., at
4d., .£180 : 6s. ; and at 3d., £135 : 4S. : Gd.
276. Remarks. What has the mental architect to say to this building ? What is the
kind of mind discoverable in the elevation? Certainly it does not exhibit a single feature
of vulgarity. The pillars and cornice, and the brackets to one of the windows, have, on
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IJv VARIOUS STYLES.
143
the contrary, a simple and rather elegant appearance. The shapes of the three windows
are different, and yet not opposed , and they are in three different positions relatively
to the walls and the roof, forming an agreeable variety, or perhaps rather harmony.
On the whole, we are satisfied with this elevation, and the plan is convenient.
Design XXXVIII. — A Dwelling of Three Rooms, with a Back Kitchen, and other Con-
veniences, intended as a Porters Lodge, or Gardener's House.
277. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 258, shows an entrance lobby, a ;
kitchen, J; back kitchen, c; parlour, d ; bed-room, <?; closet,/; cellar, g; pantry, h ;
dusthole, i; privy, k; a place for fuel, roots, &c.,l; and another for bees, exterior
to e.
258
278. Construction. The walls are shown of a thickness proper for earth or rubble
stone. The roof is in two parts, fig. 259 ; one part, m n, covering the main body of
the house ; and the other part, o p q, 1
being a lean-to at the back. From
this construction of the roof, the whole
of the water might be easily, and with
little expense, collected, and conveyed
to a cistern over k, or to a tank under
h or I.
279. General Estimate. 13,334
cubic feet, at 6d. per foot, £333 : 7s.;
at 4d., £222 : 4s. : SiL ; and at 3d.,
£161: 13s. : 6d.
280. Remarks. The effect of the
front elevation is dignified, and the
expression, with reference to use, is
that of substantial comfort. There
does not appear to be much attempt at
style. A side or back view would
not give so favourable an expression,
because a great breadth of lean-to roof has always a mean effect. To counteract this, care
must be taken in planting the garden, fig. 260, (drawn to a scale of a quarter of an inch to
ten feet,) that trees be so placed as to break the horizontal lines from every point of view
whence the lean-to part of the roof can be seen. The simplest mode of effecting this
would be by planting a row of trees in the border below the terrace, commencing at r,
and continued round s to t : but this would shade the windows, and stagnate the air
about the house ; and, therefore, a better mode is, to place only a few trees in that
situation, and scatter others throughout the garden (but always so as not to impede its
— 0 — H
1 i-4 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
260
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regular cultivation), between the dotted lines w r, and t> £, and the back part of the
garden w. The reason for the range, precisely within which the trees must be planted, will
be sufficiently obvious to all who have the slightest idea of perspective. Trees scattered
along the boundary of the garden, fiom u to w, and from w to v, would never disguise
any part of the house from a spectator walking along the outside of the boundary,
because they would be too near the eye ; and trees scattered any where between the
dotted lines u r and x, and t v and a', would be of no use in disguising the lines of a
roof, or indeed any other object, situated between r and s, or between s and /. When
the view is unconfined, the horizontal range of vision taken by the eye is ninety degrees ;
and, consequently, a fixed position for the eye being given, the number of trees required
to plant out any distant object, filling the whole of this angle, will chiefly depend on the
distance of the trees from the eye : on the contrary, when an object, filling a small
part only of the angle of vision, is to be concealed from a variety of points, through all
of which the eye may range, the number of trees required will increase in proportion
to their distance from the object. Thus, it will appear by fig. 260, that sixty-four trees
would be required in the boundary hedgerow to hide that part of the house marked
r s t, from an eye which could range from u, by w, to v ; whereas sixteen trees would
effect the same object, if placed near the platform on which the house stands. In the
case of this garden, we neither recommend the hedgerow, u w v, of sixty-four trees, nor
the semicircular row, r t, of sixteen trees ; but, as before observed, we would effect our
object by scattering them in the garden at different distances from those parts of the house
which are to be concealed.
Design XXXIX. — Two Dwellings for Country Labourers, under One Roof, with Two
Rooms in each, and other Conveniences.
281. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 261, shows the following accom-
modation for each cottage: — a projecting open porch, a; entrance lobby, b ; kitchen or
living-room, c, with a closet under the stair ; back kitchen, d, from which the whole
might be heated; place for fuel or roots, e; privy, f ; and cow-house, g. On the
chamber floor there are one good bed-room and a closet to each dwelling. There is a
small yard to each cow-house, with a pigsty, h ; dung-pit, i; and a liquid manure tank,
k. There is a grass-plot to each cottage ; and a garden in front, and along one side ;
behind may be a grass field or lawn.
282. Construction. " The walls," observes our contributor, " may be of stone, or
mud ; the roofs may be thatched with straw or reeds, and wattled down at the ridge
with hazel rods, as shown in the elevation. The windows may be latticed, having the
lintels, sills, and rabbet- heads, &c. plastered (the rabbet-head of a window is a Scotcb
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 145
261
term for what in England is called the reveal of a window, viz. p, in fig. 262 ; and
what in Scotland is called the back-filled „
rabbet, or the back-filled rabbet-head, is in —
England called the facing, or architrave,
viz., q, in fig. 262, projecting an inch all —
round. This term is, however, only ap-
plied to plain facings round doors and
windows externally ; for, when the facings
round both the exterior and interior open-
ings are moulded, they are called, as in
England, " architraves. " Fig. 263 is a section across the chamber floor, to show, that
a part of the height of the bed-rooms is obtained from the roof.
262
283. General Estimate. The two houses contain 12,986 cubic feet, which, at 6d. per
foot, is £324 : 13s. ; at Ad., £216 : 8s. : 8d. ; and at 3d., £162 : 6s. : 6d.
284. Remarks. There is an appearance of comfort about these cottages, and yet
there is something mean in the roof slouching down over the two bed-room windows.
The manner of roofing the lean-tos is altogether bad ; a gutter against a gable-end wall
Q
UP^
146 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
is almost certain to leak, or to become choked up, more especially when the roof is
thatched. The building, however, is so far expressivf of its purposes, that it can never
be mistaken for any thing else than a cottage ; and, on the whole, is rather picturesqu
than otherwise.
Design XL. Two Cottages of Three Rooms each, under the same Roof, with Cow-house,
Pi«sty, and other Conveniences to each.
285. Accommodation, Each dwelling contains a porch, a ; kitchen, b; back-kitchen,
c; dairy, d; store closet, e; two bed-rooms, / and g; privy, A; place for fuel, i ; pigsty,
k ' and cow-house, /. Where neither cows nor pigs are kept, the cow-house may, with
propriety, be used as a root-cellar and place for fuel, and the pigsty as a dusthole ; or,
k and i may be got
out of the space occu-
pied by /; and thus
the whole of the con-
veniences required may
be obtained under one
simple parallelogram
roof.
286. Construction.
The walls are shown
of such a thickness as
to admit of their being
constructed of stone,
or of earth, and the
roof may be of slate :
the eaves, where the
roof projects over the
porch, are supported in
the manner exhibited in the section, fig. 264, or in fig. 265, both to a scale of half an
inch to a foot, as double or single rafters may be required.
287. General Esti-
mate. Cubic contents,
26,304 feet, at 6d- per
foot, £657 : 12*. ; at
4d., £438 : 8s. ; and
at 3d., £328 : 16s.
288. Remarks. Con-
sidered as the lowest
description of cottages,
for country labourers
these dwellings are
commodious, and are
calculated for being
executed at a moderate
charge. The walls in
the ground plan are
shown of more than
the usual thickness, be-
cause they are supposed
to be built of earth,
with the exception of the chimney stacks,
formed of brick nogging on edge, fig. 266
or flag stone ; or formed of gravel or mortar mixed together,
and laid down immediately, then beat smooth, and covered
with a thin coat of cement. Of whatever earthy materials
the floors are made, they must be heated by a fitfe from the
back kitchen ; because, otherwise, the dwelling would be
cold and uncomfortable in winter. This flue will not re-
quire the fire to be lighted more than two or three times
a week ; because, if the floor be constructed as directed in
describing Design I., it will retain the heat communicated
to it by the flue for several days. If the floors be made
of boards, the flue maybe dispensed with; because, in that
case, there will be a vacuity between the boards and the soil
of, at least, two feet. The bottom of this vacuity should be,
The partitions between the closets may be
The floors may be paved with bricks, tiles,
266
1
\
1
1
%
IE
1
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
147
at least, one foot above the surrounding surface, in order that no water may ever drain
into, or rest upon it. Each cottage should have a yard behind it, surrounded by a wall
of earth, with a projecting coping of slate, tile, or boards, and the entrance to this yard
may either be at one side, or behind, according to the arrangement of the walks of the
garden. It is almost needless to observe that there ought to be a dung-pit and liquid
manure tank in each yard, communicating with the privy by a pipe-drain; and, where
superior cleanliness is an object, this drain should communicate with the cow-house and
pigsty in the same manner.
289. Ornament. These dwellings may be ornamented with handsome chimney pots ;
by covering the roof with a trellis for vines ; by adding another pillar to each porch ; and
by a handsome architectural parapet. Supposing the slope of the parapet not to be less
than forty-five degrees, and covered with turf, and the upper part gravelled, with a
margin of turf of about a foot in width, the effect from the surrounding garden would
be exceedingly good, without any other addition than the chimney-pots.
Design XLI. — Six Cottages grouped together, with a view to Economy in building them.
290. General Arrangement. The object of this Design is, to show the manner in
which dwellings may be erected with the greatest degree of economy. We have before
observed (§ 23), that, where this is the case, the external form will always approach
more or less to that of a cube, and the internal apartments will also approximate to this
lire. In the Design submitted, fi.^s. 2(77 and '268, six dwellings are ranged round an
open yard, a, which contains a privy, b, and well, c, common to the whole ; beside this is
a wash-house and bake-house, d, also common to the whole. The building is two
stories high, each story being eight feet high in the clear.
291. The situation of this group may be supposed to be near a public roavi, ",
118 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
2G8
separated from it by a small area, f, which may either be left open for a play -ground for
children, or laid out as a drying ground, or flower-garden. The six kitchen-gardens are
indicated as ranged on three sides of the building, and the whole space occupied by the
dwellings and gardens need not, in ordinary cases, exceed one acre. The accommoda-
tions of the separate dwellings vary from two to four rooms each. The place for a
wash-house and bake-house is intended to be used in rotation by each family, so that it
will be employed as a wash-house and bakehouse six days in the week, and as a bake-
house only on the Sunday morning. One of the cottagers may have the general ma-
nagement of the wash-house and of the oven ; and this management may either be taken
by all in turn, or a small payment be made for it monthly by all to one, &c.
292. Accommodation of each Cottage. The four dwellings, marked g g g g, contain
each a principal room ten feet by twelve feet, and a small room of ten feet by eight feet,
on botli floors, with a closet under the staircase. The two dwellings, marked h h, contain
each a room ten feet by twelve feet, on both floors, with a closet under the staircase.
293. Construction. The walls are supposed to be built of brick, and the roof slated.
If, instead of brick, timber were used, there would, at the present price of British timber
about London ( £3 : 1 Os. per load of fifty cubic feet), be a saving of from ,£50 to £60 on
the six dwellings. In this case, all the exterior and foundation timber ought to be oak,
but the rest may be of any description of wood of British growth. The floors of both
stories are to be of deal boarded ; the windows of latticework in iron frames, and the
covers to the entrance porches of slate slabs.
294. Specification and Estimate. These are here combined ; the building being of so
simple a description, that a separate specification is not considered necessary.
295. Bricklayer, Plasterer, and Slaters Work. The bricklayer is to build the walls
externally, and the division walls between each cottage, of one brick in thickness, with
three courses of footings, one foot and a half thick. The openings of the chimneys on
the ground floor to be two feet six inches wide, with jambs of one brick in thickness ;
and the chimneys of the chamber floor to be one foot six inches wide, with half-brick
trimming arches. The space under each staircase to be paved, and enclosed with brick-
work one foot six inches high, and half a brick in thickness.
£ s. d.
Fifty-three thousand bricks, per thousand 385
Six and a half bushels of lime for every thousand of bricks, at 8d.
per bushel, is, per thousand of bricks, 4s. : 4d
Road drift (the scrapings of roads, being stone or gravel, ground to
powder by the traffic on the road, and therefore become a sort of
sand,) or pit or river sand, for every thousand of bricks say 2s. : Id.
Labour for every thousand of bricks, 8s
In all, per thousand of bricks, £2 : 12s. : 6d. which for 53 thousand is 139 : 2 : 6
(The above price is equal to £l I : 5s. per rod of brickwork. )
Digging the foundations 2 : 10 : 0
Twelve chimney pots, and setting them, at 4s 2 : 8 : ()
Twelve cast-iron fronts to the fireplaces, five eighths of an inch thick,
four inches wide, with slabs half an inch thick, and one foot six
inches wide, at 13s 17 : 16 : 0
Twenty stone sills to the windows, at 6s 6 : 0:0
One hundred feet lineal of ridge tiles, at 4d 2 : 16 : <>
Eighteen squares of countess slating on the roof, at 25s 22 : 10 : 0
As slating is the lightest covering, and the cheapest in most parts ol
England at the present time ; ii is preferable to tiles.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 149
Thirty feet superficial of half-inch slabs over the entrance porches, £ s. </.
at Is. per foot 1 : 10 : 0
Two cwt. of milled lead for valleys, at 30s 3: 0. 0
Two hundred and thirty-three yards of plaster, set and whited on lath,
to the ceilings, at Is. : 3d 14: 6: 8
Seven hundred and fifty-five yards of plaster, set and whited, to the
walls,.at7£d 23: 11 : 10
-96. Carpenters Work. The timber may be of larch, elm, or any other
timber of equal durability. The rafters of the roof are to be four
inches by one and a half inches. The ridge pieces, hips, and valleys,
to be seven inches by one and a half inches. The ceiling joists to
be four and a half inches by one and a half inches. The joists to
the floors to be seven inches by two inches. The plates to the roof,
to the floors, and to the angle ties, to be four inches by four and
a half inches. The lintels to be four inches by three inches. The
wooden bricks for fitting joiner's work to the brickwork to be four
inches by two and a half inches. The door-frames to be four
inches by three inches. Eleven and a half loads of timber de-
livered £3: 10 : 0
Sawing the same, per load 0: 10:0
Labour and nails, per load 1 : 5 : 0
In all, per load 5: 5:0
which, for eleven and a half loads, is 63: 0: ()
Fourteen squares of three-fourth-inch battening for slates, at 12s. ... 8 : 8 : O
One hundred and seventy feet superficial of three-quarter-inch eave
boards, at 4 d 2: 17: 0
Seventy-six slip centres for the openings, at Is 1 : 6:0
297. Joiners Work. The joiner's work for these dwellings is calculated
on the supposition that deals twelve feet in length, three inches
thick, and nine inches wide, cost, when delivered, per 120, ,£36.
Twenty-six squares of three-quarter-inch deal wrought floors, at 51s. 40 : 6 : 0
Two hundred and fifty-five feet superficial of three-quarter-inch deal
skirting, 5{,d 5 : 16 : 10
Twenty-three and a half squares of five-eighth-inch deal matched
(the edge of one board grooved, and the adjoining board tongued,
with a pair of planes fitting into each other, called match planes),
and beaded boarding, planed on both sides, for each side of the
stairs, at 34s
Latches and bolts to twenty-four doors 4: 4: O
Ten one and a half inch deal two paneled square doors,
each measuring twenty-four superficial feet, and each having a
latch and a bolt, with stops, and hung with three-inch butt
hinges, to be provided for the rooms on the ground floor, each
door complete, at 23s 11: 10: 0
Twelve one and a half inch two paneled bead butt, and square out-
side doors, each measuring sixteen feet three inches superficial, and
each having a lock, latch, and oak sill, with half-inch lining to the
frames, and hung with three-inch butt hinges, at 25s 15 : 0 : 0
Twelve three-light frames to the windows, and eight two-light frames
of one and a half inch deal five inches wide, framed, rebated, and
beaded ; the whole containing four hundred and sixty-four feet
lineal, including the fitting in of the lights, at 6d 11:12: 0
Twenty-six lifting shutters for the windows of the ground floor of
five eighths of an inch deal, ledged ; each shutter measuring four
feet six inches superficial 4: 8: 0
Twenty iron casements and fastenings 3 ; 10 : 0
Six staircases of inch deal, housed into one and a half inch strings,
and framed newels and handrails 15: 0- 0
298. Glazier's Work. Fifty-two lights glazed with quarries, each mea-
suring six feet superficial, at Is. : Gd 19: 10: 0
Ninety-six saddle bars to the lead lights 1- 4: 0
299. Painter's Work. The woodwork to be painted four times in
oil colours ... 35 : O : 0
150
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
300. Sundries — The erection of the wash-house will amount to 16 :
Oven and copper 14 :
Well, fifty feet deep, including bucket and tackle SO :
Erection of a privy , 5 :
Fifty feet of drain ...., 2:
Two hundred and forty-three feet lineal of three-quarter-inch deal,
planed, to the eaves, soffit, and fascia 4 :
Two hundred and forty-three feet in length of cast-iron gutter to
the eaves 7 :
Seventy-two feet lineal of two-inch cast-iron pipe 2 :
Six heads and six shoes to the pipe, and four angles to the gutter ... 2 :
A
d.
8 :
0
0 :
0
0 :
0
0 :
0
10 :
0
9 : 0
1 : 9
8 : 0
1 : 0
Total (£98 : 10s. : I0$d. per dwelling, or) £591 : 5 : 2
301. The aforesaid prices are prime cost ; but if a builder be employed, a profit must
be added, according to the mode of payment.
302. Remarks. For the foregoing very economical and convenient design, specifi-
cation, and estimate, we are indebted to Mr. W. Laxton, Surveyor, Hoi born Bars,
London ; well known among professional men as the author of Laztoris Builder's Price
Book. We have given it exactly as received, in order that the specification and estimate
might apply to the engravings ; and we shall now show how we think it might be improved;
though, of course, by adding to the expense. The first thing which we shall suggest is,
the building of the walls with brick on edge, in the manner of Dearn or Silverlock, both
to be hereafter described. According to Dearn's mode, a saving of one third in the
number of bricks would be obtained, at once deducting £46 : 7s- : 6d. from the estimate,
besides producing walls which would keep the apartments within warmer in winter,
and cooler in summer. By raising the general floor of these dwellings two feet or three
feet above the level of the surrounding surface, according to the nature of the soil and
osoil, and by having the oven in a sunk area three feet deep, a flue might be con-
ducted from it under the ground floor of every apartment, as explained under Design I.,
§ 34. Over the oven might be placed a box boiler, from which a flat tube, six inches by
three inches, might be conducted horizontally under the floors of all the rooms on the
ground floor ; by which they would be sufficiently heated. If an underground smoke
flue were employed, it would be necessary to have the floor paved, at least in part, with
tiles or flag stones ; but if a hot water pipe were conducted round the building, in the
direction of the dotted line i i i, in fig. 267, a boarded floor might be used.
303. Privy. In the yard there ought unquestionably to be two privies, one for each
sex ; and these might, at a very little expense, be rendered water-closets ; not by a cis-
tern over them, the water in which would be liable to be frozen in winter ; but by a
cistern in the wash-house, which would, at the same time, supply water for washing and
other purposes. Basins should be placed in the privies, as shown in fig. 13, § 38, and,
in order to prevent the waste of water, an arrangement may be made only to admit a
little to the basin, every time the door is opened and shut. For this purpose, in addition
to the simple and efficient plans described under § 39, we shall here exhibit a less perfect
one employed in the British Museum. In this example, which will be understood from
fig. 2G9, as soon as the door of the water-closet is opened beyond a right angle, the
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
151
wrought-iron rod fixed on it at a pulls the brass chain through the pulley b, that
communicates with the crank c; to which a wire is attached, that runs along as
shown in the figure, between c and d. The crank d pulls down the lever e, which lifts
the valve f, and consequently admits the water from the cistern through the small pipe^,
to the basin. Fig. 270 shows the brass pulley, b, on a large scale. Fig. 271 represents
271
270
the crank c, also on a large scale. Fig. 272 is an enlarged view of the crank d. The
cross pieces of the cranks for the reception of the screw nails are of iron japanned, and the
other parts of the cranks are of brass. Fig. 273 represents the wrought-iron rod a, winch
is fixed on the door, and to which the chain is attached. Fig. 274 shows the spring
273
274
0-
JJ
that shuts the door, in which h is a roller
moving on the iron plate i, nailed to the door.
It is almost superfluous to add that the whole
of the water of the roof may be conveyed to the
supply cistern, by connecting the outer eaves'
gutters with the inner ones, by means of pipes
carried along the party walls, immediately
under the roof ; that one of Siebe's pumps may
be used for supplying this cistern in times of
great drought ; or that the water, when filtered,
maybe preserved cool in an underground tank.
§ 151, fig. 119.
304. Manure Tank. The importance of
manure to a cottager's garden ought never to
be lost sight of; every means ought to be made
use of to collect it ; and for this purpose not a drop of soap-suds or of foul water ought
to be lost ; but the cess-pool, provided in this design, is much too small, and very incon-
veniently situated for being emptied ; not to speak of its proximity to the well of pure
water. We would recommend a larger cess-pool in one of the gardens, connected with the
one in the yard by a barrel drain,
and conveniently situated for dis-
tributing its contents among the
different gardens. We recommend
attention to what we have before
observed on this subject, when de-
scribing Design I.
305. The Cistern in the wash-
house should be raised at least eight
feet from the floor; and, besides
supplying the water-closets, it may
communicate with a filter of a simple
construction, from which water may
be drawn at pleasure for the pur-
poses of cookery or washing. This
fi Iter may be thus constructed : — Fig.
275, k, represents the cistern ; I, a.
cask ; containing the filtering ma-
terial at m, a space for the deposi-
tion of impurities from the water to
be filtered, at n, and for the filtered
water at o. This cask is connected
with the supply cistern by the pipe
152
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
q, which, having a stopcock at p, water may be admitted to n at pleasure ; and this
water, by the pressure from that in the cistern, will speedily rise through the filter, m,
to the space, o ; from which it may be drawn off by the cock, r. There is also a cock,
s, for drawing off' the water from n, when it is desired to clean the filter, which may be
done by allowing the water from u to descend. It may be observed, that if at any time,
there should be a deficiency of water in the cistern, k, water from any other source
maybe filtered from the barrel, I, by the following means: — First, the filter, m, may
be cleaned by pouring in water at the top of the cask through the funnel, * ; and
afterwards water from the well, or any other source, may be poured into o, and
drawn off" by s for use, till the cistern, ft, is again supplied from the roof. A wooden
or copper bath may be placed in the wash-house ; which may be supplied with cold water
from the filtering cask, or with hot water from the cistern over the oven, or from the
washing and brewing boiler. The brewing utensils may also be deposited in this part of
the building, and may be used in common.
306. A Drying-Closet, by another slight arrangement, might be formed over the oven ;
all that is necessary for this purpose, being to have the cast-iron box containing the
water, fig. 276, made rather larger than the bottom of the closet ; that part of the cover of
\-..-.[-5- -x- 9-
the boiler which forms the bottom of the closet being made perfectly watertight, and the
boiler having an exterior opening at a, for the purpose of supplying it with water, and to
admit of the escape of steam when the water boils. The portion of the cover of the boiler
which forms the bottom of the closet may have grooves, b bbb, cast in it, or riveted to it
or to a false bottom, at six inches' distance from each other ; in which "rooves may slide
clothes-horses, to hold the clothes to be dried. There should be a large cock for draw-
ing off' the water at c ; and, from the side which will be placed next the wall, a conducting
or outgoing tube, rf, and a returning one, e, for the circulation of the hot water round
the building. The upper surface of the outgoing pipe will be on a level with the floors
of the rooms, and form part of them ; and the projections of three inches on each
side of this pipe are pierced with holes, to permit the heat from the sides of the tubes
to rise into the rooms. Over the grooved surface of the boiler a closet may be formed,
five or six feet or more in height, three feet wide, and four or five feet long. This
would admit of four clothes-horses standing side by side, at six inches apart ; and by
a small opening in the bottom of the door (say half an inch in depth, and the whole of
its width', with a corresponding opening in the ceiling of the closet at the opposite end,
a current of air will be produced, which will rapidly convey away the moisture from
the clothes. This arrangement would not in the least interfere either with bakino- in the
oven, heating all the dwellings with hot water, or supplying hot water for ordinary uses,
as the following figures will show : — Fig. 277 is the foundation plan of the wash-house,
in which the oven, /, is retained in the same position as in fig. 267, but varied in size,
and sunk lower ; g shows the steps down to it ; and h is the area for fuel. Fig. 278
is a surface plan, showing the drying-chamber, i, over the oven, and the boiler for wash-
ing and brewing, k. Fig. 279 is a section on the line A B, of the plans figs. 277 and
278, in which are shown the steps down to the oven, I; the hot-water box, m, and hot-
air closet over it, n. Fig. 280 is a section of fig. 278 on the line C D, in which are
shown the oven, o ; the hot-water box over it,;;; the hot-air closet, q ; the opening
under the door, ?• ; and the other opening near the ceiling, s. Fig. 28 1 is a section on the
line E F of fig. 278, showing the front of the hot-water plate, /, the cock for drawing
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
077 A 278
11 ru
153
.O
u
fl £
a
off the water, w, and the two pipes for circulating it, v and w. The hot-water box may
be either of cast-iron in one piece, or of riveted plates of iron or copper. It may be
279
280
mentioned, that it would be an improvement to have what may be called a false bottom
to the closet, made of iron, or even of wood, to which the grooves might be attached,
281 282
and placed about an inch above the top of the boiler, with an opening (of about half an
inch in depth, and the whole width of the closet), at the door, for the admission of the
air to be heated, and another at the opposite end, about twice the size, for the escape of
the hot air into the closet. The effect of this arrangement would be, to carry off more
heat from the cover of the boiler, and consequently to make the closet hotter. The
principle has been illustrated in Perkins's steam-generater, as described in the Mechanics
Magazine, vol. xvii. This pipe for circulating the water should be of iron ; and it
would be an improvement to have the upper one square, or at least flat at top, about
nine inches wide, with projecting flanches of grating, as in fig. 282, so that when the
whole was laid down, painted of the colour of deal board, and completed, it might ap-
pear ornamental rather than otherwise. The grating on each side of the pipe, x x, in
fig. 282, it is almost needless to observe, is to admit heat from the under pipe. By having
the upper surface of the outgoing pipe no higher than the level of the floor of the
apartments, no interruption is offered to the opening of the different doors which pass
from the dwelling-rooms into the yard or to the wash-house. The low position of the
pipes will also heat the air of the rooms more effectually than if they were higher ; and,
154 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
so placed, they will be found convenient for warming the feet, and for keeping vessels of
water or of food hot. Those who are acquainted with the mode of heating hot-houses
by hot water will allow that there is not the slightest degree of difficulty either in erect-
ing such an apparatus, in the first instance ; or, when erected, in managing it, and keeping
it hi repair ; and further, that, by it, it would be easy, in the most severe weather of even
a Russian winter, to maintain a temperature of 60° and upwards in all the rooms on
both floors of this group of cottages.
307. Windows. We do not like latticed windows, because they are generally cold and
gloomy ; but as they are much cheaper than sashes hung with cords and pulleys, where
economy is a main object, recourse must either be had to them, or to iron windows.
Windows of cast iron, very fit for cottages, are now made, of different forms, and
very cheap. Fig. 283, which is one foot two inches and a half wide, and two feet four
inches high, and weighs 8 lbs., costs in London, in 1832, by retail, only 3*. 6d. Fig.
284 in the Gothic form, which is one foot four inches wide, and three feet 7 inches
high, weighs 23 lbs., and costs 6s. Fig- 285, two feet six inches square, weighs 19 lbs.,
284
285
283
—
b
v.
-XJii
I— — — — — ?l
ZZ „jr, <?:. i
and costs 6s. 6d. Fig. 286 is one foot seven inches wide, and three feet high, weighs
1 U lbs., and costs 5s- 6d. Fig. 287 is one foot seven inches wide, three feet four inches
high, weighs 20 lbs., and costs 6s. 6d. These windows have each, either ears in the
centre, as at a a, figs. 285, 286. 287, by which they may be suspended, so as to open out-
wards at bottom, and inwards at top, or the contrary ; or they have side-ears, to which
hinges may be riveted, as at b b, in figs. 283 and 284. Fig. 288 is a superior description ot
287
286
f
=
=
I
*
==
==
" "'I
V
-
1-7-
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
155
cottage window : it is two feet six inches broad, three feet high, weighs 34 lbs., and costs
15*. This sash is calculated for being fixed in the masonry, having in the centre a
square of six panes, which opens for the admission of air. As it requires no window
frame or hinges, it must be a very cheap substitute for the sash window. Mr. Laxton
appears to have chosen the cheapest of these casements ; but, where ornament or style is
thought worthy of attention, the Gothic or Grecian headed iron sashes, figs. 284 and
288, would still be found economical.
308. Gardens. We do not think it desirable that there should be a walk round this
building close under the windows, because it would have a tendency to destroy privacy.
We would rather give a small Hower-garden or grass-plot, to each house, separated by
low walls, and forming separate entrances through each plot, as shown in fig. 289. We
289
K3B3KKSE^TE!^«ar3OTK«3HaB3tt^
.S' E
would by all means raise a terrace, two steps high, and four feet broad, round the whole,
so as that the building might seem to stand elevated a little above the general surface;
-ind this would give the grass-plots or flower-gardens a slope outwards towards the walks
156 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
c c, &c. As the floors in the original plan, figs. 267 and 268, are already two steps
above the surrounding surface, this terrace will occasion no other expense than the
proper disposal of the earth which comes out of the foundations, the well, and the cess-
pools. The kitchen-gardens, d d, would remain in the same positions as in fig.
267. We have shown a walk, four feet broad, round each garden, under the hedge,
which may be of fruit trees, and we have placed the liquid manure tanks, e, in
a situation which will be central to all the gardens. The emptying of these tanks
should belong to each occupier in rotation. Nothing but useful plants and fruits will
require to be grown in the large gardens, d d, Sec, because the borders round the grass
plots will be sufficient for flowers and ornamental plants. In order that this building
may have a proper aspect, the diagonal
of the parallelogram should form a
north and south line, fig. 289, s n,
(see § 24) ; however much the line of
the front of the building may diverge
from the line of the road. All that
is necessary in this case is to include
the building and its gardens in a
parallelogram, one side of which coin-
cides with the line of the road, as in
fig. 290, in which/ is the public road,
and g is the building, in a parallelo-
gram of exactly the same size as in
fig. 289. Here it will be observed that
the north and south line is at right
angles with the public road.
309. Ornament. This building
might be decorated, by surrounding it
with a veranda, or a penthouse roof,
which would give to each dwelling a
covered walk during rain, or a hot
mid-day sun, or under which clothes,
herbs, or Indian corn, might be dried.
The roof of this veranda or penthouse
might be slated like that of the dwell-
ing ; and this would supersede the
necessity of covering the entrance
lobbies with slabs, as in fig. 267.
Suppose the whole building sur-
rounded by a penthouse roof;
brackets placed under the eaves of
the principal roof; Tuscan tiles used,
and the common chimney pots supplanted by ornamental ones ; the effect of the
291
"S^Ms-gS&f^^
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES
whole would not be unpleasing, fig.
291. Or if, instead of a veranda, Gothic
porches were added to each entrance, as
in the plan, fig. 292, and Gothic labels
were placed over the lower windows, a
Gothic character given to the doors, and
to the cast-iron grating, and Gothic
chimney pots added to the chimney tops,
something ornamental in a different style
would be produced, fig. 293.
292
t~
157
293
Design XLII — A Cottage of Three Rooms, in the Elizabethan Style.
310. Accommodation. From a porch, a, there are two entrances; one to a kitchen,
b, with two light closets, c, d; and the other to a parlour, e, and a bed-room, f, with a
closet, g. No out of door conveniences are shown ; and they must therefore be sup-
posed to be placed in a yard, at a short distance from the dwelling.
311. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of stone, and the roof covered with
grey slates. The openings of the windows are shown with plain architraves or facings ;
the sashes are modern, and hung with 294
weights and pulleys. The porch is
supported by a wooden column, which
rests upon a square stone plinth, and
has a plain capital. The chimney
pots may be formed of cement, agree-
ably to fig. 294. The platform or
terrace may either be finished with
turf and gravel, or paved, as in
Design XXXII., as may be most
convenient in the given situation.
312. General Estimate. Cubic con-
tents, 13,615 feet, at 6d. per foot,
£340:7s.:6d. ; a.t4d., £226 :18s.: 4rf.;
at 3d., £170 : 3s. : 9d.
313. Remarks. This is evidently
an ornamental cottage, and certainly
possesses some characteristics of the
Elizabethan style. Were a cellar
floor added, and the stair to it made
in the closets c and g, the accom-
modation and convenience would be
greatly increased ; a small stair might
be continued from the same situation
to the roof, the space in which, as exhibited by the section, might be applied to various
useful purposes. A garret, where there is a sufficient nun! ei ol' openings for ventilation
H95
sz
,„±;
h
158 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTLRE.
may always be made use of in the winter season for drying clothes, and in summer for
drying green herbs, or seeds in the pod. In the larger houses in many parts of France,
and in both large houses and cottages in most parts of Germany, clothes are always
dried in the garrets. A decided improvement to this cottage would be an alteration
in the position of the kitchen fireplace ; by which means, by having a cast-iron back
to it, it might be made to heat both the bed-room, f, and the parlour, e ; either, or both,
at pleasure. We do not think this mode so effectual as that by a flue under the
floor, which, if a cellar story were added to this cottage, might be most conveniently
adopted ; but as it may be useful in the case of cottages with boarded floors, or with
earthen or paved floors, so low, or otherwise so circumstanced, as that flues cannot be
made in them, we shall show how the alteration may be made.
314. Healing from, the Back of the Kitchen Fire. Suppose the fireplace of b, in
Design XLII., to have a cast-iron back, three feet square, and that six inches of each
end are built into the brickwork, as athh, in fig. 295, then it is evident that whenever
there was a good fire at i, a great portion of heat would
be communicated to the space behind o ; and that this heat
might either be allowed to escape freely into both rooms,
k and I, or confined by two doors, m and n (which may
be wood), so as to admit the whole of the heat to either
room at pleasure. By having a central door or movable
partition in the situation of the dotted line marked o, the
heat may either be equally divided between the two rooms,
or half the heat may be admitted to one room, and none
to the other, &c. By enlarging the size of the enclosure
behind the cast-iron back, and by having an opening at
the bottom of the doors, and another at the top, connected
witli an air flue in the wall, clothes may be dried in this
closet with the greatest rapidity, and with very little labour.
To increase the quantity of heat produced from these
plates, when clothes are to be dried, or on other occasions
when an extra-quantity of heat may be desirable, it is only
necessary to place a plate of sheet iron, or a large slate, or even a well-seasoned board,
at the back of the cast-iron plate, and separated from it about one inch ; the plate
being raised from the floor at the bottom, so as to leave
a vacuity of half an inch, and another vacuity of the same
dimensions should be left at the top, as represented in the
section through both plates, fig. 296. The use of this
additional plate is to confine the heating power or radiation
of the cast-iron plate p, in fig. 296, and thus create a current
in the vacuity q, on the same principle that water is boiled
with greater rapidity in one of Perkins's double-bottomed
boilers than in a common kettle. It must not be forgotten,
however, that the additional quantity of heat procured by
this means for the hot-air closet will increase the consumption
of fuel in the kitchen fire ; and also tend, by abstracting
heat, to render the consumption of the fuel used there imperfect ; but these are minor
evils, compared with the saving of labour and the comfort which the judicious use of
these cast-iron plates is calculated to afford. These plates, which are common in the
north of France, have been introduced in the cottages on the estate of Closeburn, in
Dumfriesshire, by its enlightened and benevolent proprietor, J. C. Stuart Menteath,
Esq., who, having observed them in use on the Continent some years ago, immediately
adopted them on his return home, with a degree of success altogether equal to his
expectations and wishes.
296
Design XLIII. — A Cottage of Three Rooms, with Back Kitchen, Coio-House, and othe
Conveniences.
315. Accommodation. The plan exhibits an entrance porch, which serves also as a
lobby, a; with one door opening to a kitchen, b ; a back kitchen, r; and kitchen closet,
f; another door opening to a bed-room, e, and bed-closet, g; and a third to a parlour,
tl. In a lean-to behind is an open shed, from which is an entrance to the dairy, k ; and
in the same lean-to there are a privy, h ; pigsty or dust-hole, i ; and cow-house, or root-
cellar, /. There is a terrace shown round the building; but if the cow-house and pig-
sty are used as such, then the terrace may be limited to three sides, and the fourth
enclosed as a yard. This is a very commodious and convenient dwelling, and would not
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 159
XLII.
Ft. LXJ-i I I I '■ l
100 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
XLIII.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
101
be expensive or difficult to execute, either in earth or of rubble-stone. The parlour, </,
might be very readily heated from the fireplace of the kitchen, b, by means of a cast-
iron plate, as described § 314. The open shed behind will be found useful for various
purposes, as well as being a passage of communication to the dairy, and having a
place for fuel and lumber at the opposite end.
316. An elegant improvement would be, to remove the pigsty and the cow-house
farther from the dwelling, and connect them by a covered way open at both sides, as in
fig. 297, in which m is the dairy ; n, the cow-house ; o, the pantry ; p, the water-closet
297
298
for females; q, that for males; and r, the passage which connects this wing with the
house ; s, a wicket gate, separating the yard from the passage, and from the platform on
which the house stands ; t, the yard ; u u, tank for liquid manure and dung-pit ; v v,
pigsties ; w w, inclined planes to the platform ; and x x, grass-plots, which in some
situations may be varied with flower-beds. It will be observed, at y, that we have
altered the position of the steps to the terrace, and placed an open porch over the
entrance. One advantage of this arrangement would be, that the ten-ace might be con-
tinued completely round the house ; and, if it were thought desirable, as we undoubtedly
tliink it would, the eaves might be made to project three feet, which would give a
dry walk for infirm persons, or children, during rain.
317. Construction. The walls may be of earth; and, if it is found desirable, the
whole of the floors may be heated from
a flue from under the boiler, in the back
kitchen, c ; which, in this case, must have
the space where the boiler is placed sunk
three feet below the general level. The
windows are shown with Gothic labels,
and the door is ledged with ornamental
hinges (fig. 298), on a scale of three
fourths of an inch to a foot. The gable
end is finished with a barge-board (fig.
299), to a scale of three eighths of an inch
to a foot, but without a pendant or a pin-
nacle.
318. General Estimate- Cubic contents, 15,232 feet, at 6d. per foot, £380 : 16< ; at
4c/., £253 : 17s. : 4d. ; and at 3d., i.190 : 18s.
162 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
319. Expression. Though we like the arrangement of this building in the interior,
yet we by no means approve of the external expression. The projection of the roof at
the eaves, which is here two feet, does not belong to the Gothic style ; and to place
299 labels over windows immediately
under a far-projecting roof, is,
in point of use, superfluous ; since
the original intention of labels
was to throw oft" the rain from the
windows, which is here already
done by the eaves. The pitch of
the roof is much too low for the
Gothic or old English cottage,
and is by no means suited for
the ornamental barge-boards at
the gable ends, which are never
seen but against the ends of steep
roofs. The windows ought to be
of more lofty proportions, more
especially as it appears by the
section that they might be carried
at least one foot higher ; and, if
they were lowered one foot, the
window shelf would not be too low
for use. The chimney tops rise
out of the roof without any preparation, which is aways objectionable ; and we do not
think the position of the steps to the terrace particularly fortunate. If we were to alter
the ground plan, as in fig. 297, a very commodious and convenient cottage would be
produced, and the elevation might then either be in the Italian, or modern style, as in
fig. 300, or in the Gothic or old English manner, as in fig. 301.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
1 68
Design XLIV. — A Cottage of Three Rooms and a Rack Kitchen on the Ground Floor,
with various ( 'onvenienzes.
320. Accommodation. In the ground plan may be seen an entrance lobby, a;
kitchen, b ; bed-room, c, ; parlour, d ; closets, e and/; back kitchen, « ; dairy or pantry,
h ; pigsty or dusthole, i ; privy, k; and cow-house or root-cellar, /.
321. Construction- The walls may be of brick or stone; the copings and finishings
to the walls, windows, and chimney tops, to be of the latter material, or of Roman
cement. The chimney head cornice may be finished, as in fig. 30_', to a scale of one
inch and a half to a foot. The designer of this
cottage recommends the roof to be covered with painted
pantiles ; the windows to be divided into three parts
by two mullions, and each compartment to have one
iron frame filled in with latticework. The surrounding
terrace appears by the section to be formed of earth, and
the floors seem to be paved.
322. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 12,330 feet,
at 6d. per foot, £308 : 5s. ; at 4d., £205 : 10s. ; and at
3d., £154: 2*. : 6d.
323. Remarks. The accommodations of this cottage
are obtained at more than ordinary expense, on account
of the numerous projections in the ground plan, and the
consequent angles, hips, and valleys, in the roof. The
style is somewhat Elizabethan ; but it is hardly justifi-
able to raise the two pediments over the entrance
door and right-hand window ; when, according to the
section, there can be no use whatever made of the roof. It will also be observed by the
section, that the doors, even of the dairy and back kitchen, are six-paneled, which is
not very consistent with the entrance door, that being only ledged. While there is this
attention paid to the style of the doors in the interior, no cornices to the rooms are shown,
nor any shelf to the kitchen chimney. In short, not to waste criticism on a design
scarcely worthy of it, though there is something of style in the elevation, and of accom-
modation in the plan, yet the composition, taken as a whole, is not such as to be held up
as an example for imitation, but rather as a beacon to be avoided.
Design XLV. — A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with Back Kitchen, and other Conveniences.
324. Accommodation. From the entrance passage, a, a door opens to the kitchen, b,
which is connected with the back kitchen, c, on the one hand, and with the bed-room, d,
on the other. There is a parlour, e, and another bed-room, f, with a closet, g: and, in a
lean-to, we have a cow-house or root-cellar, h ; pigsty, i; and privy, k. Should the cow-
house and pigsty be occupied as such, then it would be necessary to have a yard joined
to that side of the house, and to alter the slope of the platform within it, as in similar
cases. Some use may be made of the roof by a trapdoor in the ceiling of the kitchen,
and the whole may be heated from a fireplace in the back kitchen.
325. Construction. The walls may be of brick or stone ; and the panels, shown in
the elevation, either executed in the brickwork or formed in cement. The roof is low
in pitch, and it is proposed to cover it with slates. The
chimney stack is large, containing four vents or flues; it
has a sunk panel in the lower part, which, with the cornice
at its termination, will be understood by the vertical section
fig. 303, on a scale of half an inch to a foot. The section
fig. 304, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, shows the
projecting frieze, under the eaves of the roof, which is
supported by the paneled pilasters. The door is paneled,
and the windows are in the modern style, with sashes hung
by lines, weights, and pulleys, &c.
326. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 13,700 feet, at
6d. per foot, £342 : 10s. ; at Ad, £228 : 6s. : 8d. ; and at
3d., £171 : 5s.
327. Remarks. There is a simplicity and grandeur in
the elevation of this cottage, which raises it above the cha-
racter of a dwelling of the humblest class. The massive
chimney stack corresponds well with the simplicity of the
roof; the effect of which is supported by the smaller, but
similarly formed, roofs of the projections at the ends. The
paneled pillars or pilasters, with the cornice over them, have
J
?
1 04
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
s -A. -"V^. v*"* ^^
a massive and architectural effect, forming a very complete system of vertical and hori-
zontal bond or chain work, as the French
term it ; and they are supported and har-
monised by the horizontal panels in the
chimney stack. Where the perfection of
architectural expression is aimed at, all
walls should be built either on the prin-
ciple of vertical and horizontal bond, by
projecting piers and horizontal bands; or,
on that of squared stones or bricks, with
or without piers and bands. The preten-
sions of a wall to strength would thus, at
all times, be obvious at a single glance.
By altering the destination of some of the
parts of the ground-plan, this building
might be rendered fit for the habitation of
what is called a genteel family. Thus,
h and t might be joined in one, and form
a small bed-room or book-room, to the
parlour, e ; and /(, in like manner, might
be made a bed-room, or a dressing-room,
connected with d. The appendages, h, i, k,
might be got in a separate building, con-
nected by a lattice-roofed arcade, covered
with ivy, from the door of c.
Design XL VI. — A Cottage Dwelling, with Four Rooms, with a Back Kitchen, Cellar, and
other Conveniences.
328. The accommodations of this dwelling are, as usual, a kitchen, a, with closet under
the stair, h ; back kitchen, b ; parlour, c ; bed-room d ; cellar, e ; dusthole, or place for
fuel,y"; and privy, g I there is a bed-room over the kitchen ; and two useful garrets, one
over c, e,f, and the other over b, d, g, which may be lighted from the ends. The
apartment e may, in this, as in most of the other Designs, be used either as a cellar or
a cow-house, or a place for keeping fuel and lumber ; or as a receptacle for potatoes
and other roots, or whatever may be most desirable in the given locality. We are of
opinion that in most parts of Britain it will not be found profitable for the labourer to
keep a single cow ; but we are aware that in most parts of Scotland and Ireland, as well
as in the north of France, the cottager never thinks himself comfortable without one.
We are aware, also, that there are objections to having a cow-house and pigsty too close
to a dwelling ; but it will be recollected that much depends on the manner in which these
animals are kept ; and that, by disposing of the liquid part of the manure in the manner
we have directed, and having the door of the cow-house so far apart from the door of the
house as we have always shown it, the practical inconvenience would not be felt. We
think the apartment for a cow ought to be added to all cottages not having a cellar, be-
cause, if not used for the former purpose, it may be applied to the latter; and a cellar is
almost every where a great source of comfort to the cottager.
329. Construction. The paneled piers may be built of stone in courses, or of
brick ; or they may be framed of wood, and filled in with brick, and covered with cement.
The same may be observed as to the architrave which rests on these piers or pilasters, and
supports the roof. The interspaces between the pilasters may be formed of pis^, of
brick or clay nogging, of rubble stone, of pebbles, of flint, or, in short, of any material
which will support its own weight, and be of sufficient thickness to keep out the weather,
and maintain a steady temperature ; for the weight of the roof in this Design, and in
Design XLV., is supposed to be carried by the piers. As a good deal of the beauty of
this, and indeed of most designs for cottages showing pilasters, depends on the materials
with which the panels or cementitious part of the wall is filled up, we shall here introduce
a few remarks on the materials for walls, with a view of directing the reader's attention
to the subject.
330. Materials for Walls. The design, the style, the accompaniments, and all other
circumstances, being the same, the effect of the walls of a cottage being of squared stone, of
rubble stone, of red, yellow, or white bricks, of flints, of pebbles, of mud, or of boards,
will be very different; and more so to the ordinary spectator than to the artist, or to the
eye accustomed to study the effect of forms, shades, lines, and colours, in some measure,
independently of materials. The nature of the material, therefore, of which the walls of
a cottage are built, is a fertile source of variety, where several cottages are to be built on
the same estate ; or where a village is to be formed, in which variety of character in the
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. L65
XLIV.
1(50 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
XLV.
ftjw' .-.'A V -<j£' ■', , A ' ' ■*■ ^
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 1 (>7
buildings is an object. As a general principle, it may be affirmed that the ma-
terials of the walls of a cottage ought always to be such as are, or may be, furnished by
the soil or vicinity where it is placed. In this point of view, mud, pis6, brick, and timber
are the most universal materials for cottage walls ; and, next to these, small land stones, so
far broken or squared as to incorporate in a wall built either on the bond or on the cemen-
titious principle of construction. Among the land stones of a country are included the
shale, scales, or shivery stone, of some districts, and the pebbles and flints of others. We
shall here confine ourselves to giving short directions for forming a flint wall; and we
shall take them from the Landscape Architecture of Italy, by Gilbert Laing Meason. Be-
fore we give this quotation, however, we wish particularly to impress on the minds of
our readers the necessity of having coignes and other supports of the roof, which shall act
on the principle of independent strength, in all cases where the walls are to be formed of
pise, mud, pebbles, flint, or, in short, of any material, the strength of which depends upon
the cementitious principle ; that is, on the plasticity, when used, of a part of the materials.
This Design and the preceding one are examples of this mode of construction, and these
remarks are introduced here incidentally ; but in the systematic part of our work the sub-
ject will be treated in detail, and it will then appear to be one of very great importance,
though very little understood.
331. Flint Walls. " In the chalk countries of England, why may we not renew the
flint-built walls of our ancestors, seeing that the Roman circus at Toulouse has endured
so long? Build uj> the flints in frames, and pour cement into the interstices ; the found-
ation should be on brick arches ; and the cement employed may be composed of tho-
roughly burnt chalk, slacked with water, to reduce it to the finest dry powder; and then
sifted, and added to two parts of rough sharp sand, with small sharp gravel stones. The
whole should be mixed together dry, and then a sufficient quantity of water should he
poured upon it to make it into a liquid paste, which should be used immediately. The
slacking of the lime, the mixture, and the application to the walling, should follow one
another without delay. A quantity of the sand and powdered lime ought to be at hand
to throw into the moulds, in case the mortar should appear too thin. By such manage-
ment this cement requires not age to harden it. On examination of the oldest parts of
the ancient castle at Hastings, we are satisfied that the mortar employed was so formed,
and thrown, in a very liquid state, into the centre of the thickest parts of the wall.
Flint-built walls would produce an excellent effect in irregular buildings ; for the rough-
ness of the surface, in towers, gives the impression of strength and stability."
305
168
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
332. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 12,563 feet, at 6d. per foot, £3 14 : Is. 6 J. ;
at 4d., ,£209 : 7s. : M. ; and at '3d., £157 : 0s. : 9d.
333. Remarks. The arrangement of the plan of this cottage is not favourable to
economy in its execution, from the greater length than breadth of the body of tlie build-
ing, from the breaks and recesses in the walls, and from the raised part of the roof. All
these deviations from the cube, which, it will be recollected, is the perfect form, increase
the expense in proportion to the accommodation afforded. There can be no doubt,
however, that this would be a comfortable building, because the heated air from the
kitchen, a, would always keep the bed-room over it warm ; and the tire both of the
kitchen and the back kitchen might, by very little contrivance, render a fire at all times
unnecessary in the room d, which might, according to circumstances, be made a shop or
a parlour. Were it desirable to enlarge this dwelling, it might be done with great effect,
by opening the door from a, as in fig. 3 ).">, in which i is the additional room ; It, a
small court-yard, containing the pigsty, /, and liquid manure tanks, m ; the apartment ,•,
in Design XLVI., being considered in this ground plan as a cow-house. We have shown
a walk, a n, surrounding this cottage, which leaves between it and the slope of the plat-
form a border of an irregular width, o o, &c, which may either be covered with turf, or
with shrubs, flowers, and two or three trees. Like Design XI* V., this building, present-
ing a simple outline against the sky, is well adapted for a situation where it would be
backed by a broken outline of wood. Having no windows in the ends, it is also better
adapted for being viewed in front only, or chiefly, than for being seen on all sides.
Design XLVI I. — Two Cottages for Country Labourers, under One Roof, ivith Four
Rooms in each, Back Kitchen, Pigsty, and other Conveniences.
334. Accommodation. Each of these dwellings contains an entrance lobby, a ;
kitchen, b ; back kitchen, c; parlour or best bed-room, d ; staircase, e ; dairy, f; place
for fuel, g ; cow-house, /; ; privy, i ; and pigsty, Je. The chamber floor of each house
contains a bed room, I, with a landing, m, from the staircase, n ; and another bed-room, o.
We have not shown the yard which would be necessary to the cow-house and pigsty,
as we think it more probable that these appendages will be applied to other purposes.
335. Construction. The walls may be of stone ; but, as they exhibit few breaks or
angles, they might be very advantageously built hollow, with bricks on edge, in Dearn's
manner. In a country where fuel is abundant, we should recommend the floors of the
kitchen and parlour to be of boards ; but where fuel is scarce and dear, or chiefly wood,
we should prefer having the floors paved, in order that they may be heated by a flue from
the back kitchen. Or, a flue may be made above the floor, so as to form a bench,»in the
Chinese manner (Mech- Mag., vol. iv. p. 362.) ; in several returns one over another, so
as to form a stove, in the German manner; or in one of the partitions, as in the flued
walls of gardens. Having recommended Dearn's mode of hollow walls as applicable
to this building, we shall here proceed to describe it.
336. Deanis Method of building hollow Brick Walls. The manner of bonding the work
is shown in fig. 306, which is an elevation and section of part of a wall. " The three
306
1
1
1
J
< 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 .
lower courses, a, the upper one of which is proposed to be level with the floor, are in-
tended as a footing to the superstructure, and are laid in what is called the old English
manner, consisting of alternate courses of headers and stretchers. The next course
above is a stretching course on edge, ;;, and the backing course is like it, leaving an in-
terval between of the width of half a brick ; these are then covered with a heading
course, r, laid flat ; and the same system is pursued until the whole height required be
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 169
XLVI.
170 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
XI. VII.
'
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
171
—
■ —
307
8
1
1
| ' 1
1 ; ;
1 | j
! 1 1 1
S ! |
III 1 1
attained. Fig. 307 is a plan taken on the upper course of the footing, showing the man-
ner of bonding the angles. The dotted
lines denote the course above, of heading
bricks laid flat. The two bricks on edge
marked s s, at the angle, will be re-
versed in each other course. Fig. 308
displays the manner of introducing a
girder, t, into walls thus constructed.
To support the stress of the girder, the
intervals in the walls below it, u u, are
filled in solid with brickbats from the
footing to the course on which the girder,
/, rests, by which means a solid pier is
formed, nine inches wide. In the course
on which the girder lies, it is proposed
to introduce a piece of timber, v, for it
to rest on, nine inches long, four inches
wide, and two inches and a half thick.
Mortises for the joists are shown in the
girder at w w. Fig. 309 shows the
elevation of part of a building of this
kind, in which a doorcase and a window-frame are introduced : these are proposed to be
of the same scantling as usual ;
viz., window-frames, two inches 30g
and a half by two inches and a
half, and door-cases four inches
by three inches ; but in order to
conceal the hollows in the wall,
it will be necessary to tack in a
fillet in the front or back of each
window and door-case. In order
to secure the frames in the wall,
a piece of inch stuff, four inches
square, may be attached to them
at x x, by screws ; the heads of
the screws to be on the outer side,
that the frames may be taken out
at any time, if found necessary,
without injury to the brickwork.
To take the weight from the
heads of these frames, a lintel,
four inches square, may he placed
within the brick on edge course,
marked y y, extending nine
inches beyond the opening on each side.
Ill
II, 1 ' n;
S
K~r±
309
.11 ) I
11 11 i"
I I 'I I I V-T
T^ I ! ' I I ' , 1 '-H-
H3H — r~r~I
:::3±:
' , ' i
T^A^
r/2
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
337. Economy and other Advantages of J)carns holluw Walls. First, a saving of one third
will arise in the article of bricks ; that is, if 4500 would have been required to complete
a rod of reduced work in the common way, 3000 will be found sufficient according to
Mr. Dearn's method : secondly, only one half of the mortar will be requisite : thirdly, the
labour will not be greater than for common brickwork, though it will include rubbing
the bricks in the heading course to one length, in order to supersede the necessity of
rendering (plastering) within, and to leave the walls with a fair face ready for white-
washing or painting in oil :
fourthly, the hollows in the
walls will prove an antidote
to damp : and, fifthly, all
the expense of inside plaster-
ing will be saved.
338. DearrCs proposed Va-
riation in his Method of
building. Instead of the
brick on edge course, half
bricks may be used as stretch-
ers, figs. 310, 311, and 312;
the bricks being divided lon-
gitudinally, by drawing a
knife or other sharp instru-
ment about half through them, while in a state between wet and dry, and giving each a
slight stroke of the trowel on the reverse side, to separate the halves, after it has been
burned. This is done, partly because, if the halves were entirely separated before being
311
1 1L
31!
iw
burned, the bricks would (in Britain) be subjected to a double duty ; and partly because
the half bricks, thus treated, cost less, and are less liable to warp in the kiln, than if
moulded separately. A fair charge for removing bricks from the hack (the stock or
pile on which they are placed to be burnt), with the cutting and replacing them, is 5s.
per thousand. With respect to bonding the work, it may cither be carried up in the old
English manner (see § 336, and fig. 306) ; or in the Flemish manner : that is, having
an alternate header and stretcher in each course ; as the air may be made to circulate
freely through the walls in both ways. The bond at the angles is shown in fig. 310;
and fig. 311 shows the appearance of the work in elevation. Fig. 312 is a section in
which at a is shown the footing, and three courses above it, carried up solid, with a drain
brick, b, set in cement on a level with the supposed floor of the house. The use of this
course of draining bricks is to carry ofT any water that might at any time find its way
into the vacuity, when this mode of building is used in walls under the level of the
ground.
339. Dearn's Mode of building Fourteen- Inch hollow Walls. When the thickness of
the walls is proposed to be fourteen inches, the stretching course may be of whole bricks,
instead of half ones, and the heading course may be bricks fourteen inches long, which are
frequently made for the purpose of coping dwarf walls; but, should economy be the
main object, Mr. Dearn proposes to use half bricks for the stretchers, which, he says, will
produce a wall strong enough for all ordinary purposes ; and which will only require
some degree of management when used for underground walls, when it will be necessary
to take care that the lateral pressure of the soil outside does not throw the wall off the
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 173
XLVIII.
174 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
XLIX.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 175
perpendicular. Where there is any danger of this (which can only be when the foundations
are made in very soft ground, or where the outside walls of a house are to be earthed up,
in order to form a terrace), he directs the builder to extend the excavation, in those parts
where the evil is anticipated, to a distance of not less than three feet six inches beyond the
proposed face of the wall ; and, as the brickwork is carried up, to fill in the earth not
more than one foot thick at each time; to ram it well, and at each interval to introduce a
thin layer of green faggot-wood, with the butt-ends to the wall : the ground thus made
will unquestionably be found to settle ; but there can be little or no stress on the wall, the
lateral pressure being directed by the faggot-wood to the natural earth opposite." —
Hints on an improved Method of Building, &c, p. 36.)
340. Dearn's hollow Walls, applied to the healing of Green-houses, as hot Walls for ripen-
ing Fruit, and for warming Barracks, Workhouses, &c. Mr. Dearn thinks that conserv-
atories, vineries, &c, attached to houses thus constructed, may be heated without mud
expense, if placed against or near the back of the kitchen fireplaces. For this purpose
he proposes to form the back of the range of a plate of cast iron, not less than one inch
thick, open on the reverse to the hollow in the wall. From this plate such a degree of
heat would be diffused throughout the whole extent of the wall, as would probably be
sufficient to preserve the tenderest plants in the most inclement seasons, and to forward
vines as much as a common forcing-house. The heat might be regulated by an
opening in the wall externally, either above the conservatory, &c, or on the side, as the
case should require. Barracks, workhouses (commonly so called), houses of industry,
and manufactories, built according to Dearn's method, may also, he conceives, be warmed,
without any additional expense, and the heat so regulated as to answer the various pur-
poses required. (Ibid- p. 37.) In our Treatiseon Country Residences, 4to, 1816, we gave
a plan of a house, with a large conservatory and
vinery attached to it, both heated from the fires
of the living-apartments, the kitchen, and the
offices; and showed by the section, fig. 313, a
very efficient mode of abstracting heat from
cast-iron plates at the back of the different fire-
places. We have since put the plan in practice
(in 1817) ; and it is but candid to state that
we cannot recommend it either in point of
comfort or economy. In point of comfort, it
is objectionable, on account of the great quan-
tity of heat which is drawn off, and the con-
sequent necessity of attending constantly to
the fire ; and in regard to economy, the same
abstraction of heat renders the consumption
of the fuel, especially coal, very imperfect ; and,
consequently, more is required to produce any
given temperature, than would be case were the
back and sides of the fireplace either of fire-
brick only, or of iron plates with solid masonry
behind them. >
341. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 27,760 feet, at 6d. per foot, £694 ; at 4d. ,
£462: \:is. : 4d. ; at 3d., i.347.
342. Remarks. This Design is well calculated for being executed at a very moderate
expence. The span of the roof not being more than 14 feet, timber of very slight
scantling may be used both in the floors and in the roofing; and the walls, as we have
seen, need not be wider than nine inches, and may be built hollow, either in the manner
detailed, Chap. I. §25; or according to some one of the modes just described. If it were
desired to ornament such cottages, it might be readily done by placing chimney pots on
the stacks, by porches, or by a veranda ; in either case, adding a parapet to the terrace.
The ends of both cottages, being without windows, may be covered by vines or fruit trees ;
and a few China roses may be planted along the front.
Design XLVIII.
A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with a Back Kitchen, and other
Conveniences'
343. Accommodation. The ground-floor consists of a lobby and staircase, a ;
kitchen, b ; back kitchen, c ; dairy, d; parlour, e; bed-room, f; water-closet, g; and
cellar, h. The chamber floor contains two good bed-rooms, i and /, with the staircase, k,
between them.
344. Construction. Dwellings in this style are common in various parts of Glouces-
tershire, and other parts of England, where freestone is abundant, and easily worked.
1/0
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
They are generally covered with ;i grey slate, and the walls are in regular courses of
tooled stone. As the inner pail of these walls is generally built of rubble, they cannot
be considered strong ; unless, indeed, a mortar were used capable of becoming as hard
as the stone itself, or at least as Roman cement. To add to the strength of such walls,
what are callicl string comscs are introduced in them ; one of which may be observed in
the elevation of this Design, as a horizontal band between the ground floor and bed-room
windows. This hand, horizontal chain, or string course, is supposed to be formed of
stones of a sufficient width to cover the whole wall, and by that means to tie it together;
and this, if the rubble part of the wall lias been properly built, it will effectually do. If,
on the other hand, the rubble stones have been small, and have not had true bearings,
(that is, flat surfaces resting horizontally on each other), these string courses will add very-
little to the strength of the wall. When the reader comes to that part of our work which
treats upon the principles of construction, he will find, what will probably surprise him,
that the strongest, as well as the most durable, of all walls for dwelling-houses, are those
of well burnt brick, covered with Roman cement without and plaster within. Even
without these coverings, brick walls are stronger and more durable than stone walls, as
the latter are generally built. There can be no doubt that stone walls might be, and
sometimes are, so constructed for dwelling-houses, as to be stronger than common brick ;
but the expense, except under very peculiar circumstances, is too great for general use.
345. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 24,548 feet, at 6d. per foot, £613 : 14s. ; at
4>l., £409 : 2s. : Sd. ; and at 3d., £306 : 17s.
346. Remarks. The rooms in this Design are of a convenient size, and the dwelling
may be considered as suitable for a gardener or other upper servant. For effect, we
should have preferred three lights in each of the bays of the kitchen and parlour, and
no windows on the other side of these rooms. We say, that, for effect, we should have
done this ; but, for convenience and use, it is better that the light should enter on two
sides, because two parties may then work at two different windows. Respecting the
situation of this building, its contributor observes that it "should be placed on rather
an elevated spot, thickly covered with wood. When the outline of a building is so con-
structed that the various projections throw a mass of shade upon the receding parts, then
the object itself forms an independent picture ; but in buildings of a plain unbroken out-
line, such as this cottage, some assistance is wanted to produce the picturesque ; and
trees will be found efficient auxiliaries in accomplishing this effect."
Design XL1X. — A Dwelling suitable for a Lodge or Toll-house, having Three Rooms,
and other Conveniences.
347. Accommodation. The ground floor consists of an outer kitchen, which serves
also as an entrance-lobby, a ; large kitchen, or living-room, b; light bed-closet heated
from the back of the kitchen fire, c ; pantry, d ; closet for fuel, e ; cellar for roots, f;
privy, g ; dusthole, h ; stair to the bed-room floor, i ; and open shed, k. The chamber
story contains two bed-rooms, I in, and the landing of the staircase, n.
348. Construction. The walls be may of brick, and the roof covered with tiles or slate.
The cornice of the principal part of the building may contain a gutter cut in the stone,
similar to that shown in the section fig. 40, § 74, if that material should be abundant ;
otherwise, the cornice and gutter may be of wood, as shown in the section fig. 63,
§84.
349. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,315 feet, at 6d. per foot, £'282: 17s. ; at
4rf., £188 :11s.: lOrf. ; and at 3d., £141 : 8s. : 9rf.
350. Remarks. The expression of this dwelling seems to aim at something more than
a simple humble cottage, because it may be said to have a centre and two wings, like a
cottage villa, or like what in Scotland is called a minister's house ; yet there is no attempt
at architectural style, either in the general forms or the ornaments. We leave our
readers to contrive different modes of altering or adding to it, so as to make it more
attractive without, and more convenient within.
Design L. — A Cottage Dwelling of Four Rooms, with other Conveniences.
351. Accommodation. On the ground -floor there is an entrance and staircase, o;
parlour, b; bed-room, c; closet under the stairs, d; pantry, e; light bed-closet,y";
and kitchen, g. The wash-house, privy, and other conveniences, are supposed to be
in a separate building. The chamber floor contains a bed-room, /;, and two closets, i
and k.
352. Construction. All cottages having no cellar floor may have the walls built of
rammed earth, on a brick or stone foundation; though we would never recommend
earth where brick or stone can be afforded. The roof is shown with a considerable
projection at the eaves, and it is covered with Grecian tiles.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 177
L.
17& COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
LI.
JO ,' Q
I . . . ■ "
20
-J Ft.
v;^^r.».^\fW^^
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
179
314
353. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 15,704 feet, at 6d. per foot, £292 : 12j. ; at
4d., £261 : 14s. : M. ; and at 3d., £196 : 6s.
354. Remarks. The expression of this dwelling is agreeable, and the tiles give it some-
what the air of an Italian cottage. The windows, however, are modern, and the chimney
tops are such as are used in various manners. As picturesque effect appears to have been
studied in forming the Design of this cottage, we rather wonder that no porch was
placed over the door, which would have added much to its beauty. It is true, the far-
projecting roof will, in some measure, compensate for the want of this part of an
edifice ; but we do not think it ought ever to supersede it. It is curious to observe,
in the ground plan of this Design, the preference which the designer gives to irregular
beauty over that which is regular. Had his object been to produce a regular sym-
metrical building, he might have done so out of the same extent of walling, by adopting
the ground plan fig. 314. By this arrangement, f and g are greatly enlarged ; and a
commodious back kitchen, h, linen closet, j, and a porch, k, are added. The apartment,
c, will then become the kitchen (instead of g), and the pantry, e, and the back kitchen,
h, will open into it. The space over e,f, g, and i, when equally divided, will afford two
good bed-rooms in the chamber floor. The superficial surface of the ground occupied
by this improved plan Cfig. 314) is 1292 feet, while that of the original ground plan is
only 875 feet. This difference will,
of course, occasion an additional
surface of roofing ; but, as it is the
angles and breaks of a roof which
are the most expensive parts, the cost
will be very nearly the same ; the
improved plan approximating much
nearer to the form of a cube, and
requiring only a plain roof. The
lineal length of external walling, or
the girth of the building, is 135 feet
in both plans, and the internal walling
is but little increased in the improved
one. Thus, the second plan, though
containing so much more accommoda-
tion, would cost very little more than
the first; for though the cubic contents
of the building, according to the im-
proved plan, will be 17,664 feet, while £
those of the original Design were
only 15,704 feet; it must always be ^ a
remembered, by those who wish to make an estimate of the expense of, or to fix a
value upon, buildings measured in this manner, that the contents of the original Design
would require to be calculated at 5d. or 5id. per foot, while those of the Design fig. 314
from its nearer approximation to a cube, and the simplicity of its roof, need not be esti-
mated at more than Ad- or A\d. per foot. The elevation of a building constructed accord-
ing to the improved plan, would not be so picturesque as that of the original Design, but
we do not think that it would be less beautiful. And why would it be less picturesque ?
Because it would have less irregularity of form, of outline, and of light and shade ; and,
consequently, of that kind of beauty which is more particularly adapted for transferring
to paper, or to canvass : it would, therefore, not form so marked a character for the painter ;
in the same way as a plain honest man would not afford so good a study for a novelist,
or so interesting a subject for a biographer, as a man of irregular features, both of mind
and character. Let it be observed, however, that we do not object to the irregular
style of beauty, for those who can afford it : all that we mean to say is, that it is neither
so economical to erect, nor so easy to keep in repair, as the symmetrical style ; and that,
as we have frequently before stated, symmetry is the soul of Architecture.
Design LI. — A Cottage Dwelling, with Six Rooms and other Conveniences.
355. Accommodation. There is a good entrance porch, a, with two doors, the one to
be kept shut when the other is open, to protect the interior from the weather most likely
to penetrate into it. From this porch there is a door to a room, b, which might be
used as a workshop for a tailor or shoemaker, or other similar trades, in the country ;
as an infant school on a small scale ; as a shop ; or let off as a bed-room. There is a
kitchen, c, communicating with the bed-room, d; a back-kitchen, e; and an ante-room, f.
This ante-room may be used as a small green-house, or as a china closet, if the cottage
were occupied by what is called a genteel family ; or if it were used as a public house,
it would make an excellent bar ; or, for a private family in humble life, it might be a
180
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
child's bed-room, or a pantry. The parlour, g, communicates with the bed-room, h.
The privy and other conveniences arc supposed to be contained in a separate building
on the outside of the garden.
356. Construction. The walls are shown of a proper thickness, for being built of
earth, or of rubble stone, or of any description of cementitious wall without chainwork ;
that is, without what in carpentry are called ties and strutts. The roof may be covered
with slate, and finished, as in ug. 63, § 84.
357. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 16,848 feet, at 6d. per foot, £421 : 4s. ; at
4d., £280 : 16s. ; and at 3d., £210 : 12s.
S58. Remarks. This is an example of an irregular, and yet not picturesque
building, and of a good deal of accommodation without convenient arrangement. The
plan is irregular, from the projection of the two bays of the apartments y and g ; and
from the projection of d and h beyond the line of frontage of e ; but the regular pen-
tagonal sides of the bays, and their tame roofs, present nothing strikingly irregular in
the elevation. There is nothing irregular or picturesque in the roof, nor in the porch,
which occupies too large and important a portion of the main building for its use.
Bay windows are great additions to the cheerfulness of rooms when they have lights on
three sides, and this they always used to have in Britain, till the great increase of
window-duty, during the war with Bonaparte, rendered bay windows with three lights
too expensive for the middle classes, not to speak of the lower. Bays, with only one
light, as in the Design before us, are neither handsome without, nor cheerful within ;
and, in a cottage, the gain in point of room is by no means commensurate with the
expense. In point of expression, bay windows of three lights convey ideas of ancient
times ; because the forms of the windows, in that case, are different from what they are
when only one window is placed in the centre of each bay. In the Design before us, the
modern window in the bay
seems misplaced and in-
complete. However, we
have here the materials
for a good comfortable
dwelling. Let us suppose
the central bay, f, made
a central porch ; the bay
of g placed in the centre
of that side of the room ;
the porch, a, turned into
a pantry ; and the bed-
room, b, made to open
from the kitchen. We
shall then have the leading
features of a good plan,
fig. 315: and by adding
a place for fuel, i • a
privy, k ; and carrying out
the front wall of e, we shall have a dwelling fit for any person to reside in, all other cir-
cumstances, such as situation, aspect, dryness of floors, &c, being favourable. The
elevation, at very little expense, might be rendered handsome, fig. 316. No particular
316 U
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
181
description is given of the garden, as it may be laid out and cultivated in the same
manner as any of the gardens already described; as, for example, that of Design
XIX. § 170.
Design LI I. — Ideas for altering the Front of an old Cottage, at present in a dilapidated
State.
359. Present State, fig. 317. The contributor of this Design observes that fig. 317
is an unsightly cot-
tage, standing at the
extremity of a village,
and close to the gates
of a venerable man-
sion built in the reign
of James I., and
much admired both
for its antiquity, and
the elegant comfort
of its interior. He
says : — "As I have
the pleasure of being
occasionally useful to
my friend in some of
his plans for improve-
ments, he consulted me as to the way in which he might give the cottage a more agree-
able appearance ; and Isuggested the alteration shown in fig. 318, which may serve as an
example in what manner a cottage, with the inside sufficiently comfortable, may be altered,
so as to change an ugly outside, at little trouble and expense, to one that is picturesque
and pleasing. The house is convenient enough within, and has some very comfortable
rooms ; but as there is nothing in all this very remarkable, I will not trouble you with
the ground plan."
360. Improved State, fig- 318. "The object in the above alteration is, to break the
straight horizontal lines, and thus improve the appearance of a very ugly roof. This is
done by introducing a pediment, or gable, with barge boards over the centre window,
and by bringing the roof lower down at the eaves, so that the upper windows may be
let into it. The carcass of the house being a wooden frame filled in with clay nog-
ging and plaster, the wall of the additional gable is constructed in a similar manner.
By way of giving consequence to this dwelling, the style of the entrance door is im-
proved, and a common window changed into a bay one."
361. Remarks. The alterations are, no doubt, improvements; but there does not
appear a sufficient reason, on the principle of utility or accommodation, for the intro-
duction of the pediment or gable. If the window under it had been carried up half
way into it, this sufficient reason would have been given at once ; and no one, we think,
can deny, that even the appearance would have been improved. Architecture is a
reasoning art ; that is, it is an art in which nothing should be introduced for which there
is not a reason either real or apparent. A real reason is best ; but, when we have not
that, we should at least have its substitute. There is no reason in fig. 318, for the pedi-
ment, except that given by the author of the Design, which we hold in this case to be
insufficient.
182
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Design LIII. — A Cottage far a Village Tradesman.
362. Accommodation. This Design was made for a shoemaker, who wanted only
three rooms on a floor. It was intended to be a corner house; and to contain, on the
ground floor, fig. 319, a kitchen, with oven and boiler, a; parlour, b ; cellar, under
the stairs, c ; pantry,
d ; shop, e ; and ] |'
privy, f. If it were
desirable, a lean-to
back kitchenorwash-
house might be built
in the situation of g.
The chamber floor
contains three rooms.
Fig. 320 is the ele-
vation.
363. Construction.
The walls are sup-
posed to be built of
" brick and flints, in
alternate squares.
This mode of build-
ing with a mixture
of stone, brick, or
even chalk, with
flints, is common in
several counties in England, and has a very picturesque effect, either with the different
dnds of materials in alternate layers, or in squares, as in this Design. When chalk-
stone forms one of the materials used, the roof should always project a good way over
the walls, to protect them from the rain ; in which case, even if the chalk should be so
soft as to yield to the impression of the nail, it will last very many years. The roof
is thatched ; the gables have stone tablings (barge stones), and the summer stones are
cut in the form shown by /;, in fig. 321. Sometimes the tabling, i, is formed of brick,
but the summer stones are always required to be of stone. Figs. 322 and 323 are
sections of stone window mullions, such as are common in the neighbourhood of
Salisbury, and which are there considered very ornamental. Where stone is too expen-
sive, these mullions may be made of wood. Fig. 324 is a plan of the chimney tops."
364. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 12,336 feet, at 6d. per foot, i.J303 : 8s.;
Ht 4d., £205 : 12s. ; and at 3d., £157 : 14s.
'-'. Itemarks. The shoemaker, we are informed, "preferred being his own Archi-
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VAUIOUS STYLES. 183
321 S22
325
tect ; and erected a cottage of three rooms on a floor, fig. 325 ; and these all in a row.
His kitchen and common sitting-
room, k, is thus rendered a perfect
temple of the winds. There are a
door and window to the north, and
the same to the south ; besides
three other doors, making of doors
and windows no less than seven
in a room only fourteen feet square.
He also contrived to have the stairs
come down by the parlour fire-
place, / ; and two of the bed-rooms
above necessarily became passage rooms to the third. 1 mention this, to show how
little notion people of this class have of comfort in houses."
366. Criticism. When different kinds of materials are introduced into the walls of a
cottage, some principle of fitness, independent altogether of picturesque beauty, ought
to regulate the manner in which they are disposed. Where the specific gravity, hardness,
and tenacity of the materials are equal, they may yet differ in their size, and in their
form, or in the applicability of their surfaces. In this case, vertical bond in the form of
piers, and horizontal bond, in the form of lintels or string courses, ought to be con-
structed of the large and flat-surfaced materials ; while those of smaller size and less
regular shapes should be used to fill up the blank compartments so formed. In the
walls of a house composed of flints and chalks, greater strength will be produced by chalk
over chalk, and flint over flint, than either by the mixture of these, or by their position
in alternate layers, or squares. The picturesque beauty of such an arrangement will, we
think, be at least equal to that of fig. 320 ; while it will have that most satisfactory
beauty in addition, the beauty of fitness. In fig. 326 we have supposed the walls
built of the same materials as those of fig. 320 ; but we have disposed them agreeably
to what we consider the principles of architectural fitness, or, in other words, of sound
architectural construction. There was no occasion for having the window of the bed-
room over the parlour in the roof, when it might have been in the gable end ; and that
the fireplace is rather unfortunate in being placed in an outside wall. We should have
placed it against the stair, for the sake of the heat to the staircase, and the rooms above ;
though we acknowledge that, in point of appearance in the interior of the sitting-room,
it has a better effect where it has been put by our contributor. We believe that the
greater number of our readers will prefer the fireplace where it is for another reason,
and that is, having the chimney shaft as a termination to the gable end. This is good
and reasonable, when we look no farther than commonplace ideas of external effect ;
but when we look at it with the eye of improved reason, and reflect that all fireplaces
and flues in outside walls waste great part of their heat in the external atmosphere, and
besides often do not draw well, we discover a reason why it would have been more
beautiful, rising from some other part of the building, which might indicate that the flue
was in an internal wall. Thus it is that taste, to be correct, requires to be founded on reason.
1 84
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE
326
Design LI V Two Cottage Dwellings for Labourers, wider One Roof.
367. Accommodation. The larger dwelling, fit for a man with a large family, will
contain three rooms on a floor,
with a cellar under the stairs, and
a wood-house behind ; besides a
cow-house, pigsty, &c, in a small
farm-yard. The smaller dwelling
is intended for an old couple, and
contains only two rooms. The
details of the larger dwelling are
as follow : — a, the porch ; b,
the kitchen ; c, the back kitchen ;
d, the steps down to the cellar
under the stairs ; e, the dairy and
pantry ;f the wood-house ; g, the
pump ; /(, the hay-stack ; i, the
■wood-stack ; k, the privy ; I, the
cow-house; mm, two pigsties; and
n, the dung-pit. In the chamber
floor there are three bed-rooms,
over b, c, and e. The smaller
dwelling contains a kitchen, o,
with an oven on one side of the
fireplace, a closet on the other,
and a pantry under the stairs ; a
back kitchen, serving as a wash-
house, p ; a wood-house, q ; a
wood-stack in the yard, r ; privy,
s; pigsty, f, and dung-pit, u.
There is one bed-room, and an
apartment over p and q, in the
chamber floor.
368. Construction. The walls
of the ground floor are shown in the elevation, fig. 328, as built of stone, and the upper
part of the building of framed work ; the panels to be filled in with lath and mud
plaster, or with wattled work ; and, in whatever way done, plastered with lime mortar
outside. The roof is of thatch, and the chimneys of stone.
369. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 15,360 feet, at 6d. per foot, ,£384. ; at
4d., £256. : and at 3d., £192.
370. Remarks. The contributor of this Design offers the following observations
upon it : — " Double cottages have several advantages, especially in a scattered village.
Two cottages are built cheaper, if united, than if separate ; and the effect is often more
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
18.5
picturesque. Besides, it adds to the comfort of the poor, to have a neighbour close at
hand, in case of sickness ; and, in other respects, near neighbours may be mutually useful
to each other. For example : suppose the mother of a family living in the larger cottage
has occasion to go from home during the absence of her husband at his work, she may
leave the key and her younger children with the old woman in the next house. It also
facilitates attendance on divine worship, as the two families might alternately heat their
ovens on Sundays, and one of the women might remain at home, to take care of the
dinners for both houses, and have an eye to the gardens ; a very necessary precaution in
most English villages, particularly in the fruit season. Besides these obvious advantages,
there is a feeling of security and cheerfulness in having a near neighbour, especially to
an old couple, who must often stand in need of assistance. In closely built villages,
three cottages may occasionally be united ; but this number should never be exceeded ;
avoiding, above all things, that school of idleness, dirt, and wickedness, a continued
row of cottages : —
' That infected row, they call the street,'
as Crabbe happily expresses it ; in which are commonly found the bad habits of a
crowded city population ; and where one dirty, quarrelsome, gossiping woman gene-
rally annoys or contaminates all her neighbours. Not that rows of houses are necessarily
unpicturesque ; for, though modern rows are usually frightful, streets of contiguous
houses may be found in many old villages in England, which have an exceedingly
pleasing effect. The principal objections to rows are, indeed, the demoralising effect
they generally have upon the inhabitants, and the preference which almost all the well-
disposed poor give to a detached house, or to only one or two neighbours."
371. Criticism. We cordially approve of the reasons given for designing this double
cottage. The evils of streets, in the present state of our working population, are no
doubt great ; because the labouring classes have as yet no idea of co-operating together
either for enjoyment or advantage. If they had, as we shall hereafter show, the as-
semblage of houses in streets and squares to a certain extent, even in villages, would be
attended with very great advantages. In a country where fuel is abundant, or the winter
mild, as it generally is in Wiltshire (the county for which this cottage was designed), fires
will seldom require to be made in the bed-rooms, and a flue under the kitchen floor will not
be necessary. All the chimneys are well contrived to unite in one cluster of angular stacks ;
and this is judiciously placed in the interior, and not in the outside walls. The projection
of the framework of the upper part of the walls, over the stonework of the lower, is both
scientific and picturesque ; because it will preserve the windows from the rain, and
produce a striking horizontal line of shade across the elevation. Besides, when one
object is placed upon another, we are pleased to see it either projecting outwards, like
the capital of a column ; or inclining inwards, at a regular slope, like the sides of an
obelisk or pyramid. The source of the beauty lies in the evidence, which, in either case,
is afforded, of the exercise of improved design. We do not altogether like the porch,
which a stranger might mistake for some inferior appendage. A porch being, to a cer-
tain extent, a luxury, should, we think, be generally in a conspicuous style of art, com-
pared with the rest of the building. Perhaps, also, the oriel window is rather too insig-
nificant ; but this might easily be remedied, by raising it at top, and lowering it at bottom.
This done ; the porch altered ; and the whole placed on a platform, so as to keep the
interior perfectly dry ; the effect would be to us altogether satisfactory.
18G
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Design LV. — A Cottage of One Story, with Four Rooms, a Kitchen, Back Kitchen, and
other Conveniences.
372. Accommodation. There are a large lobby, a, and kitchen, b, with a closet
between ; bed-room, c ; parlour from the lobby, d ; three bed-rooms, e, f, and g ;
cow-house, cellar, or place for wood, h ; dairy, i; pantry, k ; and privy, /.
373. Construction. The walls, in such a building as the present, may be all formed
of mud ; because they have nothing more to carry than their own weight, and that of the
roof. The weight on them of the latter, which is thatched, is diminished on three sides
by the columns of the veranda, or, as the Romans would have called it, the portico. Such
a design is also particularly suitable for brick on edge walls ; and having already (§ 336)
explained Dearn's method of building such walls, we shall now describe a similar kind,
invented by Mr. Silverlock of Chichester, and practised by him in the erection of garden
walls, hot-houses, and cottages.
374. Silverlock's hollow walls are constructed of bricks set on edge, each course or layer
consisting of an alternate series of two bricks placed edgewise, and one laid across ; form-
ing a thickness of nine inches, and a series of cells, each cell nine inches in the length way
of the wall, four inches broad, and four inches and a half deep. The second course
being laid in the same way, but the position of the bricks alternating, or breaking joint,
with the first, the result will evidently be a hollow wall, with communicating vacuities of
the above-stated dimensions, equally distributed from the bottom to the top of the wall.
329
Fig. 329 shows the plan and elevation of such a wall, which differs only from the
hollow wall of Dearn (fig. 306.) in being carried up in Flemish instead of English
bond. At m is shown the manner in which piers may be built in such walls, so as
to project equally on both sides of the wall, with a view to the north and south walls
of gardens, both sides of which are equally valuable for training fruit trees. Fig. 330
shows how a pier may be built on one side of the wall only, with a view t >
the east and west walls of 330
gardens, the south sides
of which are chiefly valu-
able for fruit trees, and
to the walls of cottages,
which should be made
smooth in the inside ;
while, on the outside, the
piers, independently of
the strength which they
add to the walls, will form sources of architectural beauty. These walls have
been built by Mr. Silverlock in a number of places, as garden walls, to the height of
ten or twelve feet, and with very few piers. The saving is one brick in three ;
but the bricks and the mortar must be of the best quality. One great advantage of
I i . ■ I i I i L_L
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 18 7
LV.
188 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
LVI.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
189
these walls is, that they admit of being equally heated throughout, by a tube of hot water
or steam conducted along the interior, just above the surface of the ground. Several
cottages have been built with walls of this description, on the estate of Robert Donald,
Esq., near Woking, Surrey. It is evident that brick walls on the same plan might be
built of eighteen inches or two feet in width, or, indeed, of any width, by joining two
nine-inch hollow walls together, as in fig. 331, which, if a garden wall, might be heated
331
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on one side, without being heated on the other ; by carrying up the heading courses solid
from the bottom, as in fig. 332 ; or, better, with a brick on edge wall in the centre, as in
332
TtTTnT
fig. 333. A wall of this construction, with the bricks flat, would form one of the very
cheapest and best descriptions of walls for a fruit-garden. For a fourteen-inch wall
333
bricks might be made of that length, as proposed by Dearn ; and, for a wall two feet or
more in thickness, the interior might be entirely hollow, with cross walls every four or
five feet, as shown in GarcL Mag., vol. iv. p. 228. To save bricks in the cross walls,
and also to admit of the free transmission of heat from one division to another, they
might be built in what is called the pigeon hole manner, viz. each stretching course
having alternate vacancies, by leaving out every other brick, as in fig. 334.
334
190
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
375. General Estimate. Culm- contents, 29,348 feet, at Gd. per foot, £733: 14* ;
at 4</., £489: 2* : Sd. ; and at 3d., £366 : 17».
376. Remarks. The veranda in this Design being an object of luxury, or at least of
elegant enjoyment, the wooden columns ought to have had plinths and caps, and the
steps to the platform an air of more consequence conferred on them. However, the
general form of this building, being that of a cube, is good, and the idea of the veranda
on three sides is highly commendable.
Design LVI. — A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with other Conveniences, and a large Rustic
Portico.
377. Accommodation. The entrance is direct into the kitchen, o, from which there
is a passage, b, to the back kitchen, and to the cellar stairs ; staircase to the bed-room, c;
</ is the back kitchen, from which there is a pantry, I ; e is the parlour ; /, a bed-room,
or second parlour, in case this building should be made a public house, for which the
large space under the portico is well adapted; g may be a place for fuel ; h, a dusthole;
i, a place for ducks or other poultry; and k, a privy. On the chamber floor there are
a good bed-room, m, and a closet, n.
378. Construction- The walls are shown of sufficient thickness to admit of their
being built of rammed earth; but we are informed, by the contributor of this Design,
that it is erected as a small public house by the roadside in South Wales; and that
the walls are actually formed of the land- 335
stones of the country, thickly coated over with
plaster within, and covered with rough-cast
without. The columns which support the
portico are of native larch fir, with the bark on,
joined to the roof in the manner shown in the
section, fig. 3:i5, to a scale of half an inch to a
foot. The roof is first thatched with straw,
and then finished with a coating of heath over
it. The ground floor of the house is raised
about eighteen inches above the surface, and the
floor of the portico about one foot above the
surface. We have shown the ground on which
the portico stands, higher in the Design, think-
ing one foot insufficient, either for the purpose
of dryness, or of dignity of effect.
379. General Estimate. Cubic contents,
14,798 feet, at 6d. per foot, £369: 19s. ; at
4d., £246 : 12s. : 8rf. ; and at 3d., £184 :
1 9s. : 6d.
380. Remarks. There is comfort in this building, and also economy. The three
cellars under a, e, and^ (which have no light, or means of ventilation, in order to lessen
the risk of variations of temperature,) are well adapted for a public house, as is the
pantry or store-room from the back kitchen. The presses shown in each of the rooms
are also very suitable for a public house, being well adapted for holding glasses and
china or earthenware. The apartment g, though used for keeping fuel, may be very
properly substituted for a stable ; though this public house does not belong to the class
of occupiers who receive travellers on horseback, for the night. It is needless to add
that the great width of the portico affords an excellent protection to guests enjoying
themselves in the open air. Having said thus much of the fitness of this building, with
reference to its use, we shall next consider its fitness, as expressive of architectural design.
It is an acknowledged principle, that whatever idea obviously pervades a building, taken
as a whole, ought also to pervade all its separate parts. If the idea of the whole were
that of an irregular mass, the parts ought to be irregular also ; if the whole were regular,
or symmetrical, so ought to be the parts, and not only the parts, but their details. We
do not say that these principles ought to be enforced in every building, whether or not
they be consistent with comfort or convenience ; but we do assert that it is the main
business of the Architect to accomplish this object, whenever it can be done without
sacrificing the higher principle of purpose ; and that it is his duty to aim at this in the
very smallest and most humble buildings, as well as in the larger and more important
ones. Now, on looking at the ground plan of the Design before us, we shall find that
the entrance front and the back front are regular and symmetrical in their general
[passes, and yet irregular in the details of these masses; that is, in the disposition of
the doors and windows. In the apartment a, for example, the entrance door is on one
side, and a window on the other; whereas, to preserve the principle of symmetry, the
door ought to have been in the centre, with a window on each side : and this arrange-
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 191
merit would have been more suitable for a room, the windows of which must necessarily
be darkened by having so wide a portico over them. Again, the doors from this room
into e and f ought to have been opposite to each other, in order to maintain the same
principle. There ought to have been another press, both in e andy"; and the fireplaces
ought to have been exactly opposite the windows in both of them. In the back kitchen,
the press door ought to have been exactly opposite the door of the pantry ; the outer
door to have been in the centre ; and the window, now there, in the position of the door.
These alterations would render every thing regular, but the two small lean-tos contain-
ing g, h, i, and k. The doors of g and k, at present, answer to each other. Remove
the partition between i and A ; reverse the positions of the window and door of g ; let
the door of k be in one end ; turn its present door into a window, to correspond with
that of g; build up the door of i, and take down the partition between it and h, thus
forming a dusthole and place for poultry in one apartment ; and the thing is done, with
a door less, and only one additional window, and without the slightest interference with
the use of any one apartment. As minor faults in this Design, we object to the columns
(even though they are nothing more than the trunks of trees with the bark on), for not
having stone plinths and wooden caps. The former are of real use, in preventing the
ends of the wooden columns from rotting, and of apparent use, by seeming to take a
larger bearing on the surface of the soil ; though this is rendered unnecessary, in reality,
by sunk stones, or masonry, brought up as high as the surface. The wooden caps always
give, or seem to give, a more secure bearing for the wall-plate or architrave, which is
placed over them, besides protecting the end of the wooden column from the weather.
Both the caps and the plinths have also the great advantage of calling forth the associ-
ations which belong to them, as parts of the orders of Grecian Architecture. It ought to
be the maxim of all architectural improvers, never to neglect an established association,
when it can be made use of without interfering with the principles of fitness and ex-
pression of purpose.
Design LVII. — Two Dwellings under One Roof, Two Stories high, with Four Rooms m
each, and other Conveniences-
381. Accommodation. Each dwelling contains an entrance, and stair to the bed-room
floor, a; kitchen, b, with closet under the stairs; small bed-room, or parlour, c; pantry,
d; back kitchen, e ; place for fuel, f; dusthole, g; privy, h ; and root-cellar, i. The
chamber floor contains two bed-rooms, k and I, with a closet to each, m and n; and a
staircase, o.
382. Construction. The most suitable material for a building having so many in-
ternal walls is brick. The outside walls may be eleven-inch work, with a vacuity
between, as shown in fig. 7, § 25 ; and all the others may be brick nogging on edge, with
the exception of the party walls, which may be brick nogging flat, and of the chimney
stacks, which should be solid brickwork. The roof is shown covered with semi-
cylindrical tiles, which, though they are much used in Italy, and commonly called Italian,
are, in reality, Moorish, and, as we are informed, the oldest description of tiles in the
world. In Barbary, they are bedded in clay, laid on reeds.
383. General Estimate. Cubic contents of both houses, 22,050 feet, at 6d. per foot,
£551 : 5s. ; at 4d., £367 : 10s. ; and at 3d., £275 : 12s. : 6rf.
384. Remarks. We have engraved this Design as it was sent to us ; because, though
it is full of faults, it contains the germs of great beauty and interest ; and because it
affords a very good example of the kind of impracticable Designs which are frequently
made by picturesque architects or amateurs. The plan is so far commendable, that all
the apartments and appendages are obtained under one roof, and that the general form
is symmetrical ; but, in the ground plan, it is bad to have a place like f, without the
means of either light or ventilation. It would be much better to divide the contents
of that apartment between g and c, which could easily be done, by making the division
h narrower, and that of i shorter. The division g would then serve its own purpose,
and that of f also. The two false windows shown in the plan of the ground floor, and
the two in the plan of the bed-room floor, which are seen in the elevations of both, are
uncalled for, and add to the expense, without being requisite to carry on any idea of
symmetry. The small windows shown in the ground plan, close to the staircase, are, or
ought to be, intended for lighting the closets under them ; but in the elevation they are
placed much too high for that purpose, being even higher than the windows of the apart-
ments b and c. Placed where they are, they could only light the staircase, which is
superfluous, as this is already done in an ample manner by the broad mullioned windows
over them. The boilers in the back kitchen are also badly placed, because they are
against an outside wall, instead of an inner one ; in vt hich last case their heat would
have served to increase the temperature of the interior, instead of being in a great
192
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
measure lost in the atmosphere. The divisions g and /; should obviously be transposed;
because the one would be improved by heat, and the other injured by it. In the chamber
floor, a division wall is shown, so as to give to each house its portion of the balcony ; but
this division wall appears by the shading to be entirely omitted in the elevation. A pro-
tecting railing is also wanting to this balcony, and the windows in the elevation should
336
come down to the floor. Finally, the chimney stacks are too low, and the shafts too
short, for grandeur and elegance of effect. We would change the plan as in fig. 336,
and the elevation as in fig. 337.
Design LVIII. — A Labourer's Cottage of Two Pooms, with other Conveniences-
385. Accommodation. The plan, fig. 338, shows a porch, a ; kitchen, b ; with pantry
c ; bed-room, d ; and light bed- 338
closet, e. The privy and other
conveniences, such as pigsty,
cow-house, &c, are supposed
to be placed in a small yard at
u short distance.
386. Construction. The walls
may be built of compressed
earth. The floors should be
formed by loose stones, and
finished with a mixture of quick-
lime and sharp sand ; on the
supposition that this construc-
tion in the given situation would
not be too cold for the inhabit-
ants. In a country where bricks
are to be obtained at a moderate
cost, the piers of the doors and
windows, and the inner sides of
the walls, might be built of
thern^ and the main body of the
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 19$
LVII.
194« COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
LVII1.
LIX.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
195
wall afterwards filled in with mud, or turf, or rustic work, rough stones of any kind,
or straw, heath, or reeds, to keep out the heat in summer, and to keep it in during winter.
One fireplace might, by means of a cast-iron back, be made to serve both apartments,
and an oven and boiler might be added. It is evident, that, by this mode of proceeding,
a very comfortable interior might be included in a very simple, picturesque, or grotesque
exterior. The brickwork of the interior, and of the doors and windows, being arranged,
as in the gTound plan (fig. 339, to a scale of 1-j^ of an inch to ten feet), no interior
339
plastering would be required, provided rubbed bricks were used. This adds greatly to
the durability of the surface of rooms, and prevents them from being injured by
children, and idle people, in countries where the labouring classes are not yet accustomed
to comfortable dwellings. In this ground plan, fig. 339, fffff are the outside spaces, to
be filled up with turf, rammed earth, rubble work, or whatever may be most economical
in the given situation ; g g g, inside spaces, to be fitted up as closet cupboards ; h, bed ;
i, bed, with the foot projecting into a cupboard or small dresser in the kitchen or
living-room, in the manner represented in fig. 143, § 171 ; k, dresser ; I, pantry shelves ;
and m m m, piers of the porch built hollow. All the doors must necessarily have door-
frames, with projecting heads or lintels, and sills, in order that they may build into the
four-inch work. There should also be wooden bricks built in the door-jambs, to which
the door-frames are to be nailed ; and there must be a strong wall-plate to rest on the
four-inch work, for the sake of equalising the pressure of the roof. Much may be
done, in point of economy, by adopting this mode of building the walls of a house ; and
by using corrugated iron roofs, corrugated iron panels for the doors, and flues for
heating, either under the floors, or as benches over them, in the Chinese manner, to be
afterwards described.
387. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 8696 feet, at 6d. per foot, ,£217 : 8s.;
at 4d., £144 : 18s. : 8d. ; and at 3d., £108 : 14s.
388. Remarks. This cottage is not without comfort ; and it would be improved, in
point of architectural effect, and executed at less expense, if the porch were included
under the same roof. We say, it would be improved in architectural effect, because the
roof and ground plan would be more symmetrical, and symmetry is the soul of Architec-
ture ; but it would not be so picturesque as it now is, because the soul of that beauty
is irregularity.
iy(>
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITKCTLKK.
Design LIX. — Two Cottages, of One ttoom and a Rack Kitchen each, under the
same Hoof.
389. Accommodation. Each dwelling contains an entrance lobby, which serves also
as a place for fuel and tools, fig. 340, a ; a kitchen, 6 ; back kitchen, c ; a place for
keeping potatoes, or for poultry or a pig, d ; and a privy, e.
340
390. Construction. The walls may be of stone; but brick walls, built hollow, would
be greatly preferable. The roof may be slated. If desirable, the kitchen floor may be
heated by a flue from under the oven in the back kitchen.
391. General Estimate. Cubic contents of both dwellings, 9110 feet, at 6d. per foot,
a 227 : 15s. ; at Id., £151 : 16s. : 8d. ; and at 3d., .1113 : 17s. : 6d.
392. Remarks* It is sufficiently obvious that the expression of this design is that of
the subject. Each dwelling can only be fit for a single person ; and the building must
be favourably situated, in regard to a dry soil and free air, to admit of sleeping on the
ground floor. As it is desirable, in cases where the sitting-room is also a bed-room, to
have the bed in a recess, or of such a form as not to ofi'end the eye of those who are not
accustomed to live in bed-rooms, a press-bed may be employed.
Design LX. — Two Dwellings, under One Roof; each containing Four Rooms, with
Back Kitchen, aiul other Conveniences.
393. Accommodation. Each house contains a kitchen, fig. 341, a; back kitchen, b ;
parlour or bed-room, c; bed- room, d ; large bed-room, e; closet,/; pantry, g; privy,
hi dusthole, t; and place for fuel, k: or the smaller apartments may be differently
341
T=Tj
T '^
m
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
197
arranged ; thus, I may be a cowhouse, formed out of f and /- ; m, a privy ; n, a dairy ;
and o, a pantry. With this arrangement, the platform will require the alteration in-
dicated at p.
394. Construction. The walls may be of brick or stone, and the roof thatched. One
roof covers the whole of the apartments belonging to both cottages, without any
guttering, and with only two hips, or pavilion ends. Roofs so simple are particularly
eligible for being covered with zinc, or sheet iron, instead of tiles or slates.
395. General Estimate- Cubic contents of both houses, 24,660 feet, at 6d. per foot,
,£616 : 10«. ; at 4d., £4\ 1 ; and at 3d., £308 : 5s.
396. Remarks. These arc comfortable, unobtrusive dwellings, expressive of nothing
more than what they are. All that we should wish to alter in this Design, would be
the projections of the roof in front, which we would form into one general veranda, and
return it also at the ends.
Design LXI. — A Dwelling of Three Rooms on the Ground Floor, with a Back Kitchen,
and other Conveniences.
The ground plan, fig. 342, contains a back kitchen, a ; a
342
397. Accommodation.
principal kitchen, or
living-room, b ; a best
bed-room, c ; another
bed-room, d ; with a
closet, e; a pantry, f; a
dairy, g ; a place for
fuel, h ; privy, i; and
cow-house, k.
398. Construction.
The walls are supposed
to be of stone ; the
roof thatched, and the
chimney stacks in square
divisions, as in fig. 343,
on a scale of half an inch
to a foot ; the principal
window, Gothic, with
labels and mullions, as
in fig. 344 ; on a scale
of three eighths of an
inch to a foot. The
chimney stacks as repre-
sented in fig. 343., will,
as building is now car-
ried on in Britain, re-
quire to be executed in
natural stone, artificial
stone, or in brick covered with cement ; but, if the practice of employing ornamental
chimney tops of this kind were general, they might be formed at every pottery of com-
mon tile ware, at half their cost in cement. Indeed a great deal is to be done in
the commonest earthenware, not only in the way of chimney tops, but in cornices, labels
to windows, string courses, mouldings, ornamental roof and weather tiling, and even
in the internal finishing of kitchens, wash-houses, porches, &c.
399. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 9415 feet, at 6d., £235 : 7s. : 6d. ; at 4d.,
£156 : 18s. : 4rf. ; and at 3d., £117 : 13s. : 9d
400. Remarks. There is something mean and depressed in the elevation of this
building ; though, to some tastes, this would be a recommendation to it, as a cottage.
It is evident, that the main study of the Architect has been picturesque effect, else why
so much irregularity, both in the masses of the ground plan, and in the roof? We do
not like the truncated gables ; but there can be no doubt that precedents are to be found
for them. We have before observed that some Architects consider their art as one of
imitation, even in its higher departments ; and it is certain that the department of Cot-
tage Architecture has been hitherto much more one of imitation than of improved de-
sign. " The general character of a cottage, as distinguished from that of dwellings of a
higher class, is considered by Architects to consist in low walls, and of course low ceil-
ings, in small windows rather broad than high, and in conspicuous high-pitched roofs,
often with dormer windows in them. We admit, that, taking cottages as they are usually
constructed, these features may be said to establish their character : and hence they are
198
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
generally employed by painters, and by poets, or other descriptive writers, who wish to
portray a cottage of the present day. In the like manner, a certain degree of coarseness
or homeliness of dress and manner may be said to have hitherto characterised the British
labourer, as contradistinguished from the British gentleman. A romantic writer would,
therefore, make use of these characteristics ; and a poet or a sentimentalist might pro-
bably regret their disappearance, and the gradual assimilation of dress and manners
between the labourer and the gentleman. The fault of the Architect is, that he has too
closely followed die painter and the man of literature ; forgetting that his art, being
founded upon and guided by utility, ought to embrace all improvements, not only in Ar-
chitecture, but in the uses
of buildings, as they are
brought into notice. It
is surely the duty of landed
proprietors who build cot-
tages, to encourage and
elevate the character of
the people who live on
their lands ; and that of
the Architect, in con-
formity with this object, to
consider, not what a cot-
tage has hitherto been,
but what it is capable of
being made. Putting a
servant into a handsome
Gothic cottage, is like
putting him into a hand-
some suit of livery ; but
there is, unfortunately for
the servant, this difference,
that the faults of the
dwelling, if it does not fit,
cannot be so readily per-
ceived as those of the coat ;
and nobody may know,
but the occupant and his
family, how little comfort
sometimes exists under a
gay exterior. For our
own part, we have seen so
many ornamental cottages
and lodges on gentlemen's
estates, both in England
and Scotland, small, damp,
and badly contrived with-
in, that we are compelled
to consider them as much
badges of slavery as a suit
of livery. Let us hope
that another generation
will effectually simplify
and improve the former,
and entirely abolish the
latter. We are aware that
there is a great prejudice in favour of Gothic buildings of every description, from the
cottage to the palace ; arising from the associations of reverence, antiquity, and chivalry,
which are connected with them. Maturely considered, however, we cannot help some-
times doubting whether the existing prejudice in favour of Gothic Architecture does not
reflect more discredit than honour on human nature : at all events, it is a prejudice un-
worthy of an age of rapid improvement like the present. We freely acknowledge that
we do not expect many converts to our views in this respect ; because simplicity is one
of the last refinements men arrive at, not only in the progress of the arts, but in the
progress of opinion. Believing, as we do, that this principle is undeniable, we have
little doubt but that much of what is now considered beauty, both in art and in litera-
ture, will, by the next generation, be neglected ; and, as the French characteristically
express it, " reduit au merite historique." (Card. Mag ,vol. viii. p. SCO.)
\
/
;
>
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 199
LXI.
LXI1.
LXIFI.
200 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
LXIV.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 201
344
345
Design LXII. — A Dwelling of Four Rooms on Two Floors, with various Conveniences.
401. Accommodation. In the ground plan, fig. 345, there are a porch, a; kitchen, b ;'
back kitchen, c ; parlour, d ; light
bed-closet, e ; root-cellar and
lumber room, jf; privy, g ; pantry,
h ; and place for fuel, i. The
stairs, k, lead down to a small
cellar under e, and up to two
good bed-rooms over d and b.
402. Construction. This dwell-
ing, as an edifice, consists of three
parts : one of these is two stories
high, and contains the kitchen,
the parlour, and the bed-rooms ;
another is a lean-to, containing the
smaller apartments on the ground
floor ; and the third is the porch.
The walls of the first part may
be of brick or stone; but those
of the other two parts, being
much narrower, ought to be built
of brick, or of nogging ; or, if
necessarily of stone, they should
be double the thickness shown
in the plan. The roof is covered
with Grecian tiles, and all the
flues are brought into one chim-
ney stack. The door of the porch
should be varied in position,
according to the aspect of the
entrance front, and to the prevailing winds of the country, as before directed.
403. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,692 feet, at 6d. per foot, £292: 6s. ; at
4d., £194 : 17j. : 4d. ; and at 3d., £146 : 3s.
202
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
404. Remarks. On the Supposition that this house is to he seen principally in front,
we consider it handsome ; though, if it were to be seen alike on every side, it would he
the reverse. The front part of this dwelling consisting of two stories, and all the
windows, l><>th of the ground floor and of the bed-room floor, being in front, the lean-
to containing the inferior apartments may be well considered as the subordinate part of
the building ; whereas, in perfect designs, whatever meets the eye, whether in tin; back
or front, ought to be noble. Placed on the outskirts of a wood, or half surrounded by
an orchard, in the manner shown in fig. 260, § 280, it would be unexceptionable.
Design LXIII. — Tien Dwellings, of Two Rooms each, under One Roof.
40.5. Accommodation- In the ground plan, fig. 346, there are shown, for each of these
dwellings, a porch, a; kitchen, b ; bed-room, c ; back kitchen, d ; pantry, e ; place for
fuel,_/*; and privy, g.
346
347
406. Construction. Nothing appears to require notice under this head, which may
not be gathered from preceding designs ; we may remark, however, that porches of the
kind here shown, in many parts of the country, might be covered with lead, cheaper than
they can be with slate, because in each of these porches there is
not only a gutter between the roof of the porch and the roof of
the main body of the house, but four ridge pieces on the hips,
which must be covered with lead. The cheapest way, however,
would be to make the porches lean-tos, when no lead would be re-
quired, but only boards at the sides. Chimney pots, such as fig. 347,
on a scale of three quarters of an inch to a foot, may be used.
407. General Estimate. Cubic contents of both houses,
15,606 feet, at 6d. per foot, £390 : 3s. ; at 4rf., £260 : 2s. ; and
at 3d., £195: Is. : 6d.
408. Remarks. This Design, like the preceding one, is
chiefly calculated for being seen in front, and, on the whole,
though it has no pretensions in regard to style, we think it
satisfactory.
Design LXIV. — Two Dwellings under One Roof, each Three Stories high, and having
Three Rooms, and other Conveniences.
409. Accommodation. The ground plan exhibits an entrance porch, a ; with a place
for fuel or tools, b ; kitchen or living-room, c ; back kitchen, d ; staircase, e ; cow-
house or root-cellar, f; dairy or pantry, g; pigsty or dusthole, h ; and privy, :'. Each
of the chamber floors contains one good bed-room, k; and a landing from the stair, /.
410. Construction. The walls must necessarily be of brick, or of tooled stone ; and
the roof, being at a low pitch, should be slated. Should red harsh-coloured bricks be
employed, they may be changed to a mellow tint, by a wash of quicklime, yellow ochre,
and black ; or the effects of time may be anticipated by a grey moss-coloured tint, com-
posed of lime and black only. There is also a mode of imitating weather stains,
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 203
LXV.
204 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
LXVI.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 205
technically called splashing, which will be described hereafter, as being more applicable
to cottages in the Gothic style, than to the present town-looking edifice.
411. General Estimate. Cubic contents of both houses, 21,906 feet, at 6d. per foot,
1540 : 3s. ; at 4d., i860 : 2s. ; and at 3d., £270: 1*. : 6d.
412. Remarks- This Design, we are informed, is actually executed, with the ex-
ception of the platform. The situation is on the side of a road which passes through a
high wood, on the steep slope of a hill in Devonshire. The object of the third story is
said to be to show a part of the cottage above the trees, from the windows of the man-
sion of the proprietor of the estate, who resides in the vale below. This circumstance
shows how much of the beauty of cottages must always be relative ; because, by itself,
no one, we will venture to assert, would consider this a handsome building. The two
wings or lean-tos are too small to become even secondary parts of so large a centre ; and
yet they are sufficiently obtrusive to excite a wish that they were either removed or
made larger. In a word, they do not co-operate with the main body in forming a whole ;
and, though important in a useful point of view, they are worse than useless in point
of either architectural or picturesque effect.
Design LXV. — A Dwelling, with Three Rooms, and other Conveniences.
413. Accommodation. The ground plan shows an entrance lobby, a ; kitchen and
living-room, b; bed-room, c; back kitchen, d ; privy, e; root-cellar or cow-house, f;
pigsty, poultry-house, or place for fuel, g; dairy,/;; pantry, i; and dusthole, k. The
chamber floor contains one good room.
414. Cotistruction. The walls of the main body of the building are shown of stone,
the lower part of the centre has rusticated corners ; and the corners of the wings are
plain. Some consequence is given to the entrance door by two projecting pieces on eacli
side, which may be covered with one flat stone, that will thus serve both as a cap to the
piers, and as a roof to the entrance.
415. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 13,056 feet, at 6d. per foot, 1326: 8s. ; at
4d., 1217: 12s. ; and at 3d., 1163: 4s.
416. Remarks. This dwelling is neat, and has an air of comfort. There are some
faults in the ground plan, one of which is, the want of a cupboard closet in the kitchen ;
but this is probably intended to be supplied by a corner cupboard and dresser. The
wall enclosing the stair, considering that it is to be carried up two stones, is not of propor-
tionate thickness, and a door should have been shown to the closet under the stairs.
The terrace requires a plain parapet, which might consist of a pigeon-hole wall, terminat-
ing in a row of flower troughs of the kind delineated in fig. 198, § 222; and there
might be piers at the corners, finished with vases, or with the square flower troughs, fig.
199, § 222.
Design LXVI — A Cottage Dwelling of Two Roo?ns, with a Smithy, Shoeing-Shed, and
Three-stalled Stable.
417. Accommodation. This is evidently a building for display, and therefore it may
be called an ornamental smithy. It depends for beauty principally on its arcade, and
its far-projecting Italian roof. The ground plan shows the walk under the arcade, a ;
the entrance passage, b ; kitchen and living-room, c ; pantry, d ; bed-room, e ; child's bed-
closet,^; shoeing-shed, g ; forge and smith's shop, h ; three-stalled stable, i; women's
privy, k ; and common privy, I.
418. Construction. As this building has a great extent of walling in proportion to
the number of openings, all the walls, with the exception of the piers and arches, might
be built of earth, or of some other cheap adhesive material. The roof may be covered
with Grecian tiles. The stable should be fitted up in the usual manner, with hay-
rack, manger, &c. ; and the shoeing-shed ought to have rings in the walls for the bridles
or halters of the horses being shod, to be fastened to ; but it will not require either racks
or mangers, as horses should never be allowed to eat during that operation. Such a
building as the present is very well calculated for being covered with an iron roof; be-
cause the span is considerable, and the form simple. There are three kinds of iron roofs,
any of which might be adopted for this building. The first is the cast-iron roof; one
kind of which, the invention of Carter of Exeter, has been already described, § 153; the
*econd is the Russian roof, of wrought-iron rafters and sheet-iron plates ; and the third
is the newly invented corrugated iron roof, without rafters of any kind. We shall here
shortly describe the last two.
419. Iron Roofs, as constructed in Russia. The rafters, in the better description of
houses, are for the most part of wrought iron, and of very small dimensions ; they are
constructed on the same general principles of trussing as wooden rafters. In smaller
houses, the rafters are of timber; and in these hcuses, whether iron or wooden rafters
206
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
are used, the laths to which the plates are nailed are almost always of wood. We have,
indeed, in Moscow, in 1814, seen iron rods substituted for wooden laths, and the sheets
fastened to them by strong copper wire ; but we do not think the practice general. The
common mode of covering iron roofs in Russia is thus given in a late number of the Re-
pertory of Patent Inventions, &c. : — " Sheet-iron coverings are now universally made use
of on all new buildings in Petersburgh, Moscow, &c. In the case of a fire, no harm can
come to a house from sparks falling on a roof of this description. The sheets of this
iron covering, measure two feet four inches wide, by four feet eight inches long, and
weigh twelve pounds and a half avoirdupois per sheet, or one pound five ounces each
superficial square foot. When the sheets are on the roof, they measure only two feet
wide by four feet in length : this is owing to the overlapping. They are first painted
on both sides once ; and, when fixed on the roof, a second coat is given. The common
colour is red ; but green paint, it is said, will stand twice the time. Small bits, or ears,
are introduced into the laps, for nailing the plates to the two-inch square laths on which
they are secured. It takes twelve sheets and a half to cover 100 feet, the weight of
which is only 150 lbs. ; the cost only £l : 15s., or about 3d. per foot." {Sup. to Rep. of
Pat. Liven., 1832, vol. xiii. p. 409.)
420. Corrwated Iron Roofs are composed of sheet iron, impressed so as to present a
surface of semicircular ridges, with intervening furrows, lengthwise of the sheet. By
this means, the sheet, from a plain flat surface having no strength but from its tena-
city, becomes a series of continued arches, abutting against each other, fig. 348; and the
metal, by this new position,
acquires strength also from its
hardness. To give an idea of /^X /^\ /^"*\ //S==X /^\
the strength acquired, it is ob- «^ \=/ W %/ ^W ^»
served by Walker, the inventor of this mode of preparing sheet iron, that " a single
sheet of iron, so thin that it will not continue in a perpendicular position, will, after
undergoing the process of corrugation, bear upwards of 700 lbs. weight, without
bending in the least degree." Iron so furrowed will be preferable to common sheet
iron for covering a flat roof; because the furrows will collect the water, and convey it
more rapidly to the eaves : but this is a trifling advantage, scarcely worth mentioning,
in comparison with others which follow. Suppose, that, in addition to furrowing a
sheet lengthways, so as to
give it the appearance of
fig. 349, it is -also bent in
one general curve in the
direction of its length, so
as to give it the appearance of fig. 350, we have then an arch of great strength, capable
of serving as a roof, without
rafters, or any description
of support, except at the
eaves or abutments. It is
evident that, the span of
any roof being given, seg-
ments of corrugated iron may be riveted together, so as to form such an arch as may be
deemed proper for covering it. To every practical man, it will be further evident, that
a roof of extraordinary span, say 100
feet, which could not be covered by one
arch of corrugated iron without the aid ^ L^-~
of rafters, might be covered by two or *
three, all resting on, and tied together
by, tie-rods, fig. 351. Further, that in
the case of roofs of a still larger span,
«ay 200 feet, a tie-rod might be combined with a trussed iron beam, fig. 35'2 ; by which
349
350
a a, Tie rods. b b, &c, Corrugated arches, each forty feet span. c c, Segment rafter of
wrought iron, supporting the tie rod and the roof of corrugated arches under it, and kept steady
and strong liy the trussing, d d, Sec.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
207
roofs of this span, or even one of more than double the extent, might be covered without
a single rafter appearing inside. In short, no material hitherto brought into notice
at all approaches this, in its capacities for forming light and economical roofs of the
greatest extent of span, and with the least loss of interior room. Its durability will
depend on the application of oil or tar paints : for barns, sheep-houses, and various other
country buildings, and for all manner of sheds, both in town and country, it is par-
ticularly suitable. As the invention has only been known four or five years, much has
not hitherto been done with it ; but there are several roofs of corrugated iron in the
London Docks, and fig. 353 represents a portion of one of them. " Its length is 225
feet, its width 40 feet, and the height of the columns on which the roof is supported
12 feet. The columns are of cast iron, a gutter of which metal is continued from
column to column, the whole length of the roof; and in the gutter rests the edge of the
roof. The arch is formed of several sheets of iron, curved in a reverse direction to the
corrugated arches, as shown fig. 353, and riveted together longitudinally. Similar
arches, connected to each other by rivets, compose the roof: every corrugated arch forms
a watercourse, ending in the gutters at the side, and thereby rendering it quite water-
proof. To give stability to the whole, a tie rod, fig. 354, is carried across the shed
354
<
from each column to the one opposite. ' Between this shed and the brick wall is a
lean-to corrugated roof, forming a half arch, springing from the gutter, and resting
against the wall, as shown in fig. 353." The walls of buildings may be constructed
of this iron set on edge, either in single plates, or of double plates with a vacuity
between, to lessen the effect of changes in the exterior temperature on the space
enclosed. As the corrugation, or fluting, of the iron may be made either large or
small, it may be adapted to the panels of doors, as in figs. 355, 356, and 357 ; or an
355
356
208 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
357 858
fTOTTTTll
entire door, with the frame of rod iron, may be filled in, so as to serve as a substitute for
a ledged door, fig. 358. The sliding gate, fig. 359, has been erected as an entrance to
one of the docks. The frame is of the usual construction, of timber, and inserted in a
brick wall. The gate is composed of sheets of corrugated iron riveted together, so as
to form one large panel, the size of the opening ; the foot of this gate rests in a groove,
as shown in the section, fig. 360, b, made of timber or stone, and embedded
in the earth, so as to be level with the roadway. On the upper edge are two 360
grooved wheels, which work on an iron ledge groove, a. Shutters to shops
may be made of this description of sheet iron, as well as chests, and a variety
of* other objects which will easily occur to a practical man. The following
are the prices at London in 1832: — Roofs, per square of 100 feet,
£5 : 10s. ; verandas, per square, £7 ; and doors of the ordinary size, in
six panels, as in fig. 357, £2 : 10s. each. This description of roof is not
particularly applicable for small-sized cottages, but may be used for large
ones ; and, for smithies, carpenters' shops, and all manner of sheds, it seems
particularly appropriate. Portable houses might be very readily made of it
for exportation; but, wherever such houses were erected, they should be
covered with ivy, or some other evergreen creeper, to moderate the effect of
changes in the exterior temperature.
421. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 28,636 feet, at 6d. per foot,
£715: 18s., at 4d., .£477 : 5s. : 4d. ; and at 3d., £357 : 19s.
422. Remarks. There is a simplicity and grandeur in the elevation of
this Design, which by no means belongs to a common dwelling ; and, were the
chimney tops omitted, we should be at a loss to know its purpose. The
extent of the arcade, and its width, with the small windows under it, would
seem to indicate that this Design has been intended for a hot climate; but.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
LXVII.
209
*;■::,
<210 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
LXVIII.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 211
for such a climate, the chimney tops arc too conspicuous. They are very well
calculated for Britain or North America ; but, for either of these climates, there
ought to have been at least one additional window to each room. In the engraving,
we have shown the tiles of the roof much more distinctly than they were seen in the
drawing sent by our contributor. When the covering of a roof is (like thatch,
plain tiles, or slate) neither ribbed nor definitely marked, except by its great outlines,
indistinctness is no defect; but a roof marked, in consequence of its construction,
by distinct lines and strong shadows, should have the parts as definitely made out
in the picture as in the reality. Whoever will examine the published works of the
Italian Architects, or the views of Italian buildings taken by British Architects or
artists, will find that much of their beauty depends on the minute details of the roof,
and especially of the projections of the eaves; and of the ridge pieces, as well of the hips
as of the main roof.
Design LX VII. — A Cottage Dwelling of Five Rooms, in Two Floors.
423. Accommodation. The ground plan contains an entrance lobby and staircase, a ;
parlour, b ; another parlour, or best bed-room, c; kitchen, d; back kitchen, e; closet,/";
root-cellar, y ; dusthole, h; privy, i; and pantry, k. The chamber floor contains two
good bed-rooms, I and n ; with a dressing-closet, o : the well-hole of the stair is shown
at in.
424. Construction. The walls are shown of such a thickness as to admit of their being
built of rubble-work. The roof is covered with slates, and the guttering, which is of
cast iron, is calculated to serve as a cornice to the eaves.
425. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 29,044 feet; at 6d. per foot, £126: Is.;
at Ad., £484 : 1a : Ad. ; and at 3d., £363 : Os. : 6d.
426. Remarks. The chief merit of this building is, that it contains five good-sized
rooms ; for size is very desirable, both in a cold climate and a warm one. Air in large
bodies is much more slowly either heated or cooled by the mere contact of hot or cold
air, and it is also less liable to be traversed by currents of air, than when in a smaller
volume. No one could sit in a small room with doors and windows on all sides, with-
out experiencing what is commonly called a draught ; but, in a very large room, doors
and windows on all sides will occasion no such inconvenience. We object to the position
of the recesses for cupboard closets in b and c ; because they occupy the proper places
for a sofa in the one room, and for a bookcase in the other : they also seem to divide the
side of the room into two parts, and thus take away from the idea of a whole. If these
rooms were to be handsomely finished, the doors in question would be highly objection-
able, on the latter account. The closets in question ought to have been placed, one in
both b and c exactly opposite the entrance door ; and another, in each room, between
the fireplaces and the side walls in which they are now placed. So large a dwelling, we
think, ought to have had a porch ; but that may be matter of economy on the part of
the proprietor. There is a poverty about trie elevation, which requires to be removed
by architraves to all the windows, by sills to those of the chamber story ; and by other
means, which are by this time become familiar to our readers. We need not say that
we object to the truncated pediments, which give a tame lumpish character to this
dwelling, hardly in accordance with the bold and handsome chimney tops.
Design LXVIII. — A Dwelling of Four Rooms, with other Conveniences.
427. Accommodation. The door is protected by a far-projecting roof, and enters at
once into the kitchen and living-room, a, in which is a staircase to the bed-chamber,
with a closet under it, 6: from this we have a room with a bed in a recess, c; and
another of the same description, d: there are a back kitchen, e; privy,/; root-cellar and
fuel place, g ; and dusthole, h. There is a good bed-closet in the chamber story ; and on
the ground floor there is another closet, k, which may serve as a pantry, and a third, i,
which may be used as an office, or place for books, &c, according to the occupation of
the inhabitant.
428. Construction. The walls may be of brick, hollow, and the roof slated ; but the
building would have the best effect, if the walls were covered with cement or plaster,
and coloured of a mellow tint. We say they would have the best effect ; because the
beauty of this dwelling depends on the contrast between its perpendicular and horizontal
lines ; and between its bright lights and dark shadows : and both lines and shadows are
more conspicuous in light-coloured walls than in any other.
429. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 1 1 890 feet, at 6d. per foot, ,£297 : 5s. ; at
Ad., £198 : 3s. : Ad. ; and 3d., £1A3 : 12s. : 6d.
430. Remarks. There is something pleasing in the contrast of the lines, and of the
lights and shadows, in this dwelling ; but it has not much of the expression of a cottage.
2 1 L2
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
It seems better calculated for a small public-house, or coffee-house, to be placed on an
eminence, commanding a fine prospect, or close by a river. The room a might then
be the kitchen, and public sitting-room for guests, and there might be a good cellar
under it ; d and c might also be for guests, the bed recesses being concealed by folding-
doors ; and the room up stairs might be considered the principal room, as it would have
the best prospect. The expression of the Design is somewhat Italian, but it wants the
characteristic tiles. It will never be erected where economy in the construction is
an object.
Design LXIX. — A Cottage Dwelling, in the Old English Style, with Kitchen, Parlour,
Business Room, Three Bed-chambers, and other Conveniences.
431. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 361, to a scale of 20 feet to an inch,
contains a porch, a ; a lobby
and passage, with staircase,
b ; a kitchen, c ; a wash-
house, d, with boiler, wash-
ing-trough, and sink ; a
store-room, e ; pantry, f;
business room, g ; closet, h ;
and parlour, t. The cham-
ber floor, fig. 362, contains
three bed-rooms, k, I, and
tn ; and a closet, n. The
other requisite conveniences
are supposed to be placed in
the garden.
432. Construction. The
walls may be of brick, or
of rubble- work, with corners
of squared stone. The roof
is supposed to be covered
with plain tiles, having barge boards against the west gable, as shown in the elevation,
fig. 363 ; and also against the east gable, as shown in the elevation, fig. 364 ; and with
the two other gables truncated, as may be seen in the south elevation, figs. 365 and
363, and in the perspective view, Design
LXIX., p. 215. There are Gothic labels
over the kitchen and parlour windows ; and
the window of the business room projects in
the manner of an oriel, as may be seen in
figs. 363 and 365. Perhaps it may be
thought by some of our readers, that the
chimney tops in this Design, and in a num-
ber of others, are carried too high ; that is,
higher than can be of any use, either in
creating a draught for the smoke, or in ren-
dering the dwelling more ornamental. Now
we are prepared to give our reasons for
denying these suppositions. In the first
place, it is known and acknowledged, both in
theory and practice, that the simplest and
most effectual mode of producing a draught
in a flue, so as to cure a smoky chimney, is,
to add to its top a long narrow funnel. This
tunnel is, in all ordinary cases, an earthenware cylinder of eight or ten inches in diameter,
and between two and three feet long : but, in difficult cases, the length is increased to
five feet, by employing a longer earthenware tube ; or to a still greater length, by em-
ploying those tubes of copper or iron called about London " tall boys." The five feet
long chimney pots are made by joining two pots of the ordinary length together before
they are burnt : but, as these long pots are liable to be broken in the kiln, the cost of them
about London, in 1832, is 9s. each by retail ; therefore two or more draining tubes, such
as are shown in fig. 411, which cost 2s. each, are preferable. In the second place, with
respect to ornament, our object is, by clothing these tubes, whatever maybe their length,
with architectural forms, instead of leaving them bare as is almost universally done, to
render them handsome component parts of the building, instead of deformed appendages
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
213
i= i r
433. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 21,660 feet, at 6d. per foot, ^541 : 10s. ; at
id., t:,Gl; and at 3d., £210: 15s.
434. Remarks. No one can mistake the expression of this Design, who has ever
seen an English cottage. It pretends to be nothing more than what it is, and might be
mistaken for a copy from nature. It seems to us to want dignity, which might be
given by heightening the windows of the parlour-floor, and by a surrounding terrace.
The ground plan is very convenient.
3C5
214
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Design LXX. — A Cottage Dwelling of Four Rooms, with otner Conveniences.
435. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 366, shows a kitchen, a ; parlour, b ;
best bed-room, c ; bed-room, d ; ggg
closet, e ; recess for books, f; two
closets, g g ; pantry, h ; wash-
house, i ; potato cellar, and place
for lumber, k ; coal-house, I ; and
privy, m.
436. Construction. The walls,
which have brick footings to the
height of eighteen inches above
the surface, are of stud-work,
covered with weather-boarding
without, and lath and plaster
within ; the floors of a, b, c, and
d, are of boards, and those of the
passage and offices of tiles and
bricks. The roof is covered with
pantiles; it is in two parts, the
higher and wider part being over the living-rooms, and the low narrow division covering
the passage and the offices. There is a rustic veranda along one front, constructed of
barked oak branches, on which vines and flowering shrubs are twined.
437. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 11,040 feet, at 6d. per foot, ,£276; at 4d.,
£184; and at 3d., £133.
438. Remarks. This Design is executed at Chingford in Essex, and it has been sent
us as being very economical in the erection, and very commodious and convenient in the
occupation. We have improved the forms, and increased the height, of the chimneys, for
the sake of effect, and also in order to make them draw better. Without high, bold, and
carefully studied chimney tops, a cottage, to us, is without one of its chief beauties ; and
it is, besides, very liable to smoke. Beauty, in this case, as in most others, goes hand
in hand with utility. We by no means approve of the plan of having the outside walls
of a cottage of wood ; but, in many cases, it cannot be avoided. When an old cottage,
with walls of this description, is to be improved, the weather-boarding may be covered
either with what is called weather-tiling, of which we shall give a variety of shapes in a
succeeding page, or with tiling so marked as, when put up, to resemble bricks, and
known as brick weather-tiling, of which we shall also hereafter give specimens. Much
of the effect of such a cottage will depend on the disposition of the flowering shrubs and
trees on its veranda and trellised porch.
Design LXXI. — A Castellated Lodge, as a Dwelling for a Gardener, or other upper
Servant, on a Gentleman's Estate.
439. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 367, shows a porch, a ; kitchen, b ;
living-room, c ; two light closets, d d ;
staircase, with closet under, e ; place for /j
coals,/; for wood, g ; and water-closet, S (
h. The chamber floor, fig. 368, contains
two good bed-rooms, i, k ; and two bed-
closets, /, m.
440. Construction. The contributors
of this Design, Messrs. W. and H.
Laxton, have sent the following details.
Fig. 369 is a section across the window |
in the living-room, in which is shown Dlrf
the wall of brick, a ; label moulding 1—7^
over the window, b ; reveal, with splay,
finished with cement, c ; frame to the
casements, four inches by two inches,
with hollow worked on the edge, rebated,
and beaded, d; inch and half Gothic
bar casement, rebated on the lower edge,
to shut against an iron tongue, let into
an oak sill, e ; lintel, four inches and a
half by three inches and a half,/; plate,
four inches and a half by five inches, g ;
joists, seven inches by two inches and a half, notched on to the plate, h ; ceiling, * ;
iL*Jj
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 215
LXIX.
216 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
LXXII.
368
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 217
V
&
k Q:
1
/NfVwV
370
cornice, with flowers or bosses, fifteen inches apart, j ;
floor boards out of two cut battens, k ; skirting board,
with hollow worked on the edge and a groove, I ; narrow
ground, splayed for plaster, m ; small fillet nailed on
the floor, for fastening the skirting, n ; wooden brick,
four inches by two inches and a half, o ; plaster, p ; oak
sill, q ; capping, or window board, r ; and window
back, s. Fig. 370 is a section show-
ing the construction of the embattle-
ments, in which we have the wall of
the ground floor a brick and a half
thick, t ; the wall of the bed-room
floor one brick thick, u ; the coping
of the embattlements formed of Aus-
tin's artificial stone, v v ; and the
moulded string under the embattle-
ments, w. Fig. 371 is a section,
showing the gutter and the roof, in
which the wall-plate is represented
at a ; the ceiling joist, four inches
by one inch and a half, is nailed to
the side of the rafter at b ; the rafter,
c, four inches by two inches, is
notched on to the wall-plate ; the
battens for the slates, three inches
by three quarters of an inch, are
shown at d ; three quarters of
an inch feather-edged eaves-
board at e ; a cast-iron gutter
at f, moulded to form a cor-
nice, and fastened by copper
W-vvyAVvxJ nails to the ends of the rafters ;
and slates at g. Fig. 372 is an elevation of the
south-east end of this building. Fig. 373 is an
elevation, to a scale of three eighths of an inch to
a foot, of the chimney tops, formed of Austin's
artificial stone.
441. Specification and Estimate. As the build-
ing is small and simple, these are combined in wha4 is technically called one particular.
The prices are calculated at the prime cost of materials and labour, in London, in the
year 1832.
442. Digger and Bricklayer's Work. _£ s. d.
Twenty cubic yards, digging, wheeling, or filling in to the founda-
tions, and over the whole surface, six inches deep 1 : 0:0
Seven rods and three quarters reduced stock brickwork, at ^12
per rod 93 . 0: 3
The walls are to have two courses of one brick in thickness, and
the plinth is to be half a brick thicker than the walls above, as shown
in the ground plan, fig. 367. There are to be one-brick footings,
218
COTTAGE FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
£ *. d.
eighteen inches high, to the partitions forming the sides of the
stairs and lobby ; and one-
brick sleeper walls, for the joists
under the parlour. ( A sleeper
is a piece of scantling, laid on
the top of a low wall, under
the flooring, on which the
joists are to rest. )
Thirty yards of brick nogging of
stocks laid flat to the partitions
on the ground floor, at 3s. a
yard 4 : 10 : O
Five yards of brick paving of
stocks, laid flat in sand, to the
closet for coals, under the
stairs, at 2s. 3d. per yard 0:11:3
Forty-five feet superficial of cut-
tings to the rakes of the gables
at 3d. per foot 0: 11 : 3
Ten feet superficial of two
courses of plain tiles, bedded
in cement, and rendered on
the top, to the flat roofs of the
towers 0 : 7:6
Two hundred and two feet lineal
of cuttings to the splays of the
windows and doors, at 2d. a
foot (c, in fig. 369) 1 : 13 : S
Cutting four small Gothic heads,
and one large ditto ; and four
loophole crosses to the towers 0 : 10 : 0
One hundred and sixteen feet lineal of brick on edge, cut and set in
cement, for plinth, 2%d. per foot (fig. 374).
J
4 : 2
374
. COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 21Q
One hundred and sixty feet lineal bird's-inouth splays to the quoins £ s. d.
(corners) of the towers, at 2d. per foot. (A bird's-mouth splay
is an oblique angle, as at a, fig. 375, instead of a right angle.) 1 : 6:8
To build a small cess-pool, two feet six inches square, and one foot
six inches deep, of one brick wall all round, under the water-
closet ; and to provide thirty feet of eight-inch drain pipes, and
digging, to convey the soil to the common sewer ; also an earthen-
ware pan and trap 2 : 18 : O
£107 : 2:6
443. Slater's Work.
Eight square forty feet of countess slating, at 25s. per square 10 : 10 : 0
Thirty-six feet lineal of glazed ridge tiles, at 6d. per foot 0 : 18:0
Eighty-six feet lineal of cement filleting to the gable, at 2d. per foot 0 : 14 : 4
,£12 : 2:4
444. Carpenter's Work.
Seven squares of three quarters of an inch battening, two inches and
a half wide, for slating, at 10s. per square 3 : 10 : 0
Sixty-three feet superficial of three quarters of an inch feather-edged
eaves-board, at 5d. per foot 1 : 6:3
Eighty-six feet lineal of tilting fillets to the gables, at l±d. per foot 0 : 10 : 9
Two hundred and ninety-eight cubic feet of Memel, Riga, or Dantzic
fir, in bonds, plates, rafters, joists, and quarters, as under, at 3s. 6d.
per foot 52 : 3:0
Ridge-pieces, ten inches by one inch and a half; rafters, four
inches by two inches and a half; purlins, four inches by four inches ;
two collar beams, nine inches by three inches ; ceiling joists halved
on to the rafter, four inches and a half by one inch and a half;
(joists are said to be halved on, when they are joined by half
being cut out of the joist and half out of the rafter) ; a girder
under the floor of the large room, nine inches by nine inches ;
joists, seven inches by two inches and a half; plates, four inches
by four inches and a half under the roof, and under each floor, all
round, except where the flues intervene ; also two tiers of bond,
four inches by two inches and a half; oak sleeper under the ground
floor, and oak sill, four inches by four inches, to the partition on
the ground floor ; heads to the partition, four inches by five inches,
to form the sill of the partition above, or the cross-tie to the roof;
centre and door-posts, and door-head, four inches by four inches ;
quartering, four inches by two inches ; door-posts and head to the
water-closet, and the closets on each side, four inches by four inches,
to be wrought all round ; beaded head to the partition over ditto,
four inches by four inches ; puncheons, four inches by two inches.
Three centres to the fireplaces, and ten ditto to the apertures of the
doors and windows; one centre to the Gothic head 1: 0:0
£58 : 10 : 0
445. Joiner's Work.
Nine and a quarter square inch deal wrought folding floors, at 40s.
per square 18 : 10; 0
Two hundred and thirty feet, lineal plain skirting out of two cut
battens, with a hollow and groove worked on the face, backings,
and wooden bricks at 6d. per foot (see I, and o, in fig. 369) 5: 15: 0
Eight one and a half inch four-panel square framed doors, six feet six
inches by two feet six inches, with a hollow worked on the fram-
ing round the panels, as in fig. 376, hung with three-inch butt
hinges, and fastened with
■* a six-inch iron-rimmed
two-bolt lock, one and a
\ half inch rebated linings
and mouldings round
both sides, at 30s. per
door 12: 0:0
^L
Four doors as above, with fillets nailed on the door-posts to form
stops, to the water-closet, to the closets on each side, and to the
220 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
closet under the stairs; each door hung with three-inch butt £ t. d.
binges, and having a four-inch lock to each, at 22*. per door 4:8:0
Four one and a quarter inch framed and beaded closet fronts, eight
feet by three feet three inches, with four-panel square doors, hung
with three-inch butt hinges, and having a moulding round, and a
closet lock to each, at 26s. per door 5 : 4:0
A two-inch two-panel bead butt and square framed door, seven
feet by three feet, with one and a half inch sash and shutter ; the
lower panels to be fdled in with a Gothic moulding, and Gothic
head, hung with four-inch butt hinges, and fastened with a nine-
inch drawback lock, and two eight-inch bolts. A proper door-
case of fir, four inches by four inches, with a moulding round
inside ••♦« ;•••• ■•••••■«•« 3 : 3:0
One and a half inch sash door to the back lobby, six ieet six inches
by two feet six inches, framed bead butt and square; with a
shutter, and a pair of three-inch butt hinges, a thumb-latch, two
bolts, a thumb-screw, and two stubbs ; a proper doorcase of fir,
four inches by three inches, with a moulding round inside 2 : 0:0
Eighty feet superficial of one and a half inch square framed partition,
to divide the small room, on the bed-chamber floor, from the stairs ;
also over the stairs, with a four-panel square framed door in ditto,
at 9d. per foot ; sixteen feet of moulding round ditto ; one pair of
three-inch butt hinges, and a six-inch two-bolt lock 3 : 7:0
Four windows with one and a half inch deal casements, Gothic heads
and spandril, four feet six inches by five feet in the clear ; hung
folding (both casements to open and shut against each other as
in fig. 177 § 196,) with three-inch butt hinges, and fastened with
two five-inch brass flush bolts, and a brass fastening ; two-inch deal
rebated and beaded frame, four inches wide, with hollow worked
on the outer edge (d, in fig. 369), and with oak sills, at £2 : 2s.
each 8 : 8:0
Four windows, three feet six inches by five feet, at £1 : 18s. per
window ' : 12 : 0
Two pair of one and a half inch deal shutters, framed as doors, to the
parlour windows, hung as sashes, with pulleys and boxings complete,
each twenty-eight feet superficial, and with four feet extra-length
of boxing, two brass flush rings, a brass thumbscrew, and two four-
inch brass flush bolts to each window 4 : 0:0
A three-quarter-inch ledged shutter to the kitchen window, seven-
teen feet six inches superficial, with a wooden bar, and two
staples ; 0: 15 : O
Fourteen feet superficial one and a quarter inch deal seat, riser and
bearer to the water-closet ; five feet superficial one and a quarter
inch deal clamped flap, and beaded frame; six feet lineal inch
skirting, four and a half inches wide, one pair of two-inch brass
butt hinges, and two holes cut ; and a small bull's-eye light frame
and linings •••• 1 : 13:0
Sixty-five feet superficial of one and a quarter inch deal steps, with
inch risers, bracketed and housed into one inch and a half wall
string, twenty-five feet superficial, with thirty feet lineal of beaded
capping ; and a deal moulded rail, fifteen feet lineal, fastened with
three iron brackets ■ 6: 5:0
Deal dresser, seven feet long by two feet wide, with three drawers
under, pot board and bearers ; three-inch deal shelves over, and two
cut standards (the upright piece of deal to which the ends of the
shelves are fixed) 3: 0:0
One hundred feet of inch deal, wrought on both sides, to be fixed
with bearers for shelves, at 8d. per foot 3 : 6:8
£ 89 : 6:8
4 16. Stonemason's Work.
Two profile stone moulded chimney-pieces, with slabs and back
hearths, to the parlour and the room over ; opening three feet high,
by two feet eight inches wide 3 : 10 : 0
A set of stone jambs and mantle, five inches wide, to the bed-room,
with slab and hearth 0 : 15 : O
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. C2%1
A set of one and a half inch stone ditto, eight incites wide to the £ s. d.
kitchen, with slah and hack hearth 1 : 5:0
A six-inch stone sink, ten feet superficial, with a trap in ditto, pinned
into the wall on two sides 2 : 5:0
Two stone steps, seven feet lineal, to the doorway 1 : 1:0
£8: 16 : 0
447. Plasterer's Work.
One hundred and thirty-six yards of whiting ceilings, at Id. per yard 0 : 11:4
Two hundred and filly-six yards of colouring walls, at '2d. per yard 2 : 2:8
One hundred and fifty yards of render and set, at Id. per yard 4 : 7:6
Fifty-nine yards floated ditto, at \0d. 2 : 9:2
One hundred and eighty-seven yards of lath, plaster, and set, to the
partition and ceilings, at Is. : 5d. 13 : 4:11
Thirty yards floated ditto, to the parlour, at Is. : 9d 2 : 12 : 0
Forty-five feet lineal of cornice, six inches in girth, at 5d. per foot
(see s, in fig. 369) 0 : 18 : 9
Fifty-eight feet lineal moulded coping in cement to the gables, and
eighty-one feet ditto to the embattlements (see v v, in fig. 370),
at Is. : 6d. per foot 10 : 8 : 6
Thirty-seven feet ditto label mouldings to the windows (see b, in
fig. 369), at 6d. per foot 0 : 18 : G
One hundred and fifteen ditto ditto string mouldings (see w, in
fig. 370), at 9d. per foot 4 : 6:3
Sixteen mitres to the gable moulding, at 3d. each 0 : 4:0
Three shields, at Is. each 0 : 3:0
Four ornamental chimney tops of Austin's artificial stone, five feet
high, at £2 : 2s. each (see fig. 373) 8 : 8:0
,£50 : 14 : 7
448. Plumber, Painter, and Glazier's Work.
Three cwt. of milled lead to the valleys, at 25s. per cwt 3 : 15 : 0
Ten feet of three-quarter-inch pipe, with joints and stopcock to
ditto, for the water-closet 1 : 0:0
Water-butt and stand 1 : 10 : 0
Fifty-three feet lineal of cast-iron gutter to the eaves, painted four
times in oil, at 2s. per foot (see/, in fig. 371) 5 : 6:0
Thirty-six feet ditto of two-inch iron pipe, at Is 1:16:0
Two heads and two shoes to ditto 0 : 12:0
One hundred and forty-eight feet superficial crown glass (third
quality) to all the sashes and doors, at Is. : (id. per foot 11 : 2:0
One hundred and twenty-five yards, painted four times in oil
colours, at 8d. per yard 4 : 3:4
Two hundred and thirty feet lineal of skirting ditto, at Id. per foot 0 : 19 : 2
Eight casements and frames, painted on both sides 1 : 0:0
£31 : 3:6
449. Summary of Estimates.
Digger and bricklayer 107 : 2:6
Slater 12: 2:4
Carpenter 58 : 10 : 0
Joiner and Ironmonger 89 : 6:8
Stonemason 8 : 16 : O
Plasterer 50 : 14 : 7
Plumber, Glazier, and Painter 31 : 3:6
Total prime cost of this dwelling £351 : 15 : 7
450. General Estimate. Cubic contents 17,688 feet, at 6d. per foot, £442 : 4s. ; at 4d.,
,€294 : 16s. ; and at 3d., £221 : 2s. ; by which it appears that 4\d. per foot is about a
fair price for estimating lodges of this description.
451. Remarks. For an ornamental cottage this must be considered a very economical
plan : its accommodations are insufficient for a small farmer, or a retired tradesman ; but
it would not be difficult to enlarge it, and yet preserve the general character of the
elevation. The contributors of this Design (Messrs. W. and H. Laxton) have sent
us a plan for this purpose, fig. 377 ; in which a is the entrance lobby ; b, the parlour, or
229 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
living-room, with a wine closet, c, and a store-room, d; e, the principal room, with a
china closet, f, and book closet, g ; h, the passage leading to a staircase, with a light
pantry under it, i ; k, the kitchen ; I, the lobby to the back entrance ; m, the water-
closet ; n, a coal and wood-house ; and o, the yard. We object to this plan, and also to
that of the original Design, fig. 367, on account of the chimneys being placed in the
outside walls ; but this evil may be mitigated by an increased thickness, and by forming
a vacuity all round the chimney and flue, so as to lessen the conducting power of the
wall. Whoever, in a climate where fires- are necessary one half the year, employs an
Architect to design a dwelling, whatever may be its rank, from the cottage to the palace,
ought to make it an indispeirsable condition, to have no chimneys in the outside walls ;
and none that shall not draw well. Every person looking through this work, with a
view to make choice of a design, ought to bear in mind the same principle. With respect
to the elevation, as shown in Design LXXI., p. 215, we cannot approve of carrying
through, between the lower and the upper windows, the forms of battlements, as shown
in the section fig. 370, in the manner of a string course ; because such an ornament has
neither the appearance nor the reality of use. A string course, or horizontal band, has
the architectural expression (to speak technically) of binding and tying together the
work below it, as well as, to a certain extent, of protecting it from the rain. It is true that
the battlement forms, carried through, as in fig. 370, will also protect what is below from
the rain ; but they have not that expression, for every one knows that their usual pur-
pose, on a building, is to form the termination of a wall. The effect of these battlements
on the outline elevation, fig. 372, can hardly fail to deceive the unpractised eye ; and,
by raising the idea that the basement story of the building projects outwards, considerably
beyond the upper story, creates a beauty in the design, as seen in an outline elevation
on paper, which it could never have in reality. The shaded perspective view, Design
LXXI., p. 215, maybe referred to in proof of this assertion, as showing the advantages
of such views in conveying correct ideas of the effect of architectural designs. We may
fnrlher observe that it would be an improvement, to raise the angular towers two or
three feet higher, so as to detach their summits more distinctly from the gable ends. The
effect of this, as of all distinctness and bold relief in buildings, is to make the parts ap-
pear more, decidedly what they are ; in short, to add to the strength of their expression.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
223
Design LXXIL — A Dwelling of Six Rooms, with various Conveniences.
452. Accommodation. From the entrance and staircase, a, there is a kitchen, b ; with
back kitchen, c; and pantry, d: there are two good parlours, e and/; a cellar, g; which,
if thought necessary, might be connected with the kitchen ; a place for fuel, h ; dusthole,
t ; and privy, k. The chamber floor contains three good bed-rooms, I, m, and o ; and a
light closet, p.
453. Construction. The walls are supposed to be rubble-stone ; the roof covered with
slate ; and the chimney tops, coping of the side walls, and tabling of the gable ends of
tooled stone. The doors and windows have plain stone facings. The guttering is
formed as in fig. 120.
378 379 380 381
454. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 22,839 feet, at 6d. per foot, £520 : 9s. : 9d.
at 4<f., £380: 6s: 6d. ; and at 3d., £2b5 : 4s. : 10±d.
382
383
384
385
455. Remarks. This building will be known at once to be in the Scotch style. This
style, which is also common in the north of France and in Flanders, prevails in all those
parts of Scotland where freestone is abundant ; varying sometimes with plain tabling ;
with the tabling stones raised one
above another like the steps of a stair,
as in Design XI. ; or in various other
forms, as in figs. 378 to 385. As the
chief characteristic beauty of this
manner of building depends on the
gables, we have given these different
forms, which the reader may vary at
pleasure. The next characteristic
is the storm-head windows, fig. 386;
and these admit of as great a variety
as the gable ends. A third distinction
of this style is the facings to the doors
and windows, which may also be con-
siderably varied. The chimney tops
are generally very simple. Loopholes
224" COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
and very small gable windows are frequently introduced, partly to give character, but chiefly
for ventilation ; and these also may be considerably varied. It is remarkable that houses in
this style, which is evidently one attended with considerable expense in stone-cutting, are
seldom found with a porch ; though this appendage, in a climate like that of Scotland,
would be of the most essential service in point of comfort : a porch in Scotland, however,
is seldom seen to any building under the rank of a villa. The Design before us is given
more as a specimen of the Scotch style, than as a model ; though it is certainly commodious,
and convenient in its arrangement. It would be much improved by a string course
under the chamber-floor windows, and by squared stones at the corners. A better effect
would have been produced in the elevation, as well as more heat in the interior, by
having the fireplaces of the two living-rooms, e and /, against the partitions which
separate them from the stair. These alterations made, and a porch added, the result would
be fig. 387, which may be described as a specimen of the improved Scotch style of
tradesmen's houses. In this figure, the vertical and horizontal bond, both in regularly
hewn stone, and the panels filled up with rubble-work on the cementitious principle,
will be distinctly observed. Expression is by these means given to a mere wall, as such,
without reference to what it has to support or enclose. The young architectural reader
ought constantly to bear in mind, not only that every building ought to have its appro-
priate expression obvious at first glance, but that every separate part of a building
ought to have its separate expression. The student ought, therefore, to exercise himself
in endeavouring to analyse every edifice that comes before him, so as to be able to feci
the force of every effect, and to refer it to its cause. Two of the windows of the ori-
ginal Design, p. 216, are false; which, in buildings of this class, is to us an abomination.
Design LXXIII. — A Dwelling, Three Stories high, with Four Rooms, and various
Conveniences.
456. Accommodation. From a porch, a, the door enters into a lobby, b ; whence
there is a closet, c, under the staircase ; there are a kitchen, d ; back kitchen, e ; pantry,
/; parlour, g ; closet cupboard, h; root-cellar, i ; place for fuel, k ; dusthole, I; and
privy, m. The chamber floor contains
two good bed-rooms, n and o ; with a
closet, p ; and a landing to the stairs, q.
The garret, which is entered by a
trapdoor from this landing, is in one
large room, lighted by a dormer window.
457. Construction and Remarks. The
walls may be of rammed earth, of mud,
or of rubble-stone ; with the exception
of the partitions, and the walls to i, h,
I, and m, which may be of clay nogging.
Near London, and in other situations
where labour is high, walls of brick on
edge, hollow, in Dearn's manner, § 336,
would be equally cheap, and preferable
on account of their neatness and dura-
bility. The roof is shown thatched,
and without guttering, which, however,
may be added ; in which case it should
be of wood or of cast iron, with an
exterior moulding, as in fig. 388. In
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. <2C25
LXXIII.
226
COTTAGE, IWKM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
i.xxrv.
LXXV.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
22?
general, however, thatched roofs should either project so far as to protect the wall and
windows, and also a space of two feet broad, to serve as a passage, and thus render a
gutter unnecessary ; or, they should have two or three feet at the eaves tiled or slated,
in which latter case a much cheaper and neater form of guttering may be adopted ; say
as in fig. 389. One reason why guttering is objectionable to all thatched roofs is, that, by
the continual decay of the thatch, they
are very apt to become choked up. A
large clumsy gutter, like that shown
in fig. 388, is, no doubt, less liable to
this than a smaller gutter, such as is
suitable for a thatched roof with slated
eaves, like that in fig. 3S9 ; but both will
be found to require continual attention,
and, after every violent shower, to be apt
to choke up the descending pipe. There rA
is a porch of trelliswork to this Design, |[
which is so far good, as any description of
porch is better than none ; but there are
two trunks of trees, in the manner of
columns, without plinths below, and with-
out any thing in the way of an entablature
above, which, we must say, we think in
superlatively bad taste. What can be worse
than a column supporting nothing but
thatch ? There is a false window to the
parlour, on one side of the porch, which we disapprove of; because there must be
something deficient in the invention of the Architect, when such windows are found
requisite in buildings of this description. A window in a thatched roof is always bad ;
because the number of angles which it presents to the wind and the weather,. makes the
thatch which covers them go rapidly into decay, and soon admit the rain. If such
windows are ever admitted, they should be in the style of that shown in Design XX.,
or in fig. 157. We never can bring ourselves to consider thatch as a proper covering
for a building of two stories ; we would limit it to low buildings, with mud or rubble-
stone walls, and where no guttering was required : but let taste be free. The compact-
ness of the plan, however, is commendable ; and this is, perhaps, all that we can say in
its favour. The cubic contents of this Design are 19,632 feet, from which our readers
may easily form a General Estimate.
Design LXXIV. — Design for a Cottage Dwelling, in the Old English Style, and of a
Construction suitable for having Part of the Walls covered with Weather- Tiling.
458. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 390, contains an entrance-lobby, a ;
hall and staircase, b ; parlour, c ; kitchen, d ; wash-house, with oven-boiler and sink, e ;
pantry, /; dairy, g ; beer cellar, h ; and coal cellar, i. The chamber floor, fig. 391,
contains three good bed-rooms, k, I, and m ; and a light bed-closet over the lobby, n.
391
N
w
459. Construction. The foundations and walls of the ground-floor story should be of
brick, or of rough stone with brick dressings (bricks at all the angles, whether of doors,
windows, or corners), and with brick arches to the windows. These walls, of whatever
material constructed, should have what is called a Welsh cornice (two or three over
sailing (protruding) courses of brickwork, one of which has dentils, formed by the end;
Q°28 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
392
393
l
1
■
.
»
1
<
1
1
V
1 1
1
1
1 •
Y
396
i
397
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. QQQ
of bricks projecting at equal and regular distances, ) to finish with at top ; in order that
the lower part of the weather-tiling, which is to cover the bed-room walls, may incline
outwards, for the purpose of throwing off the water, and preventing it from running
down the walls of the ground floor. The external partitions of the chamber floor should
be formed of timber framing, lathed horizontally, to receive the tiling, which may be of
any pattern, according to fancy. Our contributor has sent sketches, figs. 392 to 402, of
all the different kinds which he recollects having seen ; but as two or three sorts are
generally used together, arranged alternately, it would be fruitless, he says, " to attempt
sending all their combinations. It is very common to have two, three, or more courses
of ornamental tiles, separated by a row of plain ones, which has a good effect." For the
present Design he recommends employing successive courses of figs. 393, 394, and 395,
separated by a course of fig. 392, as shown in fig. 402, " which would produce an agree-
able play of light and 402
shade, showing off some
of the most pleasing
alternations of straight
and waved lines that this
species of material is
capable of producing."
It will generally be
found advisable to colour
the whole of the weather-
tiling a light stone or
cream colour, and the
brick or stone walls
below may be left un-
coloured, or not, accord-
ing to whether the
natural tint of the ma-
terial employed is agree-
able or otherwise. The
roof is to be covered
with the common plain tiles, and its picturesque beauty will be much improved if
they are old ones that have lost the glaring hue which all tiles have when they are
fresh from the kiln." With respect to colouring the materials of a building, it may
be observed that it is not liable to the same objections as either plastering them
over, or roughcasting or whitewashing them ; because colouring, being much thinner,
does not, to the same extent, disguise the nature of the material, and thus either destroy
the natural expression of, or give a false expression to, the wall. A wall may be said to
have its true and natural expression, when, at the first glance, it shows the materials of
which it has been constructed ; the manner in which these materials have been put
together ; and the principles of construction on which it depends for its stability, strength,
and duration. Now, a brick or stone wall, on the external face of which the distinct
shapes of the bricks or stones are clearly discernible to the eye, is the same thing, in
point of the useful qualities mentioned, whatever may be its colour ; but if the joints of
the stones or bricks, and their surfaces, are covered with plaster or roughcast, or with
such a thick coat of whitewash as to obliterate their forms and lines, the wall has lost its
natural expression : it may be of brick, or it may be of hewn stone ; but as every body
knows that whitewashing is
generally applied for the pur- f j 4Q3
pose of disguise or conceal-
ment, it is fair to conclude
that, wherever it occurs on
the external walls of buildings,
they are made of lath and
plaster, or mud. To return to
our Design, the general effect
of the weather-tiling will be
seen in the elevation of the
entrance, or north-west front,
fig. 404 ; in the south-west side,
fig. 405 ; in the south-east end,
fig. 406 ; and in the north-east
side, fig. 407. The use of
weather-tiling in England is
chiefly confined to the marine
230 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
_.__._•_._.__ 1;_:.....
Cubic contents, 18,749 feet, at 6d. per foot, i.468 : 14s.
districts, where it is employed for casing the walls of buildings, whether formed of
wood, brick, or stone, to protect tbem from
driving winds that carry with them the spray
of the sea, which, from the salt it contains,
would otherwise render the walls damp.
Weather-tiling is also used in some parts of
the interior of the country, on the south-
west and west sides of buildings, to protect
them from the rains, which, in England, are
not only more frequent from that quarter
than from any other, but which are almost
always accompanied by high driving winds.
The most suitable weather-tiling, for this
purpose, is that commonly called mathe-
matical tiling, which is made to imitate
bricks; but we shall defer our description
of tliis kind of tiling till some future oc-
casion.
460. General Estimate.
6d. ; at Ad., i.312 : 9s. : 8d. ; and at 3d., £234 : 7s.
461. Remarks. This Design has been sent
us by our valuable contributor Mr. Varden,
chiefly with a view of showing the applica-
tion of weather-tiling, as practised in the
neighbourhood of Guildford, in Surrey.
Speaking of the Design before us, its author
observes that " it is one of the largest erec-
tions for which this manner is suitable.
The effect generally pleases, from its homely
and comfortable appearance. The masses
are usually very irregular, convenience being
more studied than uniformity ; nevertheless,
sometimes combinations of form occur, that
would be highly gratifying to a lover of the
picturesque, and might even afford useful
hints to the professional Architect. This
manner of building requiring an economical
plan, the Architect avoids all breaks that are not absolutely necessary, and never
allows the roof to project more than is wanted to throw off the water clear of the walls.
Ornament is never intentionally introduced;
and there is nothing in this style incompati-
ble with the humble character of a cottage
dwelling." The ground plan is compact,
and the two principal fire-places are against
the interior walls. It would have been easy
to have changed the position of the oven
and boiler in e, so as to have carried up the
flues from them along with the others, and
thus had only one stack of chimneys instead
of two ; but our contributor, in all pro-
bability thought that the boiler woidd be
more convenient adjoining the sink ; and,
perhaps, also, he considered that two chim-
neys in the elevation would be more pic-
turesque than one. For our own part, we
consider that a boiler and an oven, when
placed in the interior of a house, add so much to its comfort by serving as reservoirs of
heat, that we always regret to see them placed against outside walls. Many persons, we
are persuaded, are not sufficiently aware of the great quantity of heat that is generated
in an oven, by the consumption of the most worthless looking spray or brushwood,
which no good housewife would ever think of burning in an open fire-place. It is oidy
by having an oven, surrounded by a mass of brickwork, that this spray can be properly
turned to account ; burned in an open fire, its heat is dispersed in the atmosphere, and
speedily lost to the apartment; but burned in an oven, and the more rapidly the better,
its heat is absorbed by the brickwork, and continues to be given out slowly during many
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
231
hours afterwards, to whatever surrounds it. If the oven has a horizontal flue proceeding
from it, either under the floor as in our model cottages, or above it as a bench in the
German or Chinese manner, both to he hereafter described, the heat given out will be so
much the greater. The occupiers of cottages have much to learn in respect to the best
mode of consuming fuel, and economising heat : but to be taught this they must become
readers ; or, we must have parochial discourses on economical subjects, as well as sermons
on religious and moral duties.
Design LXXV. — A Cottage in the Old English Manner, containing on the Ground Floor
a Living-room, Kitchen, and other Conveniences, with Two Bed-rooms over.
462. Accommodation. From the front porch, fig. 407, a, the entrance is to a passage
and staircase, which leads on the left to a living-room, b ; and on the right, to a kitchen,
c ; from which there is a closet, or coal
cellar, under the stairs. From the kit-
chen there is a door to the dairy, d ;
and another to a lobby, which leads
to the water-closet, e ; and to the
common entrance porch, f. There
are a cow-house, g ; a pigsty, h ; and
a place for hay and straw, i. The
chamber floor, fig. 408, contains two
good bed-rooms, k and / ; one of which
has a fireplace.
463. Construction. The walls are of brick nine
titions are of brick nogging flat. The roof is slated,
and the chimney stacks are of brick set angularly.
These angular chimneys are thus constructed : the shaft
being finished square, as shown in fig. 409, an earthen-
ware circular flue-pipe is placed over the opening of the
chimney, and the square flue is made to unite smoothly
with it, by being pargeted with mortar made of fresh
lime and powdered brick. Bricks are then built round
the upright pipe, leaving vacuities not filled up with
mortar, in the four angles formed between the bricks
and the pipe. As the work is raised in height, pipes are
added ; the length of each pipe being two feet, and each
having an outside rebate at one end, and an inside rebate
at the other, so as to admit of a perfect junction. We
inches
thick, and
409
the par-
may observe that the diameter of these pipes may be from
nine to thirteen inches, according to the size of the fire-
place below; and we shall show, in Book III. of this work,
that by having tubes of this sort, of two feet, one foot, nine
inches, and six inches, rebated as above, flues might be
built in any direction, however crooked, which would require
no climbing boy to sweep them, and would be attended, as
we think, with all or most of the advantages of the circular
flues of Hiort, Chadley, or Smith, at a comparatively trifling
expense. Fig. 410 shows the plan of the projecting bricks
set on edge, which form the dentils that support the capital
of the shaft. Fig. 411 represents one of the chimney tops
232 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
complete, with its base, m ; shaft, n ; capital, o ; and
capping, p. Wherever a " tall boy" (see § 432.) is
required to make a chimney draw, we would enclose
it with brick or stone, in this, or in some similar
manner, and thus get rid of those house-top de-
formities so cleverly ridiculed in the Mechanic's
Magazine, vol. xvii. p. 316. " How generally," says
this writer, " do we see fine terminations become
pedestals for every foul thing in the shape of a cowl,
a mitred, a caped, an uncaped, a vandyked, a per-
forated, a conical, a crooked, or a straight, " tall
boy ; " or to support a black pot, or a red pot, or
some of the numerous devices which start up in such
great profusion and variety, as soon as a new house
is inhabited, or an old one changes its tenant : thus,
as it were, proclaiming from the house-top, that the
Architect and builder have been unsuccessful, and
that some variety or other of the tinker's or potter's
whims, to charm or coax out the smoke, has pre-
vailed." What are called the genteel cottages about
London, indeed, are, in this respect, a disgrace to
their Architects and builders. The cow-house, hay-
shed, and piggery arc supposed to be of studwork,
weather-boarded, and roofed with pantiles. The ceiling of the living-room is curbed,
or coved at the sides (see the section fig. 412), by which means some addition is made to
its height from the roof. Further details of construction will be found in the following
specification and estimate ; which, it may be observed, does not include the cow-house,
hay-shed, and pigsty; the ingenious contributors of this Design, Messrs. W. and
H. Laxton, considering that the occupant might be able, with a little assistance from
a carpenter, to erect these additions at his leisure hours. The prices stated in the esti-
mate, we should observe, are calculated for the neighbourhood of London, in the year
1832.
464. Bricklayer and Digger's Work. To build the walls, as shown in the plan, one
brick thick, with one brick and a half footing, one foot high : —
£
Five rods of reduced stock brickwork, at £\2 per rod 60
Twenty-four yards and a half superficial of brick nogging flat, to the
partitions on the ground-floor, at 3s. : 3d. per yard 3
Two yards superficial of stock brick paving laid flat, for the closet or
coal cellar under the stairs, at 2*. : 3d. per yard 0
Two hundred and fifty-two feet superficial of foot tile paving to the
kitchen, dairy, and fire-places, at 6d. per foot 6
Twenty-five feet lineal of eight-inch draining pipes, and digging for
laying them, from the water-closet and sinkhole, to a tank in the
yard, or some other part of the grounds, at Is. per foot 1
A cast-iron basin and trap to the water-closet, figs. 413, 414, and
415 O : 10 : 0
s. d.
0 : 0
19 : 8
4 : 6
6 : 0
5 : 0
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
233
(Fig. 413 is the surface plan of the basin; and fig. 414 is a £ s, d.
view of it before it is built in. Fig. 415 is a section of the
basin, as built in ; in which q is the trap ; r, the riser of the seat ;
s, the seat ; t t, the brickwork of the drain ; and u, the drain.
It is evident, from this figure, that no smell can penetrate from
u upwards, it being intercepted by the trap, q ; and the water
into which it dips.)
Digging out foundation, levelling, &c, say 1
Ten squares of countess slating, laid on three quarters of an inch
battening, with eaves, board's, and tilting fillets to the rakes, com-
plete 17
Forty feet six inches lineal of ridge tiles 0
Three chimney pots formed in brickwork, set angularly 1
.£92 :
465. Carpenter's Work.
Rafter and ceiling joists, four inches by two inches ; ridge pieces,
nine inches by two inches ; wall plates, four inches by four inches ;
purlins, four inches by four inches ; joists, seven inches by two
inches and a half; bond, four inches by two inches and a half;
and lintels, four inches by four inches : one hundred and forty-
eight cubic feet of Memel fir timber, including labour and nails... 25
Three squares and a half of four-inch quartering in partitions,
framed complete 5 :
Three squares and a half of one-inch deal wrought folding floors... 7 :
One hundred and seventeen feet lineal of skirting worked out of two-
cut battens, including wooden bricks and backings 2 :
Seventy-four feet superficial of one inch and a half square framed
partition, between the stairs and the small bed-room 2 :
Eight one inch and a half four-paneled square doors, six feet six
inches high, by two feet six inches wide, with one inch and a
quarter single rebated linings, and a moulding round both sides ;
hung with three-inch butt hinges, and having a six-inch iron-rim
two-bolt lock to each 11 :
Two outside bead butt and square doors, with fir frames, four inches
by three inches, rebated and beaded, with a moulding round
inside. The doors hung with three-inch butt hinges ; and having
two bolts, and a seven-inch three-bolt iron-rim lock to each 3 :
Four window frames and mullions, containing seventy-six feet lineal,
of one and a half inch deal, wrought, rebated, and beaded, four and
a half inches wide, with forty-eight feet lineal of moulding round
the frames inside 2
One bay or bow window in three divisions, containing thirty-eight
feet six inches lineal frame and mullions, four inches by four inches,
wrought, framed, rebated, and beaded. Twenty-four feet lineal
of moulding inside, and fourteen feet lineal of moulded cornice
and base, to the top and bottom of the frame outside 1 j
Six three-quarter-inch proper ledged lifting shutters to the lower
windows, four feet by one foot six inches, with fastenings 2
A flight of stairs, containing fifty-three feet superficial of one and a
quarter inch deal steps, and inch risers, bracketed and housed into
A A
0 : 0
10 : O
13 : 6
10 : 0
18 : 8
18 : 0
5 : O
0 : 0
8 : 9
15 : 6
4 : O
12 : 0
0 : 0
10: 0
5: 0
234.
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
strings, fifteen feet superficial, one inch and a half deal wall string, £
and seven feet superficial of ramped ditto ; twenty-five feet lineal
of beaded capping, and three feet of framed newel 3 :
One small skylight, frame and lining, to the upper part of the stairs,
in the roof. 0 :
One and a quarter inch deal seat, riser, and bearer, to the water-
closet, with hole cut and cover lined, and skirting round 0 : 12
17 • 0
7 : 0
£ 68 : 14
466. Plasterer's Work.
Sixty yards of lath, plaster, set, and whiting, for the ceilings 4 : 0
Twenty-three yards of ditto and colouring, for the partition 1 : 14
One hundred and sixty yards of plaster, set, and colouring, for the
walls "... 6 : 0
Eighty-six feet lineal of cement skirting, seven inches wide, to the
kitchen and dairy 1 : 8
416
468. Sundries.
Ten feet lineal of three-quarter-inch pipe, with stopcock to the
water-closet
Seventy-five feet superficial glazing to casements in small squares
Seven iron casements, as in fig. 287, three feet four inches by one
foot seven inches ; and seven ditto, four feet by one foot seven
inches
Painting woodwork inside and outside, four times, in oil colours
Centring for doors, windows, and chimneys, and bedding and
pointing (filling up the joints)
417
£ 13 : 3 : 2
467. Stonemason's Work.
A moulded profile stone chimney-piece to the living-room ; and a set
of flat jambs, mantle, and slabs to the bed-room ; and a set of one
inch and a half ditto to the kitchen 3: 5:0
Four stone sills to the windows, and two stone steps to the outside
doors 2 : 5:0
A stone sink seven feet super-
ficial, with grating and iron
socket, waste pipe, two five-
holes sink stones (dish hol-
lowed out), fig. 416 1 : 14 : 0
£ 7 : 4:0
1:0:0
4:7: 6
5:15:6
4 : 0:0
1:0:0
3 : 0
6 : 0
10 : 0
£16
469. Extra Work for the Porch.
Twenty-six feet reduced brickwork in the footings, and digging out
the foundations for them 1
Eight yards superficial of pebble paving 1
Three quarters of a square of slating and battening 1
Nine oak posts, five inches square, with chamfered angles, and having
the slabs of trees with the bark on, nailed round them, to imitate
the trunks of trees, fig. 417 4
(Trunks of trees very soon rot, if the bark
be not removed ; and the mode above
recommended has all the appearance
required, with increased durability.)
Eighteen one-foot tiles for the tops and
bottoms of the posts 0: 9:0
Ten branches of trees to form arches 1 : 5:0
Twenty cubic feet of Memel fir to the
roof 3 : 10 : 0
Thirty-seven feet six inches superficial of
three quarters of an inch deal soffit and
fascia wrought and beaded 0:18:9
£ 14 : 9:0
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. <235
470. Extra Expenses to the Exterior of the House.
Eighty-one feet lineal three-quarter-inch deal eaves, fascia headed, £ s. a.
with lath and stucco soffits and backings, and cast-iron eaves gut-
ters, and painting 8 : 2:0
Thirty feet lineal of two-inch cast-iron pipes, with heads and shoes 2 : 0:0
Sixty-six feet lineal one and a half inch verge board to gables, ten
inches wide, wrought, moulded, and cut, with stuccoed soffits 4 : 19 : 0
Two oaken pinnacles O : 12:0
Label moulding to three windows O : 15 : ()
Seventy-six lineal feet of beading round the ceilings of the living-
room (fig. 418.) 0:19:0
£ 17 : 7:0
471. Summary of Estimates.
Bricklayer and Digger 92 : 18 : 8
Carpenter 68 : 14 : 3
Plasterer 13 : 3:2
Stonemason 7 : 4 : O
Sundries 16: 3:0
Total expense of the building,
418 plain ,£198: 3:1
Extra work for the porch 14 : 9:0
Extra expenses to the exterior ... 17 : 7:0
Total expense with a porch
and other extras ^229: 19: 1
472. General Estimate. The cubic contents of this dwelling are 11,686 feet, which,
at 6d. per foot, make ,£292 : 3s. ; at Id., £194 : 15s. 4(7. ; and at 3c?., £146: Is. : 6d.
As Mr. Laxton's estimate amounts to £229: 19s., it thus appears that about 4jrf. per
foot is a fair price for buildings of this description, in the neighbourhood of London, in
the year 1832.
473. Remarks. The general effect of this building is good; but, for comfort, and
especially warmth, the chimneys ought not to have been in the outside walls. In
countries where fuel is abundant, or in those where fire is wanted chiefly for cooking
and washing, this will be no great objection ; but, in Britain, no exterior beauty or cha-
racter can, in our opinion, compensate for having the fireplaces in the outside walrs.
"When the chimneys are in the interior walls, they not only keep the whole house warm,
but they invariably draw better. Knowing, and being deeply impressed with, these two
facts, chimney shafts, when rising from the centre of a roof, always appear to us more
beautiful than in any other position; and in this sentiment we think we are correct,
because the origin of all beauty must necessarily be utility. The difference between us
and those who prefer the chimney shafts on the gable ends, consists in their judging with
reference to a different standard. If we ask what that standard is, we shall generally
be told that it is picturesque effect; sometimes, perhaps, the imitation of particular styles
of cottage building, which have resulted from accident ; and occasionally, though rarely,
symmetry and regularity. In our opinion, the grand and fundamental principle of
exterior beauty in dwellings is to be found in their internal accommodation and comfort.
Whatever is required by or consonant with this, must be beautiful in the eye of reason;
and all exterior beauty inconsistent with this, must depend on associations, which, not
having their origin in reason, may be called arbitrary or accidental, and ought there-
fore not to be relied upon. All Architecture being founded on necessity and reason,
and not on the imitation of any objects whatever, either of nature or art, it follows
that the external beauty of any edifice as a whole can never be truly judged of, without a
knowledge of the uses for which it is designed. So also the beauty or propriety
of the various parts and details of a building, such as walls, supports, openings,
&c, cannot be properly appreciated, unless we know the nature of the materials em-
ployed. We cannot, for example, decide as to the width of a doorway or a window,
unless we know the materials of the wall in which the opening is made ; as well as
the mode, whether by an arch or a lintel, in which that opening is covered. Neither can
we estimate the weight which any prop or column will bear, unless we know the
material of which it is composed. The proportions of a column, in timber, which may be
very suitable for what it has to support, and therefore beautiful, would be more than
sufficient, and therefore cumbrous and inelegant, in stone, and still more so in iron. It
is true, that, in judging of doors, windows, and columns, a very small portion of man-
236
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
kind do so with reference to this standard ; but it is not, on that account, the less founded
on reason. The common standards of Architects, whatever may be the material em-
ployed, are the models handed down to us by the ancients ; and the common standards of
the rest of mankind are the works erected by the Architects for the time being. Thus
precedent takes the place of principle; and in Architecture, as in every thing else, fashion
ultimately usurps the part of reason. But it is the province of criticism to test the fashions
of the day, by a recurrence to first principles, and to endeavour to recall mankind to the
consideration of fundamental laws. In no art is this more requisite than in Architecture;
the pretended knowledge of which has hitherto, in all ages and countries, been in the
hands of a few ; but which, to be improved and brought to perfection, ought to have its
principles universally studied and understood, so as that its works may be examined and
criticised on these principles by the many. In the infancy of all art, the many are ne-
cessarily led by the artists, and their arbitrary rules become law ; but, with the progress
of things, the many become enlightened, and, judging for themselves, force the professors
of art to recur to fundamental principles ; and it is self-evident, that, in a useful art, these
principles must be based on utility. These remarks are not more applicable to this
Design than they are to several others; but we consider it necessary to make them, with
a view of impressing on our readers the necessity of mainly depending upon their reason,
in judging of all architectural works whatever.
Design LXXVI. — A Cottage Dwelling, One Story high, containing Six Rooms, a
Wash-house, and other Conveniences.
474. Accommodation and Construction. The ground plan, fig. 419, contains an
entrance-porch, a ; breakfast-room, b ; dining-parlour, c ; two good bed-rooms, d and e ;
with two closets in d ; a servant's bed-room, f; kitchen, g ; wash-house, h ; and privy,
419
k. There is a cellar under c, which is descended to by the stairs, I. A well may be
dug, and a pump fixed either in the wash-house, or in the yard, ni. The wall n may
be continued at convenience, the south-east side of it enclosing a yard, in which may be
placed a chicken-coop, pigsty, coal-house, dirt-bin, wood-house, and other conveniences ;
and the north-west side may form one wall of the garden, against which, of course, fruit
trees may be trained. It is proposed to have a cistern for rain water, over a part of
the wash-house, to be formed of wood, and lined with zinc, as being much cheaper than
lead. To this the water is to be conveyed by large wooden gutters, lined with zinc, to
the thatched roof. The waste water from this cistern, and from the wash-house and
from the pump, is to be led through the drain of the privy, to the liquid manure tank.
The walls arc proposed to he of chalk-stone with brick comers ; and with brick facings
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 23J
and labels to the doors and windows, which arc intended to have stone sills ; the roof is
to he thatched with reeds, and the chimney tops are to be formed of Roman cement.
The whole is to be embraced by a platform on three sides.
475. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 13,308 feet, at 6d. per foot, ,£332 : 14s. ;
at 4d., £221 : 16s. ; and at 3d., £166 : 7s.
476. Remarks. This Design, which has been sent to us by our much-valued contri-
butor, Samuel Taylor, Esq., of Stoke Ferry, Norfolk, is calculated for being built of
chalk-stone, which forms the cheapest material of that country, and for being covered
with reeds, the produce of the adjoining fens. It forms a comfortable and commodious
dwelling, expressive of what it is ; and, from the height of the walls and the proportions of
the windows, is rather elegant than otherwise. We cannot justify the Gothic labels over
the doors and windows, immediately under a far-projecting roof; because no other part
of the building is in the Gothic style, and because labels of any kind, in such a situation,
cease to have any character of use. " From truth and use all beauties flow." (Epistle
to Lord Lowther on Building and Planting.)
Design LXXVII. — The Model Cottages of the Labourer's Friend Society, as erected
at Shooter's Hill, Kent.
These cottages are built in pairs, in such a manner as to have
420
r^
CI ZD
421
477. Accmnmodation.
the fireplaces in the
party walls ; the
ground plan, fig. 420,
shows, for each cot-
tage, an entrance-
porch, a ; kitchen, b ;
pantry, c ; and closet
under the stairs, d.
The chamber floor,
fig. 421, shows two
good bed-chambers to
each cottage, without
fireplaces. The privy,
pigsty, and other con-
veniences, are built
apart. To each double
cottage are annexed two acres and a half of land.
478. Construction. The
walls are raised on grouted
foundations (grout is com-
posed of fresh lime and
gravel, mixed, and imme-
diately thrown in, beaten
down, and left some days
to consolidate), two feet
broad and two feet deep ;
over which are two courses
of twenty-two inches in
width, and two of eighteen
inches, as a footing, and
four courses of fourteen
inches as a plinth. The
walls above are nine inches,
and hollow, and one course of slates is laid before the floors commence. The bricks
are all hard stocks ; the timber Swedish or Baltic ; the window sills and landings of York
stone ; the chamber flooring of inch and quarter deal, ploughed and tongued (a groove
made along the edge of one board, and a tongue or projection worked along the edge of
the other, to fit into it, fig. 422) ; the window casements are of iron, and the roof slated.
The course of slates is laid along the walls, just beneath the ground floor, in order to pre-
vent the damp from rising through the vacuities, which are two inches wide, being
formed in the manner shown in fig. 7, § 25. The brickwork is worked to a smooth
face inside, and not plastered, but only whitewashed. The outside of the walls is thus
left rough, and it is brought to an even surface by rough-casting it with a mix-
ture of lime and fine gravel, which, when completed, has the colour and texture of
Rath stone. ^ The floors of these cottages are fifteen inches above the general level of
the surrounding ground : twelve inches of this space is filled with gravel, and the top
!□□!
"~1
422
238 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
three inches with grouting, which forms a hard bottom, upon which is laid
foot square paving tiles. The roof, as shown in fig. 423, ^^
projects, in order to keep the walls dry. I J3
479. Estimate. Twelve of these cottages have been
erected on Shooter's Iliil, at £115 per pair, under
the direction of our contributor, W. Bard well, Esq.,
for the Labourer's Friend Society. The cubic contents
of the building are 9620 feet ; which shows that 2f d.
per cubic foot is the proper rate for making a general
estimate for this description of dwelling.
480. Remarks. This Design, which has been pub-
lished in Facts and Illustrations demonstrating the
Benefits derived by Labourers from possessing small
Portions of Land, $t., vol. i. p. 31, was recommended
to us, for our work, by its author, Mr. Bardwell.
Considering the size of the rooms, these dwellings are
certainly remarkably cheap ; and we are informed that,
in consequence of the grouted floors and hollow walls,
they are the driest cottages in the neighbourhood
where they are built. We agree with the writer, who
describes them in the work referred to, that, as all the
materials arc of the best quality, these cottages will be
as durable as they are cheap ; and that they may justly
be considered elegant, from the proportions of the
openings, the pediment ends, the low pitch of the
roof, and " the Doric simplicity of their general form."
a flooring of
The quantity of land annexed
to them seems large ; but the reason may be that the occupiers are supposed not to have
regular employment, and to find a ready market for garden produce.
Design LXXVIII. — Six Cottage Dwellings, built at Abersychan, near Fontypool, in
South Wales, with One common Wash-house and Bakehouse.
481. The object of building these dwellings, of which fig. 424 is the elevation, and 425
424
the ground plan, both to a scale of five sixteenths of an inch to ten feet, was to afford
lodgings for the workmen of Messrs. Jones and Wilcox, builders, of Bristol, during the
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
239
time they were employed in erecting the extensive furnaces of the British Iron Com-
pany at Abersychan.
482. Accommodation. The ground plan of each dwelling shows a passage, with a
wooden dresser along the side, fig. 425, a ; living-room, b ; and back-kitchen, c ; over
425
"33
which are two good bed-rooms. There are a wash-house, d, with two boilers and two
ovens, common to the whole ; and four privies, e e e e. The front room, over the bake-
house, belongs to the dwelling,/, which was occupied by the foreman of the masons; and
the back room, over the privies, belongs to the dwelling, g, which was occupied by the
foreman of the smiths. Each dwelling has a strip of garden-ground behind, and they
are all supplied with water by a mountain stream, which afterwards passes through the
drains of the privies.
483. Construction. The walls are of stone, quarried on the spot ; the outside and
party walls are eighteen inches in thickness, and the inside ones one foot. The floors
are paved with stone, and the roofs covered with grey slate. The elevation, fig. 424, is
wholly without ornament.
484. Estimate. These dwellings cost, including the wash-house, privies, enclosing
the garden ground, &c, £800, which gives <£J1S3 : 6s. : 8d. for each cottage. As the
whole line of building contains 61,005 cubic feet, it appears that 3d. per foot is the proper
sum for employing in its general estimate.
485. Remarks, This Design was sent us by our esteemed friend, Samuel Taylor, Esq.,
as a specimen of a very cheap and simple mode of building dwellings of the lowest degree
of accommodation in a stone country. The elevation has nothing to recommend it in
point of effect : but, by advancing the wash-house in front ; by putting a screen wall be-
fore the privies behind ; by reversing the position of the doors of the three dwellings on
the right-hand side of the centre, in order to get the fireplace of the end one against a
party-wall, as well as to maintain uniformity in the position of the doors and windows ;
by projecting the roof at the eaves, and forming pediment ends ; by introducing a string
426
n n ninnin n f
y
n n nn an d
course under the bed-room windows ; and by raising and ornamenting the chimney tops,
a very superior description both of elevation and plan, figs. 426 and 427 will be produced.
INI il=ll 1ST
240
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
If such a line of cottages were erected in a country where fuel was dearer than
it is at Abersychan, it might be worth while to keep the floor of the wash-house three
feet lower than that of the dwellings, and to conduct the flues from the bodcrs and ovens
under the floors of the living-rooms, in the manner indicated in §19. Perhaps some
might think that it would be an improvement in our elevation, fig. 426, to bring the
windows of the living-rooms more into the middle of the space between the door and the
party-wall; and also to bring the door to the back-kitchen into the middle of the space
between the passage door and that party-wall, as in figs. 428 and 429 ; and we grant ,t
429 /
IU1 INI IMI M
430
would, looking no farther than mere symmetry : but in figs. 425 and 427 there arc
spaces in the living-rooms at h, and also at i, in which a person may
be seated at work without being in the draught between any opening
and the fireplace ; and also in which tables or dressers might be
placed : but supposing the door of the back-kitchen and the front
window placed in the middle of their respective walls, as in fig. 429,
there will be no place for either table or dresser, and the
whole room will become, as observed by one of our correspondents
§ 365, a complete " Temple of the Winds." Thus, though there
cannot be a doubt that, in point of architectural symmetry, the
elevation, fig. 428, is much more beautiful than fig. 426 ; yet, in
point of fitness, that is, with reference to the interior plan, the
latter is decidedly more beautiful than the former. Can there be a
doubt, then, which kind of beauty ought to be preferred, in cases
of this sort ? We say there cannot. The most useful is unques-
tionably the most beautiful. When the question is between a
beauty belonging to the expression of art, and a beauty con-
nected with fitness for enjoyment, it is clear to us that the decision
ought to be in favour of the latter. The great object of the
Architect ought to be, to combine the two species of beauty; but as
this cannot be done in every case, it is clear, that in judging of
a building merely by its exterior, unless we are intimately ac-
quainted with its use, we can only decide as to its symmetry, or
other architectural expression. To form a just taste in architec-
ture therefore, it is as necessary to study all the various purposes
to which the different parts of the interiors of buildings are applied ;
and the different modes of lighting, warming, and ventilating, of
supplying water and draining, of avoiding bad smells, damp, dry rot
&c, as it is to study the original or conventional beauty of lines and
forms. It may be useful to observe that the chimney tops in figs.
426 and 428 are formed by setting up four slate stones, such as
fig. 430, two about a foot, and two about eighteen inches broad, and all from three to four
feet high ; firmly 4'
431 Handling them to the
top of the chimney
shaft with cement,
and sometimes cramp-
ing them with iron
into each other. Over
these slates is placed
a two-feet square slab,
fig. 431 ; and on that a truncated pyramidal stone, fourteen or sixteen niches square
at the base, fig. 432. The handsomest cottage chimneys on the banks of the lakes of
Cumberland and Westmoreland are formed in this manner ; and we shall give specimens
of xiine of them in the historical part of this work.
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
241
433
Design LXXIX. — Twelve or more Cottages in a Row, with a Kitchen, Wash-house, and
other Conveniences, in common ; the whole heated by the Fires in the public Kitchen.
486. The object of this Design is to show how the modes of heating under the ground
floor, and of having a common kitchen and wash-house, may he applied to a number of
houses together, so as to produce very comfortable dwellings at a very moderate expense.
By rendering fireplaces and chimneys unnecessary, not only is the expense of building
them avoided, but also that of employing any other material than mud or earth in any
part of the walls, or of having them, in any part, more than nine or ten feet high. It
will be evident, after considering this Design in detail, that the domestic labours of a
family living in one of these dwellings will be considerably diminished, and their com-
forts, at the same time, greatly increased.
487. Ground Plan of the public Offices. The dwellings and offices may be either erected
in a straight line, or in a curved line ; or they may form two or more sides of a qua-
drangle. For so small a number as twelve, we prefer a straight line. At one end of this
line we place the common kitchen, fig. 433, a ; in which there are two ovens for baking
and roasting, b ; an open fireplace, c ; and three boilers for
cooking and washing, d. The floor of this kitchen is four feet
below the level of the floors of the dwellings, in order that flues
from the ovens, and also from the boilers and the open fireplace
in the centre, may be conducted under the floors of the drying-
room and sitting-rooms, for heating them. Two ovens are
shown, because, in the most severe weather in winter, the heat
from one oven may not be sufficient for the floors. There
are three boilers, in case of accident to one, and also because
one boiler may be required for washing or brewing, while the
others are being used, the one for boiling potatoes, and the
other for making soup. The open fireplace is for the cooking
of small articles by individuals. The roasting and baking is
supposed to be carried on in the ovens, and the boiling meat
chiefly in one of the boilers, in which also vegetables may be
introduced to form soup ; while another boiler may be devoted
exclusively to potatoes ; and the third to hot water. There
may be a large table, with benches along its sides, in the centre
of this kitchen, at which those who choose may dine. There
are a cellar, e, and a store-room, /, adjoining, in which potatoes
and other roots, flour, meal, barley, table-beer, &c, may be kept
for sale to the occupiers. The common wash-house, g, is fitted
up with washing-troughs, from h to i ; and there is a pipe of
hot water from the boiler in the kitchen, and another of cold
water from a cistern over the wash-house ; both which com-
municate by cocks with each trough. There is also a hole in
the bottom of each trough, with a stopper, for emptying its
contents into a common drain, connected with the cess-pool of
the water-closets. There may be one of Siebe's pumps in the
wash-house, where it would be completely protected from the
frost ; and by this, the water might be raised from a well,
cither in the floor of the wash-house, or at any convenient
distance from it, to the cistern. This cistern would also be
completely protected from the frost ; and from it a pipe might
be conducted along the upper part of the middle wall, which
separates the sitting-rooms from the bed-rooms of the dwellings,
so as to supply each house. Another pipe, with a ball cock,
will give a perpetual supply to the hot- water boiler ; from which
the water may be drawn for the use of the kitchen by one
cock, as it is in the wash-house by several. This boiler, in-
tended for the purpose of affording a perpetual supply of hot
water, should be raised considerably higher than the cooking
boilers, in order to supply the water at a sufficient height for
the washing-troughs ; the floor of the washing-house being on
a level with the floors of the dwellings, while that of the kitchen,
as already observed, is four feet below them. Adjoining the
wash-house is a drying-room, k, heated by the hottest part of
the flues which proceed from the ovens, the open fireplace, n o n
and the boilers; and, to increase this heat, a part of the flues L ' ! J
may be covered with cast-iron plates, over which may be a
false floor, one inch distant from them, so contrived as to create a draught, on ths
lOOO
CJ tlJ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
principle before mentioned, § 30G. There are two divisions of privies ; one for the
females and young children, I; and the other for males, m. The drain, common to both,
is connected with three covered cess-pools, n, n, and o ; by which, with the aid of two
sluices or plugs, as described in § 16, s, the liquid manure in one tank maybe allowed to
ferment, while one of the others is being filled, and the third being emptied. Over these
cess-pools are two dung-pits, n n, and one pit for rubbish not convertible into manure, o.
488. Accommodations of each Dwelling. The entrance is by a lobby, p, in which there
is a sink with a water-coek at one corner, and the other corner may do for the tools,
brooms, &c. A door from this lobby opens into the living-room, 7, which is of a com-
modious size, nineteen feet six inches by thirteen feet six inches. In this there is a place,
r, with a raised hearth for keeping food or water hot over a lamp, a little charcoal, or a
fire pail, there being a small flue formed of earthenware pipes, for carrying off' the smoke.
This cooking place, however, is only intended to be made use of in case of family sick-
ness. Adjoining, there is a closet cupboard, s ; and at the opposite end of the room
there may be corner cupboards, a dresser, or any piece of furniture or kind of fitting
up the occupier may prefer or find necessary. There are three bed-rooms, t, u, v, the
largest for the master and mistress ; and the centre one, u, having the window down to
the floor, paneled below, and to open as a door. This door is to be considered as
exclusively for the use of the females.
'189. The flues under the floors will be six in number, going from the three boilers
and the two ovens. We propose that the whole of these flues should be placed under the
floors of the living-rooms, and that all of them should go from the drying-room in direct
lines to the extreme end of the dwellings, each outgoing flue having a return flue along-
side of it. There will thus be six outgoing and six return flues; which, covered with
one-foot tiles, will serve as flooring to the whole of the living-rooms. In order to prevent
the smoke from rising between the joints, narrow slips of slate must be laid under each ;
or, what would make a warmer floor, the whole should be covered with cement, or arti-
ficial stone composition. As heat will not be required under any of the floors during the
summer season, except that of the drying-room, it is proposed to have all the upright
flues in the party wall between the drying-room and the first dwelling, and to have two
communications with each of these upright flues, one from the outgoing flue immediately
under it, and the other from the return flue of the same outgoing flue. By having a damper
in the first, the smoke might be either sent round the horizontal flues, for the purpose of
heating the dwellings ; or, when heat was not wanted, allowed to escape through the
upright flues. These dampers will thus serve to regulate the heat supplied to the floors
of the dwellings ; and, in the end of spring and the beginning of autumn, when only a
little heat is wanting, some of the dampers can be drawn out ; while in winter, when a
maximum of heat is required, they can all be pushed in. The dampers will also be
useful when first lighting the fires in the mornings ; because withdrawing them will
create a draught. The number of dwellings, which it is supposed these flues might heat,
with no other fuel than what was required for the cooking and washing of the occupants,
is here estimated at twelve; but, if the houses were placed on a slope, the fires at the
lower end, and the upright flues at the upper end; the outgoing horizontal flues having
no returns, the number would no doubt be greater. Much will depend on the kind of
fuel used, and on care being taken to let no air pass into the flues from the furnaces or
ovens, that has not entered by the ash-pit doors, and ascended through the fires; and
also, that, when no fires require to be made, the furnaces, ovens, and ash-pit doors
are kept closely shut. The best fuel for heating flues is that which burns the quickest,
such as faggot wood, spray, shavings, &c. ; and when once heated they ought to be closely
shut up, to prevent a draught of air from cooling them.
490. Construction. We have shown all the outside and part)7 walls as eighteen inches
thick, and the partition walls as one foot thick, on the supposition that it would be
cheapest to build them in mud or rammed earth : there will thus be no brickwork
required, but for the ovens, fireplaces, and flues. The walls may be finished inside
according to the taste or means of the party. The roof may be of thatch, or whatever
materia] is cheapest in the given locality ; it ought to project at least three feet on every
side, as well for protection of the walls, as to 434
form a covering to the terrace path, which
will form the common passage from all the
dwellings to the offices; and also to save
the expense of gutters. In the roof of each
dwelling there should be an opening of two
or three inches square over the raised hearth,
corresponding with a similar one in the
ceiling under it, to admit the escape of
<imoke, when a lamp, embers, or charcoal,
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
243
happened to be used in the heating place. The opening in the roof may be simply a pan-
tile with a covered hole, fig. 4:54, such as are common in the neighbourhood of London.
If thought necessary, a small flue to each cooking place could easily be made by earthen-
ware tubes, ten inches or a foot in diameter, such as fig. 435, with a cap to keep off' the
rain, fig. 43G. These tubes are common in all potteries, and are
sold in the neighbourhood of London at only from ninepence to
tenpenee per foot. The same description of tubes, twelve or
thirteen inches in diameter, may be used in forming the six
upright flues to the six fires, which will thus render brickwork
unnecessary for them, except at the dampers, and for the
chimney shafts. All the window casements may be of iron, and
all the doors ledged ; and no window shutters can be required
where there is perfect security, and abundance of heat. Warm
curtains of some cheap worsted stuff' in winter, and calico blinds
in summer, will be found preferable. The privies are not proposed
to be m-dc water-closets; but to prevent the rising of smell, a
description of cheap basin and trap may be used, such as fig. 437,
-130'
■K*JV>^\r
manufactured at the common tile potteries about London, and sold by retail at 2s 6d.
each ; or fig. 438, which has a hole for a water-pipe at w,
and forms altogether a very complete trap ; these are also
made at the tile works, and are sold at 5s. each. It will
be understood that the upper part, x, of fig. 438. is a
separate vessel, of a funnel shape, and that the lower part,
y, is a basin with a soil pipe, z ; and that when the funnel
is placed in this basin, it must be so adjusted as to have its
truncated extremity reach to within two or three inches
of the bottom. As this funnel, from its construction,
must then necessarily remain immersed in water as high
as the under part of the soil pipe or discharge tube, z,
it is evident that no smell can rise through the funneL
When x has been properly adjusted to y, it must be made
air-tight with cement.
491. General Estimate. The cost of these dwellings
will evidently depend much on the price of common country labour ; for the work of
the carpenter and joiner is very limited, and still more so that of the bricklayer. From
a rough calculation made for us by an experienced surveyor, it appears that the whole of
the twelve dwellings, with the requisite offices complete, as shown in the plan, might
be executed, where common labourers' wages are 10*. a week, for about ,£500; which
averages less than £50 a dwelling.
492. Remarks. Wherever this plan is proposed to be carried into execution, choice
should be made of a dry soil, because that will greatly lessen the expense of the footings
to the mud walls, to the flues, and to the platform. It must not be forgotten, also, that a
level spot is to be preferred, unless one of a uniform slope is obtained, and the number
of dwellings increased so as not to require the flues to be returned. We have no doubt
that in many situations, perhaps in most, it would be least expensive to form all the flues of
thirteen-inch tubes, so close together as to touch each other, supported on brick or stone
piers, filling up the interstices above them, and levelling the surface so as to form a com-
fortable floor over them with concrete (gravel and mortar), and the flooring composition
before mentioned, § 386. These, and every other description of flue in this position,
the direction being straight, may be easily cleaned, which they ought to be at least four
{24f4> COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
times a year, by first pushing a slight line through them, by means of a series of hazel
rods, or rods of any kind, tied one to another as inserted, and afterwards with this line
introducing a rope, to which a bunch of straw is attached. Not one tile of any of the
floors would require to be disturbed, but merely the ends of the flues opened, by taking
out foot tiles, built in so as to be convenient for that purpose. The farther ends of all
these flues will necessarily be on the outside of the gable end of the last dwelling, and
the other ends will either form the throats of the ovens and furnaces, or they may termi-
nate in the drying-room, close under the dampers, where their covering tiles may be
taken up. It would save some trouble, if, when each flue was built, a copper wire were
laid in it, extended from one end to the other. This might always be employed, when
they were being swept, to draw through a rope. It may be thought that a line of build-
ings of this description, fig. 439, with no chimneys but in one place, would be rather
mean than ornamental ; but that difficulty would be easily overcome, and would speedily
be so, if such dwellings were found as comfortable and economical as we consider tiny
would be. By employing tiles of any of the Italian forms for the roof, by heightening the
architectural expression of the walls, and by surrounding the whole with a light zinc-roofed
veranda supported by iron columns, the whole might be rendered elegant, as well as
comfortable ; not to speak of the additional beauty which might be given by ornamental
shrubs and flowers, and by the gardens. In countries where grapes ripen in the open
air, the whole roof might be covered with vines ; and in colder climates, even apples,
pears, cherries, or plum trees, might be trained over it in the same manner.
Design LXXX. — Eighty Dwellings of the humblest Class, placed together, with a View
of being heated by One common Fire, and enjoying other Benefits, on the Cooperative
System.
493. General Purpose. Our able contributors, Mr. Laxton and Mr. Taylor, have
shown, § 290 and § 481, how six labourers' families may live together under one roof,
and use, in common, the same wash-house, oven, drying-closet, well, &c. ; and we have,
in both cases, suggested how the six dwellings may be heated from one fire. In our last
Design, we have extended the idea of a common kitchen, wash-house, and other offices,
to twelve dwellings, and shown how they might all be heated from the fires which must
necessarily be kept in these offices, for cooking and washing. We now intend to show
an extension of the principle, so as to include any number of dwellings, with common
offices for cooking, washing, baking, brewing, bathing, &c. ; and, instead of employing
common smoke flues, as in our last Design, for heating the whole, to adopt, for that pur-
pose, steam or hot water. Mankind are beginning to allow that society is in its infancy,
and that " the grand secret of its improvement is in union and cooperation ;" although,
as the writer in the New Monthly Magazine, from whom these words are quoted, ob-
serves, Mr. Owen, the founder of the cooperative system, may be laughed at in the
mean time by those who do not comprehend his doctrine. Our object, in giving this
Design, is to show the application of the cooperative principle in what may be called a
college of mud houses, for the humblest class of country labourers ; by which it will
appear, that, by such a plan, their comforts, compared to what they enjoy at present, even
in the best districts of Britain, may be increased in an almost incredible degree. We
shall nol go very minutely into details; because we are aware that the labouring classes
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
245
themselves must be rendered alive to the benefits which would result to them from adopt-
ing plans of this kind, before they can be carried into execution with much prospect of
success. Good, however, will result from making such plans known, because it will
prepare the way for them in the minds of the rising generation.
494. Locality. The place where such an assemblage of buildings ought to be erected
must depend on the kind of labour supplied by the occupants, and the demand for it.
Such a Design as the present would answer best in the immediate neighbourhood of a
large manufactory, or, in a mining district ; or, in short, wherever mankind are employed
in masses: but it would also answer for a central situation in an agricultural district,
where the number of hands required was such, that none of the eighty men supposed to
be here congregated together would require to walk more than a mile to and from their
work morning and evening. In the neighbourhood of a large town like London, such
a working man's college might be set down, though at a distance of several miles ; be-
cause there is always abundance of public conveyances to carry the occupants to and
from their work, and others might be started, either by individuals or by the college
itself, to carry a greater number, and at a cheaper rate. In the best cultivated districts
of Scotland, where the farms are large, it is the custom, during harvest, and we believe
also during the turnip-hoeing season, to carry the labourers to the field and back again
in carts ; the same thing is also done with the colliers in the coal districts of Staffordshire,
.ind has been lately adopted with the letter-carriers in London. Why, then, might not
even an agricultural college, and much more a manufacturing or a mining one, support a
public carriage for the accommodation of those of its inmates who had to go the greatest
distance to their work ? Such a college must always have a certain portion of land for
the growth of culinary vegetables, &c, the culture of which would fill up all the spare
time of the horses and their driver.
495. Situation. Whatever may be the locality of such working-man's college, the
situation ought to be dry and elevated ; and the summit of a regular knoll, or a level
spot, will always be found preferable to an irregular surface, on account of the greater
440
441
1
f~b
24(> COTTAGE, FARM, AND VI I. LA ARCHITECTURE.
facilities which it affords for heating and supplying water to every separate dwelling.
The aspect of this and of all similar buildings ought to be such as that the sun may shine
on every front nearly every day in the year.
496. General Form. In all cases where economy is a leading
object, the quadrangular form presents itself as the best.
When the number of dwellings is few, as in Mr. Laxton's
plan, fig. 267, or that of Mr. Taylor, fig. 424, or in a plan
which we made in 1818, for a London college for working
men (see Meek. Mag., vol. xvi. p. 321), the whole of the
buildings may be under one roof, and several floors may be
formed one over another, and ascended to by stairs, or, as we
proposed in the plan alluded to, by an inclined plane. In
Design LXXX., however, we intend to have all the buildings
only one story high, as cheapest, and as admitting of their being
built of mud, or of compressed earth, chiefly by the occupants
themselves.
497. General Arrangement. In the quadrangular plan, fig.
440, we have shown in the centre the public offices of the
college, which include one fireplace, from which all the artificial
heat required proceeds, and the public kitchen, store-rooms,
dining-rooms, schools, &c. In the circumference we have
placed eight lines of dwellings ; every line containing ten
dwellings marked 1 to 10, of four apartments in each, similarly
arranged to the dwellings in the preceding Design. At the
angles, a a a a, are water-closets ; those entered from the inner
side for the women and female children and infants, and
those from the outer side for the men and boys. There is
one carriage road, c d, which passes through the centre of the
quadrangle, and two walks, e and f, which connect the centre
with the circumference, at right angles with the carriage road.
Both the central buildings and the outer quadrangle are
raised on platforms; and the roof of the outer quadrangle is
supposed to project at least three feet outwards from the walls,
in order to give a dry path, at all times, along both sides of the
dwellings. The four enclosed areas, g, h, i, k, may be devoted
to public gardens and play-grounds. Exterior to the qua-
drangle, each dwelling is proposed to have a small grass plot or
flower-garden, I, the width of its front, and about fifty feet in
depth ; beyond which there may be a circumferential walk, m ;
and, beyond that, gardens for fruit, flowers, and amusement,
to each house, n. Last of all may come the vegetable ground,
and dairy and poultry farm, belonging to the college, with its
cow-house, stable, piggery, poultry-house, &c.
498. Arrangement of the public Offices. The most important
of these is the fire and fuel room, fig. 441, o, in which all the
artificial heat required either for cooking, washing, drying,
&c, in the public offices, or for heating or cookery in the
private dwellings, is generated ; and from which it is dis-
tributed in the manner hereafter described. Adjoining this
is the public kitchen and bakehouse, p, in which the roasting
is supposed to be done in an oven, heated, of course, by the
common fire in o ; and in which there is also a baking oven,
which may lie either heated in a similar manner, or by Per-
kins's hot-water apparatus, which is connected with the common
fire, and by which all the heat requisite for boiling, stewing,
and similar culinary operations, is supposed to be supplied
to the kitchen in small iron tubes of hot water and steam under compression,
and raised to a temperature of from 300° to 400 . The same mode is proposed
to be adopted for conveying heat to every public office and private dwelling. Ad-
joining the kitchen are, a scullery, q; dairy, r; larder and pantry, s; store-room, t; potato
and root cellar, u u; brewhouse, with beer-cellar under, v; drying-room, w; wash-house,
x; dining-rooms, y y; office for keeping the college accounts, and public library, z;
infant school, a ; boy's school, b; girl's school, c; bath for boys, d; and for girls, e. The
mash tub may be in the upper part of the brewhouse, and the water may be boiled in it,
by a pipe from Perkins's heating apparatus; from this the liquor may be let down into
Successive coolers, and working vats, till it is at last delivered by a funnel and pipe
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. <24<7
to the different barrels in the cellar, as is done in the brewhouse of the Bush Inn,
at Dudley. Adjoining the brewhonse is an apartment, «, with a cellar under it, for
keeping potatoes and other roots; the upper part being devoted to fruits, herbs, and
seeds. At this extremity of the building are the baths, &c. The two dining-rooms are
each forty feet by twenty-five feet, which will afford space for two tables in each room
four feet broad by twenty feet long; and these, with side-tables along the sides of the
rooms, will dine 100 persons at once, in the two rooms. The entrance to these rooms
is direct from the kitchen, and they are supposed to be surrounded by a sideboard shelf,
one foot broad, above the dining-board, which may be two feet in breadth. The four
detached tables are also supposed to have narrow elevated shelves, running along their
centres, on which may be placed plates, and various articles, to which the party at table
may help themselves, and thus lessen the labour of waiting. The tables may have a
strip of iron along their margins immediately under the line of plates, and tin's iron may
be easily kept hot during dinner by a very small pipe of hot water passing under it ; thus
preserving the food of each individual quite hot while being eaten. The office and public
library, infant school, and the two Laneasterian schools for the older boys and girls, which,
when not occupied by the children, may serve as lecture-rooms, places of public discussion,
&c., may be heated by hot-water pipes from the common fire; as will the water in the baths,
which it is supposed will be in use every day for washing the children. These bath rooms
may, if requisite, be easily filled with steam, medicated or otherwise, for the benefit of
rheumatic patients, and along their sides there may be long troughs, with forms beside
them, tor the larger children to sit on while washing their feet; and into these troughs
hot or cold water may be admitted by cocks, and drawn off in the same manner by a
waste pipe, which will convey it to the manure tanks. A similar process to this, for
washing children's feet, is practised at Christ's Hospital, London. The chimney of the
grand central fire may serve at the same time as a tower for a turret clock, which should
have four faces, and be placed so high as to be seen from the inner windows of all the
dwellings. It should be made to play chimes at certain hours, such as the time of
rising, of taking meals, of going to school, &c. &c. ; and at night the dials should be
illuminated. In this tower there might also be a bell, for ringing on extraordinary
occasions. In the fire house there may be a small two-horse power steam engine, which,
by very simple machinery, may communicate with the kitchen, to work a kneading
machine, a machine for chopping meat, breaking sugar, mashing potatoes, &c. ; with the
wash-house, to work the washing and wringing machine; with the scullery, for washing
potatoes and other roots ; with the knife and shoe house, for setting in motion a knife-
cleaner (see Mech. Mag., vol. ii. p. 409.), shoe-brusher (as at the Angel Inn, Oxford),
a coat beater and brusher, &c. ; with the drying-room, for working a mangle ; with the
dairy, for churning and breaking the curd of cheese, &c. ; and, when employed in none
of these offices, in turning a small bone-crusher, to prepare bones for making soup, and
in raising water to a cistern over the scullery, placed on exactly the same le\el as the
four cisterns placed over the four angular water-closets, and communicating with them
in such a manner that there should always be the same depth of water in all the five
cisterns. From the central cistern there should be pipes for conveying it to all the dif-
ferent offices, including even the dining-rooms and the schools ; and to each cock there
ought to be a small sink, communicating with a common drain leading to one of the four
angular cess-pools. Many other modes of applying the power of the steam engine to
domestic purposes will doubtless suggest themselves in practice. We have omitted to
introduce a gasometer ; because, though we believe that in towns gas might be advan-
tageously employed for the purposes of cooking and heating, as well as lighting, yet, for
a college of so humble a description, it might involve more expense and trouble than it
would be desirable to incur. Neither do we consider the steam engine, nor the various
machines which it is intended to set in motion, as at all essential to the plan ; but we
have suggested them, because, in many parts of the country, in the mining districts for
example, the rate of wages is sufficiently high to allow of their introduction, and every
one, in such districts, understands their management. The only feature in the way of
apparatus, that is essentially necessary, is that of Perkins, for heating by hot water; and
the reason why we consider this essential is, that it will convey to each of the eighty
dwellings a higher degree of heat than can possibly be done by steam, and this at a
cheaper rate, than by any other mode at present known. But if the idea of individuals
ever cooking any thing for themselves in their own dwellings, or preserving any thing
there at a higher temperature than 180°, is given up, which we think it very well might
be, as the pubbc kitchen is at a convenient distance for supplying hot water, &c, to all;
then, instead of Perkins's apparatus for circulating hot water at a temperature of 300°,
steam might be circulated at the ordinary temperature of 180° and upwards. The
apparatus for this purpose would not be so cheap as that of Perkins, but it would be
more easily put up, and kept in repair, in remote districts. In putting up a steam
248
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
apparatus, it must be kept in view, for the sake of economy, that all the mains maybe of
small half-inch pipe, which does not cost above 3d. or 4d. a foot, while the luating pipes
under the floor of each dwelling, in order to give them abundant power, may be of six
or eight inches in diameter. In the management of steam, with a view to economy, it
should always be remembered, that it differs from water in this, that the mains may
always be exceedingly small, however large may be the service pipes. Where steam is
to be conveyed to a distance, this is a very great advantage.
499. Arrangement of the Dwellings. These, as before stated, are in eight divisions ;
by referring to the plan, fig. 440, it will be seen that the limits of each row of ten
dwellings is determined by the carriage or foot entrance to the offices, at 10, at one end;
and by the public water-closets, at a, at the other. We shall show, in succession, the
mode of heating, and of supplying one of these divisions with water, the construction
of the water-closets and manure tanks, and the drainage.
500. For heating each line of Dwellings, a steam or hot-water main proceeds direct
from the central fire, to the end of the line, at 10. If steam be used, the main is there
connected with two cast-iron pipes, the one under the floors of the living-rooms, six
inches in diameter; and the other, under the floors of the bed-rooms, three inches in
diameter. The main, and these pipes, must be laid with a gradual inclination from the
boiler to the further extremity of the water-closets, which it also heats ; and there each
pipe must have a small return tube, gradually descending from that point to the boiler,
to admit of the condensed water running back of itself. The mains, between the boiler
and the dwellings, will be placed isolated within earthenware pipes; and these, and the
return pipes of condensed water, will be included in a dry drain, filled with charcoal or
coke. All the difference of level requisite to return the condensed water need not be
more than one foot ; so that, if this drain be two feet deep, the pipes will be sufficiently
protected from the influence of frost. Under the floors of the dwellings, the drain need
not be above ten inches broad and one foot deep, and it may be covered with one-foot
tiles ; or, the tubes may be made square, and their upper surface may serve as part of the
floor, as suggested in fig. 282, for Laxton's small college, § 290 ; and also in § 489, for
our college of twelve families. Should Perkins's hot-water apparatus be preferred to steam,
common gas pipe may be used throughout, both for the mains and service pipes. A
description of this mode of heating will be found in the Repertory for Patent Inventions,
for March, 1832, and a more particular account in the Gardener's Magazine, vol. viii.
p. 292, by Mr. Perkins himself. Should Mr. Perkins's apparatus be adopted, there
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 249
may, in the living-room of each dwelling, be what may be called a hot plate, connected
with it ; that is, a branch pipe may rise from the pipe in the floor, and terminate at top
in a piece of cast iron, say of a foot or eighteen inches in diameter, like a small table, or
Eke the raised hearths common in the kitchens abroad. The temperature of the upper
surface of this table, when the apparatus was at work, would be between 250" and 300" ;
and, consequently, it would boil water, broil meat or fish, toast bread, and perform every
office of cookery, with the exception of roasting. This table would be most conveniently
placed in a closet or cupboard, which might correspond in situation with the ordinary
fireplace of a kitchen, so that it could be shut up at pleasure, and especially during sum-
mer, when the heat escaping from it might render the room too warm. In the roof of
this closet there should be an opening in the ceiling, communicating with the open air
through the roof, by means of a tile or slate with a hole, as shown fig. 434, § 490, to
permit the escape of steam and smell.
501. Supply of Water. From a cistern thirty feet long, and five or six feet broad,
over the water-closets, a lead pipe should be conducted along the bottom of the same
channel which contains the steam or hot-water pipe ; and from this, in each house, a
branch pipe may rise, and terminate in a cock over a sink, either in the cooking closet,
or in the entrance lobby adjoining, as at p, in fig. 433. In order that this cold-water
pipe may not receive any heat from the hot-water or steam pipe above it, it should be
laid at least a foot deeper, and covered with soil.
502. Water-closets, Manure Tanks, and Drainage. The situation of these is at the
four angles of the quadrangle ; and each is arranged, as shown in fig. 442 ; in which f
is the range of closets for women and infants, and g the range for men and boys : h h
indicate the situations of two tanks communicating with the cesspool, common to both
ranges of closets. By means of a hole, with a stopper, at one side of the roof of each
tank, it may be emptied by one of Shalders's pumps. There are drains directly under
all the channels containing the steam or hot-water service pipes and mains, which convey
the waste water from the public offices, and from all the sinks of the private dwellings,
as well as all the water which falls on the surface, in equal parts, to the four cesspools
of the water-closets. Thus an immense quantity of liquid manure will be formed.
Wherever the surface water is allowed to enter one of these drains, a stink-trap must
be used, to prevent the rising of smell. Of these there are many sorts very cheap ; one
of terro-metallic earth, made by Peake before mentioned, 443
is of great strength and durability, and costs only 9d. ;
another, fig. 443, made in the tile-works about London,
and very suitable for the sides of gravel walks, as the top
lifts off, to admit of cleaning out the sand or rubbish
which may have lodged in the bottom of the trap, costs
only 6d. Over and adjoining each manure tank there is
a place, i, for rubbish convertible into manure ; and
another smaller space, k, for broken crockery, &c, and such
other kinds of rubbish as can be only useful in repairing roads, filling up pits, or making
drains.
503. The Plan of each Dwelling we propose to be the same as that already detailed in
fig. 433, § 487, for our smaller working-man's college, Design LXXIX.
504. Construction of the Dwellings. The walls and partitions of the whole of the
private dwellings may be of earth, plastered over internally and lined, and coloured in
imitation of stone externally. For this purpose the outside and party walls are shown
eighteen inches in thickness, and the partition walls a foot. As no chimneys are required,
and no second story, nothing can be more simple and economical than the construction
of these walls. The floor may be formed of loose stones, gravel, or whatever material of
the kind may be most conveniently had ; and its upper surface may either be paved, or
covered with a mixture of lime and gravel, mixed while the lime is yet hot, and spread
out over the rough materials, and immediately beaten perfectly smooth. This mixture
is called by London builders concrete, and, when covered with a thin coating of cement,
forms an excellent flooring for either bed-rooms or sitting-rooms. The roof, as there is
a central wall, need not be expensive ; strong tie-beams may be dispensed with, by having
the ceiling joists of somewhat larger dimensions than usual, so as to project three feet at
the eaves ; and by carrying up the central walls so as to serve as king-posts. The covering
may be thatch, or whatever is cheapest ; and unless the rain water be an object, there
need be no gutters to the roof, as without them the water will drop on the slope of the
terrace, which may be paved with pebbles, below which there may be a gutter, and under
it a drain communicating with the main drains. The windows may be iron casements
of the simplest kind, and without either inside or outside shutters ; curtains, as before
observed, § 490, where there is perfect security and an abundant supply of heat, forming
a very good substitute.
CZ50 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
505. Construction of the public Offices. All the walling, with the exception of that "of
the central chimney and clock turret, may he of earth. The chimney and tower must be
built of stone or bncks. All the flooring may be formed in the same manner as that of
the private dwellings. The baths may be simply square tanks, lined with Raman cement.
The roof should project as in the private dwellings, as well tor the protection of the
walls, as to give a dry path completely round the whole, for the purpose of communicat-
ing from one door to another. Other details need not be entered into: the oven may
be Ilicks's patent one, described in the Mech. Mag., vol. xiv. p. 417; the kneading
machine, one of several also described in the same work ; and the turret-clock may he <>f
wood, a clock of that material being little more than half the price of one of metal (see
Mech. Muc/., vol. iv. p. 142); the washing and wringing machine may be one manufac-
tured by Weir, to be hereafter figured and described.
506. General Estimate. The expense of each dwelling, steam or hot-water pipe and
cold-water pipe included, would, in most parts of the country, not exceed ,£50 ; and the
expense of furniture to the occupier would evidently be less than in the case of single
cottages; because vessels for cooking, baking, brewing, washing, &c, would be unneces-
sary. The expense of the greater number of the apartments, constituting the public
offices, would be about the same, per cubic foot, as that of the private dwellings. The
most expensive would be the fire-house and the kitchen. The different apparatus and
machines would form a considerable item, because no part of the work connected with
them could be done by the occupants themselves. Exclusive of the heating apparatus,
and of the machines, and furniture of the public offices, the whole quadrangle might, in
all probability, be completed for between £3000 and £4000; and £1000 more would
supply all the machines, furniture, and fittings-up for the public offices.
507. The general appearance of such a working man's college as that we have just
described will be simple, but not inelegant, as will be seen by the isometrical elevation,
tig. 444. Much of the beauty and interest of the whole will depend on the keeping of
Fl. 30 0 :0 60 'JO 110 Fi
the garden*, and the cultivation of the farm ; and much of the enjoyment of the occupants,
on the building being placed on an elevated situation, commanding extensive prospects on
all sides.
508. Remarks. Though we have recommended a quadrangle as the preferable form
for a large working college in the country ; yet there is no form which may not be adapted
to this purpose, with advantages approaching more or less to those possessed by the
quadrangle. One continued line along a road or river, up a steep hill, or across a slope,
provided always that the floors of all the dwellings were in one plane, whether level or
inclined, woidd answer perfectly. In such cases the general fire must always be placed
at the lower end, and the general cistern for supplying cold water at the higher end, for
obvious reasons. Even in a scattered village, if the floors of the houses were either
nearly on one plane, or nearly on a level, they might all be heated from one fire ; and
their inhabitants might all have their cookery and washing performed in the same kitchen
and laundry. Indeed, if Busby's mode of circulating hot water below the level of the
boiler, by mechanical means, were adopted, the floors of all the houses might be heated,
however different might be their levels. It would be easy to bring together double the
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 251
number of families in a quadrangle of the same dimensions as fig. 444, by diminishing
the ground area of each dwelling one half, and raising a story over it, for completing the
requisite accommodation. A second range of dwellings forty or fitly feet beyond the first,
so as to form a double quadrangle, would give 120 additional dwellings of the same size
and arrangement as those in fig. 440, making in all 200 ; and 400 might be obtained by
having two stories. The situation of the dwellings of such an outer quadrangle is indi-
cated by the dotted lines, marked one to fifteen, in fig. 440. The mode of having a
double quadrangle would in general be much more economical than raising the buildings
three or four stories high, and thus rendering a heating-pipe necessary for the living-
rooms on the third story. In buildings of two stories, there would be no occasion for
any other heating-pipe than that on the ground-floor ; because the heat would readily
ascend from that to the bed-rooms. If the occupants were to agree to dine at three
separate hours, and to breakfast and sup in their own houses, no additional dining-rooms
would be required ; and the only alteration in the public offices would be an enlarge-
ment of the schools. Much more might be said on the subject of this Design, and on
the immense advantages which would result from working men's colleges, to the labour-
ing classes of every description ; but the rising generation must be prepared for such
a result by education. The first step towards living together in communities is being
educated together in Infant and Lancasterian schools. In the mean time, those who
have entered into the subject will be aware, that, by enlarging the separate dwellings,
and using a superior description of materials and finishing in their construction, this plan
might be rendered suitable for persons of any income ; even so large as to require a set
of stables and coach-houses, assembly rooms, a theatre, walled gardens, conservatories, hot-
houses, pleasure grounds, and a park. The principle is the same in all, — that of produc-
ing in masses, by machinery, and by a division of labour, what has hitherto been effected
in scattered fragments, by manual labour, and by every individual family for itself; and
the advantages are, that by the cooperative system each member of the community ob-
tains a much greater portion of comfort and enjoyment for a given sum or quantity of
labour, than he could possibly have done singly. It would be foreign from this work to
enter more fully into the subject, and we refer our readers to its enthusiastic advocate,
Mr. Owen, and to an able exposition of the cooperative principle, as applicable to persons
possessing from £500 to £1000 a year, given in the paper before referred to, in the New
Monthly Magazine for August, 1832.
Design LXXXI. — A Portable Cottage for the Use of Emigrants and others.
509. Tlie principal object of this portable cottage is, to supply emigrants with comfort-
able and secure lodgings immediately on their arrival at a foreign settlement. It is
well known that in all new countries the rent of houses or lodgings is extremely high :
it follows, therefore, that when an emigrant arrives with his family at the sea-port town
of the country where he is to be put in possession of a grant of land, he must take a
lodging for his family and goods ; probably for some weeks, or even months, till he has
visited the interior of the country, examined it, and fixed upon the situation of his future
residence. A single room at Hobart Town, in 1830, was often let at £1 a week ; hence
it may be easily conceived that a portable cottage, like that given in this Design, which
costs in London £50, will afford, though only containing two rooms, a considerable
saving to a family of three or four persons of different sexes. Security from thieves, and
protection from vermin, are also other recommendations.
510. As secondary uses of a portable cottage, we may mention, that it may be carried
in ships making long voyages, for the purpose of being set up on shore wherever any
stay is made, either for the benefit of invalids, or the use of scientific persons ; that it
may be employed as a shooting-box, wherever there are tolerable roads, as it weighs little
more than a ton, and might therefore be easily drawn by one horse. (It weighs about
three tons ship's measurement, which is forty cubic feet to a ton ; but as a cubic foot of
Baltic fir timber weighs only thirty-four pounds, even if the 140 feet forming the three
ship's tons were solid, the weight would be little more than one hundred weight and a
half. Not being solid, it is found not to weigh so much by half a hundred weight. )
Where public works are going on in any remote district, one of these cottages would form
a very convenient dwelling for the overseer ; and, being put on six wheels, might be
moved forward as the work proceeded. When that stupendous undertaking, Napoleon's
road over the Simplon, was being executed, the chief engineer, a general of high rank,
lived in a portable cottage, about ten feet square, which was carried forward by men,
from one position to another, as required ; and the remains of which we saw in 1 8 1 9, at
a village near to where the road commences in the Valais, on the Swiss side of the
mountain. A party exploring a river in any country, and wishing to study the natural
history of the country on each side, or even to shoot and fish, would, if they had such a
252 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
cottage in their boat with them, find it a source of great comfort, as it could be put up
by a man and a boy in two hours, and taken down again in even less time.
511. The Accommodation of such a dwelling is limited to two rooms, as in fig. 445 (to
445
a scale of three inches and one eighth to twenty feet), each twelve feet by twelve feet, and
eight feet high in the clear. One of the rooms may have an iron stove, c, at one corner ; the
pipe from which may be carried up within a square iron or wooden tube, with a vacuity
of two or three inches between, in order to prevent the risk of setting fire to the tarpaw-
ling, which serves as the temporary roof. If necessary on account of cold, the stove
might be placed in the partition between the two rooms, so as to heat both ; or a tube
from it might be carried round or along one side of either or both apartments. In
general, however, horizontal pipes will be unnecessary, and one upright tube for carrying
off the smoke will be found quite sufficient. The whole of the stove should be of
wrought iron, for lightness.
512. Construction. The foundation of this structure consists of four sleepers, fig. 446,
446
d d d d, each thirteen feet long, and five inches deep by three inches wide. On these
are placed grooved bottom plates, e e e e, forming the foundations of the flooring, of
the outside walls, and of the partition. These plates are formed of pieces, five inches
broad, and three inches deep, laid flatwise, grooved along the upper side, to receive the
bottom rails of the paneled frames which form the walls of the cottage. These plates
are let into the sleepers in the manner shown by fig. 447 (to a scale of three eighths of an
inch to an inch). In this figure, /is the sleeper ; g, the bottom plate; h, the corner post
let into it, in which is fixed a screw-nut, for being taken hold of by a screw-bolt that passes
through the bottom plate so that by means of a bed-wrench applied at i it can be screwed
perfectly tight. The corner posts are eight feet six inches long, and three inches by
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 253
three inches on the sides. There are seven intermediate posts, and three posts in the
partition, each of •which is three inches and a half on one side, and two inches and a
quarter on the other. There are five joists, each five inches by two inches, which are
joggled on to the sleepers and to the bottom plate, as shown in fig. 448 (to a scale of
pNVUMV
448
y\ 1
^
m.
an inch and a quarter to a foot), in which k is the sleeper ; I, the bottom plate ; and m,
the joist. The posts are grooved on the sides, and so are the top and bottom plates, for
the purpose of receiving in the grooves the ends of the paneled frames. When the
cottage is putting together, the paneled frames, fig. 449 (to a scale of an inch and five
eighths to three feet), are put in between the grooved posts. Two of these panels are in
part glazed, and hinged to a hanging style, which fits into the upright groove ; thus form-
ing at once all the doors and windows required. The panels being all fixed, a set of top
plates is put on, similar in dimension to the bottom plates, and similarly grooved to
receive the top rails of the paneled frames ; and these are held together by iron screw-
bolts at the corners, made fast by a bed-wrench applied on the upper side of the plates.
On these top plates (which, in a common building, would be called the wall plates) are
placed the rafters, seven feet six inches long, and four inches by one inch and a half
254
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE
449
o«
thick, which are let into a ridge piece at the top, as shown in fig. 450, and into the wall
plates at the foot, as shown in fig. 451. A purlin is placed across the rafters on each
452
side, halved into them, and flush at top, as seen in the skeleton elevation, fig. 454. The
flooring is formed of inch-deal hoards, laid side by side, and let into the bottom plates,
as shown in fig. 452 (to a scale of one eighth of an inch to a foot), in which n is the floor
board ; o, the bottom plate ;
p, the bottom rail of one of
the paneled frames ; and q,
the joist. The construction
of these frames will be un-
derstood by fig. 453 (to a scale
of five eighths of an inch to a
foot), in which r r are the
styles ; s s, the muntins, or
muntings (from the French,
?nontant, meaning the upright
pieces between the side styles,
into which the rails of doors, or other paneled compartments, are framed) ; 1 1 1, the
panels ; and u u, the posts. The outside posts, to which the partition is joined, are
453
t S t *' t rX.
formed as in fig. 455 (one fourth of the full size), which requires no explanation. The
roofing is generally completed by a tarpawling, which is thrown over the rafters, and,
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
Q55
having strings on the under side, is made tight by them to the rafters, while it is kept
close down at the eaves by lines which are sewed along the margin of the canvass, and
tied tight at the angles. All that is now wanting to complete the cottage are eight short
posts, on which to place the sleepers, so as to raise the floor above the surface, in order
155
to keep it dry. These, however, may be generally dispensed with ; for on very dry soils,
or where the ground falls from the site on even- side, the sleepers may be laid on the
ground ; and even in situations flat, and not very dry, a ditch may be dug round the
256 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
cottage, at the distance of about a foot from it, so as to produce the effect of placing it
on a platform, as shown in the skeleton, fig. 454, and in the miniature elevation of the
finished cottage, in isomctrical perspective, v, in the same figure. Exterior appendages
may be easily constructed of materials found on the spot. The tarpawling ought to be
oiled, and all the wood-work should have at least two coats of paint. If instead of
being painted with common oil paint, these cottages were coated over with any of the
anticomhustible paints or washes, the risk of accidents from fire might be diminished.
The most effective wash of this description is said to be a saturated solution of silex in
alkali. This is obtained by dissolving to saturation, in a lie of caustic alkali, siliceous
earth properly prepared. Whatever material is washed with this mixture is said to
become covered with a vitreous coat, and this has been proved at Munich and other
places effectually to resist ignition. ( Rep. of Arts, 2d series, vol. iii. p. 249. )
51:5. Remarks. We consider this cottage as one of the most perfect things of the
kind that we have seen. Every part of it being made exactly of the same dimensions ;
that is, all the panels, posts, and plates, being respectively of exactly the same length,
breadth, and thickness, no mistake or loss of time can occur in putting them together.
Another great beauty in the construction is, that there is not a single nail used either in
the carpentry of the separate parts, or in putting those parts together so as to form
the cottage. All the framework composing the sides of the cottage being grooved and
tono-ucd, the weather is most effectually kept out ; and at the same time this construction
allows the work to shrink or swell, according to the changes of the atmosphere or the
season, without deranging any of the parts. The inventor of this cottage, Mr. Manning,
carpenter and builder, High Holborn, London, has made a great number of them for
the Australian colonies, and particularly for the Swan River. Mr. Manning, who has
a son settled at the latter colony, says, " These cottages were found to be of the greatest
service to settlers, both in protecting their families from the weather, and their property
from theft. Many persons who took out only tents, suffered severely in both respects ;
their tents being frequently blown down in the middle of a stormy night, and their goods
being thus not only exposed to the weather, but to pilfering. Provided with a cottage
of this description, an emigrant might land from a ship in a new country in the morning,
and sleep in his own house on shore at night. Whoever can use a common bed-wrer.eh
can put this cottage up ; and as none of the pieces are heavier than a man or a boy could
easily carry for several miles, it might be taken even to a distance, without the
aid of any beast of burthen. When a permanent situation is fixed upon, the cottage
may be covered with shingles, or thatched with spray of trees, long grass, or such other
suitable material as may be most readily obtained ; and at any future period, when the
emigrant is prepared to build a stone, brick, or earthen-walled house, all the posts, panels,
&c, of the portable cottage may be brought into use as doors or partitions ; or cut up for
window-framing, shelves, chests, or a variety of other purposes ; and the tarpawling,
when no longer wanted for the roof, will always be a useful article for the agriculturist."
514. A Portable Cottage may be used as a Substitute for a Country Residence. Mr. Man-
^£=Exttt>
ning has furnished us with an elevation and ground-plan, figs. 456 and 457, of one, which
he constructed for Captain J. G. Hall, and which has been erected by that gentlemen as
a residence, at Wargrave, near Henley upon Thames. It is placed on a rising ground,
within sixty feet of the river, and forms a handsome and conspicuous object to persons
sailing from Henley towards Reading. The accommodations of this cottage are, an
entrance hall, a; servant's sleeping-room, b ; kitchen, c; store-room, d; sitting-room
twelve feet square, e ; and bed-room, /. A lumber-room which is formed in the roof
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 257
457
has a floor of ploughed and tongued hoards laid on ceiling joists, so as to form a ceiling
to the room below, and a floor to that above. The roof is thatched ; and the walls are
painted, and dusted over with powdered freestone. The interior is painted in imitation
of wainscot. The fireplace of the sitting-room is a ship's cabin stove, and that of the
kitchen a ship's galley stove ; both having iron piping for flues. By having horizontal
piping from the kitchen through the servant's room, sitting-room, and bed-room, with a
return pipe, one fire might suffice to heat the whole house. In this case, by a very
simple contrivance, the smoke, during warm weather, instead of circulating through the
horizontal flues, might be made to escape direct from the fire through the upright pipe
(see § 489.). The cost of this cottage in London, exclusive of the stoves and the thatch,
was only j^lSO. For this sum, which would do little more than pay for a year's lodging
of two rooms and a kitchen, in a fashionable street in London or New York, we have
here a handsome and comfortable dwelling, abundantly commodious for a single person,
or a man and his wife without children, and which, with moderate attention to painting,
would last a lifetime. It must not be forgotten that a great saving is produced by the
paneled walls, which render unnecessary all expense of plastering and papering, and
which, when painted in imitation of wainscot, look remarkably well, and remain many
years without requiring any repair.
515. Ambulatory Cottage. With such a portable cottage as this on wheels, a man
with £ 200 or .£300 a year might enjoy in Britain as much rural beauty and variety, as
would cost another with a fixed town and country residence as many thousands.
516. Cooperative Ambulatory Cottages. If a family or a party intended to live in
portable cottages, renting a small field wherever they found it desirable to set them
down ; and to change their place of residence frequently, say to the north of England or
Scotland during summer, and to the south during winter, the most convenient plan
would be to have not more than two rooms in one cottage, or, perhaps, even one room
might be found enough, as the wheels should be low, and under the floor. At every
place of encampment, the cottages, or rooms, any number of which might belong to one
family, might be placed in a line, with the kitchen at one end ; from which a steam pipe
might proceed to heat all the others, and also a pipe of cold water from a cistern over
the ceiling of the kitchen, filled by one of Siebe's pumps, and a long leathern hose, from
any neighbouring well or brook. The roof and the floor of one side of every cottage
might project three feet beyond the wall ; and, when all the cottages were placed close
together with the projections alongside of each other, a covered passage or veranda would
be formed the whole length of the line of cottages. There would be no difficulty in
heating all the rooms by steam from one fire, or in supplying all the bed-rooms with
water from one cistern. Every cottage should have its own pipes for these purposes ;
and those of one cottage could be connected with those of another by right and left-
handed screws and coupling pieces, as in Perkins's tubes for circulating hot water under
compression. In short, by some contrivance, many of the comforts of a fixed residence
might be obtained in these portable and ambulatory cottages ; and many of the enjoy-
ments and advantages of society and of cooperation, by a number of them encamping
together. We do not say that the same comforts and advantages would be obtained so
economically as in a fixed locality ; but for those who have no occupation, and derive a
great part of their enjoyment from visiting different parts of the country ; who like to
live by turns among mountains, by the sea-shore, in a fertile valley, or in the suburbs of
a large town ; among the lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland in summer, and in
Devonshire or Cornwall during winter, we do say that an arrangement of this kind
would procure those enjoyments for one tithe of what they now cost.
258 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Chap. III.
Designs and Directions for Exterior and Interior Finishing, as connected with Furnishing,
and for the Fittings-tip, Fixtures, and Furniture of Cottage Dwellings.
517. Exterior Finishing is the term applied to stuccoing, roughcasting, and plastering ;
and to whitewashing, colouring, painting, and similar processes, for exterior walls, and
timhcr-work. It also includes troughs, gutters to projecting roofs, rain-water pipes,
exterior window shutters and window blinds ; and the application of exterior ornaments,
such as barge-boards, canopies, ornamental chimney-pots, balconies, verandas, vases,
trelliswork, and a variety of similar appendages.
518. By Interior Finishing is here to be understood the covering of the walls with various
materials, partly with a view to use, and partly to ornament; such as affixing cornices,
whitewashing, colouring, painting, stenciling, papering, &c. Architects include under
the term finishing, all such portions of the joiner's work as are fixed, after the ceilings,
walls, &c, are plastered; also locks, bolts, bars, and springs, to shutters and doors; and
water-closets, baths, chimney-pieces, &c. : but, in this portion of our work, we have
thought it best to confine ourselves chiefly to such parts of finishing as have not before
come under our review.
519. By Fittings-up are commonly implied the putting up of wooden closets; the
fixing of shelves ; of seats and basins in water-closets ; of cisterns ; and of pipes and
cocks to supply the different parts of the house with water ; the hanging of bells ; and
the putting up of such other articles in a house, as cannot be taken down without
deranging in some way or other the finishing of the apartments.
520. By Fixtures are meant stoves, grates, boilers, coppers, dressers, and sometimes
bookcases and corner cupboards ; all of which are more or less fixed to the walls, and,
like the fittings-up, cannot be taken down without, in some degree, injuring or disfiguring
the apartment.
521. Furniture includes all the portable articles introduced into apartments, for the
purpose of rendering them habitable, comfortable, and agreeable : such as seats of dif-
ferent kinds, tables, beds, carpets, and curtains ; wardrobes, and other portable receptacles
for clothes, books, &c. ; musical instruments ; and also ornaments, such as pictures,
sculptures, curiosities, &c.
522. These different departments of the art of completing a house are not alike
susceptible of being illustrated by designs, which cannot, for example, be made to include
painting, colouring, papering, &c. For this reason we intend to blend some general
directions with our graphical illustrations, deferring the details of the processes of the
painter, plasterer, paperhanger, &c, till we treat of these arts in a subsequent part of
the work.
523. Li all that relates to finishing and furnishing, the artist must be directed by the
same general principles as those which were his guide in designing the building. These
principles are as much founded on reason in the one case as in the other. The first im-
pression which we ought to receive from seeing a human dwelling at a distance is that
it is such ; and that it is suited for some particular class or description of family, mode
of living, or state of civilisation. On a nearer view, the parts and finishing of the
exterior, as they develope themselves, ought to convey to us some ideas of the taste of
the occupant. As we enter the porch, these ideas ought to be confirmed by the
continuation of the same general style of taste, enhanced in degree, because nearer to the
eye and under the protection of a roof; and, as we proceed to the principal apartment,
the train of ideas awakened ought to be maintained, and increased, till it arrives at its
ultimatum in the room where the mistress of the house receives visits from her friends.
This is the general result to which all finishing and furnishing is, or ought to be,
directed ; and it may be reduced to two principles, unity of style, and gradation of
excellence. Unity of style should pervade both the exterior and the interior ; and there
ought to be a regular gradation in the labour and care employed, from the outside walls
and exterior finishing and ornaments, to the most highly enriched apartment within.
Another principle, subordinate to these two, is, that as every apartment in a house has, or
ought to have, its particular use, so it should be characterised by some particular piece
of furniture essential to that use ; and that all the subordinate articles and ornaments in
such apartments should have a reference, or be appropriate, to the principal one. Thus
a kitchen is characterised by the grate or kitchen range ; the dining-room, by the side-
board; the library, by the bookcase; the drawing-room, by the sofa; and so on: the
subordinate furniture must always accord with the principal article. Thus, the kitchen
range should be supported in character by the dresser and plate-rack ; the sideboard, by
the cellaret and massive dining-table ; the bookcase, by reading and writing tables and
desks; and the sofa, by chimney and pier glasses, and by various descriptions of seats,
EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. &>9
some with cushions. Every apartment, therefore, on being entered, ought to display a
marked character of use; as well as a particular character of style, with reference to its
finishing and furnishing. Whenever any doubt is left in the mind of the spectator, as to
the use of an apartment into which he is conducted, something in that apartment must
as certainly be wrong, as when the exterior of a building conveys a false idea of its use,
and a human dwelling is mistaken for a stable or a chapel. This principle must also be
extended to the exterior of a dwelling, and the windows and walling of a drawing-room,
or library, or other superior living-room, ought never to be liable to be mistaken for
those of a bed-room or closet. At the same time that the nobler parts of a dwelling are
to be rendered prominent features in its general aspect, the meaner parts are not to be
rendered more mean, but should rather be raised in character, so as to harmonise with
the rest, and to support the general expression of the whole. These principles are as
applicable to the humblest cottage as to the most elegant villa ; and we shall proceed to
exemplify their application in the order of exterior finishing, interior finishing, fittings-
up, fixtures, and furniture. We should premise, however, that some parts of the present
chapter must necessarily seem to belong as much to ornamental as to plain cottages ; be-
cause the two subjects are so intimately connected, that it is almost impossible to separate
them ; nor, indeed, with a view to the improvement of the cottager, is it desirable that
this should be done.
524. Previously to finishing either exteriors or interiors, a sufficient time ought to be al-
lowed for what is called the carcass, or general framework, of a building to be thoroughly
dried and settled in every part. The time requisite for this purpose will depend on various
circumstances ; but chiefly on the thickness of the walls, and on the doors and windows
being left unclosed. The maintenance of this ventilation, when the house is finished, will
depend upon the judicious introduction of openings in the side walls under all the floors,
and under the eaves of the roof, for the admission of a free current of air. As a general
principle, it ma)' be laid down, that provision ought to be made for a constant circulation
of air in all the voids of a building ; or, in other words, wherever air is admitted, it ought
to maintain a circulation with the external air. A circulation between the roof of a house
and the ceiling of the uppermost room is maintained by small openings directly under
the eaves; or by very small windows, loopholes, or slits, in the gable ends. A circulation
is promoted under the floors of the different stories of a house by the introduction of
small iron gratings in the walls, communicating with the vacuities between the floors and the
ceilings. When precautions of this kind are neglected, premature decay is too freepjently
the consequence. What is called the dry rot in timber, every builder knows, is brought
on by the use of timber imperfectly seasoned in parts of buildings excluded by position,
or by neglect of the means, from proper ventilation. Even in cottages of the humblest
class, therefore, the walls ought to stand some months before being roughcast, or coloured
outside, or plastered inside ; and the timbers of the floors should remain still longer
before they are covered with the flooring-boards above, and closed up by the ceilings
below : when all the timber-work is put up, it ought to remain another period before it is
painted ; and in some parts of Britain, and in most parts of the Continent, this period
extends to a year and upwards, even in cottages. Common plaster, on brick or stone
walls, ought not to be whitewashed or coloured in less than a year ; or, if on lath and
plaster, six spring or summer months. Where oil colours are used, the stuccoed plaster
requires, in ordinary cases, to dry for one or two years. When this is neglected, the water
enclosed in the walls cannot escape by evaporation ; and is therefore, by the swelling of
the mortar, forced through the paint ; entirely discolouring it in some places, and oc-
casioning it to peel off in others.
525. Provisions for all the exterior and interior finishing and all the fittings-up and
fixtures of a dwelling, however humble, ought to be made in building it. Among these
provisions, the principal ones are, proper openings for pipes for bringing in or carrying
off water ; tubes for conducting bell wire ; recesses, flues, and other openings, for such of
the new modes of heating or ventilating as it may be proposed to adopt ; and places for
cupboard-closets, water-closets, cisterns, &c. &c. There is not much to be provided for
in this way in cottages of the class now under consideration, but still enough to warrant
our noticing the subject in this place.
Sect. I. Designs and Directions for the Exterior Finishing of Cottage Dwellings.
526. Outside Plastering includes stuccoing with the different kinds of cement ; rough-
casting, Scotch and English ; and common lime and hair plastering, ornamental or other-
wise. The principal purpose for which any of these processes is adopted on the
outside walls of a cottage is, to keep them dry ; and a secondary purpose is, to render
them ornamental, either by imitating stone, or by producing a surface more curious or
agreeable to the eye, than the rude materials concealed by it.
527. 77<e Cements for Stuccoing are chiefly the Roman cement, of which there are two
260 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
kinds common in Britain, Parker's and Mulgrave's ; the Puzzolano ; the tarras ; the
gypsum; the mastic; Frost's cement; the metallic cement; and Bailey's composition.
The first two, and the gypsum, possess in an eminent degree the power of setting almost
instantaneously', either with or without an admixture of sand. Puzzolano earth, tarras,
and Frost's cement are better calculated than the Roman cements to indurate with lime ;
because they do not set so quickly. A very hard and durable cement may be formed of
stone lime recently burned, and, immediately after being slacked, mixed with clean, sharp
sand. This about London is called Bailey's composition, and is packed dry in casks, and
sent to any distance. The usual proportions are, three of sand to one of lime. Mastic is a
calcareous cement, which consists of earth, and other substances almost insoluble in water,
to which, when pulverised, are added any of the oxides of lead, and also a quantity of
glass, or flint stones ; the whole reduced to a fine powder, and intimately incorporated
with any cheap vegetable oil. This is rather too expensive a cement for cottages ; but
it forms a better imitation of stone, especially of freestone, than any other, and has this
great advantage over all the others, that, when put up into casks, it will keep without
injury for any length of time. In general, wherever good fresh lime and clean sharp
sand can be had, an excellent cement may be formed. Mr. Frost has proved that lime,
even chalk-lime, burned in a close kiln, and cooled without coming in the slightest
degree in contact with the atmosphere, will, when afterwards slacked, and mixed with
sharp sand, set as rapidly as Roman cement, and this even under water. ( See the Spe-
cification of the Patent in the Repertory of Arts.) In England, the scrapings of the
public roads, where limestone or sandstone is the material employed, are found to serve
as a substitute for sharp sand, provided care be taken lo wash from them their finer
earthy particles. But on the subject of cements we shall enter more at length in a
future part of this work.
528. The object of covering the outside of the walls of cottages with cement is generally
to imitate stone. In this imitation, care must be taken that the lines drawn do not represent
stones of too large a size ; that the shapes of the stones at the corners, and for the lintels
and sills of doors and windows, be suited to their situations and uses ; and that, in the
regular courses, the joints alternate and show bond properly, as in regularly built stone
buildings. A dwelling with the walls of brick will often be much improved in appearance
by forming the string courses, the facings or architraves to the doors and windows, the
corner stones, the cornices, the tablings, and especially the chimney-tops, of cement in
imitation of stone. Where the cement used for either of these purposes is lime and sand,
it will resemble stone with little or no colouring matter added ; but where Roman
cement, or Puzzolano, or tarras, is used, the colour, after being laid on, will be dark,
and the cement must therefore be brought to a stone colour by washing it over with
washes, composed in proportions of five ounces of copperas to every gallon of water, and
as much fresh lime and cement (to which some add tallow), as will produce the colour
required. The copperas, or sulphate of iron, oxidises with the atmosphere, and produces
a reddish tinge. The forms of the stones, defined by the lines, should, some days
afterwards, be touched with umber, ochres of different shades, and occasionally with
vitriol ; which colours, if laid on by a painter who knows how to imitate the tints of
nature, will produce a harmonious effect. Oil colours should not be used on cement
laid on walls in the open air for a year or more, till the water mixed up with it is either
solidified or evaporated. When cement is once thoroughly dry, its hardness and durabi-
lity is greatly increased by washing it over with any oily or greasy matter, with or with-
out a mixture of colour incorporated. There are various lithic paints for covering
cement, all of which are composed of oxide of lead, powdered glass or other vitrified
matter, and the colour of the stone to be imitated, intimately mixed together, and beaten
up with oil.
529. Roughcasting, or Harling as it is called in Scotland, is a mode of outside finish-
ing well calculated to protect walls from the weather. It is not capable of such a high
degree of beauty as a covering of cement, because a roughcast wall is only a plastered
wall with a rough surface, instead of a smooth one ; but then it is considerably cheaper
than any description of stucco. It is much used for covering rubble stone walls and
houses, in Scotland and Ireland. The following is the process : — Plaster the wall over
with lime and hair-mortar ; when this is dry, add another coat of the same material,
laid on as smoothly and evenly as possible. As fast as this coat is finished, a second
workman follows the other, with a pail of roughcast, which he throws on the new plas-
tering. The materials for roughcasting are composed of fine gravel, reduced to a uniform
size by sifting or screening, and with the earth washed cleanly out of it ; this gravel is
then mixed with pure newly slacked lime and water, till the whole is of the consistence
of a semi-fluid : it is then forcibly thrown, or rather splashed, upon the wall with a large
trowel, which the plasterer holds in his right hand, while in his left he has a common
whitewash brush. With the former he dashes on the roughcast, and with the latter,
EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. 26l
which he dips into the roughcast, he brushes and colours the mortar and roughcast
that lie has laid on, so as to make them, when finished and dry, appear of the same colour
throughout.
530. Another description of roughcast, which maybe called English, as the other may
be tailed Scotch, consists in dashing the surface of the plaster, after being newly laid on,
with clean gravel, pebbles, broken stones of any kind, broken earthenware, scoria, spars,
burnt clay, or other materials of the like description, sifted or screened, so as to be of a
uniform size. The effect of surfaces of this kind is good, and the process admits of pro-
ducing very great variety in the external appearance of cottages. The sea-side pebbles
are frequently used in this way on the sea-coast of Norfolk : by being forcibly thrown
against the moist plaster, they penetrate into it, and render it very firm and durable.
Sometimes, instead of the stones, or other matters, being broken to a small and uniform-
sized gravel, they are pounded into a coarse sand, and this is dashed against the moist
mortar. The effect is pleasing, but the strength and durability are not so great as in
the other mode. In using small stones or gravel, it is desirable, for the sake of effect,
previously to render the moist plaster as nearly as possible of the same colour as that of
the materials to be thrown against it. It is also desirable that all corners, sills, lintels,
and, in short, all vertical and horizontal bond, should be tinted of the same colour as the
roughcasting.
531. Common Lime and Hair Plastering ornamented is to be seen on the outside of cot-
tages in several parts of England. When the plaster is in a moist state, impressions are
made on it in various ways, and by various articles. Lines are drawn with the trowel,
straight, wavy, angular, intersecting, or irregular. Stripes, chequers, squares, circles, or
trelliswork, are also imitated. Wickerwork is a very general subject of imitation ; and
this is produced by pressing a panel, generally a foot square, of neatly wrought wicker-
work, against the plaster, while moist. It is evident that this description of ornament
might be greatly extended and varied ; and that, instead of the panel of wickerwork,
wooden plates of patterns, such as those used by room paper-printers, might cover the
cottage walls with hieroglyphics, with sculptures of various kinds, with imitations of
natural objects, or with memorable or instructive sayings, or chronological facts.
532. Cementing, Roughcasting, and Plastering, as means of ornamenting the outsides
of buildings, are dangerous processes in the hands of a builder who is without a culti-
vated architectural taste. Let our readers never forget that the outside of a house, or
a wall of any kind, covered in every part with roughcast, or with plaster ornamented in
any way, except being lined and coloured in imitation of stone, is a mere blank or
negation in Architecture. Such a wall has no beauty, because it has no expression. It
may not even be a wall, but a panoply of plastered lath, imposed upon us as a substitute.
No wall is worthy of the name that does not bear on its face the nature and kind of its
materials, and the manner of its construction ; or, in other words, that does not display
in its physiognomy the character of its anatomy. A house, the walls of which are
covered with roughcast, or with plaster whitewashed or otherwise coloured, whatever
may be the beauty or magnitude of its doors and windows, is no piece of Architecture ;
it is not even an imitation of Architecture ; because the elements of all architectural
productions are the stones or bricks of which edifices are composed. A wall or a house,
therefore, that does not show, either in reality or in imitation, the materials of which its
walls are composed, can have no pretensions to architectural expression. This expression
can no more be produced with its full effect, without the indication of the constituent
materials of the edifice, than a sentence can be printed without employing the letters of
the alphabet. There is not a more important principle than this for the young Architect
to bear constantly in mind, in the whole range of the science of Architecture. The rule
to be derived from it, in the practice of the art, is, whenever cement is to be employed
on the outside of a building, and not to be lined and coloured in imitation of stone, there
must be the requisite vertical and horizontal bond, for the strength, stability, and
durabibty of the structure, of brick or of stone ; or, in minor buildings, of timber, or of
projections or piers of cement, lined and coloured in imitation of stone. The same rule
applies to roughcasting and ornamental plastering. We shall illustrate this rule by the
case of a plastered and whitewashed house, taken at random from a number seen from
the window of the room in which we now write. Fig. 458 will, by general observers,
be considered a very neat elevation ; but those who have understood the principles we
have laid ;down will see at once that it is totally without expression, having no appear-
ance whatever of either vertical or horizontal bond. The facings to the windows convey
the idea that these openings are surrounded by stone ; but there is no evidence that these
stone framings rest on any thing but plaster ; the mind, therefore, does not follow up the
impression made by the eye, and the imitation stone facings, for want of imitation sup-
port below them to carry on the illusion, sink into mere plaster ornaments. Let the
plaster in front of this building be disposed either as in figs. 459 or 460, and how dif-
'•262 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
458 459 460
fercnt would be the effect ! In the first case, fig. 459, the vertical bond is produced, or,
in other words, the roof is supported, by the squared stones at the angles, and the hewn
stones forming the piers containing the windows ; and in the latter case, fig. 4(50, the
roof is supported by the pilasters, and the architrave over them ; while the windows are
supported by the string coi.ses, or horizontal bond.
533. Whitewashing the outside walls of buildings is of very universal use, and it seems
to please the eyes of persons of ordinary minds, by the contrast which it produces with
the surrounding scenery. Bright whitewashing, however, has at all times been objected
to by men of taste ; particularly by artists, who, having cultivated the art of seeing objects
with reference to their picturesque beauty, ought to be judges of its effect in scenery.
Gilpin, speaking of the cottages in Wales, says, the Welsh generally " seem fond of
whitening their houses, which gives them a disagreeable glare. A speck of white is often
beautiful ; but white in profusion is, of all tints, the most inharmonious. A white seat
at the corner of a wood, or a few white cattle grazing in a meadow, enliven a scene, per-
haps, more than if the seat or the cattle had been of any other colour : they have mean-
ing and effect. But a front and two staring wings ; an extent of rails ; a huge Chinese
bridge ; the tower of a church ; and a variety of other large objects, which we often see
daubed over with white, make a disagreeable appearance, and unite ill with the general
simplicity of nature's colouring. In animadverting, however, on white objects, I would
only censure the mere raw tint. It may be easily corrected, and turned into stone
colours of various hues ; which, though light, if not too light, may often have a good
effect." (Gilpirfs Wye, p. 94.) Bartell directs, that, in colouring cottage walls, " every
material of a strong harsh colour should be rejected. The fierce red of some kinds of
bricks, and the perfect white of a wash of lime, are equally disgusting." (Hints for Pic-
turesque Improvement for Ornamental Cottages, p. 10.)
534. The Compositions for Exterior Colouring are various. The following is said
to be a very superior one : — Take 26 pounds of quicklime, slacked to a powder, and
well sifted, and 28 pounds of tarras, sifted well. Mix these with a small quantity of
water as quickly as possible. Beat them together with a wooden beater, upon a banker
(a stone or wooden bench). Continue to beat them three or four times a day, for four
days ; and, at the end of that period, take three gallons of bullock's blood (which should
be well stirred in the catching, to prevent it clotting), and add to it, when cold, three
gallons of water. Put the lime and tarras into a tub, together with the blood and
water, stirring them well to make the wash thin ; when it will be fit for use. Keep
stirring while using it, to prevent the tarras from settliig at the bottom. Let the wall
be first cleaned from moss and dirt, washing it twice with a watering-pot ; and, before it
is dry, begin to lay on the composition, observing not to work it too thick. In the
second washing, add two quarts more blood, properly stirred while cooling, as before, to
make the wash more sizy and glutinous. If a yellow tinge be desired, put in a pound
or more of stone or Roman ochre, according to fancy. Stale milk may be substituted for
blood, though it is said by some not to make the wash resist the weather equally well.
5H5. Thecommon colouring'm use .about London iscomposed of whitening made from chalk
or other lime, charcoal, or yellow ochre, and copperas, in proportions according to the
colours which it is desired should prevail. A preponderance of lampblack, or powdered
charcoal produces a greyish white, which is a cold, and not in general a desirable,
colour ; lime and stone ochre produce a cream or freestone colour. Lime and copperas
produce a bright white at first, which, in the course of a few weeks, changes to a white,
witli more or less of a reddish tinge, according to the proportion of copperas introduced.
536. A whitewash which will adhere to woodwork, and preserve it from the weather, is
thus composed : — To three parts of unslacked lime add two of wood ashes, and one of fine
sand, or of coal ashes sifted through a fine sieve. Let these be mixed with as much
linseed oil as will bring the mixture to a consistence for working with a painter's brush.
If the mixture be ground together, it will be an improvement. Two coats will be re-
quired ; the first thin, and the second thick. The hardness of this wash increases by
time. (Smith's Art of House- Painting, p. 36.)
EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. c2(')3
537. The colouring of outside walls is most commonly effected by water colours, when
the surface of the wall is new; or by colours incorporated with glutinous substances or
oils, after the walls have been thoroughly dried. As a general rule in colouring walls,
it may be laid down, that colours unmixed with glutinous bodies, and held in solution
by water alone, may be laid on the wall at any time when the temperature is ten or
twelve degrees above the freezing point, and in no immediate danger of falling lower,
whether the walls are wet or dry, new or old. Colours mixed with glutinous matters
or oils, on the other hand, should not be laid on new walls till they are thoroughly dried ;
or on old walls at a season of the year when their surface may be saturated with mois-
ture. The reason for these rules is, that water colours do not impede the evaporation of
moisture from the wall, and the absorption by the mortar of carbonic acid gas, by which
it is hardened and rendered durable; while glutinous colours, by closing up the pores of
the surface, do both.
538. Water colours for outside walls are generally formed on a basis of quicklime,
Roman cement, tarras, or Puzzolano. With one or other of these the colours are
mixed as wanted, and are immediately laid on with a whitewashing brush. By far the
most favourable time to do this is when the wall is newly built, or the plaster is recently
laid on. In the case of old walls, they must first be thoroughly scraped, washed, and
stopped ; and afterwards brushed over with the colouring mixture, either as a flat shade,
or clouded, as the expression is, to imitate the effects of time. This last purpose will
be materially aided by taking any strong acid that combines with lime, or any metallic
oxide, that will, of course, absorb oxygen from the atmosphere, and mixing these with
water, in two separate pails, occasionally dipping the brush in one or the other. A very
convenient acid is the sulphuric, in the proportion of one to ten of water ; and a suitable
oxide is the sulphate of iron, dissolved in water, in about the same proportion. The
blotches moistened with the sulphuric acid will in time assume a rich cream colour, and
those touched by the copperas will have a reddish tinge.
539. Glutinous colours for outside walls also take for their basis quicklime or some
cement ; and the glutinous matter is either blood, kept stirring till cold, to prevent it
from becoming clotted, stale milk, or vegetable oils. Size and paste are sometimes used
as glutinous media ; and, in such cases, alum is mixed with them, to prevent them from
fermenting, and becoming mouldy on the walls ; but they are not durable, and, if exposed
to driving rains, soon wash off. The desired colours are added to the glutinous matter,
which is laid on of such a consistence as to part easily from a common whitewasher's
brush.
540. Painting the outsides of walls in oil colours is too expensive for cottages, and, on
the whole, is unsuitable for any structure not formed of timber. As a medium of giving
colour, it is more expensive, and not much more efficient, than glutinous colours formed
with blood ; and, as a protection from the weather, three coats of oil paint are nearly as
expensive, and far less effective, than one coat of quicklime and sharp sand, which will
last as long as the atmosphere contains oxygen, and will grow harder as it grows older.
In the United States of America, however, the exteriors of brick houses are said to be
frequently " painted in oil, the colours being most commonly red or brown." It is also
said that " the Dutch very generally cover their buildings with a composition of mortar,
or plaster, mixed with oil and colour : blue, red or light pink, and grey, are the most
common tints. These walls, when dry, have a kind of gloss like varnish, and of course
resist wet." (Mech. Mag., vol. iv. p. 98.) It appears to us that the protection afforded
by this oil-colouring is not sufficient to atone for the bad taste which it displays.
541. The kinds of colours most suitable for exterior walls should generally be such as
belong to the stones or bricks of the country in which the dwelling stands. These are
chiefly whites, browns, yellows, reds, and greys. Yellow, red, and brown ochres are
among the cheapest of colours ; and from these, with whiting, charcoal, and bistre (or
soot, from which bistre is made), all the colouring desirable for the outsides of cottages
may be produced.
542. Splashing is a mode of colouring walls, which may be performed with equal
success, as far as immediate effect is concerned, in water, in glutinous, or in oil, colours ;
and, in regard to the state of the walls, the same rules will apply in this case that have
been already laid down in § 537. The object of splashing is either to imitate the lichens
and weather stains of an old wall, or some particular kind of stone. It is seldom
attempted in water colours, from their transient duration in the open air, but answers
perfectly well with colours mixed with either blood, milk, or oil. The surface of the
wall to be splashed must be well seasoned, and perfectly dry ; and should resemble, as
much as possible, the form of the stone or wall to be imitated ; and the prevailing or
groundwork colour of that wall should be given to it, by one coat over the whole.
Then, several pots of different colours being mixed up, and a long painter's brush, called
a duster, being put in each, the artist, holding a short stick in one hand, takes in the
26t COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
other the brush, with the colour which he thinks it desirable to put on first, and strikes
the head of the brush against the stick, so as to bespatter the wall with the colour. The
taste of the artist must be his guide, as to the quantity of each colour which he throws
on, and also as to the number of colours to be employed ; but in neither case will he be
at any loss, if he keeps the object to be imitated steadily in view. The first brushful of
colour falls on the wall in circular patches, from T's to f of an inch in diameter; the
second brushful adds to the number of these round patches, and enlarges many of them,
either by falling thickly among several, and joining them into one irregular blotch ; or
by falling on two or three, or on only one of the previous spots, and forming with it
either an oval, or the figure 8. If we suppose the same process continued, on the same
portion of surface, with different colours, it will be evident, that not only the shapes of
the patches will be further altered by the addition of each splash of colour, but that their
colours also will be varied. In this maimer the process of splashing is carried on; and
the result is obtained partly by chance, though chiefly by the skill of the artist. This
kind of painting is less applicable to cottages than it is to imitations of rocks in garden
scenery, and to Gothic buildings of a considerable size. In cottages, however, it may
sometimes be usefully employed in colouring the imitations of stone or brick bond,
where the rest of the walling is stuccoed, roughcast, or plastered ; and, at all events, it is
good to know every source of varied expression.
543. In whitewashing, colouring, or painting the exterior waifs of buildings, the young
Architect must constantly bear in mind that there are two objects in view ; viz., the pro-
tection of the wall from the weather, and the production of a colour suitable to the
object coloured, and agreeable to the eye. The protection of the wall is effected with
glutinous or oil paints, by excluding it from all kinds of atmospherical influence,
except that of change of temperature. The same object, but in a less degree, is pro-
duced by washes composed of lime or cement ; which, while they do not prevent the
atmosphere from evaporating the moisture of the wall in dry warm weather, yet exclude
from its surface driving rains. The colouring matter in either of these cases is of very little
consequence, so far as respects the protection of the wall. By having a clear idea of the
purposes to be effected by colouring and painting, the Architect will know when to
direct, or the cottager when to employ, colours or washes which will protect the wall
from the drying influence of the atmosphere ; and when such other colours and washes
as will admit that influence ought to be preferred.
544. On painting the woodwork of the outsides of cottages little need here be said. If
tl»e wood be not thoroughly seasoned, it should not be painted with oil colours till it
become so. It may be washed over in the mean time with water colours, or stained with
nitrous acid, and dyed with logwood for immediate effect. We allude chiefly to the
doors and windows. The larger outside timbers in cottages, especially those built of
studwork and nogging, in countries where labour is abundant and paint dear, may be
charred by the application of fire before being put tip. We have seen buildings, the
timbers of which had been treated in this manner, in France and Germany ; and in
Switzerland we have seen cottages in which the timbers had been charred, after having
been put up, by the application of red-hot iron. The practice is not uncommon in some
parts of Russia, not with a view to preservation, but for the purpose of ornamenting the
very curious barge boards and gable ends which are sometimes seen on the cottages of
enfranchised serfs in that country. The cheapest paint for the outside timber-work of
common cottages in Britain is coal tar or gas liquor, which should be laid on hot during
summer, when the timber is not only dry, but warm, and of which two or more coats, at
intervals of two or three weeks, should be given, according to the nature of the timber,
so as completely to saturate its pores. The colour cannot be called beautiful at first,
but in the course of a year or two it assumes a subdued greyish tone, from the surface
fibres of the wood becoming bleached by the atmosphere. Coal tar will, however, be suf-
ficiently softened by the heat of the sun, to stick to clothes, or any thing that touches
it, for three years ; but is an excellent preserver where it can be used without incon-
venience.
545. T7ie tiles, slates, and other roofing materials of cottages, may be painted exactly in
the same manner as the walls ; but this can only be desirable with certain materials of a
perishable nature, such as timber ; or with others of a harsh glaring colour, such as red
tiles. The latter will be greatly improved, both in durability and appearance, by being
rubbed over or soaked in any greasy or oily matter, or by being painted with tar or
gas liquor, before being put on the roof. But the best mode of colouring tiles and bricks
is by mixing chalk, or ochres, or other oxides, with the clay, while it is being prepared
for the mould. The tiled roofs of cottage lodges are sometimes splashed with oil colour,
and the effect of age very successfully produced.
546. The best description of paint, for all kinds of outside work, is such as is formed by
ground glass bottles, scoria from lead-works, burnt oyster-shells, and the required
EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES.
£65
colouring matter, powdered, and intimately mixed with raw linseed oil. Paint of this
kind is prepared in London, and sold in a state of powder, under the name of anti-
corrosion, lithic paint, &e. : but, as it requires to be mixed a day or more before it is
used, as it is much more laborious to put on than common paint, as it wears out the
brushes in a very short time, and, above all, as it. lasts so long when applied to iron, or
well-seasoned timber, or masonry, as seldom to require renewal during a man's lifetime,
painters very seldom recommend it. The appearance of a surface painted with anti-
corrosion is rough, resembling that of unrubbed cast iron or freestone ; and, when
timber which has been once painted with it has to be cut up by a carpenter, it takes the
edge off his tools (even his axe and saw), so that he also is against it. It is used, how-
ever, in some government works ; particularly for cast-iron bridges.
547. The Witlls of Cottages may be protected and ornamented by Mathematical Tiling.
The object of this is to make the walls appear as if they were built of brick. The tiles,
fig. 461, have their surfaces in two planes ; each plane of the depth and length of a common
brick ; so that when tiles of this kind are placed against a wall, the one overlaps the
other, as shown in the section, fig. 462 ; and the general appearance of the elevation is
that of regular brickwork, as in fig. 463. There are bats or headers to imitate half
bricks, fig. 464 ; and closers or quarter bricks, fig. 465, for the purpose of breaking
'
103
• ll
1
ll
,
■ I!
-
i
1
1
joint at the angles, and rendering the imitation more complete. When these tiles are
of cream colour, their effect is very neat, clean, and handsome ; but buildings in which
they are used, to be in good architectural expression, ought always to have vertical bond
in the form of projecting piers or angle stones.
548. Mathematical and common weather tiles may be rendered ornamental, either by
varying their outline, or by impressing on them, in the mould, lines or figures. This
has been done in a few places in England with bricks, and we think also with tiles.
Fig. 466 shows some forms of weather-tiling, in addition to those before given, § 459.
466
A^J %J| Or
By taking leaves of plants as the source for originating ideas for varying the outline,
the variety of ornamental weather-tiling might be carried to a great extent ; and we are
informed by travellers that it would be a most valuable protection to the wooden walls
of houses in America, as we are certain it would be to the earthen walls of the farm
buildings which are put up in some parts of Ireland. Weather tiles might also be
applied instead of barge boards, the tiles in that case being formed longer ; and, when
put on at right angles to the slope of the gable, finished by a projecting line of plain
tiles over them. The colour of common weather-tiling might be varied, as well as the
form, by the mixture of chalk, ochres, &c, with the clay while working it. Mathe-
matical tiling might be ornamented on the surface by geometrical lines and figures ; by
c266 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
representations of natural objects., such as the sun, moon, and stars, as is sometimes done
on the window-
facings and barge- 46 •
boards of the cot-
tages in Russia ; of
animals ; of the
flowers of plants ; of
their leaves, &c. In
6g. 467 «, b, c, d,
and e show a few of
the simpler patterns.
549i Various other articles might be employed to cover and ornament the walls of cot-
tages, according to the effect intended to be produced. Trellis-work of various kinds
drives a gay and dressed appearance, suitable for the immediate neighbourhood of a large-
town. A marine character may be given by shells ; a rustic one by bark of trees; and
a grotesque one by roots of trees; that of a Dutch cottage by glazed quarries (square
tiles) ; and that of a Russian log-house by the outside slabs of trees (the first pieces sawn
off, to reduce the trunk to a square, and of course flat on one side, and round on the
other); the expression of warmth maybe produced by clothing the walls witli reeds;
and of coolness by blue slates, &c.
550. The use of barge-boards, ornamental chimney tops, vases, verandas, terrace parapets,
balconies, flower-stands, mignonette boxes, §r., may be consider d as having been suf-
ficiently illustrated iu the preceding chapter. We have not hitherto, however, mentioned
one very simple but neat cottage ornament, the sparrow pot, 468
fig. 468, which is made of common potter's ware, and projected :
from under the eaves of cottage roofs at regular distances, by
simply placing the pots, which have holes in the side of their
bottoms, on nails or wooden pegs. The use of these sparrow
pots is, to prevent the birds from dirtying the walls or windows
with what falls from their nests, by keeping them farther
from the wall ; they also supply an easy means of taking either the birds or their eggs.
We have seen a swallow pot for the same purpose, made by Adams, Gray's Tun Lane ;
but we are not certain that it succeeds. High and ornamental chimney tops will, how-
ever, generally be found to afford suitable angles and recesses for that bird (so useful to
the cultivator in destroying winged insects) to build in.
551. The Doors of Cottages may be ornamented by adding strips of deal, in the form
of muntins, styles, rails, beads, &c. ; by ornamental hinges and latches; or by studding
them over with imitation door nails. The plain door, fig. 469, may be rendered archi-
tectural, in the Gothic style, at a very trifling expense, by fillets nailed on so as to
produce the effect of figs. 470, 471, or 472, or that of fig. 473 ; or by nails, as in figs.
474, 475, and 476. The woodwork should be painted in imitation of oak, and the heads of
469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476
r
&^\
n
the nails should be black. These nails are to be procured complete, of different shapes,
in cast iron ; but they are equally fit for producing effect when the heads are made of
wood, and fastened on by a brad. When properly pointed, it is impossible to distinguish
the wooden nails from the iron ones. The shapes of the heads of these nails may be
round, square, triangular, or polygonal ; and with either flat or raised surfaces. A few
of the different forms are shown in fig. 477. Ornamental hinges, or plates of iron as
477
in figs. 474 and 475, into which ornamental nails are driven, may also be imitated in
wood, and completely disguised by paint; as maybe certain parts of common latches, the
EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES.
2t>7
escutcheons of keyholes, &c All knobs to cottage doors should |>e of red oak, laburnum
(febe ebony, as it, is called by the French, from its hardness and blackness), yew, box, or
other bard "and tough wood, or of iron blackened or bronzed, but never of brass, which
is too fine, and is besides liable to tarnish. The knobs, and other iron work ot doors,
be blackened, bv heating them nearly red hot, and immediately plunging them in
oil; after being taken out and dried, they are polished with a coarse woollen cloth.
Knobs, nail heads, and other parts of doors, whether of iron or wood, may be made to
imitate bronze, bv first painting them of a deep yellow colour, and then green : before
the green is quite dry, it should be rubbed off the projecting parts, so as to allow the
yellow to be seen through it. The greatest ornaments to cottage doors are, the porch,
the penthouse roof, anil the projecting canopy or shelf supported by brackets: but
these may be considered as already disposed of.
. if inflows may be ornamented in a great variety of way . A plain sash or lattice
window, figs. 478 and 479, may be disguised by a Gothic framework being put before
il. as in figs. 480 and 481. In these cases it is supposed that the window to be disguised
shows outside reveals of at least six inches in depth, and that the thickness of the frame-
work is not more than an inch, which will still leave five inches of reveal ; a deep reveal
being always desirable, as expressive of the thickness and strength of the walls. To dis-
guise windows placed in nogging, studwork, weather-boarding, or other kinds of thin walls,
which prevent any reveal from being shown on the outside, an artificial reveal must first
be formed round the window by a projecting facing, in the manner of an architrave ;
and to be truly architectural, and to convey the expression of strength, this facing ought
to be continued to the ground below, and to the roof above. Fig. 482 shows a portion
of the front of a common weather-boarded cottage, in which it is desired to improve
the appearance of the windows. Fig. 483 shows the windows improved in the manner
described. On the supposition that these windows gave light to a stable and hayloft, to
a tool-house with a seed-room over, or to any apartment not occupied as a dwelling, the
windows might be further ornamented by placing a framework before the glass, as in
fig. 1S4; or Gothic labels might be added, as in fig. 485. Jt will readily be conceived
482
483
484
485
-268
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
that, by the application of facings round windows, and by placing framework, judiciously
painted and shaded to imitate niullions and tlieir mouldings, before them, an inexhaust-
ible source is opened for the improvement of commonplace windows. Where the window
to be improved is flush with the outside wall, even its proportions might occasionally be
changed ; its height might be added to by using framework in which there was much
tracery in the upper part, painting the wall immediately behind it black ; and the width
might be increased in the same manner, by having narrow side-lights, and broad mullions
and transoms. Thus, fig. 48f> might be placed before fig. 487, and fig. 488 before
fig. 489 ; the spaces marked a in both figures being painted black. In a country like
486 487 488 489
Britain, where the cottage windows are generally low and broad, nothing adds more
dignity of character to a dwelling than heightening the windows ; because high windows
are expressive of lofty rooms. Where height cannot be given, and the obvious tendency
of the openings is to width, the effect of the elevation is improved by increasing that
tendency, because the idea of a larger room is thus given. From what we have said
on the subject of disguising and ornamenting windows, we hope no reader will for a
moment suppose that we intend any of the frames to be placed before the windows
of the dwelling-rooms of cottages, in such a manner as to diminish the quantity of
light and air admitted by them, or to injure the prospect seen from them. Nothing
can be truly an ornament, or an improvement, to a house, which in the slightest degree
diminishes the comforts or enjoyments of the occupier. There are few things to which
we have a greater dislike than the practice of some great owners of parks, of putting
labourers to live in lodges, and other ornamental buildings, which, with a great display
externally, are scarcely habitable within.
553. Outside Shutters to windows or doors certainly cannot be considered as
ornamental. To see on the outside of a building what we are accustomed to see on the
inside, seems an offence against propriety ; while it gives, at the same time, the idea of
meanness and insecurity. Nevertheless, it is certainly more economical, in building
a cottage, to have outside shutters than inside ones ; and this circumstance, together with
the influence that it is likely to have on the comfort of the cottager, being duly taken
into consideration, we ought to moderate our dislike to them. What, perhaps, increases
this dislike is the practice of holding forth these shutters as ornaments, by painting them
green, and other gaudy colours; instead of keeping them subordinate, by making them
the colour of the walls, or of oak ; or by avowing them, and giving them the character
of great strength, by fillets of wood, and nail beads, painted in imitation of iron ;
or by adding some description of architectural expression. When we consider the
economy produced in interior finishing by having dutside shutters, we think that, treated
in this manner, they might be admitted even in ornamental cottages. Figs. -190, 491,
492, and 493, are examples of what may be called architectural shutters: those which
490
491
492
493
are meant to be completely subordinate should be painted, and marked with lines, in
exact imitation of the forms and materials of the walls against which they are to be
tinned back. We have seen houses in the suburbs of Konigsberg with the outside
shutters painted SO exactly like the walls on both sides, that, when shut, the house ap-
peared t<> lie without windows; and we were informed in 1813, by 1M. Koch, that several
EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES.
26'9
houses escaped in this way from being plundered by the retreating French army, during
the preceding winter. In the Duke of Northumberland's house,
in the Strand, London, there is a gateway painted so exactly
like the wall, as to deceive every body. Hinged shutters,
when folded back, should be made fast in that position by the
same bolt as that which fastens them when closed ; and the
strongest bolt for this purpose is one in which the end is turned
up so as to form the handle, and render riveting on the knob un-
necessary, fig. 494. The hinges used should be what are called
set-back hinges, when it is wished to make the shutters fit close
to the windows when shut, and to throw them back close to the
wall when open, as shown in fig. 495. Outside shutters might
also be made to slide in grooves, in the manner which we
shall notice when speaking of outside blinds. Thus, outside
shutters, which at first sight appear a deformity, may be
converted into a source of beauty; for taste, like necessity,
must bend to circumstances. The truth is, that the found-
ation of all taste, beyond that which is merely physical, lies
in the mind ; and, as a writer in the New Monthly Magazine
observes, " every man manufactures for himself his own sub-
limity and beauty."
554. Outside Blinds form both elegant and useful ornaments
to windows. The mind is at once reconciled to them, from the
idea which they convey of shading and protecting something
delicate and refined within. Their expression is the very
opposite of that of commonplace window shutters, noble rather
than mean; and the reason is, because, in Britain at least, they
are almost exclusively used in superior houses. They have not
only the effect of shading the curtains, carpets, and other fur-
niture in a room, from the direct rays of the sun, and so pre-
serving their colours ; but, by reflecting back the sun's rays,
they keep the rooms cooler during summer, and also darker;
which last circumstance lessens the inducement for flies and
other winged insects to intrude themselves. These outside
blinds being only necessary during sunshine, various contrivances
have been invented for putting them up in a compact form,
during the night, or in cloudy weather ; and this circumstance
has given rise to boxes with cornices, which are fitted to
the upper parts of windows, and joined to narrow wooden facings, or architraves, which,
extend along the reveals down each side. These boxes and facings are alwavs more or
less ornamental ; and hence, even without blinds in them, they confer, when added to
windows, a certain degree of dignity and beauty. All the different kinds of outside
window blinds may be included in three di visions ; viz., shutter blinds, Venetian blinds,
and cloth or curtain blinds.
555. Shutter Blinds of the commonest kind, sometimes called folding Venetian
blinds, are nothing more than outside shutters, opening in the middle, each shutter
framed so as to form one panel, which is filled in with what are technically called luffer
boards (inclined boards placed one above another in an aperture, so as to admit air,
without permitting the rain to penetrate). These luffer boards are either fixed, or turn
on pivots in the styles of their frames ; their action, in the latter case, being like that of
the common Venetian blinds. In shutter blinds, where the luffer boards move (which
is always the preferable plan, as by it the admission of light and air can be better
regulated I, the movement is effected by a lever handle fixed on one of the luffer boards.
These boards might be placed vertically, instead of horizontally ; but the greater length
required would render them liable to warp, and of course the shading would he imper-
fect. Outside shutter blinds are generally hinged like outside window shutters, and
fastened back against the wall like them, by bolts, or button fastenings ; but in
very windy situations they are sometimes made to slide in grooves, which, as they
are commonly made, are by no means ornamental ; but by disguising them as string-
courses, or labels, and painting them of the same colour as the walls, they may be
rendered architectural as well as useful. These blinds, when the luffer boarding is
shut close, serve, during night, as a secure window-shutter. In situations much ex-
posed to the sun and wind, we consider this description of blinds, either running in
grooves w hli fixed luffer boarding, or hinged and furnished with bolts or other fastenings,
superior to any of the kinds of hanging outside blinds about to be described. From
l270 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
the manner in which shutter blinds arc generally constructed and hung, their outer
surface, when shut, is even with that of the wall. This is objected to by some,
in a picturesque point of view, as depriving the window of the effect of the lines
of shade that would otherwise be thrown upon it by the depth of the reveals. To
overcome this objection, it is only necessary to form the lulfer boarding narrower, say
two inches in width, and to hang the blinds with set-back hinges, so as to shut them close
against the sash frame, like the outside shutter in fig. 495. Thus, if the depth of the
reveal be seven inches without the shutter blind, it will only be reduced to five inches
with it.
556. Venetian outside Blinds, of the common kind, only differ from inside Venetian
blinds in having cornice boxes at top into which the blinds are drawn up, and frames at
the sides which confine the ends of the laths forming the blinds, and prevent them from
being blown about by the wind. In these blinds, instead of the laths being hung on
tape, as is customary with inside Venetian blinds, slight brass chains are sometimes used.
Outside blinds are generally painted of a stone or cream colour in the country ; and
green in towns. In Gothic cottages, showing oak framework externally, they may be
painted in imitation of that wood.
557. The Venetian Fan, Blind, an improvement on the common Venetian blind, is
made by Messrs. Barron and Mills of London, and its object is, to admit a greater
quantity of light and air than is done by either the common Venetian blind or the shutter
blind. For tins purpose the front of the blind is projected from the wall, at an angle
which may be varied at pleasure from 1° to 45° ; and to prevent the sun from shining into
the windows on the sides, admitting at the same time free circulation of air, fan blinds are
there introduced. Both the front blind and fans are worked by means of one line connected
with cords and pulleys, which is made fast to the frame in the same manner as in the com-
mon outside Venetian blinds. The front blind may be pulled up, and completely concealed
under the cornice box at top, while the fan blind folds into a narrow box provided for it
in the side frame. Hence, when this description of blind is not in use, the cornice box
and side frame of the window have exactly the same appearance as those of any other
hanging blind. A detailed account of the very intricate construction of this blind will
be found in the Repertory (if' Arts, vol. viii. p. 449. ; and we shall recur to it when
entering more at length into the subject of blinds, under the head of Exterior Finishing
to Villas. There is another description of outside Venetian blinds, in which the laths
are formed of iron, and copper chains supply the place of tape. These blinds are fixed
at top to a box which projects from the window, and are attached at the other end to
a roller having a pulley at one end, by which, and by a cord which passes over a
pulley in the reveal of the window at top, the blind is let down and rolled up. These
bullet-proof blinds, as they are called, are manufactured by Bramah of Pimlico, and
have been employed by the Duke of Wellington, at Apsley House, to protect his
windows from the mob. They are most unsightly objects, and are only mentioned here
as connected with the subject of Venetian blinds.
558. Outside Curtain or Cloth Blinds are of various kinds. The simplest form is
where a curtain of the size of the opening of the window is furnished with rings on the
margin of each side, which run upon two upright rods, concealed or not, according to
the taste or means of the party, by side-framing. The lower edge of the curtain is
attached to an irod rod, or a fillet of wood, to keep it down by its weight ; and to this
there is a cord attached, which, passing over a pulley in the middle of the soffit of the
window, admits of pulling up the curtain, and fastening it in the usual manner, liy
another plan, the curtain is made to spread out in front like the Venetian fan blind.
This variety is called a bonnet blind, and on it Messrs. Barron and Mills have made
an improvement, which we shall hereafter describe. When these blinds are drawn up,
they are as completely concealed, and protected from the weather by the box and frame,
as any other description of blinds. The cloth generally used is strong linen, of the
kind called gingham, and is generally striped with blue and white colours, which
Harmonise remarkably well with the sky and clouds. The cornice and frames are
generally painted of a stone colour. A patent was taken out in KS'JG for an improved
mode of stretching by a contracting and collapsing apparatus, but it does not appear to
have come into use. (See Rep. of Arts, vol. iv. p. 195.)
:- Various other outside blinds of the curtain hind have been used, and might be
occasionally introduced in cottages. Projecting canopies, of different kinds, from the
(op of the window, might have corresponding balconies for flowers at the bottom ; and,
non curtain rods being concealed in the top of each canopy and in the bottom of
each balcony, curtains, with rings affixed in the usual manner, might run on them, and
pened by hand, in the middle or at the sides, at pleasure. This would be a very
cheap exterior blind, and one which, judiciously placed over the principal window of a
;e, would produce a very striking effect. Another description of blind is formed
EXTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES.
^71
by straining canvass, gauze, or fine wire cloth, on three or more light wooden frames;
and, by hanging these horizontally to a frame of the size of the window, the small
Frames being connected on the opposite side to that on which they are hinged, by t \\ < >
slips of wood or by iron rods, they may be moved sympathetically to any angle, so as
to keep out the sun. The slips of wood or iron rods must be screwed on so as to allow
them to have free action at the head, otherwise they will not fall down. Blinds of this
sort are kept in their position by a line fixed to the outer edge of the upper frame,
which passes through a pulley at the upper end of the large frame, and being
brought down, either on the inside of the window, or on the outside, is fastened as
usual by a hook. It is evident that blinds of this description may also be hinged ver-
tically; and if only two are used for each window, and these are hinged back to back
to a style in the centre, one half of the window might always be uncovered, because
before twelve o'clock it woidd be only requisite to keep that blind shut which was next the
east, and after twelve o'clock that one which was next the west. Such blinds, however,
would be chiefly applicable to windows facing the south. If, instead of being hinged
hack to back in the middle of the window, they .were hinged to the side styles, and fur-
nished with set-off hinges, they would form shutter blinds of a simple and cheap
description. Roller outside blinds, such as are used to shade shop windows, are capable
of- a variety of useful and ornamental applications on the exterior of cottages.
560. Wire outside Blinds have not hitherto been used ; but the very fine wire cloth
now applied as inside blinds, might, we think, in some cases be advantageously placed
outside, either as leaf or sympathetic frame blinds, § 559, or as shutter blinds. The
great advantage of this wire cloth is, that it admits a view of what is without from
within, while it completely excludes a view of what is within from without. Where a
cottage is placed by the roadside, such blinds are very desirable, not only on these
accounts, but also because they keep out the dust ; and they are not less so where the
windows on the south side of a house command a fine prospect. Much of the enjoyment
of some rooms, in country houses, is lost during the finest weather of summer, from
the necessity of keeping down the blinds ; but, with wire blinds, the heat and great part
of the light might be excluded, and yet the prospect be not only enjoyed, but even im-
proved in effect, by the darkness of the room acting on the eye like the tube of a telescope.
They should be painted to preserve them from the weather ; and they may, in addition,
be ornamented with landscapes, figures, or other objects ; or, in the case of a country
tradesman, in a roadside cottage, they may exhibit the owner's name, or the implements
or products of his trade.
56 1 . Projecting fixed Canopies are sometimes used for giving consequence to windows ;
and they might be occasionally employed in cottages. They are framed in wood, with
paneled soffits, moulded cornices, and sometimes ornamented friezes, and they are
supported by brackets. Figs. 496, 497, 49S, 499, and 500, are canopies of this
496
497
499
500
sort. They may very properly be put over doors, and when they cannot be formed in
solid timber, a plain kind of trellis-work may in some cases be introduced, for the
purpose of supporting an ornamental climber.
56''J. Other architectural modes of ornamenting the exteriors of either old or new Cottages
might be mentioned but we have said enough to lead the reader into a train of thought
on the subject, and to point out to him to what parts of a plain cottage he ought chiefly
to direct his attention, when his object is to ornament it.
56%. Ornamenting the exterior of Collages by the productions of Horticulture, and by
Landscape-Gardening, is a subject which has occasionally occupied our attention in the
course of the preceding chapter ; and that of laying out the grounds round ornamental
cottages and villas will be treated of in a future division of the work. We may here
repeat, what we have before stated incidentally, that we by no means advise much to be
attempted in the way of ornamenting cottages in the country by means of vegetation,
272
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
on account of the damp produced, ami the insects harboured, by leaves; and because, in
proportion as any building depends tor its effect on a covering of vegetation, in the
same proportion does it lose its beauty as a piece of Architecture. We are more par-
ticularly anxious to impress on the minds of our readers the impropriety of planting
trees, or creepers of any kind, against walls of cottages, which are shaded by opaque-roofed
verandas, penthouses, or far-projecting eaves ; because in such situations they can never
thrive, and not only have a sickly and disagreeable appearance, but actually, to a certain
extent, contaminate the air by their decaying foliage. Life without health is without
beauty.
Sect. II. Designs and Directions for the Interior Finishing of Cottage Dwellings.
564. Tlie Walls of a Cottage, viewed externally, ought, by the appearance of the
nature of the materials, and the mode in which they are put together, to give at the first
glance unquestionable evidence of their sufficiency to support the roof. This being the
case, on entering the dwelling we dispense with a repetition of this evidence, as far as
the roof is concerned ; but if the apartments arc large, and one is placed over another,
as in houses of two or more stories, we require the appearance of strength in the ceilings
to support the floor above them. Hence, the ceilings, in all very large rooms, should be
thrown into compartments, by the reality, or by the appearance, of beams crossing the
ceiling in the direction of its breadth, or shortest diameter. On the same principle it is
desirable that these beams should be, or appear to be, supported at the extremities by piers
or pilasters projecting from the walls, and sometimes even by detached columns. The
finishing of these piers or columns is generally in imitation of some description of
stone or marble, as belonging to the wall ; and that of the horizontal beams, of oak, or
some other timber, as belonging to the superincumbent floor, or the roof.
565. The Interior of the Walls of a Cottage of the humblest class may, in some cases,
require no other finishing than the rubbing or dressing of the material of the wall.
This may be the case when the walls are built of brick, and the inner courses are
rubbed and worked to a fair smooth surface. Rubbed sandstone may be applied in
the same manner. For the plainest description of cottage the walls may be completely
finished with one coating of plaster ; either by mixing the lime with a portion of Roman
cement, or by using fresh -burnt stone lime and sharp sand, in the proportions of five of
the latter to two of the former. The basement stories of many of the commoner street
houses about London are finished in this manner ; by which not only the labour of
putting on two coats of plaster is saved, but a more durable surface to the wall is
produced. In general, however, the internal surfaces of cottage walls, of whatever
materials they are composed, require to be plastered as indicated in the specifications
already given ; for example, in § 80, and in § 235.
566. Without a Cornice no Room can have a finished Appearance, therefore we recom-
mend cornices to be introduced into the living-rooms and principal bed-rooms of even
the humblest cottages. The simplest cornice is formed by filling up the angle by a
straight hypotenuse line, fig. ."501 ; the next step is to curve this line convexly, fig. 502,
or concavely, fig. 503 ; a square fillet, fig. 504, may be introduced ; or a round bead,
fig. 505. In cottage dwellings, this bead is frequently formed of wood, as being
501
502
503
504
505
V
J
P"
easier executed in that material than in plaster. The effect, when the bead is about
an inch in diameter, is satisfactory ; and we think, instead of wood, it might, in
some cases, be made of iron, fastened to the walls with staples ; and with one or two
hooks to each length of rod between the staples, for the purpose of hanging pictures or
other articles, agreeably to the practice in what are called gentlemen's houses. It is
easy to conceive how a variety of cornices may be deduced from this simple form : by
flattening the circle, by narrowing it; by causing it to present the broad end of an
oval, or the narrow end ; and by its being made, sometimes, to seem chiefly projecting
from the wall, and, sometimes, chiefly from the ceiling. From these elementary forms
a great variety of cornices may be produced. For example, in figs. 506 and 507 we
INTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES.
278
506
f
r
have ten different variations of the concave line, the lightest and most agreeable feature
of all cornices, particularly when viewed from below, and the characteristic of the Gothic
507
cornice. Fig. 508 shows five sections of cornices having a convex curve for a leading
508
member. Fig. 509 shows modifications of the square, a leading feature in Grecian and
Roman cornices. The square form, it thus appears, may be varied by approaches
509
to the parallelogram and to the rhomboid, and by altering its relative proportions with
respect to the ceiling over it, and the surface of the wall beneath it. Composite cornices,
fig. 510, may be formed by employing two or more of these five leading forms as
510
\J
main features ; and cornices in particular styles of architecture are obviously of easy-
composition, from the lines and forms which belong to those styles.
567. The magnitude of a cornice ought always to be regulated by the size of the room
in which it is introduced ; since the origin of the cornice of a column or wall was the
edge of a plate of stone or timber, bedded on that column or wall, to receive with
greater security, and give a better bearing to, what was to be placed upon it. A long
narrow room does not require such a massive cornice as a square one covering the same
surface, because there is less occasion for studying the security of the cross-beams or
joists.
568. Plaster Ornaments on Ceilings have not hitherto been much introduced in cottage!,,
on account of the expense. We scarcely think cornices with foliage or other cast
ornaments desirable in plain cottages ; but a rose or other flower, in plaster or composi-
tion, might often be introduced, at very little expense, in the centre of the ceiling of a
cottage parlour. There is scarcely any part of a house in which a single ornamental
form produces so much effect as in the centre of a ceiling. Fortunately for the builders
r r
274 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
of even plain cottages, ornaments suitable for this jnn-posc, and for various others in
the finishings and littings-up of rooms, have recently been manufactured by Messrs.
Bielefelds and Haselden, at a very low price, of a description of papier macho". They
are perfectly light and strong ; anil may he sent to any part of the world. They are fixed
on by tacks or brads; and, being painted, will last as long as any other part of a house.
Fig. 511, p. 275, is one foot in diameter, and costs 75. ; fig. 5 1 2 is two feet across, and costs
£l ; and fig. 513 is two feet and a half across, and costs £1 : 15s. For the ceiling of
the principal room of a well-finished cottage, it could not be thought extravagant to lay
out 7.9. on such an ornament as fig. 51 1. In all cases of introducing such ornaments,
due preparation should be made for them, by raised borders, or mouldings, which should
enclose them in a sort of framework.
569. The Paneling of the Walls or the Ceilings of the Rooms of plain Cottages is seldom
attempted, otherwise than by lines painted on the wall, or by coloured papers; but
there is no other reason than the expense, why it should not be adopted in the humblest
cottage, as well as in the highly enriched villa. The occupant of the one may have a mind
as susceptible of deriving enjoyment from the contemplation of elegant forms as that of
the other, and he is therefore entitled to procure them whenever it is in his power to do
so without interfering with any moral duty. Panels of this sort are generally formed
by raised mouldings in plaster or stucco; but they may sometimes be more cheaply
produced by mouldings of papier mache, some of which, such as tigs. 514, 515, 516,
and 5 1 7, p. 276, may be bought at from 2d. to 3d. per foot.
570. Whitewashing and Colouring the inside Walls and the Ceilings of Cottages should not
be attempted till they have dried at least a year. If the plaster be of the commonest
kind, without, a finishing coat of stucco, it is only adapted for water colours, or colours
rendered tenacious by glue, paste, or other mucilaginous matter, instead of oil ; because
of its porosity, which would wholly absorb the oil. The most common colouring for
cottage walls is what is technically called lime whiting, which is nothing more than the
finest particles of lime or chalk mixed with water, with the addition of a small quantity
of size. The colour of this is varied by the addition of the black of charcoal (com-
monly called blue black, as distinguished from the soot of lamps, which is called lamp-
black ■, or by yellow ochre, by verdigrise, or any cheap pigment.
571. A superior description of whitening for interior ivalls is thus formed : — Procure a
quantity of the very best lime, and pass it through fine linen ; pour it into a large tub,
furnished with a spigot at the height equal to that which the lime occupies: fill the tub
with clear spring water; beat the mixture with instruments made of wood, and then
allow it to settle for twenty-four hours. When this period has elapsed, open the spigot,
and allow the water to run oft'; then supply the tub with fresh water, and continue this
operation for several days, until the lime attains the greatest degree of whiteness.
When you allow the water finally to run oft", the lime will be found in the consistency
of paste ; but when used it is necessary to mix a little Prussian blue, or indigo, to relieve
the brightness of the white, and a small quantity of turpentine, to give it brilliancy. The
size proper for it is made of glove leather, with the addition of some alum ; and the
whole is applied with a strong brush, in five or six layers, to new plaster. The wall is
rubbed strongly over with a brush of hogs' bristles after the painting is dry, which gives
it its lustre and value, and makes it appear like marble or stucco. (Partington's Builder's
Guide, p. 550.)
572. To ivhiten the Ceilings of Cottages. Take the best white chalk, and add a little of
the black of charcoal, " to prevent the white from growing reddish ; infuse them
separately in water; mix the whole with half water and half size of glove leather."
The size requires to be diluted, otherwise the whiting would come off in rolls when dry.
Give two layers of this tint while it is lukewarm. (Ibid.) Instead of black, a small
portion of any other colour may be mixed with the white, and Dutch pink is not un-
frequeritly used for that purpose. The cornice, where there is one, forms a member of
separation between the wall and the ceiling, and, being always an architectural object,
should, for that reason, generally exhibit some colour belonging to stone, such as white,
or some shade of yellow, grey, or brownish red.
573. The colouring of the walls of rooms ivilh water colours, or in what is called dis-
temper, only differs from whitewashing them, in the application being coloured. White,
that is, lime or chalk, forms the groundwork or body of the composition, and the colour-
ing is added by some concentrated vegetable extract, or metallic oxide. All the different
colours are used for the walls of rooms ; but the most common, after white, are some
shades of yellow, red, green, or grey. As a general rule, the ceiling should be of a
lighter colour than the walls; because it is found that, when it is darker, it is apparently
brought nearer to the eye, and has consequently the effect of making the room appear
low. Rooms which are too low may on the same principle be made to appear some-
what higher than they are, by having the walls a shade darker than is usual, and the
COTTAGE DWELLINGS IN VARIOUS STYLES. £7«5
51 I
QT](\ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
514 515
12 6 Q
I.I.I
.1 I T I T
yt.
INTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. 277
ceilings a shade lighter, and this effect may be heightened by a slight gradation in the
shade of the wall from the base to the cornice. The manner in which the cornice is
painted may also be made to cooperate in conveying the idea of height or the contrary.
Small lines and mouldings, and faint shadows, convey the idea of distance from the eye,
and the contrary that of being near it. Cornices of small dimensions, in plaster, may be
apparently increased by lines of colour, and members not sufficiently distinct may be
rendered so by shades. When the walls of rooms are paneled, the shade of colour of
the panel, and of the styles, rails, and munnions, should be the same : but the shades of
the mouldings between them should be lighter on the side on which the light is sup-
posed to come; and darker on the opposite side, as in fig. 518, p. 276. Sometimes panels
are formed by lines in imitation of raised mouldings as in fig. 519, which, with the preced-
ing figure, may serve to show the method of paneling in plaster as well as in colours.
574. As a cheap inside paint, which a cottager may prepare, and lay on himself, we
shall give a receipt for milk paint: we could add a number of others; but we have made
choice of this, from having been assured of its superiority.
575. Milk Paint. Take of skimmed milk nearly two quarts ; of fresh slacked lime,
about six ounces and a half; of linseed oil four ounces, and of whiting three pounds:
put the lime into a stone vessel, and pour upon it a sufficient quantity of milk to form a
mixture, resembling thin cream ; then add the oil a little at a time, stirring it with a
small spatula ; the remaining milk is then to be added, and lastly the whiting. The
milk must on no account be sour. Slake the lime by dipping the pieces in water, out
of which it is to be immediately taken, and left to slack in the air. For fine white
paint, the oil of caraways is best, because colourless ; but with ochres the com-
monest oils may be used. The oil, when mixed with the milk and lime, entirely dis-
appears, and is totally dissolved by the lime, forming a calcareous soap. The whiting,
or ochre, is to be gently crumbled on the surface of the fluid, which it gradually im-
bibes, and at last sinks: at this period it must be well stirred in. This paint may be
coloured like distemper or size-colour, with levigated charcoal, yellow ochre, &c, and
used in the same manner. The quantity here prescribed is sufficient to cover twenty-
seven square yards with the first coat, and it will cost about three-halfpence a yard.
The same paint will do for out-door work by the addition of two ounces of slaked lime ;
two ounces of linseed oil, and two ounces of white Burgundy pitch ; the pitch to be
melted in a gentle heat with the oil, and then added to the smooth mixture of the milk
and lime. In cold weather it must be mixed warm, to facilitate its incorporation with
the milk. (Smith's Art of House- Painting, 1825, p. 26.)
576. The painting of the walls of rooms in oilh seldom attempted, unless the walls have
been finished with a coat of stucco ; but, wherever both can be afforded, the result, in
point of durability and beauty, is far preferable to what can be produced by water
colours. The great advantage of oil colours is, that they will bear washing with soap
and water, so that a room once finished with them will not require repainting for many
years.
577. Painting the internal woodwork of cottages ought never to be neglected, both on
account of its preservative quality and its ornamental effect. All woodwork, avowed as
such, should, if possible, be grained in imitation of some natural wood; not with a view
of having the imitation mistaken for the original, but rather to create allusion to it, and,
by a diversity of lines and shades, to produce a kind of variety and intricacy, which affords
more pleasure to the eye than a flat shade of colour. The most suitable colour for the
woodwork of cottages is undoubtedly that of the prevailing timber of the district or
country in which the cottage is built; at the same time, where this timber is but slightly
veined or marked, it is allowable and advisable to imitate a better description of wood.
Thus, in England, the prevailing timber in several districts is fir and poplar; but, as the
wood of these trees is much inferior in beauty to that of the oak, the elm, or the chest-
nut, which respectively prevail in different districts in Britain, it would be allowable,
and what would be considered in good taste, for the painter to imitate them In this,
as in every thing else, the Architect must be guided by the cbjeet in view. If a cottage
be in the Swiss style, the larch and silver fir, being the two woods chiefly used in cottages
in Switzerland, should be either procured by the builder, or imitated by the painter. In
an Indian or Chinese cottage, the bamboo and other tropical woods, or their imitations,
should predominate; and the same principle may be applied to other countries ; always,
however, bearing in mind, that the business of an Architect of reason and taste is not to
produce fac-similes, or repetitions of objects, but imitations of their style and manner.
For the method of imitating woods in painting, or what is technically called graining,
as well as for the practical details of the painter's art, we refer to that part of this work
where painting is treated of systematically, and also to Smith's Art of House-Painting, im-
proved by Butcher, 12mo, London, 1825, price Is. 6d-
578. The Process of Stenciling Walls or Ceilings. Stenciling, said to lie a corruption
278 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
of stained ceiling, is of two kinds. The first, most ancient, and most universal mode,
which is still generally practised in Italy, both on the outsides and insides of buildings,
is that of pricking through, with a large-sized needle, the exact outline of a figure,
previously drawn on paper or oilcloth ; and then placing it against the wall, and striking
the surface with a small gauze bag containing red or white chalk in powder, or powdered
charcoal. The powder goes through the holes in the paper, and, lodging in the plaster,
forms an outline, which is afterwards filled up by the painter. Sometimes, instead of
pricking through the drawing, it is placed against the plaster before the latter has dried,
and the outline is impressed on it by passing a blunt point over the outlines on the
paper. This is generally done in the Italian practice of alfresco, a term applied in that
country to the process of painting in water-colours on plaster, when newly laid on, and
before it has set. The second mode of stencilling is the most common in Britain ; by
it, the patterns are all cut out in pasteboard or oilcloth, and as many pieces of board or
cloth are employed for each figure, or compartment, as there are colours or shades to be-
laid on. This mode of ornamenting the walls of rooms is not unsuitable for cottages
of the humblest description, on account of its cheapness ; and because, in remote places,
or in new countries, it might be done by the cottager himself, or by the local plasterer or
house-painter. The beauty of the effect produced will depend on the suitableness of
the forms and colours of the figures to the style of the Architecture of the cottage ; and
on their disposition on the walls. Where the cottage displays externally any kind of
architectural style, it is reasonable to conclude that some of the same style should prevail
in the ornaments within, as well as in the furniture. A Gothic cottage should display
lines, forms, and ornaments belonging to that style of Architecture, in all its interior, as
well as exterior detail ; and the same of other styles, or sub-styles. More judgment is
required in the disposition than in the choice of ornament. There ought always to be
an obvious reason why an ornament is placed in one position rather than in another ; and
wherever there is ornament or enrichment, there must be plain or flat surfaces to con-
trast with it. The side-walls of a room equally ornamented in every part by elaborate
stenciling, or by a rich paper, would be intolerable, were it not for the contrast produced
by the plain ceiling, and by the border with which the paper, or stenciling is finished
under the cornice at top, and above the base or surbase below. If the same border,
however, were carried across the middle of the paper, it would be as intolerable as the
paper without a border, because the spectator would see no sufficient reason for its being
placed there. In stenciling, and in every other mode of putting ornaments on walls, no
figure, however appropriate and beautiful in itself, should be put down at random ; nor
should any wall be covered with figures for the sake of their individual beauty, but because
they cooperate in forming a whole, or a particular object. That object may be the
enrichment of the entire surface of the wall, by covering it, as it were, with a rich cloth
or printed paper ; or, instead of a cloth, by covering it, with a picture in perspective.
The cloth, as a production of the loom, and the paper, as produced by printing, ought to
exhibit a succession of the same figures at regular distances, and to be accompanied by all
that uniformity and regularity which is characteristic of works effected by machinery.
The perspective view, on the other hand, as an imitation of something existing, or sup-
posed to exist, in nature, forms a whole with reference to itself, and not to the art by
which it is produced, and consequently admits of almost endless variety.
579. In the choice of patterns for stenciling, not only the architectural style of the
cottage, but its situation, whether in a town, the country, or in a village ; and the
occupation, native country, and taste or wishes, of the occupant, will naturally influence
the artist. As contrast is one great source of beauty, both, as respects objects when
placed so as to be seen together, and when placed so as to create allusion to other objects
of the same order, but of a different class ; so figures of flowers and plants in gay
colours are more suitable for the town than the country, and figures of human beings,
buildings, and streets, are more suitable for the country than for the town. The taste of
a cottager living in a country far distant from that in which he was born may lead
him to wish to create allusions to that country, by depicting some of its scenery ; and,
in like manner, another may desire to create allusions to scenery which he has heard of,
but never seen. We state these things chiefly to show that, even in ornamenting walls,
there should be a reason for every thing, and that diis reason is, in every case, nothing
more than a refinement on, or a correction, by a recurrence to original principles, of, the
common practice of mankind. (See Whittoclcs Decorative Painter s Guide.)
580. A simple and elegant mode of stenciling the walls of plain cottages consists in
throwing them into panels, with lines of dark brown or grey ; the general colour of
the wall being white, a pale yellow, or fawn colour ; and in forming ornaments at the
angles. These panels should be coloured of a shade darker than the spaces between them,
which are left in imitation of styles, muntins, and cross rails; for there can be no doubt
that all paneling has had its origin in wainscoting. The panel may be ornamented,
INTERIOR FINISHING OF COTTAGES. 2?9
and the styles and rails left plain, or the contrary. It is easy to conceive that there may
be a great variety of stencil paneling adapted to plain cottages, which any cottager
or emigrant, who could mix milk with ochres or any cheap universal colour, and use
a blacking brush, might do for himself.
581. Papering the Walls of Rooms is a very general practice in Britain; and is ap-
plicable, to a certain extent, even to the humblest cottages. It is not adapted for
kitchens or other apartments in which the coarser domestic labours are constantly going
forward ; but it gives a clothed, warm, and comfortable air to bed-rooms, and an enriched
finish to the better description of living-rooms. The variety of papers for rooms is
almost endless ; beginning with a flat shade of colour, and rising through patterns ot
one, two, or three, or more, to twenty or thirty different colours, or shades of colours,
as in the printed landscapes, some years since introduced into this manufacture by the
French. All this variety may either be printed on the paper in water colours, or in
colours in which oil is introduced, so as to admit of their being washed with soap and
water. The figures on papers may be classed as architectural, either in the Gothic,
Grecian, or other styles ; as imitations of nature, either plants or animals, or combina-
tions of these in landscape scenery ; or as historical or biographical, and, consequently,
either groups of figures or portraits. As the fashions of most of these papers change as
frequently as those of printed cottons, it would serve little purpose to offer designs of
them, either for the choice of the builder or the direction of the manufacturer.
582. The designs which are printed onpaj>ers, like those which are printed on different
cloths, may be divided into two kinds : those which are intended to be correct imitations
of natural or artificial objects, such as of particular species of plants or animals ; and
those which are fanciful compositions of artificial forms and lines, or of plants and
animals imagined in imitation of nature's general manner, but not copied from any
of her specific objects. All ornaments truly architectural or sculptural are of this
latter class, and they are in no style more beautifully exemplified than in the Grecian ;
and, perhaps, in no ornament of that style more elegantly than in the sculptured
honeysuckle which decorates many of the friezes of the ancient temples. As this style of
design brings into exercise the imagination and invention of the artist, while the other
(that of copying specific objects) only calls forth his powers of imitation, the former must
necessarily be considered higher in the scale ; and hence we find that the ornaments of
the most cultivated nations of antiquity are of this class, while those of nations who
have never excelled in the arts of design, as the Chinese for example, are of the other.
Thus, while Grecian or Roman ornaments have only in their forms a certain allusion to
particular plants or animals, almost all the plants and animals on Chinese papers and
cottons may be referred to particular species or varieties. The imaginative style of
design, carried to a high degree of perfection, is addressed to the cultivated mind, and
excites admiration on the same principle, though in an inferior degree, as a painting or
a piece of sculpture ; and the imitative style, carried to an equal degree of per-
fection, is addressed to the memory and the judgment, and gives pleasure to the
mind, by its imitation of well known objects, and by the associations which their images
recall As a proof that the imaginative designs, if we may so term them, are more
permanently satisfactory than the merely imitative or natural history ones, it may be
stated that all those patterns of papers and cloths which have withstood the changes of
fashion are of the former description ; while all those patterns which have soonest palled
on the public taste have been attempts at close imitations of nature. At a large ma-
nufactory of tea trays, and other articles in papier mach<±, at Wolverhampton, a trial was
made, a few years ago, to substitute portraits of plants botanically correct, for the ima-
ginary compositions of flowers and leaves generally used ; but the change was found
unsatisfactory, as the articles would not sell. The drawing-room walls of the celebrated
stock-broker Goldschmidt, at Morden, were covered with silk, painted with flowers and
other objects, which were all drawn and coloured with scientific accuracy. We recollect
the principal flower was the iVarcissus Tazetta, with its bulb and roots accurately
portrayed ; but, though we admired the figure in a botanical point of view, it gave us
no pleasure as an ornament among other ornaments ; because it had no connection with
any of them, and did not combine with them in forming a whole. A showy geranium
paper, and a red rose and green trellis paper, are seldom chosen but by those who
cannot derive pleasure from a higher style of composition.
583. In the choice of papers for a common cottage, the same general principles may be
observed respecting patterns and borders, as were mentioned under the head of stenciling.
One of the best plain papers for the entrance lobby and the staircases of cottages, is one
simply marked with lines in imitation of hewn stone ; because, when any part of this
paper is damaged, a piece, of the size of one of the stones, can be renewed, without
having the appearance of a patch. There are very appropriate Gothic papers, with
borders at the top, to imitate cornices, which are very suitable for Gothic cottages.
280 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
There are also papers covered with green trellis-work, with roses and other flowers
entwined; and it is sometimes the custom to cover the ceilings, as well as the walls, with
such papers. This practice may be allowable in towns, as creating an allusion to the
country; hut, in a country cottage, we consider it in bad taste, as not contrasting with
local circumstances.
584. An instructive natural history paper for cottages, and the walls of nurseries and
school-rooms, a contributor suggests, might be formed by printing figures of all the
commoner and more important plants and animals with the scientific and popular names
beneath them ; each plant or animal being surrounded by lines, so as to appear either in
frames, or as if painted on the ends of stones or bricks. The advantage of the framed
lines would be to give unity to the paper as a whole, and also to admit of repairs by
taking out any single frame or stone, and replacing it by another. There is no reason,
but the expense, why a geographical paper should nut be formed ; or one exhibiting all
the principal rivers, mountains, and cities in the world ; or the portraits of eminent men,
with their names; or perpetual almanacks; or lists of weights and measures; or
chronological or arithmetical tables ; or, in short, any useful and instructive subject,
which it would be beneficial to the cottager to have frequently before his eyes. We
all know how easily, and yet how deeply, the mind is impressed with objects that we are
continually in the habit of seeing ; and that what is learned through that medium in
childhood is rarely, if ever, forgotten in after-life. Children, brought up in nurseries or
cottages decorated in the manner we have mentioned, would thus have their minds
stored with useful ideas, instead of fanciful images.
585. The Floors of Cottages of the common kind do not admit of much ornament.
Entrance porches and lobbies may be paved with a description of tiles called quarries,
which are formed in small squares of six inches on a side ; coloured blue, red, drab, and
black ; and sold at Newcastle under Line, at from 25. 2d. to 2s. 8d. per square yard. A
superior sort is sold at 10s. ; and a sort known as Wright's quarries, which have dark
brown figures in pigment on their surface, let into a pale yellow ground, and are very
ornamental, are sold for 25s- per superficial yard. In countries where tiles are not taxed
as in Britain (where the duty, in 1832, is £l : 4s. : 2d. per thousand), the price would of
course be much cheaper. Quarries of different colours are set in mortar or cement, so
as to appear like tessellated pavement ; and Wright's figured quarries are used to form
bordering and centres to his plain ones, or to floors of rubbed stone : in either case, they
make a very ornamental and substantial flooring. When all the rooms of a cottage are
on the ground floor, and when they are not flued under, a substitute for boards, at once
ornamental, cheap, and comfortable, may be formed by paving them with one or different
kinds of wood, obtained from the branches of trees, which have been cut into lengths of
four or six inches, and set endways on gravel or in mortar ; or, pieces of board, of
various woods, resembling tile quarries in size, or stained of different colours by acids,
might be embedded in cement, either in imitation of tessellated pavement, or of the
Continental practice of parquetted floors. A very good composition for laying under
such floors is made of one part of quicklime, two of sharp sand, and as much oil of iny
kind as will bring the other ingredients to the consistence of mortar. A sound, warm,
and durable floor is formed in the following manner : the ground being well drained,
and covered to the depth of a foot with loose stones, lay on these a stratum of a mixture
of grave] and newly slacked lime, to the depth of six inches; let this be well beaten, and
brought to a perfect level, and after it has dried a week or a fortnight, according to the
weather, cover it, to the depth of two inches, with a composition of equal parts of quick-
lime and powdered smithy ashes, brought to the consistency of mortar by the addition
of bullock's blood, stale milk, oil, or any other description of greasy matter. As soon as
this is laid on, it must be well beaten with the back of a spade, or rolled with a cast-iron
roller ; after which, if immediately well and long rubbed with coarse woollen cloths, it
may be brought to a high polish. The colour, when bullock's blood is used, is at first
brown, but after some weeks it changes to a light grey. When yellow ochre is added
to the mixture, a Bath stone colour is produced. One of the simplest modes of pro-
curing a composition floor, in countries where Roman cement can be easily obtained, is
to bed plain tiles in this material ; then coat them over with a mixture composed of one
part of cement, and two of sharp sand ; and, a month afterwards, to give the floor a second
coating of the same mixture, with the addition of as much lime and yellow ochre as will
communicate a cream-coloured tinge to the surface. Or, the second coat may be com-
posed of powdered Portland, Bath, or other freestone, and oxide of lead mixed up witli
oil, as in Hamlin's mastic (see § 527). A great object, in all ground-floors of cottages,
is to lav such a foundation as to insure their dryness ; we have mentioned several modes
of attaining this end, and we add the following (which is said to be practised in Bengal),
a- suitable for districts in Britain, or other temperate climates, where pottery is cheap.
" The area of the house or room to be floored is firs) made perfectly leve' ; unglazed
INTERNAL F1TTINGS-UP OF COTTAGES. 281
earthen pots, each about a foot in height and large-bellied, are then placed with their
mouths downwards, close together, over the whole surface. The vacant parts round the
necks and tops of these pots are afterwards filled up with charcoal pounded fine (this sub-
stance being well known to resist damp) ; and, over the whole, a floor is formed of brick-
dust and lime, well worked together, and made as hard as possible. {Mech. Mag.,
vol. xi. p. 21.) We shall describe different modes of forming composition floors for
the upper stories of buildings, when giving designs for fire-proof houses, in our suc-
ceeding Book.
Sect. III. Designs and Directions for internal Fittings-up for Cottage Dwellings-
586. Shelves to pantries, closets, and closet cupboards should be formed of boards of
some description of wood not liable to communicate its flavour to the articles laid on
them ; or, if such a wood cannot be got, the shelves ought to be painted in oil. The
least expensive mode of fixing these shelves is by inserting their ends in the wall, or
rather in the first coat of plaster ; a better one is by fixing them to wooden bricks, but
the best is by lining the walls with thin boards to which the shelves are attached.
When shelves are put in by tenants, or temporary occupiers of houses, this last practice
is sometimes adopted, for the sake of allowing the temporary occupier, at the expiration
of the period of his occupation, to carry away with him his shelves, which in this case
are no longer considered as landlord's fixtures.
587. Of Seats and Basins to Water-closets, and of Cisterns for Water, we have already said
enough for this division of our work ; and shall, therefore, not again recur to them, till
we come to give designs for those of ornamental cottages and villas.
588. Chimney-pieces for the kitchens of cottages should generally be finished with
stone facings and stone shelves ; but, where the stone is sandy and brittle, it is much
better to substitute stout shelves of deal or oak. The cottage parlour should, if pos-
sible, have a marble chimney-piece ; and those of the bed-rooms may be of stone or
composition. Designs will be found in our succeeding section, where we treat of fire-
places which may be executed either in marble, or stone, or composition ; in the latter
case, and even where freestone or slate-stone is used, they may be painted in imitation
of some variety of marble. In countries abounding with slate of the kind which rises
in large lamina like that of North Wales, handsome chimney-pieces may be formed
at very little expense, and painted so as to resemble either stone or marble. There are
also chimney-pieces of cast iron, which are generally highly ornamented ; and which
are strong and durable when properly painted. The height of the shelf of the chimney
from the floor is generally varied according to the width of the fireplace ; but, in a
cottage where the shelf is always turned to some use, its upper surface should generally
be about four feet and a half from the floor ; the projection of the shelf from the fascia,
or face of the lintel, may vary from four to six inches, and its thickness should not be
less than an inch. Where cast iron is used, and bronzed, so as to avow the material,
the thickness of the shelf need not exceed half an inch, and the general design may
be much more varied and enriched. Were the plan adopted of enclosing fireplaces
in glazed doors, so as to prevent the heated air of the room from escaping by the
chimney, and yet to show the fire, for which a patent was taken out by a gentleman of
Edinburgh some years ago (see Rep. of Arts), and which has been recently recommended
by Dr. Arnott, cast-iron chimney-pieces would be found very suitable.
589. A valuable substitute for Portland stone chimney-pieces is thus formed : — " Take
two bushels of sharp drift sand, and one bushel of sifted slacked quicklime ; mix
them up with as little water as possible, and beat them well together for half an
hour every morning for three or four successive days, but never wet them again after
their first mixture. To two gallons of water, contained in a proper vessel, add one pint
of single size made warm ; a quarter of a pound of alum in powder is then to be dissolved
in warm water, and mixed with the above liquor. Take about a shovelful of the first
composition, make a hole in the middle of it, and put therein three quarters of a pint of"
the mixture of alum and size, to which add three or four pounds of coarse plaster of
Paris ; the whole is then to be well beaten and mixed together rather stiff. Put this
mixture immediately into the wooden moulds of the intended chimney-piece, the sides,
ends, and tops of which moulds are made of movable pieces, previously oiled with the
following mixture: — Take one pint of the droppings of sweet oil, and add thereto one
pint of clear lime water, made from pouring boiling water on lumps of chalk lime in a
close vessel till fully saturated : when the lime water becomes clear, it is in a proper state
to be added to the oil, as above mentioned, and on their being stirred together they will
form a thick oily mixture or emulsion, proper to apply to the moulds. In forming the
side or jamb of a chimney-piece, the mould is to be first half filled with the sand, lime,
and plaster composition ; then two wires, nearly the length of the piece to be moulded,
are to be wrapped round with a thin layer of hemp, and to be placed in parallel lines,
282 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
lengthwise, in the mixture or composition in the mould : the mould is afterwards filled
up with more of the composition; and if there is any superfluous quantity, it is to be
struck off' with a piece of flat board. The lid, or top of the mould is then to be placed
upon it, and the whole subjected to a strong pressure from powerful levers, or a screw
press. The composition should remain under this pressure for twenty or thirty minutes ;
the precise time necessary being guessed from examining the state of a small specimen of
the composition, reserved purposely to determine the time it requires to harden and set
firm. The sides of the mould must be held together by iron clamps and wedges. The
wires above mentioned answer a double purpose, by giving strength to the jambs, and
retaining the whole mass together, in case it should at any time be cracked by accident.
These chimney-pieces may be made either plain or fluted, according to the mould ; and
when moulded, they are finished off' by rubbing them over with alum water, and smoothing
them with a trowel, and a little wet plaster of Paris. A common plain chimney-piece
of this composition was sold at only 7s., and a reeded one at '28s., in London, in 1S32,
completely fitted up." (Trans. Soc. Arts.)
590. Bell-hanging may be described as the art of conducting lines of wire, intended
to ring a bell at one end, when pulled with a little force at the other, in all directions
round the apartments and through the walls of a building, in such a manner as not
to obtrude on the view. This is effected with ease in straight lines ; and angles are got
over by what are called cranks, of which there is a variety of sorts for external and
internal angles. As few bells can be required for common cottages, we shall defer what
else we have to say on the subject till we come to treat of public-houses and inns ; merely
observing here, that a modern improvement consists in having the wires entirely con-
cealed ; and, in having a small wooden or ivory knob, protruding either from the plain
face of the wall, or from the centre of a rose, a cup, or other ornament, instead of riband
or string bell-ropes suspended from the ceiling. Fig. 520 shows a bell handle of this
520
description, with its different parts : a is a cup, containing in the centre an ivory knob,
by which is pulled the brass chain b ; this chain passes over a pulley, c, and consequently
may pull a bell in the direction of right or left, upwards or downwards, according to
the side to which the pulley is turned; and when it is desired to pull the wire in a di-
rection perpendicular to the face of the wall, the pulley is omitted, and the chain works
solely in the groove d ; c shows the outer rim of the cup unscrewed, in order to be
cleaned if in wood, or new lacquered if in brass ; f shows the ivory knob also unscrewed ;
g is the hollow of the cup, with the ears containing the holes for the screw-nails which
fix it to the wall. The knoby is of ivory, and all the rest is of brass; but the cup
might be made of ebony ; or both cup and knob might be of bronze, or of iron painted
to imitate bronze. The grooved bolt, d, in which the chain works, is generally made
square, but it is here shown round, an improvement made by Mr. Nettlefold of London,
which is found to make it work more truly and easily. The use of the grooved bolt is
to guide the chain or wire, in pulling it out, and in letting it spring back again.
Sect. IV. Designs and Directions for Fixtures for Cottage Dwellings.
591. The fixtures for cottages we shall take in the order of kitchen ranges, cooking
stoves, warming stoves, ovens, boilers, grates, sinks, fixed basins, fixed washing troughs,
fi xed ironing boards, and other flaps and slabs, towel rollers, dressers, and corner cupboards.
592. Kitchen Ranges are manufactured in Birmingham, and sent to all parts of the
world, and their variety is almost endless. All of them, however, may be included in
two classes ; those that have neither boilers nor ovens, either at the sides or behind ; and
those which have either or both. It is of great importance to the cottager to know, that
when he is obliged to choose a kitchen fire-place that has neither boiler nor oven in the
hob or jamb, lie ought to choose a front and bottom grate only, and have the sides and
back of his fire-place one solid mass of masonry, and if possible of fire stone or fire brick.
FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
283
521
In everv country there are clay stones to be found, so free from sand or lime as not
readily to fuse ; or clay so free from other substances as in like manner to resist the
action of intense heat; and of one or other of these the backs and sides of all open fire-
places ought to be formed, where the object is to get Ihe greatest quantity of heat from
the smallest quantity of fuel, with the least quantity of labour. When the cottager can
afford to purchase a range having an oven on one side and a boiler on the other, the
kind which we consider the most suitable is that first made by Mr. Eckstein of London,
fig. 521, in which the boiler occupies one side and the back, from a to b ; and the oven is
on the other side, c ;
the fire comes in close
contact with both oven
and boiler, and heats
them sufficiently with-
out the aid of a flue
under the former. This
range, on a small scale,
may be purchased in
London, by retail, for
five guineas; the size
here shown costs eight
guineas. The oven,
in this and other iron
kitchen ranges, would
be much improved by-
being lined with fire
stone or fire brick ;
the heat would be thereby moderated, rendered more uniform, and retained longer.
For roasting meat, there might be a grated false bottom, with a valve in the lower part
of the door of the oven, and another in the back part of its cover, by which a current of
air might be admitted at pleasure to brown the meat. There is a very small cast-iron
range made occasionally, in which a stove for heating irons, and for other purposes,
is substituted for a boiler, and which costs only three guineas.
593. A Design for a Cottage Kitchen Grate, of great ingenuity, and capable of supply-
ing all the heat required, not only for cooking, but for washing, warming, and every
other domestic purpose, has been sent us by our scientific and gifted correspondent, Mr.
Mallet, jun., of Dublin, who informs us that he has tried it, and found it to answer
in every particular. Fig. 522 is a vertical section of this grate in the plane of the
breast of the chimney ; and fig. 523 is a plan, or horizontal section, of the same, taken a
little above the bottom grate. The sides and back of the fireplace are formed by the
284 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
hollow vessel b, of boiler plate iron, into which two pipes are inserted to produce circuit
tion between the water in it and that in
the apparatus shown in figs. 524, 525,
and 526. The vessel b receives constantly
that portion of the heat which would
otherwise be dissipated in the brickwork
of the back and sides of the fireplace,
and transmits it to a hollow vessel, fig.
524, enclosed in a cast-iron casing with doors, as shown in fig. 525, which may form
n /) 525
u
at one time an oven or hot closet, and at another a water or steam bath : the tem-
perature of either of these, however, can never be higher
than 212°, unless oil be used. The upper surface of this
case will be useful for culinary purposes, most operations of
which require but a moderate heat. Fig. 526 shows the top
of the water-bath, with holes at one end for inserting sauce-
pans, &c. ; and with a hot plate at the other. This double-
cased vessel is easily and cheaply made of boiler plates.
Over the fireplace is another vessel, also formed of boiler
plates, fig. 522, a, the water in which is heated by that heat
which generally escapes up the chimney, to the amount of
half that evolved by the fuel. The flue passes in a circuitous
route, c c, and the ordinary flue receives the smoke at d ;
but if the smoke passed off" by the dotted lines e e, more heat
would be given out, though in that case soot doors would be
necessary in the chimney breast, opposite the angles of the
flues, to admit of cleaning them. This boiler or vessel will
heat part, or the whole, of the cottage, according to its size ;
it will supply hot water for culinary or other purposes ; and
when the vessel b is not in use, the heat of a may be greatly
increased by opening the cock m, which will permit circulation
to take place between the upper and lower vessels. The
vessel a is supplied with water by a small cistern and ball cock, /, connected by the
pipe g, bent to prevent circulation, and
sunk into the wall of the chimney ; a
simple smoke-jack may be placed over the
opening of the flue, c, as shown at h in fig.
527; and a door of iron should be fixed in
the breast of the chimney, a little higher
up, as shown in the same figure at i, in
order to get at the boiler at any time, and
to sweep the chimney. Fig. 527 shows
the elevation of the grate, which has a
common crane, k, for hanging pots on ;
and two hinged cast-iron doors, / /, to
turn back against the wall ; by closing
which the fire may be at any time
intensely urged, and thus the water made
to boil in both vessels in a few minutes (the
cock m being open). By these means a
bath may be procured in a very short time
in any part of the house or cottage. Of course many modifications and applications of
this Design are practicable ; such as heating a conservatory or a poultry-house, hatching
eggs, steaming fodder for cattle, &c. ; all of which may be readily conceived and executed
by any practical engineer accustomed to direct works in iron.
FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
285
594. Cottage Coo/cing- Stoves are not common in Britain, but they are much used h>
those truly economical countries, Holland and the Netherlands ; and might, in many
districts, prove of great advantage to the British cottager. We shall give a description
of the stove in use in the cottages about Bruges, as furnished us by Mr. G. H. Cottam,
who adds that these stoves will be manufactured, in future, at the establishment of
Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, Winsley Street, London. Fig. 528 is a vertical section,
showing the furnace or fireplace, a; the flue, e ; and oven, o. Fig. 529 is another vertical
Miction, taken at right angles with the former ; and fig. 530 is a perspective view, show-
529
ing the external appearance of the whole. Near the top of the furnace there is a square
opening, fig. 528, h, to admit the hot air and smoke produced by the consumption of the
fuel, to enter into the flue, f, in which it circulates round the stove, between the plates
p and q, before it escapes up the chimney, e. The oven, o, is heated from the furnace, a;
which furnace, being closed at top, becomes red-hot, or nearly so, and produces sufficient
heat for roasting, or any other culinary purpose. The size of the fireplace can be
increased at pleasure by taking oft' the grate, g, and putting in a smaller grate to rest on
the projections, i ; or a still smaller one on the shoulders, at the bottom of the opening
at k. The cinders and dust from the fuel fall into the box, b ; which pulls out, in order
to remove them, without producing the slightest degree of dust or dirt. Thus, while
bread is baking in one oven, and meat roasting in the other, boiling or stewing may be
carried on by saucepans set upon the cover, or in holes cut in it, having lids with
handles, r, which lift oft*. One of these lids, n, is directly over the fireplace, and the two
others, / and »?, open into the smoke-flue. Irons may also be heated on this plate.
These stoves will consume the most inferior description of fuel, and will produce an
intense heat, from what would scarcely burn at all in a common open fireplace, where
the fire is, as it were, drowned with air on all sides, instead of being, as it is in the
Bruges stove, surrounded on all sides by heat, and the air supplied in one stream from
below, through a valve in the front of the drawer for receiving the ashes. Most of our
readers will agree with us in thinking that this stove, when it becomes generally known,
will form a treasure to the British cottager, as it will not only serve to cook his meat, &c,
but will throw out more heat for the purpose of warming his room, than any open fire-
place whatever. The construction of this stove, in a scientific point of view, is admirable ;
and all that is necessary, in putting it up, is to set it on the floor, a few feet from the
chimney (if one should be already built), and to conduct the smoke funnel of the former
into the flue of the latter, immediately under the ceiling of the apartment, or, if the
cottage contains two floors, it might be carried through to the roof, in order to heat the
bed-rooms. When this stove is used as a substitute for a kitchen range, the open fire-
place, or the throat of the flue over it, should be closed up, in order to prevent the escape
of the heated air of the room. The fireplace, indeed, might be turned into a cupboard.
We hope to hear of orders being given for hundreds of Cottam's Bruges stove ; because
they would not only serve instead of all other kitchen fires for common cottages, but
would prove a useful auxiliary to the kitchen in most houses. It would be easy to
make an improvement on this stove, so as to circulate hot water from it all over a house,
for the purpose of heating it ; thus rendering open fireplaces totally unnecessary, and
doing away, in ordinary-sized dwellings, with all the chimney-flues and chimney tops,
except one.
595. Warming- Stoves are of endless variety. Those manufactured in Britain are
generally of iron ; and for the consumption of pit coal they are erroneous in one im-
portant particular, viz. that of not being surrounded by fire brick or fire stone, to serve as
28G COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
531
a reservoir of heat. Were this done, or were even a double vacuity of air formed
around, above, and below the furnace of a stove, by plates of iron, a great deal more heat
might be procured from the fuel ; because nearly the whole of the smoke might be
consumed : all the difference would be, that the heat, instead of being radiated directly
from the stove into the air of the apartment, would be radiated from the flue; and this
flue, being of iron, might be conducted so as to heat several apartments, or the whole
house. A good and cheap construction for this purpose is still wanting. A stove
invented by Witty effectually consumes the smoke ; but it is bulky, the fuel is supplied
in an awkward manner, and the stove itself is rather too expensive for our present
purpose.
£96. Cottage Ovens are formed of either iron, fire stone, or fire brick. The two
latter kinds are by far the best ; because they do not, like iron, acquire suddenly so much
heat as to burn what is to be baked or roasted in them ; and because they retain the
heat they do acquire for a long time. An excellent oven is formed by cramping together
five square fire stones or fire bricks, of a foot or more in breadth each, and having a sixth
stone or brick as a cover. The fire may be made within, and taken out when the stones
are thoroughly heated. This oven may be fixed by the side of a kitchen fire, or set
on a weak fire, as practised with a description of stone oven in use among the cottagers
in Gloucestershire, and with clay ovens at Dunstable, in Bedfordshire. Excellent ovens
of this sort might be made of Stourbridge fire clay ; and Mr. Peake of Tunstall informs
us, that not only ovens for baking bread, but entire
fireplaces, with their flues, might be made of the
same material, at a very moderate expense, if it were
not for the present enormous duty. A fire clay
fireplace, with an oven on each side, and requiring
no ironwork, except a small grating in front and
another at the bottom, would be a most desirable
fixture for the cottage kitchen.
597. Portable Iron Cottage Ovens are common
among the ironmongers, but they are riot very
desirable. Occasionally, however, they may be
useful where nothing better can be got, and we shall
therefore briefly notice two kinds. Fig. 531 is a
front view of a portable wrought-iron cottage oven,
which costs in London, by retail, 30s. It is intended
to be placed over a fire, so that the smoke and hot a
air may enter at a, circulate round the oven, and escape by the funnel, b.
valve, c, to permit the escape
of steam when meat is roasting.
Fig. 532 shows a view of the
oven with the door open, and
with a false bottom, d, of fire
stone, raised half an inch from
the iron bottom, to moderate
the heat. The dimensions of
the chamber are, depth and
height, thirteen inches and a
quarter, and width fifteen
inches. Another portable oven
is nothing more than a com-
mon cast-iron flat-bottomed
pot or stewpan. with a false
bottom inside supported on pivots, under which sand is put, to diminish the intensity of
the heat. When this oven is to be used, it is put on a moderate fire, and covered with a
lid, which may be taken off occasionally to admit air. The cost in London, by retail, is
only 3s. 6d. It will bake a small loaf, or roast a fowl.
598. Boilers for Wash-houses are commonly made of copper, and require little art in
either making or managing, except, in setting them up, to provide for getting as much
heat as possible out of the fuel burned beneath them ; and to get ready access to the flues,
to free them from soot. In all open boilers, as usually constructed, there must necessarily
be a great waste of heat ; and therefore, in cottages, we always desire to contrive the
flues proceeding from them so as they may heat the air of the apartments.
599. Parlour and Bed-room Grates are manufactured in iron in the greatest variety ; but
it may truly be said that there is not one in a hundred of their forms worthy of being recom-
mended, ;is being scientifically constructed, with a view to the complete consumption of
the fuel used, and the radiation of heat into the room. The grand error of almost all of them
There is
FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 287
consists in their being exclusively constructed of iron. We hope the day is not very far
distant when open fireplaces will be considered as relics of barbarism, and will be altoge-
ther banished from every room in British houses, except the kitchen : in the mean time,
we recommend the cottager who persists in indulging his prejudice for the sight of an
open fire, to form the sides and back of his fireplace with fire brick or fire stone ; and to
use no iron whatever in its construction, but four bars for a front to the fuel chamber and
a bottom grate, which, together, in cast iron, will not cost more than 3s. or 4s. The most
convenient fire bricks are what are called Welsh or Stourbridge lumps, from the names
of the places where they are made ; that is, masses of burnt clay, eighteen inches or two
feet long, nine inches or a foot broad, and six or eight inches thick. One of these may
form the back of the fireplace, and two others the two sides, as in fig. 533 ; in which a
53S
I 1-
represents the front bars ; b, the bottom grate ; c, the plan of the fireplace, the bars, grate,
and Welsh lumps being shown in their proper places ; d, the elevation ; e, the section of
the front bars, and the bottom grate, showing the inclination of the latter, f, towards the
back of the fire chamber, in the proportion of about one inch in six, with a view of giving
the ashes a tendency to the back ; and g, a section of one of the front bars, of nearly its
full size, showing the upper surface inclining towards the back of the grate, in the pro-
portion of half an inch to an inch, h being the front of the bar. The nearer the fuel-
chamber is placed to the hearth, the more heat will be radiated into the room from the
increase produced in the space, i, between the grate and the chimney breast; and, on the
contrary, the nearer the fuel chamber is to the chimney breast, the less will be the heat
radiated into the room, though the chimney will draw better. The Welsh or Stourbridge
lumps at the sides should form with those of the back an angle of forty-five degrees or
upwards. In a fireplace of this sort a fire is much more easily lighted, and much less liable
to go out when neglected, than in one having the back or sides of iron. It also con-
sumes the fuel much more effectually ; and, by not radiating the heat so rapidly from its
surface as iron, it creates less draught up the chimney, and consequently carries less heat
out of the room. When the mass of fire brick is once thoroughly heated, it retains heat
for many hours after the fire has been extinguished; so that, if the fire is at any time
suffered to go out from neglect, the room is not so soon cooled as it would be, under
similar circumstances, by the radiating and conducting powers of cast iron. Where the
grate is raised somewhat higher than is shown in fig. 533, a drawer may be added to the
front bars, and bottom grate under the latter, for receiving the ashes, so as to prevent
them from raising a dust, by falling from the bottom grate to the hearth, and at the same
time to retain more heat about the fire. The ashes may also be carried away in the
drawer, in furtherance of the same object ; and by drawing it out more or less, or keeping
it closely shut, the burning of the fire may be accelerated or retarded. As a further
means of preventing the ashes from falling from the front bars on the hearth, the upper
288
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
534
surface of t'w former should always be made to slope inwards, as before stated, and the
breadth of the bars should be somewhat greater than is usually employed. This is shown
in fig. .533, g, and also in the section, tig. 534, to a scale of a quarter of an inch to a foot,
in which lc k k are the sections of the bars ; I, the bottom grate ;
and to, the ash-drawer. The front bars should always be straight,
because the consumption of the fuel depends on its being as little
exposed as possible to cold air on the sides, and because the heat
given out to the room depends on the breadth of surface of the
ignited fuel, and not on the depth of the fuel chamber. Curved
fronts, therefore, for fireplaces of this sort, are never to be recom-
mended ; not only because they increase the depth of the fuel-
chamber, but because they expose a greater portion of the fuel
to the action of the cool air, by which perfect combustion is
rendered more difficult. With the fireplaces near the hearth, with
front bars beveled inwards, and with an ash-drawer, the fender
may be made very low ; and thus the heat may be allowed to
radiate freely to that part of the floor from which it is excluded
by a hifh fender. It is necessary to observe that the bottom or ash-drawer is not
recommended as a means of increasing the heat, because its front and bottom will
prevent a portion of that from being radiated to the hearth, but chiefly as a means of
regulating the draught of air through the fire, and consequently of accelerating or
diminishing the consumption of the fuel ; and partly for the sake of cleanliness, in
preventing the small ashes from falling on the hearth, and avoiding the dust which in
that case arises when they are swept up and carried away.
600. A simple and economical Fireplace for a cottage parlour the chimney of which
is liable to smoke, is in use in some parts of Fifeshire and Mid-Lothian, and is worthy of
imitation in countries where fire stone or fire clay can be readily procured. In the cot-
tages alluded to, the sides or jambs, figs. 535, 536, n n (between which are fixed the front
bars and the grate), are formed of 535
a kind of fire stone, found in the
island of Cramond : the fire-cham-
ber is wide in front, but not deep ;
in consequence of which it consumes
but few coals in proportion to the
heat it throws out. The upper part
of the fireplace, behind, and at the
sides, is formed of the same stone ;
and in front there is fixed a cast-
iron plate, with an opening in it;
which, though generally semicir-
cular, might be made square, or
Gothic, according to the character
of the architecture of the house.
These fireplaces are valuable for
low-roofed cottages placed among
high trees, as the chimneys of dwell-
ings so situated aVe very apt to
smoke. Fireplaces thus constructed
draw well ; but it must be obvious
that, in proportion as this is the
case, a greater amount of heat must
be carried up the chimney, A thin
plate (generally of sheet iron) is
sometimes hooked on in front of the opening, on first lighting the fire, in order to
increase the draught, by preventing the cold air of the room from mixing with the
heated air that has passed through the fire. In Ireland, we are informed by Mr. Bu-
chanan, in his Economy of Fuel, p. 315, that, instead of using a cast-iron plate, the
back of the upper part of the fireplace is formed into an oval niche, by fire stone or fire
brick ; the breast of the chimney being rounded off, and the throat very much con-
tracted. A view of such a chimney is given in an excellent work, entitled The Theory
and Practice of Warming and Ventilating, &c, p. 183. We can only recommend such
fireplaces, however, as a minor evil to that of a smoky chimney. The grate, fig. 535,
and the preceding one, fig. 533, have one disadvantage for the cottager, common to
both, viz., that of having no hobs; but this want may be supplied in the present
grate, by omitting the cast-iron plate, when the tops of the jambs would become
hobs, as is actually the case in the parlour fireplaces of cottagers about Edinburgh ;
536
FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
289
537
538
VN '
539
and hobs might be supplied to the grate, fig. 537, having the sides of the fire
at right angles to the front, as indicated in fig. .538, in which o o are the hobs,
formed of Welsh lumps,
or fire stone ; ppp, Welsh (
lumps forming the sides
and back ; and q q, angles
tilled up with mortar, or
fragments of fire brick.
In such fireplaces as fig.
533, a substitute for a
hob may always be found
in the movable bracket
called a trivet, for hang-
ing on the bars ; or by a
similar stand with three
feet, for setting before the
fire.
601. An economical
union of cast iron and
fire stone or fire brick is
sometimes attempted by
ironmongers, by lining
iron cases with stone or
brick, as in fig. 539 ; in
which the front plates of
the jambs, r r, and the
plates which form the hob,
* s, are of cast iron ; and the back and sides are also of iron, but lined with three fire
stones, 1 1 t. The iron back and sides are of no other use
than to retain the stones in their proper places, and thus
render this fireplace portable, and, in consequence, an
article of trade for ironmongers ; since a much more
effective and less expensive fireplace would be produced
by having only the covers of the hobs, the front plates
of the jambs, and the bottom grate, of iron, and building
up from the hearth, the jambs, and the back, of solid
masonry, and on that placing the firestone. A grate
built in this way is both economical and handsome, more
especially if it has broad beveled front bars and an
ash-drawer, as shown in figs. 534 and 537 ; but, as Mr.
Iredgold observes, " ironmongers, in general, seem to
think it more desirable to use iron, than to economise
fuel, or to work on sound principles." In the neighbourhood of Birmingham, and in
the coal districts of the midland counties, where coal is abundant, and the inhabitants
are fond of large bright fires, the bottom grates are made so wide that cinders of con-
siderable size are allowed to pass through them. To prevent these cinders from being
lost, and also to prevent dust from being raised, by sweeping up ahd carrying away
the ashes, what is called an ash-pan is often placed on the hearth between these fire
jambs, immediately beneath the grate. This ash-pan, fig. 540, is a frame or box, with
a grated top and a drawer underneath. The open
spaces in the grating are about a quarter or three
sixteenths of an inch apart, which is the width
between the bottom bars of grates about London,
and in most parts of the country where fuel is
scarce and dear. In some places, the drawer or
box is let into the hearth, and the grating over it
is formed of brass wire, which gives a remarkably
clean and warm appearance to the hearth, as no ashes can lie on the wires, which,
from the reflection of the fire over them, present a glowing hue to the eye. Where
provision has not been made for this recess in the hearth, the same effect may be
produced by a box over it, the outer rim of which should form the fender, which
will look better, and be more effective, than the ash-pan, fig. 540, which only receives
the ashes that fall directly under the grate ; leaving those which fall from the front
bars to be swept up. By having the whole of the hearth within the fender formed
of one shallow box, of which the fender is the outer rim ; by having this box co-
vered with brass-wire grating, and the front bars sloping inwards, no ashes could ever be
540
•290
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
seen. In kitchens on the ground floor, it is a common practice, in many places, to leave
an ash-pit under the kitchen range, three or four feet deep, covered with a wrought-iron
grating, into which the ashes fall, and are only taken out when it is full, generally when
the chimneys are swept. This practice is highly commendable, as saving the labour of
daily carrying out and sifting the ashes, and bringing back the cinders.
602. The rounding of the chimney breast, and the contraction of tlie throat of the flue,
whatever may be the kind of grate adopted, are points which contribute materially to
the free draught of every chimney. The chimney breast requires to be rounded, in order
to direct the current of cool air drawn from that of the room gradually upwards, so that
it may mix in by degrees with the current of hot air ascending from the fuel chamber,
instead of striking against it at right angles, which it must necessarily do when the
chimney breast is not rounded. The object of contracting the throat of the chimney is
to diminish the quantity of heat drawn from the room, by the current of air which is
continually passing up the chimney ; but the same contraction, it is justly observed by
Mr. Tredgold, often augments the draught to such a degree, as greatly to increase the
consumption of fuel. The grand point to be attained is, such a draught as will do
nothing more than carry off the smoke, and keep the fire clear ; because then there is
the greatest radiation from the fire and fireplace, with the least waste of hot air from the
room. The rounding of the chimney breast may either be effected by having a stone
lintel or a cast-iron one. In countries where stone is so abundant that lintels of that
material are thrown across the openings of the fireplaces, the under side may be rounded
off as at o, in fig. 541, and the throat of the flue gradually contracted (as shown in the
section from c to d, p. 113.), till, at the height of two or
tliree feet from the chimney breast, the superficial area,
in ordinary cases, is not more than 90 or 100 square
inches; this being found by experience to be a suitabley
sized flue for an ordinary coal fire. When this contraction
has been neglected in building the chimney, or done
improperly ; or when it is found necessary to contract the
throat still farther, to create a draught ; this may be done, in
stone countries, by the piece of flag-stone, b, set on the
surface, c, which may be moved backward or forward to
adjust the draughts to the degree required. When fires are
no longer wanted, this stone may be brought forward so
as to lean against the breast of the chimney, asatrf, to close
up the flue ; or thrown back, as at e, when the chimney is to
be swept. That this may be done with ease, and without
dirtying the hands, the stone may be removed by inserting
the points of the tongs in two holes cut in its face for that
purpose. In countries where brick is the principal
building material, the chimney breast, as we have seen,
§ 79, is built on an iron bar: this bar is generally flat, and
about three inches broad ; consequently its inner edge pre-
sents a sharp angle, instead of the rounded surface repre-
sented in fig. 541 : to remedy this, a bar has been invented
by Mr. Chadley, fig. 542, the cross section of which, taken
at the centre of the opening, is shown at f; and another
cross section, taken nearer the end, is shown at g. This is
obviously an excellent bar, and its cost, for an openin<r
three feet wide, is not more than the usual expense of a common wrought-iron bar,
suitable for the same opening.
The contrivance for contracting or
closing the throats of chimneys, in
brick-built buildings, is either by
a plate of cast iron, formed witli
a base so as to stand like the stone,
b, in fig. 541 ; or by what is called a register plate, fig. 543. In the latter case
the plate is furnished with a turn latch, which may be worked by the tongs, so as
to regulate the distance between its upper edge and the breast of the flue. It may
FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 2()1
be taken out to admit of sweeping the chimney; or the flue may be completely
closed by it. " When the chimney top is properly contracted," Mr. Tredgold observes,
" a register at the throat is not wanted, and it is always desirable to do with as little
machinery about a lire as possible." He says that he makes the contraction at the top
in order to reduce the opposition which the wind, and even the resistance of the air,
make to the ascending smoke ; also to prevent the chimney from being cooled by double
currents of air (which is often the case in wide chimneys), and to diminish the loss of
heat which would be required to sustain a current of smoke in a large flue. If the con-
traction were made only at the throat, the force of ascent would be diminished at the first
effort ; it would be like contracting the aperture of a pipe which supplies a jet ; besides, if
a larger opening were left at the top than what is absolutely necessary, the rain, cold
air, Sec, would descend, and interrupt the smoke. The degree of contraction at the
throat of the flue Mr. Tredgold makes the same as that at the top of the chimney. He
avoids all abrupt changes in either the form or direction of the flues ; he prefers the
circular form for them ; and in 1816 proposed, in the New Monthly Magazine, to build
them of earthen pipes.
603. The American Slove is adapted for a cottage in a country where wood is the fuel,
where it is abundant, and where no great nicety of construction has yet entered into
cottage dwellings; but it can never be recommended as so economical in the first cost,
or so neat and cleanly in use, as a fireplace with the back and sides of non-conducting
earthy material. It is formed entirely of cast iron, and has a large projecting cast-iron
hearth, with a rim to it, serving as a fender ; it has also sides serving as jambs, and a
hood or shelf of cast iron. The fuel is burned on three or four iron bars, resting on
dog-irons.
604. Many other Stoves suitable fir Cottages might be described and figured ; but we
have deemed it more likely to be useful, to confine ourselves to two or three which we
are perfectly certain are excellent, and which are fit for first-rate houses no less than
for cottages. The fire-brick stove, fig. 533, is to be found in the libraries and business
rooms of some of the largest mansions in London ; for example, in Portland Place
and St. James's Square.
605. The Consumption of the Smoke in open Fireplaces has long been a desideratum ;
and though it never can be accomplished effectually, it, may in a great degree, by the
use of a stove invented by Cutler, in which, instead of throwing coals on the top
of the fire, in the usual way, they are supplied from beneath, by hoisting up a grated
box, into which as many coals are put in the morning as it is supposed will be burned
during the day. The invention is rather too complicated for common cottages ; but, if
a little trouble were not objected to, at least the grosser portion might be consumed by
the following arrangement : — Supposing the bottom grate of the fuel chamber, as in
fig. 533, to be within six inches of the hearth, all that is necessary is to char the coal by
keeping it a day directly under the grate (with a good fire burning above), before it
is used. The space below might be divided vertically into two chambers, and each
sunk so deep into the hearth as to contain as many coals as would be used in a day.
The bottoms of these chambers should have an ash-box fitted into them, into which
the ashes and dross would fall when the coals were being lifted with a shovel to be put
on the tire. Every morning one chamber would be found empty, or nearly so ; and the
ash-grate, being taken out, and its contents thrown in the dusthole, might be replaced,
and the chamber again filled with coals. The coals might also be charred by having
the jambs hollow, and the hobs to lift up ; or by leaving a hollow in the back directly
behind the fuel chamber, with a cast-iron door : but though these two modes woidd be
much more cleanly than the other, they would not, like it, have the advantage of
burning whatever was evaporated from the coals. It would be impossible for a quantity
of raw coal to remain a whole day directly under a good fire, without being in a great
measure deprived of the watery particles and grosser carbonaceous matters which are
the principal ingredients in smoke; and equally impossible for this vapour to escape
without passing through the ignited mass of fuel over it. We do not present this as
either a perfect or an elegant mode of burning smoke in open fireplaces, but as one
which may be universally adopted ; and which, whether it succeeds in effectually con-
suming the smoke or not, is sure to do good, since the drier and hotter fuel is, before it
is put on the fire, the better it will burn.
606. Designs for more elegant Grates and Stoves will be found among our fixtures for
ornamental cottages and villas ; and we shall treat more at length on the principles of
warming and ventilating, in the Third Part of this work.
607. Sinks, or fixed shallow troughs, are usually placed in back-kitchens, sculleries,
and wash-houses, for setting dishes and other articles upon which are to be washed ;
and for receiving and conveying away dirty water. They are generally formed of stone,
fig. 544, but are sometimes also made of cast iron ; and Mr. Mallet of Dublin, who
292 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
544
has made a great number, has sent us several Designs, of winch fig. 545 is a corner
sink, suitable for cottages. Sinks are also frequently made of wood, lined with lead or
zinc. A sink, of whatever materials it may be constructed, should always either be
raised on masonry, or placed on an iron or wooden stand, so as to have the upper edge
about two feet and a half from the ground ; and it should be fixed near a window, on
account of the light. Where practicable, there should be a cock with a supply of
water immediately over it ; and, at all events, there should be a waste-pipe from it,
leading to a drain, the orifice being protected by a bell stink-trap, as already described,
§ 237.
608. Fixed Wash-hand Basins, Washing-Troughs, and Slabs are little required in
plain cottages; we shall therefore defer what we have to say of them, till we come to
treat of fixtures for villas. Fig. 545, given as a corner sink, would make a very good
lixed wash-hand basin.
609. A Towel Roller ought to be placed on the back of the kitchen-door of every
cottage; or, if not on the back of the door, it should be near the sink or fixed wash-
hand basin. It is formed of deal, or any common wood, fig. 540, to a scale of one inch
546
to a foot, and consists of a roller with a gudgeon, or small pin, at each end, which pins
work in sockets cut out of brackets fixed to a door, or to any other perpendicular surface.
One of these brackets, a, has its socket cut through, to admit of taking ont and putting
in the roller, when the towel requires to be changed; the other, b, has merely a circular
hole cut into one side.
610. A Rail for Towels, fig. 547, to a scale of an inch to a foot, is a fixture suitable for
547
either bed-rooms or kitchens : it requires no description beyond the inspection of the
figure ; and may be nailed to a wall, to a door, or to the side of a wardrobe or chest of
drawers. This rail should be made of strong wood, and painted of the same colour as
FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
293
548
the walls or door of the room, or the wardrobe against which it is fixed. The use of
the paint is not only to harmonise it with the rest of the apartment, but to preserve the
wood from being first discoloured, and afterwards rotted, by the wet and dam)) of the
towel. If it should In1 fixed against a papered wall, and near a wash-hand stand, a row
of wooden pins or buttons, e, may be placed in the under side of the rail, on which may
be hung a curtain of brown holland linen, or of any other material, to prevent the wall
from being splashed.
61 1. Hat ami Cloak Pins are sometimes formed of wood, turned or plain, and let into
a rail of the same material ; this rail being fixed to the wall, in the entrance lobby or
passage, or sometimes in cottage bed-rooms. The more common pins for this purpose
are made of cast iron ; and figs. 548 and 549 show two of the most useful shapes : the
latter answers two purposes, as a cloak may be hung on d, and a hat on e.
612. An Iron Hand-mill, for
grinding coffee, rice, barley, and
groats, and another smaller one for
pepper, &c, are most valuable
articles in the better description of
cottages ; because the cottager may
not only roast and grind his own
coffee, or any of the substitutes
for it, but he may, at pleasure, form rice flour from whole
rice, for puddings, &c, for invalids or children ; barley
flour from pearl barley, for fever drink ; or oatmeal from
groats, for porridge or gruel. These mills are always easies to work, and most
effective, when fixed ; and for this purpose, if there be no style of a door or quarter
of a partition sufficiently strong, they must be bolted to the wall, unless provision was
made in building it, by inserting a piece of strong timber, or a stone to which the mill
could be cramped with lead.
613. Fixed Ironing- Hoards and Flaps are useful both in kitchens and, on a smaller
scale, in lobbies and passages, and even sometimes as brackets in sitting-rooms. Fig.
550
550 is an ironing-board, or flap table, which, in a cottage, may serve for various useful
purposes, and, where the living rooms are small, will be found a most valuable substitute
294
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
55:5
(or a portable table. The piece of hoard, a, is made Fast to the wall, tithcr by holdfasts,
or by being nailed or screwed to wooden bricks. The Hap, i </, is hinged to it, and,
when raised lip, is supported in its place by the hinged folding legs, of which a c, fig. 550,
is a plan, and d an elevation. Fig. 552 is an Insulated fixed table, or ironing-board,
supported by cast-iron framing, which is fixed by screw nails to the floor, and also
to the under side of the top. Mr. Mallet, junior, of Dublin, who has sent us this
Design, observes that all manner of kitchen tables may be supported in this manner,
most securely and firmly, and at very little expense. Fixed insulated tables occupy
more room than wall flaps; but in
roomy cottages, and especially
where the mistress is a washer-
woman, they admit of two or four
persons ironing at the same time,
instead of one or two. Fig. 551
is an ironing-board, or side-table,
supported by cast-iron brackets ;
the dotted lines showing the ge-
neral disposition of the framing to
support the table, and the diagonal
rib, e, introduced to prevent lateral
action. Figs. 553 and 554 show
two modes of fastening sideboard
framing to walls; the first by an
eye-bolt, with a round key, passing through holes jumped (the expression for boring
stone with a blunt chisel, called a jumper) in two superincumbent stones in the wall ; the
latter shows the bolt passed through the wall, and secured with a nut. Fig. 555 is a
sideboard suitable for a lobby, wide passage, or dining-parlour. The board or flap, /*, is
hinged at the joint, to fall down, and is supported by two jib brackets, fig. 556, which
11
554
-Tl
|
]|
| t
7
g
555
556
shut into the frame when the flap is let down, and are concealed by it. There is a slip
of board, g, above the flap, to keep things from rubbing against the wall. In the
construction, the brackets are fixed to the frame, by having round pins worked in both
i rids of their upright piece, which turn in corresponding holes of the top and bottom rails
of the frame.
6" 14. Dressers are fixtures essential to every kitchen, but more especially to that of
the cottager, to whom they serve both as dressers and sideboards. They are generally
made of deal by joiners, and seldom painted, it being the pride of good housewives, in
most parts of England, to keep the boards of which they are composed as white as
•now, by frequently scouring them with fine white sand. The dishes, plates, &c,
which they contain are also kept perfectly clean and free from dust, by being wiped
every day, whether used or not. In old farm-houses, the dressers are generally of oak
rubbed bright, and the shelves are filled with rows of pewter plates, &&, polished by
frequent cleaning, till they shine like silver. The dresser may be called the cottager's
sideboard, and in the dining-rooms of the first nobleman's houses in Britain, the splendid
mahogany sideboards, set out with gold and silver plate, differ only in the costliness of
the materials employed from the cottage dresser: nor do the essentials of human food
differ more in the palace and in the cottage than the furniture; for, in Britain and
America at least, good meat, good bread, and good potatoes are the main dishes on all
tables, and may be obtained by the workman who has good wages and full employ-
ment, as well as by the wealthy merchant or hereditary aristocrat. When there is a
pot-board affixed to the dresser, it is usually painted black or chocolate colour ; and
when the shelves and fronts are painted, it is generally white, or, what is in better
taste, the same colour as the walls or doors of the apartment. Gothic dressers would
be more appropriate if made of oak, or painted to resemble that wood. The price of a
deal dresser, in London, is from i- to £5.
FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
295
559
560
A>t
561
562
296 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
563
J*
564.
565
566
aSaX
FIXTURES FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
297
615. Dressers in the Grecian Style. Fig. 557, on a scale of three eighths of an inch
to a foot, represents a dresser in a plain Grecian style, the characteristic features being
the square columns which support the drawers, and the board or table which covers them :
under the drawers is seen the potboard, or place for setting pots, saucepans, &c, when
not in use. There are three shelves, and two large drawers. Rails are fixed a few
inches under each shelf, on which to rest the edges of the plates and dishes, in order that
they may lean forward, so as to protect their faces from the dust, which, when they are
in this position, can only fall on their backs. There are hooks fixed in the edges of the
shelves, on which jugs and any small articles having handles may be hung. Fig. 558 is
557
558
A=
1°
of
JZ
a cross section of this Design, on a somewhat larger scale, on which are shown the ends
of the shelves, e ; of the plate rails,y; of the hooks, g ; and of the potboard, /;. Fig. 559,
p. 295, is another dresser in the Grecian style, but differing from the other, in having beads
fixed along the upper surface of the shelves, near the edge, to support the plates and
dishes in a reclining position against the back. In this position they are liable to receive
the dust on the face ; but it is nevertheless preferred by some housewives, as showing
better whether or not the plates are clean. Instead of an open potboard, there are two
side-closets, and, in the middle, shelves. There are three drawers above : the centre one
for tablecloths, towels, &c. ; and the two side ones, one for knives, forks, and spoons,
and the other for dusters, brushes, &c. In one of the cupboards below may be kept
what wines or spirits are in daily use, glasses, &c. ; and, in the other, bread, biscuits,
groceries, or any other articles of food. The tea-tray and teacups may be put on the
upper middle shelf, and the smaller saucepans, &c, on the bottom one. Fig. 560 is an
end view of this dresser, on a somewhat larger scale, in which the ends of the beads, i,
the hooks, k, and supporting brackets, /, are more distinctly delineated. The top of
this dresser, being somewhat heavy, should be fixed to the wall by two holdfasts driven
in above so as to be concealed by the cornice, or by screw nails to wooden bricks. Fig.
5G1, also to a scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot, is a very convenient dresser,
used in the better description of cottage dwellings in Cambridgeshire. The middle
drawer, which is shown drawn out, has a lift-out box or tray, which is divided in the
centre for the knives and forks, and spoons, in daily use ; and underneath, in the bottom
ot the drawer, is a space in which are kept those not generally in use. There are two
other drawers, one on each side, for clean tablecloths and towels, and for dusters, &c.
The cupboard in front is made, in order to look uniform, with three panels like doors,
but the centre one is fixed, and behind it, in the middle, is a division forming the whole into
only two cupboards, in one of which may be kept glasses, teacups, &c. ; and in the other,
the liquors, fruits, sweetmeats, &c, in daily use. Fig. 562 shows a section of this
298 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
dresser, in which is Been the middle drawer, m, with its lift-out tray, n, and the space
below, for knives and forks not in use, o. This dresser being intended to have the plates
leaning forward, as in fig 557, sections of the plate rail for that purpose are seen at p.
616. Dressers in the Gothic Style. Fig- 563, p. 296, to a scale of three eighths of an
inch to a foot, is considered in the Gothic style, from the character of its mouldings at q q,
and of the upper part of its supporting columns, r r. It has an open potboard and two
large drawers over it. " The plates, &c, are intended to lean forward, as shown in this
figure, and also in the section, fig. 564. Fig. 565 is a dresser more decidedly in the
Gothic style, as is obvious from its openings with pointed-arched tops in the ends which
support the shelves, and from its pointed-topped panels in the two cupboard doors.
There are three shallow drawers under the board or table, two shelves in the middle, and
a lock-up cupboard on each side. The plates are intended to lean back, as shown in the
section, tig. 566.
617. Fixed Corner Cupboards. Where the dresser is without cupboards, as in figs.
557 and 563, a corner cupboard becomes requisite for cups and saucers, glasses, the tea-
caddy, liquors in daily use, &c. ; and these cupboards are cheapest when put up as fix-
tures ; because the shelves, instead of being fitted into wooden sides or linings, are then
let into the plaster, or fixed on slips nailed to the wall. In small rooms these cupboards
are very convenient, as they occupy very little space, and, for a moderate sum, supply a
handsome article of furniture.
618. Fixed Corner Cupboards in the Grecian Style. Fig. 567, p. 299, to a scale of three
eighths of an inch to a foot, is the external view of a corner cupboard in a plain Grecian
style. The side styles are finished with pilasters, and there is a handsome cornice at top.
There are an upper cupboard with two glazed sashes, and a lower one with two paneled
doors. Fig. 568 represents another cupboard, in the Grecian style, with the doors open to
show the interior, and standing on turned legs, to give it the character of a portable piece
of furniture. The shelves, which are supposed to be of deal, are let into the plaster ; and
the whole, outside and inside, including the plaster between the shelves, is painted of a
wainscot colour. Fig. 569 is a Grecian corner cupboard in a more elevated style of
design ; the panels below and the round heads of the sashes give it an elegant and rather
uncommon air.
619. Fixed Corner Cupboards in the Gothic Style. Fig. 570 is an open corner cup-
board without doors. The shelves are nailed to slips of wood ; and these, with the wall
between them, should be painted of the same colour as the side styles or pilasters, and
the whole will look well, if grained to imitate wainscot. Fig. 571, p. 300, shows a plain
Design, with glazed doors above, and paneled doors below. Fig. 572 is a Design somewhat
more elaborate ; the pilasters having sunk panels ; and the sash-heads and cornice having
more work in them. The expense of fixed corner cupboards of the kind here shown,
with glazed doors above and paneled doors below, varies from £2 to £5. The cost will
be considerably diminished by having the upper doors in single wooden panels, instead
of being glazed.
Sect. IV. Designs and Directions/or Cottage Furniture and Furnishing.
620. The Furniture and Furnishing of Cottages have been hitherto neglected in every
country where the comfort of the cottager has depended on those above him, and this never
can be fully remedied till the inmate of the cottage is sufficiently enlightened to be able
to take care of himself. We have shown, in our Chapter on Model Cottages, p. 8, that all
that is essential, in point of the general arrangement of a house, may be obtained in a cot-
tage with mud walls, as well as in a palace built of marble ; and we intend now to point
out in what manner all that is comfortable, convenient, agreeable, and much of even what is
elegant, in modern furniture and furnishing, may be formed of the indigenous woods and
other common articles of every country, as well as of the most beautiful exotic timbers,
and other costly materials obtained from abroad. If it should be asked, whether we ex-
pect that such Designs as those which follow can be executed or procured by the cottagers
of this country, we answer that we trust they soon will be ; and we believe that the first
step towards this desirable end is, to teach them what to wish for. As the spread of
knowledge becomes general, it will be accompanied by the spread of taste ; and correct
habits of thinking will go hand in hand with comfortable dwellings, and convenient, neat,
and elegant forms of furniture. An approximation to equalisation in knowledge will
lead to an approximation in every thing else ; for knowledge is power, and the first use
which every man makes of it is, to endeavour to better his own condition. Our grand
object, therefore, in this as in every other department of our work, is, to cooperate with
the causes at present in operation for bettering the condition, and elevating the character,
of the great mass of society in all countries. Though most of the Designs submitted
are of a superior description to what are common in cottages, they are not on that account
more expensive than various cumbrous articles of furniture now possessed or desired by
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. . 299
507 »«- 568
300 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
573
575
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
301
every cottager in tolerable circumstances. Tlu; difference will be found to consist
chiefly in the kind of labour employed in making them, and in the style of design which
they exhibit. To speak in familiar language, we have given more work for the joiner
than for the carpenter ; and our Designs pretend to nothing more than what could be in-
vented by any joiner who could read and draw, and derive ideas from books. Mr. Dalziel,
under whose direction most of them have been prepared, has shown superior taste in pre-
serving the character of simplicity, and preferring what was really good in itself to what
had only novel or showy appearance to recommend it. For the Designs for iron furni-
ture we are chiefly indebted to Mr. Mallet, jun., of Dublin ; but partly to Messrs.
Cottam and Hallen, and Mr. Eckstein, of London. We shall present the following
Designs in the order of sideboards, dumb waiters, bookcases, book-shelves, wardrobes,
chests of drawers, tables, chairs, stools, benches, sofas, beds, cribs, window-curtains, inside
blinds, looking-glasses, fenders, carpets, oilcloths, matting, umbrella stands and hat and
cloak holders, mats, scrapers, clocks and musical instruments, pictures, sculptures, and
other ornamental furnishing : the various utensils employed in cookery, brewing, baking,
washing, the dairy, &c, or for the table and bed-rooms, including earthenware, China
and glass of every description, with linen, the minor articles of ironmongery, cutlery,
&c., do not come within our plan, because they cannot be considered as architectural in
their Design.
621. Sideboards for a cottage parlour generally include cupboards, unless there should
be a corner cupboard in the room, either as a fixture, or as a movable piece of furniture.
Fig. 573, p. 300, shows a small cupboard side-board for a neatly furnished cottage par-
lour, in which there is not much room. In point of style it maybe considered Grecian ;
because the panels do not indicate any thing of pointed architecture at their angles, and
because the mouldings under the top belong to the former style. Fig. 574 is a Design
in the Gothic style ; and fig. 575 shows the interior of the Design. A partition is fixed
in the centre, which divides the cupboard into two parts. One side has a drawer at the
top, which drawer is partitioned, and lined with baize, for holding plate. There are
four tray shelves below, which draw out, the space between them being of sufficient
height to hold wine glasses, tumblers, &c. In the other side is one fixed shelf, leaving
height enough for bottles and decanters both above and below. The lower part may
be lined with lead, to keep wine and liquors cool ; or it may contain earthenware wine
coolers for that purpose, the bottom being lined with lead, and having a ledge in front
about an inch high, to retain any water that may exude from the coolers. The top of
this sideboard lifts up, and leaves a well for holding tablecloths, napkins, doyleys, table-
mats, &c. This article may be made in deal and painted ; of any native broad-leaved
wood, as oak, elm, walnut, &c, or of mahogany. Made of the last material, in London,
the price would be from £7 to ,£J12, according to the style of finishing
622. Corner Cupboards are best put up as fixtures (see § 617), and Designs for them
may be made after the style already given, figs. 562 to 574 ; all the difference in con-
struction between a movable and a fixed corner cupboard, being, that the former have
linings or sides of boards, to which the shelves and side styles are fixed. In some old
302
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
cottages and farm-houses there is a sort of pyramidal comer cupboard, fig. 575 a, to ■
scaleof half an inch to a foot, sometimes in use for holding glasses, the punch bowl, &c. ;
and another sort of corner cupboard, fig. 575 b, to the same scale as the preceding Design,
has this advantage, that, when not in use, its two open sides may be turned against the
two walls of the room, and, its two close sides only being seen, it may pass with a stranger
as a book or music stand, for which, indeed, a similar design is frequently used. There
is a drawer below, for holding plate, and on the top may stand the tea-urn; or, in the
event of its being used as a music-stand or book-stand, the drawer may contain manu-
scripts, and the top a globe or bust. This piece of furniture should stand on castors.
623. Dumb Waiters, or portable sideboards, are useful in small families, with few or
no servants or children. The most common form is that of a candelabrum, with tiers
of circular shelves fixed to an upright axis, the shelves diminishing from the bottom
upwards, and the whole on castors. The two figures last described will also make very
good dumb waiters.
624. Bookcases and EscriUoires, Secretaries, or Bureaus, are extremely useful for holding
books, keeping papers, or writing on ; and, therefore, no cottage parlour ought to be
without one. Figs. 576 and 577 are bureaus in the Grecian style ; the middle part of
fig. 576 draws out, and the front lets down and forms a writing-desk. The lower part,
enclosed by doors, may be either fitted up with shelves or drawers; the upper part is for
books. Fig. 577 has a falling board or flap, which, when let down, as shown in fig. 578,
forms a writing-desk. Figs. 578 and 579 are bureau bookcases in the Gothic style.
In the first of these figures, the writing-table is formed by pulling out a drawer, and
letting down its front, as in fig. 578 ; in the second (fig. 579), the sloping flap falls
down, and rests on two sliding pieces, a, technically called lopers. This last description
of secretaries is often made without the addition of the bookcase over it ; and, instead
of paneled doors, it is more common to have drawers exposed to view. The knobs to
the drawer desks, figs. 576 and 578, are supposed to be made of wood, mahogany, ebony,
or laburnum, as being more in harmony with the articles, and as less liable to tarnish
than brass, the usual material of which similar handles are formed. The astragal
moulding which covers the joint formed by the two doors of each Design is also com-
monly formed of brass ; but wood, generally of the same sort as the rest of the fabric, is
now substituted by the best manufacturers. Even the linings to keyholes, fig. 580,
and the shields or escutcheons of locks, are now made of ebony, or some other bard
wood, in all the better articles of cabinet furniture. Fig. 581 shows a section of the
door style and astragal of the Grecian Designs ; in which b is thfe astragal, and c the
door style. Fig. 582 is a similar section, showing the Gothic astragal and door style.
It will be observed that the astragal is not worked on the door style, but on a distinct
piece of wood, d; which is afterwards glued, and rabbeted on to the edge of the side
style. The situation in a room for pieces of furniture combining bookcases and secre-
taries should never be on the side opposite to the window ; for nothing can be more
awkward than the idea of a person sitting down to write with his back to the light, or,
should the room be small, to an open fireplace. Recesses in those sides of a room, which
form right angles with the window sides afford the most desirable positions ; and, of
these, the preference is always to be given to the side containing the fireplace. In rooms
heated by stoves or flues, the same care as
to the position of the secretary with refer-
ence to the fire is not requisite.
625. Bookshelves will shortly become
as necessary as chairs or tables, for the
cottage of even the humblest labourer.
We shall give two Designs, figs. 583 and
584 ; the first may be considered as suitable
for a Gothic cottage, and the other for a
plain one. Either of these Designs may
be fixed against a wall, with the lower
shelves about six inches higher than what
is called chair-back height from the floor.
Or they may be set on a chest of drawers,
or secretary, provided these are in suitable
styles of Designs. The balusters which
support the shelves, in fig. 584, are called
by cabinet-makers shaped columns ; and they may either be made plain ; fluted or
reeded, as at g ; or with carved foliage, as at h, in the same figure.
626. Wardrobes are as essential in a bed-room, as a dresser is in a cottager's kitchen,
or a cupboard, or sideboard of some sort, in his parlour. Figs. 585 and 586, p. 304, on a
scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot, exhibit a Design for a wardrobe in the Grecian
583
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 308
57C 578
.580
581
582
304 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
585 586
iS7
59!
588
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
584
305
592
style. Fig. 586 is a view of fig. 585 with the doors removed, showing four inside sliding
tray shelves, with a deep drawer underneath for bonnets, &c. In this drawer are com-
monly fixed bonnet-holders, fig. 587, and against its sides cap pins, fig. 588. Fig. 589
is a Design for a wardrobe in the Gothic style, and also differently arranged in the
interior. Fig. 590 shows a view of it with the doors removed. There is an upright
division in the centre, with four fixed shelves on one side, and on the other an open
space, with cloak pins fixed round it for hanging gowns, coats, caps, &c, upon. It is
to be remarked, that the row of pegs is continued round the inside of the door. In
the bottom of this division may be a fixed or portable bonnet-holder, such as fig. 587.
These wardrobes may be made of deal, and painted wainscot colour, or of any other
suitable to the other furniture of the room. The price in London is from £3 to £5
each.
627. Chests of Drawers are the common substitute for wardrobes, but they are very
far inferior to them for keeping clothes, and create a great deal of useless labour in
pulling out and pushing in drawers, and perhaps in locking and unlocking them ;
whereas one lock secures the whole of the wardrobe ; and, by the opening of one door,
the whole of the contents are exposed to view, and the article wanted can be had with the
least possible trouble. For those who prefer the old mode, we have given the Design 591,
to a scale of half an inch to a foot, which represents a chest of drawers in the Gothic style.
It may be constructed of common deal, painted wainscot colour, with real oak knobs.
The cost in London is from £3 to £4. A common chest of drawers may be made more
useful in a small room, by
having a slider to pull out
in front, from under tiie
top above the first drawer,
as in fig. 592, a ; the two
bottom drawers may, if re-
quired, be made into one
deep drawer, to hold bon-
nets, &c, like the drawer
in the wardrobe, fig. 586,
p. 304. Knobs of the same
wood as the furniture, fig.
592, b, are now generally
substituted, as in most other
pieces of furniture, for brass.
They harmonise better, and
do not tarnish ; besides, the fashion is, at present, comparatively new in London, and this
confers on them a certain degree of factitious elegance, viz. , that of novelty and fashion.
628. Tables are of numerous kinds and various forms. We shall take them in the
order of kitchen tables, parlour tables, and bed-room tables.
629. Kitchen Tables ought to be strong, on account of their continual use ; and, if
possible, they should be contrived to fold up, or otherwise go into little space, when not
in immediate use, in order to afford more room for carrying on the business of the kitchen.
One of the most economical of kitchen tables is that formed by the kneading-trough,
represented by fig. 593, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, of which a, is an end view.
Such tables are a good deal in use in the cottages and small farm-houses in many parts
of England. The cover, which, when on the trough, serves as a table or ironing-board,
either lifts off, or, being hinged, is placed so as when opened it may lean against a wall,
when the trough is wanted to be used. Frequently a division is made in the centre of
the trough, so that the dry flour can be kept in one compartment, and the dough made
in the other. Sometimes there are three compartments, in order to keep separate two
different kinds of flour or meal. The board forming the cover ought to be an inch and
a half thick, and always in one piece, in order that neither dirt nor dust may drop through
306 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
593
*\ 6
595
the joints. There ought to be four fillets, b l>, nailed along the under side of each edge
of the cover, so as to keep it exactly in its place when on. Deal, beech, sycamore, and
ash are good woods for the trough and cover of this table, because they are light in
colour, and have a clean appearance. No part of them should be painted, because both
the trough and cover, when used for making bread, will require frequent scouring to
keep them clean ; and, if the board should be used for an ironing-board, the heat of the
irons would blister the paint, and make it stick to the cloth or blanket used to cover it.
Fig. 594, p. 313, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a kitchen table on four fixed legs,
which, by means of two portable legs in addition, can be extended at each end, so as to
make a table of double its original length. Thus, suppose the table, fig. 594, when
folded up, to be three feet long, and two feet six inches wide , it may, in two minutes,
by screwing in the two portable legs, be made six feet long ; and, instead of being only
large enough for two persons, it may dine several, or be used as an ironing-board, which,
iti narrow rooms, must obviously be a great convenience. There is a drawer under
the centre of this table, in which the portable legs may be kept ; or they may be set
elsewhere, and the drawer used for other purposes. This Design might be varied by
having lopers to support the end leaves, instead of portable legs ; or the leaves might
hang down, like those of a common dining-table, and be supported by draw-out feet.
In the construction, care must be taken to have the wood
of the hinged leaves very dry and well-seasoned, otherwise
they will warp ; and the ends of these leaves should be
clamped at each end, by a piece of wood the reverse way
to the grain of the leaf or flap. The term clamping is
applied by cabinet-makers, when a piece of wood is
grooved, and another tongued into it, as in fig. 595, This
table will cost in London from ,£'3 to £ 4. Fig. 596,
to a scale of half an inch to a foot is a fold-up kitchen
table, chiefly valuable because it will take up, little room when not in use, as in fig. 597.
The top consists of two
leaves hinged together 59g 597
at the ends ; and, when
the table is opened, it
is prevented from fall-
ing down in the middle
by the wooden button,
c, being locked into the
notched piece, d, figs.
598 and 599. The for-
mer figurerepresentsthe
under side of the table.
The tops and feet of
the standards, e e, and
the rails, f f, must be
beveled, to admit of
their fr^ action. The
legs may be fastened
together, when shut, by a hook and eye at each end, as shown at g, otherwise it would
be apt to warp. This table will be found very convenient for carrying out to a cottage
lawn or arbour, or for using under a veranda. Where, however, the veranda is narrow,
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 307
599
the preceding Design, forming a long narrow table, will, perhaps, be found more com-
modious. Fig. 601 shows a table with a semicircular top, double-hinged at the ends,
and supported by three legs and a triangular frame, as shown in fig. 600. The two
600
601
legs, h h, fold out, to support one half of the top, when it is opened and turned over on
them. As this table, when shut up, will stand against a wall, it will take up but little
room, and is, therefore, very suitable to a cottage kitchen. A common kitchen dining-
table, square, round, or oval, with a fixed centre, and two hinged folding-down leaves,
supported, when up, by hinged folding feet, is so familiar a form, that we have not
thought it necessary to give a Design for it. Its construction will be easily understood
from that of the fixed flap table with folding legs, § 613, fig. 550.
630. Parlour Tables. Where the parlour is square, a round table will be found the
handsomest and most appropriate. Fig. 602, designed by Mr. Mallet, shows a round
/able with a wooden top, supported on a cast-iron
pillar, with iron castors. Each of these castorscon-
sists of a ball one inch in diameter, having free
motion in every direction within a wrought-iron
cup, which is pressed into its form in a fly press,
from a piece of flat iron ; and, the ball being put
into it, it is then closed sufficiently at the mouth,
to prevent the ball from falling out. The con-
struction of this kind of castor f which Mr. Mallet
informs us he invented some time ago, and which
has been since used extensively) will be better
understood by fig. 603, in which a is the ball of
a single castor ; b b are the sides of the wrought-
iron cup ; and c is the leg of the table, bed,
sofa, or other piece of furniture, to which the
308 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
cup is riveted : d shows the plan of three castors, such as are used for the table,
fig. 602 ; and e is a view of these castors appended to the round foot of any piece
of furniture, the junction being concealed by the moulding f. Mr. Mallet states
that three castors placed in this manner form an exceedingly firm and effective loco-
motive support for any heavy article of furniture. The pillar of this table is cast
hollow and thin, so as to come far cheaper than the same Design could be made in the
gV>
604
m
J
commonest description of wood. Fig. 604, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a
table on four legs, and which, when covered with green baize, is commonly called a
605
&l
0
in
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
309
card table. The top is made double, and hinged at the back, so as to fold over, and
there is a drawer in the frame. The two legs g g are fixed, but the other two, h h, are
hinged, and fold out to support the folding flap. The joints, which are made in the
rails of the folding legs, are of wood, as shown at t and k ; and, being put together, a
piece of strong iron wire is driven down the centre of the rounded ends, and forms the
axis on which they turn. This joint is technically called a knuckle joint ; and rails of
tables hinged in this manner are called fly rails. Fig. 605 is a table, which, when
folded up like fig. 604, has exactly the same appearance. The top is double, like the
top of a card table, and turns round on a pivot Z, having a fixed well, n, to answer the pur-
pose of a drawer ; when the flap is opened it makes a square table with rounded corners
like the other. There is a rail, m, fixed to the upper side of the frame, to receive the pivot on
which the top of the table works, as shown in the cross section, n, and longitudinal section, o.
Fig. 606, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a table on four legs, with two drawers in
606
the frame. The end flaps, p p, are made to put on or to take off as required, by means of
what are called strap- hinges, which are fastened to the flaps. These hinges are shown in
fig. 606, in which q is the part screwed to the under side of the flap ; and r the strap or
part which is inserted under the top of the table, into an iron plate, s, screwed to the under
side of the top, as shown at t. The hinge of the strap is of the knuckle-joint kind, as
exhibited at u. After the flap is put in, it is supported by small fly-brackets, fig. 606, v v.
This is certainly a very convenient table, and very simple in its construction : it might
be made still more economically, by substituting fixed bracket-shaped iron straps to the
flaps, in lieu of the strap hinges ; which would render both the latter and the brackets,
v, unnecessary. The only inconvenience of this plan would be, that the flaps, when not
in use, would require to be taken out and put aside. Fig. 607, p. 313, is a table on
four turned legs with castors, and with the ends of the frame made to draw out to
support two flaps, which may be loose, and fastened at the joints by sockets, w, and pins, x ;
or the flaps may be hinged to the ends of the top, and lift up and let down, being sup-
ported, when raised, by the end frames. A shelf might be added to this table, about
fifteen inches from the floor, which would be found useful for holding workboxes, books,
&c. Fig. C08, p. 313, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a plain parlour work-table,
with two drawers ; and with flaps having ruled joints to fall down, and fly brackets to
support them when up. Fig. 609, p. 313, to a scale of three fourths of an inch to a foot,
is a work and writing table for a cottager's wife ; for we trust that the time will soon
come, when not only every cottager's wife will be able to write as well as read, but will
have leisure to do so. This table may be made much plainer than is here shown, and
consequently cheaper. For example, if the legs were not turned, and the whole were
made of common deal, it would cost little more than an ordinary table with two drawers.
The bag frame, which, when economy was the object, might be made of glazed coloured
calico instead of silk, is made to draw out in front, and the writing-drawer over it pulls
out at the end. In this drawer there is a flap to write on, hinged to a sliding piece,
310
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
which may be pushed back from the front of the drawer, so as to raise the desk upon the
edge of the table to the angle required. Underneath this
writing-board is a space for papers ; and, to the right,
another for the inkstand, pens, and wafers. The writing-
board, or flap, might be made to rise with a rack and horse,
(fig. G10, in which a is the rack, and b the horse) ; but the first
plan is far simpler, and answers the same end. Indeed, even
the sliding piece might be dispensed with, and the writing-
flap adjusted to the proper angle by pulling out or pushing
in the drawer. At the opposite end of this table a flap is
shown, which may be put up or let down accordingly as it may be desired to make the table
longer or shorter. This is evidently a very convenient table ; because a cottager's wife
may have a book to read in lying at one end, writing materials at the other, and her work in
the middle. Fig. 611 is a small
tea or work table. The top is
hinged on a triangular box,
which may be useful to hold
work in. When not in use,
the top is set up on edge, and
when brought down, it fastens
itself by a common catch fasten-
ing. Fig. 612 is a neat, work-
table, which may be made by
any joiner, out of the common
woods of the country, at a very
trifling expense, and placed on
three of Mallet's iron castors,
or even on turned knobs in imi-
tation of castors ; either of wh ich,
by raising it from the ground,
would add much to the lightness
and elegance of its appearance.
Figs. 613, 614, 615 represent
a very useful article, called a camp table, from its going into little bulk, being light, and
being used by officers in camps. Fig. 6 1 3 shows it opened out to its full extent ; the top
being hinged to the two legs, and supported by a portable leg which is fastened into it.
by a screw and socket, c, in fig. 613, and can be removed at pleasure. When not in
use, this leg is fixed to one of the legs of the stand by two pieces of girth webbing, (/ d
in fig. 615, which are fastened to the leg of the stand. When the stand is opened to
its full extent, it stretches out, as a top, three pieces of webbing, which serve as a tray-
stand; and a tray is generally made of a proper size to go along with the table. Fig.
615 shows how this camp table may be used as a common table; the hinges projecting
above the rail of the stand in such a manner as to let the top turn round either way.
Fig. CI 4 shows this table shut up ; there are two turn buckles, e, on the legs at f, to
keep the top fastened, and to prevent it from swinging about when the table is moved.
In families, accustomed to give large dinner parties, these tables are found useful, as
forming additions to the sideboard : they are also brought in requisition when parties
are given in the open air, or when a meal is taken in any room deficient in tables.
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
311
614
615
6S1. Bed-room Tables are of three kinds: those for holding washing utensils ; dressing-
tables; and tables for sick persons. Fig. 616 is a small wash-handstand, or table, in
The hole in the top is cut
618
the Gothic style, with a shelf below, and a drawer under it
round to receive the basin, and on the
back-board is fixed a small shelf to
hold a glass, trays for brushes, &c.
This table may be made of oak, or of
deal painted and grained in imitation
of that wood. Fig. 617 is a small
enclosed wash-hand stand with two
cupboards ; one of which will hold
the ewer, and the other a night-vase.
There are two hinged shelves, one on
each side, supported by fly brackets,
in order that they may be let down
to save room, when not in use. Fig.
618 is a Design for a lady's wash-
hand stand, which has been sent us by
its inventress. When not in use, the
basin is concealed by two box covers,
which are hinged ; and which open and
turn over when the stand is used, af-
fording space for soap-holders, brush-
trays, &c. There is a drawer below,
with partitions for keeping these and
various other articles belonging to the
toilette ; one partition having a flat board raised two inches from the bottom of the
312 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
drawer, and being pierced with holes for scent bottles, &c. Below this drawer there is a
deep cupboard with double doors. This wash-hand stand, which has a neat and rather
massive or architectural appearance, is said to be a great favourite with all the ladies who
have seen it Fig. 619, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a small dressing-table,
with a drawer in front to hold combs, brushes, &c. Common dressing-tables, consisting
of a top without flaps, supported by four legs, and with one or two drawers, are so
simple in their construction as not to require any particular exemplification. Fig. 620,
to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a table for invalids, commonly called a bed table ;
which is a very great convenience to a person bedridden. The top of this table is
made to rise and fall at pleasure, by raising or lowering the upper part of the pillar, a,
which is perforated with holes at given distances, and which works in a square groove, in
the centre of the lower part. This lower part is formed of four pieces glued together,
as shown in the plan, b, in fig. 621. It is firmly fixed in the bottom block by a mortise
and tenon, and at top the tour pieces are confined by an iron ferule, to keep the joints
from opening : the mortise at bottom sufficiently confines the lower part of the pillar.
The height of the top is regulated by moving the pin at c ; the block or foot, of
which d represents a plan, is elongated on one side to about the same extent as the
top is elongated on that side ; and, when the table is in use, the block is turned under
the bed, and the top over it ; the latter
being adjusted to the height most con-
venient for the patient. This table is
very frequently used for reading in bed ;
and in that case it is generally made
with a horse and rack, e, and a shifting
ledge, f, to support a book, at one end.
This ledge is fixed by two wire pins,
fastened in its under side, which drop
into two holes bored in the lower side of
the flap of the table. On the edge of this
ledge are affixed two book-holders, g,
commonly made of brass, but which are
much better if made of ivory, or of
ebony, box, or any other hard wood.
This table, in mahogany, costs in London
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 313
607
608
609
31 l COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
FURNITURE FOIl COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
315
from £5 to £l ; but, made of any common wood by a joiner in the country, it would not
come to half the amount. Fig. 622 is a cheap invalid's bed table, which we had made at
15ayswater some years ago, for our own use. It is simply a piece of
mahogany board, about three feet long, and one foot nine inches
wide, supported by a wroughl-iron pillar, with a brace, h, and
two feet, i i ; the latter extending nearly the length of the top
from the pillar, and spreading out at their extremities to about
its width ; thus producing in effect a table with three feet. It
is placed on castors, and is light and strong. The height of the
pillar must be regulated by the height of the bed. The maho-
gany board cost 5s., and the iron work and castors £l.
632. Seats may be arranged as stools, forms, benches, chairs,
and sofas.
633. Stools. Common kitchen stools for children admit of
little variety of design, without incurring more expense than
would be justifiable by the use and place of the object. Fg. 623
shows the construction of a plain round stool, with three legs
framed together at the top, and with rails about six inches from
the ground ; a shows the proportion which the triangular frame bears to the circular top.
Fig. 624 is a round stool, which may be called in the Gothic style, and would be suitable
in a Gothic cottage, where every thing was in character with that style. Fig. 625 is a
623
box stool ; the lid slides in a groove, as shown by the section, b ; but there is a stop, to
prevent it from being taken off entirely. The box may be useful for a child to put its
playthings in, and to teach it betimes those habits of order and neatness which are so
highly essential to its success in life. Figs. 626, 627, and 628 are stools with cast-iron
696
627
630
legs or pillars, invented by Mr. Mallet. The tops may be of any common wooq, with
or without cushions, according to the use for -which they may be intended. Fig. 6ti9
is a long stool, in the Gothic style, for a child ; and fig. 630, one, also for a child, suitable
for a plain cottage.
634. A Footstool, either 629
plain or covered with s—
carpeting, is an article of /
essential utility in every
cottage where there is a
mother; and it also forms
a seat for a child. In
England, they are very
J
31 6' COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
commonly formed by covering a bundle of bulrushes with rusli matting, and they are then
called hassocks. Fig. 631 is a design for a box
footstool, which has been sent us by a lady.
The top is formed of an outside frame, on which
is stretched strong webbing, for the purpose
of supporting the stuffing above, which is co-
vered with carpeting of the same kind as that
of the floor of the room in which it is to be
used. The sides are of wood, painted of the
same colour as the other furniture.
635. Forms may be described as long stools,
for the use of several persons ; and, as such,
are useful in cottage kitchens, and in lobbies
and passages. In the scullery they also often serve as stands for tubs, and for various
(3*5:
632
articles to be washed or cleaned, to prevent stooping more than is necessary. Two" or
more of them are, therefore, always requisite about a house. Figs. 632 and 633 are
633
Designs for forms in the Grecian style, the construction of which will be understood by
634
every carpenter. Figs. 634 and 635 are forms in the Gothic style, equally simple with
the others. All these. Designs are to a scale of half an inch to a foot.
7
^
635
636. Benches are broad forms with backs to them, and sometimes with arms. Fig.
636 is a kind of bench witli solid back and arms, for a cottage kitchen, commonly
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
317
called a settle, and frequently to be met with in public houses. The back forms an
excellent screen or protection from the current of air which is continually passing from
the door to the chimney. The fiSR ^
drawers below are deep, and
will be found very useful for
a variety of purposes. On the
back there might be a towel
roller; or, in a superior kind
of cottage, the back of the
settle might be ornamented
with prints or maps, in the
marine] of a screen. Placed
in the open floor, where it
would seldom require to be
moved, there might even be
book shelves fixed to this
back, and a flap might be hung
to it, with a jib bracket, to
serve as a reading or writing
table, or for other purposes.
Fig. 637 is a handsome Gre-
cian bench with turned legs
and open back, but without
arms at the ends, or drawers
under the seat. Fig. 638
is a Gothic bench also without
arms or drawers, but with a
paneled back and square legs
Fie. 639 is a Design for a handsomer Gothic bench
the back of which may either be paneled or open, according to the position, in the
kitchen, where it is intended to stand. It has arms and two drawers, and has below
the latter a broad shelf about three inches from the ground, on which shoes, &c, may
638
stand, or a dog may have a mat for sleeping upon. All these benches are to the same
scale of half an inch to a foot.
318 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
637. Chairs may be classed as suitable for the lobby, kitchen, parlour, and bed-room.
638. Lobby Chairs, being seldom moved, may be made of heavy massive forms in
timber, or of cast iron, so as to have
a decidedly architectural character.
Fig. 640 is a lobby chair of cast
iron, suitable for a porch. The
Design is Etruscan ; and Mr. Mal-
let, to whom we are indebted for it,
says that it may be cast in two pieces.
It would, therefore, come cheap, and
would look exceedingly well in the
porch of a cottage in the Italian
style. Mr. Mallet observes, that
" where carved work, or much or-
nament, is to be executed in fur-
niture, cast iron will always be found
cheaper than wood, even though a
small number only of the article
were wanting." We hope that this
hint will not be lost on Architects,
who might thus introduce a style of
highly improved design in all the
principal articles of furniture, at a
moderate cost. Chairs of this de-
scription, whether made of iron or
wood, may be painted in imitation
of oak in the following manner : —
Give two coats of white lead in the
usual mode ; add a third coat of a
pale yellow, as near as possible to
the lightest part of the oak board to
be imitated. Yellow ochre is rather
too deep for most varieties of oak
board ; but stone ochre and white
may be mixed together, till the exact shade De produced. When this coat is dry, the
graining colour is to be laid on. This colour is not fluid like common oil paints, but
is a mixture about the consistence of thick treacle, composed of various ingredients,
and technically called meglip. The recipes given for making meglip are various ; but
the following are the articles principally used: sugar of lead, rotten stone, linseed oil,
white wax, and spirits of turpentine. These are all ground up together, and immediately
after the colour they produce is laid on, the graining is made by passing horn combs over
it before it is dry. These combs have their teeth of different widths and lengths, and
may be had of every combmaker. Fig. 642 is a lobby chair of wood in the Grecian
style, which may be made of deal, with the exception of the legs, which, being turned,
should be of beech or some fine-grained wood suitable for that operation. This chair
may be painted of the colour of the wall against which it is to stand. Fig. 641 is a
lobby chair in the Gothic style, which may be made entirely of deal, or of any other
common wood, and painted and grained in imitation of oak.
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
319
641
639. Kitchen Cludrs. Fig. 643 is a Windsor chair, one of the best kitchen chairs
in general use in the midland counties of England. The seat, fig. 644,7, isof elm,
643
somewhat hollowed out ; the outer rail of the back is of ash, in one piece, bent to the
sort of horseshoe form shown in the figure, by being previously heated or steamed ; its
ends are then inserted in two holes bored through the seat, and are wedged firmly in
from the under side. An additional support is given to the back, by two round rails,
fig. 644, b, which are also made fast in two holes, formed in a projecting part of the
seat, c. These chairs are sometimes painted, but more frequently stained with diluted
sulphuric acid and logwood ; or by repeatedly washing them over with alum water,
which has some tartar in it: they should afterwards be washed over several times
with an extract of Brasil wood. The colour given will be a sort of red, not unlike
that of mahogany ; and, by afterwards oiling the chair and rubbing it well, and for a
long time, with woollen cloths, the veins and shading of the elm will be rendered con-
-320 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
spicuous. Quicklime slacked in urine, and laid on the wood while hot, will also stain
it of a red colour ; and this is said to he the general practice with the Windsor chair
manufacturers in the neighbourhood of London. Fig. 645 is a chair with a seat like
the Windsor pattern, hut with a different back, the two side styles of which are
mortised into the seat, as shown at d. The legs are put together by dowels (wedges
put in tenons after they are inserted in the mortise, to prevent them from being drawn
back), like the Windsor chairs before mentioned, fig. 643. This forms a very comfort-
able and cheap chair. Fig. 646 is a very strong chair, being put together with mortise
and tenon : it forms the common kitchen chair about London. It is generally made of
deal, but sometimes of birch or beech, and is usually painted. Figs. 647 and 648 are two
Gothic arm-chairs for kitchens ; and fig. 649 is a kitchen workbox and table chair. The
648 64, r> *
64 7
workbox is formed beneath the seat, and is got at by a fall-down flap, e, supported
by small chains or strong tape. The table, J, is simply a board which draws out
from under the seat three fourths of its length, the remaining fourth remaining in to
steady it ; by which means lopers or fly-brackets are rendered unnecessary. Such a
chair will be found very useful, and it may be made of deal, at a very trifling expense,
by a common carpenter. The bottom of the box below may be loose, so that by
turning the chair upside down, it may be taken out, and the box cleaned. Fig. 650 is
a Design for an iron elbow kitchen chair, by Mr. Mallet. The back and elbows are
cast in one piece ; the supports for the elbows and also the legs are of gas tubing, screwed
into a cross frame of iron, which proceeds from the back of the chair under the wooden
seat. This is a strong, durable, and cheap chair, and only wants good cushions, for
the back, elbows, and seat, to render it a most comfortable article for a cottager. Fig.
651 is a Design by Mr. Mallet for a cast and wrought iron chair, with a wooden seat.
It is cast in one piece, the legs being tubular, with wire stays ; the whole forming an
exceedingly light and yet stable 650
chair, weighing less than most oak
ones. This chair might have a
cushion seat, and also a cushion
for the back, which the cottager
might make himself of bulrushes,
or of any other monocotyledonous
water plant (the pith of these being
filled with air, and therefore bulky,
soft, and elastic), or of the chaff
of Indian corn ; covering them with
cloth, and tying them on the chair
with tape.
640. Parlour Chairs. These are
of various patterns ; and, as the
characteristic of the kitchen chair
was strength and durability, so that
of the parlour chair is lightness
and elegance. Figs. 652 to 657,
P- 314, are plain Grecian chairs,
sold in London at from 7s. to 12s.
each. They are usually made of
beech, and may be stained to imi-
tate mahogany, by the following process : — Wash the wood, after the chair is completed,
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
321
with red ochre mixed with thin glue and water, quite hot ; when dry, ruh the chair well with
woollen cloths, till it assumes a good
colour, and afterwards varnish and polish
it. Chairs of this sort are made in great
numbers in Buckinghamshire, where
there are extensive beech woods. The
commoner sort are generally nailed
together, but the best are screwed or
mortised, as in figs. 654 and 657. The
bottoms are made of cane, with the
exception of fig. 654, which is covered
with leather. These chairs are generally
painted and varnished ; but they are
sometimes stained either black maho-
gany colour, or a rosewood pink. We
shall give the processes from Partington's
Builder's Guide.
641. For a deep Slack, the wood is
brushed over four or five times with
a warm decoction of logwood, made by
boiling one pound of logwood for an
hour or more, and afterwards as often
with decoction of galls, allowing it to
dry thoroughly between the several ap-
plications of the liquor- thus prepared, it
receives a fine deep colour, from being
washed over with a solution of vitriol, in
the proportion of two ounces to a quart :
in the room of which some use a solution
of iron in vinegar, keeping the vinegar
for this purpose upon a quantity of the
filings of the metal, and pouring off a
little as it is wanted. A pretty good
black is also obtained, more expeditiously, by brushing over the wood, first with the
logwood liquor, and afterwards with common ink.
642. A very fine Black may be produced by brushing the wood over several times with
a solution of copper in aquafortis, and afterwards with the decoction of logwood (Haema-
toxylon campechiense), repeated till the colour be of sufficient force, and the greenness
produced by the copper overcome. The blacks may be varnished as the other colours.
643. A light red-brown Mahogany colour may be given to wood by means of a de-
coction of madder and fustic wood (the wood of Madura tinctoria), ground in water,
in the proportion of half a pound of madder and a quarter of a pound of fustic wood,
to a gallon ; or, instead of the fustic wood, an ounce of yellow berries (the berries of
jRhamnus tinctoriusi may be used. Brush over the wood with this solution, while
boiling hot, till the due colour be obtained. Nearly the same effect may be produced
by a tincture made by dissolving an ounce of dragoi.'s blood in a pint of spirits of
wine; and a similar tincture of turmeric root (Curcuma longa , made by putting an
ounce of the powdered root to a pint of spirits of wine, and after it has stood some
days straining off the mixture.
644. For a dark Mahogany, take the infusion of madder as above, and substitute for
the fustic wood two ounces of logwood : and when the wood has been brushed over
several times, and is dry, wash it over with water in which pearl ashes have been dis-
solved, in the proportion of a quarter of an ounce to a quart. The wood, in the better
kind of work, should be afterwards varnished with three or four coats of seed-lac
varnish ; but, for coarse work, resin and seed-lac varnish may be used, or the articles may
be well rubbed over with drying oil.
645. Wood may be stained Yellow by the above tincture of turmeric root, or by a tinc-
ture of yellow berries applied boiling hot ; the wood, when dry, being brushed over with
weak alum water, used cold.
646. For Rosewood Pink, make an infusion of a pound of Brasil wood (Caesalpim'a
brasiliensis) in a gallon of water impregnated with pearl ashes, in the proportion of an
ounce to a gallon of water. The infusion should be frequently stirred, and should
stand two or three days. When wanted for use, two ounces more pearl ashes should be
added, and the mixture strained, and made boiling hot. It should then be applied to
the wood, which should be afterwards brushed over with alum water, made in the pro-
portion of two ounces of alum to a quart of water.
mi
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
647. Elbow Parlour Chain in the Grecian Sti/le. Figs. 658, 659, and 660, p. SJ i,
are Grecian elbow chairs with stuflcd stats. Fig. 6&>, lias a workbag under the seat,
which draws out on one side ; and on the other a slide, which serves as a table.
These chairs may also be made of beech or birch, and stained or painted like the other.
The silk or glazed cotton, for the workbag and the covers for the cushions, should be
of the same colour as the window curtains and the cover of the sofa, if there be one in
the room.
648. Gothic Parlour Chairs. Fig. 661 to 666, p. 323, are Designs for chairs made of
beech ; the first with a rush bottom ; the second, third, and last with cane bottoms, and
the two others with stuffed bottoms. Figs. 667 and 668, p. 323, are Gothic elbow
chairs with stuffed bottoms. Fig. 669 is a Gothic chair, with a workbag and sliding
board for table. All these chairs may be made of any strong fine-grained wood,
mortised together, and afterwards painted and grained in imitation of oak. It. the
construction of chairs, care should be taken that the feet of the back legs should always
spread out an inch at least more than the top rail of the back, in order to keep the
latter from touching the wall, or paper, or window, when set against it.
649. Bed-room Chairs. These are of two kinds ; a light sort for common use, and
strong elbow or easy chairs for times of sickness. The light chairs may be any of
those frames figured in p. 314, but with rush instead of cane bottoms. Figs. 670 and
671 are two strong elbow chairs for the use of a labouring man, when confined to his
bed-room. Pillows may be put in them as cushions, both for the seat and back. Fig.
612 is a bedside chair of the same description, with a cupboard beneath for containing
a night convenience of the simplest description. Such a chair ought to be in the bed-
room of every cottage. Fig. 673 is a very comfortable easy chair, stuffed in the back
and sides, with a movable cushion as a seat; beneath which is a night convenience.
650. A Sofa is a piece of furniture which affords
a great source of comfort to its possessor; and
therefore the cottager ought to have one as well as
the rich man. Let him strive to obtain it, for no
parlour is completely furnished without one ; and he
will certainly succeed. We shall give some Designs
for sofas, and also for sofa-bedsteads, which we
hope will come within the reach of many cottagers ;
and shall commence with figs. 674 and 67.5, p.
324, which are Designs for sofas of a superior
description. Fig. 674 is in the Gothic style, with
castors sunk in its legs, a great improvement with
regard to appearance. We may here observe,
generally, that good castors are essential to the
convenient use of every piece of furniture to which
they are applied. Many persons, by saving a few
shillings in castors, deprive themselves of the
full enjoyment of what, if easily moved, would
be a most useful piece of furniture ; besides which,
bad castors destroy the carpets of sitting-rooms, and scratch the boards of bed-rooms.
Purchasers of furniture, who are no judges in this respect, are often deceived ;
for of two articles of furniture, exactly the same in size and appearance, one may
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 323
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
324 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
67+
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
325
be sold by a manufacturer for a pound sterling less than the other, merely from
his having employed in it the most common, instead of the best, description of castors.
We are informed by Mr. Dalziel, who is extremely particular to use only the very best
materials in all the articles which he manufactures, that the best castor at present in
use is that of Cope of Birmingham. This is a ball working in a cup, something in
the manner of Mr. Mallet's iron castor ; and the more pressure there is on it, the
easier it works. The cushions and mattresses of sofas are commonly stuffed with
hair or wool; and sometimes, for cheapness, with chaff', chopped hay, or straw, or
bran ; but an article has been lately introduced into this manufacture, which is
found to answer as well as baked hair, and not to cost above a third of the expense.
This is the Zostera marina, or sea wrack grass, found on the coast of Norfolk ; abundantly
in the Orkneys and Hebrides; and on the northern shores of the German Ocean.
When gathered, it is repeatedly washed in fresh water, to deprive it of all its saline
particles ; and, being afterwards dried in the sun, it is twisted into thick ropes, and in
that state sent to the manufacturer, who has it untwisted, and cut into short lengths for
use. Whatever material is used for stuffing, it is first enclosed in strong canvass, and
afterwards covered with black horse-hair, moreen, or damask, nailed on with brass-
headed nails, or with a loose cover of printed cottons or other stuffs. A very cheap
and yet tasteful loose sofa cover may be made of glazed self-coloured calico, with a
narrow piece of different coloured calico, or shawl bordering, laid on about a couple of
inches from the edge. This kind of cover lasts clean much longer than one of common
printed cotton ; and, when the bordering is carried round the covers of the cushions,
bolsters, &c, it has a pretty and even elegant effect. In all cases where the covers of
sofas are made of a material which admits of a choice of colours, those should be
preferred which prevail in the carpet and window curtains of the room ; the principal
reason in this, and all similar cases, being, that such a choice indicates unity of design.
651. Sofa Beds. Sofas which may be converted into beds are most convenient
articles of furniture for cottages and other small dwellings. Fig. 676, p. 324, shows a bed
formed out of a sofa of this description. The back of the sofa is hinged, as shown in
fig. 677, at a; and it falls down, and is supported by two portable legs, fig. 678, b, c:
these legs are tapped and screwed into the top rail of the back (that is, a screw is formed
on the upper end of the leg, and, a hole being bored in the rail, nearly of the same
diameter as this screw, an instrument called a tap is introduced into the hole, and being
turned round, grooves out a path for the screw ; this path, or screw groove, is called
the female screw, and that which goes into it, the male screw). The end, d, is made to
shift ; it is fastened to the side rail of the seat of the sofa by the two wooden dowels, e e,
which go into the rail, and is secured to the back and bottom by two thumb screws, at
f f. When the bed is used, this end is shifted to that opposite, in order to form the
"head of the bed ; the end style of the back of the sofa having holes to receive the same
dowels and thumb-screws, so as to retain it in its place. Underneath the sofa there is
a well for the legs, fig. 676, g, which may either open to the front or the back, and may
be either concealed by the valance of the sofa cover, or by a movable panel of wood.
There is a cupboard which opens at one end, as seen at h, in fig. 678. Fig. 679, p. 327, is a
view of a sofa which may be turned into a bed with posts and curtains. Fig. 680 shows
680
the first process, that of removing the sofa cover, mattress, and cushions of the seat, and
the mattress of the back. Here is seen a third mattress, i, which is kept in a well
underneath the seat, and sufficiently long to hold it in a curved though not in a
straight position. The remaining part of the space underneath the seat is occupied by
32G
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
a cupboard, lc. Under the cushions n hich form the scat of the sofa, and above the well,
may be seen the folding frame, /, which (onus the bottom of the bed. Fig. 681 shows
681
this folding frame opened out, and supported by four portable legs, tapped and screwed
into its sides. The bedposts are, in like manner, tapped and screwed into the top rails
of what formed the sofa ends ; and the tester laths, and their side pieces, forming the top,
drop on to iron pins inserted in the upper ends of the bedposts. The legs, the posts,
the tester laths, and side pieces, all go into the same well as the mattress, when not in
use ; and when the sofa cover is on, it completely conceals the holes which receive the
bedposts, and also the well and the cupboard. Fig. 682, p. 327, shows the bed with the
mattresses and bolsters laid in their places, and the curtains put up. This is a very
desirable description of sofa bed to have in a cottage parlour, or, indeed, in any small
dwelling either in town or country. The cost, complete, in London, is from j£lO to
.£15. There are also chair beds, which are formed by drawing out a frame from under
the chair, so as to triple the length of the seat ; on which frame are arranged the cushions
which were previously placed against the back and sides of the easy chair. The bottom
of the chair may be formed into a cupboard to open at the side.
652. Beds of other descriptions maybe classed under the following heads : folding
or camp beds ; stump, press, and half-tester bedsteads ; couch, box, and French beds ;
tent and four-post bedsteads, and children's cribs. In our opinion, those cottagers
who can afford to have good furniture are often disproportionably extravagant in the
article of beds and bedding. In Scotland and France, where the cottager's parlour has
frequently a bed in it, luxury in this article may perhaps be excusable; but in England,
where the bed-room of a cottager is seldom entered by a stranger, we think it would be
a wiser economy to have the bed plain, though, in all respects, comfortable, and to
expend any surplus money, which might have been spared from it, on the furniture of
the parlour. However, we make the remark with great deference to the opinion of the
cottager's wife, who must be allowed to be the best judge on the subject.
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
682
327
679
328 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
694
695
i. ■':■:«* Wk %■>•
':l:,mtm tie it ';-.
"uiSpiiSlSl
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. S9Q
653. Folding Camp Bed. This is one of the cheapest of all beds ; and when the
sides and feet are made of iron rods, with no wood but the head board, it goes in very
little bulk, and costs complete, with sacking, not more than 15s. Fig. 683, to a scale
683
of half an inch to a foot, is a view of a folding bed, with the sides and feet made of
wood, which may be manufactured complete, in London, for £l. The head board has
two iron pins in its lower edge, which drop into holes made in the side-rails of the bed.
When a cottage is small, we recommend all boys to be made to sleep on beds of this
kind, which they ought to be taught to fold up and put away in the morning, as soon as
they get up ; and to bring out and make up for themselves at night. The boy or
lad who cannot sleep soundly on such a bed must have something either physically or
morally wrong in his constitution ; and is, in either case, not very likely to become
a man capable of earning his bread by labour.
654. Stump Bedsteads are common in the humblest description of dwellings in
England, both in town and country. They are commonly made of wood, with sacking
bottoms ; but as these materials are apt to harbour vermin, they have lately been ma-
nufactured entirely of wrought iron ; the place of the sacking or canvass bottom being
supplied by interwoven thin iron hooping, as shown in fig. 684, which is manufactured by
Messrs. Cottam and Hallen of London, and sold coirfplete with castors, when two
feet six inches wide, for one person, at 23s. each ; and at a proportionate increase of
price, according to the width, up to 33s., which is the price of an iron stump bedstead
five feet wide.
655. Press Bedsteads are very common in kitchens, and, sometimes, in parlours where
there is a deficiency of bed-rooms ; but they are objectionable, as harbouring vermin,
and being apt soon to get out of order when in daily use. They have, however, one
advantage, which is, that persons sleeping in them are generally obliged to get up
betimes in the morning : we, therefore, present one Design. Fig. 685 is a view of the
press when the bed is put up. There is a cupboard shown at one end, and the
remainder of the lower part is occupied by a drawer which is made to appear like
two externally, in order to form to a regular front, with that of the cupboard. Fig.
686 shows the manner in which the bedstead folds up : a is one of the feet, which is
330 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
C85 68G
hinged on an iron pin, and is seen when down, as in fig. 687. The other two feet, b b,
in fig. 687, are placed, when folded up, as shown in the section, fig. 686, at b; c
represents part of the front and top, lifted up and folded back. Press bedsteads are
sometimes made to imitate a chest of drawers, or a secretary, in front ; in order, if possible,
to prevent the real use of the article from being discovered : a proof that beds of this
kind are not held in much repute ; because they indicate a deficiency of bed-rooms.
656. Half- Tester Bedsteads are used in small rooms, where it may be desirable to turn
them up during the day, in order to allow the occupant to work in the room. They
have this advantage over press beds, that they are turned up and let down with very
little trouble ; and that when turned up, and the curtain drawn round them, they are
by no means unsightly objects in a room which is to be considered as a bed-room ; but
they are quite inadmissible in a kitchen or a parlour. Fig. 688 is a Design for a half-
tester bedstead, with the posts, rails, and feet of wood, and the bottom of sacking. It
is shown in this figure as turned down, and ready to receive the mattress and bedding.
In fig. 689 the bed is shown turned up, by which it appears that the turned legs, d d,
arc hinged and fold down, so as to occupy less space. The manner in which the curtain
rod is fixed is also here shown. It is fastened to the lath at the middle of the front,
at e, and at both its extremities an eye is formed, which drops on a hook, as shown aty."
The fixed feet are always placed in an inclined position, to give greater steadiness to
FURNITUIIE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
331
the bed ; they are shown straight in fig. 688, and curved in fig. 689, to indicate that
they may be made either way. Fig. 691 is an iron half-tester bedstead, which, however,
does not fold up, but which has the great
advantage of being remarkably cheap. It
is manufactured by Messrs. Cottam and
Hallen, of two feet six inches in width, for
46s. 6d. ; and of five feet in width, for 68s. :
in both cases it is complete, with castors,
head board, and curtain rods, and is thrice
painted in oil. Fig. 692 is another wrought-
iron half-tester bedstead, one half of which
folds over the other : it is the invention of
Mr. William Mallet of Dublin, who, we
are informed, has made many thousands of
them. In this bedstead both the head board
and the foot board are of iron. Fig. 690
690
is a different modification of the same
bedstead, intended for sick persons, which
is made to rise with racks, h h, so as to place
the patient, though still recumbent, at any
^^
angle that may be required. An important addition to this bed would be two upright
rods, one on each side, about half way between the head and foot, securely joined
together by a strong rod at top, so as to be perfectly firm ; from this top rod a cord,
332 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
sash, towel, or piece of girth webbing, might be suspended, or even a hooked walking-stick
put on, for the bedridden patient to take hold of, to assist him in turning, or otherwise
changing his position. Every person who has been long confined to a bed knows that this
simple contrivance is the most valuable part of a sick man's bedstead ; and it is one
reason why the beds of all elderly people should have bedposts and testers, because from
the centre cross laths this simple contrivance, for the comfort of an invalid, may be
suspended. Both figs. 690 and 692, we are informed, can be afforded for less than the
price of the frame of a common wooden bedstead,
657. Couch Beds may be described as sofas used as beds ; and, for our parts, we prefer
them to either the press or the half-tester bedstead. They are very common in France
and Germany. Fig. 693 is a Design, by Mr. William Mallet of Dublin, for an iron couch
bed frame. The head is cast in one piece, the back in another, and the frame in a third.
All the rest is of wrought iron; the four legs of gas pipe, the braces of quarter-inch
wire, and the bottom of iron hooping. Castors might easily be added ; and this Design
would then form a suitable article for some descriptions of cottages.
658. Box Beds are common in the better description of cottages in Scotland, and also
in Alsace, Lorraine, and other parts of the north of France, and in Holland and Flanders.
This bed is of the usual length, and in general four feet wide within. There arc four
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
333
square posts, at the four corners ; and the back and ends are filled in with boarding
grooved and tongued ; while the front is formed into panels, one of which at top and
another at bottom are fixed, and two between them slide in grooves, and form the door
of the bed. The roof is of boards, and the bottom of laths, three inches wide, and about
two or three inches apart. There is generally a shelf, and sometimes two, fixed to the
inside of the bottom of the bed, just above the bedclothes ; and sometimes there is one at
top, close under the roof. There are also sometimes one or two shelves against the back
of the bed ; so that this piece of furniture not only serves as a bed, but as a wardrobe
and linen chest. In some parts of the country the bed doors fix within by bolts, or
have a lock to fasten them on the outside ; so that a person going to bed, with all his
treasure round him on the surrounding shelves, may secure it while he is asleep at night,
or going out to work in the daytime, by bolting or locking the doors. These box beds
can be easily taken to pieces, and put together again ; the ends, backs, and roofs being in
separate pieces, and fitting into grooves in the posts, and in the top and bottom rails, in
the manner of Manning's portable cottages, § 5 1 2. Besides serving as a wardrobe,
&c, a box bed may be made to supply the place of a partition, two of them being often
placed, in Scotland, as well as in Alsace, across any apartment of fourteen or fifteen feet
in width, which they thus divide into two rooms (a but and a ben), leaving a passage
between them. In roomy cottages, four are sometimes so placed back to back ; thus
giving two beds to be entered from the kitchen, and two from the parlour. A bed of
this sort, well made, was formerly considered the principal article in a Scottish cottager's
furnishing ; and this is still the case in Alsace and Lorraine, as we learned when we visited
those countries in 1829. Something might be made of these beds in any country where
the cottager's house is his own, and where he is likely to be a permanent resident ; but
they are too costly, and too cumbersome, for a tenant at will, or on a short lease.
659. French beds are generally formed like couch beds, especially those in use by
French cottagers. Fig. 694, p. 328, shows a French bedstead of an improved description,
with the furniture complete. There are two drawers underneath, and a small cupboard, all
of which open from the front ; because the furniture would be in the way if they opened
at the ends. There is a turned rail above the headboard, to keep the furniture from
the face ; and another over the footboard, to be uniform with it. The pole whict
supports the curtain is screwed into an upright piece, which is securely fixed by
a mortise and tenon to the back rail of the bottom of the bedstead, as shown in fig. 695,
so that the bedstead and furniture can be removed from the wall. Castors may be
introduced into the four pillars, so as not to be seen. It will be observed that the
Design of fig. 695 is different from that of fig. 694 : both may be considered elegant,
and well adapted for a superior description of cottage. These bedsteads may be made
of deal, and painted, with the exception of the upright piece, which should be of beech or
some other stiff wood. Fig. 696 is a French bedstead of wrought iron, which costs
when two feet six inches wide, 46s., and when five feet wide, 84s. The curtains, in this
case, are supposed to be thrown over a pole, projecting from the wall, and supported by a
bracket.
334 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
660. Tent Beds are in universal us?, and scarcely require description. Fig. 697, to a
scale of three eighths of an inch to a foot, shows the framing or woodwork of the bed :
697
a, b, c, is the bed frame, a and b being the side rails, and c the bottom rail ; d is the
head-board which fixes into a groove in the head posts. These posts, being intended to
be covered with that part of the bed hangings called the head piece, are made plain;
while the bottom posts, which are intended to be exposed, are generally turned or
covered. Fig. 698 is a tent bedstead with the curtains complete. Fig. 699 is an iron
tent bedstead, manufactured by Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, which costs, when two feet
six inches wide, 56s. 6d., and when five feet wide, 77s.
661. Four-Post Bedsteads are more suitable for villas than for cottages, except perhaps
the cheap and excellent ones made of wrought iron, which do not cost much more than
a tent bed of the same materials. Four-post bedsteads, however, of every descrip-
tion, are objectionable for cottagers, both on account of the room they take up, and the
quantity of bed furniture which they require.
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 335
662. Cribs are bedsteads for children so young as to render it unsafe to trust them by
themselves in beds with
unguarded sides. They
are generally intended
to be placed, during the
night, by the bedside
of the mother ; and, for
that purpose, the height
of the crib should cor-
respond with that of
the large bed, and one
of its sides be made to
lift out. This is effected
by grooves in the up-
right posts, with tongues
on the end styles of the
side. Fig. 700 is a
Design for a crib in the
Grecian style, and fig.
703. for one in the Gothic style, both by Mr. Dalziel, who recommends that the
heads of the bed-screws, with which fig. 700. is screwed together, should be concealed
by a wooden cap, fig. 701, instead of by a brass one, as is commonly done. In the
leg of the Gothic crib, fig. 703, the screw is concealed by means of a small wooden panel
made to take out. The turned rails of the sides, in fig. 700, and the plain rails in the
Gothic Design, are considered better than the open canework usually employed for crib
sides, through which children are apt to put their fingers and hurt themselves. Cribs
are sometimes made with only one side, the rail on that opposite being held close to
the rail of the large bed by hooks and eyes. Any joiner might make these cribs of
deal, or any other cheap wood ; and they may be painted or stained to harmonise with
the bedstead and chairs of the room in which they are to be placed. Fig. 702 is a
view of a cheap crib, the frame and bottom of which are formed of wrought iron,
M M
336 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
701
and the sides and ends of deal
are now justly exploded.
663. Bedding includes
palliasses, or straw mat-
tresses; hair, wool, or
other mattresses ; hay,
chaff, or feather beds;
bolsters, pillows, sheets,
blankets, and counter-
panes. The palliass is
an inflexible mattress,
stuffed with drawn wheat
straw ; placed as the
lower layer of the bed-
ding, for the purpose of
raising it, and giving a
more agreeable basis to
the feather-bed. The
common mattress is
formed by stuffing a
canvass case with flocks, wool, baked horse-hair, sea grass, technically called f/lva
marina, or any other articles which when put together form an elastic body, and
afterwards quilting it down, and covering it with a description of cloth called ticken.
The feather bed and the pillows are stuffed with feathers. In Scotland, mattresses
and bolsters, exceedingly agreeable to sleep upon, are stuffed with the outer chaff of
the oat, carefully sifted from the smaller chaff, and from all dust, and renewed once a
year. In Italy, and in countries where the maize is in common culture, excellent
mattresses are formed by stuffing them with the chaff of that grain. A few flowers
of the hop mixed with the chaff of the bolster gives that article an agreeable fragrance,
which is at the same time soporific. George III. at one time slept on a pillow entirely
stuffed with hops ; and some years ago, when in Worcestershire, we think in 1815, we slept
at a farm house, on a bed, bolster, and pillows, all stuffed with hops, and found that they
formed a species of bedding soft and powerfully fragrant, though said to be unwholesome.
664. Substitutes for Stuffing to beds, bolsters, and pillows have been proposed by
upholsterers at different times, and some of them have lately been a good deal used :
of these we shall mention three ; viz., wire springs, air, and water.
665. Wire Springs for stuffing are nothing more than spiral coils of wire, fig. 704, gene-
rally an eighth of an inch in diameter for mattresses, and smaller for cushions, carriage
seats, &c. These springs are placed, side by side, on interlaced webbing, strained to a
frame of the size of the intended bed, cushion, or seat ; they 704
are then all confined by cords to one height, and covered by a piece
of ticken or strong canvass, strained tightly over them. On this is
spread a layer of curled horse-hair, and an upper cover of ticken
is then put over the whole, and nailed down tight to the under
side of the wooden frame with tacks. For our own part, we prefer
beds made with these spiral springs to any other ; not only from
their greater elasticity, and the equal diffusion of the support
which they afford to the body, but because, from the quantity of
air among the springs, they can never become so warm as beds
stuffed with any of the ordinary materials. The effect of spiral
springs as stuffing has been long known to men of science ; but
so little to upholsterers, that a patent for using them in stuffing
was taken out, some years ago, as a new invention. Reds and
seats of this description are now, however, made by upholsterers
generally, and the springs may be had from Birmingham by the hundred weight.
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 337
666. Air Beds and Cushions were invented by John Clark of Bridgewater, in 1813.
He first renders the case of the bed, pillow, hammock, or cushion, impervious to air, by
preparing it with caoutchouc ; he next encloses it in another case not impervious to air,
and afterwards forces die air into the inner case by means of an air-pump, preventing
it from returning by an air-tight stopcock. He observes " that these beds ailbrd the most
renovating and easy repose ; that they may be rendered soft to any required degree, and
cither cool or warm, by changing the air ; that, on the general principle of fluids main-
taining a uniform level, they are not subject to hard lumps or knots, like feathers,
wool, or down ; that they never can get damp ; that they require no making up ; that
the largest bed weighs only a few ounces, and that, being exhausted, they may be folded
or rolled up, so as to go in very little bulk, and hence their great advantage to travellers."
For medical purposes, he says, " they may be filled with air at any required temperature ;
or with water, steam, or other fluids, either wet or dry, elastic or non-elastic, to which
the case is impermeable. Seamen's hammocks, if filled with air, would be light, portable,
and buoyant ; and, in case of shipwreck, might be used as life preservers. Cushions,
pads, and carriage linings thus, filled, will also be eligible and commodious, from their
lightness and elasticity. {Repertory of Arts, vol. xxiv. p. 157.)
667. The Hydrostatic Bed for Invalids is a recent invention of that enlightened and
benevolent physician Dr. Arnott, the author of the Elements of Physics, and is already
coming into general use in the London hospitals. Its object is to mitigate all, and
entirely to prevent some, of the evils attendant on remaining for a great length of time
in a reclining posture. " The health, and even life, of every part of the animal body
depends on the sufficient circulation through it of fresh blood, driven in by the force of
the heart. Now, when a man is sitting or lying, the parts of his flesh compressed by the
weight of his body do not receive the blood so readily as at other times ; and if, from
any cause, the action of his heart has become weak, the interruption of the circulation
will both follow more quickly and be more complete. A peculiar uneasiness arises where
the circulation is thus obstructed, impelling even a healthy person to involuntary changes
of position : when the body is debilitated with sickness, however, these changes occasion
much fatigue ; and should the sensations after a time become indistinct, as in delirium,
palsy, &c, or the patient have become too weak to obey them, the compressed parts are
kept so long without their natural supply of blood, that they lose their vitality, and change
to what are called sloughs, or mortified parts. These have afterwards to be thrown oil",
if the patient survive, by the process of ulceration ; and they leave deep holes, which
require to be filled up with new flesh during a tedious convalescence. Many a fever,
after a favourable crisis, has terminated fatally from this cause ; and the same termination
is common in lingering consumptions, palsies, spine diseases, &c. ; and, generally, in
all diseases which confine patients long to their beds." (Penny Mag-, vol. i. p. 215.)
Dr. Arnott, having tried various descriptions of beds contrived for invalids, including
air pillows, down pillows, &c, thought at last of a hydrostatic bed. He " reflected that
the support of water to a floating body is so uniformly diffused, that every thousandth
part of an inch of it has, as it were, its own separate liquid pillar, and no one part
bears the load of its neighbour ; that a person resting in a bath is nearly thus sup-
ported ; that a patient might be laid upon the surface of a bath over which a large sheet of
waterproof India rubber cloth had been previously thrown, his body being rendered
sufficiently buoyant by a soft mattress being placed beneath it ; and that it might thus
repose upon the surface of the water, without sensible pressure any where." (Ibid.)
The hydrostatic bed is made of the usual dimensions; and is nothing more than .\
wooden trough, say four feet wide, six feet long, and one foot deep, lined with lead or
zinc, to render it water-tight. Over this is thrown a sheet of India rubber cloth, as
large as would be a complete lining to the box if it were empty. The edges of this
sheet are secured by narrow slips of wood, or tinned iron hooping, firmly screwed down
all round the top of the trough, shutting in the water as completely as if it were in a
bottle, the only opening being at one end, which is filled by a cock. Upon this
India rubber sheet a mattress, pillow, and bedclothes are laid, as in common beds.
The box may be made by any carpenter, and lined by any plumber, and the India-
rubber cloth is manufactured by Mackintosh and Co., Charing Cross.
668. Bed Furniture. The usual material for the hangings of cottage beds, especially
for tent beds, is dimity, which has the advantage of being easily washed, and may thus
be always contrived to have a clean appearance. Printed cottons, Manchester stripes,
and chintzes are also very suitable, particularly the latter, for French beds ; but moreens
and other woollen stuffs should never be used in cottages, as they have not only too
heavy an appearance for a small room, but are liable to harbour dust and vermin. The
furniture of the bed, and the curtains of the windows of the room in which it is placed,
should always be of the same material and colour.
669. Window Curtains give such an air of comfort to a room, whether it be to the
S3S COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
spectator from without, or to the occupant within, that we could wish no cottage,
however humble, to be without than. For the same reason, we should wish cottage
windows to be large, that the curtains may be displayed without too much obstructing
the light. Window curtains give the mistress of the house an excellent opportunity for
exercising her taste in their arrangement; and it is but doing justice to the French and
Germans, to state that they are far in advance of the British, or, indeed, of any other
people of Europe, in this particular. From Stockholm to Naples, the room of a French-
man may always be known, before entering it, by the curtains of his window. It is not
that they are formed of expensive materials, for these are seldom employed, except in
a superior description of houses ; but muslins, cottons, and lenos, of different colours,
sometimes accompanied by shawl bordering, sewed upon the cottons, are put up with a
degree of style and taste which indicates both talent and a love of home in the occupant.
It°would be easy to introduce the same taste in Britain, if it were once properly pointed
out to young females, and exemplified by the comparatively enlightened cottager ; for
example, in the dwellings of the married upper servants of country gentlemen. The
first step, however, is to have large windows. Fig. 705, p. 339, is a very plain style of
hanging curtains. A round pole of wood is supported at each end by a bracket, fig. 706 a,
which is fixed by screw nails to the architrave of the window. The pole is kept securely
in its place by the screw-pin, b, which passes through the bracket, and is screwed into
the pole so as to keep it quite firm. On the pole are fourteen rings, generally of brass,
but for a common cottage they might be made of iron bronzed ; and in the lower part
of each ring there is a small eye, c, in which is inserted the end of the wire hook, d,
which is sewed along the inside of the upper margin of the curtain. By these means the
curtain can be unhooked, and taken down to be cleaned at any time. The curtain, when
not drawn, may be supported by a wooden pin, by a brass pin, by a brass band, e, which
tits into a socket, /, and will stand either upright, or horizontal, at pleasure, accord-
ingly as the square tenon of the band may be introduced. In fig. 705, this band is shown at
g o, placed horizontally ; in fig. 706 it is shown placed upright. Instead of a pin or
band, a piece of riband or curtain line, with a ring on each end, might be hooked on two
knob's and thus loop up the curtain. The manner in which this curtain, which opens
in themiddle, is made to draw from the centre to each side of the window, is shown in
fig. 707. A line, h, is passed round the small pulley which works in the pulley rack, i ;
it is then carried
over another
pulley at k ; then
over a third at
I ; and a fourth
at vi, return-
ing to the pul-
ley rack, where
it is joined to
its other end.
There are two
rings at n and
o; one of which, the curtains being closed, is attached to
the inner edge of one curtain, and the other to the inner
edge of the other. The ring n is then fastened to the
upper line, by a small eye on the outer edge of the ring,
which may be seen in the figure ; and the ring o to the under
line, by similar means. On inspecting the figure, it will
be evident that, when thus arranged, by pulling the line p,
the curtain to which the ring o is attached will he pulled
towards to, and that to which n is fixed towards I; and thus
the curtains will be opened. The reverse will be of course
effected by pulling the line h. The curtain rod may be
formed either of iron or of any hard wood ; and it should
707
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
705
339
340 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
710
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 341
be fixed to the under side, or soffit, of the window, by hooks of the form shown at q. This
is the very simplest form of curtain made to draw apart, and it may be made by any
country carpenter. The cheapest material for these curtains is calico, dyed crimson,
blue, or any other ingrain colour that will wash. They may also be formed of dimity,
with a strip of glazed calico about an inch and a half wide, of any colour suitable to the
other furniture of the room, sewed on about two inches from the margin. This coloured
calico is, of course, taken off when the dimity is washed, and, with care, will last clean
and look well for years. Coloured calico cut in Vandykes, or in any other pattern, and
sewed on close to the edge, may be substituted for the plain strip, if preferred.
670. Window Curtains in the Grecian style. Fig. 708, p. 339, may be considered as
suitable for a cottage finished in the Grecian style, including under that term the
Italian manner. This curtain requires a different bracket from the other. A lath, four
inches wide, fig. 709, r, is fixed on the architrave of the window, by an iron angle
bracket, s. The bracket which supports the pole, t, is of brass, and it is fastened by
screws on the top of the lath. The curtains are arranged as in the preceding Design, and
the drapery or valance over them, at top, 709
is hooked into the rings (shown in fig.
708), in a similar manner to the curtains,
so that both drapery and curtains may be
taken off to be washed. The pole to
which the drapery is attached would look
remarkably well if stained of a mahogany
colour ; or, in a Gothic cottage, to re-
semble oak. Fig. 710, p. 340, is another curtain in the Grecian style, in the construc-
tion of which the plaited draper}', or valance, is tacked to the cornice in a manner which
we shall include in our description of the next figure.
671. A Gothic Curtain and Cornice are represented in the Design, fig. 711, p. 340.
The cornice may be made of deal, and painted and grained to imitate oak. The drapery
is nailed on to the lath with tacks, the heads of which are covered by the cornice, as
shown in the sections, p. 340, «. The cornice takes off and puts on by means of what
are called cornice slides, v, which go into a broad staple, w- The curtain runs behind
the drapery, on a pulley rod, as shown in the section x, in fig. 708, p. 339. The pins
to support the curtains may be made of oak, in order to harmonise with the cornice.
672. Curtains for the humblest description of Cottages. Where an apparatus of lines
and pulleys would be too expensive, a simple curtain, opening in the centre, may be
formed by nailing two pieces of dimity, coloured calico, or printed cotton, to a square
cornice, either painted, or covered with a piece of paper bordering ; these curtains may
be looped back by a piece of sash line, or coloured cord, twisted round hooks fixed to
the architrave, and will thus form a kind of Gothic drapery across the window. Another
simple description of curtain is formed by nailing a piece of dimity, or other material, of
the requisite length and width, to a flat piece of wood, in one end of which are inserted
two pulleys ; while two others are let into it, one in the middle, and the other at the
opposite extremity. Three pieces of tape are sewed down the curtain, one on each side,
and one in the middle, to which are affixed small rings, at regular distances: through
these rings are passed three pieces of cord, which afterwards go over the pulleys, and,
being fastened together on one side, are kept tight by means of a pulley rack. By this
apparatus the curtain may be raised or lowered at pleasure. The board with the pulleys
is concealed by a cornice, to which a valance, or any other description of drapery, may
be attached.
673. Inside Window Blinds are of various kinds; but the chief are roller blinds,
Venetian blinds, and wire blinds. The roller blind, being much the cheapest, may be
considered the most suitable for common cottages. It is simply a piece of linen, of the
height and breadth of the window, nailed to a roller, which has a pulley at one end, by
means of a string over which the blind is pulled up ; and it is drawn down by a cord and
tassel fixed to the middle of its lower edge. The blind is kept extended to the width of
the window by a lath, passed through a broad hem, at the opposite end to that which is
fixed to the roller. The roller works in pivots at each end ; and motion is usually com-
municated to it, for the purpose of drawing up the blind, by an endless cord, which
passes over the wooden pulley on the end of the roller, and under the small brass pulley
in the rack. (A rack is shown in fig. 707, ati.) As the pulley and rack often re-
quire adjusting, a more simple plan is to have the pulley affixed to the roller of the
blind, with a cylinder or axis smaller in diameter than that of the roller on which the
blind is wound up. To this is attached a line, the length of which should bear the
same relation to that of the blind, as the diameter of the cylinder of the pulley does to
that of the cylinder of the roller. The line must be affixed when the blind is wound
up on the roller, so that the action of drawing down the blind may wind up the cord.
3¥Z
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
The smaller the diameter of the axis of the pulley is in comparison with that of the
roller, the shorter will be the length of string required. A great improvement in this
description of hlinds has been made by forming the roller of a tin case that encloses a
spring, which acts so as to turn the roller, and pull up the blind of itself. The best
descrfption of this spring roller blind is one improved by Messrs. Barron and Mills, which
we shall describe when treating of blinds for villas. Sometimes, instead of linen blinds
being plain, they are painted with transparent colours, so as to represent stained glass
windows, landscapes, &c. These blinds, while they exclude the sun, admit abun-
dance of light, and are very suitable for staircase windows, or the windows of cottages
which have either no view, or one which it is desirable to exclude. A great improve-
ment has lately been made in the manufacture of transparent blinds by Mr. Newbury
of London, who paints them on a superior description of gauze, of his own invention.
Lontr and short Venetian blinds, and short inside wire blinds, are not unsuitable for the
better description of cottages ; but we shall defer what we have to say of them till we
come to speak of Villa Furniture.
674. Commoner descriptions of Short Inside Blinds are formed of muslin or leno, either
flounced all round, and opening in the middle, or with flounces only at top. These
blinds may be affixed to the windows either by a piece of tape drawn through a string
case running across the blind near the top, and fastened by brass hooks to the side styles
of the window ; or by brass wires or rods passed through broad hems at the top and
bottom of the blind, and having a loop at each end, to drop on the pin of a small brass
bracket affixed to the side style or bead of the window frame. Other blinds may be
netted by the cottager's wife, of white cotton, or green worsted, the size required, and
hung on brass hooks fixed to the astragals and side styles of the window. Various other
blinds may be formed of equally cheap materials, according to the taste and skill of the
mistress of the cottage.
675. Lines and Knobs for Curtains and Blinds, $c. The description of line used
should always be the plaited thread line, which, being of the same material throughout,
is much stronger, and lasts four or five times as long as the common twined sash line,
which in many cases is made of
one material on the outside and
another in the interior. This
patent thread line, as it is called,
is manufactured of all sizes, from
that fit for a carriage window
blind, to one thick enough for a
ship's cable; and it should be
used, not only in curtains and
blinds, but in hanging sashes,
pictures, and, in short, in all
cases requiring lines. Knobs of
iron, brass, or wood, for the
purpose of fastening lines round,
are far preferable to the hooks
of different kinds in common
use ; because they have a more
solid and architectural look; are mare removed from a common nail ; and are not so apt
to catch the corners of the laths of Venetian blinds, or to tear cloth blinds or curtains.
676. Looking-glasses for cot-
tages may be divided into two
classes; chimney or pier glasses,
and dressing-glasses. Fig.
712 is a Design for a chimney
glass in the Grecian style, and
fig. 713 is another in the Gothic
manner. The frames may
be of deal, painted in imitation
of oak, or they may be gilt,
which is generally considered
to look best. For a Gothic cot-
tage, very handsome and cheap
pier and chimney glasses may
be formed by constructing a
frame like a Gothic window,and
glazing it with panes of plate
glass, or of a superior descrip-
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
34.S
tion of common glass prepared as looking-glass. The same may he done in Grecian
cottages by imitating a Grecian window. By placing mirrors of this kind so as to
reflect the best exterior views, apparent extent, variety, and gaiety may sometimes be
added to even small rooms. Where it is desired to have richly ornamented frames, they
can be had in great variety, and at a very moderate price, made of the papier mache of
Bielefield and Haselden (see § 568), or of a composition manufactured by Jackson of
Rathbone Place.
677. Dressing-glasses may have their frames made either in the Grecian or Gothic
style. Fig. 715 is the ordinary form, improved in the style of design, so as to har-
monise with Grecian forms ; and, if the supporters were of cast-iron bronzed, it might
be recommended : but, made of wood, it is not heavy enough to resist the action of the
wind against the back of the glass when the window is open ; and, accordingly, bed-room
glasses of this description are very frequently blown down and broken. Fig. 714 is
714
715
also a Design in the Grecian style, with a plinth or base of solid wood, on which it
stands. Such glasses are called by cabinet-makers plateau glasses ; and they are far
preferable to the common sort, for obvious reasons. Figs. 7J6 and 717 are Designs for
plateau glasses in the Gothic style, which are given principally to show that style
should be attended to in minor as well as in major articles of furniture. Fig. 717 has
a drawer for trinkets, &c.
678. Fenders should be low, and may be narrow, when the fuel chamber is placed
low ; and more especially when the beveled front bars and drawer, § 599, fig. 534, are
used. The lower and narrower the fender, the more heat, other circumstances being
the same, will be radiated into the room. The front of the fender, unless very low
indeed, ought always to be of open work, in order to admit through it the radiation
from the fire. The forms and lines and general style of the fender ought to be the same
as those of the grate ; and both ought to harmonise with the chimney-piece. ^ We have
seen a cottage fender with a well hole inside for containing coals ; thus serving instead
of a coal scuttle, and at the same time drying the fuel so as to diminish the quantity of
smoke produced ; in this case the fender and its well fitted into a sunk panel in the
hearth, and as it was in the house of a toll bar keeper, who had to sit up all night, it
proved convenient; because the coals were always at hand, and burned readily when put
on the fire. Fenders should have stands for fire-irons, unless a substitute is provided
by holders being screwed to the grate. The cheapest kind of cottage fenders are of painted
wire, and these may do for parlours and bed-rooms ; but there are very handsome and
cheap fenders of cast iron, which are much more appropriate tor kitchens.
679. Fire-irons, stoves, and grates, when of polished iron or steel, require a great deal
314- COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
of severe and disagreeable labour from women, which we have long wished to see put
an end to, by the substitution of a more rational mode of heating than that of open (ire-
places ; but, in the mean time, as the cottager must have fire-irons of some sort, we
recommend bin to have plain patterns, and rather to indulge in some other description
of furniture which requires less care in keeping. Where wood is the principal fuel, we
recommend the kitchen poker to terminate at the lower extremity in two claws like
a claw hammer, or a crowbar ; and to be hollow, with one orifice between the
claws, and another at the opposite end for applying the mouth to blow the fire, or
rather to rouse the embers after they have been collected together from the ashes by the
claws. We have seen the use of such pokers in the kitchens of inns in Germany ; and
think they may be safely recommended as very superior to those in common use, where
wood is burnt on a hearth.
680. Carpets are sources of comfort in every room ; and we should wish the cottager
to have not only one in his parlour, but, if possible, also one in his bed-room. For neither
the parlour nor the bed-room would we recommend the carpet to be fitted to the room ;
because such carpets can very seldom be either turned or changed in any way. In
general, whatever may be the shape of the room, the carpet ought to be in the form of a
square, a parallelogram, or a circle. A square carpet may be changed eight times,
so as to be worn equally on every part of both sides ; a circular one, indefinitely. A
parallelogram may be changed four times, which will also admit of wearing it with toler-
able regularity. A carpet, accurately fitted, or planned (the term among upholsterers), to
every projection and recess of a room, cannot even be changed once, unless the projections
and recesses should be of a particular description of symmetry, which is very seldom to
be met with. It is evident, then, that a fitted carpet, which can neither be changed nor
turned, will not last more than one eighth the time of a square one, or one fourth the
time of a parallelogram. For a cottager's bed-room, we would chiefly recommend one
piece of carpeting placed by the dressing-table, and pieces neatly fitted to each other to
go round the foot and sides of the bed. In general, the parlour carpet will require to
be made fast at the margins with a few tacks, but the bed-room carpets may be left
loose. Stair carpets give an air of great comfort and finish to a house ; and a cottage
should never be without one. We shall describe the manner of laying these down, and
shall enter into other particulars respecting carpets, when we come to speak of Villa
Furniture. When a parlour carpet does not cover the whole of the floor, there are
various ways of disposing of the margin between it and the wall. Some recommend oil-
cloth, others baize, drugget, coarse broadcloth, or brown linen ; for our part, we greatly
prefer to any of these, painting that part of the boards of the floor which is not covered
with the carpet, of the same colour as the woodwork of the room ; taking care that
the margin painted shall exceed in breadth by a few inches the space which it is
intended to leave uncovered. This is by far the best mode in staircases and in bed-
rooms, as well as in parlours ; it also saves a great deal of the most disagreeable part of
a woman's household labours. When the woodwork of the room is painted to imitate
oak, this mode of treating the margins of the floor has a particularly good effect. The
expense may be objected to; but we shall show, when we come to treat of the art of
house-painting, how easily any cottager or his wife, though they never before saw a paint
brush in their lives, may learn in an hour to grain the woodwork of their cottage, in
imitation of oak, sufficiently well for every purpose they can require. Round carpets
are not very common in England, but they are not unfrequent on the Continent, and
look exceedingly well in a square room.
681. The kinds of carpets most suitable for cottages are chiefly the Scotch and the
Kidderminster, on account of their cheapness ; but we consider none too good for the
cottager, provided he can afford to pay for them. In choosing a pattern, the smallest
is generally to be preferred, not only as a matter of taste, as being more in accordance
with small rooms, but in point of economy ; because, in sewing the breadths together, it
requires less cutting out to make it match, and because, when the carpet gets old, the
patches put on in mending are less conspicuous. The parlour carpet, and the carpets of
at least one bed-room, should be of the same pattern, in order that, when the former is
partly worn out, the latter may be used to mend it ; because it is always bad, both in point
of effect and economy, to mend what is old with what is quite new. A very neat pattern
for carpets has lately been introduced for libraries, but it would suit Gothic cottages
equally well. It consists of an imitation of wainscot, has a quiet subdued tone of
colour, and accords well with furniture made, or painted in imitation, of oak.
682. Colours of Carpets. Much of the opinion which we form of all objects depends
on the effect of the first impressions which we receive from them. Our first ideas of
any man or woman, on seeing them at a short distance from us, are taken from their
height and clothing ; and our first ideas of a room, from its size, and the covering or
colour of its floor and walls. Taking the room as a whole, and considering its effect as
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 345
a picture, the colours of the carpet and of the walls will form the principal masses in the
composition, and will necessarily influence every other component part. If the floor and
the walls were of the same colour, there would be a deficiency of force and of effect, from
want of contrast ; il* they were of different colours, equally attracting the eye, the effect
produced would not be tbat of a whole ; because a whole is the result of the cooperation
of different subordinate parts with one principal part. The harmony of the colouring of
a room, therefore, can only be produced by the same kind of knowledge which guides
an artist in painting a picture. The principles of the art of painting supply the prin-
ciples for the art of distributing colours in furnishing ; but, as this art cannot all at once
be communicated to the reader, all that we shall attempt, at present, is, to supply him
with a few hints, drawn from the usual practice of upholsterers. These are, that neither
the colours of the carpet should be so brilliant as to destroy the effect of those of the
paper, nor the contrary ; and that the curtains should always be of a colour suitable to
both. It is not necessary that they should be of the same colour, but that they should
be of colours that harmonise, or, in other words, look well together. A very brilliant
colour, such as crimson, in the carpet, may have a drab or other subdued colour in the
curtains and paper; but then there should be some of the brilliant colour introduced in
both, as bordering or ornaments. Thus, a room with a bright blue or crimson carpet
may have white, yellow, or drab, curtains and paper ; but blue or crimson bordering or
ornaments should be introduced in them, to harmonise the effect. It would not do, in the
case of the blue carpet, to have green curtains or paper, or with the crimson to have
scarlet; because these colours do not accord. A green carpet may have black, red, or
white curtains, with green borders and ornaments. A yellow carpet may have black
curtains, and a dark grey paper with yellow borders and ornaments. Whatever will
apply to a self-coloured carpet, curtains, or paper, will apply equally well in all cases
where those colours predominate. It should never be forgotten, that the whole effect of
an elegantly furnished room may be destroyed by the selection of a carpet which,
though handsome in itself, does not harmonise with the other furniture.
68S. Geographical Carpets. The idea of a geographical carpet, that is, a carpet with
the lines of a map substituted for a regular pattern, has been suggested {Mech. Mag.i
vol. xii. p. 21.) ; and we agree with the author of the suggestion in thinking that " a
carpet is so admirably adapted to geographical instruction, that it may be almost said to
be a natural article for the purpose. A map is a picture of the surface of the earth, and
on the ground is the place to view it. One on so large a scale as a carpet would admit,
is calculated to give a more correct idea of the relative position of places than could be
effected by the largest map now extant. A family in the daily occupation of a room
furnished with such a carpet, would acquire unavoidably a more permanent knowledge
of a given portion of the earth than could be obtained by any other means ; and, when
the local position of the room would admit, the carpet might be placed agreeably to the
bearings of the compass, and it would thereby give a correct idea of the real direction of
places on the map." The principal objection to this plan seems to be, the great difficulty
which would attend its execution. A map, such as above described, might, however, be
printed on fine cloth, or brown holland linen, and might then serve as a cover to a carpet.
This would be particularly suitable for a school-room or nursery.
684. Substitutes for Carpets. Green baize and drugget are often used as substitutes for
carpets, and are not only cheap, but in many cases look remarkably well. When a drab
drugget is used, a border of black or any dark-coloured cloth, laid on about two inches
from the margin, has a very good effect. Cheap carpets may be made by industrious
housewives of a kind of patchwork. Remnants of cloth bought from the woollen-
draper, or tailor, and cut into any kind of geometrical shapes, may be sewed together, so
as to form circles, stars, or any other regular figures that may be desired ; and, when
arranged with taste, produce a very handsome and durable carpet, at a very trifling
expense. The figures, of whatever nature they may be, should be always symmetrical ;
and a handsome border should invariably surround the whole, so as to preserve the idea
of unity of design ; care should also be taken that the colours employed harmonise, not
only with each other, but, as before advised, with those of the other furniture of the
room.
685. Paper Carpets are formed by cutting out and sewing together pieces of linen, cot-
ton, Scotch gauze, canvass, or any similar material, &c., to the size and form required ; then
stretching the prepared cloth on the floor of a large room, and carefully pasting it round
the margins so as to keep it strained tight. If cotton be the material, it will require
to be previously wetted. When the cloth thus fixed is dry, lay on it two or more coats
of strong paper, breaking joint, and finish with coloured or hanging paper, according to
fancy. Centre or corner pieces, cut out of remnants of papers, which may be bought
for a mere trifle, may be laid on a self-coloured ground, and the whole surrounded by i
border; or any other method adopted which may suit the taste or cimimstances of the
N N
346 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
occupier, or accord with the other furniture of the room. When the carpet is thus pre-
pared, and quite dry, it should receive two coats of glue, or size made from the shreds of
skins, such as is used by carvers and gilders. This size should be put on as warm as
possible, and care should be taken that no part of the carpet be left untouched by it;
otherwise the varnish to be afterwards laid on will sink into the paper, and spoil it.
When the size is perfectly dry, the carpet should have one or more coats of boiled oil ;
and when that is dry, a coat of copal or any other varnish. The varnish is not absolutely
essential, as boiled oil has been found to answer very well without it ; but where oil only
is used, it requires several more coats to be applied, and takes a much longer time to
dry. These carpets are portable, and will roll up with about the same ease as oilcloth.
They are very durable, are easily cleaned ; and, if made of well-chosen patterns, have a
very handsome appearance. Where labour is cheap, the cost will be very trifling ;
the materials being of little value, and the expense consisting chiefly in the time
requisite to put them together. Where cloth cannot be easily procured, the carpet may
be made by pasting paper to painted boards; when, by repeated coats of paper, it is
become strong and firm, it will separate from the paint, and will be as durable as if
mounted on any kind of cloth. For earth, brick, or stone floors, in order to render
them impervious to damp, these carpets may be made with two faces, by pasting paper
to both sides of the cloth which forms their basis, and well oiling or varnishing them on
the under as well as upper surface : they may also be bound with leather or any strong
substance, to prevent moisture from penetrating to the paste. The paste used in the
preparation of these carpets ought to be very strong, and is best when beer or sweet
wort is substituted for common water. It must be kept free from lumps, and, when
taken from the fire, stirred till cold. Papers used for carpets should have sufficient
gum or size employed in the printing of them, to enable them to withstand the effects
of the washing over with warm size. If printed in oil, a strong coat of size should be
given to the back to prevent the oil from penetrating through the paper, otherwise it can-
not be pasted to linen, cotton, or any thing else. Papers printed in oil will not require
any size before they receive the finishing coats of boiled oil and varnish. When
varnished on one side only, they ought to be rolled up with that side outwards, to pre-
vent its cracking. {London Jour, of Arts and Sciences.) Paper carpets would perhaps
be better for geographical subjects, than carpets formed of any material produced by the
loom. We have before suggested the idea of geographical, natural history, and other
scientific papers, for the walls of apartments ; and, if these were once made, they might
be transferred to paper carpets at pleasure.
686. Hearth Rugs are of various patterns and prices. Their use is obvious, in saving the
carpets from becoming worn by the constant movement of persons near the fire. When
economy is an object, a piece of carpeting the same as that of the room, and the width
of the hearth, may be employed, and this may be either hemmed at the ends, or sur-
rounded by a deep fringe of black or very dark brown worsted, which the mistress of
the cottage may net herself, and sew on. A cheap rug may also be formed of a piece
of drab drugget bound with black, or any other colour to suit the paper and curtains,
and fringed ; either with or without a strip of cloth, of the same colour as the binding,
laid on about two inches from the margin. This kind of rug does very well without the
fringe. Another kind of cheap hearth rug may be made by the cottager's wife, of
remnants of cloth cut into narrow strips about half an inch broad, and three or four
inches long ; these strips are doubled, and sewed at the bend, in rows, to a strong
piece of cloth, or knitted into a framework of packthread. In either case the colours
are disposed so as to form some kind of pattern ; and, the ends being left loose, and cut
even when the work is finished, with a large pair of scissors or shears, the whole presents
a remarkably rich, warm, and massive appearance.
687. Painted Floorcloths may sometimes be used in the lobbies and passages of cot-
tages ; but they are not economical articles, where there is much going out and coming
in of persons generally employed in the open air, and of course wearing strong shoes,
probably with nails in the soles. When they arc used in cottages, the most appropriate
patterns are imitations of some materials usually employed for floors, such as tessellated
pavement, different-coloured stones, wainscot, &c. ; but, for the better description of
dwellings, where oilcloths are considered chiefly as ornamental coverings, there seems to
L>e no reason why their patterns should not be as various as those of carpets.
688. Matting of different sorts may be extensively used in cottages. There are some
kinds, which the cottager might make for himself in the winter's evening; and there are
others that he may purchase cheap. Matting is manufactured, in many different manners,
out of the straw of corn, rushes, or other long, narrow, grassy or sedgy leaves. Among
the uses to which a cottager might apply mats of this sort, which he could make himself,
are, seats for chairs, stools, and benches ; foot mats for outside doors ; and screens, than
which there is not a more useful article for the cottage kitchen. In Monmouthshire,
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 347
easy chairs with hoods, like porter's chairs in gentlemen's halls, are constructed of straw
matting on a frame of wooden rods, or of stout iron wire ; and
chairs like fig. 718 are made entirely of straw in different parts
of England, in the same way as the common beehives. Matting
of this sort might in some cases be employed as partitions, and
is extensively used in the more miserable of the cottages both in
France and Scotland. Russian matting, or bast, made from the
inner bark of the lime tree, is very cheap, and might be useful
to the cottager in many ways : the walls and partitions might be
lined with it, and temporary ceilings formed of it in hovels where
there were none. There are various other applications of Russian
matting, which will readily occur. Indian matting, when bound
with black or coloured ferreting, is a very neat article, and may
be used cither for walls or floors.
689. Door Mats may be made of basketwork, straw, rope, hair, wool, sheepskin, &c.
A very good outside mat, or rather perhaps scraper, is formed by a piece of flat wicker-
work, somewhat coarser than that of a common hamper; it takes the dirt effectually from
the soles of the shoes, and as it falls down in the interstices between the rods, the wicker-
work has only to be lifted up now and then, and the dirt swept away. A mat which
operates like this wicker mat has been formed in Germany of flat tarred rope, in the
following manner: — The breadth of the rope, fig. 719 a, full size, is about three
quarters of an inch, and it is something more than a quarter of an inch thick. The out-
line of the mat is first formed by setting the rope on edge on the floor, or on a piece
of board, in the manner of a frame, and attaching it in two or three places with nails or
pegs ; the rope is next returned on itself in zigzag lines within the frame, either by
continually going round it till it ends in the centre, or
by going backwards and forwards from one end to the
other, till it finishes on one side. This being done, all
the parts which touch are sewed together, and the
result is a mat like fig. 719, b (to the scale of half an
inch to a foot). These mats are imported from Ger-
many ; and, when used as shop-door mats in London,
they are found to be more durable than any other
kind that has yet been tried. One of the commonest
and most useful out-door mats is made of untwisted rope
yarn, woven into very coarse canvass, and then cut, so as
to present a brush-like surface, on which, not only the
soles of the shoes may be cleaned, as in the wicker and
rope mats, but also the sides. In-door mats are made
of hair, tow, or wool, in various modes. One of the
best for a cottager's bed-room door is a black or grey
sheepskin, with all the wool on. A black or dark
goatskin makes also a very handsome mat. Skins (IL^^IC^IwTwTnHi^LlI
with white or other light-coloured hair or wool make
very handsome mats, but are hardly advisable for a
cottager, as they require frequent washing.
690. Scrapers for the feet may be let into the wall of the cottage, on each side of the
door, a cavity being left over the scraper for the foot, and one under it for the dirt.
There are various forms of scrapers for building into walls, which may be had of every
ironmonger ; and all that the cottager has to do is to choose one analogous to the style
of his house. There are detached scrapers in endless variety ; the most complete are
those which have brushes fixed on edge, on each side of the scraper, which, with other
forms, we shall describe and figure under Villa Furniture. Scrapers are so essential to
cleanliness, that, where the cottager can get no better, he may drive two short stakes into
the ground, about a foot apart and half a foot high, and let into them a piece of iron
hooping edgewise ; or he may sink the blade of an old spade, with its edge upwards.
The last two scrapers are very suitable for gardens ; and, unless the cottager keep his
garden walks perfectly clean, or at least free from the clods of earth which will stick to
his feet when working in the compartments, he cannot expect to have the gravel of his
platform in nice order, or his entrance-porch clean. A dirty entrance is a sure sample
of an untidy housewife ; and little comfort can be expected in a cottage the floor of
which is soiled with filth brought into it from without. Those cottagers who can afford
it may purchase the portable scraper, fig. 720, which costs, in London, only Is. 6d.,
or fig. 721, which costs 2s. ; both of which will answer either for the entrance door or the
garden walks : or they may take the dibber scraper, fig. 722, which costs only 2s. 6d., and
may be stuck into the garden anywhere, and pulled out again to remove it, at pleasure.
719
31-8 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE
720 721
An excellent scraper,
partaking of the na-
ture of a mat, may be
formed by letting a
number of pieces of,
iron hooping edge-
wise into a wooden
frame, say a foot or more wide, and eighteen inches long. The
pieces of hooping may be from an inch to an inch and a half
apart. Wooden hooping, or straight-edged laths, may be sub-
stituted for iron ; but the latter is more effective, as well as
more durable. Scrapers of this sort may be let into a stone, so
as to l>e level with the adjoining path or pavement; but in
this case there should be a pit, three or four inches deep, beneath
the scraper, and the latter should admit of being taken out, to
remove the dirt from the pit. In Holland a very good cottage-
garden scraper, particularly for sandy soils, is formed by fixing
small iron bars, or pieces of hooping, in the circumference of two segments of ovals, fig.
723; the chord of the segment is about nine inches in length, and the width of the
scraper a foot. When it is used, the sand, or other 723
dirt, drops from the soles of the shoes, between the
bars ; and, when the space is filled, the scraper is
lifted up, and the dirt removed.
691. Hat and Umbrella Stands. Both these articles
combined, as in fig. 724, may form a suitable piece of
furniture for aGothic porch or passage, where the walls are covered with pictures ; or where
there are other objections to having coat and cloak pins fixed against them. Besides,
it is always better for hats to be hung on stands in the
free air of the apartment, than to have them placed on
a table, or against a wall, where they get the air only
on one side. In the box at the bottom of this stand,
there is a tray of tinned iron, painted black, which lifts
out, in order that it may be emptied of the water which
may run into it from wet umbrellas, &c, and be cleaned.
Where there is sufficient space in the apartment, hat and
cloak pins may be put on both sides of the tree ; in which
case there should be a second box. We have shown on
the two upper branches or rails of the trunk, or upright
piece, five hat pins, or surplice pins, as they are called
by upholsterers, which may be made either of brass, or of
iron bronzed. On the lower rail there are four wooden
pins, which may be either made of oak, or painted in
imitation of it. These pins are formed in two pieces ;
the stem, or shank, and the head ; and the latter is
screwed into the former, as indicated in fig. 725. Such
125
4, \Wl
pins arc made of mahogany, in Birmingham, in large
quantities, and are sold to the trade all over the country.
They are far superior to brass or iron knobs or pins;
because they never tarnish or rust, and because they give
decided evidence of improved design, in their far removal
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
349
from the common nail or hook. The umbrella stand, fig. 726, might very well be made
of cast iron ; and could not, in that material, cost more than a fourth of what it would
in any description of wood ; but in this, and in similar cases, the objection is, the first
expense of the pattern, which, being necessarily considerable, cannot be prudently in-
curred, unless the manufacturer be secure of an extensive sale. We could wish that our
furnishing ironmongers would direct a portion of that power of invention which seems
to be now almost exclusively occupied in contriving bad fireplaces, to the improving of the
designs and lowering the price of cabinet furniture, by the judicious introduction of cast
iron. Much, we are sure, will one day be done in this way. For a small cottage, a
very useful corner umbrella stand, may be formed by bending a piece of stout brass, or
iron wire, somewhat in the form of c d in fig. 727, and fixing it. in the angle of the
porch, immediately within the out- i > 72.9 I
side door; placing below a corner
tray of tinned or cast iron, e, to
receive the water from the wet
umbrellas. The use of the wire is
to prevent the wet umbrellas from
touching the wall, and the use of
the bends in it is to keep the um-
brellas or walking-sticks apart.
692. A Towel Horse has generally
one rail at top ; but a double rail,
as in fig. 728, is a great improve-
ment ; for, when a wet towel is
thrown across both rails, the air
has freer access to it, and it dries
much sooner. It may be formed
of deal, and should at all events be
painted, for the reasons given when
speaking of fixed towel rails, § 610.
693. Clock-cases for cottages may
be harmonised both with the style
of the building and that of the
other furniture, by the lines of their
mouldings and the forms of their
panels. Figs. 729 and 730 are
examples; the former in the Gothic,
and the latter in the Grecian style.
694. A Folding Screen, for keep-
ing off the wind, is required in
most cottage kitchens, particularly
such as have no porch or lobby.
The most suitable, where there is
room, is the settle, § 636, especially
with the addition of Mallet's iron castors ; but very light and efficient screens may be
formed by two or more wooden frames, five feet high, and two feet wide, hinged with
girth webbing or leather, so as to fold either way. The mode of hinging, so as to admit
of this, is by nailing the pieces of girth which serve as hinges, alternately to one side of
I -
I -
731
350 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
the one hanging style, as at a, fig. 731, and to the opposite side of the other, as at b.
Supposing two hinges done in this way, the two alternate ones should be nailed, as indi-
cated by the dotted lines at c and d. A brass hinge, to answer the same purpose, has
been lately invented by Mr. Vokins, architect and builder, of Wilton Road, London;
several of whose ingenious inventions and contrivances we shall have to notice when
speaking of Villas. The wooden frames for the screen may have canvass strained on
them, in order that they may be covered with paper ; or they may
be covered with green baize, drugget, or any similar material, with
a border of ferreting, attached by brass-headed nails, or bordered by
the nails only. In case of the screen being covered with paper, maps,
subjects of natural history, arithmetical or chronological tables, alma-
nacks, or, in short, any kind of useful subjects, should be preferred,
for the reasons given, § 584.
695. Fire-screens may be wanted in a cottage as well as in a palace.
A lady has sent us a cottage fire-screen, made of straw, with a hook
attached to it, by which it is hung on the back of a chair, fig. 732,
which will answer very well when sitting with the back to the fire.
To shield the face a standard fire-screen is required ; but we shall leave
the reader to contrive one for himself from the Designs, which he will
find in another part of this work, under the head of Fire-screens for
Villas.
696. Clothes Horses and Stands for brushing Coats. Clothes horses, for drying linen,
&c, are open frames hinged in the same manner as folding-screens; and one or more
of them should be found in every cottage, not
connected with a public drying establishment.
There are generally three horizontal rails to
these clothes horses; one at top, one within
two feet of the bottom, and one between. In
a small cottage the clothes horse might be
contrived to answer the purpose of a screen,
by having a movable cover, either to slip on,
or to be attached by hooks, or pieces of tape.
Stands for brushing clothes are formed of a
foot in the form of a Greek cross, with an
upright piece firmly mortised into it at the
point of intersection ; into the top of which,
about five feet from the ground, is mortised
another piece, about two feet long, which
serves as arms, on which is put the coat to be
brushed. Where there is not room for a
stand, the arms, with a post of six or eight
inches in length, may be hinged to the back
of a door, so as to fall down like a flap when
not in use, and be supported by a bracket,
or horse and rack, when a coat is to be brushed ;
or the form shown in fig. 733 may be adopted,
732
in which the jib bracket, e, works by two pins in //, and the cross piece, g, also works
on a pin in the upper part of the bracket ; the holes, h h, are for slipping it on to
nails fixed to any wall or door. Whatever kind of coat stand or horse may be used,
there should always be a table at the command of the person brushing the coat, on
which to fold it up, previously to putting it away.
697. Children's Furniture. To enable a mother who has no servants, to relieve herself
at pleasure from carrying her child, there are various contrivances in use in England,
which deserve to be mentioned ; and there is one, for cleanliness and decency, which
deserves imitation in every country, and more especially in our own. Fig. 734 is a
swing chair, formed out of ten pieces of elder tree, a, six inches long, and an inch and
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS.
351
a half in diameter, with the pith hurnt out witli a redhot poker, or other iron ; nine
rails ahout a foot long, with a round hole at each extremity, b ; a bottom board a foot
square, with a round hole in each corner, c ; and four sash lines or cords about a quarter
of an inch in diameter, and of sufficient length to reach from the ceiling of the room in
which the chair is to be hung. Knots being made on the ends of the lines, the tubes
and rails are strung on as in the figure, and the other ends of the cords tied together and
suspended from a hook in the ceiling. By omitting four of the cylinders and four of
the rails, a chair may be made for an infant of the earliest age. A cushion may be put
in the bottom, or the bottom may be stuffed. Fig. 735 is a go-gin for a child who can
stand, to teach him to walk. It consists of a perpendicular shaft, long enough to reach
from the floor to the ceiling, which turns in a hole in a brick or stone of the floor, and
within a staple driven into the side of one of the ceiling joists, or by any similar means.
The piece d, about eighteen inches long, is mortised into the upright shaft, about eighteen
inches from the ground ; and the wooden ring, e, about seven or eight inches in diameter,
has a piece about six inches long, which is hinged at one end, and fastened with a hook
and eye at the other. This opens, and the child being put in is enclosed at the height
of the waist. The ring taking part of the child's weight, he cannot fall, and he soon
learns to walk. Frequently this ring is made of twisted withy, fig. 736, with an eye at
one extremity and a hook at the other : or each extremity is made to terminate in a loop,
and when the child is put into the ring one of these is slipped over the other, and a
hooked wooden pin serves to keep them together : in both cases the hinge is made like
that of the handle of a basket. Both these pieces of furniture are made in England by
every cottager for himself. Fig 737 is a hollow cylinder, nothing more than the section
of the trunk of an old pollard tree, commonly to be met with in England ; the inside and
upper edge are smoothed, and a child just able to stand is put into it, while its mother is
at work by its side, or going after the business of the house. Fig. 738 is a go-cart
which is frequently made of willow rods without castors, but is here shown as a piece of
carpentry, standing on castors. The ring, f, opens with a hinge, and shuts, and is made
fast like e in fig. 735. Children readily learn to walk by these machines, without the
danger of falling. Fig. 739 is a pierced chair, made entirely of wickerwork, which
costs, complete, about London, only 4s. 6d., while there is a cheaper sort, with a rush
bottom, at 2s. 6d. Every one who can make a basket can make a chair of this descrip-
tion. First form the skeleton frame, fig. 740 ; then commence round the circular hole
in the centre, and work in either willow rods or rushes towards the extremities, according
734
736
739
740
to the kind of chair it mav be wished to produce. The cover of the vase in the
seat, g, is lifted off by two thumb holes, so as to be quite flat for the child to sit
upon when the vase is not in use. There are two holes in the elbows of the chair,
through which may be placed either simply a rod to keep the child from falling out, or
a table flap, h, with two pins at the ends to fit into the holes ; the table being also sup-
ported by a movable leg in front, and having a ledge round it for holding the child's
playthings ; its pins being kept in their holes by the elasticity of the sides of the
chair. In England the cottager's child is placed on a chair of this sort after he is a
week old ; but in Scotland there is neither this chair, nor any substitute for it. In both,
countries there are small chairs with long feet, for elevating children to the height of arv
352 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
ordinary table, so that they may sit and cat with their parents; and these, like the
pierced chair, ought to be universally in use.
698. Other articles of furniture might be enumerated, and various hints given for the
selection of household utensils and instruments, but we are doubtful whether in this work
they would be seen by those who would feel most interest in them, or to whom they
would be most useful. A washing and wringing machine, such as we shall figure in our
next Book would be too dear for one cottager; but we would strongly recommend that
half a dozen cottagers should join in purchasing one ; as it would afford a great saving
of labour, and that, too, of the most oppressive kind, to the cottager's wife ; since wring-
ing is, to a female, almost as great an exertion as mowing is to a man. Washing-tubs
have hitherto been chiefly made round, and by the cooper, probably to accommodate the form
to the ancient practice of washing by treading with the feet ; but oblong troughs are much
cheaper, and far more convenient. — Every house whatever ought to possess the means of
filtering the water used in cookery. We have shown how this may be done on a large
scale, § 3 1 and 305 ; on a small scale, the operation may be performed with a common
garden flower-pot of a foot or more in height, according to the impurity of the water to
be filtered. Over the hole in the bottom of this flower-pot should be placed a piece of
sponge ; around and over which should be put two or three pieces of smooth clean stones,
to keep it in its place, and, at the same time, to prevent the pressure of the filtering mate-
rials (to be placed over them) from rendering the sponge so compact as not to allow of
the escape of the water. Fill the pot, when thus prepared, to within two inches of the
brim, with a mixture of one part of powdered charcoal, and two parts of clean sharp
sand, and on the top of this lay a piece of flannel, letting it sink in the centre, but making
it fast on the outside of the pot, by a string tied tightly under the rim. The upper sur-
face of the pot will now form a shallow basin, lined with flannel, into which the water to
be filtered is to be poured, and it will be found to come out rapidly at the bottom, quite
clear. As the flannel will intercept the grosser impurities, it should be taken off fre-
quently, and washed and replaced ; and two or three times a year the sand and charcoal
ought also to be taken out and washed. This will be found absolutely necessary ; for
the purification is effected simply by the filtering materials attracting the impurities in
the water ; the sand the earthy particles, and the charcoal those of organised matter.
From this use of the charcoal the reader may learn to increase or lessen its proportion,
according to the nature of the water to be purified. — When a cottager keeps a cow, he
will require a churn, and one of the cheapest and best is the patent box churn which may
now be had at Weir's manufactory, London, for £1. Butter maybe made in this churn
with a fourth of the labour requisite with the common plunge churn ; it is, besides, much
more easily used, and when not wanted as a churn, makes an excellent vessel for holding water.
In the choice of utensils much depends upon knowing when to choose iron, and when
wood, earthenware, or papier mache. Cast-iron pots, tea urns, tea and coffee pots, and
parlour candlesticks, are excellent ; but iron tea trays are bad, as compared with those of
papier mach6, because one of the latter will last out a dozen of the former. The same
may be said of all vessels of copper or pewter, a.s compared with those of cast iron. It
must never be forgotten that copper, pewter, and lead vessels sell for nearly as much by
weight, when old and worn out, as when new, and that even cast iron will sell for some-
thing, but that vessels of wrought or turned iron, when worn out, are of no value at all.
Spoons, forks, and other articles, made of a composition of nickel and other ingredients,
and known under the name of German silver, or of Beauchamp's British plate, may be
recommended as very good substitutes for real silver.
699. Pictures, Sculptures, and other internal Ornaments. There is no cottage or dwelling,
however humble, in which there will not be found some object purely ornamental : we
have observed this to be the case in the most wretched log-houses in Russia, where engrav-
ings of the rudest kinds, and sometimes fragments of glass or earthenware, such as
no one would think worth picking up in the street in England, are placed in rooms
which cannot, boast of either chairs, tables, or beds. The occupants of these hovels sleep
in their sheepskin clothes, on the stove in winter, and on the floor or out of doors in
summer ; and their seats and tables are wooden forms or turf benches. It seems, at first
sight, difficult to account for a taste for ornament existing among people so circum-
stanced ; but the truth is, that man, whether in a state of barbarism or refinement, is
essentially the same animal, and ornaments his home, because he loves it, and wishes to
render it agreeable. The trumpery of the Russian boor, and the pictures and statue
of the English gentleman, are collected and displayed exactly on the same principle. It
is clear, therefore, that every cottager must have ornaments in his house, as well as
flowers in his garden ; and, since whatever it is worth doing at all, it is worth doing
well, we strongly recommend him to cover his walls with the best engravings he can get,
and to ornament his chimney-pieces with handsome plaster or terra cotta easts. Such
articles may now be had for a mere trifle ; for example, alto relievo plaster portraits, on
FURNITURE FOR COTTAGE DWELLINGS. 353
tablets six inches or eight inches square, of eminent men, remarkably well cast, may he
had in London by retail, at 6d. each; casts of Venus, Cupid, Adonis, and of various cele-
brated antique statues, eighteen inches or more high, may be had at 5s. each ; busts of a
large size may be had at the same price, and Swiss figures in terra cotta at 2s. 6d. each.
By sizing over plaster casts when they are first bought, and quite clean ; and afterwards,
when the size is perfectly dry, washing them over with copal varnish, they may be made
to look almost as beautiful as marble sculpture. (Mech. Mag., vol. xiv. p. 96.) Excel-
lent engravings of subjects of every description may now be had for a few halfpence
each : the commoner sorts the cottager may paste on the back of his settle, fig. 636,
§ 636, or kitchen screen, and varnish them ; and the better kinds he may frame with
common deal, painted to imitate maple, and either glaze or varnish them according to
his means. When there is a good broad chimney shelf, there will be room for other
ornaments of a smaller description than busts or sculptures, such as curious stones, spars,
ores, or other minerals, or coins, and objects of art and antiquity ; and these the cottager
will collect as he can. The public taste for articles of this description has improved in
an astonishing degree within the last twenty years; and, as knowledge spreads, and the
working classes acquire that leisure which, in consequence of this spread of knowledge,
will become a necessary of life to even the most hard-working country labourer, this
improvement will increase. But the objects with which, above all others, we should
wish to see the cottage ornamented are books ; and every room, even the kitchen and
bed-room, ought to have its book shelf. If we were asked what sort of books we should
recommend generally to the cottager, meaning in this term to include the very humblest
class of society, as well as the more elevated, we should reply that, as our aim is to render
him free and independent alike mentally as physically, to fit him in short for taking
care of himself, we recommend, first and principally, works on morals and politics : the
former, that he may know the principle on which the social duties of all individuals are
founded ; and the latter, that he may learn the use and duty of public government. Next,
we recommend books on his own art, trade, and manner of living ; and, for the rest, we
leave him to his own taste. Every cottager ought to possess a general encyelopajdia.
and to take in a newspaper. The penny magazines, and other cheap literature of the
^resent day, though more calculated to amuse the cottager, than to instruct him how to
ii lprove his condition, will end in creating a demand for something better.
700. Remarks. Some other articles of furniture and decorations suitable for cottages
might be enumerated ; but we have, we think, done enough, in Designs both for cottages
and furniture, to prove the assertion with which we set out (§ 14), that all that is essen-
tially requisite for " health, comfort, and convenience, to even the most luxurious of man-
kind," may be obtained in a cottage, the wails of which are of mud, as well as in a palace with
walls of marble ; in a working man's college of one story, as well as in the magnificent halls
of Oxford and Cambridge, or in the elegant club-houses of London. A number of our
readers will, no doubt, object to many of our Designs, both of cottages and furniture, as
being beyond the reach of the great majority of British cottagers ; but let such recollect
that, in our Introduction to the Book of which this is the conclusion (see § 13), we in-
cluded under the term cottager, not only labourers, mechanics, and country tradesmen,
but small farmers and cultivators of their own land ; and the gardeners, bailiffs, land
stewards, and other upper servants, on gentlemen's estates. Let them consider, also, that
our plans and views extend to both hemispheres (see § 1 ) ; and that the citizen c"
America, who thinks with his countryman, Dr. Dwight, that all private dwellings should
be as much as possible alike in accommodation, and that architectural display should be
confined, as in ancient Greece, chiefly to public buildings, may on his part not only find
the Designs given not too good, but may even object to our making any distinction
between Cottages and Villas. The British cottager or workman is, no doubt, at present
in a widely different situation from the American ; but we anticipate for him a new era,
and a condition very different from that in which he now is, at no great distance of time.
All the evils which have so long afflicted him have arisen from his own moral and poli-
tical ignorance, and from his consequent incapacity for self-government, either indivi-
dually or collectively ; and they will be dispelled by the education of the rising generation,
and the new order of things which will thenceforth be established. The working classes
will then be able to take care of themselves ; and never, till this shall be the case, will
they obtain those comforts and enjoyments which ought to be in the possession of the
industrious labourer, as well as of the wealthy capitalist Every country is essentially
the property of its inhabitants; and it is only in ages and in countries where education
is partial or unequal, that wealth and the enjoyments of life can be very greatly
different.
354 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
BOOK II.
DESIGNS FOR PA EM sis AND FARMERIES, COUNTRY INNS, AND PAROCHIAL
SCHOOLS.
701. The Design* which compose this Book arc calculated for three of the most
important occupations of man in civilised society ; viz., that of raising food on a large
scale; that of furnishing all domestic comforts to travellers and others, who are absent
from or have no home ; and that of the education of youth. The last subject does not
necessarily belong to an Encyclopaedia of Domestic Architecture ; but, as our main object
in this work is the amelioration of the great mass of society in all countries, and as we
consider education as the source of all amelioration, and, in fact, as the only means of
preparing the most depressed part of society for appreciating and obtaining the comforts
and conveniences which we are pointing out to them, we find that the parochial school,
for the purpose of mutual instruction, is the most important feature for the accomplishment
of our object ; and, as such, ought not to be passed over unnoticed in a work like the
present.
702. The Arrangement of these Designs will be in three chapters; viz., on Farms, on
Inns, and on Schools. The first section in each chapter will consist of Fundamental
Principles and Model Designs, on which the Miscellaneous Examples given in the second
section of the same chapter are founded ; and the third section of each chapter will be
devoted to such Furniture as may be peculiar to the class of subjects of which that
chapter treats.
Chap. I.
Designs for Form Houses and Farmeries, exhibiting various Degrees of Accommodation,
from the Farm of Fifty to that of One Thousand Acres, suitable to different Kinds of
Farming, and in different Styles of Architecture.
703. A Farm House differs from other dwellings, more in the circumstance of its
situation, being adjoining a farmery, than in its accommodation ; but still there are some
extra-arrangements, which require to be provided for in designing it, according to the
kind of produce raised on the farm, the manner in which it is manufactured or disposed
of, and the mode of lodging the labourers employed.
704. A Farmery, or set of buildings necessary for carrying on the business of a farm,
consists of various structures and enclosures ; some for lodging animals, and others for
securing farm produce, for keeping farm implements, and for other purposes ; with yards
for enclosing cattle, and for preparing or keeping manure ; others for containing ricks
of corn, and stacks of hay, or other produce. The house in which the farmer resides is
no essential part of a farmery, and is therefore left out of view in this enumeration of
its leading features. These features are three : the buildings, the court-yard, and the
rick-yard. The rick-yard does not form an essential part of the farmery ; because but
little inconvenience would result from having the ricks placed apart from the farm ;
and, indeed, in some parts of Britain the produce of every field is formed into a rick, or
ricks, in one of its corners. The two essential parts of a farmery, then, are the buildings
and the court-yard ; and all the variations of which these are susceptible, in point of
design, are founded on their relative position with regard to each other. Thus, all
farmeries may be included under two classes ; viz., those in which the buildings surround
the court- yard, and those in which the court-yard surrounds the buildings ; and a model
of each mode must necessarily be the groundwork of every variation or combination of
the component parts of a farmery.
705. The Divisions of the Buildings of a Farmery admit also, to a certain extent, of
being founded on model plans ; because the animals which, in temperate climates, are
to be lodged in them, are every where of the same species, and require the same extent
and kind of accommodation and food ; because the manner of threshing out grain is, or
may be, the same throughout the world ; and because the implements to be worked by
the same animals cannot differ greatly in bulk in different countries. Previously} there-
fore, to giving Model Plans for Farm Houses and Farmeries, as a whole, we shall submit
General Principles, and give Model Designs and Directions, for the construction of their
component parts.
706. Every particular situation and him! of Field Culture requires an appropriate
arrangement in its Farmery ; therefore our object, in giving Model Designs, is chiefly to
embody principles in a tangible shape, to which practical men may recur for general
rules Cor application to peculiar localities. The manner of applying these rules we shall
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. 355
exemplify in a series of Miscellaneous Designs for Farm Houses and Farmeries, most of
which have been executed in different parts of Britain, and some in France.
707. The Arrangement of the first two Sections of this Chapter, therefore, will be in
the order of General Principles with Model Designs, and Miscellaneous Designs with
Details and Remarks.
Sect. I. General Principles and Model Designs fur Farm Houses and Farmeries.
708. The object of this section is to show what parts of a farm house are peculiar to
it as such, and the best mode of constructing and arranging these ; what are the details
of a farmery, with the relative position for each object there ; and what is the best arrange-
ment for a Farm House and Farmery, as a whole.
SuasECT. 1. General Principles and Model Designs for the Arrangement of a Farm House.
709. The Interior of a Farm House may be arranged in three divisions : viz., the
apartments of the family, including such of the servants as live in the house; the rooms
for firm-house stores ; and the places where the in-door business of the farm house is
carried on. In farm houses of the smallest size, all these may be obtained under one
roof ; but in the case of large farms, where fifteen or twenty persons live on the premises,
all those offices, or places, in which the in-door business of the farm house is carried on,
such as the dairy and its appendages, the cider-house, the brewhouse, the bakehouse,
the wash-house, and the cleaning place, ought to be in a building or buildings separate
from the house, but not far. distant from it. Cellars of most kinds, however, such as
those for potatoes, and other roots or vegetables to be used by the family ; for fruits ; and
for beer, ale, wines, &c. ; and the larder, pantry, and coal-house, may be in the same build-
ing as the farm house.
710. Of the Apartments for the Family we need enter here into few details in addition
to those which have been given in the preceding Book. The number of living-rooms in
a farm house will depend on the extent of the farm, and on the style in which the farmer
chooses or can afford to live. The smallest farm-house should have at least one good
parlour ; and for a farm of 300 acres or upwards, of good productive soil, there ought to
be in the dwelling-house, at least two good sitting-rooms, and a small library or office for
business ; besides three or four bed-rooms, and a nursery. In farm houses where it is
the custom to board and lodge the out-door labourers, a larger kitchen will be required
for them to dine in, and a larger kitchen range to cook their food. More bed-chambers will
also be necessary, and these should always have a separate staircase from that leading to
the better rooms. In some parts of Britain where the farmer and his out-door labourers
are nearly on a par in point of intelligence and manners, they continue to dine at the
same table in the kitchen. This is by no means the practice in districts where the
farmers are highly intelligent, and superior in their manners to their servants, as, for
example, in East Lothian ; but when the latter are raised nearer to the level of the
former by the universality of education, this excellent patriarchal practice will in all
probability be restored.
711. The Sleeping- Rooms for unmarried Farm Servants, in most parts of Britain, are
generally such as merit extreme reprobation. Those of the men are frequently in lofts
over stables or cow-houses, without light, or sufficient space for air ; subject to the
deleterious exhalations arising from horse or cow dung ; sometimes badly ventilated, and
at other times under a roof insufficient to exclude the wind and the rain. Female
servants are lodged in-doors, but often in damp back-kitchens, store-rooms for the coarser
articles, harness-rooms, dark closets, or low, ill-ventilated garrets. " I am sorry," says
the excellent and benevolent Mr. Waistell, when speaking on this subject, " that the
health of servants is often less attended to than the health of cattle. Too often," he
adds, " there is neither chimney nor window by which to ventilate servants' bed-rooms,
and when there is no window they are not likely to be properly cleaned. What renders
them still worse is, their being partly occupied as store-rooms for green fruit or bacon,
or for drying new-made cheese : the effluvia from all these articles contaminates the air,
and renders it greatly injurious to the health of those who breathe it ; indeed, all strong-
scented bodies, placed in bed-rooms, are more or less pernicious. I shall, therefore,
enumerate," he continues, " a few more of those things from which farmers and their
families not unfrequently suffer in their healths, without being, perhaps, at all aware of
their pernicious effects. The air of rooms is rendered unwholesome by keeping in them
oil, oil colours, impure wool, sweaty saddles, soap, tallow, fat, fresh meat whether raw or
dressed, wet clothes and other wet articles ; by foul linen, washing, drying, and ironing ;
by the fumes from charcoal fires, which are extremely pernicious, and frequently fatal ;
by green plants, and flowers however fragrant ; and by saffron and hops, which last
articles, Dr. Willich says (Eneyc. of Dom. Econ.), have also sometimes proved fatal."
( Waistell on Agricultural Buildings, p. 22. ) There is no department of farm architecture
35() COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
in which reform is more necessary than in the r<x>ms appropriated to unmarried servants ;
unless, indeed, it be in the cottages of the married ones. The state of both in Britain
is disgraceful to the farmers and their landlords.
712. Tlie Places in which the ordinary Farm-House Stores are kept are, the potato or
other root-cellar, the cabbage-cellar, the liquor-cellar, the fruit-room, the cheese-room,
the larder, the pantry, and the coal and wood cellar. In general, all articles that are
not frequently wanted are better kept in a dry cellar than any where else, because they
are there less subject to atmospherical changes. If cellars, however, are damp, they are
unfit for storing up any thing except liquors in glass or in earthen vessels.
7 1 3. In the Construction of Cellars the first thing is, to provide such a drainage as will
draw off the water at least one foot lower than the surface of the cellar floor. If the soil
be naturally wet, this floor, which should be of flag-stones or tiles, should be la.d hollow ;
the walls should also be built hollow, and, if convenient, with a powerful cement, rather
than with common mortar ; or, at least, they ought to be coated over with cement in the
inside. In all very cold or very hot countries, provision should be made for double
doors and double windows, even though the inner window should be nothing more than
a boarded shutter ; and the windows, in all such cases, ought to fit tightly. The space
between the double windows need not be more than from six inches to a foot; but the
space between the double doors ought to be at least three feet, so that the one door may
always be shut before the other is opened. In cellars so constructed, even ice, enveloped
in abundance of straw, might be kept without danger of melting ; and it is so kept in
most of the confectioners' cellars in London. As cellars are not places to live in, they
need not necessarily be made higher than seven feet. In general they are better under-
ground, and arched over with masonry ; but the same results may be obtained above
ground by double walls, very small and double windows, double or thickly thatched
roofs, and double doors.
714. The Potato and Root Cellar may be under the floor of some part of the house,
when the soil is dry naturally, or capable of being rendered so by drainage. The
opening by which the potatoes or other roots are introduced should be on the outside of
the house, and not higher than the level of the ground, in order that a cart may be set
back against it, and the potatoes or other roots shot out and shoveled down the opening.
This opening should have double shutters, in each of which should be at least one pane
of glass, to admit sufficient light, and yet effectually to exclude the cold in winter and
the heat in summer. The panes of glass should be in the upper part of the shutters, so
as to be protected, by the lintels of the windows, from the direct rays of the sun ; but, if
the opening be to the north, this precaution is unnecessary. The size of a root cellar,
where the roots are merely for the consumption of the family, need not be large : ten or
twelve feet square, and seven or eight feet high, will be sufficient dimensions in a house
calculated for from twelve to twenty persons. When there are different roots to be stored
in the same cellar, they may be separated by temporary partitions of boards.
715. A Cabbage- Cellar is a common appendage to a farm house in Germany, and
might well be introduced in Britain and North America. It may be formed either
above or under ground, provided it can be rendered quite dry, and lighted by one or
more windows, with double sashes, about six inches apart, to guard against extremes of
temperature. This cellar ought to be twice as large as the other, because the manner in
which the cabbages and other articles are disposed in it requires a good deal of room.
The common method is, to cover the floor with soil to the depth of a foot, and to plant in
it, at the commencement of winter, full-grown cabbages, broccoli, lettuce, endive, &c, as
close together as they can be placed without touching each other. Water is given
occasionally in the course of the winter, and the greatest care is taken to remove every
leaf as soon as it shows symptoms of decay. The improved method which is adopted in
the better description of cabbage cellars is, to surround the cellar with shelves about
eighteen inches in width and three feet apart, which, if convenient, may be formed
of flag-stone or slate, or, if these materials are not to be had, of strong wood. On these
shelves are placed layers of earth, with alternate layers of cabbages or other vegetables ;
with their tops projecting beyond the shelf, and their roots and stalks bedded in the soil.
Where the soil is of a sandy nature, bricks, moss, straw, or some other suitable material,
should he introduced in the front part of the soil, to keep it up. Not only the cabbage
family, but the lettuce, endive, celery, beet, sweet herbs, and a variety of other culinary
vegetables, are kept in this manner from October till May, in Bavaria, Wirtemburg,
Baden, and other states. In very severe weather, or when the air is more than usually
humid, hot embers are placed on the floor to raise the temperature, or dry the air; or,
when the cellar has a chimney-flue, which is the preferable mode, provided it be kept
shut when not used, a fire may be made in a small iron stove.
7 lf>. A Cellar for forcing sonic hinds of Culinary Vegetables might be formed in every
house, merely by placing an iron stove in any cellar sufficiently protected by external
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. 85J
walls. Light is not necessary. In boxes or pots, or in beds of eartb on the floor, or on
shelves, may be placed roots of tart rhubarb for its footstalks; suecory for its leaves;
Imps for their tops, as a substitute for asparagus ; asparagus roots, sea-kale, &c. Potatoes
might also be placed in such a cellar, to make them throw out fresh tubers ; but, as the
young ones so produced would be merely a transfer of nutriment from what we consider
a better to a worse state, we cannot recommend the practice as one of utility. Were
light admitted into a cellar of this description, mustard, cress, and other small salading
might be grown ; and roots of parsley, mint, and other herbs, and of beet, sorrel, and
other spinaceous plants, for their leaves, might be planted. In short, a good dry cellar
with double doors and windows, might, with very little trouble, be made to produce a
great many articles of convenience and luxury for the table, which are now grown in
glass frames, or hot-houses, at very considerable expense. Every body knows that
mushrooms can be grown in a cellar better than any where else. We do not, however,
recommend the practice of forcing for general adoption ; thinking it, with a few exceptions,
in better taste to take the vegetable productions of nature or art in the open air, by turns,
in their proper seasons. Our exceptions are, tart rhubarb, sea-kale, asparagus, mush-
rooms, succory, and small salading ; all of which are as good, when forced, as when
grown in their natural climate.
717. A Fruit-Room, or Fruit-Cellar, is essential to every farm which has an orchard;
and no farm ought to be without one where fruit will grow. The great art in preserving
fruit is, to keep it dry, and, at the same time, so as to prevent evaporation from its
surface ; for this last purpose, all change of temperature and moisture in the air must
be guarded against. The simplest mode of effecting these objects is, to place the fruit
on a thick bed of dry straw, and to mix and surround it with an ample mass of the same
material in any situation dry and protected from the weather ; but a better method is, to
place the fruit in a dry cellar, on a layer of dry sand, and to cover it with the same
material, or with fern, finishing with an upper layer of straw. The superiority of the
sand consists in its coolness, and comparative freedom from air, by which the fruit is less
liable to wither. Where there are several kinds of fruit to be kept in one cellar, shelves
may be employed ; and if the cellar be not often entered, so as to admit air of a different
temperature or degree of humidity, the fruit need not be covered at all, or may only have
fern strewed over it. Where the situation does not admit of an under-ground fruit-
cellar, a fruit-room may be formed above the surface, with thick or hollow walls, and
double doors, windows, and roofs. The size for a fruit-cellar, on a farm of even consider-
able extent, need seldom be more than an area of ten feet on a side, and seven feet high.
718. Cellars for Liquors, including ale, beer, cider, wine, and spirits, are essential to
every farm house. In even the smallest there ought to be one cellar for beer, empty
casks, brewing utensils, &c. ; and another, opening out of it, for ale, wines, and spirits.
The area of the former, in the smallest farm house, should not be less than twelve feet by
twelve feet ; nor that of the latter less than six feet by eight feet. The beer-cellar, and
that part of the wine-cellar which is to contain ale, should have brick or stone benches
or shelves built solid, or on arches or piers about two feet high, on which to place casks,
for the greater convenience of drawing off their contents. That part of the inner cellar
which is to contain wine should be fitted up with cells, or bins, one above another, of
about two feet broad, and the same height, and of any convenient depth, provided it be
a multiple of the height of a common wine bottle. A part of the wine-cellar should be
fitted up with stone shelves, for spirits or other liquors, and for various articles which are
best preserved in the temperature of a cellar.
719. The Larder and Pantry are conveniently placed near each other, and close to
the kitchen. Both ought to face the north ; and the former more especially ought to
be thoroughly ventilated, by openings near the floor on one side, generally in the lower
part of the door, and near the ceiling, generally in the outer wall, on the other. Both
larder and pantry should be fitted up with shelves and hooks ; and the larder may have a
wooden grating or cradle, called a rack, three or four feet wide, about one foot deep, and
of any convenient length, suspended from the roof, for the purpose of holding bacon. In
old farm houses these racks are generally placed in the kitchen, but in very large
establishments, or where bacon forms the principal animal food of the labourers, as it
does in the midland counties of England, there is often a separate room fitted up with
racks and shelves, set apart for keeping it.
720. A Salting-Room is necessary in every house where the farmer occasionally kills
his own meat. The effluvia from this room being both disagreeable and deleterious, it
should, when convenient, form one of a detached group of buildings. In small establish-
ments, or where only a part of the meat used is killed at home, an airy cellar, facing the
north, may be employed. The room should be fitted up with strong benches for cutting
up the meat, and salting it on ; and fixed long shallow troughs, generally lined with lead,
for holding the sides of bacon, &c, while in pickle. These troughs should be provided
358 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
with cocks, or holes with plugs, at the bottom, for the purpose of drawing off the brine,
and cleaning them; the brine, when boiled and skimmed, being (it lor use several times.
Smaller troughs, or round earthenware pans, are generally employed for holding tongues,
pieces of beef, and other smaller articles ; and the whole should be carefully provided with
the means for being kept clean, by having pipes of water conducted into it, and the floor
arranged so as to have a gradual inclination towards a corner, having a trap and drain.
721. The Coal-house, and the Wood-house should always be adjoining the kitchen or
hack kitchen, and both should be perfectly dry ; since whatever moisture is added to fuel,
beyond what it contains in combination, must be driven off before combustion can take
place ; and this must always occasion a certain loss of heat. Both places ought to be of
considerable size, because in well regulated farms there are only certain periods of the
year when the farmer finds he has leisure to bring fuel from a distance, and to store it
up : he will also by the same means be enabled to take advantage of a temporary
depression in the fuel market.
722. A Tank, or a Well for Water, is essential to every farm house, independently
of the provision of water for the farm-yard ; but we have already sufficiently enlarged on
this subject in § 30 and § 151 ; and the subject of supplying water to the farm-yard will
occur hereafter.
723. A Place for brushing Clothes, and cleaning Knives and Shoes, 8fc, should form
part of the arrangement of every farm house ; and as this is necessarily a place where
much dust and dirt are generated, it should be kept apart from the house, and especially
from the back kitchen, which is too generally made use of for these purposes. As a mere
open shed, which every countryman may erect for himself, will suffice for a cleaning
place, there can be no sufficient excuse for not having one adjoining every farm house ;
and, indeed, every labourer's cottage or human dwelling whatever. Conveniences of this
sort, which are within the reach of every one, and which may be obtained rather by
thought and contrivance than by expending any considerable sum of money, are indeed
some of the distinguishing marks of a high state of civilisation and refinement. A savage
is satisfied with mere food and shelter ; and, if he pretends to more, takes delight in showy
or gaudy ornaments ; but the man whose mind has been enlightened by education prefers
simplicity in decoration, and only employs his leisure time and money in contrivances to
lessen human labour, and obtain the greatest possible proportion of comfort which his
opportunities will permit. Ample apartments and sumptuous furniture can be obtained
bu< by few, and, as they contribute little to happiness, are not worthy of becoming objects
of ambition to any rational being ; but a clean, comfortable, and well arranged home is an
essential ingredient in human happiness, and, as such, ought to be sought after and
obtained by every one. Cleanliness is also essential to health ; and this blessing, so
desirable in every condition of life, is particularly so to a labouring man, as without it
he cannot perform his daily toil.
724. The Wash-house, Bakehouse, and Brewhouse, in small farms, are commonly all
united in the back kitchen ; but in extensive establishments they, together with the
laundry, dairy, cheese-room, cider-house, salting-room, and smoking or curing room,
should be in a building or buildings apart from the house, but connected with it by a
covered way.
725. The Wash-house should be well lighted ; and therefore, if united with other
offices, it should, if practicable, be made a corner building, and have windows on two
sides. Instead of portable round tubs, which, as noticed in the preceding Book, are the
most inconvenient of all the forms that could be devised for washing by hand, oblong
troughs, about three feet in length, eighteen inches wide at top, one foot wide at bottom,
and eighteen inches deep, should be fixed round the two lighted sides of the room. Each
trough should have a hole and stopper in the bottom ; and close under these holes should
be a gutter, common to all the troughs, which may convey away the waste water to the
manure tank. In one corner or side of the room the boiler should be placed ; and over
it a supply pipe from a cold-water cistern, l'ipes may be conducted from both the cold-
water cistern and the boiler, so as to deliver, on turning cocks, cold or hot water, at
pleasure, into each trough. The main part of the washing, however, we should propose
m all cases to be done by a washing-machine, of which we shall hereafter give an
improved Design; and this, with a pressing or wringing machine hereafter, may be
worked by a horse or steam power, which may also be applied in churning and other
operations, to be carried on in this department of the form offices. The floor of every
washing-house ought to he very carefully paved, with an inclination of an inch in a yard
towards one corner, in which there ought to be a trap drain leading to the manure tank.
This inclination, which will hardly be perceptible to the eye, or recognised in standing or
walking, will yet be most useful, by directing all the water, which must be occasionally
spilt on the floor, to the point where it will be carried off. (lose under the ceiling there
ought to be several openings communicating with the open air, to carry oil' the steam, and
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. 359
in the bottom of tilt' door there ought to be correspondent openings to admit t'resli air:
both openings ought to have shutters sliding in horizontal grooves, with hooks in them,
so as to admit of their being easily drawn back, or pushed forward.
726. The Laundry, the business of which in small dwellings is generally performed in
the kitchen, may be very conveniently placed over the wash-house ; and, like it, should
have windows on two sides, and ventilators under the ceiling, and in the bottoms of the
doors. Against the two lighted sides, tables or flaps for ironing on may be fixed ; and in
the corner behind, directly over the boiler, may be placed a drying-closet ; which may be
partly heated by the flue from the boiler, and partly by the requisite ironing-stoves, or by
a steam-pipe. If the laundry should be placed on the same floor with the wash-house, it
should adjoin it, so that the back of the boiler fire may heat the drying-closet. In this
closet the clothes may be dried by the arrangement described § 30G. Where a drying-
closet is not used, the clothes may be dried, as is usually done, in the open ironing-room,
either on common clothes horses, or on rails suspended from the ceiling by ropes and
pulleys, so as to be raised or lowered at pleasure; or by lines stretched across the room,
which may also be raised or lowered by means of pulleys. The last mode may be very
completely effected by having the pulleys to work in vertical grooves, or in hollow rods
similar to that invented by Mr. Vokins for hanging pictures, to be hereafter described.
The mangle may stand in the middle of the room, or on the dark side not occupied by
the drying-closet.
727. The Bakehouse should be close to the wash-house, in order that their united
flues, with those of the dairy, scullery, and the brewhouse, may form one stack. The
bakehouse may have light on one side only. The oven should be lined with fire-bricks ;
and immediately without its iron door there should be a grating over an ash-pit, tor the
reception of the ashes when it is cleared out. Height in an oven is of no use, but rather
tends to bake the bread unequally : eighteen inches will generally be found sufficient fot
private ovens, and the length and width need not be more than three or four feet.
Against the light side of the bakehouse should be placed a flap or table, for making up
the loaves on, with a kneading-trough close to it ; and near the kneading-trough should
be a flour chest or cask. If a kneading machine be employed, which for large families
ought always to be the case, not only from the saving of labour, but from the greater
certainty of cleanliness, and the more thorough working of the dough, it should take the
place of the kneading-trough. In the largest private establishments it may also be found
worth while to construct the oven on Hicks's plan, so as to be able to condense the
spirituous vapour produced from the dough while baking. The plan will be found de-
tailed at length in the Repertory of Arts, new series, and in Mech. Ma ■. vol. xiv. p. 417.
728. The Brewhouse, for the reasons before given, should adjoin the wash-house and
the bakehouse. It should occupy two floors, in order that the malt may be placed in
the upper floor, and be conveniently put through a shoot into the boiler, which should
be near the ceiling of the lower room, to allow of the liquor or wort being conducted
from its bottom by pipes or tubes to the coolers, which again should be sufficiently raised
from the ground floor to allow of casks being placed under them, so as to be filled without
trouble ; or, where it is practicable, a small pipe may be conducted at once from the
coolers to the beer-cellar in the house. Where the cellar is under the brewhouse, which,
ii m ever, is seldom desirable when the latter is detached from the farm house, the same
arrangement may be adopted as that mentioned § 498.
729. The Dairy is one of the most important of farm-house offices, and yet it is seldom
properly constructed. The desiderata are, equality of temperature during every season
of the year ; and frequent renewal of the air, so as to have it perfectly fresh and sweet.
P^quality of temperature is easiest obtained when the dairy is under ground ; but in this
case the ventilation is insufficient to supply the other desideratum. V\'here the dairy is
in a detached building, a compromise between a cellar and a room above the level of the
ground may be formed by sinking the dairy two or three feet, and covering the outside
of the walls and the roof very thickly with thatch ; or by forming the walls hollow, and
raising against them a bank of earth covered with turf. One of the most complete
modes is, to form the walls hollow, and to throw over the room two or three arches of
masonry, one above the other, covering the whole with a mound of earth, like that of an
ice-house, but with proper windows for light and ventilation, protected from the covering
mound by projecting side walls, with lintels or arches over them of corresponding depth.
The windows, in this and in every case, should face the north, or north-north-east, or
north-north-west, and should be double ; the outer window fixed and of wirecloth, and
the inner one of glass and to open. There should also be double doors, and the space
between them should not be less than three or four feet. In both doors there should be
panels of wirecloth, to exclude the flies, and yet admit the air. In the most severe
weather of winter, the wirecloth of both doors and windows may require to be protected
by temporary shutters of either mats or boards.
360 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
730. Where the dtiiry is emuuctid iri/h a fffOUf itf Other furm-hmixe Office*, including
the dairy scullery, cheese-room, cheescprcss-room, &c, it may occupy the north angle,
or part of the north side of a square mass of building. The walls should in this case
also be double, and the windows should be treble ; the outer one of wireclotb, and the
two inner ones of glass. There should be double doors, and care should be taken that
one should always be closed before the other was opened, and that neither should ever
be left open for more than a few minutes at a time. To compensate for all inequalities
of temperature, there should be a power of introducing a stream of water to run through
the dairy, or spring water from a well, tank, or spring, so as to cover the whole of the
floor, or to sprinkle it and the shelves, at pleasure, and thus reduce the temperature of
the air in summer, or raise it in winter. To do this more rapidly, part of the floor may
be perforated, and from each small hole a jet of water may be contrived to rise, on turning
a cock; or perforated pipes may pass under the dairy shelves, and under the middle
part of the ceiling ; and from these there may be a power of producing an artificial
shower to raise or lower the temperature at once. The process of introducing water in
this wa*, either from the floor or from the ceiling, may seem at first intricate and ex-
pensive ; but whoever has seen it done in Messrs. Loddiges's palm-house will allow that
it is neither. We shall give some details hereafter, when speaking of fountains for villas.
Common lead pipes, of half an inch in diameter, may be used ; and the perforations may
be made with a stout sewing needle. The only matter of expense is the tank, or cistern
of water, which should be so placed as to maintain the same temperature throughout the
vear ; and at the same time be above the level of the dairy ceiling, so as to give due
force to the delivering pipes. If, however, the dairy be properly constructed, and a
power contrived for flooding its floor with water (and, if no permanent jet can be made,
this fflaV be done by a common watering-pot), the two grand desiderata may in every
ease be certainly and economically obtained. The floor should be accurately paved, and
should slope to a trap drain in the corner, as before directed for the washing-house. The
shelves and benches should be formed of thin flag-stones, or slates, or of wood covered
with lead; the walls and ceiling should be plastered with cement, or coated with a firm-
setting mortar, or should be inlaid with glazed tiles. The milk-pans are better portable
than fixed; because, if fixed, they must be scalded in the dairy; and hot water should
never be introduced into it, in summer at least, on account of its raising the temperature.
Even milk directly from the cow should be allowed to stand to cool in the dairy scullery,
before it is taken into the dairy ; because its temperature, when in large quantities, either
in summer or winter, would soon raise that of the apartment. A thermometer should
be kept in the dairy, and the temperature should be never allowed to fall below 50°, or
rise above 55° ; experience proving that most cream is thrown up by milk in a medium
between these degrees. If at any time in winter the temperature of the dairy should
fall too low, vessels of hot water may be carried in and set down on the floor, or the milk,
in such a case, may be sent in direct from the cow. No articles of food, but milk, cream,
and fresh butter, should ever be kept in a dairy ; nor, as Waistell tells us, should any
thing that has a strong scent, even though it may be sweet, be placed in or near
it. " Bad scents," he says, " greatly lessen the product of butter dairies, by preventing
the complete separation of the cream from the milk." It is also certain that raw meat,
if kept in a dairy, has such an effect upon the cream as to prevent the butter produced
from it from keeping. This, and the facts stated by Waistell, it is difficult to account
for, but not more so than others equally well ascertained ; such as the influence which
the leaves of certain milky-juiced trees, such as the papaw tree and the fig for example,
have in intenerating fresh meat.
731. The Daity Scullery should be near the dairy, though not immediately adjoining
it : it should have a boiler for heating water, and two underground pipes with traps ;
one for foul water, communicating with the liquid manure tank, and the other for waste
milk, communicating with the pigs' food tank. From the latter pipe there may also be
a communication with the dairy ; because it may sometimes be advisable to empty out
milk there, without bringing it into the dairy scullery. The churning may be carried
on in the dairy scullery ; for which purpose, on a large farm, provision ought to be made
for the introduction of a shaft from a horse or a steam power for working the churn.
There ought to be fixed benches and movable forms, for setting milk-pans and othei
dairy utensils on ; and a portable rack with a wheel and two feet like a wheelbarrow, for
draining the pans and pails, and wheeling them out to a shed to dry. Figs. 741 to 746
show a Design for a double dairy, which will keep the produce at a proper temperature,
in whatever climate it may be built. It may also, with very little alteration, be partly
or chiefly used as an ice-house, or as a wine or ale cellar. We shall first describe it as
a dairy. Fig. 741 is the ground-plan, in which a is an outer room, for airing and
diving the Utensils, or for diving cheese; being warmed by an open fireplace at h, and
lighted and ventilated by two windows, ce, beneath which are two elevated sinks, Jd.
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES.
741
3<>1
^ u
Ft. 10 0 10 no Ft.
close to one of which is a Siebe's pump, from a well or tank common to the whole dairy .
It will be observed, by the five steps ate, that the floor of this building is three feet below
the common surface of the soil. The room marked f is the dairy scullery ; in which
may be observed a boiler, two windows, two sinks close to one of which is a Siebe's
pump, and five steps at the entrance door. In this room the dairy utensils are to be
washed ; and churning may be performed, if it should be a butter dairy ; or cheeses pressed,
if the object should be cheese-making. In both these rooms there should be traps to a
common drain ; and from one of the sinks in each room a bell trap communicating with
the pig's food tank, unless the piggery should be at such a distance as to render it more
economical to convey the milk thither in wheelbarrow tubs. The two milk rooms, g g,
are to the right and left of the lobby or drying-room ; and these are surrounded by
slate or thin stone shelves two feet broad, with smaller shelves beneath them eighteen
inches broad, indicated in the section, fig. 742. Each range of shelves has two small
h 742 /,
sinks, at the two corners next the lobby and scullery : one of these sinks is for waste
milk for the pigs, and the other, which has a Siebe's pump close beside it, for waste
water. It is to be observed that we mention Siebe's pump, because it goes into less bulk
than any other ; and, indeed, when the handle is taken off", and an escutcheon put over
the keyhole, no appearance whatever of a pump is discernible. These pumps are also
worked in much less space than any other. In the centre of the floor of each of these
milk-rooms is a small circular basin, and under the shelves in each is a trap to a drain.
There are skylights directly over the two circular basins, which are seen in the section
fig. 742, at k h. These are covered with glass cases, which project and are open at the
eaves; and under these are other glass cases, ii, which are lifted out during summer, but
put in again during winter for the purpose of retaining heat : below these cases are wiie-
cloth frames, which remain on always, in order to exclude the flies. There are three
windows, kkk, in the side walls of these milk-rooms, with three frames, shown both in
the plan, fig. 741, and in the section, fig. 742. The outer frames of these windows are
filled in with wirecloth, and fixed ; the two inner frames with glass, each in two vertical
divisions, hinged, so as to admit or exclude air at pleasure. There are double doors to
each of the rooms, one of which is chiefly of wirecloth, and the other of wood, so that
ventilation may be allowed to take place from or to the drying-room, a, as may be
required to warm or cool the milk-room. It will be observed that the milk-room is
surrounded by double walls ; and by the section fig. 742 it will be seen that the whole
is covered with a mound of earth, which necessarily produces the long tubular openings
to the side-wall windows, k h, so favourable for producing currents of air during the warm
season, and for tempering the frosty air during winter. Fig. 743 is a cross section,
Site COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
in which 11 represents the ground's surface m the top of the upper milk shelves, ai.d »
the skylight. It may be observed that,
instead of employing glass and wrirecloth
frames (or these skylights, vessels of water
with glass bottoms might be introduced;
which, while they admitted light, would
exclude heat in summer and cold in
winter ; and they might he rendered
further useful, by having openings in th< ir
bottoms, to be regulated by cocks within
the dairy, so as to allow water to drop down
on the basin below, whenever it was de-
sirable to increase the coulncss of the tem-
perature. The vessel might be covered above with a skylight, and supplied either by
the Siebe's pump within the dairy, or bya pipe and ball-cock from some exterior source.
Tlie water might contain gold and silver fish. The glass might be stained, as might
that of the side windows; and, instead of a small circular basin in the centre, there
mi "lit be a deep well for containing very cold water. — We shall now describe this
building as two ice-houses with a dairy between. The shelves of the milk-rooms
should be removed, and the windows closed up entirely; and, instead of a skylight
at top, there should be three flag-stones substituted for the frames containing the upper
skyli"ht, the under skylight, and the haircloth, and resting on the same ledges on
which they rest. There are three ofi'sets or ledges, shown at h i, in the section fig. 742,
for this purpose. The object of leaving these openings in the ceiling is to put in the
ice ; and this being done, and the flag-stones replaced, the space between them should be
filled in with barley straw. The traps to the drains before mentioned will serve as
conduits for such water as may be produced by the thawing of the ice ; the well in the
centre will also hold a part of this water, which will be valuable for its coolness even
after the ice is gone. The spaces o o,
between the doors, must be kept constantly
filled with straw cushions. The room a may
be fitted up with shelves as a dairy, the
chimney being turned into a ventilator; and
the room f may remain a dairy scullery, as
at present. For a wine or beer cellar this
building is admirably contrived, whether for
a very warm or a very cold climate. The
wine or ale may be kept bottled in bins, or
in casks on benches, in the milk-rooms ; and it may be supplied to customers in the room
u, while the cleaning operations go on, and the attendants wait, in the room f. Wine and
745 TT
Jr^S-
DflC
O.
ale cellars of this description are little known in Britain, though there used to be a wine-
cellar for draught wine near old London Bridge ; but in Germany they are frequently to
be met with. There is a very large one at Munich, covered with an immense cone of
earth, in which ale is kept and drunk at the same temperature both in the hottest sum-
mers and the severest winters of that climate of the most opposite extremes. There is an
excellent one at Silbcrberg, near Stuttgardt, both for ale and wine ; and there are nume-
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FAUM HOUSES. 303
rous others in the neighbourhood of Vienna, which no doubt are familiar to many of our
readers. By a third arrangement, one of the milk-rooms might be made a dairy ; the
other milk-room a wine and ale cellar, and the lobby a drinking- room. The appearance
(if such a construction, to whatever use it may be applied, when covered with green turf,
need not be disagreeable ; we have given the architectural parts something of an Egyptian
character, as may be seen in the elevation of the end, fig. 744 ; of one side, fig. 745 ; and
in the perspective view, fig. 740".
7:>'-'. The Cheesepress-room may be very properly placed between the dairy and the
dairy scullery. It should be surrounded by shelves, and the presses may stand in the
middle of the floor. The shelves should be grooved across, with a small gutter suspended
in front, to collect from the grooves the whey which runs from new cheeses, for a day or
two after they are taken out of the press, and before they are carried up into the cheese-
imoiii. These gutters may deliver their contents into one upright pipe, communicating
with the pig tank. As a good deal of whey will also run from the cheeses while in the
presses, grooves may also be formed along the floor communicating with the same pipe.
":!:>. The Cheese-room may be over the cheesepress-room, the dairy, and dairy scullery.
There should be windows on opposite sides of this room, for thorough ventilation ; and
these windows should have outside wire shutters, to exclude flies and vermin, and yet
admit a free circulation of air. The best position for the shelves is in the middle of the
room, so that the cheese may have air on all sides. The shelves should be of the breadth
of the cheese intended to be made, and should be perfectly smooth and level. They may
be supported from the floor, or, if danger from mice be anticipated, suspended from the
ceiling by iron rods.
734. A Drying-shed is a useful appendage to the back kitchen, dairy scullery, wash-
house, and even brewery. It is useful not only for drying every description of wooden
vessel, but even clothes, leaves, such as those of tobacco, ears of maize, garden seeds, &c.
In old English farm-houses, the penthouse, or far-projecting eaves, supplied the place of
this appendage; and in Switzerland the galleries answer the same purpose; but
Waistell, by far the best British writer on farm buildings, as Morel- Vinde is by far the
best of the French writers on the same subject, recommends that a drying-shed should
be built on purpose. We arc decidedly of the same opinion, unless verandas connecting
the different parts of farm offices, and forming covered passages between them, can be
made to serve the same end.
735. The Cider-house, on a small farm, where cider is not made for sale, may be
dispensed with, and the apples ground in the churning-room, or in any room or shed
where steam or horse power can be applied to turning the grinding rollers. On lai'ge
cider farms, the cider-house requires to be of considerable size, for holding the fruit before
and after it is ground, and for holding the rollers or mill for grinding it, and the press.
In Worcestershire the dimensions of the best cider-sheds are twenty-four feet in length
by twenty in breadth. The rollers are turned by horse power, communicated by a gin
wheel operating on a pinion on the end of a horizontal shaft, in a similar manner to what
takes place in a horse churning or washing machine. The cider-house is occasionally open
on one or more sides, and the liquor, after being expressed from the pulp, is carried in
pails to the cider-cellar, which is commonly under the dwelling-house; but a better
mode would be, to have a cellar under the cider-house, and to let down the liquor into
the casks by pipes, in the manner suggested for the brewery, § 728. The floor ought to
have an inclination to a trap at one corner, in order that it may be easily washed; and
this trap ought to communicate with the manure tank. A second trap and pipe should
lead to the pig's food tank, to pour down it such liquor as may not be fit for putting in
the casks.
736. An he-house for a farm house may be considered a superfluous appendage in
Britain, but it is common on the farms in America, and therefore its construction deserves
a place in this work. There are various descriptions of farms in Britain, particularly
those belonging to public-houses and inns, to which an iee-house would be a most desir-
able appendage; not only as affording the means of preparing ices, cooling wine, &c,
but as supplying a place for preserving fish, meat, fruit, and vegetables fresh, much longer
than can be done by any other means. The simplest mode of keeping ice is by envelop-
ing it in an immense body of loose straw above the surface. For this purpose, the first
operation is to form the surface of the ground into a flattened cone, for the sake of drainage
when the ice happens to melt; next, put on a layer of faggots, and straw a foot or more
in thickness; then lay on the ice, in a conical mass, the larger the better, and cover it
with straw to the thickness of one foot, and afterwards with faggot wood to the thickness
of two feet, for the purpose of preserving a stratum of air above and around it ; lastly,
cover the whole with two or three feet of straw, arranged as thatch. The ice will now
be surrounded on every side by such a powerful non-conducting medium, that scarcely
any heal from the atmosphere will be able to penetrate to it ; while whatever portion of
.'j64< COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
it may thaw will find its way off through the under stratum of faggots, without the
admission of air. Ice has been kept in large quantities in this manner both in England
and America, throughout the year. The best situation for such an ice stack is under
the shade of trees, or under a shed roof, closed on the south side, and open on the
north.
737. An underground Ice-house may either be a large cellar, with hollow walls,
hollow floor, hollow roof, and double doors ; or, it may be a separate structure, in the
form of an inverted hollow cone, with a drain and trap at the bottom, and double doors
on one side at the top. When a cellar is employed as an ice-house, a proper drain and
trap should be provided in the lower floor, for carrying off such water as may he
produced by the melting of the ice, without the risk of introducing air. When the
ice is about to he put in, the floor and sides of the cellar are thickly coated over with
strong wheat straw, or reeds, as a powerful non-conducting medium. Double, treble, or
quadruple doors are always requisite to an ice-house of this description, according to the
use which is to be made of the space between the doors. Where these spaces are to be
used as pantries, four doors are requisite ; and two should never be opened at once. The
space between the outer door and the second door should always be kept filled with
straw, and that of barley is found better than the stiffer straw of wheat, rye, or oats.
The space between the second door and the third should, if possible, be kept filled with
straw also ; but the space between the third door and the fourth should be of sufficient
width to admit of its being fitted up with shelves, on which the articles to be preserved
fresh are to be placed. From time to time, the door of the ice-house may be opened, in
order to reduce the temperature of this space, and to freshen the air. In some cases
there is a movable shelf or table placed over the ice, immediately within the inner door,
as a substitute for the shelves in the passage. When an ice-cellar cannot be formed
under or adjoining a dwelling, it may be constructed above ground, even on wet
soils, covered with a mound of earth, and that mound further protected by trees,
evergreen shrubs, or, what is equal to any thing as a non-conductor, and at any
rate far superior to deciduous trees, ivy. The common form of out-door ice-houses,
is, as we have before observed, an inverted cone, and the supposed advantage of
this form is, that, as part of the ice thaws, the remainder slides down the sides of the
cone, and still keeps in one compact body. This is no doubt true ; but the advantage
by no means compensates for the difficulty of constructing an ice-house in the conical
form. A plain square room, with double side-walls, say a foot apart, a double arch
over, and a double floor under, which can be built with the same ease as any common
cellar, will, all other circumstances being alike favourable, keep the ice as long as any
conical form whatever. Where there is a doubt of being able to exclude the heat, treble
walls, roof, and floor may be resorted to ; and the entrance, which should always be
three or four yards in length, instead of being straight, may be made crooked, with a
door at each turn. The space between at least two of the doors should always be filled
with straw ; and, to render the removal of this straw easy, when passing from the outer
door to the ice-house, it might be put into two or more canvass bags, like immense
cushions, which might be hooked to the ceiling and the sides, so as to close up every
interstice. The space between the second and third doors may always be widened, and
fitted up, as before described, with shelves for holding articles which require to be kept
cool, but not to the same degree as if they were placed in the ice-house. It ought
always to be recollected that any perfectly dry cellar may be made an ice-house, by
employing faggots as well as straw, in the " manner we have described as proper for
preserving a stack of ice above ground. The French preserve ice in frames of wood-
work suspended in cellars or pits, in the form of inverted cones, surrounding the whole
with a thick covering of straw. Both the French and Italians also form ice-houses in
dry, chalky, or calcareous soils, deep under ground, where neither drains nor straw
are necessary, with the exception of as much of the latter as will close up a long
circuitous opening. In England, many persons are deterred from forming an ice-house,
by the idea that the form of an inverted cone is essentially necessary to it ; that it
must be under ground ; and that ice is only useful for making ice-creams and cooling
Mines: but an ice-house may be made any where; and, as a place for preserving meat,
fish, fruit, and vegetables, there is not a more useful Appendage to a country house.
1" i.^. 747 is a section, and fig. 748 a ground plan, of an ice-house on the inverted
cone principle, but of an improved construction. This form, as usually employed
in English country seats, very frequently fails in keeping the ice, from not having
double walls, and double or treble doors, or from imperfect drainage ; but the plan
now submitted is free from these defects, and will keep ice throughout the year, in
any climate, if covered with a sufficient thickness of earth or straw. In this Design,
a is the well or cellar for the ice ; b, a drain from its bottom, for carrying off sucfi
water as may be produced by the gradual thawing of the ice; r, a trap in this drain, to
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES.
361
prevent the external air from communicating with that of the ice-house ; and d, i
from this trap, connected with one 747
of Siebe's rotatory pumps at e.
The object of this pump is to allow
of making use, during the heat
of summer, of the very cold water
produced by the thawing of the
ice, either for cooling wines, or,
after filtering it, for drinking.
There are five doors to this ice-
house, at f, g, h, i, and k ; and i)
vacuity, /, one foot wide, between
the two walls, surrounding the
cellar, and covering the inner
division of the passage, m. This
passage may be fitted up with
shelves, as a place for keeping ve-
748
lead
pipe
gctables, and various other articles of food (raw or cooked), fresh during summer.
The natural level of the ground is shown at n n ; and the whole superstructure
may be covered, in Britain, to the depth of two or three feet with earth, planted
with ivy, and surrounded with trees. In warmer climates the depth of earth ought
to be increased to eight or ten feet. The size of the well ought also to be enlarged,
and it might be well to have even a third vacuity round it. The space between
the doors i and k should be filled up by a barley-straw cushion, and it would be well
to have similar cushions against the doors g and h, at least during summer. The two
recesses, o and p, are here shown only two feet in depth ; but, by making the walls
behind them of brick, that depth may be increased at pleasure. It may also be observed,
that, in situations where brick is cheaper than stone, all the walls in this Design
may be built, in Dearn's manner, hollow ; and that the side walls of the ice-well need not
be more than the length of a brick in thickness, the one wall being tied into the
other. It may be further observed, that, if it should be inconvenient to cover the
building with earth, a covering of straw or reeds, or even planting ivy against the
outside walls, and surrounding the whole with a few trees, will be equally efficient in
keeping out the heat. If trees cannot be planted, on account of the soil, or of shutting
out any view, a slight roof elevated on props of any sort will have the same effect.
One of the most effective ice-houses which we have ever seen was covered in this
manner, by a wire trellis and Ayrshire roses, mixed with honeysuckles, clematis, and
Virginian creeper. Ice-houses, we are persuaded, would become much more general,
were country gentlemen fully aware of the fact, that they might be built square just as
well as round, and be equally effective at less expense, above the surface than under it.
A square ice-house above ground, or sunk three feet into it, may have treble hollow floors
formed of bricks on edge, covered with foot tiles or flag-stones ; and its side walls may
be treble also, of brick on edge, in Silverlock's manner. To form the roof, a nine-inch
semicircular arch may be first thrown on these walls, and on this arch three vacuities
built of bricks on edge and tiles : there may be five doors, as in fig. 748 ; and the whole
may be covered with a cone of earth, or thatch, four feet thick, and clothed with giant ivy.
In filling an ice-house, the ice, being collected and laid down outside of the exterior
door, is there broken into small pieces, and reduced to a powder composed of particles
not larger than those of sand or salt. It is then carried into the house and thrown
down into the ice-well, in which a man is placed with a rammer to beat, and ram it
closely; occasionally sprinkling it with a little water to consolidate the whole. An
improved method consists in using water saturated with salt, by dissolving ten pounds of
salt in ten gallons of cold water, and pouring it on the ice through a common garden
watering pot every two feet of thickness, as the house is filling, and finishing with a
double quantity of the salt « ater. " The ice, in bouses filled in this manner, will bo
306 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
found, when opened in summer, to be as firm as a rock, and to require, at all times, the
force of a pickaxe to break it up. Thus prepared it will be found to keep three times
as long as by the common method in the house, and it will also keep three times as long
when exposed to the air, from salt water, and consequently salted ice, having a less-
capacity for heat than fresh water, or fresh ice." {Card. May., vol. iii. p. 139.)
7:3cS. A very root Place fur the Preservation of Meat, Butter, Vegetables, Sfc, might be
formed as follows : — Construct a frame of wooden or iron rods, in the form of a cone, or
in any convenient form, and raise it from the ground on pillars between two and three
feet high ; form a door of wirecloth on one side, and one or two openings as windows,
also filled in with wirecloth, on the other. Cover the whole, except the doors and
windows, with a coating of cement, and form a double floor of boards. The result will
now be a conical bottle of cement, with three wire openings in the sides. Place on the
summit of the cone a vessel of water, or conduct a pipe of water there, and allow it to
trickle down the sides of the cone, and the greater the heat of the weather, the cooler
will the area be made within, by the heat carried oS' by evaporation. Perhaps it would
be better to form the cone over a pit or well, and without any openings in its sides ;
entering under ground to the pit or well, in which the heavier articles might be put,
while the lighter ones were placed on shelves suspended from the roof. In an airy
situation, in the shade, it is presumed the temperature, through the continued evaporation
of the water, would be kept sufficiently low for every purpose that could be required
from an ice-house pantry. Perhaps the water might be conducted more regularly from
the apex to the base of the cone, by forming round it a screw gutter, something like the
rings of a straw beehive.
739. A Room for smoking Hams and other dried Provisions is, in some countries,
particularly in Germany and Sweden, a general appendage to a country house or a large
farm. It is usually built of stone or earth, and placed apart from other buildings. It
may be a square room, ten feet on the sides, and ten feet high, open to the roof; and
it may have iron ceiling joists, at about two feet apart, in both sides of which hooks
are fixed for suspending the articles to be smoked. The smoke is generally allowed
to escape through crevices in the roof, or through chimneys or apertures formed of
slates, or thin stones, placed like luffer-boarding ; but, in an improved construction,
air-hole tiles, like that shown in fig. 434, or central luffer-boarded chimneys which
admit of regulation, like those of stables, to be afterwards described, would be an
admirable substitute ; because, while they admitted the escape of smoke, they would
exclude the entrance of rain. In Germany, not only bacon, beef, and mutton hams
are smoked in houses of this kind, both as a means of preservation, and to communi-
cate a flavour ; but venison, geese, ducks, salmon, cod, haddock, eels, herrings, &c,
are so cured. The preserving principle is the pyrolign^ous acid, which being purer in
wood than in coal, the former is always employed. The flavour depends upon the kind
of wood used : that most esteemed is communicated by the juniper, with which the
Westphalian hams and the Embden geese are smoked. The wood most generally next
in use is the beech ; but in Sweden and in Pomerania the spruce fir is often used, either
alone or in mixture with the birch. In Hampshire, and other counties, where much
bacon is smoked, the kiln is egg-shaped, with a door in one side, and a covered chimney
on the narrow end : the hams are suspended from hooks in the roof, and a smothered
fire of sawdust is kept up on the floor, by throwing on successive haudfuls of sawdust.
The sawdust of hard wood, such as oak, ash, beech, &c, is preferred to that of resinous
trees. In Cambridgeshire, and other parts of England, hams and bacon are frequently
smoked by hanging them in a wide kitchen chimney, and making a fire of sawdust on the
hearth ; and, in the north of Scotland, gentlemen often send their bacon or mutton hams,
wrapped in paper, or coated in sawdust, to their tenants, to be hung up in their wide
kitchen chimneys where peat is burned below. In the neighbourhood of Aberdeen, and
in various places in the north of Scotland, haddocks are strung up on rods called spits,
and suspended in wide chimneys, under which peat and sea-weed are burned, and some-
times fir; though the flavour of the sea-weed and peat is greatly preferred. Red herrings
are strung by the gills on wooden spits, and these spits are suspended in rows above each
other, in a house which is kept filled with the smoke of birch for several weeks. As this
process cannot require to be performed more than two or three times a year on a private
farm, the same apartment might serve for distillation ; or for smoking willows with
sulphur, to bleach them, where basket-making was carried on ; or straw, where hat-making
was practised. In the same room, also, articles of carpentry intended for the open air
might be either saturated with pyroligneous acid, or actually charred at the ends to be
inserted in the ground. The value of the saturation process is evident from the great
durability of the limber of the roofs of cottages which have imperfect outlets for the
smoke; njany in Scotland, and some in England, might be referred to as examples.
740. As an Example of the essential Accommodations of a Farm House on a small scale,
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES. oC)J
and on the most economical principle of construction, we may refer to fig. 7-) 9. The walls
of this house may be built of rammed earth, or mud, or clay nogging, or in whatever
manner is cheapest and best suited to the particular locality ; and, as all the accommoda-
tion is on one floor, the highest of these walls need not be more than ten feet above the
stone or brick foundation. The accommodations are, an entrance-porch, a, facing the
south-west ; a hall or lobby, b ; kitchen, c ; back-kitchen, d ; place for fuel, e ; larder, f;
pantry, y • place for fuel for lighting fires, and women's water-closet, h ; ale and beer
cellar, i ; dairy, k ; room for potatoes and other roots, / ; wine and spirit cellar, m, with
a china closet over, opening from the dining-room ; boys' bed-room, n ; lobby to the three
family bed-rooms, and to the private water-closet, o • master and mistress's bed-room,
girls' bed-room,
stranger's bed-
740
PI
q;
room, r ; parlour,
s; single men's sleep-
ing-room, t (the
window of which is
also a door, by which
they can go out
early in the morning
without disturbing
the family) ; maid-
servant's room, u ;
dining-room, v ; dry-
ing-closet, heated
from the back of the
kitchen fire, w ; and
projection over the
oven, x. There is
a flue from the oven
across the dining-
room, going round
the parlour, and
back again ; which,
with the heat from
the drying-closet,
will, it is calculated,
render open fire-
places wholly un-
necessary, and there
fore none are shown.
By examining the
«.• n * rZ. .l Ft. 10 a O 111 zu »n.
section, fig. 750, the
simplicity of the construction of this building will be obvious. The outside walls are only
seven feet high, but the capacity of all the rooms is rendered sufficiently ample by raising
|l I I I jit M|
the ceiling, as shown in the section. To admit of raising the ceiling, a chain of purlins,
fig. 750, y, is placed in the direction shown by the dotted line c b d, &c, in fig. 749, and
is carried round the house. These purlins are supported by the cross walls ; and on
them, and on the wall surrounding the dining-room, the rafters, which are of short
lengths, find a secure support. From the entrance-door to the door of the dining-room
there is a rise of two feet, effected by an inclined plane ; and there is also a declination
from the door of the back-kitchen to that of the root-cellar, also of two feet, by which
368 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
means the fireplace of the oven is sufficiently low to admit of the flue from it passing
under the dining-room floor ; or the same purpose may be effected by having a few
steps down to the oven furnace. There may be an upright flue from the oven, for use
during summer. The stairs down to the wine-cellar arc shown with a line across the
steps, indicating that it is to be constructed with double treads, in order to gain space, as
shown § 1G4, fig. 137. The windows in the roof are double; the outer sashes being
blazed with small panes, to resist hail ; and without cross bars, like hot-house sashes.
The inner ones are upright, and hung in the usual manner. A line passed diagonally
through this house, from the south to the north, should intersect the centre of the farm-
yard, which would thus be completely overlooked from every part of the parlour, s, which
for that purpose has windows on both sides. Fig. 751 is the elevation of the entrance,
or south-west front ; fig. 752 that of the south-east front ; and fig. 753 is a perspective
view. This building might be erected, in the neighbourhood of London, reckoning
labourers' wages at 18s. a week, and carpenters' at 25s. a week, for ,£250 ; and, were
there no duty on glass, the sum would be much lower ; because, the floors and walls being
of earth or composition, and the roof of short pieces of timber and thatch, the chief
expense is incurred in the doors and windows.
741. A Farm House with an enlarged degree of Accommodation, but still on the most
economical plan, for a country where the cheapest material for the walls is earth, and for
covering the roof, thatch, might be formed from the same ground plan, with a story over
it. The change in the destination of the apartments shown in fig. 749 may be as
follows : — r may be an office, the window serving also as an outside door, for the entrance
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARM HOUSES.
369
of persons on business belonging to the farm ; t, a fruit-room and china-closet, or room
for the use of the mistress ; and u, a laundry. Fig. 754 may be the plan of the bed-room
754
or garret floor, in which a is the room for female servants, and b that for single men •
<•/, e, f, and g are bed-rooms for members of the family, or for strangers; and h is a
lumber-room. The entrance to the two servants' rooms is from the landing of the staircase,
in consequence of which they can go down stairs without disturbing the rest of the
family ; and the entrance to all the other bed-rooms is from the gallery, which is pro-
jected from the side walls of the dining-room, as shown in the section fig. 755. The
U~
gallery, the staircase, and also the dining-room below, may be amply lighted during the
day from the four skylights, which lights have double sashes ; viz., outside ones of the same
slope as the roof, which slide the one over the other like those of a hot-house, with very
small panes, as before described ; and inside ones, which are perpendicular, and open like
common sash windows. Both sashes may be worked from below by lines and pulleys.
A lamp suspended in the centre of the dining-room will light it, the staircase, and the
doors opening into all the other rooms, in the evening. For the sake of economy, the
outer walls of the bed-rooms are kept low ; but as they are larger in length and width,
370
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
there will be :m ample volume of air in each for health. The whole of this house may
be effectually heated by the oven anil kitchen fires* without any others. An ironing
stove may be placed in the laundry ; for which purpose there may be a flue built in the
stack, which contains the kitchen flue. In this Design, and the preceding one, it will be
observed that there are no passages; which is a great saving of room. The general
appearance of this farm house may be as in fig. 756.
742. A Model Farm House fur a small Farmer has been given by Morel- Vind/-, which
we consider perfect in its kind, for a country where the chief material of construction is
timber of a small size. No piece of wood, in constructing this Design, is longer than ten
or twelve feet, or thicker, when squared, than six inches on the side. It is not intended
that this wood shall be cut out of large trees, but that it shall be squared from young
trees or branches ; to the end that, in countries abounding with wood, it shall not cost
more than that which is used for fuel. The walls are framed of timber, and the panels
filled in, and covered with weather-boarding or plaster, outside, and lath and plaster
inside. The cellar floor of this Design, fig. 757, contains two divisions, a bake-
757
house, in which there is a stove, c, for heating the apartments above ; an oven,
h; and a supporting post for the parlour floor, //. The cellar has also a supporting
post, /, and the entrance to both has six descending steps at o. The use of the
two posts, It and I, is to admit of forming all the joists of the floor above of wood not
longer than ten or twelve feet. Fig. 758 is the plan of the ground floor, in which may
be seen the parlour, a, with a small office, b, and a bed for the master and mistress in a
recess, c ; the kitchen with its dresser, i, at one end of which there is a post, k, to support
the floor above. In the centre of the building may be seen the stove funnel, f, witli
three small openings to the two bed-rooms, h h, and to the parlour, a ; one of the bed-
rooms containing two beds, d d, for children, and the other two for female servants, e e.
In the mid wall may be seen at r/ the flue from the oven ; and at one end the dairy, m,
and the harness and small tool room, n : at the opposite end is a water-closet, p ; and a
house for wood and the larcer farm implements, q. The entrance is by the ascending
MODEL DESIGNS TOR FARM HOUSES.
758
371
steps, r. The plan of the ceiling j'oists over this floor is represented in fig. 759. Over
these joists there is a garret, which may be entered either from a staircase, formed in a
porch behind, placed at o, in fig. 758, 759
and corresponding with that in front ;
or by an outside ladder. On the sup-
position that it is entered by a ladder
in front, its door is represented in the
elevation, fig. 760, in which may be
seen the two small windows to the bake-
house and cellar ; the doors of the
harness-room and water-closet in the
two wings ; the entrance door of glass,
the window to the kitchen, that to the
parlour, and that to the cabinet or
office. Fig. 761 is a side view, in
which the projection of the porch is
conspicuous at s, the window of the
harness-room is seen at t, and of the
dairy at m. Fig. 762 is a longitudinal
section, in which the oven is seen at h,
with its ash-pit underneath ; the kitchen
fireplace over it at i, the parlour at k,
the garret at I, the ventilator to the dairy at m, and to the water-closet at n ; and the
doors to the two bed-rooms at o o. In fig. 763 we have given a perspective view of
this improved French farm house, varying the form of the chimney-tops; of the angle
brackets of the porch ; adding rails to the outside stair ; giving a Gothic or old English
character to the ventilators ; and placing the whole on a platform. A further improvement
372 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
on the original Design is a glass window as a door to the garret, instead of the boarded
one shown in fig. 760. This garret, ^
instead of being entered by a ladder r, ,'
outside, might be got at by a trap- i
door in the ceiling of the kitchen,
with a hanging ladder like that shown
in fig. 158, § 179. The area covered
by this building is 920 superficial feet;
and it would cost, in the neighbour-
hood of Paris, £258 : 8s. : 4d. ; but
in the departments of France the ex-
pense would not be above half that sum.
743. On the Construction and Ar-
rangement of this Design, Morel-
Vinde has the following remarks : —
The post which, in fig. 758, is shown
at k, as proceeding from the kitchen
dresser, may be thought to be incon-
venient, but it is not found to be so in
practice; on the contrary, it serves as a standard to drive hooks or nails into, on which to hang
things : at all events, its position there is essential to the solution of the problem of using
no wood in the whole building that is longer than ten or twelve feet. However, where
wood is abundant, it might be avoided by substituting over it one strong and long beam,
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 8JS
instead of two short joists. The privy or water-closet is thus constructed : — A tub, firmly
held together by iron hoops, is sunk in the earth to the brim ; and it has two strong hooks
which project from each side. Over this tub is placed a portable seat, with a funnel,
which descends into the tub, and there is a lid to the opening in the seat. All the soap
suds, and other waste water of the house is poured througli this funnel. Directly over
the tub, in the rafters of the roof, a pulley is fixed ; and, when the tub is full, which it
will be once or twice every week, the portable seat is removed, and the tub is raised up
and placed on a wheelbarrow, by means of a cord passed over the pulley. The tub is
then wheeled away to two tanks, or small trenches ; into one of which is poured the
liquid matter, and into the other the more solid contents. The tub is then washed out,
and returned to its place ; and the liquid matter is immediately rendered thick by mixing
with it powdered lime, chalk, or marl ; or, in default of either of these, powdered lime
rubbish. This manure is what is called in France urate. The thick matter the farmer
allows to dry, and afterwards he reduces it to powder, when it forms that excellent and
high-priced manure so well known throughout Europe, and especially in France, as
poudrette. Finally, the urate and the poudrette are mixed together in a large tank, having
the bottom and sides of masonry ; and soap suds, or the liquor from stable dung, being
added, the whole is worked till it becomes of the consistency of mud. After this,
powdered plaster of Paris, or lime, or marl, is added, and thoroughly incorporated, till
the whole is so thick that it can scarcely be stirred with a stick. Left to itself it soon
sets, and in three weeks will have become so firm, that it will cut like cheese, and may
be taken out and dried in lumps about twice the size of bricks. These bricks Morel-
Vinde calls stercorat, and he says that they form as powerful a manure as pigeon dung.
When used they are reduced to powder, and strewed over the soil by hand, as a top-
dressing. In situations where neither plaster of Paris, lime, nor marl is to be had, the
urate and poudrette may be mixed up with clay, when the stercorat is to be used on
sandy soil, and with sand when it is to be used on clayey soil. This, Morel- Vinde says,
is the best of all known manners of employing the contents of privies, and he speaks from
long practice on his own estate, at Celle, near St. Cloud. (Essai sur les Constructions
Rurales Economiques, &c, p. 26.)
Subsect. 2. Fundamental Principles, Directions, and Model Designs, for the Construction
and Arrangement of the various Parts which compose a Farmery.
744. The Parts which compose a Farmery may be arranged under two heads, buildings
and yards. The buildings may be classed as houses for lodging and feeding live stock ;
storehouses for produce and food ; houses for preparing food, or carrying on in-door
farmery operations ; houses for portable machinery and implements ; lodgings for single
men, and houses for married men. The yards are chiefly two ; the cattle or dung yard,
and the rick or stack yard : but in large establishments there are, besides these, the pig
yard, the poultry yard, the carpenter and smith's yard, and some others, according to the
kind of farm.
745. The Principles on which the Lodging-places of all domestic Animals are designed
must necessarily be drawn from the size of the animal, the temperature of its native
climate, its habits of life, and the state of domestication to which it has been brought.
The domestic quadrupeds which form the inmates of farmeries are chiefly the horse, the
cow, the sheep, and the swine ; and these, in their artificial state, may be considered as
requiring the same climate, or nearly so; and as not differing very materially, either in
the kind of food which they eat, or in their manner of taking it. They may all feed
from a rack or manger, of nearly the same height relatively to their own ; and, taken in
the plan, or vertical profile, they are all more or less wedge-shaped ; the head being
placed at the narrow end of the wedge. The chief difference, therefore, is in their magni-
tude as wedges ; and it is to ascertain this difference that the Architect who wishes to
draw his practice from fundamental principles ought in the first place to direct his
attention. A horse of average size, he will find, forms a wedge eight feet long, six feet
and a half high ; two feet broad at one end, and one foot and a half broad at the other.
A cow or bullock of average size forms a shorter and somewhat blunter wedge than the
horse ; being generally seven feet and a half long, five feet high, two feet and a half broad
at one end, and, allowing for the horns, nearly two feet at the other. Taking the horse
and ox together, we may consider them, on the average, as wedges eight feet and a half
long ; two feet and a half at the broad end, and two feet at the other ; and six feet and
a half high. The sheep we may consider as three feet and a half long, two feet high,
eighteen inches broad at one end, and, allowing for the horns of the ram, one foot at
the other ; and the swine may be considered as a wedge of the same size and shape as the
sheep. Assuming these averages to be sufficiently correct for practice, two important
conclusions may be drawn from them : first, that the most economical mode of lodging
the first two of these quadrupeds must be in houses the walls of which form concentric
37 ''i COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
circles, or segments of circles parallel to each other ; and that the rack or manger being
required for the small end of the wedge, should always be placed against the smallest
circle or segment ; and, secondly, that in all open yards where quadrupeds are allowed
to run loose, and eat from racks or mangers, the length of the rack or manger required
to allow the whole to eat at once may be obtained with certainty when the kind of animal
is given ; since, when the rack or manger is to be in a straight line, the breadth of the
broad end of the wedge must be allowed for each animal, and when it is to be curved, the
radius of the curve must be determined by the breadth of the smaller end of the wedge.
From this theory it may also be deduced, that there must be one magnitude, as well as
one form, more economical than any other, for lodging each of these animals ; and that
this magnitude must be that circumference of a circle which the narrow ends of the
wedges completely fill up, and no more. Fig. 764 shows the number of horses, or horned
cattle, that will stand -§4 ^-r-n
together in the cir- s^SSW l
cumference of a
circle, with their
heads towards the
centre ; and fig. 765
shows the parallelo-
gram that would be
required to contain
the same number of
the same-sized ani-
mals,supposing them
to be placed in a
straight line. Fig.
767 shows the num-
ber of average-sized
sheep or swine that
would stand in a
circle; and fig. 768
the parallelogram
that would be re-
quired to contain
them in a straight
line. The loss of
space, in both in-
stances, is about one
fourth. It is true
that, in practice, ani-
mals can never be
placed so near to-
gether for any length
of time ; but the
comparison which
we have made suf-
ficiently establishes
the principle, that, in
calculating the room
required for lodging
these animals, or
feeding them from
racks or mangers in
open courts or yards,
they must be con-
sidered as wedges.
In applying this
principle to practice.
the habits of each animal, and the kind of food to be given to it, will form subordinate
principles, which must also be taken into consideration by the Architect. We shall
endeavour to illustrate this in the case of the animals above mentioned.
746. The Horse and Ox are capable of lying down and rising up, when they have a
vacant space of a foot round them on every side. This will give a wedge-shaped stall,
eleven feet long, five feet broad at one end, and four feet broad at the other ; in which
they will have ample accommodation, and the saving of room on each animal, in a stall
of this description, as compared with a parallelogram stall, will be five and a half
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES.
37.5
768
7G9
11
superficial feet, or above one eighth part of the whole. The circular building best suited
for this accommodation would have the radius of the inner wall titty-four feet
six inches, as in tig. 166 ; and, therefore, if (other circumstances being the same) stables
or cattle-houses in farmeries could be built in this form as easily as in the parallelogram
shape, there would be an obvious saving of space to the above extent ; and this, m a stable
of twelve horses, or a cattle-shed of twelve cows, would amount to sixty-six feet ; or, in
other words, more room would be gained than would be sufficient for an additional stall.
Wherever curvilinear stables, or cattle-houses, therefore, can be introduced into a farm-
yard, the Architect may feel satisfied that the proper radius for the smaller circle, when
the animals are of medium size, is fifty-four feet six inches.
747. Sheep and Swine, from the
necessity of the former being kept in
almost continual exercise, and being
surrounded by, or at least having
above them, a great abundance of fresh
air, and from the restlessness of the
latter, are never kept tied up in
stalls ; and therefore the curvilinear
principle, as applied to them, refers
only to the lineal direction of their
mangers or troughs. Allowing a full-
grown sheep or swine, when feeding
at a rack, three inches on each side of
his head, this will give fifteen feet
nine inches as the best radius for the
convex side of sheep racks, which are
intended to be eaten from on one side
only ; and for the feeding-troughs of
full-grown swine kept in a yard.
This will be seen on inspectingfig.769,
in which the inner circle represents
a trough or manger, out of which
fifty-eight sheep or swine might eat
on the outside, though not half that
number within. As the difference is
considerable between the width of a
horned sheep and one without horns,
this radius will require to be varied
according to the proportion of horned
to polled sheep in the flock.
748. These Principles for the cur-
vilinear arrangement of stalls, racks,
and troughs, we do not lay down as of very great importance, but rather with a view to
induce the young Architect to enquire into the reasons of things ; and to endeavour, in
every thing, to take principles into consideration rather than precedents. We shall now
proceed to give details of, accompanied by reasons for, the more ordinary modes of con-
structing stables, cattle-sheds, and other buildings for animals which belong to a farmery.
749. The Buildings usually employed for lodging, feeding, or fattening Live Stock, com-
prise the stable, cow-house, calf-house, cattle-stalls, hammels and sheds, sheep-house,
piggery, poultry-house, rabbit-house, pigeon-house, and house for sick horses or cattle.
These should either be connected together, and open into one yard, or they may be
separated by the barn, and open into the same or different yards. On no account should
they be intermixed with the implement and machine houses, or with the cart-sheds.
750. Stables. The horse is an animal in a highly artificial state, and requires to be
treated with a degree of care beyond that bestowed on any other domesticated quadruped.
The stable in which he is lodged should have its doors and windows to the south-east,
as the mildest aspect, and, in general, have all its openings on one side, and in the roof,
to prevent cross draughts of air. It ought to be on a dry soil, or, if on a wet one, it
should be raised above it by a hollow floor ; or by materials of a kind which will contain
interstices of air between the natural surface and the artificial floor. All stables should
be large, cool, and capable of being well ventilated. The proper temperature for a horse
is 50° in winter and from 60° to 65° in summer. The best mode of ventilating a
stable in winter is by trunks or tubes of boards, about a foot square, forming openings
under the eaves, or carried up through the ceiling, where there is one, so as to pass
through the roof; their tops being covered in such a manner as to exclude the rain,
without impeding the ascent of the heated air. The inside openings of all these tubes
376
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
should have small sliding shutters to regulate the ventilation. In summer, this is hest
effected hy having the windows filled in with hinged luffer-hoards ; or by having glass
windows, with outside luffer-blinds. In the latter ease, the quantity of air admitted,
both in summer and winter, may be very accurately regulated by the degree to which the
glass windows are opened. It was formerly supposed that darkness was favourable to
good condition in horses; but this has been found to be a mistake, and light is now
freely admitted, as well as fresh air. The floors of that part of stables in which the
horses stand should be level ; because, when raised towards the horse's head, they are
found to put the back sinews on the stretch, and thus to fatigue the animal when he ought
to be at rest. The urine may be carried off by a drain under each compartment, covered
by a grating ; and this grating where the horse stands loose, should extend from the
centre of the compartment in four directions, like a right-angled cross. When the horse
stands in a stall, in addition to the gutter behind, there ought to be a branch from it
carried up the middle of each stall, a third part of its depth ; and this, also, ought to be
covered with a close grating of cast iron, or, as it generally is on the Continent, of oak
pierced with holes. These cover gratings ought to fit into the tops of the gutters, so as
to lie close and level with the adjoining floor, without requiring to be fixed, in order to
admit of their being lifted out occasionally, for the purpose of cleaning out the gutter.
This gutter should communicate with a covered liquid manure tank by a drain ; or,
if it communicates with an open tank, there ought to be a stink-trap in the drain
immediately without the stable door, to prevent the entrance of a current of air through
the grating, which air being necessarily saturated with the volatile alkali of the urine,
would contaminate the atmosphere of the stable. The great advantage of this drain and
grating is, that the evaporation of urine in the stable is in a great measure prevented by
it ; and not only its atmosphere rendered much more healthy, both for men and horses,
but the whole of the ammonia of the urine is transferred safe to the manure tank, where
it forms one of the most valuable portions of the manure. To get rid of this ammonia
in the stable, all droppings from the horse should be removed immediately, if practicable ;
and, at all events, the litter which has been stained by the urine or the dung ought to be
removed to the dung-pit, or to the outside of the stable, at least twice a day. It is the
practice with some farmers to clean out their stables only once or twice a week ; but the
exhalations produced by such an accumulation of matter cause many diseases in the
feet and legs ; and the floor, by the unequal accumulation, being rendered uneven for the
horse to stand on, he is strained and fatigued when in the stable, instead of being rested.
The litter kept in a stable should be only such as is dry and sweet ; and that taken out
should be immediately put into the dung-pit, to prevent evaporation. The eminent
veterinary surgeon Blaine observes, in an excellent article on the horse, in our Encyclo-
pedia of Agriculture (2d edit. § 6706.), that horses should not stand on litter during the
day ; because, though it is thought to save their shoes, and even their feet, by preventing
the uneven surface of the floor from hurting them, he affirms that it " holds the urine,
injures the feet, and is very apt to encourage swelling at the heels." As stables are
commonly constructed and managed, it is by no means desirable to have a hay-loft over
them ; unless this is floored in such a way as to prevent the dust and dirt from the hay
from descending upon the horses, and the ammoniacal gas from ascending into the hay.
Upright racks are preferred to racks which slope forwards, because the horse in drawing
out the hay is less liable to get dust and hay-seeds in his eyes ; but, if the best and most
economical system of horse feeding were adopted, viz. cutting all the hay and fodder,
and giving it to them well mixed with corn and pollard in their mangers ; and if these
mangers were watertight, and the hay and fodder, previously to cutting, sprinkled with
a solution of salt and water, no racks whatever would be necessary. When the horse
is tied up, the halter should be contrived to run in a groove in the manger post, or in
a tube behind it, to prevent it from becoming entangled with his feet. Stalls should
always be wide, and for single horses of full size not narrower than six feet, and at least
eight feet deep. Stalls for two horses ought not to be less than ten feet wide and eight
feet deep, unless the horses arc under the middle size. These are the fundamental
principles and rules on which all stables ought to be formed, when the health of the
horse, and the prolongation of the working period of his existence, are the objects in view.
We shall now show their application.
751. The Stables for farm buildings ought to be at least sixteen feet wide from wall
to wall. The walls ought to be nine feet high ; there ought to be no ceiling or floor over;
and the width allowed for each horse should be at least five feet, whether they art
separated by partitions or not. In stables without partitions, or with partitions of not
more than three or four feet from the head wall, four feet six inches may suffice ; but it
has been observed that, when horses are crowded together, they do not lie down near
so frequently as when they have ample space ; and it has been further remarked that
horses tied up in stalls do not lie down near so frequently as horses which arc shut up
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES.
377
loose in separate compartments. When it is considered how much the health of almost
all quadrupeds depends upon their reposing a portion of every twenty-four hours in a
horizontal position, and more especially when we reflect that the horse is particularly
liable to have swelled legs and heels, we cannot help being of opinion that all horses
whatever ought to be lodged in separate cells or rooms, with divisions so high as to
prevent them from seeing each other. We are informed by Waistell that some stables
in the north of Yorkshire are divided in this manner, and that horses have been found to
lie down in these stables, which would seldom do so when tied up with other horses,
either with or without stalls. In several stables in Britain for hunters or riding horses,
we have seen this practice adopted ; and it is very general in the great breeding establish-
ments known by the name of des haras (studs) in France. There is a very large stud
of this kind in the neighbourhood of Nancy, which we visited in 1828 ; and where we
found entire ranges of stabling partitioned off into separate cells for mares and foals, with
a passage behind. The dimensions of these cells, as estimated by us on the spot, and
marked down at the time, were about fifteen feet square ; the partitions were of inch
and a half boards, ten feet high, grooved and tongued into each other ; and in the centre
of the side next the passage was a doorway opening into it : this passage was at least six
feet wide. These dimensions, being for mares with foals, are much more ample than
would be required in farm stables : in these, eight or nine feet by twelve feet, the
dimensions adopted in the north of Yorkshire, would be sufficient. It is well known
that almost all hard-worked horses fail first in the legs and feet, and that the best way to
alleviate this evil is to induce them to repose as much as possible in a reclining position.
Now, since horses are found to lie down more readily in separate rooms than in stalls,
there can be no doubt that, as a matter of economy, this mode of lodging them would
repay a farmer for the extra-expense. This once proved by practical men in the best
cultivated districts of Britain, such as East Lothian or Northumberland, for example,
such stables would as soon be substituted there for those now in common use, as the
threshing mill was fifty years ago for the flail, in the same districts. Whether the stable
is laid out with stalls, or in separate compartments for single horses, there ought to be
a broad passage behind, between the stalls or horse-rooms and the wall ; which passage
ought to be paved, and kept at all times dry, clean, and free from litter. In the wall
there ought to be one or more
windows, according to the size
of the stable, for light and ven-
tilation. Each window may
contain two glass sashes,sliding
past each other in grooves, and
should have on the outside
fixed luffer-boarding, or shut-
ters of that description, either
hinged, or also sliding in
grooves. Under each window
there should be a recess for a
corn bin ; or these may be
placed at the extreme ends of
the passage, or in the fodder-
ing bay. There ought to be
tubes under the eaves for ven-
tilation, protected outside by
luffer-boarding, and furnished
with sliding shutters inside,
for the purpose of regulation.
There ought to be cupboards
formed in recesses in the walls,
one for each man who works
a pair of horses, in which he
may keep the currycombs, and
other articles necessary for
cleaning them. The harness
of every horse that is in daily
use ought to be hung against
the wall behind it, in order to
lose as little time as possible in
taking it off and putting it on ;
and that which is only used
occasionally should be kept
HIP'
X
3JS COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
772
in the harness-room. There should be one or more lanterns, suspended by cords and
pulleys from the roof over the passage, for putting lighted candles in, while feeding or
cleaning the horses during winter. The racks, wben placed on the floor, should occupy
two thirds of the width of the stall or horse-room, and the manger ought to occupy the
other third, its top being on a level with that of the rack ; or the rack may occupy one
angle, and the manger the other. The loft being condemned in farm stables, a place
must be provided for holding food and litter : the most convenient is one or two divisions
in every stable opposite its door, into which the food, whether green clover or tares in
summer, or hay or roots in winter, can be readily carried from without, and easily
distributed within. Being near the door, the food will be better ventilated than it could
be in any other part of the stable, and it will occupy the least valuable part with reference
to the horses ; it being well known that in farm stables the horse which stands opposite
to the door is more liable to take cold than any other. The corn bin or chest may also
be kept in one of these divisions, and, in that case, should be so large as to have separate
compartments for corn and beans, and for cut straw or hay, or bruised furze to mix with
the corn or pulse. Stable doorways ought to be made four feet wide, and seven feet
high ; and the door ought to have no projecting latches or handles, because these are apt
to hurt the horse, or become entangled with the harness. Racks and mangers are very
frequently made of cast iron, and they are found much more durable and economical than
wood, without any inconvenience being experienced from them. Fig. 770 is a cast-iron
rack, two feet four inches long, one foot wide in the centre, and one foot four inches high.
The bars are one inch and a half by five eighths of an inch in thickness, and two inches
and a half apart ; the whole weighs thirty pounds, and costs by retail 8s. 6d. Below it
is seen a cast-iron manger, three feet long, one foot three inches wide, outside measure, at
top, and eight inches deep. It weighs two quarters thirteen pounds, and costs 10s. 6d.
1'ig. 771 is a wrought-iron angle rack. The chord of the arc on each side is two feet
eight inches ; the surrounding frame is one inch and a half by a quarter of an inch ;
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES.
379
the ribs are round iron rods five eighths of an inch in diameter ; and the whole weighs
twenty-four pounds and a quarter, and costs 6s. Below it is an angle manger of cast
iron, which measures three feet in length in front, with a basin one foot seven inches
long, one foot wide, and eight inches deep. It weighs two quarters twenty-three pounds,
and costs 9s. Fig. 772 is a wrought-iron rack, three feet long, eighteen inches high,
and eighteen inches wide. It weighs thirty pounds, and costs 6s. 6d. Fig. 773 is a
cast-iron bull's-eye rack two feet and a half in diameter, which costs 7s. 6d. These iron
racks are far more durable than wooden ones ; and, about London at least, cost less.
752. As an Example of a Stable with hiyh Racks, Mangers, and partitioned Stalls,
constructed in the most approved manner, we refer to figs. 774 to 779. Fig. 774 is the
774
!
1
1
1
1
1
1
a
n
a
a
1
0
0
0
D
0
d li
11
n
||e
!!'
b
11
jj
..!! d
1
1
1
O II C
ground plan of a stable for eight horses, in which the racks are upright. In the centre
there is a foddering bay, a ; with a corn chest, 6, placed on blocks of stone, to prevent
its bottom from rotting ; in the front walls there are recesses, c c, six inches or more
deep, according to the kind of wall, for hanging harness in the upper part, and for pails
and other articles used in the stable to stand in below. The recesses under the windows
will allow of placing a small corn bin or cupboard there. The dotted lines from d to
d represent the main gutter drain, and the short dotted lines from it, e, the branch drains
into the different stalls ; the dotted lines at f indicate a drain communicating with the
liquid manure tank. The gratings placed .--._
over the main and stall gutters may be of
stone or oak, pierced with holes ; or of
massive cast iron, like fig. 775, which, when
twelve inches square, costs 4s. ; when fifteen
inches, 6s. 9d. ; and when eighteen inches,
9s. 9d. Fig. 776 is a cross section on the
line A B ; in which is shown a ventilator in
the roof, formed by a tube, with a stopper, g, sliding horizontally, continued up imme-
diately under the roof, and opening in the ridge, under a protecting cover composed of
two large slates, h ; i is a cast-iron
harness peg ; k is the corn chest ; I, the
rack ; m, the manger ; n, the grating at
the termination of the stall gutter ; and
o, the main gutter ; p, the space under
the rack, into which dust, seeds, and
other matters from the hay or fodder
drop down through the grated bottom
of the rack, and are taken out, from
time to time, by removing the bottom
board in front. Fig. 777 is a front
elevation of this stable, in a simple style,
which may be called Grecian. Two of
the windows are shown with outside
blinds, and two glazed between upright
bars, without horizontal ones, in the
manner of hot-house sashes. The intention of this mode of glazing is to avoid
collecting the moisture and dust which otherwise are always found on the cross
bars of stable and out-house windows. All the windows are intended to have outside
380 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
777
lufter-board blinds, to be worked from the inside by a lever handle, in the manner which
we shall describe hereafter. Fig. 778 is an elevation of the plan, fig. 774 ; supposing
778
-Zv
V\r
-^r
ZV
^
it to be finished exteriorly in a style which may be called Gothic. Fig. 779 is a cross
section, in which is seen the small corn bin or cupboard for currycombs, &c, under the
window, q ; the ventilator, with its protecting cover, r r ; the gutter drains with their
gratings, s ; the cast-iron manger, t ; the bull's-eye cast-iron rack, u ; the bottom of the
rack, v, beneath which is the space for dust and seeds ; a cast-iron ramped cap, w, to the
partition between the stalls ; and a cast-iron sill, with a groove for receiving the ends
of the boards from the partition, x. The stable-post, y, in this section, is also of cast
iron, and it costs 20s. ; the ramped iron copings cost 1 2s. each, and the sills 7s. each.
These cast-iron copings and sills for stalls
are manufactured by Messrs. Cottam and ' ' "
Hallen ; and they afford a very cheap, easy,
and durable mode of forming the partitions
between stalls.
753. The different Modes of arranging
the racks and mangers of stables are
shown in figs. 780 to 785. Fig. 780 is a
front view of the rack and manger, shown
in the section fig. 776; and fig. 781 is a
front view of the bull's-eye rack and cast-
iron manger shown in fig. 779. Fig. 782,
two corner cast-iron racks, and a cast-
iron manger. Fig. 783 shows what is
called a corner manger, with a standard
corner cast-iron rack, which costs 10s. 6d.,
and of which fig. 786 is a perspective
view. Fig. 784 is a standard rack, ex-
tending two thirds of the width of the stall,
in which the horses or cattle are supposed
to eat from the top when standing, and from the side when lying down. The length of
the manger is one third of the stall, and the space under it is fitted in with spars, so as
to form a continuation of the rack. The bottom of the rack is raised six inches from the
floor, and is sparred somewhat closer than the sides ; the top has cross spars, one foot
apart, to prevent the animal from tossing the fodder out of the rack. Fig. 785 shows a
cast-iron manger, and a projecting quarter circle rack ; that is, the fourth part of a grated
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES.
381
780
ijj ! i
781
782 783
lT~-
784 78c
786
globe, open at top, for putting in the hay or other fodder. When the upright rack
shown in fig. 780 is formed of wood, the staves or upright spars are one inch and a
quarter square, or round, let into top
and bottom rails, three inches and a
half by two inches and a half. If
the staves are square, they are mortised
into these rails ; and, if they are
round, holes are bored in the rails,
to admit their ends. The common
width of the openings between the
staves is two inches and a quarter ; but
large horses require three inches.
The bottom of the rack is filled in
with spars of the same dimensions as
the staves of the rack, and at rather
less distance from each other. The
partitions between the stalls, when
made of wood, are thus formed : — A
strong post, called the heel-post, or
stable-post, six inches square, and
seven or eight feet long, so as to stand
six feet high when the lower end Is
inserted in the ground, is firmly fixed
by ramming round its lower end with
earth and stones. Into this post two
rails are mortised, the other ends
of which are nailed to the uprights
which support the rack, and against
these rails upright boards an inch
thick are nailed, and terminated by a capping piece, straight or ramped, according
to taste. Short partitions, three or four feet long, and seven feet high, are sometimes
formed between stalls, to prevent horses adjoining each other from eating together.
The width of stalls with these short partitions, Waistell observes, may be about four
feet and a half. Long partitions to stalls, he says, should be about eight feet ; and the
width of each stall, from five feet and a half to six feet. In some parts of the country,
it would be cheaper to form the partitions of slate or flag-stone, or even of common
rubblework ; or of rammed earth, or of cob.
754. The Window most suitable for Stables and Cow-houses, we think, should be com-
posed of glass within, and of lufFer-boarded blinds, to serve also as shutters, without. The
construction is shown in figs. 787 to 793. Fig. 788, to a scale of a quarter of an inch to
a foot, is a view of the glass window, as seen inside the stable or cow-house. It is com-
posed of two sashes, a, b, one of which slides past the other, in two grooves, in the top
and bottom of the frame, as shown in the section fig. 787. These two sashes are without
horizontal bars, and are glazed in the manner of hot-house windows, for the reasons
before mentioned, § 752. At c is a mortise cut in the side style of the window frame,
for a handle to move up and down in, which is used to work the
outside blinds, and this handle can be locked by an iron pin, when
the blinds are used as shutters. Fig. 789 is an outside view of the
same window, with the blinds placed before it ; the laths or lufTer-
boards being in a horizontal position, to admit the greatest quantity
of light. Fig. 791 is a cross section of the window complete, with
the lufFer-blinds, d, outside, and the two sashes, e, inside. In this
figure is seen the lever handle, /, which works the luffer-boards. In
the knob of this handle there is a small hole, which (when the
382 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
788
1 lifter-boards are shut close
down, so as to admit the
least quantity of light,
and the handle is, in
consequence, raised to g)
necessarily coincides with
the ring staple at </; when,
by inserting an iron pin
through the hole in the
lever handle, and through
this staple, the luffer-
boarding is locked, and
becomes a secure shutter.
Fi<r. 790 is a view of a
single lath or lufler-hoard,
in the ends of which are
seen the two small iron
pivots or studs which
work into the holes
shown in the two lever
rods, fig. 792. Fig. 793
is a fragment of the
section fig. 791, on a
large scale ; in which are
shown the luffer-boards
locked, the lever handle,
h, being at its highest
point. These figures will
be understood by any car-
penter, if not by all our
readers ; and though win-
dows and blinds of this
description may be thought too good for stables and cow-houses of the commonest
kind, yet, for amateurs, we have no hesitation in stating it to be our opinion, that they are
far preferable to any others which have yet been invented. No other construction gives
\
789
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES.
383
such command of light and darkness during
the day, and of* air at all times. In common
farm stables, windows might he formed of
broad luffer-boards, so hinged as to shut
close when it was desirahle to exclude air,
and to open to different degrees according
to the quantity of light or air, or hoth, which
might he wanted. In these broad luft'er-
hoards, there might he inserted one or two
small panes of glass, for the purpose of ad-
milting light in severe weather when it was
not desirahle to admit much air. On the
whole, whatever description of window is
used in a stable, it ought to he such as
will when it is desirahle, as in very cold
weather, for example, admit light without
air, and in very warm weather, in the day
time, admit abundance of air without much
light.
755. As an Example of a Stable with Boxes
as well as with Stalls, such as is usually
erected for gentlemen keeping hunters, we
shall give the plan and other details of a
Design sent us by Mr. Perry, and executed
under his superintendence, for a gentleman
in the neighbourhood of Godalming. Fig.
794, to a scale of one sixteenth of an inch to
a foot, is the ground plan, in which a b are
two-stalled stables, each seventeen feet by
793
?92
791
790
w
Above
line C
are two rooms for any convenient purpose, m m.
D, in fig. 794, in which may be seen the mangers.
twelve feet six inches, and con-
taining mangers, c, of the width
of the stall, and quarter circle
upright racks, d, in the angles
of each stall. There is a com-
mon sasli window to each stable,
and near it an angle hay bin, e,
formed of boards, with a lid,
and capable of containing a
truss of hay. The two-horse
boxes, f f, are each twelve feet
six inches by nine feet six in-
ches, and have mangers, racks,
and hay bins like the stables.
There is an entrance lobby, g,
with stairs to the rooms over,
and this entrance has double
doors, as appears by the ele-
vation, fig. 795. Fig. 796 is
a longitudinal section from A
to B, in which are shown the
partitions between the stalls,
h h ; the mangers, i i ; the si-
tuation of the drains beneath,
k k ; and the openings in the
exterior walls for ventilation, 1 1.
Fig. 797 is a cross section on the
the racks, o o ; and the
S84> COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
794
rendlators, pp. Fig. 798 is a plan of the flouring of the rooms over the stables,
exhibiting the channels or
grooves in the walls, for
ventilation, q q ; and the
appearance of these open-
ings exteriorly is indicated
in the end elevation, fig.
799. Fig. 800, to a scale
of two thirds of an inch t<>
a foot, shows the manner
of finishing the eaves of
the roof; in which r is
the principal rafter, eight
inches by three inches at
bottom, and six inches by
three inches at top ; s. the
wall-plate ; t, the pole-
plate ; u, the upper rafter ; v, the eaves board ; w, the slate boarding ; x, the bracket ;
y, a bed-moulding ; and z, the soffit boarding. The stalls in this stable have level floors
and gratings similar to
those in fig. 776, § 752 ; 795
the floors of the boxes
are also level, and paved
with flag-stones, all of
which, except about
eighteen inches in width
round the box, are per-
forated with holes about
the fourth of an inch in
diameter at top, and
gradually widening to
the under side of the
stone, like the holes in
the tiles of a malt kiln.
The centre stone lifts up,
for the purpose of cleaning out the drain below.
756. Houses for Horned Cattle. The anatomical structure and physiology of horned
cattle are much less intricate
than those of the horse ; and 796
the animals are consequently
much hardier, and much less
liable to disease. They will
endure a greater degree of
cold in winter, and of heat
in summer ; and they require
less delicacy of management
in their lodging, either in
respect to space or ventila-
tion, than horses. No horse
could be kept in a stall for
months, without exercise in
the open air, and yet retain
his health ; but cattle have
been so kept till they have
been made sufficiently fat for
the butcher ; and milch cows have been kept in the neighbourhood of London, standing
in the same stall, without having been once taken out, for two years. (Encyc. of Ayr.,
'_'d edit. § 6SC8. ) It does not follow from this, however, that great improvement might
not be introduced into cow-houses and cattle-sheds ; and that exercise in the open air
would not add to the flavour and wholesomeness both of butcher's meat and dairy
produce: on the contrary, the cow-houses in Holland, and the cattle Lammels, or small
feeding yards, of Northumberland, may be referred to as proofs that this is actually
the case. The principal difference between a house in which cattle are tied up, and one
in which horses are either kept in stalls or in separate rooms, is the open gutter behind,
which has hitherto been considered indispensable in cattle-houses, on account of the more
fluid nature of the dung of the animals. This gutter, or some substitute for it, is
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES.
385
certainly essential where cattle are tied up ; and one of the principal points in the
construction of the floor, in every house for horned cattle, is, to place the gutter at
798
a proper distance from their hind feet. This distance, in Holland, is never less
than six inches, nor more than a foot. The gutter is generally made a foot broad,
and three or four inches deep ; it is usually perpendicular on the sides, but some-
times the cross section of the gutter is that of a semicircle or semioval ; which last
form is, however, objectionable, as it is apt to make the cattle slip when they cross it
to their stalls. Whatever be the form of
the section of the gutter, the hoe or scraper
employed to clean it out must have its blade
of a corresponding shape. In houses where
cows or cattle are kept untied, two or three
are generally placed together in an apartment
ten or twelve feet square, opening into a
small yard of twice that area. Such cattle-
houses are called, in Northumberland and
Berwickshire, hammels ; and in them there
is no regular gutter, but simply a very gentle
inclination of the floor of the shed and of
the surface of the yard to one angle, where
there are, or should be, a trap and drain, com-
municating with the liquid manure tank.
757. Cow-houses, in which cows are kept
for giving milk, require to be constructed with more care than other cattle-houses, with
respect to ventilation,
light, and cleanliness.
Cows on common farms
are not generally kept in
separate stalls, except
in cases of sickness, or
when they are near the
period of calving. The
width of a common farm
cow-house, where the
cows are to be ranged
lengthwise of the build-
ing, should be at least
sixteen feet, and the
width allowed for each
cow, of the largest and
most improved breed of
cattle, should not be less
than five feet, or, when
the cows are kept in-doors
throughout the year, six
feet ; and the space from
the manger to the gutter
should be eight or nine
S8G COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
feet The manger should he a hoarded, stone, or iron trough, placed so that the upper
edge may be from a foot to eighteen inches above the surface of the ground, or about
the height of the cow's knees ; and it may be eighteen inches broad, and a foot
deep. It should he divided into three parts, to admit of putting dry food in one,
moist food in another, and water in the middle. In default of this arrangement,
there ought to be a division of the manger for water between every two cows. Where
cows are not kept in separate stalls, there ought to be a partition between every two pair, to
reach half-way or more to the gutter behind. Between the manger and the wall there
should be a passage of at least three feet in width, for supplying food, and for cleaning
out the mangers from time to time. The gutter behind the cattle should be at least a
foot wide ; and this will leave a passage, between the gutter and the wall, of three feet in
width. There ought to be a door in one end of the foddering passage ; and, another as an
entrance for the cows, in the end of the broad passage. The food may either be kept in
an empty stall next the door, or, what is preferable, in a foddering bay, into which the doors
should open. In every cow-house there should be windows for light ; and there ought to be
tubes for ventilation in the side walls, or in the roof, similar to those recommended for
stables, to use when the windows cannot be conveniently opened. The cows may be
fastened to the front rail of the manger by a halter or chain passed through an iron
ring, and loaded at its lower end. The floor of the standing-room ought to be perfectly
level, because it is found that, when it is lower towards the gutter than at the manger, it is
apt to occasion abortion, when the cows are in a gravid state ; and, for the same reason,
the top of the manger or rack, if there is one, should never be higher above the floor
than eighteen inches. Morel- Vinde observes that the farmers of Normandy are so
particular in this respect, that they not only have their mangers and racks very low, but,
when the cows are turned out to grass, they always harness them with a bridle and
brechin (bricole Normande), in such a manner as to prevent them from tossing up their
heads, or reaching to the branches of trees.
758. A cow-house in which the cows are to stand across the building will afford the
same accommodation as that in which they stand with their heads against one of the side
walls, at less expense of walling ; because the foddering bay, which need not be larger in
this case than in the other, serves at the same time as a foddering passage. In these
foddering bays Waistell recommends that a cistern should be constructed, in order that
when the turnips are topped and tailed in the field, the cart which brings them home
may be backed into the bay, and the turnips tilted into the cistern, where, by stirring
them a little, the loose earth which adheres to them will readily drop off", and they may be
taken out of the cistern, and supplied as wanted to the mangers. This operation is per-
formed by means of a grated iron scoop with a long handle.
759. In the cow-houses of landed proprietors of taste, or in those of large establish-
ments near town, various improvements may be suggested on the above arrangements.
One of these is, to have a drain covered with oak planks pierced with holes or cast-iron
grates along the bottom of the gutter, for the purpose of allowing the urine and thin
dung to pass immediately through it, and be carried off, as was practised in the Harleian
dairy, near Glasgow ; thus diminishing smell and evaporation, and presenting at all times
an appearance of cleanliness. The gutter, in this case, may be very shallow ; and,
indeed, if a broom be now and then passed over the grating, so as to press all the dung
into it, it might be raised to a level with the floor, and the open gutter entirely dispensed
with. Grated bottoms to gutters, with drains underneath, are common in the cow-
houses of men of wealth in France and Germany ; where there is sometimes, as in the
king of Wirtemberg's dairy at Weill, a supply of water at one end of the gutter, always
ready to be turned on by a cock, every time it is cleaned. This is the case also in the
cow-houses of the Agricultural Institution at Schleissheim ; and it is found there not
only to keep the gutters sweet, but, by the obvious increase it affords of fluid matter in
the manure tank, to supply the means of rotting a greater quantity of straw in the
dunghill which is there kept over it, and moistened with the fluid beneath by means of
a pump. Another improvement is, having all the divisions in the manger, intended for
water, on the same level, by which means they may be simultaneously supplied by
turning a cock ; or the same thing may be accomplished, if they are on a uniform slope,
by sinking them six or eight inches below the general surface of the bottom of the
manger, and having a false bottom, or water channel, leading from one to another. In
this case, after the first division was filled, the water would run along the false bottom
or water channel and under that of the dry and moist food divisions of the manger, to
the next water division, and so on to the end. It must be confessed, however, that
supplying cattle with water in this way is a refinement that can only be worthy of
adoption in very extensive establishments ; for cattle, like all other animals, when
regularly fed, and properly treated, will only drink at stated periods after they have had
their due supply of solid food, and at these periods they could be let out to drink in the
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 387
open air. Water is supplied in the manner above mentioned at Rhodes's dairy, at
Islington (see Encyc. of Agric, 2d edit. § 6897.), where one division for water is
formed in the manger between every two cows ; and these divisions are furnished with
covers, which are put on when the cattle are eating dry food, to prevent them dropping
any of it into the water, and thus dirtying it. As abundance of light in every farm
building is highly favourable to cleanliness by exposing the want of it, large glass
windows might be formed in every description of house for cattle ; but these should
always be provided with outside shutters ; or, what is preferable, lufl'er-boarded outside
blinds, as recommended for stables, fig. 789, § 754, to keep off the intensity of the
light, and also the heat of the sun. These shutters or blinds should be opened whenever
the master or mistress may enter the building, or when it is to be cleaned out ; but at
other times they should generally be closed, as it must not be forgotten that light
stimulates the animals, and prevents their repose, while it favours the introduction of
flies and other insects, which are always very troublesome to cattle. In the royal
cow-houses at Bagatelle and at Villeneuve d'Etang, near Paris, the windows reach from
the floor to the ceiling, and open like those of a drawing-room. They have outside
shutter blinds, and hinged panes of glass at top and bottom, for giving air in the
winter season. The walls and ceilings are plastered, and finished as carefully as
those of a common dwelling-house in London ; and a person being constantly in
attendance to remove any dung that drops, the place is as clean and sweet as can be
desired. We speak of them as they appeared to us when we visited them in 1828.
In Flanders the cow-houses are equally clean and sweet ; and Radcliffe, in his Husbandry
of Fla?iders, informs us that, in the winter season, the farmers generally breakfast in
them : he adds that he did so himself, and found no inconvenience from either bad
smells or want of cleanliness. In general, indeed, cow-houses and cattle-houses, as
well as the animals themselves, are kept far cleaner and wholesomer on the Continent
than in Britain. In the Harleian dairy establishment, which existed some years ago
at Glasgow, some ingenious contrivances for cleanliness were introduced, which may
deserve imitation. In front of each cow, between the manger and the foddering
passage, a wire grating was suspended by cords and pulleys like a window-sash, which
was lifted up when food was given, or the mangers cleaned out. The racks for hay
were also suspended by cords, weights, and pulleys ; so that they could be pushed up
out of the reach of the cows, when moist food was put into the mangers. In the gutters
there were round apertures, of about six inches in diameter, with cast-iron covers fitted
to them at short distances, and through these the dung was swept into large drains
below, whence it was carried away by its fluidity to a dung-pit. The tails of the cows
were tied up to the ceiling at milking time, as in Holland, and they were regularly
combed and brushed twice every day. A stream of water could be introduced into the
mangers and gutters at pleasure, for the purpose of cleaning them, or for supplying
water to the cattle to drink. No litter was used, but the floors of the stalls were formed
of boards, and the gutters behind were furnished with grated bottoms, and openings
with covers, at intervals, as before mentioned. The temperature of these cow-houses
was regulated by a thermometer. We cannot approve of this plan of not littering the
cows, which is still adopted in some of the large dairies near London ; because it must
be more comfortable to the cattle to lie down on straw than on bare boards or pavement,
however smooth or clean either may be. Much less can we approve of the plan of not
turning cows out of doors at least once or twice a day for exercise : this is always done
on the Continent,' even in the winter season, unless during a heavy fall of snow, or
during continued heavy rain. Cows are universally cleaned like horses in Holland and
the Netherlands, and in all the first dairies both in France and Germany ; and the
Continental custom of tying up their tails at milking time, already mentioned as
practised by Harley, is beginning to meet with imitators in this country. Curry-
combing and brushing have long been in use in gentlemen's dairies. We mention
these things with a view of supplying the young Architect with ideas for the introduction
of these and still further improvements in the design and construction of this kind of
buildings ; since no Architect can improve the arrangements of a building, of which he
does not thoroughly understand the use ; and the mere improvement of its Architecture,
or external effect, without adding to its utility, is calculated to excite a feeling of
contempt, rather than of approbation or respect.
760. Calf-houses ought to be placed near the cow-houses, to lessen the labour of
carrying the milk to them ; but they ought never to be so near as to permit the cow to
see or even hear the calf; because either would disquiet her, and prevent her from
feeding. The best mode is to have a separate house for the calves, and to tie them up
to stakes like cows. The width of the space allotted for the calves need not be more
than eight feet, and it should be arranged in every respect like a cow-house in miniature.
Where calves are to be fed for the butcher, they are sometimes enclosed singly in
388 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
small pens, between six and seven feet square ; but this is an unnecessary expense when
the object is simply to rear the calf. In general, no arrangement is advisable by which
two or more calves are kept loose in the same pen ; because, so placed, they are apt to
suck one another, and also because milk or food cannot be given to more than one calf
at a time, and the others are liable to be injured while being driven off. As calves
require the greatest attention to keep them clean, all the architectural arrangements
connected with them ought to be especially directed to that end. The best constructed
call-pens in Middlesex have false bottoms of boards pierced with holes, through which
all moisture escapes, by which means they are kept quite dry ; and, by a little care on
the part of the attendant, they may also be kept perfectly clean and sweet.
761. Feeding-sheds for horned Cattle may be constructed on the same plan as cow-
houses, and the cattle placed in pairs between wooden, stone, or slate partitions. The
cattle may either be ranged along the side walls, with a foddering passage at their heads,
and a cleaning passage behind (the foddering bay being at one end, or at both ends) ;
or they may be ranged across the building, with bays for holding fodder, or serving as
passages for supplying it, alternating between every two rows of cattle. A house
sixteen feet wide and twenty-eight feet long will contain eight bead of average-sized
cattle, in a row, with their heads to a foddering passage three feet wide, at one of the
side walls ; and with a cleaning passage four feet wide behind them. A house thirty-
two feet long and fourteen feet wide will contain the same number of cattle, with their
heads towards a foddering bay, and place for giving fodder in the middle of the house,
eight feet wide. This last mode of placing the cattle is much more convenient than
the other, and though it contains four feet more of circumferential walling, yet, if we
make allowance, in the former case, for a building to contain the fodder, the latter will
be much the more economical as well as the more convenient mode.
762. Feeding-houses for loose Cattle. It has been found that many descriptions of
cattle, and particularly those bred up in mountainous districts, which are naturally small
and active, do not fatten so well when tied up in stalls, as when left loose in a limited
space, with a well-littered house or shed to take shelter in at pleasure. This is the
general practice in Northumberland, and in most parts of Scotland. The sheds or
houses may be fifteen or sixteen feet square, and fitted up with racks, either at the
angles or against the partitions. The open yards may be of the same size as the
covered sheds, with walls four feet high, and doors lifting out of grooves ; or in two
parts, with the upper half hinged, and the lower part fitted in a groove, so as to lift out.
The reason why it is proposed to fit the doors in grooves, or to have them in two parts
with the lower part grooved, is, that, in opening doors hinged in the common manner,
they are apt to be obstructed by the litter which generally, though improperly, covers
every farm-yard passage. In some Scotch farmeries, not only the doors of hammels
and pigsties lift out of grooves, but even the gates lift out in a similar manner, or are
suspended by weights with cords and pulleys, and are raised up and lowered like common
sash windows. All this is owing to the practice of keeping yards covered with litter ;
but, when the management of cattle and manure is properly understood, the former
will always be kept in houses or hammels, in order to moderate temperature ; and dung
and litter always under a roof, in order to lessen evaporation.
763. Feeding-places for growing Cattle are nothing more than open sheds fitted up
with racks, each having a court or yard of proportionate size to the shed ; that is,
containing three or four times its area. In general it is desirable to divide these yards
or sheds, so that not more than six or eight head of cattle may be together in the same
yard. Besides the rack in the shed, there ought to be fixed or portable racks, with roofs
to them, in the open yard. All cattle-racks ought to be placed on the ground : their
height need not exceed two feet and a half, and their width eighteen inches. The top
should have cross bars eighteen inches apart, to prevent the cattle from tossing out
the fodder, and the bottom should be grated, to alio* reeds, stones, dust, or other matter
to drop through on the ground.
764. Houses for working Oxen may either be fitted up like the cow-houses, or, what
is preferable, like the cattle hammels; a pair of oxen being allowed for inch hammel.
Whether oxen are kept loose in hammels or tied up in stalls, provision ought to be made
under cover, and near them, for hanging up their harness; and for keeping the curry-
combs and other instruments or utensils with which they are cleaned or fed. As it.
requires two pair of oxen to do the work of one pair of horses, on a farm where the ox
is the principal beast of labour, a proportionate increase of building is required ; and, in
general, also an additional labourer for every three or four pair, for the purpose of
cleaning them, and their stalls, harness, &c.
765. Piggeries. The swine is an inhabitant of all climates, and eats every kind of
food; but he is nevertheless averse from extremes of either cold or heat. Nature has
taught him, in a wild state, in the torrid as well as in the frigid zone, to seek the recesses
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES.
389
801
of the forest, both for food and shelter ; where, while grubbing up the soil for roots, lie
is protected, by an impenetrable non-conducting mass of branches and foliage, from the
heat of the one or the cold of the other. The domestic swine is in a highly artificial
state, and requires to be kept warm by abundance of dry litter in the winter ; and cool,
by shady well ventilated houses or sties in summer. Seeking his food chiefly in
the soil, he cannot be considered a delicate animal ; and he has few diseases compared
with either the cow or the horse. Uniformity of temperature, therefore, seems to be
the chief thing to be studied in the construction of piggeries. As pigs are generally
fed in great part with refuse from the kitchen and dairy, the piggeries should be so
placed in a farmery as to be accessible from the offices of the dwelling-house, without
passing through any of the straw yards, and at the same time not so near as to prove an
annoyance in summer by their smell. The construction of piggeries is exceedingly
simple, each pigsty consisting of a covered lodging, and a small open court ; the latter
for feeding and the former for sleeping in, in the case of store pigs ; though, for fattening
pigs, especially in winter, the feeding troughs are frequently placed in the covered or
warmest part of the structure. In a complete piggery for fattening pigs, there should
be, at one end, or in the middle, a bay or compartment for pig's food dry and moist ; and
on the two sides of a passage may be placed rows of separate sties ; each with its feeding-
trough in the side next the passage, and with a swing-door on the opposite side to a
small yard. The use of the swing door, which is nothing more than a frame of boards
suspended from a rail, the ends of which move in sockets freely either way between the
jambs of the door, is to prevent the door from ever being left open in severe weather.
When the pig wishes to go out, he soon learns to push it before him ; and the same
when he wishes to return. Fig. 801 is a section across a wall containing a pig's trough,
in which a is a swinging flap or door ; b b,
stops to prevent it from being pushed too
far either way ; and cc, holes for a bolt to fix
it in the position d, when the troughs are
to be filled with food, or to be cleaned; or
at e, when the pigs are to eat. The pigs,
however, will keep the flap open them-
selves while eating. This arrangement
is well calculated for fattening pigs, when
there is not more than one in a sty;
but for store pigs, or for a sow with a
litter, it is desirable to have a longer trough,
or to have two or more small troughs, as
the strongest pig is apt to get into the
trough while eating, to the exclusion of
the others. The floors of all pigsties
should have an inclination to carry the
moisture to a trap or drain ; and no animal
requires a greater abundance of dry litter.
If under a good roof, and well supplied '
with this material, the pig will keep
himself warm and comfortable, almost any where, and in any season.
766. Sheep-houses. The sheep is a native of temperate climates, where the ground
is Tiot long covered with snow during winter ; but it has become an artificial inhabitant
of all countries from Iceland to the equator. It is only in those countries where it
cannot pasture in the open air, from the snow covering the ground during some weeks at
a time, or where the extreme heat of summer burns up the herbage, that sheep-houses
ought to be required. There are, however, other cases, in which, from the imperfect
state of agriculture, and the absence offences to the fields, or from imperfect civilisation,
or the want of rural police, and the consequent prevalence of thieves and wolves, sheep-
houses become necessary for protecting the sheep during the night. Structures of this
kind are common in Russia, to prevent the sheep from being famished during the long
winters of that country; and in France they abound as nightly shelters to guard them
from the wolves. In Britain, folds, or walled enclosures, are almost the only description
of sheep-houses in use ; because our sheep can pasture in the open air during every month
in the year, and all our fields are enclosed by hedges, walls, or other barriers. In some
of the mountainous districts it becomes necessary to protect and feed the sheep during
severe storms ; and this is done in Scotland by square or circular folds, called stells, into
which the sheep are driven and fed. Sometimes these stells are roofed in, but in general
they are left open. The sheep-houses of France and Germany are simply roofs supported
by posts, and covering a space sometimes open on all sides, but generally closed to the
height of six or seven feet. Across, or lengthwise, in this space, hay-racks are placed ;
Urf
390 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
and, instead of side and end walls of masonry, there are generally wooden pales. The
roofs are made very high and steep, in order to acquire strength to bear, and inclination
sufficient for throwing off the snow, at the least possible expense of timber. As there is
no objection to numerous posts within, provided they be in the line of the racks, sheep-
houses of the largest dimensions may be constructed of pieces of timber not more than
ten or twelve feet long, or thicker than six inches. Sheep-houses, or folds for feeding
and housing sheep in bad weather, are, in England, Mr. Main observes, " square
enclosures erected in sheltered places, formed of an outside wall built of turves or other
materials, about six or seven feet high ; and all round the interior are lean-to thatched
sheds, supported on posts about four feet high. Against the back wall are racks for hay,
and troughs for chaff, bran, oats, or peas, &c. The middle of the fold is kept well littered
with straw ; and on one side of the gate there is a lock-up shed for keeping the provender.
These folds are usually about fifty feet square, and are no less serviceable to the flock in
bad weather, than to the farm in making great quantities of excellent manure." In the
north of Germany, and in Poland and Lithuania, there are immense sheep-houses of a
very simple construction, which nevertheless are exceedingly effective. A skeleton roof,
sometimes circular and sometimes oblong, is formed of long poles, chiefly young spruce fir
trees, with their lower ends inserted in the ground, and their points meeting at top ; across
these, smaller poles are fastened, not by nails or wooden pins, but by withy ties. The
whole is then covered, or thatched with branches of spruce fir. The doors and places
for ventilation are merely gaps, stopped up or opened according to the discretion of the
shepherd. These sheep-houses answer their purpose perfectly. They are sometimes
also used for sheltering cattle.
767. The Sheep-house at Celle,near St. Cloud, may be given as one of the most complete
in France. It was erected in 1 809, by Morel- Vinde, on his own estate, and the plan
published fourteen years afterwards, as of a construction which, during that period, had
given entire satisfaction. Long experience has convinced Morel- Vindt; that every sheep
in lamb, or with a lamb, to be at its ease, ought to occupy a superficies of ten square feet ;
that every full-grown sheep without a lamb requires a space of six feet ; that every ewe
requires a length along the edge of the rack and manger of one foot, in order to eat at
ease ; and that every ram with horns requires fifteen inches along the rack ; that the racks
are best when portable, that is, when they are capable of being taken down from the
posts on which they are hung, as shown in fig. 802 ; and, lastly, that in no case should
a sheep-house have a floor over it, the health of the sheep depending essentially on their
having a great height of open space over them. On these fundamental principles the
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES.
391
sheep-house at Celle was designed. Fig 803 shows the ground plan, in which a a a a
are douhle racks and mangers, like that shown in fig. 802, placed lengthwise in the
803
Ft. 6 3 0 6 12 IS 24 Ft.
middle of the building ; and b b a single rack and manger, continued round three sides.
There are three doors at one end, c c c. These doors may be seen shut in the elevation,
fig. 804; and the double and single racks may be seen in the cross section, fig. 805;
804 ^fs^ ^^^ 805
in this section, also, are seen two bull's-eye openings, d d, in the end, for ventilation, and
which are kept open at all times. Fig. 806 is the side elevation, in which are shown the
situation of small slidiug shutters, immediately under the eaves, at e e, and that of small
806
iyiiub^i UyV u-trtr
J,i | . / ^ u rru '^j iu
openings close to the ground, at f f, which have also sliding shutters, and which are for
the purpose of establishing a current of air on a level with the soil. Fig. 807 is a
807
longitudinal section, showing the framing of the roof. The dimensions of this sheep-
house are thirty feet in width, and seventy feet in length ; giving, exclusive of the space
occupied by the racks, eight parallelograms, marked from 1 to 8, in fig. 803, each thirty
feet by ten feet, and each containing sufficient room for thirty sheep in lamb, or fifty
without lambs. The racks cover a space of 370 superficial feet, exclusive of the 24,000
feet devoted to the sheep. The great merit of this structure is its economy ; it having
cost only £\\1 : 10s., which was mainly owing to the circumstance of its construction
requiring only short pieces of wood ; none of these exceeding twelve feet, or measuring
39^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
more than six inches on the side, as before mentioned. In France, wood which does
not exceed these dimensions sells at the same price as firewood.
768. Goat-houses are not in use in Britain ; but in France the celebrated manufacturer,
M. Ternaux, who introduced the Cachemire goat from Persia, keeps them in his grounds
at St. Ouen, near Paris, in the same description of houses as he does his sheep. In
similar houses deer might also be kept.
769. Rabbits may be kept in any dry house. Sometimes they are allowed to run at
large on the floor, and a range of boxes, eighteen inches high, and two feet broad, is
placed round it, at the foot of the walls, divided into compartments of two or three feet
in length, with one small door, a foot high and six inches wide, to each. On other
occasions, where there is a scarcity of room, or where rabbits are to be fed, they are kept
in tiers of boxes, one above another, called hutches. Each box or hutch, in this case,
has a "rated front, and behind, or at one side, an inner box or division, for the animal to
enter and repose. The size of this inner box may be a foot by eighteen inches, and
eighteen inches high ; and the size of the open part of the box may be a cube of eighteen
inches. The bars or spokes in front may be an inch square, and two inches apart. Two
of them ought to take out, for the purpose of putting in food, &c.
770. Poultry-houses require no particular form or magnitude ; because, the animal being
small in size, there is no necessity for accommodating the shape of the house to its par-
ticular figure. Both terrestrial and aquatic poultry agree in requiring a dry and rather
warm lodging ; and they differ, in that the web-footed birds all roost on a flat surface, while
gallinaceous fowls roost best at some height from the ground, on roundish horizontal rods
or rails, of a size suitable for being grasped by their claws, but neither perfectly round
nor perfectly smooth. All fowls, when in a state of incubation, require repose, to which
darkness is favourable as well as solitude ; and places where they can have these requisites
must be provided for them, as well as separate places for fattening them, to which also
solitude and darkness are congenial. Poultry of every description, while growing, are
exceedingly active, and, in an artificial state, require a considerable extent of yard to
enable them to take sufficient exercise for health. The variety of their food is also con-
siderable, including not only animal and vegetable matter, but even, as a help to digestion,
salt, sand, or small pebbles. As land poultry require a dry yard, so aquatic poultry
require ponds ; and, while the common hen will roost at the height of a few feet from the
ground, the turkey and peacock prefer the highest trees. It must be evident from this
variety in the nature of these animals, that every kind will require a separate house or
compartment of a building, and that this house or compartment should be in four
divisions ; one for rearing, another for keeping full-grown fowls, another for incubation,
and a fourth for feeding. For the first two of these houses or divisions, a yard for the
purpose of allowing the fowls to take exercise and pick up food is essential, and in this
yard there ought always to be an open shed for shelter from the sun or rain, abundance
of sand, and small pebbles ; and, for aquatic fowls, a large pond. The healthiest poultry
of every description are those which are well fed in their yards in the morning, and
allowed free exercise out of them the greater part of the day ; and the fattest poultry are
those which are confined in the dark, and not allowed to take any exercise. In all cases
where poultry have not the free use of a large yard, they should have troughs filled with
sand and small pebbles, placed so as to allow them to pick them when they choose, to
promote digestion. We have described, in the Encyclopedia of Agriculture, the mode ot
fattening geese and other poultry, as practised at Strasburg ; but it is too disgusting to wisli
for its adoption in any other country. These being the general circumstances connected
with domestic poultry for architectural purposes, they may be classed in the three fol-
lowing divisions: viz., the web-footed or aquatic, which must necessarily, for every kind
of treatment, be lodged on the ground floor ; the common cock and hen, which prefer the
floor above ; and the turkey, guinea fowl, and peacock, which roost in lofty open sheds,
or on trees. In small farms, therefore, all the different kinds of poultry may be lodged in
the same house. Ducks and geese, with the other kinds, while rearing, on the ground
floor ; common fowls, when full grown, and while in a state of incubation, on the middle
floor ; and the turkey, &c, above. One yard may answer for the whole, provided it be
sufficiently large, and contain a large pond. As warmth is highly conducive to the
prosperity of poultry, common fowls are frequently lodged above cow-houses or stables,
or even pigsties ; and in other cases, when it is very desirable to cause hens to lay early in
the season, their houses are heated by flues. When, however, the house is of a construction
well calculated to retain heat, and it is perfectly dry below, and has few openings above,
and a roof sufficiently thick to exclude all frost, artificial heat can very seldom be
necessary. When it is desired to rear chickens for sale very early in the season, the eggs
may be batched by hot water, or in a bed of tan, dung, leaves, or other fermenting
matter ; and, after being hatched, they may be reared under a roof of glass, which roof
may be employed in the summer season as a covering for vines. At Bagshot Park,
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 393
Surrey, there is :i very extensive poultry establishment ; and early in the season the fowls
are reared in a vinery; and a writer in the Gardener's Magazine (vol. viii.) not only
rears, but hatches, in a house of the same description. In the centre of the large yard at
Bagshot there is a tree partially denuded of its branches, in order that it may serve as a
roosting-place for the turkeys. In every poultry-house the places for incubation are small
stalls or boxes, eighteen inches or two feet square, and open in front, in which the fowls
sit on their eggs; and, after these are hatched, they are taken out into the yard, and the
mother is confined in what is called a coop, an inverted cup of wickerwork, with the
interstices large enough to allow the young brood free egress and ingress, while the
parent cannot escape. These coops arc frequently boarded on all sides, with a grated
door opening in front. Partridges, pheasants, quails, bustards, and other gallinaceous
birds are sometimes bred and reared in artificial structures, with a view to their domes-
tication or increase in any particular locality. When this is the case, it is necessary to
enclose them above and on all sides by netting, to prevent their flying away ; because
these birds are not susceptible of perfect domestication.
771. The Pigeon-hotise, or Dovecote, has been an appendage of the country-house from
the earliest ages ; and nothing can be more simple or universally known than its structure.
The only essential requisite is, that it must be at some distance from the ground ; because
the pigeon is a bird that flies much higher than any of the domesticated fowls before
mentioned. The openings for the birds may be in the roof, or in the highest part of the
side walls, with shelves before the holes for the birds to alight on ; and the walls of the
interior may be lined with boxes, divided into square holes, for the birds to make their
nests in ; in short, into pigeon-holes.
772. The Farmery Infirmary is simply a house, or one or more divisions of one, in a
quiel part of the farmery, large enough to contain a horse or cow in each division, and
to serve as lodgings for animals under a course of medicine. Dryness and a command of
temperature and ventilation are essential.
773. The Store-houses for the Produce of the Farmery include the barn; the straw-
house ; the granary ; the root-house ; the hay-barn ; the maize-barn ; the place for
keeping pigs' food ; the wool, hair, and feather room ; the hop-loft ; and the loft for
miscellaneous products.
774. The Barn combines a manufactory and a storehouse, and is to the farm-yard,
in the former capacity, what the kitchen is to a human dwelling ; that is, it manufactures
a great part of the food consumed in the other apartments or divisions of the premises.
Formerly the corn barn was much larger than it has become necessary to have it since
the introduction of threshing-machines. It should still, however, be of considerable size,
so as to contain a rick of unthreshed corn of the size that such ricks are generally made
on the farm. The size of the ricks, and the size of that part of the barn which is to con-
tain the unthreshed corn, should be accommodated to each other; and the size of that
part of the barn which is to contain the straw after it has been threshed, if the straw-
room is not a separate building, should be accommodated to both. The form of the barn
should, in almost every case, be a parallelogram, and at least twenty feet wide, with walls
twelve feet high. The length will depend chiefly on the size of the ricks, and it is
always most economical to have these small ; not only because a small barn costs much
less than a large one, but because both grain and straw are sweeter, and more relished
by cattle, when recently threshed from the rick, than when they have been long kept in
a barn, granary, or straw-room. Where the expense is not an object, it is desirable to
have a room, as a granary, over that part of the barn which contains the machinery for
threshing, and the room for cleaning up and measuring the corn. Into this granary the
corn, as measured and put into sacks, may be hoisted up through a trapdoor by a wind-
hiss, with a rope and pulley. The position of the barn relatively to the other buildings
of the farm-yard, depends on the position of the stables, and cattle-houses; it should
always adjoin or be central to them, and be close to the rick-yard. Where the thresh-
ing-machine is to be driven by horses or steam, the barn may be set down on whatever
side of the farmery is thought best for it ; but where it is to be driven by water, local
circumstances must often determine its position. In general, as the buildings of a farmery
form a shelter to the cattle-yard, and as the barn is the highest of these buildings, it
should be placed on that side from which the coldest winds blow ; and this is also favour-
able for its proximity to the rick-yard, which ought to be in the most windv situation,
for drying the corn when it is newly stacked. There is another reason for placing the
barn on the most airy side of the farm-yard, which is, that when the threshing-machine
is driven by horses, they are less apt to be heated in the track-shed, which should always
be as open as possible on all sides. Wind machinery is also sometimes employed for
driving a threshing-machine; and, when that is the case, the north side of the farmery is,
in Britain at least, still the best situation. The most desirable power for driving a
threshing-machine is water ; and the next, in a coal country, steam.
TT
394.
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
808
775. A Corn Bam »" Posts was erected by Morel- Vinde, at (Vile. St. Cloud, in 1812;
and the plan and details of it are given in his excellent work. He observes, that though
the construction of a barn on posts is necessarily more expensive than one the floor of
which is the ground, yet that it does not cost more than one third of a barn of the same
size built of masonry, while it is a great deal better, especially in countries where timber
is at a low price. When Morel- Vinde's work was published, the barn at Celle had
stood twelve years without undergoing any alteration, or requiring the slightest degree
of repair] and without a single mouse or rat ever having been seen in it. The great
advantage of this barn is that of preserving the straw always as fresh as if it had just
come from the flail : he has preserved it one and even two years, without its undergoing
the slightest damage. The saving from the ravages of rats and mice, produced by such a
barn, is found by experience to be more than fifteen per cent ; and, compared with barns
built of masonry, there is also another saving, that of being able to fill it with corn the
first year ; whereas a barn with stone or brick walls requires a year to dry them. , The
wood of which this barn is composed was not felled on the 25th of March, 1812, and yet
the barn was completed by the 25th of June in the same year ; and in the harvest follow-
ing 15,000 sheaves of wheat were put into it. The only kind of wood employed in this
barn is that of the Lombardy poplar, with the exception of the posts, two feet high,
which are of oak ; it is covered with slates ; and the whole cost was only £\ 82 : 5s. : lOd.
in the neighbourhood of Paris. In the departments of France, the cost is estimated at
.£109 : 7s. : 6d. Fig. 808 is the ground plan, on one half of which are shown three sleepers
the whole length of
the structure, a a a,
which support the
joists, b b, on which
is laid the plank-
ing, c. Fig. 809 is a
cross section of fig
808 on the line A B,
on which are shown
the threshing-floor,
d ; a floor over it,
e, and the suspend-
ed fold-up steps, f.
Fig. 811 is a cross
section of fig. 808,
on the line C D,
showing that there
is no second floor over any part of the barn, but the
threshing-floor, as seen in the preceding figure. Fig.
810 is an elevation of one end, showing the cross braces,
which are only placed in the ends and sides. Fig.
812 is a side view in which may be seen the threshing-
floor, g ; the end of the floor over it at h ; and, in the
roof, four small openings for the escape of the wind
during stormy weather, to prevent its blowing off the roof
The sideview of these openings is seen in fig. 811. Fig. 813 is a longitudinal section, showing
the cross braces which strengthen the upright posts, and the construction of the roof.
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES.
812
395
813
776. In the Con-
struction of the Corn
Barn at CeJle, the
object was to enclose
a space fifty-five feet
long, twenty-two feet
broad, and twenty-
two feet high,without
taking into calcula-
tion the space con-
tained in the angle
of the roof, which
was eleven feet high
in the centre, the
angle of the side being
at forty-five degrees,
for the better throw-
ing off of the rain.
Numbers divisible
by 11 were made
choice of, because
experience has shown that eleven feet is the maximum of length which can be given to
beams placed horizontally, without risking their bending. The fifty-five feet of length are
therefore divided into five bays, which are contained between six frames of carpentry, placed
eleven feet apart, and of which two form the gables at each extremity. Eighteen founda-
tions of masonry are built in the angles of ten
squares (see fig. 808), each eleven feet on
the side, and carried up fifteen inches above
the surface, in order to support eighteen stone
plinths, on which are placed eighteen oak
posts, two feet high and one foot square, fixed
to the stone by oak pins one inch square
and two inches long, which are let half way
into the post and halfway into the stone, with
tenons at their upper extremities for being
mortised into the sleepers. By these means
the eighteen pillars are raised to the height
of three feet from the surface of the ground ;
the two lower feet are covered with slates,
as shown in fig. 814 from i to k, and the
foot immediately under the joists is covered
with twelve panes of window glass, each a
foot square, retained in their places by two
small fillets of wood at k and I, to which they
are cemented at the upper and lower edges
only, and without any finishing at the angles.
The glass is to prevent the ascent of rats.
7
396 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
On the eighteen pillars, presenting on their upper extremities eighteen tenons, is placed,
iirst a frame of carpentry composed of three sleepers the whole length of the structure,
which may be easily cut out of trees of Italian poplar; and, secondly, six sleepers of
twenty-four feet long each, crossing the three long sleepers, and let into them by notch-
ing out each to the depth of one third. The three long sleepers contain, on their
under sides, mortises to receive the tenons of the oak pillars, and these are made fast by
wooden pins. On this frame is placed the skeleton of the building, which is rendered
plain by the sections and elevations represented in fig. 809 to 813. The skeleton of the
superstructure consists of twelve upright posts, each twenty-two feet high, framed into
two top plates extending the whole length of the barn, and into six cross plates. This
framework completes the skeleton of the rectangular part of the building. The roof is
composed of twelve principal rafters, on which are placed two purlins ; and on these rest
the secondary rafters, to which are nailed
the laths for receiving the slates. The
eaves of the roof project about four feet
on each side, to protect the unthreshed
corn or straw from the rain ; it also projects
about two feet at each end, for the same
purpose. This is the more necessary as
the sides are not covered with boards. All
the joinings of the timbers in this building
are by tenon and mortise, and all the pins
used are of wood, with the exception of
t hose employed for nailing on the laths for
receiving the slates, and the nails used in
fastening them. With these exceptions,
there is not a single piece of iron in the
whole of this structure ; and there is no
other metal used, except four pieces of
lead for the four openings in the roof. In
order to make certain of excluding the
rats and mice, by rendering it impossible
that the thresher should ever forget to
turn up the folding stair when he leaves
his work, two chains or ropes are attached
to it, one on each side, counterbalanced
by heavy weights, as shown at m, in fig.
815. In case of the roof requiring repairs,
twenty-four hooks of iron may be placed
at equal distances along the ridge, to which
the slater's ladder may be hooked on.
Instead of painting or tarring the timber
work, it may be covered, on the exterior
sides, with slates. We examined this barn
and the other buildings at Celle, with
M. Bailly de Merlieux, in 1828, and were
highly gratified with it. We consider it
a model for economy and usefulness, and
would strongly recommend it to the
American farmer.
777. The Straw-house is generally the
end of the barn opposite to that in which the unthreshed corn is placed ; but in large
farms it forms a separate building, adjoining and connected with the barn, and opening
into the different cattle-houses and cattle-yards.
778. The Granary, where the barn is not sufficiently high to admit of its being placed
in the roof, is commonly placed over the cart-shed, or some other building. It is some-
times built apart ; but this is a needless expense, and seldom incurred in wooden construc-
tions. A detached granary should be built on pillars with projecting caps, to prevent
the ascent of rats and mice ; and it should have windows filled in with luffcr-boarding
on all sides, for thorough ventilation ; it should generally be placed exterior to the cattle-
yards, in any open situation not far from the barn. When the granary is placed over
any other building, it is always convenient to have a windlass fixed in it ; either im-
mediately over a trap-door in the floor, or over a door in the outside wall ; through the
first of which, sacks of grain may be hoisted up from the corn-room of the barn, should
the granary be placed over it ; in the other case, be raised up from, or let down into,
a cart.
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES.
397
816
779. A Granary with a Loft for Wool above, and a Cart or Implement Shed beneath
it, is given by Morel- Vinde, which, where economy of room and money is an object, we
(■(insider a most ex-
cellent model. The
material of construc-
tion is entirely timber
of small dimensions,
no piece in the whole
structure exceeding
ten feet in length ;
and only the story
posts, or supporting
pillars, are so much
as nine inches square.
Fig. 816 is the ground
plan of the cart-shed
or ground floor, fifty
feet, by thirty feet.
The height to the under side of the floor above is ten feet. The two longitudinal sides of
this plan are carried up perpendicularly as gables, and the two ends are hipped in at an angle
of forty-live degrees, as shown infigs.818 and819. The granary floor is of the same dimen-
sions as the ground floor, and the wool floor, fig. 817, which is above the granary, is thirty-
feet by thirty feet. The granary and the wool-room are both seven feet high. The grain
and wool are both taken up and let down through a trapdoor, by means of a windlass fixed
over it, as shown at a, in the plan of the wool room. Fig. 818 shows the longitudinal
elevation of the building, in which may be observed three doors to the corn granary, and
one door to the loft over it. Fig. 819 is a longitudinal section through the centre of the
building, showing the situation of the windlass, b ; and the pulley over which the rope
passes, a. Fig. 820 is an end elevation, and fig. 821 a cross section. The total expense
of this structure, in the neighbourhood of Paris, in 1819, was .£247, and the estimate
for the departments of France was £ 150. Such a building is admirably calculated for
a country where small timber is the cheapest building material ; and we have introduced
it with a particular view to America and Australia, as it might be put up by the very
commonest description of country carpenter. The granary might even be used as a
hay-loft, or a loft for maize or Indian corn in the ear, and the wool-room may be
employed as a granary or seed-room, according to local circumstances. By means of
398
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
the trapdoors and windlass, any article might be hoisted up from or let down into carte
with very little labour or loss of time. Shoidd it be intended, before creating this
S20
nrra^rrTT^-^-rrn
building, to use the granary as a hay-loft, or hay-barn, the floor need not be laid with
boards.
780. Storehouses for Roots, such
as potatoes, turnips, mangold-
wurtzel ; and temporary deposit-
aries for clover, tares, or other green
food, or for chaff, hay, or other dried
food, should be placed next to the
houses or yards of the animals
which are intended to be fed by
them. In form they should either
be squares or parallelograms, as
giving most space at least expense.
They should have ample doors, ge-
nerally of such a width as to admit
of setting back a loaded cart into
them, and shooting down the article
to be stored up. Food which is to be consumed immediately in feeding cattle, such
as green clover, tares, turnips, &c, may also be laid down at once in proper recesses
or stores formed in the houses or sheds in which the cattle stand. Food which is to be
steamed, or otherwise prepared, before it is given to cattle, should be stored next to the
place of preparation.
781. A Barn for Hay is used on some farms, though the practice is given up by the
best farmers as too expensive, and as being less favourable for keeping the hay than
stacks or ricks in the open air.
782. A Barn for keeping the Ears of Maize is sometimes required in countries where
that corn is grown upon a large scale. Barns of this description should be made quite
narrow, and open on the sides, so as to admit a thorough current of air ; and, to prevent,
the weight of the cars above from compressing those below, there should be horizontal
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES.
399
821
floors of open work on which the corn may be borne in separate layers. A small
maize-barn on this construction, and
supported on posts six feet from the
ground, has been erected by M. Mathieu
de Dombasle, at Roville, near Nancy.
783. A Store Place for Pigs' Food
is a most useful part of a large farmery,
which never can be properly conducted
without keeping pigs. It ought to be
a dry well-aired room, near the pig-
geries, and should be of considerable
size, so as to have two tubs or tanks for
liquid food, the one being always (illing
while the other was emptying, after
the contents had undergone proper fer-
mentation ; and three or four divisions,
for different kinds of meal and other dry
food. The situation should be close to
the pigsty, so as to minimise the trouble of supplying their troughs.
784. Storehouses for Hair, Wool, and Feathers should generally be formed in dry
airy lofts ; and, as nothing is more offensive or unwholesome than the decomposition of
these materials, no one, as before observed (§ 711), ought to be allowed to sleep, or to
work for any length of time, in such places.
785. The Storehouses for the Machinery and Implements of the Farmery include the
cart and roller shed, the plough and harrow house, the house for hand implements, the
harness-room, the chaise-house, and the place for miscellaneous articles. Of several of
these it is unnecessary to say any thing.
786. Storehouses for portable Machinery and Implements should be placed apart from
the houses for live stock ; and they should not, if it can be avoided, open into a yard
in which cattle or swine are at large. The sheds for carts and wsggons are generally
left open in front; and, when this is the case, they should face the east, in preference to
the west, from which driving rains are to be expected ; and the north, rather than the
south, because the intense heat of the sun is apt to warp the wood, and occasion a
shrinking in the joints. Houses for smaller tools should have closed doors, and luffer-
boarded windows for better ventilation, and their floors should always be perfectly dry
and free from litter. In general small implements should be hung up, or supported at
some distance from the floor, that they may be kept drier and more airy ; and those of
iron should be placed horizontally rather than vertically ; because it is found that in the
latter position they become in time magnetised, and more apt to rust and decay at their
extremities.
787. A Harness-room, for harness not in use, should also be a dry airy loft, or other-
wise a room on the ground floor, with a fireplace to admit of occasionally drying and
ventilating it by artificial heat.
788. The Working-houses of the Farmery, besides the barn already mentioned, include
the slaughter-house ; the carpenter's shop ; the smith's shop and shoeing-house ; and a
room for pickling wheat, cutting potatoes, carrying on various miscellaneous works, See.
789- A Slaughter-house is necessary in a farmery of considerable extent, as it will
always be found profitable for a farmer to kill as much of the meat used on his farm as
possible. This part of the farmery should face the north : it should be well ventilated,
but without admitting light, because darkness tends to exclude the flies. The floor
should be paved, and have a sink and trap communicating with a manure tank.
790. A Room for a Smithy, and another for a Carpenter's Shop, are required in very
extensive farmeries ; and they should generally be placed so as to open into a small yard
devoted to the different materials used by the carpenter and smith, and to machines
and implements undergoing repair, &c.
791. A Room of All-v:ork is necessary in every farmery, whether small or large, and
it may generally adjoin the slaughter-house. In it there should be a boiler for preparing
drinks for sick cattle, or for supplying hot water for other purposes. Wheat may be
pickled or brined, and other seeds prepared, in this room ; harness cleaned, tools sharpened
on a grindstone, chaff or roots cut by machinery, malt ground, &c.
792. Ree-houses are seldom requisite, where bees are kept, unless for the purpose of
preventing the hives from being stolen ; and this Huish and other writers propose to do by
chaining them to the bee-stand. A bee-house is very conveniently formed in the end
or side of any building, or in a wall, facing the south-east, east, or south. There should
be a recess, or a projection formed so as to give the effect of one ; and in this recess there
should be shelves of stone or boards, eighteen inches broad, and from eighteen inches *o
400 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
two feet one above another. In front there may be either a grated iron door, or several
horizontal iron bars, to lock, so as to permit the free ingress and egress of the bees to and
from their hives, and yet prevent any person from taking them out.
793. Dogkennel. A watchdog is common to most farmeries, and the shepherd's
dog is a valuable assistant where Hocks of sheep are kept. The proper position for the
watchdog is the middle of the open area between the farm house and the farm-yard,
in order that the dog may have a complete view of the yard, and be seen both from the
yard and house, as well as by all strangers who approach either. The lodging-place for
the dog is commonly a roofed wooden box with an opening only on one side, the
consequence of which is, that he may be passed by persons on the other sides without
his seeing them. We would suggest the idea of raising the dogkennel eighteen
inches or two feet, by placing it on a knoll sloping on every side, and of having two or
three panes of glass on each side, that he may see every way around him. To enable
the dog to lie in his kennel with comfort during hot weather, we would form two openings
the whole length of the sides of the kennel, close under the eaves of the roof, by means
of hinged flaps, which could be let down during summer, and put up and fastened with
wooden buttons in severe weather. Kennels for dogs kept for field sports belong to the
subject of villas.
794. A Lodge for single Men sometimes forms a part of farmeries, and should always
consist of one large well lighted and comfortable room for cooking and eating ; and
another, also large, dry, and well ventilated, for sleeping in. These rooms ought to be
placed near to the stables and cattle-sheds ; and perhaps it might not be amiss, in some
eases, to have speaking pipes from the stables and cattle-houses to the men's bed-room,
in order that they might the more readily hear any noise made there in the night-time.
Near London, where farms are liable to be robbed, we have known the farmer have a
speaking or hearing pipe, communicating from his bed-room to his dogkennel, and also
?. wire connected with his dog's collar, by means of which he could loose the animal,
without moving from his bed. Mr. Ackermann, the celebrated printseller, has a
contrivance somewhat similar, in his villa near Fulham.
795. Cottages and Gardens for married Servants are built in the neigbourhood of the
farmery, in all the large farms in the north of England and in the south of Scotland.
Sometimes they form part of the farmery, but in general they are 200 or 300 yards
apart from it. The convenience of proximity is, however, so great, that we think the
distance should be diminished rather than increased. These cottages, in Scotland more
particularly, are very wretched habitations, even on the most extensive and best cultivated
farms. In 1831, we examined some farm labourers' houses of this description on a very
large and admirably cultivated farm, on the Duke of Buccleugh's estate in Dumfriesshire.
The dwelling-house on this farm ( Cumroo) is more than usually large, with two rooms
in its width ; a part of its exterior wall is covered with well trained and wide-spreading
fruit trees ; and there is an excellent kitchen-garden, well stocked, and apparently in
good order, in which, when we saw it, a professed gardener (judging from his blue
apron) was at work ; so that the whole, had it not been for the farm-yard behind, might
very easily have been taken for a mansion residence. Passing this house, and advancing
about half a furlong, we came to a row of fourteen cottages, occupied by yearly servants
of the farmer who resided at the large house, and who, we were told, came from the
best-cultivated district in Scotland, East Lothian. Observing that to every door in this
row of cottages there was but one window, we entered one of them, and found a woman
sitting at a table, writing a letter (which seemed in a very good hand for a person in
her rank in life), while she rocked the cradle with her foot. The room, which comprised
the whole cottage, was about fourteen feet square, without a ceiling, and open to the roof;
the floor was of earth, and the walls were left rough, just as the stones were put together
in building, but whitewashed: there was a fireplace, but only one fixed window of four
small panes. In this room there were two box-beds, placed end to end, and, behind, a
space of about two feet in width for fuel and lumber. The furniture and utensils,
though scanty, were clean and neat ; more especially when contrasted with the floor,
which, underneath the box-beds, which have no valances, was of earth, quite loose, though
near the fire were laid some flat stones, which the woman said her husband had picked
up and put down himself. The cottage window, as already observed, was fixed, and
incapable of opening to give air. There was no back door, and no opening either in
the roof or walls for ventilation, except the entrance door and the chimney. There was
no appendage, nor garden ground of any sort, behind these cottages ; but across the
road, in front of them was a narrow strip of ground, divided so as to allow one fall
(thirty-six yards square) to each cottage. In these gardens was no structure of any
kind. {Card. Maq. vol. viii. p. 265.) There are few of the houses of married farm-
servants in Scotland any better than those at Cumroo, where they are built by the
tenants; but we hope that the time may not be far distant, when the landlords will
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 401
undertake this part of the farmery, as well as those buildings which are destined to
lodge cattle, or protect produce or implements ; which are now deemed of so much
more importance than the cottages, that their erection is not intrusted to the farmer.
796. By the Extra-Buildings of a Furmety are to he understood those which do not
belong strictly to agriculture ; but which, nevertheless, are to be found on particular
farms, and the businesses for which they ate calculated carried on by the farmer, as well
as the common culture of the farm. This practice is, no doubt, at variance with the
principle of the division of labour ; but as it does exist in many cases, and must
necessarily long continue to do so in new countries, we cannot avoid shortly noticing
such extra-buildings, in a work addressed to occupiers of land, and dwellers in the country
generally. They may be included under corn mills, malt-houses, hop oasts or kilns,
cider-houses, kilns for drying corn or other seeds, and for general purposes, limekilns,
houses for manufacturing meal from potatoes, distilleries, beet root sugar manufactories,
&c. We shall shortly describe the most common of these, and sush as are most closely
connected with general agriculture. The reader whose situation may render him par-
ticularly interested in any of those not noticed in this work will find every information
he could wish, accompanied by plans, sections, and details, in the Dictionnaire Techno-
loffigue, and in the Ayricvlteur Manufacturier ; the latter one of the most scientific
agricultural periodicals published in France.
797. Corn Mills are of various kinds ; the principal of which are those for grinding
or husking oats, barley mills, and flour mills. The first class is sometimes connected
with the threshing-machine ; more especially in Scotland, where it is driven by water, or
impelled by steam. The farm in this case is always small, seldom exceeding 100 acres;
and, as the occupier's attention is divided between his mill and his land, he rarely succeeds
either as a miller or a farmer. Still we see no reason why an active intelligent man,
with sufficient capital, might not excel in both, and thus secure to himself the profits of
the grower, as well as those of the manufacturer, of corn. The same observation may
be made with respect to barley and flour mills ; and, no doubt, will apply to a variety of
others which are used for manufacturing farm produce.
798. Malt-houses. The manufacture of malt being a much more simple process than
that of grinding meal or dressing flour, a malt-house is a very common appendage to the
farm-yard in the barley districts of England. A malt-house and kiln comprehend three
divisions ; a floor, or place for steeping the barley, and managing it, till it has germinated ;
a kiln for drying it, to check vegetation ; and an airy loft for cooling it, and rendering it
so dry as to admit of its being put up in sacks, without the risk of its undergoing fer-
mentation in them. The floor for germinating the corn may be level with the surface
of the ground ; or, if the soil be dry, it may be three or more feet below it, as, the warmer
and moister the atmosphere is, the better it will be for the vegetative process: to be carried
on. One end of this room should contain a cistern for steeping the barley ; and near it
should be a pump for supplying water. The barley, when the process is completed, is
thrown out on the floor, and turned over till it has sufficiently germinated. It is now
ready to be put on the kiln ; and, after being properly dried there, it is spread out on the
floor of the loft, which is generally over the malting-room, and of the same size ; being
thoroughly ventilated by having luffer-boarding on both sides. The building containing
the kiln may be advantageously placed at that end of the malting-room which is opposite
to the end containing the cistern ; and the floor of the kiln, and that of the upper or drying
room, ought to be on the same level, for the convenience of throwing out the malt to
be cooled and dried. The common form of all kilns is that of an egg, with the broad
end uppermost ; or of two inverted cones, placed base to base, the floor for drying on
being formed where the diameter of the shape so produced is broadest. The fire is made
at the bottom of the kiln, and the smoke from the fuel, and the vapour from the articles
drying, are allowed to rise directly through the floor above it, and to pass off by a chimney
covered with a cap or cowl, mounted on an upright shaft, and furnished with a pivot, so
as to turn freely with the wind, and present the opening for the emission of smoke and
vapour always on the sheltered side. This form of kiln and mode of management are
still continued in Aberdeenshire, and in other parts of the north of Scotland ; and the
malt made there takes a particular flavour according to the kind of fuel used. The
malt most in repute is what has been dried with birch wood. In England the fuel used
is most generally wood, coke, or Welsh coal ; none of which produces a smoke injurious
to the flavour of the malt, so that the heated air which arises from the fire is allowed to
pass directly through it. The principal modern improvement in the construction of
malt-kilns consists in the employment of a furnace and flues, in the lower part of the
kiln, by which common coal, or any description of fuel, may be burned there ; and heated
air, being generated on the sides of the furnace and around the flues, ascends through
the malt, instead of the combination of air and smoke which issues from an open fire.
The sides of malt-kilns are of masonry, and the drying-floor is commonly formed of cast-
u u
402 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
iron plates, sixteen inches square, and three eighths of an inch or half an inch thick,
pierced with holes an inch apart, half an inch in diameter on the under side, and con-
tracted to the eighth of an inch on the upper side. Sometimes tiles pierced in the same
manner are used instead of iron plates ; and a kiln tile, about a foot square, ought to
contain 900 or 960 small holes. Whether tiles or plates are used, in either case they
rest loose on wrought-iron rafters, with a narrow rib along the middle of the upper edge,
which forms two rabbets for receiving the plates or tiles. Wirecloth, supported by iron
rafters, is used occasionally, but it is found not to be sufficiently durable ; or perforated
sheet iron may be employed. This last material was formerly almost exclusively used
for drying pale malt, but it is now found that with cast-iron plates or tiles, like those
above described, the malt may be made pale or brown at pleasure. The space between
the floor tiles and the top of the furnace or Hues is commonly between five and six feet :
this space is called, in Norfolk, the dunge, and into it fall the chives or cooms which, in the
process of turning and drying, are rubbed off the malt; and these form an excellent manure,
under the name of malt dust, as well as a good mash for sick cattle. The proportions of
the openings on the top of the kiln, and for admitting air to be heated over the furnace,
relatively to the area of the surface of the kiln, are points rather difficult to adjust. For
a kiln twenty-seven feet square, a circular opening at top, of about five feet in diameter,
will generally be found sufficient; and the area of the openings on each side of the
furnace and flues, for the admission of cold air to be heated, must, when united, equal
that of the opening at top. These openings for the admission of the external air should
have regulators of sheet iron balanced by weights, so as to adjust the draught according
to the heat, and the state of the malt. A great improvement has been lately effected in
some of the Norfolk malt-kilns, by the dismissal of that unsightly and expensive appendage,
the cowl, before-mentioned, as being placed over the orifice at top. This cowl, until of late
years, was deemed an indispensable part of every malt-kiln ; but to Mr. Salmon of Stoke-
ferry is due the merit of the discovery that it may be wholly dispensed with. In lieu of
them this gentleman substitutes a flat circular canopy of sheet iron, supported on iron
rods. By this improvement, not only the exterior deformity is got rid of, but also two
large interior beams ; the one forming a guide, and the other a base and pivot for the
upright axle of the cowl. In a country like Britain, where malt is heavily taxed, there
are necessarily a variety of observances having reference to the duties of the excise officers,
which occasion some peculiarities in the details of construction ; such, for example, as the
malt couch, dry cistern into which the malt is thrown from the steeping cistern, before it
is spread on the floor, in order to be gauged ; but these we leave unnoticed at present,
as unconnected with general principles.
799. Hop- Oasts, or Hop-Kilns, are constructed much in the same manner as the malt-
kilns ; and the principal modern improvement which has been made in them, that of sub-
stituting hot air cockles for open fireplaces, is common to both. In the old plan of the
hop-oast, the fire was made on a grating at the bottom of the kiln, with what is called a
spark plate (a broad plate of cast iron, to reflect back the sparks, and prevent their
reaching up to the hops) placed at the distance of a few feet over it. Instead of being
laid on a perforated floor of iron or tiles, hops are almost always dried on haircloths.
These are supported on a floor formed of wooden spars or laths, about two inches and a
half square, and nailed, two inches apart, to wooden joists. The haircloth is laid upon
this floor, and its edges round the sides of the kiln are hung up by loops, to prevent the
hops from falling over into the fire-chamber below. The form and size of hop-kilns vary,
but they are generally built square, as being most suitable for covering the drying-floor
with a cloth ; and the ordinary size of a drying-floor for a hop ground of two statute acres
and a half, is eleven feet on the side. This size will dry three changes of hops in twenty-
tour hours. The floor of the kiln ought to open into a loft on the same level, into which
the hops are thrown to cool. In one part of this loft is a circular hole, about two feet
in diameter, with an iron rim round it, on which is placed the hoop to which the mouth
of the bag or pocket in which the hops are to be packed is sewed. This bag hangs down
through the floor into the place below, which may be a cow-shed, or, as it is very fre-
quently in Worcestershire, a cider-house ; and a man gets into it and treads down the
hops as they are thrown in to him. The fuel which is used for drying hops, when the
smoke is allowed to pass through them, is coke ; and that made from very sulphureous
coal is preferred, as tending best to preserve the colour of the hops. In the management
of hops in Britain, there are a variety of arrangements connected with the kibi and hop-
loft, rendered necessary by the mode of collecting the excise duty ; but these we take no
notice of here, as our object is merely to lay down the general principles of drying, from
which every Architect can deduce the most advantageous forms.
800. A Drying- Kiln for General Purposes is a useful building for a corn farm in a
wet climate, and it may be easily constructed, at very little expense, and scarcely any loss
of room ; since the drying-floor may be used as a granary or store-room, when not
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 403
required for drying on. In the north of Russia it is frequently found necessary to dry
the corn, while in sheaf, in a particular description of kiln, the characteristic of which is,
that the floor is of wooden rafters about a foot apart, and at least twenty feet above the
hearth on which the fuel is burnt. There are various uses to which a farmer could
apply such a kiln as might be used for drying either malt or hops ; and since it is very
desirable for every farmer who grows barley, to make his own malt, and brew his own ale,
we think a drying-kiln ought to be considered as a part of the farmery on every large farm.
801. A Cider-house is only essential to an orchard farm. Where the fruit, as in
Devonshire, is ground between rollers, the house for containing these need not be large ; but
where it is ground in a circular trough by a stone roller mill, as in Worcestershire, greater
extent of space is requisite. It seems to be agreed on by the most competent judges,
that the Worcestershire practice is by far the best ; for, while the fruit is merely torn and
crushed to pieces by being passed between two revolving cylinders, it, together with the
rind and seeds, is reduced to a pulpy mass by the continued revolution of the stone wheel
in the trough. The exposure of the pulp to the atmosphere, while this process is going
forward, is also more favourable to its absorption of oxygen, than that given to it by the
cylinder mill, from which it drops at once into a vat. Hence the great superiority, in
flavour, of the Herefordshire and Worcestershire cider over that of Devonshire. It may
be observed, also, that the malic acid corrodes the metal of the iron cylinders, and thereby
injures the liquor ; and further, that the machinery which impels these cylinders is much
more liable to get out of order, than the extremely simple apparatus by which the roller
mills are driven. In choosing a stone for a roller to grind fruit, all such as contain lime
mast be avoided, on account of the action which the acid of the fruit would necessarily
have on it. Granite, quartzose rock, or millstone grit, is therefore necessary. The
stones are mounted so as to turn in a circle of from ten to twelve feet in diameter, in the
manner which we shall describe when we give an example in our succeeding section.
802. A Limekiln is a most valuable article on a farm containing limestone, or with
limestone in its neighbourhood. We are even of opinion that, where fuel is abundant, a
kiln for burning a portion of the soil of the farm, whether calcareous or clayey, would be
a valuable source of manure; because all calcined earths, in consequence of their affinity
for oxygen and carbonic acid gas, decompose air, water, and insoluble organic matter.
Almost all clayey soils contain a certain proportion of lime ; and it has been found that
when such clays are calcined, and spread on any soil, even the same as that from which
they were taken, they add to its friability and fertility. There are various rude modes
of burning lime adopted in different parts of the country : in some districts it is mixed
with the fuel, and burned in heaps ; in others it is burned in kilns in the form of an
inverted cone, or of an egg with the broad end uppermost ; but the most improved form
has been determined, by Mr. Menteath of Closeburn, after long experience, to be that of
an inverted wedge rounded at the angles. The advantage of the wedge or oval form in
the ground plan of a kiln is, that it admits of two or more openings at the bottom for
emptying the kiln, by which that work can be more speedily performed than in the
common round kilns, which admit of only one opening ; and by which improvement, of
course, more lime can be burned in a shorter time. The great object, in burning lime, is
to burn it thoroughly, with the least possible expense of fuel, and in the shortest time ;
and for these purposes the kilns of the most improved construction, in addition to the
wedge shape for the expeditious emptying of the kilns, have either non-conducting
movable covers, or very small openings at top, into which the fuel and limestones are
thrown. The first inventor of the cover for limekilns was Booker of Dublin ; but they
have since been greatly improved by Mr. Menteath, as we shall show hereafter, in giving
designs. A most scientific combination of a limekiln with a coke oven has been made
by Mr. Heathorn of Maidstone ; in which the lime is burned by the gases which are
driven off from the coal while it is being turned into coke, and which gases would other-
wise be entirely lost. Of this kiln, also, we shall hereafter give a plan.
803. Buildings for carrying on Agricultural Manufactures, such as making potato flour,
extracting sugar from the beet, maple, or cane ; distilling spirits ; crushing seeds for oil ;
preparing woad, or weld, or flax, or hemp, and similar operations, have nothing so
peculiar in them as to demand the particular study of the Architect ; the building being,
in all these and similar cases, rendered subservient to the machinery.
804. Water is essential to every farmery, both for supplying the cattle with it to drink,
for washing the feet of horses, &c, and for other purposes of cleanliness. The most
convenient form of supplying this is from a well with a pump, in a central part of the
yard. If the subsoil do not naturally afford water, the well, or in that case the tank,
must be supplied artificially, either by pipes laid from some distant spring, pond, or brook ;
or from the rain which falls on the roofs of the buildings. WTe have already, § 151,
given Mr. Waistell's design for a tank, and shall here submit a plan which has been
sent us by our ingenious and most scientific contributor Mr. Mallet.
40 i
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
805. Mallet's Tank, fig. 822, is calculated to save expense ; first, by using a figure of
maximum capacity and minimum surface; and, next, by being able to dispense entirely
with the centring, which, according to the present practice, is used for arching over
tanks. Mr. Mallet proposes for very large tanks to adopt a spherical form; but for any
of less than five or six feet in diameter, a short cylinder with hemispherical ends, as shown
in fig. 822. The excavation being made, the building is commenced, either with a single
brick at the bottom, a ; or better witli a circular piece of stone laid on a layer of tenacious
clay, tempered as dry as possible, well beaten together, and previously mixed with some
salt to prevent the worms from working througb it. This layer of clay, b, completely
surrounds the brickwork in every part, to make it retain the water. The bottom part is
now built all with common mortar, in the form of an inverted dome, nine inches thick ;
then the perpendicular part, c ; and, lastly, the upper dome. Now, any common arch may
be built without centring as far up as where the courses lie at an angle of about thirty-
two degrees, or what is called the angle of repose for masonry ; that is, where the bricks
will first begin to slip off; but a brick dome may be built of any size, entirely without
centring, for the following reason . — Referring to fig. 823, d d are two bricks supposed
to belong to part of the course of bricks next above that at the angle of repose. Each of
these is to be considered, with the mortar in which it is embedded, as a quadrangular
prismatic frustum, whose sides all incline towards the centre of the hemisphere at e : now,
the upper surfaces of these two bricks form an internal or reentering angle with one
another, from the position they lie in on the preceding courses ; that is, they lean against
each other, as if they lay on opposite inclined planes, as shown in fig. 824. If, then, these
822
823
bricks slip, they must do so in the line e f; but, in doing so, they must approach each
other: but they are already in contact, therefore they cannot slip. This demonstration
applies to any greater number of bricks, until the whole course is finished, when the
bricks are sustained by their lateral thrust. There is a limit to the weight of the voussoir
(the overhanging part of an arch, looking up from under it) which will support itself in
this way, as must be obvious to every one from the common principles of gravitation. It
is also obvious that a dome may thus be either left open, or closed at top. To make the
tank perfectly watertight, it is finally coated over two or three times with coal tar inside.
A manhole is shown at g, in fig. 822, for getting in to clean it out occasionally. This
plan of building without centring is applicable to constructing large architectural domes,
provided they be of brick, and that they be afterwards plastered outside with Roman
cement, which would stand as well on a dome as on a wall ; and, the great expense of
heavy domical centring being got rid of, domes on our large public buildings might be
more common than they are at present. The hollow bricks invented by Mr. Frost might
be here advantageously used. The usefulness of this plan of building without centres, in
constructing ice-houses, fruit-cellars, ovens, kilns, sewers, &c., is obvious. Mr. Mallet
adds, " I have built one tank on this plan, which holds sixty hogsheads : it was built by
one mason in four days, and never leaked a drop, although one side of it stood close to
an area wall, where the least moisture would have been visible."
806. Ponds formerly were thought essential lo farm yards, partly for supplying water
for the cattle to drink ; but chiefly for the horses to wade through, in order to wash their
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 405
feet. The first use is now, in all the best-planned farmeries, supplied by troughs or
cisterns from pumps ; while the horses' feet are either washed in the stable with water
in pails; or the horses are made to walk repeatedly through a narrow trough with a
paved bottom, and with oak or stone sides. This trough, which ought to be placed near
a pump, and opposite the stables, in the side of the passage between the buildings and
the dung-yard, may be three feet wide, six inches deep at the two ends, and gradually
increasing in depth to the middle, where there may be three feet of water. It must be
acknowledged, however, that in many, perhaps in most cases, the best mode is to wash
the legs of horses while in the stable ; because, when they are ridden into a pond or
trough, while warm from the plough or the cart, they are very apt to catch a cold or
rheumatism from the sudden chill produced by the cold water. This will chiefly depend
on the distance which the horses have walked after they have left off" work. Horses
taken out of the gin wheel of a threshing-machine should never either be driven through
a pond or through a trough, for similar reasons, as will be obvious to every farmer. In
all cases, when the feet and legs of horses are washed, they should be immediately rubbed
dry with straw and cloths.
807. The Yards of Farmeries are, the corn-yard, the hay or dried herbage yard, the
cattle-yard, the sheep-yard, the poultry-yard, the dung-yard, the implement-yard, and, in
large farmeries, the yard for the carpenter and smith.
808. The Corn- Yard is that which contains the stacks of corn, and should always be
placed adjoining the barn, and on the most elevated and airy side of the farmery. The
size ought to be regulated by the size of the arable part of the farm, and of the barn ;
because no rick ought to be made larger than what could be contained at one time by
the corn bay, or end for unthreshed corn, of the barn ; and, consequently, a small barn
will require a larger rick-yard than a large one. The form, in this case, as in almost
every other yard or building on a farm, ought to be rectangular, and as near as may
be convenient to that of a square. Acute-angled or round forms are necessarily attended
with loss of space, and great inconvenience both in building the ricks, and in removing
them to the barn. The ricks ought to be placed in parallel rows, with a sufficient space
between every two rows, for a cart to pass along, either to unload when building the
ricks, or to load when taking them into the barn. Round the ricks, on the margin of
the yard, there ought to be a space sufficiently wide for a loaded cart ; and at the angles
this space ought to be increased by the omission of a rick, in order to admit of the cart's
turning round easily. All the ricks ought to be placed upon stands or saddles, so as
to keep them dry and safe from rats and mice. These stands are of different kinds, some
of which we shall notice.
809. The Rick Stand most common in countries where wood is the cheapest material
is formed of oak pillars inserted in the ground, and standing two feet high above it, with
a frame over them composed of joists of any cheap wood. The plan is round when the
ricks are to be small and rectangular, and generally a parallelogram, when the ricks are
to be large.
810. Tlie rick stand, in wet climates, where the corn is frequently obliged to be
carried before it is perfectly dry, has, in addition to the flooring of joists, a funnel, formed
by a frame of wood, carried up from the flooring to the summit of the rick, passing,
or at least which ought to pass, through it, and terminating in a light cap of sheet iron.
The funnel is commonly not carried higher than two thirds of the height of the rick, but
this often defeats the object in view, for, from the sluggish nature of air, it will not ascend
freely unless it have a clear passage from the base of the stack to the summit ; and there-
fore the funnels, to be efficacious, ought always to be carried through the thatch of the
rick.
811. The rick stand, in countries where stone is more abundant than wood, and
where central funnels are unnecessary, is frequently nothing more than a wall two feet
high, of the size and shape of the intended rick, with a coping of stone or wood, project-
ing at least six inches over the wall outwards, to impede the ascent of vermin. The
foundations of this wall should be a foot or more beneath the surface, to prevent vermin
from burrowing under it. The interior space may be partially filled with earth or
loose stones, according to the nature of the soil, keeping in view the importance of pre-
venting the ascent of damp into the rick.
812. The rick stand, where cast and wrought iron are cheap materials, may be formed
of cast-iron pillars set on stone plinths, with cast-iron copings and joists ; and a cylindri-
cal funnel of wrought-iron round rods held together at intervals by circular rods, and
terminating in a cap above the thatch. Corn stands and funnels of this kind, but not
carried through the thatch, and without the cap, are not uncommon in the iron districts
of Scotland; having been first invented by Mitchell of Balquharn, near Alloa, in
Stirlingshire.
813. A square or parallelogram rick stand, fig. 725, is manufactured by Messrs.
406 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Cottam and Ilallen. It consists of cast-iron pillars fig. 826, two feet six inches high,
which cost 8s. 6d. each. Wrought-iron rods, a, six feet eight inches long, which cost
10s. each; secondary rods, b, six feet eight inches long, which cost 3s. Ad. each; and
small rods, c, five feet six inches long, which cost Is. 5d. each. The method of fixing
the principal rods is shown in fig. 827 ; that of placing on them the secondary rods, b,
in fig. 828 ; and that of fixing the small rods on these last in fig. 829. A square yard
825
826
S29
T
Cj-
£jf
jzD
828
of this description of rick stand costs in all 12s., which may be considered cheap for an
article which, if heated, and afterwards rubbed over with oil or tar, previously to being
put up, will last many years.
814. WaistelVs circular rick stand, fig. 830, is formed entirely of stone, and consists of
two concentric circular walls ; the outer wall is twenty 830
inches high, to the top of the projecting flags ; at about
half its height, four grates of cast iron, about six inches
square, and half an inch thick, are placed in openings
left through the external walls, at equal distances from
each other, to admit air. The bars of the grates are a
quarter of an inch broad, and a quarter of an inch distant
from each other, which is sufficiently close to prevent
the entrance of mice. Stands thus constructed are con-
sidered, by those who have tried them, to be less expensive,
and more effective, than on any other plan that has been
invented. The air that passes through these four grates,
and through the openings in the internal walls, will
circulate freely under the rick ; and, if a chimney be
carried up the middle of the rick to its top, the current
of air that will pass up through it will carry off the
heat and moisture which might otherwise injure, and even spoil, such corn as was
rather too moist when carried." {Waisteli's Designs, &c. p. 101.) These rick-stands
seem to have been invented by Mr. Waisteli's nephews, who built the outside wall twenty
inches thick, the inside wall eighteen inches thick, and left a distance between the two
walls of eighteen inches. Across this space hedge-stakes or faggots were laid, sufficiently
long to support the sheaves. The funnel in the centre, when necessary, need have no
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 407
frame round it, but may be merely a circular opening, of two feet in diameter, left in
building the rick.
815. Morel- Vinde's rick stands are of two kinds, one of which is circular and the other
square, and both are calculated for containing 3000 sheaves. The circular rick stand,
fig. 831, is twelve feet in diameter; and, to contain 3000 sheaves, the rick must be carried
up to the height of twenty feet. It is surrounded by a ditch from two to three feet deep,
the soil from which serves to elevate the stand or basis of the rick. On this is placed a
bed of faggots, which is first covered with straw, and on which the sheaves are afterwards
built in the usual manner. Morel- Vinde's square rick stand is called in France the Ame-
rican rick stand. It is formed of a square frame of carpentry, fig. 832, with a St. An-
drew's cross in the middle, and is placed on five posts, each of which is furnished with a
cone of tinned iron, in the form of an inverted basin, to prevent the ascent of vermin, as
shown at a a, in fig. 833 ; on this frame are placed faggots and straw, and afterwards the
832
sheaves ; and, when the sides are twelve feet high, this square rick, at that height, will
contain 3000 sheaves.
816. The Dutch rick stand is made square in the plan, with a frame of wood, placed
on five wooden posts, furnished with tinned iron cones, like the American rick stand ;
but it differs from it in having the corner posts, twenty-five feet high, tied together at
top, so as to be there at exactly the same distance as at bottom, by horizontal rails, as
shown in fig. 834 ; and further braced at top by two pieces in the form of a St. Andrew's
cross, as shown in fig 835. The sheaves are built in the usual manner within the four
posts ; and in the centre of the under side of the cross of St. Andrew, at top, is fixed a
pulley, to which is suspended a light roof, formed of deal, and covered with matting of
drawn wheat straw, placed quite thin, or of oiled or tarred canvass, as shown in figs. 836
and 837. This light roof is raised and lowered at pleasure by means of the windlass b,
in fjgs. 834, and 835 and a cord, which passes over a pulley placed on the top of one of
the corner posts, as shown at c, in figs. 834 and 836. The rest of the construction of
this rick stand will be sufficiently obvious from the figures. We agree with M. Morel-
408 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
& ft a
Vinde in thinking, that, as the great object of the farmer is to do the most at the cheapest
rate, the common round or square rick stand, on posts, and without a roof, is the best.
This is more especially the case where the barn is sufficiently large to contain a rick
at a time. The Dutch, no doubt, contrived these ricks for very small farms, and small
barns, where the sheaves were put on the rick by a few at a time, as they were harvested,
and taken into the barn by degrees as they were to be threshed.
817. The Hay- Yard of a common country farm is generally much smaller than the
corn-yard ; because the horses and cattle eat straw of different kinds rather than hay.
On grass farms, however, the hay-yard is often the largest. The same principles of form
and arrangement are applicable to it as those laid down for the corn-yard, with this differ-
ence, that its position should be placed as near as possible to the stables, cow-houses, or
such houses or yards in which it is to be chiefly consumed.
818. The Dung-Yard ought to be central to the stables and cattle-houses, for the
reception of the dung produced in them as it is daily wheeled out. The common situ-
ation is the centre of the farmery, where it is enclosed by a wall, against which, in large
farms, there are frequently open low sheds for cattle, and pigsties for swine. Both these
animals, as well as poultry, are allowed the run of the yard over the dung, to which they
do good rather than harm ; the pigs and poultry by picking out grains and seeds, which
would otherwise be lost, or spring up as weeds when the manure was spread on the land ;
and the cattle, by treading the straw into the moister part of the manure, and thus pre-
paring it for being carted out and put into a dunghill for fermentation. The surface of
the dung-yard ought to slope towards its centre, or towards one point which ought to be
the lowest, and under which point there ought to be two capacious liquid manure tanks,
with which all the drains of the stables, cattle-houses, piggeries, &c, ought to be con-
nected. In this tank there ought either to be a pump constantly standing, or a hole for
inserting one at pleasure, in order to admit of pumping up the liquid to moisten the
straw of the manure, or into a barrel cart, for being carried off to form urate, or to apply
at once to growing crops. In small farm-yards, where few or no cattle are kept loose in
a central enclosure, instead of a dung-yard there is simply a dung-pit, into which all the
dung produced in the surrounding houses is thrown, and into which all the gutters and
drains (except those which are merely intended to collect rain or underground water) are
to be directed. This pit ought either to be sufficiently deep to contain the liquid manure
among the dung, or, what is far preferable, a liquid manure tank ought to be formed
under it. All dunghills ought to be kept constantly covered with dry loose straw, to
diminish evaporation by the sun and wind.
819. The Poultry-Yard, r.s we have already mentioned, § 770, should be in front of
the poultry -houses, and should be divided into the breeding, rearing, and fattening yards.
These ought always to face the warmest aspect, being well sheltered from cold winds ;
and the breeding-yard ought to contain a large pond for aquatic fowls. In most county
farms the aquatic fowls are allowed to run at large over the farm, as being useful for
picking up slugs, worms, tadpoles, &c, and even the common poultry are allowed the
run of the dung-yard, rick-yards, and, in general, all that constitutes the farmery.
The poulirv-y.iids, therefore, are chiefly used for rearing, and, to a certain extent, for
feeding in.
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 409
820. The Carpenter's and Smith's Yard is placed in front of the shops or work-places
to which it belongs ; and it ought always to be quite distinct from any of the other yards
which have been already mentioned ; particularly those containing straw, on account of
the danger from fire. On the largest farms, in the most improved agricultural districts,
a carpenter and a smith are kept constantly on the premises; and in those of a smaller
size, these tradesmen attend one, two, or more days in a week, fortnight, or month,
according to the size of the farm and kind of culture pursued. In either case, shops for
these mechanics become requisite on the farmery; these shops and yards serve also as
repositories for such articles as require repair, and for rough timber, hurdles, gates, bricks,
lime, and other materials of construction.
821. Passages or roads are required, in large farmeries, between the yards and the
houses, and these ought to be of such a width as to allow two carts to pass each other,
and so rounded at the corners as to prevent any difficulty in turning. Their width, in
general, should not be less than sixteen feet, and there should be as few gates across
them as possible. As the surface water collected in the gutters of these passages is not
intended to be conveyed to the dung-pit or manure tank, they should never be covered
with litter, but kept as clean as any other gravelled, macadamised, or paved road.
822. The System of Drainage in a farmery is a matter of very great importance, and
it ought to be determined on before any part is commenced of the yards, farm buildings,
or farm house. There are three distinct systems of drainage which must necessarily
exist in every well-constructed farmery : the first is the underground drainage of the
natural soil, so as to render it perfectly dry beneath, and fit for serving as the immediate
basis of the floors of the different buildings to be erected ; the second is the surface
drainage, for the removal of rain water from the roofs and passages ; and the third the
liquid manure drainage, for conveying the urine from the stables, cattle-houses, pigsties,
&c, and the dung liquor from the hammels and yards, to the liquid manure tank. We
shall offer a few words on each of these systems, for the guidance of the Architect.
823. Underground Draining. It seldom happens that the site for a farmery is so
dry as not to require some underground drains around and through it, for carrying off
the water that either sinks into the soil from the surface, and is retained there, or is
found latent in the subsoil, or from some other cause. In making these drains, particular
care ought to be taken that they be made so as to dry thoroughly the ground under the
floors of all the houses ; and, at the same time, neither in the houses nor in the yards to
interfere with the underground gutters to the manure tank, so as to carry off any of the
liquid manure. For this purpose, and also because their object is chiefly to carry off
underground water, they ought to be deep, and they need not come within a foot or
more of the surface. In general, one drain should surround the farmery, so as to inter-
cept all exterior sources of water ; and others should cross the farmery under the principal
lines of buildings and roads or passages. The dung-courts will, by those lines, be
rendered sufficiently dry for containing manure. As the drains under the passages, and
in the rick and hay yards, will have to receive the surface water through traps, they
ought to be barrel drains ; but all the others may be formed of loose round stones of
three inches in diameter at the bottom, four or five inches in the middle, and of the size
of large gravel at top.
824. Surface Drainage. The water of the roofs should all be collected by gutters at
the eaves ; and, if not wanted for a well, tank, or pond, it should be conducted direct to
the underground drains. The water which falls in the passages, roads, courts, or yards
not covered with litter, and more especially in the rick-yard, ought to be collected in
gutters, and also conveyed direct to the underground drains, through air traps. These
traps ought to be of such a construction as to retain the sand and grosser particles,
which might choke up the drain, and also to admit of being readily cleaned out. There
are various forms very suitable for this purpose ; but one of the cheapest and best at
present in use is the iron one of Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, shown in the perspective view
fig. 838, which weighs 4 ewt. 19 lbs. and costs 50s. In this figure, and in the section,
fig. 839, a is the level of the water, on both sides of the trap, b ; c is the opening by
which the water escapes ; and d the place where the sediment is deposited. The grating
at top, e, lifts off; when this sediment is to be removed. Gratings of this kind ought to be
placed all along the gutters, at distances of thirty or forty yards ; in order that no great
accumulation of water may ever take place on the surface. The grating being hollow
in the middle indicates that the direction of the bars ought to be across the line of gutter ;
their strength is sufficient to bear the pressure of the most heavily laden waggon. The
contents of all the underground drains about a farmery should be conducted to a pond
where they may be rendered available for the purpose of the surface irrigation of grass
land ; for, notwithstanding all ordinary care and attention that may be given, to prevent
the water collected from the surface by these drains from being mixed with manure
x x
410 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
838 839
liquor, some, if only from the droppings of horses and poultry on the passages, will find
its way into it.
825. Underground Gutters for Liquid Manure. In general, there ought to be a cess-
pool, or liquid manure tank, in the centre, or in the lowest part of every dung or cattle
yard, or yard which is intended to be kept generally covered with litter; or where a
number of small yards, such as those of hammels, are to be placed together, one tank
centrally situated may have communications with the whole. The inclination of the
surface of every part of every yard should be to the cess-pool, or to the trap of the drain
communicating with it; and the underground drains from the cattle-houses, stables,
piggeries, &c, should always be conducted to the nearest cess-pool. These underground
drains or gutters need neither be large nor deep, and may in general be formed of brick
earth draining-pipe of three or four inches in diameter. To prevent the possibility of a
current of air passing through these pipe drains, the end which enters the cess-pool may
either have a trap there, or be carried down the side walls to near the bottom of the tank,
so as always to be filled with water at their orifice. This is easily done by carrying up
the requisite number of funnels in the side walls of the tank, from the bottom of the
tank to the bottom of the drain, as shown in the section, fig. 840, in which a is the bottom
of the tank ; b, the funnel left in its side walls ; c,
the conducting drain or draining-pipe ; and d, the
surface of the ground. These manure drains, when
formed of earthenware piping, may be laid a foot
under the surface, and protected by side walls and
an outer cover of stone, to prevent them from being
injured by the wheels of carts or waggons ; or they
may be sunk two feet into the ground, in which case
they will be safe without any protection. The
manure tank should, as we have before mentioned,
§ 16, always be in two divisions, that one may be
fermenting while the other is filling; and there
should be a pumphole in each. Were it not for the
expense, we should recommend the dunghill in
farmeries to be always covered with a roof, close
down to the ground, to prevent evaporation, which,
in all cases where the dung is not enveloped in a
thick covering of dry straw, as before recommended,
§ 818, carries off the most nutritive part of the
manure. The present clumsy mode of making
manure, at a great loss of material, and at a consider-
able diminution of the comfort of cattle and other
animals, is unworthy of an age of science and
refinement, and, we have no doubt, will soon be
reformed. We see no reason why the straw should
be trodden by cattle at all ; if it were placed in
layers from time to time under a roof, over the
manure tank, and the liquid beneath pumped up
over it, such solid manure as was made in the stables ~ — — '
and cattle-houses being added daily, the manure produced would be as good as if the straw
Had been trodden by cattle in a yard or in a cow-house ; while the loss which that
practice occasions, by evaporation and by what sinks into the soil, would be saved, and the
cattle preserved clean, and better in health, as well as more agreeable in appearance.
Ine mode of feeding cattle with straw is also in its infancy. We are persuaded that it
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES.
ill
would pay a farmer to have his straw cut by a machine into lengths of three or four
inches; and afterwards to have it boiled or steamed, and mixed with a portion of
succulent food of some kind. For litter and thatch the larger and stronger the straw is
kept the better ; but both for eating and for manure it would be more easily managed if
cut into short lengths. The science and the art of making manure are alike unknown
to the great majority of even the best British farmers, and will be so till they learn
something of chemistry. In every farmyard, at present, it may safely be affirmed that
there is nearly as much manure lost as made. A liquid manure tank, connected by
underground tubes with the back-kitchen, and kitchen-court, with all the privies, and
with all the houses or yards in which cattle are kept, in short with every source of water
impregnated with animal or vegetable matter or with any of the alkalies, would alone,
on a large farm, supply manure for several acres yearly. Even supposing the manure
tank not to be adopted, the mere circumstance of placing all the dung made on a farmery
in one dunghill under a roof, where its more valuable parts would neither be washed
away by the rain nor carried off by the sun and wind, would be an immense saving.
We say nothing here of other sources of manure, such as stall-feeding, which ought to
be universally substituted for grazing, &c. We strongly recommend the subject of
employing manure tanks and dunghill roofs to the land stewards of country gentlemen,
and to scientific agriculturists, and rural Architects generally.
826. The Liquid Manure Tank, to be generally adopted, ought to be of a very simple
construction ; for which purpose a square or a parallelogram plan, with perpendicular
side and end walls, and a semicircular arch over, with a manhole in the centre for the
pump, and for entering to clear out the interior, may be recommended as of easy erection
by any country bricklayer or mason. The walls may be built with common mortar,
provided they are well puddled behind with clay ; but cement will make the strongest
work, and will render a clay puddle unnecessary. In some parts of Germany, where
timber is abundant, the liquid manure tank is made ten or twelve feet wide, about the
same depth, and is covered with joists of wood, on which first coarse litter, and afterwards
the stable and cattle dung, are put as made.
827. Gates for farmyards and fields are commonly treated of in works on Farm
Architecture; and a very excellent wooden one is given by Waistell, which we have
copied in our Encyclopedia of Agriculture. We shall here, therefore, confine ourselves
to two very strong and cheap iron gates, and to a mode of opening gates, which, though
chiefly applicable to gates on public roads, may also be occasionally adopted with
entrance gates to farms, or farmeries.
828. Buchanan of Catrine's Field or Farm Gate, fig. 841, on a scale of five sixteenths
of an inch to a foot, is composed of a frame or rim of bar iron, seven feet long and four
feet high, one inch and three quarters broad, and three eighths of an inch thick, not
riveted, but welded at the angles, and the rim presenting its edge to the face of the gate.
The head style and the falling style are each projected about three inches above the rim,
for the purpose of retaining a horizontal rail of wood, about three inches by two inches,
placed on the top bar, in order to render it more conspicuous to cattle than the narrow
edge of the top of the iron rim. The diagonal strutt or brace is of the same breadth and
thickness as the surrounding rim, to which it is firmly riveted at both extremities. The
vertical round rods are eleven ; six of them are three quarters of an inch in diameter, and
five are five eighths of an inch ; they are riveted into the top and bottom rails, and
firmly fixed into the brace, by being put through it cold while the brace is red-hot. The
/ps>-,
842
-^
^
"^s
,,
-^ __*=
^^^^
^^ ^^
^"
s.
^^
^^" -1
r- -
J
843
412 COTTAGE, FAIUI, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
hanging post is continued down nine inches at bottom, so as to form a pivot for working
in a socket fixed in a stone; and up, so as to turn in a hook. The shutting post admits
of the application of any description of fastening; one of the best for a cattle-yard, to
which this gate is particularly adapted, is a spring latch, which shuts into a recess in the
falling post, as seen in the figure. These gates are manufactured in the workshops of
the inventor at Catrine, and the prime cost, in 1831, was found to be about 30s.
829. Cotton inul HaUen'a Iron Field Gate, fig. 842, is made of wrought iron, the hori-
zontal bars and braces being
made of fiat bar iron, riveted
together at every intersec-
tion, in order to prevent the
swagging or sinking of the
head or falling style. The
lower rails are placed suf-
ficiently close together to
prevent pigs and lambs from
passing through between
them. This gate can be
supplied, singly, for 26s. each,
and by the dozen 10 per cent lower. Mr. Cottam considers this gate stronger, more
durable, and far more economical, than any gate which can be made of wood.
830. The Closeburn Field Gate is the invention of C. J. Stuart Menteath, Esq., and
of which he has lately sent us a sketch, fig. 843. The material is timber ; the construction
is very light and strong,
and so economical that it
may be made in some parts
of the country, where
young fir trees are abun-
dant, for 7s. When the
head sinks, it is raised by
the simple operation of
adding another washer be-
tween the key, and that
which retains the hook of
the upper part of the hang-
ing style at a. The fasten-
ing latch is protected from the rubbing of cattle, by being made to shut into a recess in the
falling post at b. When gates of this sort are made of young timber, it is, after being
sawn up, steeped in lime water, which is found to add to its durability ; and, when well
seasoned and put together as a gate, it receives three coats of boiling hot tar.
831. Gates to open by Machinery. One of these, for a park or farm, made to open on
the approach of a carriage, will be found in our Encyc. of Ayr., § 3107 ; and we shall
here describe two others ; one of which is used as a turnpike gate at Scotforth, in the
neighbourhood of Lancaster, and the other is the invention of our correspondent,
Mr. Saul, of that town. Mr. Saul has sent us the following account of the mode of
opening the gate at Scotforth. In fig. 844, a a represent two fixtures; each consisting
of two posts, with rollers between, for guiding the chains b and c. The chain b, fixed
to the lower bar of the gate, is the opening chain ; and the chain c is the shutting one.
There is a continuation of these two chains in tunnels under the road, represented by the
dotted lines d d; and both chains pass under a roller at e, after which they rise through
a wooden tube to f, in the sleeping-room of the toll-house. They are there worked by a
winch, which being turned one way opens the gate, and the other way shuts it. Mr. Saul
was informed by the gatekeeper that this gate did not work freely ; and he has suggested
what is obviously a far more efficient plan, of which he has given us an explanation,
accompanied by the sketch, fig. 845. In this figure, g represents a horizontal shaft placed
in a tunnel made across the road directly under the gate ; working at one end on the heel
ot the hanging post by a pinion at h, and at the other by a beveled pinion at i, on the
upright shaft h. This shaft has another pinion at its upper end, which works into the
pinion /, on the axle of the winch m, supposed to be at the bedside of the gatekeepei.
It is evident that, by turning this winch, the gate may be opened or shut to any extent
at pleasure. The whole of the machinery may be concealed under ground, and in the
wall of the house ; the winch alone protruding into the bed-room of the gatekeeper. Any
millwright could easily make a working plan from the above description and sketch. It
may sometimes be worth while to have the principal entrance gate to a farm-yard con-
structed SO as lo open in this manner, and the use of the contrivance for toll gates, and
for the coach-yard gates of inns, is obvious. We hope also that tin time is not far distant
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES.
844
413
when the occupiers of mansions, whose approach roads are guarded by entrance lodges
and gates, will so far study the comforts of their gatekeepers as to introduce this piece of
mechanism, or something better, to prevent the necessity of their getting out of bed to
open the gate in the night-time. In Germany the toll-bar or beam (schlagbaum) is
balanced by a weight at one end, and the other is held down by a cord, which passes
under one pulley and over another into the bed-room of the gatekeeper ; who, without
rising from his bed, pushes out through a small opening a long-handled iron ladle, in
which he receives the toll, and, afterwards untying the cord, the weight raises the bar, and
the traveller passes through.
832. A Gate with a Puzzle Latch, to serve as a Substitute for a Lock, fig. 846, is in use
on the estate of R. Bevan, Esq., Rougham, Suffolk, and the following description of it
has been sent us by Mr. John Levett. The latch, a, is fastened by a brace, with a screw
bolt and nut to the head of the gate, and it works on the joint b. When this latch is drawn
back by pressure on the top of a, it raises the rod c, which is connected with the catch
tl at e. The catch d being now raised, the pin f, fixed in the head of the gate, is
allowed to pass, and the gate is opened. The catch d, and plate for the rod, marked c,
are fastened to the post with four screw nails n>iri ^vo screw bolts.
414 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
8<J6
Subsect. 3. TJie Farmery considered as a whole.
833. The Farmery, as a whole, may be considered with reference to its situation on the
farm ; its extent and character relatively to the size of the farm, and to the kind of
culture pursued or of crops raised ; its position relatively to that of the farm house ; the
style of its architectural design ; and the materials of its construction.
834. The Situation of every farmery ought, as far as practicable, to be in the centre
of the farm ; because this will reduce the labour of carting home produce, and carting
out manure, to a minimum. When the surface of a farm is very irregular, or where it
consists of the sloping side of a hill, the site of the farmery should be chosen at that
point of height in the slope where the extra-labour of carrying home the crop will always
be balanced by the extra-facility of carting out the manure ; and where, as much as
possible, the labour of the two operations may be equalised. The most difficult case for
choosing a proper site for the farmery is where the lands lie on the two sides of a valley:
here there is no choice but that of placing the farmery in the valley, and laying out the
fences, roads, and even ridges of the fields, in directions athwart the slopes, so as to
diminish all the farm labours to the extent of one half of what they would be by ascend-
ing and descending in straight lines. All labours with ploughs, carts, or waggons, and
even harrowing, and the manual labours of hoeing and reaping, may be diminished on
this principle. In laying out farmeries in all old countries which have been long inter-
sected by hedges and roads, and the boundary lines of all landed, property in which is
exceedingly irregular, numerous cases occur where true principles must give way to
circumstances; and all that the Architect can aim at is, after weighing well the argu-
ments for and against particular situations, to make choice of that which has a maximum
of advantages. Our intelligent contributor, Mr. Main, has paid much attention to this
subject, and has sent us the following observations: — " Proximity to a high road, to a
natural pond, or to the summit of a dry knoll, in order to be frw from floods, is an advan-
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES. 415
tage which is never disregarded by the British farmer ; but, for the sake of these, we
often see others of much greater importance wholly neglected. If the buildings are on
the highest ground belonging to the farm, it follows that carting out manure from the
yards must be facilitated; but that, on the other hand, all the produce will have to be
carried up-hill ; and if, for the sake of water, the homestead be placed in a valley, that
these circumstances will be reversed. A gentle eminence, near the centre of the farm, is,
on all accounts, the most eligible, provided only that water can conveniently be had near
it ; but, now that the practicability of obtaining water by boring, in almost any situation,
has become so well known, no homestead need be wrongly placed merely on that score.
Some old homesteads are badly arranged in other respects; such as placing them across
public footpaths or bridleways; in which case gates are frequently left open by careless
passengers, and much damage is often sustained by the straying out of cattle, &c. There
are even instances of farm houses standing on one side of a turnpike road, and the barns
and yards on the other ; but surely accident, and not design, must have produced such
absurdities."
835. The Size of the Farmery, and the Kind of Buildings which compose it, must
necessarily be regulated by the extent of the farm, and by the kind of culture pursued on
it. A (arm wholly arable will obviously require different buildings from one chiefly in
pasture ; and an arable farm, on a strong alluvial soil, on which wheat, beans, and clover
are chiefly cultivated, will require different buildings from a farm on a light soil, on which
turnips form a principal article in the succession of crops ; and, consequently, extensive
cattle-sheds are required for lodging the cattle to consume them. On this subject
Mr. Main observes : — " The size of a farm regulates the extent and number of the build-
ings belonging to it. The lowest grade of farmeries has only a dwelling-house of two
or four rooms, with a small barn on one side, and a cow-house and stable on the other.
A front fence (generally carried across from the outer end of the stable to that of the
barn) forms the yard. The rick-yard is behind the barn, and the orchard and garden
are behind the stable and dwelling-house. The carts or waggons, when not in use, are
usually kept loaded with straw to preserve them from the weather ; pigsties lean against
the end of the house or stable; and the whole is on a very homely and limited scale.
Such a homestead is only fitted for a farm of from forty to sixty acres. Large farms
require buildings in proportion. Those belonging to a farm of 500 or 1000 acres appear
like a little town. In arranging these buildings, it should always be contrived to have
nil the barn doors and cattle-yards in view from the dwelling-house. The superintending
eye of the master, or of some of his family, assists the vigilance of servants, and accidents
among the live stock are sooner observed and prevented, or remedied. Another point, in
disposing the buildings, should be, to have the lowest on the south, and the highest on the
north and east sides, for the purpose of shelter to the yard. Where the buildings are
insufficient for the purpose of shelter, closely planted ranks of spruce firs are available.
A horsepond is generally supposed to be a desirable appendage to a farm yard : but a
pump and trough in the yard are far more suitable. Cart horses are liable to greasy heels;
and the having their legs wetted in the pond causes irritation, which they generally
indicate by constant stamping for an hour or two afterwards ; and this is sometimes attended
with dangerous wounds, loss of shoes, &c. The pantry and dairy are always placed on the
north side of the house. The latter, on a dairy farm, is usually a large clean room, with
a stone floor, four or five feet below the surface ; and a ceiling loftv and plastered. At
one end, on the ground surface, is the churning and scalding room ; and on the outside
of this, next the yard, are the hog-cisterns, for the reception of the whey, skim-milk, &c.
It is an advantage to have barn room enough for every crop, especially in climates where
the corn is quickly and thoroughly dried. Rut in cold humid districts of country, it is
absolutely necessary either to have Dutch barns, or covered rick stands, § 816, or to set
the corn abroad in small cocks, thatched, to receive the sun and wind for several months
before housing. Agriculturists are generally of opinion that a well-proportioned farm
should consist of one third of meadow and pasture ground, and two thirds of arable land ;
because all the advantages of the plough and the hoof will thus be so well balanced, and
each will assist the other so beneficially, that there need be neither redundancy nor waste
of any of the produce ; but all may be turned to the best account in the shortest time.
In grazing farms, the above proportions are reversed ; one third of arable land being
considered necessary to supply litter for the cattle, and straw for thatching ricks, &c.
The buildings on such farms are also different ; as, instead of barns, they have extensive
feeding-houses." We might enlarge on this subject at great length, from the circum-
stance of having been early initiated in farming under our parental roof, and having since
farmed extensively on our own account, as well as from having designed several farmeries,
and executed some of them : but having already treated on the subject in detail, in
our Encyclopedia of Agriculture, we purposely refer the reader to that work ; being
desirous of not repeating any part of it in the present one, and of saying no more on
416 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
the subject of agriculture than wliat is absolutely necessary to put the Architect in
possession of the requisite data and desiderata of the buildings which he will be required
to design.
886. The most desirable Position, of the Farm House, relatively to the Farmery, has
already more than once (see § 740 and 741) been incidentally mentioned; and it is only
necessary to repeat, that it should always be such as td command as complete a view of
the yards and the doors of the buildings as possible. For this purpose, when the living-
rooms of the house have windows on two sides, as in fig. 749, § 740, the diagonal of the
square of the house ought to be parallel to the square of the farmery; but when the
parlour or living-room has windows only from one side, its front may be parallel with
the front of the farmery. On whichever side of the farmery the house is placed, the
buildings or walls on that side should always be so low as to be overlooked by the dog-
house and the windows of the parlour.
837. 7'/"' Style of Architectural Design, in Farm Houses and Farmeries, may be con-
sidered in two points of view : first, with reference to the nature of the buildings ; that
is, their magnitude, shape, materials, and uses ; and, secondly, with reference to the other
buildings of a superior character, when there are such on the estate to which they
belong. Grecian architecture is best suited for low extended buildings, and for build-
ings constructed of timber, and abounding in piers and posts; and Gothic architecture
is best calculated for lofty buildings of stone, without detached outside piers, posts, or
pillars. The prevailing lines in Grecian architecture are horizontal, and lead the eye
along the eaves of the roof; the prevailing lines in Gothic architecture are perpendicular,
and lead the eye upwards, by long, narrow, upright openings, and high gables. A
Gothic building of one story produces no effect, because there is no room for the ex-
tension of its characteristic lines ; but a low Grecian building may have the full measure
of its characteristic expression by extending its length. It is clear, therefore, that the
Grecian style is better adapted for farm buildings than the Gothic style ; and that, if
expense were not an object, the piers and posts of a farm yard might be, with propriety,
finished as Grecian columns andpilasters ; and open cattle-sheds and cart-sheds might show
the noblest colonnades, arcades, and piazzas. On the other hand, when the mansion, or
chateau, or convent, or college, or school, to which the farm belongs, is in the Gothic
style, there is a propriety in yielding to accidental circumstances, and conferring the
same character of style on the farm buildings. As this cannot be done by general forms,
since it would be useless to carry stables and cattle-sheds three or four stories high, it is
to be attempted chiefly by the character of the openings, and by highly raised roofs .
the barn may have something of the forms and proportions of a cathedral ; the cart and
cattle sheds, of cloisters ; and the stables and cow-houses, of lodgings for monks, like those
common in old monasteries. We throw out this idea respecting the Gothic style more
in conformity with the taste of the times than with our own, which in every case of farm
buildings is in favour of the greatest simplicity of design, and of the indication of the
Grecian style rather than of any other.
838. The Materials with which Farm Buildings are constructed are commonly those
which are most abundant in the given locality. As the improvements which are con-
stantly taking place in agriculture necessarily occasion changes in the buildings for storing
or consuming its produce, it does not seem essential that the constructions on a farm
ought to be of the same degree of durability as those for a dwelling-house or for a public
building. Indeed, as society advances, change will enter more and more into every
thing, and almost the only buildings that will eventually require to be made of great
durability will be those of a public nature; such as bridges, which ought to be the most
durable of all architectural constructions, piers, quays, sewers, public offices, parochial
schools, &c. As the walls of the greater part of farm buildings have no weight to support
but the roof; as the retention of a high temperature within is seldom, if ever, an object;
and as scarcely any fires are requisite, timber seems a very suitable material of construc-
tion ; and in all countries where wood abounds it will be found the cheapest. The
objection hitherto has been the want of durability, but this evil may be in a great degree
remedied by raising proper footings of masonry, as basements for the framework of the
walls ; by thoroughly seasoning the timber before it is used ; and by coating it over, after
it is put together, with tar, or some description of paint or other adhesive material, which
will effectually exclude the air and the weather. Walls of mud, or of compressed earth,
are still more economical than those of timber; and if they were raised on brick or stone
foundations, the height of a foot or eighteen inches above the ground, or above the
highest point at which dung or moist straw was ever likely to be placed against them,
their durability would be equal to that of marble, if properly constructed, and kept per-
fectly dry. The cob walls of Devonshire, which are formed of clay and straw trodden
together by oxen, have been known to last above a century without requiring the slightest
repair; and we think that there are many farmers, especially in America and Australia,
MODEL DESIGNS FOR FARMERIES, 117
who, if they knew how easily walls of this description could be built, would often avail
themselves of them for various agricultural purposes. We shall therefore here describe the
Devonshire practice, as furnished us by the llev. YV. T. E , who lias himself built
several houses of two stories with cob walls, in the manner which he details in the follow-
ing paragraph; and who, moreover, informs us that he was born in a cob-wall parsonage,
built in the reign of Elizabeth, if not a {tiw years earlier, which was only taken down
last year (18151) to be rebuilt.
839. Cob Walls, as they are called, are composed of earth and straw mixed up with
water like mortar, and well beaten and trodden together. Chappie, in his Survey of
Devon, 1785, derives cob from the British word chwap (ictus), or from the Greek
kotttos (contusus), because the earth and straw ought to be well beaten or pounded
together. The earth nearest at hand is generally used, and the more loamy the more
suitable it is considered for the purpose. These walls are made two feet thick, and are
raised upon a foundation of stonework. The higher the stonework is carried the better,
as it. elevates the cobwork from the moisture of the ground. After a wall is raised to a
certain height, it is allowed some weeks to settle, before more is laid on. The first rise,
as it is called, is about four feet; the next not so high ; and so every succeeding rise is
diminished in height as the work advances. The solidity of cob walls depends much
upon their not being hurried in the process of making them ; for, if hurried, the walls
will surely be crippled ; that is, they will swag, or swerve from the perpendicular. It
is usual to pare down the sides of each successive rise before another is added to it. The
instrument used for this purpose is like a baker's peel (a kind of wooden shovel for taking
the bread out of the oven), but the cob-parer is made of iron. The lintels of the doors
and windows, and of the cupboards or other recesses, are put in as the work advances,
(allowance being made for their settling), bedding them on cross pieces, and the walls
being carried up solid. The respective openings'are cut out after the work is well settled.
In Devonshire, the builders of cob-wall houses like to begin their work when the birds
begin to build their nests, in order that there may be time to cover in the shell of the
building before winter. The outer walls are plastered the following spring. Should
the work be overtaken by winter before the roof is on, it is usual to put a temporary
covering of thatch upon the walls, to protect them from the frost.
840. In forming cob walls, one man stands on the work to receive the cob, which is
pitched up to him by a man below ; the man on the work arranging it and treading it
down. Each workman generally uses a common pitchfork, though sometimes a three-
pronged fork is employed. Cob houses are considered remarkably warm and healthy ;
and they are generally covered with thatch. The durability of cob is said to depend
upon its having " a good hat and a good pair of shoes ;" that is, a good roof and a good
foundation. The Devonshire thatching is very superior, to that in most other parts of
England. It is done with combed wheat straw, called reed, consisting of the stiff,
unbruised, and broken stalks, which have been carefully separated from the fodder straw
by the thresher, and bound up in large sheaves called nitches. In this way the
t hati-her is enabled to finish his work much more neatly than in other counties where no
reed is made. Instead of brick nogging for partitions, cob is used for filling in the frame-
work, which is previously lathed with stout slit oak or hazel. This sort of work is
called rah and dab.
841. Cob walls thatched are very common for garden boundaries. The trees are trained
against them by being pinned with maple hooks; but such walls in the course of time
become lull of holes, and afford a hiding-place for insects; they, therefore, frequently
require a fresh coating of plaster.
842. In estimating the merits of cob walls, it must not be forgotten, that, when pulled
down, the materials are good for nothing but as manure; whereas the materials of brick,
stone, and sometimes even of timber walls may be used in rebuilding. It also deserves
to be remarked, that earth or mud walls are not in use in any district of Britain which
is in an advanced state of improvement ; they appear to be chiefly suitable to a rude
state of society, where every man is his own builder, and where mechanical skill, and
good tools for working in timber and stone, are scarce. However, though they cannot be
recommended for general adoption where brick and stone walls are common, yet the
very circumstance of their being neglected, or not known, in such places, renders it pro-
bable that a great economy would be produced by their occasional use; on the same
principle that, in a country where the common labourers live on bread and butcher's
meat, one of them who should determine to subsist merely on oatmeal or potatoes would
save money.
843. For covering the Roofs of Farm Buildings, the cheapest material will generally
be the straw raised on the farm, which, when laid on thick, and with a steep slope, lasts
many years. The spray of trees previously well seasoned, hoop chips, and the chips from
Other articles made of coppice wood, form more durable materials for thatching with than
v v
418 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
straw, and we think they might be more used that) they are, with advantage. Never-
theless, thatched roofs have disappeared with the improvement of agriculture in all the
more advanced districts of Britain, and have given place to tiles and slates. It would
appear, therefore, that mud walls and thatched roofs, like the practice of using oxen in
field labours, notwithstanding all that is said in favour of the former for excluding
extremes of temperature, and of the latter as combining a working with a beef-producing
animal, are fast falling into disuse. Our own opinion, with respect to thatched roofs, is,
that in very many cases they are preferable, both for farm buildings and cottages, to
roofs of tiles or slates, as these are commonly constructed, even where the latter two arc
cheaper, because they are less liable to admit through them the influence of every change
of temperature.
8 I I. For Details of Construction common to buildings in general, we refer to that
part of this work which treats of the practice of building; or the Architect may consult
W.iistcll's very excellent chapter (v.) on this subject.
CHAr. II.
A Miscellaneous Collection of Dcsig?is for Farm Houses and Farmeries, in different
Styles of Architecture, and adapted to different Kinds of Farms; with Specifications,
Estimates, and accompanying Remarks.
845. The following Designs exhibit various combinations of the separate buildings,
courts, and yards which compose a farmery ; and exhibit also farm houses with different
degrees of accommodation, from those of the gentleman's bailiff", and of the rent-paying
Occupies of a hundred acres, to that of the wealthy proprietor who cultivates his own
estate. Though there is little room for a display of style in the necessarily simple form
of farm buildings, yet we shall endeavour to show in what manner style may be intro-
duced even in the humblest of them ; because the farm house is as susceptible of archi-
tectural design as any other dwelling ; and when it is in the same style as that of the
farmery, it gives a first impression, which should be found to be echoed, as it were,
through all the subordinate buildings. With respect to the arrangement of these
Designs, it is enough to say, that, like those of the cottage dwellings in the preceding
Book, it is miscellaneous.
Design I. — A Bailiff's Cottage, in the Old English Style, intended for the Manager of a
Farm in the Neighbourhood of London.
846. Situation. This dwelling, which has been erected at Bury Hill, near Dork-
ing, Surrey, the seat of Charles Barclay, Esq., was designed by John Perry, Esq.,
architect, Godalming, and executed by contract, in 1831, under his direction. It is
situated on the south side of the farm yard, which will form the subject of our next
Design, and of which the bailiff has the management. We were shown the house and
the yard by Mr. Barclay, in October, 1831, and were so much gratified with both, that
we requested his permission to publish Designs of them. This permission he kindly
granted; and, by the liberality of our excellent friend, Mr. Perry, we are here enabled to
give them, with the most ample details of construction, and with the original specifi-
cations and estimates signed by the contractors who executed the work.
847. Accommodation. The ground floor, fig. 847, p. 419, contains a porch way, a;
848
849-
hall and staircase, h ; parlour, c; pantry, d;
store room, c; dairy, f; scalding-room, or
dairy scullery, g, containing a pump, // ;
oven, i • drying-room, £ ; and terrace, /. The
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 419
I.
420 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
851
— — \ " ' ' ■::: ■]' .'. •. — ■■■' ' ■ — — ^~. .-■■■■■■ — ■■■■■■■
^r -'•"
"- -7-
— . J'/.'t'v — ' — I' ' I
""'''' '" '■' '
_ — ., ,. . ,. ., ; ■:
853
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 421
chamber floor, fig. 848, to a scale of twenty feet to an inch, contains four good bed-
rooms, m, n, o, p ; each with fireplaces, and all commodiously entered from the
landing, q, of the stairs, r. The basement story, fig. 849, to the same scale, contains
an outer cellar, s, and an inner cellar, t. There is an area, u, to the kitchen window, with
a trap over a drain, v, which is conducted under the cellar floor ; in one corner of which,
another trap, w, is placed over it, for carrying off any moisture spilled in the cellar.
848. Construction. The walls are of local sandstone, in random courses, with brick
arches and coins ; and the window sills, lintels, labels, and chimney shafts are of Bath
stone. The posts of the entrance and drying porches, are of oak and the superstruc-
ture of the drying-porch is of framed oak, filled in with brick nogging flat, as shown in
the elevation of the south front, fig. 850, p. 419. The roof is covered with plain tiles.
The different elevations are shown in p. 420 ; fig. 851 being the north front, fig. 852
the east front, and fig. 853 the west front. The ground floor is raised three feet six
inches above the general surface, and the terrace three feet ; as shown in the different
elevations, by the line x, which represents the solid ground, as compared with the line y,
which represents the surface of the terrace. The cellar is shown at z, in fig. 850, p. 419,
in fig. 853, p. 420, and in fig. 854 ; the latter being a section across the cellar, z ; the
854
parlour, c; the kitchen,/; and the bed-rooms, o, p. The foundations and their footings
are distinctly seen in this section, and in the different elevations.
Fig. 855 is an end view of the drying-porch, and fig. 856 a side view of the same ;
I
— 856
VH
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
both to a scale of one eighth of an inch to a foot. The columns here, it will be
observed, are twisted ; a practice not unfrequent in old English cottages of the better
kind, and which is in perfect accordance with the enriched barge boards and the turned
balusters of the balustrade.
Fig. 857 shows the plan of the drying-porch.
Fij& 858 to a scale of one inch to a foot, is a section across the balustrade, in which
a is the top rail, and b the bottom rail.
Fi<*. 859, to the same scale, is a section of the moulded face of the beam, c, in
figs. 855 and 856. . .
Fi"-. 860 is a section of the top of the columns, on which the beam, c, is placed.
FW. 861 is a section of the base of the same columns.
Fi". 862, to a scale of one fourth of an inch to a foot, shows one of the piers to the
parapet of the terrace, supposed to be of stonework ; in which d is the line of the solid
ground ; e, the surface of the new ground ; /, the level of the terrace ; g, rough stone-
work ; and h, worked stone.
858
Fig. 863 shows the bottom part of the gable post, seen in fig. 865, and which also
serves as a pattern for the pendants from the verge boards. The scale of this figure is
two inches to a foot.
Fig. 864 is a section across the eaves of the roof, in which are seen the face of the
«ill, /; the bed moulding, k; the soffit, I; the situation of the bracket, m; the eaves
moulding, n ; the rafter, o ; and the eaves board, p. The scale of this figure is two
inches to a foot.
Fig. 865 is a view of part of the barge board, and the gable post ; in which are shown
the sunk panel, q, of the pinnacle ; the gable post, r ; the pierced openings in the verge
board, s s ; the raised ornaments on the same, t t ; the cross section of the verge board,
m u ; and the cement verge of the tiling, v v. The scale of this figure is two inches to
a foot.
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 423
S63
Fig. 866 is the front view of the entrance porch, and
an ind,867 " ^ ^ VieW °f the Same porch ' both are drawn to a s^le of six feet to
K' III'1- a Cr°SS SeCtion of the oak c°PinS ofthe wall of the porch.
in the ' 2e of ZZ l ^T^, °f J*6 ^^ Part °f the P°3t' and Part °f ** *«*•
the gable of the porch. In this figure, a is the commencement of the arch, which
424- COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
corresponds with the same letter in fig. 866 ; b b show the section of the moulded face
of the arch ; c c c are the three ornaments shown at c in figs. 866 and 867; d, e, f are
the ornaments shown as decorating the outer sides of the corner posts in figs. 866 and
867 ; and g is the side view of the brackets shown at g in the same figures ; h is a section
of the face of the corner post, and of the impost over it; ii, the front view of the
bracket ; k, a front view of the impost over the bracket ; /, the soffit of the arch ; and
m, the inside view of the corner post, shown without ornament.
Fig. 870 is a baluster in the side of the entrance-porch, in which n is a section of the
top rail.
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 42.5
Fig. 871 shows the gate-post, o, and a cross section of the top rail of the gate, p.
Fig. 872, bottom rail of the gate, q; and lower part of a baluster, under the rail, r.
Fig. 873 shows a horizontal section of the gate-posts, s, and of the gate-head, t.
Fig. 874 is a baluster of the gate, different from that in the side rail, shown in fig. 870.
Fig. 875 is the elevation of the external door of the house, to a scale of four feet to an
inch ; below which are the plan, a, to the same scale; and the section of the muntings, b ;
the latter to the scale of a quarter of an inch to an inch.
875
Fig. 876 is a horizontal section of part of a window, showing the stone window jamb,
c, stone munting, d, and the cast-iron frames of the windows let into them, e e e.
Fig. 877 is a section of the stone drip mouldings, or labels, put over the windows, to
a scale of one inch to a foot.
Fig. 878 shows three sections of different parts of the chimney shafts, to a scale of
one inch to a foot ; f is a section of the head of the shafts ; g is a section of the base ;
and li is a section of the drip moulding under the base, shown at h in figs. 879 to 882.
Figs. 879 to S82 are the elevations of the four different patterns of chimney shafts,
below which are the plans, i i i i.
879
SSO
ra
882
426 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Fig. 883 is a section showing the footings of the walls, and their depth under the
original surface line, k k, of the ground on which they are built.
884
883
£
j
Fig. 884 is a section showing the relative height of the ground floor, /, and the surface
of the terrace, m. In this figure are also shown the joists of the ground floor, n ; the
wall plate on which they are placed, o ; and the chain plate, p, which is continued round
the whole building.
Particulars of the several Works to be done in building a Bailiff's Cottage at Bury Hill,
near Dorking, Surrey, for Charles Barclay, Esq., according to the Plans, Elevations,
Sections, and Details, severally signed by the Parties undertaking the same.
849. Excavator's, Bricklayer's, and Well-digger's Work. To dig out the earth for the
basement story, and the several trenches for the foundations of the whole of the building,
of the respective depths and widths required, and to fill in and well ram round the work.
Surplus earth arising therefrom to be spread round the building, to form a terrace, as
shown in the plan. To dig a well in the dairy scullery, 4 feet clear in diameter, 45 feet
deep ; to steen the same in 4-inch brickwork, and to dome it over in 9-inch brickwork.
The soil and rubbish which may be made during the carrying on of the works to be
taken out of the building, from time to time, as occasion may require. All the bricks
to be used in the building, or brought upon the premises, to be sound and good well-
burned stocks. The mortar to be composed of the best well-burned grey lime, and clean
sharp sand, well tempered together. The footings and foundations to be built of sand-
stone, and below the ground line to be grouted with hot lime and sand. The remain-
der of the walls above ground to be built of sandstone laid in neat random courses,
with a flat joint garreted on the external face ; the stones to be properly headed and
prepared, and flushed solid in mortar; the whole of the coins, arches, and inverted
arches to be of brickwork, and all the walls to be built of the several heights and thick-
nesses shown in the drawings, leaving the several apertures therein described. The
chimney breasts, jambs, and backs to be of brickwork, with inverted arches under the
lowest fireplaces, the flues to be properly gathered and pargeted (this operation is usually
performed with loam and cow-dung ; but quicklime and pounded brick are found far
better, and are now generally used by the best London builders), 12 inches in diameter
in the clear. A strong iron chimney bar (see § 602, fig. 542) to be put to each of the
fireplaces, and 4-inch brick trimmers to be turned where required. To build stone
foundations for the porchways, stone underpinning for the partitions, brick foundations for
the sink and to the dairy steps, and an area of 9-inch brickwork to the cellar window,
paved with bricks, with sinkhole and drain to deliver the water into the main drain.
To pave the cellar and passage adjoining with building bricks laid flat in mortar ; and
the pantry, store room, and kitchen with dressed paving bricks, bedded and jointed in
mortar ; and to wheel in such sand as may be required for properly levelling and current-
ing the same. To put hollow tile drains, 7 inches clear in the bore, where shown by
dotted lines in the plan ; altogether a length of 200 feet ; and to provide and fix 6 cast-
iron stink-traps, 8 inches square, one at each of the external apertures thereof; the whole
to be laid with a proper fall, and sufficient depth to deliver the water away from the
lowest part of the building. To pave the drying-porch with pebbles ; to build brick
stops, and to bed the oak nosings (the nosing of a step is the front part of the tread,
between the line formed by the meeting of the riser with the tread) to the cellar stairs.
To build the foundations, the enclosure walls, and an oven 4 feet by 3 feet 9 inches in
the clear, properly domed, plastered, and paved ; and to find and fix the requisite iron-
work and door for the same complete. To build brick benches, with 4-inch arches and
piers, in the dairy, to receive a slate covering. To fill in the nogging partitions with
brick nogging flat. The bricklayer to find scaffolding and ladders, and to fix and refix
the same as occasion may require, as well for his own work as for the other trades
requiring the use of them; and to allow the same to remain till the external part of the
house and chimney shafts shall be completed. The walls to he carried up in an upright,
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. V2J
substantial, and workmanlike manner ; and in the progress of the building no part of
the work to be raised more than 4 feet above the other, except in the pediments, but
the whole to be carried up in a regular and equal manner. To fix the wooden bricks,
and to bed all the plates, bond timber, and linteLs in loam. To cut all the rakes and
splays, and all the chasings required for the lead flashings ; to make good and stop the
same with Roman cement ; to bed and point the door frames in lime and hair, and to
underpin the sills. To cover the whole of the roofing with old sound plain tiles (old
are preferred for their picturesque effect) laid on straw to a 7^-inch gauge, with
heart of oak laths, the hips, ridges, and eaves in mortar : the straw to be of equal
thickness throughout, and in sufficient quantity to exclude the light : S85
no crooked, cracked, or cornerless tiles to be used ; and the whole of the
tiling to be done with particular care, so as perfectly to exclude the
snow, rain, and wind. (The gauge of plain tiling is reckoned from
the distance which the first and third laths are apart, measuring from
centre to centre. For a 75-inch gauge, the workman nails on a lath, and,
with a measure or gauge 7 inches and a half long, finds the place of the
third lath ; and, having fixed that, nails another lath between. This
arrangement, when the tiles are hung on, causes them to overlap, so as
to show uncovered 3 inches and a quarter of each course. By this means
the third tile overlaps the first 2 inches and a half, which makes the work
impervious to rain. This will be rendered clear by the section fig. 885 ;
in which a a are the tiles ; b b, the laths ; and c c, the wooden pegs, by
which the tiles are hung on the laths.) The fillets, listings, and verges
to be of Roman cement. (The fillets are narrow strips of lime and hair,
or cement, put to cover the horizontal joints, where tiling abuts against
walls ; the listings are the same upon an inclined plane. The verges are
the external edge of the tiling in gables, which are covered with lime and
hair, or Roman cement.) The bricklayer to find all the materials, ropes,
boards, tackle, tools, workmanship, and ironwork, for the completion of
his work, and the carriage thereof; to do the whole in the best and
most workmanlike manner ; and to colour twice over in good stone colour,
to match the stone part of the chimney shafts, the whole of the brick
coins and brick part of the chimney shafts. To do all the beam-filling,
and wind-pinning required. The whole to be done subject to the pro-
visions of the general particular at the end.
850. Plasterer's Work. To lath, lay, set, and colour stone colour, the gable of drvins-
porch. To lath, lay, set, and white the ceilings of basement story and scalding-room,
and to lime-white the walls twice over. — Ground Floor and Chamber Story. To lath,
lay, set, and white the whole of the ceilings, except the parlour, which is to be lath, lay,
float, set, and whited. To lath, lay, and set the whole of the battenings and strings
of the stairs; and to render set the walls and nogging partitions, so as to fit them for
colouring, and in the parlour for papering. All the timbers of the partitions to be
diagonal-lathed. The plasterer to find all materials, tools, tressels, boards, moulds,
rules, carriage, and workmanship required for the completion of his work ; and to do
the same in the best and most workmanlike manner, subject to the provisions in the
general particular at the end hereof. [The same person contracts for both the brick-
layer's and the plasterer's work, and signs this particular in the following form : — ]
I, the undersigned, hereby undertake to perform the foregoing bricklayer's and
plasterer's work for the sum of four hundred and eighty-five pounds five shillings and
eleven pence. S. B.
851. Mason's Work. To pave with Yorkshire stone paving, properly squared in
courses, the porchway, the dairy, and the scalding-room ; the dairy floor to be rubbed ;
with proper holes for stink-traps where required ; with Yorkshire steps and risers where
shown in the plan, and with a solid Yorkshire step at the entrance door of the house.
To put Yorkshire curb stones to the drying-porch and area, 5 inches by 4 inches, pro-
perly cramped, and run with lead. To put plain Portland stone shelves, mantels, jambs,
slips, and bases to the chambers ; and the same, with profiles, and reeded shelf and turned
pateras (the representation of a cup in has relief, a common ornament in friezes), in par-
lours, with Yorkshire stone hearths, and Portland stone slabs to each. The kitchen to have
inch-and-three-quarters Portland stone mantel jambs and shelf. To put a Yorkshire
stone sink in the scalding-room, 5 feet long, and 2 feet 3 inches wide, with proper hole for
washer. To put moulded window frames, labels, and chimney shafts of Bath stone,
properly cramped and run with lead, according to the drawings, and properly to fix, and
run with lead, the iron frames, lights, and stanchion bars. To put milled slate benches
in the dairy, an inch and a quarter thick, with rounded edges, and milled slate skirting
z z
428 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
7 inches high, backed up, and set in Roman cement, in the kitchen, dairy, pantry, and
store room. The mason to find all materials, carriage, and workmanship required for
the completion of his work in the best and most workmanlike manner ; and to fix the
whole complete, subject to the conditions in the general particular at the end hereof.
[The mason contracting for this, affixes his signature to the same form as before.]
The terrace shown in the drawings (see the figures in p. 419 and p. 420) is not de-
scribed in this particular, nor included in the estimate ; as the expense depends upon
whether the free sandstone, of which it should be built, can be obtained with facility or
not.
852. Carpenter's and Joiner's Work. The whole of the materials to be provided and
sawed out square free from wane, of the several scantlings and thicknesses herein spe-
cified ; to be carted to the spot by the contractor, and to consist of the best yellow Dantzic
or Memel fir, or English oak, free from sap, shakes, or large and loose knots. The whole
of the carpentry is to be framed in a workmanlike manner, according to the drawings ;
the carpenter finding labour, nails, and tools, and all kinds of ironwork required for the
purpose ; the whole to be done subject to the provisions of the general particular at the
end hereof. The bond is to pass through the openings, and not to be cut out till the
work has settled. To put a chain plate of oak, 6 inches by 4 inches and a half,
round the whole of the building, and the middle wall in the centre of the same, at the
height shown in the plan ; the whole to be properly halved, and bolted at the laps, and
dovetailed at the angles. To put three tiers of bond in the ground floor story, and three
tiers in the chamber story, of oak, 3 inches by 2 inches and a half; and an oak wall
plate under each floor, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches, dovetailed at the angles, and
halved and spiked at the laps. To put double oak lintels, 4 inches thick, to all the
openings, of the width of the respective walls or reveals, to lie 9 inches on the wall at
each end. Oak wooden bricks to be provided in the jambs, for fixing the several linings
where required, not exceeding 2 feet apart. — Parlour. To put oak joists, 6 inches by
3 inches, 1 2 inches apart ; the trimmers and trimming joists to be 6 inches by 4 inches.
— Chamber Floor. To put fir joists throughout, 9 inches by 2 inches and a half, 12
inches apart. The trimmers and trimming joists to be 9 inches by 3 inches and a half,
with one row of 1 inch and a quarter, fir keys (or strutting pieces) in each of the large
chambers. — Ceiling Floor throughout. The ceiling joists to be 4 inches and a half by
2 inches, 1 2 inches apart, with binding joists, 5 inches by 3 inches and a half, and angle
beams fixed with iron screw pins to the tie beams, 5 inches by 3 inches and a half,
trimmed to the chimneys, and for a trapdoor over the landing to the stairs. — Roofing.
Gutter plate, 8 inches by 4 inches. Tie beams, each in one length, joggled to the plates,
7 inches by 4 inches ; king posts, 9 inches by 3 inches, with three quarters of an inch
iron screw pins 2 feet long, with nuts 3 inches long, mortised through the king posts.
Struts, 4 inches by 3 inches ; framed principal rafters, 6 inches by 3 inches at bottom,
and 4 inches by 3 inches at top ; purlins notched on the back of the principal rafters,
5 inches by 3 inches ; oak wall plate, 5 inches by 3 inches ; pole plate, 4 inches and a
half by 2 inches and a half; 1 inch and a half sleepers, 5 inches wide, laid on the back of
the rafters to form valleys, 1 inch and a half ridges and hips, 6 inches wide ; common
rafters, 4 inches by 3 inches, 13 inches apart ; inch yellow deal gutter board and bearers,
with feather-edged flanch board ; and the same to the chimneys. The middle gutter is to
be 12 inches wide at the narrowest end, and to rise 2 inches in every 10 feet, with one 2-inch
splayed drop ; proper valley boards are to be put for the lead valleys. The roof of the
scalding-room, and of the porches and oven, are to have plates, rafters, ridges, valleys,
and gutters, as before described, and the whole of the eaves are to have feather-edged oak
eaves board, 4 inches and a half wide, and 1 inch and a quarter, and three quarters of an inch
thick, with inch brackets to receive the eaves moulding and soffit. — Partitions for
Nogging Flat throughout. To put heads and sills, 4 inches and a quarter by 3 inches ;
and common quarters, 4 inches and a quarter by 2 inches and a half, 1 8 inches apart ;
door posts, principal quarters, and braces, 4 inches and a quarter by 3 inches ; and
nogging pieces, 4 inches and a quarter by 2 inches. All the heads of partitions to be
dovetailed into the plates. All the external walls are to be battened inside with inch
oak, 2 inches and a half wide and 12 inches apart. To make a proper barrel curb, for
the well-diggers, and such centering as may be wanted for the archers and trimmers.
853. Joiner s Work. To be done according to the several drawings of details. All the
stuff' to be of the best well-seasoned (kept till so dry as to be in no danger of shrinking
when used) yellow deal, listed, free from sap and shakes, and the whole to be neatly
wrought and finished off in a workmanlike manner. — Floors. To lay inch straight
joint floors, with proper borders to slabs in the parlour, passage, and bed-rooms. —
Doors. To put inch and three quarters four-panel both sides square doors to all the
rooms and closets, and to the head of the cellar stairs, hung with 3 inches and a half
butt hinges, and 6 inches iron rim brass knob locks, with 1 inch and a half single-rebated
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 429
jambs, having framed grounds beaded on edge, with quirk ogee fillet and square, to form
architraves. To put an inch wrought ledged and beaded trapdoor to go into the roof,
with inch rebated linings. The external doors into the entrance-porch, and the drying-
porch, to be of oak, with doorcase, hinges, and linings, &c, according to the drawing;
and to have a 10-inch iron-rim drawback lock, and two 8-inch bright rod bolts to
each. The cellar door to be inch proper ledged, with oak proper doorcase, 5 inches
by 3 inches and a half, with lock and key, and hung with 1 8-inches cross garnet hinges.
— Windows. To prepare a wood model, and provide cast-iron lights, casements, frames,
hinges, fastenings, and stay bars to the several openings, according to the drawings. To
provide stanchion bars four to each light, of an inch square wrought iron, in the dairy,
the pantry, and the store room. The dairy, the pantry, and the store room to have fly
wire (wireeloth to exclude flies) inside of the windows, and the casements to open from
the outside, with two panels of fly wire in the door between the pantry and the passage.
The several windows to have inch window boards with rounded edge, and also three
quarters of an inch splayed jamb linings, and soffits with framed grounds, and moulding
for architraves, to match the other doors, except those in the cellar, store room, pantry,
dairy, and scalding-room. The kitchen and parlours to have 1 inch and a quarter square
framed folding inside shutters, with back flaps, proper hinges, and iron bar fastenings.
— Skirtings. To put inch torus skirting 7 inches high in the parlour, and three
quarters of an inch square skirting throughout the chamber floor. All the skirtings to
have narrow beveled grounds and backings. — Staircase. To put inch steps, risers, and
carriage, housed into the string boards, and 1 inch and a half close string, with moulded
planceer and raking skirting. Moulded handrail, and inch square bar balusters, with
iron balusters, and turned newels. The spandril to be filled in with inch and quarter
both sides square framing; and to put proper apron lining (the lining which cases
the trimmer) and nosing to the landing. To put oak framed nosings to the brick steps
of the cellar stairs, with oak wrought and rounded handrail and newel posts. To put
inch and half oak pump cheeks and sills, and to case the same with inch deal, and
proper cap, &c, and to fix the same in the scalding-room. To put proper staff beads to
the angles of the chimney breasts. To prepare and fix with iron holdfasts, 150 feet
run of inch and quarter shelf, 12 inches wide, and brackets in the pantry, store room,
or elsewhere, as may be directed. To put 2 inches and a half oak carved verge boards
with crown mouldings, and carved pendants, with three quarters of an inch wrought oak
soffits to all the pediments, and eaves moulding, and three quarters of an inch soffit and
bed mould, also of oak, to all the eaves. The entrance porch and drying porch also to
be fitted up with oak, the whole according to the drawing of details. The carpenter
and joiner to find all the materials, tools, labour, nails, glue, and every description of iron-
mongery, locks, bolts, bars, hinges, and fastenings, and the carriage and fixing thereof,
and every thing required for the completion of his work in the best and most workman-
like manner ; and to prepare and fix all manner of beads, stops, fillets, grounds, linings,
and backings required for the perfect execution of the work, whether the same may or
may not be minutely specified in this particular. The whole to be done, subject to the
provisions in the general particular at the end hereof.
[Signed, as before, by the person undertaking the carpenter's and joiner's work.]
R.S.
854. Plumber, Painter, and Glazier's Work. Plumber. To put flashings of milled
lead, 8 inches wide, 5 lbs. to the foot superficial, chased into the stonework, and fixed
with wall hooks to each of the chimney shafts ; and to put gutters, 18 inches wide, of
7 lbs. cast lead, and aprons to such as require it. To cover the middle gutter, and gutter
at the drying-porch, with cast lead, 7 lbs. to the foot superficial, to turn up 8 inches
under the tiles on each side, and to put 3 inches lead rain-water stack pipes, with cistern
heads to bring the water to the ground in the angle of the north front, and at the dry-
ing porch. To cover the valleys with 7 lbs. cast lead, 15 inches wide. To put proper
flashings of nulled lead, 5 lbs. to the foot superficial, 12 inches wide, chased into the
stonework where the roofs of the scalding-room and of the porchway abut against the
same. To put a 5-inch brass grate, and bell trap, and 2 inches and a half lead pipe to
the sink. To put a good stout 4-inch lead pump barrel, weighing 2 qrs. 14 lbs., in the
scalding-room, with 50 feet of 2 inches and a half lead suction pipe, with bucket,
sucker, and iron handle complete. — Glazier's Work. To glaze and back putty all the
lights and casements, with good second Newcastle crown glass. — Painter's Work. The
whole of the iron frames, lights, and casements, and fly wire to be painted inside and
out, four times, in good oil colour. The whole of the internal joiner's work to be knotted,
primed, and painted three times in oil stone colour. The oakwork is not to be painted. — ■
The plumber, painter, and glazier to find all materials and workmanship ; and the car-
riage thereof, and every thing requisite for the performance of his work ; and to do the
430 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
same in a perfect and workmanlike manner, subject to the general particular at the
end hereof.
[Signed, as before, by the plumber, painter, and glazier.] W. B.
855. General Particular. The bricklayer's work to be completed by the
day of . The naked floors and roofing to be fixed and finished by the
day of • The whole to be covered in by the
day of • The plastering to be begun as soon as the roofing is
covered in, and finished, as well as the mason's work, by the day of
The whole of the joiner's work to be finished by the day of
; and the painter's by the day of
The glazing to be done as soon as the lights and casements are fitted in. Each con-
tractor shall be answerable for all damage done to his respective work during the pro-
gress, either by the inclemency of the weather or otherwise ; and shall make all good,
and leave the same perfect at the final completion of the work. The work to be paid
for within one month after the certification of the completion of the contracts. —
The whole of the materials are to be found by the contractors, and are to be of the best
of their several kinds, and fit for the purpose. The work is to be done in a substantial
and workmanlike manner, under the direction and to the satisfaction of the Architect
appointed for the purpose by the employer ; and every thing is to be performed that is
necessary for completing the whole work in the usual and customary manner, notwith-
standing the same may not be mentioned in the specification. And, if any alteration
shall be made by the direction of the employer, during the progress of the work, it shall
not vitiate or annul the contract, but the value of such alteration shall be ascertained, at
the customary prices of the neighbourhood, by the Architect, whose decision between the
parties shall be final. The full amount of the contracts to be paid when the several
works are certified by the surveyor to be complete and finished. And, if any material
shall be brought upon the premises which is disapproved by the surveyor, or any workman
employed whose skill is considered insufficient by him, the said materials or workman
to be removed or discharged immediately, upon the contractor receiving notice from the
surveyor so to do, either in writing or verbally. And further, if any or all of the said
works should be performed in any way inferior to the description or intention of the
particular and drawings, or shall be deteriorated below a fair standard of good quality
or sound workmanship, the same shall also be valued by the said Architect as aforesaid,
and deducted from the amount of the contract by the employer ; and his decision in this
case shall also be final. The several contractors to be responsible to make good all latent
defects arising from bad work or bad materials, notwithstanding the certification as
aforesaid. The contractor or contractors are to sign an agreement, when required so to
do, to perform the work according to the foregoing particulars and conditions ; which
agreement shall contain such additional clauses as the solicitor to the employer shall
deem requisite to secure and enforce the fulfilment of the same.
[This general particular is signed by all the different contracting tradesmen who have
signed the separate particulars, in the manner before shown.]
S. B., Bricklayer, Plasterer, &c.
W. G., Mason.
R. S., Carpenter and Joiner.
W. B., Plumber, Painter, and Glazier.
856. Measurement avd Estimate. Account of the quantities of the several works
required in building a bailiff's cottage, with an estimate of the expense of performing
the same.
857. Bricklayer, Excavator, and Well-digger, a. M. (that is, finding All Materials).
102 cubic yards digging, filling, and ramming
6 rods 265 feet reduced stonework below ground, grouted
13 rods 7 feet reduced above ground with brick coins and garreted
on face
4 rods 183 feet reduced brickwork in shafts and chimneys
'25 squares 83 feet superficial, old plain tiles, with heart of oak laths
laid in straw ; with the hips, ridges, and eaves in mortar
65 yards brick nogging flat
27 yards stock paving flat, in mortar
34 yards dressed paving bricks, bedded and jointed in mortar
8 and a half yards pebble paving
92 feet run (lineal) splay
60 feet chase-cut and cement stopping ,
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 431
78 feet verge (see fig. 865 v, p. 423), in cement
58 feet hip
100 feet ridge
200 feet run hollow tile drain 7 inches bore, and digging and setting
and filling in
1 sinkhole
6 cast-iron stink-traps
2 door frames bedded and pointed, colouring brick shaft, and back
at scalding-room, and square bases of the chimneys of the house,
and all the coins
30 feet deep of well-digging, and labour to steening
15 feet do. of do. (Extra depth)
6 strong iron chimney bars
Ironwork to oven
£ 444 :
858. Plasterer's Work, A. m.
94 yards lime- whiting
204 yards whitewashing to new work
7 yards stone colour
245 yards render set
261 yards lath, lay and set
19 yards floated do
\
£41
859. Mason's Work, a. m.
190 feet superficial York paving squared in courses
182 feet do. rubbed
18 feet 9 inches Yorkshire stone hearth
23 feet 9 inches Portland stone slab
12 feet 9 inches inch-and-three -quarters Portland stone mantles,
jambs, and shelf
47 feet 5 inches seven eighths of an inch thick in chambers
63 feet 6 inches milled slate benches to the dairy
87 feet 7 inches milled slate skirting set in cement
11 feet 3 inches superficial Yorkshire stone sink
28 feet 6 inches run Yorkshire curb 5 inches by 4 inches, cramps, and
lead
feet 6 inches Yorkshire stone step
24 feet rounded edges to slate shelves
4 feet 6 inches reeded edge
2 holes for stink-traps 8 inches square
2 turned pateras
2 bases to do
4 three-light Bath stone window frames, and labels, as per drawings,
figs. 876 and 877, p. 425
10 two-light do. (with iron frames and stanchion bars in ditto, and
3 light frames fixed only)
3 plain Bath stone chimney shafts and bases
4 enriched do. do
Yorkshire stone landing, and corbel, to secure the stack of
chimneys. ( A corbel is a projecting row of stones, or of pieces of
timber, to support a superincumbent part of a wall ; it is here
used to support the upper division of the shaft which overhangs
its base)
£234 : 12
860. Carpenter's and Joiner's Work, a. m.
154 feet cubic of oak in bond, plates, &c
422 feet 9 inches foreign fir, framed, in roof, floors, and partitions...
1 1 square (a square is 100 superficial feet) 1 1 feet superficial, in oak
battening 2 inches and a half wide, and 12 inches apart
180 feet superficial feather-edge flanch and valley board
58 feet 6 inches yellow deal gutter and bearer
36 feet 9 inches ineh-and-quarter keys in floor
40 feet inch-and-half sleepers for valleys
432 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
87 feet 2 inches inch-and-half hips and ridges
227 feet run <>;ik eaves board
11 feet 5 indies cubic oak trained
2 feet 4 inches oak wrought and framed
2 feet 4 inches do. do. circular
11 feet 7 inches do. wrought, framed, and moulded
Oak wood bricks •
9 screw pins (wrought iron) to angle beams, and fixing
8 iron screw pins and nuts to king posts
1 "-ate to the porch, of oak with turned balusters, and hinges com-
plete
Joiners Work.
105 feet superficial, three-quarters-inch splayed lining
109 feet three-quarters-inch square skirting
244 feet three-quarters-inch wrought oak soffit
3 feet inch rebated lining...
48 feet window board rounded
5-2 feet 6 inches steps, risers, and carriage
148 feet 8 inches framed grounds
2 feet 3 inches wrought beaded and ledged trapdoor
19 feet 6 inches proper ledged door
2 feet 3 inches apron lining
18 feet 5 inches wrought pump case
28 feet 3 inches torus skirting
15 feet raking do
9J squares of inch straight joint floor
97 feet 6 inches superficial inch-and-quarter closet front and door ...
42 feet square framed folding window shutters, including hinges ....
13 feet 4 inches, inch-and-quarter close string
21 feet square framed spandril
150 feet shelf wrought, rounded, and fixed with brackets and hold-
fasts
167 feet 3 inches, inch-and-half single-rebated jambs
9 feet 9 inches oak pump cheeks
7 feet 6 inches oak filling in to gable of porch cut circular
206 feet 8 inches inch-and-three-quarters both sides square doors....
39 feet 6 inches oak Gothic doors
208 feet superficial moulded work to oak verges, and fixing with
pierced sinkings
74 feet superficial oak columns turned spiral, as shown in figs. 855
and 856, in p. 421
13 feet 6 inches oak wrought, framed, and weathered (beveled to
throw off the wet)
35 feet 7 inches fly wire
435 feet run quirk ovolo and fillet
266 feet 6 inches narrow grounds
10 feet moulded planceer
3 feet nosing
120 feet angle staves
132 feet bar balusters
8 feet wrought and rounded rail
15 feet moulded handrail
120 feet eaves moulding of oak
120 feet bed mould
24 feet 6 inches, inch-square wrought-iron bars
2 feet 9 inches cubic oak in nosing to steps
3 inches do. in newel
3 feet 9-inch oak wrought, framed, and weathered
9 feet 9-inch posts, wrought, framed, and carved
4 feet 10-inch do., coping, wrought, framed, and beveled
11 pair 3-inch and a half butt hinges, and fixing them
11 6-inch iron-rim brass-knob locks
4 closet locks
2 10-inch iron-rim locks
4 8-inch rod bolts bright
2 pair of old formed hinges, as per drawing
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 433
5 pair 2-inch butts
1 pair 18-inch garnets
1 collar luck and key
1 wooden pattern for casting the iron lights and casements
32 cast-iron frames
82 casements with hinges and stay bars
2 iron shutter bars
4 newel posts turned
1 hole for handle
1 cap to pump case
Barrel curb for well
5 gable posts carved and fixed, 7 feet 6 inches long
S pendants 4 feet long
4 caps and 4 bases to columns
36 turned balusters
4 carved cape to the posts in the porch
£ 485 : 7:11
861. Plumber's, Painter's, and Glazier's Work, a. m.
12 cwt. 2 qrs. cast lead
3 cwt. 2 qrs. milled lead
53 feet run 2^-inches lead pipe and joints
26 feet 3-inch lead rain-water pipe
2 cistern heads
1 5-inch brass grate and bell trap
1 stout 4-inch lead pump barrel complete, with iron handle, bucket,
sucker, and fixing
152 feet second Newcastle crown glass, small panes
154 yards of painting thrice in oil, of stone colour
146 feet run bar do
218 feet square skirting, 6 inches high
48 feet 6 inches torus skirting, 7 inches high
26 feet handrail
132 feet bar balusters
90 feet angle staff
32 casements and frames both sides, 12 small squares in each
2 shutter bars
£ 6S : 18 : 10
862. Summary of Estimates for the Bailiff's Cottage, a. m.
Bricklayer 444 : 1 : 4
Plasterer 41 : 4 : 7
Mason 234 : 12 : 1
Carpenter and Joiner 485: 7: 11
Plumber, Painter, and Glazier 68 : 18 : 10
.£1274: 4: 9
863. General Estimate. This cottage contains 22,842 cubic feet ; which, at the above
sum, amounts to Is. \\d. per foot, which thus appears to be the proper sum, per cubic
foot, for estimating dwellings of this description in the neighbourhood of London.
864. Remarks. Our readers, we think, will agree with us in highly approving of
this cottage, both for its internal accommodations and arrangements, and for its external
effect. The parlour and kitchen are of good sizes, and are both well lighted ; and the
cellarage, pantry, store room, and dairy are ample. The latter is large, because it is
supposed to furnish supplies to the family residing in the mansion. It is very properly
placed on the north side of the building, and both doors and windows are protected by
wirecloth from the entrance of flies. The pump being in the dairy scullery is a great
convenience. The drying-porch, judiciously placed on the south side of the building, is
a most useful part of this house, and we could wish it appended to every dwelling in the
country ; not only on account of the accommodation which it affords for drying tilings
in wet weather, and for sitting or working under, but for its ornamental effect. It is
a more social appendage than the veranda, because it allows of a party sitting round a
table, either to work or to eat. In America such a porch would be a delightful place
for husking Indian corn, as described by Cobbett ; or, in Savoy, for taking the skins oft'
walnuts, to prepare them for being crushed for oil, as described in the interesting Travels
434 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
in the Tarentaise, by the eminent geologist Bakewell. All the chimneys are in the
interior wall, which brings the shafts exteriorly to the highest part of the general mass,
and completes what Hogarth, in his Analysis of Beauty, calls the painter's pyramid.
It is always more satisfactory to see chimneys issuing from the highest part of the roof,
than from the side walls, or from any lower part ; because the rising sides of the roof
seem to conspire in supporting what issues out of its apex, as the leaves of a plant
seem to support the flower stem which proceeds from its centre, or the spreading lower
branches of a fir tree do its spiry top. When it is known, also, how much this dis-
position of the chimneys contrihutes to their drawing well, and to the general warmth
of the house, its satisfactory effect cannot but be greatly heightened in every well regu-
lated mind.
Design II. — A Farmery in the Old English Style, chiefly calculated for Dairy Hus-
bandry, and conducted by a Bailiff, for the Proprietor of the Land.
865. Situation. This farmery, of which fig. 886 is the isometrical elevation, and
fig. 887, the ground plan, is built a few yards to the north of the bailiffs house, which
forms the subject of the preceding Design. Both, ns before observed, were erected in
1831, at Bury Hill, near Dorking, for diaries Barclay, Esq., from the Design, and
under the superintendence, of John Perry, Esq., Architect, of Godalming.
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866. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 887, to a scale of forty feet to an inch, shows
a cattle-shed, a ; waggon and implement house, with granary over, b ; hay-store, c ; calf-
pen, d; cow-house, e; another calf-pen, f; slaughter-house, g ; swill-cisterns and tanks
for holding liquid food, and bins for dry food, for pigs, h ; piggeries, i i i i i ; passage
between the piggeries and the fowl-houses, h ; fowl-houses, 1 1 1 1; and two places for
fuel, m m. There is a pigeon-house over the granary, as may be seen in the elevation,
fig. 888. These buildings are placed on three sides of a cattle-yard, which is open to
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 435
the south, and overlooked in that direction by the windows of the baililPs house.
There is no stable in this farmery, all the field labour being performed by four pair of
oxen, which stand in the cattle-shed. The surface water may be supposed to be con-
veyed from the passage round the farm-yard by a gutter, forming a line of demarcation
between that passage and the space for the dunghill in the centre, and having traps com-
municating with an underground drain. The water from the roofs may be collected
by gutters at the eaves, and conveyed to the same underground drain as that which
carries off the surface water. All the liquid matter of the cow-house, cattle-sheds, and
pigsties should be collected by gratings into covered gutters, and by them conveyed to
two liquid manure tanks in the centre of the yard, over which should be placed the
dunghill ; and, if the greatest economy of manure, and also a pattern to surrounding
farmers, were, as we think they ought to be, leading objects, this dunghill ought to be
covered with a roof.
867. Construction. The walls are built of local sandstone, with the exception of the
south wall of the cow-house, and of the west wall of the granary ; both of which are of
studwork, weather-boarded. The roof, over the cattle-shed and hay-store is to be covered
with pantiles, and all the other roofs with hoop chips. Hoop chips are the shavings
made by the coppice cutters, when splitting and preparing large hoops from long hazel
and other rods grown in coppice woods : they are generally upwards of an inch broad,
a quarter of an inch or more thick, and from 18 inches to 3 feet in length. They are
laid on, and sewed to the laths, like thatch ; and, after a few years, are hardly to be
known from a roof of that description. Their durability, when the roof is so steep as
to throw off the water effectually, is equal to that of tiles, and they require less repair.
Fig. 888 is the south elevation, in which may be seen the manner in which the oak gate-
posts are kept firm in their places, by the underground braces, to the subsills, n n.
Fig. 889 is the back elevation of the cow-house, in which are seen, to the right, the
889
gable end of the granary, and its outside step-ladder. Fig. 890 is the front elevation
of the cow-house and the slaughter-house ; showing the manner in which the former is
ventilated by luffer-boarding under the eaves. Fig. 891 is an elevation of the waggon-
house, with the granary over, in which is seen a side view of the outside wooden stair or
step-ladder; and, under the ground line, the inverted arches, on the abutments of which
the stone bases of the story posts are placed. These stone bases are shown in fig. 892,
892
890
430 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
894
893
on a scale of half an inch to a foot In this figure, o is the post ; p, the stone base ; and q,
half Of the plan of the same. Fig. 8915 shows the elevation of the front of the fowl-houses,
and the end of the slaughter-house ; and fig. 894 the front of the pigsties. In the last
figure are seen, at r r, the ends of the cast-iron troughs, which project about a foot from the
895
wall, for receiving the pigs' food. They are seen in the ground plan, fig. 887, at * s s. All
these elevations are to a scale of forty feet to an inch. Fig. 895 shows the construction
of the roof of the cow-house, and fig. 896 that of the roof of the granary ; both to
a scale of twelve feet
to an inch. Fig. 897
shows a section, on a
scale of twelve feet to
an inch, through the
piggeries and fowl-
houses, in which t is
the fowl-house ; u, the
passage between the
fowl-houses and the
piggeries; v, the pig-
sties ; and w, the open
yards in front of them.
Other details of con-
struction may be gathered from the following particulars of the work to be done :
Particulars of the several Works to he done in erecting certain Farm Buildings at Bury
Hill, near Dorking, Surrey, for Charles Barclay, Esq., according to the Plans, Eleva-
tions, Sections, and Details severally signed by the Parties undertaking the same.
868. Bricklayer, Excavator, and Well-digger. To dig out the several trenches for
the foundations, of the respective depths and widths required, and fill in and well ram
round the work. To level and form the ground for the farm-yard and paving, and to
spread the surplus earth, if any, wherever required so to do, any where within 50 yards
of the farm-yard : if an additional quantity be considered necessary, it is to be carted to
the spot by the employer. To dig a well, 4 feet clear in diameter, 45 feet deep ; to
steen the same in 4-inch brickwork, and to dome it over in 9-inch brickwork. All the
bricks to be used in the work, or brought upon the premises, to be sound and good well
burnt stocks. The mortar to be composed of the best well burnt grey lime, and clean
sharp sand, well tempered together. The foundations of the walls to be built of sand-
stone below the ground line, and to be grouted with hot lime and sand. The remainder
of the walls above ground to be built of sandstone, laid in neat random courses, with a
flat joint garreted on the external face ; the stones to be properly headed and prepared,
and flushed solid in mortar ; the whole of the coins, and arches, and inverted arches, to
be of brickwork. The whole to be built of the several heights and thicknesses shown in
the drawing ; leaving the several apertures therein described. The chimney breast,
back, and shaft, for the copper in the slaughter-house, to be of brickwork, and the flue to
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 437
be properly pargeted, with a second-size chimney pot, well flanched up with plain tiles
and Roman cement. The shaft and pot to be coloured stone colour. All the door and
window frames to be properly bedded and pointed with good lime and hair mortar, and
the sills to be underpinned. To build underpinning of stonework, with proper footings
for the partitions where required, and foundations for the stone bases to the cattle-shed.
To put a coping of semicircular bricks, 14 inches wide, to the fence wall, the back of the
hay-store, and the front of the pigsties, set in Roman cement, with proper stay irons at
all the coins. To till in the nogging partitions with brick nogging flat. To pave the
four fowl-houses with paving bricks, flat bedded and jointed in mortar. To pave the coal
places, pigs' lodgings, and slaughter-house with brick stock paving on edge in sand.
The passage, cow-house, calf-pens, cattle-shed, hay-house, and pigs' yards to be paved
with pebbles laid in sand, properly currented and rammed. To build and pave proper
swill cisterns of brick, set in Roman cement, and rendered inside with the same, so as to
be perfectly watertight. To colour twice over in good stone colour the brickwork of all
the coins, arches, and coping. To lime-white the inside of the slaughter-house and fowl-
houses. To bed all the plates, bond, templets (short pieces of timber laid under girders
and beams, to distribute the weight), and lintels, in mortar. To cover the roof of the
cattle-shed and hay-store with pantiles jointed in mortar ; to build foundations for the
posts, and to cover all the other roofs with hoop chips from large hoops, finding straw,
binders, rods, twine, &c, and laths. The bricklayer is to find all the materials, carriage,
scaffolding, tools, workmanship, and ironwork for the completion of his work, in the
best and most substantial manner. The whole to be done under the inspection and to
the satisfaction of the Architect, subject to the several conditions contained in the general
particular at the end hereof.
[Signed by the bricklayer, in the same form as before.] S. B.
869. Carpenter and Joiner. The whole of the materials to be provided and sawed
out square, free from wane, of the several scantlings herein specified ; to be carted to
the spot by the contractor, and to consist of the best yellow Dantzic or Memel fir, or
English oak, free from sap, shakes, or large loose knots. To frame the whole of the
carpentry in a workmanlike manner, according to the drawings ; finding labour, nails,
and all kind of ironwork for the purpose, subject to the provisions of the general par-
ticular at the end hereof. — Waggon-house with Granary over To put oak story posts
(upright timbers supporting brestsummers or girders), 9 inches by 9 inches, and circular
braces, 8 inches by 9 inches, wrought, framed, and chamfered ; each post to have
a square iron tenon let into the stone base. To put wall plates of oak under the floor
and roof, 4 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half, with fir sills to the external
partition, 1 2 inches by 6 inches. To put fir girders, 1 2 inches by 1 2 inches ; each girder
to be fixed with a three quarters of an inch iron screw pin and nut to the sill, and
to have an iron tie, with an S iron through the wall, properly spiked to the girder.
The joists to be framed into girders, 12 inches by 2 inches and a half, 12 inches apart.
The external partition to have principal quarters, 6 inches by 6 inches, with common
quarters and braces, 12 inches apart, 6 inches by 3 inches and a half; head, 6 inches by
6 inches, covered with oak or yellow deal weather-boarding and fillets, with flanch board
and brackets at bottom. To lay the floor with inch and quarter yellow deal, wrought,
ploughed, and tongued. To put 3 tiers of bond, 4 inches by 3 inches, in the walls of the
granary. To put fir proper window frames, filled in with three quarters of an inch deal
wrought luffer-boards housed into the frames ; with oak wrought and beveled drip sills
to the front and back windows. To put an oak proper doorcase, 5 inches by 3 inches
and a half, to the granary, with oak drip sill, 9 inches by 3 inches and a half, with inch
and quarter deal proper ledged door, hung with strong hook and eye hinges, and with
a strong iron-rim lock. To put a step-ladder of 2-inch oak, with the steps housed into
the sides with three iron screw braces and nuts. The steps to be fixed with strong iron
hook and eye hinges to the sill. — Roof. To put fir tie beams, 9 inches by 4 inches ;
king posts, 9 inches by 3 inches, with three quarters of an inch iron screw pins 2 feet
long, with nuts 3 inches long, mortised through the king posts ; struts, 3 inches by 3
inches ; framed principal rafters, 6 inches and a half by 3 inches at bottom, and 5 inches
by 3 inches at top, fixed at each end with screw pins to the tie beams. Purlins, 5
inches by 3 inches, notched on the back of the principal rafters. Pole plate, 4 inches
and a half by 3 inches ; common rafters, 13 inches apart, 4 inches and a half by 3
inches ; ridge pieces, 9 inches by 1 inch and a half, with oak eaves board. The joists, to
receive the pigeon-house floor, laid on tie beams, are to be 6 inches by 2 inches and a
half, trimmed for a trapdoor ; the floor is to be of inch deal, rough, with edges shot,
ploughed, and tongued, with trapdoor and hinges, and step-ladder, complete. To put
1 inch and a quarter oak shelves and penthouse to the pigeon-holes, with oak cantilevers
to support them. A rough partition to be put across in the roof, covered with weather-
438 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
boarding, with a door, hinges, and lock, to go into tlie pigeon-house end. — Cattle-shed
and Hay-house at the back of the Granary. To put fir posts, 7 inches by 7 inches,
wrought, framed, and chamfered, with iron tenons and braces circular on plan, 6 inches
by 3 inches ; fir plates, 7 inches by 4 inches ; pitching piece, 4 inches and a half by 3
inches; tie beams, 7 inches by 4 inches; principal rafters, 5 inches by 3 inches; struts,
3 inches by 3 inches ; purlins, 5 inches by 2 inches and a half ; common rafters, 13
inches apart, 4 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half, covered with pantile laths, with
oak feather-edge eaves boards. To put oak proper door-ease and sill to the hay-house,
5 inches by 3 inches, with 1 inch and a quarter yellow deal proper ledged door, hung
with strong hook and eye hinges, strong Norfolk latch, and 8-inch stock lock. — Cow-
house, Calf-pens, and Slaughter-house. To put oak sills to the external partition in front,
G inches by 3 inches, with fir principal posts, 6 inches by 3 inches; common quarters
and braces, 5 inches by 2 inches and a half; the head, G inches by 3 inches ; oak wall
plates, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches. The front to be covered with weather-boarding
at bottom, and with open filleting (slips of deal nailed at one or two inches apart), at
top; to put oak proper door-posts, 5 inches by 3 inches, with 1 inch and a quarter oak
proper ledged doors, with strong hook and eye hinges and fastenings and the same to
the slaughter-house. The calf-pens to be parted off with oak posts and arris rails (rails
presenting two surfaces to the eye, which two surfaces unite in forming an edge or arris
between them), filled in with oak slabs, with a small gate hung on hook and eye hinges,
with a hasp and staple. To put proper cow-bows (a contrivance for fixing the cow's
head over the manger) and mangers for twelve cows. To put an oak proper 2-light
window frame, and oak drip sill with iron casement, to the slaughter-house. To put
tie beams, 7 inches by 4 inches; struts, 3 inches by 4 inches; principal rafters, 5 inches
by 3 inches; purlins, 5 inches by 2 inches and a half; common rafters, 4 inches and
a half by 2 inches and a half; ridge pieces, 9 inches by 1 inch and a half, with oak
eaves board. — Fowl-houses and Piggery. The roofing to be of the same scantlings
with oak eaves board, as last described ; and the window frame in the swill-house the
same as that in the slaughter-house. The door and doorcases the same as those in
the cow-house, with 8-inch stock locks. The partitions of the fowl-houses to be framed
for brick nogging flat, with oak sills, and English fir puncheons (short pieces of timber
used in framing partitions). The front of the pigsties to have oak sills with fir pun-
cheons, 4 inches by 2 inches and a half, covered with weather-boarding. The division
of the sties and of the back partition to be of oak posts, 5 inches by 5 inches, with arris
rails, and filled in with oak slabs. The pigsty doors to have oak frames wrought and
rebated, with inch oak wrought ledged doors, with strong hook and eye hinges, and hasp
and staple fastenings. To find and fix five pig troughs of cast iron, 6 feet long each.
To put a proper wrought framed and beveled oak curb to the swill cisterns, G inches
by 2 inches and a half. — The three Gates. To put oak posts wrought and chamfered,
9 inches by 9 inches, with proper sills, subsills, and braces, to the wide gates. To put
cast-iron moulded and beveled caps, as in fig. 898, to the posts. To put yellow deal,
2 inches and a half, wrought, framed, and braced gates, oqg
filled in with inch yellow deal, wrought, ploughed,
tongued, and beaded, with proper strong wrought-iron
hook and staple hinges; the staples to be fixed with
nuts and screws, and bar fastenings ; the large gate
to be a folding one. All the gates to have wrought,
beveled, and moulded capping, and strong Norfolk
latches. To put 1 inch and a half oak pump cheeks and sill; to case the same with
inch deal, with proper cap, and fix the same where required. To make a proper barrel
curb for the well.
[Signed by the contractor, as before.] R. S.
870. Plumber, Glazier, and Painter. To put lead lights and glass to the window
frames in the slaughter-house and swill-house. To put a lead flashing, 5 pounds to the
foot superficial, to the roof of the cattle-shed and hay-store, 12 inches wide, worked into
the joint of the stone wall of the granary and coping, and also to the shaft of the chimney
to the slaughter-house. To put a good stout 4-inch lead pump barrel, weighing
2 quarters 14 pounds, with 50 feet of 2 inches and a half lead suction pipe with bucket,
sucker, and iron handle complete. To paint all the gates, doors, and window and door
frames, inside and out, and all the weather-boarding outside four times in good oil colour.
The work to be done, finding all materials, workmanship, and carriage, subject to the
provision of the general particular at the end hereof.
[Signed, &c, as before.] W. B.
871. Stone-Mason. To provide and fix Portland stone bases, properly tooled and
beveled, for the story posts of the granary and the cattle-shed, and to fix iron tenons in
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 439
them run with lead. To be done subject to the provisions in the general particular at
the end hereof.
[I, the undersigned, hereby, &c, as before.] W. G.
872. General Particular. See that at the end of the particulars of the cottage, § 854.
873. Measurement and Estimate. Account of the quantities of the several works
required in building the farm-yard at Bury Hill, with an estimate of the expense ot
performing the same.
874. Bricklayer, Excavator, and Well-digger, a. m.
176 cubic yards and a half, digging, filling, and ramming in again ;
the surplus earth to be wheeled to any distance not exceeding 50
yards
10 rods 248 feet reduced of stonework grouted
21 rods 73 feet, ditto, above ground, with garreted joint
92 feet reduced of brickwork
45 feet ditto ditto, set in Roman cement
205 feet ditto of brickwork, in dry steening, without labour
8 squares 83 feet superficial pantiling pointed
63 squares and a half superficial hoop chip thatch, with chips from
large hoops, including laths and every thing
178 yards lime-whiting
8 yards stone-colouring
27 yards brick nogging flat
41 yards rendering in Roman cement
29 yards paving bricks flat bedded and jointed in mortar
7 yards paving bricks in cement ; two courses of bricks, and one
course of plain tiles (in swill-cisterns)
63 yards stock paving on edge in sand
226 yards pebble paving
94 feet, run one half round, 14 inches brick coping set in cement ...
30 feet verge in cement
30 feet deep of well-digging, and labour to steening
15 feet ditto ditto (extra-depth)
1 chimney-pot and Handling, with tiles in cement
3 stay irons to coins of coping
6 window frames bedded and pointed
16 door frames ditto
Forming cattle-yard, with dish and current
Colouring the coins, arches, and coping stone colour
iJ570: 19: II
875. Carpenter's and Joiner's Work. a. m.
37 feet 1 inch cubic Dantzic fir in bond plates, &c
943 feet 8 inches cubic ditto, framed in roofs, floors, and partitions ..
5 feet cubic proper doorcase and window frames
40 feet 6 inches cubic oak in plates, &c
20 feet 5 inches cubic ditto, framed
80 feet 7 inches cubic, wrought, framed, and chamfered
33 feet 6 inches cubic, ditto, ditto, cut circular
3 feet 11 inches cubic drip sill, wrought, framed, and beveled
3 feet 9 inches cubic wrought, framed, and beveled curb to pigsty ...
33 feet 1 inch cubic oak proper doorcase
25 feet superficial three quarters yellow deal lining
93 feet 4 inches superficial three quarters luffer-boarding..-
18 feet 5 inches superficial inch yellow deal wrought pump casing...
9 feet superficial inch ledged flap
46 feet 10 inches superficial inch oak proper ledged door
7 squares 82 feet superficial inch weather boarding
7 squares 79 feet superficial inch yellow deal floor rough, edges shot,
and ploughed, and tongued
7 squares 79 feet superficial 1 j -inch yellow deal floor, wrought,
ploughed, and tongued
247 feet 9 inches superficial 1^-inch proper ledged door .•
20 feet 3 inches superficial 1^-inch wrought oak shelves to the pigeon
house
9 feet 9 inches superficial 1^-inch oak pump cheeks
23 feet 10 inches superficial 2-inch oak wrought sides to ladder
410 COTTAGE, FARM.. AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE,
37 feet 2 inches superficial 2-inch oak wrought and beveled
32 feet 3 inches superficial lA-inich yellow deal ridge
76 feet superficial 2^-inch yellow deal wrought, framed, and braced
folding gates, filled in with inch deal, wrought, ploughed, and
tongued
96 feet superficial slab filling in
51 feet superficial rough partition and boarding with ledged door
8 squares 62 feet superficial pantile lathing
3 squares 22 feet superficial partition for nogging flat
2 squares 47 feet superficial partition to the front of the pigsties
4 squares 7 feet superficial enclosure of posts, arris rails, and slabs ...
30 feet run throating in oak
433 feet 6 inches run oak eaves board
14 feet 6 inches run fir beveled and moulded capping
80 housings to luffer-boarding
34 ditto to steps
2 oak cantilevers cut
1 step-ladder, made complete, to go into the loft over the granary....
6 posts, prepared and fixed
4 arris rails, ditto
5 cast-iron pig troughs, 6 feet long
1 hole for the pump handle, in oak
1 cap to pump case
1 barrel curb for the well
876. Ironmonger!/ and Fixing, a. m.
10 square iron tenons
3 j-inch iron screw pins and nuts to the girders
3 iron ties, and 3 irons to ditto
6 iron screw pins to the principal rafters
3 ditto to the king posts
3 iron screw bars and nuts to the step-ladder
1 iron casement
6 cast-iron beveled and moulded caps to the gate-posts
1 bar gate fastening
1 pair of strong hook and eye hinges for the granary door
1 strong lock for ditto
1 pair strong hook and eye fastenings to the granary ladder
1 pair 1 6-inch cross garnet hinges
1 pair 18-inch ditto -
17 pairs of hook and eye hinges to hay-store, cow-house, fowl-
houses, &c
4 strong Norfolk latches
13 fine plate stock locks
7 hasps and staples
5 pairs hook and eye hinges to pigsty doors
4 pairs strong hook and staple hinges, with nuts and screws
£ 383: 19: 5
877. Plumber's, Painter's, and Glazier's Work. a. m.
24 feet superficial lead lights and glass ,
3 cwt. of lead in flashings
50 feet run of 2^-inch suction pipe
1 stout 4-inch lead pump barrel complete, with bucket, sucker, and
iron handle, and cistern head
223 yards superficial painting four times in oils
3 lights, in four oils, on both sides
i. 30: 18: 10
878. Stonemason's Work. a. m.
24 feet 8 inches cubic of Portland stone
79 feet 8 inches superficial of sunk tooled work
10 mortises for iron tenons run with lead
i.' 12: 6: 8
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 441
879- Summary of Estimates.
Bricklayer.'...'. 570: 19
Carpenter and joiner 383 : 19
Plumber, painter, and glazier 30 : 18
Mason 12 : 6
Total £J998: 4: 10
880. General Estimate. As the number of cubic feet in the buildings of this farmery
is 73,383, it appears, from the actual cost, that 5>\d. per foot will give a near idea of the
price of such buildings similarly circumstanced.
881. Remarks. There is no great room for ingenuity of contrivance in a farmery of
this description, on a small scale ; but the minutias of the construction, as given in the
particular, will be found very useful to those connected with this department of build-
ing. The appearance of the whole, as seen in the isometrical view, fig. 886, is neat,
plain, and substantial; the true characteristics of an English farm-yard. The practice of
roofing such buildings with hoop chips is little known in Scotland, but is well deserving
of imitation in that country ; and we should think it would be also found suitable for
America and Australia. In some parts of the country the granary would have been
supported by stone pillars, instead of oak posts ; but it must be recollected that the
necessarily increased diameter of the former, occasions a great loss of room in the cart-
shed, since no cart can be introduced that will not pass between the pillars.
Design III. — A Farm House and Farmery suitable for a Farm of Six Hundred Acres
of Turnip Soil, executed at Halstone, in Dumfriesshire.
882. Accommodation. The ground plan of the house, and its kitchen court and offices,
and of the farmery, and its courts and yards, is given in fig. 899 ; and the general effect
of the whole is seen in the isometrical view, p. 443. In fig. 899 are shown, in the plan
of the house, a drawing-room, a ; dining-room, b ; parlour, c ; bed-room, d ; store-room,
e ; kitchen, f; two pantries, g g ; kitchen scullery, with stair to servants' bed-rooms over
it, and the kitchen, h ; dairy scullery, i ; dairy, k ; ash-pit, I ; and coal-house, m. In
the farmery are shown a steaming and boiling house, n ; cow-house for eighteen cows, o ;
hay-house, p ; two stables for six horses each, q q ; harness-room, r • gateway from the
hay-yard and the rick-yard, s ; cart-house, t ; barn, with a threshing-machine driven by
water, u ; straw-house, v ; calf-house, w ; stable for a sick horse, or mare and foal, x ;
potato-house, y ; eight cattle-hammels for feeding twenty head of cattle, zzz. A turnip-
house, aa ; two cattle sheds and courts, bb ; hay and green wood house, cc ; piggeries,
dd ; dung court, ee ; passage between the dung court and the buildings, ff; kitchen
court, gg ; garden, hh ; hay-yard, ii ; barn-yard, kk ; straw-yard, 11 ; grass field, mm ;
and lawn and shrubbery in front of the house, nn. The letters ii to nn will also be
found in the isometrical view, p. 443. It will be observed that in this Design there are
regular foddering passages to the cattle and cow sheds, and to the hammels ; and that
the hay and green food houses are judiciously placed adjoining them, for the convenience
of having a supply of food at hand. In the stables the horses stand in separate stalls,
and the cows are allowed a width of five feet each. Fig. 900 shows a plan of such parts
of the buildings as have a second story, with the roofs of the other parts. In this plan,
a and b are two best bed-rooms, with a dressing-closet, c, between them ; d is the
chamber lobby, and staircase ; and e and f are two family bed-rooms ; g is a nursery or
lumber room ; h h are two servant's bed-rooms ; i is the open yard for ashes and rubbish,
in which yard there is a privy ; k is the hay-house, or house in which food is stored for
the cows ; 1 1 are the hay-lofts over the stables ; m is the corn-room, over the harness-
room ; n is the granary over the cart-house ; o, the barn ; p p p, the yards to the
hammels ; q q, the yards to the cattle-sheds ; r r r r, the yards to the pigsties ; s, lobby
for supplying food to the four fattening pigsties ; t t are two sties for breeding pigs, with
doors which open to the dung-yard, u ; v is the principal entrance to the farmery from
the fields, and from the pubUc road ; w is the covered entrance from the rick-yard ; x is
an entrance from the straw-yard, in which straw is stacked to be given to cattle as wanted
for food or litter j y is the entrance from the kitchen court ; z is the kitchen-garden, and
§•, the lawn.
883. Construction. The walls are of freestone found on the premises, squared, and regu-
larly hewn at all the angles and openings, with stone sills, jambs, and lintels. The roofs
are covered with blue slates, and the whole of the court, passage, entrances, and kitchen
court, is paved with granite.
884. Remarks. This Design was furnished us by Walter Newall, Esq., Architect,
Dumfries, under whose superintendence it was erected on the extensive estate of the
Duke of Buccleugh in that county. It is remarkably complete in point of accommoda-
442 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
899
tion ; and, like all the buildings erected on the duke's property, is most substantially
and durably executed. We observe that there is no poultry-house, and but a very small
kitchen-garden ; which is characteristic of the Scotch farmers, who care little about the
minor comforts. We could suggest some additions to the house, one of which no English-
man, with a dining-room, drawing-room, and parlour, would be without, we mean a
water-closet. We wonder, also, that to such a house and yard, there is neither a chaise-
house, nor a stable for saddle horses. Why not a green house ?
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 443
444 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 445
900
Design IV. — A Farm House and Farmery, suitable for an extensive Turnip Farm,
executed at Gatestack, in Dumfriesshire.
885. Accommodation. In the ground plan of the house, fig. 901, there are a lobhy, 1 ;
two parlours, 2 and 3 ; two bed-rooms, 4 and 5 ; a store-room, 6 ; back lobby, 7 ; with
a pantry, 8 ; kitchen, 9 ; with a small pantry adjoining ; scullery, 10 ; ash pit, 1 1 ; wood
and coal house, 12 ; open shed or cleaning room, 13 ; boiling-house, 14 ; dairy, 15 ; pig-
houses, 16; feeding-house for cattle, 17; turnip or green food house, 18; cow-houses,
19 19; calf-houses, 20 20; hay-house, 21 ; potato-houses, 22 22; a stable for four
horses, 23 ; a stable for eight horses, 24 ; cart-house, 25 ; barn, 26 ; straw-house, 27 ;
cattle-sheds and courts, 28 ; and house for turnips, tares, or clover, 29. In one corner
446 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
901
of the dung-court, 30, is a pig-house, 31 ; the entrance from the rick-yard and the fields
of the farm is at 32 ; the rick-yard is at 33 ; the water-wheel for the threshing-machine is
at 34 ; and the main entrance at 35. There is a garden at 36 ; and a lawn, with shrubs
and ornamental trees, at 37. The three references 33, 36, and 37 are also introduced
in the isometrical view, p. 444. Fig. 902 is the plan of the chamber floor of the house,
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 447
902
44
45
43
46
47
49
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and of the lofts and roofs of the farmery. 38 an<T39 are two best bed-rooms, with a dressing-
closet between j there are two other bed-rooms, 40 40, and a servants' bed-room, 41 :
42 and 43 are the yards to the pigsties ; 44, the wool-loft ; 45, two hay-lofts ; 46, the
granary ; 47, the upper part of the walls of the barn ; 48, the straw-house ; and 49 49
49 49, the yards to the cattle-sheds. The dung-court is indicated by 50 ; the kitchen-
court by 51 ; the kitchen-garden by 52 ; and the pleasure-ground by 53.
886. Construction. The walls are of stone, and the roofs slated, with ridge stones of
the free red sandstone of the district. Fig. 903 is a cross section of the cow-house,
marked 19 in fig. 901 ; in which may be seen the feeding-passage, two feet and a half
wide, a ; the partition of flag-stone, b, which separates this feeding-passage from the
feeding-trough or manger, c ; the partitions between the stalls, formed by single flag-
stones, d ; the level surface of the stall, e ; the gutter behind, /; and the passage, g.
At A a vertical line is shown which indicates a round iron rod, half an inch in diameter,
on which a ring runs and to which the cattle are fastened by halters or chains. Two
stand together between each stall. Fig. 904 is a longitudinal section of a part of these
448 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
903
, 41
.... .'.".'.
*Ii
stalls, in which the fastening rods, h, are more distinctly seen : i is the elevation of the
manger ; k, the partition between the manger and the foddering-passage ; and I, the top
of the side wall. The stalls for every two Ayrshire cows are five feet long from the manger
to the gutter, and five feet and a half wide from partition to partition. The manger is
one foot and a half wide, and the gutter behind one foot two inches. Each separation
partition is a flag-stone four feet and a half long, three feet and a half broad, and six
inches thick, let into the ground, to the depth of a foot.
887. Remarks. This Design, by Mr. Newall, which was also executed under hi.s
superintendence, on the Duke of ISuccleugh's estate, affords a very good specimen of
a breeding and feeding farmery, where the produce is chiefly consumed in feeding cows
for their milk to rear calves, but partly also in fattening cattle for the butcher. The
wool-loft bears evidence that sheep form a part of the live stock ; and, from the number
of stalls for horses, it may be concluded that about 500 acres are annually under the
plough.
Design V. — A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of 150 Acres of Arable and Pas-
ture Land, in Buckinghamshire.
888. Accommodation. Fig. 905 shows the general appearance of the whole; and in
fig. 906 the ground plan is exhibited, containing a parlour, 1, with a cellar under it,
into which the beer is let from the back kitchen by a pipe, and which is lighted by a
window on the garden side : this parlour has a bed-room and attics over it. The front
door and stairs are shown at 2 ; the front kitchen at 3, having a glass door into the
garden, and containing the door to the cellar and pantry, with dry cupboards for groce-
ries, &c, and bed-rooms and attics over ; 4 is a pantry under a lean-to, the floor of which
is two feet under that of the kitchen ; the back kitchen, 5, has two coppers, a large
oven, a well and pump, and a sink, with men's bed-room over, and stairs to the same ;
the dairy, 6, is three feet below the floor of the back kitchen. The pantry, oven, and
dairy arc all under a lean-to roof. There is a wood and coal house, with a granary
over, 7 ; the granary being entered by a swing step-ladder from the yard, as seen in the
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 449
906
isometrical view ; 8 is a stable for six horses, with a hay-loft over ; 9 is a chaff or fodder
bay at the end of the stable ; 10 is a hen-house fitted up with roosting-poles and laying-
boxes three feet from the floor ; the poultry go out and in at a hatch-hole, three feet above
the surface of the yard, by means of a short ladder fixed at a. The entrance to the
potato-house, which is under 14, is at 11; 12 is a duck-house; and 13 a goose or
turkey house : both these houses, together with the hen-house, are under a lean-to roof ;
and the potato-house is under the straw-house and barn, 14 and 27; 15 is a straw-
house ; 1 6, store pigsties, the ends of the feeding-troughs shown at b b ; 17 are fattening
pigsties ; 1 8, a meal-house, with five bins, c, for meal and dry food of different kinds, with
a large hog-tub, d, for liquid food, and showing the ends of three feeding-troughs at e e e ;
19 is a cow-house, with calf-pens at one end, f, and a hay-bin or cupboard in one
corner, g ; 20 is a cattle-shed, with a rack and manger ; 21 is a waggon and cart lodge,
the entrances to which are outside of the yard ; 22 is the principal gate of entrance,
made of oak, nine feet wide with five bars, and a strong diagonal brace ; 23 is a circular
open shed or hovel, for sheltering cattle while eating, with a rack under ; 24 is the rick-
yard ; 25 is the gate from the fields ; 26, small doors of the barns, with locks ; the large
doors bolting in the inside in a manner which will be mentioned hereafter ; 27, wheat
barn, consisting of a threshing-floor, A, and two bays, one at each side, i i ; 28 is the
barley-barn, consisting of two bays on one side, k, and one bay on the other, I, and a
threshing-floor between, m ; 29 is the oat-barn, with a threshing-floor, n, a double bay
for unthreshed corn on one side, o, and a single one on the other, p ; 30 is a water-trough
for supplying the horses and cattle with drink, filled from the pump in the back kitchen
by means of a spout through the wall; 31 is a light open fence or palisade; 32 is a
fence of oak pales ; 33, a hedge ; 34, a lawn, with groups of shrubs and flowers ; 35, a
kitchen-garden ; 36, a best privy ; 37, a privy for the female servants ; 38, wood-stack ;
(these last three being represented some yards nearer the house than they really are, in
order to bring them within the compass of the plate) ; 39, orchard ; 40, privy for the
men-servants; and 41, hollow basin sloping on every side, to receive the waters of the
yard and the dunghill.
8S9. Construction. The dwelling-house is built of brick, and is covered with plain
tiles ; all the other buildings are of timber in frames filled in with studwork, and
covered outside with weather-boarding ; their roofs arc of plain tiles, with the exception
450 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
of that of the cow-house, cart-house, and central hovel, which may be thatched with
straw, chips of wood, or spray. The walls of the cart-shed, 21, are frames filled in with
studwork, into which branches of furze are thickly wattled, a species of covering which
lasts several years, and is easily renewed. Where furze is not 907
abundant, common spray may be used. Fig. 907 is a section
across the round hovel in the yard, to show its construction.
Four posts are fixed in the ground, which at the height of
ten feet support four horizontal pieces, each twelve feet long,
and placed at right angles, as shown at 23, in fig. 906 ; on
these, poles of any sort are laid so as to form a circular
flooring, on which faggots are built in such a manner as to
form a cone, and these are slightly covered with straw or
chips so as to throw off" the rain. A round fodder-rack is formed on the ground, by placing
four short posts in such positions as that they will form a circle with the four long ones,
908
-' i I ! ! "--.. . *
909
as shown in the plan, fig. 908, in which q shows the long
posts for supporting the roof; r, the short ones for the frame
of the rack ; s, the horizontal joists placed at right angles to
one another; t, the rough poles, placed diagonally to the
joists ; and u u, the short poles, or branches, laid on the others,
to form a flooring for the faggots. Fig. 909 is a section
of the wheat-barn, to show the framing of the principal
timbers, six of which frames form the two ends, and the
five intervening spaces called bays. The central bay is the
threshing-floor, which is laid with joists or sleepers, across the
potato-pit, or cellar, v, which, as before mentioned, is entered
from one end of the barn, at 11, in fig. 906. The sleepers are generally of oak or
beech, and they are covered with oak planking, an inch and a half or two inches
thick, halved into one another along the edges,
or tongued and grooved. Along the sides of the
threshing-floor are what are called mowsteads, w ;
which are generally frames of woodwork boarded,
carried up to the height of two feet and a half or
three feet, with a coping of wood, to separate the
corn which is being threshed, from the unthreshed
corn on one side, and the corn or straw on the other.
Fig. 910 is a section across the porch of the barn,
showing the doors removed, and the position of
the barn-door lift. In this section, a is the sill of
the door, six inches square, sunk level with the
threshing-floor, and supported by two stout posts
or wheel-pieces, bb ; c c are posts eight inches by six
inches, framed to the sill at their lower end, and at the
upper end to the top plate d, which is six inches square.
The inner angle of the front of the posts is rebated one inch for the shutting of the doors, e e.
These doors are made of inch deal, nailed to stout ledges or back boards, which lock
into each other by means of their beveled ends, as shown by the dotted lines in e e.
The doors are hung with strap hinges, on stout hooks driven into the posts ; and they
shut against, and are fastened to, a movable bar, /, which fits into mortises, one of which
is a trap mortise, in the posts. To this bar the barn-cloth, (j, is hung by loops of tape :
it is let down when threshing is going forward, to prevent the corn, which flies up in all
directions from the flail, from falling over the lift, h. This lift is made of inch deal
ledged, two feet four inches high, and fits into grooves chiseled out of the spur pieces, i i,
spiked to the sill and posts. The barn doors swing two feet above the level of the floor
of the barn, in order that they may not be obstructed by the litter in the yard. The
back door of a barn of this description has no porch, neither is it usually made so large
as the front door : if it allows an empty cart or waggon to pass out, for which an opening
eight feet wide and ten feet high will be sufficient, that is all that is required ; for these
doors are only used for taking out a cart after it has been unloaded in the barn ; it being
dangerous to back a thill or tram horse on the threshing-floor, which, from its smooth-
ness, is generally slippery. Such doors are also used for taking in corn by manual labour
from the rick-yard. Fig. 911 is a view of the side of the barn-door porch, in which is
shown the base of brick or stone work, k, with a coping of wood, I, forming a sill to the
small lock-up door, m, which is shown at 26, in fig. 906. The thresher, on leaving his
work at night, makes fast the large double doors by means of the movable bar /, and,
passing out by the small door, locks it, and secures the whole. The wall or eaves plate
of the barn, it is to be observed, is carried directly through the porch, for the greater
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 451
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security of the structure. Fig. 912 is a section across the meal-house, n; covered part
of the pigsties, o ; and pigs' yard, p, in which is seen the bin, q ; hog-tub, r • shoot, s ;
»
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hog-troughs, t ; and in the background the end of the man's privy, u. The hog-troughs
are formed of two long boards, and two short ones, in the very simple manner exhibited
in fig. 913. Fig. 914 is a section across the cow-house; and fig. 915 is a longitudinal
view of the cow-stall, in order to show the manner of fastening the cows to it. In these
91 1
913
a a a
452 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
figures, aaa are upright pieces of oak three inches square, sunk in the ground at the
lower end, and kept steady by braces, b, at their upper ends. At a foot from the ground,
and also near the top, these posts have double ledges, or horizontal pieces, c c, nailed on
behind, and in front, for the movable cheek-pieces to traverse in ; they being fixed with
pivots at e e. * These pieces lean back to admit the cow's head at /, and they are then
moved to a perpendicular position, as shown at i, and kept in place by catch-pieces, g g,
which have mortise holes which fall down on tenons on the ends of the cheek-pieces :
these catch-pieces also move on pivots, which are fixed in the uprights. The calf-pens, ft,
at the further end of the cow-house, are enclosed by boards five feet high from the ground,
with a door to each ; but the floor of the pen is raised one foot above the floor of the
cow-house, and is formed of stout oak boards pierced with holes to allow the escape of
urine : each pen has a door two feet wide. The drainage of the yard is to a hollow
space between the pigsties and the central hovel ; this space being central to the piggeries,
the stable, the cow-house, and the cattle-shed, which are the great sources of manure,
and to the three barns, which are the great sources of litter. In this situation the dung-
hill is at the farthest point from the house ; and, therefore, least likely to be offensive by
its smells. There is an open gutter surrounding the interior of the yard, so as to receive
the water from the eaves of the roofs, and conduct it out by the back gate, there to
irrigate a grass field.
890. Remarks. This Design was furnished us by Mr. Main, who informs us that it is
very nearly a fac simile of the Warren Farm in the parish of Chalfont, Buckinghamshire.
It does not exhibit the modern improvements of a threshing-machine, or a liquid manure
tank ; but, considering it as a farm house and farmery of the old school, it is, perhaps, as
complete a thing of the kind as is any where to be met with. There is nothing super-
fluous or extravagant, and yet nothing wanting, either for the business of the farm or
the comfort of the farmer. As compared with the two spacious Scotch farmeries before
given, we cannot help remarking the difference between the essential requisites in the
appendages to an English and a Scotch farm house. Here, in a house for a farmer
occupying only 150 acres, and that of poor flinty clay, we have every convenience for
baking, brewing, and keeping ale and beer ; a large pantry, and a large dairy ; poultry-
houses for three kinds of poultry ; and well contrived piggeries and calf-pens. Besides
the lawn or flower-garden, and the kitchen-garden, there is an orchard ; for apple
puddings and damson pies are necessaries of life to the English farmer, though they are
hardly ever seen on the table of a Scotch one, whose indulgence in this way lies in
marmalades, jellies, and other sweetmeats. There are no less than three privies to this
comparatively small establishment, while there is but one to each of the magnificent
Scotch quadrangles, p. 442 and p. 446, the dwelling-house to one of which has three
sitting-rooms. The propriety of the situation of the privies, in Mr. Main's Design, is
also worthy of notice : that of the workmen being placed in the most obscure corner of
the yard, and that of the maid-servants being near the wood stack. In countries where
the threshing-machine is in general use, the smallest of the barns would have sufficed ;
and, in others where the importance of liquid manure was fully understood, there would
probably have been a liquid manure tank under the dunghill, communicating by under-
ground gutters with the stable, cow-house, and pigsties ; and probably, also, the dunghill
would have been covered with a roof: but these constitute the chief improvements which
would probably be introduced, if this farmery were to be reconstructed at the present
day. Looking at it as a piece of Architecture, it will give no pleasure to the Architect,
as an artist, because it does not display externally any thing of architectural style ; but
that it has the beauty of fitness in an eminent degree, and that it is characteristic of an
English farmery built of timber, we think no one will deny who has gone over the details.
Design VI. — A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm, of 600 Acres of Turnip Soil, in
Ayrshire, under a Rotation of Five Years, and employed partly in breeding and partly in
feeding Stock.
891. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 917 ; and the ground
plan in fig. 918. The ground plan of the house shows a common parlour, 1 ; best
parlour or dining-room, 2 ; kitchen, 3 ; scullery, 4 ; pantry, 5 ; and dairy, 6. The
chamber floor, fig. 916, contains two good bed-rooms, a, b ; two second-best bed-rooms,
c, d ; a lumber-room, e ; a maid-servant's bed-room, f; and three
closets, g g g. The farmery, fig. 918, exhibits a stable, 7, for eight 916
horses in separate stalls, forty-eight feet by sixteen feet ; a hay-house, lr II HGl^-^
8, eighteen feet by sixteen feet ; another stable, 9, for nine horses in l__, I e- M j=^
separate stalls, fifty-four feet by sixteen feet ; a cart-house, 10, for
seven carts, fifty-four feet by sixteen feet; a tool-house, 11, eight feet
by sixteen feet j a cart-way, or place for backing a cart loaded with
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 453
corn, 1 2, twelve feet by sixteen feet ; a barn, 1 3, thirty-five feet by sixteen feet ; a
straw barn, 14, fifty feet by sixteen feet ; a cow-house for eight cows, 15, thirty feet by
:o 918
H F
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sixteen feet; a calf-house, 16, forty-nine feet by sixteen feet; another cow-house for
eight cows, 17, thirty feet by sixteen feet; a house for a mare and foal, 18, seventeen
feet by sixteen feet ; a potato-house, 19, twenty-five feet by sixteen feet ; a boiler-house,
20, sixteen feet by sixteen feet; a poultry-house, 21, sixteen feet by ten feet; five
cattle hammels, 22 to 26, two of them thirty-four feet by fifteen feet, with sheds and
yards sixty-nine feet by thirty-four feet, and three of them with sheds thirty feet by
fifteen feet, and yards sixty-nine feet by thirty feet ; these yards to the hammels have
each a fodder rack r.long the whole width of one side; a shelter shed, and yard for
3 c
4)54> COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
young horses, 27, the former twenty feet by fifteen feet, and the latter twenty feet by
seventeen feet ; and, finally, two ranges of pigsties, 28, each range containing three sties,
six feet wide and twelve feet long, with a passage between, six feet wide. There is a
paved way between the yards and the buildings, 29, which is eighteen feet wide. The
rick-yard is placed to the north side of the farmery at 30, and the kitchen-garden to the
south-west side at 3 1 ; the lawn is on the south front of the house, and the orchard,
32, is on the east side.
892. Construction. The walls are of rubblework, and the roofs are slated or tiled.
The o-reatest width of any of the buildings, except the house, is sixteen feet within the
walls ; and, the walls being eighteen inches thick, this gives nineteen feet for the tie beams
of the rafters, supposing them to be placed on the wall plates ; but, as in buildings of this
description, in the northern counties of the island, they are generally placed three feet
higher, their length will be about fifteen feet.
893. Remarks. This Design has been sent us by Mr. Donaldson, land steward to the
Marquess of Hastings, at Loudon Castle, Ayrshire, a scientific agriculturist, who studied
the theory of his profession under the late Dr. Coventry, and its practice in Northumber-
land. The following remarks accompanied the plans and elevations : — " This plan may
be altered to suit circumstances. If the stack-yard stand on the east or west side, the barn
and cart-shed must be shifted to the wings ; but they should, if possible, be central. The
granary is over the cart-shed, and has a communication with the barn by an inside
stair. The stables have lofts to hold hay and straw ; and, having a communication by
means of these lofts with the granary, corn, &c, may be discharged into the corn chests
or bins in the stables, without any out-door carriage. The grain in bags for the market
is intended to be let down into the carts in the shed through a trapdoor in the floor, by
means of a cord and pulley. The feeding-yards may be divided by a cross wall, if thought
too large ; and shelter sheds may be erected on the sides, but not in front, as that would
exclude the sun from the yard behind. Feeding cribs or racks may be erected in the
shelter sheds, if thought necessary, to admit of the cattle eating under cover. In the
calf-house each calf has its own apartment, with a slip or sliding board in the door,
through which it receives the milk. The pigsties have a back door for discharging the
dung made in them into the yards of the hammels ; and the floors of these pigsties are
raised considerably above the level of the yards. They are designed on the plan of keeping
swine for eating the offal made on the farm ; but, if they are kept on a larger scale, the
plan must be more extensive ; and perhaps the oval form, with a boiler in the centre, as
recommended by the late Mr. Arthur Young, will be found the most convenient. The
cattle yards and sheds, and the paved way, have an inclination to a point, where an iron
grate receives the water, and conveys it to an arched conduit leading through the centre
of the homestead or farmery ; which conduit discharges the water at some convenient place
for irrigating grass land. Each of the open yards ought to be supplied with water
from a pump, for the placing of which no particular directions can be given, as much
depends upon situation and circumstances. This dwelling-house and fiwrnery are con-
structed in a plain substantial manner, and nothing is done for show ; but decorations
may be added according to the taste and ability of the proprietor." The above plan we
consider a most excellent one ; there is nothing that we should wish to add but a few
conveniences and appendages to the house, which might be contrived in a small kitchen
court between it and the farmery.
Design VII. — A Farm House and Farmery for three Ploughs, erected at Ingleston in
Dumfriesshire.
894. Accommodation. The general appearance may be seen in the isometrical view,
fig. 919, and the ground plan in fig. 920. The house contains a parlour, a ; kitchen,
b, with a closet under the stairs ; bed-room, c ; another bed-room, d ; scullery or back
kitchen, e ; and dairy, /. The farmery contains a pigsty and yard, g, for store pigs ;
two sties, h h, for fattening pigs ; a cattle shed and court, i ; a house for stirks, k ;
stable for six horses, / ; cart-house, m, for four one-horse carts ; barn, with a threshing-
machine driven by water, n ; straw-house, o ; byre or cow-house, p ; calf-house, q ; and
dung yard, r.
895. Remarks. This Design, furnished us by our excellent contributor Mr. Newall,
was erected under his superintendence, a few years ago, in Dumfriesshire, for what is
considered in that agricultural county a small farm. The farmery is complete of its
kind ; but the house wants pantries and closets ; and the pigsties are nearer to it than
would be approved of in England. No poultry-house is shown ; but hens are probably
kept over the calf-house. It is remarkable that such an establishment should be
considered complete with only two small bed-rooms. On the whole, the horses and
cattle are much better provided for than the human beings. Extent without comfort
is too frequently the characteristic of modern Scotch farmeries.
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 455
920
T> C.
456 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
921
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FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 1-57
Dasign VI II. — A Farm House and Farmery for three Ploughs, erected at Alton in Dum-
friesshire.
896. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 921, and the ground
plan in fig. 922. The ground plan of the house shows a parlour, a ; kitchen, b ; bed-
room, c ; smaller bed-room, d ; lobby and stair to garrets, e ; scullery,/; and dairy, g.
The farmery contains a house for store pigs, /( ; two houses for fattening pigs, i ; stable
for seven horses, k ; cart-house, I ; straw-house, IB ; barn with threshing-machine, n ;
cattle-shed with court, o ; another cattle-shed, also with court, p ; calf-house, q ; byre
or cow-house for twenty cows, r ; spare stable, s ; dung-pit, t ; potato-house, u ; kitchen
court, v ; and cleaning-shed, w.
897. Remarks. There is something like comfort in this dwelling-house, though a
pantry is wanting, as well as certain conveniences in the kitchen court. In the small
farm-houses, in Scotland, the dairy is commonly used as a pantry, to the injury of the
milk and butter, as well as of the meat and bread. In making these remarks on the
want of comfort and accommodation in Scotch farm-houses and farmeries, we hope
it will not be for a moment imagined that we consider the fault in any degree owing to
the Architect : the evil is much deeper seated, and belongs essentially to the state of
civilisation. The Scotch farmers are not yet sufficiently free and independent to assert
their rights to those comforts and enjoyments which belong to men with equal capital,
intelligence, and responsibility, in almost every other country.
Design IX. — A Farm House and Farmery for a small Farm for breeding Sheep and
Cattle, erected at Holecleugh in Dumfriesshire.
898. Accommodation. The general appearance is seen in fig. 923, and the ground plan
923
in fig. 924. The latter shows, in the farm-house, a parlour, a ; kitchen, b ; bed-room,
c ; scullery, d ; dairy, e ; cleaning-shed, f; kitchen court, g ; potato-house, h ; green-
meat house, i ; stable for four horses, k ; stable for two horses, I ; three pigsties, m ;
cattle-shed, n ; green-food house, o ; cart-house, p ; barn, with threshing-machine driven
by water, q ; cow-house for eight cows, r ; calf-house, s ; cow-house for eight cows, t ;
and dung-pit, u. Fig. 925 shows a plan of the roofing of the farmery, and the four
garret bed-rooms of the house.
899. Remarks. This is a compact and yet commodious farmery, and the house is
not altogether without comfort, considering that there are a kitchen-court and a shed.
In the cart-house, p, of this Design, and in the cart-house of preceding Designs, by the
same most intelligent and experienced Architect, it will be observed that there is a
space at one side, which, considering that the carts must be set back in a direct line
with the openings between the piers, must be left empty. This space is purposely
provided for harrows, ploughs, and other implements. It will be observed in this plan,
as in most others, that there is generally a granary over the cart-shed ; and that the
barn is two stories high. Some descriptions of implements, and also boards and other
bulky articles, are generally kept under the roof of the cattle-sheds, being laid across
the tie-beams. These beams, or the beams of the cow-house, also form the roosting-
place of the hens, where there is no poultry-house ; and the ducks or geese, when
there are any, take shelter where they can. In Scotland, this description of stock is
despised by the large fanner as an article of profit, and not prized as an article of table
458 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
comfort. For this Design, and all our others from Dumfriesshire, we arc indebted to
Mr. Newall : as they have
024
been, for the most part,
erected on the property of
one of the most wealthy
men, and extensive land-
owners in Britain, the
Duke of Buccleugh, they
may fairly be considered
as specimens of the best
erections of the kind in
Scotland. As we exam-
ined several of them, when
in the west of Scotland in
the summer of 1831, we
can vouch for their sub-
stantialness, and we have
no fault to find with their
arrangement. The accom-
modation afforded, how-
ever, is, we think, less
complete than it might be ;
there is no liquid manure
tank, and no proper pro-
vision made for making
the most of the waste
waters, and other matters
suitable for manure, pro-
duced in the dwelling-
house. The dwelling-
houses also want conve-
niences both for cleanliness and decency. That the absence of all these things, and of
good gardens and orchards is entirely owing to the want of taste for them in the tenants,
we had a decided proof in
that part of the country ;
having stopped a day and
night at the house of one
of the Duke of Buccleugh's
tenants, who, being engaged
in commercial pursuits, and
having consequently mixed
much with society, knew
what comfort was. At
this gentleman's house we
found not only a liquid
manure tank, and a com-
plete system of under-
ground drainage to it, but
every other rural comfort,
and even luxury, both in
the house, farmery, and
gardens, that we could
wish. The place we al-
lude to is Woodhouselees,
between Longtown and
Langholme. That the
Architect is pot responsible
for either the deficiencies
in the farmeries, or in the
dwelling-houses, is ren-
dered certain by the villas which he has erected in various situations in the neighbour-
hood of Dumfries, containing every comfort, and modern refinement in convenience and
arrangement, and at the same time displaying a high degree of architectural taste.
Mr. Newall, indeed, has had and profited by every advantage that an architect can have,
not only in Britain, but in France and Italy. This will be rendered obvious by some
of his designs for villas, which will be given in the succeeding Book of this work.
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 4-59
Design X. — A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of two Ploughs, ererted on the
Grebten Estate in Dumfriesshire.
900. Accommodation, The general appearance is shown in fig. 926, and the ground
plan in fig. 927. In the latter the dwelling-house exhibits a parlour, a ; three bed-
rooms, b ; store-room, c ; kitchen, d ; scullery, e; dairy, f; coal-house, g ; wood-house,
h ; potato-house, i, and kitchen court, k. The farmery shows a stable for a loose horse,
or a mare and foal, / ; a four-stalled stable, m ; cart-house, n ; barn, o ; straw-house, p ;
460 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
oow-housc for five cows, q ; calf-house, r ; cattle-shed, s ; cattle-court, t ; hammel for a
loose cow, « ; pigsties for fattening pigs, v ; sties for store pigs, w ; dung-pit, x ;
garden, y ; road to the farmery, z ; and rick-yard, §•. Fig. 928, is the front elevation,
928
by which it appears that the house is only one story high ; and fig. 929 is the north-
west elevation, in which, at a, may be seen the four vertical slits, two or three inches
929
wide on the outside, splayed to one foot within, in the barn walls, for the admission of
air and light : these slits are never above three inches wide on the external surface of
the wall, but on the inside are spread out as much as a foot or eighteen inches, to pro-
mote a free circulation.
901. Remarks. This is a compact Design, and the house, with its kitchen court,
is more than usually commodious for one of the smallest size : as in most of the
others, however, privies are wanting.
Design XI. — A Farm House and Farmery, for four Ploughs, designed, and in part
executed, in Dumfriesshire.
902. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 930 ; and the ground
plan in fig. 931. In the latter, the house exhibits an entrance-hall, a; lobby and stair-
case, b ; dining-room, c; drawing-room, d ; library and office, c ; store-room and
pantry, f; kitchen, g ; scullery, h ; dairy, i, from which there is a veranda or covered
way to the kitchen door ; coal-house, k ; kitchen court, I ; servants' privy, m ; best
privy, n; ash-pit, o; stcaming-house, p ; feeding-house for cattle, 7; loose stable,
r ; pigsties, s ; stable for eight horses, t ; cart-house, u ; barn, v ; straw-house,
w ; horse-walk for threshing-machine, x ; cattle-sheds and courts y ; cow-houses, z;
potato-house, aa ; open courts, W) ; rick-yard, cc ; dung-court, dd ; pleasure-ground,
ee ; and kitchen-garden, ff. Fig. 932 is a plan of the second floor of the house, and
of that part of the farmery which is carried up two stories high. In the house there
appear four good bed-rooms, a ; a closet, 6 ; and three servants' rooms, c. The
farmery exhibits a hay-loft over the stables, d ; a continuation of the barn, e ; a gra-
nary over the straw-house, /; and another granary over the cattle-shed, g. Fig. 933
is a front elevation of the house, with the south-east side of the farmery ; and fig. 934 is
an elevation of the north-east side of the farmery and of the farm house. —
903. Remarks. The house is commodious, and the covered way from the kitchen to
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. lOl
931
3 v
i(')°2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
933
the dairy, gives an idea that something is known about comfort, as the two privies do
respecting cleanliness and decency. It is possible that one may walk about this farmery
without being' shocked on turning every corner; but even in this respect it is not com-
plete, as there should have been a third for the men-servants. It will lie observed that
the stable and cart-house, and the piggeries, and the three houses, p, q, r, are double
buildings, use being made of both sides of the middle wall. This is always desirable
when it is compatible with other arrangements, because not only a wall is saved, but
guttering ; and both buildings are kept warmer in winter and cooler in summer. On
comparing this farmery with the most improved mode of arranging farmeries in North-
umberland, the cattle-sheds and courts appear to us too large ; it being found there that
not only feeding-cattle, but even store beasts, always do better when three or four, or at
most six, are together, than when a greater number are put into the same yard. Judging
from the length of rack in the three cattle-sheds, y, one of them is calculated for
two dozen, and the others for a dozen and a half each. There are no poultry-houses
shown in the Design before us; and we are surprised that the kitchen-garden is Kot sur-
rounded by a wall, which it always is in Northumberland.
Design XII. — The Villa Residence and Farmery of Riddenivood, in the Parish of Kirk-
mahoe, Dumfriesshire, in the Occupation of the Proprietor, James Kerr, Esq.
904. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 935, and the ground
plan in fig. 936. In the latter, the house contains an cnlrance-hall, a ; Lobby, 7> ; par-
lour, c; dining-room, d ; drawing-room, e ; closet,/; kitchen, p ; store-room, h\.
FARM MOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES, it)3
Ft. 1U0 80 60 40 >M 0 10 ft.
scullery, i; dairy, k ; coal-house, I; gig-house, with poultry-house and dovecot over,
»»; kitchen court, n; ash-pit, o ; servants' privy, p; best privy, q ; pig-houses, r;
steaming-house, s ; dung-pit, t ; cattle-shed and court, u ; cattle-house, v ; cow-house,
w ; green-food house, x ; barn, y ; cart-house, z ; hay-house, a ; stable for five horses,
b' ; stack-yard, c ; kitchen-garden, d! ; back entrance to the farm-yard, e ; plantation,
f; lawn varied with groups of shrubs and flowers, g' ; and the approach-road to the
house, h' . Fig. 937 is a plan of the second floor of the house, and of such parts of the
offices as are carried two stories high ; in which aaaa are four good bed-rooms ;
bbb, three large closets; c, the servants' room ; d, turkey-house; e, hen-house; and/)
granary.
905. Construction. The walls, like those of almost all the buildings in Dumfriesshire,
are of reddish sandstone, and the roofs of blue slate. Fig. 938 is an elevation of the
south or entrance front ; fig. 939, an elevation of the east front ; fig. 940, an elevation
of the north side of the house, and kitchen offices, from the farm-yard; fig. 941, a
general elevation, from the west side. The racks and mangers of the stables in this
Design are somewhat differently constructed from those in general use. Each stall
is five feet wide, one corner of which to the extent of two feet is occupied by a manger
two feet square, and one foot deep; and the remaining three feet by a deeper manger
of the same width, which reaches to within one foot of the floor, and in which the clover,
4<64- COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
tares, potatoes, and other succulent food given to horses, are placed. Above, at the usual
height, and on the old plan, is placed a common hay-rack, projecting from the wall.
rig. 944 shows a plan of this corn and fodder manger, in which a is the corn-manger;
l>, the fodder-manger ; and c, a rail across it, to prevent the horses from tossing out th_-
fodder, chaff*, &c. Fig. 943 is an elevation of the same manger, in which d is the corn-
manger; e, the fodder-manger ;/, the partition rail; and g, the hay -rack. Fig. 942
is a section in which /* is the corn-manger; i, the fodder-manger; k, the partition
vail ; and I, the rack.
90fi. Remarks. This Design, by Mr. Newall, presents a handsome and commodious
country residence; and one, judging from appearances, very suitable to what is called a
gentleman farmer. It is a favourable circumstance for the effect of the bouse, that the
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 4(5.5
ground on which it stands is somewhat above the level of that of the farmery. The pig-
geries are very conveniently placed, with reference to the scullery and dairy ; but unless
they are kept very clean and sweet during summer, being so near the living-rooms, their
smell will be offensive ; we may say the same of the dunghill, which we should have
preferred in the situation of the cattle-shed, unless, indeed it be roofed over; a refinement,
however, which we suppose is not yet introduced into Dumfriesshire. The foddering-
94-2
943
r
JL
L_3
Jft-
944
manger we consider a good idea, and worthy of imitation ; indeed, we believe it is now
frequently to be met with in the south of Scotland and the north of England. When
the cheapest and best mode of feeding horses and cattle is better understood, all the hay
and straw given to them will be cut, by machinery, into short lengths ; then mixed with
corn, or with roots, or other succulent food, and water, and flavoured with salt ; and pro-
bably, in the case of fattening cattle and sheep for the butcher, with the addition of highly
aromatic herbs, to give a flavour to the meat. Afelilotus officinalis will one day be as
important a plant to the British farmer as it now is to the farmer of Switzerland.
907. Specification for Dumfriesshire Farmeries. The following detailed particulars of
406 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
the mode of building farm houses and farmeries, such as we have given above, has been
furnished us by Mr Newall : —
Specification of the Materials and Works required to build a Dwelling-house, and a
Steading of Farm Office Houses at agreeable to given Plans for
908. Diqqer and Leveller. The whole of the surface mould is to be stripped from the
site of the buildings, the dung and court yards, and to the extent of 2 feet beyond the
respective outside walls of the buildings, and it is to be laid into the proposed garden.
The site for the buildings is to be properly levelled, agreeably to the sections and plans;
and these levels are to be taken from the level of the principal floor of the dwelling-house,
which is marked by a post fixed into the ground at the south corner of its site. The
cellars under the parlour are to be sunk to the depth of at least 9 feet 6 inches below
the level of the principal floor of the house. If it be found, after these levellings and
excavations are made, that there are any soft parts in the ground along the lines of the
foundations, trenches are to be cut through these parts for the footings of the walls, to a
sufficient depth to insure a proper foundation. All the earth, rubbish, &c, of these
excavations and levellings, together with all the rubbish that will accumulate during the
building and finishing of the houses, are to be removed to such place or places as shall be
fixed upon before entering into contract.
909. Dwelling-House. — Mason's Work. Foundations. The foundations of the thick
walls are to be laid with large suitable flat-bedded stones (stones level on the under
surface), which are to be at least 6 inches thick, and so broad as to leave offsets on each
side of the respective walls, as shown by the sections of the footings.
910. External Walls. The walls of the front and gables are to be built with coursed
rubblework (courses of unequal height, but of hammer-dressed stones), neatly dressed, and
closely jointed ; all the other external walls are to be of good rubble building, neatly dressed ;
and the inside thick ones to be likewise of good rubble building. All these walls are to be
properly built in the heart (in the centre or middle of the walls) with good lime mortar ;
and they are to have such a proportion of in-bonds (bond stones stretching across the
wall) throughout the whole of them, that these shall not be more than 4 feet apart in any
direction on either side of the walls: these in-bonds are not to be less than 18 inches in
length, and 16 inches into the wall ; but they are not to be more than 9 inches in height.
911. Hewn Works. The whole of the window .rybets (reveals), sills, and lintels; the
entablatures over the windows, and all the other dressings round the front and gables ; the
portico and doors, ingoings (jambs or sides), and stair of the front entrance-door ; the
wall head cornice and gutter, with a 6-inch course under the cornice, are to be of neatly
polished freestonework ; and all the entablatures, cornices, and other dressings, are to be
cut to the respective drawings. All the other door and window rybets, sills, and lintels ;
the wall head tabling of the low buildings ; the chimney tops (or stacks), and the exter-
nal corners, and base course, are to be of droved (a particular mode of hewing with a
broad chisel, called a drove by masons, which leaves its marks, not unlike the squares
on a chess-board, but smaller) freestonework.
912. Chimney-pieces, Hearth, §-c. The chimney jambs and hearth are to be of fine
polished freestonework, and those of the two parlours are to be cut to imitate marble
ones, as shown by the drawings. The chimney flues are to be built oval, and neatly
plastered. The hearths of the first (ground) floor are to be laid in mortar over a mass of
dry whinstones (granite, or any local stone, not freestone), enclosed with rubble building.
913. Stairs. The stairs are to be of polished freestonework; and the fronts of the
steps, &c, to have torus and fillet mouldings; and the whole to be finished with polished
stone skirting.
914. Stone Floors. The floors of the entrance-lobby and passages are to be laid with
fine polished pavement, at least 2 inches and a half thick. Those of the kitchen and
scullery are to be laid with the hardest pavement that can be procured in the
quarry ; and the flags are to be at least 3 inches and a quarter thick. Those of the dairy
and cellars are to be laid with good droved pavement ; the flags to be 2 inches and three
quarters thick. They are all to be square-jointed at least 2 inches from the face, and set
with lead and oil putty to a similar breadth. Preparatory to laying these floors, all the
earth, rubbish, &c, is to be cleared from the respective apartments, to the depth of at
least 1 8 inches below the level of the floors ; and these spaces are to be filled with clean
small whinstones to the depth of 12 inches, over the top of which a stratum of lime
riddlings (or any such mixture) is to be put, so compact that the sand (or mortar) in
which the flags arc laid will not pass through it. All these stone floors are to be finished
round with polished stone skirting, at least 5 inches high.
915. Stone Tables. The dairy is to have polished stone tables (or shelves) round it,
as shown by the plans, and they arc to have polished stone skirting along the top of
them, at least 6 inches high.
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 4C>7
916. Catacombs, or Bins. The spirit cellar is to have two tiers of catacombs (bins)
along the side of it, with divisions over the second tier to form a third tier. These cata-
combs are all to be of plain droved work.
917. Partitions. The thin partition walls are to be constructed with hard-burnt bricks.
918. Dwarf Walls. Dwarf walls, 12 inches thick, are to be constructed to support
the sleepers of the floors of the two parlours, bed-rooms, &c, on the ground (or first) floor.
Stones of droved work, 8 inches thick, are to be built into the high walls, along the lines
of the roofs of the low buildings that join the high ones, for the purpose of inserting lead
aprons to cover the joinings of the slates, &c, with the high walls. All the rubble and
brick buildings are to be built with strong well prepared lime mortar ; and all the hewn
works are to be set with lead and oil putty.
919. Carpenter's Work. Inside Lintels. The inside lintels of the door and window
spaces are to be of British oak, free from sapwood : they are to be not less than 6 inches
square, and to have at least 12 inches of bond (or wall-hold) on each end.
920. Roofs. The roofs are to be constructed as shown by the plans ; and the scantlings
of the timber are to be of the sizes figured thereon ; the small couples (couples of the
narrow houses) and half couples (hip and valley rafters) are to be placed at no greater
distance from each other than 16 inches between their centres. The diagonal and alley
beams are to be 9 inches by 2 inches. The slate laths are to be sawn ones, 1 inch and a
half by five eighths of an inch.
921. Joists. The joists and sleepers of the principal part of the house are to be of
Memel timber; those of the chamber floor are to be 10 inches deep, and 2 inches thick ;
and they are not to be more than 14 inches apart; they are to have two tiers of bracing
(strutts, nailed diagonally between the joists, to keep them firm) to the floor of each room,
which bracing is to be 9 inches deep by 1 inch and a quarter thick. The sleepers are to be
5 inches deep, and 2 inches thick ; they are to be supported by the dwarf walls formerly
specified, and they are not to be more than 14 inches apart. The joists over the kitchen,
scullery, &c, are to be 9 inches by 2 inches, and placed 14 inches apart; they are to have
two tiers of bracing, similar to those specified for the other floor.
922. Flooring. The flooring is to be at least 1 inch and an eighth thick when finished,
and none of the boards are to exceed 6 inches in breadth ; they are all to be feathered and
grooved, and nailed through the feather edge, and the wood employed is to be perfectly
sound and seasoned.
923. Partitions. Those partitions in the chamber floor that are to be constructed with
timber, are to have the stiles 4 inches by 1 inch and a half, and placed at no greater distance
from each other than 12 inches between their centres: they are to be properly braced.
924. Doorcases. The doorcases (or jambs) are to be constructed with timber 2 inches
thick, but their breadth must be regulated by the thickness of the respective walls into
which they are placed ; and their size is shown by the plans.
925. Stoothing (quartering). The whole of the insides of the external walls are to
be properly stoothed (battened); the wall-straps (battens, or pieces of quartering on which
to nail the laths) are to be 1 inch and a quarter thick, by seven eighths of an inch, and
placed at no greater distance from each other than 12 inches between their centres; the
wall docks (plugs of wood) are not to be more than 1 6 inches apart. N. B. If whinstones
are to be employed in building the inside walls, and the insides of the external ones, bond
timber must be used ; and large blocks of timber must be built into proper situations to
receive the bell wires, &c.
926. Doors. The framings and mouldings, &c, of the doors are all to correspond in
size with their respective sections ; those of the first or ground floor are to be hung with
5-inch double-jointed hinges, and those of the chamber story are to be hung with 4^-inch
double-jointed hinges. The locks of the principal rooms are to be 7-inch mortise ones,
value each 10s. 6d. The entrance-door to have one, value 15s. All the other doors are
to have each a rim lock, value 6s. The spirit-cellar lock is to have a copper bolt, and its
value is to be 8s. All the press doors are to have suitable press locks, value each 3s. 6<7.
927. Windows. The windows, including the skylights, are to be good astragal (the
bars with astragal mouldings) ones ; the sash frames of those of the first floor are to
be 2\ inches thick ; the frames of all the others are to be 2 inches thick. They are
all to be glazed with second crown glass, and to be finished with three coats of lead
and oil paint. They are all to be double hung (each sash is to be hung) with axle
pulleys, and best window line. The skylights to be hung on the upper parts, ends with
pivot hinges, and each to have a hinged rack for holding them up or down.
928. Window Shutters. All the windows are to have framed shutters ; the framings
and mouldings 'to correspond with their respective sections. Those in the principal rooms
of the first floor are to have named back-laps (parts of the shutter that fold behind the
part seen) to correspond with the shutters. The shutters are to be hung with 3-inch
hinges, and the back-laps with li inch back-lap hinges.
468 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
929. Soffits, Ingoings, Scuncheon Linings, Sfe. All the windows of the principal rooms
of the first story, and those of the chamber story, are to have framed soffits and ingoings
to correspond with the shutters. Those of the other parts of the house are to be plain.
The scuncheons (the beveled parts, splays, or elbows, of the inside of a window opening,
where the shutters are placed) of the two parlour windows are to nave framed linings to
correspond with the shutters; all the other windows are to have plain linings, and those
of the low buildings are to have plain soffits and ingoings.
930. Architraves, Facings, §-c. The doors and windows of the two parlours are to he
finished with double-faced architraves, and all the other doors and windows are to be
finished round with moulded facings ; they and the architraves are to be made to corre-
spond with their respective sections. The skylights are to be finished with suitable linings
and facings.
931. Bases. The two parlours are to be finished with bases to correspond with tin ir
other finishing, the plinths of which are to be 6 inches and a half high. All the
other apartments, passages, &c, that are floored with timber, are to have skirtings to
correspond with the facings of the respective apartments, &e. Those of the first and
chamber floors are to be 6 inches and half high ; and those of the kitchen buildings are
to be 5 inches and a half high. The parlours are each to have a surbase to correspond
with the base ; and the window architraves and facings, the bases and skirtings, and
the surbases, are all to have suitable grounds. Those of the windows are to be
dressed ; and those of the thin walls are to be built into them.
932. Jamb Moulding. The chimney jambs, that are not made in imitation of marble
ones, are to have jamb mouldings round them, and light entablatures over them.
933. Stair of Kitchen Buildings. The stair to the apartments over the kitchen,
scullery, &c, is to be of timber ; the steps are to be 1 inch and an eighth thick ; it is
to have a suitable plain rail. The stair to the chamber floor is to have a suitable hand-
rail of wainscot, fixed upon plain iron balusters, three fourths of an inch square, which are
to be batted (run with lead into holes chiseled out for their reception) into the steps, &c.
934. Press Shelving. All the presses are to have tiers of shelving ; and the store
closet is to be fitted round with three tiers of shelving; each tier to be 14 inches broad.
935. Slating. The roofs are to be covered with best second Lancashire ton slates (or
others according to local situation), hung to the laths with Memel timber pins, and
to be rendered (pointed inside) with good plaster. The slates are to have at least 3
inches of bond at the eaves ; but the bond may gradually diminish to 2 inches at the
ridges. The ridges and piens (angles of the hips) are to be slated watertight before they
are covered with the lead. The ridge and pien batten rods (ridge and hip rods) are
to be 2 inches' diameter, and they are to be covered with lead, 6 pounds to the square
foot, which is to be at least 1 2 inches in breadth. The alleys are to be laid with lead,
7 pounds to the square foot, which is to be at least 14 inches in breadth. All round the
chimney stalks (shafts), where they are intersected with the slates, coverings of lead, 12
inches broad, are to be inserted into the chimney heads, to cover the joinings, and these
coverings are to be of lead, 6 pounds per square foot. All along the lines of the roofs
that intersect the higher buildings, the joinings of the slates with the walls are to be
covered with aprons (or flashings) of 6-pound lead at least 12 inches broad. The sky-
lights are to be laid round with gutters of 6-pound lead, at least 12 inches broad. The
aprons round the chimney stalks, and those that cover the joinings of the low roofs, are
to be inserted into mortises or grooves, made in the stones as formerly specified ; and
they are to be puttied into these mortises with lead and oil putty, mixed with fine sand.
or dry pounded sandstone, well burnt (or roasted). This roasting is to destroy all
earthy matter, &c.
936. Plasterers' Work. The ceilings of all the apartments, passages, &c. of the first
and chamber floors, and the walls of the entrance-lobby, passages, and staircase, are to
be finished with good three-coat plaster. That of the ceilings to be on laths three
sixteenths of an inch thick ; and each apartment to have a suitable cornice, finished
agreeably to the sections. All the ceilings of the kitchen buildings, and of all the other
walls not specified above, are to be finished with fine two-coat plasterwork, to be properly
straighted (made even or smooth with the edge of a board or float), &c. Behind all
the ingoings, soffits, bases, and skirtings, &c, the wall is to have one coat of plaster,
without finishing.
937. Though a variety of the materials and works are described in the foregoing
specifications, yet it is not to be considered that the whole are specified, but it is to he
distinctly understood that the whole arc to he included in the estimate ; so that the
house may he built and finished with materials and works of the quality and relative
scantlings with those specified and figured on the plans, without any other charge than
that in the estimate ; and the whole of the materials and works are to be done to the
satisfaction of by the day of , under a penalty of £
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 4)6(J
945
938. Office Houses. — Hubble Walls. The foundations of the thick walls are to be
laid witli large flat-bedded rubble-stones, and the whole of the walls are to be good
rubble-work, properly built in the heart with good lime mortar ; and such a proportion
of large bond stones to be used throughout the whole of them, that they shall not be
more than four feet apart, in any direction, on either side of the walls.
939. Hewn Work, §v. The door and window rybets, sills, and lintels are to be of
droved freestonework ; they are all to have canted corners (the sharp angle of the
corner cut off). The scuncheons of the doors are to be splayed 4 inches wider inside
than at the rybet cheeks (see § 282, and fig. 262), and their inner corners are all to
be rounded. In-bond rybets with 12-inch heads are to be built at proper heights for
fixing the crooks of the door hinges. The lintels are to be at least 12 inches square. The
window sills are to be weathered (beveled so as to throw off the rain) at least 2 inches,
exclusive of a sinking for the wood sills, as shown by the sections. All the external corners
are to be of droved work. The wall-head tablings (copings beveled to throw off the rain)
are to be of droved work 3 inches thick, and to project 5 inches beyond the line of the
walls. The door scuncheons and lintels of the cart-house and loose cattle sheds are to
be neatly draughted and scappled (stones are said to scappled or scabbled, when they are
dressed with the pick end of the hammer ; they are called draughted and scappled when
worked round the edges or joints with a chisel and hammer-dressed in the centre), and
the corners canted with droved work. The pillars for the cattle are to be in one stone
each, and to be finished in a similar manner with the
scuncheons. The door scuncheons, sills, and lintels of the
barn- ventilators, &c, are to be draughted and scappled.
940. Barge Stones over the Slates. Droved stones
4 inches thick, weathered on the upper side, are to be
built into the walls of the high buildings, along the
lines of the roofs of the low ones that intersect them ;
these stones are to project at least 4 inches in front of
the walls, to cover the ends of the slates, and to lie close
upon them, fig. 945 ; and ragalets (grooves), 2 inches
deep into the walls, are to be made under these stones,
to receive the ends of the slates. In fig. 945, a is the
wall, b the situation of the groove, in which the slate, c, is
shown inserted ; d is the upper part of the wall ; e, the
weathered stone inserted into it ; /, the rafter ; and g, the wall-plate.
941. Floors. The barn is to be floored with the hardest freestone pavement that can
be procured in any particular quarry in the neighbourhood. The flags are to be square-
jointed, and set with oil putty ; and they are to be laid on a preparation of whinstones,
similar to that specified for the floors in the dwelling-house. There is to be a 6-inch
skirting built into the walls at the level of the floor, so that the flooring may be
jointed to it with putty. This is to prevent the operations of vermin. The floors of
the pig-houses are to be laid with rough flags closely jointed ; and these floors are to
have a current of at least 9 inches from the back walls towards the doors. The stables,
byres, and all the other houses not specified above, are to be paved (pitched) with
small whinstones set in sand, and all the requisite sewers are to be made in the
cattle-sheds, stables, &c. The byre is to have a freestone kerb along the sides of the
grip (gutter), the stones of which are to be 16 inches deep
and 4 inches and a half thick, and placed so that they will stand
6 inches above the bottom of the grip, all as shown by the plans.
942. Partitions of Byre. The byre is to have stall partitions
of freestone, each to be in one stone 4 feet 6 inches by 5 feet,
which are to be sunk into the ground 1 foot, and on each side
of these partitions there is to be an iron rod, with a sliding
shackle (fig. 946 is a section across a stone partition, in which
the iron rods at h h are the shackles) upon it, upon which the
collar is fixed for binding the cow. The feeding-crib is fitted
up with rough droved work, and the partition between it and the
fotherum (foddering-passage) is to be of freestone flags set on end, and to stand at least 2
feet 6 inches high above the crib. All these are shown by the detailed plans and sections.
943. Cope of Court Walls, 8fc. The court walls of the pig-houses are to have a cope
(coping) 6 inches thick, of draughted and scappled work ; but the joints are to be droved
and jointed with oil putty. The cope is to be laid even with the walls on both sides.
The walls of the kitchen-court, large court, dung-court, &c, are to be covered with a
3-inch cope of droved work jointed with putty. The cope is to be laid even with the
walls, on the sides next the large court and cattle-sheds ; but it is to project 3 inches or.
the side next the kitchen court, 2 inches on the side next the dung-court, and 6 inches
on the side next the carden.
46
YJO COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
944. Stable Witt/Ious. The stable windows are to he made ingoing ones (recessed
from the inside), in order that corn-chests may be fitted into them. The upper sashes
are to be astragal ones, glased with third crown glass, and the under ones are to be sliding
wooden frames, tor ventilation, &c. The back wall ef the barn is to be sunk sufficiently
deep for the wheel of the threshing-mill and the race (horse-course) from it. The
hewn work is all to be jointed with oil putty, and all the rubble-work is to be built with
good lime mortar.
945. Inside Lintels. The inside lintels of the door and window spaces are to he of
Hritish oak timber ; they are to be proportioned in size to the width of the respective
spaces ; and thev are all to have 12 inches of bearing on each end (or bond).
946. Roofs. All the roofs are to be constructed, as shown by the plans, with trussed
principals ; which are all to be of the dimensions figured on the respective sections.
These principal couples (rafters) are to be placed at no greater distance from each other
than 6 feet 6 inches between their centres. The purlins are to be 7 inches by 3 inches
and a half, and placed no farther asunder than 3 feet 6 inches. The rafters are to be 2
inches and a quarter square, and placed no farther asunder than 16 inches between
their centres. All the roofs are to have sawn laths 1 inch and a quarter by five eighths
of an inch each.
947. Slating. The whole of the roofs of these office-houses are to be covered with
second Lancashire slates (or as the case may be), hung with Memel timber pins; and
they are to be rendered with good plaster. They are to have 3 inches of bond at the
eaves ; but the bond may gradually diminish to 2 inches at the ridges. The under eave-
courses are to be laid full, and they are to be double-nailed at the shoulders with 1 2-lb. nails.
The ridges and piens are to be slated water-proof, before the pien and ridge-stones an1
laid over them. The gables are to be slated over, and the skew-stones (the coping-
stones of the gables, called barge-stones in England) are to be laid over the slates, but to
project 3 inches over the line of the walls, and to be pointed along the ends of the slates
under them with Roman cement. The eaves slates are to project 4 inches beyond the line
of the tabling. The ridge and pien stones are to be of fine droved work ; they are to be
made correctly to the angles of the respective roofs ; to be closely jointed with oil putty ;
and, when perfectly dry, to be painted with three coats of oil paint, the same colour with
the slates.
948. Joists. The joists of the granary floors are to be 12 inches by 2 inches and a
quarter, and placed no farther asunder than 16 inches between their centres : they are
to have a tier of bracing along the centre of each floor, 1 1 inches by 1 1 inches. Those
of the stable lofts are to be 8 inches by 2 inches, and placed no farther asunder than 1 8
inches between their centres. The flooring is all to be 1 inch thick when finished, and
none of the boards are to exceed 7 inches in breadth ; they are all to be feathered and
grooved. The granaries and haylofts are to be finished all round with skirting, not less
than .5 inches high ; the walls of the haylofts are to be plastered at least 9 inches above the
skirting ; and the walls of the granary are to be plastered at least 2 feet above the skirting.
949. Doors. The whole of the doors of the office-houses are to be stout batten ones.
The front boards are not to be less than seven eighths of an inch thick, and the battens
are not to exceed 6 inches in breadth ; the back battens are to be 1 inch thick, those of
the small door to be not less than 7 inches broad, and those of the large ones not less
than 9 inches broad These doors are all to be hung with stout crooks and bands. The
doors of the stables, barn, byres, granaries, calf-house, potato-house, and coal-house are
each to have stock-locks, value 4s. each ; and the doors of the granaries and stables are
to have likewise thumb latchets. All the other doors are to be secured with bolts, &c.
All the hinges, &c, are to be proportioned in size to the size of the respective doors.
950. Stables. The stables are to be fitted up with stall partitions of 2-inch battens,
fixed in oak posts 6 inches square, with canted corners; and they are to be fixed under
beams 6 inches square, which are to extend the whole length of each stable, under the
joists of the hayloft. The feeding (or hay) cribs of the stables are to be constructed like
mangers ; but they are to be about 1 8 inches deep and 1 8 inches wide at the top ; and
are to have two slanting iron bars rising from the front of them to the wall, at an angle
of about 45°. The corn manger occupies about one third part of the width of the stall,
and the feeding-crib the other two thirds (as shown by detailed drawings). The gra-
nary windows are to be sliding-framed ones, or they may be made with shades similar to
Venetian ones, proper for ventilation, &c.
95 1 . Cuttle-sheds. The cattle-sheds to be fitted up with feeding-cribs, the bottoms
of which are to be raised 9 inches above the level of the floors ; they are to have 3 rails
in front, fixed to the upright posts. The upper one is to be 4 inches by 3 inches, the
middle one 3 inches by 1 inch and a half, and the under one 5 inches by 1 inch and a
half. The bottom rails are to be 2 inches by 1 inch and a half, and placed no more
than i inch and a half apart. The side next the fothcruin is to lie finished with I -inch
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 4<71
battens to the height of 2 feet 6 inches. Fotherums are not always introduced in cattle-
sheds (see the sections, &c).
952. Feeding-houses. The feeding-houses are divided into stalls of 12 feet 6 inches
each (either with stone or timber); and the hayracks are placed aloi.g the tops of these
partitions, nearly in the form of two sides of an equilateral triangle, at the height of about
1 feet 6 inches from the floor. These racks extend from the feeding-cribs to the front
of the covered part of the shed. The feeding-cribs are constructed similar to stable-
nnmgers, but they are to be 18 inches wide and 10 inches deep, and are raised 9 to 12
inches above the level of the floor. The partition between the crib and the fotherum
is to be of li-inch battens. These cribs may be of wood, or they may be constructed of
similar materials to those of the byres. The byre partitions may be of timber, where stone
cannot be procured.
953. Gates. The gates of the court-yards, &c, are all to be constructed as shown by
the plans ; and they are to be bung with stout crooks and bands (hooks and strap hinges).
The gates, and all the outside doors, the stable and granary windows, are to be finished
with three coats of oil paint.
Design XIII. — A Farm House and Farmery for 100 Acres of Land to be cultivated or.
the Norfolk System, with a Flour Mill driven by Wind,
954. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in tne isometrical view ,
p. 473. The ground plan, fig. 94S, exhibits a dwelling-house, containing a parlour, 1 ;
kitchen, 2 ; counting-house or keeping-room, 3 ; store-room, 4 ; pantry, 5 ; wash-house
and brewhouse, 6 ; and dairy, 7. Over these are two large bed-rooms with fireplaces,
and four other bed-rooms without fireplaces. The farmery contains a central building
of two stories, in which, on the ground floor, are, a passage to the mill, which serves also
as a foddering-passage, 8 ; a place for turnips, 9 ; for calves, 10 ; for four cows, 11, over
which there are a granary, and a retail shop for flour, lighted by glazed tiles (fig. 947) of
cast iron (weight four pounds and a quarter, price, unglazed. g^ -,
8d., glazed, Is. 4rf.) from the roof; a house for six oxen, 12;foi
chaff, 13 ; the mill, 14 ; the barn, 15 ; the cart-house stable,
with hayloft over, 16; lean cattle lodge or shed, 17; the
harness-room, 1 8 ; piggeries, 1 9 ; cart lodge, 20 ; drive-way
to the mill, 21 ; hackney stable, with hayloft over, 22 ;
customers' stable, 23 ; colt stable, 24 ; and gig-house, 25.
There are two ample yards, 26 and 27, for the lean cattle
and the colts ; and two also, 28 and 29, for the piggeries.
955. Remarks. This plan has been furnished us by
William Thorold, Esq., Architect and Engineer, of Norwich,
accompanied by the following observations : — " The capital
required to carry on a mill must necessarily limit the size of the farm. We will, there-
fore, take a farm of 100 acres of land, four fifths being arable, and the remainder in
grass ; and we will suppose the mill competent to grind thirty quarters of corn per week,
twenty of which would be manufactured into flour and sold, and the remaining ten used
as grist for the neighbourhood ; the mill being supposed to be situated in a rural district.
The mill should have a threshing-machine and hay-cutter attached to it ; the threshing-
machine to be made capable of drawing, that is, of husking, trefoil, clover, and other
small seeds. Pumps can also be added in situations where water is at a great depth,
which will often occur in places proper for a windmill. A number of pigs may be kept,
to eat up the offal of the mill ; and this will, of course, require buildings for their reception
more extensive than the piggeries on a common farm, while the buildings for the other
cattle are fewer in proportion. The mill is placed in the centre, for the sake of uni-
formity and economy. It is necessary to have one side of it accessible to waggons, and
also in case of repairs being done to the sails. The piggeries I have placed on the north
side ; knowing, from experience, that they are intolerable in summer, if near the house.
In constructing the mill, a horse walk should be added to it, in order that the machinery
of the mill may be occasionally worked with that power. There is Stabling for four farm
horses, and for two hackney or trade horses, besides a loose stable for customers' horses :
there is also a cow-house for four cows ; stalls for six grazing bullocks ; and a lodge for
lean cattle. This will generally suffice for milling and farming as it is carried on in
Norfolk. The house contains a parlour and kitchen, with a brewhouse and wash-house
combined, on the ground floor ; and it has six sleeping-rooms in the upper story. It is
kept low, in order that it may offer as little obstruction as possible to the wind. The
fireplaces for the kitchen and for the office or keeping-room are contrived so that the
chimneys may be conducted under the stairs, and form one stack with the other chimneys.
The parlour window is to have French casements, opening in the middle. The mill will
cost from £800 to £1000, according to the quantity of machinery employed. The sails,
47^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
948
1(| i 0 10 20 3D 40 50 60
H. r.t«mt| 1 1 1 1 1 1 f'
as shown in the Design, are upon the principle generally adopted in Norfolk, called
< lubitt's Patent : they should never be horizontal, as such sails have only one fourth of
the power of vertical ones. Norfolk is considered to be superior to any other county in
England, as to windmills." We consider this a remarkably well arranged Design, which
will not surprise those of our readers who are aware of the experience which Mr. Thorold
has had as a farmer, as well as an Architect and Engineer. The entrance to the cattle-
house, being near the dwelling-house, is convenient, on account of its supplying a covered
passage to the mill-house and barn : and this passage is not merely a matter of conveni-
ence as such, but it is essential to the cattle-house for conveying fodder from the straw-
house at one end, and turnips from the turnip-store at the other to the oxen. It is always
gratifying when a really useful object or arrangement can be rendered at the same time
ornamental or agreeable. The back cart or waggon entrance to the mill is exceedingly
well contrived, while it serves at the same time as the waggon court, which could nx>t
have been dispensed witli in a farmery of this extent when combined with a mill. The
architecture of :i building containing a windmill will be given in the next subsection.
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 4JS
XITI.
4<74 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
XIV.
XV.
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 4<J5
Design XIV. — A Farm House and Farmery for a Farm of two Ploughs, in the County
of Northumberland.
956. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in the isometrical view,
p. 474 ; and the ground plan
in fig. 949. The latter shows,
in the dwelling-house, the
parlour, a ; kitchen, b ; back-
kitchen, c ; and dairy, d ; with
two bed-rooms in the chamber
floor, one over the kitchen,
and the other over the parlour.
The farmery contains a stable
for four horses, e ; a hay-
house, f; two cattle-hovels,
g ; a barn and straw-house, h ;
foal-house, i ; calf-pens, k ;
cow-house for four cows, I ;
cow-house for eight cows, m ;
two fold-yards, n ; and stock-
yard, o.
957. Construction. Fig.
950 shows a section across
the house, in which appears
the manner of roofing, and
also that the floors are paved.
Fig. 951 shows a section
across the stable, in which is
seen the manner of construct-
ing the partitions between
the stalls, p ; and that the
partition post, q, is let into a
stone at the lower end, and at
the upper end fixed to the
tie-beam. The flooring of
the stable is also shown per-
fectly level, which is consistent
with the most improved ideas
on this subject.
958. Estimate. The total
expense of erecting this farm-
house and farmery was £550 ;
./?H«*»I 1-
-1/8
d_]
a sum which will appear remarkably low to a London Architect: but it must I«j
recollected, that, in Northumberland, freestone is generally- found for the trouble of
476 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
working it, on the iarm; and that
the carriage of all materials is per-
formed by the tenant.
959. Remarks. The house has
few conveniences, and there is no
enclosed kitchen-garden shown :
the stack-yard, however, is sur-
rounded by a stone wall ; a com-
mendable practice, if it were oidy
for the air of neatness and finish
which it gives to the whole.
Design XV. — The Farm House and Offices at CocMaw East Farm, on the Beaufront
Estate, Northumberland.
960. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in the isometrical view
p. 474, and the ground plan in fig. 952. In this plan the farm house contains a kitchen.
dairy,
parlour, b ; back-kitchen,
There is a garden, g, enclosed with a wall.
d ; coal-house, e ; and place for ashes, f.
The farmery exhibits a cart-shed, h ; fo 1-
K=r
rm
• I
_]_Ji
952
house, £ ; stable and hay-house, k ; four hovels, I ; three folds, m ; straw-house, with
granary above, n ; barn, o ; stack-yard, p ; calf-house and turnip-house, q ; two byres
(cow-houses), r ; two cottages, .* ; and piggery, t.
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 177
961. Construction. Northumberland 953
being a county abounding in freestone,
the walls are of that material, and the
roofs of Baltic timber, covered with
Westmoreland slates. Fig. 953 shows a
cross section of the dwelling-house. A
specification, applicable to Northumbrian
farms generally, will be given with a suc-
ceeding Design.
962. Estimate. The contributor of this
Design, John Green, Esq., Architect,
Newcastle, having supplied us with the amount of the actual cost of the different
buildings composing this Design, we have made out the following table, with a view ot
obtaining an approximation to the cost per cubic foot : —
Per
Foot.
d.
Estimated
Cost.
£
54
150
178
£
50
145
168
Contents of the cart-shed, h 6,480
Contents of the foal-house, i, and stable and hay-house, k h 18,000
Contents of two hovels, b b 21,432
Contents of the barn, o, and straw-house, with a granary
above, n 25,442 2 212 177
Contents of two cow-houses, r r, and calf-house, q 18,000 2 150 129
Contents of two pig-houses, t, with yards 4,804 2 20 27
Contents of the farm-house, and kitchen offices, a, b, c, d,
&c 31,570 3[ 460 453
Contents of two cottages, s s 11,520 2| 132 130
From the above it would appear that, in Northumberland, 2d. per cubic foot is a fair
sum for estimating farm buildings ; 3d. for farm houses and their offices ; and 2|<7.
for cottages.
963. Remarks. The farm house in this Design is placed on one side of the farmery ;
but that circumstance, we presume, is owing to some local peculiarity in the surface ;
since it must, when no obstacle is in the way, generally be desirable to have the house
so placed as to command the whole of the farm-yard. In this instance there is not a
single window of the living-rooms which looks in that direction. We observe that the
fireplaces are all made in the outside walls, which would be bad in a country where fuel
is scarce and dear, but which is probably thought nothing of in Northumberland, where
it is abundant and cheap.
Design XVI. — A Farm House and Farmery for seven Ploughs, proposed to be executed
in Northumberland.
964. Accommodation. The ground plan of the farmery is shown in fig. 956; and the
ground plan of the farm house in fig. 954.
The farmery contains a cart-shed, a ; stable r
for eight horses, b ; hay-house, c ; hovel
with vards, d, e, f ; straw-house, g ; water- X
wheel and machinery for threshing-
machine, and place for threshed corn,
It // h ; corn-barn for unthreshed corn,
i ; tool-house, k ; hovels with fold yards,
', m, n ; foal-house, o ; calf-house, p ;
cow-house, with stalls between every two
cows, jq ; stable for six horses, r ; hay bay
in the stable, s ; turnip-houses, t t ; roofed
part of the pigsties, u u ; cribs for fodder
in the fold yards, v v ; kitchen court of
the dwelling-house, w ; and stack-yard, x.
Fig. 954 is the ground plan of the
dwelling-house, in which may be seen a
porch, a ; a sitting-room, b ; parlour, c ;
dining-room, d ; store-room, e; pantry,
/; dairy, g ; with a meat-safe indicated
on one side at p ; kitchen, h ; back-kit-
chen, i ; cleaning-shed, k ; privy, I ; place
for ashes, m, and for coals, n. The
surface drainage of the kitchen court, o,
is to two iron traps, q q, as indicated
954
47& COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
956
feet
by arrow-heads ; and the water thus collected passes under the privy into a drain, r,
which also receives the water from the sink-stone, s.
965. Construction. The walls are of freestone ; the exterior angles, and all the jambs
of the doors and windows being worked, and the lintels and sills of one piece. Fig. 955
is an elevation of the front of the house, in which a porch is shown, which is formed of
stone pilasters. Fig. 957 is a cross section of the stable, showing the manger, a; racks,
!> ; and the floor, perfectly level, c. Fig. 958 is a section across the division walls, d,
and double cribs of the fold-yard ; by which it appears that the posts, e, into which are
le- the ends of the rails to which the spokes of the cribs are nailed, are of stone, and
that the cribs are divided into short lengths by cross rails at top, let into the posts, e, and
the wall, d. Fig. 959 is a section across a single crib.
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 479
957
D59
n
966. General Estimate. The actual expense of building this farmery, exclusive of the
farm house, was .£1200; and, as it contains 168,560 cubic feet, the expense per foot is
about l|rf. The actual cost of the farm house, with the kitchen court and offices,
amounted to the same sum ; and, as these contain 86,704 cubic feet, the average per foot
is 3^d., or thereabouts.
967. Remarks. This Design, also by Mr. Green, is for a Northumbrian farm which
pays a rent of from £1200 to £1400 a year ; the rent being partly paid in money, and
partly in the value of the produce, chiefly corn, wool, and butchers' meat. The circum-
stance of the threshing-machine being driven by water is favourable for the tenant, as
requiring fewer horses. The cribs for the cattle in the fold-yards seem remarkably well
executed, the posts being of stone. These cribs are two feet wide, and into them the
turnips are thrown at one period of the day, and the straw at another. The stables are,
as usual, divided into single stalls, and they are lighted by glass windows, which are alwavs
favourable for cleanliness. The house is spacious, and appears to contain most of the
conveniences required. The connection of the dairy with the kitchen and back-kitchen
is good ; but the idea of a safe for meat in the dairy cannot be considered as favourable
(see § 730). The manner in which the draining of the surface water of the yard is
indicated is highly commendable, and ought to be generally adopted. The first points
which should be settled, in determining the heights of the ground floors of any assemblage
of buildings, are the levels of the underground and surface drainage.
Design XVIL — A Farm House and Farmery for Fourteen Ploughs, suited to the North-
umbrian Husbandry.
968. Accommodation. Fig. 962 shows the general appearance of the whole ; fig. 963
is the ground plan of the farmery ; and fig. 960 the
ground plan of the dwelling-house. The ground plan
of the farmery shows a gig-house, a ; harness-room, b ;
a stable, c, with a loft over it, and a man's sleeping-room
over the gig-house and harness-room ; a foal-house, d ;
bull-house, e ; two cow-houses, for sixteen cows, each
pair separated by a partition, f f; five hovels with fold-
yards, g ; calf-house for twelve calves, h ; stable for a
loose horse, i ; straw-house, k ; barn, I ; steam-engine
house, m ; boiler-house, n ; tool-house, o ; poultry-house,
p ; outside stair to the barn, q ; cart-shed, r ; cartwright's
shop, s ; blacksmith's shop, t ; hay-yard, u ; stable for
bailiff's horse, v ; bailiff's cottage, w ; turnip-houses, x ;
pig-houses, y ; kitchen-court of the farm house, z ; and
riek-yard, g\ Fig. 960 is a ground plan of the dwelling-
house, in which there are a lobby, a ; a dining-room, 6 ;
drawing-room, c ; parlour, d ; office and library, e ;
passage, /; kitchen, g ; back-kitchen, h ; pantry, i ;
dairy, k ; wash-house, / ; place for ashes, m ; for coals,
n ; best privy, o ; and servant's privy, p. Fig. 961 is a
front elevation of the house.
969. Construction. Native freestone, Baltic timber,
and Westmoreland slate are, as usual, the principal
materials ; and the details of construction are common
to all farmeries in Northumberland. We may remark,
is not common, the practice of passing from one fold-
3 r
961
480 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
962
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 481
963
llEnSE
i — m
"U
td
12 6 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 95 108
<—— ■...-.. fget
964
J
A
i
J
hi
482 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
yard to another, over the separation wall, l>y ascending three steps on one side, and
descending three on the other, as indicated
by the section fig. 964. The fodder-cribs,
Jig. 965, have raised bottoms, grated, in order 965
to let the dust and dirt from the turnips
drop through. The hay, when there are cribs
for the turnips, is given in racks, placed
against the back wall of the hovels, as indicated
in the plan, fig. 963. This practice seems a
decided improvement.
970. Iietnarks. The threshing-machine here is driven by steam, which shows a great
advance on the practice of employing horses, and one particularly suitable to a coal
country where fuel must be so much cheaper than horse-food. It will be observed in
the plan, that the boiler-house, the cart-shed, the cartwright's shop, and the smithy are
kept quite apart both from the fold-yards and the riek-yard ; which is highly proper, as
it prevents all risk from fire getting to straw, and all waste of litter, none being required
for this department of the farmery. Taken altogether, this farmery appears one of the
most extensive and well-arranged things of the kind that we have seen, and does the
highest credit to its Architect, Mr. Green. One circumstance we cannot help remarking ;
and that is, the commodiousness of the farm house, which contains twenty-eight windows
and twenty-eight apartments; while the dwelling of the bailiff, or superintending hind, as
he is called in Northumberland, consists of only one apartment, and one small window.
The horses and cows, nay, even the swine, are incomparably better lodged, considering
their scale in creation, than the unfortunate occupant of such a cottage as is here shown :
but the farmers of Northumberland, like those of Scotland, are under the dominion of
an all-powerful aristocracy, and their servants are little better than serfs ; or, as it has
been observed in the Morning Chronicle, the landlords are the slave-owners, the farmers
the slave-drivers, and their servants the slaves.
Design XVIII. — A Farm House and Farmery for Ten Ploughs, Ten Cows, Twenty
Young Cattle, and other Live Stock, adapted to the Husbandry of Northumberland.
971. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 966, and the ground
plan in fig. 967. In the latter, the house contains a kitchen, a ; dining-room, b ; parlour,
"966
f, separated from the dining-room by a large hall or lobby ; office, or place of business,
d ; dairy, e ; covered passage, open in front,/; back-kitchen, and dairy-scullery, g ; privy
for servants, ft; best privy, i; kitchen court, k ; place for ashes, I; and walled kitchen-
garden, m. The farmery contains in the barn a compartment for unthreshed corn, 1 ;
another for threshed corn, 2 ; a space for machinery, 3 ; and a large straw-house, 4. At one
end of the straw-house is a stair to a granary which extends over the straw-house and cattle-
sheds 5 and 6. The cattle-sheds, or hammcls, are of three kinds ; hammels for beeves
upon turnips, 5 ; hammels for stirks, 38 ; and hammels for store cattle on straw, 6.
Every hammel has its yard ; those for the cattle on straw, 39, being largest, because
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 483
967
10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 loo
UA 1 i i !■ 1 ! 1 1 1— I
a number are put together ; and those for the beeves being smallest, because they are
understood to be fattening. The yard for the stirks, 38, is also the yard for the stables.
There are two hay-rooms, 7 7 ; and two stables for ten horses each, 8 8 ; a poultry-house,
9; pigsty, 10; calf-house, 11 ; foddering-bay for cow-house, 12; cow-house for ten cows,
13 ; yard to the cow-house, 14; vacant house, to be used as a slaughter-house, or for
pickling wheat, or for various other purposes, with a dovecot over, 15; store pigsty,
16 ; house for a bull, 17 ; house for a stallion, 18 ; feeding-house for cows, 20 ; and yard
for cow-house, 21. There are a boiling-house, which also serves as a wash-house for the
family, 22 ; a coal or wood-house, 23 ; stable for a riding-horse, 24 ; an hospital, 25 ; a
carpenter's shop, 26 ; a tool-house, 27 ; cart-shed, 28 ; and six cottages for ploughmen,
29. Belonging to the cottages there are a place for such rubbish as cannot be turned into
manure for the cottage gardens, 30; a privy for the women and children, 31 ; and a privy
for the men and boys, 32. To complete the establishment, there are a blacksmith's shop, 33 ;
and a cow-house for the six cows of the cottagers, 34. Each cottage has a garden in
the enclosure marked 35. To supply all the animals with water, there are pumps at
n n n, besides a pump in the kitchen court, and one at o, for the cottagers. There are a
broad passage or roadway between those offices which are unconnected with working,
feeding, or store animals, and the farcn yard, 36 ; a yard for store turnips, 37 ; one for
stirks, and for the stables, 38 ; two for cattle feeding on straw, 39 ; and an extensive rick-
yard, 40.
972. Remarks. This Design has been sent us by one of the most extensive farmers
in Northumberland, an enlightened and liberal-minded man, and a much valued con-
tributor to our Encyclopaedia of Agriculture, Gardener's Magazine, and Magazine of
Natural History, accompanied by the following remarks: — " This Design is sent to show
you what we in Northumberland consider some of the essentials in the arrangement of a
farm steading. It scarcely ever happens that a whole homestead has to be built at once ;
and the nature of the ground, or of the farm roads, frequently causes a variety of modi-
fications in the different buildings here exhibited. In explaining what these essentials
are, it may be necessary to state the reasons why the barn, in fig. 967, is made thirty feet
wide, instead of sixteen or eighteen feet, which is the usual width. This is done that
there may be sufficient space for a stack of unthreshed corn, and also two bays for
threshed corn, in order to supply work for the men and horses, in weather so bad, that
corn would be injured in carrying it from the rick-yard to the barn ; and to contain a
large quantity of threshed corn, when there may not be time, on account of out of doors
work, to clean and measure it up, and raise it into the granary. The straw-house, 4, may
48 t COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
also seem large ; but the advantage of having occasionally, or rather always, a store of
dry straw is great ; and in a large straw-house the different kinds for the keeping or
feeding of cattle may be kept separate without inconvenience. The hammels, as well as
the other cattle-houses, it will be seen, are so situated as to be supplied with straw from
the straw-house with the least possible labour ; they are also all made to front the south ;
as that aspect, in Northumberland, offers so much more warmth and comfort to the
animals as to render the food given much more effective in fattening them than it would
be in houses facin" the north, or even the east or west The cattle wing is placed on
the west side of the quadrangle, near the dwelling-house, as being more convenient for
the cows and calves ; and the stables are placed near the centre, with hay-houses, 7 7, at
their farther end, to which access may be had through large folding doors in the straw-
house. The hay, may, therefore, be carried to the feeding stock dry, and may be lodged
under lock and key, and given into the charge of a fodderman ; under which circumstances,
it is considered much less liable to waste ; the expense of lofting the stables is also saved,
and the stables are thus rendered more healthy for the horses. As a long range of
buildings fronting the south might be exposed to a sweep of wind from the east or west,
the stables are carried up close to the fodder-house, for the purpose of breaking such a
current and of rendering the folds more sheltered, particularly the middle one ; which, on
this account, and from its being the most convenient for receiving the stable litter, is
particularly eligible for the yearling cattle (stirks), which the Northumbrian farmers
think are less liable to the quarter ill, when allowed to eat the refuse hay and litter from
the horses, of which they are very fond. The feeding cattle are now generally fed in
sheds opening into a loose yard, three, five, and sometimes more, being placed together,
with the exception, occasionally, of old cows, which are usually tied up ; for these there is a
feeding-byre, 20, in the east wing, which, however, may also be converted into a feeding-
hammel. Both a turnip-house, 1 9, and a turnip-yard, 37, are given ; the first is princi-
pally useful during winter frosts, though excellent beeves may be fed with turnips which
have been stored in the open yard, when they have been well covered with straw. The
cart-shed, which more farmers consider necessary than can boast of having, is placed near
the stables, and fronting the north ; that being considered the best aspect for preserving
those implements. The tool-house is also near, and the remainder of this range to the
west may be considered most conveniently situated. The dwelling-house is placed a
little in advance of the west wing, and is as near the farm-yard as it well can be, without
being subjected to its nuisances. The dairy is shown rather detached, because it is better
at some distance from the heat of the kitchen ; and its window is to the north, as that is
requisite for preserving the milk sweet during the hot weather of summer. The cottages
are to the east of the south range ; and if built like Mr. BardwelPs, § 477, fig. 423, with
sleeping apartments above, they will be of sufficient size. They are better placed
together than detached, as, by their vicinity to each other, a dishonest servant is prevented
from pilfering, from the fear of being detected and exposed by his neighbours. Their
cow-houses, and the blacksmith's shop, are placed on the east, to complete the quadrangle,
where also other conveniences may be added, if thought necessary. The wash-house, 22,
at the west end, is intended either to boil horse or cow food ; or where many harvesters
(reapers) are employed and fed, it may be used as a cooking-house." We value this plan
highly, knowing the competency of its author. We are gratified to observe that the
cottages for the labourers are proposed to be formed, like Mr. BardwelTs, with one large
room and two closets on the ground floor, and two bed-rooms over. The worst point
about the Northumbrian farmeries, as well as those of Scotland, is the boothies, or little
booths, for the single men, and the houses of one room for the married servants.
Design XIX. — A Farmery for Five Ploughs, with Cows, Cattle, and other Stock in
Proportion, suitable for the Northumbrian Husbandry.
973. Accommodation. No farm house is here shown, but merely the offices of the farmery ;
the general appearance of which is exhibited in fig. 968, and the ground plan in fig. 969.
The latter contains the barn bay for unthreshed corn, y ; the bay for threshed corn, z ;
the machinery, c ; and the straw-house, d : the stable, e, has separate stalls for ten
horses ; and connected with it is a hay-house, f. There are a tool-house, g ; straw-
vards, and hammels, /(, i, k, I ; calf-house, m ; stable for a loose horse, n ; cow-houses, o,
p ; hackney stable, q ; and four feeding-hainmels, with yards, r, s. There are a vacant
house for an hospital, and for various other purposes, t ; a cart-shed, u ; turnip-house,
v ; a common yard, w ; and rick-yard, x. There are pumps for supplying water, at
a' a' ; and upright racks along the divisions between the fold-yards, at b' b', &c.
974. Remarks. On this Design, which has been sent us by the same experienced
agriculturist as the preceding one, its author thus remarks : — " No dwelling-house or
cottages are attached, nor a blacksmith's nor carpenter's shop ; because these may be added
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 4S5
where deemed most convenient. Many of the observations made on the preceding Design
will apply also to this one : the cart-shed, however, fronts the east, which is the next
desirable aspect to the north."
40 60
Design XX. — A Farm House and Farmery for Three Ploughs, adapted to the North-
umbrian System of Culture.
975. Accommodation. Fig. 970 shows the general appearance; and fig. 971 the
ground plan. In the latter the dwelling-house shows an entrance-lobby and staircase, a ;
486 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
971 z
L-
parlour, h ; kitchen, c ; dairy, d ; drying-shed, e ; back-kitchen and dairy-scullery, /;
servants' privy, g ; best privy, h ; place for ashes, i ; pigsty, k ; poultry-house, I ; and
kitchen yard, m. The offices show a stable for six cart-horses, n ; hackney-stable, o ; cow-
house, p ; calf-house, q ; hammels and yards, r ; house for a loose horse or bull, s ; bay
of the barn for unthreshed corn, t ; threshed corn and machinery, u ; straw-house, v ;
situation in which cattle-sheds may be extended, w, with yards, x. A pump, placed at y,
will supply the whole of the farm-yard, and the kitchen court may have one in any con-
venient angle. The rick-yard is at z.
976. Remarks. This Design, by the same contributor, is for what is considered in
Northumberland a small farm. " It is chiefly intended for keeping cattle, and may be
extended towards the east, as shown by the dotted lines, w, x. The additional hammels,
w, may be covered by corn stacks, as roofs, and especially with beans, a very general
practice in Northumberland. There is a dwelling, but no buildings are shown, for ser-
vants or workmen. The cattle-sheds are all lofted, such lofts forming better granaries
for keeping corn than those over close cattle-houses or stables ; because the corn is not
injured by the breath of cattle confined below. The whole range of building on the
north side of this yard is shown two stories high, for the sake of sheltering the fold-yards.
The stables in this Design, and in the two preceding ones, ought to be between sixteen
and eighteen feet wide ; and, if a recess with a small window in it were made behind
each pair of horses, a convenient place would be formed there for keeping harness above,
and for placing a corn or chaff bin below. The light and the ventilation which would
be afforded by the window would admit of keeping the stable much more sweet and clean
than is usual ; for it is certain, as White observes, that • there is nothing like light for
exposing a negligent servant.' "
Design XXI. — The Farm House and Offices for a Farm of Six Ploughs, called Hallington
New Houses, on the Beaufront Estate, in Northumberland.
977. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 972, and the ground
plan in fig. 973. The latter shows the farm house, containing a kitchen, a ; parlour, b ;
972
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 487
973
Lf-.-i.;
F v
:% * '
7^
[tLJJLi-,
BL
W f o jf ;j J)
back-kitchen, c, with four bed-rooms and a closet over. There are also a dairy, d ; cral-
house and shed, e; ash-house and privy,/; and garden, surrounded by a wall, <j. The
farmery contains a stable for nine horses, h ; a hay-house, t ; three hovels with their fold-
yards, A ; a straw-house, with granary over, I ; a barn, to ; stack-yard, n ; stable for four
horses, o ; foal-house, p ; cow-houses, q ; calf-house, r ; piggeries, s ; cart-shed, t ; and
two cottages, u u.
978. Construction. The walls are of the
freestone found upon the estate ; the timber is
of Baltic fir, and the covering of the roofs of
Westmoreland slate. There is nothing pe-
culiar or specific in the fitting up of the
buildings composing the farmery ; and the
interior of the dwelling-house is finished in
the usual manner, as appears by the section,
fig. 974. As a specimen of the manner in
which the particular, or specification, of the
work to be done in building a farm house
and offices in Northumberland is made out,
we are enabled, through the kindness of Mr. Y *.
Green, to subjoin the following form, being that actually made for rebuilding this
farm : —
979. Specification and Description of the several works to new farm buildings intended
to be erected at Hallington New Houses, on the estate of J. Errington, Esq., of Beau-
front, in the county of Northumberland, according to the plans, elevations, and sections
hereunto annexed.
980. The Contractors shall, at their own cost and charge, provide all and every kind
of material ; labour, including the digging and quarrying stones ; workmanship ; tools ;
travelling, lodging, and every other expense attendant on the works, except cartage,
which is to be supplied by the tenant. All the materials to be of good quality of their
several kinds ; and the mortar for building the walls to be composed of good well-burnt
lime, mixed with clean sand ; using not less than one cart-load of lime to three cart-loads
of sand, and having them well mixed and beaten together with water. The stones to be
got from a quarry which is to be opened on the farm ; the contractor to find labour for
opening and laying bare the stone ; but the tenant to supply what cartage may be neces-
3 c
488 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
sary. The timbers for all the carpenter's work; viz., roofing, lintels, bond timber,
stoothings (studwork, or quartering ; that is, wooden framework for lath and plaster par-
titions), ragglings (ceiling joists), joistings, external door-frames, posts and rails for stalls
in stable, cow-byre, and calf-pens, to be all sawn out of Memel, Dantzic, or red pine
timber. The deals for the external doors, windows, gates, stall partitions, mangers, and
hay-racks, and for the steps and risers to stairs, to be all of red wood from the Baltic.
All the floors of the house and granary to be laid with white-wood battens from Christiania.
All the other inside joiner's work to be executed with deals, &c, cut out of Quebec yellow
pine. The whole to be free from sap, shakes, loose knots, and every other defect.
The materials of the present old buildings to be taken for the use of the respective con-
tractors ; and such of them as shall be deemed sound and good by the inspector, such as
stones and timber, to be used in the new offices. The old buildings, however, are to be
taken down only in such order of time as they can be spared by the tenant, so as he may
not be put to unnecessary inconvenience thereby.
981. Dwelling- House. — Mason's Work. To open out, and lay bare the quarry where
pointed out ; and to get from it all the stones necessary for the mason-work ; to dig proper
trenches for all the walls, of the different thicknesses, and to the depth required for a
good foundation,, and also for sleeper walls to the parlour floor. To build stone footings
to all the walls, from good foundations, of the different thicknesses described on the
drawing ; the first footing to be 3 feet, and the second ditto 2 feet and a half. To carry
up all the external walls 2 feet thick, and the internal walls, and walls of coal-house,
privy, &c, 20 inches thick, to the heights required, as shown by the elevation and section.
The front of the house to be built with good blocking courses of hewn stone ("good
blocking courses" does not mean, in Northumberland, hewn work, but only stones
dressed with the pick end of the hammer, and laid in regular courses, which courses are
generally of such a thickness, as that two of them range with one course of coins, as
in fi". 975). The jambs of the doors and windows to be carried up in in and out tie (in
and out tie, or in-bands and out-bands, are analogous to headers and stretchers in brick-
work; and, in the case of windows and other openings, will be understood by fig. 976,
975 976 977 978
in which a is the in-tie, in-band, or heading stone ; and b, the out-tie, out-band, or
stretching stone ; and c, the pulley style of the windows ; the external elevation of in
and out tie may be seen in fig. 977); checked (rebated) to receive frames; the inside
of the jambs to be splayed ; to have wooden bricks built in for fastenings of the beads,
and recesses left for window seats. The gables of the house and back side to be built
with good common walling ; the whole of the walls to have a bond stone (binding
stone) laid through the full thickness of the wall every superficial yard, and to be
properly pointed outside. Windows and doors to have stone heads and sills, chiseled and
set. The silLs to have proper drips, and to project 2 inches from the face of the wall.
The coins (corners) for all the walls to be chiseled, and to be from 12 to 14 inches
deep, 20 inches long, and 10 inches in the bed. Two courses of blocking in the front
wall to range fair with one of coins. The chimneys to be carried up with gables,
as shown in the drawing. The vents (flues) to be well pargeted inside, with hair and
lime ; and the tops above the roof to be built with hewn stone, well jointed ; each joint
to have a wrought-iron cramp, three eighths of an inch square, and 5 inches long, run
with lead. Stone water-tables to be laid up the gables on each side, and to be wrought
with saddle top, chiseled and set ; the first stone to be fixed with an iron stud, run with
lead, into corbel coins (summer stones, as shown in fig. 977), also a stone ridge,
wrought fair to a mould, well jointed and laid straight on the roof. To pave the two
kitchens, dairy, pantry, passages, and closet under the stairs with flag-stones, 3 inches
and a half thick, from Erring Craig : the whole to be dressed, jointed, and well bedded
in sand. The front and back doors to have stone steps and thresholds, chiseled and set.
The fireplaces in the front kitchen and hack ditto to have stone jambs and mantels
chiseled and set. The mantels not to be less than 15 inches deep, and the jambs the
breadth required. Each fireplace to have a furnace pot (boiler) and oven (the front
kitchen pot to contain 12 gallons of water ; the oven to be 20 inches in diameter); and
standard grates, (kitchen grates supporting themselves by feet in front,) 20 inches
wide, set with hewn stone fronts, coved behind for the pot mouth (boiler mouth,
as in fig. 978 ; ;n which d is the pot or hoiler ; e, the coving ; /, the jamb ; and g,
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 4S9
the bottom of the standard grates); the back-kitchen fireplace to have a standard grate,
20 inches wide, and the pot to contain 16 gallons of water. The whole to be properly
set with cast-iron dampers and fire bricks ; to have end plates and a hook fixed for
the top bar to fall down. The fireplaces in the bed-rooms and parlour to have polished
stone jambs, mantels, and fire slabs, and side slips where required; each to have a
sham stove of the value of 15a. each, the parlour fireplace to have metal cove plates
(metal side pieces, coved to the jambs above the stoves, as in fig. 979,
in which h h are the cove plates), and the whole to be properly set. 979
To pebble-pave the yard to the house, coal-house, ash-house and
shed; tin? privy to be flag-paved. The front and back doors to have
flags laid in the front of the steps, 4 feet by 4 feet. To build the
garden wall, as shown in the plan, with common walling, 20 inches
thick, and 6 feet high, with coins at the angles, and to have the coins of the gate
openings scappled (broached ashlar dressed roughly with ilie pick end of the hammer).
982. Plasterer's Work. To plaster all the walls of the house with two-coated plaster ;
and also all the jambs of doors and windows. The soffits of the same to be lath-plastered
where required. The ceilings of all the rooms, passages, and of the staircase with stooth-
ing partitions, to have two-coated lath-plaster ; also the partitions forming closets to have
the same. The privy to have two coats of wall-plastering, and the ceiling to have two
c iats of lath-plaster. The lime for the whole of the above to be well prepared, and mixed
with a sufficient quantity of long beast's hair ; the whole to be well smoothed off, and left
free from blushes (blisters) and every other defect, when finished. The mason to cut all
the holes necessary for the carpenter's and joiner's work, and for the smith's work, &C. ;
also to provide lead for running in ditto. Grooves to be cut, when required, for the
slating; and the whole to be done to the satisfaction of Mr. J. Green, Architect, or
whom he may appoint to inspect the same.
983. Carpenter and Joiner's Work. To provide and cut all the necessary wooden bricks ;
lintels for door and window openings, and wall plates for joisting, of such scantling as
will be hereafter specified. The joisting for the chamber floor to be laid level at top,
and fair underside for the ceiling, and not to exceed 16 inches apart, middle and middle
(from centre to centre). The joists to have 12 inches hold on the wall at each end, and
to be laid on wall plates ; to be trimmed for the chimneys and staircase, as may be re-
quired; and to be of such scantling as will be hereafter specified. The joisting for the
parlour floor to be laid on sleeper walls, not to exceed 18 inches apart, middle and
middle. The fire hearths to be boxed with 1 inch and a quarter deal. The roof to be
framed, as shown in the section, with four pair of principals (principal rafters) ; the common
rafters to be laid so as not to exceed 18 inches apart, middle and middle, a course of
five-eighths inch deal sarking (boarding), 9 inches broad, to be laid along the eaves
and the ridge, on each side of the roof and chimney necks (shafts) ; also five-eighths
inch deal sarking laid up the gables, 2 feet wide on each side, to meet the slate laths in
the middle of the second spar from the gable. The beams to be laid on raising plates,
(wall plates) with a proper bearing on the same. The ceiling joists to be fixed to the
underside of the tie beams, and not to exceed 16 inches apart, middle and middle. A
trap-door to be made and fixed in the ceiling where directed, to give access to the roof.
Stoothing partitions to form rooms, pantry, closets, &c, to be fixed as shown on the
drawing; the stoothings (quartering) not to exceed 16 inches apart, middle and middle,
the scantlings to be hereafter specified. Partition door-frames to be beaded, rabbeted,
and fixed with stoothings, where shown in the drawing. The closet door-frames to be
beaded, and fixed with stoothings to form closets, as shown in the drawing. The
chamber floors and parlour ditto to be laid with inch-and-quarter white-wood battens ;
dressed and jointed, and well nailed to joists ; the battens to be dressed and jointed
immediately after the contract is made, and horsed (set up on end in
the open air to dry, against a horizontal spar or horse, the end of which
is shown at i, in fig. 984), so as to be properly seasoned before laying K\/y
down. The coal-house, shed, and privy, to be covered in with a pitched JaJ(
roof (a roof raised in the middle, and not at one side only, as in lean-to {/i \\,
roofs), as shown in the drawing ; scantlings hereafter specified. — Scant-
lings. Chamber flooring joists, 9 inches by 2 inches and a half, 16 inches apart, middle
and middle; sleeper joists for parlour, 6 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half; 18
inches apart, middle and middle; principal rafters, 9 inches by 3 inches; tie-beams,
8 inches by 3 inches and a half; king-posts, 11 inches by 3 inches and a half; ridge-
pieces, 7 inches by 1 inch and a half; ribs, 5 inches by 3 inches and a half; strutts, 5
inches by 3 inches ; common rafters, 3 inches by 2 inches and a half; ragglings,
3 inches and a half by 2 inches; stoothings, 3 inches by 2 inches and a half; wall plates
under joists, 4 inches and a half by 1 inch and a half; raising plates under tie-beams, 6
inches and a half by 2 inches and a quarter ; lintels for doors and windows, 4 inches
490 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
thick, by the breadth required ; wall plate at foot of spars, 9 inches by 1 inch and a
quarter ; partition door-frames, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches and a quarter ; closet
door-frames, 3 inches and a quarter by 3 inches ; external door-frames to house, 4 inches
and three quarters by 3 inches and a half; principal rafters for shed and coal-house
roofing) 6 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half; common rafters, 2 inches and a half
by 2 inches and a quarter; ribs, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches and a quarter; wall
plates, 6 inches and a half by 1 inch and a quarter; ridge pieces, 6 inches by 1 inch and
a half; pan plate, wall plate, and lintel, 3 inches and a half thick. — Windows. All the
windows for the house to have boxed sash frames of red-wood deal. The frames to
have 1-inch pulley stiles (hollow stiles, containing the pulleys, lines, and weights, for
balancing the sashes), outside linings of three-quarters-inch deal ; and beaded inside
linings of half-inch deal, with the sash sill double sunk (see fig. 981), 3 inches and
a half thick by the breadth required. The heads to be of 2 inch
deal, boxed out the breadth of the side frames; three-eighths- r 1 981
inch parting (separating) beads grooved into pulley stiles;
inside beads, three quarters of an inch and seven eighths of
an inch broad ; the sashes to be 1 inch and three quarters,
stuck (worked) with astragal and hoilow ; sash bar, five eighths
of an inch thick ; the stile of sashes to be 1 inch and three quarters broad. The
whole to be single hung with cast-iron weights and proper sash line ; and to have
cast-iron framed pulleys ; each window to have a brass sash fastener fixed, of the value
of Is. 9d. The low room (ground floor) windows to have inside shutters framed
of inch-and-quarter deal, in two panels, planted (inlaid) moulding, plain back
flaps of three-quarters-inch deal, clamped at the ends ; shutters to be hung with
two inches and a half metal butt hinges ; and the back flaps with 1 inch and a half
wrought-iron ditto, and screws. Each shutter to have a plain brass knob, and a
window shutter bar, 2 feet and a half long, fixed to each window. All the windows
to have inch-and-quarter deal bottoms, with plain backs and elbows (casings round
the window seats) of 1-inch deal beaded ; the upper edge and plain soffits to be of three-
quarters-inch deal, grooved and tongued. The parlour window to have framed backs
and elbows down to the floor, with a framed soffit of inch-and-quarter deal, to corre-
spond with shutters. The plinth to be fixed round the window, 4 inches and a half broad.
Framed grounds 4 inches and a half by 1 inch and a quarter, beaded and splayed inside,
to be fixed round the windows in the parlour and in the two kitchens, with a three-
quarters-inch ogee back moulding. The upper room windows to have a three-
quarters-inch angle bead fixed round the jambs and heads. The dairy and pantry
windows to be made with solid frames, 3 inches and a half by 3 inches ; to have sliding
trellises inside, with glass above, one square in height ; and to have inch-and-quarter
deal bottom made level with shelving. The jambs and heads to have a three-quarters-
inch angle bead fixed. The dairy and pantry shelving to be fixed, as shown on the
plan, by dotted lines ; to have three shelves in height ; their united breadths not to be
less than 4 feet ; and to have proper framed bearers. All the external angles of the
chimney breasts, jambs, and heads of door openings to have three-quarters-inch
angle beads fixed, and on such other places as require them. The closets to be fitted
up, as shown in the drawing, with 3 shelves in height, of 1-inch deal ; their united
breadths not to measure less than 3 feet. The stairs to be fitted up in one flight, as
shown on the plan, with inch-and-quarter deal steps and risers. The steps to have
rounded nosings chimed (let in) at both ends into stringings, which are to be of inch-
and-half deal, and 10 inches broad ; with a dressed and beaded upper edge to answer
as skirting. A wrought deal handrail to be fixed to stoothings on each side of the
stairs. Moulded skirting to be fixed round the parlour of 1-inch deal, C inches broad ;
to be fixed to the wall with plugs. Plain skirting of three-quarters-inch deal, 4
inches and a half broad, to be fixed round the kitchen, back-kitchen, passages, bed-
rooms, &c. The parlour fireplace to have a plain pilaster chimney-piece, 4 inches and a
half broad, with shelf and frieze. The bed-room fireplaces to have a single fire moulding,
with a plain shelf and frieze. The two kitchen fireplaces to have each a chimney shelf
of inch-and-quarter deal, fixed with ogee brackets. All the room door-frames to
have a three-quarters-inch quirk ogee moulding, planted (fixed) round on each side,
also round the closet door-frames, to cover the plastering. The upper room doors,
and the dairv and pantry ditto, to be framed in four panels of inch-and-half deal,
finished and planted on one side. To be hung on frames, with 3 inches and a half
butt hinges, and each to have a good Norfolk latchet (latch). The cheese-room door
and pantry ditto to have iron-rimmed locks of the value of 2s. 6d. each, with escut-
cheons. The low room doors to be also framed in four panels of inch-and-half deal
finished, planted moulding, both sides hung on frames, with 3 inches and a half butts;
the parlour door and kitchen ditto next to the stairs to have each an iron-rimmed lock
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 4Q1
with Scotch springs, and plain brass knobs of the value of 5s. 6d. each. The closet doors
to be framed in four panels of inch-and-quarter deal ; with planted mouldings on
one side, to be hung with 3-inch butt hinges, and to have closet door locks of the value
of 2s. 6d. each. The front door to be framed 1 inch and three quarters thick, in 6
panels, bead and flush outside ; and hung with 4 inches and a half butt hinges on frames
beaded and rabbeted, with a light above. The back entrance door to be framed 1 inch
and three quarters thick, in four panels, bead and butt, and hung on frames, beaded and
rabbeted, with 4 inches and a half butt hinges. Each of the above doors to have a stock
lock of the value of 6s., and a good Norfolk latchet. 20 feet run of pin rail (railing for
hat or cloak pins) to be fixed in the kitchen where required. The trap-door, made for
the ceiling, to be of half-inch deal, grooved and tongued, with beaded lining round the
frame. The privy to have a boxed seat of inch-and-quarter deal, grooved and tongued,
and a battened door of 1-inch deal, hung on frames, beaded and
rabbeted, 4 feet by 3 feet, with T bands (hinges like fig. 982) 2 feet
long, and to have a Norfolk latchet, with a small bolt inside. The
coal-house door, and ash-house ditto, to be of inch-and-quarter deal,
hung with bands (strap hinges) and crooks (hooks) run into stone
cheeks (jambs), 2 feet 2 inches long, with two screw-bolts and nuts
in each band. (N. B. No doors or window shutters to be hung on mouldings fixed in
any part of the house where the plastering is unfinished, except on the window grounds
and skirting. )
984. Hardware (Ironmongery). To provide all the nails, spikes, screws, &c, that
may be necessary for the carpenter's and joiner's work ; also
all the hardware, as before specified ; two dozen of iron R_
crooks to be fixed in the ceilings of the kitchen, or in such
other parts as shall be directed. To fix along the eaves of
the roof on both sides half round metal spouts (see fig. 983),
with two metal wall pipes. The whole to be fixed with a
sufficient number of iron stays and holdfasts.
985. Slater's Work. To cover the roof of the house with Welsh slates called countesses,
laid with a sufficient overlap, and well nailed, with two nails to each slate, to Memel
laths 1 inch and a half by five eighths of an inch ; the laths to be well nailed to spars
(common rafters). The whole to be well pointed inside with good hair and lime
mortar, and inserted into grooves at the chimney necks ; also to be well pointed up the
gables and along the ridge ; the whole to be sound, and left perfectly watertight when
finished.
986. Glazier's and Painter's Work. To glaze all the windows with the best Newcastle
second crown glass, to be well fitted and bedded in good oil putty. The windows to be
primed before glazing. Pantry and dairy windows to have glass above the trellises one
square in height, also the same above the front door. To paint all the outside joiner's
work, viz., doors, windows, &c, and all the metal spouts, with three coats of good white
lead and oil ; and all the inside joiner's work, viz. the doors, windows, mouldings, linings,
skirtings, handrails, &c. &c, with two coats of white lead and oil, or with such other
colours as may be required. The whole work to be well puttied up, and knotted (the
knots smoothed and filled up) previously to painting.
987. Farm Offices. — Mason's Work. To dig proper trenches for the foundations of
all the walls to the new buildings, the proper thicknesses, and to the depth required. To
take off the covering, and pull down the walls of such of the old buildings as are to come
down; the old stones to be used for the inside of the walls to the new buildings; and the
new stones wanted, to be from the aforementioned quarry. To build stone footings to all the
walls for the new buildings, as shown on the plans, 2 feet and a half wide, from good and
sufficient foundations. The walls above the foundations to be 21 inches thick, with good
common walling carried up to the height required, as shown in the plan, elevation, and
sections. A proper bond stone to be laid through the full thickness of the wall every
superficial yard (measuring on the face of the wall), and the face of the external walls to
be well pointed. The coins for all the external angles of the walls to be scappled,
jointed, and set; and to be 20 inches long, 12 inches deep, and 10 inches thick. Stone
heads and sills to be chiseled for all the windows, the frames to be built in with the
walls. The external doors to have also stone heads and sills chiseled ; the jambs to be
built in and out tie, scappled and cheeked ; (hammer-dressed, as above explained, with a
rebate cut out for the door to shut against,) the in-tie to go through the full thickness of
the wall, and to be 12 inches in the head ; the out-tie to be 20 inches long, and 10 inches
in the head. Iron crooks to be run into stone cheeks while building for the door bands,
which the carpenter .will provide ; the lead to be provided by the mason. The two
byres at the west end of the present old farm house to be converted into two hovels, as
shown in the drawing. The present slated cart-shed to be lengthened with a new
4<92 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
opening, arched, .Sec, as shown in the drawing. To build jambs and pillars to all the
hovels and cart-sheds, with hewn stone in and out tie both sides, well jointed and set ;
the stones to be 20 inches longj 12 inches deep, and 10 inches and a half thick, and the
space between the pillars to be carried up with good common walling. The arches to
have pen stones (arch stones) to go through the full thickness of wall, and not to be
less than 10 inches in the head; all the angles of the jambs to be cut off, making a
2-inch chamfer. The barn and straw-house to be flag-paved with flag-stones, 3^ inches
thick, dressed and jointed, to be laid on a bed of rubblestones 8 inches thick, broken
small; the (lags to be bedded in sand, and the joints to be set with lime. To pebble-pave
the byres and calf-houses with proper cribstone and saddle (the
former, fig. 984, k, partitions off the crib ; and the latter, I, the gutter 9 1
behind) ditto, as shown in the plans. The cribs to be flagged at
bottom. To pebble-pave the new stable, fowl-house, hay-house
and pig-houses, with the yards to ditto. The stable to have
proper stones mortised, and set for stall-posts. To pebble-pave a
causeway 4 feet broad, with proper edge stones, in front of all the buildings inside
the fold ; also along the east side of the east wing, as shown by dotted lines on
the ground plan. To build walls for the pig-houses, fold walls, stack-yard walls, and
crib walls, as shown in the plan. Proper stone gateposts to be set into the ground,
and those for the folds and stack-yard to have iron crooks run into the same with
lead, for gates to be hung on ; the whole to have scappled coins at the angles and gate
openings. The walls to be carried up 5 feet and a half high above the ground, in
common walling, with sloped coping. The ridge stone to be worked fair to a mould-
ing, and laid on all the ridges and hips of the roofing. The first stone of each hip to
be fixed with an iron spike. Stone water-tables to be laid on the pig-house gables ;
the first stone to be run into a corbel coin. The stone spouts to be wrought, and
fixed into the walls of the pig-yards. The crib walls in the folds to have stone posts
grooved to receive deal fronts, and to be flagged at bottom with common flags. The old
cottage at Hallington Hill to be taken down ; the byre to be converted into a cottage,
and the barn into a hovel, opening into ditto. The latter to have jambs carried up with
hewn stone and arch, as described for the other hovels. The chimney and fireplace in
the cottage to be done as hereafter described for the new cottages. The flagging and
plastering also to be the same. The walls for the fold and stack-yard to be done as before
described for those at the farm house.
988. Cottages. To build two cottages adjoining the cart-shed, as shown in the
drawing. The walls to be as before described. The chimneys to be carried up with
proper vents 14 feet by 10 feet, and to be well pargeted inside with hair and lime; each
to have hewn stone jambs, mantels, and chimney-top. The fireplaces to have each a
cylinder oven, 15 inches in diameter; a furnace pot to contain eight gallons of water;
and a pair (front and bottom bars) of common grates 17 inches wide : the whole to be
set with hewn stone fronts, fire bricks, and dampers. The floors to be flag-paved with
3§-inch flags, dressed and jointed, and well bedded in sand.
989. Plasterer's Work. To plaster the cottages with two-coated plastering ; the
stoothing partitions of the dairy and lobby, in the new cottages, to be plastered with two
coats of lath plaster. The granary and barn walls to be plastered with one coat wall
plaster, 4 feet from the floor. The window-frames to be drawn about (pointed) with
hair and lime mortar on both sides. The lime to be well prepared for all the plastering,
and to be mixed with a sufficient quantity of hair. The mason to cut all holes for posts,
iron crooks, grooves, and all others necessary for carpenter's and joiner's work, and the
slating also ; to clear away all the surplus earth from the inside of all the buildings, which
are to be made level; the earth to be wheeled out to a considerable distance for carting
away. The mason, also, to provide lead for running the ironwork into the stone ; and
to have the use of roofing timber, or any other old timber which may be spared, for
scaffolding; but in case any of the same should thereby be broken or injured, to replace
them, or else allow the value thereof to the carpenter for damages.
990. The Carpenter's and Joiner's Work. To provide and cut all the lintels for the
doors and windows, of such scantlings as are hereafter specified ; and so as not to have
less than 12 inches hold on the wall at each end. The granary above the straw-house
to have joisting laid 18 inches apart, mid and mid; and to have 12 inches hold on the
wall at each end. — Flooring. The granary floor to be laid with ineh-and-quartcr
white-wood battens, dressed and jointed : the battens to be laid loose, so as to take up and
relay after pining (shrinking). The roofing for all the buildings to be framed and
hipped, as shown in the drawing, with tie-beams laid on raising plates (wall plates),
the scantlings to be hereafter specified ; and the whole to have a sufficient number of
principals to make the openings between not exceed from 7 to 8 feet. — Scantlings. Tie-
beams, 6 inches and a half by 4 inches; principal rafters, 8 inches and a half by 2 inches
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 493
and a half; hip rafters, 10 inches by two inches; common rafters, 3 inches by 2 inches
and a half, not to exceed 18 inches apart middle and middle; binders (tie beams) 8
inches by 2 inches and a half; ribs, 6 inches by 3 inches and a quarter ; ridge, 3 inches
and a quarter by S inches and a quarter ; granary joists, 10 inches by 2 inches and
a half; raising plates, 6 inches by 1 inch and a half; lintels, 4 inches thick by the breadth
required for the low buildings. The lintels for the granary windows, 3 feet and a half by
the breadth required. Hinder posts to stalls, 5 inches by 5 inches; fore posts, 5 inches
by 3 inches. Sarking of five-eighths-inch deal, 9 inches broad, to be laid on the
eaves and ridges of the roofing on each side. Gutter boards to the valleys to be laid
with three-quarters-inch deal, covered with sheet lead, 18 inches broad> 6 pounds
to the foot, which is to be provided, and laid at the carpenter's expense. — The stable to
be fitted up with stalls, as shown on the plan and section. The stall partitions to be
fitted up with inch-and-quarter deal, and to have a 9-iilch batten placed horizontally
about the middle of each side. The top and bottom rail, 4 inches by 3 inches and a
quarter, to be grooved to receive the same. The rails to be tenoned into the stall posts ;
and the stall posts to be set into proper stones at the bottom, and fixed to girding
pieces at top, 5 inches by 3 inches, nailed to the under side of the tie-beams. The hinder
posts to be fixed at the top with a screw bolt. Mangers to be fixed between the stall
partitions, with fronts and bottoms of inch-and-half deal ; the back to be of inch-
and-quarter, and the fronts to have a roller 2 inches and a quarter in diameter, grooved
and fixed : each manger to have a wrought-iron ring and staple fixed. The hay-racks
to be made 2 feet and a half wide ; the rungs (spokes) of 1 inch and a half deal ; the
rack sides, 8 inches and a half by 3 inches ; a harness rail 12 feet long, with proper pins,
to be fixed in the stables. — The cow-byres to be fitted up with partitions and stakes,
as shown in the drawing. The partitions to be cleaded (clothed) with inch-and-
quarter deal, and proper posts of the old materials, provided any of them can be
found suitable. The stakes to be let into the cribstones at bottom, and to be fixed
at the top to joists, 8 inches by 4 inches, laid through for that purpose. — The calf-
house to be fitted up with pens, as shown in the drawing ; and the partitions to be
formed with posts and rails, and paled. The posts to be 3 inches and a quarter square,
let into stones at bottom, and fixed to a joist at top, laid through for that purpose. The
partitions to have three rails in height, 3 inches by 1 inch and a quarter. The pales to
he 4 feet high, 2 inches and a half by three quarters of an inch, and to be well nailed
to the rails ; each pen to have a small wicket, hung with small bands and crooks, and
each having a hasp and staple for fastening. — Doors. All the outside doors of the
farmery to he battened of inch-and-quarter deal, grooved and tongued. The barn and
straw-house ditto to be hung in two halves. The whole to be hung with bands and crooks,
run into stone cheeks. To provide and fix on the same a common wrought-iron sneek
(latch), fig. 985, and catch, with ring handle to hang down. The barn, straw-house,
granary, and stable doors all to have stock locks of the value of 5s. 6d.
each, and proper iron bolts and staples to be supplied for all the other 985
doors. The cottage outside doors to have each a thumb sneck and
catch, and a stock lock of the value of 4s. The cottage inside doors
to be made of 1-inch deal, battened, grooved and tongued, and hung
on frames with 3 bands ; and each to have a Norfolk latehet. The
stable door to be hung in the middle with strap hinges, to allow the
door to fall back against the wall. The door between the straw-
house and barn to be of 1-inch deal, battened, grooved, and tongued; hung on frames
with 7 bands, 22 inches long, and to have a sneck the same as the stable doors, with
an iron bolt and staples. — Windows. The cottage windows to be made with case-
ments, and iron bars, forming small panes, about 6 inches by 4 inches, to be fitted into
solid frames, leaded and rabbeted ; 4 feet three quarters of an inch by 3 feet 7 inches
inside of frames ; scantling of frame, 3 inches and a half by 3 feet : one casement in each
to be made to slide. The above to have outside shutters of three-quarters-inch
deal, grooved and tongued, hung on frames with small bands and crooks.
Each window to have an iron cotteral (a spring wedge, fig. 986) and an 9°^
iron turn (a fastening, see Index) to keep it back. The small windows for ffiyj)
the cottage dairies to be made with inside sliding trellises, 22 inches )1|
square. The windows for the stable, granary, and foal-house to be made (J\\
3 feet high, 2 feet 10 inches wide ; and to have inside sliding trellis
frames, 3 inches by 2 inches and a half. The stoothing partition and ragglings
to he fitted up so as to form a dairy and lobby in the cottages, with door-frames
for ditto, 4 inches by 3 inches ; and stoothings, 2 inches and a half by 2 inches and a
half. The dairies to be shelved, with two shelves in height, each 12 inches broad,
of inch-and-quarter deal, with brackets. The cottage windov. s to have inch-and-
quarter deal bottoms, and 1-inch deal backs. The jambs and heads of the doors and
494- COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
windows to have a three-quarters-inch angle bead for plastering. A chimney shelf
of 1-inch ileal, with brackets, to be fixed above the fireplace in each of the cottages.
The windows in the granary to have inch-and-quarter deal bottoms, to project 1 inch
over the wall, and to be nailed to the window sill. — The hay-racks to be the same
as those in the stable, and to be fixed in each hovel the full length ; as are the rack and
manger in the foal-house. The hovel at Hallington Hill to have a partition put
across it with posts and rails ; and the gates to be hung with loops and crooks for
youn^ cattle. The stairs in the straw-house to be fitted up with inch-and-quarter deal
steps and risers, and proper strings : the stairs to be partitioned off with stoothings,
and three-quarters-inch deal cleading next to the straw-house ; with inch-and-quarter
battened door at the bottom, hung on frames 4 inches by 3 inches and a quarter, with T
bands, and to have a stock lock and sneck as before described. A rail to be fixed round
the opening of the granary stalls, with skirting at the bottom of three-quarters-inch deal,
12 inches broad. The skirting to be fixed round the barn and granary of 1-inch deal,
4 inches and a half broad, and to be well nailed to plugs. — Gates. Nine gates to be made
for the folds and stack-yards, including those at Hallington Hill. Each to have 5 bars,
and to be braced. The bars to be 4 inches by 1 inch and a half, and the stiles to be 4
inches and a half by 3 inches and a half. Also, 5 wickets, with 5 bars and braces, for the
inside of the folds, &c. &c. The bars to be 3 inches and a half by 1 inch and a quarter ;
and the stiles, 3 inches and a half by 3 inches. The whole to be hung with proper iron
loops and crooks run into stone posts, in the coins of walls, where necessary ; and to
have proper hasps and staples. Crib-boards to be fixed in all the stone cribs in the folds ;
to be 10 inches broad, and 2 inches and a quarter thick ; and to be made to take out and
in by grooves cut in the stone posts. Centres for the arches of the hovels and cart-shed
to he provided, and posts for setting ditto.
991. Smith's Work, and Hardware. To provide and fix all spikes, nails, screws, &c,
necessary for the carpenter's and joiner's work ; and all the other hardware and smith's
work before specified.
992. Slater's Work. To cover the roofs of all the buildings of the farm offices, as
shown on the plan, with slates of the same kind, and done precisely in the same manner,
as before specified for slating the dwelling-houses.
993. Glazier's and Painter's Work. To glaze the casements of the cottage windows
with second crown glass ; the panes to be 6 inches by 4 inches, neatly puttied on each
side, and the casements to be primed before glazing. (N. B. The casements will be
provided ; and arc, therefore, not to be estimated. To paint all the external doors and
frames ; also, the granary windows, the cottage ditto, and the stable ditto ; also, the inside
doors of cottages, and the window backs, with two coats of white lead and oil, on both
sides. The windows to have one coat before being built into the walls. )
994. All the Works, as before specified, to be done in a sound and workmanlike
manner, subject to the approbation of Mr. John Green, Architect, or whom he may
appoint to inspect the same ; and it is to be understood that, should it be deemed
advisable that any of the work before specified, for the dwelling-house or farm offices,
should be dispensed with during the progress of the building, the value of such work is
to be deducted from the amount of the contract ; and, on the other hand, should any
alteration or additional work be required, which is neither expressed nor understood by
the plans and foregoing specification, the expense of such alteration or additional work
is to be paid to the contractor, and agreed for previously to its being done, or else left to
the valuation of the inspector. ( N. B. The iron-barred casements for the cottage
windows will be provided ; therefore the joiner need only estimate for the outside frames
for ditto, as specified.)
995. General Estimate. The following form was sent us with the foregoing spe-
cification : —
£ s. d.
Building new farm-house, fig. 977, a, b, c, d 453 : 12 : 7
Building corn-barn, m 95 : 1 1 : 2
Building straw-house with granary above, b 125 : 3 . 1
Building foal-house, p ; two cow-byres, q q • and calf-house, r 176 : 6 : 3
Building two stables, h and o ; and a hay-house, i 189: 3: 10
Building one hovel, k 48: 13 : 11
Building two cottages, u u 130: 8: 0
We have formed a rough estimate of the cubic contents of the farm house, which, we
find, contains 31,570 feet, which gives about 3 \d. per foot as the price of this descrip-
tion of building in Northumberland. The cottages estimated in the samo manner cost
2|rf. the cubic foot ; and the farm buildings 2d. These prices are not much more than
half what such farm houses and farmeries would cost in the neighbourhood of London,
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 495
as will be evident by comparing them with the estimate of the Bury Hill Designs,
§ 863 and § 880. One reason of this is, that in Northumberland stone is got for the
working, and the carriage of the greater part of the materials is found by the tenant.
996. Remarks. This Design is another of those so obligingly furnished us by John
Green, Esq., of Newcastle, the first Architect, as we are informed, for farm buildings,
in the extensive counties of Northumberland and Durham. It is one of twenty plans
and estimates which he made, in the year 1824, for renovating the farm buildings and
cottages on the estate of Beaufront, lying on the river Tyne, between Newcastle and
Hexham. By the advice of a kind friend, in the north of the county, we applied to
this gentleman through our esteemed correspondent Mr. Falla, the eminent nurseryman
at Gateshead, near Newcastle, and he has liberally permitted us to examine many of
the plans (accompanied by their specifications and estimates) which he has designed
and executed on different estates. From these we have selected seven, of which this is
the last, and they will give a complete idea to the Architect of the mode of arranging
farm houses, farmeries, and the dwellings of farm labourers, in that first of all English
agricultural counties, Northumberland. We must say, that, highly gratified as we have
been with these farm houses and farmeries, we have been proportionately shocked by the
scanty accommodation provided for the farm labourers. While the master is lodged in
a house which is fit for any gentleman of independent fortune, and the horses and cattle
have as ample accommodation as can be desired, the poor ploughman and hind are put
into single rooms, each generally about 22 feet long by 16 feet wide, with one door and
two small windows. At one end of this room a closet or dairy, 5 feet by 5 feet, is
partitioned off, and lighted by one of the windows ; and a corresponding space serves
as a sort of lobby to the outer door. This reduces the room to 16 feet by 16^ feet,
which must serve the occupant for every purpose to which a dwelling-house can be
applied. The reader may turn to the plan of two of these cottages, marked u u, in
fig. 973, p. 487, which he may rest assured are fac similes of all the cottages built in
Northumberland for ploughmen and farm-labourers. Among Mr. Green's plans, wa
have met with none with two rooms; and only with two or three that have privies or
places for a pig. These last cottages, we are informed by Mr. Green, were built for
labourers to be employed by the landlord in different parts of his estate. To the
cottages marked u u, in fig. 973, there is attached no privy or exterior appendage
whatever ; though this is not much to be wondered at, since there is none to the farm
house. We are tempted to enquire by what strange circumstance it happens that the
art of farming should be carried to such a degree of perfection as it is in Northumber-
land, while the farmers, and more especially their servants, live in a state of comparative
destitution of many of the comforts enjoyed by the same class in the south of England,
where the art of agriculture is at the lowest ebb ; and we can only account for it from
the general ignorance both of the labourers and their employers, and from the
remaining habits engendered by the oppression of the feudal system. The truth is,
that almost the entire produce of the land, beyond the mere subsistence of the farmer
and the labourer, is paid to the landlord in the form of rent; because the landed capi-
talists, like the great capitalists in trade and manufactures, enjoy a complete monopoly
of the market, and they can command their own price for their land, as the others do
for the use of their capital. Thus, in the country of great landholders, in the same
manner as in the great manufacturing districts, the operative is scarcely able to exist.
This evil can only be remedied by time, and a better system of government, which
will effect a more equal distribution of land and capital. In submitting these remarks
to the reader, we intend to make no reflections, in this or in any other case, on the
Architect^ who must necessarily conform to the customs of his locality ; but we conceive
it to be the duty of an author, who is under no local influence, to express his opinion
freely on this, as on every other subject that comes within the range of his work.
VV e may add, that the chief point in which the farmeries of Northumberland excel
those of Scotland, is in the subdivision of the fold-yards into smaller yards ; which,
instead of being mere manufactories for manure, serve as enclosures for the growth,
improvement, or fattening of cattle. Weak and young cattle always suffer much when
many are placed together in the same yard ; and this, more especially, when the animals
are brought from mountainous or partially enclosed districts ; or even districts where the
enclosures are very large. Cattle fed loose in small enlosures cr hammels of this kind
have their hair sleek and unbroken, and their feet are never so tender as to prevent their
travelling some distance to market. Nine tenths of the beeves or young cattle of
Northumberland, we are informed by one of the most intelligent farmers in the county,
are fed in small fold-yards, such as are represented in the ten preceding Designs, to the
number of from three to six, or even more, together, accordingly as they are found to
agree. In the rich flat pastures of Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, and other counties of
England, the larger breed of cattle, from their constitutional tameness and docility, will
S H
496
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
fatten together in large open yards, by dozens; but this not the case with Scotch cattle,
more especially those from the Highlands. In looking over the specification, § 979 to
§ 995, the reader will observe thai many of the building terms used in Northumberland
differ from those in use about London ; and some even from those employed in the south
of Scotland, as given by Mr. Ncwal! ill his specification, § 907. We have shortly ex-
plained these terms, eaeli when it first occurs; but there are some of them which will
require to be more minutely defined, and compared with other local terms, in the Glos-
saiial Index. This specification will be found of great use to all persons intending to
build farmeries where stone is employed, and it also shows the practical man what is
considered, in a highly cultivated district, the best mode of finishing racks, mangers,
cribs, partitions, &c. The construction of the cribs is worthy of notice ; the sides and
bottom are formed of boards two inches and a quarter thick, which fit into grooves and
notches in stone posts. This seems an excellent plan, because the boards may be
taken out at any time, and cleaned, and at seasons when the cattle are not kept in the
yards they may be taken out altogether, and placed under cover, in a dry airy situation,
till again wanted. All the stables are fitted up with stalls and full-length partitions, so
that every horse securely enjoys the food placed before him. There appear to be a few
inches of slope from the head of the stall to the gutter behind, which is now generally
disapproved of in the best stables in England and France, though still continued in the
farm stables in Scotland, as appears by an article in the Highland Society's Transactions.
Design XXII. — The Farmery at Calley in Kirkcudbrightshire, suitable for a Galloway
Crop and Pasture Faun of 400 Acres.
997. The Object of this Design is to afford accommodation for wintering young
cattle, and fattening others, as much or more than for affording stable room for
horses. In Galloway, we are informed by the contributor of this Design, Mr. Brown,
the factor or land agent at Calley, that the half of the rents is generally paid from the
corn crop, and the other half from black cattle ; so that a considerable proportion of
the farmery is required to be laid out as cattle-sheds, for wintering the animals when
young. The oldest and best Galloway cattle are generally wintered in the fields ; which,
in Galloway, where the winters are very temperate, are mostly well sheltered by hedges
and plantations. Cattle wintered in this way are less tender in the feet, have a finer skin
in the spring, and are in better condition to go to the English markets at that season,
than those wintered in sheds and yards.
998. Accommodation. The cattle sheds here shown at a, in fig. 987, with the yard
in front, b, are sufficient
for the accommodation
of forty or fifty-two head
of cattle. There are
a feeding-house, c, in
which six cattle may be
fed in stalls ; a cow-
house, d, 32 feet long, in
which ten Galloway cows
may stand without stalls ;
and at their heads there
is a foddering-passage,
e, which communicates
with the straw-house, f,
the feeding-house, c, and
thecattle-shedsand yard,
a, b. There are a barn,
(/, with a threshing-
machine driven by water;
a room for horses' corn
and cut straw, h ; a stable,
33 feet by 17 feet, for
six horses, i ; a cart-shed
with a loft over, k ; a
small office or count-
ing-house, I ; a boiling
or steaming house, m ;
and a tool-house with a
smith's forge for occa-
sional use, n. One part
of the yard is left open,
987
nn rn n n
m
T
•a
J El
^
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 497
and the other part is enclosed by a fence of pales, o, p, as a fold for the wintering of
cattle. The general appearance of this Design is shown in the isometrical view,
fig. 988.
999. Construction. The walls are chiefly of the slate-stone of the country, a cold
and disagreeable stone for cottages and human dwellings, but less injurious for buildings
for cattle and for sheds. The roofs are of Baltic fir, covered with slates ; a covering
cold in winter, and too warm in summer ; and therefore, however fit for sheds, not
to be commended for stables without lofts, or for cattle-houses. It is true that the
prevailing prejudice, in the west of Scotland, is in favour of slates indiscriminately, from
their durability ; but even if thatch should be found less durable, and this is not
always the case with the thatch composed of chips, shavings, and spray, or heath, we
consider the latter as decidedly preferable for all buildings in which animals are to be
lodged. But, in Galloway, improvement is not yet so general, that long heath and
broom cannot be found : and these, even the natives will allow, are nearly as durable
as any slate or tile whatever ; or, at all events, they are sufficiently so for constructions
which are undergoing the progressive improvements and changes which those of agri
culture constantly are.
1000. Remarks. This Design has been furnished us by one of the most enlightened agri-
culturists in the west of Scotland, and therefore it may be considered as a fair specimen
of a farmery for the agriculture of that district. It would be easy to add a farm house ;
but we have given so many good plans of this description of dwelling, that we consider
it unnecessary to add one on the present occasion. No arrangement for the collection
of liquid manure is shown ; because the farmers of Galloway, as those of most other
districts of Scotland, have not yet arrived at that degree of scientific refinement to be
fully aware of the advantages to be obtained by this important part of a perfect farmery.
Design XXIII. — A Farmery for a small French Farm, as given by Morel-Vinde.
1001. T/ie requisite Farm Buildings for a small Farm, our author observes, are the same
as for a large one, almost the only difference being in their magnitude. The plan ex-
hibited in the following figures is therefore to be considered as conveying the rudimental
idea of all farmeries whatever, where the objects of cultivation are those common to the
temperate regions of both hemispheres. The same constructions, which in the annexed
plans are only a width of two bays of ten feet each, by forty feet in length, might be ex-
tended to many bays of the same size. The following is the general type of this building:
— 1 . The stable and cow-house are in the same space without separation ; because by this
arrangement, on small farms where there are few or no servants and not much litter, the
animals are more easily looked after ; the litter from the horses is with little trouble
thrown under the cows, and the dung of both, being mixed, produces a better manure.
2. The poultry-house is placed alongside of the cow-house, and only separated
from it by an open grating in order to admit the heat of the former to the latter.
S. The barn is sufficiently large for containing one rick of 3000 sheaves, with additional
498
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
space, in order that a 953
part of it may be used,
it' necessary, as a cider-
house, for wine vats,
or for storing roots.
The space covered
by the entire build-
ing is eight hundred
superficial feet.
1002. Details. Fig.
989 is the surface
ground plan, showing
the barn for unthreshed
corn, a • the cellar end
of the same barn, b ; the
threshing-floor, c ; the stable for three horses, d; cow-house for three cows, e ; harness-house
and general magazine, /; poultry-house, # ; pigsty, h ; place for hatching poultry, z;
open shed for large im-
plements, k ; and two
porches, 11. Fig. 990
is a plan of the foun-
dations. Fig. 991 is a
plan of the flooring
over the barn, stable,
&c, which is used for
containing unthreshed
corn. Fig. 992 is the
side elevation showing
the door of the porch.
Fig. 993 is the eleva-
tion of either of the
ends. Fig. 994 is a
longitudinal section ;
and fig. 995 is a per-
spective view.
991
r
990
992
lilH
111 il ii ii ii-n-
H
1003. Construction. The foundations are of stone or brick, and the superstructure is
framed of timber, in lengths not exceeding twelve feet, and not measuring more than
993
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 499
six inches on the side. The panels are filled in with studwork or quartering, and covered
with weatherboarding or plaster.
1004. General Estimate. The actual cost, in the neighbourhood of Paris, was £\50 ;
that for the departments of France, £, 92. A bay may be added, in the neighbourhood
of Paris, for £42 ; and in the departments, for ,£25.
1005. Remarks.
The great economy
of this construction
must be obvious.
This economy results
from the four cross
walls being used on
both sides ; and from
two short lines of eaves
serving for the whole
structure. To be con-
vinced of this, it is
only necessary to ima-
gine the threshing-
floor, corn-bay, stable, cow-house, the two implement-houses, the two poultry-places,
and the pigsty, arranged as separate buildings round a square or parallelogram
farm-yard, as in Britain. Add to this, the great advantage of the accumulation of
heat during winter, and the exclusion of heat during summer. The steepness of
the roof not only renders that part of the structure more durable, by preventing it
from ever being soaked with moisture, but it actually reflects off the heat more
powerfully in summer, and receives it more effectually, because at a larger angle,
during winter. If eaves-gutters are considered necessary, they are only required at the
two ends, and even the tubes for conducting the water from these gutters to the ground
are as short as it is possible to conceive them to be. We have examined all the French
and German works on Rural Architecture, and though we have found much to approve
of in Lasteyrie's Rural Architecture and the Landes Verschonerung, published periodically
at Munich, which, through the kindness of our friend Count Hazzi, we receive regularly,
we have found nothing at all worthy of being put in competition with the Architecture
Rurale of Morel- Vinde. We say this with the more confidence, having seen most, or
all (for we cannot bear all the circumstances exactly in our mind), of his designs
in actual execution, on his own beautiful estate, at Celle, in 1828. — In a wine
or cider country, or on a farm where potatoes were raised in great quantities, a cellar
might be made both under the threshing-floor and the bay for unthreshed corn. The
two porches convey an idea of shelter and comfort, and, in fact, produce both in every
building to which they are judiciously attached. We particularly recommend this
Design to our American and Australian readers, and, indeed, to those of all countries
where timber is the principal building material.
Design XXIV. — A Farm House and Farmery suitable for a Farm of from Three Hun-
dred to Five Hundred Acres in France.
1006. The object of the following Design, which is taken from the work of Morel.
Vinde, is to show what is considered by one of the first agriculturists in France a model farm
500
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
house and farmery for
a large farm. Like
all Morel- Vinde's de-
signs, it will be found
to be the result of
much consideration,
both in point of ar-
rangement and ac-
commodation, and of
economy of construc-
tion ; altogether it is
eminently worthy of *
imitation, in countries
where small timber
forms the principal
building material.
1007. General Ar-
rangement. The farm-
ery with its different
courts, yards, and gar-
dens stands on a space
of about two acres :
the general appear-
ance is as in fig. 996,
and fig. 997 is the
general ground plan.
This plan is arranged 0
in four divisions. In *?
the first may be seen
the dwelling-house, a ;
an open shed on posts, ^ *£
b, under which linen **,
is washed and dried, q
and maize, tobacco,
onions, herbs, and
various other garden
productions are hung;
the kitchen-garden, c;
and part of a large
pond, d u, for supply-
ing water for washing,
ibr watering the gar-
's
1
1
iMi'ffi:.i,;.ir
m
E
I 1 h
Ft. 20
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 501
den, &c. The second division contains a large building, including a barn, stable, and
cow-house, e; stands for ricks,/; plots of turf, g ; and oblongs planted with applo
and pear trees for cider and perry, /;. The third division contains the sheep-house, i ;
four farm compost heaps, k; the pit for stercorat, Z; two plots for cider fruits, m;
and a part of the pond, </, which is divided by a fence, u. The fourth division contains
the cart and implement shed, with granary over, n ; a plot planted with fruit trees,
o; two dung-pits, r; and the situations of open gutters, p p p, which collect the surface
water, and deliver it either into the dung-pits at q q, or into the pond, d, as may be
considered most desirable. These four divisions are surrounded by a wall, t ; and they
are separated from each other by hedges, v. The advantage of placing the different
buildings which compose the farm house and farmery in four divisions, Morel- Vinde
states to be as follows: — the absolute security against the communication of fire from
one to another ; the facility of maintaining an orderly administration of the business
of the farm ; and the thriving ber.ter of the different kinds of animals, as from their
being kept distinct, they will run less risk of being injured by each other. We shall
now give the details of each of these divisions.
"\3
1008. The Farm House is a model of excellent contrivance and economy. Its general
appearance is shown in fig. 998 ; and its details, which are given with such distinctness
and accuracy that the simplest country carpenter may build from them, are exhibited in
figs. 999 to 1008. The
plan of the house is
formed on the same
general model as that
detailed in § 742; but
it is necessarily larger,
in order to afford the
additional accommo-
dation required. The
living-apartments are
raised on four cellars,
which give a bake-
house and wash-house,
a beer and cider cellar,
a cabbage or green ve-
getable cellar, and a
cellar for potatoes and
other roots. All the
living-rooms and bed-
rooms for the family B
are contained on one
floor over these cellars ;
and on the floor above
are the bed-room for
servants, and a place
for drying linen. The
only luxury which may
be said to distinguish
this plan from that
S02
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
before given is, that there is a bed-room for strangers. Fig. 999 is a plan of the cellar
floor, in which a is the wine, cider, and beer cellar ; b, the cabbage or green vegetable
cellar; c, the bakehouse and wash-house, with a square supporting post; and d,
the potato-cellar, also with a post. In the bakehouse there are an oven, e, and a
stove, f, which might be employed for heating the whole house. The foundations of
the stairs to the principal entrance, and for descending to the cellars, are shown at v ;
those of the back door and staircase at w ; of a small storehouse or fruit-room at p ; of
the implement-shed at q ; of the shed for wood at r ; and of the cesspool of the two privies
at t. Fie. 1000 is a plan of the principal floor, in which <j is the kitchen, with its dresser
and post, z, and sink stone, u ; h is the parlour, with its double-sized or best bed, which
in French farm houses is but seldom used, the whole family sleeping together in one
large bed-room, I ; or the master and mistress using the stranger's bed-room, m ; i is the
master's office, or place of business, the window of which ought to command the entrance
gate to the farmery, and does so in the plan, fig. 997 ; k is a clothes-press, or linen and
china closet ; I, the children's bed-room, and room for sewing-work (chumbre de couture) ;
m, stranger's room ; n, light closet ; o, pantry ; p, fruit-room ; q, shed for all the agri-
cultural implements used on the farm ; r, shed for wood and other domestic purposes ;
s s, privies ; v, entrance porch, with stair down to the cellar and stair up to the kitchen ;
w, staircase to the upper floor. In the centre of the building may be seen the octagonal
funnel which receives the heated air from the stove in the cellar, and communicates with
the parlour and the two bed-rooms through the lateral openings. Fig. 1001 is a plan of
the upper floor, in which are seen the sleeping-room for servants, and general lumber-
room, v ; place for drying linen, w ; and reserve bed-room, x. Fig. 1002 is the plan of
the joists of the principal floor. In this plan the situation of the upright posts may be
observed, from which it will be evident that neither girders nor joists are required of a
greater length than ten feet. Fig. 1003 is an elevation of the entrance front. F"ig. 1004
is an elevation of one side, in which may be seen the entrance porch, and stair to the
principal floor, c, and the projection behind containing the staircase, d. Fig. 1005 is a
longitudinal section through the bed-rooms, in which may be seen two stoves, e e, one in
each bed-room ; the door of the oven, /, and of the ash-pit under it, g ; the stairs up to
the principal floor, h, and down to the cellar, i ; the inside stair to the beer-cellar, k ;
the stair to the principal floor, I ; and to the floor above, m. In showing in what manner
this dwelling is but an extension of that detailed in § 742, Morel- Vinde" remarks that
the kitchen has the addition of a pantry ; that the stove in the centre, which ought to
warm, dry, and ventilate the whole house, is enlarged in proportion to the dimensions of
the rooms which it has to heat; and that the air which supplies combustion in this stove,
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 503
1002
504 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1005 r — v~^v
must always be drawn from the exterior, which it will be, if the bakehouse door does not
fit very accurately, or if the window be left partially open. Instead of the ladder for
ascending to the garret in the smaller house, we have here a staircase ; and the garret,
which in the smaller house was intended chiefly as a granary, has now a ceiling and
boarded sides, and forms a servants' room, a room for drying linen, and the reserve bed-
room.
1009. Estimate. This building, with its two porches and sheds, covers 1580 superficial
feet; and it costs, at Paris, £546: 15s.: lOd. ; or, in the departments, ,£328: 2s.: 6d.
As the cubic contents of the buildings amount to 25,280 feet, it thus appears that 5d. per
cubic foot is something near the rate from which to form an estimate for this description
of farm houses in the neighbourhood of Paris, and 3d. in the provinces.
1010. Remarks on the Dwelling-house. A superficial observer, deeply imbued with
the prejudices common in Britain, and especially in Scotland and other stone countries,
against wooden buildings, and not taking into consideration the fitness of means to ends,
will be apt to despise the simplicity and homeliness of this farm house ; but to us, who
have entered into all the details of this Design, it appears perfect of its kind. The
accommodation is ample for the country and state of society for which it is designed ; and
it is contained in a form as near as practicable to that of a cube. The mode of heating
is the most perfect that coidd be devised ; and the room for drying linen is a great source
of comfort to the housewife, in rainy weather or in the winter season. It may be
thought that there are too few bed-rooms, and too many beds in one room ; and the bed
in the parlour will no doubt appear shocking in the eyes of an Englishwoman. It shoidd
be recollected, however, that the manners of the French are materially different from
ours in this respect ; and that, with apparently less delicacy, they have not less moral
rectitude. Whoever has travelled much by the public conveyances in either France,
Germany, or Italy, must have frequently found himself going to bed in the same room
with strangers of different sexes.
1011. The Barn, Stable, Cow-house, Calf-house, Dairy, Cheese-room, Poultry-house,
Pigeon-house, Piggery, $r., for this large French farm, are all contained in the same
building. The problem to be solved is, to unite under the same roof, at the least cost,
and in the manner in every respect the most suitable, a stable for twelve horses, a cow-
house for as many cows or cattle, a calf-house, a dairy, a cheese-room, a poultry-house,
piggeries, a harness-room, and pigeon-houses, with a barn sufficiently large for containing
6000 sheaves of grain at a time, and with two threshing-floors for threshing it. This
1006
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 505
problem is solved in the plan,
fig. 1007, which presents the
best possible construction of
each particular requisite, and
the best mode of uniting them
together at the least possible
expense. Fig. 1006 shows the
general appearance of this
building, and fig. 1007 its
ground plan. The latter con-
tains a barn with two thresh-
ing-floors : one for wheat and
rye, a ; and another for oats,
peas, and barley, c ; with a
space for either straw or un-
threshed corn between them ;
the corn being either brought
in from the ricks in small
quantities, as wanted to be
threshed, and the straw piled
up ; or in entire ricks, and
threshed by degrees as the
straw is consumed in the
stable, cow-house, &c. ; b and
d are porches, over which are
pigeon-houses; e is a stable
for twelve horses, fitted up
with separate stalls, and
a rack and manger ;fis a cow-
house for twelve cows, with se-
parate stalls, and a manger, but
no rack, for reasons given § 757 ; g is a dairy with two windows to the north, and two doors
to the east and west ; h is a cheese-room ; i, a calf-house ; k, a poultry-house, grated on the
side next the stable, with a view of admitting to it the heat from the horses ; /, a harness-
room ; and m, piggeries. There is a lobby to the north at N, and another to the south at
S. Fig. 1008 is a plan of the foundations. Fig. 1009 is a plan of the flooring over the
1008
mm&z%^mmmz^#000^^^
50G COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
stables, cow-houses, and porch ; the threshing-floor being left open to the Toot Fig. 1010 is
an end elevation. Fig. 1011 is a cross section. Fig. 101 2 is a longitudinal elevation. Tig.
1013 is a longitudinal section through the threshing-floor. Fig. 1014 is an elevation of
the nicks and mangers of the Stable; and
fig. 1015 a section, showing the construction
of the rack and manger. Figs. 101G and
1017 contain an elevation and section of the
feeding-trough in the cow-house.
1012. Estimate. The actual cost of
this building, in the neighbourhood of
l'aris was jg438: 17.v- : 8'/.; and the price
for the departments of France is £263 : 5s.
As the cubic contents of the building are
24,052 feet, this gives 4|rf. per foot as a fair
price for estimating this description of
building in the neighbourhood of Paris,
and 2ItA per foot for estimating it in the
provinces.
1013. Remarks on the Building contain-
imj the Barn, Cow-house, &c. The author
observes on this plan, that the greatest care
lias been taken to adjust every part with a
view to sufficient strength and economy.
The stables and cow-houses are 14 feet 6
inches wide, and 53 feet long, inside
measure; which, he says, is the smallest
space that ought to be allowed for 12
horses and 1 2 cows. The mangers, racks,
and troughs are of the proper dimensions,
and are placed at the precise heights from
the ground at which they ought to be.
No racks are placed in the cow-house ;
because, if they were put sufficiently low,
they would only incommode the animal when eating out of the trough ; and, if they
were placed as high as the racks of horses or nearly so, they would oblige the animal to
raise its head, and thus endanger abortion. All the doors to the stables and cow-houses
are grated, or formed with luffer-boards, in order to admit through them a continual
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 507
1012
current of air. For the same purpose, and for light, there are four windows to the
threshing-floor, and one window at each end of both stable and cow-house, as may be
101:5
seen in the plan. The partition which separates the poultry-house from the stables is
of trellis-work or lurfer-boarding, in order that the heat may enter the former, for the
1014
1015
1016
1017
mhn
^
LS>
u u
B
W
P
H-H
Ft. 5
+— 1 — i — t — r— t — *— I
benefit of such hens as are laying eggs. The threshing-floor is 12 feet wide and 50 feet
long, which allows a considerable bay for unthreshed sheaves in the middle, and space
for two threshers at each of the ends. Over the spaces for the two threshers at the ends,
may be floorings of joists for receiving sheaves. The middle of the threshing-floor, the
two floors over the stable and the cow-house, exclusive of the spaces over the threshers,
will hold two stacks of unthreshed corn, each containing 3000 sheaves (see § 815). The
two porches at the two extremities of the threshing-floor are for protecting the latter
from the weather ; and, at top, one of them contains a pigeon-house for wild or common
pigeons, and the other a cot for stockdoves. Morel- Vinde concludes by observing, that,
if any one will take the trouble of examining this Design with the most severe attention,
he will find that it leaves little to desire, unless the farm were of an extraordinary size.
We may add, that in this case the chief addition that would be necessary would be a
508 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
threshing-machine, which might be placed at one end of the threshing-floor, and driven
either by water, or by a gin-wheel under a porch sufficiently large to cover the horse-
course. The building is composed of five bays 10 feet wide by 5G feet long, exclusive
of the porches; hence, the expense of the two gable ends being already incurred, any
number of additional bays may be introduced, at the sixth part of the first cost of the
whole building. By this means the barn, stable, cow-house, &c. may be extended to
any degree of accommodation required.
1014. The Rick-stands for this farm, which are placed around the barn in the manner
shown in fig. 996, have already been described under § 815 and § 816.
1015. The CarUshed and Granary, also shown in fig. 996, have been described in
§ 779.
1016. Tlie Sheep-house has been described in § 767.
1017. General Estimate. The actual cost of the house, barn, stable, cow-houses, &c,
and of the cart-shed and granary, in the neighbourhood of Paris, amounted to ,£"1427,
and the average for the provinces would be about £855. The expense of the rick-
stands and of the drying-shed is not taken into this account.
1018. Remarks on the Farmery as a whole. To the eye accustomed to admire only
the extensive quadrangles of stone covered with slate, common in the best agricultural
districts of Britain, neither beauty nor convenience will be seen in the scattered dis-
position of the objects in fig. 996 ; but let such consider the very different circumstances
which exist between a country where timber is the sole or principal building material,
and another where easily worked stone is abundant. The great object, in all agricul-
tural constructions, is, to attain the end in view in the most effectual manner, by the
simplest and most economical means ; and this result will be found to be as completely
attained in the French farmery as in the British one. With respect to the scattered
appearance of the building, that is fully justified by the security which it affords from
the spread of fire ; and if we imagine the whole surrounded by fruit trees, as Morel
Vinde proposes, and as is generally the case in France, we shall find as much or more
beauty, though of a different kind, as in any of the farmeries of Britain. We have
already observed, that we have introduced this Design and others by Morel- Vinde,
chiefly with a view to new countries, for which they form admirable models.
Design XXV. — For a Court of Feeding-houses, built for the late Thomas Hibbcrt, Esq.,
at Chalfont Lodge, Buckinghamshire.
1019. The object of these feeding-houses was, to fatten cattle and swine at the least
possible expense ; and with the greatest product of manure, consistent with a due economy
of straw for litter. For this purpose, arrangements were made by open gutters in the
feeding-houses and pigsties, and by underground drains communicating with them, to
convey all the urine to one tank or pit. In furtherance of the same object, the dung,
consisting of the litter and droppings of the animals, was conveyed from the feeding-
houses, and sties directly to a dunghill under a roof, and there it was watered, by means
of a pump and spouts, with the liquid from the manure tank. Fig. 1018 will give a
general idea of the whole.
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 509
1020. Details. Fig. 1020 is a ground plan, in which a a a a form (he area of the
which is covered with a lean-to roof on
all sides as far as b b b b, which letters
mark the situation of oak posts, 16 feet
apart, and 8 feet high above the surface,
supporting a granary floor, over which
there is a pigeon-house, with the boxes
for the pigeons fixed to the rafters of the
roofs, as indicated in the section fig. 1019,
at c c. The floor of this granary is
divided into 7 bins, indicated by the
dotted lines forming the squares marked
d, and by the same letter in the sec-
tion. There is a porch, e, for receiving
and delivering corn by means of a crane
and pulley, as indicated at/ in the sec-
tion. In the upper part of this porch ,
there is a small door to the pigeon-house,
g, and the ascent is by an outside step-ladder, h. Under the porch carts or
may enter, and pass completely round or through the area roofed in, so as to take
dunchill.
waggons
up dung
.^si^S^a3m
k ■ ™,l ti° ' 1S a cessP°ol> '» ™th a pump to it, rising 8 feet above the surface at
ov'e. • th H 8£n nuniber of sPouts, which can be joined one to another, from the pump all
This „ minShlll> so as to convey the liquid of the tank to all or any part of the latter,
kitehon / T- "^performed at Chalfont Lodge every morning. There is a pigs'
tmnl ' I' hasac°PPer> «; hog-tank, »; bins, o, feeding hoppers, p ; hoff-
rStE n/ and,Stles' T- Th« fi«e and chimney of the hog's copper are seen at
>e plan and at t in the section. From two of the bins in the granary there
1 1
c©
510 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
are spouts, indicated in the section at u u, for shooting down corn from the granary
to the bins, o, there to be mixed up,
or used, as required. 'Die cattle-
feeding houses, v v, are fitted up with
stalls, racks, and mangers, like stables,
and there arc foddering-bays, at each end,
and at the angle, www, for hay,
oil-cake, turnips, &c. In one of these
there is a pump, x, which supplies water
to the divisions, y, in all the mangers, by
means of a spout, z, at the back of the
mangers, and between them and the par-
tition which separates the stalls from the
feeding-passage, §•. Fig. 1021 is a cross
section of the feeding-houses, in the line
A B, in which are seen the passage behind
the stalls, a ; the partition between the
cattle, b; manger, c; water gutter, d :
partition separating the foddering-passage
from the stalls, e ; foddering-passage, /; hay-rack, g ; fodder-bay, h ; and roof over
the gateway, i. Fig. 1022 is a section, taken across two stalls in the feeding-house, in
which are shown, a a, oak posts, 5
inches square, let into the ground; 1022 « s o- .—tfj~ ►.
h, a cistern for water, 3 feet in
length, 12 inches wide, and 15
inches deep, placed between two stalls
so as to supply water to each, and
being raised 3 inches above the
manger ; c c, mangers for dry meat,
3 feet long, 12 inches wide, and 12
inches deep ; and d, the situation of
the spout or trunk of wood, 2 inches
square, which runs along the back of
the manger, for supplying water to the cisterns. This line of spouts is on a perfect
level ; so that, when water is pumped into it at one end, it runs along it to the other,
supplying all the cisterns in its course. Where the spout crosses the foddering-
bays and the gateway, it passes under ground, rising up again to the same level on the
opposite side. These cisterns are intended to be pumped full every day, and the person
pumping is rendered aware of the cisterns being full, by the water first becoming stag-
nant in the trunk, and afterwards running over the end immediately under the spout
of the pump, which is purposely made one inch lower than the top of the cisterns. The
hay-racks are shown at e e; ff are the doors through which the cattle are fed; g g, the
boards of the partition between the stalls and the foddering-passage ; and h h, the brick-
work on which the mangers and cisterns are placed. In the construction of these feeding-
houses, granary, and pigsties, all the posts which are fixed in the ground, and all the sills
into which the uprights are framed, are of oak ; and all the other scantling and boards
are of Scotch pine, grown on the premises. The granary and piggeries have tiled roofs ;
but the feeding-houses are thatched with straw.
1021. Remarks. We received this Design from Mr. Main, who informs us that
it was built in 1796, by the late Mr. Howes, land steward at Chalfont Lodge, and who
was succeeded in that capacity by Mr. Main, a few years afterwards. We have made
some trifling alterations and additions, for the purpose of completing the square, and
giving the whole a more symmetrical form; but we have in no respect altered the dimen-
sions of the stalls, or the different details. The arrangement and contrivance of the whole
we think most excellent in theory, and Mr. Main informs us that it was found to be not
less so in practice. The mode of conveying water to the different stalls may seem too
expensive for comiron commercial farms; but it is not unfrequent on feeding farms in
Lincolnshire) where oil-cake is much in use for feeding cattle. Instead of a wooden
gutter, we have observed in the neighbourhood of Gainsborough, gutters, and also
mangers, and stall partitions, of freestone. In most other situations, lead or iron piping
would be found cheaper than wood. An immense quantity of dung, we are informed,
was produced by means of the tank, from which the dunghill was kept constantly moist,
and the roof over it, which prevented evaporation. We should have thought that the
exhalations from the dung would have affected the air, and consequently the corn in the
granary ; but we are assured that this was by no means the case ; because the latter was
double-floored and thickly covered, on the outer side, with several coatings of boiling pitch.
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 511
Design XXVI. — A Farmery fur extensive Iron- Works, erected at -, in
South Wales.
1022. The object in view, in this establishment, is, to prepare food and supply lodging
for fifty working horses, and the men who manage them. It was sent us by our esteemed
friend, Mr. Samuel Taylor, at once a practical and scientific farmer, and a literary man.
1023. Accommodation. Fig. 1023 shows the general appearance of the quadrangle ;
fig. 1025 is the elevation of the north side, and the section of the east and west sides, as
taken on the line A B ; and fig. 1024 the ground plan. The stabling for fifty horses is
J C
1024
r — 1 r-K-^ i^-j 04 t-V i^i j j-
i=d E^I — fcM M--I T^T
3£
f
LlJr
lu
I l I , l ■■ : l |
=E3=jL5
3EQ i C
512 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
in ten divisions, marked a, containing five horses in each. In every division there is one
chafF-bin, marked />, and one harness cupboard, marked c. These bins and cupboards are
formed of boards in the manner of lean-tos, as shown in fig. 1025, at c. They are lighted
bv the lower panes of the windows, their roofs being carried high enough for that purpose.
The upper panes light the stable over the lean-to slope. There is a barn, d, in which is
a threshing-machine driven by a water wheel ; which wheel also drives a straw-cutter, a
machine consisting of a pair of rollers for bruising oats, and one for washing turnips or
potatoes. There is a turnip-house, e, in which turnips are washed by the tail dam, or
water from the overshot wheel, which is led through the house, in the underground
drain marked/, to the washing-pond in the centre of the yard, marked y. This pond is
about two feet and a half deep, and is paved at bottom, for the purpose of washing the
horses' legs. There is a cart and waggon shed, with a granary over, h ; a sick-horse
stable, i ; implement-houses, k ; two comfortable cottages, I, with six rooms each, three
having fireplaces, and three being without ; a workshop, m ; a tool-house, n ; and three
privies, o. The water from the overshot wheel, after passing through the horse-pond,
g, runs off by the underground drain marked p.
1024. Construction. The walls are of the slate stone quarried on the spot, the mortar
used being made from the limestone of Aberthaw, which was considered by the late cele-
brated engineer Smeaton as the best in Britain ; and, when mixed with clean sharp sand,
as equal to any cement known in his time. The roofs are of fir covered with slate. The
floors of the stables are perfectly level, with underground gutters, and gratings over them
under each horse. There are no partitions between the horses, except those between
every five ; but the space allowed for each horse is six feet, which is more than is found
in most farmeries. There are mangers of double the usual size, but no racks ; the horses
being fed with straw and hay cut into chaff, and mixed with corn, roots, salt, and water,
and given in a semifluid state. No horses ever thrive better than those so treated ; and
the expense was found to be less than that of the common mode of feeding in use among
farmers.
1025. Remarks. Little care seems to be taken, in this farmery, of the dung or liquid
manure ; but it is most gratifying to observe the striking difference between the labourers'
cottages shown in this Design, and those on the Scotch and Northumbrian farms. The
truth is, that the Scotch and Northumbrian farmers have the fear of their landlords con-
tinually before their eyes, and dare not venture to increase the comforts of their labourers,
lest they should be thought too comfortable themselves. In every country, all the comforts
which the labouring classes without fixed property enjoy above the starvation point, they
owe to the commercial classes. Where landed property is in immense masses, farms are
necessarily large, small properties few, and manufactures or commerce scarcely known.
Under such circumstances, there being only a demand for one description of labour, and
that of the rudest kind, the mass of the population are easily kept in a condition little
better than if they were the slaves of their employers. Hence the low state of the
agricultural labourers in the farm districts of Scotland and the north of England, and,
indeed, of all the purely agricultural districts of Britain, compared with their state in the
manufacturing, commercial, or mixed districts, where the different kinds of labour required
necessarily produces different degrees of remuneration, and where the laborious classes of
every description acquire higher tastes, and rise in the scale of comforts. All the comforts
which the lowest class of society enjoy, they owe to the introduction of manufactures and
commerce ; and it gives us pleasure to pay a tribute of respect to this great Welsh Iron
Company, for the comfortable cottages which they have built for their carters, as we did
before (§481) to Messrs. Jones and Wilcox, the eminent builders, for the dwellings
they provided for their workmen.
Design XXVII. — A Farmery for a Farm of 250 Acres in the Valhy of Strathmore,
where, a Rotation of Seven Crops is followed, the Grass Division being pastured the
Scconil Ye.ar.
1026. Accommodation. Fig. 1026 shows the general appearance, and fig. 1027 is the
ground plan. In the latter are seen three cow-houses, a ; with foddering-bays, b ; barn,
c; horse-course for threshing-machine, d ; straw-barn, e ; stable for ten horses with a
foddering-bay in the centre,/; house for potatoes or grass, g ; two-stall stable, /( ; cow-
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 513
house, i ; cart-shed, with granary over, k ; carpenter's shop, I ; tool-house, with spare
room over, m ; cattle-yards, n ; open sheds for cattle, o ; pigsties, p ; and rick-yard, q.
<5>
1027
nrnnrrt
J>~< 3 L
=J u
^>
J
a
a *
□
Ft, 10 0
A ^
I
514 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
A place for poultry is supposed to be formed over the cow-house, i; and entered by an
outside stair at r.
1027. Construction. The walls are oi stone, and tlie roof slated. All the doorways
and window-openings have lacings, sills, and lintels of dressed stone, and all the doors
are hung by strap binges on books leaded into the stone; and they shut into rebates in
the jambs. The feeding-houses have ventilators in the roof; one upright tube, about a
foot square, with a cover to protect it from the rain, being placed in the ridge over each
stand of four cattle. Fig. 1028 is a section across the mill-shed and barn, on the line
A B ; and fig. 1029 is an elevation and two sections on the line C D. In the latter, the
stable window, s, is shown with the upper part of glass and the lower part of spars for
1029
the admission of air, with an inside shutter for occasional use. The stable-loft windows
over are shown luffer-boarded.
1028. Remarks. This Design has been sent us through our esteemed friend and
valuable correspondent Mr. Gorrie, by Mr. James Chalmers, land surveyor, and land
steward at Muithly, in Perthshire. Mr. Chalmers is evidently a good Architect as well
as land-surveyor, the Design being well arranged, and the elevation architectural.
Design XXVIII. — A Farmery for a particular Situation, suitable for Eight// Acres of
arable Land, and Three Hundred Acres of Pasture, in the Carse of Gowrie.
1029. This Design is calculated for a steep declivity; so much so, that the floor of the
granary and straw-loft, which is on a level with the ground on one side of the range,
is ten feet above it on the other. The general appearance is shown in the isometrieal
view, fig. 1031.
1030. The Accommodations are seen in the plan, fig. 1032, in which a is a cart-shed
with a granary over ; b, the threshing-mill course ; c, the dressing-barn ; d, a stable ; e,
a feeding-house for cattle ; /, a cow-house ; g, a poultry-house ; h, a boiling-house ; i i,
ploughmen's cottages, each sixteen feet by seventeen feet, and two stories high ; k, a
privy ; 1 1, cattle-sheds ; m m, open yards for cattle ; n, pigsty of the farmer ; o o, pig-
sties of the two cottagers ; and pp, the gardens of the cottagers ; each containing twelve
falls, or about one thirteenth of an acre.
1031. Construction. The walls are of the common stone of the country, and the roofs
slated. Fig. 1030 is a section lfyv)
taken on the line A B, which
shows the steepness of the situ-
ation.
1032. Remarks. This Design
has been sent us by Mr. Gorrie,
accompanied by the following
remarks : — " The dung from
the stables, and cow and cattle
houses, is thrown into the
cattle-yard across the road, by which means it becomes mixed with the litter of
the yards in which young cattle are kept during winter and spring, and enclosed in
summer and autumn. The advantage offered by this form of farmery, when the
m^M
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 515
1031
buildings are not of sufficient extent to enclose three sides of the straw or cattle yard,
and where the surface of the ground is a declivity, is, the facility of carting in corn to
the threshing-mill loft in winter, and turnips for the byres in sharp seasons; and clover
for the stable and byres in summer. The disadvantages of adhering strictly to this plan,
which is taken from an old steading, are the narrowness of the threshing-mill course for a
1032
3
dh a
mill of four-horse power. The machinery, too, being across the house, is too much con-
fined, admitting of only one shaker (a part of the machine), which throws the straw on
the loft, imperfectly freed from the grain. In the present instance the ground occupied
by the steading is on a dry freestone rock, and the lower part of the range does not suffer
from damp, to prevent which expensive draining would be necessary for a similar range
on humid soils. A turnip-house placed at the back of the feeding-byre is a desideratum
516 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
in this Design,but was not thought of in laying it out; the culture of turnips not being
extensive when it was built. Potatoes are for the most part kept in pits, and a house for
that article is often dispensed with in this district." We consider this Design of con-
siderable value, as indicating how to manage farm buildings on declivities. In such
situations, where there is a stream, very favourable opportunities frequently occur of
driving the threshing-machine by water, with very little expense in forming the head-
dam or tail-dam. At Underley Park, in Westmoreland, there is a very complete farm-
ery, built on the margin of a stream, the barn stretching across it, and the wheel of
the threshing-mill so contrived as to meet the whole of the water of the stream. The
banks being thirty or forty feet high on one side, and not much above the level of the
water on the other, the corn is carted from the ricks into the barn, and shot down at
the feeding-board of the machine ; it is cleaned in the floor below, from which, through
a trap-door, it is dropped into the ground floor, or into carts to be taken to market. We
saw this farmery in 181 1, and then considered it, in this and in various other respects, as
remarkably complete.
Design XXIX. — The Farm House and Farmery of Starston Place, near Harleston, in
Norfolk, suitable for a Farm of 350 Acres under the Norfolk System of Culture.
1033. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1033, and the ground
plan in fig. 1034. The house contains a vestibule, a; two parlours, b, c; an office, d;
1033
a lobby, e ; store-room, /; pantry, g ; kitchen, h ; back-kitchen and bakehouse, i ; back
entrance, h ; a dairy, I; and larder, m. In the farmery there are: — 11, barns; 2 2,
porches to ditto ; 3 3, cattle-sheds ; 4 4, cattle-yards ; 5 5, turnip-houses ; 6, cart-
horse yard; 7 7 7, cart-horse stables; 8 8, hay-houses; 9 9 9, chaff-houses; 10 10,
horse-sheds (open to yard); 11, yard for colts; 12, shed to ditto; 13, stable to ditto;
14 14 14, pens for sheep or pigs; 15 15, pigsties; 16 16, swill-house and cistern;
1 7, cow and sheep yard ; 1 8, cow-shed (open) ; 1 9, cow-house ; 20 20, calf-cribs ;
21 21, hay and turnip-houses ; 22, horse-pond ; 23, sheds for waggons, carts, and imple-
ments, with granary over ; 24, stack-yard ; 25, house for horse-wheel ; 26, chaff engine-
house ; 27, shed for implements; 28 28, &c, passages; 29 29, &c, lock-up gates; 30,
riding-horse stable, chaise-horse, carpenter's shop, tocl-house, &c. ; 31, garden and
orchard; and 32, kitchen-garden.
1034. Construction. All the walls of the buildings and yards are of flintstone, as are
those of the barns, to the height of 6 feet, above which they are of studwork, boarded,
14 feet higher. The house and all the farm buildings are covered with slates.
1035. Remarks. This Design was contributed by Mr. Samuel Taylor, the nephew of
the proprietor of Starston, Meadows Taylor, Esq., of Diss. The general arrangement
seems good; all the cattle-houses and cattle-yards being conveniently situated with
regard to the two barns ; and the cart-shed, 23, and carpenter's shop, tool-house, chaise-
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 517
1034
H H
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9 | 8
r -"'
L_
1
7
~
~
H 6
P
22
mron
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9
7
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L
house, &c, 30, being detached from the buildings and yards for animals ; and, con-
sequently, being free from straw, the obligation of opening and shutting gates, and the
risk of letting out cattle, &c. The farm house has the most ample accommodations.
Mr. Taylor has sent us a plan of Starston farmery, as it appeared some years ago, when
the same accommodation was scattered about in all directions, to the great inconvenience
of the occupant. In reply to some questions respecting the construction of the racks
and mangers, and the farm-yard management of Norfolk, Mr. Taylor has sent us the
following valuable information : —
1036. " The Norfolk System of Farming Management differs materially from that
pursued in most other counties of England, in not having any stalls or divisions in the
stables, save, perhaps, one for a vicious or troublesome horse ; the rest stand close to each
other, each tied to the manger by a halter, at the end of which is a log of wood, as in
fig. 1035, sufficiently heavy to draw down the halter after its being raised by the horse,
in lifting up his head ; and thus, by keeping the line stretched,
preventing the horse from getting his feet entangled therewith.
The horses are not confined to the stable, except at feeding
and cleaning times, when they are tied up ; at other times they
are turned into a dry well-littered straw-yard, between the stable
and the horse-sheds, 10 10, which, being open to the yard, they
can resort to for shelter. The door of the stable is left open every
night. This is done in all seasons, and in all weathers ; and
it is a well-known fact, that, be the weather ever so rough, the
horses generally prefer lying in the open air. Of course, in
pursuing this yard system, it will be desirable to keep a good
look-out, especially in the first instance, that no horse of a
quarrelsome domineering temper be suffered to mix with the
1035
518 COTTAGK, FAHM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
rest. Again, in some stables, there may be a horse of a particularly timid disposition,
who seems a sort of butt of the whole stud ; and who, if he could speak, would doubtless
exclaim with Falstatt', ' Nags of nil sorts take a pride to gird at me.' All such should
be separated from their fellows, or accidents will very likely happen. It is not well
to put too many horses together in one yard. In Lancashire and other parts of the
north of England, the farm horses are clothed up in warm close stables ; the consequence
of which is that if a horse stand any little time in a cold wind, even though his cloth be
on, he is almost sure to catch cold, and be laid up. Now, a Norfolk man never clothes
liis horses • unless, perhaps, in very severe weather, when a carter throws a sack, or some
such covering, over the horse's loins, while corn or other articles are loading or unloading.
This is proper enough, but anything beyond it tends to make the animal tender, and
susceptible of cold." With respect to the keep of farm horses, Mr. Taylor is decidedly
in favour of cutting their fodder, whether it be hay, straw, or a mixture of both. The
best criterion of the excellence of this plan is the fact, that, in seasons when the hay crop
is unusually short, farmers invariably resort to it as a measure of economy, in order to
make their stock of fodder hold out.
1037. The Norfolk System of managing Cows and Cattle is the same as that for horses;
except that in the cow-houses and cattle-sheds there are no racks, but only troughs or
mangers from which they eat their food.
1038. The Sheep System of Norfolk is very simple ; though some persons go to a great
expense for movable racks and feeding-troughs. Mr, Taylor thus describes, in the Country
Times, a movable fold, with a sheep-rack attached, which he used for a number of
years : — " It is well known that, in setting and striking a fold in frosty weather, there is
not only great difficulty, but that the wear and tear of the hurdles is considerable ; to
say nothing of the loss of time incurred by the frequent repetition of this operation.
Wicker hurdles are made on a frame, with holes bored for the upright stakes ; around
and between which, the smaller wood is woven or wattled. The frame is usually six
feet long, and of course this is the length of each hurdle. Instead of a six-feet frame,
get a larch pole, or oak stand that will square about five or six inches, and is about
eighteen or twenty feet long. Bore holes in this similar to, and at the same intervals as,
those of a hurdle frame ; then fix it on a pair of axletrees about four feet long ; each axle-
tree having attached to it a pair of cast-iron wheels, just high enough to carry the hurdle
when finished ; the whole presenting an appearance like that of fig. 1036. For greater
strength, the end uprights may be of iron, fastened to the bottom with nuts and screws.
Fig. 1037 is an end view of the hurdle on its axle, with the addition of a small, or bank,
1036 1037
hurdle, as it is sometimes called, sloping outwards, and forming the economical hay-rack
of which we have been speaking. Being low, the strain on the main hurdle is but trifling,
and it is easily kept in its place by tar line. The hay forms not only food but shelter
for the sheep. About a fourth of the total length of the movable fold may thus be
made into hay or straw racks in a very few minutes; and the whole fold can be shifted
by a man and a horse in the tenth of the time it would take to remove it if formed of
common hurdles and stakes. Iron rings or staples arc provided at the end of each
division of the fold, to which the horse is fastened when it is wanted to be moved. There
being but little wear on the hurdles, they will last treble the time of those in general
use, and, even when the wickerwork decays, it may be replaced at the cost of a few
shillings. A fold on the same principle was invented by the late Mr. T. Plowman of
Broome, near Bungay, but it was made of sawn stuff, painted, and of course vastly more
expensive in its construction." (Country Times, vol. i. p. 27.) Mr. Taylor has
suggested a still cheaper sheep-rack and fold, which may be formed in a few minutes, of
wicker hurdles (which cost about 10s. or lis. per dozen), set sloping round a yard, as
represented in the section fig. 1038 ; the yard itself being supposed to be fenced in with
bush faggots (faggots composed of thorns from the hedges, which, when wanted for yard
fencing, ought to be cut with the leaves on, and stacked flatwise previously to using, in
order to render them close and compact; thus treated, they will also go further,
and make a better fence) ; a represents the line of hurdles, and b the faggot fence.
The hurdles maj lie secured at top to the stakes of the faggot fence with a piece of tar-
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 51<)
1038
line, c. Between the hurdle and the faggots is placed the fodder, which serves the triple
purpose of food, shelter, and protection to the sheep from the thorns of the faggots.
1039. The Norfolk System of managing Swine has nothing in
it which requires any variation of construction from the form of
pigsties in use in other districts.
1040. A Substitute for Rickstands, the invention of the late
ingenious and excellent Robert Paul (see his humane rat trap,
Gard. Mag. vol. vi. p. 584.), Mr. Taylor recommends as being
equal for ingenuity and utility to any of the more costly inventions
that have been published, having practised it himself for several
years. " At harvest time the stack, as soon as up (every thing
depends on this), is cut under a little at bottom; and immediately
a coat of mortar, or clay and horse-dung mixed, is applied round
the bottom to the height of about two feet and a half; the stack,
when finished, presenting the appearance of fig. 1039; in which
a is the upper line of the composition spread round the foot of the
stack. If the soil on which the stack is placed be soft and sandy, it may perhaps be
advisable to form a bottom projecting from the stack, as shown at b, covered with the
same composition as the space between a and the ground ; but this
need not occupy the whole area of the stack bottom, but only a circle
round its edges, formed somewhat like a quoit, as at c. It must not
be forgotten that the complete success of this plan depends on its being
executed as soon as the stack is built ; an hour must not be lost, other-
wise vermin may get possession. Too much caution cannot be taken
to suffer no straw, ladder, nor stays, to remain near the stack, and in
con tact with it ; for by them mice may get in, and if once there, they
are not to be got out ; for they do not, like rats, leave the stack for
drink, not requiring it : they breed fast, and do a vast deal more harm
to wheat than rats. This plan of Mr. Paul's is adopted by Mr. Coke
at Holkham. The expense is only a few shillings for even a large
stack." Perhaps to some it may appear a deviation from Architecture
to enter into the uses of structures to the extent which we have done
here, and in other instances : but we are decidedly of a different
opinion ; feeling confident, from experience, that no real improvement
will ever be made in any class of buildings, with the uses of which the Architect is
not thoroughly acquainted.
1039
Design XXX. — A Farmery for a Farm of 300 Acres of arable Land, and 500 of
Pasture, in the West Highlands.
1041. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in the isometrical view,
lig. 1040, and the ground plan in fig. 1041. The latter shows a pigsty, 18 feet and a
half by 1 2 feet, a ; a room for the corn-chest and horse-harness, b ; a working-horse stable
16 feet wide, and 48 feet and a half long, for ten horses, c ; a riding-horse stable, with two
3 L
520 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
a tool-house, /; cattle-sheds, a ; straw-
k
um nu
spare stalls, d ; a place l'or general purposes, e
house, h ; a barn with a granary
over it, t; a stair to the granary,
k ; a horse-course under the mill-
shed, I; the turnip-house, m; cow-
house, n ; cart-sheds, o ; cheese-
room, /> ; milk-house, 7; calf-
house, i- ; and poultry-house, s.
1042. Construction. The walls
are built of the local stone, 2
feet thick where the buildings are
two stories high, and 18 inches
thick where they are only one
story in height. The stable and
cow-house doors are 3 feet and
a half wide, and the others 3 feet.
The door in the end of the sta-
ble is 4 feet wide, and those of
the pigsties, poultry-house, and
calf-house are 2 feet and a half.
The mill-shed is 30 feet in
diameter, outside measure ; and
the horse-course is 4 feet wide.
The timber of the roofs is High-
land fir, and the slate is from
Westmoreland. Other particu-
lars of construction will be found
in the specification of a succeeding
Design.
1043. Estimate. Cubic con-
tents 114,912 feet; which, at lfrf.
per foot, the price which it appears
such buildings cost in the High-
lands, is ,£837 : 1 8s.
1044. Remarks. This Design, and the three which follow, have bee;: sent us by V> i -
Ham Ross, Esq., Architect, Bristol ; a native of that part of Scotland for which thes -
farm buildings are intended, or in which they have been executed. The arrangement of
the ground plans of the whole, and the details of the specification given with the fourth
Design, show an intimate acquaintance, on the part of Mr. Ross, with the accommoda-
tions required; and we therefore consider them as well deserving a place in this collection.
Mr. Ross observes that the prevailing winds in the neighbourhood of Tarbat, in Ross-
shire, are from the N. W. ; for which reason he has put the low side of the square, and
the entrance gate, on the S.W. ; and generally placed the buildings which require to be
two stories high on the N.W. and N.E. sides. These are obviously judicious arrange-
ments. — In the Design before us, the barn and straw-house are centrally placed ; and
the feeding-passages from the latter are convenient. We should have preferred reversing
the position of the large stable, with those of the tool-house and turnip-house, for the
sake of connecting it with the feeding-passage ; but Mr. Ross informs us that it is
placed in its present position, agreeably to Waistell's maxim, that the stables and eattle-
I'ouses should be near the dwelling-house, to hear when any tiling is wrong among the
cattle. In a cold country like Ross-shire, it is very desirable to have the pigsties entirely
roofed in, as they are in this Design; and we think the poultry-house should always
be placed adjoining the cow-house or stable, for the sake of heat. The corn-chest and
harness-room, connected with the stable, is good and convenient ; the horses are in
separate stalls, which ought always to be the case where they are fed on corn, unmixed
with cut straw or chaff; because, otherwise, a fast-eating horse, when near a slow-eating
one, will take part of his share. Where horses are fed on oats, or succulent food, mixed
with chaff or cut straw, they may stand without stalls, as in Norfolk.
Design XXXI A Farmery for 200 Acres of arable Land, and 300 of Pasture, in the
West "f Scotland,
1045. Accommodation. The general appearance is exhibited in fig. 1042, and the
ground plan in fig. 1043. In the latter are shown, in the house, a lobby, a, 10 feet
4 inches by 4 feet 6 inches, with a staircase and passage ; a parlour, b, 1 1 feet and a
half square ; a dining-room, c, 13 feet and a half square; a bed-closet, d ; a pantry, e;
and a kitchen, /. On the floor above are four good bed-rooms and a bed-closet. In the
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 5^1
(arm-yard are two cattle-sheds, gg; a stable, h, with 12 stalls, 5 feet wide each ; a too'-
house, i ; straw-house, k ; barn, I ; shed, m ; hen-house, n ; pigsty, o ; cart-shed, p ;
calf-house, 7 ; and cow-house, r, 20
feet by IS feet, for ten cows. The
construction is the same as in the
preceding, and in the two following,
Designs.
1046. Estimate. The cubic con-
tents of the house are 19,200 feet ;
which, at 3d. per foot, is £240 :
those of the farmery are 97,370 feet;
which, at \±d., is i'608 : 11*. : 3d.
1047. Remarks. The arrange-
ment of the farm buildings is
compact, though we do not approve
of the cattle-sheds fronting the
N.E. ; and as much is made of the
house as could well be desired : the
only circumstance in it that we
regret is, the placing of the fire-
places in the outside walls. But
this plan of putting the fire-flues in
the outside walls is not without
some advantages : it renders thick
walls wholly unnecessary in the in-
terior of the building ; in which
case, as all the divisions between
the rooms can be formed of quar-
tering, lathed and plastered, such
houses necessarily cost much less
than those which, having thick out-
side walls at any rate, have also one
or more thick walls inside, for the
sake of the chimneys. It may also farther be observed, that, in countries where fuel is
abundant, it is a matter of much less consequence whether the fireplaces are in the out-
side walls, or in the interior ones. In most parts of the Highlands of Scotland the fuel
is peat, and hitherto it has been to be had in abundance. The idea of incurring any
expense in construction therefore, with a view to saving fuel, is entirely out of the ques-
tion. Equally so, we might add, is the idea of incurring expense to free the occupant
from the risk of a smoky house ; peat smoke being familiar to every inhabitant of the
Highlands, more especially to the farmers and the working classes. In fact, houses
regularly built of stone and lime mortar, are, comparatively speaking, luxurious in that
part of the island. The reader who wishes full information on this subject, may con-
sult Loch's Account of the Improvements made on the Marquess of Stafford's Estates in
Sutherland and Ross-shire. In this work it is stated that numbers of the inhabitants
refused to live in the new houses prepared for them, and others required some years to
be reconciled to the clean and cold appearance which they alleged was produced by the
want of smoke.
Ft. lu
522 COTTAGE, FARM. AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Design XXXII. — A Farm House and Farmery for 200 Acres of arable Land, and 300
of Pasture, in Ross-shire.
1043. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1044, and the ground
plan in fig. 1045. In the latter,
the house contains a living-room,
a • small office or business-room,
/;; and kitchen, c. On the garret
floor are two bed-rooms, d, e,
lighted from windows in the gable
ends, and with closets partitioned
otF under the roof. The farmery
shows a place for hogs, f; potato-
house, g ; boiling-house, h ; wash-
ing-house, i ; cattle-shed, k ; spare
stable, I; work-horse stable, m;
straw-house, n ; barn, with gra-
nary over, o ; mill-shed, p ; cow-
house, q ; tool-house, r ; dairy-
scullery, s ; dairy, t ; cattle-shed,
u ; cart-shed, v ; calf-house, w ;
temporary enclosure for calves, x ;
poultry-place, y ; and privy, z.
The construction is the same as
that of the two preceding, and of
the following Design.
1049. General Estimate. The
cubic contents of the house are
13,376 feet; which, at 3d. pel
foot, is £167 : 4s. : those of the
farmery are 112,708; which, at
l£Ai is i,704 : 9s. : Id.
1050. Remarks. This is a com-
pact well arranged Design, as '
far as respects the farmery ; and
the washing-house appears to be
a substitute for a back-kitchen to
the dwelling-house ; the latter
being on a very confined scale,
and, we suppose, intended for the
residence of the grieve (bailiff).
The cattle-sheds, k and u, are
judiciously contrived so as to
shelter the cattle both from the
north-east and south-west winds,
according to the prevalence of
either ; these winds being most
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 523
Design XXXIII. — A Farm House and Farmery for 500 Acres, half Pasture and half
arable, erected at , in the Parish of Tarbat, Ross-shire.
1051. Accommodation. The general appearance is seen in fig. 1051, and the ground
plan in fig. 1046. In the latter the house shows a dining-room, a; parlour, fc; bed-
J
room, c ; kitchen, d ; and pantry, e ; and on the floor above are four garret bed-rooms
The farmery shows a pigsty, f; place for calves, g ; corn-chest, and harness-room, h ;
stable, i; privy in the same, k ; spare stable, I; barn, m ; covered horse-course, n ; stair
to granary over the straw-house and cattle-sheds, o ; straw-house, p ; cattle-shed, q ;
pump and water-trough, r ; cattle-shed, s ; poultry-house, t ; cart-shed, u ; cow-house
with feeding-passage, v ; boiling-house and dairy scullery, w ; dairy, x ; and coal-
house, y.
Z_A
1050
1049
— =^==3fc.
.^SH
3
n
p
a.
P
n n
P
=558^35^
L .
Bo.n!
524 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1052. Const nut ion. The materials and kind of workmanship will be found detailed
in the following specification, obligingly sent us by Mr. Ross; and which is intended to
be elucidated by fig. 1047, a section and elevation on the line A 15 of fig. 1046; by
tin. It) is, a section OH the line (' 1); by tig. L049, an elevation of the north side of the
same figure; and by the section across the stables, fig. 1050.
1053. Specification of the Carpenter's, Mason's, Plasterer's, and Painter's Works, intended
to be done in building and finishing a Farm Steading for , tacksman
(tenant on lease, a lease in the north of Scotland being called a tack) of , Parish
of , Ross-shire, under the direction and to the entire satisfaction of William Ross,
Architect, of No. 11. Pritchard Street, Bristol; and which is further explained by
drawings made for that purpose.
1054. It is to be understood that the following conditions apply to each trade respectively.
1055. The Contractor is to find and provide every kind of materials, labour, hoisting,
carriage, scaffolding, rules, moulds, tools, and tackle necessary for the due execution of the
works, correspondent with this specification and drawings, to the full intent and meaning
of both, as no extra-charge or day-bill will be allowed for any thing implied, expressed,
or set forth, in either of them.
1056. The Materials are to be the best of their respective kinds, and the Architect, or
his agent, shall have full power to reject any materials that may be brought on the premises
which he may consider unfit for the purpose, or different from those described to be
used in the works ; and likewise the power to cause any unsound work to be altered,
at the contractor's expense, or any works that are not executed according to the true
intent and meaning of this specification and drawings, and to the directions which may
be given from time to time by the Architect or his agent.
1057. The Care of the Building is to be with the contractor, as (the proprietor)
will not be accountable for any thing that may be damaged, destroyed, or removed ; but
the whole must be left clean, perfect, and complete, in every respect, at the conclusion of
the works. will not be bound to accept even the lowest tender, nor to pro-
ceed with the works, unless the amounts of the estimates are satisfactory.
1058. The Contractor must not allow any alteration to take place from this specification
or drawings, without first obtaining a written order for the same from the Architect, or
the proprietor, particularly describing such alteration ; but if (the proprietor)
or Ins Architect think proper to make any addition or omission, or to deviate in any
manner from the drawings and this specification, such alteration, whether an addition or
omission, shall not invalidate or make void this agreement, but the same shall be ascer-
tained in the usual and customary way by admeasurement, and either added to or
deducted from the amount of the contract (as the case may be), according to the list of
prices herein after mentioned ; and all extras or omissions not included in such list will
be monied out (calculated) in proportion to such list.
1059. Tenders must be delivered in separate amounts for each trade; and it must he
distinctly understood, that in each case a detailed bill of every article contained in the
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. .525
estimate, together with the price at which each article was monied out, must accompany
such tender sealed up, or it will not be accepted; and all variations from this specification
and drawings, which may be ordered, shall he monied out from such list, and which is to
remain in the hands of the Architect for that purpose.
1060. The Works to be executed in the most sound, substantial, and workmanlike manner ;
and, that the contractor may not consider himself in any way aggrieved, he must take
special notice that every circumstance appertaining to the well-doing of the works will be
most strictly insisted on, to the full intent and spirit of this specification and drawings ;
and that no indulgence will he allowed for any breach of covenants ; and if any difference
of opinion shall arise as to the quantity or quality of the workmanship or materials, or
upon any other matter connected with the works, the contractor must in all cases be bound
by the decision of the Architect.
1061. The Works to h<- immediately ber/nn by taking down those parts of the present
buildings that are intended to be removed, in the most careful manner ; shoring up as
will be necessary the adjoining walls, &c, which will be at the contractor's risk, until
they are fully secured ; repairing and making good all the walls, &c, that may be dis-
turbed in consequence of this contract.
1062. The Contractor may see the Site, and he is expected to provide for every thing
required to execute the works, without any extra-charge whatever, for any thing omitted
in this specification or drawings.
1063. The Money is to be paid at the rate of ,£75 per cent on the amount of work
done, by certificates to be signed by the Architect, and payable at fourteen days' sight ;
but the Architect will not certify for any sum less than .£"60, and the balance will be paid
upon the certificate of the Architect, that the works are completed to his satisfaction, by
bill at four months.
1064. Carpenter. The timber (unless where otherwise particularly described) is to be the
best natural-grown Spey timber (Scotch pine, grown in a native forest on the banks of
the Spey, and generally considered of superior quality) ; and, together with every other
species of timber which may be hereafter described, for carpenter's and joiner's work, is
to be well seasoned, for which affidavits must be given, if required by the Architect. The
whole to be perfectly sound, free from sap, shakes, dead parts, and large knots.
1065. All the Materials will be carted from Portmahomack by the proprietor; but the
contractor must not delay the carts unnecessarily, otherwise the proprietor will charge
for such detention, and will deduct the amount from the balance in his hands.
1066. All Timbers to be cogged (notched)down, so as to have a solid bearing on the walls
and plates; no joist, standard (quarter), or rafter, &c., to be more than 18 inches apart
in the clear. All lintels, and filling in lintels (lintels behind the front lintels), to be not
less than 2 feet longer than their respective openings, and 1 inch thick for every foot
the opening is wide, and shored up where requisite. All bridlings (trimmings) and
bridling joists to be one eighth of an inch thicker than the other joists, for every
joist they support. The joists to be bridled (trimmed) for wells of stairs, for fire-
places and vents, and stiffened with herring-bone strutting, at distances not exceeding
4 feet apart. All scantlings and other dimensions given, must hold good, when the
works arc completed, cleaned off, and finished. No panels to be, when cleaned off, less
than five eighths of an inch thick. To provide for all centring for arches, &c. ; also,
all blocks, studs, beads, stops, fillets, bilgets (wooden bricks). None of the flooring-
boards to be more than 6 inches wide, and they must be prepared, and brought on the pre-
mises five weeks before they are laid. All the framing, such as doors, sashes, &c, must
be got out in six weeks from the date of the contract ; but not to be wedged up until
the Architect or his agent directs. The door-frames are to be built in the walls, with
horns (the lintels with projections beyond the styles) and side arms (side pieces to bond
in), and tenoned into stone sills. The roof is to be formed as shown in the drawings,
and of the several scantlings thereon figured, and well nailed with double garron (6-inch
spikes) nails. All plates to be in long lengths, and chacked (notched or halved) ; or
dovetailed together, and well spiked. To lay the floors throughout (unless where other-
wise directed) of lj-inch Tarlogie (a native forest) deals, straight-jointed, ploughed, and
feathered. The stairs to be formed as shown in the plan, of l|-inch Tarlogie deals, glued
and blocked, complete, with 1 ^-inch wall string and torus on upper edge ; and where an
open well is shown, to have l^-inch front strings. All the treads and risers to be raggled
(housed) into strings, and the whole to have strong carriages complete ; handrail to
be put from the barn to the threshing-floor, as shown, with J-inch balusters, with
three iron balusters, flanged and screwed complete : the handrails to be of Spey fir.
The locks, bolts, and fastenings to be found by the proprietor ; and the contractor
will find screws, and fasten them on without any extra-charge for the same. The
roof must be ready to receive the covering on or before the day of
, and the whole of the works finished and completed on or before the
5L26 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE,
day of , or else the contractor shall and will allow the sum of £5 per week, as
liquidated damages, for each week he may exceed the time allowed for being ready with
the roof, for covering in, or for the completion of the works; and which sum or sums
will he deducted from the balance due to the contractor, remaining in the hands of the
proprietor.
1067. Jbiating. All the wall plates to be 7 inches by 1 inch and a half. The sleepers
in the dressing-barn (the part of the barn appropriated for dressing corn) to be 6" inches
by 2 inches and a half, built in as described in the mason's work. The joisting of the barn
and granary floors to be 10 inches by 2 inches and a half, with 1 foot of wall hold. The
carl -sheds to have a joist 8 inches by 2 inches and a half, built into the wall at each
pillar, and chacked to the lintling beams, 9 inches by 12 inches, and screwed to the same
with a half-inch bolt, the other end of the same joist to be chacked to the wall plate in
the same manner.
1068. Doors- The whole of the doors to be made of Tarlogie deals, not more than
6 inches wide, and 1 inch and a quarter thick, ploughed and beaded on the joists, with
three 14-inch cross bars, and well nailed. The stable, byre, and barn doors to be
bung in two leaves. The whole of the doors to be hung with crooks and bands; the
crooks to be laid on the bed of the rybats ; the crook to be split in the tail (in order to
serve instead of a rivet), and to have 7 inches hold of the stone, and to be well batted (run)
in with lead ; the pin of the crook to be 1 inch and an eighth in diameter ; each crook
to weigh :5 pounds and a half. The bands to be 22 inches long, three eighths of an inch
thick at the neck, and 2 inches broad, with |-inch screw-bolt to the neck of each ;
each band to weigh 4 pounds and a half. The band nails to have counter-sunk heads,
and properly riveted ; sunk ring latches to all the doors, and 8-inch stock locks to the
granary, baru, poultry-house, milk-house, and coal-cellar doors only.
1069. Windows. The frames of the barn and milk-house windows to be 2 inches thick,
and filled in at bottom with boards 16 inches high, hung to frames on cross-tailed bands,
and glazed above with third crown glass ; those in the granary, stables, &c, to be filled in
with weather-boards 6 inches wide and 1 inch thick, chamfered on the outer edges, hung
with iron pivots in a frame 3 inches by 2 inches, having a strap of iron attached to the
inside, and movable up and down, to admit air when wanted.
1070. Stables. The hind posts of the trevises (partitions) to be octagons of 6 inches and a
half in diameter above the pavement, and sunk in solid masonry, as shown in the section,
fig. 1050 ; the part built in to be charred, and the tops to be rounded. The fore posts
to be 4 inches and a half by 2 inches, the foot set in a stone; 1^-inch trevise-boards
to be mortised into the hind post, which must be set 8 feet from the front wall. The
trevises to be 6 feet high at the front posts, and 4 feet and a half high at the hind posts ;
to have angle warpings (braces) 4 inches by 1 inch and a half, and to be nailed with
double double nails (20rf. ). Mangers to be, as shown, of 1 5-inch Tarlogie deals.
The under racks to be 2 feet 3 inches high, and to have a run beam 4 inches by 3 inches,
rounded on the upper edge, with rings for fastening the horses. A piece of bond timber,
4 inches by 3 inches, to be built into the walls for harness-pins.
1071. Gates. The posts to be as the hind posts of the stables, and to stand 9 inches above
the gates ; the hinge post of the gate to be 5 inches by 4 inches ; the front post, 4 inches
by 3 inches ; the angle spar, 1 inch and a half by 3 inches ; the spars to be three quarters
of an inch by 3 inches and a half; the top spar will be 1^-inch square iron, with
shoulder and eye at the hinge post, diminishing to three quarters of an inch square
at the front post, with a screw and nut. The crooks to be put into the gate-posts with
a screw and nut.
1072. Sundries. The linteling beams to the horse-course to be 12 inches square, and to
be tied at the angles with iron straps 2 inches and a half by three eighths of an inch, and
20 inches long, and to be chacked together ; the rafters to be 6 inches and a half, and
6' inches by 2 inches and a half, with 2 balks in height, chacked and spiked together
with double garron nails, and mortised into the octagonal post at top 6 inches in dia-
meter ; !~inch square cat bars (a cat bar is an iron bar three quarters of an inch
square] for keeping a folding-door fast when shut; it has a ring at one end for fastening
to the wall with a staple, and is bent at the other end, so as to hook into the door by
another staple on the inside) to all the two-leaved doors ; to provide a seat and riser to
privy, and a ventilator over the boiler in the milk-house.
1073. Mason. All the excavating will be done by the proprietor. The whole of the
stones used to be from the quarry of Balnasearrish. The mortar to be made of good
well-burnt English lime, and landed at Portinahomack, with sharp sand in the pro-
portion of two parts of lime to three parts of sand, the whole being well tempered and beat
before being used. The foundations to be laid with flat-bedded stones laid in regular
courses, and to be taken in by regular scarsements (sets back) as shown in the sections; all
the internal gables to be carried up to the roof; the sleepers to be laid and built into the
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 527
same, and the dwarf walls to be 14 inches thick. The walls to be built of the heights
and thicknesses shows and figured in the drawings, and the whole to be beam-filled at the
top. No wall to be at any time more than 3 feet higher than the other walls, until each
wall has been raised to its intended height. The door soles (sills) to be laid six inches
above the causeway (or pavement) outside; the soles of the stable, byre, &c, to be laid
S inches above the same, and the whole to be beveled (sloped outwards) on the top.
1074. Hewn Work. All the external corners to be droved (tooled) with broached tails (a
regular breadth on each side of the angle of the corner stones to be hewn smooth, and
the remainder of the stone to be rough-hewn, like the rest of the wall). The rybats
(reveals), soles, and lintels of the doors and windows to be droved, with broached tails ; all
the rybats and corners to be 2 feet long at least, and the inband rybats (headers) to pass
through the thickness of the walls; all the skews and tabling to be droved, and the shed-
pillars, arches, and the chimney-tops to be broached ; the shed and gate pillars to be
chamfered 3 inches on the angles.
1075. Causewaying. The whole of the stables, byre, sheds, &c, to be laid with whin-
stone set in sharp sand ; the settles (gutters or channels) to have 2 inches fall in 10 feet ;
the stable channels to be 10 feet from the front wall, and the rise from them to the rack
to be 5 inches. All the doors, windows, &c, to be saved with rough arches (to have
discharging arches) over the same. All the spurs (lower stones of the raking part of the
gable, called in England the summer stones) to be 2 feet and a half long each. The
whole of the rough walls to be pointed and harled (roughcast) outside, and the whole
to be pointed inside.
1076. Plasterer. To plaster the walls of the granary and the dressing-barn with one
coat of plaster with pounded glass mixed in the mortar, to prevent vermin from getting in.
1077. Painter. The whole of the doors, windows, gates, and all exposed wood and
iron work, to have three coats of oil paint, of a colour to be chosen by the proprietor.
Detailed Estimate of the Expense of erecting the Farm Steading of , referred to
in the above Specification.
1078. Mason.
308 roods (36 square yards in each rood) rough walls of the
standard thickness (2 feet), and harled
433 yards of causewaying with whinstone, laid in sharp sand
47 yards of paving with flags in the straw-house
365 superficial feet of droved hewn work (labour only)
200 superficial feet of broached do. (do. do.)
9893 superficial feet of run 4-inch tabling and skew stones ; the ma-
terials only; the labour being included in the droved work
96 superficial feet of door and window soles and lintels, do
16 lineal feet of rent
1 copper and furnace to set
21 posts built in solid work, 3 feet in diameter
18 steps broached to the gangway to the granary
Tools, tackle, scaffolding, &c
£ 274 : 10 : 0
1079. Plasterer.
417 yards of one-coat plaster £ 14: 5: 0
1080. Painter.
428 yards of three-coat paint and knotting £ 21 : 8 : 0
1081. Carpenter.
169 cubic feet in lintels, &c
1227 yards of roofing and cabers (laths for thatch)
271 yards of flooring and joists
264 yards of 1^-inch three-barred doors (ledged doors with 3 back-
boards)
193 yards of windows
56 yards of gates
43 yards of sleepers and flooring
45 yards of trevises, &c> complete
55 yards of racks, &c ,
41 yards of do. in byre
75 yards of do. in cattle-sheds
93 yards of centres for arches
3 M
528 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
105 yards of paling in the fold-yard
15 yards of water-trough and pump
29 yards of shelves and divisions for nests in the poultry-house
10 feet superficial 1 seat and riser in the privy
61 feet superficial of stairs
57 feet superficial run bond timber, and harness pins
48 pairs of large crooks and bands
14 pairs of small cross-tailed bands
4 8-inch stock-locks
8 cat bands and socket hinges (see fig. 1059, p. 533.)
20 iron straps for the cart-sheds and horse-course
1082. Recapitulation.
Carpenter £457: 8: 0
Mason 274:10: 0
Plasterer 14: 5: 0
Painter 21: 8: 0
Thatcher, about 55: 0: 0
£ 457 : 8
£ 821 : 11 : 0
1083. General Estimate. As the cubic contents of this farmery are 78,468 feet, the
above gives 2^d. per foot as the data for forming guess estimates for the north of Scotland.
1084. Remarks. We have given the foregoing specification and estimate chiefly on
account of some peculiarities in the details of construction, and of some local terms. The
first twelve paragraphs were taken from a printed form, which, being applicable to specifica-
tions generally, is calculated to save the Architect a good deal of trouble. Such forms,
both for specifications of buildings, agreements for leases, and even leases themselves, are
often printed, in the case of large estates, for the convenience of the agents. The farm
house to this farmery is remarkably small, and, with its chimneys in the gable ends, it
has the usual commonplace air of Scotch farm houses ; cold, formal, and comfortless.
There is a privy in a recess off the stable, which is all exceedingly well for the men,
but quite useless for the women, who ought, at least, to have had a similar convenience,
equally private, near the byre, but by no means in it, as cows are, in relation to such
places, much more delicate than horses. The barn here is remarkably well placed, con-
nected, as it is, with the stables on one hand and the cattle-sheds on the other.
Design XXXIV. — The Farmery at Greendyltes, in Haddingtonshire, consisting of 500
arable Acres under a Six- Course Shift.
1085. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in p. 535, and the ground plan
in fig. 1054. In the latter are seen an entrance gateway, a; two stables for eight horses
each, b b ; hen-house, c ; two loose horse places, d d ; a boiling-house, e ; two cart-sheds,
ff, with granaries over ; the tool-house with stairs to the granary, g ; gig-house, h ; two
riding-horse stables, i i ; four cattle-sheds, k ; potato-house, I ; two cow-houses, m m ;
straw-barn, n ; chaff-house, o ; corn-barn, p ; engine-house, q ; boiler, r ; coal-house, s ;
smithy, t ; bailiffs house, u ; open courts, v ; piggeries, w ; feeding-troughs, x ; passage,
y ; and rick-yard z. Fig. 1055 is a plan of the roofs, and of those parts of the buildings
which are two stories high. In this plan are shown the two granaries, a ; boiling-house,
b, hayloft to the riding-horse stables over the gig-house, c; barn, d; and chimney to the
boiler of the steam-engine, e.
1086. Construction. The walls are of local freestone, and the roofs of Baltic timber,
covered with slate. Fig. 1052 is an elevation of the west front, and fig. 1053 is an
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 529
1054
yy
mn'nHn'inn
Ft. 10 0 20 40 60 80 Ft.
elevation of the north front. All the various details of construction will be found clearly
set forth in the following specification : —
1087. Specification of a Plan for building the new Farm Offices at Greendykes, near
Haddington. — Foundations. The foundations to be dug down until a firm and solid
1055
£30 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
substratum is obtained for (bunding upon, and to be at least 18 inches below the level of
the door soles (sills). The foundation to be laid with large flat-bedded stones on a bed
of lime, and to be laid in 12 inches wider than the thickness of the walls, as figured in
the plan, and to be reduced to their regular thicknesses at the surface level.
1088. Rubble-worh. The whole of the walls to be executed of the best rubble building,
with the stones laid all on their flat and natural beds, and properly hearted and packed
(the interior filled in solid with mortar and chips) with well prepared lime and sharp
sand ; and all the joints to be clean, and neatly drawn in with the edges of the trowel,
particularly the west elevation, which will be done in coursed work with the very best
picked stones from liangley quarry. The whole of the external elevations to be executed
with new materials, and all the old stones to be used in the inside walls. All the gable
tops (upper parts of the cross walls) to be carried close up to the slates.
1089. Hewn Work. The whole of the corners, door and window rybats (reveals),
soles and lintels, stair-steps, crow-steps (barge-stones rising above one another like
stairs, see fig. 1053), balls and points (ornaments; see the figures), chimney-tops,
skews, pillars and arches, and arches of cart-shades (cart-sheds), archways for the gate-
way and bailiffs house, the jambs and hearths, also the pavement in the riding-stable,
gig-house, and at the stair foot, to be all executed in broached work, with droved mar-
gins (or draughted and broached ; that is, worked round the joints with a chisel, about
1056 three quarters of an inch on
the face, and the remaining
part of the face, roughly doni
with a pick, as in fig. 1056 :
common broached ashlar is
without the draughted or
droved edges, and is simply
dressed with the pick, or
pointed or chisel edge of the hammer, as in fig. 1057) as will be directed.
1090. Heelpost Stones. The stable posts, and posts in front of the feeding-troughs, to
1057 have heel-stones 12 inches square and 18 inches long,
— _____ — |, fi.. properly squared, and droved on the top; with a hole
'" ■•'■ ! "■'ihith \-\X for receiving the posts 2 inches deep.
i i I ' 1091. Causewaying {Paving). The stables, loose-
~ ,\ ; "~~ house (stable or place for a sick horse, mare and foal,
'■.*■'• \,[-r cow about to calve, &c), byres, and piggeries to be
all neatly causewayed (paved) with good rubble cause-
V
' '" ' ')'
II
murm
■■ w
%
. | ... .
•"V:'':- L''A
.'■m<Mi:,
iJll
'MS;
way ; and all these apartments to have proper declivities
and channels for carrying off the water into the open courts.
1092. Wall Coping. The walls in the open courts to have semicircular hammer-
dressed (dressed with the chisel end of the hammer) freestone copes (coping), and the
tops of the pillars or piers to the gateway openings to be finished with a square plinth
ind semicircular droved stone ; the top stones (the course of stones immediately under
the coping) to be in single blocks.
1093. Troughs. The feeding-troughs to be built up solid with stone and lime to a
proper height ; and the soles to be laid with droved pavement close joined, and not less
than 3 inches thick.
1094. Engine-house. The engine stalk (shaft or chimney) to be carried up with
brick from the level of the wall heads to the height of 45 feet from the level of the
engine-house floor. The flues to be 20 inches square inside, and the sides of the flues to
be built with quicklime, and the floor of the engine-house to be laid with clean droved
pavement. A tunnel to be built for the engine 10 feet long, 6 feet deep by 2 feet 3
inches wide, the sides and ends of the tunnel to be built with rubble-work 2 feet thick,
and lined upon the face with droved ashlar, and the bottom to be laid with droved
pavement. The tradesman to build in the boiler for the engine, and to furnish what fire
and other bricks may be required for that purpose. The whole of the external corners
of the pillars of the cart and cattle sheds to be neatly rounded.
1095. Corn-barn. The floor of the corn-barn to be sunk down 15 inches deeper
than the level of the door sole, and dwarf walls built every five feet apart, and 12 inches
thick, for supporting the sleepers ; the whole space below the floor to be filled up close to
the under bed of the flooring, with small broken stones, and to be run full of thin grout
lime, on purpose to prevent vermin from getting through the floor.
1096. Stables. The wall heads of the stables, corn-barn, granary, hayloft, and cow-
house to be beam-filled close up from the top of the walls to the roofs. Recesses are to
be left in the stable wall behind the horses, seven feet high, as shown by the drawing, for
the reception of the harness, and of the corn-chest.
1097. The Ventilators to be put through the front wall of the stable, as shown by the
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 531
plan, 6 inches square, with a droved hewn stone on the outside of the wall 16 inches
square, with a 6-inch hole cut through it to ventilate the stable.
1098. Servants' Houses. The vents (chimneys) of the servants' houses and boiling-
houses to be carried up at 1 1 inches square inside, and to be properly plastered.
1099. Stonework generally. In building the pillars for the gates to the open courts,
proper care must be taken that large weighty stones be put at their proper places for
fixing in the iron crooks. The tradesman to get the old stones at Greendykes and
Arniston which will be pointed out by Mr. C. The tradesman will also furnish the whole
of the other stones, and the lime that will be required for finishing the building ; the hewn
and rubble stones are to be taken from the Jerusalem quarry, the whinstones for the
west front from Bangley, and the pavement from the quarries at Salton limeworks. All
to be of the best quality the several quarries will produce ; and Mr. C. to furnish the
whole of the carriages of every description ; but the tradesman must take down and
clear out the old stones, and prepare them lor carting, and also furnish bricks for the
engine vent of the best quality.
1100. Carpenter's Work. The soles and lintels to be 3 inches thick, with a wall-hold
(their ends deeply inserted into the wall) on each end of the head and sill of the frames,
9 inches in length, and of width sufficient to fill up the space required. The whole of
the joisting for the granary and barn to be 11 inches by 2 inches, and 16 inches apart,
with a wall-hold on each end of 9 inches ; and the joisting to be laid on wall plates 7 inches
by 14 inches. The joisting over the mill-loft (floor for the unthreshed corn, from which,
being fed into the upper part of the machinery, it comes out separated into corn and
straw, in the floor below) and granaries to be covered with a flooring of boards not
exceeding 6 inches and a half broad, and 1 and one eighth of an inch thick, and to be
ploughed and tongued on the edges. Two strong joists to be in the mill-loft, 11
inches by 6 inches, and three cross framings of the same size on each side of the shaker,
and one at the spur-wheel (a wheel on the main shaft with the cogs or teeth standing
outwards, which operates on a pinion), as shall be directed by the millwright.
1101. The Corn-barn to be laid with sleepers and flooring; the sleepers to be 5 inches
by 2 inches and a half, and 1 6 inches apart ; the flooring to be the same as above speci
fied ; the wall-plates below the sleepers to be 7 inches broad by 1 4 inches thick.
1102. Roofing. The scantling for the roofing to be 6 inches at bottom by
5 inches at top, by 2 inches and a half thick, and placed 18 inches apart. Wall-plates
to be 7 inches by 1 inch and a quarter ; baulks (tie or collar beams) to be 6 inches by
2 inches and a quarter. The sarking to be three quarters of an inch thick, and close-
jointed on the edges. The flank-trees (valley rafters) to be 7 inches at bottom and
6 inches at top, by 3 inches and a half thick ; and the pien-trees (hip rafters) to be
7 inches broad and 2 inches thick. The partition in the corn-barn to be of standards
(quarters) 4 inches by 2 inches, 18 inches apart, and covered on one side with deals
a quarter of an inch thick, clean-planed, beaded, grooved, and tongued on the edges ; with
a door through to the chaff-hole. A trap-stair and wood-rail to be put up to the same,
and round the opening at the landing from the corn-barn to the mill-loft. There is to
be also a wooden trap from the straw-barn to the mill-loft, 2 feet wide, and of proper
strength for carrying up the refuse from the shaker. There are to be two skylights put
into the roof of the mill-loft, 3 feet long by 2 feet wide, for giving light to the machinery ;
and these are to be glazed, having flashings of lead round the slates weighing 4 lbs.
and a half per foot.
1103. Working-Horse Stables. The working-horse stables to be fitted up with racks
and mangers, and trivess boarding. The trivess boarding to be 7 feet high in front, and
8 feet at the back end ; with hard-wood (oak, ash, elm, &c. ) coping on ditto. The
top of the coping to be 2 inches and a half by 2 inches, and the boarding to be 1 inch
and a half thick, and doweled on the joints. The mangers to be 10 inches wide at
bottom, and 14 inches wide at top, by 10 inches deep, and the boards 1 inch and a
quarter thick. A breast-tree (horizontal rail) to be put in front of the manger, 4 inches
by 2 inches and a half, rounded in front. This tree to be of oak, with proper iron rings
and staples for fixing the horses. The rack sides (top and bottom rails) to be 4 inches
by 2 inches and a quarter, and to be fitted in with turned rack staves, 2 inches in
diameter, with a rail 6 inches broad, opposite each trivess, and the rack staves to be made
of beech ; the back posts of the trivesses to be made of oak 6 inches square, rounded on
the angles, and mortised into a run-tree (a rail fixed along the tie-joists) at top, and
let 2 inches into the stone at bottom ; the front posts to be 4 inches by 2 inches and a
quarter, and one on each side of the trivess to be rounded on one side. There are to
be 16 tie-joists across the stables, 7 inches by two inches and a half; and clean-planed
for fixing the run-tree. The run-tree to go the whole length of the stable, to be
6 inches by 3 inches, and clean-planed. There are to be a sufficient number of harness-
pins and saddle-trees put up behind the horses and on the posts.
532 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1104. The Riding- Horse Stable to have a manger the same as the other stables, with
circular racks in the angles. The stable to be divided in the middle with a deal partition
2 inches thick, clean-planed, beaded, and doweled on the joints, with a door of com-
munication formed in it. The door-framing to be 4 inches by 3 inches; the door
to be hung with strong cross-tailed hinges (strap hinges with a cross, sometimes shaped
like a trefoil at the tail), and to have a sunk thumb sneck (a latch with the handle sunk
flush with the surface of the door), the partition to go the whole way up the height of
the ceiling. The front wall to be lined up with J-inch deal from the top of the manger
to the top of the rack, and to be planed, grooved, tongued, and beaded.
1105. Stable Arches. Elliptical arches to be put across between the back posts and
over the horses, with neat wood impost mouldings at the springings ; and a thin plate of
wood bent round the soffit of the arches.
1 106. Trivess (Partition) Boarding. The trivess boarding to be of the same height
and thickness as in the other stables, and finished on the top with an ogee and sweep, and
hard- wood cope. The joists to be of the same materials, and the workmanship the same
as in the other stable. The stone wall next the west front to be lined with 1-inch deal,
and finished the same as the other trivesses. The ceiling to be lathed from the beam-
filling, round the couples, and back ; and the whole walls and ceiling to be finished with
three-coat plaster. There are to be two wood pipes made 6 inches square, to go up through
the ceiling, and 2 feet through the roof above the slates ; with a flashing of lead put
round the pipes to cover their joining with the slates. The 2 feet of pipes above the
slates to be bored full of holes on all the four sides, and covered on the top with a
moulded capital, on purpose to ventilate the stable. The bottom of these pipes to project
below the ceiling of the stable, on purpose to admit of a shifting board to shut them up
when required.
1107. Poultry-houses. A wooden stair to be put up from the turkey-house to the
hen-house, as shown by the plan ; and this hen-house and the hayloft to be joisted and
floored with the old materials, &c. The stair to be covered in round the sides up to the
ceiling in the turkey-house, and a door to be put up on the foot of the stair to keep the
two places separate. The hen-house to be fitted up with a wooden roost, and nests on
the north and east sides ; and the tops of the nests to be covered with a sloping thin
deal cover, on purpose to keep them clean from the roosts. The ceiling of the hen-house
to be lathed from the top of the walls, round the couples (rafters), and back ; and to be
finished with two coats of plaster ; and the walls both of the hen-house and of the turkey-
house to be plastered with one coat of plaster. A skylight to be put in the roof of
the hen-house, 3 feet by 2 feet, glazed, and made watertight with flashings of lead.
1108. Doors. The doors to be plain deal, and 1 inch and one eighth thick; the
boards to be 6 inches and a half broad, and ploughed, tongued, and beaded on the joints,
with three bars on the back of each ; to be all hung with strong cross-tailed hinges
(hinges like fig. 1058, which, of course, can only be used where there are wooden door-
frames, or hanging posts, on which to nail the tail part, a, of
the hinge) with an iron bolt through the neck, b, of each ; 1058
except the doors for the straw-barn, which are to be hung with
strong crook and band hinges. The door-frames to be 6
inches by 2 inches and a half, and strongly batted into the
cheeks of the rybats ; the whole to have keeps (stops) three
quarters of an inch thick, and of proper breadth.
1109. TJie Servant's (Bailiff's) House to have a lath and standard partition on both
sides, and two doors inside, 1 inch in thickness, with hinges and sneck (thumb latch).
1110. Glazier's Work. The windows of the stables and byres to be glazed on the top
half; the under half to be made to open with boards, and hinges and snecks. The
sashes to be 2 inches thick, with proper facings, keeps, and frames. The windows of the
riding-stable, boiling-house, servants' house, corn-barn, engine-house, potato-house, and
turkey-house to be made with sashes and cases; and to be glazed with good crown glass.
The whole to receive one good priming coat of white lead before being glazed.
1111. The Beams (Lintels) for the Cattle Sheds to be 12 inches by 6 inches; to be
all clean-planed on the front and under sides, and to have 12 inches of wall-hold on
each end.
1112. The large Entrance Gate to be framed with 2^-inch wood; styles 6 inches and
a half broad, with cross rails 9 inches, and cross angular (diagonal) braces to the same,
to be covered on the face with 1-inch deal grooved, tongued, and beaded on the joint, and
to be made in two leaves ; a wicket door to be in one of the leaves, to be framed in a
similar manner. The gates to be hung with centre-point hinges at the bottom, and
crook and band hinges at the top ; and fixed at top and bottom with a very strong sliding
bolt, and large thumb sneck. (Centre point, or swing hinges, appear to be of two kinds ;
one with the pivot of the hinge turned down, to work in an iron socket let into a stone,
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 533
as in fig. 10.59 ; the other with two pivots, working on two hooks, as in fig. 1060, in
which a is the hanging style of the gate, with the double pivot hinge attached, bb being
the pivots ; c is the hanging gate-post ; and d d, the two pivots leaded into it. The
1059
"i
4
4^
1060 u
-sJSr
_
1061
object common to both is, to make the point of rest of tne gate the same as the shutting
point ; that is, the line in which the gate remains when it is shut.)
1113. TJie Gig-house Door to be made with 1^-inch deal, with three bars across each
half, 1 inch and a half thick, and with angular braces ; to have hinges and bolts of a proper
strength, the same as the large gate, and a good stock lock and sneck. This door to be
made with an opening three quarters of an inch wide between each deal (board), for the
admission of air, the deals not being more than 6 inches broad.
1114. The Byres to be fitted up as shown in the drawings ; the sole trees to be eight
inches by four inches ; the top tree six inches by three inches ; and the stakes to be of
hard wood.
1115. The whole of the Doors to have good and sufficient locks, bars, and bolts, where
necessary ; and all to have strong Scotch-made thumb snecks, with folding handles
(handles to hang down, or fold aside) to the same.
1116. The Gates for the open courts to be hung on two leaves, and framed with 1|-
inch thick framing and angle braces; and to be covered on the outside with 1-inch
thick deal, ploughed, tongued, and beaded on the joints ; and finished on the top with
a cope 1 inch and a half thick. The gates to be hung with strong crook and band hinges
(in fig. 1061, a is the band, and b the crook ; the former is used in the case of boarded
doors, which have no hanging styles; the latter
is either leaded into stone, or sharpened and ______
driven into wood), and the hinges to be made so ^ o _^
that the gate may open on the outside, and fold
back to the court walls ; and be fixed together,
when shut, with a hardwood swivel bar, and iron bolts and staples of sufficient strength.
1117. Granary Windows. The windows of the granary to be fitted in with wooden
frames and round iron rods three eighths of an inch in diameter, and three fourths of
an inch apart. The frames to be 2 inches and a half broad, and 2 inches thick ; the
sole for the frame to be 3 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half, and to be washed
off (sloped) on the outside to carry off the rain. There are to be inside shutters five
eighths of an inch thick, ploughed, tongued, and beaded on the joints, with a water
verge on the bottom (a slip nailed on, to throw off the rain), hinged on the two halves,
and fixed inside with a cross shifting hard-wood bar, and iron staples. There is to be a
standard and deal partition put round the top of the stair in the granaries 3 feet high.
Standards 3 inches square, and the boarding 1 inch thick, ploughed and tongued.
1118. The Hayloft to have a door 1 inch thick, with frames, hinges, and folding
thumb sneck ; the openings for putting the hay down to the horses to have doors three
fourths of an inch thick, with frames, hinges, and bars ; there is to be a light mov-
able trap-ladder to go up to the hayloft by the front door of ditto ; and saddle-trees
and pins to put up in the stable.
1119. The Giy-house is to be lathed on the ceiling, and to be finished on the walls
and ceiling with two coats of plaster. The floors of the straw-barn, servants' house,
potato-house, turkey-house, chaff-hole, and boiling-house to be all laid with a composi-
tion of lime, sand, and engine ashes (coal ashes), three inches thick ; to be laid on in
due proportions, and properly rubbed and smoothed on the surface. Frames of wood
^
53 J? COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
arc to be fixed to the inside of the front wall of the cart-stable, opposite the opening*
of the ventilators, with shifting boards, to slide and close them as may be required.
1120. Beams. Two strong Memel planks will be required in the engine-house, to
be built into the walls, and to be 9 feet long and 12 inches by 5 inches on the sides, for
fixing part of the machinery.
1121. Piaster-work. The working-horse stable, granaries, corn-barn, and mill-loft
to be finished with one coat of plaster on the walls ; and the corn-barn, mill-loft, and
granaries to have a skirting of Roman cement 8 inches round the floors.
1122. Slaters' Work. The roofs to be covered with the best dark blue slate, from Mr.
Bell's quarry near Dunkeld ; to have a sufficiency of cover, to be well shoiddered
in haired lime (the lower part of each row bedded in lime) ; and to be nailed on with
nails at 12 lbs. per thousand, well steeped in linseed oil when in a heated state (to
prevent) or at least diminish, oxidation); the slates to be all close-mitred (when two
planes meet against a diagonal line, they are said to be mitred) in the angles of the
flanks.
1123. The Ridge to be covered with lead 12 inches broad, and weighing 5 lbs. per su-
perficial foot ; the piens (hips) with lead 10 inches broad, and 5 lbs. per superficial foot;
and the flanks with lead 8 inches broad, and 5 lbs. per superficial foot, to be all properly
dressed down to the slates, and firmly nailed to the wood battens.
1124. Description of Timber. The timber for the roofing, joisting, sarking, soles,
lintels, sleepers, gates, windows, trivess-boarding, racks and mangers, beams, and sole
and top trees, feeding-troughs, &c, to be all of the best Memel timber, and all the
flooring and doors, &c, to be of drawn (selected) battens.
1125. Feeding-troughs. The front of the feeding-troughs, in the open courts, to have
a plank of wood 9 inches by 3 inches set on edge ; and to have a post every 10 feet 4
inches by 3 inches, and put 2 inches into a stone in the bottom, and fixed at top with a
long strong iron bat (stud) fixed into the stone sole, and a large screw-nut on the outside
of the posts. The planks to be all fixed to the posts, with two iron screw-bolts into each.
1126. The Tradesman to furnish the whole of the material and workmanship, as par-
ticularised in the foregoing specification. Also the sea carriage of the slates, which
must be shipped to the harbour nearest Greendykes, and Mr. C. (the tenant) will furnish
the whole of the land carriage.
1127. The whole Work, of every description and kind, must be finished in the most
substantial and workmanlike manner, and be liable at all times to the inspection of the
proprietor, or Mr. C, or any other person they may choose to appoint for that purpose.
The carpenter to furnish all the centring and moulds for the mason-work.
1 1 28. Estimate. The actual cost of this building, exclusive of the old materials, and
the expense of carriage, was about ,£2000 ; but it is estimated that if all the materials
had been new, and the carriage had been included, the total amount would have been
,£3000; which, at 6 per cent, would have been equal to an addition of £180 a year to the
rent of the farm. The expense of the farm house is not included in either of the above
sums ; but as that for such a farmery would cost nearly £700, this, at 6 per cent, would
give at least £200 a year of additional rent, or 12s. an acre. The total number of
cubic feet in the farmery, including court and fence walls, is 208,600 ; which gives
2^d. per cubic foot as the guess price for estimating buildings of this description in East
Lothian.
1 1 29. Remarks. This Design was procured for us by our much valued contributor,
Patrick ShirrefF, Esq., of Mungoswells, near Haddington, well known as one of the most
scientific farmers in Scotland, as a specimen of one of the best farmeries in East Lothian.
It was designed by Swinton, Esq., Architect, Haddington ; and built, under his
superintendence, at Greendykes, for David Anderson, Esq., of St. Germains. It will be
observed that, considering its extent, the courts or fold-yards are fewer in number, and
smaller in size, than those of the Northumberland Designs ; and that there are none of
these courts which are entitled to the appellation of hammcls or fold yards. Hammels,
indeed, Mr. ShirrefF informs us, are out of repute in East Lothian ; that is, what are
called hammels in Berwickshire, which differ from those of Northumberland in being
much smaller. " My idea of a hammel," says Mr. ShirrefF, " is a range of shed-build-
ings divided by parallel partitions from ten to twenty feet asunder, and projecting beyond
the building, so as to form courts two or three times the size of the space included within
the building. Such hammels, within long narrow open courts, have gone out of use in
Haddingtonshire, and in Scotland generally ; and justly so, on account of the expense of
littering them, supplying them with food, and removing from these long narrow spaces
the accumulated manure. To a farmer who fattens short-horned cattle, so tame that
several of them may he put together in a very small space, hammels may be of use ; but
where, as with us, young active cattle from the Highlands and other northern districts
are put up to feed, it is often a month or more before only two or three cattle, bought
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IX VARIOUS |
XXXIV.
STYLES. 535
53() COTTAGE, I ARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
XXXVI.
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 537
promiscuously in a market, agree when put together into a hammel ; and the loss, in
consequence, is often considerable. In the neighbourhood of Haddington, there was a
set of excellent hammels erected about fifteen years ago, but open sheds with large courts
are now substituted for them. Well sheltered courts are almost every where employed,
in Haddingtonshire, for fattening cattle ; but it must be remembered that with us, it is
generally a difficult matter to convert straw into manure, from the abundance of it, and
the dryness of the climate." The ample details in the specification of this Design will
give a very complete idea, to the Architects of other districts, how farm buildings are
executed in the first agricultural district in the island ; and they cannot fail to observe
the substantial and durable nature of the materials and the workmanship employed.
There are two or three minor conveniences and comforts which we could wish to intro-
duce; and that prominent feature, the chimney to the steam-engine, might, we should
hope, be placed centrally with reference to the range or side to which it belongs. But,
whether the shaft of the steam-engine can be placed centrally or not, we sincerely hope
that the landed proprietors of Scotland will not suffer their country to be disfigured with
the inelegant forms of engine-chimneys, which have hitherto been erected in those
farmeries where steam has been adopted. We have little doubt that it will soon be pre-
ferred to either horses or wind, on all large corn farms on every part of the island.
Tall engine chimneys, therefore, promise to be as common in the corn districts, as they
are now in Lancashire, and we have only to point out the latter as beacons to be avoided.
Under the head of Exterior Finishing of Farmeries, in Section III., we shall give some to
be imitated. Since it is so difficult to turn straw into manure in East Lothian, we could
wish to see all that is used for fodder cut into chaff, and mixed with succulent food,
salted and watered ; and we could wish also to see the liquid manure collected in tanks,
and pumped up daily, or twice a day, and distributed over a covered dunghill, in the
manner which has been already described, § 1019. It will, no doubt, be considered
presumptuous in us to find fault with any agricultural practice prevalent in East
Lothian : let it be recollected, however, that great improvements have, within the last
twenty years, taken place even in this district, and that farther advances may be made.
The dryness of the atmosphere appears to us a strong argument in favour of covering the
dunghills, as well as of collecting liquid manure to moisten them ; and feeding horses
and cattle with cut straw and some liquid food, in order, among other advantages, to
increase the quantity of liquid manure. It will be observed that several local terms
are spelt differently in this specification from what they are in those of Mr. Newall,
§ 907, Mr. Green, § 979, Mr. Ross, § 1053, and even the Committee of the Highland
Society, § 1200. We have deemed it better to give the spelling, in each specification, as
we received it, hoping to be able to discover and insert that which is preferable, and
also to generalise many of the local terms in the Glossarial Index.
Design XXXV. — A Farm House and Farmery at Elcho Castle, Perthshire, adapted
for a Farm of Six Plouyhs, under the Turnip Husbandry.
1 1 30. The General Appearance is shown in the isometrical view, page 535 ; the
ground and chamber plans of the house in figs. 1062 and 10G3, and the ground plan of
the farmery in fig. 1064. Figs. 1065, 1067, 1068, and 1069 are geometrical elevations.
1062
1063
— «? ' ir
/^
n
LZ
— irri
I " Jt r 1
J 4 L-J ■
0 10 20 30 Ft.
1131. Accommodation. The ground plan of the house, fig. 1062, shows two parlours
a a ; a family bed-room on the same floor, b ; kitchen, c ; wash-house, d ; lobby and
staircase, e ; pantry, f; coal-house, g ; dairy, h ; and cellar, t. The chamber floor,
fig. 1063, contains four good bed-rooms, k • and a servant's bed-roomj I. — In the farmery,
fig. 1064, a and c are poultry-houses; b is a boothy, or single men's lodge, with a bed-
3 N
538 C0TTAX5E, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
I J U U U— -LI-...L1--U.....L
room over ; ddd are houses for milch cows ; e e e, stables, with hay and straw lofts
above ; /, house for grass, or other green food for the horses ; g, house for feeding cattle ;
h, feeding-chamber ; i, straw-house ; k, corn-
room ; I, chaff-huose ; m, mill-shed ; n, cart-
shed, and granary above ; o, potato-house ;
p, boiling-house ; r r, cattle-sheds ; * s,
turnip-houses ; 1 1, straw yards ; uuuu, pig-
geries ; v, water-cistern ; w w, water-tank ;
x x x x, turnip cribs or boxes ; yyyy, straw
racks, and z, watercourse for driving the
water-wheel of the threshing-machine, when
water is abundant.
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 539
1 1 32. Construction. The walls are of stone, eighteen inches thick, and those of the
barn, and of all the other buildings of two stories, two feet thick at the surface of the
ground, and eighteen inches at top ; the roofs are covered with slate. Fig. 1065
1066
^A^ft
»s a front elevation of the farmer's dwelling-house. Fig. 1066 shows the position
of the house relatively to the farmery, in which a is the house ; b, the kitchen-
garden ; c, a grass field planted with fruit trees as an orchard ; d, the farmery ; and e
the rick-yard. Fig. 1067 is an elevation of the farmery from the south. Fig. 1068
54,0
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1068
S as q a o o an
-inmnnm "
s fljn nn
Other particulars of
is an elevation from the cast, and fig. 1069 is a west elevation,
construction will be found 1069
in the following descrip-
tive particular, sent by
W. M. .Mackenzie, Esq.
Architect, the author of
the Design : —
1133. The Situation fixed upon was nearly level, and the straw-yard was cut out
hollow in the centre, of a basin figure, that form being most advantageous for retaining
the moisture among the manure.
1134. In the General Arrangement, the highest of the buildings front the north and
east, as best suited for the purposes to which those parts of the steading are to be applied,
and at the same time adding to the comfort of the cattle in the sheds and straw-yards, by
sheltering them in the directions which are generally the coldest. The pigsties on the
south, and the byres, &c, on the west, being low buildings, do not shade the straw-yard
and cattle-shea's, but admit the rays of the sun to all parts of them. The farm house is
situated on the south-west of the steading with the kitchen court adjacent to the cow-
byre, calf-ward, &c. ; thus keeping the offices which are managed by the house servants in
the one division, and those under the management of the farm servants in the other divi-
sion, of the establishment.
1135. The Threshing Machinery being placed in a corner of the square, discharges
the threshed corn into the clean-corn room, in the direction of the granary which occu-
pies the upper story of that side of the square, and the straw is thrown from it into the
straw-house, which is in the direction of the straw chambers, over the feeding-byre,
stables, &c, on the other side of the square. By this arrangement the clean-corn room
communicates with the granary, which comes three feet over it, and extends from this
point over the cart-shed and boiling-house. In this three feet of the granary which
comes over the corn-room is placed a trapdoor, through which the sacks are drawn up
by means of a wheel and axle, and are then placed in a miller's barrow, and wheeled into
the granary. In this way the clean-corn room occupies a side of the square apart from
the offices allotted for the bestial (beasts), and other apartments connected with them;
and, as the corn-room can be locked up the moment the operation of threshing is finished,
no opportunity is left for the grain being pilfered or injured. The granary, in this
situation, has not only the advantage of the ventilators in the side walls, but it has also
the benefit of the free air in the open cart-shed under it, which acts upon the grain
through the joints of the floor. The cart-shed under the granary, besides being bene-
ficial to it for air, is convenient, particularly where a farm is situated at a considerable
distance from a market town ; or, in the winter season, when the carts are required to be
loaded on the evening preceding the market day, as it can be done before yoking, and
without moving the carts from under their cover, by means of the trapdoor in the centre
passage of the granary, which passage is at all times kept clear from grain. In the straw-
house a trapdoor is placed over the straw-rack, and when the lower part of the house is
packed full, this trapdoor can be shut, and the straw carried along the upper floor to the
straw-chambers over the stables and feeding-byre. These apartments will contain the
straw of three large ricks, which will enable the farmer to keep different kinds under
cover, and in separate divisions. A door five feet square is placed opposite the
passage which extends along the centre of the straw-yard for taking out straw for the
cattle-sheds, cow-byres, &c, if at any time required, but in general these are supplied
from the low straw-house. The threshing-machine is one of six-horse power, and is im-
pelled by water, but is so planned that horses can be employed if the water run short : in
this Design, however, the horse-shed is not executed.
' 1 36. The circular Feeding-byre, which will contain eighteen cattle, is by far the
most commodious and convenient arrangement for a farm of this extent. The figure of the
stalls being broad behind gives more space for the cattle when lying; and, as a greater
quantity of bedding (litter) is requisite, more manure, of course, will be made ; at the same
time admitting a more abundant supply of fresh air, by having the advantage of one large
ventilator in the centre of the circle serving the whole. The eighteen cattle are put up
in double stalls in pairs ; they are bound up one on each side of the travis (partition, pro-
bably from traverser, Fr. to cross), which is made hia;h enough to prevent the horned
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 541
cattle from touching one another, at the same time keeping the heads of each pair at
such a distance apart as not to be able to injure, or eat, one another's turnips. The bands
are fixed to upright iron rods about three quarters of an inch in diameter, which are
screwed together through the travis. The lower part of the windows in the back wall
of the byre are filled with louvre (lufFer) boarding, which can be opened to any degree
for admitting air, or shut altogether, at pleasure. The feeding-ports (openings),
which surround the feeding-chamber, have small doors hung with pulleys, lines, and
weights, similar to a common window, which by moving upwards, do not interfere with, or
occupy, any part of the feeding-chamber. The wall at the cattle's heads, surrounding the
feeding-chambers, is built to the full height of the joists, which keeps the turnip-
barrow out of the view of the cattle, and does not disturb the one division of them
while the man is in the act of feeding the other. This is important, as the quieter the
cattle are kept the better, quietness being no doubt essential to quick fattening.
1137. A commodious Straw-chamber is got over the byre, in a connected range with
the straw or hay chamber over the stable; the roof, which is of considerable height,
serving the double purpose of covering the feeding-byre, and containing a very large
quantity of straw immediately over it. Racks are placed over the several stalls, which
are filled from the straw-chamber above. By this arrangement, the cattle have it in
their power to eat straw and turnips alternately, if inclined. The access to the straw-
chambers over the byre and stables is by a stair which is common to both, and upon the
plate (first landing-place) of the stair is placed a door, which divides the stable from the
feeding-byre ; the upper flight of the stair is understood to be a hanging one, leaving a
useful space under it for holding the byre implements. By the whole arrange-
ment half the labour of feeding and attending the cattle will be saved.
1138. The Stabling consists of eighteen stalls, three of which are separated from the
general farm stable, but are so situated as to admit of the racks being supplied from the
general straw or hay chamber over the common farm stable. They are understood to
have two sets of racks ; the upper one for hay or straw, and the under one for grass.
Although the under racks appear the most natural for the horses to eat from, it is found
that they do not eat the straw or hay so clean out of them as they do out of the upper
racks ; but these under racks are the most convenient for the grass, as it should always
be put in from the stall below, without passing through the hay-chamber ; being, in its
damp state, very.hurtful to the wood floor above.
1139. The Turnip-shed, which is right opposite the feeding-byre, is also conveniently
situated for supplying the cattle in the straw-yard ; and, as it is not required for turnips
in summer, it may be used for, and serve the double purpose of, a grass-house.
1140. The Cow-byres have ventilators placed over each line of heads; they cross the
ridge, and are formed of lead of a triangular figure, the sill-piece being overlapped by
the sides far enough to prevent the rain from getting in. The calf house and ward, and
the cow-byres, which fall under the class of offices more immediately connected with the
house, have doors facing the kitchen court, which makes the access to them convenient and
clean. The opposite doors are used for driving out the cattle, and for wheeling the dung
into the straw-yard. The causewayed court in front of the byres, besides being con-
venient for carting in the turnips, affords space for the cows to move about in, or to stand
in for a short time ; and, as the cattle always make dung when they are driven
out, by allowing them to remain for a few minutes in this passage or court, the
dung that might otherwise be wasted on the roads is preserved, and thrown into the
straw-yard.
1141. The several Drains leading from the byres, stables, and straw-yard have such
declivities as to discharge the liquid manure into the tank, which is constructed on one
side of the straw-yard, in a central situation for the byres, stables, &c. It is twenty-one
feet long, five feet broad, and seven feet deep ; and, if the nature of the soil be porous,
it should be plastered over with Roman cement, to prevent the thin liquid manure from
escaping. Being of this long and narrow figure, the tank can easily be covered with
pavement, which is much cheaper than arching, and takes up less space. The drains
should have cast-iron plugs placed at about fifteen feet apart, and at these openings a
jointed rod fifteen feet long could be put into the drain with a hough (hoe), or piece of
plate iron the figure (shape) of the drain, fixed to one end of it; by which means the
drains may be cleaned without breaking up any part of the causewaying ; but, if the
drains are properly constructed, they will not require cleaning for several years. They
should have a fall towards the tank of at least four inches to the ten feet, and be nine
inches wide, six inches deep at the sides, and nine inches at the centre. By having this
kind of triangular bottom, the smallest quantity makes a run (current) and forces every
thing along with it. The drains through the straw-yard should have openings, with
grates over them, situated in the lowest part of the straw-yard, to draw off the surplus
watty after falls of rain or snow. When these drains are not required, the grates may be
54?2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
liisily covered over with dung; and if, at any time, the dung is found too dry, movable
spouts may be attached to the pump which is placed in the tank, by which means the
liquid manure can be regularly spread over the whole straw-yard. A waste drain extends
from the tank to an open ditch in front of the steading ; by which means the liquid manure
in the tank, if neglected, is carried off when it rises to that level, and is thus prevented
from injuring the drains.
1 142. The Catth-shti/s, from their situation, face the south, which is of great advantage
to the cattle, though often overlooked in laying out farm buildings; and they are divided
in the centre by a passage adjoining the turnip-shed, and opposite the straw-house. This
passage rises like an inclined plane, 4 feet from A to B, the side walls or parapets being
built up to that height, and forms a fence to both yards. All the dung from the
li (.ding-byre and stable is wheeled into the straw-yards by this passage; which, from its
central situation, admits of the stable dung being equally distributed through both yards,
and this by the rising passage can be done without opening a door, which prevents the
one class of cattle from intermingling with the other, or getting out. Straw-racks are
placed in the sheds ; but, by also having them in the centre of the yard, and connected
with this passage, they can be conveniently filled, and the cattle are induced to divide,
which mixes the dung more generally through the yards. The racks on the extremities
of the passage are understood to be movable, and can be laid aside when carting out the
dung. The piggeries, from their situation, may be conveniently supplied from the kitchen
or boiling-house, and are in both yards. Pigs are very beneficial to the dung, from their
turning it over and mixing it : they also eat up any particles of corn among the horses'
dung that may not be digested. One small enclosure is provided in each yard, with a
trough for feeding young pigs ; thus protecting them from the cattle while eating : but
they have no house or sty, which induces them to go out among the cattle, and to lie
about the sheds. By this arrangement they have healthy exercise, enabling them at the
same time to provide a part of their food, and be beneficial to the dung in both yards.
Other two sties are provided for putting up two pair to feed. The gates to the straw-
vard may either be of the common form, or be hung with stout ropes, pulleys, and
weights. This last is perhaps the best plan, as it secures them from the risk of damage
when the dung is being carted out of the yard, and they can be also raised as the straw
in the yard rises.
1143. The Cistern-house is of such a height that pipes may be taken from it to the
dwelling-house, boiling-house, calf-ward, &c. It may be either supplied from a fountain,
if one can be found in the neighbourhood ; or a well may be dug, and a pump placed
within the cistern-house. A water-trough is placed in the division wall between the
straw-yards ; and a ball-cock is fixed in the centre of the said trough, and shut in by
boarding, overlapped by the upper part of the wall, protecting it from injury from the
cattle. The cock opens and increases running as the water falls low in the trough, and
when the trough is full, the floating ball shuts the pipe. By this self-acting supply, the
cattle at all times have the command of water, and none of it is wasted ; if supplied from
a fountain no attention is necessary, as the cistern will also shut itself in like manner,
and the overflow, if any, will go off at the fountain head. Two troughs are placed on
the outside for the horses, or the milch cows, and supplied with ball-cocks in the same
manner.
1 144. The Roof Water, in the inside of the court, is carried round with eave spouts, and
with rain-water pipes at the south extremities leading it into drains. It is a material
object to carry off the roof water without allowing its admixture with the manure in
the courts.
1145. The Dwelling-house consists of the following apartments ; viz. upon the ground
floor two parlours, a bed- room, kitchen, servants' bed-closet, dairy, scullery or wash-
house, with a small cellar, which may be got under the stair, and a coal-house. The
upper floor consists of four bed-rooms and a servants' bed-room ; but, in cases where
more bed-rooms are required, an additional attic room could be got over the wash-
house, having access from the same stair. The upper rooms go partly into the roof.
1146. Estimate. — Mason's Work. £ s. d.
54 roods of rubble building, at 30s 351: 0:0
810 feet of rybats, soles, and lintels, at Is 40 : 10 : 0
302 feet superficial of hammer-dressed pillars in cart-sheds, at Ad. ... 5 : 4:0
60 feet lineal of cart-shed arches, hammer-dressed, at Is. 6d. 4 : 10 : 0
98 feet lineal of cattle-shed ditto, at 2s 9 : 16 : 0
52 feet lineal of squares droved, at Is 2 : 12 : 0
378 yards ot causeway in stables and byres, at Is 18 : 18 : 0
476 feet superficial of flag division at cattle's head, at 8d 15 : 17 : 4
1 147. Wright's and Slater's Work.
158f) yards of wood roofing, at 5s. Sd 417: 10:0
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 543
51 roods 6 yards of slatework, at 75s 190 : 0:0
728 feet superficial of lead ridges, piens, and Hanks, at Is 36 : 8:0
149 yards of sleepers in flooring in low barn, at 5s. Gd. 40 : 19 : 6
511 yards of joisting in granaries and stable lofts, at Gs. 6d 161 : 1:6
390 feet cubic for safe lintels (inside lintels) and beams, at 3s 58 : 10 : 0
1523 feet lineal for skirting in granary and cow barn, at 4d. 8 : 14 : 4
140 feet superficial of weather-boards in ventilating the byres, at Gd. 3 : 10 : 0
108 yards of plain doors, with 3 bars each, at 3s. Gd. 18 : 18 : 0
192 feet superficial of lufl'er board windows, at Gd. 4 : 16 : 0
126 feet superficial in straw-yard gates, at Gd. 3: 3:0
24 feet cubic in frames of hung gates, at 3s. 3d. 3 : 18 : 0
4 pulley chains and weights 2: 5:0
36 feet cubic in beams at cattle heads, at 3s. 3d. 5:17:0
32 stakes for binding cattle, at Is. Gd. 2 : 8:0
50 feet cubic of trevis posts, at 3s. 3d. 8 : 2:6
693 feet superficial of trevis boards, at Gd 17 : 6:6
222 feet superficial of racks, at 4d 3 : 14 : O
1 85 feet superficial of mangers, at 6d 4: 12 : 6
36 pairs of crooks and bands for doors, at 5d. 9 : 0:0
3 pairs of cross-tailed hinges, at 2s. 6d. 0 : 7:6
22 stock locks, at 2s. Gd 2 . 5:0
8 sliding bolts of a large size, at 2s. 6d. 1 : 0:0
9 ditto of a smaller size, at 2s 0 : 18 : 0
45 feet superficial of three glazed windows, at 2s. 3d. 5 : 1:3
175 feet superficial of stair, at Gd 4 : 7:6
46 yards of division walls in the poultry-house, piggery, and
necessary, at 2s 4 : 12 : 0
153 yards of plaster in granaries, at 5d 3 : 3:4
46 feet cubic of anchor beams and posts in cart-shed at 3s 6 : 18 : 0
£1478 : 3 : 9
1148. Remarks. This Design was procured us by our much esteemed friend Mr.
Gorrie, who informs us that it is built exactly on the model of one which obtained
a premium for its author from the Highland Society of Scotland. " The farm of
Elcho, where the above farmery stands," Mr. Gorrie remarks, " is partly clay and partly-
black land, and may be considered as a fair medium average of Carse of Gowrie
farms, as to size, soil, and mode of cropping. Many of the best farms in the Carse of
Gowrie contain a proportion of black land, which admits of turnips being raised for
feeding. On Elcho, and such Carse farms, the whole is under tillage ; clover, standing
only one year in the course, admiting of little pasturage. On black lands, a pair of
horses with a plough are equal to the labour of 40 acres ; 6 ploughs with 1 2 horses,
and a few supernumerary, are equal to the working of 240 acres. On farms wholly
clay, 8 ploughs are necessary for the same extent, under the same rotation of cropping ;
and, on such farms, feeding-byres and additional stabling would be requisite. In other
respects the plan of Elcho farmery would be suitable, holding out many advantages.
Several mills go by water near the northern banks of the Carse, and this element is
available near the river Tay. Elcho is situated near the west end of the Carse of
Gowrie, and on the south side of the Tay." To us this Design appears decidedly
the most perfect of upwards of a hundred which have been sent us from different
parts of the country, and from which we have chosen those given in the present section.
Its excellence evidently depends on two things ; first, on the Architect being a thinking
and ingenious man, really intent on carrying improvement into every department of his
profession ; and, secondly, on his knowing thoroughly the uses of a farm yard. He is,
or appears to us to be, among the builders of farmeries, what Mr. Fowler of London is
among the builders of public markets, — an Architect of reason, and not a mere follower
of precedents ; a man, in short, anxious to do something more than leave his art exactly
where he found it. No Architect can improve the arrangement of a building of which
he does not thoroughly understand the use ; for which reason, in all our Designs, we have
endeavoured to show the uses of all their different parts ; and we have also enlarged on
this subject when treating of Fundamental Principles and Model Designs, in a manner
which, in a work professedly devoted to Architecture, must, no doubt, have surprised
many. This we have done, because we are convinced that the knowledge of the uses of
any building constitutes the essential foundation of all architectural improvements in it,
beyond that of mere design and taste ; which, it must be remembered, are to an edifice
only what dress is to a man, not the man himself. In perusing Mr. Mackenzie's
description of his plan, we find in every sentence evidence of his intimate acquaintance
,514 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
with the business of the farm yard ; and we cannot help bong delighted with the im-
provements which he has introduced. The circular feeding-house is a new and excellent
idea, the whole arrangements of the barn and straw-house are admirable, and, as the
author observes, must save a great deal of labour. The inclined plane, and its right and
left level elevated branches, for wheeling the manure from the stables into the middle of
the cattle courts, without the necessity of opening a gate, is excellent ; as is the idea of
the pump and general supply cistern being placed in a house, to protect them from the
frost. In a country where Hag-stone abounds, long, narrow, liquid manure tanks are,
as shown, preferable to circular or square forms covered by arches, on account of their
cheapness. On the whole, we strongly recommend the young Architect to make himself
master of this Design in all its details ; because there are several points in it which he
may introduce in the very humblest of farmeries, and because most, or all, of them should
be included m all extensive ones.
Design XXXVI. — A Public House and Farmery ; the Publican being, at the same time, a
small Farmer and a Butcher.
1149. Accommodation. The general appearance of this public house and farmery
is shown in p. 536; the ground plan in fig. 1070; and we have received from the
1070
author, William Thorold, Esq., Architect and Engineer, of Norwich, the following
explanatory details: — " The words, ' Good entertainment for man and horse,'"
Mr. Thorold observes, " formerly appeared on the sign-board of every country alehouse;
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 545
and, in order that we should maintain the character of ' good,' it is necessary to make
the accommodations and appearances correspond with modern refinement, which we
have endeavoured to do in the present Design. In fig. 1070, to a scale of 48 feet to an
inch, the bar, a, is represented with a how window, overlooking the road, and is surrounded
on the other sides by the entrance lobbies and staircase, being warmed from the back of
the kitchen range. The dining or club room, b, is proposed to be occasionally used as a
magistrates' petty sessions room ; the two small parlours, c and d, have cellars under
them ; the kitchen, e, is approached from the yard, x, by a small porch ; and this kitchen
should have a cooking-range, copper, oven, &c, and must be used also as a back-kitchen ;
but the family washing can be done in the brewhouse, s. There is a dairy, f; pantry and
store-room, g ; and there are six sleeping-rooms on the first floor. There is a butcher's
sale-shop, h ; a lock-up stable, i ; a coach and gig-house, j ; a slaughter-house, k ; and an
open stable, / ; with hay-houses, m in. Two open lodges are shown at n n, with stack
staddles over their flat stone roofs. There is a barn, o, with a wicket at each end to pitch
in the stacks. There is a cart-house stable at p ; a loose box for a hackney, q ; a cow-
house, r ; brewhouse, s ; cart-lodge, t ; place for fowls, fuel, and women's privy, v ; a yard
for driven cattle, w 1 ; a yard for farm cattle, w 2 ; and a paved yard, x, with pump and
water-trough. The house and brewhouse are supposed to be supplied by underground
pipes. There is an orchestra at ij ; and two verandas for playing at skittles, or for
separate alcoves or pavilions for taking refreshments in, z z. There is a kitchen-garden,
A ; a bowling-green and tea-garden, B ; a parish road, C ; and a turnpike road, D.
1150. Construction. The walls may be of rubblestone, bricks, or clay lumps; and the
roofs covered with slate.
1151. Remarks. This Design is supposed to be in the plainest possible style; and it
is intended to introduce drains, manure tanks, and every other economical arrangement,
in its details." We consider this a very complete Design of its kind; its author is not
only a scientific Architect and engineer of considerable practice, but he has also had
much experience in farming, in the county of Norfolk.
Design XXXVII. — A House and Out-buildings for a Cheese Dairy Farm of from 300
to 350 Acres, in Cheshire.
1 1 52. Accommodation. The ground plan of the house, which we have not given, con-
tains a parlour, dining-room, kitchen, or, as it is called in Cheshire, a house-place,
1071
staircase ; pantry, with a cellar under ; dairy, with cheese bench ; situation for cheese-
presses, and boilers, there are a milk-room, with a cheese-room over it ; and a salting-
house, also with a cheese-room over it. The farmery contains four cow-houses for six
cows each, m ; and two for twelve cows each, o ; with foddering bays, n, and cleaning-
passages, p, between. There are in the barns two corn-bays, q, and a threshing-bay,
r, where the machinery would be placed if a threshing-machine were employed. There
3 o
540
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
is a stable for six horses, t, an hospital for sick horses, ?/ ; a wheelwright's or carpenter's
shop, v, with a store-room over it ; a stoaming-room, w ; a reservoir for liquid manure, x,
with a pump, y ; four inner pig-cots, z, with outer pig-cots and two poultry-houses, aa ;
with a poultry-yard, bb. The stack-yard is in the situation, cc, and it contains sixty
feet in length of hay-sheds, twenty feet wide, and twenty-two feet high, in one or more
lengths, as may he most convenient. There are three calf-cots, dd, and sheds may be
continued at ee, with a wall at//', so as to form an additional straw or fold yard to that
in the centre of the farmery marked gg.
1153. Remarks. — This Design has been made, at our request, by Alexander Ogilvie,
Esq., of the Mere, near Knutsford, Cheshire. Mr. Ogilvie was a pupil of the late Dr.
Coventry, and has since had extensive practice both as a land steward and as a farmer.
We saw his crops and his dairy when we visited him at Mere, in July, 1830, and found
them greatly superior to any in the neighbourhood. His dairy practice was also of an
improved description ; and, at our request, he has furnished us with plans and elevations
of his improved cheese-press,which we shall give under the head of Farm House Furniture.
The plan of the farmery was accompanied by the following observations: — " This plan
is something near what I should think a house and set of offices ought to be on a farm
of from 300 to 350 acres, in Cheshire : but I am sorry to say that the poor tenants of
this district are obliged to put up with buildings of a very different description ; partly
owing to the landlords not liking to see a gentleman farmer in their neighbourhood,
and partly owing to the class of men who, in this country, generally have the charge of
landed property being incompetent to judge of the best system to be adopted for the
idtimate and permanent benefit of the estate. There are several things of minor im-
portance that have been omitted in this Design ; such as a coal-yard, &c. ; but these will
not affect the general merits or demerits of the plan. If I occupied such a farm myself,
with similar out-buildings, I should certainly have a threshing-machine, and that one to
be moved by a steam-engine of about six-horse power, by which I could thresh my
corn, cut my hay, straw, turnips, &c, and steam my potatoes and other articles. The
machine would stand in the one corn-bay, on a loft or platform raised eight feet from the
ground, with a winnowing-machine, &c, under it; then the threshing-bay, shown in the
plan, would be the place where the straw would be deposited when thrown from the
shaker of the machine, and the other corn-bay would become the straw-house. Behind
the cow-houses there might be a straw-yard, if required, with sheds for young cattle
and young horses during the winter months. This is shown by the dotted lines
ee and//."
Design XXXVIII. — A Mixed Stock Farm, in a high {hilly) Country, employing only
One Pair of Horses.
1 154. Accommodation. In the ground plan, fig. 1072, are shown a potato-house, a ; spare-
house, or place applicable for different purposes, b ; house for young cattle, c ; cow-house, d ;
■jllll|Mll|
larger cow-house, e ; small cow-house, /; corn-barn, g ; part of the barn to be floored and
lofted, h ; house for holding wool, to be floored with boards, i ; hay-house, k; stable, I;
cart-shed, m ; poultry-house, n ; two sheep-sheds, o o ; two pigsties, p ; sheep-yard, q ; and
yard for dung, r.
1 1 55. Construction. The walls are of stone, and the roof is slated. The surface on
which this farmery stands is supposed to have an inclination to one point, to which all
1073
a
107.;
T3t
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 547
the rain water which falls on the roofs of the houses and on the yards, and all the liquid
manure, are drained by open
gutters, or underground con- 1074
(In its, formed in the manner
shown in the section fig. 1073,
which are discharged
into a tank, of which
fig. 1075 is a ground
plan, and fig. 1074, a
longitudinal section.
This tank is about
forty-four feet long by twelve
teet wide ; the water may
enter at one end, and there
may be a waste gutter at the
other, in case it should at any
time be allowed to overflow.
" The sediment is supposed to
settle in the basin. The chaff,
or other dry substances, that
it is wished to convert into
manure, and that are difficult to rot, may also be put in here ; and it is intended
that the width and slope of the basin should admit of carts passing through it for
carrying off the sediment. On one side, fig. 1075, u is supposed to be sunk about
four feet deep below the bottom of the basin, and the water to be drained thence
through a close grating, §•. A pump is proposed to be put into the well, and to stand
sufficiently high above the ground to throw the water into a barrel on a cart, which may
then be taken to the field, and discharged on the soil, in the same way as the streets are
watered in towns. If the grating should not make the water sufficiently free from mud,
a small bundle of wheat straw, well drawn, and loosely tied, put up against it, will be
found to answer the purpose. A hatchway, or manhole, should be made in the cover of
the well, in order to admit of a person going down occasionally to clear it out." (High-
land Soc. Trans., vol. viii. p. 388.) The soil in which this tank or basin is formed is
supposed to be rocky or gravelly, in which case a layer of clay puddle should be placed
underneath the causewayed bottom, and a vertical stratum of the same material should
be put at the backs of the side walls ; but in clay soils this will not be necessary. In fig.
1075, s s are the side walls ; 1 t, vertical strata of clay puddle ; u, the well ; and §•, the
grating. In fig. 1074, v is the layer of clay puddle under the causeway ; w is the grating
before the opening to the well ; x, the point at which the water enters ; y, that at which
it escapes; and z, the coping of the side walls. Fig. 1076 is a suitable plan for a gate
for this description of
farm yard. " The right ^____^ y i11
side pillar is intended for f AAAAAM lnns= n=anl
a situation where free-
stone can be easily ob-
tained ; and the left side
represents the finishing
in a situation where in-
ferior stone only is to be got, or where the expense of better finishing is not approved
of ; but, if it should be thought preferable, a round pillar may be formed of any kind
of inferior stone. The gate-posts are supposed to be ten inches in diameter, circular,
or in the octagon form, and sunk in the ground. As it frequently happens that gates
into straw-yards are obstructed in their opening, when the courts are becoming filled
with dung, it is proposed to hang this gate about nine or ten inches clear of the surface ;
and to make up the space between the surface and the gate by laying a piece of coarse
wood below the gate, about six or eight inches in diameter, which can be taken out, so
as not to obstruct the wheels of carts when the dung is removed from the court. A gate
put together in this way is very substantial ; and is easily repaired, when any part of it fails.
As a means of preserving the gates in spring, when the cattle leave the yards, they should
be all taken off, and put into the sheds, where they may remain till they are again required.
1 1 56. Remarks. This Design, and those of the six following farmeries, have been
taken from a collection published in the Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland,
vol. viii. These Designs were composed by Mr. Waddell of Berwickshire, an Architect
of great experience in the laying out of farm buildings, under the superintendence of the
committee of the society ; and we are informed by our much esteemed friend, David
Low, Esq., Professor of Agriculture in the University of Edinburgh, that he considers
,548 COTTAGK, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
them, though capable of improvement, yet the best which have hitherto been published.
In consequence of our having received this opinion from such high authority as that of
Professor Low, we have deemed it our duty to make a selection, such as we consider will
render our series complete. The Designs in the Highland Society's Transactions are
prefaced by a general specification, and some accompanying remarks, from which we
have made the following extracts and abridgments.
1 1.57. Thr Designs published by the Highland Society are contrived solely with a view
to utility, and to correct the prevailing errors in this description of buildings; viz., that
of crowding them together, under the idea of giving them greater compactness; and that
of not giving them a sufficient extent of shelter-sheds for the feeding of cattle. " The
last is a fault so universal, that it is only on the larger class of breeding and feeding farms,
in the border counties of England and Scotland, that experience has taught builders fully
to avoid it." " In giving designs of the outhouses of a farm," it is judiciously observed,
that " little more can be done than to present useful examples. Although a certain
similarity must exist in the form and arrangement of the parts of all such buildings, yet
these must he modified according to the circumstances of the farm itself, the nature of
the soil, (lie situation with regard to markets, and the particular kind of management
to be pursued. No one rule that can be given is of general application ; and the judg-
ment of the Architect must be shown in adapting the size, form, and arrangement of the
buildings to the nature of the farm, and the wants of the occupier. While every suitable
accommodation should be afforded to the tenant, it is the province of the Architect to
take care that the heavy cost of such buildings be not unnecessarily enhanced, either by
erecting buildings that are useless, or by giving unnecessary dimensions to such as are
requisite. It may be particularly remarked, that the giving unnecessary breadth to the
buildings adds materially to the expense, by increasing the dimensions of the timbers,
and adding to the size of the roofs. At the same time, care must be taken that, in the
cow-houses and stables, the animals shall not be cramped from the want of necessary
room." (Ibid., p. 368.)
1158. The most convenient Arrangement of a Farmery " is in the form of a rectangle,
the side to the south being open ; and the farm house being placed at some convenient
distance in front of it. The most approved mode of keeping and feeding the larger and
finer kinds of cattle is in small sheds, with open yards attached, each capable of holding
two animals. In the Designs which follow, the sheds are of larger dimensions, but they
can be subdivided where this mode of managing the feeding stock is adopted."
1 1 .59. In arranging this, and the Eight following Designs, " wherever uniformity and con-
venience could not be combined, the preference has been given to the latter ; and nothing
has been proposed but what has been found, from experience, to be useful and practicable.
But it is quite impossible, especially in the largest class of farm buildings, to get all the
apartments arranged so conveniently as could be wished, consistently with any degree of
regularity ; nor does it seem to be possible to lay down a plan that will suit the wish of
all farmers, there being so great a diversity in the modes of occupation, kind of manage-
ment, situation, soil, &c."
1160. Drainage. " It is recommended that the liquid manure from the stables, cow-
houses, and yards should be carried off, by causewayed open channels, to a pond or tank
near to the buildings. This mode of conveying away and receiving the urine and dung-
water is conceived to be better in ordinary cases tban conduits below ground, which,
even when executed in the best manner, will be subject to be choked up from the want
of necessary attention to cleaning: further, such sewers become nurseries for rats, not-
withstanding every precaution that can be taken. Conduits may be made through the
ranges of building, below the floors, at proper places, so as to discharge the liquid into a
pond or tank exterior to the farmery."
1161. Water. " With respect to watering the cattle in the yards, no indication of the
mode of doing so is given in the Designs, as this must depend on whether the water is
got from a stream, or from a well. If a stream cannot be obtained, there are few situations
where water cannot be got by sinking a well ; and the best way is to raise the water into
a cistern, which may be placed in any of the shelter-sheds or other houses, seven feet
above the ground ; or, if the water will not rise so high, a small apartment may be made
for it, and from this it may lie conveyed to cisterns with ball cocks, in the different yards
and places where it is wanted ; care being taken to lay the pipes so as that they may he
easily emptied on the approach of frost."
1 162. The Shelter-sheds ami Yards " should always be open to the south ; and the sheds,
unless where thev are very large, will be found to answer better with only one opening
in front ; ashy this means they afford more warmth to the cattle. The usual objection
to this is, that one ill-natured beast will keep out the rest: this, however, seldom
happen,. A fanner of much experience recently told Mr. Waddell that hist year he
built up all the openings, except one, in one of his sheds, and that he knew a great
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 549
difference in favour of the stock in that yard, as compared with those in which there were
three or more openings in the sheds. The animals were finer in the skin, and, in other
respects, in better condition."
1163. Passages. " It may appear, in several of these ground plans, that the passages
and the entrances to the different apartments are wider than necessary ; hut it is a matter
of great consequence to have open and free access, where a number of carts and cattle
frequently come in contact."
1164. Turnip-house. " As it is necessary to lay up a stock of turnips as a supply
when they cannot be got from the field either on account of frost or wet weather, a
turnip-house is delineated in some of the plans ; though it is to be observed that these
turnip-houses are of no great utility, since it is found that turnips keep much longer
when put together in a sheltered place in the open air, well covered with straw, than they
will do in a close house."
1165. Threshing-mills. " No Design has been given either of a water-mill or
steam-engine house for the threshing-machine ; as the erection of these is subject to
circumstances, and their size and position are naturally under the direction of the
millwright."
1 1 66. Gates. " In all the plans here designed, the gates are shown to be hung on
wooden posts, which are not so easily knocked down by carts as common stone pillars.
Hut this does not prevent the adoption of hewn-stone pillars, which both have a better
appearance and are much stronger."
1167. All the inside Gables " are intended to be carried to the top."
1168. With regard to ventilating the Stables and Cow-houses, " it is recommended that
openings of about six inches high, and the same width as between the rafters, shall be
made in the roots, and fitted up with boards, about three inches broad, suspended by
pivots, and moved by a crank, in the same way as the luffer-boards in a granary window.
One, two, or three of these, in a stable or cow-house, according to the length of the apart-
ment, will, if attended to, be found to be of great service."
1169. Boiling-houses and Stables. " In all the boiling-houses the roofs should be
lathed and plastered in the inside, round by the back of the cupple (couples, or rafters),
and should have a large ventilator to let off the steam. The saddle-horse stables should
be plastered in the same way."
1170. In the Construction of these Buildings, " the corners, ribbets (reveals), arches,
and skews are supposed to be of hewn stone ; the wood of Memel fir ; the slates from
Easdale ; and the ridges of flanks (gutters in the valleys) covered with lead. The cost
and workmanship of all the materials are included in the general estimate, except the
prime cost of stones. In most of the plans, metal pillars are designed for the cart-sheds ;
but, where stones can be easily procured, it is recommended that they should be made use
of, in preference to metal. The stones for the bases of the metal pillars should be one
foot eight inches broad, and one foot two inches thick." (Ibid., 372.)
1171. The Plan, fig. 1072, " being intended for a hill farm, principally in pasture, it
is supposed that only one pair of work-horses is employed ; but the stable is made to hold
four, because, on a farm of this sort, there should always be a third ready to be employed
occasionally, frequently a breeding mare ; and the fourth stall is required for a riding-
pony. It is supposed that three or four cows are to be kept, and their calves brought up till
they are two or three years old, which will consume all the fodder produced by this
extent of arable culture. Should more horses be employed, or the farm produce much
meadow hay, more cattle might be kept ; and, consequently, the houses for cattle would
then require to be enlarged. A room is designed for holding wool, which by some may
be thought unnecessary, as the barn or cow-house is frequently made use of for holding
it till sold ; but it sometimes happens that, in bad markets, the wool is kept over the year ;
and in this case a house for it is necessary. There are also added shelter-sheds, and a
yard for handling sheep, which may be subdivided by hurdles, as required. Shelter of
this kind for ewes in lambing is of great service in bad weather. It is thought, on the
whole, that in this Design there is as small an extent of building as should be erected on
a considerable-sized farm of this description." (Ibid., p. 387.)
1172. General Estimate. The probable expense of executing this plan, exclusive of
the carriage of materials and prime cost of stones, will be about ,£410; and, if covered
with tiles, £.322.
Design XXXIX. — A Farmery for a Garden Farm of 200 Acres, situated near a Town,
employed wholly in Tillage, where no Stock is kept but Horses and Family Cows, and
where the whole Produce is sold.
1173. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1077, and the ground
plan in fig. 1078. The latter contains a potato-house, a; cart-shed, the pillars of which
air ul iron, with stone basts and cap,, h ; cow-house, c ; calf-house, or place for a mare and
550 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
foal, d; straw-bam and dressing-barn, e; situation of the granary, or outside inclined
plane, up which the unthreshed corn is carried to the feeding-board of the threshing-
machine, /; spare house, </ ; stable, h ; hay-house, i ; riding-horse stable, k; poultry-house,
/; house for boiling or steaming food, m ; two pigsties, n ; dung-pit, o; and open court,
p ; privy, and place for a dog, q. One pump may be conveniently placed in the boiling-
house, and the other in the hay-house.
1174. Remarks. This farmery is supposed to be situated on the side of a public road,
near a town. The doors on that account are placed on the inside of the court, with a
wall in front eight feet high, that they may be locked at night ; but in other situations
this wall will be unnecessary. The accommodation here shown will be found sufficient
for most situations. The dressing-barn might answer a few feet shorter than it is
represented ; and, if the straw-barn should be thought too short, the space thus gained
could be thrown into it. It is proposed to make the straw-barn ten feet high to the
joists, which would hold a sufficient quantity of straw, and give room for putting it up
UI bundles lor the market, &c. The granary above this will be four feet six inches
high from the floor to the top of the wall, which, with six inches of beam-filling, will give
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 551
five feet from the floor to the intersections of the cupples (rafters). If these offices were
not on the side of a puhlic road, it would be an improvement to make the boiling-house
and poultry-house face the south.
1175. General Estimate. This Design, exclusive of the carriage of materials, and the
prime cost of stones, will cost, in the south of Scotland, about £550 ; and, if covered with
tiles instead of slates, the expense will not exceed ,£400. Dividing these sums by the
number of cubic feet, we have, in the first case, 1\d. per foot, and, in the second, \\d. per
foot, which may be considered the guess prices for this description of buildings in Scotland.
Design XL. — A Farmery for a Farm of 500 Acres, kept in a Rotation of Corn Crops
and Pasture, producing Turnips, and emphyed partly in breeding, and partly in
feeding Stock.
1176. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1079, shows an overseer's house, with
a kitchen, a ; two box-beds,
b b, partitioning oft' a light
closet, or bed-room : there is
besides, a small parlour, c.
Adjoining this are a gig-
house and harness-room, d;
cow-house, e ; house for hay
or turnips, f; mare and foal
house, g ; house for a bull,
h ; servants' cow-house, i ;
calf-house, k ; straw-barn,
I ; threshing-machinery, m ;
dressing-barn, m ; gangway,
or inclined plane, from the
rick-yard to the floor for
unthreshed corn, o ; under-
granary, p, with a granary
over ; spare house, q ; hay-
house, r ; stables, s s ; poul-
try-house and yard, t t ;
pigsties, u • stable for riding
horses, and saddle-room, v
v ; cart-shed, w ; carpenter's
shop, x ; foal-house, y ;
potato-house, z ; house for
boiling and steaming food,
a' ; smithy, b' ; open yard,
in which no litter or ma- pas
nure is placed, c'; shelter- ',]
sheds, and fold-yards, with ':!
cribs in the latter, d' ; • j J
paved gutter for collecting ii
and conveying away the !•„..
surface water, e' ; place for
storing turnips,/' ; and sup-
posed line of fence, g'.
1177. Remarks. This is
a very complete plan, though
we could wish some more
accommodation to the over-
seer's house. The separa-
tion of those houses which
require no litter into a
square by themselves, c ,
is very judicious. The
poultry-house here, t, ought
to have a communication
with the stable, for the sake
of heat. The pigsties we
would remove, and add the
space they stand on to the
poultry-yard. Places for
pigs might be formed in
559. COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
the central shelter-slietl. The following observations on this plan are hy the committee
of the Highland Society : "The shelter-sheds are placed within the square ; and, should
they be thought too small for a farm producing a great quantity of straw, they may be
enlarged by throwing them a few feet forward. There are also designed an overseer's
house, and a smithy and carpenter's shop. Should these not be required, the cart-sheds
could he placed where the overseer's house is ; the boiling and potato houses at the west
end of the riding-horse stable, and the west wing done away with altogether. A poultry-
house could be taken off the straw-barn. By these means a considerable expense would
be saved. The lower and upper granary would still make an extent of seventy feet by
eighteen feet, which would be a suitable size for such a farm." ( Trans. High. Soc, vol.
viii. ]). 382.)
1 1 78. General Estimate. To execute this plan, exclusive of the overseer's house,
smithy, and carpenter's shop, and of the carriage of materials, and the prime cost of
stones, will cost about £1300 covered with slates; if covered with tiles, it will cost about
£1020.
Design XLI . — A Farmery for a Farm of 500 Acres of arable Turnip Land, kept tinder
alternate Corn and Pasture, and employed in breeding and in feeding Stock, as well as
in sending Corn to Market.
1179. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1080, shows pigsties, a ; a poultry-
house, b; house for boiling or steaming food, c ; potato-house, d ; foal-house, e ; stables
1080
It. II 0 10 25 .50 Ft.
I 1 1 ! 1 1
for seventeen horses, f ; hay-house, g ; spare house, h ; straw-houses, it; threshing-
machinery, k; dressing-barn, I, with loft for unthreshed corn, &c, over it; lower
granary, m, with another granary of the same size over it ; calf-house, n ; cow-houses,
o o ; house for bull, p ; cart-shed, q ; gig-house, r ; shelter-sheds, s ; shed for young
horses or cattle, t, with a yard in front ; feeding-yards, u ; yard for young cattle, v ; and
yard for store cattle, w.
1180. Remarks. The committee observe that this plan will be found extremely
convenient, though it does not contain near so much accommodation as the preceding
one. The small yard, t, in the middle will be found to be very useful for different
purposes. On some farms the length of the straw-barn would be quite sufficient, were
it to terminate in a line with the front of the shelter-sheds. The cart-sheds would be
better arranged if they opened to the exterior of the yard, as the cows going out and in
are apt to be rambling among the carts, and injuring tbemselves.
1181. General Estimate. Exclusive of carriages, and prime cost of stone, this farmery
will cost about £1190, covered with slates ; and, if covered with tiles, about £940.
Design XLII. — A Dairy Farm of 500 Acres, kept in a Rotation of Com Crops and Grass
one half being supposed to be in Hay or Pasture.
1182. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1081, shows four cow-houses, a, with
feeding-passages, b, and cleaning-passages, c ; another cow-house, d ; a calf-house, e ;
turnip-house, f; cow-house, g ; another cow-house, h ; straw-house, i ; situation of the
inclined plane from the rick-yard to the unthreshed corn-floor, j ; and machinery, k ;
There are a spare house, / ; two stables, m ; hay-house, n ; place for a bull, o ; cart-shed,
p ; four cow-houses, q, each with a feeding-passage on one side, and a cleaning-passage
on the other ; a poultry-house, r ; gig-house, s ; potato-house, t ; boiling-house, u ; turnip-
house, v ; store-house, w ; superintendant's house, x ; pigsties, y ; and shelter-sheds, z.
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 553
<M 1081
1183. Construction. Fig. 1082 is a section across the dressing-barn, by which the
space between the dressing-floor and the ceiling of the unthreshed corn floor appears to
1082
1083
be eight feet. Fig. 1083 is a section across
the straw-barn, with granary over ; showing
the height from the floor to the ceiling of
the straw-room to be ten feet. Fig. 1084
shows two sections across the boiling-house
and cow-house, exhibiting the cooling or
scalding troughs of the boiling-house, a a ;
the feeding-passage of the cow-house, b; and
the situation of the cleaning-passage behind
the cows, c. Fig. 1085 is a plan of the corn-
loft, or floor for unthreshed corn, of the barn ; in which is shown the entrance for bring-
ing in the sheaves by an inclined plane from the rick-yard, d; the opening for the
admission of the horizontal shaft, connecting the outside gin-wheel with the inside spur-
wheel of the threshing-machine, e ; the hatchway or trapdoor for descending to the
dressing-floor of the barn, f; the situation of the machinery, g ; the opening by which
the straw is dropped by the shaker to the straw-house, h • and steps from the corn-loft
to the granary, i.
1184. Remarks. " This plan is designed for a dairy-farm, and it is considered that ?
great proportion of the cows are fed on boiled or steamed food. There are two boilers,
one being intended for steaming, and the other for boiling in the common way. The
stalls, except those in the cow-houses marked X, Y, Z, are designed for the cows fed on
boiled or steamed food, and may be fitted up with troughs of flat stones. On the sup-
position that a part of the cows are not giving milk, some of the cow-houses are designed
with stalls in the common way, that the cows may be fed with straw, hay, or turnips.
These cow-houses are marked X, Y, Z. In farm offices of this kind, a turnip-shed may-
be necessary, in order that a supply of turnips may be obtained, free from frost, in winter.
Those cow-houses intended for the cows feeding on boiled or steamed food are all placed
as near as possible to the boiling and store houses, with large open passages for conveying
the food to the different places. The dung-pits are also constructed as near the cow-
houses as possible. The walls round these pits need not be higher than three feet. A
3 *
.'554- COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
shelter-shed is designed on the west side, for a few young cattle. If this should be
required, the wall around it should be six feet high. On a farm of this kind, a consider-
able number of pigs may be kept ; a number of sheds for them are therefore laid out in
a convenient situation, and more can be added if necessary. A good supply of water to
a steading of this description is of great importance ; and the cistern may be put up over
the gig or store house. A superintendent's house is also designed, it being necessary
that such a person should be near the establishment at all times. It will also be proper
to attend particularly to the architectural arrangements for cleaning and ventilating the
cow-houses. In some farm buildings of this description, the dairy is connected with the
outhouses • and the same power that drives the threshing-machine gives motion to the
churn : but it is conceived that it would be more convenient to attach the dairy to the
farm house at a little distance from the outhouses, where there would be purer air, and
where the work is to be performed under the eye of the mistress of the farm. As
the dairy does not, in the present Design, form a part of the houses, no plan of it is
given."
1185. General Estimate. This plan, exclusive of the carriage of materials and the
prime cost of stones, will cost about ,£"1300, covered with slate; if covered with tiles,
about £1000. (Ibid., p. 386.)
Design XLIII. — A Farmery for a Clay- Land arable Farm of 500 Acres, not producing
Turnips, and kept chit-fly, or wholly, in Tillage.
1 186. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1088, shows a cart-shed, a ; tool-house,
fc; gig-house, c ; stable, d; harness-room, with a flue for a stove, e; three stables,/;
hay-house, g; spare house, h ; straw-barn, i ; dressing-barn, k, in which are indicated the
place for the machinery, and the stair to the corn-loft ; granary, I ; two cow-houses, m ;
house for bull, n ; calf-house, o ; potato-house, p ; boiling-house, q ; poultry-house, r ;
two pigsties, s ; shelter-sheds, t ; yard for
young cattle, u ; yards for feeding cattle, >v \0§S 1087
v v ; situation of the gangway, or inclined
plane to the corn-floor, w ; and rick-yard, x.
1187. Construction. Fig. 1086 is a
section, A B, across the barn, or granary.
Fig. 1087 is a section, C D, across the
stable. With the exception of the barn
and granary, all the out-buildings are only
one story high ; the walls of the straw-house are 10 feet high, and those of all the others
8 feet.
1188. Remarks. " In this plan, the stables and cart-sheds are conveniently situated,
and the barns are well placed for supplying the courts or yards with straw. The dung
from the stables and cow-houses is designed to go into the yards by the small gates.
The yards here may be differently divided, if it be thought expedient. The extent of
granaries above and below, together, is 88 feet by 1 8 ; perhaps more than in some, but
not more than in other cases, might be required. The boiling-house, in this plan, is not
so near the stables as could be wished ; but, as there is not room for it and the potato-
house in the same range where the stables are, and it being necessary to keep it near the
outside of the square, and as far from the barn yard as possible, there is no other part
where it could be so properly placed, except it were placed where the cart-sheds are, and
the cart-sheds were made in the west range, which would be found to be attended with
inconvenience. The flue of the boiling-house here may go round the back of the poultry-
house, and the chimney be erected on the west side of it. There is also a plan for a
small stove in the harness-room, next the saddle-horse stable, which will be found to
be of great use in winter or damp weather." ( Trans. High. Soc, vol. viii. p. 384.) We
have not, either in this case, or in most of the others, copied the elevations given by the
Highland Society ; because they are all of the very plainest description, and without the
slightest pretension to architectural style. We must say, we deeply regret this circum-
stance ; because a public body, so influential as the Highland Society of Scotland, might
easily effect important improvements, not only in the economical arrangements, but also
in the architectural taste, of farm houses, farm buildings, and cottage dwellings.
Indeed, the farm buildings, and especially the farm houses, of the northern half of the
island, are as far behind those of the south in point of architectural taste, as they are
before them in point of arrangement. Where, for example, shall we find, in Scotland, a
farm bailiffs house like that at Bury Hill, § 847 ; or, in the south of England, a farm-
yard like that of Elcho ? It is true that a mere farmery affords but slight opportunities oi
displaying architectural style ; but, slight as these are, they are such as would render
the most common-place arrangement of walls and roofs as different from the external
appearance which they now present, as a wall of mud is from one of hewn stone.
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 555
Besides, there are always
the gable ends : and every
farmery must have one
of three things highly
susceptible of architec-
tural style ; viz. a shed
to the gin-wheel of
a threshing-machine ; a
■water-wheel ; or a chim-
ney to a steam-engine.
Most farmeries have a
boiling-house; and many
have a ploughman's
lodge ; both of which
give rise to chimney-tops,
which may always be
rendered sources of con-
ferring style. Neither
should it be forgotten that
there are such things as
ventilators in the ridges
of the roofs, respecting
which the same remark
may be made. As to
the farm house, and the
cottages of the married
labourers which are com-
monly to be found ad-
joining the farmery; it is
clear that, if the landlord
wishes it, they can be
rendered as beautiful as
any other dwellings. But
the grand feature of the
modern farmery, on a
large scale, is the chim-
ney to the steam-engine ;
and to its form we would
particularly direct the at-
tention of Architects, and
their employers ; and,
also, that of the Highland
Society, which among
its other committees,
ought to have one of
taste.
1189. General Esti-
mate. « This plan, ex-
clusive of the carriage of
materials and the prime
cost of stones, will cost,
if covered with slates,
about ,£1260; and, if
covered with tiles, about
£1020." (Ibid.)
Design XLIV. — A Farmery for a Farm of 150 Acres, kept in a Rotation of Crops and
Pasture, producing Turnips and Potatoes ; and employed partly in feeding and partly
in breeding Stock.
1 1 90. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1089, shows a potato-house, a ; house
for storing turnips, b ; two cow-houses, c ; calf-house, d ; house for mare and foal, e; straw-
J>arn>/; dressing-barn, g ; machinery, h ; gangway, or inclined plane to the corn-loft, i";
horse-course, SO feet in diameter, and covered with a conical roof, k; cart-shed, I; hay-
house, ?n ; stables, nn; spare house, o; poultry-house, p ; pigsty, q ; shelter-sheds, r ;
and yards, s.
11 91. Remarks. " This plan will afford all the accommodation that could be wished
SS i COTTAGE, I AK.\I, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
6f %
1089
for in a farm of this size. The form of a horse-course is here added; for, unless sufficient
water can be easily procured for turning a wheel, a farm of this extent will not afford
the expense of steam or a wind power, and horses must be employed. The stables, con-
taining but 4 horses, will answer very well at 15 feet wide."
1 1 92. General Estimate. " This plan, exclusive of the expense of carriage and prime
cost of stones, will cost about £'600; if covered with tiles, about £ 476." {Ibid. p. 383.)
Design XLV. — A Farmery for a Cottage Farm of 25 Acres.
1193. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1091, and the ground
plan in fig. 1090. The latter
exhibits a court for calves, a; 1090
poultry-house, b, open to the
cow-house, in order to partake
of its heat ; calf-house, c ; cow-
house, d; calf-crib, e; cart-shed,
/; stable, g; barn, h; part of the
barn to be lofted over, i ; potato-
house, k ; pigsty and yard, / ; and
dung-pit, m.
1 1 94. Remarks. " This De-
sign for a cottage-farm is plain
and simple, and calculated for a
country situation where orna-
ment is not required. It is pro-
posed to joist and floor a small
part of the barn, laying the
joists about 1 foot below the pttti 1 1 1
top of the walls. This will be Ft- 10 ° 10 30 **•
found very useful, by admitting a draught of air near the bottom of the roof, for dry-
ing wet corn, grass seeds, &c." It would be easy to render this Design ornamental,
by giving the openings the character of the old English style; but we can hardly think
it in good taste to bestow much ornament on this class of buildings, which may be truly
said to be, " when unadorned, adorned the most." With a comfortable cottage and garden
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 5.57
in front, which, however may,
and indeed ought to be, orna-
mented, and with an orchard
and rick-yard behind, what
object can harmonise better
with the sentiments called
forth by the appearance of a
simple tract of cultivated
country ?
1 1 95. General Estimate.
To execute this plan, we are
informed, will require, exclu-
sive of the carriage of mate-
rials and the prime cost of
stones, about £164, covered
with slates ; if covered with
tiles, about £130.
Design XLVI. — A Farmery for a Cottage Farm of 30 Acres, with Remarks showing how
it may be extended so as to serve for a Farm of 50, 80, or 100 Acres.
1196. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1093, and the ground
plan in fig. 1092. In the latter
is seen a potato-house, a ; stable,
with a bay at one end for hay, b ;
cart-shed, c ; barn, d ; part of
the barn to be lofted at the
height of ten feet from the
ground, e ; house for turnips with
a pump, /; cow-house, g ; calf-
crib, h ; poultry-house, i ; pig-
sties, k, with yards, I ; and dung-
pit, with liquid manure tank
under, m.
1197. Remarks. This plan
resembles the preceding one, but
the different apartments are
somewhat larger. The same arrangement, with a small additional increase, will serve
for a farm of fifty acres, and double the extent of barn and stable room, with the same
accommodation in every other
respect, might serve for a farm of ^W <*.
eighty or a hundred acres, under
a course of alternate grass and
corn. In this case the turnip- ,
house,/, would serve as a second ^\||| Hill II fl«s,H^ & /*VJ
cart-shed, and there might be a
lean-to formed by the farmer
himself, placed against the stable
and potato-house wall, as a
shelter-shed for cattle, and there
might be a fold-yard in front
of it, formed of bush faggots in
Mr. Taylor's manner, § 1038
1 1 98. Estimate. This plan, exclusive of the carriage of materials, and prime cost
of stones, will cost about £190, covered with slates; covered with tiles, it will cost
about £150.
1 1 99. General Estimate applicable to the Nine preceding Designs. On calculating the
cubic contents, and on comparing these with the actual estimates, it appears that the
average price per cubic foot, exclusive of the carriage of materials and the prime cost of
stones, is, when the buildings are covered with slates, 2\d, and when they are covered
with tiles, 2d.
1 200. General Outlines of a Specification to the Nine preceding Designs. — Dig-
ging. The trenches for the foundations to be 2 feet below the surface of the floors, or
more, if necessary, to obtain a good solid foundation.
1201. Mason's Work. The foundations to be laid with flat-bedded stones laid in regular
courses, breaking joint alternately, and to be taken in by regular scarcements, as shown
in the sections. The whole area of the dressing-barn and low granary floors to be laid
t*M»(»!l4-
Ft. 10 0
558 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
over with small broken stones, forming the thickness of* 9 inches. The sleepers to be laid
on the inside scarcements, and the whole remaining space of 1 4 inches to be filled up with
solid mason-work of stone and lime properly packed ; to have a coat of plaster three
fourths of an inch thick on the top, the surface of the plaster being kept one fourth of
an inch below the top of the sleepers ; care to be taken that the sleepers arc resting on
flat stones, at short distances ; the lime which is applied next the walls all round, to be
mixed up with a portion of broken glass. This, if carefully done, wdl keep the barn-
floor clear of vermin, and also prevent it from sinking, as frequently happens. This
under-building to be properly dry before the boards are laid on the top. The straw-
barn to be done in the same way, with this difference, that the rubble-building above the
small stones is to be only 1 2 inches deep, and to have a composition floor laid above of
3 inches thick, 9 feet broad, and, where the straw falls from the rakes, to be laid with
large flags. The foundations of the low buildings to be 2 feet 9 inches at the bottom,
and taken in by regular scarcements.
1202. Door- Soles. The door-soles of the barns to be laid 6 inches above the surface
of the causeway, on the outside ; those of the stables, cow-houses, &c, to be laid 3 inches
above it, and beveled on the front.
1 203. Walls. The thickness of barn-walls above the door-sole to be 2 feet 3 inches ;
above the second floor to be 2 feet, and beam-filled at the top. The thickness of the
walls for the low buildings above the door-sole to be 2 feet, and likewise beam-filled at
the top. The division walls to be 1 foot 6 inches thick, and carried to the top. The
foundation of the walls of the courts or yards to be at least 1 foot below the general
surface, founded 2 feet 3 inches at the bottom.
1204. Hewn Work. All the external corners in the houses and gate-pillars to be
droved, with broached tails. The ribbets (rybets, rebates, or reveals), soles, and lintels
of doors and windows to be droved with broached tails ; all the ribbets and corners to
be at least 2 feet long, the inband ribbets to pass through the thickness of the wall.
The ribbet heads (outside facings or architraves) for barn windows to be 9 inches ;
the skews to be droved. The shed-pillars, arches, and chimney-tops to be of broached
ashlar. The shed and gate pillars to be champhered (chamfered) or rounded on the
corners 3 inches. The yard walls to be coped with flat, hammer-dressed, or Galloway
cope (large irregular stones, projecting on both sides of the wall), as stones can be
procured. The cooling-troughs, and the feeding-boxes for the cows on the dairy-farm,
to be constructed with pavement.
1205. Conduits. If the water be carried away by under-drains or conduits, the great
common sewer, or discharging conduit, to begin in a central part of the offices, to be
2 feet 3 inches wide, and 3 feet 6 inches high, so as to allow a person to go up to clean
it. It may be arched or covered, as shall be most convenient ; and the size of the side
conduits to be according to the distance from the common sewer, namely, from 1 foot
to 1 foot 6 inches wide, and from 1 foot 6 inches to 2 feet high, with chisel-jointed
angle bottom, according to the sketch fig. 1073.
1 206. Causewaying. The whole of the stables, cow-houses, calf-houses, pig-houses, &c,
to be laid with whinstone causeway set in sharp sand. The settles (gutters) for carrying
off the urine to have 1 inch and a half fall to 10 feet, or 2 inches to 10 feet, if the situ-
ation admits, or all the fall which can be had. The run channels (gutters) for stables
to be 10 feet from the wall, and the rise from the channel to the rack to be 5 inches.
The channels for cow-houses to be 9 feet from the wall ; the rise from the channel
to the sole-tree (the sill into which the posts to which the cows are tied are mor-
tised) to be 4 inches. The area round the yard to be causewayed, and to have proper
channels, with 2 in. declivity to the 10 feet, so as to carry the water to the settling-pits
(liquid manure tanks). In situations where the extent of causewaying in the areas
round the offices is considerable, by making the causewayed channels 4 feet broad, that
is, 2 feet on each side of the run, the space between that and the buildings will answer
nearly as well to be made up with small broken stones 9 inches deep, and blinded (the
interstices filled up) on the top with small clean water sand. This, in a short time,
will become a smooth hard substance, and will be obtained at less expense ; or, if con-
duits are adopted, gratings must be made at proper places to communicate with the
conduit : the gratings should be strong, and have the ribs well bent upwards, as in that
form they are not so liable to be choked up.
1 207. Carpenter's Work. — Roofing. The cupple (couple or rafter) sides for the
houses of 15 or 16 feet wide, to be 6 inches and a half at bottom, 5 inches and a half at
top, and 2 inches and a half thick, with a balk (baulk or tie-beam) 6 inches by 2
inches and a half, fixed as near the middle of each cupple as possible with double garron-
nails, and properly riveted. The cupple sides for houses 18 feet wide to be 7 inches at
bottom, 6 inches at top, with a balk or scantling to each, 6 inches and a half by 2 inches
and a half, fixed as above. The cupples to be set at 20 inches from centres, on a wall-
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES, .%9
plate 7 inches by 1 inch and a half, the sarking to be three fourths of an inch thick,
well seasoned, and jointed closely. The sarking on the granaries to be half checked on
the joints. Ridge-bottoms to be 2 inches by 1 inch and a quarter, fixed to the roof
with iron spikes 3 feet apart.
1208. Joisting and Flooring. The sleepers in the dressing-barn and the low granary
floors to be 6 inches by 2 inches and a half, built as described in the mason-work. The
joisting in the Loft for unthreshed corn and granaries to be 10 inches deep by 2 inches
and a half thick, with 1 foot of wall-hold. Joisting and sleepers laid at 20 inches from
centres, all covered with Dram timber battens (battens from Drammen, a sea-port in
Norway, supposed to be of spruce fir) ; under floors to be plain-jointed, and doweled with
iron dowels; the upper floors to be tongucd and feathered on the joints, and fixed down with
good flooring sprigs. The cart-sheds to have a joist built into the wall at each pillar,
8 inches by 2 inches and a half, and the wall-plate nailed down on the top of it. Those
that have metal pillars should have linteling-beams 9 inches by 12 inches broad and the
end of the joist tenanted 2 inches into the lintel to have an iron strap, split on the end,
and put on the top with screw bolts, to fix the joist and the lintel together ; the joist
going through the back-wall ; and the under side to be checked into a piece of wood 3 feet
long, 2 inches and a half thick, and about 6 inches broad, built into the middle of the wall;
also the wall-plate nailed on the top : this will keep the pillars firm in their position.
1209. Safe-Lintels. The whole of the safe-lintels (inside lintels) to have a wall-hold
of 1 foot, to be 1 inch thick for each foot of the openings they cover, and from 9 inches
to 1 2 inches broad ; the whole breadth filled in like manner behind, and arched above
where there is room.
1210. Doors. The whole of the doors to be made of deal not more than 6 inches
and a half broad, 1 inch and a quarter thick, beaded on the edges, and grooved and
tongued on the joints; with three crossbars to each, 9 inches broad, 1 inch and a quarter
thick, and well nailed. The stable, cow-house, and barn-doors to be 3 feet 6 inches
wide, and hung in two leaves where necessary, which is the case in some of the stables.
The straw-barn and granary doors to be 4 feet wide, the whole of the doors to be hung
on crooks with bands, the crooks to be laid on the bed of the ribbet. The crook to be
split in the tail, to have 7 inches hold of the stone ; the pin of the crook to be 1 inch and
an eighth in diameter, each crook 3 pounds and a quarter in weight, well batted in with
lead ; and for 4-feet wide doors the crooks to be 4 pounds each, and the pin to be 1 inch
and a quarter in diameter. The bands for 3 feet 6 inches doors to be three eighths
of an inch thick at the neck, and 2 inches broad, 22 inches long, having a proper
taper, both in breadth and thickness, from the neck to the tail, and to have a 3-inch
screw bolt to the neck of each, the weight of each to be 4 pounds and a half. Those
for 4-feet doors to be 23 inches long, half an inch thick by 2 inches and a half broad at
the neck, with a bolt as above, and to be 5 pounds and a quarter weight each. The
band-nails to be counter-sunk, and properly riveted. The latches for the doors to be
of the kind which has a sunk ring, but stronger made than in general. Locks to be
selected according to the use of the different places where they are applied.
1211. Windows. The frames of the lower windows of barns, stables, cow-house, &c,
to be made 2 inches thick, with boards below 16 or 18 inches high, hung on the frames
with cross-tailed bands, and glazed above with second crown-glass ; those in the granaries,
and other places where glass is unnecessary, to be filled with weather-boards 6 inches
broad, 1 inch thick, ehamphered on the outer edges, hung with iron pivots, in a frame
3 inches by 2, having a strap of iron attached to the inside, and moved up or down to
admit air into the places when required. All the lower windows of the barn to be
secured by iron bars 1 inch square, and not more than 5 inches apart, batted into the
sole and lintel, and to have a cross bar in the middle, and the upright bars passing
through it. The dressing-barn and granaries to have skirting-boards, 8 inches broad by
1 inch thick, nailed on bond timber built in the walls.
1212. Trevises, Racks, and Mangers. The hind-posts of the trevises to be 8 feet
6 inches long, 6 inches and a half square, made in the octagon form above the level of
the pavement ; to be sunk 3 feet and a half below the level of the pavement, and to be
solidly built round, 3 feet in diameter, with stone and lime mortar ; the parts of the
posts to be properly charred on the ends, as far as they go below the ground, their tops to
stand 6 inches above the trevise-boards, and to be rounded. The height of the fore-posts
to be 9 inches above the top of the racks, 4 inches and a half by 2 inches, the foot of each
to be set in stones, one on each side of the boards, and a piece of wood the thickness of
the trevise-boards fitted in between the posts above the trevise-boards. The trevises to
be 8 feet long from the wall to the outside of the hind-posts. The trevise-boards to be
1 inch and a half thick, mortised 1 inch and a half into the hind-post, and properly nailed
into the fore-posts with 20d. nails ; and the boards to be put together on the joints with
iron dowels, at 2s. to the hundred. The trevises to be 4 feet 6 inches high at the hind-
5(')0 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
posts and 6 foot high at the front posts Mid to liavc angle spars or warpings (diagonal
braces) on each side ! inches by 1 inch and a half, and properly nailed.
1213. Racks. The racks to be 2 feet 10 inches broad, the sides to be 6 inches by
2 inches and a half, and the spars to be 2 inches and a quarter by 1 inch and a quarter,
sunk five eighths of an inch into the sides, at the distance of 3 inches and a quarter
apart, and well nailed.
1214. Mangers. The mangers to be 20 inches at the top by 16 at the bottom, and
10 inches deep ; the wood to be 1 inch and a half thick at the bottom, and the sides to be
1 inch and a quarter thick. The under racks (standard racks, or racks standing on the
ground) to be '_' feet 3 inches high ; the rails at the top and bottom to be 3 by 2 inches
and a half, and to have a run-beam (front rail) rounded on the top, 4 by 3 inches, fixed
along the top of the racks, with rings for securing the horses. Each box or manger to
have a back lining or skirting on the top, where it joins the wall, sloping backwards, to
prevent any of the corn from being lost. A piece of bond wood, 5 by 3 inches, to be
built into the wall for fixing the harness-pins.
1215. Plaster-worh. The stables for saddle-horses and the boiling-houses to get all
one coat of plaster on the walls, and the ceilings to be all lathed and plastered round the
back of the cupples and balks with two coats of plaster. A ventilator to be made in the
ceiling of the boiling-house. The front walls of the work-horse stable also to get a coat
of plaster, to prevent the harness from being injured by rubbing against the rough wall.
The dressing-barn and granaries all to get one coat of plaster, and especial care to be
taken to have the plaster applied close down to the floors, and close up to the under side
of the boards over the joists, to prevent vermin from being admitted.
1216. Slate-work. The whole of the roofs to be covered with Easdale or Ballachou-
lish slates. The slates to have 2 inches of cover over the nail at bottom, and diminishing
gradually to 1 inch and a half at the top, all being put on with nails of 1 2 lbs. to the
thousand, and boiled in linseed oil. The whole of the ridges and flanks to be covered
with milled lead 12 inches broad, 6 lbs. to the superficial foot. The piends (piens, or
ridge pieces) to be covered with lead 10 inches broad, 6 lbs. to the superficial foot.
1217. Cou:~t or Yard Gates. The gate-posts to be sunk 3 feet into the ground, and
burned or charred as far as they go into the ground ; the posts to be 9 inches square,
champhered on the corners, and set 3 inches clear of the pillars, and to stand 9 inches
above the gate, rounded on the top, and built in the ground with stone and lime 4 feet
in diameter. The hanging style of the gate to be 5 by 4 inches ; the falling style to be 4
by 3 inches ; centre piece to be 3 inches and a quarter by 2 inches and a quarter ; angle
spar to be 1 inch and three eighths thick, 4 inches and a half broad at the foot, tapering
to 3 inches and a half at the top. The uppermost spar to be of 1^-inch iron at the end
next the hanging style, diminishing to the falling style to three quarters of an inch ; to
go through the posts with a shoulder and an eye at the hanging style, and a screw nut on
the end at the falling style. The crooks to be put into the gate-posts with nuts on the
ends. The spars of the gate to be 4 inches broad at the hind end, diminishing to 3
inches and a half at the front, by 1 inch and a quarter thick ; the intersections put
together with ^-inch screw bolts.
1218. Painting. The whole of the outside doors, windows, and gates to get three
coats of oil paint, the windows to get a coat before being glazed.
1219. Wood. The whole of the wood used to be of Memel timber, well chosen. The
barn and granary floors may be laid with Dram battens.
SbgT. II. Examples showing the Manner of displaying Architectural Style in
Farm Buildings.
1220. To display Style in Farm Buildings, the main resource is the expression of the
walls ; and, as these are for the most part only one story high, it is chiefly to be effected
by the vertical bond ; or, in other words, by the supports of the roof. The form of the
roof is also another source of style ; and that of the openings, or doors and windows, a
third source. Something also may be effected by the display of the ornaments peculiar to
different styles ; but this resource is altogether unsuitable for buildings of so simple a
character as those in use for carrying on the business of a farm. The three styles most
easily displayed in farm buildings arc, the Grecian, the Roman or Italian, and the Gothic.
1221. A Farmery in the Grecian Style is represented in the perspective view, fig. 1094.
the ground plan in fig. 1095, and the exterior elevations in figs. 1096 to 1098. On
inspecting the ground plan, it will be found that, instead of common walls, the found-
ations of the different buildings consist of pillars, cither equidistant, or at double
distances from each other. The smallest distance between these pillars or piers is such
as is considered suitable for the opening of a door or window ; so that, by removing a
pillar, an opening of a double width is formed, or one suitable for a cart or carriage
way. In the plan before us, fig. 1095, we have adopted such a width as is not only
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 56l
suitable for a door or window, but also for a single stall in a stable or cow-house, viz.,
5 feet and a half from centre to centre ; but this is by no means necessary, and we have
only adopted it for the sake of illustrating some observations on temporary and portable
3 Q
5t)2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1095
twa DMiHa^Q^osO^o^a ci=a= a-rxj=-o=o±d .b^t
JTj
farmeries, which will be found in our succeeding subsection. The buildings on the
north side of the square are two stories high ; and the foundations of the pillars are
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 563
s^aco
<»
■'n
3
•=r
1098
shown larger, and at exactly double the distance apart, centre from centre ; because the
lower part of this building, on the exterior side, is chiefly appropriated to cart-sheds, and
on the inner side to cattle-sheds. The elevations show at
once, to an architectural eye, how much is to be made of
these piers. That of the east side is not given ; but a glance
at the plan will show to every Architect that it will be by
far the handsomest. The panels, or spaces between the
piers, may be filled up in various ways, according to the
kind of materials which the locality affords ; the plinth or
base on which they are placed being, in every case where
permanency is any object, formed of brick or stone. On
the supposition that brick is the material employed, all the
small piers may be 14 inches on the side, all the large ones
18 inches, and all the panels filled in with brick in bed,
or 4-inch work. This 4-inch work may be either kept in
the middle of the line of piers, as in the plan, fig. 1098,
or, what would be preferable, as showing the pillars on
the external elevation in bolder relief, ranging with the
inside pillars. In countries where freestone is the cheapest
building material, the small piers maybe of the same width
on the face ; but instead of projecting from the panels 5
inches, as in the case of the brick piers, they may be flush
with the walls in the inside, and only project 3 inches on
the outside ; the piers being of hewn stone, and the panels
of common ashlar, in regular or irregular courses, as may
be most convenient. Where a coarser and more un-
manageable stone than freestone is used, the piers may be
18 inches or 2 feet in thickness, and the thickness of the
panels maybe 18 inches or 20 inches. In this case, in order
to obtain the same room in the interior, all that is neces-
sary is to place the piers a few inches farther apart, in order
that the spaces between them may be of suitable dimensions
for common doors and windows, and two of the spaces of
suitable width for gateways for carts. The plinths below
and the architraves above should always be of stone; the latter
worked in the same manner as the piers or pillars, and the
former in a coarser style. In countries where timber is the
principal building material, the plinth ought to be of stone I
or brick, the piers and architraves of squared timber, and
the panels filled in with studwork, either lathed or plastered
on both sides, or covered with weather-boarding outside,
and lathed and plastered inside. The roofing to a farmery
in this style should, of course, be at a low or Grecian pitch ;
and we should prefer slight iron rafters, judiciously com-
bined of cast and wrought metal, with rebated laths, in
Tugwell's manner, or a corrugated iron roof. In cold
climates, prepared paper, or, in warm climates, composition
or cement may be used. If the roof were to be made
perfectly flat, tiles covered with Roman cement in three
coats and courses, would be found to form one of the most
efficient and durable of roofs. As we prefer slates, and
Tugwell's manner of laying them appears to us a decided
improvement on that in common use, we shall here shortly
describe it.
564 COTTAGE, FARM, AM) VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1222. TuffweJTa Mode <>f Slating. The chief peculiarity of this mode consists in
using rebated laths; the upper half of the lath rising above the lower half, as much as
the thickness of the slate ; by which means the slate incumbent on the upper part can
be nailed in its middle. The laths are 2 inches wide and an inch thick. Fig. 1099
is a section of part of a roof slated in this manner : in which a is a rafter ; b, the
laths; and c, the slates. Fig. 1100 is a plan, or vertical profile, of a portion of the
1099
1100
same roof. " The laths, in the mode of slating generally practised, are made of deal
only an inch in width ; and, as a nail piercing the slate lying on such inch-wide laths
will appear to have fastened it to the middle of that inch, the slate, with the wind lifting
at its lower end, becomes a lever, with its fulcrum at the head of the nail ; its short arm
being only half an inch in length above the nail, and its longest arm (supposing the
slates as in the figure, to be 18 inches long) 17 inches and a hall' below it; thus giving
the wind a power to raise the slate as '.',5 to 1. In the method here proposed, that
power will be only as 11 to 7 ; the short arm of the lever, in this case, being 7 inches
long, and the other arm only 11 inches; which will, in all probability, enable the slate
to resist the most violent hurricane or tornado evei experienced in Europe." (Bmtii
Society s Papers, vol. x. p. 269.)
1223. That, in point of accommodation, no inconvenience will result from rendering a
farmery architectural, will, wc think, be obvious from going into the details of fig. 10SS ;
in which are shown, a family potato-house, a ; poultry-house,/*; family cow-house, c ;
gig-house, d; gig and riding-horses table, e ; gateways, f; tool-house,//; carpenter's
shop, /( ; smith's shop, »"; bailiff's house, It; house for boiling or steaming food for the
pigs, family cows, and saddle-horses, I; cart-sheds, m; unthreshed corn barn, m;"straw-
room, o; place for boiling horse Ibod, p ; loose horse stable, 7 ; stables for eighteen
horses, r; fodde ring-bay, »; house for a hull, t ; hospital or house for a sick animal, v ;
implement-house, 0 ; cattle sheds, »■ ; pigsties and calf-pens, .r ; open space between khe
FARM HOUSES AND FARMERIES IN VARIOUS STYLES. 565
cattle-sheds and straw-room for loading a cart with straw, y ; and ramp or inclined
plane for ascending to the unthreshed corn floor with loaded carts from the rick-yard, z.
On examining this plan, it will be found as convenient as any of those which are com-
posed without any regard to architectural style. It is intended for an arable farm under
a six-course shift, in such a county as East Lothian. It will be observed that we have
placed the chimney of the steam-engine centrally, for effect; a result that can easily be
all lined by a little contrivance in the disposition of the machinery, the engine-house,
and the fuel-room. On the supposition that a farmery of this kind were occupied by the
proprietor, it would be found to combine a certain degree of elegance with a con-
venience of inspection not commonly to be met with in farmeries. The master may
enter at a', and proceed down the passage to y, having the cribs for the cattle of the
yards on both sides ; he may then enter the straw-barn, and ascend to the floor for un-
tlnvshed corn, out of which doors open to the granaries over I, m, w, andp; having
visited these, he may either descend and return by I, inspecting all the houses on the
west side ; or he may enter p> and proceed through the stables, and the other houses on'
the east side. The bailiff's house will be found very conveniently situated, as he may
enter I, and proceed by u to n and o (where the most important part of his charge lies),
under cover, and with great facility. We have shown the barn with a portico and a
semicircular ramp ; knowing, from experience, that it is a great saving of labour to be
able to cart in a rick direct from the rick-yard to the threshing-floor. The floor for
unthreshed corn has two bays, b', c', where two different kinds of unthreshed corn may
be kept, while a third sort may be stored, or carted in, as passed through the machinery
U (V. We suppose that all the straw intended to be eaten is carried by a travelling
shaker to a straw-cutting machine, and cut into lengths of from three to six inches, in
which state it is supposed to be partially steamed, or moistened with salt and water, or
both, before being put in the cattle-cribs or horse-mangers. There is abundance of
room under the floor for unthreshed corn, not only for the clearing-room, chaff-house,
engine-house, boiler, and coal-house, but also for a room for crushing bones for manure,
bruising grain, cutting turnips, &c. Of the three small doors shown in the elevation,
fig. 1097, at e, the centre one is to the places connected with the steam-engine, and the
ctlieis to places in which bones may be crushed, or turnips sliced, &c. It may be
Observed) in favour of displaying architectural style in farm buildings consistently with
good arrangement, that there are certain houses or places in every complete farmery,
the situation of which may be varied considerably, and which may therefore be always
placed where they will contribute most to symmetry or regularity : these are the houses
for loose cattle or horses, the hospital, and the open shed or shelter for cattle. Should
the yards in this farmery be thought too large, which they probably would in Northum-
berland, though not in East Lothian, they may be divided by walls or hurdles at/'.
1224. With respect to the extra-expense of displaying Architectural Style in a Farmery,
much will depend on the kind of building material. In the case of bricks, the plan,
fig. 1095, would obviously cost less than if the walls were solid, and nine inches thick ;
and, in the case of pillars of squared wood and panels of studwork, the expense would not
be greatly increased ; but in the case of stone the hewing of so many pillars would no
doubt be attended with considerable outlay. From this, however, would have to be de-
ducted the expense that would otherwise have been bestowed in hewing door and window
coins, lintels, and sills. The roof, as we have already observed, need not be more
expensive than in any common farmery. Half the expense of the ramp to the portico of
the barn may be saved by carrying out, instead of the curved roads, one road in a
Straight line from the centre opening of the portico, as indicated by the dotted lines </
in fig. 1098, and the same letter in fig. 1095; the barn being wide enough to allow a
cart to turn within it. The chimney to the steam-engine is shown higher than may be
necessary ; but as such chimneys are built of brick with a simple description of scaffolding
carried up inside (the invention, we believe, of our friend Charles Capper, Esq., engineer,
Birmingham), the expense is much less than might be supposed. The spire of the Tron
Church, Edinburgh, was rebuilt, in 1831, in a similar manner. The ventilators over the
stables and cow-houses are formed to imitate chimney-tops, in order to harmonise with
actual chimneys in the bailiff's house and the smithy.
1225. A Farmery in the Roman or Italian Style would differ little from the preceding
Design. The piers might either support architraves or arches; for both would be alike
Roman or Italian. The roofs ought to project farther, for the. sake of shade to the
ivindows and doors ; and the windows ought not to be carried down so far as in the
Grecian Design, but rather to exceed in breadth than in height; the architrave, or, in
the ease of arches, the soffit, forming the lintel of both doors and windows. To com-
plete the idea, whether of the Roman or Italian style, the semicylindrical tile of Mr.
I'eake, fig. 24, § 50. may be used. An improvement on this tile, by ."Mr. Peake. and a
566 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
beautiful pattern for the joint tile to be used at the eaves, «ill be hereafter figured and
described.
1226. Tlie Gothic style may be displayed, in farm buildings, either by piers in the
place of the Grecian pillars, with the heads of the panels pointed, and high steep root's,
as in i'fs. 788, § 752; by angular piers, terminating in low roofs; by buttresses) with
parapets, and a moderately high roof; or by pointed openings and parapets, with
battlements.
1227. The Old English Cottage Style of building might be easily conferred on farm-
eries by steep roofs, covered with plain tiles, with barge boards at the gable ends, and
latticed windows.
1228. The Swiss Style would require far-projecting roofs, and there might be a con-
tinued gallery or veranda round both the exterior and the interior of the low buildings,
which would also be found useful in various ways.
Sect. III. On constructing temporary, portable, and ambulatory Farmeries, and on
(during Mansions, Monasteries, Manufactories, and other Buildings, so as to render them
Jit for agricultural Purposes.
1229. A complete Farmery can seldom be required to be constructed either in a tem-
porary or portable manner, or for the purpose of being readily moved from place to
place ; but in all countries where the farms are large, and the farmers men of consider-
able capital, it will, occasionally, be desirable to thresh out corn on the spot where it
grew, and to consume the straw, or to convert it into manure there.
1230. The Construction of a Temporary Farmery is founded on the same principle as
that of the Grecian Design, § 1221 ; that is, all the walls are formed of props at regular
distances, and these distances are such that the space between the props is of suitable
width for a door, a window, or a stall for a horse or cow ; while the removal of a prop
affords a suitable opening for a cart or carriage. The panels between the props may be
filled in with wattled work, faggots, straw, hurdles or matting, or clay nogging ; or with
slight horizontal rails, to be clothed with fronds of spruce fir, furze, broom, holly
branches, Sec. All the doors may be formed of wattled hurdles, as may also the shutters
for the openings to be left as windows. The props, or posts, may be formed of young
trees of any kind, more particularly larches, or spruce fir, with the bark on, and the
lower ends charred ; or, if the bark be removed, the extreme ends may be charred, and
the entire prop kiln-dried and smoked with wood, so as to have its exterior surface
powerfully impregnated with pyrolignous acid. The spray of hard-wooded trees, such
as beech, elm, oak, ash, birch, &c, is preferable to that of resinous trees for producing
this smoke; and if the kiln be close at top, with no other opening than the door, a very
few faggots will suffice to keep it filled with smoke for several weeks. All the tie-beams
may consist of young straight spruce fir trees, and they ought to project so far at the
eaves, as completely to protect the side walls ; across them may be laid branches, and
thatch over the whole, to be held on with turf. In some cases, a roof of shingles, tiles,
or prepared paper laid on thin boards, or of corrugated iron, § 420, may be preferable to
those of a more temporary description. In Poland, America, and other countries where
timber is abundant, farmeries of this kind, if proper pains were taken to char the ends
of the props, and to put on a roof that would completely exclude the weather, woidd last
as long as the oak-built farmeries of England, some of which have stood for centuries.
1231. A Portable Farmery might be easily formed by having the props made to stand
on stone, slate, or tile plinths, and the tie-beams of the roof made to fix on the tops of
the props by wooden pins. All the rest is easy and obvious. Instead of wooden props
and tie-beams, slight props of cast iron might be used with tie-rods of wrought iron, and
all the roofing and panels might be formed of corrugated sheet iron. Well tarred or
painted, such a farmery would last at least during a twenty-one years' lease ; and the
time may probably come when farmeries of this kind will be erected by the tenant, as
being cheaper than paying a high interest to the landlord for fixed buildings. In some
parts of the country it might be cheaper to form the panels and doors of slate, of boards,
or of wattled hurdles plastered, or the interstices stuffed with moss; or they might be
formed of clay nogging or straw matting; but nowhere, we believe, could roofing of a
durable nature be found cheaper than of corrugated iron.
1232. An Ambulatory Farmer;) may seem to some a visionary structure; but there
are already ambulatory covers to ambulating threshing-machines, and there seems DO
reason why there should not be ambulatory bains, granaries, and shelter-houses for
cattle. In France the shepherds have ambulatory houses, which are placed on wheels,
and dragged from one part of the farm to another, as the pasturage of the flock or herd
is. changed. We have seen, § 1088, Mr. Taylor's ambulatory sheepfold ; and it is evi-
dent that the ides of any building might lie formed and placed on wheels in a similar
manner. The floor, where a boarded (lour was necessary, and also the roof could be
ALTERING MANSIONS, ETC., TO FARMERIES. 5&7
transported on wheels ; or every particular building or apartment requisite might be
framed and placed mi wheels, so as to be dragged from place to place by horses or steam,
ill the manner of our ambulatory cottages, § 516. When steam shall once be employed
in agriculture) not only for threshing, but for cutting all the straw not to be used as
litter or thatch, into short lengths, and for ploughing, harrowing, hoeing, &c, great
changes will be required in the arrangement and construction of farmeries; and the bints
in this subsection are thrown out to give Architects some idea of their resources.
1251!. Substitutes for the Walls of Straw Yards, Mr. Taylor has shown, § 1038, may
be formed in the most economical maimer of bush faggots ; and, indeed, in countries
where capital is scarce among farmers, bushes, furze, straw, and clay form almost the
only materials used in the construction of farmeries. This is a good deal the case in
some parts of Huntingdonshire. The timber for the roof, in such cases, consists of willow
or poplar trees, with the bark on. In Norfolk, Suffolk, Kent, and various other parts
of England, the straw-yards arc enclosed by wattled fences, and sometimes even by-
wattled hurdles. The low price of labour, and the circumstance of wood being the sole
or principal fuel, render temporary means of this sort more economical than may at first
sight appear. At all events, in a work like the present, intended for new countries ;i,
well as old ones, different means of effecting an end ought to be pointed out ; not always
as subjects for imitation, but for the sake of leading to comprehensive views.
1234. The Alteration of Buildings of different Kinds, so as to render them suitable for
agricultural Purposes, though very uncommon in Britain, is yet frequent on the Continent.
Monastic buildings of every kind, even churches and chapels, have been converted, not
only into manufactories, barracks, and dwelling-bouses, but into barns, stables, cattle-
houses, and other buildings requisite for carrying on the operations of agriculture, in
almost every part of the Continent, from Riga to Naples. As these buildings are seldom
more than two stories high, and as they generally spread over a considerable surface, and
are placed in the form of a quadrangle open to the south, they make, at little expense,
very excellent farmeries and farm-houses. The ground floors are employed for lodging
animals, and for storing roots and other food, and the floors above are used as granaries,
for the farmer's dwelling-house, and as lodgings for his servants. The upper floors are
sometimes, in Poland, used as hay and corn barns, the window openings being, in that
case, left without glass. In one instance we recollect having seen the upper floor converted
into a sheep-house, the sheep entering by an inclined plane, formed from a ruined part of
the building, at one end. It is much to be regretted that large buildings, erected at
enormous expense, should not be converted, when their owners can no longer afford to
dwell in them, or when, from any other cause, they are obliged to be sold, to some useful
purpose, rather than suffered to go to decay, or be pulled down. For this reason we
shall briefly point out how mansions of different kinds may be converted to agricultural
purposes.
1235. To convert Mansions into Farm Buildings, the first object is, to consider whether
the accommodation is contained in several stories in height, or spread out to a consider-
able extent in length and breadth. The former class of buildings include most Gothic and
Elizabethan mansions, which, it must be acknowledged, are much better adapted for being-
changed into manufactories, colleges, inns of recreation, schools, or cooperative dwellings,
than farmeries. Still, however, the ground floor, and the kitchen and stable offices,
might be used for the latter purpose, and the upper parts of the building converted into
a manufactory ; in which case, one large steam-engine on the ground-floor might suffice
for both establishments. But, even where it was necessary to use the second and third
floors of houses of this description for agricultural purposes, they might be ascended by
inclined planes, either formed on the outside of the building, or in the interior. In
some of the large inns in London the horses are lodged both on the cellar floor and on
the first floor, the carriages being on the intermediate or ground floor. The ascent and
descent are by inclined planes, at an angle of from twenty-five to thirty degrees, kept well
covered with litter. In country houses, however, where there is ample space, the inclined
planes need not be so steep, and they ought not to be covered with litter ; which is a
clumsy contrivance, and, in London at least, renders the air of stables of this description
intolerable. The upper floors of lofty houses should be used as wool-lofts, and for storing
other bulky yet light articles; the next floor for poultry, rabbits, or other small animals;
the floor below for ewes and lambs, or swine ; the first floor for cattle and horses ; the
ground floor for barns, cart-sheds, tool-houses, &c. ; and the cellar floor for storing roots.
Where the mansion consists of only two, or, at most, three stories, as in most Grecian
buildings, and some of the old English houses, the conversion is easy, and may follow in
the manner common in Poland. We must confess we should deeply regret to see any
fine specimens of Architecture occupied as farmeries ; but as we have not a doubt that,
with the progress of society, many such buildings in England will be sold by their
present owner'-, we have thought it a duty to throw out these hints, with a -view at least
5(')H COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
of preventing them from being raslily pulled down. In comparatively uncivilised ages
and countries, all great changes are accompanied with destruction ; and much of the
accumulated labour of mankind is lost for ever to society ; but under a higher degree of
civilisation, conversion takes the place of destruction, and things merely change their
owners or their uses.
Sect. IV. Desiyns for various Buildings, such us Corn-Mills, Kilns, Malt-houses,
Cider-houses, Sfc, connected with Agriculture and rural Economy.
1236. The Desiyns to be included in this subsection are such as do not necessarily belong
to a common farmery ; but which, nevertheless, form prominent structures in particular
districts. We might have added considerably to their number, by including building!
for carrying on different manufactures of agricultural produce; such as crushing seeds
for oil ; extracting dyes from wood, weld, madder, &e. ; preparing hemp and flax ;
making flour or starch, or distilling spirit from potatoes ; making sugar from beet root,
&c. : but such buildings come much more within the province of the engineer than the
Architect, being altogether subordinate to the machinery which they are to contain.
We have limited our designs to such as are of a more general description, and which are
required in every country where corn and fruit are grown. These are the wind and
water corn-mills, the hop-kiln, the malt-house, and the cider-house. We have also
added an improved limekiln, as of essential importance in limestone countries ; a brick
or tile kiln, which will enable every farmer to burn his own bricks, and also to burn
clay or lime, and even to serve for a malt or hop kiln, on a small scale, and for a variety
of other purposes; and a poultry-house for farms where poultry are kept on a large scale.
Among the letter-press accompanying these designs we have been fortunate enough to
be able to include some of the best directions for the manufacture of cider, for the manage-
ment of hop and malt kilns, and for the care of poultry, which have yet been published.
The directions for managing poultry are from the pen of Mr. Main ; and, we think, from
their great simplicity, and from their being founded entirely on his own experience, that
they will be found particularly valuable. We have added to the article some remarks,
accompanied by Designs, relating to the management of poultry by cottagers, and espe-
cially by the wives of farm labourers, being particularly anxious to direct the attention of
our readers to this subject. We may observe generally, respecting the Designs of this
subsection, that we have confined our attention chiefly to economical arrangement, or, in
other words, to fitness for the end in view. It would have been a most agreeable
recreation to us to have bestowed more attention on the architectural style of the different
buildings, but we feared that this would have drawn the attention of our readers from
the ground plans. Almost all of them, however, might be rendered highly architectural,
and this every Architect will readily assent to when he finds that the ground plans of
the chief of them, when constructed on the best principles, such as the windmill, malt
kiln, hop kiln, &c. are circular. There is nothing in the nature of a circular kiln to
prevent it from assuming the forms and proportions of the temples at Tivoli, or the
Temple of the Winds at Athens ; that is, if such models ought to be imitated in such
cases.
Design I. — The Construction of a Building for containing the Machinery of a Corn-
Mill to be impelled by Water, with introductory Observations on Buildings for Mill*
generally, on Flour- Mills, and on the different Kinds of Water-wheels.
1237. Buildings for containing Mills require to be of greater strength than ordinary
farm buildings, chiefly on account of the vibratory motion communicated by the action
of the machinery. This vibratory motion differs materially in different descriptions of
mills. Where the machinery is in a great measure independent of the building, and is
placed on the ground floor, as in the case of the threshing-machine, it is trifling; but
where the machinery is so connected with the structure as to be inseparable from it, or is
in an upper story as in the case of the windmill, the vibration is considerable. In cases
of the latter description, the side walls of the buildings must be securely tied together by
the system of flooring, and the walls must be thicker than in a common house of the
same height ; they must be begun on solid foundations, and carried up in the most sub-
stantial manner, with the best materials. As in this part of our work, it is chiefly our
object to illustrate by example, we shall make no further observation, but refer to the
plans, elevations, and specifications of Unstcd mill, which forms the main object before us,
previously introducing some remarks on mills generally, on flour-mills, and on water-
wheels, most obligingly prepared for us by our valuable contributor, Mr. Varden.
1238. " Mill, in its most general signification, applies to all machines whose action
depends on a circular motion. Of these there are several kinds ; and, according to the
various methods of applying the moving power, they are called windmills, water-mills,
horse-mills, or steam-mills. All of these kinds are employed for numerous purposes,
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC. 569
and arc named according to their several uses ; as corn, snuffy bark, colour, fulling, gun-
powder, cotton, linen, oil, paper, sawing, sugar, or threshing mills, &e. Of these, corn-
mills are the most important, as they arc requisite to convert corn into flour, the state
in which it is most fit for the food of man, and they are on that account indispensable in
all civilised countries.
1239. " Corn Mills. Few persons are ignorant that corn is ground between two
stones placed one above the other without touching. The lower millstone is im-
movable, but the upper one turns upon a spindle. These stones are usually from about
4 feet to 6 feet in diameter, and vary in thickness from 12 to 18 inches. The Opposite
surfaces of the two stones which are to grind the corn are not plane or fiat ; but the
upper one is hollowed about an inch, and the under one swells up about three fourths of
an inch, so that the two millstones come nearer and nearer towards the circumference,
whereby the corn that falls from the hopper has room to insinuate itself between them,
as far as two thirds of the radius, which is the place where it begins to be ground, and
where it makes the greatest resistance it is capable of; the space between the two stones
being in that place about two fifths the thickness of a grain of corn. But as the
millers have the power of raising or sinking the upper stone a little, they can proportion
the distance from the lower one according as they would have the flour finer or coarser.
The stone used for grinding corn was formerly brought from France, and was called
burr stone ; but, latterly, stones proper for this purpose have been discovered in different
parts of Britain. From a quarry near Conway, great quantities are dug every year ;
and when first cut out, they are much softer, and more easily worked than when they
have been exposed to the air ; even a single day makes a difference. From Abbey
Craig, near Stirling, a great number of millstones are sent to various parts of the king-
dom, that are considered to be in some respects superior to the French. In order to cut and
grind the corn, both the upper and under millstones have channels or furrows cut in them,
proceeding obliquely from the centre to the circumference ; and these furrows are each
cut perpendicularly on one side and obliquely on the other, into the stone, which gives each
furrow a sharp edge. In the two stones they come against one another like the edges
of a pair of scissors, and cut the corn so as to make it grind the easier when it falls upon
the plane between the furrows. These are cut the same way in both stones when they
lie upon their backs, which makes them run crosswise to each other when the upper
stone is inverted by turning its furrowed surface towards that of the lower. When the
furrows become blunt and shallow by constant wear, the running stone must be taken
up, and both stones new dressed with a chisel and hammer. But, by this operation
being often repeated, their thicknesses, and consequently their weight, are diminished ; and
it has been observed, that, when they have lost one fourth or one half of their original
thickness, they produce but three fourths or one half the flour which they did when new.
The circular motion of the upper millstone brings the corn out of the hopper by jerks,
and causes it to recede from the centre towards the circumference, where, being quite
reduced to flour, it is thrown out by the centrifugal force of the stone through a hole
provided on purpose. Millstones will commonly last from thirty to forty years.
1240. " Water-Mills. In water-mills the moving power is the momentum of the
water, communicated to the wheel ; and it is used in three different ways : first, where the
force of the water is applied from below the wheel, which is called an undershot wheel ;
secondly, where the water strikes nearly against the middle of the wheel, which is
called a breast wheel ; and, thirdly, where the water is applied above the wheel, which is
called an overshot wheel. Of these, the first is the least, and the last by far the most,
powerful."
1241. "Undershot Wntcr-wheds in a great measure act by the impulse of flowing water
and are considered to be the most ancient form of water-wheel. At first they were
wheels provided with vanes or wings on the circumference, called floats (see d, in fig.
1 101), and were placed in a river or running stream ; the floats at the lower part of the
wheel being placed so as to dip into the stream in such a manner as to intersect the
water. But, in wheels constructed thus, when the planes of the floats become perpen-
dicular to the direction of the current, or nearly so, they will resist or oppose the motion
from it, in proportion to the quantity of motion they have abstracted from the water of
the stream. The power thus obtained will be found to be only a small proportion of
the power of the stream ; because the water easily escapes sidewise from the floats,
particularly if it should be attempted to take away any considerable share of its velocity
by resisting or loading the wheel, so as to make it move slowly. This being discovered,
it became an obvious improvement to contract the stream to the exact size of the float-
boards of the wheel, or to make a close channel into which the wheel might exactly fit.
The next improvement was, to intercept the river or stream of water by a dam or
obstacle, in order to make it pen up or accumulate, till it had risen to the greatest height
which could be obtained ; and to let the water out of the dam or reservoir into the
3 R
570 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
channel or wheel-course through an aperture level with the bottom of the wheel
course. In this way the water is urged by the pressure of the water in the dam, and
rushes out from the aperture in a stream or spout, with a velocity proportionate to the
perpendicular pressure, striking the float-boards of the wheel, so as to urge them forward.
Such is the form of the undershot wheels still generally employed in France and other
parts of the Continent ; but in England they have long been superseded by more effectual
applications of the water, and are very rarely met with. Undershot wheels of this
description are generally called groundshot wheels, because the water shoots along the
ground or floor of the channel in which the wheel works. Fig. 1 101 is the vertical
section of an undershot wheel, as now in use ; in which a is the axis, which, if not of
metal, should be made of hard and durable wood, of a length and size proportioned to
the size and weight of the wheel. Into each end of this axis a gudgeon or centre-pin
should be fixed, for the wheel to turn upon. There are two methods of fixing the
gudgeon into a wooden axis : one is by forming the gudgeon with a cross, which is let
into the end of the tree, and fastened by screws, the wood being compressed round the
cross by two or three iron hoops, fitted on the end of the tree, and wedged. The other
method is, to make a strong iron box in a piece with the gudgeon, into which box the
end of the tree is received and secured with wedges : in the latter case, the box being of
an octagonal shape, and the wood being cut to the same form, it cannot slip round with
the box. Of late years it has been usual to make the axis of water-wheels of cast-iron
tubes, which is a very good plan if they are of sufficient dimensions. In an iron axis,
it is advisable to make the bearings of the axis close to the side of the water-wheel ; and
to leave the ends of the axis projecting beyond the bearing, in order to attach the cog-
wheel. This diminishes the length of the axis between the bearings, and renders it
much stronger. The arms supporting the circular rim of the wheel b b, are usually
eight in number, framed together so as to intersect each other at right angles, and leaving
a square opening in the centre for the reception of the axis; the corners round which
being filled up by adding pieces of wood to it, and the wheel being fastened on by
wedges. The only objection to this mode of framing is, that the arms are weakened by
intersecting each other ; and support the circular rim of the wheel in unequal segments :
but on the whole it is considered superior to the method of mortising diverging arms
into the axis, because by so doing the axis is much weakened, and the water, being
admitted into the centre of the tree, soon causes it to decay. Another objection is, that
an arm cannot be easily replaced without taking all the wheel to pieces. The very best
method of uniting the arms to the axis is to have a cast-iron centre-piece, or strong
hoop, to fit on the axis, with a broad projecting flanch round it, against the flat surface
of which the arms of the wheel are applied, and the intervals between them are filled
up by wooden blocks or wedges : the arms and blocks are firmly bound to the iron flanch
by iron rings applied to the arms on the opposite side to the flanch with screw bolts to go
through the whole. The circular rim, c, is made of wood put together in two or three
thicknesses, the joinings of one ring not coinciding with those of the other ; and there being
eight or ten segments in each thickness, according to the size of the wheel. The thicknesses
are united by rivets. The arms are attached to the ring by notching them into it, and
securing them by bolts. Cast-iron rings are now generally used, and with great
advantage ; because the necessary mortises can be made in the iron without weakening
the ring, but the strength of a wooden ring is greatly impaired by the mortises through
it. The number of rings in a wheel must depend on its breadth j when the wheel is 4
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC.
571
feet wide, two rings will support the float-boards ; but the rings should never be more
than 5 feet asunder, or the float-boards may bend. Each ring is formed with its
separate set of arms, so that every one derives its strength from the axis. When a
wheel is of very great breadth, much additional strength may be gained by bracing it
obliquely. The float-boards, d d, are twenty-four in number : they are formed of
wood, and are nailed to pieces of wood called starts, which are fixed into mortises in the
rings, and project outwards for that purpose. The velocity of the float-boards should
be about equal to half the velocity of the stream ; not more than one half of the float
should ever be below the water, and from three to five should be immersed at once,
according to the size of the wheel. When the stream is very rapid, the float-boards
should be inclined towards the rim, so that the water may heap upon them, and act by
weight as well as impulse. When the velocity of the stream is 1 1 feet per second or
upwards, the inclination should not be less than 30 degrees ; but as the velocity lessens
so should the inclination diminish. When the velocity is only 4 feet per second or less,
the floats should not be inclined at all, but should point to the centre of the wheel. To
prevent backwater, the floats should be made to rise from the water as perpendicularly
as possible. The circular sweep of masonry, e, is to prevent the escape of the water ;
the float-boards approach it as nearly as possible without touching. Beyond this sweep
should be a step, or fall, /, of not much less than 9 inches, having a slope of about 45
degrees ; in order that the tail-water may run off quickly, and not retard the motion of
the wheel : beyond this step, the bottom of the tail-water channel should be paved for
about 50 feet, having a declivity of an inch in every 6 feet : beyond this the bottom
should slope about 4 inches the first 200 yards, 3 inches the second 200 yards, and
decreasing gradually to the usual fall of the river. In places liable to floods, this fall
must be increased so as to prevent the water running back upon the wheel. The
tail-water course must be wider than the wheel. The slope g must be paved. The
pen-stock is marked h. The diameter of the wheel should be the largest of which cir-
cumstances will admit ; and, as it is of great importance that none of the water should
escape without contributing to turn the wheel, either below the float-boards or at the
sides, the breadth of the float-boards should be greater than that of the sheet of water
that strikes them.
1242. " Breast Wheels are very commonly called also undershot wheels, because the
water runs beneath the wheel ; but they differ essentially, since the principal power is
derived from the weight of the water, and not from its impulse. A breast wheel
partakes of the nature of both over and under shot wheels, and is constructed as repre-
sented in fig. 1 102. The lower part of the wheel is surrounded by a sweep of masonry,
which is made concentric with it ; the float-boards are exactly adapted to this masonry,
so as to pass as near as possible to it without touching, and the side walls are, in the like
manner, adapted to the ends of the float-boards; the intention being, that as little water
as possible shall be able to pass by the float-boards, without causing them to move before
it. The water is poured upon the wheel over the top of the breasting at a; the efflux
from the mill-dam, b, being regulated by the sluice or shuttle, c, which is placed in the
direction of a tangent to the wheel, and is provided with a rack and pinion, d ; by which
572 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
it can be drawn up, so as to make any required degree of opening, and admit more or
less water to flow on the wheel. The framing of this wheel is all of east iron ; and the
floats are forty-two in number. The water first strikes upon the float, and urges it
forward by impulse ; but when the floats descend into the sweep, they form, as it were,
close buckets, each of which will contain a given quantity of water, and from which the
water cannot escape except the wheel moves ; at least this is the intention, and the wheel
is fitted as close to the race as it can be with this view. The float-boards are inclined to
die rim, and there are other boards, tee, placed obliquely, which extend from each float-
board to the rim of the wheel, and nearly fill the space between one float and the next.
These are called rising boards, and the use of them is to prevent the water flowing over
the float-board into the interior of the wheel. The edges of these boards are not con-
tinued so far as to join to the back of the next float, because that would make all the
boards of the wheel close, and prevent the free escape of the air when the water entered
into the spaces between the floats. In breast wheels, the greatest constant height of
■water should be made use of for the fall ; as water acts with much more effect by its
weight than by its impulse. Any greater height that the water in the mill-pool may
attain in wet seasons can only be employed in the way of impulse, unless a shuttle be
used, which would allow of the water being discharged at different levels : this is some-
times done, and it is considered to be a great improvement. The velocity of the floats
of a breast-wheel should be from three to four feet per second.
1243. "An Overshot Water-wheel is simply a circular ring of open buckets, so disposed
round the circumference of a vertical wheel, as to receive the water from a trough placed
over it in such a manner as to have the buckets on one side of the wheel always loaded,
while those on the other side are empty. The weight of water on the loaded side of
the wheel will cause it to descend ; and by this motion the water runs out of the lower
buckets, while the empty buckets of the rising side of the wheel, each in their turn,
come under the spout, and are filled with water. Fig. 1103 is a vertical section of an
b
overshot water-wheel, the framing of which is of cast iron ; a a a a are the buckets. As it
is of consequence to have them so formed as to retain the water on the descending side
as long as possible, much attention has been paid to their make : those in most general
use are called elbow-buckets, because each partition is formed of two boards, which are
put together with an angle or elbow ; and this is the kind represented in the figure. It
is a great advantage to make the partitions of the bucket thin ; particularly the edges,
which meet, and divide the stream of moving water flowing upon the wheel. If the
edges are not sharp, they will splash the water about ; and they are, therefore, generally
finished by iron plate, or, what is better, all the inclined parts of the partitions are made
of iron plate. The greater number of buckets, and the shallower they are, the more
regularly the wheel will act. The mouth of the buckets should be of such a width as
to allow the air to escape at the same time that the water flows in. To facilitate this,
in some wheels, the buckets are made longer than the width of the stream of water
acting on them, which allows the air to escape freely at the ends, and likewise ^ ><ls
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC.
573
room for the water to spread. In this case, the huckets at the top of the wheel arc
not filled so completely as they otherwise would be, by which means less water is
spilt when they first change their position, and, consequently, there is less waste of
power, as the water is longer retained in them. The cast-iron trough for the water is
marked b, and the sluice, also of iron, c. The inclined boards of the buckets should be
exactly in a line witli the stream of water when it issues from the spout, passing beneath
it; and, if the edges are made thin, there will be but little splash. The velocity of the
periphery of the overshot wheel should be from 6 feet and a half to 8 feet and a half
per second, and the higher the wheel is in proportion to the whole descent of water, the
greater will be the effect ; provided the water, when it first impinges upon the wheel, has
an equal or greater velocity than the bucket-boards ; otherwise it will cause a splash,
which will, in a slight degree, retard the motion of the wheel. A fall of two or three
inches, in most cases, will be sufficient for this. A greater impulse in the water will of
course accelerate the speed of the wheel ; but the power will not be increased so much
as if the diameter of the wheel were sufficiently enlarged for the water to act by its
weight. In general, when the fall of water is between 4 feet and 10 feet, a breast
wheel should be erected ; an undershot should be used when the fall is below 4 feet, and
an overshot wheel when the fall exceeds 10 feet."
1244. As an example of the kind of Building requisite for a Corn-Mill to be impelled
by Water acting on a Breast JVJieel, we shall give the following, erected at Unsted Lock.
It is one of a number of Designs that have been furnished us by John Perry, Esq., of
Godalming, Surrey, which have been executed by him in that county and the adjoining
one of Sussex. Fig. 1 104, to a scale of 9 feet to an inch, is an elevation of the up-stream
end of the building, the down stream end being the same. In this figure the dotted line
1104
574
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
a b represents the level of the water in the mill pond or head, below which the wall of
the mill-house is of stone ; c represents the thorough or space in which the water-wheel
works ; d is a stone wall ; and e e brick cheeks, or facings, to confine the water to the
wheel. (This Design, our readers will probably say, is plain enough ; but in case they
should wish to confer architectural style upon it, we shall show them how it is to be
done. In the first place, more expression may be given to the walls by constructing
them, or by exhibiting a stvle of construction founded, either on the wooden model or
the stone model. I5y the wooden model, we mean the primitive style of building with
timber, in which all walls are formed of a vertical bond of square pillars, and a hori-
zontal bond of architraves or lintels placed over, or intersecting them. This may be
exhibited with equal ease in a building constructed either of brick or stone ; pilasters
representing the vertical bond, and architraves the horizontal ties. The stone model is
that in which small stones are used piled up in piers for the vertical bond, and forming
arches in horizontal lines, or courses for the horizontal bond. This, it will be readily
allowed, can be done with equal ease, whether the building is of brick or stone. Here,
then, are the rudiments of two distinct styles of composition, of each of which styles
there may be several varieties or manners, according to the kind of stone or brick
used, and also according to the kind of timber imitated. We say nothing of the
forms of the openings, or of the gable ends, which afford other sources of style
and architectural interest, preferring, for the present, to leave the young Architect,
to develope and amplify the ideas which we have thrown out.) Fig. 1105 is an
1105
elevation of the building facing the thorough, in which the dotted line /// represents
the circumference of the wheel; gg, the position of the cheeks, or offset of brickwork,
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC.
575
two inches in projection, to confine the water to the hreast of the wheel : the same space
indicates the proportionate extension of the huckcts, relatively to the circumference of
the wheel ; the square included in the dotted lines h h h h is to be faced or built to the
depth in the wall of nine inches with Roman cement ; the dotted line i i represents
the head-water line; the parallelogram included in k h k h is to be built solid in Roman
cement ; III are inverted arches under the windows ; the line m m represents the top
of the pavement of the race for tail-water way ; m n is a space technically called the
sweep, which is to be built of Pulborough stone (a species of green sandstone, found
to resist the action of water, and which is cheaper than any other freestone in the
neighbourhood of Godalming); o is the axle of the wheel. Fig. 1106 is the front
1106
elevation, in which the line p p represents the level of the head water, the wall below
which is built of stone, and the wall above of brick ; q is the main entrance, and r
a door by which corn or flour is taken up or let down by means of a crane and pulley
tackle ; 1 1 1 1 are inverted arches, as in the preceding figure. (In these two elevations
our readers will observe that there is naturally more expression than in the end view,
fig. 1104, on account of the number of windows. We shall now show how this ex-
pression may be increased, independently altogether of either the pilaster and architrave,
or the pier and arch styles. In the first place, there is always a degree of expression
given to a building when the openings are on one axis, or series of axes, both hori-
zontally and vertically ; or, in other words, when all the windows and doors of the
different stories are directly over one another, and when all those on the same story have
their sills and lintels in the same plane. To be convinced that this gives expression, it is
576
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
only necessary to suppose a contrary position of those openings, and to imagine the doors
and windows placed at random. Now, the expression, produced by uniformity and con-
tinuity of axis, whether vertically or horizontally, may be greatly increased by lines
expressive of this uniformity and continuity ; for example, by a continuity of the sills and
lintels horizontally, and of the jambs vertically, somewhat in the manner shown in tig.
459, § 53'2. It surely will be allowed that this would give a marked expression to
the two elevations before us, independently of every other resource. The angles or
corners of all buildings, it will be admitted, contribute to expression by the mere circum-
stance of their furnishing vertical lines : now, the expression of these lines may be
heightened by doubling them, or producing the appearance of a bold, massive pier,
pillar, or pilaster at the angle; and this, again, may be varied and heightened by giving
the expression of the individual stones which compose it ; either simply, as of stones of
the same size ; or, compoundly, by showing stones of different sizes, as in what is called
in and out bond. Here, then, are two distinct sources of expression, which may be
added to plain walls varied by plain openings.) Fig. 1107 is a section from c to d
1107
on the plan fig. 1108. In this figure, 1 1 1 1 are. inverted arches, and o, the axle of
the wheel, as in fig. 1105; s s is the ground floor; t t, the floor in which the millstones
work ; u w, the warehouse floor; v v, the floor in the roof. The spaces w w w w are left
open. Fig. 1108 is a plan of the ground floor, in which x is the cog-pit, or place for
the cog-wheel, on the lying or horizontal shaft of the water-wheel, paved with brick ;
y is the bed or bolster of the gudgeon of the cog-wheel ; z z z are the upright posts
which support the stone floor; a is the brick on edge paving of the race, or tail-water
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC.
1108
577
course ; b, the Pulborough stone paving of the wheel sweep ; c, the paving, forming the
commencement of the sweep, under the buckets of the breast wheel, of Bargate stone
(a species of hard limestone found in the neighbourhood of Godalming, more durable
than the Pulborough stone, but not a freestone, and consequently worked by fracture,
called heading or hammer-dressing, and not by the saw and chisel) ; d, e, f, and rj,
arc pieces of oak for supporting the axle of the water-wheel. Fig. 1109 is a plan of
1109
the stone floor ; z z z are the continuation of the posts for supporting the floor above,
h h h are trap doors for raising or lowering sacks of corn or flour ; ?', the stair or step
5~/f8 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1110
ladder. Fig. 11 10 is the bin floor, in which may be seen the situation of the upright
posts, the trapdoor, and the stair, as in the preceding figure. Fig. 1111 is a plan of
1111
4t
1 — r\
i — .
i
"1
X
h
1
t.
T
J-
1
1 n
the floor in the roof, showing a trapdoor, and a stair. Fig. 1112 is a section from A to
B, in the plan, fig. 1108, in which k is the pit for the cog-wheel ; /, the bolster for its
axle ; m, the bolster for the same axle, which passes through the water-wheel ; n, the
thorough, or place for the water-wheel ; o, the centre of the axle of the water-wheel ;
p, the bottom of the water-wheel ; q, the head-water line ; r, the tail-water line ; s,
surface of a natural stratum of gravel ; t, the bottom of the footings of the walls ; u, the
top of the water-wheel ; v, the space between the inverted arches and the ground floor,
filled in with masonry ; w, the top of the stonework ; x, caps to the upright posts ; y, the
floor in the roof; and z, the framing of the window in the roof. (As one great object
which we have in view, in giving this plan of a watermill, and that of the windmill
which follows, is to show the simplest mode of construction, with a view to their being
adopted by residents in new countries, such as America and Australia, we may observe
that the business of constructing the floors of mills is very much simplified, as well
as their durability increased, where timber is abundant and cheap. In the interior
of Poland we have seen windmills in which there were neither joists in the floors, nor
standards nor quartering in the wall ; both were formed of thick planking, closely
joined by wooden pegs, or dowels, which served botli for the skeleton and the covering;
and in that country cost less altogether, than it would have done in Britain to saw up
the same materials into joists, quartering, and boards.)
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC.
579
1245. Particulars of the several works to be done in building a water corn mill at Unsted
Lock, for J. S. Esq., according to the plans, elevations, sections, and details, and the
conditions of the subjoined contracts severally signed by the parties undertaking the
same.
1246. Bricklayer's Work, The trenches for the foundations of the respective walls and
cross walls are to be dug out of the proper depth and width, and the ground round the
same properly secured, filled in, and rammed round the work. The water to be raised
from the cavities, and carried therefrom as occasion may require. All the bricks to be
used in the building, or brought upon the premises, to be sound and good well-burnt
stocks, those to the external parts of 'the building to be of an even colour, and the whole
laid and flushed solid in mortar of the several heights and thicknesses with the apertures
specified in the drawings ; and none of the bricks to be brought upon the premises shall
be slack-burnt, or over-burnt, but all warranted to stand the frost. The mortar to be
composed of the best well-burnt grey lime, and clean sharp river sand, well tempered
together. The work of the foundations, and up to within one foot of the upper side of
the ground floor, to be of Bargate stonework, grouted with hot lime and sand every two
courses, and with brick coins. The external face of the whole of the brickwork to be
laid in a close, neat, flat-ruled joint ; and the inside of the mill to be worked fair for lime-
whiting, with a three-course Welsh cornice under the eaves, and on the gables. Nine-
inch brick discharging arches to be turned over all the apertures to within 4 inches of the
face of the respective walls, and common skew-back arches to be turned over the several
openings externally. Fourteen-inch brick inverted arches to be turned the whole thickness
580 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
of the walls bolow the ground floor under all the lower tier of windows, doors, and story-
posts. Openings through the external walls to be left to admit air under the boarded
floor, on the ground story of the mill, where directed. All the plates, lintels, and templets
to be properly bedded level ; and all the windows and door frames pointed with good lime
and hair mortar. If any damage should happen to all or any part of the brickwork or
stonework during the progress of the work, either from the inclemency of the weather
or other causes, the same from time to time to be repaired and pointed. The mill wall
against the thorough (the space in which the water-wheel works) to be set in Roman
cement, where shown in the plan. The bricklayer is to find scaffolding, and the fixing
and refixing the same, and all manner of ropes, boards, ladders, tackle, tools, and things
necessary for the business, and all the bricks, lime, and sand, and the carriage thereof;
and all the materials, workmanship, and ironwork required for the completion of his
work, in the best, most substantial, and workmanlike manner, except the Bargate stone.
The bricklayer is to find and lay a sweep of Pulborough stone, 8 inches thick, set in
Roman cement, and laid on a proper foundation ; and to pave the thorougli above the
sweep (a surface of masonry concentric with the wheel) with Bargate stone, and below
with bricks on edge set in mortar. The employer is to find and deliver on the spot the
Bargate stones for the foundations at his own expense; but the bricklayer is to head
and prepare them at his expense.
1247. Plasterer's Work. To dub out and plaster the space from the edge of the
wall-plates to the underside of the respective floor-boards. To lime-white twice over the
whole of the interior of the walls of the mill. The plasterer is to find all kinds of
materials, tools, and the carriage thereof; and all the workmanship required for the com-
pletion of his work, in a sound and workmanlike manner.
1248. Slater's Work. The roof of the mill to be covered with the best countess slates,
nailed with wrought copper nails, 1 inch and a quarter long, the eaves laid double. The
slater to find all kinds of materials, tools, and the carriage thereof, and the workmanship
required for the completion of his work, in a sound and workmanlike manner.
1249. Mason's Work. To put Yorkshire stone quarry sills, 8 inches wide, beveled,
throated, and tooled, to all the windows, finding all materials, workmanship, fixing, and
carriage.
1250. Memorandum of Agreement made this twenty-fifth day of April, 1831, between
J. S. of G., Esquire, of the one part; and W. M. the elder, and J. M. of G., Brick-
layers, Plasterers, and Masons, of the other part : viz. ; In consideration of the sum of
money, and the conditions herein after mentioned, the said W. M. and J. M. do hereby
contract and agree to and with the said J. S. to perform the whole of the works described
under the titles of Bricklayer's, Plasterer's, Slater's, and Mason's Work, in the foregoing
particular, as the same are also exemplified in the plans, elevations, and sections, and
details, which are identified by the signature of the parties hereto ; and to complete the
same in the best and most workmanlike manner, to the entire satisfaction of the surveyor
appointed by the said J. S. to superintend the same, finding all materials, carriage, and
workmanship of every kind soever, which may be required in the said works, except
Bargate stone, and the carriage thereof, for the sum of two hundred and thirty-five
pounds twelve shillings and sixpence ; and to complete the whole of the said works as
aforesaid, on or before the thirtieth day of July next ensuing the date hereof. And the
said J. S. doth hereby agree to deliver upon the spot the Bargate stone required for the
foundations, as described in the particular and drawings, and to pay unto the said W. M.
and J. M. during the progress of the work, such sum or sums, on account of the said sum
of two hundred and thirty-five pounds twelve shillings and sixpence, as the surveyor may
direct ; provided such sum or sums shall not exceed two thirds of the value of the work
then done, and the remainder thereof on the thirtieth day of August next, provided
that the said works are certified by the surveyor to be complete and finished according to
the true intent and meaning of the foregoing particular and drawing referred to, and this
agreement. And in case any difference or want of accordance shall appear between the
drawings and the particulars, or any part thereof, the same shall be construed in the way
most favourable to the substantiality of the work. And if any material shall be brought
upon the premises which is disapproved by the surveyor, or any workman employed
v . iiose skill is considered insufficient by him, the said materials or workman to be removed
or discharged immediately, upon the said W. M. or J. M. receiving notice from the
surveyor so to do. And in case any alteration shall be directed by the said J. S. or his
surveyor, in the nature of the work during progress, or any deviation shall be ordered by
them from the foregoing particular and plans aforesaid, the same shall not vitiate or
annul this agreement, but the difference shall be valued by J. P. of G., Surveyor, between
the parties, and shall be added to or deducted from the amount of the present contract
(as the case may be), and his decision shall In- final. And further, if any or all of the
said work should be performed in any way inferior to the description and intention of the
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC. .581
particulars and drawings, or shall be deteriorated below a fair standard of good quality
or sound workmanship, the same shall also be valued by the said J. P. as aforesaid, and
deducted from the amount of the contract by the said J. S., and his decision in this case
shall also be final. Such parts of the work as affect or appertain to the machinery of the
mill are to be done under the direction of W. B. of G., Engineer.
As witness our hands the day and year before written. J. M. for self and father.
Contract, £285 : 12s. : 6d.
1251. Carpenter's and Joiner's Work. The whole of the timber, except where otherwise
mentioned, to be of the best yellow Dantzic, Riga, or Memel fir, of the several dimensions,
scantlings, and framings as herein after described and shown in the drawings. The
lintels to all the openings to be 4 inches and a half thick, with a 9-inch bearing on each
pier beyond the splay of the jamb, and in width 4 inches less than the thickness of the
respective walls. The wall-plates and rising-plate to be 5 inches by 3 inches, and 1 tier ot
bond, 4 inches and a half by 2 inches and a half, in the warehouse floor story, laid all round,
properly halved and spiked at the laps, and dovetailed at the angles. An oak chain-plate
is to be put in the centre of the external wall of the mill, all round, 5 inches by 4 inches,
where shown in the drawings, well lapped and pinned at every length, and dovetailed and
pinned at the angles. The centres to the arches, trimmers, and all other apertures, to be
substantially made, fixed, and refixed, and left as long as maybe necessary; and all
moulds prepared and framed where requisite for the inverted arches, and other places
where wanted. — Ground Floor. To have 2 oak front and back sills, 8 inches by 10
inches; 2 oak sleepers, 8 inches by 8 inches; 2 oak ground sills, 8 inches by 10 inches ;
fir joists not more than 12 inches apart, 7 inches by 2 inches and three quarters, laid on oak
sleepers, 4 inches wide, and 1 inch and a half thick. — Out Doors. Oak front sill, 10 inches
by 10 inches; oak back sill, 9 inches by 9 inches; and 2 oak sleepers, 8 inches by 8
inches. — Stone Floor. To have 3 girders, 14 inches by 12 inches, with joists framed
into the same, and trimmed to the stairs and sack-hole, 9 inches by 3 inches, not more
than 1 2 inches apart, with trimming joists and trimmers, 9 inches by 6 inches. — Ware-
house Floor. To have 3 girders, 14 inches by 12 inches, with joists framed into the same,
and trimmed to the stairs and sack-hole, 9 inches by 3 inches, not morethan 12 inches apart,
with trimming joists and trimmers, 9 inches by 6 inches. — Floor in Roof. To have
joists, 8 inches by 3 inches, not more than 12 inches apart, framed into the tie-beams,
trimmed to the steps and sack-hole with trimmers and trimming joists, 8 inches by 6
inches. All the girders to be laid on an oak templet at each end, 4 inches and a half by
9 inches, and as long as the respective piers will admit. All the floors to be of good well
seasoned yellow deal, listed, free from sap, wrought, and edges shot ; none of the boards
to exceed 5 inches and a half in width. The ground floor and stone floor to be 1 inch
and a quarter thick; the warehouse floor and floor in roof to be 1 inch thick, rebated.
There are to be 3 wrought story posts, with chamfered edges in each story, 9 inches by
9 inches, with an oak cap properly stub-mortised, 2 feet 6 inches long, and 8 inches dee)),
and 2 pairs of oak wedges to each, with a cast-iron sole piece to each story post. — Roof.
Tie-beams joggled to the plates, 7 inches by 12 inches; framed principals, 8 inches by 3
inches and a half at bottom, and 7 inches by 3 inches and a half at top; struts, 6 inches
by 3 inches and a half; collars, 7 inches by 3 inches and a half; king posts, 9 inches by
3 inches and a half, with J-inch iron screw pins, 18 inches long, with nuts mortised
through the king posts; common rafters, 4 inches by 2 inches and a half, 13 inches apart,
notched on the back of principals, and laid horizontally. The principals to be fixed to
the tie-beams, as also the collars at each end to be fixed to the principals, with iron
screw pins and nuts, and to put 6 J-inch wrought-iron screw pins with nuts, &c, as queens.
The ridge to be of lA-inch yellow deal rounded for lead, 9 inches wide. The roof to be
covered with |>ineh white spruce slate boarding match planed, together with a 5-inch
feather-edge eaves board, 8 inches wide. To put inch yellow deal wrought and
rounded window boards to all the windows. — Note. The windows, doors, and frames
are to be of iron, and will be provided by the employer. The step-ladders to each story
to be of 2-inch wrought yellow deal, the sides 9 inches wide, with the steps housed into
them with 2 |-inch wrought-iron screw bolts to each ladder. All the carpenter's and
joiner's work to hold the several scantlings and thicknesses named in the foregoing par-
ticular when finished. The carpenter and joiner to find all the materials, and the carriage
thereof, and workmanship, and tools, and ironwork required for the completion of his
work in the best and most substantial and workmanlike manner. All the timber to be
free from shakes, or sap, or large knots. Wood bricks to be found where necessary ; and
also all fillets, linings, beads, stops, &c, where required. The girders and tie-beams to
be each in one length, without joint or scarf.
1252. Memorandum of Agreement made this twenty-sixth day of April, 1831, between
.1 S. of G., Esquire, of the one part ; and H. B. of G., Carpenter, of the other part :
582 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
viz. ; In consideration of the sum of money, and the conditions hereinafter mentioned, the
said H. B. dotli hereby contract and agree to and with the said J. S., to perform the
whole of the works described under the title of Carpenter's and Joiner's Work, in the
foregoing particular, as the same are also exemplified in the plans, elevations, and sections,
and details, which are identified by the signature of the parties hereto; and to complete
the same in the best and most workmanlike manner, to the entire satisfaction of the
surveyor appointed by the said J. S. to superintend the same, finding all materials,
carriage, and workmanship of every kind soever, which may be required in the said
works, for the sum of two hundred and forty seven pounds ; and to complete the whole of the
works as aforesaid, on or before the thirtieth day of July next ensuing the date hereof.
And the said J. S. doth hereby agree to pay unto the said H. B., during the progress of
the work, such sum or sums on account of the said sum of two hundred and forty-seven
pounds as the surveyor may direct, provided such advance shall not exceed two thirds of
the value of the work then done ; and the remainder thereof on the thirtieth day of August
next, provided that the said works are certified by the surveyor to be complete and
finished according to the true intent and meaning of the foregoing particulars, the
drawings referred to, and this agreement. And in case any difference or want of
accordance shall appear between the drawings and the particulars, or any part thereof,
the same shall be construed in the way most favourable to the substantiality of the work.
And if any material shall be brought upon the premises which is disapproved by the
surveyor, or any workman employed whose skill is considered insufficient by him, the said
materials or workman to be removed or discharged immediately, upon the said H. B.
receiving notice from the surveyor so to do. And in case any alteration shall be directed by
the said J. S., or his surveyor, in the nature of the work, during progress, or any deviation
shall be ordered by them from the foregoing particulars and plans aforesaid, the same
shall not vitiate or annul this agreement ; but the difference shall be valued by J. P. of
G., Surveyor, between the parties, and shall be added to or deducted from the amount of
the present contract (as the case may be), and his decision shall be final. And further,
if any or all of the said work should be performed in any way inferior to the description and
intention of the particulars and drawings, or shall be deteriorated below a fair standard
of good quality or sound workmanship, the same shall also be valued by the said J. P.
as aforesaid, and deducted from the amount of the contract by the said J. S., and his
decision in this case shall also be final. Such parts of the work as affect or appertain to
the machinery of the mill are to be done under the direction and to the satisfaction of
W. B. of G., Engineer.
In witness whereof, I the undersigned have hereunto set
Contract, ,£247. my hand, the day and year before written. H. B.
1253. Plumber's, Painter's, and Glazier's Work. The ridge of the roof of the mill to be
covered with cast lead, 7 pounds to the superficial foot, 1 8 inches wide, properly dressed, and
nailed with lead-headed nails. All the sashes to be back puttied, and glazed with the
best second Newcastle crown glass. All the sashes and frames, doors, shutters, and door
frames to be properly primed, and painted three times inside and four times outside with
the best white lead and oil colour, the doors and shutters lead colour.
1254. Memorandum, of Agreement made this twenty-fifth day of April, 1831, between
J. S. of G., Esquire, of the one part, and T. O. of G., Plumber, Painter, and Glazier,
of the other part : viz. ; In consideration of the sum of money and the conditions herein
after mentioned, the said T. O. doth hereby contract and agree to and with the said J. S.
to perform the whole of the works described under the title of Plumber's, Painter's, and
Glazier's Work, in the foregoing particular, as the same are also exemplified in the plans,
elevations, and sections, and details, which are identified by the signature of the parties
hereto, and to complete the same in the best and most workmanlike manner, to the entire
satisfaction of the surveyor appointed by the said J. S. to superintend the same, finding
all materials, carriage, and workmanship of every kind soever, which may be required in
the said works, for the sum of twenty-two pounds eight shillings and eightpence ; and to
complete the whole of the said works as aforesaid, on or before the thirtieth day of July
next ensuing the date hereof. And the said J. S. doth hereby agree to pay unto the said
T. O. the said sum of twenty-two pounds eight shillings and eightpence, provided that
the said works are certified by the surveyor to be complete and finished, according to the
true intent and meaning of the foregoing particulars, the drawings referred to, and this
agreement. And in case any difference or want of accordance shall appear between the
drawings and the particulars, or any part thereof, the same shall be construed in the way
most favourable to the substantiality of the work. And if any material shall be brought
upon the premises which is disapproved by the surveyor, or any workman employed
whose skill is considered insufficient by him, the said materials or workman to be removed
or discharged immediately upon the said T. (). receiving notice from the surveyor so to
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC. 583
do. And in case any alteration shall be directed by the said J. S., or his surveyor, in
the nature of the work, during progress, or any deviation shall be ordered by them from
the foregoing particular and plans aforesaid, the same shall not vitiate or annul this agree-
ment, but the difference shall be valued by J. P. of G., Surveyor, between the parties,
and shall be added to or deducted from the amount of the present contract (as the case may
be), and his decision shall be final. And further, if any or all of the said work should be
performed in any way inferior to the description and intention of the particulars and
drawings, or shall be deteriorated below a fair standard of good quality or sound work-
manship, the same shall also be valued by the said J. P. as aforesaid, and deducted from the
amount of the contract by the said J. S., and his decision in this case shall also be final.
In witness whereof, I the undersigned have hereunto set my
Contract, £'2,2: 8s.: 8d. hand, the day and year before written. T. O.
1255. Remarks. The foregoing mill was built as an auxiliary to a larger one close
adjoining it; and, to make it complete as a district mill, another, viz., a dressing-floor,
would be required to be added. The floors required in a complete mill are, the ground
floor, the stone floor, the dressing-floor, the bin floor, and the stage floor in the roof.
Design II. — The Construction of a Building for containing the Machinery and Apart-
ments belonging to a Vertical Windmill, with Remarks on the different Kinds of Ulndmilh.
1 256. Windmills are supposed to have been brought into France from the East in the
sixth century. They are of two kinds, the vertical and horizontal ; but the latter are
rarely, if ever, used for commercial purposes, though they might sometimes be employed
in gentlemen's grounds for raising water to supply the house, and other purposes, where
the sails of the vertical windmill would be considered so unsightly as to render its
erection inadmissible.
1257. The Vertical Windmill is the kind in most common use, and consists of an axis
or wind-shaft, placed in the direction of the wind, and usually inclining a little upwards
from the horizontal line. At one end of this, four long arms or yards are fixed per-
pendicularly to the axis, crossing each other at right angles ; into these arms small cross
bars are mortised at right angles, and other long bars are joined to them which are
parallel to the length of the arms, so that the bars intersect each other in the manner of
latticework ; and form a surface on which a cloth can be spread to receive the action of
the wind. These are called sails : they are in the form of a trapezium, and are usually
nine yards long and two yards wide. The circular motion is produced by the obliquity
of the planes of these surfaces from the plane in which all the four arms are situated.
By these means, when the wind blows in the direction of the axis, it does not impinge
upon the sails at right angles to the surfaces, but strikes obliquely : hence the effort of
the sail to recede from the wind causes it to turn round the common axis, and the four
sails are all made oblique in the same direction, so as to unite their efforts for the common
object. For the wind to act with the greatest efficiency upon the sails, it is requisite for
the wind-shaft to have the same direction as the wind ; but as this direction is constantly
changing, some apparatus is necessary for bringing the wind-shaft and sails into the
proper position. This is done by turning the axis of the sails round in a horizontal
direction. There are two methods of effecting this.
1258. In the oldest windmills, the whole of the building which contains the machinery
is sustained upon a vertical post firmly fixed as a stand or foot, upon which the whole of
the machine can be turned by a lever so as to present the sails to any quarter of the
horizon whence the wind blows ; and hence these are called post windmills, and are neces-
sarily made of wood. They are of small size, and can only contain one pair of stones.
The mill-house is of a rectangular form, but narrow in the direction which is presented
to the wind. It is two stories high, the main shaft and millstones being in the upper
chamber, while the lower is only used to contain sacks of flour, and to receive the post
on which the mill turns round horizontally to face the wind. The whole building is
turned by means of a lever, that also serves for a step-ladder into the upper chamber ; and
when it is wished to prevent the mill from turning, it is fastened to the posts by a cord.
There is also a small windlass to assist in moving the mill round. These windmills are
generally used for grinding corn or expressing oils ; being unfit for other purposes, on
account of there being so little room for machinery.
1259. The other kind of vertical windmill is called a smock, or tower, windmill, in which
only the dome cap or head, which contains the axis of the sails, and covers the great cog-
wheel, turns round horizontally ; the other parts of the machinery being contained in a
fixed building, which rises up in the form of a conical tower, and is composed of masonry,
brick or timber framing ; being surmounted by this movable cap or dome, which is sup-
ported on rollers, so as to turn round easily.
1260. The Smock, or Tower, Mills are considered the best, because the building which con-
• >84 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VII. I. A ARCHITECTURE.
tains the machinery may be made <>!' any required dimensions, the sails and turning cap
being all at the top of the bouse. Smock muJa are built of timber, covered with hoards;
and tower mills are built wholly of brick or masonry. Fig. 1113 is a perspective view of
1113
a smock mill, as it appears with the sails spread to the wind. Fig. 1 1 14 is a plan of the
ground floor, showing the basement wall, which is of masonry, 20 inches thick, the cross
wall for supporting the joists, and the story post, on the top of which rests the gudgeon
pivot of the main axis or vertical shaft. This wall is of masonry, 14 inches thick ; the
joists arc of oak 4 inches by 3 inches, and there is an oak sleeper on the cross wall 1 inch
and a half thick and 4 inches wide. This floor is used for bolting and dressing the meal,
and for filling the sacks with flour, &c. Fig. 1115 is a plan of the floor on which the mill-
stones are placed, in which is shown the situations of the vertical shaft, a, the places of
1114
1115
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC.
585
the two pair of stones, b, and of the sack-hole, c, for allowing the coin to be raised by the
tackle into the bin floor. The trapdoors of the sack-hole fold upwards, so as to give passage-
way to the rising sack, and they fall close down again directly after it has passed. There
is a hole between the two flaps for the chain to hang through ; and d is the Step-ladder.
The framing is of foreign fir ; the plate is 6 inches by 7 inches; and the joists, 12 inches
apart, and 6 inches by 2 inches, are mortised into girders 10 inches by 10 inches; as
also are the trimming joists which support the stones, and are 8 inches by 9 inches. Fig.
1116 is a plan of the bin floor, on which the corn to be ground is kept for supplying
the stones, for which purpose the bottom of the bins slope to a centre, where there is a
wooden trunk passing downwards through the floor, to convey the corn to the stones.
The dotted lines represent the sides of these bins, which are generally about 3 feet
6* inches high, and are formed of inch wrought deal boarding nailed on fir bearers. The
plate is 6 inches by 6 inches, the girders 8 inches by 10 inches, with the joists 5 inches
by 3 inches mortised into thein ; e is the sack-hole. Fig. 1117 is the upper floor to
1116
1117
get at the machinery : the plate is 6 inches by 6 inches ; the girders 9 inches by 8 inches ;
and the joiets 4 inches by 3 inches. Fig. 1118 is apian of the horizontal framework
which carries the wind-shaft, and forms
the base of the head or cap of the mill.
The plates are 10 inches by 12 inches;
the diagonal braces 7 inches by 6 inches ;
and the centre brace 10 inches by 8
inches. On the under side of this fram-
ing, and bolted to it, is a circular curb or
wooden ring, /. There is a similar curb
on the top of the fixed building. These
curbs are to allow of moving round the
head or cap ; for it is necessary, as the
wind changes its direction, to turn the C
sails about so that the axis or wind-shaft
may be always in the direction of the
wind. This motion is effected by turn-
ing the head of the mill round upon the
fixed part on the curb at the top of the
framing of the house of the mill, and is
represented in section by Z, in fig. 1119,
between which and the movable curb, m,
attached to the bottom of the frame of
the head are fixed a number of rollers.
The movable curb, m, of the cap lies
upon these rollers, which are kept equi-
distant from each other by the centre-pins
being fitted into a circular hoop. By
these means, though the head of the mill with the wheels and sails weighs several tons,
they can be made to turn round to face the wind by a slight force ; n is the centre-
brace of the head, turning on the pivot, o ; p, the top of the vertical shaft on which, a
short distance down, is a wheel called a trundle or lantern, which works into the cog-
wheel on the wind-shaft, and so gives the rotatory motion to the shaft ; q is one of the
ribs of the head. In fig. 1118, the wind-shaft or horizontal axis, r, is made of cast iron,
and is octagonal, thickest at the end next the sails, and having two cylindrical necks
3 T
>8G
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1 1 liJ
fPH FF
where it rests upon its bearings. It generally is placed a little inclined from the hori-
zontal line ; the highest end being towards the sails. At the end, it has a kind of box,
which lias two mortises through it in perpendicular directions to receive the sails. At
the back of one of these mortises, and on the front of the other, a projecting arm is left
in the casting to receive screw bolts which hold the sails fast in the mortises. The cog-
wheel, s, is fixed on by bolting its arms against a flanch cast on the vertical axis; t is
the commencement of a curved piece of timber 10 inches by 12 inches at top, and 6
inches by 6 inches at bottom, being the lever by which the heads of the old-fashioned
mills are turned round to the wind. Attached to the lower end is a windlass, a cord
from which fastened to any one of the posts that are fixed round the mill in a circle
(see fig. 1113) enables a man to move the head in the direction desired. There are also
two pieces of wood affixed to the bottom
of the lever by staples, made sharp at
the lower end, to stick in the ground, and
to steady the mill against any side-gusts.
There are several plans now in use for
making the head turn itself when the
wind varies : this is done by having small
sails at the back of the head that do not
revolve while the head is in its proper
position, but as soon as the wind varies,
these sails are set in inotion, and by
machinery bring the head again into its
proper direction. This is considered a
great improvement ; but, as all the plans
for this purpose involve much machinery,
a detailed description of them is omitted,
as they may be considered to come more
under the control of the millwright than
the Architect.
Fig. 1121 is a section across the roof,
showing the framing of one end of the
1121
head, where there is a door that may
be opened to give light when any repairs
of the machinery are going on.
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC.
587
Fig. 1120 is an elevation of the east side of the structure, in which t is the com-
mencement of the lever.
Fig. 1122 is an elevation of the north side, showing the front of the sails, the arms
of which pass through mortises in the end of the wind-shaft, and are bolted to pro-
jecting arms. The sails are clothed and unclothed by a line fastened to the upper corner
of the canvass, passing over a pulley, and down the side of the arm to the bottom, where
it is fastened. By these means, the canvass can be spread out at the end nearest the
axis from below, in the same manner as a common window-curtain ; the lower part is
spread out by hand, and tied. When the mill is not at work, the canvass is gathered up
in a roll over the arm. There are patent windmill sails now in use, in which a number
of flaps or shutters of thin wood supply the place of canvass. They can all be moved
from below, so as to present their edges to the wind when the mill is not at work. The
computed power of a windmill, with four sails, measuring 66 feet French from the ex-
tremity of one sail to that of the opposite one, and 6 feet wide, or a little more, is, that it
will raise 1000 French lbs. 218 feet in a minute, and is capable of working eight hours
in a day upon an average. This is equivalent to the work of 34 men ; 25 square feet of
canvass performing about the daily work of one man.
Fig. 1 123 is an elevation of the west side, in which t is the commencement of the lever,
which serves for turning the sails to the wind.
Fig. 1124 is a transverse section of fig. 1118, from C to D, showing the framing
of the mill. The corner or principal posts are 8 inches by 8 inches ; the principal
quarters and braces are 4 inches by 4 inches ; and the common quarters are 4 inches by
3 inches. The clear height of the ground floor is 9 feet 8 inches; the clear height of
the stone floor story is 7 feet 6 inches ; that of the bin floor story 6 feet 8 inches ; and
588 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
that of the upper story, to the under side of the frame of the head, is 4 feet 4 inches.
The rihs of the roof are 4 inches by 3 inches, cut to a sweep. The roof is covered with
1 £-inch yellow deal feather-edge boarding, wrought on both sides, and the whole of the
timber framing of the mill is likewise covered with li-inch yellow 1125
deal feather-edge boarding, wrought on both sides, and having a quirked
bead forming a drip (see fig. 1125) run on the lower edge of each
board.
1261. Remarks. This Design has been sent us by Mr. Varden, who
has also compiled the preceding historical notice of the different kinds
of windmills. We insert this Design, considering it extremely useful
for new countries, where the inhabitants must necessarily be content to
commence with simple machines. There are, however, windmills to be
met with of a highly improved construction ; and Mr. Thorold, who,
being a Norfolk engineer, is well acquainted with the subject, informs
us that, "in some parts of England, windmills are now brought to such
perfection, as to be little inferior, in point of uniform motion, to either
steam or water power. For grinding corn, threshing, draining land,
or, in short, any operation, to perform which few hands are required ;
windmills are more economical than mills worked by either steam or
water ; and they may be rendered applicable to towns, by building the
tower high enough to permit the lowest part of the sails to swing over
the houses." Mr. Varden accompanied this Design by a scientific dis-
sertation on the principles of windmills, which we have been obliged to
leave out, not that we thought it irrelevant to the subject ; but that
its introduction would have extended tliis work beyond our proposed
limits. We can only refer the reader to Smeatoii's Works, Breivster's
Mechanics, Gregory's Mechanical Dictionary, and the Dictionnairc
Ti i luiologique. It is singular that there is not a single work on wind- '
mills in the English language; there are some remarks on gravitating sails by Ilescl-
dine, but no work embracing the whole subject.
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC. 51 {)
Design III. — A Malt-kiln, with the requisite Appendages, and Directions for their
Use.
1262. Malting. In order to understand the uses of a malt-kiln, and of the buildings and
details generally connected with it, it will be advisable to commence by describing the
process of malting; and this has been done to our hands by a correspondent at once
scientific, and experienced in this important department of rural economy. " It is not very
easy to give specific rides for the process of malting, because the practice of each year
must vary with the temperature, and the quality of the barley. The experience of one
year is no sure criterion for that of another ; but there are general rules and broad
principles that will apply to any season; and it is to these that I mean chiefly to confine
myself in the following memoranda. — In the first place, the barley about to be malted
should be of a plump kernel, dry, and well dressed. The policy of dressing well will
be sufficiently obvious when we consider that the swimmings, or light grains that are
skimmed off in the cistern, are generally worth but 9d. per bushel ; and, to fetch even
that, they must be sold immediately, because they will not keep; whereas, if taken out
in a dry state by a winnowing-machine, they will sell for, perhaps, three or four times
the sum, and will keep for any reasonable length of time. The water, or liquor as it is
commonly called, is in general pumped to the required height in the cistern, before the
barley is admitted : experience will determine this, but in Britain the present vexatious
excise laws will insist that all the barley shall be covered, so that enough ought to be
admitted to allow for the swelling of the barley during the process of steeping. It is not
my present purpose to enter into all the minutia; of the excise interference in this
branch of business, but it is of such frequent occurrence as not to admit of being passed
over, even in such a mere sketch of the process as the present one. The law, then, has
determined forty-eight hours as the minimum period for steeping ; the maltster may steep
longer if he chooses ; but first, I should have said, the barley is skreened, or dribbled
into the steep, from a chamber above. Having lain the required time, the water is let
off", and the barley is emptied into the couch, a square frame formed of battens, or deals,
each, by law, two inches thick, and also, by law, not exceeding thirty inches in depth ;
here it remains, by law, twenty-six hours. The couch is then unloaded, and its contents
laid into a tolerably thick bed. It may here be noticed, that a malt-house may have two,
and sometimes three, working-floors: if two, then the corn steeped (which when it
comes out of the couch is called the piece) is divided ; one half being worked on the
upper, and the remainder on the lower floor : or, if three, then the piece is equally shared
by each floor, that is, provided the weather is not too warm ; if it is, the upper floor
must be either stopped altogether, or considerably ' curtailed of its fair proportion,' this
floor of the building being usually the first to feel a change of temperature. It is quite
impossible, after the barley leaves the couch, to lay down any fixed rules for the number
of times a piece ought to he turned. This, and the thickness of the piece, must entirely
depend on the state of the weather. If any sudden increase of temperature takes place
(a circumstance of frequent occurrence, especially late in the season) not only must the
piece be almost constantly kept turning, but the
maltster will have to ' give it all the ground,' i. e.
lay it as thin on the floor as he can. Besides
actually turning, a piece is occasionally ploughed
to lighten it up, and check the root. The plough
is a light implement, constructed like fig. 1 1 26, the
whole being of wood, and about four or five feet
long. Be the weather what it may, the maltster's
eye must be almost always on his floors ; on the
one hand to check exuberant vegetation, by which
the quality of his malt would be prematurely ex-
hausted ; and, on the other, to see that it is not
injured by being untimely checked. There is a just medium in this matter, only to be
insured by strict and unremitting attention on the part of both the master and his men.
The root should not be long and 1197 1128
straggling, like fig. 1127; but short
and curly, like fig. 1128, bushy, and
having a tendency to turn back. Yet
even this checking should be done
with judgment. If the piece be
moved injudiciously often, or have too
great a proportion of cold drying wind
admitted into the house, the root will turn rusty, die away, and vegetation will be diffi-
cult, if not impossible, to restore. The main object of the maltster is to obtain the
greatest quantum of saccharine matter from the barley; and this is found to be best
590
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
attained by ' getting the back well up,' as it is technically termed ; that is, by forcing
and encouraging the seminal shoot, or acrospire, as it is called, till it is nearly fit to
start through the skin, not actually to show itself; but only the protuberance occasioned
by its progress under the skin. To effect this is the great art in malting ; and it requires
from ten to fourteen days to accomplish it, after the barley has left the couch. Some
maltsters are in the habit of loading the kiln before the acrospire is fully up, and of getting
it up by means of a slow fire, and, of course, very gradual drying. I see no advantage in
this ; preferring the getting it well up in the back, before loading the kiln, and then of
'Irving it off in half the quantity, and about half the time, say forty-eight hours. During
the operation of drying, the malt should be turned three or four times, or one part would
get more fire than it ought, while another would perhaps, be raw. An equality in the
drying process is essential to the manufacture of good malt. I do not stop to describe
the different sorts of malt ; pale, amber, high-dried, &c. : the maltster ascertains the
quality he wishes to make, and gives it more or less fire, according to circumstances.
The quantum of fire is ascertained by chewing it till reduced to pulp (using as little
saliva as possible), and then examining it between the thumb and finger ; or, in default
of that necessary article, good teeth, a small mill, somewhat like a pestle and mortar,
only made of bone or hard wood, is frequently resorted to by way of substitute. Malt,
when once well dried, should be kept in a dry room, as close as possible, or it will soon
get clung (withered), and lose its fire (its crispness).
1263. " The Mult-kiln, to be hereafter described, is calculated to dry off a whole
piece (say from 100 to 104 bushels) at once. The time required for this is about thirty-
six hours; sometimes (as, for instance, in close foggy weather) a few hours longer. The
fuel may be either coke or stone-coal ; perhaps a mixture of each may be better, say two
thirds of the former (by measure) to one third of the latter." Our contributor next
describes, in succession, the upper working-floor, the lower working-floor, the kiln, and
the furnace.
1264. The Upper Working- Floor Ls shown in fig. 1129, from a to b, 81 feet long,
and 10 feet 6 inches wide ; c is the cistern, 8 feet 4 inches long, 9 feet wide, and 2
feet 4 inches deep, in one corner of which there may be a plug to let off the water, and
close to the outside of which may be a pump for supplying water ; d is the couch, of the
same dimensions as the cistern ; e, a trapdoor, through which a part, generally one half,
of the quantity steeped, is thrown from the couch down to the lower working-floor.
There is another trapdoor at f, up which the contents of the lower floor are brought
when sufficiently worked, in order to be put on the kiln. Over the upper working-floor
there is, or ought to be, a floor or chamber for a stock of barley, which may be hoisted
up to it with a crane, and there is a spout in the floor, to let it down into the cistern.
1265. The Kiln and Malt- Chamber. The kiln, fig. 1129 g, is 17 feet square; it
is connected with the malt-chamber, h, by the door, i. Into this chamber the malt is
thrown after being dried. There is another malt-chamber over this, the opening to which
is shown at y, in fig. 1132.
1266. The Lower Working- Floor, fig. 1130, k, as it includes, in addition to the length of
the upper floor, the length of the cistern and the couch, is about 100 feet long by 10
1129
MILLS, KILNS, MALT-HOUSES, ETC.
591
11 S3
>■
I
"®
1
feet 6 inches in width. In this figure, m sliows the dunge (supposed to be a corruption
of dungeon, from its appearance when looked down to from the kiln floor) or space be-
tween the kiln floor and the furnace; n is a passage taken off the dunge, but which does
not interfere with the furnace, as may be seen by the same letter n, fig. 1131, which is a
section on the line A 13 ; o is the space in front of the furnace-door, 6 feet wide ; and
p is a place for stowing fuel. In fig. 1131 are seen the furnace and ash-pit doors, //,
and the two shutters of the draught-hole on each side of the furnace, r. These draught-
holes are about 1 foot wide and IS inches high ; and the admission of air is regulated
by plates of sheet iron, which slide in frames and are
balanced by weights, as shown by fig. 1133; in which
s s are the draught-hole covers ; t the furnace-door, and
u the ash-pit door, with its ventilator. Eig. 1132 is a
section of the kiln, dunge, malt-chamber, and conical roof;
in which are shown from vtov the ends of the iron joists on
which the flooring is laid : they are sixteen in number, and
are supported by stronger iron cross-beams or girders, let
into the walls, and also by the upright iron posts w w, 5 feet
high, the situations of which are shown by w w in fig. 1 134. This section, and also the plan
fig. 1130 show the diminution of the dunge IYotti 17 feet to about 7 feet square. The
cone is about 16 feet high from the floor v v to the top or kerb x ; here the opening
is two feet in diameter, which gives an area equal to that of the two draught-holes on
each side of the furnace, and of the ventilator in the ash-pit door, agreeably to the prin-
ciple laid down in § 798 ; y is the opening to the upper malt-chamber ; and z the door
to the lower malt-chamber. Over the opening at the summit of the cone there is a flat
circular plate of iron, a, supported by rods, b, to protect the opening from the weather.
The kiln floor is square at bottom ; but at the height of 1 foot 6 inches at the angles it
is gradually gathered into a circle, as shown by the dotted lines c c, in fig. 1132. It
will be observed, that, while fig. 1131 exhibits a front view of the furnace with the two
draught-holes, one on each side, fig. 1132 shows a back view of the same, with their
openings into the dunge. The furnace-bars are 3 feet long. Over the mouths of the
furnace and draught-holes is suspended from the floor-joists of the kiln a plate of iron
7 feet 6 inches long by 5 feet wide (d in fig. 1132, and d d in fig. 1 134), which is called
a dispenser, the use of which is to equalise the heat in the upper part of the dunge, so
that the kiln floor, fig. 1134, e e, may receive it equally in every part. The furnace,/,
1134
is 3 feet long; it is 18 inches wide, and 20 inches high, the ash-pit under it is of the
same width, and 1 6 inches high ; <j g are the sloping sides of the dunge ; and h the cen-
tral part.
1 267. The Kiln Floor may be either of tiles or of wirecloth ; but the former are
generally preferred. The under side of a kiln-tile presents a sort of honeycomb appear-
ance, fig. 1135, i; but the upper surface on which the malt is laid is perforated with
small holes, and has the 1 1 35
appearance of k. A tile
one foot square contains
120 large openings on
the under side, with 8
smaller openings to each
of the large ones on the
upper side ; thus giving
a total of 960 apertures in every square foot. The openings of the small holes are larger
on the lower than on the upper side, in order to prevent them from being choked with
the malt dust or combs before mentioned. (See § 798.)
1268. Construction. All the walls may be of brick or stone ; the cone over the kiln
floor should either be of brick, or, if economy be very much studied, it may be composed
of a frame of iron rods hung over with plain tiles, and covered with cement. The
bottom and sides of the couch may either be of wood, stone, slate, or of brick lined with
cement. The malting-floors may be paved, tiled, or laid with composition. The furnace
592
COTTAGE, FARM, AM) VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
maybe built with 6w> brink, and then should be a ventilator in the ash-pit door Cor
regulating the draught of air through the fire The dispenser may be of wrought iron,
or of an iron frame filled in with large slates. The orifice at the summit of the kiln
may be either protected by an iron plate, or by a tiled cover with sides of luffcr-boarding.
Other details have been given in the course of the description.
1269. Remarks. Various improvements have been attempted in malt-kilns of late
years, and patents have been taken out for particular modes of construction ; but of none
of these have we been able to hear a favourable account. The most probable source of
improvement appears to us to be the adoption of the circular form, and of the mode of
heating by brick or iron flues, distributed through the dunge, in the manner practised
by Mr. Read in his hop-kiln, to be hereafter described. Mr. Read, who lias examined
numerous malt-kilns in all parts of the country with a view to their improvement,
informs us that he considers the plan adopted in his hop-kiln as equally applicable to a
malt-kiln ; but that he has found the proprietors of malt-kilns so strongly prejudiced
in favour of existing forms, that he has never had an opportunity of trying the experi-
ment.
Design IV. — A Hop-oast, or Kiln for drying Hops.
1270. The Variations from other Kilns formerly required in a Kiln for drying Hops
will be exhibited in the following plans and sections, which have been obligingly sent
us by our contributor, Mr. Varden. These figures from 1136 to 1148, Mr. Varden
informs us, exhibit part of a range of building consisting of a repetition of similar parts
situated at Farnham. The packing-house, fuel store, &c., are under the same roof.
The six oasts are capable of drying at one time on the first haircloths, twenty-five bags
of hops; each bag containing from sixteen to twenty bushels. These generally require
twelve hours' drying before they are fit to be packed, unless they have previously been
spread upon the upper haircloth, which is not often the case, except when there is a
great quantity to be dried off in a short time. " The Design sent is that which I under-
stand is generally considered to be the best. Some hop-growers, a short time ago, fitted
up their kilns with a succession of drawers one above the other, having hair bottoms ;
but the extra-labour of these is found to be so great, that they intend removing them,
and adopting the method about to be detailed. Fig. 1136 is a plan of the oast floor.
1136
-t— — ,
sA
■■,' ■■-;■■ ' :-~~ — -. . ■--.-.'■ :..'■:.
-'■■-'-- ill 1 i1
^T-I~-r' . 1 ■ --T- — T" -1 . I. .11 1 1— .-!— T
':■:*.:•'•> i i '^-^-r-r-Tr
d
The external walls are of 14-inch stonework, the internal ones are brick ; that against
the passage a is 9 inches, and the two partitions, b b, are 4 inches and a half thick. The
building is 58 feet 4 inches by 14 feet in the clear, and contains six oasts or kilns, c.
Fig. 1137 is a plan of the first hair, or floor for the haircloth, showing the timbers, &&
The joists are 3 inches and a half by 3 inches ; the arris girder .5 inches by 5 inches,
1138
--— ,
; • . s —
y. •',-'?1""'1 >-
— c " •>;»/;//*=
1
v
i 1
-r, — ,j — ---;; ,
■ 1} |j , ,|H
Fp
J _ u L
. L. I 11 11 Ml
■
Jj
j
ii ii
J ±
i " r i
. '1 !l_ ' '.
i ■! 1
ri
MALT-HOUSES, KILNS, HOP-OASTS, ETC.
593
and the story-posts .5 indies by 4 inches and a half. Fig. 1138 is a plan of the second
hair. The joists are 3 inches by 3 inches and a half; and the arris girders 5 inches
5 inches. Fig. 1139 is an elevation of the front. The small windows have
)n
1139
□ n
□
n n
G
wooden shutters. Fig. 1140 is an elevation of the back. The windows are filled in
with lufFer-boarding. Fig. 1141 is a plan of a part of the building to a larger scale.
1140
I 1 1 |,..M..i.|
Ft. 30 10 0 10 Ft.
The pavement, d, is brick on edge covered with plain tiles ; and the small square openings,
t, e represent the orifices of air flues ; f, is the furnace. Fig. 1 142 is a plan of a part of
1141
1142
the first hair, showing the laths of which the floor is composed ; they are 1 inch and a half
by 1 inch, and 1 inch and a half apart. These open floors are used to allow of the warm
air rising from below ; and a large haircloth is spread over the whole, before the hops are
laid out. Along the side, about 1 7 inches above the lathing, is a stage 20 inches wide for
the men to walk upon without damaging the hops. This stage is made to fold up against
the wall when not in use. Fig. 1143 shows part of the second hair. The arris
girders are hung to the roof by wrought-iron rods, as shown in fig. 1 145. Fig. 1 144 is
an elevation of a part of the wall at the mouth of the oasts, showing the fireplace #, ash-
594
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
hole h, and the mouths of the air flues, ?', which latter have hinged flaps, k, to close
occasionally. Fig. L145 is a transverse section of the building; in which « is the pas-
sage shown by </ in fig, 1 186 ; 6 is the mass of pigeon-hole brickwork) which encloses
the furnace shown by C, in fig. 1 136, and by ./', in fig. 1 141 ; c is the brick floor, in which
1144
_J
are the openings for the ascent of air, shown by e, in fig. 1141, and by the dots in fig.
1 136 ; d is the lower hair, at it is locally termed, or lower drying floor; e e are the
supports to the girders of this floor ; f is a door of communication in the partition
between the kilns ; and g is the iron rod which supports the middle of the girders of
the upper hair, or upper drying floor, h. The upper half of the roof is half tiled, to
allow the steam to escape. When this method is adopted, cowls are not requisite.
Fig. 1146, to a scale of 5 feet to an inch, is a plan of one of the oasts; in which /
is the fireplace covered with a brick arch to the depth of 1 foot 8 inches The fuel
made use of is charcoal or culm (by culm is meant the charcoal from the smallet
wood and sprays), and the fire is made on a cast-iron grating. No chimneys are required,
the quantity of smoke being so very trifling. Fig. 1147 is a side elevation of flu
showing the open brickwork for letting out the warm air ; the fireplace m, and the ash-
hole, n. The timbers, o, are covered with two courses of plain tiles set in cement or
mortar, and are 4 inches by .'5 inches, and 4 inches apart. The fireplace arch is seen
at p, and the soil under it at q. In the roof, the plate is 6 inches by 4 inches, the tie-
beam 0 inches by 6 inches, the couplings 5 inches by 4 inches, the common rafters
4 inches by 2 inches and a half, and the struts 4 inches by 4 inches and a half."
MALT-HOUSES, KILNS, HOP-OASTS, ETC. 595
1271. Remarks. This appears to be an expensive mode of drying hops, compared
with that practised by many of the growers in Kent, who have adopted the improved
circular kilns invented by JUr. Head, which will be next described.
Design V. — A Hop-kiln or Oast, on an improved Principle, erected in 1832, at Teston,
in Kent.
1272. Hops have been dried from time immemorial on kilns with cockles, furnaces,
or other fireplaces beneath them; the smoke and heated air being allowed to ascend
through the hops, and to pass off by an opening in the apex of the roof, as in the case or
the kilns for drying malt, corn, &c. About the year 1796, Mr. John Read, then a
practical gardener at Ilorsemendean, in Kent (having had extensive experience in
heating hot-houses by smoke flues, and having also tried steam in pineries so early as
1.S02), began to turn his attention to the subject of building hop-kilns. Mr. Read has
subsequently invented his well-known improved garden syringe, his stomach pump, and
various other surgical instruments of acknowledged importance ; and it may easily be
conceived that so ingenious a mind would improve any object to which he might turn
his attention. The idea of applying flues like those of hot-houses to generate heated air,
for the purpose of drying hops, very naturally occurred to him ; and he soon found an
opportunity of carrying his ideas into execution. Mr. Read has, since he began to erect
hop-kilns on his plan, made various improvements in them ; and he has furnished us with
the Design about to be described, in which the whole are combined.
1273. The object in view, in kiln-drying Hops, is to discharge the water contained in
the flowers. This, Mr. Read has ascertained to be, when the flowers are newly gathered,
about 500 lbs. in every hundred bushels ; and he finds that this moisture may be converted
into vapour, by the expenditure of one bushel of common coals to every hundred-weight
of hops, in twelve hours, the hops being spread on the floor of the kiln, in the proportion
of one bushel to every square foot.
1274. The Process of drying Hops is as follows: — After being gathered from the bine,
or stalk, the flowers are immediately carried in bags to the kiln, on which they are spread
out to the thickness of from six to ten inches all over the surface of the kiln. The fire is
then lighted, and kept burning briskly night and day, so long as there are any hops ready
to be dried. It is found that a kiln of Mr. Read's construction may be charged once
in every twelve hours. After the hops are dried, they are swept off the kiln into a cool
well ventilated loft adjoining, and generally attached to it ; this loft being formed over a
cart-shed, or some other building open on one or on all sides. Being cooled here for a
day or more, or according to convenience, the hops are bagged, or pocketed ; the bag
weighing two hundred-weight and a half, and the pocket one hundred-weight and a half ;
that is, packed in bags, which are suspended by a hoop from a round opening in the floor,
and into each of which a man enters, to consolidate the hops by treading them down.
When the bag is full, it is released from the hoop, and pulled up, still being retained over
the hole, till it is beaten into shape, when it is sewn up, and let down into the shed,
whence it is carried to market, or to the store loft, where it may be kept a year or more,
if carefully excluded from the air. Hops dried on Mr. Read's kiln have been known to
keep four or five years; but those dried by the common methods, and especially those
of Farnham, seldom keep even twelve months, from the imperfect manner in which the
process of drying has been performed. There are several excise regulations connected
with the drying of hops in Britain, which we think it unnecessary to enter into in a work
intended for both hemispheres; more especially as we anticipate the entire removal of
the excise duties, and the substitution of a graduated per-centage or property tax for this
and all other government taxes.
1275. The Situation of a hop-oast ought to be airy ; and the external opening to it, for
the admission of the air, ought to face that point of the compass from which the wind
blows most frequently at that season of the year when hops are being dried. In England,
the hop harvest is in the month of September, and the wind, in that month, is generally
in the direction of the south-west. When several kilns are built together, and not in
a straight line, but so as to form two rows or a group, as in the Design before us, this
rule cannot be followed; but the next best rule is, to have the openings to the fireplaces
facing the north-west and south-east, by which means they will catch a part of the current
from the south-west as it passes.
1276. The circular form for the kiln has been adopted by Mr. Read, because it
contains a greater area than any other figure with the same quantity of exterior walling;
and because both the walls and roof can be made stronger than they can in any rectan-
gular form, with fewer materials. Hence, while the circular kilns possess more strength
and durability than the rectangular ones, the expense of construction is less.
1277. Details of the Oasts erected at Teston. Fig. 1148 is the ground plan; in which
5[)t) COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
a a are two kilns, twenty feet in diameter internally ; and 6 b two otner kilns, sixteen
Feet in diameter internally ; c is an open space between the kilns, to which air is freely
admitted by the openings to the south-east, south-west, and to the north-east, at d d d; e
P W
1148
i •
X H
tt:
.□
shows the openings to the dunge, and cockles or furnaces for the admission of air to the
fire, and to be rarefied by the flues, previously to its ascending and passing through the
drying-floor ; f, the furnaces made of east iron, with doors to the fuel-chambers and ash-
pits of the same material ; g, termination of a portion to the extent of one yard of the
flues next the furnaces, which ought to be built of fire-brick, or which may be formed
entirely of cast iron, as in this Design. The remaining part of the flues to be built of
common brick on edge three courses deep, and covered with bricks or tiles, twelve inches
long by six inches broad ; h, the situation of the chimney shafts ; i, the staircase for
carrying up the hops to the drying-floor ; and k, a cart-shed, over which is a floor on
which the hops are cooled. Fig. 1149 is a transverse section on the line A B, or nearly
so, in which / is the fuel-chamber, with the doors open ; in, the thoroughfare between the
two kilns ; n, the flues ; o, the chimney shafts ; p, the drying-floor ; q, the situation of the
wall-plate ; r, the doors to the drying-floor open ; s, the floor of the loft, with the movable
MALT-HOUSLS, kilns, hop-oasts, etc.
597
stairs to the drying-floor ; t, the roof of the cooling-loft ; and u, collar beams for supporting
the spindle of the cowl. Fig. 1150 is a longitudinal section on the line C D, in which
» v show the situation of the movable steps from the common floor of the passage loft,
and cooling-room, to the double doors, tv, of the drying-floor ; x, bottom boards of the
doors, eighteen inches deep, which fit into grooves, and have two holes in each for lifting
them up every time the drying-floor is to be emptied. While this operation is going on,
the step-ladders are removed, and the hops are swept through the door, and fall down
into the passage loft, whence they are swept along to the cooling-chamber ; z is the
ridge of the roof from the cooling-chamber and passage loft. Fig. 1151 is a cross
section of one of the larger kilns on the line E F, for the purpose of showing the
returns of the flues, from the centre to the sides in the lower part of the dunge, and
from the sides to the chimney shaft in the upper part of the dunge. Fig. 1152 is
a dissected plan of the drying-floor, in which a a are the iron girders, the strength
of which may either be such as to require no supports between the ends ; or they may
be so slight as to require one or more pillars as props between the extremities ; when
they are of cast iron, they may be in two lengths, four inches deep in the middle, and
half an inch thick, each length of sixteen feet, supported by two iron columns: 6 b are
593 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA AECH1TECT1 RE.
LIS!
the laths, which may be either of cast or wrought iron ; when of cast iron, they are four
feet long, roach-bellied, that is, forming the segment of a circle on the under side, two
inches broad at top, and a quarter of an inch on the under edge; when they are 01
wrought iron, they are one inch and a half broad (that breadth being necessary to form
a bed for the tiles), and half an inch deep ; in this case the extended length across the
girders is from one of the kilns to the other : c c are the tiles pierced with holes, in the
same manner as the tiles of malt-kilns, fig. 1135, § 1267.
1278. Construction. The exterior walls are of brick, with eighteen-inch footings,
and are carried up a foot or more of the width of fourteen inches, after which their
width is nine inches, up to the eaves of the roof, which are eighteen inches above the
drving-floor. The rafters are four inches by two inches at the bottom; and three inches
by one inch and a half at the top, where they abut against a circular curb or rim under
the cowl. The furnaces or fuel-chambers are entirely of cast iron, and the ash-pits have
iron doors. At the further extremity of the fuel-chamber there is an opening six inches
square at top. through which the smoke and heat ascend into the flue. The flue for the
first three or four feet is either built of fire brick, or formed entirely of cast iron six
inches in diameter ; after which its sides are formed of three bricks on edge, not plastered
either outside or inside ; and its top is covered with two courses of tiles, breaking joint,
six inches by three inches. The reason why narrow tiles are chosen is, that duty is saved ;
and two courses breaking joint are employed, in order to prevent the risk of smoke
getting through the joints into the dunge. The flues are supported by piers formed of
open brickwork on edge, and joined by arches four inches in thickness, beveled on the
top so as to form the base of the flue. Two flues proceed from each fireplace, ascending
at an angle of 15°, or more if the height of the dunge will permit, in the direction
indicated by the arrows, meeting at e, in the plan fig. 1148, and each there returning
over itself, and again meeting at the chimney shaft, A. These flues may be easily cleaned
by the removal, at short distances, of some of the covering-tiles ; or, what is a much
simpler mode, by burning in the fuel-chamber a few handfuls of dry brushwood, or dried
hop-bine, or any thing that will quickly create such a draught as will carry all the soot
in the course of a few minutes out at the chimney top. About London the washer-
women clean the chimneys of their boilers on the same principle, by throwing in, in rapid
succession, small quantities of gunpowder. The
cowl should project about a foot on every side
over the orifice in the summit. This orifice is,
to that for the admission of air to the dunge, as
one to one and a quarter. In the building of the
walls of the kiln, in order to preserve them truly
circular, an upright pole is fixed in the centre,
and a guide-rod, fig. 1153, d, is framed on to it,
of the requisite radius. The lower end of the
central perpendicular pole is fixed in the ground,
and the top kept steady by braces to other poles
outside the circumference of the plan, so as not
to interrupt the free revolution of the guide-rod.
For every course of bricks laid on the wall, a
course is also laid in mortar round the upright
pole under the guide-rod, so that the latter is
always kept level. So rapidly can bricks be laid in this manner, that Mr. Read finds such
walling cost less than straight brickwork. The course of bricks immediately under the
flooring tiles, twenty inches from the iop, ought to project an inch inwards for the file
to rest on. The exterior opening to the dunge should be kept low, it being found that
MALT-HOUSES, KILNS, HOP OASTS, ETC.
599
1155
when this is the case the draught is always greatest ; its height need never exceed four
feet six inches, which is sufficiently
high to admit a person to enter the
(hinge. When the manager of the
furnace is once within, he imme-
diately finds six feet of head room ;
there being a pier, e, nine inches by
eighteen inches carried up on each
side of the door, along with the
outside wall, in as fig. 1 154, which
is a section on the line L M, for
the purpose of forming abutments
for the four-inch arch, f, which
carries the double flue, the end
of which, at the point where one
returns on the other, is shown at g.
The furnace and flues should be
blackened exteriorly, in order to
increase the radiation of heat, and the inside of the surrounding walls ought to be white-
washed, to prevent them as much as possible from absorbing it. The cowl moves
altogether independently of the curb which
forms the opening under it: it consists of
one strong back piece, into which the upright
spindle is framed, as may be seen in the
section, fig. 1149, at I. Attached to the
spindle and the back board is the fly-board,
fig. 1155, h, which serves, like a rudder, to
keep the back of the cowl to the wind. The
boards forming the cowl overlap each other
from the back piece, or rib, towards the sides ;
and they are nailed to iron hoops, as indicated 5 o 5
in the section I K, fig. 1155, and also in the 1 — > — ' ' — J — < ' ' 'Ft.
section, fig. 1149. In the former section, h
is the fly-board ; i, the back rib ; k, the upright spindle ; I, the iron hoop ; and m the
boarding. Fig. 1156, which is a section on the ine G H, shows the manner in which
the upright spindle works against a collar-piece,
which is fixed across the centre of the curb, at
the kiln top. This piece being fixed, and the
collar containing the spindle bolted on to it, the
bottom piece, in which the pivot of the spindle
works, can, before it is fixed, be moved backwards
and forwards on the collar beam till the spindle
is brought to a perfectly upright position, and
made to work freely.
1279. Estimate. The expense of these four
kilns, exclusive of the cooling-room, was about
£700, which amounts to about 2',d. per cubic foot.
1280. Remarks. The great superiority of the
circular kiln to that described in the preceding
Design is so obvious, that we only wonder, con-
sidering it has been extensively used in Kent
and Sussex for upwards of thirty years, that it has not found its way to Farnham.
It must be obvious that not only any description of fuel may be used in Mr. Read's
kilns, but that, from the great length of the flues, a much greater quantity of heat
will be rendered available for passing through the drying-floor. The circumstance
of the flues ascending at a considerable slope is highly favourable for promoting
a draught, and consequently for thoroughly consuming the fuel. Mr. Read informs us
that he has superintended the erection of some hundreds of these kilns ; and that in one
year he erected seventy, all within the counties of Kent and Susses. This being the
case, it strikes us with astonishment that Mr. Read's improvement has not been adopted
by the hop-growers of either Farnham or Worcestershire, and the proprietors of malt-
kilns every where. For our own part, we have no hesitation in saying, that we con-
sider the malt kiln, Design III., though it be of the most improved construction, and
the Farnham hop kiln, Design IV., though it comes from a district so celebrated for its
hops, as discreditable to the science of this country. No man who understands Read's
kiln would erect either.
1156
fJOO COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Design VI. — An improved Limekiln.
1281. Limestone is burnt in a variety of ways. The object is, completely to deprive
the stone of its carbonic acid gas with the smallest quantity of fuel, the least amount of
labour, and in the shortest time. The rudest mode of burning lime is by mixing the stones
with coal or other fuel, in large open heaps, and then setting fire to the coal or fuel.
The first improvement on this mode consisted in covering up the heap with earth or turf,
so as to confine the heat; a practice which, we are informed, is still followed in the
islands of the West Indies. The next improvement was the forming of a well for burn-
ing the lime in the face of a bank, so that the stones and fuel could be thrown in at top,
and drawn out, as burnt, at bottom. The ordinary form employed for this purpose is
that of an inverted cone, or an egg with the broad end uppermost. The first improve-
ment on this form was made by Booker of Dublin. The section of Booker's kiln forms
two long narrow truncated cones, placed end to end, giving a width, or diameter, at the
base and apex of three feet, and in the middle of seven feet. A suitable height for these
dimensions is from twenty-five to thirty feet. On the top is a cast-iron cap or cover,
which turns on a pivot, and rests on a curb-ring fixed on the top of the masonry of the
kiln. The use of this cover is to prevent the escape of more heat than is necessary to
keep the fuel burning, and, therefore, the opening at the top of the cap is a circle of not
more than twelve inches in diameter. Very little heat is thus lost, and lime may be
burned with as little fuel in winter as in summer. Another great advantage of this plan
is, that by closing the orifice at the top of the cap and the furnace-doors below, the fire
may be kept alive for four or five days, which, in situations where the demand for lime is
not regular, is an object of some importance. Booker's limekiln has subsequently been
materially improved by C. J. Stuart Menteath, Esq., the proprietor of extensive lime-
works at Closeburn, in Dumfries-shire ; and it is this kiln which constitutes our present
Design. Booker's, and a variety of others, will be found described in our Encyc. of
Agr., 2d edit. § S862.
1 282. The Closeburn Limekiln is oval in the plan at top, and perpendicular in the sides to
nearly half its depth ; below which it is gradually contracted to the size of the grating of
the furnace. The advantage of the oval form is, that the combustion is more regularly sup-
pi ied with air than in the case of a kiln of large diameter. " Narrow kilns," Mr. Men-
teath finds, " also burn much faster, admit of there being drawn out of them every day
(if fully employed) more than two thirds, or nearly three fourths, of what they contain
of well-burnt line ; and afford fully three measures of calcined lime for one measure of
coal, when large oircular kilns will not give out one half of their contents every day,
and require nearly one measure of coal for two measures of lime burnt." In a country
sale of lime, Mr. Menteath remarks, " the quantity sold every day is liable to great
fluctuations : two or three cart-loads will sometimes only be required from an establish-
ment which the day before supplied forty ; and,' as lime is known to be a commodity
which, when exposed to the action of the air, becomes more bulky and heavy, and in that
state does not admit of being carried to a distance without additional labour, it has been
an object of importance with me, to find out a construction of a kiln which will allow of
lime being kept for several days without slaking, and, at the same time, to prevent the
fire escaping at the top of the kiln, if the kiln stands twenty-four hours without being
employed, especially during the autumn and winter, when the air is cold, and the nights
long. I now employ kilns of an egg-shape, and also oval. The oval-shaped kilns are
divided by arches across the kiln, descending four feet from the top. The object of the
arches across the kilns is to prevent the sides of the kilns from falling in or contracting,
and also for the purpose of forming circular openings for feeding in the stone and coal
at the mouth of the kiln. Upon this plan, a kiln of any length might be constructed
with numerous round mouths." Having placed a lid to the cover of Booker's iron cap,
Mr. Menteath is enabled " to prevent the escape of heat at the top, and by cast-iron doors
at the bottom the air is prevented from passing through the kiln ; so that by these pre-
cautions the limeburner can regulate the heat, and prevent its escape for several days ;
when without them the fire, in winter, would be extinguished in the course of twenty-four
hours. This is an object of great importance, as it enables one to burn lime as well,
and with as small a quantity of fuel, in the winter as in the summer season ; and to sup-
ply the farmer with well-burned lime at any time of the year : an object which cannot
be obtained by the common construction of kilns, open both at top and bottom, for the
reasons before stated."
1283. Burning Lime with Coke instead of Coal. " From the great expense attending
the carting of fuel from a distance of twenty-five miles from my own coal-pits, I have
adopted the practice of coking the coal, which is a saving of eight twentieths of the
weight ; and I find that equal measures of coal and coke give the same quantity of
heat in burning lime, which appears paradoxical, but is not the less true. The coal
MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, BRICK-KILNS, ETC. 001
is found to have little effect upon the stone till it is deprived of its bitumen, or is coked
in the kiln ; for, during the time the smoke is emitted from the top of a limekiln,
little or no heat is evolved ; or, in other words, the smoke carries off' the heat, which is
not given out from the smoke till it is inflamed ; a circumstance which does not take
place in the ordinary limekilns. When coke is employed for burning lime during the
day, small coal should be used in the evening ; in order to prevent, as much as possible,
the escape or waste of heat during the night, from the rapid circulation of air through
the limestone in the kiln. A kiln in which coke is the fuel employed will yield nearly a
third more calcined lime (or shells, as they are termed in Scotland) in a given time,
than one in which coal is the fuel. Coke may, therefore, be used occasionally, when a
greater quantity of lime is required in a certain time than usual. It is well known to
lime-burners that the process of burning is done most economically when the kiln is in
full action, so as almost constantly to have a column of fire from the bottom to the top
of the kiln, with as short intervals as possible in working the kiln."
1284. Regulating the admission of air to the bottom of the kiln. Mr. Menteath has
found that limestone is apt to be vitrified during the process of calcination in stormy
weather. This proceeds from the increased circulation of air through the kiln, which,
by increasing the rapidity of the combustion, evolves in any given time a greater quan-
tity of heat from the fuel employed. From having experienced the bad effects of too
great a circulation without properly providing against it, Mr. Menteath considers it
desirable to have it in his power to throw at pleasure an additional quantity of air into
the bottom of the limekiln ; both for the purpose of saving fuel, and, when the lime-
stone is burned, to cool it, that it may be the sooner ready to be drawn out of the
kiln. It is well known that, with kilns as they are commonly constructed, it requires
nearly twenty-four hours to cool the limestone in the bottom of the kiln to such a
degree as to prevent its burning the wooden carts in which it is to be carried away.
(Highland Society's Transactions, vol. viii. p. 131.) The power of throwing in an
additional quantity of air at the bottom of the kiln is easily attained by increasing the
length of the bottom, and by having two or more furnace doors opening to it, instead of
one.
1285. The proportion of coal to limestone will vary according to the softness, hardness.
or density of the stone, and the strength and size of the pieces of the coal used. The
same weight of coal will burn a greater quantity of lime, when in pieces of from
half a pound's to a pound's weight each, than when in fragments of from half an ounce to
an ounce. Hence those who employ small coal in burning lime, from its cheapness, are
often performing the operations at greater expense than those who employ larger, and
consequently dearer, coal. In working a kiln with narrow circular mouths, such as that
about to be described ; the stone and coal should be measured, in order to enable the
workmen to proportion the one to the other. The stone and joal being in separate
heaps at the top of the kiln, and both broken into small pieces, a fire is lighted on the
iron bars at the bottom of the kiln. When this is fairly kindled, limestone and coal are
dropped from the top in small quantities at a time, so as never to check the current of air
through the fire. This operation is carried on till the kiln is filled, after which it is
allowed to stand for several hours till a complete combustion of the fuel has taken place.
If the calcined lime be wanted immediately, the furnace doors below are opened, and the
cover at top removed, in order to produce a current of cold air through the kiln ; if not
wanted for some days, the top and bottom are closed to exclude the air, and to prevent the
escape of heat. In Mr. Menteath's kilns there is a door both to the ash-pit and to
he fuel-chamber over it. Through the upper door the calcined lime is drawn out ;
and through the under door are drawn out the lime ashes, which are a clear gain to the
lime-burner where lime is sold by measure ; because, if not separated from the larger
pieces, they would only serve to fill up the interstices between the stones.
12861 The situation most suitable for building a limekiln is the face of a steep bank ;
but if this cannot be obtained, it may be built on a level surface, with a ramped road, or
inclined plane, for carrying up the fuel and limestone to the top of the kiln ; or, the
sides of the building may be carried up perpendicularly, and the limestone and fuel
hoisted to the top by means of a crane and windlass.
1287. Details of the plans and sections. Fig. 1157 is a section across a bank, on the
face of which it is desired to build a limekiln. In this section, abed indicate the space
to be occupied by the mass of masonry containing the kiln ; and c d e f, the situation of
the shed over the kiln mouth. Fig. 1158 is a ground or foundation-plan, in which may
be seen, at h, the fuel chamber, two feet square, with iron bars laid across ; two side
openings for occasionally admitting an extensive quantity of air, i i, which openings may
be blocked up with stones, to save the expense of iron doors ; and g h g, the space in which
the cart stands when loading with the burnt limestone, as drawn out of the kiln. Fig.
1159 is a horizontal section of the kiln at the height of eighteen feet from the grating of
3 x
G02
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Fig. 1161 is a plan of the top
the fuel chamber ; that is, on the line A B, in fig. 1 1 60.
of the kiln enclosed and
covered by the kiln-shed.
In this plan, k k k are the
three circular openings in
the covering arch of the
kiln, through which the
broken stones and coal are
introduced : these open-
ings may either be covered
with aflat plate of cast-iron,
or with one of Booker's
cast-iron covers ; this last
is a truncated cone of cast-
iron, the opening at the
truncated part of the cone
being a foot in diameter,
with a lid to cover it oc-
casionally ; I is the place
where the broken coal is
laid down ; and m, that where the broken stone is laid ; a cart for bringing these
materials into the kiln may pass in at one door and out at the other. Fig. 1160 is a
longitudinal section of the kiln .
on the Une E F, in which n is the 1 158 ^ £!"""" I ^J
side opening to the back of the
fuel chamber; o, cast-iron covers
("with openings in the centre, and
lids over them) to the feeding
apertures; and p, the springing
of the covering arch. Fig. 1162
is a transverse section of the kiln
and kiln-shed, on the line C D,
in which is shown the ash-pit,
under the fuel-chamber, q; the
space between the double doors of
the fuel chamber, r ; the covered
area on which the loading carts
stand, s ; and the cast-iron cover
to the feeding aperture, and the
protecting cover to the chimney
of the kiln-shed, u. Fig. 1 163 is
a front elevation of the kiln, with the shed over it.
1159
,-CffL, rjfivL, rJj^L,
1288. Construction. The walls should either be
built of fire-brick, or firestone ; but they are
sometimes built of limestone of the same quality
as that to be burned within ; but having the stones
in large masses, so to prevent their being as much
affected by the heat as the smaller stones in the
kiln, which are mixed with fuel. The upper part
of the kiln may either be arched over, or covered with
cast-iron joists and flag-stones ; leaving square or
longitudinal holes for the admission of air, which
MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, BRICK-KILNS, ETC.
603
1161
may be covered with a plate of cast-iron, regulated so as to give the exact degree of
draught required. This contrivance will be found cheaper than the conical kilns of
Booker ; and, where there is a
kiln-shed, it will answer equally
well. When there is not a kiln-
shed, Booker's covers are un-
doubtedly preferable ; as they
not only keep in the heat, but
throw off the rain. The shed
over the mouth of the kiln is of
the greatest use in keeping dry
the stones and fuel before they
are thrown into the kiln ; and
not only keeping them dry, but
beating them, and thus evapor-
ating part of their moisture.
These materials, therefore,
ought always to be kept as near
as possible to the feeding mouths ;
and when the heat of the kiln
is to be continued for some time
by closing both the bottom and
top openings, the coal and un-
burnt limestone should be
heaped up over the latter, in
order that they may absorb as
much as possible of the escaping
heat. The double iron doors
to the fuel chamber should be
nine inches or a foot apart, to
prevent the escape of heat ; but
single doors will suffice for the
ash-pit below. The two side
openings, for the admission of
additional supplies of air at
pleasure, may, when not wanted,
be blocked up with stone, to
save the expense of doors. The
bars of the grating of the fuel-
chamber may be two feet and
a half long, two inches wide,
and three inches deep, cast
hollow ; and the two cross bars
004
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Ll.ii ■ 1 1
on which they rest may be three inches broad, and five inches deep, also cast hollow.
The thickness <,t' the metal, in either
Case, need not exceed a quarter of an
inch ; as the hollow in the centre, by
admitting a current of air, keeps the
bars cool, and prevents their decay. It is
to be observed, that the opening behind
the fuel-chamber, for the admission of
an extra quantity of air, must have a
grating where it enters the fuel-cham-
ber, to prevent its being choked up by
the lime while burning, or being drawn.
1289. Remarks. This Design for a
limekiln we consider decidedly the best
we have ever seen or heard of. M e
examined it, and several others of dif-
ferent kinds, at Closeburn, in 1831 ;
we saw Heathorn's kiln in 1828, and
we have seen, we believe, every variety
of limekiln in use in Britain, having
had occasion to build one for ourselves
some years ago. We therefore con-
sider that we are entitled to pronounce
an opinion on Mr. Menteath's im-
provements. The same form of kiln
is admirably adapted for burning clay,
either to use as a manure, or to form
walks or roads ; and we shall presently show how it may be used for burning bricks.
Heathorn's limekiln has for its object the preparation of coke as well as of quicklime.
For this purpose, the kiln may either be a narrow vertical cylinder, with coking ovens
placed around, and opening into it ; .or, it may be a long narrow kiln, like Menteath's,
with a row of coke ovens on each side. The kiln is filled with broken limestone, and
the process of burning is effected entirely by the combustion of the bituminous matter of
the coal to be coked. A patent was taken out for this kiln some years ago; and one was
erected at Maidstone, by the patentee, who has recently informed us that it continues
to answer his expectations. Only one other kiln of the same kind, however, has been
erected ; which we conclude to be owing to the expense of building, and the greater time
and care required to burn the lime in these kilns. Where lime is to be burned in small
quantities, and where there is a great demand for coke, this description of kiln may
perhaps be recommended ; but the first cost, and the slowness of the operation of burning,
are great drawbacks. This kiln will be found figured and described in our Encyc. of
Agric. § 3868. It is evidently founded on the model of a perpetual limekiln, described
by Count Rumford, in his sixth Essay, p. 181. The objects proposed to be attained by
the perpetual kiln were, first, to cause the fuel to burn in such a manner as to consume
the smoke, by obliging the latter to pass through the ignited fuel ; and secondly, to cause
the flame from the fire to come in contact with a large quantity of the broken limestone,
so as to prevent the heat, as much as possible, from escaping into the atmosphere. The
latter object was effected by making the kiln very high in proportion to its width ; by fill-
ing it quite to the top with limestone ; and by having the fireplace near the bottom of
the kiln. The third object in view, was to render the process of burning lime perpetual,
in order to prevent the waste of heat, which unavoidably attends the cooling of the kiln,
in emptying and filling it. A fourth object was, so to arrange the process, as that the
burnt limestone, while cooling, might give off its heat in such a manner as to assist in heat-
ing the fresh quantity of cold limestone with which the kiln was replenished, as often as a
portion of burnt lime was taken out of it. To show how these purposes might be effected,
Count Rumford had a model erected in the court-yard of the Dublin Society, and
another in the farm of the English garden at Munich ; and he has given an engraving
and description of the latter in the Essay referred to. Whoever will take the trouble of
examining it, will find that Heathorn's kiln only differs from that of Count Rumford in
saving the coke ; this object not being proposed by the Count. The fuel in both kilns is
ixed with the limestone, but is burned in a closed fireplace, which opens into the side
of the kiln, at some distance from the bottom. For large kilns built on these principles,
Rumford observes, there may be several fireplaces, all opening into the same cone; that shape
of kiln being employed both by Count Rumford and Mr. 1 Icathorn. At the bottom of Count
Rvtmford's kiln there is a door, which is occasionally opened to take out the lime; and at
theb ittom of Heathorn's there are movable bars, which can be taken out, for the same
MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, BRICK-KILNS, ETC. 6()5
purpose. When a portion of the burnt lime is taken away either by Count Rumfbrd's
manner or Mr. Heathorn's, the empty space formed in the top of the kiln, by the sub-
gidence which necessarily follows, is immediately filled with fresh limestone; and,
when the opening at the bottom, through which the burnt lime is taken away, is closed,
a very small aperture is left, to admit as much air as will create a draught through the
hot limestone, now occupying the place of that which was removed, in order to carry up
its heat to the limestone in the upper part of the kiln. This aperture in both kilns is
furnished with a register. We observe by the Dictionnaire Technologique, arrd the article
Four a chain; in the Cours Cornplet cT Agriculture, that the perpetual kiln is recommended
for France ; but there is no evidence of any of them having been actually erected in that
country. The form given as that now in general use in France is egg-shaped, with
the upper orifice about two feet in diameter, and the lower one somewhat larger ; be-
cause wood is burnt there on a hearth, and the calcination of the stone is effected by the
fiame passing through it, and not by the mixture of fuel with the limestone. In the
turf and peat districts of France, these kinds of fuel are mixed with the stone to be
burnt, in the same manner as it is commonly done in Britain.
Design VII. — A Kiln for burning Bricks or Tiles, or other Earthenware used in the
Construction of Buildings; and which may also be used as a Kiln for burning Lime or
Clay for Manure, or coking Coat or Peat, or charring Wood, impregnating Timber
with Pyrolignous Acid, kiln-drying Corn, or drying Corn in the Sheaf in tvet Seasons,
and for other agricultural Purposes.
1 290. The Art of Brickmaking was, probably, one of the first inventions of man after
the art of agriculture ; because houses and utensils are only second, in point of necessity,
to food and clothing. Bricks may be formed in three ways : by compressing loamy soil,
in an intermediate state between wet and dry, into convenient shapes of a rectangular
form ; by moulding moistened clay, and drying it in the sun ; and by vitrifying these
moulded forms by the application of fire. As the art of preparing the clay for making
either bricks or tiles must be of great importance to the settlers in new countries, we
shall, previously to describing a farm or country brick-kiln, give a short account of the
manner of preparing the clay, and moulding it into bricks.
1291. The Soil most suitable for making Bricks is a clayey loam. The surface should
be removed from it in the autumn, and the subsoil dug up, and mixed with about one
sixth part of coal-ashes, during the winter; the whole being, diuing this season, exposed
to the weather. In spring, it is turned over once or twice, and, after all risk is past from
frost, the clay is prepared or worked, either by chopping and beating it, as dough is
worked and kneaded by a baker, or by passing it through a mill, called a pug-mil],
which effects the same object mechanically. The mass being sufficiently mixed and
kneaded, it is laid on a table sprinkled with dry sand, from which it is taken in small
portions, and pressed into moulds of the shape of the brick or tile which it is desired to
form. These are first dried in the sun, or in the open air, under sheds, and afterwards
burned in one or other of the modes which we are about to describe.
1292. Clamp-kilns for burning Bricks are nothing more than stacks or masses, com-
posed of bricks, interspersed with layers of coal cinders. The first three or four layers
or courses of bricks are placed on edge, diagonalwise, an inch or more asunder, and the
superincumbent course breaking joint ; the second, third, and fourth courses on edge over
them are also placed diagonalwise, and so as to leave considerable interstices for being
filled up with the cinders. Thus, the lower part of the clamp, or kiln, is formed of about
three fourths of the cubic contents of imperfectly burned bricks, and one fourth of coal
tinders in the interstices between them. The superincumbent part of the clamp is formed
of new-moulded bricks set close together on edge, every layer having a stratum of half
an inch of small ashes placed under it. The size of the kiln is without limit as to length
and breadth ; but it is found that the weight of more than fifteen or twenty courses of
niiburned bricks, laid one over the other, will crush or deform those at the bottom. In
placing the lower stratum of four courses of open brickwork and cinders, there is a kind
of horizontal tunnel, or channel, continued through the work upon the ground, about a
foot broad, and eighteen inches high, which is filled with wood and coal, to serve as the
means of lighting the cinders among the bricks on each side. When the contents of this
tunnel are once thoroughly lighted, its ends are closed up with brick or clay. The stack
or clamp is carried up in sections, or vertical strata, of between three and four feet in thick-
ness ; and when as many bricks are put together as it is desired to burn, the whole is
surrounded by a double casing of refuse bricks, or such as are imperfectly formed, for the
purpose of keeping in the heat, as well as of, to a certain extent, reburning them. A
elamp-kiln generally continues burning twenty days, and is used for burning bricks
only.
606
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1293. Covered Kilns for burning Bricks or Tiles are very simple in their construction.
Like limekilns, they may be formed either above the surface, or more or less under it.
The objects are to generate an intense heat, to equalise it as much as possible over a given
space, and to continue it in that space for a certain length of time. The form which we
have alreadv given for a limekiln would answer perfectly for a brick-kiln; provided
arched ribs were tlirown across it, at the height of ten feet one above another, in order to
prevent the oile of unburncd bricks from being crushed or deformed by their own weight.
Wluie the situation admits, a brick-kiln will always be constructed on the most durabic
plan when the body of the kiln is sunk in a dry soil ; because, in this case, the side walls
may be much narrower, and also because the escape of heat by thern will be much more
difficult. A kiln to burn 20,000 bricks at a time need not have the chamber more than
sixteen feet by fourteen feet, and eight feet high ; above which, the sides may be gradually
gathered in, so as to terminate, at the height of twenty or twenty-five feet, in an opening
of two or three feet in diameter. The fire is supplied below the floor of the kiln ; this
floor being of open work, and at such a height above the fire as that the flames and heat
may be equally diffused in their ascent through the openings in the floor. The fire is
made in two or more furnaces, which generally extend the whole length of the kiln ; and
these furnaces are made larger or smaller, according as they are intended to burn coal
or faggot wood. Those who are desirous of building a complete brick and tile kiln may
consult IPare's Architecture, chapters xii. and xv., in which they will find the plan
and description of one for burning 34,000 tiles ; and, at the same time, about half as many
bricks. We shall confine ourselves here to a kiln of a very small size, which will burn
bricks, tiles, lime, or clay, at pleasure. It may also be used for coking coal, to be
employed for chamber fires, or French cooking ; for making charcoal of wood, or peat ;
and various other purposes. For example, when the kiln is employed in burning bricks,
or charring wood or peat, a quantity of timber to be saturated with the pyrolignous
acid of the smoke may be placed over the mouth of the kiln, under the tiled roof; and
all the large openings in the latter closed. In wet seasons, corn in the sheaf may be placed
under this roof; and coke, coal, or peat, burned below. By removing the arched top,
and replacing it by a flat one, like that of a malt or hop kiln, it is evident that malt,
hops, and corn, previously to being ground into meal ; peas, before being split ; or sliced
potatoes, to be preserved ; and other articles, may be dried, using coke or charcoal as the
fuel.
1294. Details of the Design. The situation of this kiln is supposed to be similar to
that of the limekilns, on the face of a steep bank ; but it may be built on a level surface, of
the same dimensions, surrounding the brickwork with two iron hoops. The walls of the
ground plan are shown curved outwards ; in which form they are found to expand
and contract with less injury than when they are built straight. In the latter case, they
contract to a concave line, and ultimately give way. Fig. 1164 is the ground plan ; in
which a shows the walls two
feet thick; b, an outer wall
of nine inches, with a vacuity
of six inches between ; c is
the ash-pit, sixteen feet long,
and two feet six inches wide ;
d, part of the iron bars laid
over it, two inches deep, one
inch broad, and half an inch
apart : these bars are cast
hollow, and laid loose ; e is
the opening or doorway over
the furnace by which the
kiln is charged with brick or
other materials to be burned,
after which the door is built
up. Fig. 1 1 65 is a dissected
horizontal section from A to
B in fig. 1167, in which
/ is part of the ash-pit ;
'j, part of the grating ; h,
part of the bearing arches
over the grating ; i, the
first layer of open brick-
work on edge over the bear-
ing arches ; It, the second
layer crossing the first, which
MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, BRICK-KILNS, ETC.
607
forms the floor of the kiln; and I, the sill of the door of the kiln. Fig. 1166 is a
transverse section on the line
1 1 66 C D, in which m is the ash-
pit ; n, the fuel-chamber ; o,
the bearing arches over it ;
p, the open brickwork, form-
ing the floor of the kiln ; q,
double arches over the kiln
mouth ; there being in the
lower arch six small openings
on the sides for the escape of
the smoke, and in the upper
arch four larger openings
along the top ; the united
areas of the openings in each
arch being equal to the area of
the ash-pit door; r, coverings
of iron or stone to the upper
openings, for use when it is
desired to retain the heat in
the kiln ; s, roof covered with
tiles for enclosing timber to be
smoked, corn in the sheaf to
be dried, &c, and for serving
as a roof when the covering
arches are taken off, and the
kiln used as a malt or corn
kiln ; t, a vacuity between the
inner and outer walls. Where
the kiln is likely to be used
alternately for burning bricks and lime, and for drying corn, instead of a fixed arch of
masonry over the top, an arch may be built on a cast-iron frame placed on wheels, and
1167
dl
XT
■-g-»
--£-,
^
i± A
-i m HZB
drawn off and on at pleasure by windlasses, as practised at Closeburn, and figured and
described in the Ency. of Agric. 2d edit. § 3864. Fig. 1167 is a longitudinal section on
the line E F, in which u is the roof of the fuel-shed, and the shed under which the
moulded bricks are dried before being put in the kiln ; v, the kiln floor j w, the open
(i08
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
brickwork under it; .r.thc
bearing arches ; y, the iron
bars of the fuel-chamber ;
;, the ash-pit ; «', the open-
ings in the under arch ; if,
the openings with covers
to the upper arch ; (fa tri-
angular opening in the
upper part of one end for
tiie escape of the smoke;
and d', an entrance door.
Fig. 1 1C8 is a ground plan
of the fuel-shed, and the
shedover the kiln, in which,
ef is the fuel-shed on the
lower level ; /', the upper
arch of the kiln ; g', the
under arch ; h\ the kiln
chamber, and i', the door
to the upper shed. Fig.
1169 is a section through
the plan at G H, showing
the roof and pillars of the
fuel-shed, and the elevation
of the wall of the kiln, and
the end of the upper shed.
In the lower part may be
seen the furnace and ash-
pit doors ; above them the
door to the kiln, k' ; and in
the end of the upper roof
the opening for permitting
the escape of smoke, /. In
this elevation, as in those
of all the preceding De-
signs of kilns, no attention
has been paid to effect, and
very little to architectural
style; but every building 1'1' \n . .
may be made to have an
appearance, expressive not
only of architectural design, but even
of some particular architectural cha-
racter. This character may be de-
rived from its use, its locality, or from
historical allusion. For example, a
brick-kiln may be built on the face of
a bank, like that before us, with no-
thing more than simple architectural
expression ; that is, having the walls
marked as such by the proper sizing,
squaring, jointing, and laying in ho-
rizontal beds, of the stones compos-
ing them ; or, by other means, in
connection with these, by this time
well known to the reader. Now, the
expression of use may be given by a
kiln chimney being made the leading
feature ; that of local connection and
character by the same forms of arches,
or other openings or prominent parts,
being adopted, as those which arc most
striking in an adjoining bridge, or other
public building ; and historical allu-
sion may be created by carrying up the
kiln-shed as a castellated tower, or
fragment of a ruin.
m
:
1168
:
1
I
i n
e'
i
h
i □
Cp
; /
6
IT
V-
MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, CIDER-HOUSES, ETC. 609
Design VIII. — A Cider-house, Mill, and Press, according to the Plan most generally
approved of in the Counties of Hereford and Worcester.
1295. The Cider-house is shown in figs. 1170, 1171, and 1172. Fig. 1170 is the
ground-plan, in which a is the entrance door, and b the door to a cellar, where a stone
1170 -
t
\ /
vat for receiving the liquor should be placed, having a trough from the lip of the press to
it. There are three windows, ccc; the cider-mill, d, is placed in the centre of the house ;
and the press, e, at one corner near the door to the vat cellar. Fig. 1171 is a longi-
1171
tudinal section through the centre of the building, in which may be seen the cider-mill,
with its stone trough,/; upright shaft, g ; grinding wheel, h ; and horse-shaft, i. Fig.
1 172 is a cross section on the line C D ; in which are seen the cider-press, k ; the door
to the vat-cellar, i ; and the window, m.
1296. The Cider-Mill is shown in the plan, fig. 1173, and in the sections on the line
S Y
(ill) COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1172
A B, fig. 1174, and on the line C D, fig. 1175. In each of these figures, the same
letters represent the same parts : a represents an upright shaft or spindle four inches and
1173
a half in diameter, with an iron band and gudgeon on each end ; the top one working on
an iron plate with a hinge joint and staple to release the spindle. The bottom gudgeon
is shouldered, to prevent it going too far up the shaft, and it works in a cast-iron cap, b ;
fixed to the cross-piece or arm, c, which is bedded in the stonework, d. There are three
other arms, e, halved on c, at right angles to it, for the purpose of securing the circular
rim, fi to which the cogs or teeth, g, are fixed. There is an axle or spindle, h, one end
of which works in the upright shaft, </, and which is compelled to revolve on its own
axis, when taken round with the spindle, by means of the spokes, /, which work in between
MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, CIDER-HOUSES, ETC. (ill
KA
WW.
the cogs or teeth, g ; the other end works in an iron collar, k, which is attached by
means of the iron bar, /, to the horse-shaft, m, so that the power of the horse, when
1175
applied, causes the axle, h, which has a millstone, n, fastened on it, to revolve in the
circular channel, o ; into which the fruit intended to be ground is put. The channel
and millstone must both be of siliceous or grit stone ; and the former must be guarded
by the oaken curb, p ; and by two bands of strong hoop iron around the periphery of the
mill at q. The pole, r, is a piece of oak three inches square, fastened to the upright
shaft, a, and to the horse-shaft, m ; and from the top of the upright shaft, a, there is an
iron bar, s, for the purpose of supporting the pole near its junction with the horse-
shaft, m.
1297. The Cider-Press is shown in figs. 1 176 to 1 179, in which the same letters repre-
sent the same parts. Fig. 1 178 is a plan of the press ; fig. 1176 is a section on the line
A B, in fig. 1178. Fig. 1177 is a section on the line C D; and fig. 1179 is an
isometrical view. The letter a represents the oak sill 6 feet long, 14 inches by 7 inches,
the top of which is level with the ground; to this sill, the upright, b, 14 inches by 9
inches, is framed and pinned, the angles being further secured by 4 pieces, c, nailed to
both ; d is a piece of oak 14 inches by 12 inches, framed to the upright, b, for the purpose
of supporting the bed of the press, e, which is of oak, 3 inches thick, doweled together,
612 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
3 feet 9 inches wide, and the same
in length, with the angles canted off.
( Dowels, in timberwork, are pins, or
tenons, generally of oak, which are
let into two pieces intended to be
joined in their interior, so as not to
be seen externally : it differs from
tin.' mortise and tenon, in the tenon
or dowel being a separate piece from
the two which it connects. In fig.
1 1 80, a a are round oak pins for
dowelling two fir planks together,
and b b two dovetail pieces of wood
or iron, or sometimes of stone, for
dowelling two stones together.) A
groove or channel 2 inches wide is
cut on the bed, within 2 inches of its
edge all round, being half an inch
deep at the back, and 1 inch and a
half at the front, where the middle
plank projects 3 inches beyond the
others ; and a channel is cut through
at f, called the lip, which is throated
underneath, to prevent the liquor
being wasted ; g is a loose plank, 3
feet 9 inches by 3 feet 1 inch, of 3-
inch oak, framed flush on both sides,
used for the purpose of placing on
the haircloths containing the pulp or
cheese ; h is the presser, which is of
cast iron, 8 inches by 2 inches and a
half in the centre, and 6 inches by
2 inches at each end, where a groove is cut 1
oak guides that are nailed on the uprights, b.
slots, i, to the bottom of the iron screw,
k, which has a groove turned imme-
diately under its nave for the slots to
work in. The nave of the screw is
about 9 inches long and 8 inches in
diameter, with two holes through its
centre at right angles to each other,
to admit an iron lever bar. The screw
is 4 inches in diameter, and has a
square thread of about one-seventeenth
pitch, or 16 revolutions to the foot,
working in an iron box, I, which has
two lips cast on it to prevent it from
turning round, being mortised and
pinned into the top beam of the press,
m, which is of the same size, and framed
and pinned to the uprights, b, in a
similar manner to d.
1 298. Specification of the works to be
performed in the erection of a cider-
house, mill, and press, according to the
plan most generally approved of in the
counties of Hereford and Worcester, as
detailed in the accompanying drawings,
figs. 1176 to 1179.
1299. Excavator. To excavate the
earth to the depth of 3 feet 6 inches,
and of such breadth as may be necessary
to allow for working-room. The space
between the wall and the solid earth to
be filled in on each side of the walls
equally, as they are carried up, and the
inch and a half by 1 inch to admit the
The presser is suspended by means of two
a O
MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, CIDER-HOUSKS, ETC.
013
remainder of the earth that may be
excavated to be used to fill up the
bed of the mill, or to be wheeled
away to any distance required, not
exceeding 20 yards.
1300. Bricklayer. The walls to be
commenced with good brick or stone,
18 inches wide and 6 inches high,
and reduced on that to 14 inches
wide and 6 inches high ; whence
they are to be continued 9 inches
thick to the roof; the whole of the
bricks being of good quality. Com-
mon bricks are to be used laid in
English bond in good mortar, made
with the best lime and sand that
can be obtained, or is used for such
purposes, in the parish. The door
and window cases to be properly set,
and a brick on edge arch and platting
course (a brick flat arch, over a brick . ,c
, V - - rrr, , In. 12 0 1 3 3Ft.
on edge one) over eacn. 1 he templets
(short pieces of timber laid under the beams, to distribute the weight), bond, and
raising plates to be well bedded in mortar on the walls, and a 3-brick diagonal dentil
cornice to be worked under the eaves.
614
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1180
Db
1301. Carpenter and Joiner. To provide two 5 inches by 4 inches oak beaded and
rebated door-cases, 7 feet by 3 feet 9 inches in the clear ; with 2 iron dowels in the bottom
of each, (> inches long and 1 inch square ; and 2 1-inch centre-boards on each ; having
1 \ -inch red deal ledged, ploughed, tongued, and beaded doors hung to them with 20-inch
hooks and hinges, put on with l^-inch screws, and a good fine plate copper ward-lock
of the value of 4s. on each door. Two one-light windows, 3 feet by 2 feet in the clear,
to be provided, of 3 inches by 4 inches oak, with 2 1-inch centre-boards, and 3 iron bars
1 inch square each ; 1-inch deal ledged doors, ploughed, tongued, and beaded, to be
hung outside each window with 10-inch hooks and hinges, and fastened inside with hasps
and staples. The templets under the tie-beams, and the bond timbers through the
o-ables, to be of 3 inches by 4 inches oak, each in one length. The tie-beams to be of
Memel timber, 10 inches by 6 inches ; and the raising plates to be properly cogged down
upon them, in one length of 6 inches by 3 inches Memel timber ; the rafters to be also of
Memel fir, 5 inches and three quarters by 2 inches, and 18 inches from centre to centre;
the ridge-board, 8 inches and a half by 1 inch and a half, of red deal ; the ridge roll (a
piece over which the lead is turned on ridges and hips,) to be 1 inch and three quarters
in diameter, supported by proper ridge spikes 4 feet apart; the tie-beam in which the top
of the upright spindle works to have two diagonal stays of 6 inches by 4 inches Memel
fir from its centre to the ends of the other tie-beam, being mortised, tenoned, and pinned
to each other. An oak curb to be made to go all round the mill, and the millwright
assisted in rimming it, and spindling the stone.
1302. Slater. The roof to be covered with Welsh blue duchess slates, having a 25-
inch lap on 2 inches by 1 inch red deal battens, and nailed on them with 2-inch copper
nails, and torched (plastered at the crevices, to keep the wind out) on the underside with
hair mortar.
1303. Ironmongery. To provide and fix cast-iron spouting with proper brackets
at intervals of 3 feet ; hopper head 2 inches down pipe, and shoe to each side of the
building.
1304. Plumber and Painter. The ridge to be covered with 5-pound milled lead 22
inches wide, and both the doors, door and window cases, shutters and cast-iron spouts to
be well painted with good white lead and oil paint three times.
1305. Stone Mason. To provide and set 2 pair of plinth stones and lead in dowels,
each stone being 9 inches square and 6 inches thick. To provide and set stones for the
bed of the mill as shown in drawings ; the stones to be well and properly cramped with
iron, and joggled together with good hard stone joggles (the same as doweled in car-
pentry ; the use of the stone joggles is to prevent two pieces of stone joined together
from sliding apart at the joint) where necessary. The stones to be of the best siliceous
or grit kind that is usually procured for the purpose, and the millstone to be of similar
quality. The millwright to be assisted in spindling the millstone, and in rimming the
mill.
1306. Millwright. To provide every description of labour, and all kinds of materials
that may be requisite for the completion of the mill and press, except the wood rim and
stone bed of the mill, which will be provided by the carpenter and stone mason, both of
whom will assist the millwright to rim the mill and spindle the millstone.
1307. General Particular. The whole of the works must be performed in a good, sound,
and workmanlike manner, and every part made complete and perfect ; using the best
materials in every department of the works, and the whole being in conformity with the
foregoing specification and the accompanying drawings.
1308. Detailed Estimate of Cider Mill-house, Mill, and Press. £ s. d.
92 feet of lineal trenches excavated 0 : 10 : 0
1013 feet superficial 9-ineh brickwork (or 2 rods 131 feet 4 inches),
at Gd. per foot, or £'10: 4s. per rod 25: 6: 6
55 feet lineal dentil brick cornice, at 2d. per foot 0: 9: 2
3 squares 43 feet 9 inches of duchess slating, torched underneath, and
copper-nailed, at 36s. per square 6: 3: 9
10
MALT-HOUSES. LIMEKILNS, CIDER-HOUSES, ETC. 615
40 feet of lineal 3 inches by 4 inches oak tics and templets, at 4 _',</.
per foot 0( 15 : 0
60 feet cuhic red pine timber, the beams, wall-plates, rafters, &c. at
3a-. (»</. per foot 10: 10: 0
40 feet lineal 3 inches by 4 inches wrought oak rebated and cham-
fered one-light window cases, at 7^d. per foot 1 : 5
40 feet lineal 5 inches by 4 inches ditto, and beaded doorcases, at Is.
per foot 2 : 0
52 feet 6 inches superficial 1 1 -inch ledged, ploughed, tongued, and
beaded doors, at 11(/. per foot 2: 8
26 feet 3 inches superficial 1-inch ditto ditto shutters, at 9d. per
foot 0 : 19
10 feet superficial 1-inch beaded centre boards and blocks at 8|d. per
foot 0
27 feet 6 inches lineal ridge roll, at 4rf. per foot O
2 cwt. 2 qrs. 15 lbs. 5lb.-lead on ridge, at 24s. per cwt ; 3
35 yards and one third painting in oil, 3 coats, at 9d. per yard 1
55 feet cast-iron eaves-spout and brackets, at Is. l4d. per foot 3
lo feet 2 inches wall-pipe, at Is. 6d. per foot; 2 hopper heads, 10s. ;
2 shoes, 6s 2: 0: 3
9 3 feet 1 ineh by 1 inch iron window bars, 31s. 6d., and 3 pair
10-inch hooks and hinges, at 3s. 6d 1:15: 0
2 pair 20-inch hooks and hinges, 4s. ; 4 6-inch dowels, 3s 0 : 7 : 0
2 fine plate locks, copper wards 0: 8: O
3 keys and pins to shutters 0: 3: 6
4 plinth-stones 0 : 10 : 0
Mill 10 feet diameter, 21s., £T0 : 10s. ; runner. £1 : Is 11:11: 0
Wood and ironwork to mill, complete 5: 0: 0
Press with iron screw 11: 0: 0
7 :
9 :
1
2
3 :
1
6 :
6
3 :
0
Total i,J91 : 11 : 8
1309. Remarks. The foregoing Designs, descriptions, and the specification have been
sent us by Thomas Prosser, Esq., Architect, Worcester, at the request of our kind friend,
J. C. Kent, Esq., of Levant Lodge. The fidelity of the drawings, and the completeness
of the details do the greatest credit to the Architect, who must be no less skilled in me-
chanics than in Architecture ; and, what is of the greatest value, appears to be well
acquainted with the uses of the different articles he describes. It may be observed, that
in the following Design for a cider-mill and press, by Mr. Kent, there are some little
differences in the details of construction. The principal of these are, that, in Mr. Kent's
cider-mill, the grinding-stone is beveled towards the inner edge ; whereas, in Mr.
Prosser's, it is alike square on both edges. In Mr. Kent's press, the large square board, g,
in fig. 1179, is loose; whereas, in Mr. Prosser's, it appears to be fixed to the bridge h.
Another difference is, that the wheel moves directly on, instead of with the axle ; thus
lessening labour, and avoiding the necessity of cogs. The reason for having the square
board or shooter loose, is to admit of blocks being placed between, to equalise the pres-
sure, as (and that chiefly in the single screw presses) if the pile of must is not made
perfectly even, it is liable to slip aside. By the use of blocks, also, a smaller quantity
may be pressed with the single screw ; as, without them, if the pile be low, the screw is
drawn out too far from its purchase. It is evident that this last is a difference of very
little moment ; but, perhaps, beveling the inner edge of the grinding-wheel may render
it easier to move along.
Design IX. — A Cider-house, Mill, and Press, with the different Implements connected
with Cider-making.
1310. The Cider-house is usually a building with only one floor ; or sometimes with
a hay, straw, or hop loft over it. It is constructed of brick or of wood, in the same
manner as a barn. For a mill of the following dimensions, viz., 12 feet in diameter, it
should be, as a minimum, 22 feet long by 19 feet wide; and not less than 7 or 8 feet in
height ; being solely for the purpose of containing the mill and press made use of in
extracting the juice from the fruit. The null is erected at one end, leaving 3 feet and a
half space between it and the wall, to allow the horse room to pass round. At the other
end, facing the mill, is placed the press. It is advisable to have it sufficiently near the
cellar to admit of an open pipe or trunk conveying the liquid from the lip of the press
vat to a receiver placed in the cellar ; thereby avoiding the waste of time and labour
which would be otherwise consumed in carrying it down.
GIG COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1311. T/ie Cider-Mill for the purpose of grinding the fruit is constructed as follows : —
Two, three, or four stones, as may be required, each heing the segment of the horizontal
siit ion of a cylinder, are fitted and cramped together. In the Design before us, the
diameter of the section of the cylinder is 12 feet, and its axis 2 feet; that is, it stands
about that height from the ground Into the surface of the upper end is cut a circulai
trough, within 2 inches of the periphery, termed the chace, fig. 1181, a ; the side towards
1181
the centre is perpendicular, but the outer side slopes off, to allow the fruit to work up on
that side when the roller passes over it, as being more convenient for the driver to push
it down again to be recrushed. At the bottom the width is 1 foot 3 inches, at the top
2 feet, giving 9 inches for the slope. When first cut it is usually 5 inches deep, and a
rim of wood, 4 inches high, called the nut, raises it on the outer rim, while a platform
of wood to the same depth is fitted on the bed of the mill. This is removed when, by
continual wear, the trough has become that much deeper. A circular stone roller, called
the runner, b, is set on its edge, and revolves in the chace. It is 4 feet and a half
in diameter, and 1 foot 2 inches wide on the edge, which is beveled off inwards on a
slope of about three quarters of an inch in a foot, to facilitate its circular motion round
the trough, and counteract the centrifugal tendency it would have, were it cut quite
square. The inner side or face of the stone is perpendicular; but the outer is gradually
rounded off from the edge, so as to be about 4 inches thicker at the axle. The surface
of the edge of the wheel, as well as that of the bottom of the trough, should be rendered
perfectly smooth, though it is a frequent custom to leave them rough, and even with
inequalities, whereby the kernels, &c, of the fruit in great part escape untouched. This
is done to prevent the roller from sliding ; but the same object is better attained by a cog-
wheel. In the Design before us, however, there is no danger of sliding, even without
the aid of cogs. Through the centre of the runner is fixed a square bush of wood, to
contain the iron boulk, or baulk, for the axle, also of iron, on which it turns to work.
This axle passes into a larger wooden one, r, 5 inches thick ; and is held firm by a pin,
or key, fitting in a hole through both. This larger axle extends over the bed of the
mill to a perpendicular spindle or shaft, d, through which passes a flat iron pin fixed
edgewise in the axle. The hole in the spindle is elongated an inch upwards and down-
wards, with a width just enough to admit the pin freely. This prevents straining, by
MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, CIDEll-HOUSES, ETC. Gl7
allowing the short end of the axle to rise or fall as the stone does so, over the fruit in the
chace. The spindle, also 5 inches thick, protected as well as the wooden ;txle by iron bands
round each extremity, revolves by a pivot at either end ; the lower one is provided with
a shoulder working in the socket of a brass box fixed in the bed of the mill, the upper
in a beam of the roof above. Attached to this, at the breast height of a horse, measur-
ing from the ground, is a pole, e, 3 inches and a half square, passing horizontally, close
before the runner ; and being shaped so as to run directly out parallel to the axle. This
pole extends about 3 feet beyond the mill, having two shafts,/', 2 feet 3 inches long and
3 inches square, 2 feet apart, projecting at right angles from it. Between these shafts
the horse employed in grinding is yoked, his head being over the pole, and a short chain
of a link or two from his collar being hooked on the projecting end of each shaft. The
horse, having no other encumbrance save a head stall, is left quite free behind, allowing
him to turn much more readily than when hampered with traces, which, moreover, con-
tinually rub against and gall his haunches. An iron rod from the top of the spindle to
the pole, about 4 feet from the former, serves to strengthen it ; and an iron box, in which
the outer end of the axle is pinned close to the wheel, is also connected by an iron bar
with this pole, which bar is also attached by a side stay to the inner shaft. Thus, then,
the circular motion of the runner round the chace is effected by the revolving spindle,
while the runner has a rotatory motion on its axle, instead of with it, as is the case
with the runners in general use. By this method, the labour of the horse is diminished,
and the necessity of cogs is superseded ; because the wheel is much less liable to slide.
This mill will grind about 90 bushels of fruit in a day, which on an average will yield
3 hogsheads of cider, of 100 gallons each ; but the quantity ground depends much
on the degree of care used in grinding. The stone employed in constructing cider-mills,
or the vats of cider-presses, should invariably be of a siliceous nature ; the malic acid
having a stronger affinity for lime than the carbonic, which is present in all calcareous
stone that could be made available for this purpose. The grey gritstone is preferable
to the old red stone (in very common use), from its being less liable to crack and split,
and from its wearing away much more slowly, owing to its greater hardness.
1312. The portable Implements used with the mill are all made of wood, metal being
found objectionable. They are as follows : —
1182
1313. The Stirrer, fig. 11S2, for stirring the pulp from the sides, into the bottom of
the chace.
1314. The Reever, fig. 1183, to push it up together for removal when ground.
1315. The Scoop, fig. 1184, to take it from the chace.
1316. The Cider-Press, for extract-
ing the juice after the fruit has been
ground to a pulp by the mill, consists
of a sill of wood, fig. 1185, k, 5 feet
6 inches long, and 18 inches square,
let into the ground about 4 inches.
On this is placed the bed or vat, /,
which is 4 feet wide by 4 feet and a
half, and canted off at the corner :
it is 3 inches in thickness, with an
inch-square rim (preferable to a mere
channel cut in the vat), which is
raised round the edges to conduct
the liquid to a lip cut through it
in front whence it runs into a re-
ceiver. The vat should be of stone,
though wood is often employed for the purpose. On either side, standing 6 feet
from the sill, is an upright wrought-iron pillar, passing quite through it, and pinned
on the under side by wedges driven
through a keyhole. These pillars, for
2 feet 6 inches of their height, are
square, the sides being 2 inches and
a quarter, and smooth ; above this
square part they are cut into a screw,
with a square thread, 2 inches in dia-
meter, which makes 16 or 18 revolu-
3 z
()18 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1185
in
tions in a foot, extending 2 feet 10 inches, and the remaining 8 inches are finished off to
an inch in diameter. This passes into a cross beam, m, 4 inches thick, strengthened by
supports to the beams of the roof above. The screws pass freely through holes in a
bridge, n, which is 4 inches thick, and a foot wide ; and is suspended at each end by
two slots (cross bars) playing on a rim round the lower extremity of the nuts, whicli
serve to work it up and down. The nuts are each about 7 inches long, and turned by a
collar, with 3 horns fitting into the nut, and prevented from slipping round by 3 lips
on the nuts, corresponding to as many grooves in the collar. The horns are 1 foot
8 inches long, being turned up for 5 inches at the ends, to afford a more ready clutch. A
square board, termed a shooter, o, and a number of oak blocks, 3 feet long and
4 inches square, are made use of; the former to lay flat on the pile of must, and the
blocks to place two and two, crosswise, as many as may be necessary to raise it to the
height required. These serve to equalise the pressure on all parts of the must. If
the cellar be not sufficiently near to admit of an open trunk conveying the liquor at
once from the lip of the press vat to a receiver in the cellar, a permanent stone cistern
sunk into the ground beneath it is requisite.
1317. This press differs from that in general use, in which a single perpendicular screw
works downwards through a fixed nut, and has an advantage over it in giving an increase
of power, and as commanding greater certainty of an equality of pressure. The pair of
screw pillars cost from £6 to £7 ; but they effect a great saving of timber and labour
in its erection. In its use, care should be taken to screw down both the nuts equally,
otherwise there is danger of breaking or bending the screws. On first commencing to
press, this may readily be done by a man standing on the front of the vat, and turning
one with each hand : but subsequently, when greater force is required, first one and then
the other must be screwed down, only a little at a time ; or, if two men are employed
MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, CIDER-HOUSES, ETC.
619
Ihey may be turned simultaneously. To obviate this inconvenience, some presses are
provided with a cog wheel turning on a pivot on the centre of the bridge, and working
on a rack fixed on each nut ; so that, by turning the one, the other is turned also, and all
danger of straining the screws is entirely prevented.
1318. The Implements made use of are : — the racking-can, tun-pail, dropping-bag,
bottling-bcnch, and box for currying bottles.
1319. The Racking- Can, fig. 1186, is made of oak staves in the same manner as a tub
or cask. It is about 10 inches inside diameter at the top, and 1186
somewhat larger at the bottom, and about 1 1 inches high.
The handle is of iron, and is fastened on by the hoops under
which it passes. Round the top is an iron rim which clips the
can for about an inch down, and then is bent out at right angles,
to furnish hold for the hand in raising it. It contains about
three gallons.
1320. The Tun-Pail, fig. 1187, is made in the same manner
as the can. The diameter inside is about 1 foot 3 inches, and
the height is 7 inches and a half; the back part being 3 inches
and a half or 4 inches higher than the front. There is a leg,
a, which, with a similar one opposite to it, serves to steady the pail when the spout
which is fixed in the bottom of the pail in the direction b, is
placed in the bung-hole of the cask to be filled. This spout is
of copper, 1 inch and a half in diameter, and about 3 inches
and a half from the raised back
1321. The Dropping- Bag, fig. 1188, is formed of a yard
square of stout canvass : the hoop at the top is about 1 foot 6
inches in diameter, and from the hoop to the point is 2 feet.
When used, these bags are suspended on a ladder-like frame
made for the purpose, to support any number that may be
required.
1322. The Bottling-Bench, fig. 1189, consists of the seat, a ;
a basket for corks, b ; and a tin cylinder fixed to the bench, c, to which a leathern bottle
of the same shape fits closely in, to contain the bottle
while being corked. The machine, d, is made use of
for pressing the corks, to render it easier to put them in
the bottles : it consists of two flat pieces of iron, each
curved in an opposite direction, and joined at one end
by a hinge ; to the top one a handle is attached, the under
one being fixed by legs to the bench. Both parts are
toothed, to take a firmer hold of the cork. There is a
circular hole, e, to receive a small can to hold a portion
of the liquor, with which to wet the corks, in order that
they may slide in the more readily.
1323. The Box for carrying Bottles is generally made
to hold from 4 to 12 bottles. Fig. 1190 is made to hold
six. The square divisions on each are just large enough to
admit a quart bottle, which should stand in nearly up to
its shoulder.
1324. The Use of the Cider- Mill, and the Process of the
Manufacture of Cider. The period for cider-making
commences in September, but at that time only the wind-
tills are ground : most sorts of pears are ripe towards the middle and end of October ;
()20 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
and, as they do not bear keeping so well as apples, perry is generally male at that season.
The best sorts of cider should not be made before
the beginning of November; and, in general, the 1190
later it is nude, the better, is the product. After
being gathered, the fruit is usually placed in
shallow heaps on the ground, in the open air,
until signs of decay become visible in the ripest;
but later in the season they should l>e placed under
cover, to protect them from frost and rain : indeed,
it were better, where space is at command, that this
should always be done, provided the place where
they are deposited be airy. Cider is made on
almost every farm in Worcestershire and Herefordshire ; as, even where there is no
regular orchard, the isolated trees dispersed through the hedgerows furnish con-
siderable quantities of fruit. The apples or pears (for when cider is mentioned it
applies equally to perry, unless specifically stilted otherwise) intended for grinding are
scattered over the bottom of the chace ; as if they are put very thick, they cannot be
crushed properly ; care being taken to pick out any that are what is termed black
rotten, as a few only of those would inevitably taint the liquor, and impart an un-
pleasant flavour to the whole. There i9 no objection to the fruit being what is called
mosy, roxy, or sleepy, nearly synonymous terms, and all signifying fruit beginning to
decay. The wheel being once set in motion, a boy or girl (and one often or twelve
years old can efficiently perform the office) continually follows the runner, pushing down
the pulp by means of the stirrer, fig. 1 182, from the sides of the chace, up which it is con-
tinually squeezed, in order that it may again be crushed by the next revolution of the
wheel. When the fruit is sufficiently ground (that is, when it is perfectly reduced to
a pulp, the rind and kernels being thoroughly bruised), it is pushed or drawn up together
by the reever, fig. 1 183 ; and then with the scoop, fig. 1 184, it is put into buckets, and
carried to the press. More fruit is then thrown in, and the grinding proceeds as before.
Those who are very choice in their cider put it aside in large tubs, to be exposed to the
air for twenty-four hours, after which it is pressed, and it is even sometimes reground.
There can be no doubt that exposing the liquor to the air is attended with good
effects. Even during the short process of grinding, the air turns the pulp of a deep red
colour ; though whether this change takes place from the absorption of oxygen, or only
from the mutual action upon each other of the different parts of the fruit, has never been
accurately ascertained ; but it is most probable that both causes have an influence depend-
ent on each other. Certain, however, it is, that, if the juice of the apples be expressed
at once from the fruit, it is a poor and thin liquid ; whereas the juice of the commonest
fruit, when exposed a good deal to the air, becomes quite red, and runs sweet and luscious
when submitted to the press after being well ground. The pulp is placed in haircloths
made for the purpose, from three feet and a half to four feet and a half square. One is
first spread out in the vat, / ; and when that is filled, another is put above it, and so on ;
just so much being placed on each haircloth as to allow of the ends being folded nearly
into the centre. The workman (and one only, with the assistance of a little boy* is suf-
ficient for all purposes) spreads the pulp, and beats it with his hands, kneading it close
into the sides and corners of the haircloths as he folds them over. A mould is some-
times used to keep the pile to an equal and regular form. When from ten to twelve
haircloths have been filled, the large square board or presser, termed a shooter,
o, is placed on the top, and oaken blocks or bars are placed two and two, crosswise,
as many as may be necessary, above ; of course taking care that the top pair are at
right angles with the bridge of the press, n. These blocks insure a more equal
pressure over every part of the cheese (as t'.ie mass is called when in this state), and
as the must, or pulp, sinks, it is sometimes necessary to increase the number of
blocks in order to raise it higher. The press is then screwed down gradually, until it
has extracted all the juice the fruit can yield. The must, or cheese, is then shaken
from the haircloths, and put again in the mill to be reground (unless in very abundant
years, when it is not worth the labour), and water is poured with it into the trough
or chace. The must is afterwards again pressed, and about one hogshead of what is termed
washings is obtained from the same quantity that had previously afforded about three
hogsheads of cider. The cheese is finally dried for fuel, or by some used to feed pigs.
A prejudice exists against its use as a manure, probably owing to its having been occa-
sionally put fresh on the land in too Large quantities, and in that case found injurious.
Mr. Knight, however, states that he has known it to be beneficial, when mixed with
quicklime, and allowed to remain until wholly decomposed. When family drink is
required, which is that consumed by the household servants and farm people (and, indeed,
on ordinary occasions, by the farmers themselves, and by most residents in cider coun-
MALT-HOUSES, LIMEKILNS, CIDER-HOUSES, ETC. 621
tries who drink it at all), a portion of water is poured into the chace with the fruit when
even it is first ground. It is a singular fact, that, notwithstanding the immoderate quan-
tities of this their sole heverage, which the labourers are in the habit of drinking at
harvest time, when it is almost always extremely harsh, and very often quite acid, yet
not an individual case of cholera has occurred in the county of Hereford, though few towns
of the adjoining counties have wholly escaped. The juice is commonly received in a
stone cistern sunk in the ground immediately under the lip of the press, and is thence
conveyed to the cellar, which should be near. When practicable, an open spout may be
used to convey it at once to a receiver placed therein. What is sold to the merchants,
who buy the greater part of the prime and unwatered cider, is at once tunned from the
press into hogsheads, and sent off by loads of three or four casks in a waggon, to the
purchaser, who superintends its after-management himself. Although this immediate
removal is liable to be prejudicial to the liquor, should rapid fermentation commence before
it is stowed under the cider-merchant's care; yet, from his greater knowledge of its due
treatment, and his paying it more attention, it is in most cases far superior in richness
and flavour to what can be procured from the cultivators themselves. Cider drinkers,
in the counties in which it grows, generally prefer that which is stout and rough (in fact,
what others would term harsh), to the more refined and luscious beverage exported to
distant places, where vinegar would be deemed a more appropriate name for what the
cider- makers themselves prefer and retain. In the cellar it is usually tunned into
hogsheads of a hundred gallons each, leaving a few gallons ullage. Larger hogsheads, of
two, three, or four hundred gallons, are frequently made use of; and they are to be pre-
ferred, more especially after the liquor has become quite bright, and all active ferment-
ation has ceased. Long ranges of casks are, however, in abundant seasons, placed on
trams, and allowed to remain for a considerable period in the open air ; where, unless the
weather be very severe, the working (as it is called) proceeds equally well with that
removed to the vaults or cellars. In forty-eight hours, or thereabouts, according to the
temperature of the weather, &c, after the cider has been tunned, the feculent parts of the
fruit, which have passed through the haircloths with the juice, are separated from the
liquor, and thrown to the surface. When this is the case, no time should be lost in
racking the liquor; for, if taken at this juncture, it runs off perfectly bright; but should
it be neglected, the extraneous matter is again mixed with the liquid by the internal
motion occasioned by the fermentation. After a few days it subsides to the bottom,
though, when the weather is (as often happens in the season for cider- making) mild and
warm, this period is protracted, and the cider is in proportion deteriorated. With this
single racking the farmer is generally content ; for he prefers a good, stout, rough be-
verage, to one of a more luscious quality, and moreover dreads the expense of continual
care and rackings. The common family drink and washings most frequently receive no
care whatever, from the time when the liquor is tunned, to that when it is tapped for use ;
and the grounds remaining in it cause a continual fermentation until it becomes acid,
often so much so as to be fit for nothing but making vinegar. If it is intended for the
cider to attain the highest perfection of which it is capable, it must be carefully watched,
to prevent any active fermentation taking place ; and, if this should be the case, it must
be again racked, and this course be pursued until it becomes perfectly quiescent. The
fewer the rackings required, the better the cider will be ; for during each successive rack-
ing a portion of the spirit evaporates, and, if they be repeated too frequently, the liquor is
rendered poor and thin. In this lies the great art of managing cider ; and, in warm
seasons especially, it is still a desideratum to discover some means of checking its too
rapid fermentation, which is always induced by increase of temperature. When it has
remained a short time quiet, and shows no disposition to renewed fermentation or
fretting, if not perfectly star-bright, which it seldom is, it should be fined with isin-
glass ; an operation which will, in some cases, require to be repeated two or three times,
ere the maximum of transparency is obtained. The cask may then be stopped down
close, but must be occasionally examined. It is usual to heighten the colour of the cider
by the addition of a small quantity of sugar boiled with water until black : none is ever
added to perry. Every time the liquor is racked, a certain quantity of lees will be found ;
and it is the presence of these which excites the fretting. These lees must on every occa-
sion be put into bags, termed dropping-bags, suited for the purpose, by means of which
the liquor mingled with the grounds is obtained clear, the feculency remaining behind.
Some preserve the product of this separate ; for from its having dripped drop by drop
from the bags, and its long exposure to the air in the receiving-tub, it becomes quite
fiat, having, at the same time, parted with much of its spirit. Others, on account of that
very flatness, return it back to the cask, as tending to check fermentation. Among other
unfounded, absurd, and ignorant accusations which are alleged against merchants for
doctoring their cider, it is affirmed that they are in the habit of mixing with it bul-
lock's blood. The only use to which sheep's and bullock's blood is applied in the manu-
6C22 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
faeture of cider is, to mix a little of it, and but a very little, while warm from the animal,
among the lees, previously to their being put into the bags: in cooling, it coagulates, and
aids the separation of the feculenciea from the liquor. With the merchants, the time for
putting cider and perry into bottles is in the spring following the season of its make;
when it is necessary to mix a portion of old and sound liquor of the previous season's
growth, to enable it to hear the transit, without endangering the loss of the whole by
the bursting of the bottles from fermentation. Where not intended for sale, it may
remain till the autumn, and may then be safely bottled, without any admixture; but the
summer months being the season for consumption, when intended for the market it is
absolutely necessary that the hottling should be done in the spring, about the month of
March. The corks must be tied down with wire, and the bottles placed on their sides,
without straw or sawdust. Mr. Kent desires us to add that " the above directions have
been given empirically] without allusion to the theory of fermentation, and the chemical
laws which govern the different changes that take place; beginning from the admixture,
by grinding, of the fermentative, saccharine, aromatic, and astringent principles contained
in the fruit, until the expressed liquid arrives at its state of a sweet and rich, a strong
and rough, or a thin and acetous liquid. To have entered into such details would have
occupied too extended a space, and, moreover, have appeared foreign from the general
tenor of the work."
Design X. — A House for breeding and fattening Poultry on a large Scale, with Re-
marks on their Management, and on the Suitableness of Poultry as Live Stock for the
Farm Lid'ourer ; and Designs for altering or building their Cottages accordingly.
1325. The Object of this Design, which was furnished us by our much esteemed con-
tributor Mr. Main, is to show the arrangement and details of a house, in which hens,
ducks, geese, and other barn-yard fowls, may be hatched or fattened, and also the mode
of hatching, breeding, and fattening them. Fig. 1191 is the ground plan of a poultry-
house for general purposes; in which is shown the surrounding line of laying-boxes or
1191
I
i
%
1
/:~^ - - ~~ v. ' , -.-.^-.-,-,.^^-^ ,. ...
1192
fatting-coops, or both, according as the house may be used for either or both purposes.
Fig. 1192 is the elevation, in perspective; showing the
entrance hatch with its stair. Fig. 1 1 93 is a cross
section ; in which may be seen the laying-boxes, a a ;
and the perches, b b, suspended from two purlins
resting on the tie-beams. Fig. 1 1 94 is a front view of
the laying-boxes; and fig. 1195 is a front view of
the fatting-coops. Both these are divided into lengths
of three feet each, and the bottom, back, and top, in
the divisions, are of boards. The front of the fat-
ting-coops is closed with laths, about two inches
wide, and about one inch and three quarters between. The centre latii of each
cooj) is framed into a movable sill or foot, which foot has grooved or forked ends,
MALT-MOUSES, POULTRY-HOUSES, ETC. ()c23
1193
1194
to admit of its traversing on the edge of the laths on each side, as shown at e
When this lath and its foot are lifted up,
the space opened is sufficiently wide for the
admission or exit of the fowl. The lath
may be kept raised by a pin inserted in it
through a hole in the top rail. Fig. 1196
is a section across this fatting-coop ; in
which may be seen, at d, the trough for food
and water, of which there is one to each
coop, and all are movable, in order that they
may be cleaned.
1326. Construction. " Poultry-houses," Mr. Main observes,
or they may be built with a pitched roof, as in fig. 1 192.
are generally lean-tos
The foundation, whether of
1195
u. :'-' ^
1
1 1 f
:
:
" III!
'a U
j
■ "
n
dU
stone or brickwork, should be laid pretty deep, and solidly built, to prevent the bur-
rowing of rats, stoats, and weasels. The walls are constructed of sills, plates, posts, and
quarters, weather-boarded ; the roofs of beams and rafters, connected by laths, or old
hurdles thatched. The entrance opening, or hatch for fowls, should always be two or
524 COTTAGK, FARM, WD VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
three feet from the ground, with little ladders within and without, to prevent the visits
of pigs. This hole lias a slip shutter, within rehated cheeks, open in the daytime, but
let down every evening, lest dogs, eats, or foxes should enter. Care should be taken
that this opening he not so large as to admit the thief's little son or confederate, unless
secured by a keyed bolt in the inside. The perches for fowls and turkeys are fi,xed at
different heights from the floor, observing that no one perch be directly over another,
nor should they extend over the laying-hoxes. A Hat hoard with steps nailed on is
placed against one of the most central perches, to assist in mounting the chickens to
their roost. All round the fowl-house, except at the door, is fixed a range of boxes
for nests, as in the plan, fig. 1193. Ducks and geese have their breeding-boxes close to
the floor ; the doors being open during the day, and shut at night. On this account the
doors should open into the orchard, or other enclosure where pigs are not allowed to
come. These nestling-places, as well as those of fowls, are always bedded with clean
straw frequently changed ; and chalk eggs lie in them to attract the notice of the layers.
1 327. General Management of Poultry. The following valuable practical remarks are by
Mr. Main. They well deserve the attention of all those who are about to build poultry-
houses, or who possess them already. Few persons are now aware of the great importance
of such an arrangement of places, for all manner of fowls, as will admit not only of the most
perfect cleanliness in management, but even of the renovation of the floor, sides, and
fittings up, by extraordinary purification, every two or three years. Mr. Main's remarks
on this subject are the result of much experience and long observation ; and we have no
doubt they will have their due weight both with Architects and poultry-feeders. " Every
kind of poultry," Mr. Main observes, " should have a separate house, different kinds
being exceedingly pugnacious towards one another. The individuals of every species are
also very pugnacious among themselves ; and, on this account, the number of cock birds
is always limited. One cock to seven hens, one gander to six geese, one drake to six
ducks, are the general proportions with regard to the commoner kinds of fowls ; and one
turkeycock and one peacock, are considered quite enough, on a moderately sized farm,
for breeding purposes. The turkey, guinea-hen, and peahen are very fastidious in the
choice of nests, and therefore require watching. If the latter fix on some secluded spot
in the wood or hedges, she must not be removed ; and, while sitting, will come home,
call for food, and fly back to her nest. In such places they are in great danger of being
killed by the fox ; but, if a circle of peeled rods be placed archwise on the ground, at
some distance round the nest, it will scare the marauder. Pea-fowls seldom roost in
houses, preferring the tops of buildings, or the branches of trees. Every farm should have
a place for fatting poultry, containing coops like those shown in figs. 1 1 94 and 1 1 95,
fitted up for that purpose. Fowls are usually fattened with barley-meal and milk or water;
and, if this is made thin enough, they need no drink. Geese are fattened with oats, given
them in shallow earthen pans of water. Turkeys are best fattened with barley-meal and
milk ; but, with professional feeders, many rich and unnatural ingredients are mixed
with their food, and forced down the throats of the helpless birds. Ducks are fattened
like fowls, but must be allowed plenty of water. The flesh of poultry acquires flavour
according to the quality of the food on which they have been fed. Musty or otherwise
damaged grain is sure to be tasted in the fowl, goose, turkey, or duck that has been fed
on it, however dressed : on the other hand, general cleanliness and sweet food improve
the flavour of the flesh. Rotten or musty litter will taint the birds as well as their eggs.
In fact, no poultry of any kind will thrive, if not kept perfectly clean ; and, even with the
utmost care, a place where poidtry have been long kept becomes what the housewives
call tainted, and where they will thrive no longer. The surface of the ground
becomes saturated with their exuviaj, and therefore no longer healthy. To avoid this
effect, some poulterers, in the country, frequently change the sites of their poultry-houses,
to obtain fresh ground ; and, to guard against the same misfortune, farmers, who cannot
change their hen-houses and yards, purify the houses by fumigations of blazing pitch,
by washing with hot lime-water, and by strewing large quantities of pure sand, both
within and without the poid try-houses. Washing the floor of the house every week is
necessary ; for which purpose it is also necessary that it be paved either with stones,
bricks, or tiles. The insides of the laying-boxes, fig. 1193, require frequent washing
with hot lime-water, to free them from vermin (Pediculus ^allina; and Pulex irritans
Lin.\ which greatly torment the sitting hens. For the same purpose poultry should
always have a heap of dry sand laid under some covered place, or thick tree near their
yard for them to dust themselves in ; this being their resource for getting rid of the lice
and fleas with which they are annoyed. Geese may hatch eleven or thirteen eggs ; ducks
the same ; fowls thirteen ; turkeys, guinea-hens, and pea-fowls choose their own number-
Turkey chicks cannot be reared, if hatched after the end of September. Chickens are
subject to a disease called the roop or croope, which seizes them when about three weeks
old, or just as the feathers appear on the head. It is caused by small worms breeding
MALT-HOUSES, POULTRY-HOUSES, ETC. 625
in the windpipe, in sueli numbers as to stop respiration, and which, if they cannot cough them
up, soon kill them. An infusion of the yellow toad-flax (Linaria vulgaris), a nauseously
bitter weed, is given as a preventive, but is seldom successful." We have already
(§ 770) noticed the great advantage of heat for the common hen, when laying, hatching,
or rearing in the winter season. Mr. Main's remarks are so complete, that we can
add nothing to them, except strongly recommending the poultry-house always to he
placed in some position in the farm-yard where it may benefit either from the warmth
of cattle, fermenting dung, or a fireplace in constant use.
1328. The peculiar suitableness of Poultry us Live Stuck to a Farm Labourer will not be
doubted by those who have attended to the subject. A correspondent observes that it
has long been a common saying, that none but Scotch highlanders or Irish cottagers
have the luxury of fresh eggs in winter, or very early chickens in spring; and, as their
poultry are of the common breeds, the cause of their continuing to lay eggs when others
stop, can only be, that they roost in the same rooms with their owners, enjoy some
little warmth, and probably live partly on cooked food. On the other hand, the poultry
which are lodged in places fitted up for them in farm buildings, or other outhouses, are
forced to endure a much lower temperature, during winter, than is suitable for their
laying at that season, and to live almost entirely on uncooked food. We may add, also,
another important consideration, which is, that the poultry which live with their owners
enjoy a superior degree of cleanliness to those who live in even the cleanest poultry-
houses. Even in the lowlands of Scotland, the poultry roost, in many places, over the
box-beds, or on the collar beams over the living-room; and the laying-place is well
known to be in the straw at the bottom of the box-bed. In several parts of France and
Germany the peasants rear and fatten poultry for the market as a business, and in most
places every man who has a house has also poultry, which, as in Scotland, are lodged
within its walls; and fed chiefly on cooked food. On both sides of the Lower Rhine,
almost every peasant fattens one or two geese, and sells the livers (les foies grasses) to
the nearest inn, or rich man, or takes them to market, and counts on obtaining for them
as much as will pay for the food of the geese, retaining the flesh and feathers as clear
profit. Every Englishman who has travelled in the north of France and the south of
Germany must have been struck with the superiority of the poultry which he meets
with at the inns in those countries, to that which he finds in the inns of his own. The
cause appears to be, that the breeding and fattening of this description of live stock is in
the hands of those who can afford sufficient time to enter into all the minute details
necessary for insuring complete success, attended at the same time by profit. In Britain,
the large farmer cannot do this, while the labourer is precluded from doing it by dif-
ferent causes, but chiefly, we believe, from ignorance of the practice; and of the benefit
which he might derive from it. We except, however, from this chaxgl the families of
labourers in particular districts : such as the neighbourhood of Wokingham in Berk-
shire, famous for its fat fowls; and the neighbourhood of Aylesbury, for its early ducks,
&c. Were the mode pointed out to the wives of farm labourers by which they could
rear and fatten poultry in the best manner, and induce hens to lay and hatch in the
winter season, the profit they would soon obtain from taking the articles to market
would be an inducement for them to carry it on. It is well known that poultry have
been long hatched, in the neighbourhood of Paris, by hot water, and they might easily
be so any where, either on a large or a small scale. (See Gard. Mag., vol. iv. p. 305.)
Chickens have also been hatched in the bark-bed of a hot-house, by sinking a half hogs-
head barrel in the tan, placing the eggs in a basket at the bottom covered by a piece of
flannel, and covering the top of the cask with a flat board. For details see Gard. Mag..
vol. viii. p. 688. It is not our business, in this work, to enter into farther details on the
subject ; but it is our duty to show the architectural arrangements, in cottages, which
are required for putting it in practice.
1329. The Poidtry-house for the Cottager, who would have his hens lay during the
winter, must in some way or other derive heat from the fireplace of his living-room.
There are several ways in which this may be accomplished, both in cottages already
existing, and in new cottages. In cottages already existing, the living-room fire is either
placed against one of the exterior, or one of the interior walls. When it is placed against
an exterior wall, a poultry place is easily formed by a small lean-to building, erected
outside the house, against the back of the fireplace ; and, if the wall behind the fire be
so thick as not to admit of much heat escaping to the outside, a part of it may be taken
out, and either a thinner wall, or a fire-stone or fire-brick partition, or, what will be most
effective, a cast-iron plate, substituted for it. Where the principal fuel is wood or peat,
and the fire is made on the hearth, less heat will escape through the wall, and in that
ease there may be a pit formed under the fireplace, of its full width, and extending under
the wall, and the entire floor of the poultry-house outside. Into this pit, the ashes from
the fire may be allowed to drop through a grate, and the heat from them will thus he
4 A
G26
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
^L
n
communicated to the floor of tlie poultry-house. In all cases, the walls of this poultry
place should be of sufficient thickness to retain heat, and more particularly the root,
which should have the Space between the ceiling and the slates or tiles tilled in with hay
or straw, as in Holland. The wails and doors may also, in very severe weather, he
covered with straw mats of the kind used by gardeners in covering hot-beds; or the
entire lean-to, roof and sides, may be thatched. When the fireplace of the living-room
is against an interior wall, there are three ways in which heat may be derived from
it for warming a poultry place. That the most readily practised, we believe, will
be, to form a small lean-to, on the south or south-east side of the house, with a hol-
low floor, having a stone or plate of iron to lift up, and admit of placing hot ashes
or embers beneath it. If the hovel be properly constructed for retaining heat, as
just recommended, and hot embers be put under the floor once a day, it will be suf-
ficient to keep up a temperature of from fifty degrees to sixty degrees, in even the most
severe weather. It must be recollected, however, that we suppose, in this case, either
double doors and windows, or external coverings to them of straw. A second mode is,
to communicate heat to a cistern of water, or a bed of stones, under the floor of the
poultry hovel, by pipes passing through the kitchen fire ; but this, though an extremely
simple mode, and by no means expensive, is yet so much out of the common way, that
the farm labourer could hardly be expected, in his present state, to consent to its adoption.
We shall, however, show with what ease it might be accomplished. Fig. 1197 is the
plan of a cottage, in which it is desired 1197
to heat the poultry-house, a, from the
fireplace, b. Care being taken to form
the floor of the poultry-house not much
lower than that of the room containing
the fireplace, place in the former a stone
or wooden cistern, a foot or more in
depth, and of any convenient length and
breadth. A poultry-house containing
10,000 cubic feet of air need not have a
cistern containing above 100 cubic feet of
water. Let either the bottom or the
top of the cistern be placed on a level
with the bottom of the fireplace. Then, supposing the former, which is preferable, to be
the case, take a small iron pipe, rather more than twice the length of the distance
between the cistern and the kitchen fireplace
(that used as gas-pipe, about an inch in
diameter externally, and which may be had
for about 4d. per foot, is the best), and
bend it in the middle, so that the bent end
may lie in the bottom of the fireplace, and
the open ends in the bottom of the cistern
in the poultry-place, as shown in the section fig. 1198, in which c is the fireplace;
d, the two pipes ; and e, their ends in the cistern. The end of one of these pipes is shown
turned up one inch, and the other several inches, to promote the circulation by destroying
the equilibrium which necessarily exists when the orifices of both tubes are on the same
level. If, instead of the bottom of the cistern being on a level with the bottom of the
fireplace, its top is on that level, then it is only necessary to reverse the pipes, as shown
in fig. 1199, taking care that they are first filled with water, when the circulation will
take place on the siphon principle ; and be effective in heating the air of the poultry-
house, either directly by radiation, or through the medium of a coat of stones or gravel,
as may be considered best. The cistern, or receptacle for water, may be an old iron pot
or kettle, or a large jar. A body of water will very soon be heated by either of these
methods ; and that body may be surrounded by a mass of stones or gravel, which will
thus accumulate a quantity of heat, to be
given out by degrees, according to the tem-
perature of the poultry-house. Where gas
pipe cannot be got, even lead pipe will
answer for a short time ; because it will
not melt, while there is a circulation of
water at a lower temperature than 200°
going on within it. An excellent de-
scription of apparatus for being placed
m the fire might be made of cast iron, or of terro-metallic earth ; and, at the
distance of a foot from the fireplace, a lead or wooden pipe might be joined to it,
either of which would answer as well for circulating the water as pipes made of any
1198
A
i\
=s^
u
1199
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS.
627
other material. Thus, there cannot be a question as to the cheapness of this mode, and
still less of its effectiveness. The variations, also, which this mode admits of, are almost
endless ; for the pipes may be so arranged as to heat a cistern of water, or poultry-house,
not only on the same level with tbe fireplace, but on any floor above its level, or on the
cellar floor below it. A perfect level, however, will always be found the cheapest mode.
The third manner of conveying heat from the lire of a cottage living-room to a place for
poultry, is to form a chest or box, say three feet wide, three feet high, and six feet long,
which will afford room for two floors of eight nests each ; and either to keep this in the
living-room, its to]) serving as a table or dresser ; or to place it in a garret, back-kitchen,
or outhouse ; and supply it with heat by earthenware bottles of hot water, set in the
corner of each nest ; or by a vertical cistern of water, which might form the separation
between the nests. Where a box of nests was adopted, however, the best plan woidd be,
to place it in a garret or other floor over the living-room ; for we cannot recommend the
practice, not unfrequent in the small farm houses in France, of hatching poultry in large
quantities under the kitchen dressers. Where there is an oven in frequent use, a poultry-
house may be very advantageously placed in contact with it j and where the floor of the
dwelling is heated by flues, or by steam in a bed
of stones, there never can be any difficulty in
conveying a part of the heat to an outside poultry-
house. It is only necessary to extend the flues
under its floor. Neither can there be the slightest
difficulty in contriving a poultry-house to be
heated from the fire of the living-room, when a
new cottage is to be built ; for, in the case of a
double cottage, two poultry-houses may be placed
between the two dwellings, as in fig. 1200, in
which f is one dwelling, and g its poultry-house ;
and h another dwelling, and i its poultry-house.
In the case of single cottages, the poultry-house
may either be a lean-to, as proposed for old cottages, or it may be a recess, as in fig.
1201 ; in which k is the dwelling, and I, the poultry-house; the back of the fireplace,
£
i
r
— e —
C
12C0
/
1201
being supposed to be a cast-iron plate. Perhaps
we have gone more into details on this part of our
subject than to some may appear necessary ; but
we are extremely anxious to introduce poultry-
houses of an improved kind, generally, into the
cottages of farm labourers ; and an important step
to this is, to make Architects and their employers
aware of what is wanted.
Sect. V. Designs for Farmery Dwellings for Tloughmen and other Yearly Servants
employed on the Farm.
1330. Every Scotch Farmery has some human Divellings belonging to it, in addition
to that of the master ; and, in most districts, there is a room, or a couple of rooms, in
some places called a bothy, for the single men, with one or more cottages, in a line, not
far distant from the farmery, for men having families. This is one of the great advan-
tages which the modern farmeries of Scotland, and of the north of England, have over
those of most other parts of the island. In consequence of these dwellings, the men
employed in taking care of the horses, and in other agricultural labours, being always on
the spot, are enabled to commence their work in the morning, without being previously
fatigued by getting up very early, and perhaps walking a mile or more to the farm ; and
they can also afford to stay later on extra occasions ; always arriving at home less fatigued
in the evenings, than they could do under other circumstances. The wives and families
of such men must evidently be much more comfortable than when the man has to go a
distance to his work ; and the master must feel proportionately satisfied by being enabled
to consider his ploughmen as forming part of his family. It is well known in Scotland,
that the ploughmen who live with their families on the farms on which they work, and who
are paid partly in money and partly in kind, are the most comfortable, moral, and laborious
of country workmen ; and it appears to us to be very desirable that the same practice should
be introduced into the midland and southern districts of England. We have seen, in
§ 795, that those in Scotland are sufficiently wretched ; and, in § 996, that those in the
north of England are little better. In the agricultural counties of the south and west of
England, the cottages of the ploughmen are generally more commodious than those in
the north ; though those of some of the midland counties, Buckinghamshire for example,
may be referred to in proof of a contrary opinion. Various attempts have been made
to introduce improvements into this class of dwellings, and we shall here bring together
G2S COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
a few plans devised by different individuals for that purpose ; previously giving the plan
and interior arrangement of ploughmen's cottages as they now exist in Scotland, in
Northumberland, and in Wiltshire.
1331. No art nt Improvement in the Cuttages of Farm Labourers, however, can he
expected, till the farmer looks upon his labourers in a very different point of view from
what lie does at present. The relative situation of these two classes is that of seller and
buyer, or rather master and slave ; the one trying to get a maximum of labour for a
minimum of remuneration, and looking upon his labourer as a being inferior to himself)
and, in short, as little better than a beast of burden ; and the other regarding his master
as his natural eneinv, to be taken advantage of on every occasion where it can be done
with impunity. With a superior degree of knowledge in both parties, the labour of the
servant, and the wages and accommodation of the master would be merely looked upon
as articles of exchange, inferring no degree of obligation on either side ; and, in those
fluctuations in the price of labour which must ever take place, implying no greater
personal subjection, or inferiority of dignity, than now takes place between foreign and
British merchants, when regulating their accounts according to the rate of exchange
between their respective nations. This desirable result can only be brought about by
universal education, by which every man will be enabled to rise in the scale of being,
in proportion to his native intellect ; and all will be essentially alike in what relates
to manners; which, after all, have more influence than even intellect in conferring
personal dignity.
1332. Wlien every Farmer and the Labourers settled on his Farm shall consider them-
selves more in the light of a small cooperative society, and it shall be the interest of the
one party to act for the benefit of the other, as well as for his own advantage ; then
will the comfort and happiness of both be greatly increased : the labourer will cease to
look upon his employer as a hard taskmaster, and the master upon his sen-ant as a
mere instrument of labour, or an unwilling slave ; then will kindly feelings be again
awakened in both bosoms, and the wish to confer mutual benefits revive. Tyranny and
servility have alike a tendency to harden the heart and to stitle all the better feelings of
human nature : there is much of both in the present situation of labourers and their
employers ; but let labour find its fair value in the market, and be regarded only as an
article of barter given in exchange for wages, and the moral condition of the labourer
will be raised ; he will feel himself restored to the dignity of a responsible agent, and
all the nobler feelings of his nature will be called forth.
1 333. One of the first Eesults of a right understanding between farmers and their
labourers will be, the enjoyment of certain accommodations in common ; such as an oven,
a brewhouse or cider-house, a wash-house and washing-machine, a mangle, and a mode
of heating. We will not go farther than this, though we might anticipate something
nearer patriarchal equality; for the height of refinement is to return to simplicity:
but there is this difference, that the one is the simplicity of knowledge, and the other
the simplicity of ignorance. One of the first sources of comfort which, in cold countries
such as Britain, the farm labourer will enjoy in common with his employer is, we think,
artificial heat. Of all the laborious, wasteful, and extravagant modes of procuring this
necessary of life, that of employing open fireplaces is the worst ; being scarcely more
than one step removed from the savage practice of lighting a fire in the middle of a hut,
sitting round it, and feeding it with boughs. The Chinese, and the Continental nations
of Europe, even the semi-barbarous Russians, are far in advance of us in this respect.
We have suggested the mode of heating by smoke-flues under the floors ; but even this
is a comparatively imperfect mode, to what may be practised in every farmery, after
steam shall have been as generally introduced for driving threshing and other machinery,
and cooking food for cattle, &c, as we are persuaded it very soon will be. Our attention
has been called to this subject by an enlightened correspondent residing in Edinburgh,
whose communication, given in his own words, will enable the Architect, with the
greatest ease, to devise the means of heating the floors of farm houses, farm labourers'
cottages, and farmery bothies, from the same steam-apparatus which is erected in the
farmery for cooking food for the live stock.
1334. Heating the Floors of Cottages by Steam. " The excellent method you propose
for heating the dwellings of the working classes is, unfortunately, limited to situations
where a fireplace can be established on a lower level than the floors which are to be
heated ; and is, besides, objectionable in localities where the nature of the coal employed
causes a rapid deposition of soot, by which the heat abstracted from the fuel is, in great
part, forced along into the exterior atmosphere. In such situations, an arrangement may
be adopted, which lias been successfully applied here, in the following case : — The Police
Office being built on the side of very steep ground, the front of the building is about
20 feet higher than the back part. A range of cells for prisoners had been added on
the lowest level, and were so situated that it became a difficult question how they were
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS.
629
to be heated and ventilated during cold weather. I suggested the following method,
which was adopted, and succeeded. In the floor of each cell a pit, fig. 1202, a, was
formed, of 4 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 1 foot and a half deep, lined and floored with
brick and mortar, and covered by an Arbroath or Caithness flag, /;, forming part of the
permanent floor of the cell. This pit was filled with hard materials, such as very-
coarse gravel, road metal of broken whinstone, &c. A close steam-boiler, which was
erected in a higher part of the premises, was made to transmit steam to a pipe, c, which
was laid along the passage in which were situated the doors of the cells, and from this
pipe a branch, with a stopcock, d, went off to each pit. The pits were laid with a
little declivity towards one corner, from which a piece of bent lead pipe, e, carried off
condensed water," or allowed steam to escape if its pressure exceeded an inch of water.
The doors of the cells were left half an inch free from the floor, as shown at/; and from
the ceiling of each cell, at the extremity farthest from the door, a flue was carried into the
exterior wall of the building. From this disposition it results, that, when, by opening
the branch cock, (/, steam is admitted into any of the pits, it is condensed among the
hard gravel, and parts with its heat, until the whole mass has acquired a high temperature ;
after which, if allowed to continue to pass into the pit, it would blow off by the bent lead
pipe, e. The whole pavement of the cell soon becomes warm ; and the air, on being
heated, gradually rises, and passes off by the flue near the ceiling ; its place being
supplied by a stratum which flows in under the door at /, immediately over the hottest
part of the floor. The cells, though small, are in this way well ventilated, and when
washed out they dry immediately. In such an arrangement, care should be taken that
the pipes be all laid to a declination at which the condensation may escape by a
hydraulic joint. In the first fitting up of the apparatus at the Police Office, a lead
main was employed, which was supported only at certain distances. It soon, however,
bagged between the supports, when water lodging in the bends stopped up the steam-
way. This lead pipe being removed, and a small cast-iron gas main being substituted,
every cell, or any particular one, became capable of being heated to any degree required.
The turnkeys, from experience, know the time a cock requires to be left open to com-
municate heat enough for the whole day to a cell ; and they find that, though the
necessary quantity be rapidly imparted to the mass of stones, it is so gradually given out,
that a very equable temperature is easily maintained. The last is a valuable property of
this method, when the source of heat is to be the kitchen fire, which is naturally of
variable strength at different periods of the day ; and, therefore, not available for
applying heat by means of the surface of steam-pipes, or by currents of heated air." Of
all the different modes of heating rooms on the basement story of a house, in which the
floors are of brick, stone, or composition, there can be no doubt that much the most
efficient mode is by steam; we do not think that there is any mode of applying it more
economical than that suggested by our correspondent. It is a great recommendation
to this plan, that the heat may be deposited among the stones at any period of the day,
so as to be given out in proportion as the temperature of the air over the floor is lowered.
Though it would seldom answer to heat a single cottage in this manner, yet in most
districts no plan could answer better for a number of cottages, when placed together.
The same mode has been applied to the heating of hot-houses, and especially pine stoves
and pits, by Mr. Hay, Garden Architect, Edinburgh, (whose invention, we believe, it
is,) with the most perfect success. ( See Gard. Mag. vol. viii. p. 330 and 730.)
Design I. — Two Ploughmen's Cottages, such as are in common Use in the Carse of
Gowrie ; with a Notice of the Bothies, or Lodges fur single Men, in the same District.
1335. Our object, in giving the present Design, which, at our request, has been fur-
nished by Mr. Gorrie, is to show how a minimum of accommodation may be maximised
in use. Fig. 1203 is a ground plan of two cottages, one with only one fireplace and
two windows, and the other with two fireplaces and two windows. The first shows the
method of partitioning off a small apartment by means of two box-beds; and the second,
or that with the two fireplaces, shows how the box-beds are disposed when there is more
630 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1 •_'():?
'Mil'
space, and a partial partition in the middle. In both cottages, the disposition of the
principal articles of furniture is shown. In the smaller cottage, a is the porch ; b, the
living-room, eight feet by fourteen feet ; c, the dresser; dd, two box-beds (one of which
opens into b, and the other into e) ; e, a small bed-room or passage, four feet by fourteen
feet ; f, a chest of drawers ; and g, a cupboard, or press. In the cottage with two fire-
places, h is the porch ; i, the living-room, fourteen feet by nine feet and a half; k, the
dresser ; /, a box-bed opening into the kitchen ; m, a chest of drawers ; n, a box-bed,
opening into the ben, or parlour ; and o, a press. The ben, or parlour, p, is, like the
kitchen, fourteen feet by nine feet and a half. It will be observed that these dimensions
are from wall to wall ; so that the areas of the floors are very much diminished by the box-
beds, the chests of drawers, and the dressers. The elevation is of the rudest kind, the
roof is covered with thatch or grey slate, with shapeless chimney-tops formed of straw,
sticks, and mud, and window-openings about two feet and a half high, and eighteen
inches wide, with a frame containing four small panes of glass hinged at one side.
1336. The following Description of these Cottages has been sent us by Mr. Gorrie : —
" The accompanying sketch, fig. 1203, shows two houses for ploughmen having wives
and children, in the style most prevalent here. The largest is twenty-two feet by four-
teen feet within the walls, and seven feet high. The dotted lines show the site of the
box-beds, press, and the bride's chest of drawers ; the latter being always a part of her
dowry, and made of mahogany. The porch, you will see, is within-doors, and its walls
are made of straw or clay, about four inches thick, covering wood supports (clay nog-
ging). The outer walls of the cottage are built of rubble-stone, without any hewn-
work. The chimney-flues are formed of the same material as the porch partitions, faced
with wood. There is a hearth-stone, three feet by two feet and a half. The floor is
laid with clay, and is quite smooth ; seldom with wood or flags. The walls are not, I
am sorry to say, often plastered within ; but they are sometimes whitewashed. The
rooms have seldom plaster ceilings, but they are uniformly formed of small wood laid on
joists, and covered with turf. On this primitive loft, fuel, such as split wood, is laid,
being conveyed to it through a hatchway above the porch : it is also a receptacle for
lumber. The roof is thatched with reeds or wheat straw ; or, if near any slate quarries,
where that article is cheap, and reeds and straw scarce and high-priced, slates are used ;
tiles are very seldom to be met with. The ridges are covered with turf, and the chimney-
tops arc of the same materials as the porch partition below ; that is, straw ropes, clay, and
wood. The largest cottage may be reckoned a specimen of many cottagers' houses built
about forty years since : recently they are more tastefully erected. In all cases they have
a but and a ben, although two fireplaces in ploughmen's houses are not common. Such
a cottage as the smallest of these, rents (for labourers) at 35s. a year, and this is con-
sidered as part of the wages of a married ploughman. This, with ten falls of garden
ground, twenty falls of field potato-ground, (a fall is 36 square yards,) a cow kept, six
bolls and a half of oatmeal, and £8, is about a ploughman's yearly wages. A foreman
who sows, and builds ricks, has about £4 more."
1337. " Bothies (boothies," or little booths), Mr. Gorrie continues, " are of long stand-
ing as dwellings for ploughmen ; and they arc very simple erections. The beds are
generally on the same floor as the cooking-rooms; a very bad arrangement, as it affords
temptation for men, when fatigued with labour, to recline on them, without much attention
to cleanliness or comfort. The size of the bothy, or lodge, is regulated by the number
of the men for whom it is designed, reckoning two for each bed ; the only other fur-
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS.
631
niturc being a four-legged stool, some meal-boxes, and the ploughmen's boxes, which
contain their linen and Sunday clothes, of which they are generally careful. Bothies
now erecting have an upper story for beds, and a box for holding meal in the cooking-
apartment. The utensils consist of one pan or boiler, and each man provides himself
with a wooden plate and spoon."
1338. Remarks. Our readers cannot fail to observe the important service rendered
by the box-beds, in the division of these cottages into two rooms : without them the
apartment would be a miserable hovel ; for no description of open bed could ever either
be so comfortable in itself, or admit of such an arrangement as would give any privacy
to any part of the enclosure. At the same time, it must be acknowledged that the
closeness and concealment produced by these beds, and the general crowding together of
so much in so small a space, are any thing but favourable to cleanliness and even delicacy.
The remark made by Mr. Gorrie, on the temptation afforded by having beds in the
living room, " to lie down in them without much regard to cleanliness or comfort," is
most important. The very circumstance of having to go up stairs to a bed-room is
favourable to cleanliness, as well as to health ; because, in proportion to the completeness
of the division of purposes or uses in a dwelling is the perfection to which each may be
attained. The first step towards both cleanliness and comfort is order, or having a place
for every thing ; and this can never be obtained, that is, no person can be orderly, where
things used for totally different purposes are crowded together in a small space. Very
little improvement, therefore, can be expected in the taste of the Scotch ploughman or
his wife, till they have more room ; and till they have beds in rooms by themselves,
which admit light on every side, and a free circulation of air, above, below, and around.
The box-beds form an admirable partition ; and, indeed, taken altogether, are astonishing
contrivances for surmounting difficulties ; for, when we consider that the Scotch plough-
men are liable to change their masters, and, of course, their hovels, once a year, by what
other means could they render such miserable abodes so habitable, without incurring the
expense of fixed partitions, which, on removal, they could not carry with them ? When
two separate bed-rooms are obtained, the bride's chest of drawers will be placed in the
best of them, and this will pave the way for a bookcase, combined with a writing-desk,
as an appropriate piece of parlour furniture. Supposing, then, that a ploughman's cottage
consisted of two rooms below separated by fixed partitions, and two above, separated in
the same manner, the box-beds being no longer necessary, the furniture of the four
rooms would be as easily moved as that of the two now is. A great improvement in
the condition of ploughmen, both with and without families, who live on farms, would
result from their having one common kitchen, wash-house, boiler, oven, washing-machine,
mangle, &c, as we have before indicated, § 1333 ; and when the ploughmen, and other
labourers in agricultural districts, become as enlightened as the manufacturing classes,
they will feel the necessity of having these things ; and, when they do, they will obtain
them. We have said nothing of the want of those exterior appendages to cottages which
are essential to decency as well as cleanliness, because the evils resulting from the want
of them must be sufficiently obvious to every one who has perused the preceding pages
of this work.
Design II. — Two Country Labourers' Cottages, built at Showerdown Braes, on the
Beaufront Estate, in Northumberland.
1339. The Ploughman's Cottage, in Northumberland, is every whit as bad as that in the
Carse of Gowrie. The plan, fig. 1 204, it is to be observed, does not represent two cottages
for common ploughmen, but for
general day labourers ; the ex- _
terior appendages, indicated by ~
the dotted lines in the figure,
never being added to those built
on farmeries, as already observed,
§ 996. We have given the plan
here to show the interior arrange-
ment of these cottages, which we
have been enabled to do through
the assistance of Mr. John Ander-
son, many years a respectable
Northumbrian farmer. He in-
forms us that box-beds are in
general use in the ploughmen's
cottages in Northumberland, for the same purposes as in the Scotch cottages ; but that,
the hovel having only one window, the former can never be so usefully divided as the
latter. In fig. 1 204, the outer walls of each cottage enclose a space twenty-two feet by
1204
>-i Li |.l l --
^T
632 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
sixteen feet : a is the porch inside the house, as in the Carse of Gowrie, and four feet
square in the clear ; h is a space seven feet by four feet, marked in one cottage to show
where s bed may be placed lengthwise, so as to face the fire; or two maybe placed
endwise, and back to back, as in the other cottage at c; d is a small closet or dairy,
four feet square in the clear; e e show one mode of placing the beds, by which, tne
one bed opening to the fireplace, and the other behind, some privacy is obtained for
the occupiers of both; /is the situation of the dresser; g, of the chest of drawers;
and /i, of the press: articles not in use are placed at b, and the fuel, generally coal, is
kept outside the door, in the open air. A different disposition of two beds is shown
in the other cottage at it; as well as that before mentioned at c c. The last seems
the best of three methods, none of which are good.
1340. Remarks. What we have said respecting the improvement of the Scotch
labourer's cottage will equally apply here. The progress of the age requires that there
should be a chamber-floor over the living-room, the stair to which might be at b, entered
by a door from a. This would give a lumber closet under the stair, which, with the
pantry, or dairy, and the press (the latter ought always to be a fixture, to lessen the
inconvenience of removal), would render the living-room commodious, and leave ample
space for order and cleanliness ; and two bed-rooms up stairs would enable the occupier
to keep every thing, in both floors, orderly and comfortable. It is almost needless to
observe that the pigsty or poultry-house, k, would be a most desirable addition to every
ploughman's cottage, as well as /; and that to should be roofed over. It gives us
pleasure to observe one of the first Northumbrian farmers acknowledging the necessity,
§ 972, of enlarging the accommodation of ploughmen's cottages, by the addition of a
chamber-floor. What objection can there possibly be to rendering ploughmen's cottages
much more comfortable than they are? The expense first, and the increase of wages
which the ploughman would in a short time require, in order to gratify his improved
taste, are the obvious answers. But where is the evil of this state of things ? It would
only diminish the rent of the landlord, who, if he were not content to take less, could
become the occupier himself. It may also be said, that it would increase the price of
farm produce to the public ; but price of every kind depends upon supply and demand.
The only question, then, is, what evil would result to society from raising the characters
of the ploughman and the country labourer ? Every one knows our answer.
Design III. — Two Ploughmen's Cottages, in a Village near Salisbury, Wiltshire.
1341. The genuine English Cottage has a very different character from either the
Northumbrian or the Scotch one. It is undoubtedly constructed less favourably for
retaining heat, because in the south that is less wanted ; but, being airy and light, it is
much more favourable for health and cleanliness. The Design we are about to describe
has been sent us as a genuine specimen of a Wiltshire farm labourer's cottage, by a
much esteemed correspondent resident in its neighbourhood.
1342. Accommodation. The smaller cottage contains one living-room, fig. 1205, a,
with a fireplace at b, a closet
under the stairs, and a door
out of this closet to the dairy
or pantry, c ; there is an oven
from the back of thefireplaee,d ;
and the chamber-floor is divided
into two rooms. This cottage
is entered from the front by
three steps at e ; and it has a
garden and orchard of about
the eighth of an acre at /.
The larger cottage is entered
behind by one step at g, into
a porch, as the ground rises
from the front to the hack : it
contains a kitchen, h, with a
fireplace at i ; a closet at k ;
another under the stairs ; an
oven at I; a wash-house at m ; and a pantry at n. The space over is divided into
one large and two smaller bed-rooms. There are a garden and orchard belonging to
this cottage at o ; and the public road passes on the two sides, p and q. Fig. 120C shows
the external elevation of the two dwellings.
1343. Description. The following observations accompanied the above Design: —
" This old double cottage was originally a small farm house. It is built of stone, except
the gable, which is of flint and stone in narrow layers : the smaller tenement is more
DWELLINGS FOU FARM SERVANTS.
633
modern than the other. The windows have all stone frames and mullions, except that
in the roof; the window with the label over it is a very handsome one. The ground
plan is just as it is here represented. The stairs in the larger cottage might be better
placed ; and the smaller cottage should have a good window, instead of the small one
near the fireplace ; but they are both comfortable dwellings in summer, though in winter
the floors are damp. In the smaller cottage a spring rises close to the fireplace, although
the floor is one foot and a half above the general surface. The village is situated in a
deep valley, and the subsoil is chalk ; consequently there is scarcely a dry house in the
parish. The water springs up from the saturated chalk in the cottages, and even in the
roads, after much rain or snow ; so that on such occasions several of our cottages are not
fit to live in. With us, the only remedy for a damp floor is, to dig out the chalk three
feet deep, and fill up the vacancy with flints ; and even this is scarcely effectual, if there
be a spring beneath, or any earth against the outer walls above the level of the floor. A
raised platform would, therefore, be useless in such a situation. Indeed, I fancy it is
impossible to have a dry house in low situations on chalk ; for even our few brick houses
are damp ; and it is the same in all this district. I do not send this Design as a model
for imitation, but merely to illustrate my opinion, that an old cottage, even of the simplest
form (especially near freestone quarries), has generally a more pleasing effect, and con-
tains more accommodation, than modern erections of this kind ; and this leads me to be
an advocate for the old style of building. You will, perhaps, object to the bed-rooms
being in the roof. They are not so in all cases ; but, when they are, they have generally
the advantage of being airy and spacious, though the shape of them is not handsome.
They are generally ceiled high up in the roof, so that they are lofty in the centre, and,
where the roof is of thatch, such rooms are cool in summer, and warm in winter ; and 1
observe that poor people, who care little for the shape of a room, generally prefer a good
bed-room in the roof to one on the ground floor. When I add to the account I have
already given of our damp situation, that we are close to water meadows, which are con-
stantly irrigated during six or eight months in the year, you will, perhaps, think this a
most unhealthy village. The fact is quite the contrary. We have even very few persons
afflicted with rheumatic complaints, and people live here to a great age. With our small
population we have few old people ; but, of these few, more than half are between eighty
and ninety. We have no stagnant water even in the meadows, and the water here is as
clear as glass. Still, a damp residence is a nuisance to be remedied, if possible ; though
this village affords an instance that it is not in all cases prejudicial to health."
1344. Remarks. The interior of these cottages, it will be observed, is very different
from that of either the Scotch or Northumbrian ones : irregularity and variety charac-
terise the former, as much as plainness and simplicity do the latter. The one "gives the
idea of the cottage of a serf, and the other of that of a free man. We strongly suspect,
however, that the occupants of the former cottages are the happier party ; for, from the
manner in which they are paid their wages partly in kind, they have always abundance
of plain food, and of heat. This may be said of all serfs, of the slaves of the West Indies,
and of the feudal vassals of Russia and Hungary. The country labourer of England is
in a transition state, between slavery and freedom ; in which he has lost the security of
the one condition, without having obtained the independence of the other. For this
end, he requires a degree of knowledge which has not yet come in his way.
•1 B
634> COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Design IV. — A roomy Cottage for Farm Labourers, erected in Gloucestershire, on the
Estate of William Lawrence, Esq., near Cirencester.
1345. Accommodation. There are, in this cottage, an entrance, fig. 1207, a, with a
staircase down to the cellars and up to the bed-rooms ; a living-room, b, with an oven,
c; a back-kitchen, or room for washing utensils, &c, d; a covered pigsty, e ; a yard to
ditto, /; a shed for fuel, a ; and a privy, h. There is a cellar under the passage and
cellar stair ; and the lobby, and place under the ascending stairs, in the summer season,
may serve as a sitting-room. Fig. 1208 is a plan of the chamber story, in which are a
1208
i
wzzwczwcz
good bed-room with a fireplace, i, and another bed-room, k. Fig. 1209 is a geometrical
elevation of one end, and fig. 1210 a perspective view of the front.
1346. Construction. The walls are of the native limestone, two feet thick at the base,
tapering to nineteen inches at the wall-plate of the roof; the floors of the living-rooms
are boarded, and those of the other places paved with the local flag-stone ; the roofs are
covered with grey slate.
1347. Estimate. The actual cost of this cottage, in the neighbourhood of Cirencester,
was i.260. As the cubic contents are 14,209 feet, it thus appears that the proper
amount for a general estimate, in the given locality, is 4-^d. per foot.
1348. Remarks. Such cottages were erected on the estate of the celebrated surgeon,
and translator of Blumenbach, William Lawrence, Esq. ; a man alike distinguished in
his profession for his scientific knowledge, and in the moral and political world for his
liberal and enlightened ideas. His estate is under the care of his brother, Charles Law-
rence, Esq., who not only possesses great taste in landscape-gardening and ornamental
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS.
(535
;: '■■■'■ V.'1 „'>| ■ : lllill
horticulture, but is a most judicious philanthropist. At our earnest request, he contributed
this Design, and that which follows.
Design V. — A double. Cottage, intended for Farm Labourers, in Gloucestershire.
1349. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1211, contains, for each cottage, a
living-room, a, with oven, b ; staircase, c, down to the cellar and up to the bed-room ;
back-house, d ; place for fuel and tools, e ; pigsty,/ ; and privy, g. The chamber-floor,
fig. 1212, contains two good-sized bed-rooms, though without fireplaces, h h ; and a stair-
case, i. Fig. 1213 is a front elevation; fig. 1214, an end elevation; and fig. 1215 a
perspective view.
1350. Descriptive Remarks, and Estimate. This Design, also sent us by Mr. Charles
Lawrence, was intended to be erected on an estate under his management. With these
Designs he lias sent us the following remarks, with a form of agreement and specification
for building them combined. " These cottages will appear to you small ; but I can
assure you they are deemed magnificent dwellings by the labourers placed in them, who
are objects of envy among their brethren. They are extremely pleased with the con-
venience of them, and especially with the cellar, which enables them to stow away their
potatoes, carrots, parsneps, &c, out of the reach of frost or depredation. Such cottages
would be commonly let at £5 or ,£'6 ; but we have let them at 52s. per annum ; con-
ceiving that, in such cases, the capacity of the tenant to pay is the more fit criterion in
assessing the rents for labourers, than the sum of money expended. I saw, about two
years ago, various calculations of the expense of living in labourers' families, and of the
631) COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1211
u
d
.
' 'I 'I I ITT1
111 II
=D
1 I I I I
prices of the articles of their consumption ; showing that they could not exist on less than
per week.
This would be a most serious matter if it
1212
wages varying from 1 5s. to '20s
were true, because there is
not the slightest prospect of
their obtaining such wages.
It is a consolation to know,
practically, that a labourer,
with a moderate family, not
exceeding four children, rent-
ing a cottage at Is. per week,
and a quarter of an acre of
good land at 10s. a year,
and earning, on an average,
by piecework and daywork,
10s. a week, can live with-
out parish aid, except in case
of illness or accident. I
know a man who has brought
up seven sons and two daugh-
ters, renting a cottage at £4
per annum, and potato land
of farmers at the rate of £7
per acre, for which they have
not paid their landlords above
25s. at the outside ; and
neither the father nor his
children, all of whom are
upwards of twenty years of
age, have ever received a
shilling from any parish. I
saw this patriarch, with his seven sons, on three several occasions, give their votes for the
city of Gloucester as freemen (they are now disfranchised as non-residents), and I shall
not soon forget the indignation they felt at an examination by the agents of the other
Y
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i i
1 I
a
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS.
037
candidate, as to whether they had received parochial relief. Would that this spirit were
more generally diffused, and that it were cherished and fostered by the owners of land as
it ought to he ! Of the plans I have sent you, fig. 1210, p. 653, has been executed ; but
fig. 1215, though a more pleasing elevation, was given up, as it involved a lead gutter
between the roofs, which increased the expense ,£'10; and, what was afar more serious
objection in my mind, it incurred the risk of damage from snow in winter, as you could
never rely on a labourer taking the precaution of throwing it off." A simple and effec-
tual remedy for this evil has been pointed out to us by John RobLson, Esq., Secretary to
the Royal Society of Edinburgh ; who says, " A frequent cause of annoyance is the
water which finds admittance in roofs when the valleys and gutters get obstructed by
melted snow, on the occurrence of a sudden thaw. This is easily and effectually pre-
vented by any contrivance by which a waterway can be preserved in the gutters, into
which the snow cannot find access until it be melted : slates, or boards, supported so as to
leave a hollow under them ; ranges of tiles with their convex sides uppermost ; damaged
slates, &c, may be applied in this way with perfect success. In towns, many roofs get
injured by the persons sent up to throw the snow off them; but if the above simple pre-
caution be taken, the greatest accumulation of snow can do no harm, however rapid the
thaw may be." Fig. 1216 shows a valley-gutter between two roofs, with a ridge-tile,
(538 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
or draining tile, or one of Peake's semicylindrical tiles, placed in it as a drain when the
valley is filled with snow. Fig. 1217 is a single gutter with a common pantile placed
in it in an inverted position, for the same purpose. It
may be observed that these tiles, in summer, will be
useful, by protecting the lead from the intense heat
of the sun, which in many situations produces cracks,
and causes the lead to turn up at the edges. Mr.
Lawrence continues: — " With regard to the cost of
the two cottages which were executed, fig. 1207, I
consider the shortest and the most satisfactory plan
will be, to send you a copy of the specification,
showing the quantity and quality of the work clone for the money. You are aware
that, in general, a mere statement that a building cost a given sum is very unsatis-
factory, without knowing exactly what the contract comprised ;
for there is often much subsequent expense not provided for,
and the mode in which the building is finished makes all the
difference in the cost. In this case you will see the contract
provided for every thing, except timber, and cast-iron frames
for the windows. The price in the contract was £ 1 99. The
bill for the cast-iron frames was ,£9: 15s. There being no
timber cut sufficiently seasoned, the contractor was to furnish
such as might be required, except joists and rafters, which were
cut out of larch poles, worth, perhaps, ,£10 or £12 to
sell ; and his bill, including shelves, &c, amounted to £40.
The entire cost may be estimated at £260. The old cottages
need not affect the account ; for they furnished nothing in value exceeding that of
the labour employed in their removal. The using of cast-iron window frames is a notion
of my own. I have for some time got them made by Stothert of Bath, and much prefer
them to wood or lead. Where they are used, the stonework should he left somewhat
smaller in the opening than the intended size when finished ; and it should be worked to
its proper size when the frames are ready to be put in, as they are sometimes slightly
warped in the casting, and a better and closer fit is thus insured. Design V.,
fig. 1211, would have cost ,£'10 more than Design IV. In situations where effect is of
more consequence than a few pounds more or less, and two cottages are built side by
side, according to Design IV., a gable should he thrown up in the centre, to relieve the
length of roof: barge-hoards maybe introduced in these gables, and a rustic -porch set
round each door, formed by four small trees about six inches in diameter, or of larch
poles with the bark on, connected on the sides by the crooked branches of oak, which are
found at the barking season to be too rough for stripping."
1351. Specification and Agreement. To take down the two old cottages, and in the
stead thereof to erect, build, and complete for habitation, two new cottages on the site
to be fixed on by William Lawrence, Esq., in a substantial and workmanlike manner,
according to the following specification ; that is to say : — to dig out and form foundations,
cellars, and privy vaults, to be walled; to build the Iwo new cottages according to the
plans and elevations hereunto annexed, and to provide, at (he expense of John Jordan
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS.
039
(the contractor), all necessary hauling and labour, and all materials and workmanship of
every description, except timber; the timber to be supplied by the said William Lawrence
in the rough, and sawed out and worked up by the said John Jordan (the floors to be fur-
nished in plank) ; and also the windows, except the cast-iron frames, which are to be found
by the said William Lawrence, but to be glazed at the expense of the said John Jordan.
The walls to be built in a strong rough manner, with rusticated ashlar coins, the sills
to the windows to be of weathered stone. The chimney tops to be formed of weathered
stone ashlar, with proper heads and drips. The ovens to be formed of fire-brick with
iron stoppers. The floors of the lower rooms and passage (except that of the largest
room on the ground floor) to be of good clean close-jointed paving. The floors of the
lean-to and privy and pigsty to be laid with common rough paving. The floors of the
large room on the ground floor, and of the upper rooms and staircase, to be of elm board,
framed and laid in a good manner. All the roofs to be pointed to the pin (mortar to be
laid under each course of slate, from their lower edge, to the pin which fastens the slate
below). All the doors to be ledged doors, ploughed and tongued, well fitted, and hung
on good strong hinges. All the walls of the house and privy to be plastered and
troweled down smooth and washed. The walls of the lean-to and pigsty to be pointed ;
and the walls of the court of the latter to be covered with weather-coping. To provide
spouts of wood or cast-iron, and fix them at the front and back of the cottages, and a
downright spout to each, to convey the water into a reservoir. All the outside wood
and ironwork to be painted with three coats of oil paint. To cover in the said cottages
and outbuildings, on or before the 1st of July next ; and to complete the same in all
respects fit for habitation and use, and to clear away all the rubbish from the new, and
the site of the old building, by the 1st of September following, to the satisfaction of
the said William Lawrence, or his agent or surveyor.
Design VI. — A Cottage for a Farm Labourer and his Wife, without Children.
1352. An Essay on Labourers' Cottages, by Mr. Tugwell, the celebrated agriculturist,
and the inventor of the Beverstone plough, which appeared in the Bath Society's
Papers, vol. xii., was accompanied by two very economical plans for ploughmen's
dwellings, which we have thought it useful to copy (with some alterations, which we
consider improvements) into this work, as particularly suitable for being erected on farms.
We shall commence with that of the smallest size.
1 353. Accommodation. There are a cellar the entire size of the ground floor, a living-
room and pantry over the cellar, and two small bed-rooms over these. Fig. 1218 is a
plan of the ground floor, in
which a is the living-room
twelve feet by eleven feet, with
its open fireplace, b, oven, c, and
small boiler, d. The open fire-
place has the jambs widely
splayed, in order to throw as
much heat as possible into the
room ; the flue of this fireplace
is circular in the horizontal
section, as shown at e, and the
throat is narrowed, to diminish
the draught, as much as is con-
sistent with freedom from smoke.
The boiler, d, Mr. Tugwell pro-
poses to be a Papin's digester,
to enable the occupant to pre-
pare soups, Irish stews, bouil-
lies, &c. from bones which
would be otherwise thrown
away. The oven, c, is supposed
to be built of one brick in
thickness (two inches and a
quarter), both at bottom and
sides, and not more than one in breadth (four inches and a half) on the top; the
whole to be bedded, and surrounded on all sides, above and below, with four inches
of well-rammed wood ashes ; these being bad conductors of heat. Mr. Tugwell observes,
that he can affirm, from experience, that an oven of this construction will not require
more than a third part of the fuel usually consumed in heating. Small-sized earthen-
ware ovens, he observes, are made at the potteries in one entire piece ; and these would
L
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tJ40 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
be very suitable for being bedded in ashes. The fireplace of the digester, he recom-
mends to be surrounded by the same non-conducting substance. There are a small
pantry,/, and a place, g, for 1219
the stairs down to the cel-
lar, and up to the bed-rooms.
Behind are a privy, h, a place for
ashes, f, for fuel, k, and for such
rubbish as will not convert into
manure, /. The last four ap-
pendages are ours. Fig. 1219
is the plan of the bed-room
floor ; in which there is a bed-
room, m, twelve feet by ten feet,
with a fireplace and circular
flue at n, and a recess for shelves
at o : there is another bed-room,
p, twelve feet by nine feet.
Fig. 1220 is the elevation in
perspective.
1354. Construction. The outer walls are proposed to be built hollow; either entirely
of brick or entirely of stone ; or with their outsides of stone of twelve inches in thick-
ness, with an encasing of brick
of about six inches, and an
interval of six inches between,
with cross ties carried up from
the bottom to the top. The
vacuities in the walls are pro-
posed to be made by means
of a hollow light deal box,
fig. 1221, three inches in
thickness, three feet long, and
two feet deep. This box is to
be used as a gauge for preserv-
ing the vacuities of the proper
width : it has two rings in its
upper side, by which means it
may be easily drawn up to
about two thirds of its height;
at which height, two catches,
fig. 1221, q q, at each end,
will fly out, by means of
weights at their tails, as shown
in fig. 1 222 ; and these will
hold the gauge box in its proper station, till it may require again to be raised. The
width of this cottage being only twelve feet, the roof is made to slope from the front to the
back, so as to throw all the water 1222
into one gutter, which may convey
it to a barrel, tub, or tank, or a
cistern over the closet, k, in fig.
1218. The elevation of the roof
is supposed to be not more than
twelve degrees; that slope being
most suitable for a covering of
Grecian or Italian tiles, figs. 23
and 24, in § 50 ; or with large
slates, fig. 1100, § 1222; cast-iron
plates, § 153; corrugated iron,
§ 420; or with cement, in a manner which will be hereafter described. If intended for
common slate, the roof will require to be raised to an angle of thirty-six degrees ; if
for reeds, huop el.ips, or liolni (drawn wheat straw), forty-five degrees ; and if for common
thatch of broken straw, from fifty degrees to fifty-five degrees. The upper wall-plate is
proposed to be six inches by two inches ; the under wall-plate eight inches by two inches,
and the rafters and foot-beams four inches by two inches. The foot-beams are to be con-
sidered as ceiling joists, and are to be lathed and plastered : between this ceiling and the
roof, Mr, TugweD proposes to place coal-ashes, as a non-conducting substance; but, if these
should not be had in sufficient abundance, hay, straw, moss, chaff, or leaves may be used;
1221
z
— ft-
4*
i£
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS.
f)41
the Dutch and Germans use liay in similar cases. 11' slates are used, tliey are proposed
to be pointed with a composition of quicklime, sharp sand, and smith's ashes, made into a
stiflt mortar, with bullock's blood and a little linseed oil, previously mixed over the fire.
This mixture, Mr. Tugwell says, should be well beaten together every day, for five or six
days successively ; and, when used, it should be worked into a soft consistence with lime-
water. Small openings for ventilation may be made in the ceilings, close by the chimney-
flue, and carried up in the wall so near the latter as to be influenced by its heat : all such
ventilations should have sliding stops, so as to close them during winter ; their chief use
being while cooking or baking is going on, during the hot weather of summer. See
§ 21.
1355. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 5,661 feet, which, at 3d. per foot, is
£10 : 15s. : 3d. ; at 2d., £41 : 3s. : 6d. ; and at l%d., £35 : Is. • l\d.
1356. Remarks. This is a well-considered Design, in point of accommodation and
economy. The original elevation, as given in the Bath Society's Papers, is without archi-
tectural beauty, but we have varied it a little ; and also added the appendages, ,A, I, /.,
and I, behind. Two of these cottages placed together, with a bold stack of chimneys in
the centre, would have a good appearance. The blank space in the centre might have a
lean-to placed against it, and be subdivided, for the benefit of each house ; or a vine or
fruit tree might be placed against the wall ; or the cottager who could afford it might
have there a summer-house or a green-house : the latter would be kept sufficiently warm
by the heat from the two digesters or boilers. But the addition which, above all others,
we should wish to see made to a single cottage of this kind, would be a thatch-covered
lean-to, on the back of the fireplace, fitted up as a forcing-house for poultry ; or, where two
such cottages were placed together, to see poultry places formed for each cottage between
them. Fig. 1223 shows the two ends, or living-rooms, of two such cottages, placed back
to back, with two poultry
places between. The porch, 1223
a, to each poultry place, may
serve for ducks or geese on
the ground floor, and for
young fowls to roost over ;
the ducks being protected
from the droppings from the
roosts by projecting boards.
The laying and hatching
places, b, may be separated
by doors, c, eighteen inches
wide, from the porches, in
order to keep the former
warm. Over the passages in
the inner places may be
roosts for hens expected to
lay, and, if it is thought fit,
the height may be extended
to the roof, and two places for
pigeons obtained over the
roosting-place for the fowls.
If this is not considered desir-
able, two closets, one to the
bed-room of each house, may
be formed over the poultry
places, and lighted, the one
by a window to the front, as
shown in the elevation fig. 1 224, and the other by a window to the back. In the porches,
rabbits may be kept, as well as ducks and geese. It is gratifying to find Mr. Tugwell
recommending, besides his excellent oven and digester, " whereby the small quantities of
animal food that fall to the farm labourer's share may be rendered solacing, nutritive,
and strengthening, large well constructed windows, in order to give light during many
hours in the year, that would otherwise require the use of candles." He also recommends
a quarter of an acre of garden ground to each cottage ; and gives directions for making a
kind of stew, in a pot with a cover, a common stewpan, or, by preference, the digester
(because this utensil, from its great strength and close cover, admits of raising water
to a degree of heat somewhat above the boiling point). This stew is composed of
alternate layers of whole potatoes, the refuse parts of mutton, beef, or pork, cut small ;
and a little thyme from the cottager's garden, together with celery, onions, and savory,
either or all ; the whole to be seasoned with salt and pepper, and barely covered with
4 c
042
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1224
msM
water : the ingredients are then to be simmered till tender, and a few peas, a little
rice, or Scotch barley, may also casually be added. " Could the ploughman's wife
(equally interested) be only induced to pique herself a little on a knowledge of simple
cookery, then, and with other corresponding economy, would the poor but healthful
man's life be comparatively a heaven on earth ; then, from his daily avocations con-
stantly returning, with the utmost relish, to his healthy and thriving children, would he
consider his home as his best and only asylum, and his industrious careful wife his most
deserving friend and companion. Then would he partake of enjoyment in his repasts
unknown to the most luxurious epicure ; and only procurable by the constant toil allotted
him as his indispensable portion in life." (Bath Society's Papers, vol. xii. p. 372.)
We have quoted the above, in the anxious hope that some of our readers will convey
Mr. Tugwell's useful instructions to their poor neighbours, who do not know how to
make the most of what they already possess. Half the enjoyments of the poor are lost
for want of a little knowledge of cookery, which, indeed, ought to be taught them at school,
with other female works, agreeably to the German practice.
Design VII. — A Cottage for a Farm Labourer with several Children; or a Bothy (o
Boothie, or little Booth) for three unmarried Ploughmen.
1357. Accommodation. There is a cellar floor for storing roots and fuel, and for
keeping milk, beer, or other liquors. The ground floor, fig. 1225, contains an entrance
porch, a ; living-room, b, sixteen feet by twelve feet, with fireplace, oven, and boiler, as
in fig. 1218; a pantry, c ; staircase to cellars and bed-room, d; privy, e; place for
ashes,/; another for fuel, g ; and another for refuse not convertible either into fuel or
manure, h. Fig. 1226 is the bed-room floor, in which are shown, a bed-room, nine feet
by twelve feet, with a fireplace, h; and two others without fireplaces, k k. Fig. 1227
shows the elevation.
1358. The Construction of this Design is the same, in all respects, as the last; the
difference being confined to length: the breadth and height, and consequently the
thickness of the walls, and the details of the roof, are the same as before.
1359. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 8,017 feet; which, at 3d. per foot, is
i.100 : 4s. 3d. ; at 2d., £66 : 1 6s. 2d; and at Urf., £50 : 2s. : JV-
DWELLINGS FOIt FARM SERVANTS.
1226
6kJ
1360. Remarks. This may be considered as, on the whole, a very comfortable cottage ;
more especially if the cellar floor is fitted up with all the conveniences of which it is
susceptible. If the ploughman has a cow, which, in Scotland and in the north of Eng-
land, is almost always the case, there may be a proper dairy ; or, in the south of England,
where the great dependence of the occupant of such cottages is upon a pig, there may
be a proper salting-place.
Design VIII. — The improved Farm Labourers Cottage of France, as given by Morel-
Vinde.
1361. The habitations of the country labourers, Morel- Vinde observes, being of more
frequent occurrence than any other, are, on that account, the most important of all ; and,
notwithstanding the great improvements which this enlightened and benevolent pro-
prietor has made on the other buildings requisite for a farm, those which he has intro-
duced in the cottage of the ploughman he considers the best. In speaking of these, the
principles on which Morel- Vinde has constructed his labourers' cottages are thus given.
His first condition is, care of the occupant's health, which requires the sleeping-room to
be raised above the level of the surrounding soil, with a circulation of air underneath.
To fulfil this condition, he raises the floor of his house three feet above the surface, form-
ing a dry cellar under the sleeping-room, which serves as a bakehouse. His second
condition is, sufficient space; for which he has given two rooms, one for cooking and
living in, and the other for sleeping in. His third condition is heat ; for which, in addition
to the common kitchen fireplace, and the oven underneath, he has given a stove in the
centre of the building. His fourth condition is, economy of fuel ; for which he has given
a shed for containing it when collected. His fifth is, decency and economy of manure ;
for which he has given a privy of a particular description. His sixth requisite comprises
the cottager's sources of living, in addition to the common wages of labour ; for which he
gives a cow-house, a place for poultry, another for a pig, another for rabbits, another for
04 1- COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
pigeons, and a garden of a quarter of an acre. All these conveniences of the house he
has contrived to get within a space of 640 superficial feet, as shown in the details given
in figs. 1228 to 1235.
1362. Details. In fig. 1228 arc seen the ascending steps, a, to the livmg-room, b ; the
1228
%».% wm
I
a
n | :
! :
sleeping-room, c, with its small iron stove, d, and its two beds, the larger for the master
and mistress, and the smaller one for the youngest child. The grown-up children are
supposed to sleep in the beds, e e, in the living-room. The two rabbit places are shown
at ff; the wood-shed at g, the pigsty at h, the poultry-house at i, the privy at k, the
cow-house at I, the dairy at m, and the stair down to the cellar at n. It should be
remarked, with respect to the poultry place, that it is of the greatest importance to the
occupant to keep it warm ; and that it might even be worth while (with a view to this
end) to have a communication between this and the kitchen, or the oven. Were this
done, Morel- Vinde says, the occupant might have hens to lay in the middle of winter -,
and might rear broods of chickens for sale early in the spring, when they fetch a very
high price. Without artificial heat, he says, fowls are no great benefit to a farm
labourer, who must necessarily purchase at least a part of their food ; but with it they
may prove a source of considerable profit, according to the skill of the mistress, and the
distance of the market. Fig. 1229 is a plan of the foundations, in which o is the stair
down to the bakehouse ; p, the bakehouse, and q, the oven. Fig. 1230 is a plan of the
garret-floor, which forms the ceiling of the two rooms. F'ig. 1231 is a front elevation.
Fig. 1232 is an end elevation. Fig. 1233 is across section. F'ig. 1234 is a longi-
tudinal section, in which arc seen the oven, r\ the kitchen fireplace, s ; the sleeping-
room stove, with its funnel, t ; the garret, entered by a ladder to a door seen in the front
elevation, n ; the level of the wood .shed, and pigsty, », and cow-house, u. Fig. 1235 is
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS.
645
a perspective view, with some improvement made in the chimney-tops, with a slight
porch, and with three panes of glass, shown in the garret-door.
1363. General Estimate. The 1230
actual cost of this habitation, with
its dependencies, in the neighbourhood
of Paris, is ,£'160; and the average
for the departments, £96. As the
cubic contents of the building are
12,852 feet, this gives 2\d. per foot
as the price for estimating buildings
of this description in the neighbour-
hood of Paris; and \\d. per foot for
the provinces.
1364. Remarks. We cannot suf-
ficiently express our approbation of
the generous feelings which induced
the author of this Design to bestow
so much attention on all its various
details. He may be truly said to have done more for the habitation of the farm
labourer than all the other French and British Architects put together. Indeed, it has
never formed any part of the business of Architects of eminence, either in Frame oi
Britain, to study the improvement of the habitations of the poor ; for these obvious
1232
JII
1
If
□
FT
^
□
1!
"H
1233
646 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1234
reasons, that the poor cannot pay them, and that the rich, unlike the benevolent Morel-
Yinde, care little how the poor on their estates are lodged. In proof of this, we may
refer to the great majority of the cottages of farm labourers in France (which Morel-
Vinde informs us are miserable ruins, not only insufficient to keep out the weather, but
incommodious and unhealthy), and to the miserable dwellings of the farm servants in the
best cultivated districts of Scotland and in Northumberland.
Design IX. — A double Cottage for Farm Labourers, with places between the Two
Dwellings for hatching and fattening Poultry early in the Season.
1365. The Object of this Design is, to show the application of the advice which we have
already given, that the wives of cottagers in the country should be encouraged to prepare
some article for the public market, as supplementary to the wages of their husband's daily
labour, and to supply a motive for exertion, as well as to afford a source of income and a
feeling of property, independent of manual labour. Independent cottagers may have
recourse to garden produce, useful and ornamental, or the smaller kinds of manufactures,
such as lace, strawwork, toys, &c. ; but the objects for the farm labourer to attend to, we
think, are decidedly poultry, sucking pigs, and rabbits. There is no cottage whatever
that may not have a suitable place for these purposes formed in it, or added to it, at
very little expense.
1366. Accommodation. Each of these cottages contains a porch, a, fig. 12f?6, 'villi a
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS.
647
!>.**... _o.it for tools or fuel, b ; a living-room, r, with a press, d, and stair to the bed-rooms,
e. There is a back-kitchen, /, with a boiler ; and, beside it, there may be either an open
fireplace or an oven, according to the given locality : there is also a pantry, g. The
yard behind, h, contains a place for fuel, roofed in, i ; a place for a water-barrel or a pump,
k ; a privy, I; pigsty, m; a place for ashes, n ; and for inconvertible refuse, o. Behind the
living-room fire, and reaching from the front door, p, to a door into the back-kitchen, r,
is a space, three feet wide, separated from the living-room by a four-inch wall, for
hatching, rearing, and fattening poultry. The nests are shown on one side of a passage,
twenty inches wide ; and there is a partition and door at s, between the hatching and
rearing places, t and q. The bed-room plan, fig. 1237, contains three bed-rooms, u. v,
and w ; a light closet, or child's bed-room, over the poultry place, x ; a press, y ; and a
1237
04«8 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
landing from die staircase, z. The liquid manure tank from the privy and pigsty is at
if, in fig. 1236.
1367. Construction. The walls are shown as if built of brick, and they are supposed
to he hollow, as in Design I. § 25. In this case the partition between the living-room, c,
and the poultry place is supposed to be of four-inch work, or brick in bed ; but if this
cottage should be built in a stone country, as the walls will then necessarily be eighteen
inches or two feet thick, according to the kind of stones made use of, and as they will
be not less thick if built of mud or compressed earth, the partitions in both cases should
be of studwork, filled in with brick or clay nogging ; the back of the fireplace being
formed of a cast-iron plate, through which abundance of heat will pass to the poultry
place. If, in the summer time, this heat should be too great, it can be moderated by
building, in a temporary manner, stones, brick, turf, or mud, against the back of the cast-
iron plate. The outside door of the poultry place being supposed to face the south-east,
as indicated in the plan, it would be a saving of heat if the upper part of it were formed
of glass, to admit the rays of the sun in spring, with a shutter for putting on at night
1368. Remarks. The plan of this double cottage is commodious. We took the first
idea of its arrangement from a plan published in the benevolent Mr. Marriage's Letters
on the Distressed State of the Agricultural Labourers ; but we have added the poultry
places, the yard behind and its offices, and altered the situation of the staircase. We
have given an elevation in the Italian style, fig. 1241, simply because it would have taught
nothing to the young Architect to give a commonplace one. In this elevation, the flat tile,
fig. 1238, which is a recent improvement by Mr. Peake, on his flat tile, fig. 24, a, § 50,
is supposed to be employed ; the joints being covered with semicylindrical tiles, like b,
fig. 24, and the tile at the eaves either terminating in a plain end, as in fig. 1239, a;
in an ornamented end, like c ; or in a still more ornamented one, as b. In conse-
1238
b 1239
quence of the raised bead, or water stop, across the upper part of the tile, fig. 1238.
roofs to be covered with these tiles need not have a greater slope than an angle of fifteen
degrees ; an immense saving of
timber and other materials, as well
as a source of great classical beauty.
The tiles, being formed of terro-
metallic earth, have somewhat of
the colour of cast iron : they are
almost equally hard ; and must,
from their nature, be incomparably
more durable. In short, we con-
sider them as the best of all cover-
ings for roofs, whether of small
or large buildings, provided the
timbers be sufficiently strong to
sustain them. On the terrace
we have shown vases, which we
propose to be of a kind recently
manufactured by Mr. Peake in one
piece, fig. 1 240, two feet high and
eighteen inches wide, of great
beauty, and remarkably cheap,
being formed of the same material
as the tiles. There are suitable ridge-tiles, gutter-tiles, valley-tiles, and barge and
summer-stone tiles, all manufactured by Mr. Peake in the same superior style, at the
same pottery. As the terro-imtallic earth is of the greatest durability, Mr. Peake is of
DWELLINGS FOR FARM SERVANTS.
()i9
opinion, that flat tiles made with grooves in their edges, such as are shown in tiie section
fig. 1242, for the purpose of admitting a tongue or seam of putty, would completely
keep out the rain ; while they would, by rendering the bridge or semicylindrical
tile which covers the joint unnecessary, form a lighter roof, and require less strong
timbers. It must be confessed, however, that such a roof would not be so beautiful as
the other, because it would not recall to the imagination Italian, Moorish, or classical
forms. While recommending classical tiles, and other ornamental objects for labourers'
cottages, it will never, we trust, for a moment be supposed that we consider such appen-
dages as at all essential to them, or mean to put them, in the slightest degree, in compe-
tition with arrangements for insuring commodiousness,warrnth, convenience, orcleanliness.
Nevertheless, we are not without an object in introducing exterior ornaments, and even in
being profuse in their introduction. That object is, to tempt the higher classes to erect
comfortable cottages, for the sake of their ornamental effect. Now, though, in our opinion,
a plain cottage, with every comfort belonging to such a dwelling, is perfectly beautiful in
itself, without the aid of exterior ornament; yet this is by no means the case with those
who judge only by the outward appearance, who, probably, never entered a cottage in their
lives, who have little sympathy with its occupants; and who, therefore, are unfit to
appreciate the beauty of fitness. Classical and picturesque ornaments are within the range
of what is allowed to be beautiful by such persons, and they like to display such evidences
of their taste for beauty on their estates, without caring for, or without having at all
taken into consideration, the interiors of the buildings they thus decorate. What has led
to the small degree of improvement that has been made in the lodges, gardener's and
bailiff's houses, and the houses of other servants, on gentlemen's estates? The comfort
of the occupants? By no means: it is simply the desire of producing objects that will
be ornamental in the landscape ; and the convenience of the interior is seldom, if ever,
thought of, even by the Architect. To be convinced of this, it is only necessary to enter
the houses alluded to, or to examine the works on the subject, published by professed
Architects. We admit that there are honourable exceptions, but they are very few. The
Highland Society of Scotland lately offered a premium for the best design for a labourer's
cottage ; and, though there were a number of competitors, we are informed by a corre-
spondent, that the designs were so indifferent, that none of them were considered worthy
of the premium: " none contained any thing beyond the usual routine; not one showed
a floor above the level of the soil they stood on ; most of them had their chimneys in the
external walls ; and scarcely any attention had been paid in any of them to certain
appendages, on which the comfort and cleanliness of every family must, in a great
measure, depend." " How can we find fault," our correspondent asks, " with the Scottish
peasantry for not being neat and cleanly in their habits, if those who build their
dwellings do not encourage their amendment by furnishing facilities for it?"
4 i>
050 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Sect. VI. Of the Exterior and Interior Finishing, and the Fittings-tip and Furniture, of
Farm Houses and Farmeries.
1369. The Exterior and Interior Finishing of the dwellings of farmers differ little from
those of other houses ; and, as we have already entered at some length into the subject,
when treating of cottages, our observations in this section will necessarily be few. The
finishing of farmeries differs considerably from that of dwellings, though, being neces-
sarily of a very inferior description, it will not require a lengthened discussion. Nearly
the same observations will apply to the fittings-up of both classes of buildings.
1370. The Furnishing of Farm Houses includes some articles peculiar to the kitchen
court ; and that of the farmeries comprehends a variety of machines, implements, instru-
ments, and utensils ; but most of these are so much more intimately connected with
agriculture than Architecture, that we intend only to notice them in so far as they
influence the form, size, or disposition of the building or apartment in which they are
to be contained. We consider it essentially necessary to do this, on the principle
already repeatedly laid down ; viz., that to design a building, or any part of it, in the
fittest manner to answer the end in view, it is necessary to know what that end is. At
the same time, we shall be careful, in this work, not to repeat any tiling that has already
appeared in our Encyclopeedia of Agriculture. We shall include the finishing, fittings-up,
and furniture of the farm house and kitchen court in the same subsection ; and we shall
devote another subsection to the finishing, fittings-up, and furniture of the farmery.
Slibsect. 1. Of the Finishing, Fittings-rip, and Furniture of the Farm House, and the
Offices of the Kitchen Court.
1371. Generally the Finishingand Furniture of the Living- Rooms of Farm Houses ought
to be substantial, and rather plain than highly ornamented : because the occupation of
the farmer is less delicate and refined than that of the followers of most other trades
and professions ; by whom a highly finished and elegantly furnished house would be less
likely to be soiled or injured, than by the thick and earth-stained shoes of the working
farmer. Be it observed, however, that the mind of the farmer, and also his manners,
may be as high in the scale as those of the others ; and, of course, the wealthy farmer may
have his drawing-room as highly finished, and richly furnished, as the independent land-
owner.
1372. Recesses for Cupboards, Closets, and Pantries ought to be more numerous in
farm houses than in dwelling-houses near towns or villages ; because the farm must
generally be considered as situated at some distance from either, and consequently a
greater quantity of groceries, and other stores purchased in shops, will be required to be
kept in the house. The fittings-up of these recesses, &c, must be regulated by the
uses to which they are to be applied. In general, open shelves are much better than
drawers, as being easier got at, and cleaned ; exposing more readily their contents, so as
to save time in looking out for articles ; and ventilating them better. Shelves, for dresses
or numerous small articles, may be formed like trays, to draw out ; those for the finer
articles of dress should have close fronts like drawers, or drawers in this case may be
substituted for trays. The backs of recesses in outside walls should always be lined
with boards kept an inch at least from the wall, with an opening the whole breadth of
the recess at bottom, and another of the same size at top, to admit of free ventilation.
1373. A very suitable Parlour Fireplace for farm houses has been sent us by a phi-
losophic domestic economist of Edinburgh, which he adopted some years ago in his
own house, except in
the large public rooms.
It is nearly allied to our
figs. 533 and 535, in
§ 599 and § 600 ; and has
answered so well, that the
pattern has been adopted
in the Edinburgh foun-
deries, and is made there
for general use. The
general appearance is as at
fig. 1243; in which a is
a cast-iron plate, either
as it comes from the
mould, or ground and
inlaid, according as it is
intended for a principal or
secondary chamber; bb b
1243
INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARM HOUSES.
651
1244
are three large fire-bricks, or Welsh lumps, which reach up to the horizontal line at c.
The fire-grate may be lifted out to be cleaned ; and, as all the patterns of the grates are
alike, a single spare one is sufficient to avoid the necessity of cleaning them within the
rooms. The peculiarities of this grate areas follows: — First, the bars of the grate are
principally vertical ; both these bars and the horizontal ones present their angles, and
not their sides, to the front; consequently, there is no surface on which ashes can rest,
and the appearance of the grate is always clean and neat : secondly, the whole fabric is
very firm, and easily set up. The three fire-bricks or lumps, b b b, are first set up, and
filled in solid behind as high as the dotted line in fig. 124:3. The front plate, a, is then
put in its place, having two roughly forged pieces of
iron, d, attached to it by the screwed knobs, c c ; the
building is then carried on till the pieces of iron, d, are
embedded in the brickwork, which is allowed to set ;
after which, by unscrewing the knobs, c c, the plate
a is again removed, and free access obtained to finish
the building. This is rendered more obvious by
the section across the fireplace, fig. 1244, in which
the same parts are designated by the same letters as
in fig. 1243. These fireplaces, in their simplest form,
are very cheap, and yet they are very handsome ; but
with some additional expense they may be made
suitable to the most highly finished apartments.
They are economical, both from the small quantity
of fuel required to warm the apartments, and from
the unusually small portion of dust which they throw
out into the rooms, or on the furniture. A grate,
eighteen inches wide in front, nine inches high, ten
inches from front to back, and one foot wide at the
back, fig. 1245, burning good splint or Newcastle coal, is sufficient to keep a room
V\Y,-V- \\' ■ ■,,; sr
652 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VI LI. A ARCHITECTURE.
containing 6000 cubic feet of air at a comfortable temperature, dining the most
Severe weather Of an Edinburgh winter. The same excellent correspondent observes,
that a convenient improvement in register grates with polished bars is, to have the
fronts of the grates made to lift off, so as to allow them to be taken out of the room
to be cleaned. When several grates of the same pattern are in the same house, a
spare front may be hooked on, when the blackened one is taken away ; and this, in its
turn, when polished, may be used as a spare one in another room. As much of the
light dust which lodges upon furniture arises from the stirring of the fire, this may be in
a great measure prevented, in register grates, by having a horizontal slit, or row of holes
made through the back plate, just under the grate bottom : as a current of air will always
be flowinc by such openings into the space between the back plate and the wall, the
light dust which is separated by stirring the fire will be carried in by tins current, insteag
of partly eddying out into the room.
1 374. The Furniture for the Living and Sleeping Rooms of a Farm House have nothind
in them which is peculiar ; and therefore we refer our readers to what we have said
respecting the furniture of cottages, for farm houses of the smaller size; and to what we
shall say of the furniture of villas, for those of a larger description. As all educated
persons living in the country must necessarily derive a considerable portion of their
enjoyment from books, the parlour of the farmer ought always to be provided either with
a large bookcase, or, for economy's sake,
with one or more recesses in an interior 1-46
wall or partition, fitted up with book-
shelves. In either case, where glass, or
glazed bookcase doors are considered too
expensive, we would recommend a blind
of canvass working in two grooves, as
an equally efficacious protection for the
books. This is the invention of a very
ingenious architect, Charles Vokins,
Esq., who has adopted it in his office
bookcase. In the styles or sides of the
frame of the shelves, fig. 1 246, a a are the
grooves, and bb the laths to which the
canvass is attached, which work in them.
The blind thus formed being pulled down
by the knob c, and pulled up by the cord
d, the last operating on a spring roller,
enclosed in a tin case fixed in the top of
the bookcase ; e is the scutcheon of a
lock in the lath, for locking up the whole
or any number of shelves. The book-
shelves, where economy is the main
object, may be fixed ; but where they
are movable, and supported by pins, we
would recommend another improvement,
invented also by Mr. Vokins. This is,
having the pins of metal broad and flat,
so as to fit into grooves in the under sides
of the shelves ; by which means two more '"•,,', ", , , fi.
books are got upon each shelf than it
would otherwise hold, without raising it the thickness of the pin above the height of the
books, which would thus lose a space of an inch or more the whole length of the
shelves. Two flush brass bolts in each shelf would effect the same object, but in a
more expensive manner.
1375. Saul's Bookcase and Writing-desk Clock forms a curious and useful piece of
furniture for the farm-house parlour. This clock, fig. 1247, Mr. Saul observes, " differs
from any I have seen ; and may, at first sight, appear expensive : but this is by no means
the case ; for there are few mouldings about it, beads looking equally well, and being
much cheaper. Long before I made this piece of furniture, I always considered the
common clockcases defective, from the room taken up by tliem, when compared with the
very small space occupied by the works of the clock ; and I therefore endeavoured to
make every part of use. In describing this clock, I may commence with the face. As
my name has twelve letters in it, I have placed them on the clock face, instead of the
figures which denote the hours ; the figures in the inner rim represent the hours also ;
but those on the outer rim are on an entirely new plan. Those tp^he left of six o'clock,
and twelve o'clock, representing how many minutes it is to such an hour, and those to
INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARM HOUSES.
655
the right representing how many minutes it is past such an hour. This arrangement
will be more easily understood by looking at the face of the clock in the drawing, than by
any description. I think it particularly useful for farm servants, and such sort of people,
in the country; many of whom I have known, who could not tell the minutes otherwise
than by guess. At the angles of the face I have the four seasons painted, and on each
side I have an urn lined with lead, in which I can put water for keeping cut flowers. The
upper part, a, of this urn, takes off, to admit of changing the water and arranging the
nowers. Under the head of the clock I have shelves fixed for books, as the pendulum
1248
6.54 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
and weights only occupv a space of seven inches square., which I have enclosed as a
trunk or case, so that, the books can be removed without ever interfering with the
working of the clock. Being an eight-day clock, it only requires the lines of the weights
to be two feet ten inches long ; so that I have the whole of the lower part of the stand
for drawers or whatever I choose. This lower part I have fitted up with a writing-
desk in a drawer, with a slider b, for writing upon, which moves from c to d, and from
which you have received many a letter. Under this writing-drawer I have two doors.
which enclose three sliders or trays, like fig. 1248, which I use for keeping paper in.
When I am writing, I keep the doors open, as I find this more
convenient for drawing out the sliders, and referring to the
papers they contain.'1 This piece of furniture, which we have
taken the liberty of calling Saul's Bookcase and Writing-desk
Clock, and for which, Mr. Saul being a cabinet-maker and
joiner, we could wish he had 10,000 orders, is seven feet high, in
three divisions. The lower division is two feet four inches high,
by three feet wide, and two feet deep from front to back ; the middle or bookcase division,
is two feet ten inches high by two feet wide, and the top is twenty-two inches high by
twenty inches wide. The diameter of the large turned baluster is three inches in the
widest part ; and that of the small balusters is two inches in the widest part. The
shelves are sufficient for containing a select agricultural library, and the writing-desk
below, with slides for papers, must be amply sufficient for the correspondence and accounts
of any ordinary farmer.
1376. The Introduction of Iron into the Furniture of Farm Houses would be attended
with considerable economy, at least in the article of dining-tables, sideboards, bedsteads,
and hall, lobby, or porch chairs. The sideboards may be
formed of slabs of native marble in some districts, and slate
in others, supported by enriched cast-iron feet, fig. 1249, or
by brackets of various kinds, fig. 1250. Sideboards of this
kind have a massive architectural effect, very suitable for all
houses whatever, and especially for houses in the country, where
room is not an object. For our own part, we should even
prefer slabs of finely polished stone, as sideboards, to wood of
any kind ; but cast iron may be substituted ; and, where neither
metal nor stone is approved of, wood of some kind is always
to be obtained, and may be worked and polished at pleasure.
Fig. 1251 is a circular table, the top of which may be made of
mahogany, or any other finely grained wood, and the supports
of cast iron bronzed. The idea of having iron bedsteads will, we have no doubt, shock
those who have been always accustomed to consider mahogany as essential for this piece
1249
1250
of furniture : but we can assure them that they are to be found in the houses of people
of wealth and fashion in London ; sometimes even for best beds.
1377. The Kitchen of the Farm House requires a good kitchen range or grate, which
should always be accompanied by a boiler on one side, to afford a constant supply of hot
water ; and an oven on the other, for baking, or keeping things hot. Both should be
heated by the same fire. There are numerous cast-iron kitchen grates with a boiler on
one side and at the back, and an oven on the other side; and we have already (§ 592)
figured and described what we consider one of the simplest and best. For a farm house
it should generally be on a larger scale than for a cottage; and the most abundant choice
may be obtained at the shops of the ironmongers in every part of Britain. In
Derbyshire there are square cast-iron boxes, with iron or stone lids built in, at the sides
of the kitchen fireplaces of farmeries ; and Mr. Farey, in his elaborate, accurate, and
most philosophical report of the county, informs us that they have been found great
sources of usefulness and comfort, in supplying abundance of hot water at all times.
INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARM HOUSES.
(15;
the kitchen fireplaces are fitted up in a very
In Northumberland and Berwickshire
economical manner, so as
to supersede, in many
cases, the necessity of hav-
ing a back-kitchen ; a
plan, however, not favour-
able to cleanliness, essen-
tial requisites for which
are space and separation.
The jambs or sides of the
fuel-chamber are built of
a kind of stone which
resists fire, or of fire-
brick. One cast-iron grat-
ing, fig. 1252, is built in
as a bottom, and another
grating, fig. 1253, is let
into the stone at both ends
as a front. On one side in
the masonry is built in a
cylindrical cast-iron oven,
seen in fig. 1254 ; and in
the other is built an open boiler, generally, also, of cast iron, with a wooden cover, and
separated from the fuel-chamber by an upright plate of stone or iron, coved behind, and
1252
1253
arched over at top, as shown in the figure. Beneath the oven, and beneath and around
the boiler or pot, as it is called in those counties, flues are formed opening from the fuel-
chamber, as shown in the section, fig. 1255, in which o is the opening or commence-
1254
—
;nent of the flue of the oven ; b, the front grate ; c, the bottom grate ; and d, the throat
of the chimney. This forms the cheapest description of efficient kitchen range that we
know of for a farm house ; and, for a country where the fuel is coal, and abundant, it
answers every purpose. A somewhat better kitchen range is formed by employing what
is called a standard grate, fig. 1256, the upper bar of which lets down at pleasure by
lifting up the catch, e, in fig. 1257. In this section, /is the bottom grate let into the
stone at g ; k, the flue of the oven or boiler ; and i, the tie bar of the standard grate, which,
being let into the stone at k, keeps it from falling forward. There are cast-iron kitchen
grates suitable for farm houses, manufactured in large quantities at the Shotts iron-
656 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1256
mBmmmmm
1258
works, at Whitburn, near Glasgow, and sold there at various prices, from 30s. to 90s. by
retail. Where timber is the principal fuel, there is no stove better adapted for throwing
out heat than the American stove, fig. 1258 ; but it is not so well adapted for cooking
as the British cast-iron ranges. It
might, however, be much improved
in this respect, by having the project-
ing shelf or cap, a, hinged, so as to lift
up ; and by having a hook fixed in its
underside, from which a pot might be
suspended. Where stoves of this kind
are used, the oven and boiler are
necessarily built apart from the open
fire, and heated separately ; thougli it
would be an easy matter to connect
with this stove both an oven for
baking, and a square cistern for heat-
ing water, either for the purposes of
cookery, or cleaning, or for circulation
to heat some other apartment, or to
hatch eggs, or keep warm a poultry
place. Great benefits have been ex-
perienced from the introduction of
the American stove into some farm
houses in Kent ; where, from the large
open chimneys, it was before their
introduction found impossible to keep
the kitchen, which is there generally
the farmer's living-room, comfortably warm. Such kitchens were only rendered
habitable by elderly people, in consequence of the use of the large chair or settle, § 636,
fig. 636. When anthracite or blind coal is the principal fuel, Hinton's American
cooking-stove, figured and described in the Mechanics' Magazine, vol. xiv. p. 273., may
be employed. In all cases where wood is the principal fuel, we believe it will be found
decidedly the most economical method to heat the air of the kitchen, as well as the
living-rooms, by stoves, as in Germany ; by benches of flues, as in China; or, better still,
by underground flues, or steam-pipes under the floor, to heat a mass of masonry, as we
have before proposed ; and to make the fires used in cookery on raised hearths.
1378. The Back-Kitchen or Scullery of the farm house should always be fitted up
with a large sink for dirty water, with a trap and drain communicating with the liquid
manure tank ; and in many cases it may be found worth while to have a second sink
communicating with the tank for pig's food. There are excellent sinks formed of cast
iron ; sometimes also they are formed of wood, and covered with lead ; but most generally
tiny are hewn out of stone ; and this kind, as the most durable and the simplest, we think
the best adapted for farm houses. Cast-iron sinks are, however, very much used; and
some excellent forms have been sent us by Mr. Mallet, who has made great numbers of
them. We shall here give fig. 1259, which may serve as a pattern either lor a stone or
INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARM HOUSES.
057
125 9
iron sink, or one of wood covered with lead.
The sloping plate, a, which ought to be grooved,
is found particularly useful for draining the
water from vegetables, fish, &c, and should
never be omitted in any kitchen sink.
1379. Among the Furniture of the Store-room
of a farm house, there ought to be proper
weighing and measuring machines, for proving
the weight or measure of articles purchased.
One of the most ingenious and generally appli-
cable weighing-machines is the farm and family
steelyard, invented by Mr. Ruthven of Edin-
burgh. It may be made to any size, so as to
weigh either a pound or a ton ; and only one
weight is necessary, its power being increased or
diminished by the weight used being moved
along a lever. (See Encyc of Agr., 2d edit.
§ 2570, fig. 280.) Fig. 1260 is a weighing-
machine, for either grocery goods, bread,
butcher's meat, or any similar articles, which,
though it is not so extensively useful as the other, yet is more simple ; and, occasioning
very little trouble, and not
being liable to go out of
repair, is well adapted for
general use. The dial weigh-
ing-machine, also, occasions
very little trouble ; but, as
its accuracy depends on the
elasticity of the iron spring
continuing always the same,
it cannot, we think, be so
durable an instrument as
either of the two above
mentioned.
1380. The Fittings-up and
Furnishing of the Dairy have
been noticed § 729. The
dairy furniture consists of the churn, of which there is a great variety of kinds ; but
the cheapest and best, on a very small scale, is the box-churn {Encyc- of Agr., 2d edit,
fig. 1214), already recommended for cottages. For a dairy on a large scale, there are
several excellent sorts figured in the same work, which may either be impelled by manual
labour or by machinery. There is a model of one, worked by a windmill, in the
museum of the Highland Society of Scotland ; and there is also a model, in the same
museum, of a double churn, to be worked by manual power applied to a pendulum,
the invention of Mr. Vallance of Libberton, Lanarkshire, an engineer ever fertile in ex-
pedients, and the author of many valuable inventions. Of cheese-presses there are many
excellent ones ; there is one of cast-iron manufactured at the Shotts ironworks, in which
the pressure is produced by a combination of a wheel and pinion with a lever and
weight, and the cost of which is only 65s. This press, fig. 1261, is used in the dairy of
Mr. Ogilvie of Mere (see Design XXXVII. § 1153), who informs us that his dairy-
maid had a strong prejudice against it at first, but that before she had used it for three
months, she greatly preferred it to the old-fashioned box-press or stone press ; as she
could with this new press regulate the pressure to the greatest nicety, and with the
greatest ease, by means of the weight on the lever, which is capable of communicating
a pressure of from one ton and a half to two tons and a half. A swing frame for turn-
ing cheeses has lately been invented by Mr. Blurtan, and is described in vol. xlviii. of
the Transactions of the Society of Arts, p. 19 It may be described as a double shelf
which turns on pivots, by which means the cheeses are not only turned but placed on
new surfaces. There are various descriptions of milk-pans, of wood, earthenware, and
metal • but the cheapest and best, we believe, are those of cast iron, invented by Mr. John
Baird, manager of the Shott's ironworks. These pans or dishes cost from Is. 6d. to
8s. 6d. each, according to their sizes, which are from one quart to ten gallons. Their
shapes are either circular or oval ; the largest circle being twenty-one inches and a quarter
in diameter. This gives the maximum of width for dairy shelves ; but square pans, by
covering every part of the surface of the shelf, are the most economical. Milk-pans have
been formed of zinc, and these are said to throw up cream better than pans formed of
4 K
658 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
any other material. Zinc, however, is one of those metals which are most readily acted
on by acids ; and all the soluble
salts so formed are poisonous.
Zinc, therefore, is a dangerous
metal to introduce into a dairy.
A thermometer should be
placed in every dairy, and the
dairy-maid should be taught
to regulate the temperature
according to some fixed prin-
ciple. It has been found, by
experiments made at the in-
stance of the Highland Society
of Scotland, " that the most
proper temperature at which
to commence the operation of
churning butter is from 50°
to 55°, and that at no time in
the operation ought it to ex-
ceed 65° ; while, on the con-
trary, if at any time the
cream should be under 50° in
temperature, the labour will
be much increased, without
any proportionate advantage
being obtained ; and a temper-
ature of a higher rate than 65°
will be injurious to the qua-
lity as well as the quantity of
the butter." {Highland Soc.
Trans. )
1381. Among the Furniture
for the Wash-house we would
strongly recommend an im-
proved washing and wringing machine, fig. 1262, as calculated to save a great deal of
INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARM HOUSES.
659
severe labour. In this machine, a is the box containing the water and the clothes to
be washed by the movement backwards and forwards of the washer, b ; c c c are three
rollers, two of which are covered with flannel, and between the largest of which the
clothes to be wrung are passed, and the water pressed out of them, the pressure being
increased or diminished by changing the position of the weights, d, on the levers, e- The
other parts of the machine require no further description in a work merely intended to
recommend it to general adoption, as one of the very best washing-machines that have
ever been invented ; being, we believe, the only one that has a really efficient wringing-
machine. In the case of all large farm establishments, we would recommend the wash-
house and laundry to be detached from the house ; and to contain, besides the washing-
machine mentioned, a mangle and drying-closet, the use of all which should be allowed,
for one or two days in every week, to the families of the different workmen employed on
the farm. There is a number of different mangles ; but we are informed by a ma-
nufacturer of several kinds, on whose judgment we can place the utmost reliance, that
none have yet appeared preferable to the common mangle, with the improved reversing
movement, known as Baker's Patent, fig. 1263, by which the mangle may be moved
backwards and forwards while the handle is turned continually one way, instead of the
operator being required every minute to reverse the motion of his arm. This is effected
by a wheel, a, having teeth in the form of pegs on the side, into which works a pinion,
V2GC,
fixed on the end of a spindle, which rises and falls in a vertical groove, c, and works
first on the under side, and then turns round in a channel at d, and works on the
upper side. The opposite end of the spindle has a
pinion, e, which is operated upon by a small wheel,
which is turned by the handle, f. Where space
is wanting, there are short mangles, which operate
entirely by the pressure of leverage ; such as Saul's
Reform Mangle, and the Edinburgh Reform Mangle,
and a number of others. We shall describe a very
economical mangle, given in the Mechanics' Ma-
gazine, vol. xi. p. 104, and Saul's Reform Mangle.
Fig. 1264 is an end view of a cheap family mangle,
which is one foot four inches high, eight inches
broad, and the rollers are two feet two inches
long; a is a screw fixed to a piece of wood in
which the upper roller works, for the purpose of
raising it so as to put the linen between the two rollers ;
b, c are the pieces of wood in which the rollers work,
fitted into grooves, in the upright standards, d, e;
660 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
f f are two strong iron screws to screw on the top, g, in which the larger screw, a,
works: A is the handle fitted on the lowest rollers. The rollers are one foot eleven
inches in length, and four inches in diameter. The uprights are one inch and
a half square. When the linen is to be put on, the upper roller is raised up by
turning the screw. Saul's Reform Mangle is stated by its inventor " to differ from any
other mangle ever yet made public. Fig. 1265 is a perspective view of it as at work.
Its total length, when the flaps at each end are raised up, as in the figure, is six feet, and
when they are let down, it is two feet two inches square, and about two feet six inches
high ; so that the whole space which it occupies is little more than eight cubic feet.
Although this mangle stands in and occupies so little space, yet it works in the same
length as the common mangles, by means of an endless cloth fixed so that it passes
round two small rollers, a a, at the extreme ends of the mangle, and under the bottom
roller, b, as indicated by the endless dotted line c. The linen is placed on the endless
cloth at d, and then, by turning the handle e, it is carried through over the roller b, and
under the roller /, till it reaches the roller a. It is then turned back, or, by placing
another mangling cloth upon the endless cloth, the linen to be mangled may be carried
entirely round. Thus far it is to be considered as only effecting the purpose of a com-
mon mangle ; but the iron roller, /; is hollow, and admits of a heater being placed in it;
and, when this is done, the machine becomes an ironer as well as a mangle. To give
pressure on the rollers, there is a box, g, on the two levers, h h, which box may be moved
backwards and forwards at pleasure. This box may be loaded with stones, by which,
and by altering its position on the levers, any degree of pressure may be given. The large
roller is four inches and a half in diameter, and the small ones two inches and a quarter."
We saw this mangle, when nearly completed, in July, 1831, and it appeared to us
likely to answer the end proposed. A common mangle, with Baker's improved move-
ment, costs, in London, from £S to £12. The cheap mangle may be got up for 205.,
and Saul's ironing mangle costs from £1 to £5.
1382. The Fittings-up and Furniture of the Breivhouse are generally known. We have
before hinted at the advantage of having the boiler so high that the wort can descend
from it to the coolers : these being still sufficiently high to admit of the liquor descending
in a similar manner to the vats or to the cellars. Domestic brewing utensils are so well
known, that we shall not enumerate them : we shall notice, however, one improvement,
which is that of keeping ale or beer to be drunk within the year in casks set on end, and
formed rather wider at top than at bottom, gradually tapering downwards, and not
bellied in the middle, as is generally the case ; by which means, as the liquor descends,
in consequence of being drawn off for use, the head or scum which has formed on its
surface still covers it entirely, and preserves it effectually from the air. This is by no
means the case with liquors kept in cylindrical casks placed on their sides ; or with
casks placed on end, which are not widest at top, and gradually tapering to the bottom.
A highly improved method of keeping beer, by Mr. Mallet, is described in the Mechanics'
Magazine, vol. v., and will be noticed under public-house furniture.
1383. The Fittings-up and Furniture of the Cider-house have been already (§ 1312)
given in sufficient detail. Where home-made wine is manufactured either from goose-
INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARM HOUSES.
661
berries or grapes, there is a very excellent machine, comprising a hopper, crushing rollers,
a trough, and press, sold by Weir and Co., Oxford Street, London, for the purpose of
bruising the fruit and expressing the juice. There is also a simple and economical, but
very effective, gooseberry crusher and press, figured and described in the Gardener's
Magazine, vol. viii. pp. 542. 544.
1384. The Furniture of a Clvanlng-house, or Knife and Shoe House, may either contain
a wheel for cleaning both knives and shoes, and "all movable parts of grates, such as
we shall hereafter recommend as particularly suitable for inns ; or, the very simple knife-
cleaner, fig. 1266, may be used. In this figure, a 6 are two boards twenty inches long,
1 2fi6
six inches broad, and one inch thick, joined together, but not quite close, by a hinge at
c ; d e are two pieces of buff or belt leather stretched over the interior surfaces, and nailed
on the exterior ones, andy is a handle, to assist in holding the apparatus steady. " In using
it, lay powdered Flanders brick, or any similar dust, on the lower leather, shut the
boards together, lay the left arm on the upper board holding the handle, put the knife,
well wiped from grease, between the leathers, and four or five rubs forwards and back-
wards, not sidewise, will produce a beautiful polish on both sides ; the shoulders and
back may be polished by rubbing on the part of the leather turned over." This knife-
board has been found to give great satisfaction. {Mech. Mag., vol. ii. p. 409.) No
machine for beating and brushing clothes has yet been invented ; but it would be easy
to make such additions to the knife and shoe cleaning machine, above mentioned,
as would not only beat and brush clothes, but beat carpets. Already a machine for
scouring floors has been patented in America ; and we sincerely desire that it may soon
come into use in this country, as well as the other machines mentioned ; for there are
few labours more unsuitable for women than scouring floors, cleaning grates, and
wringing clothes. The American scrubbing-brush is to be worked backwards and
forwards by a lever, operating in the manner of a pump-handle. A flat board, on which
the operator stands, is placed upon the floor on castors ; and from this rise two uprights,
to sustain the pin that is the fulcrum of the lever. To the lower end of this lever the
scrubbing-brush is attached. It would be easy to modify this machine in such a manner
as to render it fit for rubbing tables. (See Meek. Mag., vol. xv. p. 109.J
1385. For the Ashpit of the Kitchen-court a cinder-sifter is a very useful utensil.
For the small ashpits or dustholes belonging to houses about towns, there is a portable
box, in which is placed a sieve ; and, the ashes being put in, the lid put on, and the box
shaken, the dust passes through the sieve, and remains in the bottom of the box ; without
any dust having escaped to annoy the operator. But this machine is on too small a scale
for a farm-house, which would either require a portable one, of double or treble the usual
size, or a screen operating in a large box. When the intention is thoroughly understood,
such a machine may be easily contrived by the commonest country carpenter. The
object is not merely to sift the cinders, which never can be done more effectually than
by a common riddle or sieve ; but to sift them in such a manner as not to incommode
the sifter by the dust. For this purpose, all that is necessary is to make such an
arrangement, as that the riddle may be worked in a large box, by a rod passing through
the box, and attached to the riddle within ; the latter resting on two laths or rails, and
having sufficient room in the box to admit of its being worked backwards and forwards.
A friend of ours, and a valuable contributor, 3Ir. Laxton, has his dusthole enclosed on
all sides, with a door in front ; and through a hole in this door, the rod passes, which
works the riddle. The riddle is square, and rests on two laths, placed horizontally
about 3 feet from the ground ; and when the riddle is pushed as far back as it will go,
the handle projects beyond the door when the latter is shut, just as much as to enable
a person to take hold of it. In the morning, when the girl carries out the ashes, she
opens the dusthole door, and empties the cinders into the sieve, without changing its
position ; she then shuts the door, and, taking hold of the handle, draws it to her and
pushes it from her for ten or a dozen times, according to the quantity of ashes which
she has put into the riddle. She then leaves it, without opening the door, in order that
662 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
the dust may subside ; and, returning after breakfast, gives one single movement to the
handle of the riddle, merely to shake oft' the dust which may have settled on its rim.
She then takes out the riddle, and empties it into a cinder-box or scuttle for use.
Trifling as all this may appear to some, it is yet of great importance ; because, how can
a servant be expected to be cleanly in her person or her work, if the very first operation
which she has to perform in the morning covers her with dust ? We have shown above,
§ 1373, how the dirty and disagreeable operation of cleaning grates in a room may be
avoided, and we have now, we trust, pointed out a mode of sifting ashes, whether on a
large or small scale, so as to avoid the disagreeable consequences of covering the
operator with dust. We may add, also, that the operation is more likely to be well
performed by this contrivance, and fewer cinders lost among the ashes.
1386. The Finishing of the Surface or Floor of Kitchen-courts and their offices
should always be sloped, so as to lead all the water which falls on them to a trap over a
drain at one point. This will greatly facilitate the process of cleaning, whether with a
scrubbing-brush or broom : and it also promotes the rapidity of the drying process, by
natural evaporation, which must necessarily contribute materially to the purity of the air,
and the healthiness of all houses where there are a number of apartments or offices on
the ground floor.
Subsect. 2. Of the Finishing, Fixtures, Fittings-up, and Furniture of Farmeries.
1387. The External Finishing of Farm Buildings ought to be simple and durable.
All the woodwork exposed to the open air ought to be well covered with paint, of
which, the anti-corrosive kind before mentioned, § 546, is the best. When the roofs
are covered with tiles, painting them with tar during the hottest weather in summer adds
to their durability, as well as harmonises their colour with that of the surrounding ob-
jects. The walls, when not of a very durable material, may be roughcast, or white-
washed ; but the last should never be resorted to under the pretence of adding to
their beauty, by those whose standard for that quality rises higher than mere glare and
smartness. As it is extremely probable that steam will soon be very generally employed
for impelling threshing-machines ; and as nothing disfigures the country more than red
brick chimney-shafts, like those common in the manufacturing towns of Lancashire, we
would strongly recommend some attention to elegance of form in these very conspicuous
parts of a modern farmery. We have already referred to the chimney built by Mr. Capper,
at Birmingham, as a model of excellence in this respect; and a correspondent having
cited " Glasgow as a good example, both for the remarkable elegance of the shafts or
obelisks, and the happy terminations by which ornament is given, and yet so as to be
conducive to utility," we have applied to our architectural correspondent there, Mr. Reid,
for sketches of some of them ; and he has sent us a view of the three which happened to
be nearest to his residence. In this sketch, fig. 1267, a is 130 feet high, five feet
in diameter at the top, nine feet in diameter about ten feet from the ground, and
circular throughout; b is eighty feet high, square throughout, and four feet on the side
at the top ; c is 150 feet high, live feet six inches in diameter at the top, and ten feet in
diameter at the height of ten feet from the ground. Fig. 1268 is the chimney built by
Mr. Capper at the Union rolling-mills, near Baskerville House, Birmingham : it is 162 feet
high, the pedestal being thirty-one feet high ; the diameter at the top is four feet six inches,
of the plinth at the bottom of the circular shaft fourteen feet, and of the octagon dado
of the pedestal fourteen feet; it contains 200,000 bricks; and cost, in building, j£420.
Of the Glasgow steam-engine chimney shafts, Mr. Reid observes that till lately they
were made square in the plan, and built from scaffolding placed on the outside ; but
that now they are generally built circular, from the inside. All the scaffolding employed
is a continued central post, in the centre of the flue, from which cross pieces, at intervals
of a foot or eighteen inches, are fixed with their ends in the brickwork, to serve as a stair
by which the workmen, in building, may ascend and descend ; the materials being hauled
up outside with tackle. Formerly winding staircases were built outside these chimney-
shafts; but Mr. Reid says they have a bad effect, and, therefore, he has paid no atten-
tion to them in his sketch. Could a few such shafts as those of Mr. Capper be
introduced into the farmeries of Scotland and Northumberland, the effect in the land-
scape would be excellent. It is only necessary to imagine them, as the traveller moves
along the public road, rising into view one after another, on the prominences of the
plains, and on the cultivated sides of the hills, backed by the mountains, which appear in
the distance in every part of that beautiful and picturesque portion of Britain. Perhaps
the time may come, when, from almost every large farmer being the proprietor of the
land he occupies, there will be a competition among them as to who shall erect the hand-
somest shafts, similar to what there was in former ages among the Catholic clergy as to
the building of spires to their churches and monasteries. Like the spires and towers of
churches, the column and the obelisk are forms that, though without variety in them-
EXTERIOR FINISHING OF FARMERIES.
12G7
f>()3
selves, yet, when high, and elegantly proportioned, never tire in the general view, how-
ever often they may be repeated. We strongly recommend this subject to the attention
of Architects. The public have surely a right to expect that such conspicuous objects
as engine chimney-shafts are, in the country, should be built in what is considered good
taste, no less than spires of churches. Every farmery has one or more common chimney-
shafts ; and on the form of these, as well as on that of the chimneys of the farm house, of
the cottages, and of the boothy, much of the architectural and picturesque beauty of
every farmery will depend. It should never be forgotten, that the chimney-tops are the
first parts of dwelling-houses which strike the eye at a distance in most cases ; and that
our first impression, as to the architectural style of the edifice to which they belong, is
generally taken from them.
1388. The Internal Finishing of Farm Buildings, we have seen by the different spe-
cifications, is very simple. The stable, the barn, and the granary, are almost the only
buildings which are generally plastered within, and none but the better description
of riding-horse stables have a plaster ceiling. In general, the internal surface of the
walls ought to be built as fair and smooth as possible ; by which means, more especially if
the materials of the walls be brick or freestone, no plastering of the walls can be wanted
in any part of the farmery. In almost every part of the farmery, it is desirable to
have the ceiling open, and the timbers of the roof freely exposed to the air. To promote
this end, openings ought to be left all along the side walls, immediately under the eaves,
except in situations where these openings would admit too much of the exterior air in
winter for the health of the animals lodged within. It may be laid down as a general
principle, that the durability of the timbers in the roofs of farm buildings depends
entirely on their thorough ventilation. After these general remarks, we shall proceed to
the fittings-up and furniture of the component parts of the farmery, and take them in the
same order in which we treated of their plans in the preceding section.
1389. The Stable, if the surface of the interior walls be not very smoothly built, ought to
be plastered on that side on which the harness is hung, or else lined with boards. There
ought either to be small cupboards, or recesses formed in the wall, for the currycombs,
6(H
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
brushes, pickers, &c, or wooden bins for keeping them in ; and there should be a harness-
room, for harness not in common use, with a fireplace or stove for heating it in damp wea-
ther, as well as proper openings for ventilation. The harness is generally hung on hooks
or pegs, which are sometimes formed of wood, and nailed to the rafters, but most
generally of hooks driven into the wall. Fig. 1269 is a double harness-peg, or bracket,
of cast iron, for nailing against the wall, from which it projects ten inches, and which
costs Is. 6rf. Fig. 1270 is a saddle-bracket of iron, which projects twelve inches, and
which costs 2s.; and fig. 1271 is a saddle-bracket and bridle-hook, which projects twelve
inches, and costs 2s. 6d. In some places, small cast-iron hollow cylinders, the tubular
part, being about an inch in diameter, are built into the walls of stables and harness-rooms,
so as not to project beyond the inside face of the wall ; and, in these, wooden pegs are
inserted and taken out at pleasure. This we believe to be much the cheapest and best
mode for common farm stables. There is a cast-iron halter-ball, which costs, by retail,
6d or 8d.: in some districts they might be made of stone; and where terro-metallic
potter's earth abounds, they would answer well, as would mangers and other fixed cattle-
troughs, of that hard and durable material. Where
expense is not an object, all balls of this sort ought to
move up and down in a trunk, so as not to incur the
risk of becoming entangled with the horses' feet.
Among the stable utensils, such as pails, &c, we shall
only notice Cottam's cast-iron gruel-trough, fig. 1272,
fifteen inches long, ten inches wide, and nine inches
deep, for giving bran mashes, which may be con-
veniently set in the manger. Two and three pronged
forks, brooms, and shovels, complete the stable imple-
ments.
1390. The Cow-house, as we have already shown, admits of a variety of finishing and
fittings-up, with respect to the troughs and mangers, and the mode of tying. Fig. 1273
shows a mode of riveting cast-iron plates together, so as to form troughs for dry food, a,
and others for water or moist food, b. Figs. 1274, 1275, and 1276 are modes of
fastening milch cows, in use about London. By the first mode the cow is fastened to the
stall partition ; by the second, to the post which supports the manger ; and by the third,
to the bottom rail of the manger. Fig. 1277 is the Normandy brechin, which is com-
monly put on cows in France, to prevent them from tossing up their heads, and thus
risking abortion, and which also prevents them from cropping the branches of fruit trees
INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARMERIES.
665
in orchards; for the latter purpose it well deserves adoption in this country. Fig. 127K
shows the manner in which it is used.
127-1 1275 !i;7(.
while it
division
1391. Cattle-sheds and Calf-houses require
scarcely any fitting-up beyond what has been
already mentioned. There are various descriptions
of cribs, of wood, stone, and iron, for foddering-
yards. It is objected by some, to fixed stone
troughs, that they are not so easily cleaned as
portable wooden ones. In some places oblong
cribs are fixed to the tops of posts, so as to turn on
pivots in their centres ; in others they are placed
on the top of a wall. Hay-racks are also often
placed on the tops of the division walls of farmeries,
as indicated in the section, fig. 1279; which,
provides a double rack for twoyards, saves the expense of heightening the
walls. The iron tethering-stake, fig. 1 280, which is twenty inches long, and
costs 5s., is useful both for tethering calves and other young animals, when first taken
out to the open air.
666 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1 392.
Various
1279
FiUingt-up for Piggeries have been sliown in the miscellaneous
for farmeries; and in the way of furniture, there are
numerous iron troughs, both for sties and open yards.
Fig. 1281, which is twenty six inches in diameter, and
costs 26*., is well adapted for open straw-yards. Fig.
1282 is a section of this trough on a larger scale.
There are sheet-iron pails, exceedingly useful for car-
rying out pigs' food, and for various farmery purposes,
which cost from 4s. to 7s. each ; and which, when
heated nearly red hot, and immediately afterwards
rubbed over with oil or grease of any kind, will last
many years, without requiring paint.
1393. Fur Sheep-houses there are various descriptions
of racks and mangers, hut little that is peculiar. For
1282
the open air there is a covered iron rack, fig. 12S3, with a trough below, formed wholly
of iron, six feet long, which costs, by retail, in London, £4.
1394. Of the Fitlings-vp of Rabbit-houses, Poultry-houses, and Pigeon-houses scarcely
any thing requires to be added to what will be found in § 769 to § 771. The side walls
of pigeon-houses are fitted up with holes nine inches
square, with a shelf from four to six inches wide in 1284
front ; the material used being either wood, slate,
brick, or stone, according to convenience. When a
pigeon-house is formed chiefly in the roof of any
building, the holes or boxes may depend from the
roof, like a reversed stair, as we have seen in fig.
1019, § 1020. There are iron hutches for rabbits,
and even small iron rabbit troughs, such as fig. I'j84, which is fourteen inches long,
four inches wide, three inches deep, and costs 2t. Gd.
139.'j. The Fittings-up of the Barn, when there is a threshing-machine, embrace a
variety of considerations. When the machine simply beats out the corn, and sepatates it
INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARMERIES. (j()7
from the straw, one floor on the ground is sufficient ; but when, in addition to separating
the corn from the straw, the corn is to be winnowed and sifted by the machine, a loft or
second floor, from eight to ten or twelve feet, over the first, is essentially necessary. This
floor is used for containing the unthreshed corn, which is commonly carried into it from
the rick-yard, on hand-barrows, up an inclined plane or gangway ; but which is some-
times ako carted into it, up a broad inclined plane, the cart being unloaded and turned
round in the loft. This mode of carting the corn into the loft is only to be met with
on very large farmeries, or where the buildings are particularly situated ; such as being
on a declivity : a more common practice is, to set back a cart loaded with sheaves within
the barn on the ground floor, and unload it, forking up the sheaves to the threshing-
floor, as in Mr. Donaldson's very excellent Design, § 891. From this floor there i> a
communication by a stair, or step-ladder, with the floor below on which the corn is
cleaned, and from this cleaning-room there is a communication with the chafj-roora
adjoining, in which the chaff' and refuse are contained. A clear idea of the arrangement
of threshing-machinery, impelled by horses or water, relatively to the walls and floors of
the barn, may be obtained by referring to our Encyc. of Agr-, 2d edit. § 2786 to 2790,
and the following Design will give an idea of the arrangement where steam is em-
ployed.
1396. The Fitting-tip of a Steam Threshing-machine. The application of steam to
agricultural purposes has hitherto been very partial, and almost entirely limited to im-
pelling the threshing-machine. Till lately, low-pressure engines only were used for this
purpose ; but Mr. Burstall, an ingenious engineer at Leith, has now introduced, very
extensively, the high-pressure or non-condensing engines. " These seem to be superior
to the low-pressure engines in various respects: first, such engines are considerably
cheaper in the original cost ; secondly, they do not require more than one twelfth or
one twentieth part of the water which is requisite for a condensing engine ; and, thirdly, a
know ledge of their management is more easily acquired. They are thus rendered more
fit for farm labour ; and, when properly made, are certainly as safe as, if not more so
than, condensing engines."
1397. The -Application of Mr. Burstall's method of employing a high-pressure engine
for moving a threshing-machine is extremely simple. It is well known that there are
two modes by which, in mechanics, a slow motion with great power may communicate a
rapid motion. The first is, by means of wheels and pinions ; the second, by means of
smooth or iron cylinders, to which a broad strap adheres by its friction, and conveys the
power from the prime mover to the acting agent. In the one case, there is a constant
and definite number of teeth acting on each other ; in the other case, there is what may
be considered as an infinite number of teeth r that is, the surfaces of the belt and cylinder,
applied to each other, produce the same result. The use of the belt to drive machinery
is of much later date than that of toothed wheels; but it may be safely affirmed, that,
where high velocities are required, the former method has considerable advantages, and is
gaining ground in the practice of machinery. Mr. Burstall is, we believe, the first who
has made a successful attempt to drive the main cylinder or drum of a threshing-machine
by the direct application of this principle ; and among other great advantages of the
belt over gearing is this, that, should foreign substances get into the mill, the belt is at
once thrown off", and this is all the injury that results; whereas, when with wheels and
pinions a like accident occurs, an expensive wheel or shaft is generally broken. For
these reasons, Mr. Burstall communicates directly the motion to the machinery of a
threshing-mill by means of a belt. The method will be seen from the accompanying
figs. 1285 and 1287. The application of the steam power, in this case, is made to an old
threshing-mill, formerly driven by horse power and gearing, and altered to steam and
belts. The machinery for driving the rakes and rollers has been retained, although it is
clear that, as the main machine is well driven by a strap, the subordinate parts, which do
not take one sixth of the power, can be so driven likewise.
1398. Details. Fig. 1285 is a ground-plan of a threshing-mill, with the barn walls
and steam-engines. Fig. 1286 is the end elevation of the steam-engine as placed out-
side of the barn walls in the engine-house. Fig. 1287 is a front elevation of the
steam-engine. The letters of reference are the same in the three figures ; a a are the
rakes ; b, the drum and scutchers ; c, the feeding or supplying roller ; d, the feeding-
table ; e, a rigger, or smooth cylinder, fixed upon the end of a shaft that couples to the
drum-shaft of the threshing- mill ; f is the belt, from eight to ten inches wide, accord-
ing to the power of the mill ; g, the fly-wheels of the steam-engine, lined up with wood,
to form a drum for the belt to run upon ; h, the shafts and gearing to drive the rakes
and rollers; i, the barn wall; k, the wheel and pinion from the main shaft. It is under-
stood that the machines erected by Mr. Burstall on this simple principle have given
great satisfaction. (Highland Soc- Trans., vol. xi. p. 235.)
1399. Of Threshing-machines driven by Water, the most complete which we know of
668 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1285
INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARMERIES. 669
are those at the farmery of Bagshot Park, Berkshire; and at Wynnstay, Flintshire.
The former has been figured and described in the Appendix to the second edition of our
Ency- of Agr. It cleans the corn most completely, having a chain of buckets for bring-
ing up, to pass a second time through the mill, the short stalks and imperfectly threshed
ears, which are delivered into these buckets by the winnowing-machine. There is also
a travelling sheet or corn elevator, fixed at an angle of about thirty degrees, with laths of
wood across it at regular distances, which acts as buckets in carrying up the corn from
the lower winnowing-machine to the upper one, to be passed through a second time.
There is a power of throwing, not only any part of the machinery out of gear, but even
of reversing the motion of any part. There is a pair of French burr-stones for grinding
meal, a turnip-slicer, a straw-cutter, and a bone-crusher ; besides which, there are
arrangements and room for adding any other machine that might be required. Tliis
machine was executed under the direction of Mr. Burns, the Duke of Gloucester's most
ingenious bailiff, by a local millwright. The machine at Wynnstay was erected by the
late Mr. John Gladstone of Castle Douglas the ingenious inventor of several agricul-
tural implements and machines , about the year 181'J ; and complete plans and descrip-
tions of it were furnished to us, in 1830, by his nephew, Mr. John Gladstone, engineer
to the Chester leadworks ; a young man of great modesty and ingenuity. The site of
the Wynnstay mill is on a declivity, and the barn has three floors. The upper one
opens into the stack-yard, being on a level with its surface ; the second floor contains
the first winnowing-machine, with a chaff-house, which descends to the floor below, and
has one door into the straw-house and another into the cattle-yard. When the corn is
only wanted to pass through the first winnowing-machine, the corn elevators and the
second winnowing-machine are thrown out of gear, and the corn is delivered on the
second floor. Here a bruising-machine is fixed. The under floor contains the second
winnowing-machine, with the lower end of the corn elevators. The corn may be deli-
vered on this floor, instead of into the trough of the elevator, by throwing the latter out
of gear. The elevator trough conveys the corn to a room on the upper floor, which
serves as a granary, and there throws it into a weighing-machine, which is connected
with an index in the barn, placed on the partition wall facing the man at the feeding-
table, and consequently showing him the quantity of corn threshed. The chaff* and
short straws from the first winnowing-machine are elevated to the feeding-board by a
chain of buckets, as in the threshing-mill at Bagshot (which appears to be, to a certain
extent, an imitation of the Wynnstay machine), and passed through the machinery a
second time. This chain of buckets is a very useful appendage to a threshing-machine,
as it takes from the winnowing-machine all the refuse which generally accumulates on
the cleaning-floor, and, by passing it through the machinery a second time, separates it
into corn and chaff". The water-wheel is in a house beside the barn. In a room above
the wheel is a Scotch barley-mill, and, beyond that, a very complete saw-mill ; both
driven by the same wheel, and both easily turned out of gear when the threshing-
machine is at work. In the middle floor is an oat-bruiser and a straw-cutter; and there
is every convenience for adding such other machines as may at any time be considered
desirable. We have noticed what is effected by these two machines, to show that, when
once steam shall be generally applied in farmeries, the labour both of men and horses
will be diminished in an almost incredible degree. By applying the steam-engine to the
plough and other instruments of aration, and to reaping and mowing implements, very
few horses would be wanted, even on the largest farms. The good that will result from
such a change will be immense ; even the superior degree of intelligence requisite to
put up, to work, and to repair steam-engines, will in a short time have an influence
on the condition of the farm labourer, and approximate him more nearly in intellect to
the mechanic. The result will also benefit the quadrupeds and fowls kept on a farm ; for,
as soon as farmers become familiarised with steam, we are persuaded they will have all
the straw, not to be used as thatch, cut into chaff*, and all farm-yard food whatever
cooked, either by steam or hot water, before being given to the animals. This will not
take place without carrying with it the heating of the cottagers' floors by steam.
] 4C0. A Saw-mill is a most valuable machine, wherever there is much timber to be
cut, and, in all new countries, may be considered not less essential than the limekiln or
brick-kiln. Any building ten or twelve feet wide, twenty or thirty feet long, and open
at one end, so as to admit long trees, may be adapted for a saw-mill, by excavating a
trough in the floor for the action of the saw.
1401. Portable Threshing-machines, to be worked by horses, commonly thresh only,
without cleaning the corn ; and therefore they require no particular modification of the
barn. There is an excellent cast-iron machine of this description, invented by Mr.
Baird of the Shotts ironworks; and there are some in England which are impelled
by steam, and employed to thresh out a crop in the fields, on a movable floor, under a
temporary roof, a few weeks after the crop has been cut ; the straw being in that case
670
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
consumed, or turned to manure, in a temporary cattle-yard on the spot. Hand threshing-
machines have been constructed <>f various kinds; but they have never yet given much
satisfaction. On small farms, however, a machine of this kind, requiring less skill to
use it than the common flail, must be a considerable advantage, since a thresher is paid
higher wages than a common labourer. A design for a hand threshing-machine is
given in the Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland, vol. viii. p. 262 ; where it
is observed, that, the labour required to move these machines being very considerable,
it has been found that the labourers employed on them must be relieved at intervals.
This is thought to be the reason why these machines have not been so generally adopted,
in the smallest class of farms, as might at first view be supposed. To diminish this
labour, it is recommended to confine the operation of the machine to the beating out the
grain by the action of a revolving drum or roller, and not to attempt separating the grain
from the straw, or winnowing it.
1402. The other Machines, Implements, and Utensils of a Barn are, the winnowing-
machine, now brought to great perfection ; the barley-chopper, or hummclling-machine,
or which is sometimes substituted the implement, fig. 1289, which costs 8s. ; the smut-
machine, shovels, forks, rakes, sieves, a sack-weigher, a sack-carrier, and a bushel
and other measures, according to the locality or country. A very ingenious tub for
measuring and weighing corn has been invented by our esteemed contributor, Mr.
Taylor; it has been in use for some time at the Whittington malt-houses, near Stoke
Ferry, Norfolk, and will be found figured and described in the Gardeners Magazine,
vol. viii. p. 466. All the other machines and implements required by the British agri-
culturist will be found in our Eiicyc. of Agr., 2d edit.
1 403. Among the Farmery Fixtures and Furniture, which may be placed in the chaff-
house, the steaming-house, store-house, foddering-bay, or cattle-food house, may be
enumerated the oat-crusher, bone-crusher, the turnip-cutter, the straw-cutter, and the
portable corn mill. All or any of these, and several others, might be placed in a
building adjoining the threshing-machine, and, as already mentioned, § 1223, might be
driven by the same machinery. Our correspondent, Mr. Thorold, has sent us a drawing
of an oat-cruslvr, fig. 1290, which he manufactures, and sells at £8 ; 8s. ; he has also
INTERIOR FINISHING 01' FARMERIES.
(i;i
v. nt us a turnip-cutter of his invention, fig. 1291, for which he received a premium from
the London Society of Arts. The most complete turnip or potato-cutter, or slicer, that
h?s been hitherto made known, is that recently invented by Mr. Baird. It costs £4,
and, with an extra- wheel to cut potatoes, £l additional. This machine, with a man and
boy, will cut a cart-load of turnips or potatoes, in twenty minutes, into very small pieces.
We have no doubt that this machine might be advantageously applied to the cutting of
cabbage, in countries where sauer kraut is used.
1404. A portable Corn-mill of a very superior description, manufactured by Mr. Tho-
rold, and sold by him for £'250, is shown in fig. 1288. In this figure, " cast-iron hurst
frames are represented, capable of being erected independently of any building, only
requiring a solid foundation, and containing wheelwork, and two pairs of French stones,
four feet in diameter. The iron spur-wheel and two pinions are shown, for giving the
f>7'2 COTTAGE, FARM, AM) VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1291
requisite speed to the millstones ; the spur-wheel has wooden cogs, and the pinions iron
cogs neatly pitched and trimmed. The pinions are hung upon cones attached to the
stone spindles, and may be thrown out of gear by a ring attached to a lever and rack-
work, not shown in the figure. When it is intended to drive the mill by wind, the
upright shaft of the spur-wheel is continued upwards until it reaches the cap- works of
the windmill ; when it is to be driven by steam, a mitre-wheel is fixed on the upright
shaft just above the spur-wheel, which is intersected by another mitre-wheel hung on
the fly-wheel shaft of the steam-engine. When driven by water, a similar arrange-
ment is made, with different speed, to assimilate with the speed of the first mover.
The slip brasses of the stone spindles pass through bored boxes, so as to be free from
shaking ; they then rest upon a steelyard connected with a screw which serves to adjust
the millstones at the pleasure of the miller. These, with the spouts and meal-troughs,
are omitted in the figure, for the sake of showing the wheel- work, the whole of which
forms a complete and substantial piece of machinery. In this machine, mitre-wheels
may be attached to the upright shaft, so as to adapt it for a steam-engine ; which
might also drive the threshing-machine of the farm."
1405. The Fittings-up of the Boiling and Steaming Heme are exceedingly simple to
ihose who know any thing of steam. We shall give as an example, an apparatus invented
by Mr. David Liddell, junior, and described in the Highland Society's Transactions. It
consists of a furnace, and cast-iron boiler containing about sixty gallons, fig. 1292, a,
" furnished with a safety-valve, to render it secure from danger, even in the hands of the
most ignorant person. This boiler is intended to supply warm water for any domestic
purpose, as well as steam, the water being drawn off by a cock in the lower part of it.
The boiler is supplied with water from a cistern, b, placed five or six feet higher than the
boiler. This cistern may contain about thirty gallons, and, when filled, requires no
further attention, as the boiler regulates its supply of water, by means of a float in the
inside of the boiler, attached to a valve in the cistern, which contains as much water as
will boil ten hundredweight of potatoes. The two casks, c and d, are for holding the
produce to be steamed. They contain about three hundredweight each. The steam
is conducted from the boiler to them by a pipe (one-inch) branching off to each by
stopcocks. As many casks as may be necessary for the supply of food may be attached
in the same way. The casks are furnished with sliding hatches in the bottom, for taking
out the food when ready, ami are raised as far from the ground as will allow a trough,
INTERIOR FINISHING OF FARMERIES. ()7,'3
1292
or barrow to be introduced under them, to receive tbe contents. For boiling grain, the
cask for holding it differs from those used in steaming potatoes only by not having a
hatch in the bottom, as the hatch could not be easily made tight, which is necessary in
boiling barley, as water must be mixed with it in the same quantity, or nearly, as if it
were to be boiled in a boiler the common way. It may be added, that the hatch not
being tight, in boiling potatoes, is an advantage, and even necessary for allowing the con-
densed steam to run out, and also all the earthy matter from the skins of the potatoes.
In the figure, one of the casks is represented with the lid pressed down, by means of
the vertical bar, which is employed for this purpose during the operation of steaming or
boiling In the other cask, the lid is represented as opened, with the vertical bar moved
to one side. {Highland Soc. Trans., vol. viii. p. 322.)
1406. The Fixtures and Furniture of Farm Labourers Cottages differ in nothing from
those already given for cottages generally. The grates ought always to be landloid's
fixtures, and so ought the presses, cupboards, and dressers. It would add greatly to the
comfort of the occupant if the bedsteads were also the property of the landlord; because
lie would be saved the trouble of carrying them with him on removal. This is some-
times the case in gardeners' houses, where even the chairs, tables, and carpets are land-
lord's property, and taken by one occupant after another at a valuation. All the
fixtures and furniture of the boothy, or single men's room, ought to belong to the
landlord ; and the valuable hint of Mr. Gorrie, that the bed-room ought never to be on
the same floor with the sitting-room, in order to avoid the temptation of lying down on
the beds at unseasonable times, ought not to be forgotten. 'Wrought-iron bedsteads are
well suited for the married cottager ; and, where great strength and durability are the
objects, there is a cast-iron bedstead, which may either be a fixture, as in fig. 129S, or made
with four feet and portable, which is well adapted for the ploughman's room. These
beds are the invention of Mr. Mallet of Dublin, and have been extensively used in
Ireland. Most of the vessels for the boothy may be of cast iron tinned, such as are
manufactured by Cottam in London, and Baird near Glasgow. The latter has lately
invented excellent cast-iron tea or coffee pots, at 2s. 6d. each ; and he sells tinned
tumblers at lOd. each, tea-kettles at 2*. 6d. each, together with a number of other
articles particularly suitable for the boothy, because they are little liable to be injured or
broken. These articles, which might be purchased by the landlord, would last for many
years, and contribute materially to the comfort of the inhabitants of the boothy. We
have already shown how, in the case of all farmeries where there is a steaming apparatus
for cooking food for cattle, the floors, both of the boothy and the adjoining married
men's cottages, might be heated by steam, which to them would be a great source both of
economy and comfort.
1407. As Fixtures belonging to the Farmery in general, rather than to any one part in
particular, we include a pump; of which the most suitable kind for farmeries is that of
cast iron, fig. 129-1 ; which, according to the bore, or diameter, may be had at various
prices from £2 upwards; the total price depending on the length of tube required to
reach the bottom of the well. With the pump is necessarily connected a cistern, or
4 u
071.
COTTAGE, I AlOI, AND VII, LA ARCHITECTURE.
1294
supply trough, which should communicate witli other troughs in different yards, accord-
ing to circumstances, as already explained, §824 and § 1143.
All farmeries whatever, ought, in our opinion, to have a turret
clock, § 505, placed in some conspicuous situation fronting
the kitchen-court and the farm house, to regulate the hours
of going to and returning from labour. Very good turret
clocks may be had for £\0 each, without the addition of a bell,
and surely .£10 in this way will pay the farmer better than the
same sum laid out on a pocket watch. In large farmeries,
to the turret clock ought to be added a bell to strike the hour ;
and this bell may be so hung as to serve for a bell to ring at the
different times for going to and returning from labour. We
have shown such a clock and bell in our own Design, § 1221,
but we have not added them to the plans and elevations which
have been sent to us by others, because these have, for the most
part, been executed in different parts of the country without
them. As much will depend on the accuracy of clocks of this
kind, we consider it wise policy to procure them from some
clockmaker in the neighbourhood, who may contract for wind-
ing them up, and examining them once a week, at so much a
year, in order that they may be always kept in correct time.
Whether there be a clock or not, there ought always to be a
vane fixed on some lofty and airy part of the farm buildings, in order to show the
direction of the wind ; and no farmer who can afford it ought to be without a barometer,
measuring-rods, and a measuring-chain. There is also such a thing as an index to
ploughs, made by our most ingenious correspondent, Mr. Wilkie of Uddingstone, near
Glasgow, one of the greatest improvers of the plough and the brake, or cultivator, of the
day. The plough index shows how much ground the plough has gone over in a day,
and consequently how much it has ploughed ; but this, and similar instruments we can
only recommend to amateurs, preferring in all cases the labour dictated by a sense of
justice, duty, and good-will, to that obtained by constant watching and espionnage.
When the relative duties of masters and servants are clearly understood by both parties,
no eye-watching, measuring, or instruments of this kind, can ever be wanting ; and farm
labour, like most other kinds of labour, will come in time to be let by the job. For the
hinges of farm-yard gates, those of Collinge are so decidedly preferable to all others,
that all who can afford them ought to have them. (See Mech. Mag., vol. xiv. p. 392.)
As a fixed rat-trap for farm-yards, we know of none superior to that invented by Paul
of Starston, and alluded to by Mr. Taylor, § 1040. A great number of other fixtures,
fittings-up, and furniture, belonging to or connected with farmeries, might be men-
tioned, but they will all be found described or figured in our Ency. of Agr. We trust
we have made such a selection, in this work, as to attain the end we proposed in the com-
mencement of this section ; viz., that of showing the necessity of Architects studying the
uses of all the buildings which they are employed to design.
COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES. (>75
Chap. III.
Design!: for Country Inns and Public Houses of various Degrees of Accommodation, from
the Hedge Alehouse to the Mansion Inn, with its Gardens, Farm, and Park.
1408. An Inn Sifters from a private dwelling-house chiefly in having certain apart-
ments and stores open to the public generally. In a private house all is private ; but in
an inn, one of the recommendations to the traveller is to see a well-stored larder, and a
spacious public room, in which he may take his meals, either at a common table or at
a separate table. Another characteristic of an inn is the bar, or office, to which all
enquiries are addressed, and from which all orders are issued. This is always placed in
a conspicuous part of the interior, so as to be seen on entering, and so as the bar mistress
may observe all coiners and goers as they pass, and have her eye as much as possible upon
the servants of the establishment.
1409. All Inns ought to be built fire-proof. When the number of persons lodged in
sucli dwellings are considered, the necessity for this will appear obvious. There are two
ways in which this may be effected ; first, by forming all the floors of flat arches of
brick or tiles, and cement; or of hollow bricks, the abutments being of cast iron, tied
with wrought-iron rods; or, secondly, by laying all the floors over the joists with brick
or stone pavement. The staircases ought always to be of stone ; and all the partitions
cither of that material, or of brick, or of quartering covered on both sides with tiles and
cement. All the ceilings, where wooden joists are used, ought to be formed of flat tiles
and cement, and all the skirtings of the same material. The roof is easily made fire-
proof by being arched on the same principle as the floors of the rooms, and, like them,
covered with tiles and cement. In inns so constructed, there would remain no combus-
tible matter but the doors, the window-shutters, and the furniture. The two former
might be rendered incombustible by being saturated with sulphate of iron, or coated over
with a solution of silex under the paint. We are the more anxious to direct the atten-
tion of Architects to fire-proof houses, in consequence of the following communication
from one of our most scientific correspondents : — " The new process for smelting iron by
raw coal and hot air blast, is producing a great change in the iron trade ; and it is antici-
pated by good judges, that no long period will elapse before cast iron of the quality
known as No. 1. will be manufactured at the cost of about 40s. or 45s. the ton. When
this takes place generally, it must inevitably produce an effect which will pervade almost
every condition of society. Rich and poor will, by degrees, find themselves enclosed in
iron cages ; and fir joists, and slate roofs, will become things to be alluded to as betoken-
ing something venerable from antiquity. The introduction of iron into building oper-
ations will, no doubt, spread rapidly, as the price of cast iron falls; and, if unskilfully
done at the outset, we may have a number of imperishable monuments of bad taste
before our eyes wherever we go. It is, therefore, of importance that good examples
should be given in time, and that Architects should be prepared for the change, so as
not to leave the matter to the caprice or taste of the workmen of thefounderies."
1410. Inns and Public Houses for the country, like private dwellings there, are of various
kinds, and include various degrees of accommodation, from what is found in the small
hedge alehouse, to what is afforded by the mansion inn, with its places for amusements,
garden, farm, and perhaps park. In all of them the object is to provide entertainment
for the public; and, consequently, the kind of accommodation afforded by the inn must
be adapted to the wants of that portion of the public for whose use it is intended. Inns
of every kind are the result of high civilisation, and the consequent intercourse of society
by public roads, rivers, or canals. In rude countries, without roads or other regular
means of communication, there can be no inns, because there can be no regular travellers.
In countries imperfectly civilised, and with defective roads, the inns, like the caravanseras
of Persia, or the post-houses in the interior of Russia, are little better than empty houses,
or hovels, where the traveller, who carries his own bedding and provisions, may take
shelter for the night. In the north of Germany and Poland, the country inns are
little better. At one end of a small cottage occupied by the postmaster, or furnisher of
horses for travelling, is an immense shed, closed in on the two sides, and with gateways
at each end. Into this shed, the traveller drives, at the end by which he approaches ;
and, when he has refreshed his horses and himself, he drives out by the other. If his
intention be to stop for the night, he sleeps in his carriage, or spreads the bed he has
brought with him on the floor of the hovel, which, in most parts of the countries alluded
to, is occupied by the horses, cows, and other live stock of the postmaster, and the horses
of other travellers. On the contrary, inns in a wealthy and highly civilised country like
England contain all the luxuries of a private mansion ; and the traveller who stops in
them, with plenty of money, may enjoy many of the comforts of* home, without its cares.
In other countries, such as the south of Germany and many parts of North America,
(170
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE
tin- i mi is frequently :i place where greater luxuries are to be obtained than in the private
houses of moat of the citizens. With the progress of tilings in all countries, this is
likely to he more and more the case; for, as equality of education and rights become
general, it will be followed by a comparative equality in the distribution of property ;
and great entertainments, such as are now given by wealthy merchants and princes, will
only be obtainable by public assemblies or associations at inns. This will, in time, give
rise, in every country, as it has already done in Britain, to inns of recreation and enjoy-
ment, as well as inns of accommodation and convenience for travellers.
141 1. Inns of Recreation seem destined to contain all the comforts and luxurieswhich
are now almost exclusively found in the mansions and palaces of the aristocracy of
Europe ; as these comforts and luxuries were in ancient times only to be met with in the
richer convents and monasteries. Such inns will, therefore, not be confined to in-door
conveniences, but will embrace also all that can be afforded by gardens, pleasure-grounds,
parks, forests, and farms ; all the sports of the field, and all the games and exercises that
have been known to contribute to human gratification. In one word, all that now can
only be obtained by sovereign princes or the most wealthy nobles, will, by the modern
system of inns of recreation, be within the reach of every one who has a little spare
money and time. In ages and countries of ignorance, and of a privileged and con-
sequently wealthy and all-grasping aristocracy, there will necessarily be many enjoy-
ments, the very nature of which cannot be even imagined by the mass of society, much
less can the spectacles displayed by them be seen ; but, in an age such as we contemplate,
there will not be a single enjoyment which is not within the reach of ail to see and un-
derstand ; and in which most of the inhabitants may not be able to participate.
1412. The Model Designs for Inns and Alehouses, therefore, must obviously be founded
on the accommodations afforded by private houses; and this will reduce this first section
to the business of laying down principles for arranging the architectural characteristics
of inns ; after which we shall illustrate them by a few miscellaneous Designs. It is
previously necessary, however, that we repeat what we have before stated, § 701, that
the subject of country inns is but a very subordinate part of our work, and that we, con-
sequently, do not profess to give a complete treatise on the subject.
Sect. I. General Principles for composing Model Designs for Country Inns and
Public Houses.
1413. A complete Country Inn may be considered with reference to its accommoda-
tion, arrangement, or distribution, its situation and architectural style. The accom-
modation includes that of the house, of the stable offices, and of the gardens and
grounds.
1414. The Accommodation of the house, we have already said, is essentially that of a
private house, with the housekeeper's room, or bar, placed in a conspicuous situation,
instead of in a private one ; and with the store-room and larder also exposed to public
view. The inn contains an entrance hall, in which there ought always to be a porter to
announce the arrival of guests, by ringing one bell for the hostler, and another for the
waiter; an ante-room or strangers' room, into which the guests are first shown, and
where they are waited on by the master, mistress, or some upper servant, to ascertain
the kind of accommodation which they desire. A complete inn ought to have large
rooms for parties to dine in on public occasions, or in which may be held public meet-
ings, assemblies, balls, &c. : it ought also to have suites of apartments, consisting of one
or two sitting-rooms, one or two bed-rooms, a maid-servant's or nurse's room, and a
water-closet ; such suites of apartments being frequently required in first-rate inns, by
wealthy families who travel with their own carriages and horses, and who wish to live at
an inn as privately as if they were at home. There ought also to be suites of apartments
for single persons, consisting of a bed-room and sitting-room each. There ought to be
small dining-rooms for small parties to dine together; and numerous bed-rooms, some
with dressing-rooms, and some without them. In a large inn, there ought to be also a
billiard-room for exercise and amusement during bad weather and long evenings; and
also one or more musical instruments ; and in every inn, whether large or small, there
ought to be a library of books ; which may be put under the care of the bar-woman, and
lent out to guests at a small sum per volume. Among the conveniences, there should
be hot, cold, saline, vapour, and air baths ; and, in general, whatever is found mentioned
in the first chapter of our succeeding book, as appropriate to villas.
141.5. The Bar or Office of an Inn being its characteristic feature, it is proper that it
should be shortly described : its situation ought to be central in the interior of large
buildings, commanding views of the front entrance hall and back entrance ; and, as far
as practicable, of the foot of the principal staircase, and along the principal passages.
These objects can only be obtained by having the room of some size, almost insulated
by broad passages] and with Windows on all sides; <>r having the sides formed by glazed
COUNTRY INN'S AND PUBLIC HOUSES. (>77
partitions. Considerable assistance might be afforded to the liar- woman, to enable her
to see in every direction, by looking-glasses, judiciously disposed without and within the
bar, as these would reflect places and persons which could not otherwise be seen. The
situation of the bar, in a narrow building, may be at the end of the entrance-hall, with
one side looking towards it, and the one opposite looking towards the yard. In size, the
bar need never be large; because, though, in small public houses and inns, it is used as a
shop or store room, as well as an office, yet, in general, it is used in the latter capacity
or.lv. Here the books of the inn are kept, and orders given to the cook, the keeper of
the cellar, the ostler, or the stable-yard keeper; and here also all monies are given in,
which have been received by the different servants or waiters. Adjoining the bar there
i . usually the private room of the master and mistress of the house; and the larder and
general store-room are commonly near, and within sight of it.
1 1 1 <;. The . tccomm idation of the Stable-court ought to be proportionate to that of the
house. In a conspicuous situation, at the entrance to the court, there ought to be the
office of the superintendent of this department, which should command a view of the
interior of the stable-yard; and also, if possible, be seen from, and look to, a window in
r-room. In very extensive country inns, the stable-yard should be a distinct part
of the establishment from the farm yard, for obvious reasons ; but in small establishments
Ibey may often be combined, the rattle-courts being altogether separated from the courts
I i post horses, travellers' horses, and carriages. The principal buildings in the stable-
yard of an inn are the stables, coach-houses, and houses for corn and fodder. There
: also to be an ample harness-room, a room for boiling or steaming food for sick
is, an hospital, a shoeing-house or smithy, and a wheelwright's shop, or place for
repairing carriages. There are other minor accommodations which will readily occur.
In all large establishments there ought to be a riding-house ; and the business of a riding-
master might be very well combined w ith that of innkeeper.
1417. The Accommodation* in the Grounds are first and principally a dairy, a poultry-
house, and an icehouse ; there ought also to be a complete farmery; a kitchen-garden,
with forcing-houses ; an orchard or a vineyard, according to the climate ; and a large
park for guests to take exercise in on horseback or in carriages, and for a herd of deer,
as well as other animals for profit and pleasure, including what is called game. Near
the house there ought to be lawns and pleasure-grounds for pedestrian exercise.
1418. In Public Houses, or Inns < fan inferior Description, all these accommodations
must necessarily be very limited : the park may be dispensed with ; the farmery
included in the stable-court ; and the pleasure-ground limited to a bowling-green,
tea-gardens, and place for playing at skittles or other games.
1419. The Situation of an Inn, or Public House, for ordinary purposes, should in
■ neral either be on or near a public road, or on the margin of a canal or river; but
the particular points along roads or other lines for public conveyances on which inns
should be placed are subjects which require some consideration, especially in new coun-
tries, where most people travel in stages or coaches, which stop for refreshment only at
certain distances. The great object ought to be, so to arrange the stopping places, as
that the inns may always be built in dry healthy situations, with extensive and agreeable
prospects ; we say extensive, because one object, with all travellers, is, to form some
general idea of the country through which they pass. With respect to inns of recreation,
it is obvious, that to place them on any other spot than one of great natural beauty can
never be a voluntary act; since situation and accompaniments, much more than the
plan of the dwelling, will naturally be the principal inducements to guests. Under inns
of this sort, we of course include those of watering-places, baths, springs, fishing and
shooting stations, and various others, which it would lead us beyond our proposed limits
to describe.
1 420. The Architectural Style of an Inn in the country may be as various as that of
any dwelling house, and there is no beauty within the whole range of cottage and villa
architecture that may not be conferred on it. Indeed, as country inns on public roads
are likely to be among the most permanent of country dwellings, it is very desirable,
with a view to the general beauty of a country, that they should be built, not only in a
substantial manner, but in a highly improved style of design. In old countries, such
as Europe, it is seldom found necessary to erect a building expressly for the purpose of
an inn of recreation ; as there are generally mansions of decayed nobility, or convents,
or other buildings belonging to wealthy individuals or public bodies, which are to be
purchased at a moderate rate, with gardens and grounds, and every requisite accom-
paniment and appendage. Many houses of this description are in the finest natural
situations which Europe affords, and their eligibility for inns of recreation is so de-
cided, that they could not in general be turned to any other use with half the advantage.
In America, the building of country inns appears to be an art yet in its infancy ; but,
with the progress of wealth and the improvement of manners in that country, it is pro-
678
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
bable that country inns, along the great public roads, will be almost the only permanent
and substantial palace-like dwellings. Our opinion is, that, with the advancement of
civilisation, country inns, in all parts of the world, will, as architectural objects, rank next
to buildings for public offices.
Sect. II. Miscellaneous Designs for Country Inns and Public Houses.
1421. The Designs submitted under this section embrace but a very few of the nu-
merous varieties of inns and public houses which are suitable for the country ; but, as
whoever can compose a good villa is equally competent to compose a country inn, we
consider the following selection amply sufficient. We have, besides, already given a
Design for a country inn combined with a farm, § 1 149, which we consider exceedingly
well arranged ; and many of our cottages in Book I. will answer, with very little alter-
ation, for hedge alehouses.
Design I. — A Country Inn in the Italian Style ; having, besides public Rooms, Thirty
Bed-rooms, and Stabling for Twenty Horses.
1422. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1295 ; and the
1295
ground floor, fig. 1298, consists of an entrance porch, a ; vestibule and staircase, b;
1297
COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES.
1298
079
two parlours, c; passage, d, to the garden, x; store-room, e ; bar, J"; family sitting-room,
g ; back parlour, h; back stairs, i; water-closet, k ; tap-room,/; kitchen, with oven
and hot water boiler, m ; back-kitchen and scullery, n; coal-house, o; larder and pantry,
p ; dust-hole, q ; boot-closet, r ; covered yard for gigs, chaises, &c, s ; stables, t t ; coach-
house, u ; privies for servants, v v ; stable-yard, mi ; garden, x ; veranda for skittles, y ;
and liquid manure tank, z. The chamber-floor, fig. 1296, has two sitting-rooms, an;
and a large room for balls, or public meetings, b; the ceiling of this last room is on a
level with the ceilings of the rooms of the attic story, and is marked, in fig. 1297, by the
same letters. All the other rooms in the chamber-floor and attic story, figs. 1296 and
1297 (thirty in number), are sleeping-apartments.
1423. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of brick, and the roof covered with
Peake's Italian tiles, such as are shown in § 50 or in § 1368 ; the eaves being supported
by wrought cantalivers. To render the bed-rooms fire-proof, the joists may be covered
with plain tiles bedded in Roman cement, and having a coating over them of the same
material ; the tiles and cement being closely joined to the brickwork of the walls, and
the skirting being formed of stucco or cement. The floors, after being made a year or
more, may be washed over with oil, and painted either a plain colour or an imitation of
any particular kind of wood, marble, or stone. The ceilings may be formed in the
same manner. The staircases may be of cast-iron, the treads being covered with stone-
plates. The garden, x, is shown with a circular grass-plot in the centre, and a border of
evergreen and deciduous shrubs and flowers next the walls. The kitchen-garden and
farm are not seen in this plan.
1424. General Estimate. The cubic contents of this building are 201,908 feet; which,
at 5d. per foot, is £'4203 : 8s. : Ad--, the probable cost of an edifice in this style, plainly
finished, in the neighbourhood of London.
680
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE*
1425. Remarks. The ground plan of this Design was contributed by Mr. Taylor,
and the elevation lias been supplied by Mr. Robertson. The inn seems well adapted
tor country business ; having large rooms for meetings, a spacious covered yard for the
protection of carriages of ever] description, and abundance of stabling. A large kitchen-
garden "ill I' required for such an establishment, unless there be a market-garden close
at hand.
Design II. — A small Country Inn, villi Stabling, Skittle- Ground, Tea-Garden, and
Bowling- (Ween.
1426. The Situation is supposed to be in a right angle, formed by the intersection of
two roads, or bv a branch from one road. The principal front, which is seen in fig.
1299, is to the main road; and tile stables, carriage-house, and yard open to the
or branch road.
1 299
1300
1J~lj
H'JT. Accommodation In fig. 1S0I is an entrance passage, a, which leads to a hall
and staircase, out of which open two other passages ; that to the left, leading to the
skittle-ground, i ; and that to the right to the yard, h, the tea-garden, t, and the bow ling-
green, .?. Between the passage and the tap, c, is the bar, b, which is also very conveniently
situated for observing comers and goers by the different passages, and to and from the
kitchen, e. The bar, it is to be observed, has glass windows on three sides, and the
upper half of the kitchen door, and of those of the passages, is also of glass. In the
back-kitchen, f, is an oven. There
are a wine and spirit cellar, g ; a brew-
house, k ; beer-cellar, I; and cow-
house, m; and these last three build-
ings have a floor over them fur malt,
corn, hops, &c. There is a malting-
house, //, over which, at one end,
there may be a kiln for drying the
malt, or this may be placed in an
adjoining building in the yard, p.
There is a stable for four horses, a ;
a place for two carriages, r; a
bowling-green; s, and a tea-garden,
t, with a fountain in the centre, and
live alcoves on the sides, «. The
chamber lloor, fig. 1300, contains
six good rooms, live of them with
tiieplaces, and a water-closet.
A
D
-X
t^t~y
>"=-<
BI
COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES.
1301
6S1
u
n_
rvl#¥^^;h^>g?^^^^W
1428. Construction. The materials of the walls may be those in common use in the
given locality ; and hence they may require to be either thicker or narrower than those
shown in the plan.
1429. The Skittle- Ground ought to be rendered hard, smooth, and perfectly level, by
a composition of quicklime, sharp sand, and smithy ashes, being spread over a layer of
small stones or coarse gravel, and rolled or floated so as to be perfectly smcoth, before
it has had time to set. We have shown this appendage, and that following, in con-
formity with modern usage in Britain ; though we are convinced that when mankind
generally are more highly educated, such childish amusements as playing at skittles will
never be thought of. As to the exercise which the game affords, perhaps something
may be said in its favour in crowded cities ; but, even in them, exercise may surely be
4h
082 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
obtained by means equally amusing, and, at the same time, somewhat more rational.
When cities are self-governed by a regularly organised representative system, there will
always be public gardens sufficiently extensive, and furnished with abundance of botanical
and zoological specimens, to supply the means of agreeable exercise and recreation in
walking through and examining them. We are justified in this opinion by the fact,
that rude games have disappeared in all countries, in proportion as civilisation has ad-
vanced and been equalised.
1430. Tlie Boxdin"- Green ought to be well drained, and to have gratings communi-
cating with under-ground drains along the sides. The surface of the ground ought then
to be reduced to a perfect level, and, by treading or ramming, to an equal degree of
soliditv • after which it should be covered with turf of uniform thickness, and after-
wards well watered and rolled. It is usual to form a small gutter, about a foot broad,
and three inches deep, round the margin of a bowling-green, for the purpose of receiving
the water from its surface ; and in the bottom of this gutter the gratings to the drains
are placed. When properly drained, however, and turf from a sufficiently porous soil
is used, the rain will sink down through it direct to the under drains. The nature of
the soil and the drainage are important considerations to be attended to, as one of the
greatest beauties of a good bowling-green is to present a dry surface immediately after
rain.
1431. The Tea-Garden should be planted with deciduous and evergreen shrubs;
taking care that the nurseryman who supplies them does not plant more than two of a
sort^nd that the sorts have showy and odoriferous flowers. The alcoves may be formed
of trcllis-work, and covered with honeysuckle, virgin's-bower, and other creeping shrubs ;
and, in general, where nothing else will grow, and it is desirable to have a covering of
vegetation, Virginian creeper and ivy may be planted. The fountain may be of artificial
stone, if real stone is found too expensive ; or it may be of cast iron.
1432. General Estimate. The cubic contents of this building are 107,508 feet ; which, at
fid. per foot, is ,£J2687 : 4s. The extra-expense of the skittle-ground, tea-garden, and
bowling-green will be at least ,£'100, exclusive of enclosure walls, booths, the alcoves,
and the fountains.
1433. Remarks. This Design was furnished us by William Ross, Esq., Architect,
Bristol ; and we consider it a very judicious arrangement, with reference to the purpose
in view. The yard, o, may be covered ; and the floor over the brewhouse and beer-cellar
proportionably increased. From the passage, v, between the tea-garden and the bowling-
green there might be a door to a large kitchen-garden, always a most valuable appendage
to a country inn ; as are also proper yards and buildings for pigs and poultry, rabbit-
hutches, and a dovecot. These, in this case, are supposed to be placed on the other
side of a lane opposite the yard gate, w. An elegant banqueting-room might be erected
on the bowling-green, in the situation, x. If smoking is not permitted in the house,
there is a small tower, y, in the skittle-ground for that purpose, independently of the
alcoves in the tea-garden. The upper part of the tower, y, contains the pole of the
signpost.
Design III. — A small Village Inn, or Alehouse, in the Italian Gothic Manner.
1434. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1302, and the ground
1302
plan in fig. 1303. In the latter will be found the following rooms: a, a porch, or
colonnade, intended for the more convenient, reception of company, as also for the accom-
modation of the tap-room visiters, « lio might have seats placed there in summrr ; ft, the
COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES.
()S3
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1303
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tap-room, ten feet by eleven feet six inches ; c, the bar, which has a projecting window,
and a light into the passage ; this room measures twelve feet by nine feet six inches,
including the bay window ; d and e are the parlours for the use of the more distinguished
visiters ; f is the kitchen, twelve feet by twelve feet; g is the scullery, twelve feet by
seven feet six inches, which opens into the fold-yard ; /; is the staircase to communicate
with the chamber story ; and i is a small pantry, or store-closet. Cellars are supposed
to be under the two parlours and the bar ; and from the latter room a staircase gives
access to them. In the chamber floor, fig. 130-4, there are five bed-rooms and a small
1304
closet, from which a communication may be made to servants' bed-rooms in the roof.
It is not deemed necessary to show the yard and out-buildings, as the arrangement
depends entirely on circumstances of a local nature ; but they must, of course, include
brewhouse, wash-house, stables, poultry-houses, pigsties, sheds, &c, the cost of which
is not included in the estimate.
1435. Construction. The cellars must be sunk at least eight feet below the under side
of the plinth; and the walls built of rough stone ten inihes in thickness, well grouted
and throughed (with cross-tie stones), with ten-inch brick arches turned over the whole.
An area is to be formed for each of the windows, walled to finish, with a sione curb,
rebated for an iron grate. The steps into the cellars from the bar to be common flags
with brick risers. The external walls to be of stone eighteen inches thick, walled rough
for stucco or sand-dashing i rough-casting). The plinth, sills, and labels to be ot
ashlar tooled. The internal walls to be brick, nine inches in thickness ; the chimney-
flues to be about ten inches in diameter, well pargeted. The shafts and caps to be
wrought according to the drawing, fig. 1305, in tooled ashlar. There are to be flagged
floors to the porch, tap-room, kitchen, and scullery ; well-squared solid stone steps to
the portico, twelve-inch tread, and seven-inch rest; there are to be six reveals to all the
openings in the building, and the jambs inwards are to be splayed. Stone chimney-pieces,
and cleansed (rubbed) hearths to all the rooms. The construction of the roof is simple ;
the internal wall is intended to rise to the ridge, therefore one pair of principals only will
be required; the purlins to project in the gables, as shown in fig. 1302. The framing
of the eaves is shown in fig. 1306, by which it will be seen that the spout is supported
CS4> COTTAGE, FAItM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1305
~~3
1306
\o\\6
Ms
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i
by the cantalivers, and fixed to the eaves-board. The columns of the porch are to be of
oak, turned true, and having caps wrought according to the drawing, fig. 1305. A
strong lintel or architrave will be required to carry the roof. There are to be one-inch
boarded floors in the parlours, bar, and all the bed-rooms. The staircase to be of wood
with strings moulded nosings, turned newels, and plain balusters ; there are to be six-
inch torus plinths to all the rooms on the ground floor ; and five-inch ditto to the
chambers. The windows are to be framed as shown in the drawing, fig. 1307, with
casements opening inwards,
those on the ground floor , — _
1 307
having transoms ; and there
are to be plain splayed wood
casings, with ovolo mould-
ings round them, to the
whole. There are to be six-
paneled l^-inch doors to all
the rooms on the ground
floor, with five-inch single
architraves round them ;
there are to be four-paneled
single doors to all the cham-
bers, with plain mouldings
round them. The large
\\ indow in the bar is to be
framed of wood, with side-
lights and casements simi-
lar to the other windows.
The roof is to project, and
to be slated to correspond
with that of the house.
The plastering of the rooms
on the ground floor is to be
three-coat work ; the ceil-
ings on laths, and the walls
stuccoed. The cornices are to be plain. The bed-rooms are to have set ceilings
and two-coat walls. The exterior of the building to be rough-cast, or pebble-dashed
(dashed with pebbles). The woodwork to be painted three times over. The roof to be
covered with Welsh slate, fastened on with copper nails ; and well pointed and made
weather-proof.
1436. General Estimate. The estimated cost of this erection, if executed according
to this plan and particulars, and at the prices generally allowed in this part of England
(Doncaster), will be about .£750; to which £150 may be added for the out-offices, and
fencing, planting, and laying out the site. The choice of material, the value of labour,
and other local circumstances would materially alter the estimate ; but the Design may
\
I
COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES.
685
be executed in almost any part of England, in a plain and substantial manner, for the
above sum.
1437. Remarks. " The style here attempted is Italian, the principal features of which
are the Tuscan colonnade, and the projecting eaves. These, with the broad-capped chim-
neys, give to the house a comfortable and sheltered appearance. The windows have
no decided character ; but it is presumed they harmonise with the building, at least
sufficiently so to produce the effect required. The site would be better if elevated on a
platform ; the advantages gained by which should never be overlooked, where it can be
applied : but, if this erection were placed by the side of a road or street, its application
would be a difficult matter. This, however, is entirely dependent upon circumstances ;
and, if the situation admitted it, a raised terrace should be introduced, which would add
greatly to the general effect of the whole." This Design has been sent us by M. E.
Hadfield, Esq., of Doncaster ; and all the preceding observations are by that gentleman.
All the liberty we have taken is confined to the title ; and that is, to designating the
inn as in the Anglo-Italian style, which we have done on account of the Gothic labels
over the windows, and the mullions and transoms in them. We like the chimney-tops,
though we are not sure that the projection all round them will be in favour of the
draught of the chimneys : but this fault is not peculiar to Mr. Hadfield. A practical
philosopher observes, on this subject, " Many of the designs for chimney-tops and pots
which occur in your work appear to me to be liable to objection, from their being so
massive, at the orifice of the summit, that the wind will be thrown into eddies by them ;
which, in chimneys of uncertain draught, may interfere with the free discharge of the
smoke. I apprehend, that, whatever may be the form of termination which may be
adopted for chimney-tops, the last portion of them should approach, as nearly as can be,
to a thin tube, which may interfere as little as possible with the flow of the external air,
which is to carry away the smoke laterally. I mean, that, whether in a simple chimney,
or in a group of chimneys, the termination should be like that shown at a in fig. 1 308,
rather than that shown at b." These observations of our correspondent are very im-
portant ; and the soundness of his opinion
seems to be confirmed by the fact, that the
great majority of chimney-pots, in every part of
Britain, are formed of thin earthenware tubes,
or tubes of iron, copper, or zinc. It must be
confessed, however, that there are many broad
far projecting chimney tops, for example in
Switzerland, and in the lake districts of
England, the flues of which appear to draw
very well ; and that, let a chimney be built
and terminated as it will, very little can be
affirmed, by the builder or Architect, till it has
been tried, as to whether it will draw or not. With regard to this alehouse, as a whole,
we think the interior arrangement good, and the effect not bad ; though it does not
possess any strong expression of style. Gothic labels, or, indeed, labels or drip mould-
ings of any sort, under a far-projecting roof, we disapprove of, for reasons already given,
§476.
Design IV. — An Inn in the Italian Style.
1438. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown is fig. 1309, and the ground
plan in fig. 1310. In the latter are shown an entrance-hall, a; bar,6; kitchen, c; ante-room
for stranger guests, before they are shown to their apartments, d ; public room, e ;
back-kitchen, f; dairy, g ; place for fattening poultry and rabbits, h ; brewhouse, i ;
store-room, and boiling-house for horse-food, k ; hay-room, I; coach-houses, m; fod-
dering-bay or hay-room, n ; pigsties, o ; stabling for nine horses, p j assembly-rooms,
q, r; and ante-room, s.
1439. Construction. The walls may be of brick or stone; the floors of cast-iron
girders, tied and braced with wrought iron, supporting flat brick arches ; and the roof of
iron framing, covered with Peake's Grecian tiles.
1440. General Estimate. The cubic contents of this building are 221,940 feet ; which,
at 6d. per foot, will give, as a guess price, ,£"'5548 : 10s.
1441. Remarks. The plan of this inn is from the portfolio of Mr. Kempshot, a Lon-
don Architect, who has built numerous public houses, and also some country churches,
and one or two mausoleums. The elevation is by Mr. Robertson, and we think that
our readers will agree with us in opinion that it does him great credit. There is one
point in which this Design is deficient, but which might be very easily remedied ;
and that is, there is no place to drive under, and take up or set down company, during
()8G COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
i 1 i
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heavy rains. In all inns whatever, we would have the main entrance either under an
archway to the yard or court, 1310
or under such a porch or portico
as would admit of a carriage of
the largest size. We have ex-
perienced the great comfort of
carriage entrances of this kind,
both in inns and in private
houses on the Continent ; and
we are surprised that Architects,
who have travelled, should not
have introduced them more
generally in this country. We
do not recommend that arch-
ways through the building, with
apartments over them, should
be adopted as substitutes for
projecting porticoes : these,
where they occur, we would
rather consider as adjuncts, to
be used when two carriages
chanced to arrive or depart at
the same time. What we should
wish to see would be bold JET^T^^C! -
projecting porticoes, or Gothic
porches, form a prominent part
of the front, such as we see to
some villa residences. Three of
these, which occur to our recol-
lection at this moment, are Lord
Winchelsea's, in Kent, for a
Grecian example ; Eaton Hall,
for a carriage-porch in the
Gothic style ; and General St.
John's cottage, in Sussex, for a
carriage-porch in the oldEnglish
cottage style. The ground plan does not show the wings, which may consist of two
rooms and a passage on each floor.
Design V. — A Suburban Public House in the Old English Style.
1442. The principal object of this Design is to show the arrangement of the bar ana
counter in those public houses which are supported chiefly by the sale of liquors in small
quantities, either drunk in the shop, standing at the counter, or carried home in brought
vessels by the purchasers. The general appearance of this house is shown in fig. 1311,
COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES.
087
1443. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1312, shows a tap-room, a, thirteen
feet by twenty feet, with a porch to a skittle-ground behind ; a bar, b, with a counter
separating it from the shop, or place for standing customers, c : d is the bar parlour for
1312
the master and mistress ; e, a company parlour, with a porch to a garden containing a
bowling-green, quoit-ground, cricket-ground, swimming-pond, and baths ; f is the
kitchen ; and g, the pantry. The main entrance is at h ; the house yard and its offices
are at i ; the skittle-ground and the garden for the tap-room company are at k ; and the
gardens for the parlour company at I. Fig. 1313 is the plan of the chamber or one pair
story, showing a club-room, m ; a waiting-room or bed-room, n ; a room for hats, great-
coats, and other conveniences connected with the club, o ; and best bed-room, p. The
basement story is similar in plan : in it, m is a beer-cellar ; n, a store-cellar ; o, a
coal-cellar; and p, a spirit and wine-cellar. Fig. 1314 is the plan of the attics, showing
three good bed-rooms with fireplaces and presses. Fig. 1315 is a perspective view of the bar
room, which is eleven feet six inches by ten feet, and ten feet high, with a fireplace for a
stove on one side, a door opposite, and another door in the back as seen in the ground
plan, fig. 1312, b. The view is taken looking towards the bar from the shop, c, and sup-
posing the counter, fig. 1316, to be removed. In this view, a shows small casks for
gin, brandy, rum, and other spirituous liquors simple or compound, holding from ten to
twenty gallons each, for retail sale, chiefly in single glasses. The casks are supplied some-
times from the bar-room by means of a small forcing-pump, or by a can called a jack, but
more frequently through a trap-hole in the floor of the room above ; from which hole, a
OSS COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE
1313
Kt.10 5 0
1 ■ ■ • ■ 1 • ■ I I '
1315
COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES.
1316
(389
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flexible tube is conducted to each particular cask. The liquor is supplied to what is called
the fountain, on the counter (r, fig. 1916}, by pipes, which communicate with the casks,
and are connected with them by means of union joints (that is, male and female screws, witn
a nut generally of brass). The pipes are brought dow-n in a case or trunk against the wall,
are led along the back of the counter close under its top, and are afterwards carried
up the hollow column of the fountain, in the upper part of which they are united to
the different cocks by which the liquors are drawn off. There are store vats, 6 b, for
such liquors as are sold in larger quantities, and these are drawn directly from the vats by
cocks. There are bins for wine and liqueurs kept in bottles, which bins are here shown
with the doors shut at c ; at d are shelves for glasses and similar articles ; at e, shelves
for pewter or stone pots for beer, ale, &c. ; at f are pigeonholes for bottles containing
choice compounds, cordials, &c. ; and at g, cupboards for various articles ; h is a fire-
place, with a boiler for hot water round three sides, and a cock to draw it off for constant
use ; and i is the case or trunk, containing the pipes which lead from the upper casks to
the counter fountain. Fig. 1316 is a view of the inside of the counter, looking from the
bar-room, in which k is a six-motion beer-machine to draw the beer and ale of different
ages and qualities from the butts in the cellar. Beneath this machine, at /, is a projecting
tray, the bottom of which is formed of a grating, or of a pierced plate of pewter, the
holes being about the eighth of an inch in diameter; over this the beer is drawn into
the pots and the droppings are collected by this grating, and passed down, by means
of a tube, to a vat in the cellar. This waste beer is taken back by the brewers, and an
I quantity of new beer given in exchange : at m are shelves for glasses, liquor
s;res, &c. ; at n is usually placed a portable apparatus for heating elder wine, §pu
and ale, or other liquois; it consists of a funnel connected with a worm tube, which
passes through a vessel filled with hot water; the water is sometimes kept hot by an iror.
heater like that of an urn, or a spirit lamp ; and at other times, by a tube connected
with the boiler at the back or sides of the kitchen fire. Sometimes there are two funnels
and worms, so that two sorts of liquor can be warmed at once. To warm the liquor, it
is poured into one of the funnels at top, and in about half a minute it is drawn off by
a cock at bottom ; the length of the worm in the hot water allowing time for the latter
to communicate its heat during the passage of the wine through it. There are drawers, o,
for tobacco, cheese, biscuits, sugar, lemons, &c. ; places for bread and other artic!
a recess for pipes, q; and a fountain, r, with twelve cocks, connected with the small
casks, a, in fig. 1315, and with a basin and water for rincing glasses below. In some
places this basin is supplied with two cocks, one for hot and the other for cold water,
with a waste-plug and chain in the bottom of the basin ; and in others there is, imme-
diately beneath the fountain, a saveall, or pierced plate of pewter, through which the
drippings from the glasses percolate, and are collected in a shallow basin below, from
which they are taken out occasionally, and sold at a low price to the poorer customers,
or given away in charity. All the wood-work of this counter is mahogany, and the
metal is pewter, with the exception of the cocks, which are sometimes of brass, though
pewter is considered preferable, as being less liable to corrode.
1444. Remarks. For this Design we are indebted to Mr. Laxton, who has had
great experience in fitting up public houses. We may observe here, that the fitting up
of public house bars in London forms almost a distinct trade; and that the expense
incurred in this way by the owners of public houses is almost incredible, every one
vying with his neighbour in convenient arrangement, general display, rich carving, brass-
work, finely veined mahogany, and ornamental painting. The carving of one ornament
alone, in that of Mr. Weller, the Grapes, in Old street Road, cost £100; the work-
4 i
690 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
manship was by one of the first carvers in wood in London. Three public houses, or
rather gin-shops, have been lately fitted up in Lamb's Conduit Street, at an expense, for
the bar alone, of upwards of /.:.'< 100 each. We have no doubt, however, that progressive
improvements will be made, even in these bars. The fireplace, for example, is a clumsy
mode of heating water, in an apartment where there is but little room to spare. In
every town and village where gas is laid on, not only in bars but in kitchens, the heat-
ing of water, and various operations of cookery, might be readily effected without the
aid of common fires in any form. A correspondent has sent us the following important
communication on this subject, to which we invite the attention of all who live in locali-
ties u here gas can be obtained.
1445. Healing Water and cooking by Gas- " Mr. Strutt, many years ago, affirmed that
coal gas, properly applied, would be the cheapest fuel for cooking. This has been so
fully confirmed by late trials here (Edinburgh), that I have no doubt that, in all
cases when it can be had, it should form part of the arrangement of a working man's
dwelling, to have the means of so applying it. The plan, which has succeeded here, is as
follows : a case or tube of thin rolled iron is made of about two feet, or two feet and a half,
lonf, with a soldered joint; its diameter may be from three inches to ten inches, according
to the use it is to be put to. Over the mouth of this a piece of wire gauze, of about
forty-five wires to the inch, is fixed by an iron hoop : from the sides of the tube, close to
the hoop, three pieces of iron are made to project, by means of which the tube may be
supported by the edges of a circular hole in a table or shelf, shown by the dotted circle
n fig. 1:517. When so placed, if gas be admitted at the lower extremity of the case or
tube, it will mix with the common air within it ; and,
the mixture being lighter than the common air, it
will rise and pass through the meshes of the wire
gauze. If the mixture be set fire to above the gauze,
it will continue to burn there, without igniting what
is below it ; and, although the flame gives scarcely any
light, it gives out great heat, and quickly boils any fluid
in a vessel placed on a stand two inches over it.
Cases of three or four inches diameter answer well for
tea-kettles, sauce or stew pans ; and one of nine or ten
inches is fully sufficient for a large fish-kettle, or a
round of beef, or for sending off steam to heat a bath.
The consumption of gas of such a stove costs, at the
prices charged here for gas, about id. an hour. To use the gas conveniently and econo-
mically in such an apparatus, each gas branch should be furnished with two stopcocks,
one of which only should be accessible to the cook : by the other, the workman who \\xl-;
the apparatus should regulate the maximum quantity of gas which can pass when the
accessible cock is fully opened. The cook will then have the power of diminishing and
shutting off the gas, but not of admitting an undue quantity. The point for regulating
is the commencement of the appearance of yellow flame on the tip of the blue cone. If
more gas be admitted after this, carbon is deposited on the bottoms of the cooking- vessels,
from the combustion not being completed; while, if the due proportion be observed, the
cooking may be performed in bright-bottomed vessels without sensibly tarnishing them.
If these gas stoves be placed in the surface of a table, the sides and ends should be boxed
up from the under side of the table nearly to the ground, to prevent disturbing currents
of air from interfering with the regular rise of the gas mixture in the cases."
Design VI. — A Hedge Alehouse of the smallest Size.
1446. The general Appearance is shown in the perspective view, fig. 1318, and
the ground plan in fig. 13J9. The latter, to a scale of one inch to nineteen feet,
COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES.
()91
contains a porch, o; vestibule, b; tap-room and kitchen, c; bar, having" a command of
the tap-room and parlour, by borrowed lights on both sides, d; parlour, e; pantry,/";
china-closet, g ; master's bed-room, h ; and water-closet, ». There is a staircase, h, to
the floor above, which contains three good bed-rooms ; over which, and over the parlour,
are ^arrets. Two of these garret bed-rooms have fireplaces, as shown in the section
A B, fig. 1320.
1447. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of brick, the chimney tops of
artificial stone, and the roofing of grey slate.
1448. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 27,634 feet; which, at 4d. per foot, is
£460: lis.: 4d.
1449. Bemarks. This Design is also by Mr. Ross of Bristol, and^ seems good in
point of arrangement ; though Mr. Ross suggests that it might be an improvement if
the bar and staircase were to change places. It would make a very comfortable private
cottage, d being a store-room, instead of a bar, and the other places remaining in their
present state ; unless, indeed, the large porch, a, were made a green-house, or aviary, or
place for sculpture, antiquities, or a museum.
692
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Design VII. — A Country Public House in the Italian Style.
1-450. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in the elevation, fig. 1321, and
the ground plan in fig. 1 322, which contains a carriage entrance, a, with a passage, b
between it and an entrance-porch, c. There are a bar, d ; bar-room, e ; parlour, f; kitchen,
g ; staircase, h ; small parlour, * ; loggia or place for drinking in, k ; and outside stair-
case to rooms for company in the upper part of the tower, which is circular, and also
over part of the house.
1322
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1451. Remarks. This Design has been sent us by Edward Buckton Lamb, Esq.
Architect. As an elevation, it is very picturesque, and well calculated for a public house
of recreation in a country commanding fine views. The carriage entrance is a most
desirable feature, and, as already observed, § 1141, ought never to be omitted.
COUNTRY INNS AND PUBLIC HOUSES.
693
Design VIII. — A small Inn or Public House in the Swiss Style.
1452. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1323, consists of an entrance to the
bar, a; bar, b; cellar, c; family parlour, d; kitchen, e; store-closet,y; pantry, g; water-
closet, h ; entrance lobby ;'; tap-room, k; public parlour,/; lobby, m ; bakehouse, n ;
dust-hole, o; wood-house, p ; coal-house, q ; privies, rr; entrance to cricket and quoit
ground, s ; situation of the baths, t ; garden, u ; terrace, v v ; terraced walk to the stairs
leading to the balcony, w ; skittle-ground, x. The first floor consists of a club-room,
fio-. 1324, a; large bed-room, b; staircase, c ; lobby, d; bed-room, e ; family bed-roomy-
terrace, g g. There is one large bed-room and two small ones in the attic floor.
1325
694< COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1453. Construction. The foundations are to be built of stone or brickwork, and
carried up two feet above the level of the terrace ; the walls containing the flues and the
chimney stacks are also to be of stone or brickwork. The platform on which the terrace
is raised is to be formed of the earth dug out of the foundations ; and, after being pro-
perly rammed, and allowed time to settle, it is to be paved with flat tiles. The railings
surrounding the terrace are to be formed by wooden posts driven firmly into the platform
at die angles, and the intermediate spaces are to be filled in with roughly turned
balusters, coped with a light wooden rail. The balconies to be supported by wooden
brackets, as shown in the elevation ; and the balusters of the outside stairs are to corre-
spond with those of the terrace. The walls above the solid stone or brickwork are to be
framed of wood in the Swiss manner, and covered with boards both outside and inside.
The roof is to be covered with shingles or with tiles, and the projecting eaves are to be
supported by brackets, and by a continuation of the common rafters; the projections over
the gable ends are also to be supported by solid wooden brackets. The tops of the
chimney shafts are to be covered with tarred boards, or with thin flag-stones ; and the
smoke is to escape at the lateral openings, as shown in the elevation. The ornaments on
the roof are to be of very light cast iron, painted of an oak colour. The windows may
be common sashes, hung in the usual way ; or they may be framed in the Italian or Swiss
manner, and hinged so as to open
inwards. The oven is to be built of
fire bricks, having the joints radiat-
ing to centres. All the ornamental
woodwork to be roughly carved and
notched with the axe and chisel.
The water-closet and privies are
to be lined with g-inch deal two
feet above the seats, and are to
have proper pans, traps, and drains.
The inconvenience often occa-
sioned by leaving the lid of the
seat off, may be remedied by the
following very simple contrivance,
shown by fig. 1325. Immediately
behind the lid, when up, let a small
fillet of wood be hinged by a piece
of leather at the upper end, a, and
a cord fixed at its lower end, b,
passing over the pulleys fixed in the
ceiling at c c, to the door, d. It will
be seen that if the door be opened
outwards, the cord passing over the
pulleys raises the fillet of wood, and
if the lid has been left open, it
throws it down with such force as
not only to correct the omission, but to make every one in the house aware of it.
1454. Remarks. " The terraces in front may have seats for the accommodation of
those who wish to sit in the open air ; and the balcony may be a comfortable retreat in
mild rainy weather, being well protected by the projecting roof; it will also be a very
convenient place for invalids. A stove is shown in the bar, both for warming the
apartment, and for keeping water hot to mix with the liquors. The bar or shop, at a, is
for retailing liquors to those who are to carry them away ; and a temporary division is
thrown across the bar, to separate the shop department from the company passing into
the lobby, i. The platform opposite the bar communicates with the terraces on each
side, and a walk is shown from the terrace opposite the family parlour, passing through
the porch, and descending a few steps to the garden, v. The garden may also be entered
by the kitchen, e, and also through the cricket-ground, s. The bar, the family parlour,
and the kitchen, are arranged as near to each other as possible, for the sake of con-
venience ; and an additional door is made to enter into this parlour close by the kitchen
door, both to prevent the inconvenience of carrying hot dishes through the lobby, m, and
to afford more private access to the water-closet, h. The covered yard in front of the
privies will be found very useful in keeping the skittles and quoits from the weather
when not in use. Warm, cold, and shower baths may be erected at t ; and swimming-
ponds, surrounded by boarding, may be made at the extremity of the cricket-ground. If
more cellarage be required than the small cellar, c, cellars might be made under the tap-
room and family parlour, descending by a staircase where the present cellar is shown.
The club-room, a, may be used as a room for public meetings; and, at election time, it
FINISHING OF COUNTRY INNS.
6&
might be used as a committee-room, at which times the balcony would be a suitable
place from which the candidates might deliver their opinions to the electors. The out-
side entrance staircase will be found a very convenient means of access to the club-room,
and will prevent company from being annoyed by those who may be enjoying themselves
on the terrace in front. If this building were situated in a district where there were no
scientific institutions, the club-room might be occasionally used as a place for delivering
lectures in to a small company, on mechanics and chemistry, and other branches of
experimental philosophy; and, in this case, the room over the bar might be used as a
reading-room or library. It would, however, be preferable to have a regular mechanics'
institution, that would accommodate a greater number of persons, if the inhabitants
could afford to support such an institution ; and the possibility of this being made a
lecture-room is only suggested in order that refreshments for the body and mind might
be supplied in the same quarter, to suit the various tastes of various individuals." This
Design, and the preceding description and remarks, have been composed by Mr. Robertson ;
and we think they do credit to his judgment in arrangement, and his taste in composing
1 326
elevations. Its general appearance, fig. 1S26, reminds us of the very beautiful wine-
house and pleasure-garden, in the Swiss style, at Silberberg, near Stuttgard.
Sect. III. Of the Finishing, Filtings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of Country Inns and
Public Houses.
14.55. The Finishing, Filtings-up, and Futures of Inns differ from those of private
houses chiefly in the extent of those belonging to the kitchen and its offices; and the
peculiarity of those required for the bar. We shall take in succession the bar, the
kitchen, and the store-room, larder, and other offices.
Subsect. 1. Of the Finishing, Fittings-vp, Fixtures, and Furniture of the Bar of an Inn
or Public House.
1456. The Finishing and Fittings-up of the Par include, in large inns, an iron safe
or chest, for books, valuable papers, and money ; pigeonholes, marked with the letters
of the alphabet, for letters, accounts, and general purposes ; and other pigeonholes,
marked with the numbers of all the different apartments, for letters or other articles
left for, or belonging to, any of the guests. In small inns, there is a cupboard for glass
and china, together with drawers and shelves for tea and coffee urns, tea-pots, coffee-
pots, and punch bowls, and a variety of miscellaneous articles ; there are also vertical
divisions for tea-trays, waiters, and similar things : and, in public houses, there is a supply
of hot and cold water from cocks over a sink ; and, as we have seen, Design V,
§ 1443, a complete system of tubes or pipes, for drawing liquors from casks, either in
the bar-room, in an adjoining room, or in the cellar beneath. In presses and drawers in
the bar are also kept, in the smaller inns, the table linen, napery, and plate of every
description. Some years ago, an invention was exhibited in London, called a domestic
telegraph, which was considered to be well adapted for very large inns. A dial, with
a face like that of a clock, but with the names of the articles most in use in coffee-
rooms inscribed round the plate, instead of tlit figures of the hours, and with a hand
090
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
to point to the articles required, was fixed up in the coflee-room or in the bar, and was
muted by wires and machinery with a corresponding dial in the kitchen. The move-
ment of the hands being sympathetic, orders were thus communicated from the one to
the other, a bell being previously rung to direct attention. Speaking pipes, howevei,
are much better adapted for this purpose, though either can seldom be wanted in a
country inn. A bell to the kitchen, another to the stables, a third for the waiter, and a
fourth for the chambermaid, arc indispensable in the bars of large inns; but in small
ones, a bell for the hostler, and another for the head waiter, are deemed sufficient.
1457. Rising Cupboards. There is a contrivance, in some coffee-houses in London,
for sending up articles from the kitchen to the bar, or to any other upper room, in a
vertical tube or trunk. This is effected in two ways. The first is by a single box, or
cupboard, suspended by a cord and pulleys, and balanced by a weight, as in fig. 1327,
in which a is the box or cupboard, with a shelf in the middle ; b b, two pulleys, over
which the cord passes which is attached to the lid of the box at one end, and to the mass
of iron, c, of equivalent weight, at the other ; d is a wooden rod, attached by a piece of
cord, or two or three links of a chain, to a staple in the bottom of the box, by which the
person in the kitchen below pulls it down, or pushes it up ; e is the top of the counter of
the bar; andy* the surface of the bar floor. In some cases the cupboard is balanced by
two weights, one on each side, when the centre pulley becomes unnecessary, and the top
of the cupboard, on which articles may be placed, rises to the level of the surface of the
counter, or of any table to which the apparatus may be affixed, so as to appear a part of
1328
it. By the second mode there are two cupboards, fig. 132$, g g, which balance each
other, and arc attached by cords, fastened to staples in the exterior surfaces of the tops
and bottoms of each cupboard. These cords run on the two cast-iron wheels, h h, each
of which is about twenty inches in diameter, and the cupboards are so placed as that,
when one is at the top of the trunk, or place of delivery, j, the other is at the bottom, or
place of reception, h In order that the cupboards may move up and down with perfect
ease and steadiness, two beads or fillets are nailed on each of their exterior sides, as in
fig. 1320, at 1 1; and grooves arc formed in the sides of the trunk, by fillets railed on, as
FINISHING OF COUNTRY INNS.
697
al m »t. When the second description of rising cupboard 1329
is used, il is necessary to have one for each floor; but the
former kind may serve all the floors of a house, openings
being made at the proper height in each floor, for a person
to put in his hands in order to take out, or to put in,
articles, and to move the cord either upwards or down-
wards, as may be required. The second mode is much the
most convenient for large inns ; but the first is sufficient
for small ones. One of the cupboards, in fig. 1328, is sup-
posed to contain the principal dishes of a single course; and while the other is at the
bottom, ready to receive the dishes of the second course from the kitchen, it is at the side-
board in the dining-room, or in any other convenient place near it, for receiving and takino-
down the empty dishes. Fig. 1327 may be seen in action at the shop of Mr. Rope, Con-
fectioner, in Lamb's Conduit Street; and fig. 1328, adapted both to the ground floor and
the first floor, at the Albion Tavern, Drury Lane Theatre. The latter was constructed
by Mr. Argent, Bricklayer and Carpenter, Seabright Place, Hackney Road, and is
found to save a great deal of labour in carrying the dishes up and down stairs, besides
keeping the articles hot. Indeed, by having a cast-iron plate, heated by steam, at the
bottom of each trunk, it may be rendered a hot closet, for all its length ; and, when the
apparatus of the rising cupboard is not used, it might serve for conveying heat from the
kitchen to the upper rooms. In some inns the cupboard is raised or lowered at pleasure
by a cord and pulley, operated on by a rack and pinion in the kitchen ; orders being
given by the waiter above through a speaking-tube, and attention being directed to the
tube by the waiter in the bar or upper room first ringing a bell. In some eating-
houses, in London, the tube is circular, and about a foot in diameter, that size being
sufficient for sending up dinners for individuals in two or three covers placed one over
another; but in inns where large parties are given, the tubes are two or three feet
square, and the boxes, which move up and down in them, are fitted up with shelves, and
may be kept perfectly hot by a vessel of hot water or an iron heater being placed in the
lowest shelf. The tubes in which these boxes move are generally formed alongside the
staircase. In some private houses in Russia, for example, at Astankina, near Moscow,
there is, or was, when we saw it, in 1814, a contrivance for the descent and return of
the entire dining-table to and from the kitchen ; the dining-table, in this case, being sur-
rounded by a fixed margin, on which the wine was kept. This also can, however, be
seldom wanted in a country inn, where the kitchen may almost always be on the same
floor with the principal dining-rooms. A horizontal tube, or hot tunnel, with grooves
for a small carriage like a railway waggon, to be drawn from one end to the other by
cords, one at each end, for conveying the dinner from the kitchen to a distant part of
the house, may possibly, in some cases, be wanted, and could easily be constructed along
the side of a straight passage.
1458. Among the Fixtures of the Bar may be included a folding register grate,
which costs, in London, £l : 7s., and is one of the best things of the kind in use
either for a bar, a library, or any other room where valuable papers are kept ;
or for a sick-room, or nursery, or even for common bed-rooms, where the expense is not
an object. The doors of this stove are in two parts, the upper and the lower ; and each
part consists of four divisions, which are hinged to each other, and fold back so as to
present the appearance of fig. 1330 when not in use. When it is desired to blow the
fire, after being newly lighted, or if it gets low, the upper half of the doors may be
shut, as in fig. 1331. On the other hand, when the fire burns too rapidly, or it is not
wanted, the lower doors may be shut; which, by excluding the draught of air through
the fuel, will prevent combustion. On leaving the room at any time, or on retiring to
1330 1331
698
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
bed, all the doors maybe wholly or partially closed, so as to put out the fire, or keep it
barely alive. This description of stove has also the farther advantages, that it increases
the draught of slow-drawing or smoky chimneys ; and that, in summer, when tires are
not wanted, it may be shut close, to prevent the descent of air from the chimney into the
room. By filling in the panels of the shutters with talc instead of iron, a very perfect
description of fireplace might be formed ; and, while many of the advantages of a close
stove might be obtained, the English prejudices in favour of the sight of the fire might
still be gratified. This might also be done, and, at the same time, safety and ventilation
insured, if the panels were filled in with brass wire.
1459. In the Scullery or Back-
Kitchen of an inn, a large sink will
be required, of which there are
numerous convenient kinds made
in cast iron. Fig. 1332 is manu-
factured by Mr. Mallet of Dublin.
It has three divisions : a is a com-
mon sink, from which the water
or other fluid runs away without
impediment through the adjacent
column or support; b is a trough,
which may be filled with water for
washing vegetables, and which is
furnished with a plug and waste-pipe
at bottom ; c is an inclined plane
grooved on the surface, for draining
vegetables, fish, &c. ; and d d are
cocks for supplying water. Side-
tables or dressers, either in the
kitchen or scullery, or in any of
the other apartments connected with them, may be fixed to the wall, and supported by
cast-iron brackets, fig. 1333, in the manner recommended for cottage and farm furniture.
1333
Kitchen tables are generally formed of the wood of the ash, as being white, hard, and
durable.
Subsect. 2. Of the Finisliing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture for the other Offices.
of Inns-
1460. The general Store-room is fitted up with large presses and drawers for the bed-
room linen and for furniture, such as curtains, table-covers, &c, not in common use.
The carpets, mats, and floorcloths of different descriptions are kept in closets on the
particular floors to which they belong. In the general store-room are also kept afl
groceries, and other dry goods usually purchased in large quantities. Coffee, pepper,
and spice mills are fixtures generally placed here, or, in small inns, in the bar-room. A
napkin press, fig. 1 334, is one of the most useful articles of inn furniture, since table-
cloths, napkins, towels, &c, after having been used, but not soiled, if neatly folded
and pressed, may be made to look as if newly washed and mangled.
1461. The Larder ought to be in a cool shady situation, and should be well ventilated
by windows or other openings on, at least, two sides, covered with wire or haircloths;
and also by openings or flues from the ceiling or top of the side walls, conducted to
the side of some chimney, in which there is constantly kept a fire ; in order that the
heat of the smoke flue, by passing through to the air flue, may create a continual
draught through the larder. In complete inns, there are separate larders for butcher's
meat, fresh and cooked, venison, game, fish, and even vegetables: there ought also to be
a salting-room, and a house for smoking hams, tongues, &c. The fish larder has a well
or cistern for ice, in which fish are kept during summer, with troughs of water for
FINISHING OF COUNTRY INNS.
699
live eels, and cisterns for feeding oysters, and also for crawfish. In summer, the fish is
kept on a table under a case of
fine wirecloth, that it may be
seen, t'«r the purpose of selection,
by guests, without uncovering it
to admit the flies. Cold meat, and
also raw meat for steaks and chops
are covered in a similar manner
in some of the London larders.
The vegetable larder, as we have
already observed, § 7i>7, ought,
if convenient, to be near the ice-
house. In addition to larders
for preserving these different
kinds of provisions, there ought
also to be a cellar or other place
for intenerating such meat as
may be required to be dressed
before it lias hung the usual
time. As coating poultry or
butcher's meat with yeast, or rub-
bing it over with, or immersing
it in, charcoal, tends to freshen it when it has been kept too long, so burying it
in earth, by accelerating putrefaction, serves to render it tender. It is well known,
that a fowl of any kind, not many hours killed, if buried iive or six hours in common
garden soil, becomes as tender as if it had been kept above ground two or three days.
Fowls newly killed, and dressed before they are cold (savagelike though the practice is),
are always perfectly tender ; as are also all the internal parts of animals. Hanging
fowls or meat in the shade of a fig tree, or any tree of the same natural order, is also
found to make them tender. Nettles belong to the same natural order ; and it is said
that slices of meat, such as beefsteaks, &c, rubbed over with nettle leaves, or laid on
and covered with them, will become quite tender in a few hours.
1462. The FUtings-up of the Cellars of Inns have nothing peculiar. Cast-iron bins
for wines have been employed in London, to save room ; but, as they are not so durable
as brick or stone, they are not approved of in cases where there is abundance of space.
It is also said that the effect which the changes of temperature produce upon iron has
some influence on the state of port wine stored in iron bins, it being well known that
this wine is more liable to be rendered muddy by cold than any other.
1463. The Cellar Furniture for an Inn includes a machine for racking wine from one
cask to another, of which there are various sorts ; one, recently invented by Mr. Hilton,
is figured and described in the Trans, of the Soc. of Arts, vol. xlviii. p. TO: and a
machine for bottling wine ; one of which has been invented by Mr. Masterman of
London, by which a number of bottles may be filled at the same time, and this with
such rapidity, that six dozen of common quart bottles may be filled in ten minutes.
The same gentleman has also invented a machine for corking five or six bottles at
a time ; so that, in extensive concerns, the business of bottling and corking may be
reduced to a tenth part of the usual labour. Both machines cost very little ; they will
be found figured and described in the Repertory of Arts, new series, vol. i. ; and the bot-
tling-machine, which is a very beautiful and effective apparatus, may be seen in operation
in the extensive wine vaults of Carbonell and Company, Regent Street, London. The
common bottling-machine we have already given, § 1324, fig. 1189. An improved mode
of preserving beer from souring has been invented by our correspondent, Mr. Mallet of
Dublin, which is well deserving the attention of those who know what it is to drink
table beer charged with carbonic acid gas. By Mr. Mallet's apparatus the external air
is not only completely excluded, but the beer may be impregnated with gas, as in the
manufacture of soda water. The cost is little more than that of the patent vent peg.
(See Mech. Mag- vol. xv. p. 264.)
1464. A Washing and Wringing Machine for a farm house has been already given ;
and we shall now recommend one for an inn, which is in use in the Derbyshire Infirmary
and in other establishments. This machine may either be turned by manual labour, by
a horse, or by steam ; and as, in a large inn, a steam-engine of one-horse power might
always be combined with the steam apparatus for other purposes, it might be em-
ployed for driving different kinds of machinery, such as a washing-machine, a churn,
a straw-cutter, oat-bruiser, &c. It has been remarked to us by a correspondent, who has
paid great attention to the subject of domestic economy, that the machine we are about
to describe is the only one he ever saw which did no injury to linen. It was adapted
700 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
by Mr. William Strutt, from the common washing-wheel; and is thus described in
Sylvester's Domestit Economy : — " Two
sides of the wash-house are provided with
stone benches. In the centre of the roon
is a boiler, containing 100 gallons of water
and near it stands the washing-machine.
There are also several wooden tubs fin
the purpose of washing by hand occasion-
ally. Pig. 1SS5 is a perspective view
of the washing-machine ; c d is a water-
tight cistern, in which the cylinder a
revolves. The interior of this cylinder is
divided into four revolvers. One quarter
of the end of the cylinder is removed in
the figure, to show the interior of one of
these cavities. The proper entrances
into these are by small doors, of which
there is one in each, as seen at /* : here
the linen is introduced, and the doors are
then closed. The perforations in the cy-
linder, and in the separations of the ca-
vities, are for the admission of water ; the
linen is wetted, and rubbed with soap, the
night before washing. Before the opera-
tion commences, as much cold water is put
into the outer vessel, c d, as will rise to the
height of four or five inches in the cylinder, a. The vessel, c d, is provided with a steam-
pipe from the steam-engine boiler. The steam is let in until the water and linen are heated
to the maximum, which is something below the boiling point. The part b being turned
down, the inner cylinder is put in motion, and the holes in its sides freely admit the hot
water and steam. The velocity of the cylinder should be such that the linen may be heard
to fall from one side to the other every time it is raised out of the water. This discharges
most of the water from it, audit becomes filled with a fresh portion every time it dips into
the water below. If the motion be too rapid, the linen remains against the sides of the
cylinder ; if too slow, it slides down the sides. In either case, little or no effect is pro-
duced. When the machine moves at a proper speed, one change of linen will be washed
in less than half an hour. It must be observed, that during this process the quantity of
soap in the machine should be such as to produce a strong lather ; so that, if a sufficient
quantity has not been rubbed upon the clothes before they were put into the machine,
more soap must be added, either in the state of thin shavings, or previously dissolved
in hot water. A great advantage will be derived from the use of an alkali, when it is
used in a proper state, and with caution. The operation of the machine consists merely
in letting the clothes fall from one side of the compartment to the other, so that the
texture is less injured than by any other mode of washing, and the water, being nearly
at the boiling point, has a much greater effect in dissolving the dirt, than at the low
temperature which can be borne by the hand of the washerwoman. The dirty water
may be let off in a few seconds by a cock in the bottom of the fixed vessel, which may be
immediately supplied with fresh water, and with steam to heat it. All the labour of
lading the dirty water out, and pouring fresh water in, is saved by pipes being laid for its
admission and exit ; and the constant supply of steam renders the presence of fireplaces
unnecessary. After the clothes are removed from the machine, some of them require to
be looked over, and sometimes a little hand-washing is necessary ; but the greatest pro-
portion are finished by the machine alone. The next process is boiling the clothes,
which is performed in the boiler above mentioned : it is placed in the middle of the
wash-house, for the purpose of getting round it. There are three pipes attached to it :
one introduces cold water, a second steam, and a third carries the waste water away.
During the boiling process, the boiler is covered; the edge of the cover fits into a
groove, which goes round the top of the boiler. This groove, being filled with water,
prevents the escape of steam, and by that means economises the heat. The linen is now
taken from the boiler, and laid upon a board or tray, filled with small holes, and placed
over the boiler ; by which means the water, which contains much soap, is drained
out, and used for the process of washing in the machine. Near the ceiling of the wash-
house, there is an opening into a chimney, which is for the express purpose of carrying
off the vapour." (Sylvester's Philosophy of Domestic Economy, p. 27.)
146*/;. The Morfr of Wringing is as follows : — " The linen is placed in a square bag
of strong sacking, kepi open by wire rings ; this hag is contained in a cast-iron box, which
FINISHING OF COUNTRY INNS.
701
opens on one side to admit the linen, and then eloses firmly. The interior surface of
the box is grooved, to receive the water when pressed out. The pressure is applied by
means of a sliding plate, which fits the box, and is forced against the end of the bag by
a rack and pinion, and turned by a winch. The sides of box prevent the bag from be-
coming wider; the pressure applied has therefore the effect of shortening tlte bag, till all
the water is pressed out into the grooves. By this machine, the clothes are squeezed
much drier than by the common method ; and, the pressure upon all parts being uniform,
less injury is done to the texture of the linen." (Ibid. p. 62.)
1466. In the Laundry of an Inn there might be a drying-closet, heated either by steam
or by a hot-air stove, in the very superior manner described by Mr. Sylvester, as being
in use in the Derbyshire Infirmary. Instead of the cockle employed in that institution,
a furnace and flues, the latter of cast iron, might be made use of. In this case, the flues
might be arranged in the manner adopted by Mr. Read in his hop-kiln, § 1272, the con-
volutions being brought into a space not exceeding the area of the bottom of the drying-
closet. On this subject we refer our readers to the drying-closet which we have already
given, § 306, and to that described in the work of Mr. Sylvester.
1467. For the Water-closet of the Kitchen Courts and Stable Courts of Inns, we should
recommend the very excellent plan adopted in the Derbyshire Infirmary, and thus
described by Mr. Sylvester :
— " The great superiority
of this water-closetabove all
others is, its preventing any
smell, without the least care
of the person using it. The
person who enters it fills it
with fresh air, which is left
behindon coming out. The
manner in which this is ef-
fected we shall now explain.
Fig. 1336 is a plan of the
water-closet : a, the en-
trance into the first part ;
b is a door attached to, and
turning upon the arbor (a
spindle or axis) c, which
is shown more at large at
the same letter in fig. 1338 ;
d is a bar of wood inserted
into the same, and having
the same radius with the door,
fits the concave cy-
lindrical space, the
air is driven before
d, and escapes at the
ceiling over the seat,
e; by this motion the
door is brought up
to the wooden divi-
sion, f, and the end
of the bar, d, is
brought to the point
g; h is a small closet,
made for the pur-
pose of reducing the
space in front of the
seat to what is suf-
ficient room. When
the person returns,
he is obliged to
push the bar, d,
which now is in the
position c a, before
him, till he brings
it close against the other side of f During the returning motion, one of the panels
of the door, i, in fig. 1 337, is made a valve, and, opening inwards, lets in fresh air
to supply the place of that driver, out on entering the closet. At one particular
By pushing against the door, which from top to bottom
1337
=£
1
J
-A
702 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
point in returning, the arbor c, in fig. 1338, gives motion to certain machinery, which
lets the water through the seat in the same manner as in the common water-closet.
Indeed, the seat part of this closet is the same, in every respect, as those invented by
Bramafa ; by which the water is made to flow by
raising a lever. The construction of this part is
shown in fig. 1:537. The arbor c, in fig. 1338, by
its motion carries round the wheel, k I, which, in
entering the closet, does not act upon the lever, m,
but raises it on its return, and opens the valve, n,
which allows the water above to descend through
the seat, e. It will be seen by examining the wheel,
ft 1, which is better seen in fig. 1338, how it affects
the lever on its return only. The part /, to a
certain extent, towards k, is a steel spring, which
bends upwards ; so that, if the wheel be moving from
k towards /, the part I will go over the pulley, o,
and when it gets to the protuberance at h, the lever,
in, will be pulled down, the valve, n, raised, and the
water will flow till the protuberance at k passes
over. When the closet is entered, the opposite side
of the wheel passes under the pulley, o, and, moving
from /( to /, the spring is bent downwards, and the
lever, m, is not acted upon. The cylindrical cavity
is formed of brickwork, and plastered inside. The
plaster, while wet, is scraped by the door, which gives it its proper cylindrical shape."
(Phil, of Dom. Econ. p. 49.) This water-closet, we are informed by Mr. Sylvester, was
invented by Mr. William Strutt, in the year 1 806 ; and it has been in use in his own
family, and in those of several of his friends, ever since. We agree with Mr. Sylvester,
in thinking it the most perfect of all water-closets ; because, besides answering com-
pletely the intention of a water-closet, it does so independently of any care of the person
using it, and is not likely to go easily out of repair, unless it is so placed as to admit
of the water being frozen during very cold weather. In thus noticing it, we cannot
help expressing our admiration of the genius and the benevolent mind of Mr. Strutt,
and also paying a tribute to the memory of the late amiable and scientific engineer,
Mr. Sylvester, who has so ably portrayed Mr. Strutt's inventions, in a work which
ought to be in the hands of every Architect and furnishing ironmonger.
1468. A Cleaning House or Shed is essential to the kitchen court of every inn; and
perhaps no part of such establishments stands more in want of improvement. We refer,
for hints on this subject, to what we have said when treating of the interior finishing of
the kitchen court of farm houses, § 1384 and § 1385.
1469. Other Details for the fittings-up and furniture of this department of Country
Inns will be found in the corresponding sections in Book I. ; and under Farm House
Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture, § 1371.
Subsect. 3. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of the Inn
generally.
1470. All Inns on a large Scale ought, in our opinion, to be heated by steam, hot
water, or hot air. The last mode is much better adapted for an hospital, a college, or a
large dwelling-house, than an inn ; because, in the former cases, it is supposed that the
whole house is to be regularly heated, whereas in the latter, only one room will require
to be heated at a time, as guests arrive. For this purpose, steam and hot water,
especially the former, are much better adapted than hot air. By having proper vessels
for containing steam in every apartment, they may be filled with it from the steam
apparatus in the kitchen, a few moments after the ai rival of every guest ; and these
vessels may, in like manner, be deprived of their steam at the instant of his depar-
ture. As the same instantaneous effect could not be produced by the hot-water system
of heating, and woidd occasion too much expense by the hot-air system, we necessarily
arrive at the conclusion, that heating by steam is the mode best adapted for inns and
public houses, in countries where heating by common stoves is not adopted.
1471. When an Inn is to be heated by common cast-iron Stoves, decidedly the best, in
our opinion, is that of Mr. Nott, recently brought into notice. When once lighted and
filled with coal, it requires no more attention during twelve hours: it consumes its own
smoke, shows the fire through a window of talc, and gives out a continued moderate heat,
never so intense as to decompose the water held in suspension in the air, but always
sufficient to keep a room warm. The two important features in this stove, by which it
TURNJTURE OF COUNTRY INNS. 703
effects so much with so little fuel, are, that it is lined with fire-hrick, and that the ignited
fuel is protected from the sudden rushing in of cold air by a grating which may be com-
pared to that of a safety lamp. The display of the burning fuel through a window of
talc is a happy mode of meeting half-way the prejudices of Englishmen in favour of an
open fire.
1472. The general Lighting of an Inn by Gas seems an improvement suited to the
progress of the age ; and perhaps, when the art is brought to a greater degree of perfec-
tion than it now is, the consumption of gas in sitting-rooms may be no more objectionable
than the consumption of oil or tallow. At all events, it seems highly desirable that the
outside lamps, halls, passages, staircases, and public rooms should be lighted by gas; and
this by creating a demand for gas for lighting, will lead to its use for cooking also.
1473. The general System of Bells and Speaking- Pipes for an inn requires the con-
sideration of the Architect in planning the building. Where the edifice is a cube or a
parallelogram, great simplicity, and at the same time efficiency, may be obtained by
conducting all the principal vertical wires in one trunk, and all the horizontal ones in
another, in the upper part of the house ; but when there is great irregularity in the out-
line of the ground plan, and the height of different parts of the elevation, all that the
Architect can do is to trust to the ingenuity of the bell-hanger. Speaking-pipes, as we
have before observed, are chiefly for the use of the master and his domestics.
1474. In lofty Inns, we have often thought that it might be desirable to have an
ascending and descending platform, on the principle of the ascending and descending
cupboards or waiters, § 1457; not only for the ascent and descent of domestics, but even
for guests. Such a platform was constructed by the late General Bentham, in the
Panopticon erected for the Empress Catherine at Petersburgh ; and we have ascended
and descended it with an incredibly small degree of exertion. The principle might be
easily applied to inns, and we leave it to the ingenious Architect to do so.
1475. Water, both hot and cold, may easily be supplied to all the rooms of an inn, by
having two cisterns sufficiently elevated, in any part under the roof, where they will be
protected from the frost. The water in one of these cisterns may be heated by steam,
and there may be a pipe from each cistern into every bed-room, terminating over a wash-
hand stand, with a waste pipe attached. It is not desirable, however, to take the supply
for the lower rooms from cisterns of a greater height than one story above them ;
because, when taken from a greater height, the pressure of the water on the cocks soon
occasions leakage. The best mode is, to have cisterns on each story for the use of that
immediately underneath ; and one close under the roof, for the supply of the garrets.
It is interesting to reflect on the very small amount of manual labour which would be
required in an inn where all the roasting was performed in a roaster, or by gas, or in one
of Perkins's hot-water ovens ; all the rooms heated by steam, and supplied by hot and
cold water pipes, not only over a wash-hand basin, but over a seat, fitted also with a
waste pipe, to serve for a water-closet ; all the passages and public rooms lighted by gas ;
and all the heavy operations, such as pumping, churning, washing, wringing, mangling,
kneading, mincing, pounding, chopping, brushing, cleaning shoes, knives and forks, &c,
done by a one-horse steam-engine. A great step in the progress of civilisation will be
gained by dispensing altogether with the out-door labours of females, and diminishing, as
much as possible, the severity of their in-door services. No enjoyment, from the sight of
a polished pai-lour grate, can compensate to us for the painful thought of the quantity of
female labour which has been employed every morning to maintain its brightness.
1476. One or more Bath Rooms ought to be formed in every chamber floor in a
country inn. The bath, which should be placed in a recess, or on one side of the room,
for the convenience of having the water-cocks fixed to the wall, should have one supply
pipe for hot, and another for cold water, with a waste pipe in the bottom ; and all the three
should be of easy access by the bather. The size of the vessel should not be less than
six feet long, two feet and a half wide at the top, and two feet wide at bottom. It may
be formed of cast iron, in one piece; of wrought-iron plates, riveted together; of copper
brazed ; or of wood, lined with lead. Of whatever material it is made, the inside should
be painted of a light marble colour, and the outside cased with wood, painted and other-
wise finished in a style to correspond with the rest of the room. There may be one
broad step formed by the side of the bath, to facilitate getting into it ; and over it, about
two feet from the head, a cord firmly fixed to the ceiling should be suspended, with a
cross piece of wood for the bather to hold by, when letting himself down into the water,
or raising himself out of it. The same room should also contain a shower bath, which,
by means of a grated bottom, having a pipe communicating with the steam apparatus,
may also serve as a steam or vapour bath.
1477. Among the Fixtures and Furniture for the public Rooms of an Inn maybe
enumerated the Anglo-American stove, which, by projecting several feet into the room,
throws out a great deal of heat, and yet shows the fire, and draws well. In the tap-
701 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLAGE ARCHITECTURE,
rooms and commoner rooms of country inns, considerable economy and great durability
might be insured, by employing either sideboards and tables, wholly of cast iron, or
boards fixed to a wall, and supported by cast-iron feet or brackets. All stationary
1339
tables and seats in taverns and coffee-houses maybe supported by cast-iron in ornamental
shapes, bronzed; and this is already becoming frequent in London. The Albion
Tavern, at Drury Lane Theatre, may be referred to as an example. Fig. 1339 shows
1340
four varieties of cast-iron brackets for this purpose; and figs. 1340 and 1341 show eight
varieties of Gothic framing as supports for independent tables. The manner in which
1 0 1 1
these supports are screwed to the under sides of the tables, so as lo brace and support
them in all directions, is shown in fig. 1342. Figs. 1343 and 1344 are iron chairs, also
FUIIMTURK OF COUNTRY INNS.
705
very suitable for inns. Fig. 1343 represents the frame of a chair of cast and wrought
iron : the seat is not shown, but it is intended to be of wood ; oak or chestnut, or an imi-
tation of either. The whole frame of the chair is so contrived that it can be cast in one
piece, with all the wrought-iron posts cast in, so as to need no subsequent fitting. The
small diagonal stays are of wire, three sixteenths of an inch in diameter. The legs arc
of rolled gas tubing, " swagged taper," and the collars are slipped ca hot, by the oper-
ation which is technically called " sinking on."
This chair, which is, with the other cast-iron
articles mentioned above, the invention of Mr.
Mallet, weighs, when finished, no more than
sixteen pounds, which does not much exceed
the weight of a common parlour chair, with hair
cushions. Fig. 1344 is a Gothic chair wholly
of cast iron. It is cast in three pieces, which
are afterwards riveted together. If roughly
used, it might be liable to fracture, but it would
form an excellent chair for the entrance hall of
an inn, or even of a villa. Fig. 1345 is another
hall chair, with an iron framework, in two pieces,
and a wooden seat. This chair would do well
for a luggage chair in inn bed-rooms ; it being
found convenient to have one strong chair with
a boarded Lottom in each bed-room, on which
to set the trunks, &c, belonging to the guests,
to prevent the lighter chairs from being injured
by the weight. Fig. 1346 is a bench or settle
for the veranda of a common public-house; and
fig. 1347, one of a more enriched character,
suitable for the hall of a country inn in the
old English style. Both are taken firm
4 1.
70() COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE
pxisting specimens. Fig. 1348 is a village alehouse table of a very simple but useful
construction. When the^ flaps are down, it forms a small triangular table, as in this
figure ; but, as the centre board to which the flaps are hinged turns on a pivot, fig. 13-49,
1348
1349
«, by lifting up the flaps, and turning the triangle half round, a table twice the size, and
of a circular form, is produced, as indicated in fig. 1350. The commonest country car-
penter can make this table, which is surpassed
by none in cleanliness and usefulness. In
general, a great deal might be saved in inns, by
having the bedsteads, which at present form a
main article in the expense of furnishing, of
wrought iron, and the table-stands of cast iron.
There are even a number of other articles which
might be very properly made of this material,
and painted or bronzed, which would come very
cheap ; for example, a towel-horse, such as fig.
1351, which in that pattern, made of mahogany,
would cost 25*., in cast and wrought iron may
be had for 10s. fid. ; and one of a simpler descrip-
tion, such as fig. 1 352, for 5s. 6d. In every
department a saving might be made by em-
ploying this material ; for example, in the simple
KITCHENS OF COUNTRY INNS.
135J
707
1353 -<
article of clothes-posts, which, when of wood, are cumbersome, and require
sockets built into the ground, in which to fix them, a considerable saving is
effected by having them of iron, such as fig. 1353, which costs 8s. 6d , and is
seven feet six inches high. These posts require no sockets ; but, when wanted
for use, may be stuck into the common ground, and removed at pleasure. We
consider it unnecessary to say more on the subject of the fittings-up, fixtures,
and furniture of inns and public houses ; having already observed that they are
essentially the same as those of cottages and villas. All large inns ought to have
turret clocks, similar to those recommended for farms ; and, whether they be
built fireproof or not, there ought always to be a nightly watch ; but as this also
is practised in first-rate villas, it confirms the position with which we set out,
that villas and mansions are the models for inns.
1478. The Furniture of the Bar consists chiefly of two or three chairs, with a
common round table, a work-table, and a bureau, or writing-desk. There is also
generally a clock.
1479. For tlie Signs of Inns we would recommend, as substitutes for the
common daubs now generally stuck up, excellent oil paintings by superior
artists, protected from the weather by projecting cornices ; handsome statues
of public characters placed on pedestals, or over the entrance porch or portico ; (
or medallions of celebrated men affixed to obelisks. As the public taste in works
of art improves, the present signs will go out of repute, and a better class will
be substituted for them.
Subsf.ct. 4. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of the Kitchen and
Scullery of Inns and Public Houses.
1480. The Kitchen. In order to prepare ourselves for treating of the fittings-up and
fixtures of kitchens, we have carefully reperused what has been written on the subject
by Franklin, Rumford, Sylvester, and other modern authors of less note ; and we have
also visited the kitchens of most of the principal club-houses, inns of court, and public
inns, in London, besides those of several private houses. In 1811 and in 1826 we exa-
mined what had been done at Derby by the Messrs. Strutt ; and at different times we
have had an opportunity of seeing the kitchens in various parts of the Continent ; and in
1829, in particular, those of some of the public establishments at Munich, erected under
the superintendence of Count Rumford : we have further had an account sent us of the
success of the attempts lately made in Edinburgh to boil and stew by gas, described
§ 1445; and have seen the very recent invention by Robert Hicks, Esq., of London, of
a method of roasting by gas. To fit us for speaking on ovens, we have examined many
of those of the principal bakers and confectioners in London ; the new oven of the
Bread Company at Pimlico ; the oven and the kneading-machinery at Oxgate Farm ;
and have seen bread baked by steam alone, in the working-model of Mr. Hicks. The
general impression made on us by all that we have read, heard, and seen, is, that very
little improvement has taken place in the fitting up of kitchens, and in the construction
of ovens, since the time of Count Rumford ; or, perhaps, we should rather say, that a
very slight approximation in practice has been made to the improvements which he
pointed out, and illustrated by experiments. The inventions of Mr. Hicks, indeed, are
exceptions, and may be considered as some of the most beautiful and extraordinary
applications of chemical and mechanical science to the purposes of domestic economy,
which have been made in this or in any other country. Two causes appear to us to have
retarded the improvement of kitchens : the first is, the ignorance of cooks as to the
science of the generation of heat, and the fundamental principles of cookery ; and the
708
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
second, the wealth, and consequent indifference to economy, of their employers. The
consequence of the first is, that a host of prejudices is raised up against every new mode
of practice proposed to l>c introduced; and of the second, that there is an utter dislike
to the trouble necessary to introduce them. Perhaps a third cause may he assigned ;
viz., that of the heavy rents, taxes, and other charges, to which the tradesmen who fit up
kitchens, &c, are liable; and which induce them rather to favour the manufacture of
articles which amount to considerable sums, and on which alone they can put such a
profit as will enable them to live. There has hitherto, therefore, been no effective
demand for economical improvement, nor is it likely that there will be, till it is created
by necessity ; or, in other words, by the diminished incomes of those who now constitute
the wealth? classes. We are confirmed in this opinion by observing the economical con-
struction of the stewing-hearths on the Continent, where the incomes of the higher
classes are much lower than in this country ; where the price of fuel is much higher ;
and where, at the same time, the cookery is of a very superior description to what is
generally to lie met with in Britain. We shall shortly point out the imperfections of
modern British kitchens, and afterwards suggest improvements ; commencing with the
kitchen-range and stewing-hearths, and taking next the baking and roasting oven, the
steaming apparatus, and, lastly, the art of cooking entirely by the use of gas.
1481. In examining the Kitchen-ranges and Cooking Apparatus of the principal Club-
houses and Inns of London, we have found the construction such as to occasion the most
extraordinary waste of fuel, as well as the most disagreeable labour to those employed in
cooking, from the excessive heat. This results chiefly from the construction of the
apparatus made use of, including its connection with the building ; but partly, also,
from the ignorance or indifference of the operators, in regard to the adjustment of the
decree of heat to the time required for any particular kind of cookery. For example,
Count Rumford has shown that meat may be boiled, or, in other words, dressed in
hot water, when that fluid does not exceed 209 degrees ; he has also shown that when
the water is heated so as to throw off a great deal of steam, an immense quantity of heat
is wasted, without the meat being better dressed than by the previous mode. He has
proved that the processes both of boiling and stewing are carried on to much
greater advantage, with reference to the excellence of the dishes produced, when they
proceed slowly and at a low temperature, than when they are conducted rapidly and
at a high temperature. In most kitchens, however, it will be found that these oper-
ations are carried on with a degree of heat far beyond what is necessary, at once to the
injury of the meat, and the inconvenience of the operator. One reason, we believe, why
this rapid mode of cooking is preferred by the cooks is, the excessive annoyance which
they experience when long exposed to the heat reflected from the stewing-hearths and
the open fires. In one of the principal inns in London, which has been lately rebuilt,
and fitted up with a stewing-hearth of the newest construction, we found this hearth to
consist of a plate of cast iron about six feet long and four feet broad, heated by a fur-
nace and flue below, to a red heat. On this plate the dishes for boiling and stewing are
placed, and also the gridirons for broiling. The operations are rapidly performed; but the
heat of the kitchen is so intense, as to be scarcely bearable, even by the cooks; and the
effect of the radiation from the red-hot cast iron on their eyes is such as to endanger
their becoming blind. The reason why this cast-iron plate is adopted, rather than a
stewing-hearth, with several small fireplaces, is, we are informed, that common coal may-
be burnt underneath it in one furnace, and thus the whole may be heated by one coal fire,
instead of requiring several, in which only coke or charcoal could be burned. Even in
all the more improved stewing-hearths which we have seen in the principal inns and
club-houses, more than double the quantity of fuel is used that is necessary for the
purposes of cooking ; and all the excess of heat produced is either carried up the chim-
ney, or thrown out so as to annoy the cook, and heat the kitchen to an intolerable degree.
The most economical stewing-hearths that we have seen in London are those of the con-
fectioners ; and, next, those of the French restaurateurs and hotels.
1482. The qreat Fault of British Kitchens, Count Rumford observes, is, that the fire-
places in them are not closed. " The fuel is burnt in long open grates, called kitchen-
ranges; over which the pots and kettles are suspended, or placed on stands: or fires are
made with chare >al in square holes, called stoves, in a solid mass of brickwork, ami
connected with no flue to carry off' the smoke; over which holes, stewpans or saucepans
are placed on tripods, or on bars of iron, exposed on every side to the cold air of the
atmosphere." In addition to the loss of heat and waste of fuel in such kitchens, the
noxious exhalations from the burning charcoal, and the currents of cold air occasioned
by the strong draught up the wide open chimneys, are both unpleasant and dangerous to
the cooks. To complete the machinery of an ordinary British kitchen-range, which
seems to be calculated for the express purpose of devouring fuel, a smoke-jack is generally
placed in the chimney. No human invention, Count Rumford adds, ever came to his
KITCHENS OF COUNTRY INNS. ?U9
knowledge) that was BO absurd as this: it would not he difficult to prove, he says, " that
much less than one thousandth part of the fuel that is necessary to he burned in an open
chimney fireplace, in order to cause a smoke-jack to turn a loaded spit, would be sufficient
to make the spit go round, were the force evolved from the combustion of the fuel, if it
were properly directed, through the medium of a steam-engine." Besides this waste of
fuel and of power, smoke-jacks require a large fire when it would not otherwise be
wanted, by the necessity which they create for a great current of air up the chimney, to
prevent it from smoking. This also increases the current of cold air from the doors and
windows to the fireplace; and thus, while the side of the cook next the fire is burned,
the oilier is chilled. A jack moved by a weight or spring, if roasting must still be
performed by the barbarous practice of turning meat on a spit before an open fire, is much
preferable ; and the trouble of winding it up, which is the general argument against it,
is much less than that of burning coals to feed the immense fire that is requisite to cause
a common smoke-jack to move.
14H:5. TheOhjects in view, in the Arranijement of a Kitchen, Count Rumford observes,
ought to he the following : —
" 1st, Each boiler, kettle, and stewpan should have its separate closed fireplace.
" 2dly, Each fireplace should have its grate, on which the fuel must be placed ; and its
separate ash-pit, which must he closed by a door well fitted to its frame, and furnished
with .i register for regulating the quantity of air admitted into the fireplace through the
;. rate. It should also have its separate canal for carrying oft* the smoke into the chim-
ney ; which canal should be furnished with a damper or register: by means of this
damper, and of the ash-pit door register, the rapidity of the combustion of the fuel in
the fireplace, and consequently the rapidity of the generation of the heat, may be regulated
at pleasure. The economy of fuel will depend principally on the proper management of
these two registers.
" 3dly, In the fireplaces for all boilers and stewpans which are more than eight or ten
inches in diameter, or which are too large to be easily removed with their contents by
the strength of one hand, a horizontal opening just above the level of the grate must
be made, for introducing the fuel into the fireplace; which opening must be nicely closed
by a fit stopper, or by a double door. In the fireplaces which are constructed for smaller
stewpans this opening may be omitted, and the fuel may be introduced through the same
opening into which the stewpan is fitted, by removing the stewpan occasionally a moment
or two for that purpose.
" 4thly, All portable boilers and stewpans, and especially such as must often be re-
moved from their fireplaces, should be circular, and they should be suspended in their
fireplaces by their circular rims ; but the best form for all fixed boilers, and especially
such as are very large, is that of an oblong square ; and all boilers, great and small,
should rather be broad and shallow than narrow and deep. A circular form is best for
portable boilers, on account of the facility of fitting them to their fireplaces ; and an ob-
long square form is best for large fixed boilers, on account of the facility of constructing
and repairing the straight horizontal flues under them and round them, through which
the flame and smoke by which they are heated are made to circulate. When large
boilers are shallow, and when their bottoms are supported on the tops of narrow flues,
the pressure or weight of their contents being supported by the walls of the flues, the
metal of which the boiler is constructed may be very thin, which will not only diminish
very much the first cost of the boiler, but will also greatly contribute to its durability;
for the thinner the bottom of a boiler is, the less it is fatigued and injured by the action "of
the fire, and the longer, of course, it will last ; which is a curious fact, that has hitherto
been too little known, or not enough attended to, in the construction of large boilers.
" Sthly, All boilers, great and small, should be furnished with covers, which covers
should be constructed in such a manner, and of such materials, as to render tiiem well
adapted for confining heat. Those who have never examined the matter with attention
woidd be astonished, on making the experiment, to find how much heat is carried off by
the cold air of the atmosphere from the surface of hot liquids, when they are exposed
naked to it, in boilers without covers ; but in culinary processes it is not merely the loss
of heat which is to be considered ; a great proportion of the finer and more rich and
savoury particles of the food are also carried off at the same time, and lost; which
renders it an object of serious importance to apply an effectual remedy to this evil."
(Count Rumford's Essays, essay x. p. £8.)
1484. We have given the five preceding rules in Count Rumford's own words, because
they contain the fundamental principles of the construction of stewing-hearths ; because
no directions of equal merit have been given since his time ; and because they are as
requisite now as when first published, in 1799.
1485. The Covers for Boilers should, if possible, be made of some nonconducting
substance : and wood would be the best, were it not for the changes which it is liable to
710 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
undergo from cold and heat, dryness and moisture : for this reason, Count Rumford
prefers covers of thin sheets of tinned iron, made double, with a vacuity of an inch or
more between.
1486. For the Covers or Stoppers to small Fireplaces or Stewing- Hearths, when they
are not in use, fire-bricks or fire-stones are the most suitable materials ; a ring or staple
being let into the centre of the brick or stone, to admit of its being readily put on and
taken off. By putting on a nonconducting cover or stopper, as soon as the boiler or
stewpan is removed, much less heat is radiated into the kitchen during the cooling of the
ignited fuel.
1487. To prevent one Stewpan or Boiler being mistaken for another, Count Rumford
recommends having their diameters expressed in inches on their handles or brims, and
also on their covers, and on the margins of the fireplaces which they fit. He also recom-
mends the diameters of boilers and stewpans, and of the fireplaces into which they are to
be fitted, to vary at the rate of two inches ; and he mentions six, eight, twelve, and four-
teen, as suitable gradations of size. In order that fireplaces of the same diameter might
be rendered of different capacities, he recommends their being made of three different
depths; viz., one third, half, and two thirds of their horizontal diameter. These different
depths should also be marked on the boilers and stewpans, and on the margins of the
fireplaces.
1488. The Number and Size of the separate dosed Fireplaces of a Kitchen should be
regulated by the extent of the entertainments which it is contemplated may at any time
be required, and not by the average style of living. With this view, Count Rumford's
recommendation, of having a separate closed fireplace for every boiler, kettle, and stewpan,
is of the utmost importance ; since, when very little cooking is required, not more than
two or three of the separate fireplaces need be used ; and, consequently, no waste of fuel
is produced. In large kitchen-ranges, on the contrary, an enormous quantity of fuel is
swallowed up, even when only a very small quantity of food is provided. More fuel,
Count Rumford observes, " is frequently consumed in a kitchen-range to boil a tea-kettle,
than, with proper management, would be sufficient to cook a good dinner for fifty men."
{Essay x. p. 31.)
1489. The Distribution of the different Fittings-up and Fixtures of a Kitchen ought to
be regulated by convenience to the cook, cleanliness in all the operations of cookery, and,
as far as practicable, architectural symmetry in the general appearance. An Architect,
before he arranges a kitchen, Count Rumford remarks, will do wisely to consult the
cook; because it will be in vain to attempt to introduce any improvement which does not
meet with the approbation of those who are to use it. He recommends an exact plan of
the kitchen being taken, and the exact situation of all the doors, windows, and flues dis-
tinctly marked ; as well as a list made of the number and dimensions of all the boilers,
roasters, stewpans, &c, which are to be fitted up in brickwork.
1490. In making a Plan for fitting up a Kitchen, the readiest way of proceeding,
Count Rumford observes, is to form it on the floor of the room ; and, in doing this, the
work will be much facilitated by the following very simple contrivance. Cut out of thick
pasteboard, detached pieces to represent the boilers, saucepans, &c, which are to be fitted
up in the brickwork ; and, placing these in different ways on the plan of the room, see in
what manner they can best be disposed or arranged. As these models (which must be
drawn to the same scale as that used in drawing the plan of the room) may be moved about
at pleasure, and placed in an infinite variety of different positions in regard to each other,
and to the different parts of the room ; the effect of any proposed arrangement may be
tried in a few moments, in a very satisfactory manner, without expense, and almost
without any trouble. To facilitate still more these preliminary trials with these models
of the boilers, several slips of pasteboard, equal in width to the distance at which one
boiler ought to be placed from the other in the brickwork, measured on the scale of the
plan, should be provided, and used in placing the models of the boilers at proper distances
from each other. This distance, in fitting up or setting kitchen boilers and saucepans,
may be commonly taken at the width of a brick, or four inches and a half; and may be
allowed the same space (four inches and a half), for the distance of the side of the boiler
from the outside or front of the mass of the brickwork in which it is set. When this
point is settled (that respecting the distance which should be left between the boilers),
the arranging of the pasteboard models of the boilers on the plan will be perfectly easy.
1491. As soon as the Distribution of the various Boilers, §•<■., is finally settled, a ground
plan of the whole of the machinery should be traced on the plan of the room; and a
sufficient number of sections and elevations should be drawn, to show the situations,
forms, and dimensions of the fireplaces, and of all the other parts of the apparatus. When
this is done, and when the boilers and the materials for building are provided, and every
thing else that can be wanted in fitting up the kitchen is in readiness, the Architect or
amateur may proceed to the laying on; of the work. As this will not he found to be
KITCHENS OF COUNTRY INN'S. 711
difficult, and as it is really a most amusing occupation, Count Kumford earnestly recom-
mends gentlemen, and even ladies, to superintend and direct these works.
149'2. In laying out the Work, when a kitchen is to be fitted up, the first thing to be
done is, to draw, with red or white chalk, or with a coal, a ground plan of the brickwork,
of the full size, on the floor or pavement of the room. When the kitchen is neither
paved nor floored, this drawing must, of course, be made on the ground. In this drawing,
the ash-pits, and the passages leading to them, must be marked ; and, when the ash-pit
is to be sunk into the ground, that is the first thing that must be executed. As soon as
this ground plan is sketched out, the ash-pit doors should all be placed, and the found-
ations of the brickwork laid. To assist the bricklayer, and to prevent his making mistakes,
several sections of the brickwork, of the full size, and particularly sections of the boilers,
represented as fixed in their fireplaces, should be drawn on wide boards, or on very large
sheets of paper, or they may be drawn with charcoal or red chalk on the sides of the
room. These sections, of the full size, where the bricklayer can readily take measure of
the various parts of the work to be performed, will be found very useful. (Essays, 8fc,
p. 36.)
1493. As an Example of one of the most complete Kitchens ever fitted up by Count
Rumford, we give that of the Baron de Lerchenfeld at Munich, which, though very dif-
ferent from most British kitchens, may yet serve as a model for the best of them, provided
economy of fuel and labour, cleanliness, the beauty of fitness, and the comfort of the
cook, were the leading objects of the Architect. Count Rumford observes that this
kitchen has been found to answer even to the entire satisfaction of the cook, who began,
however, by entering his formal protest against it. Fig. 1 354 shows a perspective view
of the kitchen plan, seen nearly in front. The mass of brickwork in which the boilers
and saucepans are set projects out into the room, and the smoke is carried off by flues
that are concealed in this mass of brickwork, and in the thick walls of an open chimney
fireplace ; which, standing on it, on the further side of it where it joins to the side of the
room, is built up perpendicularly to the ceiling of the room. At the height of about
twelve or fifteen inches above the level of the mantel of this open chimney fireplace, the
separate flues for the smoke concealed in its walls, end in the larger flue of this fireplace,
which last-mentioned larger flue, sloping backwards, ends in a neighbouring chimney,
which carries off the smoke, through the roof of the house, into the atmosphere. A
horizontal section of this open chimney fireplace, at the level of the upper surface of the
mass of brickwork on which it stands, may be seen in fig. 1358, p. 714. In this section,
the vertical flues are distinctly marked which carry off the smoke from the boilers into
the chimney ; as also the stoppers which are occasionally taken away to remove the soot,
when these' flues are cleaned. These stoppers, which are made of earthenware, burnt
like a brick or tile, are eight inches long, six inches wide, and three inches thick ; and,
712 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VII. I. \ ARCHITECTURE.
on their outsidcs, they haw two deep grooves, thai form a kind of handle for taking hold
of them. When they arc fixed in their places, their joinings with the doorway into
which they are fitted are made tight by filling up the crevices with moist clay. The
Hues are cleaned by means of a strong cylindrical brush, made of hog's bristles, fixed to
a long flexible handle of twisted iron wire. The open chimney fireplace was constructed
in order that an open fire might be made on its hearth (which, as appears by the plan,
was on a level with, or was a continuation of, the top or upper surface of the mass of
brickwork in which the boilers were set), should any such fire be wanted; but the fact
is, that, although this kitchen had been in daily use more than five years when Count
Romford wrote, it had not yet been found necessary to light a fire in this place. When
any thing is to be fried or broiled, the cook finds it very convenient to perform these
processes of cookery over the two large stoves that are placed in the front of this open
fireplace ; as the disagreeable vapour that rises from the frying-pan, or from the gridiron,
goes off immediately by the open chimney : and these stoves serve likewise occasionally
for warming heaters for ironing, and also for burning wood to obtain live embers for
warming beds, or for keeping up a small fire for boiling a tea-kettle, or for warming
any thing that is wanted in the family. When this fire is not wanted, the register in the
ash-pit door is nearly closed ; and the top of the stove is covered with a fit cover of earthen-
ware, by which means the fire is kept alive for a great length of time, almost without
any consumption of fuel ; and may, at any time, be revived, and made to burn briskly in
less than half a minute, merely by admitting a larger current of fresh air. Near the
right hand corner of the room may be seen a front view of one large roaster, and part of
the front view of a smaller one, situated by the side of it ; both with their separate fire-
place doors. The fireplace door of the larger roaster, as also both its blowpipes, are
represented as being open ; but the ash-pit door of this roaster is hid by the mass of
brickwork in which the boilers are set. The convenience, in a family, of being able to
have a brisk fire in the kitchen in a moment, when wanted, and to check the combustion
in an instant, without extinguishing the fire, and without even cooling the fireplace,
when the fire is no longer wanted, can hardly be conceived by those who have not been
used to any other methods of making and keeping up kitchen fires than those commonly
used in the kitchens in Great Britain.
Fig. 1355 shows a front view, or, more strictly speaking, an elevation, of the
kitchen. In this plan, the ash-pit doors, with their registers, are distinctly seen; and
also the ends of the earthen stoppers, which close the openings into the fireplaces of four
of the principal boilers. The covers of the principal boilers, as also of several of the
stewpans, are seen above the level of the upper surface of the mass of brickwork. The
height of this mass of brickwork, a b, measured from the floor or pavement of the kitchen,
is just, three feet.
tig. 1356 shows a horizontal section of the mass of brickwork, in which the boilers.
&c, are set, taken at the level of the horizontal flues that carry off the smoke from the
boilers, stewpans, and saucepans into the vertical flues, which convey it into the chim-
ney. The smoke from three of the principal boilers, situated on the left hand, is carried
KITCHENS OF COUNTRY INNS.
1356
713
by separate flues to a circular cavity, over which a large shallow boiler is placed ; in
which water is heated (by tin's smoke) for the use of the kitchen, and more especially for
washing the plates and dishes. (This boiler is distinctly seen, with its wooden cover
consisting of three pieces of deal, united by two pairs of hinges, in fig. 1358.) The five
fireplaces on the left hand side of the mass of brickwork are represented without then-
circular grates, and the eight fireplaces that are situated on the right hand are shown
with their circular grates in their places. The fireplaces of the four largest boilers,
which are situated in front of the brickwork, have doors or openings, closed with stoppers,
for introducing fuel into these fireplaces ; and three of these openings are represented in
the plan as being closed by their stoppers ; while the fourth (that situated on the right
hand) is shown open, or without its stopper. As all the rest of the fireplaces (or stoves,
as they are commonly called in this country) are without any lateral opening for intro-
ducing the fuel, when any fuel is to be introduced into one of these fireplaces, the stew-
pan or saucepan covering it must be removed for a moment for that purpose.
1494. Several of the horizontal Flues that carry off the smoke from the boilers are
divided into two branches, which unite at a little distance from their fireplaces. This
contrivance is very useful, especially for closed fireplaces that are without flues under
the boilers, as it occasions the flame to divide under the bottom of the boiler, and to
play over every part of it in a thin sheet. Dampers to the flues are omitted in these
diagrams, in order to avoid confusion, but they must on no account be left out in prac-
tice ; for they are of such importance that there is no possibility of managing fires pro-
perly without them. It is of very little importance whether they be placed near the fire
or far from it, or what is their form, provided they be so constructed as to diminish at
pleasure, and occasionally to close entirely, the flue by which the smoke makes its
escape.
1495. The dotted lines leading from the front of the brickwork to the fireplaces show
the position and dimensions of the ash-pits. The whole length of the mass of brickwork
from c to dis eleven feet, and its width from c to e is seven feet four inches. The space
it occupies on the ground may be conceived to consist of six equal squares of forty-four
inches each, placed in two rows of three squares each ; these two rows being joined
to each other by their sides, and forming together a parallelogram. In laying out the
work, when a kitchen is to be fitted up on the plan here described, it will always be best
to begin by actually drawing these six squares on the floor of the kitchen. Nearly the
whole of the middle square of the back row is occupied by the open chimney fireplace,
and by its thick hollow walls ; and the greater part of the middle square of the front
row is left as a passage for the cook to come to the open chimney fireplace, or rather to
the stoves that are situated near it.
Fig. 1357 represents a vertical section of the mass of brickwork through the
centres of the fireplaces of the four principal boilers ; and is chiefly designed to show the
construction of those fireplaces, and also that of the boilers. Sections of the circular
grates, on which the fires are made to burn under the boilers, are here represented ; and
4 M
714< COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1357
also sections of the ash-pits, and of the contractions of the fireplaces immediately helow
the grates ; and in one of the fireplaces, which is shown without its boiler, the openings
of the branched flue by which the smoke goes ofF horizontally towards the chimney are
also marked.
Fig. 1358 shows a birds-eye view of the upper surface of the brickwork, with all the
1358
boilers and saucepans in their places, except one ; three of the principal boilers and one
saucepan, with their covers on ; and the rest of them without their covers. It likewise
represents a horizontal section of the open chimney fireplace, four inches above the level
of the top of the mass of brickwork, in which the boilers and saucepans are set. It is
to be observed, that all the boilers, stewpans, and saucepans are fitted into circular rings
of iron, which are firmly fixed to the brickwork ; and that they are suspended in their
fireplaces by these circular rims. All the stewpans and saucepans that are not too large
to be lifted, with their contents, in and out of their fireplaces by the strength of one
hand, have iron handles attached to their circular rims ; but the four principal boilers,
which are too large to be managed with one hand, have each two rings fitted to their
KITCHENS OF COUNTRY INNS. 715
rims. These handles and rings are so constructed that they do not prevent the sauce-
pans and boilers from fitting the circular openings of their fireplaces ; neither do they
prevent their being fitted by their own circular covers.
1496. Deep Boilers economise Space in a Kitchen; and when their fireplaces are pro-
perly constructed, and, above all, when they are furnished with good registers and
dampers, the additional quantity of fuel they will require more than what is necessary
for shallow boilers, will be too trifling to be considered. The walls of their fireplaces
will absorb more heat in the beginning, but the greater part of this heat may afterwards
be emitted in rays, and at last find its way into the boiler.
1497. A Kitchen of this Construction is warmed in cold weather by the mass of brick-
work forming the stewing-hearth, which is made sufficiently hot by the fires that are
kept up in it when cooking is going on every day, to keep the room comfortably warm
in the coldest weather. It is prevented from being too warm in summer by opening one
of the windows a very little ; and by opening, at the same time, the register of a wooden
tube or steam chimney, which, rising from the ceiling of the room, ends in the open air,
and which is always opened to clear the room of vapour when it is found necessary, and
especially when the victuals are taken out of the boilers ; or when any other operation is
going on that occasions the diffusion of a considerable quantity of steam.
1498. The Dimensions of the Boilers in this Kitchen are as follow : —
Wide at
brim. Deep.
Inches. Inches.
One large boiler for hot water heated by smoke 20 8
Two large boilers 16 16
Two ditto, used occasionally in the fireplaces of the two boilers last
mentioned 16 8
Two smaller boilers... 12 12
Two ditto fitted to the same fireplaces 12 6
The diameters of the stewpans and saucepans are twelve, ten, and eight inches, and their
depth is made equal to half their diameters.
1499. The Fuel burnt in this kitchen is wood ; and the billets used are cut into lengths
of about six inches. In Britain, coke, or even coal, may be used ; but coke is preferable.
1500. In the Construction of these Fireplaces, common bricks were used; but care was
taken to lay them in mortar composed of clay and brickdust, without any sand, and with
only a very small proportion of lime. (Essays, fyc, p. 50.)
1501. As an Example of the present Mode of fitting up Stewing- Hearths in Britain, we
may refer to fig. 1359, engraved from a sketch, which has been furnished us by
Mr. W. Jeakes of Great Russell Street, London. This gentleman has fitted up the whole
of the extensive cooking apparatus in the kitchens of the principal club-houses in the
metropolis ; of which that of the Travellers' Club, and that of the United Service Club,
are the best. The Design before us, which, as compared with those of the club-houses,
may be considered to be on a small scale, consists of two parts. The first part from a to
b is a range of three charcoal or stewing stoves, the front of which is made of cast iron,
with an opening, having an iron shelf dividing the space into two parts, upon one of
which, i, fall the ashes of the consumed charcoal. The space, e, underneath the shelf, is
716 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
intended to contain a store of charcoal for immediate use. The body of the mass within
the iron front is composed of common brickwork, and paved, or covered at top with
paving tiles, cut so as to fill the exact space. The stoves are made of cast iron, about
four inches jeep, and from six to twelve inches square, with bottom gratings also of cast
iron. The second part, extending from b to c, is a boiling-stove, with an oven attached,
heated by the same lire. It is considered one of the most useful and convenient apparatus
that hare vet been invented, and one which, Mr. Jeakes says, no kitchen should be without.
There is no branch of cookery, he adds, that cannot be effected by it, except roasting,
which, lie is of opinion, ought always to be done before an open fire. From the peculiar
construction of this hearth, fuel of any kind may be burnt in it, without the least smoke
or effluvia. From b to c is an iron front, with an opening at f for receiving a store of
fuel, of which the most suitable kind is coke mixed with a little coal ; A is a square iron
oven with double doors, and movable grated shelves, in which may be baked either meat
or pastry ; g is a sliding door by which the ashes are removed that fall from the broiling-
stove. The top of the stove is made of cast iron, about one inch and a quarter thick,
with three movable plates fitting into each other, and forming a close cover over the fire.
The pan or stove on which the fire is placed, is in the form of fig. 1360, and is made of
cast iron, with a loose bottom grate, which may be renewed when 1
required, without taking down any part of the framework. This
stove is fixed immediately under the movable plates, or ovens,
shown as if in one piece under the gridiron, k. When stewing
or boiling is to be performed instead of broiling, one or more
of these plates is to be removed, according to the size of the boiler
or stewpan ; and the whole may be taken away when the open
fire is required for the gridiron. The flue from this fire is so
arranged, that the smoke and flame pass under the top plate, I, and over and down the
sides of the oven in the direction of the dotted arrows, and enter the chimney at m. In
this chimney a damper must be fixed, in the most convenient situation, to regulate the
draught. The iron plate I is fitted with a pair of movable standards, d d, by means of
which, a gridiron made for the purpose is suspended immediately over the fire, and may
be adjusted to any height, from the standards being furnished with a number of holes for
the purpose of receiving the prolonged ends of the side styles of the gridiron. When it
is desired to broil over the fire, it is usual to remove the two inner covers or plates, and
to shut the sliding door, g. When the plate I is required to be heated throughout, the
sliding door, g, must also be closed. Judging of this plan by the principles and models laid
down by Count Rumford, we should say that it errs in having so large a surface of cast
iron for the radiation of heat into the kitchen ; and, also, in having the fireplaces square,
instead of circular, and formed for burning charcoal, instead of having flues for burning
coke or coal. These may be called sins of commission ; those of omission are, the want
of deep round furnaces, by which small boilers may be let into the brickwork, in the
manner shown in the plan of the Munich kitchen, § 1493, fig. 1356; the want of a
reflector over the gridiron ; and the want of a means of ventilating the oven, so as to render
it a substitute for an open fire for roasting meat. The reflector, or dome, for the gridiron,
may be made in the form of a cone, of either iron or copper ; and its use is to prevent the
meat, while broiling, from cooling above, while it is being cooked below. The ready
answer of all ironmongers to such objections is, that brickwork is soon loosened and
deranged by servants, and that economy of fuel in the kitchen is seldom an object with
great families. As to a smoke-jack, the London ironmongers, so far from agreeing with
Count Rumford that it is a source of the greatest waste of fuel, affirm tlvit it creates a
draught in the chimney ; which is about as correct as if it were asserted that a boat
carried down a stream were the cause of that stream ; or a windmill the cause of wind.
After all, this is only the operation of cause and effect ; and the adjustment of means to
ends; for, if there is not a demand for a maximum of effect with a minimum of expense,
what use would there be in producing it? It is sufficient for every tradesman to accom-
modate himself to his customers. Such is the language which we are obliged to hold, in
a country where it requires the utmost exertions of health, intelligence, and industry, to
exist.
1502. The Cooking- Hearths of Confectioners in London are among the most economical
which we have examined. In these there is one vertical flue, into which all the hori-
zontal flues from the different furnaces are conducted. These furnaces are circular, and
they are sunk, like those of Count Rumford, in a hearth of brickwork ; each furnace
consisting of a cast-iron pot, in shape exactly like a common flower-pot, with a
grated bottom, and covers of three different sizes. The pot and the bottom are cast
in one piece ; and the sides are, in general, nearly one inch in thickness. Within a short
distance of the top, in some instances two inches, in others four, according to the depth
of the saucepan which is to he inserted in them, are two lateral openings, about three
KITCHENS OF COUNTRY INNS. 7I7
inches long by one inch deep, for conveying away the smoke, in two horizontal tunnels
or flues, to the vertical chimney which forms a common flue to the whole. Under each
furnace there is a separate horizontal tunnel for the admission of air to supply combus-
tion ; and this tunnel is furnished with a register in front of the hearth, or, sometimes,
with a block or stopper of fire-brick or fire-stone fitted to the opening; which stopper,
by being inserted partially or wholly, regulates the admission of air. With four such
furnaces, of six, eight, ten, and twelve inches in diameter, a very extensive confectionery
business may be carried on; and it must be recollected that the business of a confectioner
in London includes the cooking of dinners and suppers for large parties, with the excep-
tion, in general, of roasting joints of meat. When the cast-iron pots wear out (which
they do, even if the sides are an inch in thickness, in two or three years, where there is
a full business), they are taken out and replaced by new ones. It will be observed that,
in this arrangement of a cooking-hearth, there is no exterior surface of cast iron ; and,
in consequence, very little heat is radiated into the kitchen : indeed, we have been in
some confectioners' kitchens when the cooking of a large supper was going forward, and
found the temperature not exceeding that of a common room. If we were asked how we
would fit up a kitchen either in an inn, or in a private house, so as to perforin every
description of cookery, French, German, Italian, and English, in the most perfect and
in the most economical manner, we should say, take your hints for a stewing-hearth from
the hearths of confectioners ; and, for roasting, construct one of Strutt's roasters, or an
improved baker's oven. We shall hereafter show that, for a country inn, by far the
cheapest mode of roasting meat is in a baker's oven ; and that, however contrary may be
the common opinion, when the meat and the oven are both properly attended to, the
former is, in all respects, as good as that roasted before an open fire.
1503. An Oven for Roasting Meat, so as to make it equal in flavour to that roasted
before an open fire, was, we believe, first brought into notice in this country by Count
Rumford ; though this mode of roasting had been long before practised by the French.
The art of roasting in an oven meat, which shall have the same flavour as that roasted
before an open fire, consists simply in producing a continual current of hot air around it.
How this is to be done in an oven of sheet iron, heated by a furnace below, has been
shown by Count Rumford, in the Second Part of his Tenth Essay, published in 1799;
but the same thing was invented by, and used in, the family of William Strutt, Esq., of
Derby, in 1797. Mr. Strutt's roaster has been used in his own family, and in the
families of his relations and some of his friends, from that time to the present, for roasting
meat of every description, and for general baking. We examined, in 1810, a roasting-
oven, and very complete arrangements for cooking in ovens and closed vessels, without
any other open fire than a very small one, which had been just erected in the house of
Mr. Joseph Strutt, at Derby, on Mr. William Strutt's principles ; and, in common with
most strangers who visit that town, we have seen the roaster in' the Derbyshire General
Infirmary. We have also seen one in Mr. Sylvester's house in Great Russell Street, and
others at several ironmongers' in London, where they have been set up, by way of experi-
ment. Among these, we may particularly refer to Mr. Stephens, ironmonger, in Great
Russell Street, who has long been in the habit of fitting up kitchens with all the im-
provements introduced by Mr. Strutt, and recommended by the late Mr. Sylvester, at
one time a partner in the house, and by his son, the present eminent domestic engineer.
The construction of Mr. Strutt's roaster, and also of that of Count Rumford, is such, that
an equal degree of heat is communicated to the bottom and to the four sides ; and that
a current of heated air is constantly passing through it. Roasting-ovens of iron, how-
ever, belong more to ironmongery than to Architecture, and therefore we shall not enter
into details. Count Rumford's will be found minutely described in the Second Part of
his Tenth Essay ; and that of Mr. Strutt in Sylvester's Philosophy of Domestic Economy,
p. 33. The principle common to both is, first, the placing of an oven, or box, within a
box, and the circulation of the heat from the fire equally, in every part of the vacuity
between the two boxes ; and, secondly, the introduction of a tube between the two boxes,
which shall heat a current of the external air, and introduce it into the inner box at or
near the bottom, on the one side; with another tube, having its orifice near the bottom of
the opposite side, to carry it off. This tube, as well as the fire flue, has a register for
regulating the current of heat ; so that the proper temperature and current of air can, at
all times, be maintained in the oven.
1504. The Union of Boasting and Baking Ovens with Kitchen Banges has been
attempted, and with considerable success, by a great number of ironmongers, since the
publication of Count Rumford's Essays. The first effort consisted in piercing one open-
ing in the cast-iron door of the oven, near its bottom, for the introduction of fresh air,
and another near its top, for the exit of air, in order to occasion circulation within. But
this was found to chill the meat, and prevent its being sufficiently roasted. These ovens
had no double sides, bottoms, or tops ; and, without very careful management, meat
1361
718 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
could not be properly roasted in them. The fire was generally introduced underneath
the oven, either from the open fireplace on one side, or from a small separate furnace
beneath ; but this arrangement was found to overheat the oven in one place, and, con-
sequently, to burn on one side whatever was roasted or baked in it. This defect led to
the adoption of double bottoms and double sides next the open fireplace ; and, in some
cases, to the introduction of the heating flue over the oven, or at the back of it, instead
of under it. L'lthnately, an approximation was made, by double sides, bottoms, and tops,
to the ovens of Mr. Strutt and Count Rumford. We shall here describe one of these,
frequently used in connection with the open fire of the kitchen range ; protesting, how-
ever, against the open fire, as much too large, and repeating our opinion, that it ought
to be altogether dispensed with in every kitchen whatever, on a large scale. The De-
signs for this roasting-oven were furnished to us by Mr. Jeakes before-mentioned.
Fig. 1361 shows the inside of the oven or roaster, with the bottom removed; in whic'
a a are openings for the
admission of air, which cir-
culates through the double
bottom to the back of the
oven at b, the two streams
joining in one at c, and
returning to the front of
the oven at d ; e e are
grooves for two shelves,
which ought always to be
of open work, in order not
to impede the circulation
of air.
Fig. 1362 shows the
inside of the roaster with
the bottom put on ; in
which a a represents the
holes for the admission of
air to be heated, and d the
opening for the ascent of
the air when heated, in
order that it may circulate
in the roaster.
Fig. 1363 is a front view of the oven with the door put on, but with the front casing
and top of the flue round
it removed. The smoke 1362
enters from the open range
at/, and proceeds to g and
h, where there is a partition,
i, which forces the smoke
to come from the back to
the front, before it ascends
the upright flue, k ; I and
m are the bottom and two
top bars of the range, which
are riveted into the style,
n ; the intermediate bars,
being subjected to greater
heat, are let in loose into
the style, to allow of their
contraction and expansion.
The openings, a a, in this
figure, are shown with
projecting caps, to prevent
dust from getting into
them ; which caps may be
prolonged downwards, so
as to act as a sort of blower.
Fig. 1364 is a transverse view of the roaster, with the outer casing removed, in which
are shown the end of the latch of the door of the oven, n ; the direction of the smoke up
tne Bide, and under the top of the roaster, p ; the upright flue, q; and a cast-iron tube,
r, at the back of the top of the roaster, the lower end of which projects down to within
six niches of the bottom, for the purpose of carrying oft' the air which has been circulated
/
\
II
1
1
\
/
,1
V
/ i i
II II
KITCHENS OF COUNTRY INNS.
136".
719
among the articles cooking ; and the upper end may be carried as high as the chimney
bar or lintel will admit. This tube terminates in a register at s, by which the circulation
of air in the oven is accelerated or diminished. We have introduced this kitchen range
roaster to show Architects who have not made themselves acquainted with tlie subject of
roasting in ovens, what sort of kitchen ranges they ought to recommend. For want of
this knowledge, we continually see inns fitted up with ranges and large ovens, entirely
without a system of ventilation by heated air, and which, therefore, are comparatively
useless, or at all events unprofitable, to their owners. Such is the ignorance of the public,
and impudence of some ironmongers, on this subject, that, in the first week of the present
year (1833), a large furnishing ironmonger in Holborn advertised what he called the
" best kitchen range in London" for country inns, &c. On calling to see this range,
we found it nothing more than a common one of a large size, with a brass register in the
oven door for admitting cold air direct to the articles baking, but with no system of
ventilation. The seller, as a recommendation, declared it to be constructed on Count
Rumford's principles, with all the latest improvements.
1505. An Oven for baking Bread is essential to every country inn; and in the same
oven it will generally be found that meat can be roasted, in large quantities, more econo-
mically than by any other means. We shall first describe a rude kind of oven adapted
for new countries, where it is frequently necessary to use for fuel green boughs ; and
next give a plan of the most improved description of oven for baking bread and roast-
ing meat, calculated for being heated by dried billet wood, peat, or coal. The ordinary
size of bakers' ovens is from eight to twelve feet square ; those of confectioners are
smaller, and frequently higher, with portable shelves of iron. The height of a baker's
oven is about eighteen inches in the centre, in ovens of the smallest size, and two feet in
those which are larger. The lower and flatter the arch is, the more easily is the oven
heated, and the more equally does it give out its heat. The sides of the oven need never
7l-)() COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
be higher than a foot ; that height giving sufficient room for a large loaf, and there can
be no reason why the roof of the oven should be higher in the centre than at the sides,
except that it is impossible to build the soffit of an arch perfectly flat. The floor of
the oven is laid with tiles, and the arch is formed of fire-brick, fire-stone, or trap, set in
fire-clay, or in loam mixed with powdered brick. The whole is surrounded by a large
mass of common brickwork, to retain the heat. A variety of details on the subject of
ovens will be found in White's Treatise on the Art of Baiting (chap. iii. p. 158); a book
which will repay perusal, if only for the quaintness of its style, and the variety of
extraneous matter which it contains.
1506. Oven for Green Wood. Fig. 1367 is a ground plan of a common country oven,
in which a is the floor of the oven; b, the sill of the door; and c c, holes in the floor,
communicating with a tunnel below, for the purpose of admitting air to urge combustion,
when green wood is burned. Fig. 1 368 is a longitudinal section on the line A B, in
which d is one of the openings for the introduction of fresh air to the green fuel, but
which is closed by a fire-brick, or by building up the entrance to the funnel, b, when dry
fuel is used ; e is a flue from the highest part of the arch of the oven, for conveying away
the smoke to the chimney, g, when green fuel is used, but which is closed by a
stopper at i, when the oven is heated by dry fuel ; f is the door to the oven, and g the
chimney. When dry fuel is used, the orifices at d and i are closed, and the fuel, being
introduced at/, is ignited there, and pushed forward to the centre of the oven, where it
burns till consumed, or till the oven is sufficiently heated; the smoke passing out by the
upper part of/, and ascending the chimney, g. When sufficient heat has been obtained,
which is between 250° and 300°, and which the baker knows by expedience, never using a
thermometer, the floor of the oven is cleaned out, and the bread introduced ; the door, /
ami the stopper, i, are then closed for a short period; after which a very small opening
is made, by loosening the stopper, i, to admit the escape of the vapour exhaled from the
bread. This vapour, or whatever proceeds from the door, /, when it is opened either to
examine or to take out the bread, ascends by the open chimney, g. Fig. 1365 is a trans-
KITCHENS OK COUNTRY INNS.
7J1
verse section on the line C 1) ; and fig. 1366 is a front elevation, showing the door to the
oven, k, and the opening to the tunnel below, /. Ovens of this description are in general
136.5
136
J 1 I l i I
use in France ; but in those of Paris, where dry wood is always used, the funnels, d and e.
are seldom made use of, but to cool the oven, or to admit of the escape of the vapour
from the bread. It may be observed, also, that, in some of the ovens of Paris, the fuel,
instead of being burned on the general surface of the hearth, is consumed in iron
gratings or baskets, placed over the openings, c c ; which is found a more rapid and
economical mode of heating, than that of making a fire on the floor of the oven.
1507. Oven for Coal. Ovens like that just described, but most frequently without
the funnel, e i, in fig. 1368, were almost the only kind used in Britain, till about fifty
years ago, when an improvement was made in them, in order to admit of heating them
with coal, by Powell, an oven-builder in Lisle Street, London. A subsequent improve-
ment has since been made by Waugh, of Rowland Mews, Tottenham Court Road, which
consists in the introduction of a register or damper for the oven flue. That this damper
should not have been introduced sooner is a proof that very few have looked at the oven
with a scientific eye. We have examined a great number in London, and found most of
them of a very rude construction ; but, rude as this construction is, we have found no one
acquainted with it, but a particular description of bricklayers, whose exclusive business
is that of building ovens. The process of heating an oven by coal is rather interesting
to those who have never seen an oven heated otherwise than by wood. After lighting
the fire, the roof of the oven in a short time is perfectly black with soot ; some time
afterwards, in consequence of the intensity of the fire, the soot begins to ignite, and
eventually becomes red ; in this state it remains only a few minutes for the intensity of
the fire being continued, it turns white, and drops, like a shower of volcanic ashes, on the
floor of the oven. The oven is now considered to be sufficiently heated ; the furnace
door is thrown open, and the floor of the oven wiped out, so as to be ready to receive the
bread. We shall shortly describe the best sort of baker's oven now in use in London
for baking bread and roasting meat ; suggesting certain additions to it, calculated for
performing the latter operation in a higher degree of perfection.
Fig. 1369 is a ground plan of an oven, rather under the middle size; in which a is
the furnace, for heating it by coal or wood, as may be most convenient ; b is the door of
4 N
wz
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1369
Au
j ft.
1370
the oven ; and c, the opening to a smoke flue which is regulated by the damper, d. This
flue passes over the oven door by e to f, where it ascends a vertical flue, in order to escape
into the atmosphere. Directly over e is a valve or register, which opens into the flue
over it, and which is found extremely useful when the baker opens the oven to draw the
bread ; as it admits of the ascent of the steam and vapour, which would otherwise prove
a great annoyance to the man, besides overheating the bakehouse. This register or
valve is a plate so nicely balanced by two pivots, that it is opened and shut with the
greatest ease ; g is a vacuity round the mass of brickwork, for the sake of retaining heat.
On the furnace side of the oven is shown a place for fuel, h ; and on the other side, t,
may be kept certain pieces of quartering, which are put in the oven between the bread
and its sides ; here also may be kept the peels, or long-handed shovels, used in drawing
the bread, and other oven implements.
Fig. 1 370 is a longitudinal section, in which is shown the door of the oven, with the
register over it open atj; the
smoke-flue above, k ; the entrance
to the smoke-flue, I ; and a small
oven, or proving place, m, in
which certain descriptions of
bread are put, to undergo a heat
of from seventy to eighty de-
grees, to prove or raise the
dough before it is put into the ,=_;
principal oven. This heat is
communicated through the bot-
tom of the oven above, and is
retained by keeping the door
always shut, except when ar-
ticles are to be put in or taken
out. There is another oven, n,
of the same description, over the
central oven, for proving at a
temperature of eighty degrees.
In order to save the whole of
the heat generated by the oven,
except what is radiated from
the front of it, which we suppose
to be barely sufficient in winter
to keep the bakehouse at a proper
temperature, we have shown it
covered with a poultry-house,
o, fitted up with nests, in the
"0 0 ft TT
5
7i — r
KITCHENS OF COUNTRY INNS.
7°2S
manner already described, § 1326; p is the stair or ladder, by which this poultry-
house is entered. Fig. 1371 shows its ground plan; in which q is the flue of the oven;
r the bakehouse • s, the nests ; and t, the stair and door. It is almost needless to observe
♦hat the poultry-house may be omitted when not wanted.
Fig. 1372 is a section across
the bakehouse, showing the
front view of the oven ; in which
u is the door of the furnace,
over which is placed a square
copper for heating water, which
is drawn off, as wantc d, for
mixing with the flour, by the
siphon and cock, v ; w is the pipe
which supplies the water ; x is
the register to the smoke flue,
from which the smoke proceeds
to the chimney top, as shown
by the dotted arrows ; y is the
place for bakehouse implements;
z the compartment for fuel ;
and Sc, the door of the principal
oven, over which may be seen
the door of the upper proving-
oven, and under it that of the
lower proving-oven.
1508. To fit a Baker's Oven, such as this, for roasting Meat, which shall in all respects
be equal in flavour to meat dressed in the roasters of Mr. Strutt or Count Rumford, or
1371
1372
before an open fire, only a very slight addition to the plan is necessary. Let a small
flue, fig. 1369, a, be formed under the tiled floor of the oven, commencing under
the shelf of the door at b', and continued round by a to c, where it may ascend the
side wall a few inches, and then open into the oven. This will suffice for the purpose
of introducing a stream of heated air ; and after this air has circulated in the oven, it
may be carried off by another flue, of the same dimensions, in the back wall, com-
mencing a few inches above the floor, as shown at a", in fig. 1370. This flue may be
carried up to the vacuity in the wall of the poultry-house ; and the air, after circulating
there, may be allowed to escape by the highest point, e'. In fig. 1372, at /', may be seen
a sliding register for closing the orifice to this flue, when baking alone is to be per^
formed ; and for opening it, or regulating the opening, when roasting is going forward.
Another improvement might be made in an oven of this description, which would be
7^2 i> COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
that of having a smoke-flue around it, commencing at the furnace, a, and ending at the
damper, dc, as indicated by the dotted lines, </. The use of this flue is to admit of
throwing heat into the oven at pleasure, while roasting is going forward ; and this might
easily be done, by having a register at h, to the furnace a, which would render a second
furnace unnecessary. A little alteration would be required in the construction of this
furnace, so as to admit of fixing the register ; and working it on the outside with ease :
but whoever has ingenuity enough to execute such a plan will readily anticipate this
and other minutiae. It may be observed, that there is a description of register now in
use in coal ovens, which would answer for this purpose quite well, in default of a better.
It is simply a cast-iron plate, with a foot or bottom, by which it is kept upright. This
plate, which stands inside the oven, is shut from the inside, close against the mouth of the
furnace, when it is desired to prevent the introduction of heat, the outer door being
opened ; or it is placed obliquely against the inner opening of the furnace with the outer
door closed, to guide the flame and smoke in particular directions.
1509. Mr. Hicks's Oven is a great improvement on those in common use; but, as it is
more adapted for towns, and for baking on a very large scale, than for country inns, we
deem it sufficient to refer to the engraving and description of it in the Mechanics' Magc-
zine, vol. xiv. p. 417. We have seen this oven at work in the magnificent baking esta-
blishment at Pimlieo ; and also witnessed bread baked in a small model of it in Mr. Hicks's
drawing-room, in Wimpole Street. The main object of Mr. Hicks's improvement is, to
collect the alcoholic vapours, which are given out by every fermenting substance ; and this
Mr, Hicks's apparatus effects most completely. The spirit comes over along with a large
proportion of water, perhaps equal to three fourths of the weight of the dough when put
in. and is afterwards separated by distillation. Count Rumford found that rye bread,
svhich is but very slightly fermented, lost an eighth part of its weight in baking. There
can be no doubt that the spirit might be as effectually collected and condensed, in the
small ovens of private families, as in the large ovens of public establishments ; but the
excise laws of this country are too troublesome to render this worth while ; and in other
countries, where spirits are cheap, the expense of the machinery would be an objection.
1510. Baking by high-pressure Steam. Mr. Hicks has subsequently invented an
apparatus for baking by high-pressure steam, which may justly be considered as a very
superior mode to the process of direct fire heat. The dough is not only baked, but is
previously divided by the apparatus into equal-sized loaves. We have seen full-sized
loaves baked in Mr. Hicks's working-model, and have no doubt of the excellence of the
plan for public companies ; but we are not so certain of its suitableness for inns or
private families, from the largeness of the first cost, and from the intricacy of Hie
machinery.
1511. Baking by hot Water. An oven to be heated by hot water circulated in her-
metically sealed tubes, and consequently capable of being heated to 300° and upwards,
is constructing by M. A. Perkins, Esq., of London, the inventor of the mode of cir-
culating hot water in hermetically sealed tubes (described Gard. Mag. vol. viii. p. 292 ),
which will give ample heat for either baking or roasting, and which, we think, promises
well, both for public and private establishments.
1512. Among the Implements and Machines of the Bakehouse may be reckoned a knead-
ing-machine, of which several have long been in use in Paris, but of which none have
yet been permanently adopted in this country, with the exception of that worked by
steam in the large establishment at Pimlieo. The French strongly recommend a knead-
ing-machine invented by Cavalier and Company, of Paris ; one of which was lately ex-
hibited in the National Repository in London, and which will be found figured and
described in the Mechanics' Magazine, vol. xiii. p. 145. We have seen this machine at
the Oxgate Farm bread establishment ; where, as well as at Dill's bakehouse, in Oxford
Street, where it had been previously tried, it did not give satisfaction to the men ; and
the masters in both cases were obliged to yield to them. There is another kneading-
machine now in progress at Rogers's bakehouse in Snowhill. We do not think there
will be any difficulty in getting one perfected, both for kneading common dough and the
dough of biscuits ; but there must previously be a demand for such a machine ; and if
bread-caters, generally, knew as much of the details of the process of breadmaking, and of
the economy of the bakehouse, as we do, in consequence of our having lately explored
a great number of London bakehouses and ovens, this would soon be the case.
1513. A Steaming Apparatus can scarcely be dispensed with in the kitchen of an inn ;
because steam may not only be used for cooking food, especially vegetables, but also for
boiling water ; for heating hot closets, sideboards, and even dining-tables ; for heating
oaths however distant from the fire ; and, what, in many cases will be of greater im-
portance than any of these, for heating the whole house, but more especially the lobby
hall, staircase, and passages. The management of steam is now so generally understood
that it is unnecessary here to dwell on the subject, In Sylvester's Domestic Economy
KITCHENS OF COUNTRY INNS.
7 23
1:573
p. 43, will be found described an excellent mode of boiling water by steam. In some ot
the London club-houses, and particularly in that belonging to the Travellers' Club,
which was fitted up by Mr. Jeakes, under the direction of the eminent architect, Charles
Barry, Esq., steam is brought most extensively into use in cooking; in heating hot
closets, tables, and benches ; in boiling water for baths, and for various other purposes.
For whatever end a steam apparatus is erected, the boiler ought always to have a manhole
for cleaning it out ; and this operation ought to be performed frequently, otherwise the
earthy material deposited on the metal, being a non-conductor, will render the water
every day more difficult to heat, and hasten the burning out of the bottom of the boiler.
It may also be remarked, that thin-bottomed boilers of wrought iron, or copper, not
only are sooner heated, but last longer, than boilers with thick bottoms, such as those of
cast iron. Cast-iron boilers are also much more dangerous, in cases of explosion, than
those made of malleable materials.
1514. Hot Closets for keeping plates, or food warm, or for other purposes, may be
formed in any convenient part of the kitchen, by surrounding them with a double ease
of iron, into the interstices of which the steam is admitted. The shelves may also be
double, and connected with the sides, to admit of their being heated in the same manner.
A long kitchen-table, for setting out dishes before they are carried up to the dining-room,
may have the centre formed of a double plate, and the steam admitted under it, to keep
the dishes hot, while standing there. Hot closets may also be formed under the side-
hoards in the principal dining-rooms, and connected with the steam apparatus by a pipe.
1515. An Apparatus for roasting Meat of every Kind by Gas has been recently invented
by Mr. Hicks, the patentee of the improved iron oven, by which spirit is obtained
from the exhalations of fermented bread while baking, before noticed, § 1509. This
apparatus is so extremely simple and beautiful, that a very few words will suffice to
explain it. The gas is admitted to a metallic circle, fig. 1373, a, through a very
narrow continuous opening, round the outside of which the gas issues, and forms a ring
of blue flame. In the centre, supported by two lateral gas tubes joined to the circle, is
an upright spike, c, serving as a spit on which the meat to be roasted is stuck. From
the centre of the circle the
pipe, d, which supplies the gas.
passes down to the gas main,
e; having a cock, f, with a
regulating lever, g, by which
the gas can be turned on or
off, and the degree of flame
produced can be regulated
with the greatest nicety. The
circle is raised a few inches
above a bench or table, h, so
as to admit of the introduc-
tion of a convex tin dish,
furnished with a spout for
receiving the dripping, under
each spit. From this dish
the dripping runs off by the
spout, and is collected in any
common dish placed under it.
Over the bench, at the height
of three or four feet, is a
projecting boarded canopy or
hood, for receiving the heated
air and smell from the gas
and meat, and conducting
them to a flue, so as to pre-
vent them from accumulating
in the kitchen. Directly above
the gas circle is a cone of
polished copper, suspended by
a weight. This cone is two
inches wider in diameter at
the base than the gas circle,
and it has a small orifice at the
top. When the operation of
roasting is to be performed, all
that is necessary is to spit the meat, and light the gas. regulating it so as to produce onlv
72G
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
a blue flame, closely resembling a blue riband round the base of a black turban ; and
then to bring down the copper cone, until its lower edge is on a level with the base of
the gas circle. A vessel to receive the dripping is then placed under tin- spout of the tin
dripping-dish, and the process of roasting goes on, without basting or any other oper-
ation whatever being requisite. The heat produced by the gas is radiated from the
copper cone on the meat, and, this being done equally on all sides, the latter never requires
turning; while, the heat not being so intense as that from an open fire, the meat is neither
dried nor burned ; and, consequently, does not need basting. It is, in fact, roasted by
heated air, but air which is constantly renewed ; and, therefore, this operation has no
affinity with baking. The time required for roasting in this manner is shorter than that
before an open fire, in the proportion of about twelve to fifteen ; it requiring fifteen
minutes for roasting every pound of meat before an open fire, and only twelve minutes
for roasting the same quantity by gas. As the cones are nicely balanced, in the manner
of chandeliers suspended from lofty ceilings, the cook, when she wishes to look at the
meat, can raise and lower the cone hanging over it, with the greatest ease. The fat drops
slowly, and as pure as water, into the dish placed to receive it ; and when the period of
dressing is nearly completed, it is indicated by the appearance of gravy being mixed
with the fat. For different joints, and for fowls of different kinds, and game, there are
rims and covers of different sizes ; and for a sirloin of beef, the cone approaches to the
form of a cylinder with a domical top. The operation, when the meat is once spitted,
and the gas properly adjusted, is conducted or rather goes on of itself, with all the quiet
precision of a chemical process in a laboratory ; and, in short, with so much cleanliness,
neatness, and absence of smell and heat, that it would not be offensive in a drawing-room.
On the evening of January 5. 1833, we were present, along with a number of gentlemen,
in Mr. Hicks's kitchen, in Wimpole Street, when a part of a sirloin of beef, a leg of
mutton, two fowls, and a pigeon, were roasted in this manner, and afterwards tasted by
the company ; when they were found to be in all respects equal, if not superior, to
meat and fowls roasted in the common way. Mr. Hicks's apparatus had been only
erected, a few weeks, and was, at the time we saw it, not made known to the public.
The expense of gas is much less than might be imagined, the effect being produced
not so much by intensity of heat as by its concentration. Mr. Hicks has found
sixteen cubical feet of gas, which costs 2'^d., sufficient for roasting twelve or fourteen
pounds of meat ; which is considerably less than a farthing per pound. When it is con-
sidered that bread is baked and browned at from 280° to 300° Fahr., and that meat is
roasted in bakers' ovens after the bread is removed, the circumstance of gas affording a
sufficient degree of heat for roasting will not occasion surprise. We have before, § 1445,
described the mode by which boiling and stewing by gas have been for some time practised
in Edinburgh ; and it is clear that, as roasting can be also effected by it, so may baking.
The whole business, therefore, of the preparation of human food by the application of
heat may be performed by gas, and that with great economy, in all families who roast
and bake at home. This is only realising what was long ago anticipated by the late
William Strutt, Esq., of Derby. There can be no doubt that oil, or any liquid fat
burned in the same manner, would effect the same end ; and, indeed, this is proved
by the portable machine for the use of ships and ambulatory cottages, § 516, invented
by Mr. Cochrane, and sold by Josse, in Regent Street. How far the art of cooking by
gas will be suitable for country inns, may be considered uncertain in the present infancy
of the invention ; but as, on calculation, it is found in London to be much cheaper
than roasting by open fires of coal, and, for small joints, equally cheap with sending
meat to be cooked in a baker's oven, it appears highly probable that, wherever gas is used
for lighting, it will answer to employ it also for cooking. In cities, which are now
generally lighted with gas, it will probably soon effect an important revolution ; for, since
every house may be supplied with heat by steam or hot water from public companies,
domestic fires will become unnecessary ; and, as the smoke may be burned in the engines
of all manufactories by Witty's furnaces, our atmosphere may be left comparatively pure,
and our town Architecture be displayed to as great advantage as town Architecture now
is on the Continent.
Chap. IV.
Designs for Parochial Schools.
1516. The Subject of the Education of Youth is one of such vast importance, that we
feel some difficulty in entering upon it, in such a manner as to suffice for the object
which we have in view; and, at the same time, not to exceed the limits suitable for a
chapter treating upon School Architecture, rather than upon school management. The
MODEL DESIGNS FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 7^7
art of teaching, like all other arts, began by efforts made by individuals on individuals ; and
it is only in modern times, at least in Britain, that the discovery has been made of tiie art
of teaching children in masses. This art is nothing more than a branch of that general
system of improvement which consists in the cooperation of numbers for the good of the
whole. We shall make no attempt to trace the history of this art, which seems to have
existed for an unknown length of time in India ; but it would be withholding what is
due to meritorious exertion, not to mention the names of three eminent individuals, who,
in modern times, have brought it to the perfection in which it now is. We allude to
Mr. Lancaster, who, without any knowledge of what had been done in India, invented
a similar system, and applied it in this country ; Mr. Wilderspin, who invented, and it
may be said perfected, at least in principle, the system of infant instruction ; and Dr. Bell,
who improved the Indian system at Madras, and afterwards imported it into Britain.
Having paid some attention to these three systems of teaching, both in Britain and on
the Continent, and looking upon universal education as the grand moral lever which is
to raise the human world, we can hardly refrain from entering into the subject at some
length ; but we must content ourselves with observing that the three modes are essentially
one and the same; viz., that of educating in masses; and, that we consider this art as of
as great importance in the moral and political world as the invention of the steam-
engine is in that of the world of arts and manufactures. It is not one of the least
advantages of this system, that it lightens the labours of both the master and the scholar,
and renders that an amusement which formerly was a task. We shall first lay down the
fundamental principles for designing and fitting up schools of these three descriptions,
and next give two or three miscellaneous examples.
Sect. I. Of the Fundamental Principles, and the Rules derived from these Principles, for
designing and fitting up Schools for the Education of Children in Masses.
1517. The Education of Children in Masses comprises that of infants under five years
of age, and that of children from that age upwards. The education of infants not five
years old must necessarily be almost wholly effected by teachers who have attained the
years of discretion ; but that of children farther advanced may be in great part effected
by the mutual instruction of the children themselves, under the direction and superintend-
ence of a competent master or mistress. This necessarily divides our present subject into
two subsections; viz., that of designing schools for training infants, and that of designing
schools for mutual instruction. We shall treat the subject very concisely in both sub-
sections, happy in being able to refer to works accessible to all Architects who may be
required to design or execute schools; viz., Wilderspin on Infant Education, 4th edit.
12mo, 1832, 5s. ; Brown on the Cultivation of the Infant Mind, 4th edit. 12mo, 1832,
2s. 6a\ ; Wilson on the System of Infant Schools, 3d edit. 8vo, 1826, 4s. 6d. ; Manual of
Model Schools of the British and Foreign School Society, 8vo, 1831, 5s. ; and Stoat's
System of Circulating Classes, as an Improvement on the Madras System, 12mo, 1826, Is.
Subsect. 1. Fundamental Principles, and General Rules deduced from them, for designing
Schools for Infant Instruction.
1518. In the Choice of the Situation for an infant school, the first consideration is, the
physical health of the children ; and the next, their moral health. The principle derived
from the first consideration is, that the spot should be dry and airy ; and the rule deduced
from this principle is, that the building should be placed on a site elevated, either
naturally or by art, and so that the sun may shine on each of its sides on every day, or on
most days, of the year. The principle derived from the second consideration is, that the
school should be so situated as not to expose the children to the risk of moral contamina-
tion ; and, to effect this, it should be a rule always to place infant schools in a decent and
orderly neighbourhood. There are other subordinate rules respecting the construction of
these buildings, to be derived from these principal ones ; which, after what has been said
on the subject of drainage, ventilation, cleanliness, and decency, in the preceding pages
of this work, we shall leave to the Architect. " Much," it is observed by Mr. Brown,
the excellent master of the Spitalfields Infant School, " may be done by forethought and
contrivance, to secure healthiness and convenience, and to save expense ; and not only so,
but to give the children such a prepossession in favour of order, neatness, and cleanliness,
as shall lead to the most beneficial results in their after-lives. I could wish," he adds,
" for the good of society at large, that the poor were disgusted with the wretched hovels
in which they dwell ; and which, in London at least, often let for higher rents than com-
fortable houses." (Essay on the Cultivation of the Infant Mind.)
1519. The Desiderata of the School-room are, ample dimensions, free air, light,
sunshine, and cheerfulness. The rule, therefore, should be, to have high walls, in order to
obtain a lofty ceiling; and to have abundance of windows exposed to the sun. The size
of the room must depend on the number of children to be instructed in it ; and the
7^8 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
maximum for one master and mistress is 150 children. The minimum space for this
number of children is ISO lineal reel of bench or form for seats, and at least six square
feet for each child for standing room ; independently of room for the master and mistress,
and the monitors, and without including two or more additional rooms, of not more than
a fourth part of the size of the principal one, for giving instruction on particular branches
of knowledge to small classes, or to the whole school in a compact mass.
1520. The Form of the Room should be deduced from the mode of teaching. One of
the principal objects, in an infant school, is to gain the attention of the pupils, and fix it
on one person placed on one spot ; and hence, the form should be such as to occasion the
least possible trouble to the infants in their efforts to direct their attention to the master.
It is also requisite that the voice of the master or mistress should be heard equally well
in every part of the room by every infant, without effort on their parts. " If," says
Mr. Wilson, " the master be obliged to raise his voice, in order to be heard by those
who are at a greater distance than others, his tone will almost necessarily seem to approach
to that of anger, and the good feelings of his little flock will, in consequence, be dis-
turbed; while, on the other hand, distance will encourage carelessness in those whose
attention is not yet sufficiently secured."
1521. A Model Design, in conformity with these Principles, fig. 1374, is given in
Mr. Wilson's work, in which a a are seats round the room ; l>, a double rostrum, in the
front part of which the monitor (who is to lead the rest when the school is engaged in a
united lesson) takes his stand; and on the back part of which the superintendent places
himself whenever he may wish to obtain the attention of the whole school at once, and
to convey a lesson to them all at the same time. There is a gallery, c, in which all the
children may be occasionally assembled within a smaller compass, for general examination.
This gallery must have seats, at least equal, altogether, in length, to all the other seats
round the room. There are seats, d, against the wall behind the rostrum. The advantages
of a room in the form of a broad parallelogram over a narrow one are, that the distance
of the several seats from the rostrum approaches more nearly to equality, and that the eyes
1S74
^
&
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c
of the children are more easily aireeted to that point. The seats for the monitors, e,
must be placed at a sufficient distance from the benches against the walls, to leave room
for the free passage of the children when they walk round the school two and two. They
should be placed at the terminating line of each class, and be so broad as to allow the
monitors room to stand upon them when the lesson is given out from the rostrum. There
are two smaller rooms, f one of which, at least, forms an essential part of the infant
school, for giving instruction in separate classes. One may be used for boys and the
other for girls ; or one may be used for school furniture or lumber. There is a yard, g,
embracing three sides of the school, and which may be extended in the direction of h.
MODEL DESIGNS FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. JL29
1522. Another Model Design, fig. 1375, is given by the same author, and i> preferrc 1
by him, because in it the children may be so arranged in the circumference of a cire1?. as
that their eyes, necessarily, and without effort, are directed to the rostrum. All the cl
are here equidistant from the acting monitors or superintendents. From the position
of the scholars, also, the necessity for a raised gallery is removed. The more advanced,
whose examinations will principally take place in the class room, will be seated along the
straight wall, i. Those next in progress will occupy the inner circle of seats, h; and
the smaller children will take their seats on the benches, I, attached to the circular wall.
The roof of this place should be so constructed as not to reverberate the sound, for which
purpose it should be without a ceiling. There are two class rooms, in m, to this Design,
and a yard embracing it on three sides, as in the preceding one.
1523. The Form of the School-room, according to Mr. Wilderspin and Mr. Brown,
ought to be rectangular ; and fifty feet long by twenty-five feet wide will, they say, contain
as many infants as the most laborious master and mistress can conveniently manage.
The middle of the room is kept quite clear of fixed seats, and the height, to the roofs,
should be fifteen or twenty feet, without any intervening ceiling, as that is found to pro-
duce echo. In addition to a room of fifty feet by twenty-five feet, there should be at one
end a gallery fourteen feet wide and fifteen feet deep, and a class-room ten feet wide and
fourteen feet deep. The gallery is fitted up with steps rising above each other, for the
purpose of instructing the children with greater facility in particular branches. The
first bench or seat in this gallery should be seven inches high, and seventeen inches in
depth ; the second should be seven inches and a half high, and the same in depth ; and so
on, increasing in height half an inch in every seat, till the ten seats which the .-.pace
affords are completed. The class-room, which is placed alongside of the stage or gallery,
is fourteen feet by ten feet, on the plan, allowing one foot for a partition between them.
At the end of this class-room a stage of two or three seats is erected for the larger
children. The large room is fitted up with seats round its sides, from six inches and a
half to nine inches and a half in height, and eight inches wide, with a small bead or fillet
nailed on the floor, about a foot from the seat, as a line of demarcation for the children's
feet. The wall is covered with boarding to the height of four or five feet, terminating
in a row of hat pins. The portion of sitting-room allowed by Mr. Wilderspin for each
child is twelve inches in length ; so that a school fifty feet long, and twenty-five feet wide,
with a bench along three sides, and two doors into the gallery and class-room at one end,
will contain from 125 to 150 infants.
1524. A Play-ground and other Conveniences should be connected with each school ;
and Mr. Wilderspin is of opinion that this play-ground should not be less than 150 or
200 fett long, and 50 feet wide, for a school of the size above-mentioned ; Mr. Brcwn,
when speaking of London Infant Schools, says, fifty feet by twenty-five feet will be large
enough for a play-ground for 150 children. Much will depend on the age of the infants.
A <>
7->0
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
One object for inducing childre i to play together is to give them a knowledge of one
another, and to elicit their individual character, so as to enable the master and mistress
to apply instruction accordingly. For this purpose, in the case of very young infants,
c mcentration must be more avourable than dispersion; and, consequently, the size of the
play-ground must be regulated by the size of the infants.
1525. The House for the Mister and Mistress should be connected with, or contiguous
to, the school; and should, at all events, command a complete view of the play-ground, in
order to enable them to look over the children during their dinner-time. The places of
convenience should not only be near the school, with a covered way leading to them, but
there should be small windows looking into them, from the class-room, or some other
convenient situation, through which the master or mistress may, when a child has been
long absent, ascertain in the easiest manner that no accident has befallen it.
1526- The Accommodation of the lipase for the Master and Mistress should consist of
at least two sitting-rooms, one for constant use, and the other, in which there ought to
be a school library, for receiving visiters. The kitchen and other conveniences ought to
be in proportion ; and in the country there ought always to be a garden, not only for
the supply of vegetables to the master and mistress, but for their recreation and enjoy-
ment during the hours of leisure.
1527. The Infant School, near St. Vincent's Square, Westminster, may be considered a
very good model for a country infant school. It is placed in an irregular piece of ground
i yard, and consists of one large room, fig. 1376, a, forty-two feet by twenty-
two feet, with seats on each side ; one fire at each end ; two large ventilators in the
ceiling ; and with sliding doors opening into a gallery, h. There are about one hundred
feet of seats, so that the school may be considered as adapted for that number of chil-
dren. At one end is a class-room, c, and at the other is the house of the master and
mistress, </. There are yards and lean-tos at each end ; one at e, for the children ; and
another at f, for the master and mistress. From the class-room, c, there are small holes
filled in with panes of glass looking into the yards, through which, when any child has
stayed out longer than ordinary, the master or mistress can ascertain, without trouble,
whether or not an accident has happened in that part of the premises. The whole of
the front yard can be inspected in a moment from the entrance-door, g. This school
was established through the influence of Mr. Owen ; and the present excellent teachers,
Mr. anil Mrs. Buchanan, were brought to superintend it from Mr. Owen's establishment
at New Lanark. Every child brings twopence with him on the Monday morning, which is
understood to pay for his week's instruction, or, in other words, the salary of the master;
the rent, taxes, and expenses of heating and lighting, being paid by the patrons and sub-
scribers to the school.
Subskct. 2. Fundamental Principles, and Rules deduced from them, for designing Schools
for Mutual Instruction.
1528. Schools for Mutual Instruction are of two kinds: those on the Madras or Bell's
system, or on the improved system founded on it by Stoat, the characteristic of both
of which is, that the school is at all times taught in separate classes; and those on the
Lancasterian plan, by which the greater part of the teaching is carried on while the
MODEL DESIGNS FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 731
school *s formed into one class. We shall first notice what is common to both systems,
and afterwards describe each system separately.
1529. The System* of Bell and Lancaster agree in what is necessary for all schools;
viz., in being placed in a dry, airy, light, warm, cheerful, and respectable situation.
They agree also in requiring ample school-rooms, and a general form, nearer a square
than a narrow parallelogram, for the move ready inspection of the whole school by the
master or mistress : in most other particulars they differ.
1530. By the. Madras System, the children are taught in classes forming squares; and
as these squares may be increased or diminished at the pleasure of the teacher, almost any
form of room will suffice for carrying on either this mode of teaching, or the very superior
variation of it by Stoat, denominated the circulating system. On the supposition that
the squares are nine feet on the sides, this will give, at eighteen inches in length of form
for each individual, eighty-one feet for twenty-four scholars, or about four superficial
feet for each, deducting the space of one scholar for the room occupied by the monitor.
It may be remarked, both of the original system of Bell and of the improvement on it
by Stoat, that no author who has written on either has ever given or described one
plan or form for a school, as preferable to another ; a clear proof that no particular
form is necessary.
1551. The School on the Madras System, in Baldwin's Gardens, is shown in the ground
plan, fig. 1377. It is divided into nine squares, six of which are shown with the forms,
a a a, on three sides ; the fourth being occupied by the teacher. In each square there
is a box for books, &c, b ; c c are cast-iron columns which support the roof. Three of
the nine squares which compose this school are shown vacant, merely because at the time
we took the plan (Nov. 1832), there happened not to be a sufficient number of scholars
to fill the school. Against the four exterior walls there is a continued writing-desk, (/,
with a form before it, e. There is a cupboard for books and papers in one corner,/;
and an entrance-door at another, g. Adjoining this school is one for girls, of exactlv the
same plan and dimensions ; and on examination days, and times of public display, the two
1377
schools are united by opening the sliding doors at h, and the children of both are
arranged along the open space, i, down the middle. To admit of this, the desks which
are placed against the door, h, are movable; but all the others are fixed. There is a
play-ground beneath each school, of the same size as the apartment over it, and a small
yard, with the usual conveniences. The space from the floor to the roof of these schools
is open, as indicated by the cross section, fig. 1378 ; in which there are windows for light
732
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
and ventilation at /•/•and//: the desk round the wall is shown at to; the box for
books at ii, and the forms at o. The room is heated in cold weather by stoves. The
master has a movable desk and seat on castors, so that lie can fix his position in any part
of the room that he may choose. The forms, fig. 1379. are supported by cast-iron feet,
and the desks against
1379
the walls by cast-iron
brackets. Each school 6.
is a square of sixty-one
feet on the side, and
is capable of containing
three hundred scholars,
that is, twenty-seven forms of eleven or twelve scholars each. The boys' school is
managed by one master and nine subordinates ; the girls' school by a mistress, with a
subordinate for each class ; and there is a head-master, or rector, who has the general
inspection of both schools, and is himself under the guidance of a committee of manage-
ment. The scholars pay a trifle weekly.
1532. The Circulating System of Stoat, of the Islington Parochial School, is so great an
improvement on the Madras system, that it can hardly fail to be substituted for it by all
who are so circumstanced as to be able to examine both systems without prejudice. As
far as architectural objects are concerned, it may be sufficient to observe, that, by the
Madras system the children are arranged on three sides of squares ; while by Stoat's
system, they are placed in the circumference of a circle, or in those of concentric circles.
Hence, for this plan, there ought to be no forms or fixtures of any kind in the centre of
the school ; and hence, also, double the number of scholars can be taught in the same
space. For example, within an outer circle of sixteen feet in diameter, boys may be
placed in concentric circles, so as to include ninety-one in a single class. But the great
advantage of the circulating system, according to Mr. Stoat, is, that the superior and
inferior children are constantly mixing together in every part of the class; and that the
former are every where at hand, to assist the latter by their instruction and example.
By the Madras system, the school is arranged into classes composed of children of
the nearest degrees of proficiency ; and, as soon as any of the boys begin to evince any
superiority over the others, they are placed out of the reach of their inferiors ; that is, at
the head of the class. By the circulating system, on the contrary, all the children in the
circle are continually changing places; and, instead of merit being indicated by the
position of a boy at the head of his class, it is marked by the number of times that he
has circulated round it ; he receiving a badge marked with a fresh number every time
he passes a certain pole fixed in the ground for that purpose ; and at the conclusion of
every week the boys possessing the highest numbers become entitled to medals. But
we refer the reader to the interesting little work of Mr. Stoat before-mentioned, § 1517,
which deserves to be in the hands of every teacher whose mode of conducting his school
is founded on the Madras system ; indeed, in the hands of all teachers whatever. We
have, in perusing this work, been delighted to find so much improvement introduced by a
single individual into a system which was before considered to be nearly perfect. We
have had apian taken of Mr. Stoat's school, fig. 1380. It occupies, including the yards,
about an acre of ground, and contains a master's house, a boy's school and yard, a girls'
school and yard, an extra-school for either boys or girls, and a master's garden. Here are
a gravel court of entrance, a; school for boys, b, with its yard, c; a school for girls, d;
with its yard, e ; an extra-school for supernumeraries, or for teaching particular sub-
jects,/. The master's house contains a kitchen lighted from a skylight,//; a back-
kitchen lighted in the same manner, h ; a committee-room, i ; and parlour, k ; besides
closets and other conveniences on the ground floor, and four bed-rooms over. There is
an entrance porch, /, to the boys' school, and another, m, to that of the girls. There is
a large garden, exclusively for the use and enjoyment of the master and mistress, n. The
dimensions of the schools, d and b, are forty-eight feet by thirty-six feet; and in each of
MODEL DESIGNS FOR COUNTIIY SCHOOLS.
TiS
« lie:n may be taught 400 children. The circles round v hich the children are to stand
are drawn on the floor with chalk : there are writing-de p
round the walls as in the Madras school in Baldwin's Gar-
dens, fig. 1377, and writing is also taught on slates. The
schools are well lighted from the south-east and north-west ;
and in the roof are ventilators formed in the manner shown
In fig. 1381, in which the iron spindle which supports a
board, or the pane of glass, p, is raised by two lines, q, passing
over the pulleys, r, when the card, s, is pulled by a person
standing on the floor of the school. The weight forming the
handle, t, is such as to balance the ventilator in whichever
position it may be placed.
1533. By the Lancasterian System the children are placed
in lines across the room, with a form and desk to each line,
and are chiefly taught in one mass when so placed ; but
they are also taught in small classes in the form of semicircles
round the room. The desiderata for a school to be taught
on tin's system have been given in a very complete manner
in an appendix to the work, already named, entitled Manual
of the Model Schools of the British and Foreign School Society,
from which we shall make a succinct abridgment.
1534. The Situation of the School should be retired and
quiet, and the ground high, and open to the south. To
preserve the pupils from the inconvenience of cold and
damp, it will be better to raise the ground two or three feet
above the surrounding level. There should be a play-ground
or yard, in which the childten may assemble before they t
go into school, or during the hours of recreation. The soil of this yard should be of
gravel, to the depth of one foot. It should be enclosed by a wall of suitable heiglit, and
have a communication with the street or road, without passing through the school-room.
There ought to be a good supply of fresh water, either from a pump, or a cask or cistern,
with conveniences for the children to wash their hands and faces. One side of the vard
731.
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
should be furnished with seats, and a part covered, in order to protect the children from
inclemency of weather.
1535. General Arrangement of the Schoolroom. The schoolroom should be a paral-
lelogram, the length about twice the breadth. The height of the walls should be pro-
portioned to the length of the room, and may be varied from eleven to nineteen Beet.
They should be worked fair, and lime-whitened, in order to give a neat and clean appear-
ance, reflect light, and contribute to the preservation of health. There should be a con-
siderable number of windows, each of which should be fixed in a wooden frame, and
movable upon pins or pivots in the centre, so that, by drawing the upper part into the
room, the lower part may project outwards, so as to admit air above and below ; by which
means the school may be sufficiently ventilated in hot weather. The lower parts of the
windows should be at hast six feet from the floor, in order that the light may not be
inconvenient, and the wall be at liberty for the boards or placards containing the reading-
lessons, &c, which are attached to it : if piers or buttresses are required, they should be on
the outside of the wall. Fig. 1382 is a plan of a Lancasterian school for 304 children.
It is sixty-two feet six inches long, and thirty-four feet wide, inside measure. It contains
nineteen forms, a, for holding sixteen children each ; and with a desk, b, to each form.
There is a platform at one end, c ; a desk for the master, d ; and twenty-eight semi-
circles, e, for small classes of nine children each. The situation of the monitor-general
is at f ; of the monitor of the writing classes at g ; and of the monitors of inspection at
h. The diameter of the semicircles is four feet, and the passage between the wall and
the forms five feet ; i i are two doors opening into the adjoining road or street ; and k, a
door opening into the play-ground. The roof should be slated on boards, in order to
prevent the reverberation of sound which is frequently occasioned by plastered ceilings.
When this reverberation takes place, it may always be checked by suspending pieces of
baize from the ceiling, from one side of the room to the other ; and these may be so
festooned as to form an agreeable drapery. Openings, with sliding covers for ventilation,
should be formed under the eaves. All projections in the walls, as well as pillars to
support the roof, ought to be avoided ; for they interfere with the arrangement of the
school, and obstruct the view of the master and of visiters. If pillars are necessary, they
should be placed at each end of the desks, but never in the middle of the room. The
floor may be paved with bricks or tiles, or prepared with a mixture of clay, slacked lime,
and scales of iron from a smith's forge. The earth being previously levelled and conso-
lidated by a heavy roller, or by ramming, the mixture should be applied, and well beaten
down. Wooden or stone floors are objectionable, on account of the noise they produce
by the trampling of the feet.
1536. A good Flooring may be formed of Roman cement, cast into flags, and jointed
with the same material ; it is perfectly dry and durable, and emits but little sound.
1537. In order that all the Children may be completely seen by the Master, it is of great
importance that the floor should be an inclined plane, rising one foot in twenty from the
master's desk, to the upper end of the room, where the highest or eighth class is situated.
At the lower end is the platform, elevated, in proportion to the length of the room, from
two to three feet. The length and breadth of the platform must be in proportion to the
size of the room. The centre of the platform is the place for the master's desk ; and on
each side there may be a small desk for the principal monitors.
1538. The Entrance-door should be on the side of the platform, in order that visiters,
on entering the school, may have a commanding view of all the children at once.
1539. The School may be warmed, whatever may be its size, by means of one or two
stoves placed at the extremities of the apartment. But the most uniform temperature
is obtained by steam or hot water, when conducted along the lower parts of the room,
through pipes ; or by heated air conveyed into the room through tubes communicating
with a stove, which is surrounded by a close casing of iron, having a sufficient space for
a current of fresh air to be brought in through a tube : the current of air coming in
contact with the stove, and the outside of the flue, or iron chimney, which passes through
the casing, is heated, and may be discharged into the room by means of iron pipes.
This method has been found to answer extremely well.
1540. The Forms and Desks occupy the middle of the room, a passage being left
between the ends of the forms and the wall, five or six feet broad, where the children
form semicircles for reading.
1541. The Forms and Desks must be fixed firmly in the ground ; the legs or supports
should be six inches broad and two inches thick : but cast-iron legs are preferable, as
they support the desk-board with equal firmness, occupy less room, and have a much
neater appearance: their number, of course, will be in proportion to the length of the
forms. A form twenty feet long will require five ; and they must be so placed, that the
supports of the forms may not be immediately opposite to those of the desks. The
corners of the desks and forms are to be made round, in order that the children may not
hurt themselves.
MODEL DESIGNS FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. J 38
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1542. The Desks of the Writing Classes are arranged next after those of the first or
sand class (those who write in sand) : they are to be four inches higher than the latter.
The forms are six inches broad, and sixteen inches in height. The desks are inclined
planes, rising two inches : they are nine inches broad, and are furnished with beads along
the least elevated sides, in order to prevent the slates from falling and being broken. At
73() COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE
the right-hand extremity of all the desks a board is fixed perpendicularly in the ground)
and nailed against the Further side of the desks. This hoard is of the same breadth as
the desk, and rises about one loot and a half above it. Upon this the dictating lessons
and class marks are to be bung.
1543. Telegraphs are small boards, six inches long and four inches broad. One of
these boards is attached to each class, except the first. Upon one side of the board is
inscribed the number of the class, and on the other the letters E X. The telegraphs
are made to turn freely on an iron rod, about twelve inches in height, the other end of
which is firmly screwed into the perpendicular standard at the end of the desk : by fur-
nishing the top of each of these standards with a screw nut, the telegraphs may be changed
from one to another, as occasion requires.
1544. Drawers for the Pencils. In schools situated in a country where slate pencils
ore dear, it is best not to allow the children to take away the pencils with them when
they leave the school : the pencils may in that case be deposited in drawers placed under
the first desk of each class.
1545. Semicircles for Reading. On the floor of the passages, semicircles are formed
opposite to the wall : they may consist of a wooden or iron hoop sunk in the ground to
the level of the pavement, or be marked by an incision in the floor, which will be found
to answer better. Round these semicircles the children are to be arranged for reading.
The diameter of each semicircle must lie four feet, and a space of two feet and a half
should be left between each of them. The passages, in a school of more than three hundred
children, should be six feet broad ; in a school of from one hundred to three hundred
children, the breadth of these passages should be five feet ; in a very small school, the
desks may he brought close to the wall on one side, and passages of five feet left on the
others. Each semicircle will contain nine children, or from that to twelve, if they
stand close to each other. When the number of children in attendance is greater than
can be accommodated in the passages of the school, one or two classes may remain in their
seats, and continue at those exercises which are performed sitting ; or they may be ar-
ranged in small divisions between the desks, by suspending the lesson on a movable
standard, which may be inserted in a staple fixed at the edge of some of the desks, at
convenient distances ; but it rarely happens that this is necessary, as experience proves
that a considerable number of the children are always absent, on account of illness, and
from various other causes.
1546. Slates and Pencils are substituted in these schools for paper and pens, which are
only used by those children who have made considerable proficiency in writing. This
plan is economical ; and greatly accelerates the progress of the children. The slates
should be of an even grain, ground flat, and polished; the red slate is generally harder
than the blue, and answers remarkably well. The pencils must be made of the softest
kind of slate, that they may be more easily pointed, and leave a fuller and clearer mark ;
the flat slate, being harder, grinds off a portion of the pencil at every stroke. The slates
are to be about a quarter of an inch in thickness, and without frames. The slates of the
second, third, fourth, and fifth classes are five inches broad and eight inches long ; those
of the sixth are five inches broad and nine inches long ; those of the seventh class are
five inches broad and eleven inches long; and the slates of the eighth class are five inches
broad and twelve inches long. All these spates have a hole made in them, through
which is passed a piece of string, well twisted, by which they may be suspended. The
length of this double string is from three to five inches : they are hung upon round-
headed screws. These screws are fixed upon all the desks in the school, except those of
the first class, at the distance of half an inch from the highest edge ; and serve to mark
the seats of the pupils, opposite which they should be placed. The distance between
two screws should be eighteen inches, or fifteen inches, if no more space can be allowed
to each child. The first screw in every desk should be placed at half the distance
allowed to each child, or at nine inches from the end ; in this manner every pupil will
have his slate suspended opposite to him. It is found convenient, in some schools, to fix
a rail under the desk board, at about two inches from its under surface, for the purpose
of holding the slates. In small schools, where it is necessary to fix the desks very close
to each other, with the view of saving room, this arrangement is indispensable.
1547. Paper, Pens, and Ink. Most of the pupils in the eighth class write occasionally
upon paper. They must each of them, therefore, be provided with a copy-book and pens :
these, as well as penknives, may be distributed as rewards. The copy-books are placed
in a drawer of the master's desk.
1548. Copies for Writing. The children who write in copy-books are all provided
with engraved copies, which they are to endeavour to imitate. These copies should be
very short ; one or two lines arc sufficient : they are pasted upon thin pieces of wood,
to preserve them. The copies u'ive examples of large or small letters, and of words
written in large or small hand, or in running hand.
MODEL DESIGNS FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 737
1549. Alphabet Board. This board is from twenty to thirty feet long, and two feet
broad. The letters of the alphabet, both large and small, are painted on it, in the
writing character. The large letters should be written in one line, on the upper part of
the board, and the small ones immediately under them. The board is painted white,
and the letters black. The board should be fixed against the wall of the room, behind
the master's platform, and at such an elevation as to be conveniently seen by all the
children in the school.
1550. Lesson Boards, §-c. All the lessons used in the school are printed on sheets of
paper, in a large type, and pasted on each side of boards half an inch in thickness. The
boards for the smaller dictating lessons have handles by which they may be held, and
which preserve them from being torn or soiled. When these boards are not in use,
they are suspended in regular order, according to their numbers, from screws, which are
fixed in a rail, attached to the walls of the schoolroom, at the height of six feet from
the floor. This rail should be six inches wide, and one inch thick. A second rail is
fixed against the wall, parallel to the above, of the same dimensions, and at the height of
four feet from the floor : on this rail the lessons are to be suspended when the children
are reading : a pointer, and a badge for the first boy, are also hung on this rail, at
each semicircle or reading station.
1551. Badges and Class Marks. Each class is furnished with a set of these marks :
they are small labels, which describe the offences common in all schools, as " Talking
Mark," " Idle Mark," " Dirty Mark," &c. There are also badges of approbation, as
" Good Mark," " First Mark," &c. These marks and badges are pasted on boards, and
suspended from the standard at the head of each class. By the help of these marks, the
monitors are enabled to report to the master the good or bad conduct of the children
under their care, without leaving their places, or neglecting their classes.
1552. Class Lists. These lists are used to mark the attendance of the children at
school, and show to what class they belong : they are fixed on boards in such a manner
as to be easily removed without defacing them, in order that they may be preserved
when filled up : they are suspended in a convenient place in the schoolroom.
1553. Pointers are small sticks used by the reading monitors, to direct the attention
of the children while reading ; they are about two feet in length, and their termination
should be round, in order that the children may not hurt themselves. One of these
pointers is suspended on the lower rail, against the school wall, at every reading station.
1554. The Bell. A small hand bell is used to direct the movements of the children,
in order as much as possible to avoid verbal commands : it should be placed on the
master's desk. It is also desirable that a large bell should be fixed on the outside of the
building, to assemble the children at the appointed hours.
1555. The IF/iistle. The master makes use of a whistle to enjoin silence. This should
be placed on the master's desk.
1556. The Clock. A clock should be fixed to the wall behind the master's desk.
1557. Registers and Report Books. These are four in number: 1st, Register of can-
didates for admission ; 2d, Alphabetical or school register ; 3d, Report of daily attend-
ance ; 4th, Report of attendance on religious worship on Sundays : besides which,
sundry small books are kept in the master's desk, as reward books, a book to receive
the names of visiters, the inspector's report book, &c.
1558. The Library. The school should have a collection of entertaining and instruc-
tive books, chosen by the committee, which may be lent to the best pupils in the school,
as a reward for their good conduct. The library is placed upon the platform behind
the master's desk.
1559. General Rules for f.tting up Schoolrooms.
1. The space or passage between a form and the desk is one foot.
2. The horizontal space between a desk and its form is three inches.
3. The breadth of a desk is nine inches ; the breadth of a form six inches.
4. The height of a desk is twenty-eight inches ; the height of a form is sixteen inches.
5. Every child, being seated upon his form, is allowed a space of eighteen inches
in length of the desk.
6. The passage between the walls and the ends of the forms and desks, is from
five to six feet.
1 560. Dimensions of a Schoolroom for 500 Children, the same Rule to be followed foi
a larger Number. Length, eighty feet and a half ; breadth forty-two feet. Viz., length
of platform, six feet ; passages, twelve feet ; twenty-five desks, two feet and a half each,
sixty-two feet and a half: total length, eighty feet and a half. Breadth of passages on
both sides, twelve feet ; length of desks, thirty feet : total breadth forty-two feet. Allow.
ing eighteen inches to each child, one desk will hold twenty : 20 by 25 equal to 500.
1561. Dimensions of a Schoolroom for 400 Children. Length, seventy-five feet and a
half; breadth, thirty-seven feet and a half. Viz., length of platform, six feet ; passages,
4 p
738 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
twelve feet; twenty-five desks two feet and a half each, fifty-seven feet and a half: total
length, seventy-five feet and a half. Breadth of passages, twelve feet ; length of desks,
twenty-five feet and a half: total breadth, thirty-seven feet and a half. Allowing eighteen
inches to eacli child, one desk will contain seventeen ; which, multiplied hy seventy-three,
gives 391 seats ; a number sufficiently near, since, as before mentioned, some children, in
every school, are always absent, from sickness or other causes.
1562. The Dimensions of a School for 300 Children are sixty-two feet and a half by
thirty-four feet, inside measure. The space is thus disposed of: length of the platform,
five feet ; passages, ten feet ; nineteen desks, two feet and a half each, forty-seven feet and
a half: total length, sixty-two feet and a half. Breadth of passages, ten feet ; length of
desks, twenty-four feet : total breadth, thirty-four feet. As each desk will contain sixteen
children, nineteen of them will seat 304.
1563. The Dimensions of a Lnncasterian School for 200 Children should be Fifty-five
Feet long and Twenty-eight Feet broad. Viz., platform, five feet ; passages, ten feet ; sixteen
desks, two feet and a half each, forty feet: total length, fifty-five feet. Breadth of pas-
sages, ten feet ; length of desks, eighteen feet : total breadth, twenty-eight feet. As each
desk will contain twelve children, sixteen will contain one hundred and ninety-two.
1564. For a School to contain 150 Children, the length should be fifty-two and a half
feet, and the breadth twenty-five feet. The width of the platform and of the passages,
in this case, are the same as in the last two ; and the length of the desk will, therefore, be
fifteen feet. The width occupied by each desk, including its form, being two feet and a
half, there will be fifteen desks for ten children each.
1565. For a School to contain 72 Children the ground plan may be thirty feet long,
and eighteen feet wide, inside measure, arranged as in fig. 1383.
1383
S
2
si
2=
-J
2
s
1566. For a Village School to contain 40 Children, the inside dimensions may be
sixteen feet by sixteen feet ; and it may be furnished with a master's desk, fig. 1384, a ;
five desks, each eleven feet long, b ; and four class circles, c.
1567. The Expense of building a Schoolroom will vary in different places, according to
the price of materials, and other circumstances. A very complete brick schoolroom, with
a slated roof, capable of containing 300 children, has been built, in the neighbourhood
of London, for about £400. As the difficulty in raising funds for the buildings has
been one of the great impediments to the establishment of these schools, we recommend
the following plan, which has been successfully acted upon.
1568. Tontine System of School-building. When the amount of the contract for the
intended building is ascertained, let the sum be divided into a certain number of shares,
each of which shall bear an interest of £5 per cent during the life of the subscriber ;
but at his death, the principal is to fall into the school fund, and his proportion of interest
is to be paid to the survivors. Suppose the total sum .€500, and there were fifty sub-
scribers of ,£10 each ; the total charge of interest would be £25, and this sum should be
annually divided among the survivors equally, until the remaining one would receive at
the rate of £25 per annum upon his .4.10 share. All the parties should have security
MODEL DESIGNS FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS.
739
upon the building, and this security would become more and more valuable in proportion
to the decease of the subscribers. There must, of course, be a limitation as to the age
of the person subscribing1.
1569. Expense of fitting-up a School for 120 Boys.
£ s. d.
12 desks and forms, 12 feet long, with legs complete 12: 0: O
Sleepers in the floor, for them to rest upon, and to be fastened to 1 : 0 : O
100 lesson-boards, at Ad. each 1:13: 4
Master's desk 1: 0: O
4 windows, 3 feet by 4 feet, glazing and framing 4 : O : 0
Total £\9 : 13
1384
:
1570. Tlie Annual Ex-
pense of Schools upon the
Lancasterian Plan will consist
principally of the following
items : rent, master's salary,
lessons, slates, &c. (which will
cost about ,£J15 per annum for
a school of 400 or 500 chil-
dren), rewards, fuel, &c.
1571. The Expense of
educating a Child is from
4s. 6d. to 12s., according to
the size of the school ; for, as
the salary of the teacher is
the principal expense, and as
one only is required in any
case, the larger the number
of children the smaller the
charge will be per head.
One set of lessons, &c, will,
if carefully used, be sufficient
for the use of schools of from
100 to 500 children, for
several years. (Manual of
the British Si/stem, &c. p. 79.)
1572. A Country School, whether for infants or other children, but more especially
in the latter case, ought always to be accompanied by a certain extent of garden ground ;
in order that all children may be taught experimentally something of botany, and of the
universal arts of gardening and agriculture. A girls' school should, in our opinion,
always be accompanied by a kitchen completely fitted up with a stewing-hearth, roasting
or baking oven, &c, in order that they may be taught experimentally the most useful
part of cookery, the art of making the most of human food. Besides a garden, we
would have a large apartment, in which should be placed various descriptions of tools and
benches, to teach the boys the more common mechanical exercises, particularly those o*
carpentry and masonry. Adjoining the girls' kitchen there should be a washhouse and
laundry, in which the arts practised in these places should be taught them ; and in the
general schoolroom they might be taught all the different kinds of sewing and making
clothes, and every other description of housewifery.
1573. The Extent of Garden Ground which ought be attached to a country school
will vary according to circumstances ; but, to contain a tolerable collection of useful
plants, and to afford space for displaying different kinds of culture, it should, in the very
smallest schools, never be less than half an acre. The children may be taught the
names of the plants, their natural history, and the different operations of culture, with
the scientific reasons on which these operations are founded. Pursuits of this kind are
so congenial to man, that very little instruction would be sufficient ; and it might
generally be given rather as a reward for good conduct than as a task. Believing, as
we do, that the happiest state of society is that in which the majority, whether em-
ployed in agriculture, manufactures, or commerce, shall possess each a house, and a small
portion of land, either adjoining it or detached from it ; and believing, also, that the
progress of things is approaching to this state even in Britain, we attach considerable
importance to the instructing of the rising generation in these pursuits ; not only as
tending to create in them a desire for this state of things, but to fit them for the enjoy-
ment of it when obtained. In Wirtemberg and Bavaria, where the system of parochial
schools is far in advance of those in any part of Britain, land is attached to every school-
740 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
house, and the children, all of whom are obliged to be kept at school from infancy to the
age of puberty, are not only taught agriculture and gardening by catechisms and other
books, but practically in the parish garden. Much might be written on this important
subject ; but we have no wish to say more here, than to awaken the attention of the
Architect to the requisites for a country school and its appendages. He will find farther
details in our pamphlet Des Etablissemens pour V Education publique en Bavicre, et da/is le
Wirttmberg, et a Bade, &c, published at Paris, in 1829, and to be had of Treuttel and
Miirtz, London ; and to our article entitled Parochial Institutions ; or, an Outline of a
Plan for a National Education Establishment, &c, in the Gardener's Magazine, vol. v.
p. 692.
Sect. II. Miscellaneous Designs for Parochial Schools.
1574. Our Miscellaneous Designs for Parochial Schools are few, principally because
we have already said so much on the subject in our section on Model Designs.
Design I. — A Parochial School, in two Stories, for 400 Children, with a House for the
Master and Mistress.
1575. The Object of this Design is to show how the accommodation required may be
obtained by placing one schoolroom over another, and the whole executed in an
economical manner, and at the same time with some regard to architectural style. The
Design has been executed, and it was furnished to us by its Architect, I. J. Kent, Esq.,
of London ; a gentleman who has made himself fully master of the subject of schools,
both by study and the examination of the principal erections of this kind in Eng-
land. Mr. Kent has besides designed and superintended the execution of some of the
handsomest and best schools about London. We shall give elevations of the Design
before us, and leave the young Architect to put them in perspective for himself; but, to
give the general reader an idea of the effect of Mr. Kent's style, we shall place before
him fig. 1386, which is a perspective view, by Mr. Kent, of the Paddington Charity School,
built from one of his designs, with the exception of the porch, which was omitted on
account of the expense.
1576. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1385, shows, a, an enclosed yard, with
three covered privies open in front, for the girls, and one ditto, with a door, for the mistress;
b, a similar yard with privies for the boys, and for the master. The drainage from the
yard, e, also all the water from the roof of the building, are carried through these privies ;
by which means, and by water laid on to the master and mistress's privy, they are kept
clean and sweet. This will be more distinctly seen in the plan of the foundations. The
roofs of the privies are flat, and covered with plain tiles, in cement. There is a small
yard, c, for fuel, 8 feet by 8 feet 6 inches, to which access is obtained by the door from
the yard, a, or through the kitchen door, o ; d, is a small yard for fuel, to supply the
boys' school ; e is a yard for the girls to assemble in, the entrance being on the south
side, /. This yard will be found useful in the summer time for the girls to go into in
the afternoon, when the heat of the weather is found oppressive in their schoolroom, it
being on the upper floor ; f, entrance for the girls from the road or street ; g, stone
staircase leading into the girls' school ; h, private staircase leading to the dwelling apart-
ments for the master and mistress : under the two staircases, g and h, is a kitchen, 9 feet
6 inches square, with a cistern, sink, dresser, fireplace, &c, as shown in the plan of
the foundations, fig. 1389; i is a committee-room, 21 feet by 13 feet; and, when not
wanted for that use, the large folding doors, r, may be opened, and the room used as
part of the boys' schoolroom, k. The boys' schoolroom, k, is 44 feet by 32 feet, and
1 1 feet 6 inches high ; the windows are placed high, 6 feet from the floor, so as to leave
the full use of the walls under them for desks, forms, and hats. The windows open up
to the level of the ceiling, and are hung on pivots, thereby affording a thorough venti-
lation above the boys' heads : they are placed facing the south and north, in order that
the extreme heat of the afternoon sun shall not be full upon them ; there being abun-
dance of light without the large window in the west front, should the heat from it be
found oppressive ; I, a yard for the boys to assemble in ; hi, entrance to the boys' school
from the yard, / ; n, gateway or entrance from the road or street, for the boys in the west
front. These entrances are placed in the different fronts, to prevent, as much as pos-
sible, the boys and girls associating together, when they assemble morning and evening
before the school hours. The yards enable the children to assemble in an enclosed space,
thereby preventing them being a nuisance to the neighbours. The kitchen under the
staircases, g and h, is lighted by the doorway and window, o. The closets, p, on the half
space of the staircase, h, are for the use of the master and mistress. On a stone, s,
on a brick trimmer (brick arch), is placed a stove, with a pipe through the floor
above, into the upper or girls' school, to which it has been found to afford sufficient heat.
PAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS.
13S5
741
3on.
J
The tipper floor, fig. 1387, shows a stone staircase, a, from the girls' school down to the
yard, it should be formed of granite or Colalla stone (a quarry of sandstone, of great
hardness, in Fifeshire), for the sake of durability ; 6, wooden staircase up to the bed-rooms
742 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
PAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS.
743
1387
of
for the master and mistress; c, sitting-room, 13 feet by 11 feet 6 inches, and 3 feet Ugh,
with a fireplace ; d, bed-room, 1 3 feet
by 9 feet 6 inches ; e, upper or girls'
school, 12 feet 6 inches high at the
sides, and 18 feet high at the ridge,
as shown in the section, fig. 1388 ; f,
stove, with iron pipe from the stove
in the lower or boys' school. The
girl's schoolroom, in addition to the
windows, is ventilated by circular
lights filled with luffer-boards in the
pediments ; by which the heated air,
that would otherwise accumulate
among the rafters and other timbers
of the roof, will be carried off.
1577. Construction. In the plan
of the foundations, fig. 1389, are seen,
a, the drain built in cement to the
girls' privy ; 6, the drain to the boys'
privy ; c, drain from the girls' yard,
or play-ground ; d, cesspool to the
privies ; e, drain from the boys' yard ;
f, drain from the foundations of the
committee-room ; g, drain from the
sink in the underground kitchen ; h,
dresser and shelves in the kitchen ; i,
foundations for four cast-iron pillars
to support the girders of the floor of
the girls' school ; and k, foundations
for the sleepers. Fig. 1388 is a section
on the line A B, in the ground plan,
fig. 1386, in which are shown, g g,
masses of concrete, 2 feet 6 inches
deep, and 2 feet wider than the bottom
of the footing, to be used where the
foundation is of soft wet clay ; /(, cast-
iron columns, 3 inches and a half in
diameter, to support the girders and
■ff
floor of the upper schoolroom ; i, yard fence wall, a brick and a half or 13 inches and
a half thick for 2 feet above the ground, and above that one brick or 9inches thick, with
piers of the width of the lower part of the wall, at the distance of 8 feet centre from
centre ; k is the floor of the boys' schoolroom ; /, the floor of the girls' schoolroom j and
744 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1S89
it w*
m, the appearance of the trussed rafters of the roof. Fig. 1390 is an elevation of the west
front, showing in the tympanum (the space enclosed by the side and horizontal cornice,)
the bull's eye (a circular opening) filled in with luffbr-boarding for ventilation, and to
the left the door into the boys' assembling yard. Fig. 1391 is the south or exterior
elevation of one side.
1578. Specification of sundry works to be done in erecting and completely finishing
a charity school, including a residence for the master j for the committee of managers of
PAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS.
74.5
the charity school, in , conformably to the drawings made and to
be made for that purpose, and agreeably to this description ; and under the direction and
to the satisfaction of the said committee or their surveyor.
1579. The Contractor to find all and every kind of material, labour, workmanship,
scaffolding, carriage, &c, necessary, proper, and requisite for the due execution of all and
every part of the works ; and no alterations that may be made in any part thereof shall
set aside the contract, but shall be added to or deducted from the contract, as the case
may be ; and the said additions or deductions shall be measured and valued, in proportion
to £ per rod, for the best stock brickwork ; per foot cube, for the
best Memel fir timber, framed and fixed in the building; and per foot superficial,
for 1-^-inch deal, wrought both sides, and fixed.
1580. The whole of the works must be executed with the best materials of their respec-
tive kinds, and in the most substantial and workmanlike manner, and the rooms, &c.,
scoured and cleaned down, the chimneys cored (the sweep sent up them, to clear out
pieces of mortar, &c, left in building), the windows cleaned, and the whole building left
perfect and complete. The contractor to pay the district surveyor his fees, and all fees
and expenses on entering the sewer (if within the operation of the Metropolitan Building
Act, but not the expense of building the sewer), and fees for laying on water, &c.
1581. Digger. Dig, wheel away to a distance of fifty yards on an average, spread and
level, as may be required, the ground from the whole surface to be covered by the school
building, and yards for it and for the privies, the depth of 2 feet ; and dig out and wheel
away the ground for the footings to the several walls, privies, &c, of the buildings, and
for the garden fence walls, privies, drains, and cesspools, and to an extra-depth for the
kitchen, and for the foundation of steps, &c. ; and cart away all ground not required to
fill up the ditches, &c. Prepare, level, and ram the ground, provide and lay good gravel
at least 6 inches thick, well beaten and rolled over the whole surface of both yards, with
a fall for surface water as to be directed.
1582. Slater. Cover the roof of the building with strong duchess slates of the best
quality, laid with 2 and a half lap, strong copper nails, and continued eaves (the first
row of slates laid all along touching one another : in general the first row only breaks
joint with the row over it).
1583. Bricklayer. Build the walls of the several dimensions and thicknesses, and
with proper footings, as set forth and described in the plans, sections, &c., with good,
sound, hard, well burnt, stock bricks and mortar, composed of well burnt fresh Dorking
lime, and sharp dry seasoned road grit under ground, and with Thames sand to the
parts above ground, mixed in the proportion of at least one part of lime to two parts of
sand ; and work all the walls above the ground on both sides in a neat flat joint, jointed,
except to the committee-room and master's residence. Face the pilasters, arches,
plinths, tablets, chimney-shaft, &c, with the best coloured second marl bricks, picked
square, and cut and rub all the closers for the pilasters, &c. ; face the whole of the
remainder of the external work with the best coloured Cowley stock bricks, picked care-
fully for that purpose ; but rub and set in putty all the gauged arches to the doors and
windows with the best picked marl bricks. Properly bed all the bricks, rub them well
49
74-6 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
up full and flush in all the joints, and take care that no headers are executed with any
but whole bricks, except where absolutely necessary to use half bricks. Turn brick
trimmers in cement for all slabs, and turn arches over all the openings and the ends ot
all the girders. Bed all the dour and window frames and sills in lime and hair, and point
them all afterwards with cement ; parget the flues with lime and brickdust cement.
Build all half-brickwork at the back of the windows, &c, the three upper courses of the
chimney-shafts, and the open drains under the privies in Parker's cement, and render
ditto inside. Build the garden fence walls all round the ground (which is 105 feet net
from east to west, and 50 feet net from north to south) of the same kind and descrip-
tion as is shown in the plan, fig. 1385, and in the section, fig. 1388, with one doorway
complete (opening to the intended road), in the south fence wall, 10 feet from the south-
east angle of the school building, of the same size as the one in the west garden wall
in the west front. Provide and fix eight cast-iron air gratings, 9 inches by 6 inches,
and splay off the brickwork for ditto, to give air to the foundation. Splay off all the
reveals of the windows, &c, in the schoolrooms, and render ditto with cement. Splay off
very neatly the angles of the piers to the openings to the yards for the privies, and to the
opening for the stone staircase, &c. Render all the drains half round inside with cement,
and also those inside the building half round on the top. Make good (join them) to the
sewer in cement. Provide for three rods of reduced brickwork of the foregoing descrip-
tion to be used in the drains, walls, &c, not set forth in the drawings; and to provide for
digging and carting the same, to be deducted if not required. Build a cesspool at the
south end of the privies in cement, and render ditto in the inside and at the bottom with
cement, size 2 feet 6 inches wide, and 7 feet long, and cover ditto with two 3-inch York
stones, with two manholes in ditto, 15 inches in diameter (for cleaning out or examining
the cesspools), and stones to fit the holes with strong iron rings let in for the convenience
of raising them ; and fix two 3-inch York stones across the cesspool let 4 inches into
the sides, to form traps. Bed all the timbers that require it with lime and hair. Pro-
vide and fix proper iron chimney-bars to all the openings, 2 inches and a half by half
an inch. Fix 3-inch York corbel-stones, to project 4 inches, for the ends, &c, of all the
timbers, near the flues. Provide and fix twelve pieces of strong iron hoop worked into
the fence walls at the angles, and turned up to keep on the brick on edge ; lay four courses
of the brickwork round all the walls of the building, and to the cross walls and to all
the piers, in good Parker's cement, and grouted with cement. Build counter-arches
under all the openings of the doorways, &c., under the ground floor.
1584. Carpenter. The whole of the timber to be good sound Riga or Memel fir; the
deals good, sound, well seasoned, Christiania deals, or of equal quality ; and the oak to
be of English growth, free from knots and shakes. — Roof. Frame and fix a span roof,
with four sets of principals, braces, struts, purlins, rafters, ridge-pieces, pole-plates, &c.,
all wrought undersides, and principal timbers chamfered, of the several scantlings set
forth on the plans, &c. Fix blocks at the back of all the purlins and pole-plates on the
principals, and on the bond, &c, well spiked. Fix on each side of the principals two
long double wrought-iron strap irons ^binding plates of iron), and to go over the top of
the timber, 2 inches and a half by five eighths of an inch, and four ditto shorter, and to
run down each side of the upper principals, 2 inches and a half by five eighths of an inch,
secured with thirteen screw-bolts, washers, nuts, and screws, five eighths of an inch
in diameter ; and two strap irons, with strong washers, nuts, and screws, to the ends of the
principals, 2 inches and a half by three quarters of an inch. Fix eight J-inch bolts,
nuts, screws, &c, to the wall-plates at the angles, and four wrought-iron diagonal and
dragon ties (straps to tie together the wall-plates at the external angles of the building)
to the upper wall-plates, 3 inches by five eighths of an inch, turned down at both
ends. Fix four angle ties to the pole-plate, 2 feet long each way, 1 inch and a half
by half an inch. Fix eight bearing irons to the ends of the purlins, and four ditto to the
ends of the pole-plates, 3 feet 6 inches long, inch by inch, turned up and down, to carry
the rafters of the pediment. Fix a rounded roll for the lead on the ridge-piece, with
strong irons every 4 feet. Provide and fix four long raking temporary braces from the
wall-plates under the roof to the girders, bolted together where they pass. Cover the
roof with J-inch yellow boarding for slates, edges shot (planed straight), and rough-
planed, with tilters (tilting fillets). Lay on small joists, 4 inches by 2 inches, to the
pediments ; inch yellow deal for lead, with proper fillets, firrings (pieces of wood fixed
on the joists under the boarding, thicker at one end than at the other, to give a current
to the water), and rolls (pieces of wood rounded, to dress the edges of the lead over).
Fix inch wrought and rabbeted fascia, 6 inches wide; and fix 1 inch and a half wrought
and weathered fillet scribed (to scribe is to cut the edge of a board or fillet, so as to
make it fit and touch every point of an irregular surface,) under the eaves of slates
all round, and up the pediments; and to fix all round under the soffit a square fillet,
2 inches square. Frame and fix small ceiling joists, 3 inches and a half by 2 inches.
PAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 74<7
under the eaves of the roof and the pediments. Frame and fix pole-plates under
the rafters, returned in the pediments ; wall-plates throughout under principals and
joists, &e., and fix templates under girders 3 feet long, 9 inches by 5 inches ; the wall-
plates and pole-plates, purlins, girders, and chain bond, to be in one length each, without
laps. Frame and fix two floors of joists for girls' and boys' school, and three floors of
joists for dwelling-rooms, &c, all carefully strutted and trimmed for flues, slab, stair-
cases, &c. ; and frame and fix ceiling joists for attics to the roof, and in the kitchen. Plane
on three sides, and chamfer the edges of the two girders over the boys' school, and sup-
port the girders with four (3 inches and a half in diameter) cast-iron columns, with 1^-inch
caps and bases, 6 inches and a half square, let into 6-inch York bases on piers. Frame
and lix quarter partitions on the one pair and the two pair floors of the house, with heads
and sills, principals, quarters, door-heads, puncheons, and horizontal braces, let in flush,
&c. Provide and fix all necessary lintels, wood bricks, centring to apertures, templates,
blocks, fillets, wedges, angle beads, &c, and feather-edge pieces to trimmers, and fillets, &c.
generally) for plasterers. Provide and fix oak wrought octagon posts in the west front,
:i feet high out of ground, 6 inches in diameter, and large buts to ditto, 3 feet underground
charred, and oak wrought arris rail framed into ditto, feet long, 4 inches by 4 inches,
and dig and ram holes for ditto : the boards to be prepared and stacked (horsed) by the
1st of September.
1585. Joiner. Floors. Lay 1 inch and a half wrought yellow straight joint batten
floors scribed to the brickwork, on the whole of ground floors, and in the girls' school-
room. Lay inch deal straight joint floors on the one pair and two pair in the master's
house, bordered to slabs. — Skirtings. Fix |-inch deal skirting, 4 inches and a half wide,
blocked (small pieces of wood fixed at the back of the skirting, to keep it a little distant
from the brickwork or the partition), to rooms on the two pair, and to all the closets, Sec.,
on the two pair and one pair, and inch deal quirk ogee bead skirting, 7 inches wide, with
narrow grounds and fillet, in the rooms of the one pair, staircases, and in the committee-
room. Fix narrow grounds, and moulded chair rail, round the walls of the committee-
room, 6 inches in girth. — Windows. Frame and fix in the window openings eighteen fir
wrought and framed frames, 6 inches by 3 inches ; muntins, 6 inches by 2 inches and a half ;
heads, 6 inches by 4 inches, lined outside with £-inch deal, scribed and splayed. Put oak
wrought framed and weathered sills, 7 inches by 4 inches ; 2-inch deal splayed bar sashes,
the side sashes fixed, and the centre sash hung on hardened steel centres, with brass pivots,
&c. Put proper beads inside and out, and patent lines, brass pulleys, and hooks, &e.
Fix in the two pair, at the east end, a solid frame, sill, sashes, &c, hung as above, with cir-
cular head. Fix a large solid Venetian frame (a frame in three divisions, the two side
divisions being narrower than the centre one), with sill, muntins, sashes, &c, with circular
head, &c, at west end of boys' school. Fix in two openings in the one pair, and in one
opening in the kitchen, deal-cased frames, oak sunk and weathered sills, 2-inch deal ovolo
sashes, double hung, brass pulleys, patent lines, and iron weights. The Venetian window
in the one pair sitting-room to be hung with lines and weights to the centre part, as above.
Fix to the circular window in the two pair, to the upper part of the window in the bed-room,
to the window in the kitchen, and to the window in the committee-room, inch deal staff
beaded linings, and 1 inch and a quarter wide rounded deal window boards. Fix to the
three other windows on the one pair, inch deal staff beaded and tongued linings, 1 inch
and a quarter square framed window backs, and tongued cappings. Fix one brass patent
sash fastening to each window. Fix on the roof over the staircase a 2-inch deal ovolo bar
skylight, made to open with a quadrant fastening, hinges, &c. Fix 1 inch and a quarter
wrought, beaded, and tongued linings, round the opening, and a narrow gutter at the
back. Fix in the circular opening, or bull's-eye, at the west end, a fir wrought framed
rabbeted and beaded circular frame, 4 inches by 4 inches ; and fix in ditto eight tiers of
lj-inch deal lufFer-boards, wrought, splayed, and fixed on splayed fillets. Form a
segment head for the plasterers in the committee-room to the window. Plane the face
of the plate through the east window, and fix a |-inch deal soffit to ditto. — Doors. All
the doors to be put together ready for wedging up by September 1st. Fix in the three
openings on the two pair floor, the three openings on the one pair floor, and also in the
two openings on the ground floor, 1 inch and a quarter double-rabbeted and double-beaded
linings; those for the folding doors to be framed and moulded, with dovetailed rails for
ditto, and inch framed grounds and moulding round on both sides, and hang seven 2-inch
deal four-panel square-framed doors, with 35-inch wrought butt hinges and screws ; and
fix one 7-inch brass knob best three-bolt lock on each door ; and hang in the other door-
way in the committee-room, 2-inch deal four-panel each flush folding doors, with three
pair of 5-inch wrought butts. One 7-inch lock like the last mentioned, one 12-inch and one
3 feet § inch iron rod barrel bolt, with strong iron plates ; and cover the doors with strong
best green drugget on both sides, with gilt nails and tape, to form panels on ditto.
Frame and fix to the entrance in the girls' school, 2-inch deal flush and square framing,
71*8 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
7 feet high, with four-pane] square door to ditto, hung with 4-ineh butts; and fix on
ditto a 9-inch Strong copper ward best drawback lock, and two keys J the style to framing
next window to be turned flat against the wall, and to be 5 inches by 2 inches, rabbeted
and spiked. Fix on the top lj-inch deal styles, and proper ledged flap, hung with
18-inch strong garnets and screws, and fastened with a strong hasp and staple. Scribe
and fix l^-inch deal lining up to the sash frame and the glass. Frame and fix in the
doorway to the boys' school a fir proper doorcase, 6 inches by 4 inches, let into the
stone steps, the head 9 inches by 4 inches, moulded outside ; and hang to the doorcase
2-inch deal four-panel three large beads flush and square folding doors, hung with three
pair of strong 5-inch wrought-iron butts and screws. Fix a 10-inch solid brass knob
drawback lock, with capper wards, and brass bolts, and two keys. Fix two |-inch iron
rod bolts, 2 feet long, with strong iron plates. Fix scribed linings round the inside, and
a moulding along the door head, and a solid sash frame, sUl, and sashes over, hung ; the
whole to correspond with the other sashes, and to be framed. Fix a fir wrought framed
rabbeted and double-beaded frame to the opening of the doorway to the house, 6 inches
by 4 inches, with head 9 inches wide, weathered and moulded; and hang to ditto a 2-inch
deal four-panel three large beads flush and square door, with 4-inch butts, one 9-inch
brass knob best copper ward drawback lock, and two keys ; two 10-inch brass knob
strong barrel bolts. Fix over ditto a 2-inch deal square rabbeted fanlight frame, and
metal fan, and glass ; and inside, inch staff' beaded lining and moulding over the door.
— Closets. Frame and fix two 1^-inch deal double closet fronts on the staircase, with
square doors, two in width ; the upper closet 7 feet high, witli inch deal divisions, aod
shelves 18 inches wide, three in each closet, and inch deal rounded top to the upper out. ;
inch deal floors and joists, bearers, &c. ; 2^-inch butts and screws, and S-inch brass
tumbler lock and key on each door (the tumbler of a lock is a piece of iron, or other
metal, inside the lock, to make the bolt act truly and easily) ; prepare and fix, in the
boys' and in the girls' school, a large closet for books, 3 feet by 1 foot 6 inches, and
7 feet high each, of 1^-inch deal square framed front and door, and inch deal ends,
wrought on both sides, and J-inch deal back, all wrought, ploughed, and tongued,
&c. ; four inch deal shelves in each, and top, and bearers, 2^-inch iron butts, and 3-inch
brass locks and keys to each. — Desks and Forms. Prepare and fix on each side of
the girls' school and of the boys' school, 1 J -inch deal desks and forms, with legs and
bearers to the forms and desks, 5 feet apart ; a scribed fillet against the wall, and
li-mch beaded rail under the desks, and |-inch deal on each side of the forms, and
holes for lead inkstands, and to supply them. Fix a form only, of a similar kind, all
along the east end of the boys' school, and provide six loose unfixed forms of a similar
kind, each 8 feet long, for the girls' school. Provide and fix in the girls' school two
lengths of inch deal rail (3 inches wide), with iron pins 8 inches apart, all along over the
desks. Provide and fix wrought iron on the edges of the desks, 1 inch and a quarter wide
by one sixteenth of an inch thick, screwed on. — Staircase. Fix 1^-inch deal, rounded
treads, inch deal risers, and double carriage, with the steps properly housed into it,
and the nosings returned, from the kitchen up to the two pair ; l^-ineh beaded wall
strings and capping, ramped; 1^-inch deal framed raking string, rabbeted, staff-beaded,
cut, mitred, and sunk ; turned deal newels, red oak moulded handrail, framed strong
deal bar balusters, l^--inch deal rounded nosings, J-inch deal staff-beaded trimmer linings,
gussets (the string board continued beyond the newel up to the ceiling in a triangular
shape), &c. ; proper 1^-inch landings, carriage, &c. Fix inch deal boarding, ploughed
tongued and beaded on both sides up to the ceiling of the ground floor, and down
to the kitchen floor, to enclose the staircase. — Kitchen. Frame and fix li-inch
deal front, to enclose the staircase on the ground floor, with 1^-inch deal 4 inch
panel square door and hinges, and 7 inch lock, as to the other doors, with stops, &c.
Fix a H-inch deal dresser-top J-inch pot-board and bearers under, proper framed legs,
rails, and runners (pieces of wood for the drawers to slide on, and to guide them),
one drawer stock and two japan handles ; inch framed end and backrail ; two 1^-inch deal
sunk shelves, and cut standards, f-inch beaded fascia and top, and quirk ogee bead,
and bead on the dresser to keep the plates from slipping. To put 1^-inch chimney-
shelf, with rounded corners, and two holdfasts; lA-inch deal, ploughed and tongued,
with dovetailed cistern rims and bottom, and flap ; and linings, in the ceiling floor to
get at ditto, carriage for ball-cock, casings for pipes, &c. — Privies. Frame and lix two
fir plates under flat, 6 inches by 4 inches, wrought and beaded, and l^-inch square fillet
on ditto, and under ditto 1^ inch wrought and framed oak uprights 4 inches wide ; and
fix between the privies inch oak divisions, ploughed, tongued, and beaded, and ledged,
with back boards, and 1 4-inch oak seats and bearers, with holes cut in ditto to six privies,
and inch oak risers, ledged water boards and wide fillet; and fix in two privies l{-inch
deal scats, risers and bearers, clamped and beaded flaps and frames, J-inch plain
skirtings, two inch bulls, cut holes in seats, and for cocks, water pipes, &c, and fix
PAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 749
in two doorways fir proper doorcases 4 inches by 4 inches let into the stone, and
lintels over them, and hang two 1^-inch deal bead butt and square doors, with
SA-inch butts, two 4^-inch best brass-bushed dead locks (iron locks with brass linings
to the keyholes) and k»ys, two 4-inch strong bolts. — Yards. Fix in two openings in
the fence walls fir proper doorcases, 6 inches by 4 inches, with heads 2 feet longer
than the openings, the posts let in 2 inches into the stone sills ; and hang to ditto
2-inch deal two large reed flush and square two folding doors, 2 panels, each with
three pair of 4-inch wrought butts and screws to each pair; three 3 feet 10 inch strong
rough rod-bolts, plates, and staples, and one strong wrought-iron latch to each door-
way. Fix two strong stud posts and iron catches to keep the gates open.
1586. Mason. Fix sixteen Rath stone moulded caps on piers 3 feet 3 inches
long, 10 inches by 6 inches each, and sixteen Rath stone neckings (members which are
always used on the top of a column or pilaster, in Tuscan and Roman Doric orders,
under the cap), 2 feet 10 inches long, each 7 inches by 2 inches. Fix Portland
stone sills to all the window openings and blanks, 6 inches longer than the openings,
8 inches by 4 inches in one stone, sunk, weathered, and throated, and cut away bond
timber at back for ditto. The sill to the east and west window to be 10 inches by
C inches. Fix two pieces of 4-inch York landing (an extra-sized stone laid down
before doors, and in the landing-places of stairs) in the openings in the fence wall, 4 feet
9 inches long, 2 feet wide each, worked fair on both edges ; and cut mortise holes (holes
for the projecting ends of the wooden framework) for the doorcases round corners. Fix
three rubbed York stone steps to the doorway into the boys' school, and three ditto to the
doorway to the house; each in one stone and 9 inches longer than the openings, 13
inches by 7 inches each, neatly rabbeted, and back-jointed to the floor ; the ends worked
fair, and the cornel's of the bottom steps rounded ; cut mortise holes, and let in scrapers
4 inches deep, run with lead. Fix six York steps rabbeted, 13 inches by 7 inches, 3 feet
9 inches long each to the yards for the privies, &c. Pave the yards for the privies,
and all privies and coal-yards, with 3-inch York paving in straight courses. Provide
two pieces of 3-inch York stone, 18 inches square, for the yards; and provide and fix
five 8-inch iron bell air-traps. Fix on two entrance doorways in the fence walls 3-inch
York coping, rubbed and throated to all the edges, 22 inches wide and 7 feet 7 inches
long each, in two stones bedded in cement, and double cramped with strong copper
cramps run with lead. Fix, for the staircase to the girls' school, Purbeck stone steps,
rabbeted and let into the walls. The first five steps and the four upper steps 4 feet 2
inches long, and the other ten flyers (straight steps in contradistinction to winders) 4 feet
9 inches long ; the four winders (diagonal steps for the corners) may be out of 4-inch
York landings, with risers of the same ; the ends to be securely pinned in with cement, the
bottom step to be rounded, and set on brickwork, with cut holes for iron bars. Fix two
3-inch York slabs in boys' and girls' schools for stoves, 3 feet 9 inches by 3 feet each,
bedded in cement, the edges rubbed fair. Fix three neat solid Portland chimney-
pieces, to show as profile chimneys, with 1^-inch shelf, slab, and York hearths to each, in
the two pair and one pair and committee-room ; and fix 2-inch rubbed York mantel and
jambs, 8 inches wide, in kitchen. Pave the kitchen all over with 2.^-inch York paving laid
on brickwork two courses high. Fix a 7-inch York sink in kitchen, as shown on plan,
2 feet wide, cut holes for pipes, and let in bell trap, and provide and let in one 8-inch iron
bell air-trap, with brick shaft under ditto into drain, in cement. Provide and fix two
3-inch York stones in flues for pipes in boys' and girls' school, 14 inches by 9 inches,
fitted so as to be. removed when required, and let iron pipes through ditto, and mak(
good and flanch off brickwork with cement across flue, to prevent the soot from falling.
Fix two York sink-stones, and form shafts in cement from ditto, into drain in coal-yards.
1587. Plasterer. Properly stop and lime-white twice over the walls all round in
boys' and girls' school, and the boarding rafters, and timbers of girls' school, the inside
wall and roof of the privies. Lath, lay, and float, and set, and whiten the ceilings and
partitions on both sides of all rooms, closets, staircase, &c, throughout the dwelling-house,
and the ceiling of boys' school and committee-room, and the soffit outside round building,
and render float and set the walls in all the rooms and closets and staircase, and stucco the
committee-room. The laths to the ceiling in boys' school and committee-room, and
outside soffits, to be done with lath and half-laths ; and the walls, &c, in the rooms of the
one pair of stairs, and the staircase, and committee-room, to be coloured drab. Cover the
plinth neckings and upper part of chimney shaft with Parker's cement, jointed, coloured,
and tinted as stone, with proper arises and throats, the tops weathered. Cover the tablets
at the east end with Parker's cement, and work on ditto, in raised letters, the name
of the present school, date of erection, &c. Cover the roof of the privies with three courses
of plain tiles in cement rendered top and bottom with cement, and work plain cornices
along both fronts, throated, and colour ditto, and form current for water, and fix two
cement rain-water trunks to take water into the drains. Render inside of the open drain
750 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
under the privy seats, all round up to the oak seats, with cement. Point up neatly with
cement, round all the floors in schoolrooms, and after all the tradesmen generally. Run
circular beads and quirks to the windows in two pair, and in the committee-room, and to
doorway of the master's entrance; tut all the quirks; render t\v.o coats behind all the
skirting, and to all the chimney openings, and lath and lay two coats behind the skirtings
to all the partitions. Render with cement behind the window backs in first floor, and
render the face of the half-brickwork to the windows with cement, and black ditto.
Render and float with Parker's cement all round the walls in the kitchen, 2 feet high,
lg-inch thick, and colour ditto.
1588. Smith. Fix six wrought-iron bars, inch square, 3 feet long, on the steps to the
girls' school, and strong iron brace, and handrail ramped 2 inches and a half by five
eighths of an inch rounded. Fix four strong iron scrapers let 4 inches into steps ; five
2-inch square wrought-iron guard bars to the kitchen window, and top rail, 2 inches and
a half by live eighths of an inch.
1589. Plumber. Fix step flashing (pieces of lead flashing let into the joints of the
brickwork above one another) 9 inches wide, round chimney shaft, of 4-pound lead, and
fix on the ridges milled lead, 5 pounds to the foot, 20 inches wide, dressed round the
roll. Strong lead-headed nails every two feet on both sides. Fix milled lead round
the skylight, 5 pounds to the foot, 14 inches wide, and gutter, 18 inches wide. Fix
milled lead on the base of the pediment at both ends, 6 pounds to the foot, to turn up
4 inches, and flashing, 6 inches wide, 4 pounds to the foot, over ditto, fixed with
holdfasts ; put 20 dots (studs, or broad-headed tacks) to keep the lead down, line the
cistern in the kitchen with lead, 7 pounds to the foot at the bottom, and 6 pounds to
the foot on the sides. Lay on water from the main in the road with inch extra-strong
pipe and joints to supply the cistern, with ferrol (ferrol, in plumbing, is a brass tube
soldered to the lead pipe at one end, and then driven into the main water-pipe), ball-
cock and ball, 1^-inch waste pipe to the sink from the cistern, and |-inch service pipe
from the cistern to supply the sink, with cock and boss, 3-inch brass grate and bell
trap soldered in ; 2-inch waste-pipe from the sink into the drain ; and lay on a piece of
inch pipe from the service-pipe to the branch to the two best privies, with cocks to turn
on the seats.
1590. Glaziers and Painters. Glaze all the sashes, skylight, &c, with good picked
thirds glass; paint all the sashes and frames, sills, doors and frames, privies, outside
soffit and fascia, ironwork to steps, closets, skirtings, window-backs and linings, and
other woodwork and walls, Bee., of the committee-room four times in oil and good
colour, but not the oak-boarding and seats in the privy. Cover all the ironwork to the
roof, iron angle ties, &c, with boiled oil and lamp black, and paint them twice in oil-
colour, black.
1591. General Estimate. The actual cost of this school was ,£1287; and, as it con-
tains about 62,000 cubic feet, this gives 5d. per foot as the guess rate of such buildings in
the vicinity of London.
1592. Remarks. The specification of this Design appears remarkably complete; and
it is the more likely to be so, because the contract was made from it, and it received its
last corrections from Mr. Kent, after the work was executed. Having examined the
school, we can answer for the excellence of the workmanship, and the completeness of
the system of draining, heating, lighting, and ventilation. The system of underground
drainage, as will be seen by reference to the foundation plan, is very complete ; and the
stone traps to the cesspools of the privies deserve the particular attention of builders :
without them, all privies constructed and arranged so as to have currents of water passing
through them, to wasli away their contents, must necessarily smell ; with them, all smell
is effectually prevented ; because, as the trap reaches down within 3 inches of the bottom
of the drain, there will always be water more than sufficient to prevent air from entering
by so small an opening. Many of the privies of the small houses in the suburbs of
London are intolerable, solely from the want of traps of this sort ; which, unfortunately,
it would cost the occupant too much to build in ; and the consequence, we have no doubt,
is, that the stench gives rise to various diseases. We could have wished doors to all the
privies without exception, for we do not like marking out a difference, even between
children and their teachers, in any thing that relates to comfort or cleanliness: if a dis-
tinction is to be made, it should be in things which relate only to luxury and ornament.
On mentioning the subject to Mr. Kent, however, he gave us a very sufficient reason for
the omission. The mode of covering the privies with flat roof's, formed of three courses of
flat tiles, laid in cement, is good, and of great strength and durability ; more especially if,
after laying the first coat, a week or more is allowed to elapse before the second is laid, and
after laying the second, two months is allowed to elapse before laying the third. The modi!
of laying two courses of brick in cement, in the outside walls, and also in the cross walls
and piers, immediately under the sleepers, ought always to be followed with every building
PAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 751
erected on soft moist soil ; and so should the practice of forming foundations of concrete, and
coating over the surface under the ground floor with the same material. The iron gratings
in the walls, to admit of a thorough circulation of air, ought never to be omitted in similar
cases; nor the excellent mode of ventilating the timbers of the roof. The principal
cause of the durability of the roofs of churches, and, indeed, of all buildings erected
above two centuries ago, is chiefly owing to the thorough ventilation given by leaving
the eaves entirely open ; a secondary cause may be, that, from the great abundance of oak
timber all over Europe about that period, the builder could make choice of the very best :
but, undoubtedly, the other is the principal cause. Providing yards for the children to
assemble in, with sufficiently high walls to exclude them from the public road, so as to
prevent them from being troublesome to the neighbourhood, is an excellent idea ; and,
from living at no great distance from this school, we can vouch for its success. Mr. Kent
has suggested, that, in situations where the ground is dry and the drainage good, a base-
ment story might be got, as an infant school ; in which case the school-house would
consist of three floors, and would be remarkably complete. The infant school is the
pivot on which, in all countries, will turn the regeneration of mankind.
Design II. — A Parochial School, on One Story, for 100 Boys and 80 Girls, including a
Residence for the Master and Mistress.
1593. The object of giving this Design is to show a parochial school of moderate size,
duly proportioned for its uses in all its various parts, and rendered an agreeable architec-
tural object externally. It has also been contributed to us by Mr. Kent, and bears all
the marks of that gentleman's thorough acquaintance with the subject of schools, and his
minute practical knowledge of Architecture and building. The general appearance ot
this school and dwelling-house is shown in the perspective view, fig. 1394. Fig. 1392
is an elevation of the south-east front, showing the entrance to the boys' school.
Fig. 1393 is an elevation of the south-west front, with the entrance to the girls' school.
The elevation of the north-east front is exactly the same as that of the south east front.
1594. Accommodation and Construction. The ground plan, fig. 1395, shows a porch,
a ; a schoolroom for boys, b, 40 feet by 15 feet, 12 feet 6 inches high at the sides, and
16 feet in the centre, capable of containing 100 boys, allowing 6 feet superficial for each
boy. This space Mr. Kent has found from experience to be sufficient, when the apartment
is so proportioned as to throw the area into the most available shape ; that is, when it is
either 15 feet wide, in which case it will admit of one (Madras or Stoat's) class in
151
COTTAGh, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
PAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS.
1395
753
•
cr;
\
its width ; or if it be 29 feet wide, when it will admit two classes. The windows are
placed 5 feet 6 inches above the floor, to allow the space under them to be occupied by desks,
forms, and a hat-rail. There are privies, c c, to each school ; and, if thought advisable, a
doorway may be made under the window of the boys' schoolroom, direct from that room
into the yard where the boys' privies are placed ; the same may be done with regard to
the girls' school. There is a porch to the girls' school, d, which, like that to the boys'
school, may be enclosed with doors ; e e are places for fuel ;/, girls' school, 26 feet by 16'
feet 6 inches, 12 feet 6 inches high at the sides, and 16 feet in the centre, capable
of containing 80 girls. The height of both rooms is obtained in the manner shown in
section C D, fig. 1397. Both schools are to be ventilated by openings for air in the
gables near the ridges, by which means a current of air will be always passing into and
through the upper part of the roof; g, a sitting-room for the master and mistress, 13 feet
by 10 inches, and 9 feet high, with a fireplace and closet; h, a small bed-room, 10 feet
6 inches by 6 feet 6 inches, and 9 feet high, with a closet under the staircase leading to
a bed-room over h and g, 13 feet by 11 feet 6 inches, and 8 feet high : the sides are
formed into closets, as shown on the section A B, fig. 1 396 ; k is a porch to the master's
dwelling ; I, a larder ; m, a place for fuel ; n, boys' play-ground ; and o, girls' play-ground.
In fig. 1397, drawn to a scale of 10 feet to an inch, a a is the collar-beam which form«
the ceiling to the boys' school-room ; b is the king-post ; c, the ridge-piece ; d, the purlin ;
4 K
7'M< COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
e, the wall-plate ; f, the inside lintel of the window opening, the outside being a brick
arch ; g, the oak sill to the window-frame ; h, the stone sill under it ; i, the brick wall, 14
inches thick ; k, two courses of brick laid in cement, to prevent the moisture of the
ground from ascending higher up the wall ; I, wall under the sleepers of the flooring
joists, 18 inches thick ; m, lower footing, 2 feet 3 inches wide ; n, level of the ground ; o,
footing, 10 inches wide, to the wall, p, 9 inches wide, which supports the sleeper, q.
PAROCHIAL COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 755
This wall has also two courses laid in cement immediately under the sleeper. The joists
r, are of oak, 6 inches deep ; s shows the end of the chain bond, which is continued com-
pletely round the building at that height ; t is the cast-iron eaves guttering, and n, the
level of the platform. In fig. 1396, a is a dry drain to keep the damp from the platform
off the foundation walls; b, the door into the master and mistress's living-room; c, the
door to their bed-room; e e, two light closets off ditto; f, garret in the roof, lighted
from the ends; g, privy; h, 9-inch drain to a liquid manure tank; and i, the surface of
the platforms.
1595. Specification. — Digger. Dig out the ground over the whole surface to be
covered by the building to the depth of 12 inches, also for the footing which must be
12 inches deeper, and proportionately deep for the drains and cesspools. The depth of
these excavations must depend on the nature of the soil, which, if dry, need not be re-
moved deeper than what is requisite to procure the necessary quantity of earth to form
the terrace round the building ; but, if the soil be of a damp or soft clayey nature, it
should be taken out deeper for the footings of the walls, say 1 foot more; that is, 3 feet.
The trenches for the footings should then be filled in with concrete (already described
as a composition of clean gravel and hot lime mixed with water). The proportions are,
one bushel of lime to five bushels of gravel ; the whole to be well mixed and thrown in,
then levelled, rammed, and beaten down every stratum of 9 inches in thickness. The
whole surface under the floor should be covered with the same composition, and rammed
12 inches thick. If the drainage be good, this composition will form an excellent bed
for a plaster or cement floor ; but a deal, elm, or oak floor is better, being much drier
and warmer for the children's feet. If the floor were formed of concrete or paved, a
mass of stones under it might be heated by steam or flues, as shown § 20 and § 500 ;
if boarded, a stove may be employed, as in Design I., or there may be two open fire-
places, as may be thought best. Cover the raised terrace with gravel, 6 feet wide, all
round the building, 9 inches thick, well rammed and rolled.
1596. Bricklayer. Build the walls of the several heights and thicknesses, and with the
footings as shown in the plans, &c. The walls at the south-east end of the boys' school,
and at the south-west end of the girls' school, to be carried up in one brick thick from
the level of the wall plates to the underside of the boarding of the roof, with holes in
them, 6 inches square and 18 inches apart, for ventilation under the ridges. Build all
the walls with a fair face on both sides, and strike the joints inside of the schoolrooms
flush and fair for lime-whiting, as they are not intended to be plastered. Splay oft' all
the reveals of the windows, and point up all the frames inside and outside with cement.
Build two courses of all the walls, piers, &c, in cement, immediately under the sleepers, for
the floors. Build brick piers for the sleepers, 6 feet 6 inches apart from centre to centre,
each pier 9 inches square, 1 foot high, with two courses of footings, 14 inches square.
Build 9-inch brick fenders for three fireplaces. Pave the fuel places and larder with stock
bricks on edge. Build 200 feet of barrel drains (cylindrical in the section), 9 inches in
diameter, and half a brick thick, all round the bottom of the privies, the lower half of the
drains to be rendered with cement. Build a dry drain round the foundations, as shown in
the section fig. 1396, two courses in one brick, and ten courses to form the arch in half a
brick, in thickness. Cover roofs of the privies, places for fuel, larder, and porches to north-
east and south-west fronts with three courses of plain tiles in cement. Cover the roofs of
the building and the south-east porch with countess slating, nailed on with copper nails. To
put on ornamental cement chimney-shafts, 6 feet high, with bases, and artificial stone
ornaments on the top of the pediments, 4 feet 6 inches high, and 7 inches square, as
shown in the drawings, fig. 1396, and fig. 1397.
1597. Carpenter. Frame and fix the roofs, with principal rafters, kingposts, and
collars (chamfered on their edges) every 6 feet 6 inches, and purlins, common rafters,
pole-plates, ridges, &c. Fix a wall-plate to serve as a lintel over the windows, and con-
tinue it all round, except where interfered with by the flues. Fix a chain-bond under
the window-sills, continued all round in the same way, and extra-lintels over the upper
windows in all the gables, to serve for bearing the ends of the purlins ; cover the rafters
with J-inch yellow deal boarding for slates, edge shot (planed on the edges), and planed in
one side, with proper tilting and slab fillets. Fix ceiling joists for the bed-room, and floor
joists, trimmed for the staircase and the chimney for the dwelling-rooms. Fix quarter ash-
lering (partitions framed in quartering for lath and plaster), to form the sides of the bed-
room, and to enclose the staircase. Provide and fix all necessary centring for the windows,
doorways, drains, &c. Fix ^-inch yellow staff-beaded fascia and soffit round the roofs,
9 inches in girth, and cast-iron 4^-inch semicylindrical troughs, supported by strong
wrought-iron brackets. — Scantling of Timbers. Rafters, 4 inches and a half by 2 inches
and a quarter ; principals, 4 inches and a half by 3 inches and a half at top ; ditto, 9 inches
by 3 inches and a half in at bottom. Fir cut brackets, 1 4 inches long, 3 inches and a
half by 3 inches and a half. Collars, 6 inches and a half by 3 inches and half; king-
7>56 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
posts, 8 inches by 8 inches and a half; purlins, 4 inches by 4 inches; pole-plate*,
5 inches by 3 inches; ridges, 9 inches by 1 inch and a half, rounded for the lead; valley-
pieces, 11 inches by 9 inches. — Partitions. Head and sill pieces, 4 inches by 3 inches ;
posts, 4 inches bv 3 inches ; quarters and braces, 4 inches by 2 inches and a half; wall-
plates or lintels over the windows, 9 inches by 4 inches; wall-plates in the return-walls,
4 inches by 4 inches ; chain-bond under the windows, 5 inches by 5 inches ; common
bond, 4 inches by 2 inches and a half; ceiling joists, 3 inches and a half by 2 inches;
sleepers and floor-joists for sitting-room, &c, 6 inches by 2 inches; floor-joists for one
pair, 8 inches by 2 inches, and all to be strutted ; plates under the flooring joists,
4 inches by 4 inches ; quartering for ashlering, 3 inches by 2 inches and a quarter ;
posts to ditto, 3 inches by 3 inches. The rafters to be planed on the under side, and all
the other timbers of the roof on three sides.
1598. Joiner. Floors. Lay inch deal straight joint yellow deal floor, in the parlour
and bed-rooms of the dwelling-house, with borders to slabs. Lay 1^-inch yellow batten
straight joint floors in both schoolrooms, on oak joists and sleepers, 4 inches by 3 inches ;
the sleepers, 6 feet 6 inches apart, laid on brick piers. Fix f-inch deal skirting, 6 inches
and a half wide, round the dwelling-rooms and closets. — Windows. Prepare and fix
thirteen solid proper frames of sound yellow fir ; the sides and heads, 4 inches and a half
by 3 inches and a half, chamfered on one edge, and rabbeted ; the muntins to be 4 inches
and a half by 2 inches and a half, chamfered on two edges, and double-rabbeted ; the sills
to be of oak, splayed and sunk, 5 inches by 3 inches and a half. Hang 2-inch deal ovolo
bar sashes, 4 feet 6 inches by 1 foot 6 inches each, in five squares high, and two squares
wide, with 3-inch butt hinges at bottom ; with a chain, staple, and hook, to each centre
sash, 12 inches long, so as to let them fall inwards to ventilate the room, and a 4-inch
bolt to each. The windows to be glazed with second crown glass. The sashes to the
dwelling-rooms to be hung on the sides. Fix 1-inch deal tongued and splayed and
staff-beaded linings to three windows, and 1^-inch rounded window-boards, 6 inches wide.
Fix in each of the square openings in the gables, an inch deal board, chamfered at both
ends, the size of the openings, with iron pivots at each end, to work in the lintel and sill,
and a 4-inch bolt on each.- — Doors. Hang lj-inch deal four-panel square doors, one in
the upper bed-room, and four in the lower rooms and larder, with 3-inch butt hinges
and a good 3-bolt and 6-inch knob lock on each. Fix 1^-inch single-rabbeted and
rounded linings to the doorways, and 1-inch framed grounds, 3 inches wide, staff-beaded
on edge round one side. Fix to the opening from the porch a fir proper doorcase, 4 inches
by 4 inches, and an inch deal staff-beaded lining round inside. Hang in the ashlering
of the bed-room, 3-inch deal two-panel square doors to the low closets at the eaves on
each side of the room, 4 feet by 2 feet each, with 2^-inch butt hinges, and turn buckle
latch to each; and fix l^-inch rabbeted and beaded linings for the doors. Fix 1^-inch
square framed spandril and door under the staircase, and up to the ceiling, and on the
one pair. To enclose a closet from the lower bed-room, and put on hinges, and turn
buckle. Fix fir proper doorcases to the boys' school and the girls' school, 4 inches by 4
inches and half; and hang 1^-inch deal ploughed and tongued and ledged doors,
with moulded fillets on the joints outside, with 24-inch fancy hinges, and a strong fancy
iron latch of Chubb's patent (a latch invented by Mr. Chubb, of St. Paul's Churchyard,
which cannot be picked), to answer the purpose of a lock. To fix a 1^-inch deal framed
and beaded closet front in the sitting-room, with square door, 2^-inch butt hinges, and
closet lock. To fix 3-inch deal shelves in ditto, 16 inches wide. — Privies. Fix 1^-inch
oak seats, risers, and bearers, and divisions, 2 feet 6 inches wide, and 6 feet 6 inches high
each, all wrought, ploughed, tongued, and ledged. Fix two iron bars to support the brick-
work over the opening of the cesspool, 7 feet 6 inches long, turned up and down at both
ends, 3 inches deep, 1 inch thick, and 3 inches wide at the top. Fix 26 feet of oak cleft
fence to enclose the yards of the privies, 6 feet 6 inches high, with three strong arris
rails, cut out of stuff 4 inches by 4 inches, including two doors, each hung with 24-inch
strong garnet hinges, and hung to fall to, and 6 feet oak posts, chamfered, 9 feet long,
<> inches by 6 inches, and spurs ; and fix oak arris capping, cut out of stuff, 3 inches by
'■'> inches.
1599. Mason. Fix four plain solid Portland chimney-pieces, with chamfered edges;
li-inch Portland slabs, and Yorkshire stone hearths. Lay three solid Yorkshire stone
steps to the porches. Lay Yorkshire stone paving, 2 inches and a half thick, in the
porches, privies, and in the yards to ditto, and to the outer doors to the fuel places; all
the paving to be supported on bricks, so as to be hollow underneath. Fix Bath stone
copings on the gables, moulded on the edges, 18 inches wide, and 4 inches thick, with
copper cramps (iron is apt to stain the stone). Fix Bath stone plinths to both chimney-
sli.it'ts. 2 feet high, grooved for lead flashings. Fix Bath stone moulded cornices, 9 inches
wide, 3 inches thick, with a moudled front edge, and Hath stone ashlar (or blocking course1)
on ditto, 12 inob.es high to the two porches, and 9 inches high to the fuel places; 5 inches
COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 7^7
wide at bottom, and 2 inches and a halt' wide at top; and fix stone round tlie three openings
in the gables, and the same, 5 inches wide, round the opening in the east gable. Fix
moulded Bath stone labels, S inches thick, over the two openings in the gables, and over
the opening at the east end ; and fix two trefoil-shaped plain sunk panels. Fix 13-inch
York quarry sills, throated, 8 inches wide, and rubbed on the front edge, 3 inches and a
half thick.
1600. Plumber. Fix ridges and valleys, 10' inches wide, 5 pounds to the foot, with
lead-headed nails, &c. Fix step flashings, 9 inches wide, 4 pounds to the foot, to both
of the chimney-shafts. Fix four stacks of 3-inch iron water-pipes, 15 feet long each ;
four ditto, 10 feet long each ; two ditto, 9 feet long each ; and ten shoes ; all to be fixed in
the drains with cement. Fix six heads to the pipes.
1601. Plasterer. Lath, lay, set, and whiten the ceilings and partitions of the three
dwelling-rooms, staircase, and closet, &c. ; and render, set, and whiten the walls. Stop-
smooth, and colour twice over the whole of the walls, rafters, timbers, boarding, &c, in
the two schoolrooms, and privies, and larder ; and colour twice over the whole of the
exterior brickwork, and the inside of the porches and fuel-places ; and splash ditto with
colours, to imitate granite or porphyry stone (see § 542), carefully protecting the stone-
work from being discoloured while the work is going on.
1602. Painter. Paint the woodwork usually painted in the dwelling-house, and the
inside and outside of all the doors, windows, Sec., four times in oil, of oak colour; and
paint the fillets, hinges, and other ironwork, in imitation of green bronze.
1603. General Estimate. This school, if built in the neighbourhood of London,
Mr. Kent informs us, will cost from .£'700 to .£800. It contains 25,649 cubic feet ;
which gives about 6^d. per foot, as the guess price for buildings of this description in
or near the metropolis.
1604. Remarks. Our readers, we think, will agree with us in considering this an
excellent model for a parochial school of the simplest description, where there is neither
an infants' school, nor a room for lectures or discussion. In point of architectural style,
the effect is good ; and the care with which the skeleton specification, as it may be called,
is drawn up, will form a useful study for the young Architect ; and, with the specification
of the preceding Design, may supply some valuable hints to the many benevolent persons
who are now, in all parts of the country, erecting schools for mutual instruction on the
Bell or Lancasterian system.
Design III. — A Country School,iu the Italian Style, including a Dtcelliny for the Master
and Mistress.
1605. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1398, and the ground
plan in fig. 1399. In the latter, a is the entrance of the master's house, and to the
139S
infant school ; b is a passage for the use of the master and mistress, by which the three
schools are connected ; c is the infant school ; d is the girls' school, and e its entrance
porch ; / is the boys' school, and y its entrance porch ; h is the parlour of the master and
mistress, with a kitchen under it ; and bed-rooms over both it and the infants' school ;
i is a yard to the infant school ; k, a yard to the boys' school ; and /, a yard to the girls'
school.
1606. Remarks. We are indebted for this Design to Mr. Lamb, to whose taste in
composing Italian elevations it does great credit. As in country situations it is seldom
that so many infants can attend a public school as is the case in towns, the room for the
infant school in this Design is much smaller than those for the boys and girls, and
neither a gallery nor a class-room is considered necessary. With respect to the architec-
tural style of this Design, the genius of the Italian manner is finely kept up by the
masses of unpierced wall in some places, and the groups of openings in others; thus
producing strong contrasts both in construction and in effect.
7-58 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1399
Sect. III. Of the Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of Parochial Schools.
1607. The Finishing of both the Exterior and the Interior of Schoolrooms ought to be
simple and substantial, as being less liable to be injured by the children ; and because,
when children are brought up in the midst of simplicity and plainness, they are rendered
more independent in after-life. The interior surface of the walls should be built so
smooth as not to require plastering ; or, if plastering becomes requisite, the plastered
surface ought to be lined out so as to indicate brick or stone; in other words, so as to
give the expression of the simplest description of wall. Instead of lime-whiting sucli
walls once a year, we would wash them over with alkali (pot or pearl ashes) or lime
water ; which, while it did not obliterate the forms of the stones or bricks, would, equally
with lime-whiting, contribute to the purification of the air. The lower parts of the walls
all round the schoolroom should be wainscoted, or lined with boards, to the height of six
feet ; not only for warmth to the backs of the children when seated against them, but to
preserve their clothes, and the hats of the boys, from the lime of the wall. Instead of a
plastered or bordered ceiling, it is preferable to leave the space from the floor to the roof
perfectly open, because ceilings are found to reverberate the sound. The timbers of the
roof may be occasionally oiled ; but, as a matter of taste, we certainly should neither
whitewash them nor paint them, because we would not destroy the genuine expression
of strength produced by the real veins of wood. Where iron is substituted for wood,
painting, of course, is unavoidable.
1608. The Fittings-up and Fixtures of schools depend on the age of the children, and
on the system of instruction according to which they are to be taught. The fittings-up
of an infant school differ from those of a school for children of a greatei age, in having
the seats from nine inches to a foot high, instead of sixteen or eighteen inches high. The
_ hat pins are also proportionately lower, and are generally about
1400 ^ three feet from the ground ; while those in other schools are five
feet. A form or seat for an infant school, when fixed, and with a
r|| back, should not be more than nine inches wide, in order to keen
tt==% the children upright ; and, for the same reason, there ought to be a
bead along the floor, about six inches from the front line of the seat,
uji|| for the infants to place their heels against, to aid them in keeping
themselves up. Fig. 1400 is a section of the wall seats in the infant
school in Baldwin's Gardens, in which a is the bead; b, the seat;
and c, a row of pins for hanging the
lessons on, and also their hats. The
stage or gallery peculiar to infant
schools and its proportions have
6<==j|| been already mentioned, § 1521.
, " "Vh^ Fig. 1401 is a section of the gallery
, „ ^ in the infant school in Baldwin's
t.i. . i i i ) Gardens, and fig. 1402 is a front
FITTINGS-UP AND FIXTURES OF SCHOOLS.
1402
~l
759
elevation of the same; in which may be observed the inclined plane which passe? up
the middle, and by which the children ascend and descend
to their seats. In some cases, for this inclined plane is sub-
stituted a stair, with very low steps, which is, perhaps, safer
for the infants, being less liable to cause them to slide. The
lesson station is a lixturc, which the infant school has in
common with the others. It is the segment of a circle,
generally formed of a brass hoop, let edgewise into the floor,
with a socket in the point to which it is concentric, for
holding a pole or rod, from which a lesson is suspended.
Fig. 1403 represents one of the lesson stations in Baldwin's
Gardens, in which e is an arc or segment, the size of which is three feet two inches and
a half, for six infants to stand round,
with their toes touching the brightedge of
the brass hoop, and looking towards a les-
son, suspended by a rod fixed to a socket,
four inches by three inches, at f; g g
are two brass lines, twenty inches long,
to connect the segment with its central
point, and to aid in guiding the eyes of
the infants to the lesson suspended at f.
1609. The Fittings-up and Fixtures
of a School on the Madras System consist
of little more than the hat and lesson
pins, and the writing-desks which sur-
round the walls. The latter are about
the same dimensions in height as those
given for the Lancasterian schools, § 1541. Fig. 1404 is a view of one of the desks
in the Madras School, at Baldwin's Gardens ; of which a is a cross section, or end view,
1403
1404
/^
showing the cast-iron supports, b, and the plugs, c, by which the upper part is fixed
to the walls ; d is the row of pins for hats, slates, lesson-boards, &c. ; every boy being
allowed two pins for these purposes. In some schools the pins are in two rows on
different levels. The efficiency, and even beauty, of the cast-iron supports are worthy of
notice.
1610. The Fittings-up and Fixtures required for Stoat's Circulating System of Instruc-
tion consist chiefly of single circles of sixteen feet in diameter, or of a circle of this
diameter, with three concentric circles within it, marked on the floor by grooves, into
which brass hoops are fitted ; or which are filled with iron cement, or other composition,
so as to form distinct lines for the children to stand round. Along the walls of the
schoolroom are desks and benches, with two rows of pins fixed over them into the
wainscoting, the same as described for the Madras system, from
which Mr. Stoat's differs only in adopting the circulating mode ^-^Zm I4n«
of teaching, instead of the square or fixed one.
1611. The Fittings-up and Fixtures of Lancasterian Schools
have already been given at such length, § 1540 to § 1545, that
little remains to be said of them, except to give a section of the
desks and seats, fig. 1405, the dimensions of which have been
already stated, § 1559. Hat pegs, and pegs for pointers, lessons,
&c, are fixed against the wainscoting round the room, in the
manner already described, § 1535. (See plate 11. of the
Manual of the System of Primary Instruction, $t.) The semi-
circles, according to the Lancasterian method, are marked in the
700
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
floor by a groove filled with black putty,, or by brass studs driven into the floor, in the
exact position of each child.
1612. The Fittings-tip and Fixtures for the Parochial Schools in the Country, where
some of the children may have to come a considerable distance, and, of course, usually bring
their dinners with them, should include cupboards for holding these dinners till the
children are ready to eat them. In such cases, there should also be glasses, or mugs, and
other articles, for the use of the children. The shelves in the cupboards should be of
sufficient height to admit of a common corked bottle standing upright ; a bottle of milk
generally forming the liquid part of a country boy's dinner, at least in the agricultural
districts.
1613. The Furniture of Schoolrooms depends chiefly on the number of subjects
taught in them ; and on these we shall make some observations in a succeeding paragraph.
As the schools of Britain are at present arranged, the greatest variety of portable articles
are required for the infant school ; and of these we shall briefly enumerate the chief. It
may be premised, that the great object, in an infant school, is, to keep alive the attention
of the infants; for which purpose the founder of these schools, Mr. YVilderspin, proposes
no particular limits to the mode of teaching, or the furniture, or other means of carrying
on the business of the school. He admits of every description of innocent amusement,
of musical instruments, models, pictures, games, experiments, fire and water works : in
short, of every harmless contrivance which may prove conducive to his grand object ; viz.,
that of keeping alive the attention of the little creatures committed to his care. This
latitude is one of the most remarkable features in Mr. Wilderspin's system, and one
altogether worthy of the present age. Hitherto, when any system has been laid down,
it has been assumed by its authors to be perfect, and therefore absolute ; but the infant
school system, and also that of Mr. Lancaster, contain in themselves, like the constitution
of the United States of North America, the seeds of regeneration and perpetual improve-
ment. As a proof of what is to be effected by genius and comprehensive views in the
conduct of the education of youth, without reference to any preceding system, we may
mention the Hazlcwodd school near Birmingham, and the Academic Institution at
Hanwell, near London, founded by . Morgan, Esq., the celebrated author of the
Revolt of the Bees, &c. Both are admirably conducted ; and, in both, the business of
teaching, and that of being taught, are converted into matters of recreation, rather than
considered as tasks. For the beau ideal of a school for universal instruction, we may
refer to our own tract, Des Establissemens, &c, mentioned § 1573 and to A Plan of
Universal Education, by William Freund, Esq.
1614. For the Furniture of Infant Schools, we have examined two at Westminster, two
at Chelsea, one in Bishopsgate Street, and one in Baldwin's Gardens ; and the principal
portable articles which we have observed in them are the following: fig. 1406 is a frame
on castors, containing a slate or black board for showing letters, figures, pictures, or other
FITTINGS-UP AND FIXTURES OF SCHOOLS.
761
objects. This frame moves on two pivots, so as to admit of presenting its surface at right
angles to the eyes of the infants, whether these may be standing or sitting on the benches
round the walls of the room, or sitting or standing in the gallery. Below this board is a
wire, a, on which are strung black and white beads to teach notation, and numeration.
There is besides, an alphabet frame, containing shelves or compartments, each of which
holds twenty-six letters. These letters are painted on small square tablets, which are
put into the shelves by one or more at a time, according as the object of the master is
to teach single letters or syllables, printed or written letters, small or capital letters,
letters in the old English style, &c. When the lesson is to be proved, all the letters are
put in, and the infants are directed to take them out by name. Fig. ] 407 is a portable
stand, combining an arithmetical board, b, for teaching the first four rules of arithmetic
by different-coloured beads, with an alphabetical board, for teaching letters and syllables
at c, a section of which is shown on a larger scale at c'. Fig. 1408 may be called the
1407
1408
infant's show-box, as the upper part contains two rollers, on which there is an endless
sheet with a great variety of pictures and names painted, and which, by turning one of
the rollers, are shown at the opening, d. This may seem a very trifling and useless con-
trivance to some ; but we are assured, and we can easily conceive it, that it is a source
of great entertainment to the infants; and, as the objects shown include many articles
in general use, and many of the leading objects in natural history ; also the names of
eminent persons, and of countries, on each of which, as the roller brings them to
view, the master delivers a short lecture, it must be very instructive. Below this
show-box is an open space, e, into which a variety of objects are introduced, at the
pleasure of the master ; the space being closed by a piece of pasteboard while the
lecture on the show-box is going forward. A circular plate containing a mariner's
compass on one side, and the dial of a clock on the reverse, is a common resource ; and
often square frames of pasteboard containing pictures are put in, and lectures delivered,
or questions asked. The lower part of this stand, /, is formed into a box for books.
Fig. 1 409 is a rostrum or pulpit for a little monitor, with a reading-desk, g ; a drawer,
A; and a box for books, i; k shows the steps of ascent. Fig. 1410 is a rostrum of the
commonest kind. Besides these, there are various other portable articles belonging to
infant schools, which will be found figured and described in the works of Wilderspin,
and other writers on the subject.
1615. The Portable Furniture of a Madras School consists of little more than forms,
fig. 1379, and square boxes for books, which are shown in fig. 1378 at o. These forms
are supported by cast-iron feet, in the same manner as the desks, as shown by the section
4 s
76S COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
or end view, fig. 1404, a. The boxes for
books are of deal, two feet and a half long
eighteen inches wide, and eighteen inches
high. In the girls' school, the boxes are
made larger, with a division for work ; or,
there are two boxes to each class. The seat
of the master, having a desk fixed before
it, is portable in both the infant and Ma-
dras schools, and moves on castors, to
enable the head master to station himself
where he chooses ; there is also a portable
bookcase, or cupboard for books and other
articles not in use.
1616. The Portable Articles of Furniture
for a School on Stoat's Circulating System
are still fewer than those required in the
Madras system. In Mr. Stoat's concentric
circles there is no room for boxes, and the
books are therefore kept in cupboards,
either fixed or portable, placed against the
walls, or in any convenient situation.
The only essential portable article in Mr. Stoat's system is the medal-stand or point
of reckoning, fig. 1411, unless we reckon among the articles of furniture the medals,
lessons, slates, &c, common to all s?7^ — -^^
H10 (ggj rf%V , ;,,.=</
the four systems. This medal-
stand is made of cast iron, or wood
with a cast-iron base.
1617. The Articles of Furniture
necessary for a Lancasterian School
we have already enumerated at
length, § 1543 to § 1558.
1618. All the Furniture of Schools
according to the infant system
may be obtained from Mr. Beilby,
Chelsea ; all those for the Madras
system, from the central school,
Baldwin's Gardens ; all those for
Stoat's system, from Mr. Stoat,
Islington ; and all those for the
Lancasterian system from the Bo-
rough school.
1619. Such are the Fittings-up,
Fixtures, and Furniture of common Schools, according to the presenTmost improved prac-
tice in Britain; but, if general school education were carried to the point to ]41j
which we think it ought to be, and to which we trust it will be at no distant
period, every parochial school would contain most of the philosophical apparatus
and models now almost exclusively to be found in colleges and universities ;
and, besides these, many of the implements, utensils, instruments, and
machines necessary for the practice of the more useful arts. Our opinion is,
that, when the social system comes to be better understood by the mass of
society, and the greatest happiness of the greatest number is acknowledged to
be the end of all government ; education, like every thing else, will be com-
paratively equalised, and this high and equal degree of education will be
acknowledged, by all governments founded on the universal will of the governed,
to be as much the birthright of every individual as food or clothing. The
kind and degree of education that we think ought to be given to every human
being in this, and in every other country, and in every state of civilisation, may
be thus defined : — All the knowledge and accomplishments that a child's body
or mind, and the state of knowledge and the art of teaching at the time, will
admit, previously to the age of puberty ; giving preference to those branches
of knowledge which may be considered the most useful, and those accom-
plishments and manners considered the most humanising, by the wise and
good of the particular age and country. We consider this degree of cul-
tivation to be as much the birthright of a child, in a highly civib'sed com-
munity, as food and clothes are in the rudest state of society.
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 76'3
BOOK III.
DESIGNS FOR VILLAS WITH VARIOUS DEGREES OF ACCOMMODATION, AND IN DIFFERENT
STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE.
1620. A Villa we intend, in this Book, to consider as a country residence, with land
attached, a portion of which, surrounding the house, is laid out as pleasure-ground ; or,
in other words, with a view to recreation and enjoyment, more than profit. In this
view of a villa, the dwelling is to be considered as only an amplification of the cottage;
and the lands, as those of a farm, in which ornament and effect have been studied in
the vicinity of the house. The humblest cottage, in our opinion, ought to contain
all the essential comforts of a villa dwelling ; and the lands of a farm, all that is useful
in the grounds of a villa. The cottage and the farm are occupied as the means of
obtaining and enjoying the comforts of life ; and the villa of adding to these the gratifi-
cations resulting from the display of wealth and taste. In countries where all the
inhabitants are in possession of equal rights, every industrious individual, not living in
a town, will possess a cottage and a garden ; and every man who has been successful in
his pursuits, and has, by them, obtained pecuniary independence, may possess a villa. Ac-
cording to this view of the subject, it is not necessary that the dwelling of the villa should
be large, or the land surrounding it extensive ; the only essential requisites are, that the
possessor should be a man of some wealth, and either possess taste himself, or have sense
enough to call to his assistance the taste and judgment of others, who profess to practise
this branch of the art of design.
1621. The Art of arranging Villas in Britain is far better understood than the con-
struction of cottages, or the laying out of farms. The reason of this is, that the occu-
pants of the two latter descriptions of residences have hitherto been deficient in that
degree of cultivation which is necessary to the display of what is considered good taste ;
and have been too poor to be able to call in the assistance of the taste of professional
men. The occupiers of villas, on the contrary, have not only possessed more cultivation
and taste than the others, but, from their wealth, have been able to command the services
of all who professed an ability to render them assistance. Hence it has followed, that
the villas of Britain, though deficient in some particulars, are yet decidedly superior to
those of every other country. It is easy to point out in them numerous faults ; but
where, in any other country, will be found half so many beauties in the Architecture
and scenery, or so much real comfort and luxurious refinement in their accommodation
and arrangements? In consequence of the comparatively improved state of Villa Archi-
tecture, this department of our work will require to be much less copious than those
which have preceded it ; and this the more especially, because there are already many
excellent works which treat on the subject, under the titles of Designs for Villas, and
Treatises on Landscape- Gardening.
1622. The Principal Defect of English Villas is in the want of a sufficient union
between the house and the grounds ; or, in other words, of cooperation between the
Architect and the landscape-gardener in fixing on situations, and in laying them out,
" Our parks may be beautiful," Laing Meason observes, " our mansions faultless in
design ; but nothing is more rare than to see the two properly connected. Let the
Architect, by study and observation, qualify himself to include in his art the decorations
round the immediate site of the intended building ; and the improving taste of the
gentry of England will second him in his efforts." Viewing the subject in the same
light as Meason, we shall, in the present Book, first direct the attention of the reader to
Fundamental Principles ; next depict the Beau Ideal of an English Villa ; afterwards,
give Miscellaneous Designs for Villas, and Designs for Appendages to Villas ; and, lastly,
Designs for their Finishing, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture.
Chap. I.
The Fundamental Principles of laying out a Villa, including the House and the Grounds.
1623. The End in view, in forming a Villa, is to produce a healthy, agreeable, and
elegant country residence ; and the means for attaining this end are, a judicious choice of
situation, a fitting arrangement of the pounds, and a correspondent excellence in the
interior accommodation and the external Architecture of the house. We shall take
these three subjects in succession.
Sect. I. Of the Choice of a Situation for a Villa Residence.
1624. In the Choice of the Situation for a Villa Residence, two classes of circum-
stances require to be taken into consideration : the one includes such as are absolute or
704 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
permanent ; and the other such as are accidental, or liable to vary from temporary
causes. The permanent considerations include climate, elevation, surface, aspect, soil,
water, and the sea ; and the temporary or accidental circumstances are chiefly its locality,
present state, prospective improvement, and the personal peculiarities of the intended
possessor.
1625. Climate is, perhaps, the most important of the permanent circumstances which
require to he kept in view in fixing on the situation of a villa ; because it is less suhject
to human improvement than any other. In every country of any extent, the climate
differs in different parts of it, and the popular divisions may he stated to be, the cold,
the warm, and the moist. The last is unquestionably the least desirable ; because it
admits of least amendment by human means. The cold climate, provided it be dry, is
often one of the healthiest ; and it may always be improved by planting to afford shelter,
and by increasing the dryness of the soil by draining. The warm climate, if it be dry,
is always agreeable ; and if the heat be intense during summer, it can be readily moder-
ated by the shade of trees. A wet climate can scarcely be improved: it must necessarily
be unhealthy compared with a dry one, on account of the moisture with which the
atmosphere is always charged ; and it precludes the exercise of the greatest of rural
improvements, the surrounding the house with plantations. All other circumstances,
therefore, being suitable, a dry warm climate must always be the best for a villa
residence.
1626. Elevation is, in our opinion, the next most important circumstance to climate,
though some may assign the second place to the character of the surface. The great
advantage of elevation is, that it gives a command of prospect, without which a villa may
be beautiful, picturesque, or romantic; but it never can be dignified or grand, and
scarcely even elegant or graceful. The term elevation must always be considered as
relative ; and not to be determined by measurement. In a flat country, a knoll of
100 feet in height, by raising the ground floor of the house above the level of the tops
of the highest trees in the surrounding plain, will allow the eye to range over an exten-
sive distance ; to catch a view, in all probability, of some river or stream ; and, in a
cultivated country, to command towns, villages, farms, and human dwellings. On the
other hand, where the whole surface of a country is hilly, he that prefers elevation must
fix on a hill somewhat higher than those by which it is surrounded, so as, at all events,
to look over some of them. It is not necessary to dignity of effect and variety of pro-
spect, that a house in a hilly country should enjoy such extensive views as a house in a
plain ; because, in the former case, the variations of the surface produce that expression
in the landscape which in the flat country is unknown, and but faintly compensated for
by the movement of the clouds, and other atmospherical changes. In every country,
however, there is a limitation to the height at which it is desirable to build dwelling-
houses ; and this limitation is clearly determined by the growth of the principal timber
trees of the country, indigenous or acclimatised, and the ripening of the hardy fruits. In
other words, it is determined by the capacities of the situation for gardening. Whenever
a situation is so hign that trees will not attain sufficient dimensions to shelter the house,
or fruit not ripen on the garden walls, it ought to be abandoned, unless a better one
cannot be found.
1627. Tlie Character of the Surface on which to build a villa is the next consideration,
and is also one of great importance. A surface may be uniformly hilly, or irre-
gularly so ; and may consist of ridges and valleys, or of ridges on the sides of hills, rising
above each other, without valleys. The variety, in short, is so great, that it can scarcely
be classified with sufficient distinctness. It is hardly possible, however, to conceive a
hilly surface in which excellent situations may not be found for setting down a villa.
Perhaps one of the most desirable is, where a prominent knoll stands forward from a
lengthened irregular ridge; and where the latter has a valley with a river in front, and
higher hills rising one above another behind. One of the worst is, perhaps, the steep
uniform side of a high hill, closely surrounded by other hills equally high and steep. On
the whole, it may be observed, that though an irregular surface affords the greatest variety
of excellent situations for building on, yet, at the same time, it is one in which the inex-
perienced are likely to commit the greatest errors ; and one, also, respecting which it is
more difficult to lay down general rules than any other.
1628. Aspect is next in the order of importance. There are some considerations
respecting aspect which apply to every country ; and others to particular countries, or
districts of country only. Nothing in the Architecture or appendages of a house can com-
pensate for its being set down on the north side of a high hill or ridge; where it is pre-
cluded from partaking of the direct influence of the sun during three or four months of
the year. In most countries, there is some point of the compass from which rain and
storms are more frequent than any other ; and to set down a house in such a manner as
to be exposed to these tempests is evidently injudicious. An aspect exposed to high
_
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 7b5
wind is less objectionable than one exposed to driving rains ; since shehqr may be afforded
from the former by trees, but not from the latter by any means. >*.
1629. Soil <unt Suh.ioil are very generally reckoned among the primary considerations
in the choice of a site for a villa; and they are undoubtedly the first, as far as respects
the value of the estate. Rut it must be recollected that the soil about a house can be
totally changed by art, while the previously mentioned requisites of climate, elevation,
surface, and aspect, hardly admit even of improvement. Where these circumstances are
favourable, the nature of the soil and subsoil, though of secondary importance, have yet
still considerable influence, both in regard to the health and enjoyment of the occupant,
and the growth of the plantations. A soil which retains moisture on its surface, which
is the case with most clays and loams with retentive bottoms, may be considered as the
least healthy ; and the one which admits of being walked on without wetting the feet
the soonest after a shower of rain, is the most so. For the present purpose, it will be
sufficient to consider all soils as either clayey, sandy, gravelly, or chalky ; and all subsoils
as either based on granite, argillaceous rock, sandstone, limestone, or chalk. Soils based
on rocky subsoils, whatever may be the nature of the stone, may always be considered
healthier than alluvial soils, sands, or gravels. Soils superincumbent on calcareous and
sandstone rocks are found to produce healthier surfaces than those on chalk or slatestone ;
and surfaces, also, which are much better adapted for cultivation and the growth of trees.
Unquestionably, the best substratum for the site of a house is a limestone or sandstone
rock ; and the worst, soft black peaty soil, or strong tenacious clay. Rut, in judging of
the soil for a villa residence, regard must also be had to its suitableness for garden pur-
poses, and for the growth of trees. In this respect the subsoil is sometimes of more
importance than the soil : for the latter, in general, can be improved by draining ; and
its susceptibility of this improvement varies materially, according to the nature of its
subsoil. The most difficult subsoils to underdrain are those composed of moist retentive
clays ; and, when to this subsoil is joined a flat surface, the situation, as far as respects
the enjoyment of walking in the open air, is one of the most hopeless kind. A bad sub-
soil is an effectual barrier to the thriving of timber trees ; and, as these constitute the
finest ornaments of every country seat, the importance of choosing a subsoil either natu-
rally congenial to them, or capable of being rendered so by art, is sufficiently obvious. In
an economical point of view, it is always more desirable to choose a poor soil than a rich
one, provided it be dry, for the immediate site of the house. Rich soils are better re-
served for cultivation ; and, indeed, for the purpose of lawns and kept grounds, they only
serve to increase the expense of mowing and weeding, by the luxuriant growth of their
herbage. On the whole, therefore, the most important consideration, in respect to the
soil of the site of a villa, is, that it should be dry, and placed on a subsoil favourable to
the growth of trees.
1630. Water is the remaining consideration ; but it is one of very secondary import-
ance. For all domestic purposes, it can be procured almost every where by boring or
sinking wells ; and pieces of artificial water, where expense is not an object, may be
supplied by machinery from natural sources, at the distances even of miles. It is
singular, that in England, where immense sums have been laid out on the grounds of
villas, and where the steam-engine is familiar to every body, so little should have been
done in the way of bringing water from a distance by underground pipes, and forcing
it to higher levels by means of machinery. Some of the noblest parks, with the surface of
the soil finely varied, and beautifully enriched with wood, lose half their effect, from
the want of as much water as might be supplied from a distance by an engine of one-
horse power, which might be kept up at a less expense than a footman or a groom.
1631. The Situation of a Villa, relative to the Sea, is a consideration that chiefly
applies to islands, and countries bordered by the ocean ; but in these it merits particular
attention. Some of the differences between an inland and a maritime situation are of a
permanent nature, and can never be affected by human improvement. Of these, some of
the principal are, the dryness or moisture of the air, its moderate temperature, and the
unfitness of most maritime situations for garden purposes. The uniformity of temper-
ature on the sea-coast is a great recommendation to persons of particular constitutions ;
and so is the dryness of the air on the east coast of our island, and its moisture on the
west coast. The grandeur and variety of a marine prospect at every season of the year
are powerful considerations ; and, to those who have little relish for gardening pursuits
they may compensate for their absence. In choosing a marine situation, it is an important
point to ascertain whether or not it will admit of the free growth of trees and the cul-
ture of garden productions. On the western shores of the British islands, especially
when there are hills or mountains at no great distance in the interior, timber trees grow
freely to the water's edge : on the eastern shores, on the contrary, they will scarcely grow
at all.
1632. Among the temporary Cireumstances which influence the choice of a situation
706 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
for a villa, are included, its locality, its present state, its prospective improvement, and
the peculiarities of its possessor.
1633. By Locality is to be understood the distance from the capital of the country in
which it is situated ; from a smaller town or village ; from a road or canal ; from
another villa ; or from neighbours of any sort. The distance from a town, at which it is
desirable to place a villa, must depend so much on the style of living, and the taste of
the occupier, that it is scarcely requisite to say any thing on the subject. Where taste
is free, however, the villa ought to be at such a distance from the town as to be decidedly
a country-house ; and, for the same reason, it does not appear desirable that the villa
should command a view of the town, even in the extreme distance. This sentiment will
be felt with more force by the citizen engaged in business, who goes to the town almost
every day, than by the country gentleman or retired tradesman. In the first case, the
associations recalled by the appearance of the town are those of toil and occupation ; in
the second case, they are those of society and gaiety. The circumstances of a neighbour-
hood materially affect the character of a villa. Hitherto the prevailing ideas in England
have been in favour of exclusive enjoyment ; and the great object, whether in small
villas or extensive ones, has been, to shut out every thing belonging to the neighbour-
hood, which could indicate that there was any other proprietor or resident in the
vicinity. The only objects that might be legitimately shown were, wood, pasture, water,
rocks, ruins, and public buildings. In short, the end aimed at by this exclusive system
was, to appropriate in idea the whole of the surrounding country. The extent to which
this has been carried by the higher classes in England can scarcely be conceived by the
proprietors of other countries ; and is not at all understood by them. The possessors of
extensive parks abhorred the appearance of a human habitation, however humble or
however distant ; and the first object of a new settler, of the rank of a gentleman, was,
generally, to purchase every thing around him ; and to seclude himself in a sort of
artificial forest, for his own exclusive enjoyment and that of his friends. Happily, this
antisocial spirit is beginning to give way before the general spread of intelligence, and,
what is of more effect, the salutary influence of diminished wealth. Notwithstanding
this, we consider it perfectly natural and in good taste, to plant out a number of objects
which serve to recall the idea of a town, or of manufactories, and thus to diminish the
idea of the country and of rural life.
1 634. The present State of a property adapted for being formed into a villa residence
involves a great variety of circumstances. It may be with trees and plantations, or
without them ; in aration, or under pasture ; in a high state of improvement, or in a state
of neglect. No man can determine for another which of these states is most desirable.
To an intended purchaser who is desirous of avoiding trouble and uncertain expense, the
less there is to do, the more immed'ate will be his gratification. To another who under-
stands the improvement of land, and who takes delight in it, the more there is to do, the
greater will be his satisfaction in doing it. A young purchaser will generally prefer
forming his own plantations ; one who retires for quiet enjoyment, or because he con-
siders it a mark of distinction to possess a villa, will give the preference to a situation
where nearly every thing is ready prepared to his hand ; and where he has little more to
do than to take possession.
1635. The prospective Improvement of a villa residence is but a secondary consider-
ation, where it has not the addition of an extensive landed estate ; and hence it cannot
have much to do with Architecture. Nevertheless, it ought not to be lost sight of; and,
where two situations are equally desirable in other respects, that which is likely to be
improved by the growing prosperity of the neighbourhood will be preferred by every
reasonable man. The difference of situation, in this respect, is very considerable. Al-
most all inland towns, which are the seat of manufactures, are either in a state of pro-
gressive improvement, or on the decline. Hence the great change in the value of
property in their neighbourhoods ; and the consequent profit or loss on estates which
derive their chief value from their local situation. Accidental circumstances, also, fre-
quently increase or diminish the value of a villa residence as such. In general, whatever
has a tendency to approximate the surrounding country to the character of a town, has
the latter effect, however much it may add to the actual value of the land.
1636. The peculiar Tastes or Circutnstances of the intended Occupant of a Villa often
determine his choice of situation. A man engaged in business every day must have his
villa within a certain distance of the place of his occupation ; and another, not engaged
in business, may prefer a spot with which he has some peculiar associations; such as, the
parish in which he was born ; property which once belonged to his ancestors ; or the
vicinity of some river for fishing, or of a fine country for sporting, &c.
1637. All these Considerations, and a Variety of others, require to be taken into view
before fixing on the situation of a villa residence. It must be confessed, however, that, in
a country like Britain, where by far the greater part of the landed property is in large
PRINCIPLES FOR Di£SIGNING\lL LAS. "(ft
masses entailed on particular families, there has hitherto been verv "fihJ
Commercial men, who, after bavin- made fortune Z * i u Y l™*Joom ^ choice.
to enjoy them, have had hitherto little opportunv ^ ft', J™ 'f^ the c»»"try
choice, and have generally ^ ^SfflK^taS 7 "? kin* VMiciou.
Hence the great number of 'villas wfflKtotaiJjT^fi f°W" where ,bt'>' *«■
undistinguished by a single feature of ^exte nal beau v "Hen °T' "f ^ sitUat'dl*
that has hitherto been paid to the situation of vUulZ A i ■? ' ^ the Httle attentio>
tunity does occur of making a l^TtuLteL^ ^^ '' ^^en an oppor-
advantage of it. A new stafe of tZ^ZZlr 7s ' alaT^' • "**** '° «"
landed property will be more equally dis r S V i S a"S,ng = ,n a few J««
consequence of a greater number of Possessors h ^ T'" be ^^ed; and, in
villas, and a consequent bpSRS^^ d—d «*
sECT. ii. o/ * Position of the Hmu^ Arrangemmt o/ ^ ^^ ^ a ^
thJfoL^ifirrr'nafuS lrzd::f: a* f**- **"- ** p-*- of
and the disposition of the oS, ST^STiS rd"^ °f *•«"»»*«
the whole. ' s««ueiis,, larm, and other component parts of
-— ^tSS*2SSS natuS £S CaT' ^ P°inted °Ut ^ «" dicing
he created by art. Whenever ! E^f 7 approximation to one should
it has been erected in that precise spot rt ^ ^ SUfficient reason w%
decidedly be wrong. There is no surf™ ! ^ u *"* °ther' something must
not be so managed^ to create an ^^1° f * i^6 Can be built' whi^' may
which it stands! This is TtoJ^SttSS'fi*?' f *• ^ ^ »
platform from which the structure a, pears o rS P™c,PaI1y» > elevatmg the base or
the plantations by which it is connected wlh the? ' T^"""* by the ^P^tion of
and flattest surfaces, by raisin- th houZl 1 finding scenery. On the dullest
or more, according to the dimens ons ofX ho,« P T 0t ^^ °r thirty ft'et hi^>
the surrounding g°roU„ds and pSaions by Stions 5 IZ^fV**" ^
mam body of the house will be raised higher %£SZhte£%*Z ^ shrubberies' the
and tins by giving, at a distance, the same e£ as 1 o" if S S™ld,'ng trees;
will afford at once a satisfactory reason to the <tr™7 £g • 6re pkced on a knoll,
in preference to any other. The space under thf' T y "J? ^^ °" that s^t,
may always be made use of as cellaTor omts triS". TS* ^f the P1^"1
out as Italian or terraced gardens. Even if on 'v 7 JS!*™ °Ver them can be laJd
were made use of, still the "impo" ant effect ororfn T ^ ^ Undel" the PIatform
case of a uniformly sloping banUH i I P'oduced would justify the means. In the
position for a haa^lS^^i^i^^ * * J"*- l° Create a" arti«^
nature of the ground. In a drv soH and S3? Z ^ ^ ^ "^ aCCOrdi»g to the
tion in the back part of the recess hTmav nh? ?v,\ °f " '' -^ in an elevated post
body considerably' above the !£££? fre^ m^'Z S* - t0 ~* itS S
prominences are properly planted, the hofse Ta diln n ProJectmg points or
natural recess on the side of the lill, backed a, d flantn ,' T^,-0 be pIaCed in a
subsoil of such a bank are moist a nkSm ™ fla"ked.by wood- When the soil and
and a recess excavated behind; wh tt SoH froT Fi."?"* PFOJeCting boldly *«-*
of the house, and at two of its JdeT- X.^i?Cv ^ ' ^T"8 may be formed in f^
The effect of this at a distance wS b * to^e Swl?" ^ *?"* PknteA
on a projecting point or promontory; Uich from bein! n 6 apPearance of b^g built
uniformly sloping bank, would apnea II , aS the°nlJ one on the otherwise
position for a house. These examples will }7 P£ ^ °Ut by that c»™mstance as the
studied the effect of ^ener^in^?^^ tS^ ^ "^ ArChit6Ct' who bas
artificial situations in the most hopeless cask " "^ °f Pr0cee(li«g» to create
height!^ ^^
enlarged ; a Li (a m°ost "SeSSl SJS Z wh^hT . A }"* " t0° Sma»' mav b«
obtained, but which is very rarely taken ZZt V° "^ ? h°USe' when h ca» **
m magnitude upwards, by additions • o rfnuT g^ °f aS " might be> may be '"creased
of a river may be widened, or tte Vourse of/f ' ^ tHe r™™1 °f earth" The bend
heightening the natural ^n£L^S^i£^Z may be changed : in either case,
» to be built on the margin of a lake with, g v ^ ^ Where a h"^e
is, to keep it a certain dhtanc from the water Tnd" to f™ ""T ^ C°mm°n Practice
house : but a bolder and more strikins mode of T Z01"™ 3 ^T" betWeen il and the
768
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
into it ; or to bring an estuary from the lake to tlie house; or to give it the effect of
bein«- placed on a promontory or a peninsula. Whatever mode is adopted, the platform
on which the house stands should always be raised considerably above the level of the
water, and the main body of the house above the tops of the highest trees; not only for
the sake of 'effect, but for the health of the occupants.
1641. When a striking natural Situation occurs, it should not be rejected, because it may
be on the boundary of the estate, unless there be something decidedly offensive in the
adjoining property. Some of the noblest situations of villas, in Britain, are on the sea-
shore, or on the steep rocky banks of rivers, or on lofty cliffs overhanging public roads.
The proximity of the sea, of a river, or even of a public road, to a house, can never be offen-
sive to the occupant; because, though they do not belong to him, they belong to no one
else, and the grandeur of their effect overpowers every other consideration.
1642. The accidental Circumstances which influence the Position of a House are, chiefly,
the boundary of the property, and the existing trees, roads, buildings, fences, and other
artificial objects. The most desirable position for a house, all other circumstances being
alike favourable, is the centre of the estate. The advantages of being at an equal dis-
tance from every part of the boundary ; of having, as much as possible, on every side,
that which we can call our own; of not being overlooked by near neighbours; and of
reposing, as it were, in the bosom of our own tenantry, cottagers, cattle, woods, and
gardens, are obvious, and felt by every one. It is seldom, however, that natural features
correspond so exactly with accidental circumstances as to render this practicable ; and,
therefore, all that the Architect can do is, to make the nearest approach to such a
combination that the case will admit of.
1643. To be guided by existing Trees, Roads, or other artificial Objects, in fixing on
the position of a house, is obviously bad judgment ; on the general principle, that what is
intended to be permanent should never be made subservient to what is only temporary.
Nevertheless, this is very frequently the case ; and nothing is more common than to see
good houses deprived of half their effect from being placed in some inferior situation,
merely because it contained a few old trees, or was the site of a former mansion, the
cellars of which, perhaps, remain ; or because it was near very good offices, which it was
thought a pity to pull down. Such are the shortsighted prejudices with which Architects
have frequently to contend.
1644. The Offices of a Villa include those of the kitchen-court, those of the stable-
yard, and those of the farm. In small villas, or in what may more properly be called
villa farms, these may be all arranged around one court : but, in general, they are placed
apart ; the kitchen-court being attached to the house, the stable-yard adjoining the
kitchen court, and the farm being placed at some distance, according to the situation
and the kind of farm. The principle by which the position of both the kitchen and sta-
ble offices is determined is, that of having free access to them without coming in sight of
any of the fronts of the house. This is, perhaps, one of the most important points in
determining the position of a villa and its offices ; for, if the latter are placed so as not
to be accessible by servants and tradesmen without their passing the front of the house,
it is scarcely possible to make a perfect villa. It is not necessary to the attainment of
this object that the offices should be concealed :" on the contrary, they should always be
visible, and be rendered subordinate and supporting parts to the main body of the man-
sion, and should cooperate with it in forming a whole. In general, there is only one
approach to a villa ; and, in that case, the offices should always be on the side by which
the approach road advances towards the entrance front. When there are two approaches,
advancing towards the entrance front in opposite directions, then the offices ought to
be placed on that side which is most likely to be the principal road for tradesmen and
servants. This will, of course, generally, be the side which is next the nearest village or
town. In scarcely any case that we can conceive is it desirable to have the kitchen-
court on one side of the main body of the house, and the stable-court on the other, as
wings ; though this was formerly much the practice in large mansions. The incon-
veniences of such an arrangement for a villa are too obvious to require pointing out ;
and they could only be tolerated in times when the proprietors of such residences
were surrounded by servants, and when the highest ambition of taste was ostentatious
display.
1645. Tlie Farm Offices of a Villa should always be placed on the side next the stable
offices ; so as that a free communication between them may take place, without inter-
fering with the entrance front on one side, or the lawn front on the other. Where the
farm is large, the offices should be central to it, whatever may be their distance from
the house ; but where it is small, and chiefly used for raising produce to he consumed at
home, the farmery may be placed near the stable yard, and may compose a subordinate
part of the general architectural group.
1646. The Kitchen-garden of a villa should always, if possible, be on the side next
PRINCIPLES FOIt DESIGNING VILLAS. J()9
the offices ; not only that a free communication may take place between the kitchen and
the garden, without interfering with either the entrance front or the lawn front ; but
that the stable dung may be taken to the garden, from the stables, by the shortest and
most private route. In general, it is desirable to have the kitchen-garden close to the
stable offices, so as to make some use of the walls of the latter for training fruit trees,
and to shorten all the lines of communication for servants, as also the walk to the
garden from the lawn front. Wherever it is practicable, the farm should adjoin the
kitchen-garden, and, as it were, follow in the train of offices and useful appendages.
In this view of the general arrangement of a villa and its offices, it appears that all the
latter should be placed on one side of the dwelling-house, so as to leave the three other
sides free. Wherever three sides of the dwelling-house are not free to be disposed of
as the combined judgment of the landscape-gardener and Architect may direct, either
the case must be anomalous, or some gross fault must have been committed. We would
strongly recommend this to be kept in view, both by Architects and their employers, as a
leading principle in determining the position of the offices relative to that of the house.
1647. Tlie Approach Road. The whole train of offices and useful dependencies being
disposed of, the subject next in importance is the direction of the road by which the
dwelling-house is to be approached. Though this, like every other part of the subject,
is necessarily treated of separately in a book, it must be considered together with all the
other parts, and more especially the offices, in practice. The side of the house on which
the offices are placed must, as has been already observed, in a great measure be deter-
mined by the direction in which the approach road advances to the house ; so that these
two parts are so intimately connected, that the one cannot be considered without the
other. In the modern or natural style of disposing of the grounds about a house, the
approach road almost always advances towards it in such a manner as to show two
fronts at the same time. This is one principle ; and, as we have already laid it down as
another, that the offices must always be on that side by which the principal approach
advances, it follows, that the first view of the house will generally show the dwelling as the
principal mass, and the offices as subordinate and cooperating parts of the whole. When-
ever the first part of the dwelling, therefore, which comes into view, is the offices, there must
be something defective in their position, in the direction of the road, or in the disposition
of the trees and scenery by which the house and offices are united with the grounds. In
the ancient or geometrical style of laying out grounds, the approach road or avenue ad-
vances directly in front of the house ; and here, also, the dwelling-house is the mass which
ought first to meet the eye. The offices, in this case, are generally concealed from the
view ; either altogether, or till the spectator has arrived almost at the entrance front.
The great object, in the ancient style, is, to present a full geometrical view of one front ;
that of the modern style, to show two fronts at once, or what is called by Architects an
angular view. The beauties aimed at by the ancient style, whether with respect to the
house or the grounds, were, to present regular, symmetrical, architectural views ; the end
aimed at in the modern style is, to present views which are irregular, picturesque, and
natural. The direction of the approach road from the public road, till it advances
nearly to the entrance front, may be considered as more legitimately within the province
of the landscape-gardener than within that of the Architect ; yet, still, the general
principle by which it is directed ought to be alike known to both. In the ancient
style, the grand object is, to obtain a straight line ; because such a line is more archi-
tectural, and displayed, in a rude age, more decidedly a character of art and design. In the
modern style, a winding line is preferred, as being more easy and natural, and, by displaying
a greater variety of scenery, evincing a more refined taste. The ancient style of approach
is displayed to greatest advantage over an even surface ; the modern style, over a surface
which is irregular. In the ancient style, when the two extreme points were once deter-
mined on, nothing could be easier than to lay out the road between them. In the
modern style, when the two extreme points are determined on ; tnat is, the point ol
departure from the public road, and that of arrival at the entrance front of the mansion ;
the laying out of the road between them calls into exercise a considerable degree ot
taste and judgment. As it is essential to this style that the line of road should be more
or less curvilinear, the artist is required duly to consider what ought to be the extent of
these curves, and how far they ought to deviate from a straight line. If he should be
guided entirely by the surface; that, if very irregular, may induce him to trace a line
too circuitous; and if even, to adopt a line without ease or grace. It may be laid
down as a principle, that no winding approach can be beautiful where there is not an
obvious reason for each of the windings. It may also be admitted as another principle,
that, when the surface is very irregular, and the road changes its direction with every
little obstruction, it will cease to have the character of a work of refined art. A third
principle here occurs, to correct the tendency to error in either of the extreme cases of a
very hilly or a very flat surface. This principle is, that the road, in every case, should be
4 T
7?() COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
easily travelled over; and firom this principle are derived the following rules ; viz., that,
on a flat surface, this road should never deviate so far from the straight line as to be
obviously very circuitous ; that, on an irregular surface, it should never be turned aside by
surmountable inequalities, so as to produce the same effect ; and that, if not turned aside
by inequalities, it should never pass over them in such a manner as to interfere with
facility of communication. An expression of art, therefore, requires to be given, not only
to the direction of the road, but to its inclination in the direction of its length. For
this reason, on irregular surfaces, it will frequently be required to cut into or lower
eminences, and to fill up or raise the surface of hollows or declivities. In effecting this,
the greatest degree of skill is required, to maintain the ease and grace of a work of art,
and to avoid the mere straightforward character of an improved turnpike road. Hap-
pily for the artist, trees can at all times be called in to his assistance ; and the effect of
these, in hiding defects and eliciting beauties, is all-powerful. Along the sides of a road
passing over an irregular surface, trees may be placed so as to conceal bends in its
direction, which would, if seen all at the same time, be considered too numerous; and
on a flat surface they may be arranged so as to create an artificial cause for bends which
could not otherwise be made without forfeiting all pretensions to good taste.
1648. The Pleasure- Grounds. In order to make the most of a villa residence, it is
found desirable to have the grounds around the house laid out in two distinct characters.
The surface on the entrance front should be so disposed as to be in a less refined
stvle of design and ornament than that on the other fronts ; or, at least, on that generally
designated the lawn front, or that on the drawing-room side of the house. This side
should, in all cases, look towards the best views which the situation affords ; and the fore-
ground to these views should be in the highest style of design, order, and keeping
which it is intended that the villa should display. It is always desirable that this high
style of art should embrace two sides of the house, a third side being the entrance front,
and the fourth connected with the offices. We are here assuming the general outline
of the ground plan of the house and kitchen-court to be a square or a parallelogram,
merely to simplify discussion ; but what we shall advance will apply alike to every form
of ground plan. As the style of the grounds on the entrance front is decidedly inferior
in degree to that on the drawing -room front, and as the former are generally depastured
by sheep, deer, or cattle, it becomes necessary to form such a line of demarcation between
them as will serve also as a fence. To conceal this fence, or so to manage it as to render
it a work of art, or an architectural appendage to the house, is one of the nicest points of
management in disposing of the connecting links between the house and the grounds of
a villa residence. The most common resource is an iron fence ; sometimes avowedly
displayed, and at others studiously concealed, or formed so slightly as to be considered
invisible; but in all cases a meagre and paltry contrivance, utterly unworthy of a high
style of art. The sunk fence is another resource, which has been employed for separating
the grounds of the entrance front from the lawn ; but this also is unarchitectural, and,
like the iron and wire fences, only to be adopted at such a distance from the house as
never to be supposed to form any of the appendages which connect it with the grounds.
The iron fence and the sunk fence being rejected, to what, then, are we to have recourse?
Most decidedly, to a bold and avowed line of demarcation, of an architectural character,
and in a style of design which shall harmonise with that of the house. Even a plain
wall, broken in its lines by trees and shrubs, is superior to any fence not avowedly dis-
played as such, and not decidedly architectural. Here, then, is a medium of connecting
the house with the grounds on one side of the entrance front, while the kitchen-court
and stable offices afford a more conspicuous means of effecting the same object on the
other. Here, also, the Architect will have an opportunity of displaying, in the wall, his
inventive powers, in its line of direction, its height, its projections and recesses, the orna-
ments with which it is decorated, and in its partial concealment, and connection with the
scenery, by occasional groups of trees and shrubs. To fit a Villa Architect for this
purpose, he should study, above all other works, the writings of Uvedale Price, the
work of Gilbert Laing Meason on the landscape-architecture of the great painters of
Italy, and the essay on uniting the house with the grounds, by the late Thomas Hope.
" In recommending to Architects to study the picturesque effects of buildings, the site
adapted for them, and the accompaniments of terrace walls, architectural gardens, and
other decorations, to set off their designs for villas," Meason observes, " we are influenced
by a desire to raise and extend the theory and the practice of Architecture, to all that we
consider belongs to the art. This was the case in Italy when the fine arts were in per-
fection, and great villas were laid out by artists who often combined the practice of paint-
ing with that of Architecture; and, until it be adopted in Britain, the designs of the
Architect will never have justice done to them in the execution."
1649. The Separation of the Lawn from the Scenery beyond it may be considered as a
continuation of the same subject ; for here, also, the sunk wall or the iron fence has
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 771
been almost invariably resorted to. We do not object to these fences at a proper distance
from the house ; that is, at such a distance as to render it unnecessary for them to be
made architectural appendages for connecthig the house with the grounds; neither
should we object to the wire fence in front of the house, in the case of cottages and
collage villas, wjiere the house, from its smaller dimensions and picturesque low form,
blends with the scenery, without the necessity of architectural appendages. In the case
of all villas of any magnitude, however, we consider the architectural accompaniments of
terrace walls, gateways, alcoves, stone seats, steps, pedestals, urns, and other mural and
sculptural ornaments, essentially requisite to prevent the incongruity so ably exposed
by Mr. Hope, of " launching from the threshold of the symmetric mansion, in the most
abrupt manner, into a scene wholly composed of the most unsymmetric and desultory forms
of mere nature." " These forms," he adds, " are totally out of character with those of the
mansion, whatever may be its style of Architecture and furnishing." With him, we desire
to surround the house with a garden, into which " the cluster of highly adorned and
sheltered apartments that composes the mansion may, in the first instance, shoot out, as
it were, into certain more or less extended ramifications of arcades, porticoes, terraces,
parterres, treillages, avenues, and other such still splendid embellishments of art, calcu-
lated, by their architectural and measured forms, at once to offer a striking and varied
contrast with, and a dignified and comfortable transition to, the undulating and rural
features of the more extended, distant, and exposed boundaries ; before, in the second
instance, through another link; and a still farther continuance of the same gradation of
lines and forms, the limits of the private demesne are made, in their turn, by means of
their less artificial and more desultory appearance (increasing with their distance from
the house), to blend equally harmoniously with the still ruder outlines of the property
of the public at large." An eloquent writer on this subject, in the Gardener's Magazine,
after objecting to the general incongruity between the English villa and its garden, on
the same principles as Mr. Hope, observes, " We should condescend to borrow from our
neighbours on the Continent some of that architectural taste in gardening in which many
of them have so much excelled ; we must engraft upon our own romantic harshnesses
something that will accord better with the equipment of the interior of our residences ;
something like furniture and ornament; and not leap from our windows into jungles and
steppes, and wildernesses, where the lion and the panther would be more at home than
the ' lady with her silken sheen.' We must, in fact, adapt our gardens, those, at least,
which adjoin the house, to the building, and make them a part of it ; appropriate, and
such as, in the times when those buildings were erected, were considered suited to each
particular class. If we take a review of our country residences, we shall find them to
be, or to have been, cither the baronial castle, or the monastic and conventual houses,
such as, at the dissolution of the monasteries, were granted to the great and powerful of
their time, of which the greater part of many now remain, and are private dwellings ;
or the Elizabethan and Inigo Jones buildings ; or the great square edifices, with
projecting roofs, of William and Mary's time ; or the Palladian palace and villa.
To give these buildings gardens appropriate to their individual styles and eras of build-
ing would not only add truth and consistency to the character of each place, — an object
hitherto sadly neglected, although generally allowed to be desirable, — but it would give
also to the possessor an opportunity of introducing that description of garden ground
which I contend to be best adapted to our climate. Each style of building would give
us permission, as it were, to ornament, to furnish highly our gardens, to decorate them
with masonry ; to place statues, and vases, and balustrades, and steps about them ; and
to enrich them with that most charming of all garden ornaments, the terrace : all of
which rich accompaniments, by carrying the eye from the interior ornaments of the
chambers to the garden, would in a manner so connect our gardens with our houses, as
to make them, what all, I believe, would wish them to be, a pleasurable part of them.
The want of coloiu-, so necessary to a cheerfulness of scene, would, at those seasons
when flowers have ceased to bloom, be compensated for by the lights which would be
constantly falling upon and playing about the architectural ornaments ; and that court-
ing of sunshine, which is so desirable, would be generally gained."
1 650. Rules for laying out Architectural Gardens, the same writer observes, might be
given without much difficulty. Each of the above-mentioned eras of building villas or
mansions admits of architectural ornaments ; " the taste in their disposition, and the
skill in their execution, being determined by the style of the individual building. The
terrace, or succession of terraces, of the baronial castle will not require the same orna-
ment as the monastic terrace ; nor will that, again, be so richly or gorgeously adorned
as the Palladian terrace : and let it here be observed, by the way, that by a terrace is
not always implied that elevated spot whence a commanding and distant view is obtained
(a misconception of this description of ornament to a building entertained by many) ;
but any raised, straight, and broad, paved or gravelled walk, on a level, running parallel
1T>
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
to, or surrounding, a building. Many, in these times, have ehoscn to misinterpret the
original intention for which terraces were formed ; and because some of the remains of
them, and, no doubt, therefore, the finest and most agreeable, enjoy distant and extensive
urospects, have imagined that, without that, no terrace could strictly so be called :
whereas, I conceive, the main object of a terrace to have been for the purpose of ob-
taining in most, but particularly in bad, seasons, a dry and healthy promenade; and, no
doubt, if from this promenade an extensive view were commanded, the enjoyment of the
exercise taken thereon would be greatly enhanced. If we define a terrace merely as a
long and spacious straight walk, no one will object to the introduction of it ; and I think
I may affirm, that all who possess one will agree with me in confirming the enjoyment
they have derived thereon. Of those houses built in the reigns of Charles II., James
II., William and Mary, and Anne, some exception to my original position maybe
judiciously made ; for, to follow strictly the trim style of gardening which was originally
adopted by their possessors, and considered then as appropriate, would be, in truth, to
return to a style which was introduced in bad taste, and which ought, therefore, to be dis-
carded. Where such houses remain, it will be well, perhaps, to keep up their gardens
partially, introducing with them, or engrafting upon them, the better style of Palladian
gardening, that, too, which immediately succeeded; by which we can only subject
ourselves to the same species of reproach, if reproach it can be called, as that given to
our munificent ancestors, when they completed the Saxon and Norman cathedral with
the then newer style of Gothic."
1651. The Italian Architectural Garden. " It is a mistaken notion to suppose, that,
because we do not enjoy the climate of Italy, we cannot, therefore, appropriate to this
country the Italian style of garden. It is also a mistaken notion to suppose the Italian
style of gardening peculiarly adapted to the Italian climate. Those who have visited
Rome in the winter season will agree with me in enthusiastic admiration of the Roman
gardens, at that period of the year. By an Englishman the gardens of the Villa
Borghese and Doria Pamfili can never be forgotten. But, then, he must have visited
them in winter ; he must have seen and enjoyed them at that season, for the amelioration
of the rigours of which they have been constructed ; for even at Rome a winter has its
rigours. Let him visit these gardens in summer, and he will find them a very Pande-
monium. If his eyesight recover from the glare of their blazing ornaments, he will
not so easily forget the intolerable heats he has found collected in them, and their almost
total want of shade ; for the shade of evergreens, even though they should be the
beautiful Tlex or spreading stone pine, is not true shade to an Englishman, accustomed
as he is to the delicate and umbrageous foliage of our deciduous natives, the oak, &c. By
as much, therefore, as our climate throughout the year approaches to the climate of
an Italian winter, by so much should we do wisely in adopting the Italian style of
gardening. It is true, we have not marble in the same abundance ; and, if we had, we
have neither artists to execute figures and vases in that material at a moderate price ;
nor would these, when executed, bear the frost or damp of this country ; and so far the
Italian style is not fitted for this climate : but we have stone, and that in abundance,
and of the most beautiful description, such as the Portland, the Bath, and the Ancaster,
which will stand all weathers ; and the two latter of which are so easy to cut, and so dur-
able when cut, that the place of marble ornaments may be supplied by them at a very moderate
expense. A plot of ground, of one acre only, attached to the mansion, laid out in the Italian
manner) with its terrace, steps, balustrades, vases, fountain, and rectangular gravel walks,
will add more to the cheerfulness of both the exterior and interior of that mansion,
throughout the greater portion of the year, than five times the quantity of land laid out
according to our present English style of gardening. What flower-beds, and those
formal ones, corresponding in lines parallel to the gravel walks, may be introduced, will
be made gaudy and rich for the summer season by annuals, of which, in colour, there
is a great variety ; and roses, care being taken to put but one kind of plant into each
flower-bed ; bulbous roots, such as snowdrops, crocuses, tulips, hyacinths, &c, will
afford a spring crop of many colours ; China asters, chrysanthemums, gcorginas, pelar-
goniums, &C, will decorate the autumn; and but a few winter months will remain for
the architectural ornaments to display fully and solely those powers which, with the
conjunction of the flowers, they have through the spring, summer, and autumn main-
tained. A garden of this sort is 'an extension of the splendour of the residence into a
certain limited portion of the demesne; it is a sort of chapel of ease to the apartments
within doors.' If it cannot justly be called a part of the mansion, it is at least a link of
Connection between that and the other gardens ; and, for such other gardens, our own
English style is as good as. and perhaps better than, the style of any other nation. In
these gardens this rule should be observed, that, as they approach the park or forest, the
wilder and more in character with that adjunct they become, till, by an apparently natural
and easy step, the one amalgamates with the other. However strong contrasts, and
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. "ffb
happy and unexpected transitions from one style of gardening to another, may be permitted,
and perhaps with good effect, within the garden ground, yet, when the park is approached,
no sucli trick should be allowed. The simple grandeur of our park scenery requires no
raree-show work to attract attention ; it stands unrivalled with its hundred accompani-
ments of wild splendour, which cannot but be materially deteriorated by any contrivances
to show it off to advantage." (Gard. Mag., vol. iv. p. 214.)
Sect. III. Of adapting the Architectural Style and interior Arrangement of the House
to the Character of the Situation.
1652. Certain Cliaracters of Ground and Scenery are supposed, by many, to have an
analogy with certain styles of Architecture. Rude, rocky, hilly, and very irregular sur-
faces are said to require the Castle Gothic ; fertile valleys, the Abbey Gothic, or monastic
style ; and rich extensive plains the Grecian or Roman manner. It is, no doubt, very
natural to associate a rude style of scenery with the baronial castle ; and an abbey or
monastery with surrounding fertility ; but the connection between Grecian Architecture
and tame or rich scenery is not so obvious. However, in so far as these prejudices or
associations exist, they ought to be taken advantage of by the Architect, in his choice of
style. In so far as Architecture is entitled to be considered a fine art, the style adopted
ought to exercise some influence on the imagination ; and, therefore, whichever style
may be selected, it ought always to be accompanied, as far as practicable, by such cir-
cumstances as may serve to heighten its effect on the mind. Thus, a castellated man-
sion, with towers and battlements, will more powerfully affect the imagination, when
placed in a position favourable for defence, by its altitude, its rocky base, its proximity
to a river or the sea, or by various other circumstances, than when placed on a tame, flat
surface. At the first glance the spectator immediately concludes that it may have been
a real castle in former times ; and he readily becomes a party, as it were, to the illusion
which it is desired to create. There are similar associations connected with villas in the
monastic style ; but few, at least in Britain, with purely Grecian villas. The associations
connected with them are either classical, and of a description which can only affect the
minds of those classical scholars who have studied Architecture ; or purely architectural,
and therefore confined almost entirely to Architects. Whenever, therefore, the artist
wishes to affect the imagination, and to raise emotions of grandeur and beauty, or recall
the images of antiquity in general observers, he must adopt one or other of those styles
with which general observers are familiar. The truth is. that, in order thoroughly to
enjoy an object, we must first understand it : now, for one person who knows and can
comprehend the uses of the component parts of a Grecian elevation, there are numbers
who are familiar with all the details of Gothic Architecture. Towers, battlements,
buttresses, pointed windows, mullions, and porches have been, from infancy, before the
eyes of every one who has been in the habit of attending his parish church ; and, when-
ever they occur in other buildings, they recall a thousand images connected with the
place of our birth, the scenes of our youth, the home of our parents, and the abodes
of our friends. In this frame of mind how easy it is to be pleased !
1653. In order to compare the Grecian Style with the Gothic, or any of those which
may be considered as indigenous to this country, with reference to their effect on the
imagination, it is only necessary for us, first to take a view of a newly built villa in the
one style, and then of one, also newly built, in the other. Let us imagine a Grecian villa
now before us, with its portico, and regidar symmetrical front ; perfect in all respects as
an edifice. What are the sentiments which arise in the mind on viewing it? Very few
which can respond to any feeling already existing in the mind of the general observer.
The columns, no doubt, carry back the ideas to the Grecian temples of antiquity ; but
these do not possess half the interest, in the present age, which attaches itself to a Gothic
church. There are no ancient villas in the Grecian style, at least in Britain, to recall
associations in their favour ; and, that style of Architecture being chiefly prevalent in
newly built cities, a villa in the Grecian style generally reminds us more of the town
than of the country. A style of building which has this effect cannot be well adapted
for a villa. What, then, are the inducements to build villas in the Grecian style ? Is there
any particular fitness in this style for the internal arrangement of a house in the country?
Can such houses be rendered more commodious, more durable, or built more economi-
cally ? No one will answer these questions in the affirmative. If, then, Grecian
Architecture has but few associations connected with its external appearance to recom-
mend it for the country, and if it be found not better than other styles in point of fitness
and utility, by what means has it happened that it has been, till lately, so generally
adopted in country houses? We believe that the principal reason why it was first
introduced in the reign of James I. was its novelty at that time ; and that, having then
become the fashionable style, it has since been continued, partly for that reason, and
partly from the general deference which is paid to any thing Grecian. The style is, we
77 i<
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
believe, frequently adopted, merely as evidence which the love of it is supposed to afford
of scholarship and taste. Let us next take a view of a newly built villa, either in any
of the varieties of the Gothic style which have long existed in Britain, or in any of the
mixed styles which have prevailed, or which still prevail, on the Continent. How various
the associations which rise up in our minds, when viewing a successful imitation of a
baronial castle, or of an old English manor-house ! Even an Italian villa has its interesting
associations ; and though these associations can never be so generally agreeable to a native
of Britain, as those raised up by the forms of Gothic Architecture, yet still they are
recognised in such a manner as to excite emotion, from their frequent recurrence in the
landscapes of the great artists of Italy. We thus arrive at the conclusion, that the styles
of Architecture that have been most familiar to those who are to inhabit the edifices to
be erected, are the best calculated for general use. It follows, also, from this, that any
style which has been long in use will raise emotions; and thus, that, after a long period
of time, the associations connected with the Grecian style will call up feelings in the
mind of a Briton, as interesting as those now excited in him by the Gothic. Our
approbation of the Italian style, which is of a mixed character, and has long been applied
to domestic purposes, has, no doubt, its origin in this cause.
1654. The Fitness of a Style for Accommodation, Comfort, and Convenience may natu-
rally be supposed to influence our judgments in respect to its external effect; but, in this
point of view, our belief is that the Grecian, Gothic, and Italian styles are altogether
equal. It is true, that if we consider it necessary that the Grecian style, when adopted
in the country, should be as essentially symmetrical as it is, when applied to temples,
there will be an end, at once, of all its pretensions to fitness for a villa residence : but
this exact symmetry, though it seems essential for a temple, or any large public building,
the principal use of which is to assemble great masses of men in one room, is not
absolutely necessary where the occupants of a building are to be lodged in different
rooms ; and, when this is the case, the Grecian style is as applicable to a villa as the
Gothic. It will not, we think, be denied, that all the details of the Gothic style are
as much taken from a cathedral, as the details of the Grecian style are taken from a tem-
ple ; and yet, in a private building in the Gothic style, it is never considered necessary
that we should be guided by the general form and symmetry of the cathedral. The
difference between the styles unquestionably lies much more in men's minds, and in the
historical associations connected with them, than in the abstract forms belonging to them.
We assert this with the more confidence in regard to forms, because those essential to use
and occupation are precisely the same in both; viz., the square and the parallelo-
gram for the ground plan ; or the cube and long cube for the plan and elevation.
1655. The Difference between a House in the Town and a House in the Country lies
much deeper than in mere style, important though we allow that to be. The great
object of a house in town is concentration ; the great object of a house in the country,
the enjoyment of free air and of the external scenery. In the town, there is nothing to
admire but what has been created by man and all that is beautiful to the eye is archi-
tectural. In the country, on the contrary, there are not only architectural beauties to
enjoy, but the extensive and varied beauties of verdant scenery. It would appear, there-
fore, that much greater attention ought to be paid to Architecture in towns than in the
country; and this, taking a general view of towns ancient and modern, will invariably
be found to be the case. Country houses, or villas, on the other hand, will invariably
be found to be less architectural ; and, especially, less symmetrical, than dwellings in
towns. This difference is clearly founded on the sound principles of utility and enjoy-
ment. In the country, there are two leading principles which direct the disposition of
the different apartments : the one is, shelter from the particular winds and storms which
prevail in the particular situation ; and the other is, the enjoyment of the particular
views which are to be obtained of the surrounding country. The influence of these
two principles we shall find pervading the villa residences of every age and country ;
and hence it is that, as town houses have in all ages and countries been concentrated and
symmetrical, so country residences have, in all ages and countries, been comparatively
scattered and irregular. The conclusion which we draw from these observations, as
applied to our present subject is, that a villa residence ought to be characterised by
extent and irregularity ; and this conclusion agrees with that arrived at by Mr. Hope
;md other writers.
1656. The Irregularity of the Style of Villas has been illustrated and contended for by
Price, Knight, Hope, Meason, and a number of other authors ; while the concentrated
and symmetrical style has never, so far as we are aware of, been advocated by any one
writer as the most suitable for the country- We shall not here repeat the invaluable
observations of Sir Uvcdale Price, who, in his Essays on the Picturesque, was the first
in the order of time, as he still is in the order of excellence, to draw attention to the
beauty of irregularity in all country buildings, where the object aimed at is any thing
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 775
beyond hare shelter and utility ; but, having already recommended the essay of Mr.
Hope (which will be found in vol. ix. of the Gardener's Magazine), we shall conclude
this section with some quotations from the work of Meason.
1657. The Landscape Architecture of Italy, Meason observes, is the result of time and
of a great variety of circumstances. The Roman villas were, no doubt, originally Grecian
edifices adapted to the particular situations in which they were placed ; and we are cer-
tain, from the descriptions which remain of them, that they extended over the surface
rather than towered in stories one above another. After Italy was invaded by the Goths
of the north and the Saracens of the south, and became a prey to barbarians from one
end of the country to the other, those who remained stationary, as proprietors of the
soil, left their villas in the plains, and betook themselves to situations where they could
with facility fortify themselves against the attacks of invaders. Hence the few villas,
which we know to have existed in the middle ages, are in a mixed style of Roman and
castellated Architecture : and this mixed style has prevailed in the villas of Italy from
that period to the present.
1658. The Transition from the Roman Villas to the Italian castles or monastic esta-
blishments of the middle ages is thus given by Castellan, and G. L. Meason. Castellan
maintains that several monasteries, built on the ruins of Roman villas, retain the ancient
distribution of the parts of the buildings : the courts surrounded with porticoes, which
are used for walks ; the rooms entering upon the portico, without communicating with
one another ; the basins, with fountains in the courts ; the terraces upon arcades ; the
oratories in the gardens; all these have a striking analogy to the ancient villa. At
an ancient villa near Brundusium, our author found the ambulacrum, or covered walk,
pretty entire. " One of the celebrated villas of Lucullus," observes G. L. Meason,
" formerly belonging to Marius, and afterwards an imperial residence of Tiberius,
situated on the promontory of Misenum (Capo Miseno), existed a. d. 480. To this
retreat was sent, by the clemency of Odoacer, king of the Heruli Goths, the last feeble
representative of the Roman emperors of the West, called in derision Augustulus.
The villa had gradually been changed into a strong castle, to protect it against the sea
attacks of the Vandals. These invasions by sea of the Vandals, and, subsequently, of
the Normans and Saracens, ruined probably the crowd of Roman villas on the Nea-
politan shores. The villas on the fertile plains of Italy would suffer from the invasions
by land ; but many villa castles or fortified residences remained after the tenth century,
in the hilly districts of the Vicentine and Veronese territories ; as their rural nobility
descended into the cities of Padua, Verona, Vicenza, and Trevisa, and took part with
the Guelf faction. In the thirteenth century, 150 castles were computed to be in the
Milanese. It was probably to a Roman villa that Avitus, lieutenant of the emperor
Maximus, and afterwards himself a short-lived emperor, retired, a. r>. 460. It was
situated near Clermont in Auvergne, on the margin of a lake, into which rushed a
torrent of mountain cascades. The villa contained baths, summer and winter apartments,
and porticoes. Sidonius, the son-in-law of Avitus, has, in imitation of Pliny, given a
prolix but obscure description of it." (Landscape Arch, of Italy, &c.) The same author
(G. L. Meason), in his graphic illustrations, has given an example, from a landscape of
Giotto, of what appears to be " a monastery, constructed on a more ancient edifice."
1412
fig- 1412. He has also given an Italian baronial castle of the fourteenth or fifteenth
century from Titian, characterised by round towers, fig. 1413; one from Breemberg,
77*> COTTAGE, FA KM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE
1413
characterised by square towers, fig. 1414 ; and one from Giulio Romano, in which both
round and square towers are combined, with something of the monastic character main-
tained by gable ends, and aspire-like turret, fig. 1415. A fine example of a picturesque
country-house, of the seventeenth or the beginning of the eighteenth century, \r, given
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 777
from Francesco Solimcne, the last of the old school of Italian painters, fig. 1416. This
very picturesque residence was situated at the foot of Mount Vesuvius, and must have
harmonised admirably with the surrounding scenery.
1416
1659. The Beau Ideal of the Italian Style of Villa Architecture, it is justly observed by
Meason, is to be found in the landscapes of the great Italian painters, and more especially
in the backgrounds of their pictures. Speaking of the examples which Italy and her
artists afford to the rest of Europe, he says, " that there are no petty ornaments to detract
from the effect of simplicity and breadth in the Architecture. None of the sky lines are
broken by trifling turrets or meagre pinnacles. The towers are plain, or simply embat-
tled ; and the varied line is produced by the different heights of large massive parts.
The projections in the facade may be considered, in many of these buildings, as too
sudden and unconnected ; owing, no doubt, to the additions made at different times : but
the Architect has to study the value of bold breaks in a picturesque composition, which
may produce strong light and shade in almost every position of the sun, yet so as not to
interfere with the interior convenience of the mansion. The various forms of projections
by which the parapets, whether of towers or of the whole facade of the building, may be
supported, deserve the particular attention of the Architect ; and here the Tuscan Archi-
tecture of Florence, and that of many existing Italian villas of the fifteenth century, will
supply him with excellent examples. These objects in irregular Architecture, combined
with the power of the owner of the future mansion to arrange his apartments in any
way that his taste, or fancy, or habits may guide him, give to the Architect an endless
variety of architectural compositions, in which his genius has ample room for display.
Such edifices, spread over the country, would contribute most essentially to the beauty of
British landscape. But, in following out this style, our artists ought to work on a large
scale. No tower, round or square, should be elevated that cannot be made into useful
rooms of proper dimensions, so that effect and utility may always be combined. The
upper parts of the towers should never be loaded with unmeaning hanging watch-turrets,
nor the grandeur of the general outline be broken down by ill-placed tasteless pinnacles.
We must condemn the present taste for pinnacles, rising above the simple square tower,
of the new churches around the metropolis. In correct Gothic Architecture, no pinnacle
was uselessly introduced. ' An Italian,' Rose observes, ' wisely considers the Architec-
ture of a house as connected with its position, precisely as he meditates a picture with
reference to the light in which it is to be placed.' " (Land. Arch. Italy, &c.)
1660. Tfte present Country Seats of the Italians have been, more or less, copied by most
civilised nations of Europe, celebrated by poets, and " visited and admired by travellers :
they have not, however, been described or represented as they deserve. They are
arranged so as to produce the best effect ; and advantage of the nature of the site has
been taken with admirable skill. The regularity of the garden is, as it were, an accom-
panying decoration and support to the Architecture. The Architecture, sculpture, and
gardens of these villas are often designed by the same hand, and concur in the general
effect to produce perfect harmony. Many of the great painters, besides Michael Angelo,
were Architects. Raphael superintended the building of St. Peter's for a time ; he built
a few palaces and churches; and we hope -to see published a collection of his original
architectural designs, found in the valuable library at Holkham. Giulio Romano planned
several buildings at Mantua. Domenichino is said to have been too picturesque in his
4 u
7?8 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
city buildings. Paul Veronese was an Architect of great merit; and even Pietro da
Cortona practised extensively in this branc' of the fine arts." (Land. Arch. Italy, &c. )
1661. As Examples of the Specimens of Italian Landscape- Architecture, and Meason's
remarks on them, we give the following: —
Fig. 1417 is from Raphael. " This tine edifice deserves the attention of an Architect.
The outline against the sky is very picturesque, and the introduction of the column
1417
gives an agreeable pyramidal figure. The whole is so well connected, that it has the
appearance of having been built at the same period. Drawn on a large scale, the build-
ing would have a much greater air of simplicity and grandeur."
Fig. 1418 is from Titian. " We have in this chaste design a very beautiful building,
varied, yet extremely simple, and having all the parts well combined; which is owing
1418
much to the elevation of the central square mass, producing not only a fine general figure,
but uniting the whole into a connected body. The large round tower, as a termination,
adds the character of firmness to the whole edifice."
Fig. 1419 is from Claude Lorraine. " To the original part of the building, placed behind,
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS.
779
have been joined much more modern additions in front. Here, again, the commanding ele-
vation of the square tower gives that consequence to the edifice, without which it would
have no effect. Hence Architects may observe how important it is to have one bold
well-j)!aced part in an irregular pile of building." If the reader imagine this square
tower removed, the whole pile will not only appear tame, but there will be a want of
that central resting place for the eye, which is essential to produce the effect of a whole.
Let him also imagine a tower of equal height, raised over the lower mass to the right of
the picture, and he will find the idea of a whole materially lessened ; simply, because
there would then be no centre to the field of vision. Place a higher tower than either
between the two, and the idea of a whole will be restored.
Fig. 1420 is from Michael Angelo. " This edifice is taken from the picture of the Rape
1420
of Ganymede. It has a very picturesque appearance ; and here, again, the high central
tower unites the whole, and gives a pleasing sky line. The termination of such buildings
by a massive round tower based
a little below the rest of the m _ 1421
building, gives, we think, the
look of stability and firmness
to the whole." In this picture,
the trees, and the background
of the centre of the building, are
in some measure necessary to the
completion of a whole ; but they
might have been dispensed with
by a small tower, or even lofty
chimney-tops rising out of the
large square tower. The re-
moval of the pyramidal top to
the small tower on the right,
would have also produced the
same effect. The embattled
terrace harmonises with the em-
battled parapets of the towers
and of the right wing, and con-
trasts advantageously with the
roofs of the square and round
towers to the right of the pic-
ture.
Fig. 1 421 is from Claude. "We
have here a singular group of
towers taken from a drawing by
this great master. The whole is
built for strength and security."
Viewed as a dwelling, there is little appearance of habitableness in this collection of
towers ; but that very circumstance contributes to its effect as a castle. The whole group
consists of eight towers, contrasted in dimensions, in height, in position, and in light and
shade. Imagine the eight towers placed in a line rising from one level basis, and the
building would have had little or no claim to attention, and certainly none to approbation.
780 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
With a view to modern Villa Architecture, this vignette suggests fewer hints than any
which have preceded it. There are no projecting parts or appendages " shooting out,"
as Mr. Hope expresses it, in all directions among the surrounding garden scenery ; no
terrace serving as a basement ; no steps or porch indicating an entrance ; and no colonnade
or arcade suggesting the idea of elegant enjoyment. Still, we may imagine a situation
where such a tower might be built as an ornament, as a ruin, as a prospect tower, or for
the purpose of commemorating some ancient castle, which may be supposed to have
formerly stood upon the spot.
Fig. 1 422 is from Sermonita. " The main tower appears to have on one side a semi-
circular shape which we have not before met with. The sky line of the whole deserves
1422
the notice of Architects. We have here another example of low circular towers on the
left, built to abut upon and protect the foundation of the large square tower."
Fig. 1423 is from Gaspar Poussin. " This is one of the largest edifices we have selected,
and appears to form two sides of a square. Both in the facade and sky line there is much
variety of outline. The other two sides of the square are formed by the walls enclosing
the garden. If these walls had originally been higher and embattled, the whole would
have been a very strong baronial castle of the largest dimensions. The building has a
simple picturesque appearance, and may be advantageously compared with many large
irregular structures lately erected in different parts of Britain."
Fig. 1424 is from Domenichino. " The round tower has been apparently the nucleus of
this mansion. The other parts are likely to be the work of the fourteenth or fifteenth
century ; but whether the portico be ancient, or merely the addition of the painter, we
cannot determine. The scenery is similar in the original picture. In calling the
attention of Architects to the sky line of irregular buildings, we do not mean that the
upper lines should cut against the sky ; on the contrary, we think this has always a
harsh effect. Buildings appear most agreeable when backed by wood or rising ground."
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS.
1424
781
Fi"1. 1 425 is from Nicolas Poussin. " The arcade, over which there appears to be an
upper terrace, has a grand and imposing effect, and the lower terrace unites the whole
with the surrounding scenery. The round tower brings the pile to the pyramidal shape."
142.5
1 662. Remarks. The preceding vignettes are taken, with some slight alterations and
additions, from the work of G. L. Meason (of which only a very few copies were
printed) ; and we may state that they were taken with the author's permission ; since, in
a correspondence with him in the spring of 1831, just before his departure for Italy, he
consented to our making whatever use of his work we pleased. Mr. Meason, at the same
time, proposed to us to edit a new edition of his Landscape Architecture, incorporating
with it a great variety of new matter, which, we hope, will not be lost to the public.
Having stated this, we have now to recommend the young Architect to pause, and,
turning back to those vignettes, to examine each separately, endeavouring to discover the
causes of the satisfaction which they afford him. We advise him to do this before perusing
the remaining part of this paragraph.
Fig. 1412. The beauty here depends a good deal on the different forms of the
terminations of the towers. Two of these to the right are of the same figure, and two
on the left are of different figures ; but the greater distance of the tower on the extreme
right renders it smaller in appearance ; and, by a difference in dimension, completes the
variety. The contrast between these smaller pointed towers, and the square tower
with battlements in the centre of the group, contributes materially to the impression or
effect of the picture ; and the height of this square tower contributes, with that of the
highest spire, to the formation of a centre to the field of vision ; or, in the language of
art, to the production of a whole.
Fig. 1413. The effect here is produced by the same form in contrasted positions. In
the preceding vignette, the contrasts in the forms and styles of Architecture was so great
as to produce a variety almost approaching to discordance ; here the sameness of the forms
is such, that, notwithstanding their contrasted position, the result is a variety of an opposite
kind, so tame as almost to border on monotony.
Fig. 1414. This picture consists of the same forms, of different dimensions and
heights, with two small towers, which may be considered as chimney-tops, and which
782
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
serve to attract the eye towards a centre, and to form a whole; this whole, however,
depends a good deal on the exterior scenery.
Fig. 1415. Considerable variety of form, disposition, and outline; and the idea of
a whole produced by the central round tower, and its spire-like termination.
Fig. 1416. Great variety in disposition, and the group completed by an elevated
rectangular tower, terminating in a smaller division of the same with pinnacles.
Fig. 1417. A still greater variety of form and disposition, finely scattered over an
irregular surface, and the unity of the whole maintained by an elevated central column.
Fig. 1418. An extensive habitable-looking assemblage of grand forms. The
character is decidedly grand from the breadth ; but the idea of a whole less complete
than in the preceding and following vignettes, from the want of a central elevated pro-
jection, or tower. This very want, by rendering the edifice less measurable by the eye,
contributes to its grandeur.
1663. Wliatever may be the Style of Architecture adopted for a Villa, and whether the
general form of the house be symmetrical or irregular, there are three points which
require the particular attention of the Architect: these are, the porch, or portico; the
colonnade, arcade, or veranda ; and the chimney-tops. We can hardly conceive a country-
house, of any beauty, in which considerable attention has not been paid to these three
requisites, so as to render them prominent features in the dwelling.
1 664. A Porch, or Portico, can never be dispensed with in a country-house ; because
independently of its real utility in protecting the door and entrance, it serves to point
out that part of the house to a stranger, to lend importance to it, and to afford an
opportunity of architectural display. The porch, or portico, is, indeed, in a great measure,
a characteristic of a country-house, since it is not generally found in ordinary street-
Architecture ; and, where it does occur, it indicates a superior description of dwelling:
whereas, the humblest cottage in the country has, or ought to have, its porch. Porches,
then, being comparatively indispensable in the country, and as, in order to enhance the
interest of any class of buildings, it is desirable to take advantage of every circum-
stance which can add to their distinctive character, this is another argument why the
porch should never be omitted. Where a carriage is kept, we think the porch, or portico,
ought always to be of sufficient dimensions to admit of driving under.
1665. Colonnades, Verandas, and Arcades, though not so essential to a country-house
as the portico, or porch, are yet so characteristic of a dwelling in the country, that wc
think one or other of them should very seldom be omitted. They are not only cal-
culated to be useful, as connecting passages between one point and another; but as places
of shelter and protection for walking in during inclement weather, or for sitting in
during hot sunshine. At all events, even if they were of less use than they are, they
are so ornamental, and such evidences of elegant enjoyment, that we would rather court
an opportunity of introducing them, even if they were of little or no use, than forego
their effect in an architectural group. Every style of Architecture admits of its particular
character of arcade or veranda ; and the forms of the supports, the roofs, the parapets,
and the openings between the supports, admit of endless variety of form and decoration.
A Grecian house in the country, without a portico or a colonnade, is one of the most
dreary of architectural elevations, and is calculated to,call up any associations rather than
those which belong to the Tusculan villa of Pliny, which " had a spacious portico,
a porch built after the ancients, a second portico, and an enclosed portico." But it is
frequently contended, a judicious critic observes, that the Roman portico is but ill
adapted to our climate ; and that colonnades and porticoes, so delightful beneath the
sunny skies of Greece and Italy, are, in this country, at best but beautiful and costly
absurdities, in which propriety and comfort are sacrificed to display. It is urged, that,
however tasteful they are considered as mere decorations, the application of them, in
modern Architecture, is at variance with one of the first principles of correct taste ;
namely, that nothing can be essentially beautiful that is misplaced and misapplied.
That the colonnade was admirably adapted to the latitude of Greece and Italy, no one
can dispute ; but, surely, it does not thence follow, as our objectors would have us infer,
that it is worse than useless in our island. As well might these critics say, that an
umbrella is excellently contrived to serve as a screen against the rays of a tropical sun ;
its very name indicates its destination ; and, consequently, that it is highly absurd to
use it for any other purpose than as a parasol. Those who inveigh against the applica-
tion of the colonnade, as a mere architectural luxury, at once expensive and inconvenient,
appear not only to forget that the sun does sometimes actually unveil his face to us, and
that shade is desirable during some portion of the year, even in this formidable climate
of ours ; but, also, to forget that what, in a hot climate, is adopted for the sake of shade,
may here, with equal propriety, be employed for the purpose of shelter. Neither do
they consider that we can derive both advantages from it : shade in summer, when the
sun is high ; and shelter in winter, when that luminary is too low in the horizon for the
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS.
783
colonnade to cast a shadow of such depth as to darken the rooms before whose windows
the columns project. (Lib. of the Fine Arts, vol. i. p. 188.) To arrive at a just con-
clusion on this subject, it seems to be only necessary to determine the principle on which
exotic Architecture is introduced at all. Now, we conceive, it will not be contended that
it is introduced because its interior arrangements are better adapted to our wants than
those of our indigenous Architecture. It must, therefore, be introduced on account of
the beauty of the style ; and, as porticoes and colonnades are essential to this style, it is
evident that, for this reason, independently of all other considerations, they cannot be
dispensed with. In our opinion, it is quite a sufficient argument for the introduction
of every component part of this sort in a villa, that it adds to the beauty of the general
effect, and is not inconsistent with convenience and enjoyment. After a certain point has
been passed on the road from necessities to superfluities, beauty is use.
1666. On the Subject of Chimney-tops we have enlarged at some length in Book I.
They are essential features to human dwellings of every description ; more especially in
climates where they must be used for heating as well as cooking. Many consider that
the chimney-tops ought not to be shown in Grecian Architecture ; but they can assign no
reason for this, except that they are not seen in Grecian temples. We know nothing
of the Grecian villas, and very little of those of the Romans ; but, if we were even
perfectly certain that, in the villas of Pliny and other men of taste of his time, the
chimney-tops were concealed, we should say that the taste which dictated their conceal-
ment was bad. Our opinion is, that the chimney-tops ought to be as conspicuous in
a dwelling in the Grecian style as in any other ; and that the British Architect, so far
from having to regret the necessity of introducing chimney-tops into his dwellings,
ought to hail that necessity as one cause why the British villa might excel every other
in the world, and in many examples does excel them. How much do the Italian villas not
owe to their chimney-tops, their campaniles, their balconies, and their open watch-towers !
1667. The two grand Defects of the Villa Architecture of Britain are, want of
union with the ground and the surrounding scenery, and want of skill in the manage-
ment of the chimney-tops. Our main object, in this chapter, has been, to draw
the attention of the young Architect to these two points; believing them to be by far
the most important for producing the kind of effect and beauty required in a villa.
Perhaps the next point is the disposal of the principal apartments in such a manner as
that they may command the best views which the situation affords. When this is done,
it will generally produce an irregular ground plan, extending over a considerable sur-
face ; and this is always highly favourable to the character required in a villa. Villa
Architecture ought, in our opinion, to form a distinct part of the profession of an Archi-
tect ; and with this branch ought to be united the profession of a landscape-gardener.
This union was long ago recommended by Knight, Uvedale Price, Hope, Meason, and
other writers ; and we believe its necessity is felt by some of the first Architects of the
present day. Our opinion, decidedly, is, that no great improvement can take place till
the professions are united ; and, with a view to this end, we shall subjoin another para-
graph to this already too long section, to suggest a mode of study for acquiring both
professions.
1668. As Graphic Illustrations of the Principles which we have endeavoured to lay
down in the preceding paragraphs, we shall refer to the villa of the late Thomas Hope,
Esq., at Deepdene, Surrey, and to the architectural gardens formed bv the late Earl of
Shrewsbury, at Alton Towers, in Staffordshire. The first is one of the finest examples
784 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
in England of an Italian villa, united with the grounds by architectural appendages ; and
the second exhibits one of the most extraordinary combinations of garden building with
garden scenery, any where existing in Europe.
Fig. 1426 is the entrance front of Deepdene ; in which the offices to the right are not
shown, but they extend to a distance equal to the length of the house, and are highly
varied, and architectural.
Fi"-. 1427 is a view of the south front of Deepdene ; showing the conservatory, and the
terraced garden in front of it.
Fig. 1428 is a view of the north-west, or garden, front; in the centre of which will be
seen a projecting semicircular terrace, with a parapet, ornamented by vases, and on the
summit a prospect tower. It is proper to mention that these views, which are reduced
from those published in Neal's Views of English Country Seats, do not do justice to this
very beautiful place, because they are not sufficiently extended to the right and left to
show the skilful manner in which the architectural and sculptural ornaments are blended
with the garden scenery : but we hope, imperfect as these views are, they are sufficient
to show how much Deepdene deserves to be visited, and attentively studied, by the Villa
Architect. Both the house and the grounds were arranged entirely from the designs
of Mr. Hope, under the direction of P. Atkinson, Esq., Architect.
1669. The Valley Garden at Alton Towers was formed in a scene richly varied with
wood, water, and rocks, and naturally in a high degree romantic. The late Charles
earl of Shrewsbury began to ornament it with walks and garden buildings about 1814.
and continued employing on it hundreds of labourers, mechanics, and artisans, from that
time till his death, in 1 827 ; consulting a number of artists, and, among others, ourselves.
The Architects employed were chiefly Thomas Allason, Esq. and Robert Abraham, Esq.
To the present earl, and to his very ingenious and obliging clerk of the works, Mr.
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS.
7S5
780
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Fradgley, we arc indebted for a number of plans and views, some of which we shall
here lay before our readers.
Fig. 1429 is a general view of the north side of the valley, as seen from a point in
the south side, taken from a drawing obligingly lent us by Mr. Abraham, and made by
Mr. Abraham, jun., on the spot in 1827.
Fig. 1430 is a view by Mr. Fradgley, taken from a point on the south side of the
1430
valley, and showing part of the north side. The conservatories are here conspicuous
objects ; and to the left is seen an imitation of Stonehenge.
Fig. 1431 is a view from a point on the north side of the valley, showing the pagoda
fountain in the bottom; and to the left, i» the background, the towers of the house.
Fig. 1432, which is taken fiom a. point on the north-west side, shows a fountain,
cascade, and basm in the bottom, to the right part of the large conservatories, and in
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS.
787
the distance an arcade, which separates the upper part of the valley from the lawn in
front of the house.
1670. We visited Alton Towers in 1826, and again in 1831. On the former occasion
we arrived at the house, from Uttoxeter, in the month of October ; and on the latter,
from Cheadle, in July. By the road leading from Uttoxeter, we came unex-
pectedly close to the house, and near the head of the north side of the valley, which
contains the chief wonders of the place. The first objects that met our eye were, the
dry Gothic bridge and the embankment leading to it, with a huge imitation of Stone-
henge beyond and a pond above the level of the bridge alongside of it, backed by a mass
of castellated stabling. Farther along the side of the valley, to the left of the bridge.
is a range of architectural conservatories, with seven elegant glass domes, designed by
Mr. Abraham, richly gilt. Farther on, still to the left, and placed on a high
and bold naked rock, is a lofty Gothic tower or temple, on what is called Thomson's
rock, also designed by Mr. Abraham (and seen on the right of fig. 1429), consisting of
several tiers of balconies, round a central staircase and rooms ; the exterior ornaments
numerous, and resplendent with gilding. Near the base of the rock is a corkscrew
fountain of a peculiar description, which is amply supplied from an adjoining pond.
Behind, above, and beyond the range of conservatories, are two lakes ; and beyond
them is another conservatory, curiously ornamented : below the main range of conserva-
tories are a paved terrace walk with a Grecian temple at one end, and a second terrace
containing a second range of conservatories. The remainder of the valley, to the bottom,
and on the opposite side, displays such a labyrinth of terraces, curious architectural walls,
trelliswork arbours, vases, statues, stone stairs, wooden stairs, turf stairs, pavements,
gravel and grass walks, ornamental buildings, bridges, porticoes, temples, pagodas, gates,
iron railings, parterres, jets, ponds, streams, seats, fountains, caves, flower-baskets, waters
falls, rocks, cottages, trees, shrubs, beds of flowers, ivied walls, rockwork, shellwork,
rootwork, moss-houses, old trunks of trees, entire dead trees, &c, that it is utterly im-
possible for words to give any idea of the effect. There is one stair of 100 steps ; a
cottage for a blind harper, as large as a farm house ; and an imitation cottage roof,
formed by sticking dormer windows, and two chimneys, accompanied by patch'es of heath
to imitate thatch, on the sloping surface of a large grey mass of solid rock. This, seen
at a distance, protruding from a steep bank of wood, bore naturally some resemblance to
the roof of a cottage grey with lichens ; and the chimney-tops and windows were added,
to complete the idea. As the sandstone rock protrudes from the sides of the valley in
immense masses, abundant use has been made of it to form caves, grottoes, caverns,
and covered seats ; it has even been carved into figures : in one place we have Indian
7*58
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
temples excavated in it, covered with hieroglyphics ; and in another, a projecting rock
is formed into a huge serpent, with a spear-shaped iron tongue and glass eyes. There
is a rustic prospect-tower over an Indian temple, cut out of solid rock, on the highest
point of the north hank ; and in the lowest part of the valley there are the foundation
and two stories (executed before the death of the late carl) of an octagon pagoda.
This pagoda was intended to be eighty-eight feet high. It is placed on an island,
in the centre of a small pond, and was to have been approached by a Chinese bridge
richly ornamented. The diameter of the base of the pagoda is forty feet, and there
were to have been six stories, the lower one of stone, and the others of cast iron.
From the angles were to have been suspended forty highly enriched Chinese lamps, and
these were to be lighted by a gasometer fixed in the lower story. Besides the lamps,
there were to have been grotesque figures of monsters projecting over the angles of the
canopies, which were to spout water from their eyes, nostrils, fins, tails, &c. ; a column
of water v/as also to have been projected perpendicularly from the terminating ornament
on the summit of the structure, which, from the loftiness of the source of supply, would
have risen to the height of seventy or eighty feet. This fountain was designed by
Mr. Abraham ; but only the lower story has been executed. The pagoda, the Gothic
temple (seen to the right of fig. 1429), the range of gilt conservatories, and the imitation
of Stonehenge, fig.' 1433, form the leading artificial features of the valley. The valley
1433
itself is upwards of a mile in length : it gradually widens from its commencement at
the stone bridge, with the pond above it, till it terminates by opening into the wide
valley containing the Chumet (there a considerable stream) and a navigable canal.
This immense valley, it is said, tlie late earl intended to cover entirely with water ; and,
as it would have saved the canal company several miles of canal, they offered to form
I lie dam, or head, at their own expense. This lake, of some thousands of acres, would
have been as easily produced as that of Blenheim was by Brown.
1671. In approaching from Cheadle, we arrive in front of the castellated stables,
and see the abbey, fig. 1434, across the pond above the level of the bridge. Proceeding
a little farther towards the dry bridge, Stonehenge appears in the foreground, and
the tops of the seven gilt glass domes of the main range of conservatories below (as in
fig. M33.). Raising the eyes, the lofty Gothic temple appears on the left of the picture ;
and on the right, across the valley, the harper's cottage. In the centre of the picture
over the domes in the foreground, the valley loses itself in a winding bank or wood, in
a style of great grandeur and seclusion. None of the details of the valley here obtrude
themselves; and the effect, after passing through a wild country exhibiting no marks of
refinement, is singularly impressive. It fills the mind with astonishment and delight,
to find so much of the magnificence of art and the appearance of refined enjoyment,
amidst so much of the wildness and solitary grandeur of nature. The imitation of
Stonehenge, too, is a feature in artificial landscape which we have not elsewhere seen;
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING VILLAS. 789
1434
and a stranger is puzzled and confounded by finding a stream and a small waterfall
supplying a lake on what he conceives to be the highest point of high ground.
1672. The Scenery of the Valley of Alton Towers is not here presented as a model for
imitation : on the contrary, we consider the greater part of it in excessively bad taste,
or rather, perhaps, as the work of a morbid imagination, joined to the command of
unlimited resources. Still, however, there are many excellent things.in it, and both the
good and the bad well deserve the attentive study of the young Architect. Indeed, we
know no place in Britain, and only the Isola Bella on the Continent, capable of affording,
both by faults and beauties, so much instruction to the young artist. We say faults, as
well as beauties, since we are of opinion that the study of the former, in order to trace the
causes which have produced them, may be quite as useful to the student as that of the
latter. The house at Alton Towers is a magnificent pile of castellated and abbey Archi-
tecture; and the gallery of armour, the picture gallery, and the conservatory, are in a
high degree extensive and splendid. A more detailed description of Alton Towers,
illustrated by numerous engravings, will be found in the Gardener's Magazine, vols. vii.
and ix.
1673. The Architect who intends also to be Landscape- Gardener should begin by pass-
ing a year in a botanic garden, or in such a garden as those of the London or Caledonian
Horticultural Societies, in order to acquire a correct knowledge of the names, heights,
characteristic forms, and colour of foliage of all the trees and shrubs which will stand
the open air in this country ; and of some of the principal families of herbaceous plants.
To do this effectually, he ought to make a distinct sketch of one individual of every
species and variety of tree and shrub ; and at the same time he ought to make other
sketches combining different species and varieties in groups. By reading, he will become
acquainted with the native countries of trees, and with the associations connected with
them, as to soil, character of surface, &c. For example, certain trees, such as willows,
alders, &c, always growing in low moist situations, are associated with the idea of
damp, and should never be planted near a house, or where it is intended to convey the
idea of dryness. The time thus spent would also familiarise him with the routine
practices of gardening, and with the construction and uses of hot-houses and other
garden buildings, to such an extent as to enable him to profit from afterwards reading
gardening books ; and thus, by thoroughly understanding the uses of garden structures,
to be able to improve them. One year thus employed by a youth of seventeen or
eighteen, who had previously received a scientific education, and was accurate and expert
in sketching from nature, would form his elementary instruction in landscape-gardening.
Let him then be put under an Architect whose practice lies chiefly in the country ; and,
after acquiring a thorough knowledge of architectural drawing in all its departments,
and making himself master of all the best books on the subjects both of Architecture and
landscape-gardening, let him endeavour to become an assistant to a Villa Architect. While
in this capacity, let him lose no opportunity of sketching landscapes containing villas and
garden scenery, from nature ; and at the same time let him refresh his memory from
time to time with the names of trees and shrubs, and their characteristic forms and
modes of growth. By such a course of study and practice, a young man who has a
natural genius for the arts of design (and no other should attempt the villa department
of Architecture) will acquire a sufficient knowledge of landscape-gardening to enable
him to lay out grounds, with the same assistance from the kitchen-gardener, as he receives,
in designing and estimating a house, from the builder. One thing, however, is essential,
and, without it, all the other acquirements are insufficient for enabling any young man
to join the two arts ; and that is, a thorough knowledge of perspective, joined to a great
facility in sketching every description of object, more especially landscape and architec-
tural scenery, from nature. If there is one test rather than another by which the taste
or no taste of an Architect can be detected with certainty (always supposing that he is
master of the mechanical rules of the art), it is the degree of perfection which he has
attained in sketching general scenery.
790
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1674. To enable an Architect already in practice to acquire a knowledge of Landscape*
(Hardening, we recommend him to procure access to some botanic garden containing a
rich arboretum, of which there are only two in the neighbourhood of London ; viz., that
of the Messrs. Loddiges at Hackney, and that of the Horticultural Society, at Chiswick.
I laving done this, let him take portraits of all the trees and shrubs of which the arbo-
retum consists, in the same manner as we have before recommended for the pupil to do ;
and let him, at the same time, endeavour to acquire all the knowledge of gardening
generally that he can. The mornings, from six to nine, during the three months of
slimmer, may suffice for the garden visits, provided the Architect be an expert draughts-
man. (For a work which we contemplate on Landscape- Gardening, we have had
sketches taken of most of the species and varieties of trees and shrubs in Messrs. Loddiges'
arboretum; and we find that one month, at the rate of* nine hours a day, would be
sufficient to take portraits of the whole.) After this we would recommend the Architect
io visit all the villas that be can, and to take memorandum ground plans of the general
distribution of the house, offices, gardens, roads, and walks belonging to each ; and also
to make views of the different houses, in connection with the scenery around them. While
going through this course of study, let the Architect, at his leisure, make himself master
of the gardening works of Shenstone, Gilpin, Whately, G. Mason, Mason the poet,
Allison, Price, Knight, Repton, Dugald Stewart, Hope, G. L. Meason, Gerardin, De-
lille, Morel, Watelet, Hirschfeld, and Quatremere de Quincy. We may add to these
the perusal of a number of papers on the subjects of Landscape- Gardening and of
Garden Architecture, in the Gardener's Magazine. Many persons think that all that is
required to constitute a landscape-gardener is, to have studied and sketched natural
scenery, and to be able to imitate that scenery in artificial grounds; but unless this
imitation be made in the spirit of art, which it can only be, in the native or modern
style, by the use of exotic trees, it becomes, instead of an imitation, a mere mimicry of
nature; and to this mimicry on the one hand, and a tame monotony on the other, may
be referred half the villa landscape or park scenery of Britain.
Chap. II.
The Beau Ideal of an English Villa.
1675. In order to give our readers a Picture of a modern English Villa as it ought to
be, we here present them with the description of an imaginary one, which has been
drawn up, and illustrated with plans and elevations, by a highly esteemed contributor and
amateur Architect. Our readers, we think, will allow that this gentleman is singularly
well fitted for the task which we have prevailed upon him to undertake. So complete a
knowledge of the subject, so much power of conveying his ideas both by verbal descrip-
tion and graphic illustration, and so much taste and discriminating judgment in Villa
Architecture, are seldom, indeed, to be found united in the same person. For our own
part, we know nothing of the kind that can be compared with the following description,
unless it be that which Pliny has given us of his own villas ; but the value of our modern
Pliny's description is greatly enhanced by its being accompanied by graphic illustrations.
We have applied to this picture the term beau ideal, not that there is any thing in it
that may not be found in hundreds of villas in England; but because there may be few
at the present time in which the whole are united. Indeed, the time for such villas is
rapidly passing away in this and in every other country ; and we must confess, that, did
we look forward to the continuance of such a state of society as that here depicted, in
which one portion of mankind is placed so immeasurably above another, it would have
given us pain to present this picture. Our consolation, however, is, that it will soon
become matter of history, and only be referred to by Architects to afford hints for smaller
villas, and for inns of recreation. We shall first lay before our readers the verbal de-
scription, and afterwards give the delineations, with their references.
Sect. I. The Beau Ideal of an English Villa described.
1676. The Situation. The word villa was originally used by the Romans to denote
a farm house, with the offices requisite for the accommodation of a husbandman. After-
wards, when luxury increased, the term villa was applied to the country residence of an
opulent Roman citizen ; and it is in the same sense that we now use it to signify .1
gentleman's residence in the country. As a villa is to be a place of agreeable retirement,
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 791
and not one of seclusion from the world, it should be situated, if possible, in a beautiful
country, within reach of a public road, and at an easy distance from the metropolis.
Were I to select a situation for a residence of this description, I should choose a country
neither flat nor mountainous; varied with hill and vale, and rather approaching to the
mountainous than to the dull monotony of a level surface. I should prefer a situation
removed about a mile from a great public road, and about ninety miles, or a day's journey,
from the metropolis. Here 1 would enclose a park of 100 or 150 acres ; bounded on the
north and west sides of it by lofty wooded hills; on another side, by a road ; and, else-
where, by the enclosed country of the district : the surface of the park varied, but
generally inclining to the south, with a rapid stream of water passing through it at no
great distance from the site of the house. The park, in form, should be irregular, neither
round nor square, but the length greater than the breadth. The country itself would,
in great measure, determine the line of the boundary fence. Near to the woody hill,
on the north side of the park, on a gentle eminence, should be the situation for the house ;
and I would so place the principal front as to be seen from the public road, and to com-
mand a beautiful and extensive prospect over a fertile country ; having in the middle
distance a town or village, with its " heaven-directing spire " reflected in the broad
reach of a noble river, and in the extreme distance a mountainous country, or the sea ; the
foreground of the view to be well broken up by the timber in the park. The house
should stand near the north boundary, nearly but not quite in the centre of the length of
the park, which I would divide into three unequal portions. That portion which would
be before the house should be an open lawn of an irregular shape, crossed obliquely by
the stream widened in parts, and having the banks fringed with underwood and a few
trees ; the lawn itself being bordered irregularly with thorns, holly, furze, fern, and trees ;
and varied, where the surface indicated a place for them, with groups or single trees.
The other two portions I would make unequal, the smallest towards the village. These
should be laid out in imitation of forest scenery, with open glades and thickets, an
irregular lawn in each, with occasional openings to the principal lawn before the house,
and to the distant prospect, or any picturesque object in the surrounding country ; taking
advantage of the inequalities of the surface, and following as closely as possible the most
beautiful natural scenery. An irregular green drive or walk might be formed round
the whole. As to trees, I would have every kind of forest tree that the soil and space
would allow ; but I should prefer the oak, sycamore (one of the noblest of forest trees
when old), the elm (narrow-leaved), Spanish and horse chestnuts, the maple, hornbeam,
and a few others. Of course, I should add lower growths, such as thorn, holly, broom,
fern, and even furze. To have a close even turf, which is one of the chief beauties in
park scenery, I should keep it well stocked with cattle, young horses, sheep, and, if
possible, a few deer. I have seen many parks, beautiful in themselves, but conveying
an unpleasant feeling of dulness and solitude. Cattle, &c, always give a certain air
of cheerfulness to a park scene ; but still the effect is often solitary, where there is no
appearance of human habitation besides the mansion. To obviate this loneliness, I would
introduce a few buildings. Thus, I would have the church within the enclosure of the
park, near the entrance gate, concealed partly by wood ; but so situated that the tower
and a portion of the church might be seen from the house. An ornamental temple or
summer-house ; a pigeon-house, often a very picturesque object ; the keeper's lodge , which
should be within the park ; and even a few gables of the farm buildings, seen at a dis-
tance ; would all contribute to give the effect of cheerfulness and a pleasing variety to a
richly wooded park. I should even wish to have a public footpath across it, and within
sight of the house ; though at such a distance as to be no inconvenience. To me, nothing
is more cheerless than that exclusive solitary grandeur so much affected in the present
day, which forbids the poor even to set a foot within the precincts of greatness. As the
most beautiful landscape is incomplete without figures, so the general effect of a park is
always lonely, unless it have a footpath frequented by the picturesque figures of the
labouring classes, and giving life and interest to the scene. Even the line of a footpath
is in itself beautiful, and breaks the monotony of the green turf. If it be objected that
a footpath is a nuisance, I answer, it is seldom found to be so in a retired situation, where
the comforts of the poor are properly attended to; where the labourers have constant
work, good wages, comfortable cottages, and ground on which to occupy their leisure time ;
and where there are proper national schools, in which the children are taught their duty,
and kept out of mischief. They are the neglected poor who are mischievous and dis-
honest ; and in a populous neighbourhood, abounding with squalid poverty, a footpath
might be a nuisance, which I should willingly dispense with.
1677. The Approach to a residence is commonly one of the most important features
about the place. A villa should always form part of a village, and be placed, if
possible, on rather higher ground, that it may appear to be a sort of head and protector
of tne surrounding dwellings of the poor, as it ever was formerly ; many of the finest of
79~ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
our ancient residences being close to towns and villages. Supposing, then, that the estate
is hounded on one side by the great public road, ahout a mile from the house; 1 would
form a good parish road from the most convenient point in the public road, through a
pretty enclosed country, watered by the stream from the park, which 1 should cross by a
bridge of one or two arches, near the parish mill, and thence gently ascend to the village,
passing among the scattered farm houses and cottages, with their pretty gardens and
orchards, crossing the village green, on which should stand the school- house shaded by
lofty trees, to the other extremity of the village, where a handsome arched gateway
should form the entrance to the park. Passing through the gateway into an open glade
of oaks, the church would be seen at a little distance among the trees, through which the
road is continued with a gentle ascent, till the house suddenly presents itself, with its
Stables and offices, hacked hy a woody eminence ; and, sweeping across the plain in front,
through some scattered trees and hollies, you at length reach the steps of the porch.
1678. Exterior Architecture and general Arrangement of the House. Before 1 describe
the interior of the villa, it will be proper to say something of the style of the building,
and of its external appearance. There are many reasons which lead me to give a
preference to the mixed style of Architecture, called the old English style, for a gentle-
man's residence in the country. For instance, it is more picturesque and ornamental; it
accords best with rural scenery ; and, as it admits of great irregularity of form, it affords
space for the various offices and conveniences necessary in a country-house. It is also,
I think, better suited to our climate than the Grecian style, which requires porticoes, pro-
jecting cornices, and windows of moderate size, &c. ; all which circumstances tend to make
the house gloomy, and intercept the light. The old style, also, allows more variety of
ornament upon the roof, such as the stacks of chimneys, gables, pinnacles, turrets, and
other things of importance to the general effect of a building to be seen at a distance :
whereas, in the Grecian style, which requires perfect symmetry of form, and the prevalence
of straight lines, the offices and chimneys are commonly excrescences offensive to the eye
of genuine taste. For these and other reasons, therefore, I should erect a villa in the
old English style, and in that ornate manner of it called the Elizabethan, as being most
adapted to the habits of refined and peaceable times. Of the various forms of houses
of which we have examples in the old English style, that of a blunt H, is, perhaps,
best suited to a villa residence of the second order. Supposing, then, that our villa
be in the English style, and in the form above alluded to ; the front would present a
centre and two projecting wings. The centre would contain the hall and dining-room,
with a gallery and staircase behind them. One wing would be occupied by the drawing-
room and library, with the saloon between them. The other wing might contain a
sitting-room, and superior offices for servants; the inferior offices being in the basement,
or in a separate building in the kitchen-court. The principal front should be highly
ornamented, and form a symmetrical whole. In the centre would be the porch of two
stories, with its rich gable, small pillars, escutcheons, &c. ; the wall on either side (broken
into compartments by pilasters, or handsome buttresses, and proper string courses) would
contain large mullioned windows; the whole supporting a battlement or a parapet, with
its appropriate ornaments, such as busts, urns, heraldic animals, &c. The ends of the
projecting wings would present each a bay window of two stories, square or semicircular
in form, with balustrade or stone covering above; the gables of the wings corresponding
with that of the porch. The high and steep roof should be varied by ornamental
chimneys, of different patterns, placed in their proper situations ; and, rising above them,
the tower containing the grand staircase, appearing at a short distance behind the porch ;
its wavy cupola roof terminating in a rich lantern, and supporting a weathercock or
dwarf spire. The general effect of such a building would be dignified and imposing ;
the projecting wings, the high roof, the numerous chimneys, and the lofty staircase tower
rising in the background, all conveying an idea of magnitude which the edifice would not
in fact, possess. But, however beautiful the house might be in itself, it would require the
aid of certain picturesque accompaniments to connect it with the site, and to make it
harmonise with the surrounding scenery.
1679. Architectural and Gardening Accompaniments to the House. The superior taste
of our early Architects led them to enclose their ornamented edifices in a rich framework
of courts and gateways, balustraded terraces, and architectural gardens ; which the ruthless
hand of modern improvement has swept away, as being inconsistent with the habits of
more refined life. We should, however, soon learn the value of such embellishments,
could we compare the effect of an Elizabethan mansion, in its ancient glory, with its
present forlorn appearance, after suffering the mutilations of some levelling improver,
who has robbed it of its gorgeous framework, and exposed its nakedness on a bald ex-
panse of turf, where it frowns in sullen majesty, and communicates a gloom to all around
it. Indeed, much of the gloomy effect so often observed in a handsome modern residence
arises from this defect of architectural embellishment around the house ; without which, I
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. /93
am persuaded, no important mansion can be either picturesque or cheerful. Now, tl.
I admit that some of the appendages to our ancient residences are inconsistent with
present habits; yet there are many which might be retained without inconvenience, and
with great advantage as to general effect. Thus, terraces and architectural gardens
arc of this description, and are particularly ornamental. At that end of the villa, there-
tore, which contains the drawing-room and library, with the saloon between them, 1
would form a spacious terrace, with a handsome balustrade supporting urns at proper
intervals; the ends of the terrace in some projecting form, one of which would be seen
as you approached the house, and would unite with a low ornamental wall enclosing
the garden from the park. Opposite to a door in the saloon should be a flight of steps
distending to the garden, across which should be a broad walk ending witli a stone seat
built in the garden wall, immediately opposite to the saloon door. Another principal
walk should cut the .above at right angles ; and at the intersection I would place a
marble basin and fountain : this walk should terminate at one end with a temple or
conservatory in the shubbery under the hill, and at the other with a rich gateway leading
to the park. The garden I- would divide by broad gravel walks into squares of turf, on
which should be beds of flowers and shrubs, and an urn or statue at the corner of each
square. Beyond the garden, the pleasure-ground should extend behind the house to the
kitchen-garden, and, communicating with walks in the woody hill which backs the whole,
be a substitute for the wilderness which was the ordinary appendage to an ancient
mansion house. As a substitute for the bowling-green, which was formerly indispens-
able, I would have a ground for archery, with its proper butts and seats ; it might be
made highly ornamental, and would be introduced with good effect at a short distance
from the house. The remaining outward embellishment of an old residence is, perhaps,
the most inconsistent with the habits of modern life : this was, a court-yard surrounded
by a high wall before the principal front. Opposite to the porch was usually a handsome
gateway, from which a paved walk led to the house. It appears from a drawing, still
preserved, that a large court #f this description was originally before the principal front
of Longleat, adorned with a handsome gateway, and two fountains ; and it would
improve the appearance of that princely edifice if it had now something of the kind,
instead of the bare turf at present before it. The objections to the court are, that it
excludes the view, makes the house gloomy, and prevents a carriage-approach to the
house, without which no residence can be now complete. I think, however, that this
ornamental appendage might be so modified as to be no inconvenience in these respects ;
and propriety suggests to us that the entrance should be protected by an enclosure, from
the nuisances occasioned by cattle in the park. I would, therefore, retain the court,
which might be cither square or semicircular. Supposing it the latter, I would enclose
it with a low wall, which could be ornamented in various ways ; having opposite the
porch an arch, or lofty gate-piers, adorned with arms, &c. The wall might be accom-
modated to the height of the piers. Within the court a carriage drive should wind
round a circle of turf, on which might be compartments of low shrubs, with urns
or sculptures intermixed, and in the centre a fountain, or obelisk supporting a lamp.
A square court might be adopted, with a gateway in two of the sides, leaving the view
unbroken in front ; and even a few obelisks or statues might be placed around the
entrance, to vary the sameness of the level green lawn which is now a substitute for
the ancient court. But, if managed as above described, the court, so far from being
an inconvenience, would give a richness to the approach ; the view in front would
not be interrupted ; and the ornamental gate piers would, in most cases, give an
interest to the foreground of the landscape, which we look for in vain upon a broad
expanse of turf. Assisted by these embellishments, the villa would be in keeping with
the surrounding scenery. The stables and offices at one end of the house would balance
the terrace and parterre at the other ; and in front would be the court. The whole, if
properly mingled with groups of cedars, cypress, ilex, &c, would form a composition
striking even to the ignorant, and, I hope, not uninteresting to the more fastidious eye of
the painter and man of taste.
1680. The Porch, in an old English mansion, was commonly much enriched with
sculptured ornaments, heraldic devices, &c. ; as I imagine, because the stranger i?
supposed to observe it carefully, while he is waiting to be admitted into the house.
I would ascend to the porch by a flight of stone steps, to give dignity to the house,
and an idea of dryness : it should be floored, as the hall, with a pavement of stone ; the
ceiling should also be much enriched, and the door and docrway highly ornamented, be-
cause exposed to minute examination. As you are supposed to wait for a few minutes
in the porch, there should be a seat on each side, on which servants might rest while
in waiting for their masters. The porch is the proper place for the door-mats ; the
scrapers being at the foot of the steps, and outside the porch should be a bell-pull,
besides that at the court-gate; since, if the latter were rung on entering the court, the
4 Y
701>
COTTAGE, 1 ARM. AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
door might be opened before the visiters reached it. The porch should be the only entrance
to the bouse, for visiters; that from the garden terrace being confined exclusively to the
use of the family, who would generally dislike to have their privacy interrupted by the
sudden intrusion of strangers. These observations upon the porch are equally applicable
to the Grecian portico. The porch would admit you to the entrance-hall.
1681. The Entrance-Hall, in regard to character and size, must depend upon the scale
of the principal apartments. It' the latter are spacious and elegant, the hall should be
large and handsome : indeed, an old English residence would not be in good keeping
without a spacious hall, as it was formerly the dining-room and place of rendezvous for
the servants and, retainers; and, in a Grecian mansion, a large entrance-hall is necessary
for effect. If the apartments are small, and devoid of ornament, I would then substitute
for the hall a smaller kind of entrance, with a vaulted roof; and, moreover, rather gloomy,
to increase the general effect of the rooms which open into it. In the old English and
in the Grecian style, the hall is generally high ; often reaching to the ceiling of the
upper story of the building. In the English style, this should always be the case in
houses of much pretension ; but, in a Grecian house, a hall with a low ceiling, supported
by lines of columns and pilasters, has generally the best effect. In the latter, the
e.itrance-door should be in the middle ; in the English style it should be at one end of the
outer side. An English hall admits of much picturesque embellishment, such as a carved
oak roof or ceiling, either flat or semicircular, enriched with highly wrought bosses or
coats of arms; a music gallery across the end, supported by pillars or a carved screen ;
a chimney-piece reaching to the cornice of the roof, and a carved wainscot covering half
the height of the walls. The decorations of a Grecian hall have more of the beautiful
than the picturesque, and more grandeur of effect. Besides the columns supporting an
embellished or coved ceiling, a fine effect is produced by dividing the side walls into
e tmpartments by pilasters ; and having, in these compartments, handsome doorways,
panels, wreaths of fruit and flowers, reliefs, busts or statues in niches, a noble chimney-
piece, and other architectural embellishments. It might .also have a floor of various-
Coloured stone or marble. A hall in the old English style should be so furnished
as to have an appearance of use beyond that of a mere entrance to the other
apartments : it was formerly the general eating-room, and might still be the ban-
qucting-room on great festival occasions. The furniture of a hall in this style should
be rather plain and massive ; consisting of massive oak chairs and benches, a high
table across the upper end, formerly placed on a platform (called the dais) raised a
step above the floor, and other tables capable of being united in one upon great occa-
sions ; one to be used as a sideboard, and placed against the wall, at one end of the high
table ; carved chests to contain less valuable papers ; window-curtains of cloth, of the
simplest form ; a few books, and writing implements ; and a massive lamp suspended from
the ceiling. The walls, painted to imitate stone, might be hung with a few of the
oldest family portraits, the founder in the panel over the fireplace ; and a few other
pictures, such as hunting-pieces, Dutch fairs, and other amusing subjects. To assist in
furnishing the walls, armour and curious specimens of defensive arms, and ancient sport-
ing weapons, together with the horns of stags and other animals taken in the chase,
might be hung around. The hall is the proper place for all sporting instruments, as
guns, bows and arrows, fishing tackle, &c. There might also be a few fire-buckets hung
zip under the gallery ; and a letter-box, with notice when the post goes and arrives, might
be placed near the door. Where state is observed, the porter's staff' would be an
appropriate ornament, in its place, near the front door. The family arms, and the arms
of those connected with the family, should be among the ornaments of the hall. They
might be introduced on painted f^lass in the windows, on the cornice of the wainscot, on
the pediment of the fireplace, in the roof, and front of the music gallery, and even on the
chairs and benches. The floor should be of stone, uncovered by a carpet, unless it were
a Turkey carpet placed under the high table, when the hall is used as a dining-room. To
make the hall comfortable, it should be warmed with hot air, to which, on state occasions,
I would add a fire of large logs of wood, burnt upon handsome dogs in the open chim-
ney, to which there should be a back plate of cast iron, ornamented in high relief. I
remember seeing a plate of this kind at Birmingham, on which was the representation of
a battle in bass-relief; and a beautiful thing it was. (In the hall at Pcrsfield near
Chepstow, we have heard that cinnamon and other spices were thrown into the hall fire
upon great occasions. ) There should be but few doors in a hall of this kind; there
were seldom more than three in old English halls; viz.. the front door, and the one
opposite, and the buttery-door in the middle of the lower end, all under the gallery, and
shutout from the hall by the screen, which formed a sort of passage at the lower end.
The hall of a Grecian house would require less furniture than a hall in the English style,
as i; could seldom be used for any other purpose than that of an entrance. But, to give
it a furnished appear.. ..re, I would fill the vacant panels with the oldest family portraits,
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. JtyS
the founder in the place of honour, over the fireplace, opposite the great door. Busts
on pedestals, and statues, might be placed around it ; armour, I believe, would be out
of keeping. There should be handsome chairs and hunches of carved wood, ornamented
with the family arms ; and marble tables on carved frames; plain cloth curtains ; and
lamps suspended from the roof. To these might be added a li«- of the articles above
enumerated, such as the sporting implements, letter box, &c., for which the hall is the
most convenient place. The floor should be uncovered, except, perhaps, in winter, when
a t'\;\v strips of India matting between the doors of the rooms would give it an appear-
ance of comfort It should be warmed with heated air and have a wood lire on particular
occasions. In a hall of this kind there might be doors ad libitum, provided they were
regularly placed.
1682. The (Jallcry. To return to our old English villa: having entered the porch
door, you would cross the lower end of the hall to the opposite door, opening into the
lower gallery, extending the whole length of the hall and dining-room, fifteen feet
n i 1 ■. and twelve feet high. Opposite the door by which you enter is a broad arch,
through which appear the staircase, and the lower division of its painted window.
The gallery windows are on the same side a.s the staircase; at the end, on your right,
is the saloon door; and, at the opposite extremity, the door leading to the offices. The
floor is of stone, like the hall, with a broad strip of India matting extending the
whole length of the gallery. The walls might be painted of stone, or any sober
colour, and be ornamented with the inferior pictures, and family portraits, and a few
glazed prints. The ceiling might be either coved or plain. There might be a
few ebony chairs and settees, with a table or two, against the side opposite the windows,
which should have curtains, without draperies, of crimson cloth. At the end near the
saloon door would stand the wood basket and coal scuttles ; and near the same a door
might lead to the billiard-room, a low building in the garden. This gallery would
form a sort of promenade, and place of recreation for the children and young people
in wet weather, and would be an ornamental appendage to the house : it should be
warmed with hot air. The door (which should be of two leaves) at the end of the
gallery should be in the centre of the side next the saloon, and should be handsome
both in its proportions and decorations.
1683. The Saloon, which is generally a sort of vestibule to the living-rooms, might
be in form either a square, a long parallelogram, an oval, or circle ; but a parallelogram of
good proportions is the most usual form. In the present case, I will suppose the saloon
of this last form. The door, by which you enter it, being in the centre of the side next
the gallery, in the centre of the end on your right would be the drawing-room door, also
of two leaves : opposite to it, at the other end, should be a like door into the library. In
the other side should be two windows, with a glass door between them, opening to the
terrace and garden. As this arrangement of the doors would leave no proper place for
a handsome chimney-piece, the room might be warmed with hot air (the best mode of
heating it), or have a small fireplace on each side of the gallery door. As the saloon is
often used as a music-room, we will suppose it to be so in the present case, and furnish
it accordingly ; and, as it is generally rather a splendid apartment, I would attempt to
render it something of the kind in this instance. The walls I would divide into rich
panels, in which might be some of the full-length portraits of the family, or which
might be filled with fresco paintings upon the walls ; and the divisions between the
panels should be painted with wreaths, including musical emblems. The doors should
be of oak in frames, painted like the walls. Above a rich cornice, the ceiling should
take the form of a half cove, leaving a compartment in the centre. In the coved
part, over each door, might be painted groups of figures ; or the family arms might be
introduced, surrounded by wreaths of flowers, musical instruments, &c. The corners
also might be painted in the same style. In the centre of the middle compartment of
the ceiling, from a rich boss, should be suspended a handsome lamp, and the boss might
be surrounded by a group of figures. A warm fawn colour might be the ground of
the whole painting, and a good deal of gilding might be introduced in the cor-
nices and mouldings. A saloon requires but little furniture, and, when used as a
music-room, should have none that is calculated to deaden sound. ^Modern ideas of
comfort, however, make a carpet and curtains indispensable. The carpet should be of
thin material, covering great part of the room, but showing about a yard all round it of
the polished oak boards. It should, of course, be a bordered carpet ; the colour of the
ground a shade of fawn ; the pattern chiefly shades of crimson. The curtains I would
have of crimson watered silk, without draperies, supported by large rods of gilt brass,
with handsome knobs. The chairs and seats should be without cushions, and of rather
a plain description, so as not to interfere with the splendid effect of the drawing-room.
I would have the chairs of ebony, or an imitation ; and there are old carved ebony chairs
which might he taken as a pattern. The seats might be of cane, gilt. I would have
796
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
seats of various tonus : a few arm-chairs ; chairs without arms; long benches, supported
ov twisted legs and frames, such as are met with in old galleries, and stools. Against
tne piers, between the windows and door to the terrace, might he slabs of dark-coloured
marble, supported by carved rosewood frames; and, in the corners of the room, rose-
wood tripods, slightly gilt, supporting china vases of flowers. I would also have two
plain rosewood tables standing against the wall ; on one of which the flat chamber-candle-
sticks might be placed at night, one of the candles being lighted : the other table would
be useful for the servants to place any thing upon ; such as the tea-tray, while the drawing-
room door was opening, &c. The musical instruments and music-stands woidd com-
plete the furniture of the saloon. The grand piano-forte should be placed not close to
the wall, say between the library door and the window, so that the back of the performer
should be to the light. The harp would be at the opposite end of the room; the
other instruments, in their cases, on a proper stand against the wall ; and the music
stools and stands so placed as to leave the centre of the saloon open, so as to have a free
ge between the drawing-room, library, and gallery. In arranging the contents of
the room, a crowded effect of furniture is to be especially avoided, as being at variance
with an air of dignity and elegance which is proper to the saloon.
1684. The Drawing-room. We next proceed to the drawing-room, which, being the
sitting-apartment of the ladies, should be distinguished by the elegance of its propor-
tions, decorations, and furniture. Though two drawing-rooms are necessary in a London
house, one will be found sufficient in an ordinary country residence, containing a saloon
and library ; as the latter would be used as the family sitting-room on common occasions.
Our villa would, therefore, contain only one drawing-room, which I shall proceed to
describe. The drawing-room should be larger than the saloon. In the present case,
we will suppose it to be 23 feet in width and 35 feet long, exclusive of a bay at the end,
and at least 12 feet high. This would make the proportions nearly equal to those which,
according to Palladio, are proper for a room of this description ; viz., the length twice the
breadth, and the height two thirds, five sevenths, or three fourths of the breadth. En-
tering our drawing-room from the saloon, at the end opposite would be a square or
circular bay window, commanding a view of the park and the distant country beyond
it. On the right side would be the fireplace, and on the opposite side two windows
looking over the terrace and parterre. In this room I would have a splendid white
marble chimney-piece, copied from one of the most magnificent designs common
in old English houses. These are usually of stone or coloured marble : but white is the
most elegant, and most in accordance with our present taste. I have one in my eye
which reaches to the ceiling, and is divided into two compartments. In the lower com-
partment is the fireplace, surrounded by a broad moulding, and on each side double
Corinthian columns, supported by ornamented pedestals. Above this is a broad cornice
which forms the mantel shelf, and the base of the upper division ; the middle of which has
a panel surrounded by a rich moulding, the centre filled with projecting heads, and a large
basket of fruit and flowers, in high relief. On each side are double Corinthian columns,
similar to those below, but having a sort of niche between them. The whole is finished
above by a handsome cornice, ornamented with shields and fruit. A chimney-piece, of
this design, of white marble, with coloured shafts to the columns, say verd antique or
seagliola, with a historical subject in alto relievo filling the panel over the fireplace,
would have an elegant effect. Gilding might be sparingly introduced in the capitals
and cornices, and the shields might be painted with the family arms. All the wood-
work of the room should be unpainted, say polished oak. The panels of the doors
and shutters should be copied from handsome old wainscot, and the mouldings partially
gilt. The ceiling should be a specimen of that gorgeous lacework, in stucco, common
in old houses, with ornamental pendants to support the lamps, and varied with shields
of arms, the whole tinted to suit the colour of the walls, and partially gilded. As I do
not pretend to any taste in colours, indeed cannot correctly discriminate their various
shades, I should be rather at a loss in selecting the prevailing colour of the drawing-
room furniture. I think dark colours have most dignity of effect in furniture ; and
perhaps light colours most elegance. Of dark colours, crimson is the richest, and is the
prevailing colour in modern drawing-rooms in our most splendid palaces, as it was in
old houses. Orange and yellow were much chosen formerly for beds and furniture.
The yellow contrasted well with the dark wainscot, and heavy style of cabinet-work
common at that period ; but, where yellow is the prevailing colour of the walls and
furniture, the effect is usually gaudy. Generally speaking, there should be always
some contrast between the colour of the walls and curtains. The drawing-rooms
at Earlstoke Park were furnished with apple-green satin ; the walls bung with
watered rose-coloured silk ; the ground colour of the carpets dark mulberry, on which
were groups of flowers. There was a profusion of gilding, and the effect was strikingly
elegant. As I am reserving crimson for the colour of the dining-room furniture, I really
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 797
do not know what to choose for the drawing-room ; suppose, at a venture, we fix upon blue
satin; 1 mean a pale blue, which is a good candlelight colour, and is a sort of medium
between dark and light. The next difficulty is, what should be the colour of the walls :
perhaps huff would do ; and, as we cannot discuss the point, I will suppose the walls hung
with silk of a huff colour, watered, or having satin and watered stripes alternately. Or, the
walls might he formed into panels ; the framework painted a very pale blue ; the panels,
which should he large, filled up with silk having a gilt moulding round it. If silk
were merely hung upon the walls, of course it must be surrounded by a gilt moulding.
Where silk or velvet is used for the furniture of a room, a papered wall has generally a
poor effect ; except, perhaps, a plain flock paper, which has the appearance of cloth,
or a paper printed in imitation of striped or watered silk : but I should prefer a hand-
somely painted wall to paper, if silk curtains were to be used. In the drawing-room
I would hang some of the finest pictures that were not of a large size. A small Claude,
a curious portrait or historical subject, or rare cabinet picture ; indeed, any beautiful
picture of moderate dimensions, would here be in its proper place, provided the subject
were pleasing. A few busts, or curious small sculptures, might also be introduced. I
would have the fringe of the curtains blue ; the draperies simple, and in large folds; the
cornices massive and gilded. There should also be inner curtains of figured muslin,
edged with blue silk ball fringe. In the pier between the windows should be a large
looking-glass filling up the whole. Below it, a marble slab, say of Florentine mosaic,
and in the gilt stand supporting it a bookcase, filled with handsome books of an
amusing kind, such as the best poets and novelists, &c, and curiously embellished works.
On the slab might be china vases filled with flowers. On each side of the entrance-
door might be a rich inlaid cabinet, on a carved and gilt frame ; under it some large
jars of china ; and some curious specimens of old china, arranged on a rising frame, on
the top. I would have an Axminster carpet and rug, of colours suited to the furniture.
The frames of the chairs and sofas might be buff" or cream colour and gold. The
seats covered with blue satin, edged with buff-coloured gymp (a kind of laced bordering,
made of cord). The frames of some of the chairs should be carved and rather massive,
and the chairs themselves should be of various kinds ; such as large reposing-chairs,
others with and without arms, some of a lighter kind with gilded cane seats, and others
which unite into a kind of sofa against the wall. These latter might fill up the space
in that end of the room which is not occupied by the bay window. There should be
two sofas placed not against the wall ; they usually stand on each side of the fire-
place. At the end of the room, near the bow, might be a modern kind of seat, like two
sofas placed back to back : persons sitting on one of the seats would look through the
bay window upon the park, and before the other scat might be a sofa table, on which
should be placed a handsome silver ink and taper stand, writing-cases, books of prints
and drawings, and bijouterie of the better kinds : settees, and perhaps a table, would fill
up the bay window. A large round table is usually placed in the middle of the drawing-
room, on which are generally books of prints and other things to amuse the company ;
a china plate, made into a sort of basket, to hold visiting cards and all sorts of things ;
and a variety of odd matters which I cannot enumerate. Two card tables would stand
one on each side the fireplace : and, besides all these, we must have tables of various sizes,
some small ones on pillars ; a chess table, with an inlaid marble top, the men placed
upon it ; a large china dish set in a gilt sort of tripod ; a sort of tahle flower-stands ;
and I cannot tell what besides. Most of the tables must also have something upon
them, to make them appear of use. There might be candelabra near the fireplace, or in
the corners at the lower end of the room, supporting lamps. There should be screens of
various kinds placed near the fire ; one I would have, like the large old screens, of
embroidered silk, in a carved gilt frame ; and various sorts of footstools, chiefly with
carved gilt frames. Writing, work, and drawing boxes of handsome kinds, and every
thing amusing, curious, or ornamental, is in its place in the drawing-room ; but the host
of trumpery toys so often seen there would be unworthy of a place in a room like this.
The arrangement of the multitudinous furniture and ornaments must be left to the taste
of the lady of the house ; none but a lady can do it. The chief thing to be avoided, in
the disposition of the articles, is a vulgar crowded effect ; every thing should seem to
contribute to comfort or amusement, and there should be nothing superfluous. I had
nearly forgotten an important feature in the room, viz. the grate, which should be large
and low, of polished steel, with handsome back plate, showing itself above the fire. If
the fire is of wood, as is sometimes the case, the dogs should be very handsome, and
the back plate particularly so. The fender and fire irons might be plated. The lamps
suspended from the ceiling might be also plated, or of the handsome gilt brasswork now
in fashion ; and I would light the room entirely with wax, to the exclusion of oil, which
always produces both smoke and an unpleasant smell.
1685. The Library, Having now, I hope, made my escape from the drawing-room,
798
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
let us proceed across the saloon to the library. Tin's, in form and proportions, I will
suppose exactly similar to the drawing-room, having the same sort of hay window at the
end opposite the door, from which is a home view over the pleasure-grounds to the rising
woods behind them. The two windows opposite the fireplace would look upon the
flower-garden and the church tower rising from the trees in the park. The library,
though it outfit to he a handsome room, should present a great contrast to the light
elegance of the drawing-room. The furniture should he substantial, the hangings of a
warm hut dark colour. In the present instance we will choose claret or maroon colour.
That part of the wall not covered by bookcases might be painted to imitate old oak
wainscoting of a handsome pattern, or it might be formed into panels, filled with plain
flock paper edged with a narrow beading of gold, the framework dark oak; or it might
be papered with plain (lock paper in the usual manner, with gilt mouldings. The colour
of the paper maroon. The ceiling and cornice after some rich old pattern, with pendent
ornaments to support the lamps. It should be of a heavier description than that in the
drawing-room, with more numerous coats of arms blazoned in their proper colours. I
should paint and pick out the ceiling with some light warm colour. The chimney-piece
should he handsome, but it might be lower and heavier than in the drawing-room, and
might he made of the best sorts of stone, or of British marble ; for instance, Purbeck
marble is a handsome material for chimney-pieces. It might contain a low arched fire-
place with a rich cornice above, supported at the sides by small pillars or pilasters. In
the fireplace I should have a large low grate, with a rich back-plate, on which should be
a classical subject in relief, say the Destruction of Troy. The grate, or dogs for a wood
fire, of dead steel, the fender of the same. The vacant walls of the side in which is the
fireplace, and that of the two ends, would be covered with oak bookcases, two thirds of
their height. The lower part of the cases should be enclosed by doors of brass wire, in
which might be kept the more curious and valuable books, prints, drawings, &c., the
shelves above being open. In the piers that divide the cases might be closets for rolls
of maps, &c. On the cornice above the cases might be a series of busts of philosophers
and eminent scholars ; and on the wall seen above the book shelves, scripture subjects,
and portraits of distinguished authors, statesmen, &c. A full-length portrait of some
celebrated person, or member of the family, might be hung over the fireplace ; and in
the pier between the windows opposite would be a place for maps on spring rollers fixed
to the wall. Below them might be a dark marble slab on a carved frame, and under the
slab a sort of frame for large folio books of maps, engravings, &c. The slab might have
upon it small bronze statues and things of that kind. The curtains should be of maroon-
coloured merino damask, lined with glazed stuff (this sort of damask has a poor effect
without a lining as it is commonly used), and trimmed with silk fringe, &c, all of the
same colour. The cornices might be maroon colour and gold. I would have inner
curtains of plain muslin, edged with maroon silk fringe. There should be a large Turkey
carpet, or an Axminster carpet, with a maroon-coloured ground, showing round it the
polished oak floor, and a hearth rug to match. The library should contain an abundance
of various sorts of seats and tables, made of some dark wood, the more carved the better.
There should be two or three large easy chairs, with movable desks and candlesticks,
some smaller arm and other cushioned chairs, and a few light chairs with gilt cane seats.
The patterns of the chairs should be old-fashioned ; and some real old high-backed chairs
might be introduced with very good effect. There should also be a sofa or two, and
some stools and settees ; the cushions of the chairs, sofas, &c, being covered with
maroon-coloured leather, with silk tufts and gymp edgings. As the library would be
the common family sitting-room, a round table would be necessary, for tea, &c. There
should be also one or two regular library tables, with drawers, and maroon leather tops.
One might be placed across the room at the end near the bow, with a settee before it ;
the other would stand near the window at the right hand, as you enter the room ; the
round table being in the centre near the fire. Besides these, there should be smaller
tables of various sizes, some forming reading-desks for large and small books; others
on pillars and claws, to be placed about the room. A pair of globes on a stand might
occupy one corner ; the library steps, shutting into a strong table, would stand in another.
One or two old embroidered screens, in carved frames, and a i'cw others, and some foot-
stools, might be placed near the fire. The bay window might be fitted up as a recess for
leading in, with a small reading-desk or table, and settees. 1 think I have noticed
all the furniture of a library, except the lamps, which I would have of bronze, as most
in keeping with the sober character of the apartment. As to the smaller ornaments to
be placed about the room, they should be curious and interesting, and on no account
frivolous. Handsome silver inkstands, a few curious fossils, or models of celebrated
buildings; all sorts of writing-cases and implements, taper stands of silver, boxes of coins,
old china in large jars, and any thing of these kinds, with handsome books, might
decorate the tables: and, as nothing gives a room a more dismal effect than an appear-
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 799
ance of idleness, every thing should be so arranged, both here and in the drawing-room,
as if the persons using the rooms had been employed in some way or other. This effect
would be produced by the daily papers, and some periodical works, and open letters
received in the morning, on the principal tables ; and, on other tables, some of the blotting
books might be open : the inkstands not thoroughly in order, with some unfinished
writing and open books or portfolios, would give at least the appearance of industry.
I do not recommend such foolish tricks, which are, I know, often used by idle people,
who have sense enough to feel the bad taste of indolence ; and in a sensible family, who
spent their time rationally, this would lie, in fact, the usual state of the room, at least during
the morning. I do not think that drawings and drawing implements would be out of
their place in a library. The ladies would generally draw; and every country gentleman
ought to have some knowledge at least of architectural drawing, so as to be able to design
the buildings to be erected upon his estate, which are now often built from the coarse
plans of ignorant workmen. Drawing would also add to the in-door amusements of a
country gentleman ; it would give him a taste for the picturesque, and enable him to
improve judiciously his park and grounds, and understand the beauties of the natural
scenery around his place. It would also open to him a source of innocent enjoyment,
by giving him a taste for the fine aits, which every gentleman should patronise as far ;.s
his income will permit. But to return from this digression to the suite of living-
apartments. When there is company in the house, the library would be the 1. orning
sitting-room for the gentlemen, who might here read the papers and new publications,
write and answer letters ; and thus, with a stroll round the garden or farm, and a look
into the stables and kennels, employ the time till luncheon, after which some would join
the ladies in an excursion on horseback, while others rode with their host to see some
improvements upon the farm or estate. In the sporting season, those who arc sportsmen
would be of course engaged in the sports of the field. The ladies would occupy the
drawing-room and saloon, and there amuse themselves, some with needlework, others
with a book or a drawing, others with writing or music, till they met the gentlemen at
luncheon ; and afterwards the equestrians would probably ride with the gentlemen, while
the rest took a carriage airing, or made calls with the lady of the house. This would
be a frequent arrangement for the morning ; but, of course, it would be varied as much as
possible. Sometimes the whole party would make an excursion in carriages, and on
horseback, to view something interesting, or mak<= a visit at a distance ; at other times the
ladies would take walking exercise in the park and gardens, or visit the schools and
cottages in the village, as the weather and inclination might suggest. After luncheon,
and in summer evenings, the doors of the living-rooms would be thrown open ; and on
the return of the party, they would, probably, arrange themselves in groups in each of
the rooms. Thus, in the library, a gentleman may, perhaps, be referring to a book,
while he explains something to the ladies with whom he had conversed during the
morning ride. In the saloon a lady is, perhaps, playing a lively air, while the young
ladies and some of the gentlemen are lounging about the room engaged in playful convers-
ation. In the drawing-room would most likely be another group, some sitting upon
a couch, while others stood round the table collecting their work, books, or drawings,
before they retire to dress; and all talking over the place or people they had visited in
the morning. While we have them in these positions, let me ask what you think of the
general effect of the sitting-rooms now seen together through the open doors. Stand for
a moment near the bay window at the end of the library, and look at the perspective
view of the whole, terminating in the distant prospect seen through the opposite bay
window in the drawing-room. I hope the effect is not disagreeable ; but, we cannot wait
to speak of its merits or defects: the half-hour bell has rung, the ladies are hurrying
to tlieir dressing-rooms ; and, as the gentlemen slowly follow, let us take a look at the
dining-room, while the party are engaged at the toilette.
1686. The Dining-room. To get to the dining-room we must proceed through the
saloon and lower gallery into the hall, where a door of two leaves in the centre of the
lower end admits you to the room. Here I would have double doors. We will suppose
the room of the same width as the hall, but six or eight feet shorter. The walls covered
with old oak wainscot ; the ceiling rising from them with a slight cove to the flat com-
partment, which would be formed into panels of various shapes by rather heavy mouldings
of stucco. Scattered over the whole would be groups of fruit and flowers, shields of
arms, and three pendent ornaments to support bronze or gilt lamps. The coved part of
the ceiling should be also richly adorned with devices in stucco : a large shield of the
family arms would be an appropriate ornament for the centre of each side, surrounded
by emblems of hospitality. The wainscot should have a broad handsome cornice round
the upper part of it, and might be covered nearly with pictures in handsome gold frames,
of any subject (except, perhaps, scripture pieces), such as portraits, landscapes, historical
pictures, amusing subjects, and pictures of feasts. The chimney-piece should be vevy
800 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
handsome. I would have it reaching to the ceiling, and somewhat resembling thai in
the drawing-room; l>ut of coloured stone or marble: above the large low arch for the
fireplace, a panel containing the representation of a feast, sculptured in white marble in
relief; the ornaments, chiefly fruit, and emblems of hospitality. Here 1 would always burn
wood in large logs. The dogs for this purpose should be massive dead steel, the back plate
particularly handsome. The curtains in this room should be of crimson velvet, trimmed
with yold lace and fringe, the cornices carved and gilt. The furniture would consist of
a handsome carved mahogany sideboard on each side of the door, supported by piers, in
which are plate-warmers, and a hot closet lined with tin ; also another closet, which
would be of use for some purpose; and under each a sarcophagus, one of them lined with
lead to contain ice to cool liquors; the other would be of the same sort, to contain the
beer ju<rs, or it might be a cellaret. A lamp over each sideboard might hang from a
supporter in the wainscot. On the sideboards would be placed, at dinner time, the useful
and ornamental plate and glass; and near the sideboards, against the walls, might be,
perhaps, two side tables, one on each side of the room. One might be a hot table, on
which to put the vegetables, &c, during dinner ; the other for cold meat, and the things
usually kept upon the side table. A handsome wide dining-table would stand in the
centre of the floor ; and a table to place before the fire when the ladies have left the room
alter dinner, would stand against the wall at the end of the room. This table is usually
in the form of a horseshoe, and is furnished with a sort of box, to protect the bottles from
the heat of the fire, which moves by a brass apparatus, or in a groove, from one person
to another. A brass rod supported on the side of the table next the fire is hung with
.silk curtains, to be drawn occasionally as a screen. Some of these horseshoe tables can
have the centre of the horseshoe filled up, and will thus form fireside dining-tables for
very cold weather. Against the pier, between the windows, a marble slab might be
supported on a carved frame : it would be useful at dinner-time, and help to furnish the
room. The side tables are also frequently of marble, on frames carved with the family
arms, &c. The chairs should be very handsome, massive, and without arms ; the seats
crimson leather, with silk tufts, and gymp edging. A crimson leather easy chair would
be well placed on each side of the fire. Dumb waiters, with a japanned frame for clean and
dirty plates, and knives and forks, besides the usual shelves, might be wanted occasionally,
and would furnish two corners of the room. The floor might be covered with a Turkey
carpet, showing round it some of the polished oak floor, with a rug of the same pattern
as the carpet. A footstool or two might be useful after dinner. I do not remember any
other necessary article of furniture for the dining-room ; but, there is a certain convenience
rather indispensable, viz. a closet to hold utensils sometimes required by gentlemen
after dinner. This closet might be made in the thick outer wall, large enough for a
person to stand in, with shelves in the corners for the utensils. A part of the wainscot
might open as the door, contrived so as not to be observed. Near the sideboard a similar
door in'the wainscot might be formed, through which the servants might pass at dinner
time, without opening the principal door at the bottom of the room. In the plan we
have in view, there would be another wainscot door leading to the master's private or
business room. Unless in very large houses, it is usual to take every meal in the dining-
room, except tea. A regular breakfast-room is not, therefore, generally necessary in a
house of moderate size; and it is desirable, on many accounts, to have no more sitting-
rooms than those which are in constant use. I shall, therefore, omit a description of the
breakfast-room, and proceed to the gentleman's private sitting-room, without which the
country residence of a person of property would be very incomplete.
1687. Gentleman's Study, or Bush/ess Room. A gentleman of studious habits would
use his private room as a study ; and here, also, he will see persons on business, and
administer justice, if he happens to be in the commission of the peace. The private
i<> >;n should, therefore, be apart from the family sitting-rooms, and near to the back
entrance and the servants' offices, for the convenience of admitting people who come on
business, without interruption to the family. It should be a comfortable apartment, of
good size, but not. a handsome one. The furniture should be neat and simple. The
curtains might be of moreen ; and the chairs, and tables, and carpet, of any unexpensive
kinds. The walls might be papered with any cheap paper; and the woodwork would
probably be painted oak colour, to hide dirt. Against the wall might be hung portraits
of favourite horses, cattle, or dogs; and any glazed prints. There should be, of course, a
bookcase, with a good collection of books of a general kind, including law books ; the
best publications upon farming, building, planting, gardening, and other subjects of
rural economy. Some of these might be lent out to persons living on the estate. Under
the cases should be a range of presses, in which to keep papers and accounts; and an iron
closet for deeds of value, &c, built into the wall. A large map of the estate upon a
spring roller, and a map of the county, would be often useful. There should also be a
bureau with drawers under it, a large library table also having drawers, and one or two
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 801
large leather easy chairs. A washing-stand which shuts up would be also required here
occasionally, and a neat wardrobe also, if the gentleman used it as a dressing-room, which
is sometimes the case.
1688. Principal Staircase. Having now gone through the principal apartments on
the ground floor, the next thing to be considered is the great staircase, which will lead
us to the bed-rooms. 1 have already supposed the staircase to be in a separate tower,
built out behind the centre of the gallery, from which you approach it under a broad
handsome arch. When you are within the arch, on the right and left, under the landing
of the stairs, are the doors of the gentlemen's water-closets ; those for the ladies are above,
and are approached from the landing-place over. The staircase is an important con-
venience in every house, and it should always be a striking feature in a mansion of any
elegance. The tower, which I suppose to contain the staircase, would be square as
high as the ceiling of the upper floor, where it would take a sort of octagon form ; the
roof coved, and ending in a lantern : in the centre of the lantern a boss would support
a lamp. In the side, Opposite to the arch by which you enter, would be a tall mullioned
window, filled with stained glass. Advancing a few steps, you would reach the first
flight in the middle of the tower, and ascend to the first landing-place ; you would find
a flight of stairs on the right and left leading to the second landing, in the centre of
which is the upper gallery-door, immediately over the arch below. As the house is to
be in the old English style, the stairs might be either of oak or stone ; but the balusters
must be of oak handsomely carved, and rather heavy. They might begin at the foot of
the stairs with a richly carved sort of pedestal, and the same at each corner as thev
ascend. In old staircases, there was frequently an animal of some sort sculptured in
wood, supporting the family arms placed on these pedestals, especially at the foot of the
stairs ; or the animal had a substitute in a ball or pine-apple. The centre part of the
stairs might be carpeted or not ; the walls of the tower might be painted like the lower
gallery, and on the right and left walls a large picture on any subject would be very
ornamental : for instance, a large scripture piece on each of the side walls would be well
lighted from the lantern above.
1689. The Upper Gallery. From the upper landing, an arched doorway would
admit you to the upper gallery, of the same dimensions as the one below, but not so
high. The windows should be on the same side as the staircase, and the wall opposite
should have doors leading to the bed-rooms and dressing-rooms. The walls should be
painted like the lower gallery ; and as there would be little space for pictures, a collec-
tion of glazed prints might be arranged upon the vacant spaces in the walls. I should
carpet the floor ; and a few side-tables and settees would be all the furniture required,
except lamps suspended from the ceiling, to light the gallery at night. There might
be also crimson cloth window-curtains, on large brass rods, without drapery. The col-
lection of fossils, or old china, might be placed in glass cases between the windows. This
gallery, besides its use as an entrance to the bed-rooms, would be a promenade, or place
of recreation, for the ladies and young people in wet weather. As there would be a
great many doors in the gallery, it would be convenient to have them numbered : the
number on a brass or japanned circle over each. I have known strangers much plagued to
find their rooms in large houses, for want of a proper mark upon the doors.
1690. Bed-rooms and Dressing-rooms. The doors of most of the bed-rooms and
dressing-rooms should open into the upper gallery, or communicate with it. Generally
speaking, I would not have the bed-rooms of a very large size. Twenty or eighteen feef
square is a comfortable size for a room to contain a large four-post bed ; sixteen feet
square is sufficient for a bed-room for a single person. A dressing-room should be
attached to all the principal bed-rooms ; I believe modern luxury, in great houses, requires
two : this would not be necessary in a villa of the second class ; but even in this I would
have two dressing-rooms to the state bedchamber, as, occasionally, persons accustomed
to such luxuries might visit at the house. Generally, however, one dressing-room would
be sufficient for the company-rooms ; but if the gentleman of the house did not dress in
his private apartment, I would have two dressing-rooms to his bed-room, that for the
lady rather large and elegant, as she would probably use it occasionally as her private
sitting-room. The family bedchambers might be at that end of the house where the
offices are situated ; those for company over the principal apartments. In large houses,
the master and mistress frequently have their bed and dressing-rooms upon the ground
floor ; but I should prefer the floor above, as being more airy and quiet. A bedcham-
ber should be an airy, cheerful-looking apartment, rather elegantly furnished, but in a
plainer style than the living-rooms. The walls look best when papered ; the doors and
woodwork painted to suit the paper ; the ceiling plain ; the chimney-piece rather plain,
of marble or stone ; and the grates such as are easily cleaned. I should prefer a floor
that could be washed ; that is, not a polished oak floor, and would not have the whole
covered with carpet. In all the company rooms I would have four-post beds, double
4 z
S02 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
or single beds according to the size of the rooms. Four-post beds are most airy and
comfortable; audi have seen single four-post beds of a very elegant appearance. The
bed and window curtains should be of silk, woollen stuff, chintz, dimity, or printed
calico, according to the fortune or taste of the owner. For beds used by the family,
perhaps printed calico or dimity furniture is best, as it may be occasionally cleaned or
washed. There is room for the exercise of much taste in the hangings of beds, both in
the choice of the colour and material, and in the disposition of the hangings. In the
houses of great personages, bed furniture was formerly of a very costly description, and
made of .such stout materials that in many cases the hangings have lasted through several
generations to the present time. At Boughtsn House, in Northamptonshire (formerly
the seat of the Montagues), there were, a few years ago, some curious specimens of
ancient bed furniture, of considerable antiquity, and much timeworn, but originally of
great splendour. Sjme of these hangings were of a sort of stag velvet, others silk, or some
other costly material, embroidered with coloured silk. The testers were generally rather
low, and the valances put on plain, but cut into a form at the lower edges. Though
simple, the effect of these beds was dignified, but rather gloomy. They were often sur-
mounted by plumes of feathers; and many such beds are still preserved in old mansion-
houses. A bed of rather more modern date than those at Boughton may be seen in the
state apartments at Warwick Castle, put up, I think, for Queen Anne, and in good pre-
servation. Our modern cheap stuffs are not likely to last so long. I have often slept,
in a house which once belonged to a family much attached to the Stuarts, in a bed which
was said to have been put up for the young Pretender. The furniture was of fine
woollen plaid, of a scarlet ground. The valances were put on plain, but cut into elegant
forms, and ornamented with silk binding, sewn on in a very elaborate pattern; and in the
same way the appearance of a rich head board was given by binding, sewn on at the head
of the bed. The cornice was particularly elegant, cut into the form of the prince's
feathers, and other devices, and covered with plaid : the effect of the whole was very
handsome and cheerful. A rich modern material for the company beds, in a gentleman's
residence, is merino damask, which, if lined with glazed stuff of the same colour, would
have rather a handsome effect, and look well in almost any colour. Besides the bed,
the furniture of the room consists of bed-steps, containing a night-stool and pot -closet,
on each side of the bed ; carpets, and a hearth-rug before the fire ; a neat coal-box, with
a cover ; a sufficient number of light chairs, a large easy-chair, and a dressing-stool. A
large dressing-table, and swing glass ; a washing-table, with the necessary basins, jugs,
and glasses ; a wardrobe, and a sort of box for caps and bonnets, which is made an orna-
mental piece of furniture, and a cabinet of any kind for trinkets, papers, &c. A small
table on which to place books, writing implements, &c, and footstools and screens, are also
necessary comforts in well furnished rooms ; and, in gentlemen's rooms, a boot-rack and
boot-jack. Of course, there should be every article used for washing the person, as bidets,
feet-pans, water-bottles, and glasses, &c. A few pictures or glazed prints upon the walls
would add to the cheerful appearance of the room. Window-curtains and blinds are
indispensable ; and a small clothes horse or two, for airing linen, drying towels, &c. A
closet in a bed-room is convenient, in which to put away trunks and boxes, and other
unsightly necessaries. A door in the bed-room should open into the dressing-room,
which should be furnished to match the apartment to which it is attached. A complete
dressing-room, besides what is necessary for washing and dressing, already enumerated
in the bed-room, should have some other articles of furniture used in sitting-rooms :
for example, a sofa, which could be made into a bed ; a large easy-chair ; a sofa-table ;
a bookcase, containing a small collection of instructive and amusing books; and a chiffon-
nier (literally a ragcase, used for placing books or papers in) : a few pictures and
prints might decorate the walls. The floor might be covered entirely with caqiet ; the
chairs might have cushions. In an elegant dressing-room for a lady are usually work-
tables and a full-length swing dressing-glass, and many useful and ornamental articles in
plate and china, as inkstands, toilette suite, scent pots, caudle service, &c. &c. Of
course, there must be what is necessary for containing wearing apparel, as wardrobes,
cap-boxes, &c. A cabinet to contain jewel-boxes and small valuables may be also added.
There should be a fireplace in every dressing-room, and a door communicating with the
passage, or gallery.
1691. The Sitting and Sleeping Nurseries should be on the bed-room floor, and in
a retired part of the house: they should be light airy apartments, with fireplaces
in each. It is unnecessary to describe their furniture, which should be plain and
strong.
1692. The Governess's Sitting-room, furnished like any other sitting-room, is usually
on the first floor, and should be in a quiet part of the house.
1693. The Servants* Bed-rooms are commonly on the highest floor, approached by
the back staircase; the men-servants' rooms should, if possible, be apart from those of the
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 80S
females. The rooms for the under servants might contain two beds each, with curtains
of woollen stuff. The furniture should include every thing necessary for cleanliness and
comfort, of a plain and stout kind. The upper servants should have each a separate
bed-room, neatly and comfortably furnished; and there should he a sufficient number of
similar rooms for the servants of \isiters, the males and females apart. The bed-rooms
of the upper servants should be near those of the inferiors. I should choose to have
plaster floors, such as are common in the north of England; and woollen bed-curtains
in all the servants' rooms, to prevent accidents from fire. These floors, when kept clean,
and whitened with pipeclay, have a very neat and comfortable appearance; more so, in-
deed, than the coarse wooden floors usual in servants' rooms.
1694. The Housemaid's Closet is a necessary convenience in the upper part of a gen-
tleman's house : in this closet are kept the pails, brooms, dusters, &c, used in cleaning the
house. It should be a light roomy closet, with a plaster floor, containing an inner closet
for the bed-room night lamps, or rushlight cases, &c, with drawers under for cloths and
dusters. There should be pegs and shelves, on which to put any thing out of the way.
As warm water is much used by the housemaids, their closet, in a large house, should
contain a smail copper for heating water ; and, if possible, it should be supplied with
water by a leaden pipe, say from a cistern of rain-water upon the roof; a sink-stone,
communicating with a drain, would also be a great convenience in this closet. In large
establishments, the labour of carrying up and down the clean and dirty water is very
great ; 50 that a pipe supplying soft water, and a sink for the slops, is necessary in a place
of this kind, which should also contain a large box, in one corner, for a supply of coals
to be used in the upper part of the house. Another closet, apart from the housemaid's
closet, woidd be also useful to contain spare bedding, blankets, and other things of the
kind, when not in use.
1(J95. A Bath-room is a cheap and useful luxury, which would be considered by
many persons an indispensable requisite in a perfect villa. A room of moderate size
would contain the warm and shower baths ; the cold bath would be in the park, in an
ornamental building on the side of the stream. I would place the bath-room in such a
iituation that it could be supplied with hot water from the offices, by means of a pipe
connected with the boiler, say in the kitchen or scullery. There should also be a supply
of cold water by another pipe, and a drain to convey away the waste water. W here the
house is supplied with water from a spring in some of the high ground adjacent, as is
often the case, the bath-room and housemaid's closet might easily be furnished with an
abundance of water. The bath-room would be most conveniently placed near the family
sleeping-rooms.
1696. Servants' Offices. Having now, I believe, noticed what requires attention in
the upper floors, let us descend, by the back stairs, to the servants' offices ; of which, the
first to be described is the housekeeper's room, with its appurtenances ; viz., the still-room,
store, and china closets.
1697. The Housekeeper's Room should be a spacious comfortable apartment, furnished
as a respectable parlour ; and so situated that the other offices may be easily overlooked
by the housekeeper. The furniture should comprise all that is necessary for use and
comfort, in rather a plain way. The walls might be stencilled, or covered with a cheap
paper, and ornamented with a few prints. There might be plain window-curtains, a
carpet covering part of the floor, some mahogany chairs, a dining-table that could be
enlarged at pleasure, a Pembroke table, and a good-sized side-table. There should be a
small looking-glass against the wall ; the chimney-piece plain ; the grate black, with
large hobs. A bureau, in which to keep account-books, &c, with drawers under, and a
small bookcase above, containing some instructive books, would be a very useful piece ot
furniture here. On one side of the room should be a row of neat lock-up closets painted ;
one of which should be a wardrobe for the house-linen ; another for cakes and such
things ; and one for the tea-china and dessert-service in use, and other things of the kind.
Here would also be the butler's writing-desk, and place for his accounts. Inkstands, and
other useful small articles, would help to furnish out the room.
1698. The Still-room. A door in the housekeeper's room should open into the still-
room, in which the housekeeper, assisted by the still-room maid, would make preserves,
cakes, &c. ; it would also be the common sitting-room of the under female servants.
It should be furnished as a better kind of kitchen, containing a fireplace, with boiler, a
small oven, a range of charcoal-stoves, with a cover ; a small shut-up sink, with a water-
pipe for a supply of water. A range of small closets for the maids, to keep their tea-
things, and tea and sugar, and things used at the housekeeper's table ; a large table, with
drawers, in the centre of the room, and a smaller round table for work ; and a dresser
against the wall, to let down when not in use, would be convenient : shelves would also
be useful for the pans, &c, used by the housekeeper. There should be also a roller for
a round towel, and a basin in the sink for washing hands ; a small looking-glass might
80k COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
promote tidiness of person, and a piece of common carpet would add to the comfort of
the room. The chairs and stools should be neat and substantial; and a small case of
well-chosen books should hang against the wall.
1G99. The Store-closet should lie dry and airy, and it should open conveniently into
the still-room, in which the stores might be unpacked before they were put away, and
given out as wanted by the housekeeper. The store-closet should be properly furnished
with shelves, drawers, and pegs, to receive all the stores and preserves, &e., under the
housekeeper's care, which should be arranged in proper order, so that every thing might
be found immediately, when it happened to be wanted. It might be kept dry in winter
by a small pipe of hot air or water, from the still-room fireplace.
1700. The China-closet. Where the collection of china is not large, a proper place
might be made for it in the store-room; but where a china-closet is required, it should
be near the housckci per's-room, and be furnished with shelves to receive the spare china
and glass, and a table on which to place it when given out and returned. It should be
a dry closet, and light.
1701. The Butler's Pantry. The next office to be considered is the butler's pantry.
In the case of a large establishment, this should be a light spacious room, with a fireplace
in it, or stove. The door and window-shutters should be strong ; and the floor boarded.
The furniture would consist of a strong table and some chairs; a long sort of dresser,
with several drawers under it: at one end a part of the top of the dresser should open
to a sink, lined with lead, and supplied with water by a pipe. A wash-hand stand would
be necessary, and pegs on which to hang hats, coats, aprons, &c, and a boot-jack and
place for shoes and boots would be perhaps convenient. There should also be a stand in
which to put away the trays, and a common tray-stand, and proper convenience for drain-
ing decanters. A napkin-press is generally found here, and under it a chest of drawers for
tablecloths and napkins. Against the wall should be spacious closets for glass and china
and lamps, drawers for knives and forks ; the latter lined with baize. An indispensable
requisite here is a roomy fire-proof plate closet, in the lower part of which would stand the
chests of plate not in common use, and above should be shelves and conveniences lined
with baize, to receive the silver articles used by the family. To this closet I would have
double doors ; one of them of iron, to be closed and locked at night. The doors should
have different locks, the key of the iron door to be in the sole keeping of the butler. As,
for security, a man-servant often sleeps in the pantry, there should be for this purpose a
closet bed complete : a round towel roller and pot closet would be also necessary. A
plain lamp should hang from the ceiling, and a small looking-glass near the window
against the wall. It would be convenient to place this pantry near the housekeeper's
room, and out of the way of the back entrance to the house.
1702. The Servants' Hall should be near the back entrance; and so situated that
strangers might pass to and from it without intruding upon the other offices. The size
of the servants' hall will depend upon the nature of the establishment and the number
of domestics kept. Here all the under servants would dine, and it would be the common
sitting-room for the males. It should, therefore, be rather a large apartment, and I
would have it, if possible, a cheerful and comfortable one, with plenty of light. It
should have a stone floor, and a good large fireplace ; or perhaps a stove would make it
warmer, with less expense of fuel. The furniture of a servants' hall is very simple. It con-
sists of a long stout oak table, generally placed rather on one side of the room, with strong
benches on each side. This table the servants use for dinner and their other meals. There
is generally a large chair at one end, for the servant who presides. There should also be
a sort of side-table, and a small movable table, a few chairs and small benches. A large
high-backed settee, with drawers under the seat, near the fire, might be so placed as to
screen the fireplace from the draught of air from the door. Against the wall should be
rows of pegs for the servants' hats, &c, and there shoidd also be a roomy closet, in
which to keep the jugs, drinking-horns, knives and forks, and many other things used by
the servants. A dial-clock would be useful, and a lamp hanging from the ceiling, to
light the room at night. In a conspicuous place upon the wall, the rules of the house
to be observed by the servants are frequently hung up : there should also be a small case
of useful and instructive books. A horse for brushing coats on, or to hang a great-coat
upon to dry, would be useful in the servants' hall.
1703. Men's Washing and Dressing Closet. Where many men-servants are kept, a neces
sary appendage is a small room, adjoining the servants' hall, for them to wash and dress in.
It should have fixed washing-places, with a pipe to supply them with water, and a drain
to convey away the dirty water. It should have round towels, a small looking-glass or two,
and a large press in which to put things away ; also a horse on which to brush clothes.
I n small establishments, a corner washing-stand, such as is described at page 292, might be
placed in the servants' hall, with a cover to conceal it when not in use. It should be
supplied with water by a pipe, so that it could be used at any time, and a towel should
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 805
hang on a roller near it. A small leaden box, with holes in the bottom, might be fixed
in a corner of the washing-place, to contain the soap. I would on every account
encourage cleanliness among the servants ; and they would have no excuse for being
dirty, if proper conveniences for washing were provided.
1704. The Knife and Shoe Cleaning Place should not be far distant from the servants'
hall ; and would, of course, contain the necessary conveniences for cleaning knives and
shoes, which it is unnecessary to describe.
1 705. The Kitchen is one of the most important offices in a house ; and is often, in large
residences, a very handsome apartment. I remember to have seen one, at a nobleman's
house in Warwickshire, which struck me particularly. The kitchen, scullery, larder
&c, formed a range of building on one side of the kitchen-court, separate from the
house, but there was a covered way between them. The building was of two stories, the
kitchen occupying the centre. It was a large lofty room, of good proportions, as high as
two stories of the building. You entered it at one end, by large folding-doors, from a
passage through the building; at the opposite end was the fireplace with the screen before
it ; on one side of which was the door to the scullery and bakehouse, on the other side a
range of set coppers of different sizes. On one side of the room were two rows of windows,
and under the lower row a range of charcoal stoves and hot plates : the latter to keep
things warm. The other side had only the upper row of windows, and against the wall
was a dresser, above which the copper cooking utensils, &c, were ranged in a very orna-
mental way. A long table was in the centre of the room, and over the door a dial-clock.
The ceiling had a very handsome cornice, and a boss in the centre, from which hung a
brass lamp. Opposite the entrance door, another door admitted you to a passage, on one side
of which were the larders, on the other salting-rooms, &c. ; and at the end a staircase led to
the cook's apartments over. There was a sort of turret on the centre of the roof, contain-
ing a capital clock, which struck upon the dinner bell. The other offices were in the base-
ment story of the mansion, and the kitchen was detached, to prevent the annoyance of the
smell of cooking, which commonly ascends from a kitchen beneath the house. I thought
the arrangement particularly convenient, and the kitchen was really an elegant apart-
ment. As, in a large establishment, there is cooking going on through the whole day,
it is of importance to the comfort of the family, to place the kitchen in such a situation
that the smell of cooking, which is particularly offensive, may not be an annoyance to the
principal apartments. A house with the kitchen in the basement story is generally
subject to this inconvenience, and it is usually avoided by having the kitchen and offices
in a separate building adjoining the house. Underground offices are also dark and
uncomfortable ; and, in a country-house of any consequence, it may always be contrived
to have them above ground. The kitchen described will give an idea of the principal
requisites in this office, and I am not able to enter into the details. A kitchen should
always be a light airy room, with the windows, if possible, looking north or east ; and in
no case west, where all the windows are on one side.
1 706. The Scullery. The kitchen should open into the scullery, in which the dishes,
&c, are washed, and all the dirty work done. I suppose it should contain proper sinks,
a fireplace, a small brick oven and a large oven, if the bread be baked there ; coppers
for heating water for the use of the kitchen-maid ; dressers and tables ; plate-racks,
shelves for saucepans, &c. ; and it should be well supplied with water. It would be con-
venient that the scullery should have a door opening into the kitchen-court near to the
coal place, to which there should be a covered way. In the houses of great personages,
where a service of plate is in constant use, I believe there is commonly an office called
the silver scullery, in which the plate is washed ; but I am not able to describe its
requisites ; and it would be unnecessary in a villa of the second class.
1 707. The Larders should be placed close to the kitchen. There are usually four
offices of this kind in great houses ; viz. the wet and dry larders (the former for un-
dressed, the latter for cold meat), a game larder, and a pastry. In ordinary gentle-
men's residences, a wet and a dry larder would be sufficient ; to which, in the case of a
large family, a small pastry might be added. Both larders should have windows, at least,
on two opposite sides, and should be cool and dry. The windows should be covered
with wirecloth, to exclude flies and insects ; the dry larder having glass windows inside,
to be shut when the weather requires it. I once saw a very pretty convenient larder,
which was used only for game, but it would be a good model for an ordinary wet
larder. It was built out from the wall of the kitchen, in the form of an octagon, having
windows on every side, except that formed by the kitchen wall, and in this was the
door. The roof projected over the windows, to protect them from the sun and rain.
The ceiling in the interior was coved, and from the centre hung an octagon rack with
hooks for the smaller birds all ranged in order ; and round the wall was another rack
for pheasants, hares, rabbits, &c. A common wet larder might be built in this form, in
which the meat might hang on the rack in the centre, with the chopping-block under.
806 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
The game might be hung round the wall, and under the game might be a dresser on which
to cut and salt meat, and salting-troughs lined with lead, and having covers like the
dresser. It should also have a machine to weigh meat as it is brought in. A dry
larder is the place in which the cold dressed meat is kept. In the centre is a large
table of wood or stone covered with a tablecloth, on which the cold meat is arranged in
dishes. If the windows are not fly-proof, which they always should be, a sort of safe
made of coarse muslin, or wire, on an arched frame, is sometimes used to cover the >vhole
table. This might hang on a cord and pulley from the ceiling, so as to be pushed up
out of the way while the cold meat is taken out. Abroad dresser and a row of shelves
might be placed round the dry larder, on which to make and place the pastry and other
things usually kept here. (A fish larder, § 1461, and also a vegetable larder, such as
we have already noticed, § 737, might be added.)
1708. Tlie Salting-room. Except in very large families, a separate salting-room is
seldom necessary. When required, it should be a cool place, containing proper salting-
troughs of lead with covers for meat in pickle, with taps or holes in the bottom, to let off
the brine ; and a stone table on which to salt bacon, with a groove round it, to convey
the brine by a small pipe to a vessel placed beneath it.
1709. The Smohiny-chimney, or Room for smokiny Hams and other Provisions, should
be detached from the house. Its forms, &c, will be found described at length, § 739.
1710. The Wash-house, described, § 725 ; the Laundry, § 726* ; the Breivliouscs, § 728 ;
and the Bakehouse, § 727, are, of course, separate offices, and are nearly the same in all
sorts of residences, varying only in size. Unless in very large establishments, a separate
room for a bakehouse would seldom be required ; and it would save trouble in cleaning
the house, were the oven placed in the scullery, where it would be no inconvenience,
as the bread for the family would seldom be baked more than once a week.
1711. The Kitchen- Court and its Appurtenances include the places for coals, wood, and
ashes, which should be conveniently situated so as to be approached under cover. The
ash-hole should be furnished with a proper screen of wire, and be so contrived that, the
tinders being put in at one door, they would pass down the sloping screen to another,
where they might be taken out cleared from the ashes. The ashes could be removed
from under the screen, and taken away by a door in the outer wall of the kitchen-
court. There should be doors of the same kind, with locks, by which the coal and wood
houses might be stocked without making a litter in the court. The racks for empty
nottles should be in this court, enclosed by railed doors locked ; and there should be also a
sort of store-place for potatoes, &c, for the use of the house ; and here might be put away
any unsightly articles, when not used. Privies for the servants should be in a retired
corner : and a pump in the centre to wash the court, which should be paved throughout,
and have proper drains, so as to be always dry and clean.
1712. The Cellars are very important offices; and, in a large mansion, should be exten-
sive and convenient. Their construction and arrangement have been already given, § 713
to § 718, and recurred to in § 1462 and § 1463. The descent to the cellars should be
near the butler's pantry and housekeeper's room, to be within the observation of the
upper servants. There should be separate cellars for small and strong beer, one or more
large cellars for the general stock of wine, and a smaller one for the wine under the care
of the butler, which is taken out occasionally from the general stock under the master's
inspection. There should also be a root-cellar, and a spare one in which to put hampers
before they are unpacked, and other things as occasion required.
1713. Cellar- Closets. A closet on each side of the foot of the stairs wotild also be
convenient. In one might be kept, in covered pans, placed each in a pan of water, the
cheese in use, and in the other the butler might lock up the wine left in decanters,
which is commonly spoilt when kept above ground. Another closet might probably be
convenient for the use of the housekeeper or cook, such as to place ice-cream in while
freezing, and other things in very hot weather.
1714. An Ice-house is an indispensable appendage to a villa; but its construction has
been already described, § 736. The dairy would be at the farm, which I suppose to be
at a distance from the house (sec § 729).
1715. The Stable Offices. We proceed next to the stables, which should have one
ornamental front, to be seen as you approach the mansion. As a villa of the size
described would require extensive stabling, it would be convenient to build the stables and
coach-houses in the form of a quadrangle, with a paved yard in the centre. The front
to the park should have gables at the ends, resembling those of the mansion ; and in the
ventre should be an arched gateway with a clock turret over it. The doors should all
open into the yard, and be so contrived that the whole might be secure when the pates
were closed at night. For greater security, a comfortable bed-room might be formed in
the clock turret over the gateway, in which some of the grooms might sleep. The side
of (he quadrangle which formed the principal front might contain, besides the gateway,
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 807
the coach-llouses and the harness and saddle rooms ; the latter in the two angles.
The side joining the harness-room should be occupied by the coach-horse stables, divided
by a sort of open vestibule, in which a gig might be put out of the rain, or a horse
rubbed down in wet weather; over this open vestibule would be a loft for hay or straw,
or the granary for the horse corn. Joining to the saddle-room, the riding-horse stable
would oceupy another side, arranged like the coach-horse stable opposite. The remain-
ing side would contain stabling and harness-room for visiters' horses, and loose boxes for
hunters. In the centre of this side might be a passage through to the dung-yard, and
in this passage the wheelbarrows would stand under cover.
1716. A Riding-house is a luxury seldom required by persons of moderate income;
but, if it were necessary, it might be built out at right angles to the side of the stable-
yard last mentioned, and be approached by the thorough passage above described. As
the roof of the riding-house would probably appear above those of the stables, it should
be ornamented with a lantern or cupola, for the sake of effect at a distance.
1717. The Stable-yard should at least have a broad pavement round the four sides,
sloping from the walls to a drain ; that before the coach-house wider than the rest, to
■wash carriages upon, or there might be a square pavement for this purpose near the
pump, which I would place in the centre with a large lamp over it to light the yard, the
ground having a gentle slope from the pump to the edge of the pavement before the
stables. If the extent of the yard would admit of it, there might be a ring of fine loose
gravel between the pavement and the pump, of sufficient -width to exercise sick horses
upon, or other horses in cold dirty weather ; but the park would generally afford a dry
sheltered situation for this purpose.
1718. The Coach-houses should be airy and spacious, the floors dry; in low damp
situations, the floor might be of stout boards. They should also be light, that the
coachman may be able to rub over the carriages in damp weather without opening the
doors. A closet in one of them would be convenient to receive the brushes, leathers,
sponges, &c, used for cleaning carriages ; the jacks for washing the wheels would
stand in the passage before mentioned, with the wheelbarrows. If the harness and
saddle rooms joined the coach-houses, as they ought to do, a stove in the party wall
would serve to air both ; and, if the carriages were moved every day in moist weather,
each would stand near the stove in its turn, and all would be constantly fit for use. If
a carriage be allowed to get damp, it is soon spoiled, and is also dangerous to ride in.
The coach-houses should, of course, be ceiled, and the walls plastered and coloured, or
whitewashed, and be kept particularly clean and free from dust and cobwebs. There
should be blinds to the windows, and, where the doors front the south or west, it would
also be necessary to have blinds to the doors, to protect the carriages from the heat of the
sun when the doors are open, which they always should be in dry warm weather.
1719. The Harness and Saddle Rooms, in large stables, should always be distinct apart-
ments. They should be light airy rooms adjoining the stables, but, if possible, not
opening into them, as the moist heat of the stable would be injurious to the saddles and
harness. The harness-room should in all cases have a stove to keep it dry. The ceiling
and walls should be neatly plastered and whitewashed, or coloured. Round the room,
at a sufficient height from the floor, should be a row of large and small pegs, on which to
hang harness, bridles, &c. ; and some saddle-trees to support the saddles. From the
row of pegs to the floor, the wall should be boarded, or covered with canvass painted, to
keep the harness from touching the wall. A small closet, in which would be kept the
brushes, leathers, &c, used in cleaning harness, would stand in one corner of the room,
and a movable horse, to clean saddles upon, would occupy another corner. In the centre
of the room a table with lock-up drawers would be useful, to which might be added a
few strong chairs, as the stable-men sometimes sit in the harness-room in cold weather,
when they happen to be unemployed. The saddle-room should be exactly like the
harness-room, except that it should have more trees to support saddles, and the pegs
should be such as are required to hang bridles upon, &c. Both rooms should be clean,
and free from cobwebs and dust.
1720. The Stables should be lofty, airy and spacious, well lighted, and furnished with
proper ventilators to keep up a circulation of air. There should be a wide open space
behind the horses. Other arrangements are described in § 750. I believe the plan of
supplying the racks with hay, through a hole in the floor of the loft above, is now gene-
rally discarded, as being prejudicial to the health of the horses. A sort of closet ad-
joining the stable, into which the hay is thrown down from the loft, and where it would
be properly shaken before it was put into the racks, would be very convenient. To
avoid having the corn bin in the stable, the corn is often kept in a bin in the loft above,
from which it is let down into the stable by a wooden pipe with a small trap spout at the
bottom, from which the corn may be let out at pleasure, and measured as let out, by
having two traps or stoppers in the trunk, with such a space between them as will con-
808 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
tain a quarter of a peck of corn, or whatever quantity maybe considered a feed. Loose
boxes have been already described, § 755. One, at least, should always be reserved for
sick horses.
1721. The Kennel for Sporting Dogs would be well situated somewhere near the stables,
though, as dogs are rather noisy and unsavoury neighbours, some people would place their
reddenee at a greater distance from the house, probably at the keeper's lodge. Their
larder and kitchen are certainly great nuisances in many cases. I scarcely need describe a
dog-kennel, which consists, in all cases, I believe, of sleeping-houses, with a bed against
the wall raised a foot or more from the ground, and filled with straw. In front of
these are yards enclosed by a wall or paling; and, in the yards, proper troughs for the
food and water. The sleeping-houses and yards should both be paved, kept particularly
clean, and frequently whitewashed. A stream of water should, if possible) run through
the yards. Adjoining should be a room containing a chest for meal, and a set copper in
which to prepare the dogs' food. A pump to supply the troughs and copper with water
would also be necessary, if there were no running water near.
1722. Back Yard for Dung, Rubbish, §-c. Behind the stable should be a yard enclosed
by a wall, to contain the stable-dung, wood stacks, and refuse from the gardens and house.
Here might be cisterns to receive the liquid manure from the stables and the contents of
the house-drains ; and here would also be the privies for the stable-men and gardeners.
As I suppose this yard to be bounded on one side by the garden wall, it would form a
receptacle for the rubbish from the garden ; so that, all the manure produced about the
premises being accumulated in one place, it might be removed, as wanted, to the farm.
The fuel, and all the provender required for the stable would be brought in here, the
stable-men having a proper lock-up coal-house for their allowance of fuel ; and as 1
suppose the back entrance to the garden to be through this yard, every thing the gar-
dener required, such as coals, earth, manure, &c, would pass this way to the garden
gate. All the litter of the premises would thus be confined to the back yard, and nothing
unsightly would appear about the house.
1723. Kitchen-garden. I shall not venture to say any thing of the arrangement of the
kitchen-garden ; but, with regard to its situation, as a garden wall is always an ugly
object, I would place the garden in a retired sheltered spot, and endeavour to conceal it
by plantations and shrubberies. The principal entrance to it should be from the plea-
sure-ground, by a handsome gateway. This gateway might be so designed as to appear
at the extremity of a lawn or vista, and form an architectural embellishment to the
grounds. In the situation we suppose, the kitchen-garden would probably be in the
form of a long parallelogram, the long sides north and south. The entrance would be
in the middle of the east end, and might open upon a broad gravel walk, extending the
whole length of the garden, having a border for herbaceous plants on each side of it ;
and, beyond this border, the compartments for vegetables. At the end opposite to the
entrance might be the gardener's lodge, a comfortable dwelling, showing on this side an
ornamental front, with a few flower-beds, and perhaps a sundial before it. Beyond the
lodge would probably be a separate enclosure for the hot-houses, stoves, pits, &c. ; with
the seed and store rooms, and labourers' sitting and sleeping rooms, and other necessary
buildings of that kind ; beyond this might be the orchard, properly enclosed. The
ground for dung frames would, I suppose, be near the back entrance to the garden,
which, as I have already said, would be through the yard behind the stables. To make
the most of the wall for fruit trees, there might be a narrow outer garden, or slip as it is
usually called, round the south and west walls.
1724. The Pleasure-gardens would comprise the enriched parterre before the windows
of the drawing-room, saloon, and library ; the pleasure-grounds reaching to the woody
eminence behind, and filling the space between it and the back of the house, and the end
of the parterre. In this space there would be room for great variety of effect in garden
.scenery; such as shaded winding walks, open glades, small lawns, &c. &c, with orna-
mental seats interspersed. Between the kitchen-garden wall and the woody hill woidd
be a sheltered spot for a small winter-garden, planted with the best evergreen trees and
shrubs. On a small lawn, in the centre of it, might be a few beds filled with laurustinus,
inezereon, Cydonia jap6nica, and any early-flowering low shrubs and plants ; with bulbs,
such as all the varieties of crocuses, &c, in great abundance. A conservatory on the warm
.side of it would not be ill-placed.
1725. In the Pleasure-grounds, I would have very few clumps or masses of shrubs.
Both trees and shrubs have generally the best effect, and attain to greater beauty of form,
when scattered judiciously in groups upon turf; the groups properly connected and
mixed with lower growths, so as to form a whole: what is called dotting, I would espe-
cially avoid. Masses are, however, sometimes required for boundaries, and to conceal
disagreeable objects. One of the most delightful pleasure-grounds I have seen is at
Packington Hall, in Warwickshire, in which I do not remember to have observed a clump,
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 809
properly so called. The surface slopes from the south and west fronts of the mansion to
a lake and parklike pastures. The pleasure-ground is extensive, and has an undulating
surface, which is planted with groups of trees and shrubs on the turf, forming lawns,
thickets, &c. The walks through it are judiciously arranged ; and, indeed, the whole is
so contrived, that it appears much more extensive than it really is : it contains a variety
of trees, including a group of noble cedars on the highest ground, and some ancient
yews and cypresses near the house. In a bright summer evening, the view from
the western terrace to the lake and rising grounds beyond it, bounded by wood, presents
a beautiful natural picture. I would attempt something of this kind at the back of the
villa ; the principal lawn in the pleasure-ground being in front of the bay window at
the end of the library, with some architectural embellishment, as a seat or temple within
view. The pleasure-ground should communicate with extensive walks through the
natural wood of the eminence behind the villa. These would be merely wood walks,
not highly kept, with occasional openings through the trees at those points where a fine
distant view, or any interesting object in the surrounding scenery, could be commanded.
A few rustic seats placed at these points would be appropriate ornaments for the wood
walk.
1726. The Farm. The next appendage to the villa, which requires attention, is the
farm. Every country gentleman possessing a residence such as we have described should
occupy a farm of sufficient extent to supply the family with provisions ; such as meat,
bread, beer, poultry, milk, butter, cheese, &c. The perfection of rural economy is to
purchase nothing which the estate can be made to produce ; and the advantage of this
system, under judicious management, is, that you have an abundance of every thing, and
a liberal style of housekeeping, at prime cost. Thus, under the system of management
supposed, besides the ordinary provisions supplied by the farm, the estate generally would
afford game and wildfowl ; the park and the waters in it would supply venison and
freshwater fish of several kinds ; and the gardens and orchards all sorts of fruits and
vegetables ; so that there would be nothing to purchase for the house, except groceries
and chandlery. I have often partaken of very elegant dinners at a house in one of the
midland counties, where the table was supplied almost exclusively with home produce.
We had not, perhaps, a dish of sea-fish ; but we had what was much better than half-stale
fish, procured from London at great expense, or from a neighbouring town when it had
been, perhaps, ten days out of the water ; instead of this, we had a dish of the finest carp
or tench 1 ever met with, or probably a jack, or eels, each taken from the stew-ponds
immediately before dinner, and thus eaten in the highest perfection. The meat, poultry,
and game were all home produce ; and, perhaps, a dish of oranges was the only foreign
article at the dessert, which always presented a display of the finest sorts of forced and
natural fruit. If it be said that it would be, perhaps, better economy to buy than to
produce these luxuries, I answer, that, in that case, things are not well managed ; and
probably the owner of the place is a thoughtless idle person, who does not make him-
self properly acquainted with his own concerns. But, supposing it to be rather more
expensive to produce than to purchase luxuries ; at all events, when you produce them,
you have them in great abundance ; they are always ready on any sudden emergency; and,
in fact, you have them much oftener than you would do, were you obliged to procure
them from a dealer. Besides this, by producing, you afford employment and a comfort-
able maintenance to many of your dependants, who would otherwise, perhaps, be supported
by the poor's rate, or be breaking stones upon the roads. But the most important
reason why a country gentleman should farm to a certain extent is, that it introduces
him to a knowledge of agriculture, and every thing connected with land, and thus
qualifies him to superintend the management of his own estate. The produce of his
own farm would enable him to form a correct judgment as to the rent he should receive
from his tenants. He may try experiments, and introduce useful modern improvements
among the neighbouring farmers. A knowledge of agriculture will also increase his
ability to be useful as a country gentleman and justice of the peace ; and will cause him
to be more thought of by his neighbours, who are apt to despise those who are wholly
ignorant of rural pursuits. The management of a farm is also an additional source of
out-door amusement to a person residing in a retired part of the country ; and it more-
over adds to his weight and consequence, by increasing the number of his dependants ;
besides giving him a knowledge of the condition of the labouring classes, and enabling
him to do them many little kindnesses, such as finding an industiious man a job when
he is out of work, which he probably could not do if he did not occupy a farm. For these
and other reasons, I think every country gentleman should be a farmer to a certain
extent ; the size of the farm to be determined by the wants of his family. But I would
not have him a large farmer, because a large farm is more a source of anxiety than
amusement : it would occupy too much of his time and attention; and, if not well managed,
would be attended with considerable expense. I would have him also a good farmer,
5 A
810 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
hut not an expensive one. His object should be, to produce abundant crops by a judi-
cious but not a costly mode of husbandry ; to adapt his production to his consumption ,
and to have little to do with baying and selling; because in this he is at the mercy of
salesmen and dealers, and would generally purchase at the highest and sell at the lowest
price. To turn the park to account, be would probably be a breeder of cattle and horses
for his own supply, as well as a grazier and arable farmer. He might keep a large stock
both of sheep and cattle, as he would have an excellent summer run for them in the park.
which I would stock hard, as it is termed, both to enliven the scene, and to keep a close
turf; long rough grass being of all things most unsightly about a gentleman's place;
indeed, the use of the park, as a place of recreation, in our moist climate, would depend
upon the closeness of the turf.
1727. The Farm Buildings should be placed at an easy distance from the house, either
within the boundary of the park, or contiguous to some part of it near a parish road.
The farm itself would, of course, be around the buildings; and a dry gravel-walk,
among the trees in the park, should be formed between it and the house. The buildings
would comprise all the requisite conveniences of a complete farmery, built round a yard,
having on one side of it a very pretty comfortable residence and garden for the bailiff,
whose wife would superintend the dairy and poultry.
1728. The Dairy. As the ladies would probably take an interest in the dairy and
poultry-yard, I would have both complete and ornamental. The plan you have given
for a dairy, § 72!), is, I am aware, the best that can be adopted ; but in the present case
I would, in some degree, sacrifice utility to ornamental effect, and not have the dairy
entirely under ground. Let us suppose it to be a pretty cottage, sunk 3 feet into the
ground, with a projecting thatched roof. At the principal entrance might be a pretty
rustic porch, over the steps which descend to the passage ; in which a door on the right
would admit you to the dairy ; the floor being paved with black and white marble in
diamonds, or a mosaic pavement that would admit of being washed and occasionally
flooded in hot weather. I once saw a dairy in which a spring rose into a marble basin in
the centre, where the pats of butter were cooled. Round the room marble slabs might be
supported on low arches ; the slabs being below the level of the outer surface, on which the
white milk-pans would be placed. The china cream-pots would stand in the two arched
recesses at one end. From the slabs to the cornice of the coved ceiling the wall might
be covered with Dutch tiles, coloured or white. A good deal of china might be intro-
duced in the dairy, both for use and ornament ; and a lady of taste might make the
dairy a pretty little bijou to show to her visiters. A second door might open to a place
where the cheese was made and pressed, or to a passage connected with the bailiff's
house, in which any airy garret would do for a cheese-room. I need not add that the
dairy scullery should be abundantly supplied with water, and that the whole should be
properly drained ; having a sink connected with the wash- vat for the waste milk and whey,
and every thing as convenient for the dairy-maid as possible. It should be in a shady
place, say in an open grove of trees, and might be built of flints or any rude masonry,
with the roof thatched ; the porch should be of unbarked trunks and boughs of trees ;
the door might be made to correspond with the porch, by covering it with the thick
stems of ivy, in a pattern, which I have seen done with a very pretty effect.
1729. The Farmery. After your description of one, it will be needless to give an
account of the various agricultural buildings ; but one thing is indispensable in a gentle-
man's farm yard, and that is, a clean path around it, paved perhaps, or dry and clean at
any rate, so that even ladies may inspect the whole, and look at the cattle without being
over shoes in dung and dirt. Farm yards are too frequently offensively dirty places,
without being necessarily so ; and cleanliness should prevail in every thing connected
with a gentleman's residence, even in the pigsty.
1730. Farm- Labourers' Lodge. As labourers expect, and perhaps justly, rather more
attention to their comforts from a gentleman than from a renting farmer, I would add to
the ordinary farm-buildings a small-sized room, with a fireplace, and a few benches and
a table, over which I would have a bed-room, containing say two plain but comfortable
beds. When labourers work at a distance from home, they usually bring their dinner
with them, which they eat, in a comfortless way, in the barn, or sometimes in the stable.
Had they such a room as I have described, they might light a wood fire, and warm their
provisions, and thus take their meals in some sort of comfort. At haytime and harvest,
and at other seasons, many labourers go a great distance for work, and are often some
weeks from home. During their absence they are frequently obliged to sleep in barns,
and have scarcely as many comforts as the cattle in the yard : but, in the building I
have mentioned, they would have a comfortable sitting-room and bed-room, which the
dairy-maid might keep clean ; it might also he part of her duty to dress their provisions,
and thus they woidd have most of the ordinary conveniences which they find at home.
Where the under carters or ploughboys sleep at the farm, as they do in some countries
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 811
in miserable lofts over the stables, I would have a bed-room provided for them in the
bailiff's lodge, that they might be under his inspection. Young labourers often acquire
habits of drunkenness and immorality by sleeping at the farm, where they are away from
the control of parents and masters ; one of the many evils which have arisen to the
peasantry from the system of large farms. When the land was in small farms, the young
carters and ploughboys usually slept and boarded in the master's house.
1731. The Keeper's Lmhjc. I believe I have now mentioned all the usual appur-
tenances to a gentleman's country residence, except the keeper's lodge, which should
be a pretty picturesque cottage, on a woody eminence in the park, where it would be
extremely ornamental.
1732. The Village. I will add a few observations upon the sort of village which would
contribute to the general beauty of the place. I should choose to have the village at no
great distance from the house, for the sake of cheerfulness. A pretty comfortable village
is always a pleasing object, and even the "rural sounds" of a village, when heard at a
distance, would remove that unpleasant feeling of cheerless solitude, which is often expe-
rienced at a secluded country-house. The large mansion of a nobleman is often placed
in a very retired situation, in the centre of an immense park. The numerous visiters,
and the host of servants and retainers, produce a sort of bustle and cheerfulness about
it, while the family is resident there ; but, when silence reigns around the deserted
mansion, it is commonly as cheerless as a palace in the wilderness. As I should desire,
therefore, to have the villa in the immediate neighbourhood of a village for the sake of
cheerfulness, I should, of course, wish it to be a pretty village ; because no other can be
cheerful. Now, there are several kinds of pretty villages. The effect of an irregular
street of old-fashioned cottages is often highly picturesque ; but I should prefer a scattered
village, in which the houses are arranged in groups, as being more convenient, and gene-
rally more pleasing. Cottages crowded together in a continued row have too much of
the appearance, and have in fact many of the inconveniences and nuisances, of a dirty
back street in a country town. The people live too close together ; if the street be
narrow, the houses are dark ; there is not a free circulation of air, nor space for proper
drainage, and the gardens are necessarily small narrow slips, shaded by the numerous trees
and hedgerows, and of course unproductive. These inconveniences are avoided, and a
more cheerful effect produced, where the bouses are scattered in irregular groups, and at
irregular distances, on each side of the road, and around the village green ; some of the
farm houses, with their numerous buildings standing at a little distance in fields, and the
whole embellished by the surrounding pastures and hedgerow timber. Under this
arrangement you have not the nuisance of a dirty village street ; the cottages are more
light and cheerful ; the gardens and orchards would be more extensive and more pro-
ductive ; and the cottage allotments, whether of arable land or pasture, might be con-
tiguous to the houses. Supposing, then, that the approach to the park entrance of the
villa was through a scattered village, we will suppose, in the first place, that a good road
passes through it, wide and open, and always dry and clean. At the beginning of the
village the Louses would be thinly scattered on one or both sides of the road. Perhaps
the first dwelling you would observe, would be a respectable farm house and buildings
standing retired from the road, in a field, with a few old trees around it. A little farther
on, perhaps a pretty double cottage, with its orchards and low outhouses, would stand
on a gentle eminence backed by a copse ; opposite to it a break in the hedgerow timber
would probably let in a view with a group of cottages in the fields at a short distance.
As you proceed, the groups of cottages would most likely increase in number, some close
to the road, others a little removed from it, all well sheltered by hedgerows and trees ;
till you pass by a rude bridge over a shallow stream which crosses the village green, and
runs along a rocky channel for a short distance near the road ; the banks fringed with
underwood. At that end of the green where the high road crosses it would be some of
the village tradesmen's houses ; in a retired spot, at the other end, would be a pretty
building for the school ; and round the whole a few scattered cottages and farm houses,
and plenty of trees. A narrow road would in all probability branch off from the main
road across the green, passing through the brook by a ford ; the green would also be
intersected by footpaths, and there would most likely be stepping-stones, or one or two
rude foot-bridges over the brook : it would not be a pretty green without a few old thorns,
and two or three old trees, or groups of trees, scattered over it. Of course, there would
generally be a donkey or two, or perhaps two or three of the cottagers' cows, or some
geese grazing on it ; and there would always be children playing, and the villagers passing
to and fro, to contribute to the rural effect of the scene. When the road had passed the
green, the cottages would probably be less frequent, and the trees thicker in the hedge-
rows as you advance to the park gate, which would appear to terminate the road ; which
would, however, branch off to the right or left as convenience required before you reached
the gate. The above is a description of hundreds of villages to be seen in all parts of
812 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
England. A person having such a village mar his place would, probably, not improve
it by altering the accidental arrangement of the groups of cottages ; and, if these chanced
to be old unci picturesque, much taste and judgment would he required in rebuilding <>r
repairing them. I should scarcely have courage to pull down a fine old specimen of a
picturesque cottage, unless in a east' of extreme necessity. Generally speaking, an old
cottage may be so repaired and restored" as to preserve the picturesque exterior, while the
interior was made convenient and comfortable: but when an old cottage stands in a
damp unpleasant situation, and presents an exterior too wretched and ruinous to be
pleasingly picturesque, in that case it is a nuisance, and should of course be rebuilt upon
a better site- a ruin of any kind, though generally a picturesque object, being never a
pleasin" one, when it is supposed to be the squalid habitation of a wretched fellow-creature.
In rebuilding the cottages, 1 should use the material most prevalent in the neighbourhood,
that the village might form a whole. Every district produces its proper building
material : thus, in some counties, stone is the prevailing material ; in others, brick ; in
others, chalk and flints. A mixture of houses of all these materials would only have an
appearance of propriety, where all were procured in the immediate neighbourhood. Stone
is Generally the best and most picturesque material ; and most people have taste enough to
perceive the staring disagreeable effect of a new red brick cottage, when placed in contrast
with old stone buildings. There is an exception to this in favour of a mixture of wooden
framework, filled up with brick or plaster ; this being an early mode of building, of which
some specimens remain in most neighbourhoods ; and such cottages are always picturesque.
In the case of rebuilding a village, great judgment would be required in selecting the
designs, as, however beautiful the situation might be, the pleasing effect of the whole
would depend chiefly upon the style of the buildings. In selecting the designs, there-
fore, there are two or three things that I would especially avoid. In the first place, I
would on no account have the cottages all alike ; and in the second place, I would discard
those fanciful comfortless dwellings which are often erected as ornamental cottages. In
my opinion, a cottage should present a picturesque simple exterior, conveying an idea of
internal comfort and convenience ; and models of this kind are most common, I think,
among our old-fashioned English cottages. I would build them chiefly in this style,
beginning with that style of cottage in which wooden framework prevails, and imitating
all the various kinds of picturesque houses which are suitable to cottage residences. In
many cases a cottage might be rebuilt exactly as it was in its old state, and, in pulling
down, some of the old parts might be sufficiently good to remain ; and I should, there-
fore, suffer such parts to remain, and build to them when they happened to present1 a
pleasing specimen of picturesque Architecture. If the cottages were thus managed,
judiciously grouped, and properly mixed with the enclosures and timber trees, a pretty
interesting village might be produced in almost any situation ; but, its beauty would be
greatly increased, if it chanced to stand on a well wooded varied surface, and near to the
boundary of the richly wooded park of a gentleman's residence.
1733. The Village Church. The beauty of the village would be very incomplete with-
out a handsome village church ; and, though I describe it last in order, I consider it first
in importance, and would make it the most interesting feature about the place. In all
rural scenery, the towers and spires of churches generally form the most striking objects
in the landscape. To a man of cultivated mind, who has resided much in the country,
there is always something interesting in the appearance of a village church, in which he
and the lowly rustic can both forget their cares, and worship God in peace ; and
where all must be laid " each in his narrow cell," when the cares and enjoyments of this
life are quenched in death. But I am far from considering this as a mere matter of
taste. I will suppose the owner of the villa I have described a perfect specimen of a
respectable country gentleman, formed after the model of Evelyn of Wootton : a man of
taste and refinement, a respectable scholar, an affectionate husband, a good father, a
kind master, a considerate landlord, the true friend and general resource of his poorer
neighbours, and a man of sincere and unaffected piety. A person of this character
would think it a discredit to his taste and better feelings to have a comfortless dilapidated
church. He would rather wish to have it a beautiful interesting edifice, worthy of the
purpose to which it is devoted. We will suppose it, therefore, a fine old building, in
the florid style of Gothic, preserved by his ancestors, with religious care, in its original
state. As the population of the parish would be small, we will suppose the church to
consist only of an ample nave and chancel, with two small transepts; and a handsome
tower or spire at the west end, or over the intersection of the transepts. The windows
would be small, except the great east window, and all filled with stained glass ; those
in the nave having old coats of arms ; and in the east window a fine scripture subject.
Entering the church by a rich porch at the south side, near the lower end, on your left
would be the beautiful old Gothic font; over it the richly carved oak loft, for the organ,
schools, and singers. Standing under the loft there would be a perspective view up the
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA. 813
aisle to the chancel, terminated by the cast window. On each side the aisle would he
old oak benches, the ends richly carved with ornamental fineals ; facing you on one side
of the chancel arch would be the carved oak pulpit, on the other the reading-desk.
One transept would be the vestry, in which would be the stairs to the pulpit ; the
other transept would contain the descent to the hot air stove under the church; and the
coals, &c, used about the church. I would have the chancel wainscoted with carved
oak, in the manner of cathedral choirs, as high as the windows ; the floor paved with
marble ; the ceiling of the chancel vaulted, having very rich tracery and bosses ; that of
the nave, oak in a rich framework, embellished with coats of arms, and supported by
handsome corbels. I do not mention pews, as I would not have any in the church.
The most beautiful interior of a village church I have seen, was that of one rebuilt by
a peer of high rank, now deceased, and one of the most excellent of men in every
relation of life. It did not contain a single pew. The peer and the peasant each sat
on the same sort of seat ; an open bench with a desk affixed to the back, such as are still
seen in many of our old churches. Pews are comparatively a modern introduction, and
often greatly disfigure a beautiful church. The churchyard should have a handsome
gateway. It woidd probably contain a few picturesque yews or cypresses, numerous
tombstones, and, perhaps, a handsome erection covering the entrance to the vault of the
principal family in the parish ; and the whole would acquire a secluded and rather
solemn effect from the surrounding timber in the park. Such a religious edifice would
be worthy of its situation ; and with it I shall conclude my description of the villa and
its appendages.
Sect. II. Map of the Demesne and Park, and Ground Plan and Elevations of the
House, of Beau Ideal Villa.
1734. The Engravings which form the subject of this section are from drawings sent by
the author of the preceding description (Selim). The map of the grounds has been
very slightly altered by us, in order to vary the form of the boundary of the park, and
to show, somewhat more in detail, the gardens and pleasure-grounds. The plans and
elevations of the house have been kindly revised by one of the most distinguished
Villa Architects of the present day, Charles Barry, Esq.
1785. The Demesne is shown in fig. 1435, in which a is the entrance court to the
mansion; b, the kitchen-court; c, the stable-court; d, the gardener's house. On the
north-west front is an ancient geometrical garden, with a straight walk to the ter-
race, e, on the side of the steep and thickly wooded hill. The upper and under sides
of this terrace are supposed to be planted with evergreens and bulbs, so as to form
a winter garden. There are three alcove seats on it, open to the south. The two
extremities of this walk join other narrower walks, which descend to the American
garden at the west end, and a botanic garden at the end opposite. In front of the
drawing-room side of the mansion there is a descent from the terrace into an ancient
English parterre, ornamented with statues, vases, fountains, and a sundial. The walks
on the side of the wooded hill are of turf, but those in the lower parts of the grounds
are chiefly of gravel, f The situation of the ice-house, in a rising bank near the river,
for the convenience of filling it with ice ; g, the keeper's lodge, and dog-kennels, on
rising ground, and partially concealed by wood ; h, the deer-sheds, with hay-stacks in
front, for feeding the deer during winter ; i, a circular Grecian temple, on rising ground,
seen from the house ; j and k; waterfalls, seen from the house ; I, ornamental pigeon-
house ; m, dairy-house and farmery to the mansion ; n, entrance lodges and garden ;
o, school-house on the village green; p, road through the village to the turnpike;
q, parish road, passing through the estate ; r, farms belonging to the proprietor of the
demesne ; s, water-mill ; t, parsonage-house, garden, and glebe ; u, church ; v, cottages
of the village ; w, common, for the pasturage of the cottagers' cows during summer ;
.r, stone quarry ; y, rocky copse ; z, thick copsewood, and rising hills thickly covered
with wood, intersected by green walks and grassy glades ; a', orchard ; b', sunk fence,
enclosing the gardens and pleasure-ground, and changing into an iron fence where it
enters the wooded hill ; c, a portion of the park beyond the parish road ; the fence on
each side of the road being either a sunk wall or ha-ha, or open iron fencing, so as to
show the passengers from the house ; d', a hedge, allowed to remain, in order to har-
monise the park with the enclosures beyond ; e', protruding hedges, for the same purpose ;
f'f'i two points, between which the boundary of the park is formed by an iron fence
concealed in the natural copsewood ; g' g', walks on each side of the river, open at all
times to the villagers and the public. The other walks, and the public rooms of the
house, may be supposed to be open for public inspection two days in the week, h' h',
Continuation of enclosed country, divided into farms, and interspersed with copses, the
distance rising into hills; i', great public road to the metropolis; k' k1 and I' l', con-
tinuation of the estate.
SH COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1435
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA.
1435
815
bo
BEAU IDEAL OF AN ENGLISH VILLA.
819
Fig. 14S8, the garden-court, or north-west, front of Beau Ideal Villa.
Fig. 1439 is the ground plan, in which a is the entrance porch; b, the hall ; c, the
8^0
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
drawingroom ; </, the saloon ; ,-, the library ; /, ttie terrace, with a descent to an ancient
flower-garden; g, the lower gallery; h, the lower housemaid's closet; i, the principal
stairs ; k, the back stairs, which descend also to the cellars , /, the dining-room ;
m, gentleman's private room; n, china closet; o, butler's pantry; p, store-room;
q, still-room ; r, housekeeper's room ; s, passage to the offices ; t, back entrance to the
house; u, entrance to the kitchen-court, in which court there is an outer entrance to
the cellars ; v, servants' hall ; w, kitchen ; x, back kitchen ; y, servants' dressing-room ;
z, place for cleaning shoes ; a', cleaning place ; I/', dry larder ; c', wet larder ; d' , coal-
house ; e', wood-house ; f, place for ashes ; g, entrance to the kitchen-court ; h', brew-
house, with laundry over it; £', covered passage; k', wash-house; I', store-room, the
laundry extending over it also ; m', gentlemen's privy, entered from the garden; n', upper
servants' privy ; u, privy for female servants ; ;>', men-servant's privy ; q', stable-yard ;
r', park; *', drying-court; t', garden; and u', kitchen garden.
Fig. 1440 is a plan of the chamber-floor; in which a is an entrance to the upper
gallery from the stairs ; b, a closet; c, bed-rooms ; d, dressing-rooms; e, dressing-room ;
f, bed-room ; g, dressing-room ; h, dressing-room, or small bed-room ; i, lady's dressing-
room ; k, gentleman's dressing-room, both connected with the family bed-room, u;
I, bath-room; m, dressing-room; n, backstairs; o, men-servants' bed-rooms; p, closet;
q, stairs • and r, bed-rooms for the men-servants of strangers. Besides these bed-
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
821
rooms, there should be a floor of rooms for the female servants, and a nursery over the
wing next the offices, the windows looking over the offices. The bed-rooms in this
wing would be occupied by the family ; and, if they were a few feet lower than the
other rooms on the best chamber floor, the garrets would be of a good height, and
might be made comfortable rooms. In some large houses, a number of the under
servants sleep in one room, without any regard to age, habits, &c. : but there are many
objections to this plan, which is often a source of great discomfort to the servants ; for
instance, those who have to sit up late, disturb those who have gone early to bed, &c.
The upper servants should have separate rooms ; and the servants of visiters should
never sleep in the same rooms with the servants of the family. The bed-rooms for the
men-servants are therefore purposely divided, so that they will not contain more than
two beds each. Fireplaces are shown in them, in case of sickness, and in order to
ventilate the rooms.
Chap. III.
Miscellaneous Designs for Villas, with various Degrees of Accommodation, and in different
Styles of Architecture. *
1736. The Designs submitted in this Chapter are a selection from more than treble the
number sent us by different Architects. They are not all to be considered perfect ;
though a number of them are so nearly so, in our eyes, that we can only speak of them
in terms of admiration. Others, though not in all respects to be held up as objects of
imitation, yet contain points of excellence in arrangement, or in style, calculated to afford
instruction. In a few, there are what we consider to be positive faults; but these we
have endeavoured to turn to the advantage of the student ; convinced that as much, or
even more, instruction is to be given by pointing out faults and their causes, as by
exhibiting and explaining beauties. The order followed, as in the preceding chapters
of the same kind, is miscellaneous.
Design I. — A Grecian Villa, of a medium Size, for a Gentleman of Fortune.
1737. The Situation is supposed to be in a park, as shown in the general plan,
fig. 1441, in which a a are two approaches; b, the wire fence separating the park from
I^Qs/
822
COTTAGE, FARM, AMI) VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
the pleasure-ground ; c, a lake, with island?
house, and gradually becoming narrower
as it recedes from it on each side, till,
at the distance of the American garden,
/, on the right, and the flower-garden, k,
on the left, it is reduced from twelve feet
to eight feet ; and when it arrives at the
bridges, it is reduced to six feet; e e,
the bridges over the lake ; /, the kitchen-
court ; ;/, the stable-yard ; /(, the melon-
ground ; i, the kitchen-garden ; k, the
flower-garden; /, the American garden;
anil m, irregular groups of showy flowers
and shrubs. The house, as seen at the
point n, on the approach from the left,
will appear as in fig. 1443.
1738. Accommodation. The ground
floor, fig. 1442, contains a, portico, a;
entrance hall and billiard-room, b, twenty-
four feet by eighteen feet ; drawingroom,
c, forty feet by twenty feet; library, d,
twenty-four feet by eighteen feet ; prin-
cipal staircase and lobby, e ; and dining-
room,^ twenty-eight feet by twenty feet :
all these apartments are thirteen feet
high. There are a butler's pantry, g,
with plate-closet, h, adjoining; back
staircase, i ; pantry, Ic ; dairy, I ; servants'
hall, m ; scullery, n ; kitchen, o ; entrance
to the offices, p ; place for cleaning shoes,
q ; place for cleaning knives, r ; dust-hole,
s ; place for wood, t ; place for coals, u ;
groom's room, v ; laundry, w, twenty feet
by eighteen feet ; wash-house, x, twenty
feet by eighteen feet ; dung-pit, y ; three
coach-houses, z ; nag stable for two
horses, at '; saddle-horse stable for three
horses, twenty-six feet by eighteen feet,
b' ; harness-room, c1 ; coach-horse stable
for three horses, twenty-six feet by
eighteen feet, dt; stable-yard, e'; kitchen
and drying yard, /'; covered way to the
laundry, by the stable, g, leading into the
kitchen-lobby at one end, and into the
stable-yard lobby at the other. Fig. 1444
is a plan of the chamber floor, containing
a principal staircase, a; four best bed-
rooms, b; bath-room, c; four dressing-
rooms, d ; corridor, e ; nursery, f; four
family bed-rooms, g ; linen-closet, h ; and
back staircase, t.
1739. Construction. The walls are
supposed to be of brick, covered with
Roman cement, coloured in imitation of
stone, and the roof slated.
1740. General Estimate. The entire
contents of the house are 164,648 feet,
which may be estimated at nine-pence per
foot, or i/6r74 : 14s. : 4d.; those of the
offices, 67,764 feet, which may be esti-
mated at sixpence per foot, or ,£J1694 : 2s.
1741. Remarks. This Design has been
furnished us by an eminent Villa Archi-
tect. It is remarkably complete, more
particularly in respect to its kitchen and
stable offices. We have supposed it to
; </, the main walk, broadest in front of the
it f m
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
s-s
be placed on a gentle eminence, in a tame fertile country; and we have disposed of the
approaches, walks, kitchen-garden, and other details of a villa residence, in the
manner which is now generally considered as in
the best modern English taste. The water is
supposed to be on a considerably lower level than
the house, and to have such a supply as to keep
it always clear; and it is therefore less likely to
generate mephitic vapours. The grouping of the ^
trees and shrubs, the botanical interest of their
different kinds, the water, the grass, and the gravel,
constitute the home or foreground beauties of such a
residence ; and those of the distance are very seldom
of any marked character in the midland counties of
England. A hill is rarely to be seen, a mountain
never ; and all that can be hoped for, is a peep at the
spire of the village church. A village, a town, a
farm-house, a cottage, or the appearance of another
villa, at a nearer distance than two or three miles, is
considered an intolerable nuisance by the high
aristocracy of England. The great object, in laying
out the grounds of villas for this class of society, is,
to produce the appearance of an interminable natural
forest; the villa being placed in one of its most
agreeable glades, and every thing seen around ap-
pearing to belong to it : such is the kind of solitary
grandeur described as the summum bonum of an
English country residence. The essential cause of
this feeling is to be found in the immense chasm
which exists between the rich and the poor in this
country, not only in point of wealth, but in point of
cultivation and taste.
Design II. — The Accommodations of a Villa of moderate Size, exhibited in the Ground Plan
of the House and Offices, and their relative Connection with the Gardens and Grounds.
174'2. The Object of this Design is, to show by lines, rather than words, the requisite
arrangement of a moderate-sized villa, where accommodation is more the object than
architectural display. It has been furnished us, at our request, by James Main, Esq., of
Chelsea, and evinces his knowledge of what is requisite to constitute a country residence,
as well as his good taste and great experience as a landscape-gardener. No elevation is
given, because we have judged it expedient to afford the young Architect an opportunity
of devising one, either in the Gothic or Grecian style. Besides, the object, in this
Design, is to confine the attention to the accommodation required, and to the connection
of the house and the offices with the kitchen and other gardens, the pleasure-ground
fence, and the approach-roads and walks.
1 743. The General Arrangement is shown in fig. 1445. The grounds consist of a kitchen-
garden, containing about two acres, and dressed ground exterior to it, and including a
lawn surrounding the house ; the whole separated from the park by an endless dotted
line in the figure, representing an open iron railing, or a sunk fence, or ha-ha. Beyond
this dressed ground, the park may extend to fifty or one hundred acres, or upwards. In
the general plan, a is the entrance-court and offices ; b, the coach-yard court, with two
dung-pits surrounded by low walls ; c, drying-ground ; d, conservatory, with flower-
garden around ; e, ice-house, formed under a raised mound planted with evergreens ; the
door is in the sunk fence, indicated by the dotted iine which encloses the whole of the
dressed ground and the kitchen-garden, and /, the melon-ground; g, compartment fur
824 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1445
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
825
asparagus, sea-kale, rhubarb, and osher articles, with two mushroom sheds marked 7, ?;
A, slips, enclosed by thorn or holly hedges; the outside Ixiiders plaited with small fruit
trees and fruit shrubs; t, range of hot-houses; viz., two peach-houses, a vinery, and two
pineries; k, sheds behind the hot-houses; /, mould-yard; m, orchard; n, aquarium and
rock work ; o, gate of the cart-road to the coach-yard, mould-yard, and sheds ; p, basin
of water in the centre of the garden ; q q, lines of approach to the entrance-court. The
advantages of tins disposition of the house, offices, and pleasure-ground of a villa,
Mr. Main observes, " are, the compactness and unity of design which it presents. Even-
thing, whether useful or ornamental, necessary to render such a residence complete, is
here included within the sunk fence. From the endless walk within this fence is seen,
over a foreground of lawn and trees and shrubs, the scenery of the park, and the
features of the surrounding country, whatever they may be. Any necessary sub-
divisions of the park, for agricultural purposes, may be made, without in the slightest
degree interfering with the ground consecrated to the house. Various statues, sculptures,
vases, and other architectural ornaments, may be distributed among the flower-beds near
the house, and along the endless walk. A gardener's house may be placed in the
orchard, or behind the vinery at i, exactly in the centre of the range of glass ; and the
living and sleeping rooms should be so high as to overlook the whole of the garden and
the orchard.
1744. Accommodation. The ground plan is shown in fig. 1447. The main entrance
is through the archway, a, into the court, 6 ; from which there are a portico, c, and
passage leading to the central hall, d ; round this hall are arranged the following apart-
ments; viz., dining-room, e; drawing-room, J"; small drawing-room, g ; library, h ;
breakfast-room, i ; housekeeper's room, j; passage, leading from the kitchen and back
stairs, k ; butler's pantry, I ; passage, with linen closets and presses along the walls,
leading to the housekeeper's room, m ; entrance to the cellars, and laundry-stairs, &c, n ;
laundry, with coal-cellar under, o, ; wash-house, p, with a cellar under it, and back stairs
to the drying-ground, which is on a level with the floor of the coal-cellar ; coal-house, q ;
knife-hole, r ; wood-house, s ; ash-hole, t ; man's water-closet, ■ ; groom's harness-room,
with a bed-room over it, v ; riding-horse stables, with a loft, w ; archway between the
stables, x ; coach-horse stables, with loft over them, y ; coach-harness room, and bed-
room over, z; coach-houses, §• ; bakehouse, a ; scalding-house, with pump, b'; dairv, c ';
covered passage, with stairs to the rooms over the scullery and dairy, a*; scullery, e ;
larder, f'\ kitchen, </' ; passage from the kitchen to the main body of the house, A';
servants' hall, i'; open alcove, k'. There is a drying-yard at I, a kitchen-yard at m',
and a dung-pit in the direction of n. The chamber floor, fig. 1446, contains a gallery
into which all the bed-room doors
open, a ; four bed-rooms, b ; with four
dressing-rooms, c ; a bath-room, or
bed-room for an upper servant, d ; and
back stairs, e. There is a ladies' water-
closet, f, with a lobby, and screen-door
from the gallery.
1745. Remarks. There is a great
deal of comfort in this Design, and
much economy of both room and
labour is produced by entering through
the general court, in which the carriages
of strangers may stand, so as to be
easily called at all times. The whole
of the doors to the servants' offices
around this court are so contrived as
to be directly under the eye of the
housekeeper. The distance of the
kitchen from the dining-room will bo
objected to by some, as incurring the
risk of cooling the dinner ; while it
will be approved of by others, as insur-
ing the absence of all kitchen smells in the main bodvof the house. Many will consider
the central hall much too large, and object to all the doors of the bed-rooms opening
into one gallery ; others, on the contrary, will approve of this arrangement, on account
of its simplicity. In laying out the grounds about the house, a terrace, and those
other architectural appendages for which we have been contending, Chapter I., § 1648
to § 1674, will, of course, not be forgotten, either in this Design, or in the preceding
one ; though, in both cases, the ground plans are too small to show them properly.
5 c
1446
826'
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Design III. — A Suburban Villa of Two Acres and a half, the House and Grounds built
and laid out by an Architect for his own Residence.
1746. Tlie Situation of this villa is within a mile and a half of London, on a surface
which originally sloped gently to the north ; but which had been rendered as irregular
as could be desired, by pits excavated for gravel and brick earth. By deepening and
extending the largest pit, a basin for a considerable piece of water has been obtained ; and,
by taking advantage of three heaps of earth, one knoll has been formed, on which to
place the house; another, of irregular shape, to crown with wood; and a third, smaller, and
very steep on one side, to face with rock as a promontory projecting into the water, and
concealing its boundary from every point, and as a nidus for rock plants, ferns, &c.
1747. The Grounds. Fig. 1448 is a general plan, showing the position of the house,
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
827
828 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
and the manner in which the grounds are laid out. In this plan, a is the main entrance ; 6,
the entrance portico of the house ; c, the kitchen and stahle court; d, the stahle and coach-
house ; e, a door in the wall bounding the entrance court, by which the grounds may he
entered without passing through the house ; /, a circular group to be filled with
geraniums, or other showy green-house plants, during summer ; g, a billiard-room, with
a concealed entrance in the back of an alcove seat, the room lighted from the roof; h,
a rosary in the shape of a horseshoe, a dial being placed in the centre, the pedestal of
which is formed of one of the balusters of Old London Bridge; i, a basin with a bronze
fountain in the centre, in the form of a dolphin, which spouts up water to a considerable
height ; the margin of the basin is of marble, surmounted by pedestals and vases, and
the space of lawn between it and the walk is varied by choice evergreen herbaceous
plants, such as pinks, carnations, sweetwilliams, double wallflowers, &c. ; k, rubbish
ground, with gardener's working-sheds for pots, tools, &c., as well as for protecting during
winter the vases and statues which are set out in summer; I, a grotto, having the ap-
pearance of a rock externally, and partially covered with ivy and creepers; in the interior
is a circular marble table, on which, during summer, are kept a machine for procuring
instantaneous light, and a box of cigars in a double wooden case, disguised as a book, to
preserve them from the damp ; m is an American garden comprising a choice collection of
shrubs and plants, and ornamented with several select statues and vases, the pedestals of
which alone remain during winter ; n is a collection of herbaceous plants ; o, summit of the
wooded knoll, covered with an open grove of pine trees ; p, shady grass walk for the
hottest days of summer ; q, a wire fence on the top of a concealed wall, which admits
an interesting view of the country beyond ; r, wall and fruit border facing the south ; s,
the gardener' s cottage, the plan of which will be hereafter given ; t, a plot devoted to
aromatic herbs ; u, the melon-ground, sunk three feet beneath the general surface of the
garden, and surrounded by a hedge of box ; v, kitchen-garden ; w, a high knoll with a
steep side covered with rockwork and creepers on the west, and crowned with a terminal
statue of colossal dimensions from the antique, supported on a pedestal of granite ; x,
fruit wall and border with western aspect ; y, octagon bower having in the centre a
magnificent bacchanal vase from the antique ; 2, descent of three steps from the dining-
room ; the fall from this part of the walk to the surface of the water is nearly twenty
feet ; and §•, a descent of three steps from the drawingroom to the garden.
1748. The Planting of the Grounds. The objects in laying out the grounds of this
villa were, to obtain a sufficient extent of walks for all necessary exercise and recreation,
within the boundary wall ; to produce as much variety as possible, independently of
architectural beauty and distant scenery ; to include a small kitchen-garden ; tc
mature the best hardy fruits ; and to display a collection of the most select ornamental
trees, shrubs, and flowers. For this purpose, the more choice peaches and nectarines
are placed on the wall r, in fig. 1448, having a south aspect; the grapes to be covered
with glass, on the same wall, next the gardener's house ; and figs, apricots, and the more
choice cherries, plums, and pears, on the wall x, having a western exposure. Apples, are
distributed through the grounds, and also such pears, plums, and cherries as will bear in
the climate of London (and most kinds do so), on standards. One or two specimens of
walnuts, sweet chestnuts, mulberries, quinces, medlars, azaroles, true service, cornels,
and similar fruit trees, are also distributed through the grounds. There is a collection
of rock plants on the rocky precipice which forms the steep side of the peninsula, w ; of
herbaceous plants in the circle n ; of American trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants in
the circle m ; of bulbs among the rose trees at A, and in the circle^ among the pelar-
goniums ; both of which are taken up when they have done flowering, and the bed filled
with box trees, and similar shady evergreens in pots. In the other planted parts of the
grounds are select trees, shrubs, and flowers grouped so as to have all the species of each
genus at no great distance from one another, and so as not to repeat any genus twice,
except those including fruit trees, American evergreens, and bulbous-rooted plants.
These are distributed generally, in order to harmonise the whole. In the melon-ground,
the frames are supported on brickwork, in an improvement of M'Phail's manner, with
narrow paths of brick between each range of frames, and with the dung linings covered
with boards, so that the whole is as clean, orderly, and neat, as a flower-garden, at all
seasons of the year.
1749. The House. The general appearance of the entrance front is shown in fig.
1449 ; and the view of one end from the garden is shown in fig. 1452. Fig. 1450 is the
basement plan, in which a is the kitchen-yard ; ft, a place for bottles, empty casks, jars,
&c. ; c, a dust-hole ; d, coals ; e, scullery, with sink and boiler ; f, kitchen, with Metheley's
improved roaster, and hot closet over ; and with a stewing-hearth and dresser ; g is a
.store-cellar ; h, a beer-cellar ; i, cellar for ale, cider, perry, &c. ; k, wine-cellar (in this
cellar arc two large bins, capable of holding a pipe of port, and another of sherry,
besides fifty other bins, subdivided by slate, in which, when we saw it in 1828, were
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
829
-'."_•' ^-
fifty different sorts of wine, besides spirits and liquors in bins, with temporary sub-
divisions) ; /, butler's pantry, fourteen feet by ten feet; m, larder, beside which there are
a closet for common liquors, and other articles, and re, butler's sleeping-room. Fig. 1451
is the plan of the principal floor ; in which o is the porch ; p, the entrance hall and
staircase, eighteen feet by nine feet ; q, the library, twenty-five feet by twenty feet,
having folding-doors, so as to separate it at pleasure into two rooms ; and r, the dining-
room, twenty feet by eighteen feet, with a principal entrance and servants' entrance, and
the sideboard placed in a recess between them. Behind the sideboard is a magnificent
mirror (filling the whole of a semicircular recess, the diameter of which is of the length
of the sideboard), which reflects the garden, including the lake, the knoll to the left, and
the promontory, crowned by the colossal terminal statue. In the centre of the dining-
room is a fixed circular table, on a principle which will be shown under Villa Furniture,
capable, in its ordinary form, of dining eight persons ; and, by addition of marginal rims,
each of which is a segment of a circle, twenty inches broad, of dining twenty persons.
In the floor, at the upper and lower ends of the table, are springs attached to the under
1 452
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
831
side of movable boards, covered, like the rest of the floor, by the carpet, but distinguished
by their adjoining the claws of the column which supports the table. By pressing on
these parts slightly with the foot, the master or mistress can ring a servant's bell, at
pleasure, without rising from the table. The drawing-room is shown at s, twenty-
five feet by twenty feet, exquisitely finished, with a fireplace by Metheley, having
polished steel sides placed at an angle of 45°, which reflect the fire, and produce a
singularly brilliant effect, as well as throw out great heat ; the ceiling is beautifully
painted in imitation of sky and clouds, and the cornices are richly carved and gilt.
Fig. 14.53 is the plan of the chamber floor, in which ttt are three principal bed-rooms,
1453
and u a dressing-room with a bath. At any moment throughout the year a hot or
cold bath may be obtained, without troubling the servants, by the following means : there
is a cold-water cistern under the roof, and a hot-water cistern at the back of the kitchen
fireplace : in this last cistern there is a coil of lead pipes, one end of the pipe commu-
nicating with the cold-water cistern above, and the other with the bath. By turning a
cock in the bath-room, the water descends from the cistern under the roof, is heated
in passing through the coil of pipes behind the kitchen fire, and ascends by the pressure
of the atmosphere on the cistern to the bath. Another cock and pipe, leading directly
from the cistern, admit cold water to the bath, so as to temper it at pleasure ; and a
third pipe serves to convey away the water when done with. The cover of the bath is
fitted with a basin, so as to serve as a dressing-table. We have seen this bath filled in
the course of a few minutes, and can attest its answering most completely. There are
two small bed-rooms, v v ; a water-closet, w ; a linen-closet, x ; and a dressing-room or
nursery, y, to one of the bed-rooms.
1750. Construction. The walls are of brick, eighteen inches thick, and laid in Ro-
man cement to the height of the principal floor ; above which they are hollow, and
about fourteen inches in thickness ; exteriorly, they are covered with Roman cement,
drawn (that is, with the courses and sizes of the stones marked by lines), and tinted in
imitation of Bath stone. The roof is covered with blue slates, and the chimney-tops
are terminated by square chimney-pots, also tinted in imitation of stone. The basement
floor has the pavement laid hollow, and the outside walls are protected by half arches, so
that this floor is as dry as any part of the house. Cast-iron bricks are built in the out-
side walls, so as to admit a circulation of air between the floors and ceilings. The
billiard-room, fig. 1448, g, is finished within, in imitation of stone, with a coved ceiling,
double skylight, and boarded floor ; it is heated by one of Sylvester's low air-stoves, to
be hereafter figured and described. The billiard-table is of cast iron.
1751. The Gardener's House is a model of contrivance and efficiency in its way. Fig.
1454 is the ground plan ; in which a is the living-room, an octagon fifteen feet in
diameter, with a fireplace, b, and a large closet or pantry, c. There is a trapdoor in
the floor at d, to a store-cellar below ; and in the centre of the ceiling there is another
trapdoor, to a seed-loft and herb-room in the roof. The stepladder, by which the loft
is entered, stands under the trapdoor to the cellar, serving as a stair to it, so that it is
always at hand to be used for going into the loft. It will be observed that this room
commands the diagonal of the space within the garden, and an entire square of space
without it, as indicated by the letters k k. The bed-room, e, commands by its two
windows the south and north sides of the wall, which lies east and west (or what, from
its aspect, is commonly called by gardeners the south wall, as indicated by the letters 1 1.
There are a scullery, f, with a sink, g ; a coal-house, h ; and water-closet, i. From
the two windows of g and i, the east and west sides of the eastern boundary of a square
garden are commanded by the gardener, as indicated by the letters m m. The gardener,
or his wife, seated in the centre of the living-room, with the bed room and scullery
832 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
k
I 154
doors open, will command, from that position, the whole of the interior of the garden.
If it were desired to add to the accommodation of this dwelling, it might easily be done
by a staircase taken from the living-room, descending to a floor below, containing the
apartments f,g, h, i, and a kitchen ; and ascending to a floor above, of either one octagon
room in the centre, or three rooms. Fig. 1455 is a perspective view of this house, as
seen placed in the north-east coiner of a walled garden. To the right and left are seen
portions of the south and west walls, and in the centre is the entrance door.
1 752. Remarks. Considering the size of this villa, its completeness, and the extent
of its accommodation, conveniences, and luxuries, exceed any thing of the kind we have
ever before met with. If we had only seen the plan, or heard of such a villa, we should
have spoken of it with some hesitation j but having been familiar with the ground before
it was built, and when it had the appearance of heaps of rubbish, and holes filled with
water ; and watched the whole of its progress, from 1 825, when our friend commenced
his operations, to the present time, we can speak with confidence relatively to the effect
of the whole, and the complete success of all the details ; we could even say a great deal
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
833
S31< COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
more, did we not fear being considered partial. We si, all, however, sum up our opinion
in one sentence, which is, that, taking the place altogether, we do not believe there is such
another in the neighbourhood of London. Such a villa, indeed, is only to be expected
from an Architect of taste, and of ample means, working for himself. Had the situation
been more favourable, the effect might have been more brilliant ; but the contrast be-
tween its present and its former state, and, by consequence, the gratification to the owner
and improver, would have been less. Notwithstanding these encomiums, we are aware
of some objections which may be made to the laying out of the grounds, as shown in the
plan, fig. 1448, and also to the exterior Architecture of the house, fig. 1449. It may be
objected to the plan, that the lines are too formal and unbroken ; but it must be recol-
lected, that scarcely any of these lines, except those of the walks, can be recognised as
lines in the reality. The plan, fig. 1448, is, in short, a working-plan, calculated to
show the "•ardener what ground is to be dug and planted, and what is to be laid down
in Tass ; together with the direction of the gravel walks. The single trees and small
groups, which are indicated in the plan by crosses ( x x ), will break all the lines both ot
the du" "-roups and the water, and produce an effect altogether different from that
shown in \\". 1448. Even the spreading of the shrubs over the margins of the dug
"■roups will totally destroy that appearance of lines which forms the prominent feature
of the plan, as it appears on paper. However, independently altogether of the breaking
of these lines by vegetation, there is a certain degree of beauty which belongs to lines
and forms simply considered, and without any reference to the substance of which the
forms are composed. Now, the question is, how far our Architect has succeeded in this
kind of beauty- In most parts of the plan we think his success perfect ; but in others
we should, perhaps, have made some variation ; and the principle by which we should
have been guided in so doing would have been that of adapting the forms to their local
situations alongside of the walks. The extent, however, to which we should have done
this is not great. The effect which we should desire from such a plan as that before us,
we have endeavoured to show in fig. 145C; and this is, as nearly as possible, the actual
effect on the grounds. The great beauty which, in fig. 1456, is added to fig. 1448, is
that of intricacy ; which is a main source of visual enjoyment, by nourishing curiosity,
keeping alive attention, and stimulating the process of examination. The mind takes
delight in penetrating into recesses, and making discoveries of new beauties at every step;
in tracing, in the forms of nature and chance, something of those of art ; in bringing
shape and figure out of apparent irregularity and confusion ; and in finding everywhere,
the principle of connection and cooperation towards the formation of a beautiful and
expressive whole. The kitchen-garden is not to be considered as having any beauty as
such, further than as it produces good crops of vegetables. It is placed and arranged so
as not to interfere with the idea of extent, which is always an idea to be cherished in a
limited space ; and which, in England, is sought after by most people, as creating allu-
sions to the extensive parks and pleasure-grounds of the aristocracy. The full and cha-
racteristic beauties of a kitchen-garden are only to be obtained when it is surrounded by
walls, and laid out in right lines ; but such a garden would have totally destroyed the
effect aimed at in the place before us. With respect to the interior arrangements of
the house, and all its fittings-up, fixtures, and furniture, we are altogether incapable of
doing them justice. No room is lost in passages, not an inch of space is wasted on any
floor, and every comfort and accommodation is included that can be desired in a villa of
this size and description.
Design IV. — A Villa in the Anglo- Italian. Style, with Three principal Rooms, and with a
Stable and Coach-house.
1753. Tlie Situation intended for this villa is in the neighbourhood of Guildford in
Surrey, on the south-east of the turnpike road between Kingston and London. The
ground rises gradually from the footpath of the road, at the rate of about one foot in ten,
and the house was intended to be placed back from it about fifty feet, with the yards and
gardens arranged as shown in fig. 1457. The general appearance of the side next the
road is shown in the perspective view, fig. 1458, which is taken at the distance of 300
feet from the angle of the building. In the general plan, fig. 1457, to a scale of fifty
feet to an inch, a a are the two main entrances from the public road, n ; b is the prin-
cipal door of the house ; c, terraces ; d, road to the yard ; e, yard ; /; green-house ; g,
kitchen-garden; h, beds and borders of flowers ; i, beds and borders of trees and shrubs;
It, lawn; I, an iron fence separating the garden from the meadow; and m, communication
between the stable-yard, e, and the meadow, n. The contents of the garden, lawn,
yard, house, &c, are three roods twenty-six poles, and of the meadow, three roods three
poles,
1754. Accommodation. The basement plan, fig. 1460, shows a kitchen, twenty-four feet
by fifteen feet and a half, a ; scullery, b ; coai cellar, c ; footman's bed-room, d ; footman's
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
8S5
83(
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLAGE ARCHITECTURE.
pantry, ej beer-cellar, f; wine-
cellar, g ; larder, h ; closet, i ;
stair communicating with the
brewhousc, k, and house stair,
I. The ground plan, tig. 1-159,
shows an entrance lobby, ttt ;
hall, n ; store-room, o ; draw-
ing-room, p ; twenty-four feet
by fifteen feet nine inches, and
twelve feet high ; dining-room,
q, twenty-four feet by fifteen
feet nine inches, of the same
height; morning room, r, fif-
teen feet nine inches by four-
teen feet nine inches ; areas
to the windows of the basement
story, s ; terrace with veranda
over, t ; brewhousc, u ; coach-
house, v ; place for cleaning
♦knives and shoes, &c, w ; tool-
house and servants' privy, x ;
three-stalled stable, with loft
over, y ; bin- room, z ; and har-
ness-room, 8f. The chamber
floor, fig. 14o'l, contains a cham-
ber, a, twenty feet by fifteen feet
nine'inches, and nine feet high,
with one window to the south-
east, and another opening to a
balcony or loggia fronting the
south-west ; a chamber, b, of
similar dimensions, opening to
a loggia facing the south-east ;
a chamber, c, with a dressing-
room and bath, d, adjoining ;
another bedchamber, e, and a
water-closet, f. Over the brew-
house and coach-house are two
other rooms, g and h. The
plan of the attics, fig. 1462,
shows a large servants' room,
i, another, k ; two closets, I and
m, and another servants' room,
n. Fig. 1463 is the plan of the
hayloft, entered by a trapdoor.
1755. Construction and Ar-
rangement. Fig. 1464 is the
entrance front elevation ; and
fig. 1465 is the back elevation
of the garden front. Fig. 1466
is an elevation of the north-
east side, and fig. 1467 is an
elevation of the south-west side.
Fig. 1468 is a section at the
eaves, in which are shown a
cut bracket four inches thick,
o ; false rafter, one foot five
inches by four inches, p ; rafter, four inches by two inches and a half, q ; concealed eaves
gutter, r ; slate-boarding, s, and deal soffit, t.
1756. Remarks. This villa was designed for a person who died just before the period
fixed for carrying it into execution. The drawings were kindly sent us by John Perry Esq. ;
accompanied by the following remarks, by his assistant, Mr. Varden: — " The terrace was
not to go all round the building, as it would have interfered with the offices. The vases were
to be of Austin's artificial stone, or of Peakc's earthenware. The walls were to be built
of brickwork, and faced with the best grey stocks, carefully picked of a uniform colour;
the stringing couuses, cornices, &c, were to be of Bath stone, and the sills of Portland.
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
1460
887
The latticework was to be of inch deal, two inches wide, three inches apart, halved together.
The chimney-shaft, which is of Bath stone, and the flower galleries at the lower windows
of woodwork, are both similar to those in my Design, § 231. The two rooms over the
1461
"CT IT
jl
1 T
coach and brew houses were for the occupation of an elderly couple, the coachman and
his wife, who were to live on board-wages. The disposition of the rooms on the prin-
1462
1463
irf/ \4
838 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
in.
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
839
S4?0 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
M66
cipal floor was regulated by the aspect, &c, of the locality. The lobby was placed in
an angle, the better to shelter the entrance door of the hall from the northerly winds,
which are very cutting in that neighbourhood. The window of the morning room
commands a view of the road ; the dining-room window is to the south-east, and the
drawingroom has one in the same direction, and another to the south-west that reaches
to the ground, and opens on to the terrace ; but it is sheltered by a veranda from the
afternoon and evening sun, which would otherwise be very annoying. A store-room 1
consider indispensable in every country residence. The morning room, when not oc-
cupied, could be used to usher visiters into while being announced. The chambers
have nothing uncommon about them, unless it is those over the dining and drawing
rooms, which have windows down to the floor opening under the porticoes. If either of
these, but especially the former, should be for the use of an invalid for whom it might
be considered desirable to retain an equable temperature throughout the night, this
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
84-1
might be in a great measure accomplished by having close shutters, party glazed, tiiat
could be placed across the
openings of the portico, so
as to exclude the air; thus
the chamber would be insu-
lated, and would not be af-
fected by any sudden alterations
of the weather. There is but
one staircase in the house; but
this was in consequence of the
proposed occupant not desir-
ing a separate one for the
servants, except from the
basement ; and that is carried
up from the open or beer
cellar into the brewhouse, and
so into the yard. The brew-
house was to serve as a wash-
house, &c. The large room
on the attic floor, if used as ^^mutsc' ( \
a nursery or play-room for
children, would require more
air and light, and this might
be obtained by opening win-
dows towards the north-west
that would not interfere with
the present elevations. Over
the dressing-room there
might be a large cistern to
receive a part of the water
from the roof, which would supply the water-closet, and might, if desirable, be conveyed
by pipes into the principal chambers. The closet in the larder was intended for table-
cloths, &c , in use. The tool-house could be used for storing potatoes, as well as for
depositing garden implements." The general effect of this Design is remarkably good,
and the arrangement and details are most carefully considered. The plan for laying out
the grounds shows Mr. Varden to have a very good taste in that department.
Design V. — A Parsonage House for a particular Situation in Somersetshire.
1767. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1469, which is a
perspective view of the garden front. In the ground plan, fig. 1470, a is the drawing-
room, twenty-eight feet by fifteen feet, with bay window, a, seven feet and a half wide,
and two side outlets to the terrace; b, dining-room, twenty feet by sixteen feet with
company and service entrances; c, library, twenty-two feet by seventeen feet, with bath
nink in the floor and private water-closet ; d, hall with oak staircase, closet for sticks,
842 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE
1470
60 Ft.
&c, and inner lobby; e, housekeeper's room, with sink supplied by hot and cold water
pipes from the kitchen, presses, &c. ; /, butler's pantry, with sink, &c, presses, &c. ; g,
servants' passage ; h, entrance porch ; t, water-closet and lobby ; k, servants' cleaning-room,
and I, passage thereto from servants' hall ; m, servants' hall, thirteen feet by twelve feet,
with oak dining-table and presses ; n, dairy fitted up with slate shelves, and zinc fly-
wire in the windows, &c. ; o, pantry and larder, fitted up with slate shelves, and with
zinc fly-wire in the windows, &c. ; p, scullery, with oven, copper, hot-closet, sink, &c,
dresser, &c. ; q, kitchen, with steam range and close boiler at the back of it, for the
supply of the bath, and the several sinks on the ground floor, and the housemaid's sink
on one-pair floor; r, covered way from the kitchen-gate to the kitchen-porch, s; tt, court-
yard ; t', flap and entrance to cellarage under the whole of the house, for ale, beer,
wine, coals, coke, wood, lumber, &c. &c. ; u, stable-yard ; v, turfed terrace ; w, lawn ; x.
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
H71
8iS
1 1 1 ii in
lawn and shrubberies ; y, entrance, foot, and carriage gates ; z, shrubbery between house
and church-yard; and §-, public road, with footways on each side. Fig. 1471 is the one
pair of stairs plan ; in which a is the best bed-room, with entrance lobby ; b, a boudoir,
with bay window ; c, d, e, f, and g, family bed-rooms ; k, staircase ; i, lobby ; k, water-closet;
I, linen and store closet ; ?n, servants' staircase ; n, passage through the house, with venti-
lation and light at each end ; o, housekeeper and lady's maid's bed-room ; p and q, ser-
vants' bed-rooms ; r, servants' passage, with housemaid's sink and closet, s ; t, upper part
of the kitchen. There are lofts above the main body of the house ; and space for addi-
tional bed-rooms.
1758. Remarks. This Design has been sent us by Charles Ban-y, Esq., the dis-
tinguished Architect of the Traveller's Club-house, and of the Manchester Institution,
&c, to whom we have before acknowledged our obligation for revising the plans and views
of our correspondent Selim's Beau Ideal villa. " This Design," Mr. Barry observes, " was
made for a parsonage, to be erected in a most delightful situation in Somersetshire, com-
manding an extensive view of the Mendip and Wrington Hills, the Bristol Channel, &c. ;
and having the parish church, which is a very picturesque Gothic building, adjoining it,
and in view from the windows of the principal rooms. These circumstances suggested
the character of the Design, and the form of the window in the lawn front, which admits
of a convenient view of the surrounding scenery from the drawing-room and boudoirs.
The building is proposed to be erected of the stone of the country, a close grit, and of a
cream colour ; the coins, window-dressings, parapets, bonding, and lacing courses (vertical
and horizontal bond), being rubbed, and the intermediate spaces faced with rough wall-
stone (rubblework) in regular courses, and hammer-dressed. The cost of the building
will be about ,£1800." Our readers, we are sure, will admire with us the great beauty
and marked character of this Design externally ; no less than the fitness, completeness,
and luxury of its internal distribution. Mr. Barry states that the local circumstances
844 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
gave rise to the style, and to the form and situation of the principal rooms and windows.
This is what ought always to be the case in designing buildings for the country ; and, if
it were so, every Design would be an original composition belonging to its particular
locality. We admire in this Design the manner in which the principal pieces of furniture
in each room are disposed, and could wish that in all plans this mode were adopted. As
Villa Architecture improves, it will go hand in hand with furnishing and landscape-
gardening ; and the Villa Architect will eventually find himself under the necessity of
studying and directing both these accessary departments.
Design VI. — A Cottaye Villa in the Gothic Style.
1759. Tlie Situation is supposed to be on a gently elevated surface, on the Surrey side
of the metropolis; the garden and pleasure-ground not occupying more than half an
acre, and laid out so as to include a kitchen-garden, orchard, and drying-ground, aviary,
green-house, and pits in frames ; the two latter being supposed to be heated from a fire
and hot-water apparatus in a hot-house and potting-shed behind the green-house. The
"eneral appearance of the house, on entering from the road, will be as in fig. 1472.
1472
1760. Accommodation. The principal floor, fig. 1473, shows an entrance hall, a, with
billiard- table, b ; dining-room, c kitchen, d ; staircase down to the cellar floor, and up to the
bed-rooms, e ; library,/; and draw-
ingroom, y. The dining-room and 1473
drawingroom are each twenty feet
square, and twelve feet high to the
top of the cornice ; the dining-room
is two feet higher in the centre
than at the sides, having a groined
ceiling ; or showing the entire struc-
ture of the roof. The chamber plan,
fig. 1474, contains a sitting or dress-
ing room, i, communicating with
the best bed-room, h ; two bed-
rooms, k • and a nursery, I.
1761. Construction. The walls
are supposed to be of brick, either
covered with cement, and coloured
to imitate weather-stained stone ; or of brick stained in imitation of the effects of time
All the exterior timberwork is sup-
posed to be either oak, or well-seasoned
deal painted in imitation of that wood ;
and the covering of the roof should be
tiles. Fig. 1475 is an elevation of
the entrance font. Fig. 1476 shows
the barge-board and pendant of the
entrance front. Fig. 1477 shows
the corresponding barge-board of the
garden front. Fig 1478 is a fac-
simile of the gable of a house at Ypres,
in Normandy, taken by the Architect,
and intended occupier of this house,
which it is proposed lo imitate on one
of the end gables.
1474
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
815
1762. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 91,896 feet; which, at Cd. per foot, amounts
to .£"2297 : 8s. If the external Gothic ornaments were added, the expense would be
increased by at least t£100.
1763. Remarks. This Design was furnished us
by William Frome Smallwood, Esq., a young Ar-
chitect of great taste ; who has devoted his attention
chiefly to the Gothic style, and who has lately spent
a considerable time in Normandy and the Nether-
lands, delineating the antiquities of those countries.
Mr. Smallwood intended to erect this cottage for
himself; and the villa-like arrangement of the
interior, and the highly enriched Gothic of the
elevation, evince the great elegance of his taste.
The first villa-like feature, speaking with refer-
ence to the ordinary construction of buildings of
this size about London, is the largeness of the hall.
Every body knows, that, in houses with even double
the accommodation here shown, the entrance is com-
monly into a narrow passage or lobby, generally
serving also as a place for the staircase. The effect
of this upon a stranger is to show want of ease and
ample means on the part of the occupant ; and con-
sequently to indicate that he cannot belong to that
class of society, whose means are comparatively
unlimited, and whose taste, being unrestrained by
considerations of expense, is supposed to be good.
Perhaps it may be said, in defence of these narrow-
entranced small houses, that they are suited to the
fortunes of their occupants ; and are therefore more
true to nature, than any attempts at a style which
properly belongs to men of greater wealth. We
allow the force of this argument ; but, at the same
time, we feel that the source of all improvement has
its origin in the desire of individuals to better their
condition ; and we consider that individual to be
higher in the scale of worth, who endeavours to
raise his taste, and give evidence of it to his friends
and the world, than he who merely endeavours to increase his wealth. We therefore
cannot but approve of displaying this taste, in a preeminent manner, on houses, gardens,
furniture, and every tiling connected with home. But, if this may be said of builders
of houses in general, how much more might be said of an Architect, who builds his own
house, and who is unquestionably bound to set an example to the public ! The second
feature which we shall notice in this Design is the ceiling of the dining-room being open
to the roof, which affords a fine opportunity for an Architect to display his knowledge
of the principles of dynamics, as well as of the characteristic features of the different
varieties of Gothic Architecture. The barge boards for the entrance and garden fronts,
and the small dormer window, are of highly appropriate beauty ; that for the end is not
less curious, and, if executed, would at once be a standing memorandum of the Architect's
taste, and of his travels.
Sit) COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Design VII. — A Villa in the Old English Manner, adapted to a gently elevated Situation,
with good Views on three Sides.
1764. The Situation of this villa is supposed to be at a moderate distance from a town,
on a surface rather elevated than otherwise ; and commanding views of the surrounding
country in at least three different quarters, as from a by b to c, in fig. 1480. The
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
847
®
1480
S^7,-
y*
/■■' (3
<* »o
6
u'\
<3> /
9
approach road, d, should, in this case, as in most others, enter the grounds on the side next
the offices ; a distant glimpse of the house, bosomed in wood, may be seen from d ; and a
complete view, somewhat similar to that given in fig. 1479, at e;yis the kitchen-court;
g, the stable-court ; h, the kitchen-garden ; i, a glazed veranda leading to it ; j, hot-houses ;
and k, the pleasure-ground, bounded by a wire fence shown by the dotted lines, I. A great
addition to a place of this sort would be a zone of water in the direction of m m, to serve
as a foreground to the distant scenery; and, when once it shall be thought worth while
to make the most of situations for villa residences, and to study beauty rather than
extent, water will be raised from deep wells, or distant streams, by means of steam and
machinery, for this and similar purposes. Wherever water is introduced, it must never be
forgotten that its effect depends almost entirely on the wood with which it is accom-
panied : there is hardly such a thing in nature as water beautiful by itself alone. Besides
the walk round the pleasure-ground, there is an open walk through the park ; which,
proceeding from the pleasure-ground, crosses the approach at n ; and, after going through
the most beautiful parts of the grounds, re-enters the approach at o.
1765. Accommodation. The ground plan, fig. 1481, contains an entrance porch, a,
with a window, which in summer can be taken out ; a hall and staircase, b ; a dining-
room, twenty-two feet by sixteen feet, and twelve feet high, c ; a green-house, d ; drawing-
room, twenty-five feet by sixteen feet, and twelve feet high, e : in this room the fireplace
has a window over- it, as appears by the section C D, fig. 1484. There is a library,
sixteen feet by fourteen feet, /; and this completes the principal part of the house. The
offices are in a building, the floor of which is eighteen inches lower than that of the hall,
848
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
and the general proportions of which are less lofty than those of the living-rooms and
family apartments. There is a screen across the hall, under the stair at g, opening to
the door of the kitchen-passage, which commences by a descent of three steps seen at g, in
the section, A B fig. 1483. There will thus be double doors between the kitchen and' the
hall, which will effectually prevent the entrance of smells from the former to the latter
There are a small closet at h ; a water-closet at i ; and a stair to the cellars at k : I is a
butler's pantry ; m, a kitchen ; n, a beer-cellar ; o, a pantry ; and p, the kitchen-court.
The chamber floor, fig. 1482, shows the well-hole of the stair, p ; water-closet, q ; the best
bed-room, with dressing-room adjoining, r ; three good bed-rooms, sss; descending
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
84Q
steps to the servants' passage, t ; nursery, u ; maids' bed-rooms, v, w ; man's bed-room,
x ; closet to the nursery, y ; and ladies' water-closet, z.
1766. Construction. The walls are supposed to be of brick, eighteen inches thick,
and the roofs slated. The chimney-tops, and other stone-like finishings, to be formed of
cement. Fig. 1483 is a section on the line A B, in which the relative heights of the
'w' W 1483
different floors may be observed. Fig. 1484 is a section on the line C D. Fig. 1485
is an end elevation, showing the window over the fireplace, and the front of the green-
house ; and fig. 1486 is an
elevation of the entrance
front, in the chimney of
which there may also be a
window, if the prospect
from it is worth displaying
from the dining-room ;
which, in a villa of this
description, is generally
the living-room.
1767. Remarks. This
villa, which has been exe-
cuted, is the contribution
of Charles Fowler, Esq.
(the distinguished Archi-
tect of Covent Garden and
Hungerford Markets, and
of the magnificent con-
servatories at Syon). Mr.
Fowler is so well satisfied with the plan of this villa, that he informs us, were he to
build a country-house for him-
self, he should adopt it as a 1485
model. The entrance at once
to a large hall has a good effect,
and immediately stamps the
house as the abode of gentility ;
and the architectural green-house
strengthens the same idea. The
hall, at the same time that it
confers so much character, is
useful as containing the stair-
case. By having the kitchen
and all the offices in a separate
building, the height of the
rooms, and of the doors and
windows, is not required to be so
great as that of the principal part
of the house ; by which a con-
850 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
f9\jK
fir
i
siderable saving in building is effected. The door to the screen at g, in fig. 1481, and at
the head of the stairs, in the same figure, will effectually exclude all sounds and smells.
It is proposed to have cellars only under the hall and library ; but these may be
extended if thought necessary. The kitchen-court and stable offices for this villa
have not been sent by Mr. Fowler; but they may be formed on the plan of some
of those already given, or to be given, in this department of our work.
Design IX.
The
Ilannay, Esq., in tin:
Villa of Hannayfield, the Residence of
Neighbourhood of Dumfries.
1768. The Situation of this house is on the face of a bank, sloping to the west, at the
bottom of which is the vale of Nith, and at the top an extensive tract of table land.
The approach ascends from the public road, along one side of the grounds, through a
plantation which conceals the house : when it arrives, by a winding course, at the top of
the bank, it turns to . .„„
the right, so as to
enter from what may
he called the back
front. The area be-
fore the entrance
floor is raised nearly
to a level with the
principal floor on
that side ; while, on
the other side, the
kitchen floor ap-
pears entirely above
ground. Fig. 1489
will give a general idea of the situation of the house,
b ; the public road, c; the sloping
bank from the west front, d ; and
the level platform on the entrance
front, e. The stable offices are
shown at f; g is a path, partly
under ground, between them and
the house ; h is the walk to the
kitchen-garden; and i, the back
way to the stable offices. Fig. 1487
shows the general appearance of
the building, independently of the
surrounding scenery, as seen on
coming up to the entrance front.
I ~ <>'.). Accommodation. The
ground floor, fig. 1488, shows a
servants' entrance, a, with two large
closets on each side; alaundry,fc; two
water-closets, c ; two linen-closets, d;
housekeeper's bed-room, e; stairs to
relatively to the approach,
1488
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
85
1439
1490
the principal floor, /; housekeeper's sitting-room, g ; bath-room, /( ; the hath being
placed in the scullery, for the convenience of supplying hot water, and the opening
to it being into the bath-room ;
kitchen, i ; scullery, with cistern
and sink, k ; pantry, /. From the
area, m, under the made ground,
there are coal, wine, beer, and
other cellars, a water-cistern, and a
man-servant's water-closet. Fig.
1490 is a plan of the principal
floor, showing the main entrance,
m ; vestibule in the centre, lighted
from the roof, n ; bed-room, o ;
dining-room, p ; library, q ; even-
ing-room, r ; bed-room, s. There
are two large closets on each side
of the entrance, one of which is
a water-closet, and the other a
place for keeping hats, sticks, and
shoes; both being lighted from
the vestibule : there is another
closet under the stairs. Fig. 1491
is a plan of the upper part of the roof, in which are shown five small bed-rooms, t; and
a lumber-room, u. The roof over these rooms is flat, and covered with lead; and there
is a staircase to it with a trap-door. The flat part of this roof is surrounded by a
8.52
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Trrn
t_i
i_
\
slight iron railing; and benches are placed on it for enjoying the prospect down the
vale of Nith, and over Dumfries, I491
towards the mountainous interior
of the county ; than which there
are few more beautiful views in any
part of Scotland.
1770. Construction. The walls
are of pale red sandstone ; the lower
part rusticated, and the upper part
smoothly polished, and set in putty.
The workmanship of the whole is
of the very best description. Fig.
1492 is an elevation of the upper
part of the entrance-front, showing
the height of the principal floor,
above the level of the platform on
which it appears, on entering, to
stand. Fig. 1493 is an end view, showing the relative height of the platform, v; and
the sloping lawn on
the garden front, w.
Fig. 1494 shows the
transverse framing
of the roof, with the
bed-room, t, and the
lumber-room, u.
Fig. 1495 is a lon-
gitudinal section,
showing the framing
of the roof.
1771. Remarks. fUIu 5 0 io« 20 30 40 so Ft
This villa, which timim.J 1 1 1 1 1
was designed by Walter Newall, Esq., and executed under his superintendence, is
1493
replete with comfort, convenience, and even luxury
over every part of it, with the
owner and Mr. Newall, and were
much gratified with the substantial
manner in which the whole was
executed, and with the high style
of finish of the different rooms.
The effect of the views from the
windows of the three principal
rooms is a good deal injured, in
the eyes of a stranger at least, by
the want of trees, or even evergreen
shrubs, such as hollies and laurels,
to the right and left of the entrance
front. We have shown in the plan
how these ought to be disposed ;
but, in the reality, there are no
trees within twenty or thirty yards %
of the house, in any direction. The
In the summer of 1831, we went
1491
1495
^K,
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
853
consequence of this is, that the stranger, on arriving at the point of the approach,
b, in fig. 1489, obtains a view of the house, much as it appears in fig. 1487, with
the magnificent prospect beyond, which he ought not to have seen till he was ushered
into the library, or the drawingroom. If the situation were low, there might be
some excuse for not planting trees so near the house ; but it is high and dry ; and
therefore there is none but what we consider to be want of good taste. The dignity
of the house is much lessened by this deficiency in its accompaniments, which,
fortunately, however, can be very easily remedied from the large hollies and laurels
now growing in the adjoining plantations. In fig. 1489, we have taken some liberties
with the line of approach and the situation of the stables, which, like the disposition
of the trees, is done more with a view of showing what we think ought to be, than
what is. Mr. Ilannay was his own landscape-gardener.
Design IX. — A small Villa, or Parsonage, in the Italian Style.
1772. The Situation is supposed to be on a gentle eminence, in the neighbourhood
of a small village ; and the approach to be conducted to the entrance porch, in the
manner shown in fig. 1496 ; in which a is the point from which the house appears,
as shown in fig. 1497 ; b, a court, communicating with the stable and the kitchen-
garden ; c, the kitchen-garden ; d, lawn and flower-beds ; e, village churcn ; f, lodge,
serving also as a belfry, and being occupied by the sexton ; g, the village inn and tea-
garden ; and h, a wire fence, which separates the paddock, i, from the lawn, h.
1773. Accommodation. The principal floor, fig. 1498, contains a porch, a; hall, b ;
staircase and passage, c; study, d; drawingroom, e, twenty-four feet by fifteen feet •
breakfast-room, /, fourteen feet by eleven feet and a half; porch, g ; dining-room, h,
twenty-four feet by fifteen feet; green-house, ;'; kitchen, k; scullery, 1-, pantry, m ;'
854 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
149V
dairy, n; stable,©; chaise-house, p ; open terrace, q ; and terrace with a veranda
over, r.
1408
V o
1774. General Estimate. Cubic- contents, 61,587 feet; which, at 9d. per foot, is
£2309 : 10s. : 3d. ; at 6rf., £'1539 : ISs. : 6d. ; and, at 4d., £1026 : 9s.
1775. Remarks. The effect of the whole is good, and the interior arrangement con-
venient and commodious. There is, no doubt, a good deal of room occupied by the
porches, hall, staircase, and central passage : but extension, and not concentration, is a
characteristic of the Italian style. On observing the relative position of the different
doors and windows, it will be found that the house may be ventilated by thorough
draughts in every direction at pleasure. Double doors are very properly shown to the
kitchen, to prevent smells from penetrating into the passage; and this effect may be
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
855
further aided by a good ventilator, in, or close under, tho kitchen ceiling, directly over
the fireplace, communicating with an air flue, in close contact with the smoke flue.
When there is most cooking, there will be most fire, and, consequently, most heat in
the smoke-flue ; and this heat, operating upon the air in the air-flue, will increase its
draught, and, consequently, the carrying off of smells in proportion. An outer ventilator,
or an iron grating, or iron brick, as they are called, see fig. 1499, in the lower part of
the side wall, should always be
introduced in connection with *^-
such interior air-flues or venti-
lators, in order to increase' their
action ; because, where much
air is carried off, much also
must enter, in order to supply its
place. There should be shut-
ters, or regulating valves, of
brass or iron, to both ventilators ;
the valve for the ventilator close
under the ceiling, should have
two handles or arms to the centre
pivot, to be worked by two
strings, as indicated in fig. 1500;
or there may be a pulley-wheel affixed to the centre, and an endless cord brought over
it, and worked in a pulley rack, like a common window-blind. The green-house is very
conveniently and economically heated from the kitchen-fire ; we should not object to
its being made wider and longer, so as to range with the south and east fronts of the
building. The effect of the tower is excellent, and its windows harmonise well with
those of the dining-room and the green-house, and with the openings of the porch.
Design X. — A Cottage Villa, showing how Advantage may be taken of a sloping Bank.
1776. Accommodation. The general appearance is given in fig. 1502; fig. 1501 shows
the ground plan of the principal floor, which contains a porch, a ; an entrance lobby, b ;
1 — ^ rL~i c=u 1 J
rt.f o
staircase, c; dining-room, d, 18 feet by 16 feet 6 inches, and 12 feet high; drawing-
room, 19 feet and a half by. 17 feet, e; business room or library, /; sitting-room, g ;
kitchen, h ; servants' room, i ; water-closet, k ; closets fitted up with shelving, 11; and
S.~;(j COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1502
back entrance, tn. The chamber floor may be divided in a similar manner into bed-
rooms and a nursery; there being no rooms over the kitchen department. Fig. 1503
shows the arrangement of the cellar floor ; in which n is a milk-house ; o, a cellar for
potatoes and other roots ; p, laundry, with trays instead of tubs, a boiler, and space for
c mangle, &c. ; q, a coal-cellar ; r, staircase ; s, privies ; t, dust-hole ; and u, foundations.
1777. Construction. Fig. 1504 is a front or southern elevation, showing the entrance
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
R.V
porch. Fig. 1 505 is the northern elevation, showing the terrace wall, with stairs down
from the terrace, &c. Fig. 1506 is the western elevation, with a section of the sloping
1500
-T- r~ ? r— i r~r.
*»
bank ; and fig, 1507 is a section from the north to south, through the staircase, looking
east.
858 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1778. Abridged Specification. The walls are Supposed to be of rubble building) 2 feet
thick, above the level of the cellar floor, having droved base courses, 21 inches deep, and
droved string-courses at the caves, and coins at all angles. The windows to have
droved facings round them, with jutted (projecting) sills and blocks, and projecting
slabs, where shown. The chimney-stalks to be droved, having moulded plinths and
cornices. The walls above the level of the base course to be rough-cast ; and below that
level to be of hammer-dressed coursed rubble ; which will form a contrast, and give the
effect of a level basement to the main part of the building. All apartments and passages,
&C, in the ground or cellar floor to be laid with droved pavement, 3 inches thick,
closely jointed, and well bedded in sand. The kitchen, staircase, entrance lobby, and
porch, to be laid with polished (rubbed) pavement. The stair to the cellars, and the
outside stair, to be droved; the steps to be checked down on (notched into) each other,
and iiavin" sufficient overlap. The stair to the bed-room floor to be polished with
moulded nosings. The staircase, as well as all the apartments where paved, to have
stone skirting 7 inches deep. All the remaining floors to be laid with 6-inch battens,
grooved and tongued 1^-ineh thick, resting on strong joisting. The roof to be formed
of rafters 7 inches by 2^ inches; ties, 7 inches by 2^ inches; and baulks, 6 inches by
2 inches ; and to be covered with J-inch sarking, closely jointed ; having proper ridge
and piend battens. The soffit of the projecting part of the roof to be lined with jj-inth
deal, 6 inches broad, grooved and tongued. The blocks to be boxed up with 5-inch deal,
4 inches broad on the face. All the stone walls, except those in the cellar floor, to be bat-
tened, lathed, and plastered. The internal partitions, where not of stone, to be formed of
brick on bed. All the walls and ceilings to be covered with three-coat plaster ; and all
the apartments to have neat plain cornices, except the cellar floor, which may have only
two-coat plaster, and no cornices The windows to have 1^-inch frames and l|-inch
sashes, with centre stiles, as shown in the figures, hinged to open ; and to have bound
shutters and linings, and 65-inch moulded facings. Doors to be framed, moulded, and
sunk-paneled, with 6-inch moulded facings. The door from the porch to the lobby
to be glazed in the upper part, and to be in two halves. The milk-house windows to
have Louvre (luffer) boarding, as shown, with wirecloth inside ; and the walls to be
fitted up with proper shelving. All the doors, window linings, and shutters, in this
floor, to be of planed deal. The dining and drawing rooms and study to have 10-inch
moulded foot base, and marble chimney-pieces, valued each at £12. The other apart-
ments to have plane skirting, 7 inches deep ; with wood chimney-pieces, having pilasters,
and friezed and moulded shelf. The roofs to be covered with slates, having lead ridges,
piends, and valleys.
1779. General Estimate. In the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, a villa such as this
could be executed for about £650 ; which, as it contains 51,300 cubic feet, is about 3d.
per foot.
1780. Remarks. For this Design we are indebted to David Cousin, Esq., Architect,
Edinburgh. The plan exhibits comfortable accommodation ; and though this is obtained
at a considerable expense of foundations, yet it must be recollected that the Design is
adapted toaslopingsurface, and for a country where building stone is abundant, and obtained
for little more than the trouble of working it. The elevation, being in no particular style,
can only claim attention as an assemblage of architectural lines and forms ; and, examined
in this point of view, there is nothing of any marked character about it ; nothing to find
fault with, but, at the same time, nothing to raise emotion. This, however, is no fault
of the Architect, who had a different object in view. Plain designs of this kind, when
contrasted with designs in particular styles ; such, for example, as that for an old Scottish
manor-house (Design XV.), by the same Architect, or Smallwood's cottage villa
(Design VI.), are well calculated to show the great difference to the cultivated eye
between style and no style ; or, perhaps, we should rather say, between a marked or
decided style and a plain style. A person who had never cultivated a taste for Archi-
tecture would perhaps be just as well satisfied to live in Mr. Cousin's cottage as in that
of Mr. Smallwood, provided they were equally comfortable within ; but very different
would be the feelings of a man of cultivated architectural taste, as to which he would
prefer. On the other hand, a man who had not cultivated a taste for Architecture,
more than a taste for painting, sculpture, or landscape-gardening, and who had little
feeling for any of the arts, from either an original deficiency of imagination, or from not
having cultivated it, would, in all probability, prefer a plain cottage like that before us ;
because he would not be able to conceive a sufficient reason for going to the additional
expense requisite to raise plainness into style. It is not uncommon, indeed, for persons
of this description, talking of a plain house, regularly pierced with windows, and without
a single external mark either of style or of elegant enjoyment, to designate it as genteel
or gentlemanlike; and perhaps there may be some truth in the remark, if it has refer-
ence to the commonplace manners of a man who has the tone of good society, but who
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 859
is without talent or intellect. According to the present state of architectural knowledge
and taste among the middle classes of Britain, ten persons would prefer building the
Design before us, for one who would risk, his reputation for gentility by attempting
Design VI.
Design XL — A Villa in the Modern Style of Architecture, fire-proof, and suitable for a
Marine Residence, for the occasional Occupation or the peimanent Abode of a small
Family of Fortune.
1781. The Situation of this building, its designer, Mr. Varden, states, may be on the
north-west of the sea-shore, or on the bank of a large river or lake, the ground sloping
gently to the south or east, and the pleasure-grounds reaching to the shore, or the
water's edge. The elevation of the ground floor of the house above the surface ot the
water should on no account be less than ten feet; but twenty feet, or from that to 100
feet or upwards, woidd be far more desirable.
1782. Accommodation. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1508, which is a view
taken at a distance of 150 feet from the angle of the building.
Fig. 1509, to a scale of thirty feet to an inch, is the plan of the basement story, in
which a is the staircase ; bbb
are passages ; c, the pantry,
eight feet six inches high, and
twenty-four feet by ten feet ; it
is ventilated more effectually
than is usual, by having the
ceiling pierced in several places,
to allow the foul air to pass
through, and be conveyed into
a vertical flue, like that of a
chimney ; and so carried up
the corner pier of the portico,
where it escapes through the
shaft ; d is the dairy, nineteen
feet six inches by ten feet six
inches, also ventilated by an air shaft ; e, the footman's pantry, seventeen feet by ten feet,
with warm water laid on from the furnace and warming apparatus ; and cold water from
the cisterns on the roof; /, the servants' hall, twenty-one feet by fifteen feet six inches ; g,
the furnace, boiler, &c, for heating the hall, staircase, and passages with hot water; /(,
coal-cellar, eleven feet six inches by ten feet; i, the wine-cellar, twenty-three feet by
ten feet, with an air shaft for occasional ventilation ; k, beer-cellar, nineteen feet by
sixteen feet, ventilated in the like manner, the beer casks, &c, being brought in from the
yard under the terrace by an inclined plane, through the doorway, m ; /, footman's
bed-room, twenty-three feet six inches by ten feet, having a fireplace in the corner,
the flue of which is carried up the pier of the portico.
Fig. 1510 is the plan of the principal floor. The main approach to the house is by a
flight of steps, a, to the terrace, b, which is continued all round the building ; there is
another flight of steps, c, on the opposite side, giving access to the garden. A smaller
flight of steps, d, leads from the kitchen to the offices and stables, and is intended for the
use of the servants, and of the tradespeople bringing provisions and articles of daily con-
sumption to the house. The dotted lines, e e, represent panels of slight ironwork, to
separate the portion of the terrace used by the servants from the part frequented by the
family. The terrace nowhere approaches the walls of the building nearer than three
feet six inches ; that space being abcolutely requisite for the area, in order to give light
800
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
*■ * * r=
J7
and air to the basement story. This area is represented by the dotted line /. The
walls of the projections at the angles of the terrace are of masonry, fourteen inches thick ;
and each of these projections forms a portion of a square, the external dimensions of
which are nine feet on the side ; h h are pedestals for vases and statues. The vestibule,
fifteen feet nine inches by four feet, Is shown at i ; in its external wall are three arched
openings, reaching down to the level of the terrace, the centre opening serves as an entrance,
but the side ones have each a panel of enriched open cast-ironwork, two feet nine inches
high, as a protection from the area ; k, the hall and staircase. The hall is fourteen feet
by fifteen feet nine inches, and the floor of the hall is six inches higher than that of the
vestibule or porchway ; the geometrical staircase is to be of stone, three feet nine inches
wide, with metal hand-rail and balusters. A small lobby, ten feet by six feet, is shown
at / ; it is lighted by a window from the vestibule. The morning or lady's work room, m,
is seventeen feet by ten feet, and eleven feet high ; the window is to the west, because this
apartment will be occupied only in the early part of the day, and, consequently, the after-
noon and evening sun shining on it will not occasion any inconvenience. The fireplace
is on one side of the room, and " the flue is carried up in the wall over the drawingroom
door into the wall against the staircase, and so up to the shaft." The drawingroom, n,
is twenty-four feet by sixteen feet, and eleven feet high ; the windows, three in number,
are to the south. The library, o, communicates with the drawing room, and is twenty-
three feet by ten feet, with two windows to the east. The dining-room, p, is twenty-one
feet by sixteen feet, and eleven feet high, with the window to the east. In the ceiling
of this room there are to be ornamental pateras for ventilation, as there is to be an air
flue provided for carying off the heated air ; the store-room, q, is seventeen feet by
six feet, with an air flue and pateras in the ceiling; r is a passage; s, the kitchen,
twenty-four feet by fifteen
feet nine inches, with an 1511
air flue to carry off the ^
steam ; t, the scullery,
fourteen feet six inches by
ten feet, containing an
oven, and copper, also
ventilated by an air shaft ;
a, the larder, ten feet by
eight feet ; and v, the back
staircase, constructed Oi
stone, with metal balus-
ters and handrail. The
stairs break into the kit-
chen, but at such a height
as not in any way to be in-
convenient For the pur-
pose of getting additional
-CT
Vr
-f a;°^
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
801
headway, the flat roof over the staircase is raised about one foot six inches above the
rest ; but this will not be observable from below, on account of the balustrading.
Fig. 1511 is a plan of the chamber floor; in which a is the principal staircase; 6
is the back staircase ; c c, porticoes ; d d, galleries ; e, the flat roofs ; /, bed-room, sixteen
feet by fifteen feet six inches, and ten feet high ; g, bed-room, twelve feet by twelve feet ;
/(, bed-room, twelve feet by twelve feet : this room is to have a small fireplace, the flue of
which may either be concealed by the blocking course, or may terminate ornamentally
at the corner of the end wall, but in the latter case there must be a false flue on the op-
posite side, to preserve uniformity ; i, water-closet ; Jt, bed-room ; and /, servant's room,
twelve feet by twelve feet, with a fireplace like that of h. Another bed-room might be
obtained where the front portico now is, by an alteration of the staircase; but, as the men-
servants arc supposed to sleep over the stables, it would seldom be requisite. Either of
the bed-rooms might be converted into a dressing-room, by opening a door of communi-
cation with the adjoining chamber*.
1783. The Stable and other Offices belonging to this villa are supposed to be placed at
the distance of about 100 yards from it; they are shown in detail in fig. 1512, to a scale
1512
J
m
C°EL
dN ra\
rT=i[TT"rT '
_H_ II i it i
of thirty feet to an inch ; a is a knife and shoe house ; b, pigsties ; c, potato-house ; d
fruit-room ; e, seed-room ; /, tool-shed ; g, conservatory ; h, dung-pit ; i, stable ; k, harness-
room ; I, bin-room ; m m, coach-houses ; n, brew-house ; o, dog-kennel ; p, kitchen-garden ;
fj, drying-ground ; r r, poultry-houses ; s, cow-house ; t, fuel-house ; u, laundry ; v, car-
riage-road ; w, yard ; and x, pleasure-ground. In the centre of the yard there may be a
space enclosed for a hay-rick, and this rick may be built on a stone basement, and under
a roof supported on pillars ; the roof being carried so high as to form an ornamental
tower, and central point to the picture of the offices, when seen at a distance. The
basement on -which the rick is placed may be raised on stone or cast-iron pillars, so as to
leave a space underneath for poultry to run under during rain. On one side of this
small rick-yard there ought to be a pump, with a basin to contain water for the aquatic
fowls ; unless water should be laid on from some elevated source, in which case the pump
may be dispensed with.
8Gl2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1784. Construction. Fig. 1513 is an elevation of the entrance front of the marine villa.
Fig. 1514 is the garden front.
1514
iiiii, " — '
'SITU
1
Fig. 1515 is an elevation of the south end.
Fig. 1516 is an elevation of the north end
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
863
1785. The Walls of the Building and of the Terrace are to be of brick, faced with
wrought stone; or, if that should be considered too expensive, good picked grey stocks
may be used, with stone dressings. The terrace may be paved with rubbed Yorkshire
stone, with landings at least six inches thick to cross the area; but the effect of the whole
building will be much increased if tessellated pavement is used instead of stone. This
kind of pavement may be produced by the use of bricks of different colours ; for example,
of red bricks and grey stocks, disposed so as to form patterns in the manner exhibited by
the thirteen Designs shown in figs. 1517 to 1529. The floor of the hall and passages, and
1517
1518
1519
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1524
S()l< COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1525
1527
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the flat over the library, &c, may be laid with tessellated pavement, or with the ornamental
quarries, or paving tiles, of Mr. Wright of Shelton, near Newcastle under Line, Staf-
fordshire ; of which we shall give some account, accompanied by figures, when treating of
the finishing and fitting up of villas. The vases at the front and at the garden entrances
are to be of baked earth or artificial stone, and the statues either of artificial stone or of
marble. If the cost of the latter material be objected to, terra cotta or Austen's artificial
stone may be employed, as both are of moderate expense, and stand well in the open air.
Should it be preferred, however, vases of a larger size than those near the entrance, and of
a different form, may be substituted for statues. The small vases on the piers of the balus-
trading are to be of baked earth ; the sculpture group in the centre of the elevation is to
be of stone ; and the latticework of the portico of wood, painted stone colour. The
piers, &c, of the upper walls are to project four inches and a half; and all the semi-
circular-headed openings are to have architraves round them. The iron railing of the
terrace is to be according to fig. 1530, to a scale of one inch to a foot, though a plainer
sort is shown in the elevations, in order to prevent confusion in the drawing.
1786. To render the Villa fire-proof, various plans may be adopted. We shall first
describe one suggested by Mr. Varden, and shall afterwards give some others.
1787. Mr. VarderCs Plan. " It appears probable that common fir or oak joists with
their lower edges chamfered, and coated over with a mixture of alum, black lead, clay, and
lime, or some similar composition, would (if closely floored above with earthenware tiles,
bedded all round into the plastering, the joists being made air-tight) resist the action of
flames, at least for a considerable time. Fire could not descend through such a flooring
so as to communicate with the rooms below, till the tiles used in it had become red hot ;
neither could it ascend until the tiled floor above gave way from the burning of the
joists; which, if coated as proposed, would not take fire from below, till the tiling over
them acquired a sufficient heat to cause the distillation of the turpentine from the wood.
In general, there is not furniture enough of a combustible nature in any room to do this.
The battening against the outer walls might be of larch, as that wood burns less freely
than most others ; but if the walls were brick, or lined with brick, battening of any kind will
be unnecessary. If this plan should be thought likely to answer the end proposed, houses
built in the common manner might be altered at a moderate expense, by taking up the
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
8f>5
hoarded floors, and substituting earthenware tiles, plain or ornamented, according to the
character of the house.
1530
1788. Mr. Frost's Plan for constructing fire-proof Buildings is, to form the floors of
hollow earthenware tubes embedded in cement, and combined in such a manner as to be,
in effect, one artificial flag-stone of the size of the room. These hollow tubes, for which
Mr. Frost took out a patent some years ago, are square in the section, about an inch and
a half on the side externally, with a tubular space of an inch and a quarter on the side
internally. They are formed of brick earth, prepared in a superior manner, and pressed
through moulds by machinery. The tubes are each about two feet long; and the mode
of forming a floor or roof of them is as follows : — The centring, after being prepared
and fixed in the usual manner, is first covered with a coating of cement of a quality
sufficiently fine to form the ceiling of the apartment to be floored over ; and, if it is
desired that there should be mouldings or ornaments in this ceiling or its cornices,
moulds for them can be placed in the centring, so as to form a part of it. One, or, in
some cases, two coats of cement being laid over the centring, a stratum of the square
tubes, laid side by side, and breaking joint, is next to be bedded in fine cement, and the
interstices between them also filled in with that material, One thin coating of cement
is then laid over the whole stratum ; and, in a week, when this is dry, another stratum of
tubes is laid over the first, in a contrary direction, bedded and filled in with cement as
before, and finished by a coating of the same material ; which, when dry, may have a
second coating to serve as the floor of an apartment, or the covering of a roof, as the case
may be. Where the space to be covered is not wider than ten feet, Mr. Frost conceives,
and indeed has found upon trial (at a house, No. 6, Bankside, London, where he resided
when he explained to us his process), that two strata of tubes would be sufficient ; but
for greater widths he would employ three, four, or half a dozen strata ; or he would
introduce iron girders to support artificial flag-stones of less thickness. There can be
little doubt of the success of this plan ; but, as both cast and wrought iron are now so
cheap, a simpler and less expensive mode is to tie cast-iron or stone abutments together
with wrought-iron rods, and to form the flooring or roofing between by four-inch brick
arches, or layers of plain tiles bedded in cement. Flat roofs and floors of immense
strength are formed in this manner, in and about London. Near us, at Bayswater,
there is a public house with a flat roof so formed, which, on Sundays and other holidays,
is crowded with guests ; and a veranda, ten feet broad, with a flat roof formed of two
courses of tiles bedded in cement, is brought to a level at top with that material, and
supports as many persons as can sit upon it.
1789. Fire-proof Floors and Roofs formed of Arches of Coombs or Earthenware Pots.
This is an old French invention, described in the Mechanics' Magazine, vol. viii. p. 354,
as having been adopted in that architectural deformity the new palace at Pimlico.
There the arches are formed of hollow pots, as being lighter than solid bricks. These
arches spring from stone abutments which rest on the flanges of iron girders placed five
feet apart. The length of the cast-iron girders is from twenty to thirty feet. The pots
are like flower-pots, but are without rims ; they are four inches in diameter at the
mouth, and six inches deep outside measure ; the diameter at the bottom is such as that,
in an arch of five feet span, the rise in the centre may not be more than six inches. The
S H
866 COTTAGE, FARM. AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
space above the arches may either be brought to a level, with bricks and cement ; or a
flooring of ornamental tiles, or marble; or a boarded floor on joists, or in panels without
joists, may be formed over it. Where a roof is to be placed over the arches, their
haunches may be brought to a level with brickwork ; and afterwards covered either with
common cement, or, as in the case of the 1'imlico Palace, with what is called Lord Stan-
hope's composition. This is composed of chalk, coal-tar, and sand ; and is laid on hot,
and gauged to the thickness of five eighths of an inch with a templet made for that pur-
pose. The composition is then smoothed with large heated flat irons; and several coats
of it are required. Over the last coat slates are bedded, while it is yet boiling hot. For
details, sue Mech. Mag., vol. xviii. p. 389.
1790. To render the commonest Description of Houses fire-proof ; or, at all events,
greatly to diminish the risk from fire, two things are requisite : first, to form all stair-
cases of stone, or to have the skeleton of the staircase of ironwork, and the treads of the
steps of stone ; and, secondly, to avoid having any hollow partitions or floors. A house
having a stone or iron staircase, and having all the partitions either of four-inch brick-
work, or of brick nogging, in whatever way it might be set on fire, could never be burnt
down, if ordinary exertions were made to extinguish the flames ; and, at all events, could
never endanger human life. One apartment might be set on fire, but before the flames
could spread to that under it or over it, or to a staircase adjoining it, the fire might
readily be put out. In a house so constructed, there would be no piece of timber that
was not in close contact with mortar, at least on one side ; and all the strong pieces of
timber, such as joists, rafters, quartering in partitions, &c, would be closely embedded
in mortar on two sides. Where the partitions could not be made entirely of brick
or brick nogging, the interstices might be filled up with a mortar prepared of clay
with a small proportion of lime. The same material might be filled in between the
joists, and, where it was desired to render the roof fire-proof, the rafters might be made
of iron, or the space between wooden rafters might be filled in with this mortar. We
are aware that one objection to this practice would be, the greater length of time that
newly built houses would require to be rendered sufficiently dry for habitation, and also
the risk of decay from dry rot when imperfectly seasoned timber was used ; it would also
add something to the original cost. All these objections, however, may be considered of
minor importance compared with the degree of security which woidd be thus obtained
from accidents by fire. Where the expense of cast-iron girders is an objection, arches of
brickwork may be formed, nine inches thick, and of a rise proportionate to the resistance
of the walls against which they are made to abut. In the spandrils of these arches, walls
may be carried up to such a height as to form, like the girders, abutments for lateral
arches, which may be formed of pots, like those before mentioned. This would take
the greater part of the thrust of the floor from the side walls, by reducing it nearly to
a perpendicular pressure. Were the public fully alive to the importance of having their
houses fire-proof, a plan of this sort would very soon be brought to perfection. The
panels of all doors and window-shutters in a fire-proof house may be formed of sheet iron,
which, kept well painted, woidd last many years ; and the astragals of the windows
might be formed of wrought iron, or hollow brass or copper, like those used in hot-
houses.
1791. To render Houses already built comparatively fire-proof, all the interstices between
the floors, in the partitions, and in the roof, where there was a ceiling formed to the
rafters, might perhaps be filled in with earthy matter in a state of powder. This powder
might be clay or loam mixed with a small proportion of Roman cement; it might be
injected into the vacuities, through small orifices, by some description of forcing-pump
or bellows, which, while it forced in the powder, would permit the escape of the air; and,
while this operation was going forward, steam might be injected at the same lime, so as
to mix with the powder, and be condensed by it ; by which means, the whole mass
would be solidified with a minimum of moisture. In short, in rendering houses fire-
proof, the next important object to using fire-proof materials is, that of having all the
walls and partitions, and even the steps of wooden staircases, filled in with such materials
as will render them in effect solid. On examining into the causes of the rapidity oi'
the spread of the flames in London houses when on fire, it will almost, invariably be
found, that, whatever may have occasioned the fire to break out, the rapidity of its pro-
gress has been in proportion to the greater or less extent of the lath and plaster par-
titions, the hollow wooden floors, and the wooden staircases. Were the occupiers of
houses sufficiently aware of the danger from lath and plaster partitions, especially
when they enclose staircases, they would never occupy such houses, or, if they
did, they would not give such rents for them, as they would for houses with brick-
nogfring partitions. It appears to us to be the duty either of the general or local
government or police to see that no houses whatever are built without stone or iron
staircases ; and that no partitions or floors are made hollow ; or, if they are, that
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 867
the materials should be iron and tiles, or slates, or stones, or cement, or other earthy
composition.
1 792. Any Buili/inr/ mii/ht he rendered completely /ire-proof by avoiding the use of timber
in every thing, except fittings up and finishing. The floors might be formed of
flat tiles and cement, and covered with ornamental tiles ; or flooring may be made of
composition, and polished in imitation of scagliola, or artificial marble. The roofs might
be made Hat, and covered in the manner already described, § 1789; and the outer walls
of the building might be tied together in all directions by wrought-iron rods made fast
to stone bond, as broad as the wall is thick, the stones cramped or dovetailed together,
and carried completely round the walls, about the level of the centre of each floor. The
netting or latticework of iron rods, connected with this chain of stone bond, being thickly
embedded in cement, and cased with strata of flat tiles, would be kept from extremes
of temperature throughout the year; so that the difference in their contraction and
expansion, during summer and winter, would be of no practical importance. Every
floor of a house thus formed, would be, in effect, a single flag-stone, and, as the iron
rods would be prevented from oxidising, it would probably last for ages. It is easy to
conceive the skeleton of an entire house, thus constructed, the perpendicular supports
being brick or stone piers, three, four, or six feet apart ; the horizontal bond on these
supports, of flag-stone of the width of the intended thickness of the walls or partitions,
and all the horizontal floors or vertical panels of iron rods and wires covered on one or
on both sides with plain tiles coated with cement. Even the staircases might be so con-
structed and covered. In the case of the floors of rooms, square or nearly so, there
might be circles of thin flat cast iron, laid on the horizontal rods, and made fast to them,
which would serve as struts ; and oblong rooms might have two or more cast-iron
circles, or ovals with plates of cast iron in the direction of their short diameters,
to serve the same purpose. The outer walls might have double panels of wrought-iron
rods and wires with intervals between, so as to form hollow walls ; so that houses con-
structed in this manner might be rendered equally impermeable by cold or heat as
those with thick walls, or with hollow walls of masonry. There would be no objection
to houses of this description, having all the doors and windows framed of timber, pro-
vided the panels and astragals were filled in with iron. As the iron rods and wires need
not be of great diameter ; perhaps, in ordinary cases, of half an inch for the rods, and one
eighth of an inch for the wires, and half an inch in thickness, with three inches in breadth
for the cast-iron circles ; the expense, even for the smallest houses, would not be an insu-
perable objection. Were the attention of the legislature turned to this subject, with the
view of protecting those who at present cannot protect themselves, we mean dwellers
in town houses of the commoner kinds; the government would probably direct experi-
ments to be made, so as to bring this mode of" construction, or some similar mode, to a
degree of perfection which would soon render it general.
1793. Protection against Fire. Next in importance to the building of fire-proof houses.
is the mode of arranging a general system of police for the extinction of fires, both in
town and country. On this subject, a correspondent, J. Kobison, Esq. Sec. R. S. E., whose
letter, dated Feb. 8th, 1833, we have received since we commenced these paragraphs,
has the following observations. : — " I have long entertained the idea that the protection
against fire is inadequate, though sometimes costly establishments are maintained, as has,
until lately, been the ease in Edinburgh and London. In Edinburgh, matters have been
put on a better footing since the year 1825, and I believe there is now no city in Europe
where property is so well protected, or at so small an expense. 1 have had some corre-
spondence with the last and the present administrations, about a plan for extending a uni-
form system of fire-engine establishments all over Britain, by forming a regular disciplined
corps of firemen at Woolwich, and furnishing officers and instructors from it to pro-
vincial corps to be established by the municipal authorities on the spot. I have not suc-
ceeded so far as I could wish, but I have made some impression ; and the first frails of
it are now developing themselves in your metropolis, where the Insurance Companies have
begun to act in concert in getting up a regular corps on the model of the Edinburgh one,
and have bribed away the superintendent from this place to put him at the head of it.
The connection with the police will follow next, and, when experience shall have shown
the truth of what I have urged, some person about the government offices will step for-
ward with the whole of my plan, claiming it as his own, and will, perhaps, get public
thanks for it. Provided the plan be adopted, I care but little who gets the credit of it."
The most complete fire-police with which we are acquainted is that at St. Petersburgh.
It is entirely under the management of the general police there, which, it is well known is
a regularly organised body, such as our correspondent contemplates. We passed the winter
<>f 1813 in that city, during which several large fires happened, and were very promptly
extinguished. Among other apparatus, we recollect a system of ladders attached to a
frame, which could W elevated to any particular point by machinery worked on the
868
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
ground. The ladders were slid past one another in the manner of a pocket telescope,
and could be elevated to any angle, or projected horizontally. There was also a plat-
form formed by a frame five or six feet square, filled in with wirecloth, which worked
on pivots, and could be elevated or projected at any angle with the greatest rapidity ;
the wirecloth platform, or frame, in consequence of turning on pivots, being always in a
horizontal position, for the purpose of receiving those who had no other chance of escape
than by jumping on it. These apparatus were invented by a gentleman of the name of
Ilastie, a Scottish Architect and engineer in the service of the Russian government.
Similar, and various other fire engines will be found described in the Mechanics' Maga-
ziitr, and in the very excellent work of Mr. Braidwood on Fire Engines, published at
Edinburgh in 1 830.
1794. The Chimneys, in this Design, Mr. Varden observes, " are all brought pretty
much into the centre of the house, and are arranged in two lines, in pairs, at equal dis-
tances, with the view of making them ornamental ; for, where they cannot be concealed
(and it is doubtful if that attempt should ever be made), the only alternative is to make
their appearance as agreeable as possible. Our modern Architects have long been
endeavouring to do this, though but i'aw of them have succeeded in the attempt ; and
hence it is, that, in buildings of the present day, the chimney-tops are generally the most
unsightly parts of the edifice. This often arises from their terminating too abruptly,
and being treated as pots, not as shafts. There are no remains of antiquity that give us
any hints on the subject of chimneys; we are, therefore, left to our own ingenuity, which
has hitherto, in most cases, proved insufficient. In the old English country-houses, the
chimney shafts form one of the most prominent and agreeable features of the style ; and
there does not appear any reason why the chimneys of modern buildings should not be
equally conspicuous and ornamental. Of course, the form must be in some degree
altered, in order to assimilate with the style of Architecture ; and, whenever there is any
attempt at classical effect, perhaps an adaptation of the elegant Roman candelabra would
be more suitable than the diminutive altar-like forms we are in the habit of seeing
employed for chimney-tops. In the present Design, it has been attempted to exemplify
the above principles. The chimney-tops of this villa are to be of cement, of baked earth
or artificial stone, or of real stone. Of these materials, cement is the least to be de-
pended upon ; as it is generally found to crack, and scale off, after having been exposed
to the weather for a few years. Figs. 1531 to 1 537 are patterns of chimney-tops, from
1534
which a choice may be made. In the elevation, fig. 1515, the first flue from the left
hand is the air-shaft from the wine-cellar, that passes up the corner pier of the portico :
the second flue is for ventilating the hall and staircase ; the third shaft is from the chim-
ney of the morning room ; the fourth is an air-shaft from the beer-cellar ; the fifth is
the drawingroom flue; the sixth is the bed-room flue; the seventh an air-shaft from
the servants' hall ; the eighth is the dining-room flue ; the ninth, the dining-room
air-shaft; the tenth, the bed-room flue; and the eleventh and twelfth, the flues of the
library and the footman's bed-room, both of which pass up the piers of the portico.
In the elevation of the north end, fig. 1516, tile first shaft from the left hand is the
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
S(i9
535
1536
1537
oven flue, and the second is the air-shaft from the scullery, both of which pass up one of
the piers of the portico.
The thirdis the air-shaft J V
from the pantry ; the
fourth is the flue from
the copper in the scul-
lery ; the fifth is the
flue of the servants' hall;
the sixth is the bed-
room flue ; the seventh
and eighth are the kit-
chen flue and air-shaft ;
the ninth is the air-
shaft of the dairy ; the
tenth, the air-shaft of
the store-room ; the
eleventh is from the
furnace; and the twelfth
from the footman's pan-
try : the last two pass
up the corner pier of the portico. If air-flues should be considered unnecessary, a
row of single shafts will be sufficient for the smoke-flues. The walls on which these
shafts stand are twenty-two inches thick, to allow of the flues being gathered, that is,
inclined either to the right or left, so as to bring them up to their proposed places
without disfiguring the rooms. The diameter of the shafts should be ten inches in the
clear ; that of the flues may be an inch or two larger, and the latter may be lined with
earthenware tubes, or built with Chadley's chimney bricks."
1795. Cisterns, for containing hard and soft water, to supply the different apartments,
may be placed on the roof.
1796. Columns, Mr. Varden observes, " are not introduced in this villa, as they
cannot be employed with propriety in such small buildings. The bad effect of columns
in the porticoes of many villas near London has been frequently noticed by Architects of
taste ; and the similarity that exists among them is so great, that they look as though
they were all bought ready made. The builders seem quite indifferent as to their form
or size, or their suitableness to the building which they are designed to decorate. To
them a portico is a portico, and whether it is put to a large or a small house, in front or
at the side, is of no consequence ; the same kind is applied every where, and very fre-
quently with great impropriety. A column, when of a large size, is the most noble
feature in Architecture ; but the little wooden posts dignified by that name, stuck about
some modern English villas, bring the beautiful orders of antiquity into disrepute,
without in any way improving the taste of the public, or disseminating architectural
knowledge."
1797. The Entrance Door of a Villa, says Mr. Varden, " should never be near the
corner of the building, for this produces the idea of a badly arranged ground plan. In
every case the entrance should be distinctly marked, in order that a stranger may not
have to look for it twice : when the spectator has hastily glanced over the whole building,
the doorway should be the first thing for his eye to rest upon ; and, that this may be the
case, it must display stronger contrast of light and shade than any other part of the
structure. In the present Design, I have endeavoured to accomplish this by having a
vestibule and arches, that must always be in deep shadow, brought into proximity with a
projecting gallery that will receive the strongest light ; and which, in its turn, is relieved
by coming in front of a deep portico. "
1 798. Wlien any peculiar feature, either of form or ornament, is introduced, Mr. Varden
considers, " that it should always be in some way repeated, with slight variation, in other
parts of the Design ; and, if masses of ornament are repeated two or three times, it will
generally be advisable to have between them some little enrichment of the like descrip-
tion, for the purpose of connecting the parts, and harmonising the whole. In the present
Design, the form of the arches of the vestibule is repeated by the three windows of the
drawingroom, but with less depth of shadow, and the window of the morning room
serves to unite them. The gallery over the entrance is repeated at the end of the
building, and the two are connected by the smaller gallery over the morning room ; so
likewise the four small vases on the entrance front are repeated on the garden front ;
the one at the corner being the connecting link."
1799. Remarks. This Design is very much to our taste. It is highly architectural
in its expression, and in every part arranged for comfortable and elegant enjoyment.
We highly approve of the mode of ventilating the kitchen offices by flues, which is at
,870 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
once a most effectual mode, and one which, by giving rise to a number of external pin-
nacles or chimney-tops, is a source of the very greatest ornament.
Design XII. — A Double Suburban Villa, adapted for a particular Situation in the
Suburbs of Leicester.
18CO. The Situation is where four roads meet; the principal road or street, fig. 1538,
a, proceeding direct from the centre cf the town, and three other streets, b, c, d, diverg-
ing from it in different directions. There are double carriage entrances to each house
e e, and //, and a garden to each, g g. The general appearance is shown in fig. 1539.
1801. Accommodation. The kitchen and offices are in the basement story, one half of
which is shown in fig. 1540 ; in which a are steps leading down into the area, the dotted
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
871
rqpz
lines at fk showing the steps over the entrance front area; b, open area partly
the terrace; c, situation
of a forcing-pump for sup- 1 540
plying the cisterns of the
water-closets, &c. ; d, dust-
hole under the steps from
the terrace ; e, water-
closet ; f, place for coals,
having a projection with
a hole over it, p, for shoot-
ing them down ; g, back-
kitchen ; /(, china and
glass closet ; i, beer-cellar ;
j, passage from the wall
lighted from the risers of
the steps shown by the
dotted lines ; I, pantry and
larder ; m, best kitchen ;
n, soft-water pump, sink,
and boiler, in back-kit-
chen ; and o, wine-cellar.
Fig. 1541 is a ground
plan of the principal floor
of both houses. In this
are seen, a broad flight of
steps, h, supposed to be
covered with pots of plants
in the summer season,
leaving an ascent to the
principal entrance, open-
ing into a hall and stair-
case, i, with conserva-
tories to the right, and left,
h ; dining-room, I, and
drawingroom, m ; both
under
872
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
rooms having glass doors at n, opening into the conservatories. Each house has a veranda
on the south-west side, o ; and stairs in the area to the kitchen floor, p. The conservatories
are proposed to he heated from stoves, connected with the kitchen-ranges, hy flues pass-
ing along the haunches of the arches which form the kitchen ceiling ; which flues will at
the same time heat the hall and staircase. This Design, which has been contributed by
Messrs. Parsons and Gill, Architects, Leicester, was accompanied by the following con-
ditions and specifications : —
Conditions and Specifications for building a Double Villa near to the Town of Leicester.
1802. Conditions. The contractor to find all materials, and every thing necessary
to complete the building according to the plans, sections, elevation, and specification
hereunto annexed ; and the various works to be done in the best and most workmanlike
manner, and to the satisfaction of the Architect employed to superintend the same. If
at any time there should be delivered on the premises any materials whatever, which, in
the opinion of the Architect, may be of an unsound quality, or otherwise defective, the
same to be immediately removed by the contractor ; and, in default thereof, or refusing so
to do, the Architect to have the power of causing the same to be removed within twenty-
four hours after a notice in writing to that effect, signed by the Architect, has been de-
livered to him the said contractor, or his foreman, and the expense thereof to be deducted
from any money that may be (or may become) due to him upon his contract ; and, in
c.isc any such imperfect materials shall have been used in the work, the same shall be
taken down by the direction of the Architect, and the work perfectly restored, at the
expense of the contractor, which expense shall likewise be deducted as aforesaid. If, by
the direction of the Architect, any alterations are made in any part of the Design, the
same shall not invalidate the contract ; but, whether such alteration be an addition to, or
a deduction from, the work contracted for, the value thereof shall be ascertained in the
usual way, and the amount be added to, or deducted from, the sum total, as the case may
be. The contractor to be paid by instalments, in the following manner; that is to say,
when he shall have performed work to the amount of ,£200, he shall be paid such sum,
except ^10 per cent of the same, and so on in proportion throughout the progress of the
building till its completion ; and upon its being so completed, half the said sum of £\0 per
cent shall be paid to the contractor, and the other half shall remain in hand for six
months afterwards, as a security against the failure of any part of the work. The whole
to be completed by the day of , under a penalty of £10 per week, for every
week that shall intervene between that period and that of its actual completion. The
contractor will be required to enter into a bond (with two sureties, if required), for the
due and proper fulfilment of these conditions, and the following specifications.
1 803. Specifications. — Digger and Bricklayer. To excavate for the basement story,
cisterns, foundation, &c., as shown by the plans and sections, of a sufficient width and
depth ; afterwards to fill in and well ram the same ; to level the ground as directed, and
to cart away all spare earth and refuse that may remain on the completion of the works.
To sink and steen a well, using the required quantity of oak curbing, with proper well
bricks to the depth of 18 yards below the level of the basement floor, which is to he
3 feet six inches within when finished ; also to well puddle the same with good and well,
tempered clay to the depth of 3 yards, and to cover the same with a rough slab, Swith-
land quarry. To build all the walls of the respective heights and thicknesses shown by
the plans, sections, and elevations, with good and well-burnt common bricks, laid in
English bond, and left rough for stucco : those that are not described as to be stuccoed to
be neatly pointed. Immediately above the ground line lay three courses deep in Roman
cement, well flushed up between the joints (to prevent the moisture from rising into the
walls above). The whole of the basement story to be arched over with 4^-inch brick-
work, and the kitchens to have 9-inch brickwork, extending 4 feet each way from the
abutment, {fig. 1542.) To lay the floor of the best kitchen with quarries, bedded and
jointed in beaten mortar ; also the passage under 1542
the hall floor, the back kitchen, the pantry,
and the china-closets, with dressed bricks in
beaten mortar, as before. The two cellars,
shoe-place, coal-hole, and area, to be laid with
common bricks bedded in mortar. To build,
where directed, a rain-water cistern, 9 feet
by 5 feet, and 5 feet deep, to the springing
of the arch. When finished, the arch to be of
2-brick, leaving in the arch two openings ; one,
2 feet by 1 foot 6 inches, the other, 9 inches
square for pump. The walls to be 1^ brick thick, and those with three floors to be laid
close in beaten mortar : the walls of the first two floors to be of the best hard-burnt and
f^-4
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 873
picked bricks ; the third floor of dressed flooring bricks ; and afterwards the whole to
have one coat of cement inside. A waste drain to be laid from this into one of the
principal drains conveying the water into the main culvert in the street (which, in this
case, is below the basement floor), but first a proper stench-trap to be formed. A 12-inch
culvert to be laid in cement from the water-closets into the main culvert or sewer ;
smaller drains intersecting the kitchens, &c., where directed ; the whole to enter into
one drain in each area, where a proper stench-trap and grate are to be formed. To budd
in the back-kitchen the necessary brickwork for supporting the stone sink, with a brick
bench, 2 feet 6 inches by 2 feet, at one end ; and also the brickwork for a copper and
furnace, the inside of which is to be lined with fire bricks. All the flues of the respec-
tive fireplaces to be built circular, 12 inches in diameter, when the pargeting is laid,
except those of the kitchens, which are to be 14 inches in diameter. Two circular flues to
be formed in the haunches of the arches, with openings where directed, for the conveyance
of hot air from the stoves to the conservatories and other parts. To set all the grates,
ranges, and stoves, required for the several fireplaces, using fire-brick facings ; to dig out,
and form a cold-air duct to supply the stoves as required. To build arches, &c, for the
outside steps ; also area walls to the windows, and ^-brick trimming arches to the fire-
places of the chamber and attic story. To build the columns of the conservatories with
the required reveals, &c, as per plan ; and those of the portico with circular bricks ; both
laid in cement.
1804. Carpenter and Joiner. All the timber used for the carpenter's work to be of the
best description of Memel or Riga fir (except where otherwise directed), perfectly well
seasoned, and free from dead knots, shakes, or other defects. The roof to be framed as
per plan and sections, the king-posts to be of oak, well screwed up with inch bolts and
screws ; the wall-plating and bond to be dovetailed and halved at their angles, and pro
perly scarfed at their joinings. A tier of bond to be laid immediately under the
chamber floor throughout all the walls ; and lintels to be laid over the openings of the
doors and windows, of the width of the internal walls, and within half a brick of the out-
side on the external wall. A proper quantity of old oak wooden bricks to be laid in the
jambs of the openings, for the doors and windows. The ground floor joists to be of oak
on oak sleepers, and the floors above to be framed (as directed) with two girders in each
room, notched down on oak templates, 2 feet 6 inches by 4^ inches by 3 inches, with
bridging joists, and ceiling beams and joists. The floors to be trimmed at the fire-
places ; and each trimming joist to be 9 inches by 3 inches. To provide and fix all the
necessary centres for the window, door, and chimney arches, and for the arches support-
ing the ground floor ; which is to be of 1 5-inch split battens laid close, and constructed
on strong framed ribs, not more than 2^ feet apart, forming the required groins for the
doors, windows, &c. The guttering to be laid with inch boarding on 3^-inch by 3-inch
bearers, and the boards to he 9 inches up the roof; the valley boards to be J-inch deal,
9 inches wide on each face. No floor or ceiling joists, or studs to the partitions, to be more
than 12 inches apart. The scantlings of the principal timbers to be as shown and figured
on section. The conservatories and part under the portico to be covered with inch
boarding, on 3-inch by 4-inch deal bearers (for lead).
1805. Joiner. All the deals used in the joiner's work to be the best Petersburg or
Christiania deals, free from sap and other defects, and well seasoned; and if any of the
work executed by the joiner shall, within the space of six months from its completion,
shrink or fly, to the extent of one eighth of an inch, or in any other respect fail, the con-
tractor shall, when required by the Architect, make good the same : he is to provide and
fix the ironmongery, and all other ironwork mentioned, but not provided for, in the
smith's work. — Basement Floor. The doors to the two cellars, shoe-place, pantry, and china-
closet to be 1 5-inch proper ledged doors, hung with 12-inch cross garnet hinges, to
3-inch by 4-inch oak door frames, and on each is to be fixed a 9-inch stock lock, and a
Norfolk thumb latch. The two kitchen doors to be H-inch thick, 4 panels and squares,
hung with 3-inch cast butt hinges, to li-inch rebated and rounded jambs; on each is to
be a 7-inch iron and rimmed lock. The outward door (into area) to be 2-inch 6-panel bead
flush and square ; hung with 4-inch butts to 4-inch by 2^-inch rabbeted frame, and a beaded
casing 4 inches by half an inch, and fixed round the jambs and soffit to the outside.
On it fix a 10-inch best iron-rimmed lock, and two 10-inch barrel bolts. The water-
closet door to be 1 5-inch, 4-paneled and square, hung with 3-inch butts to a 3-inch by
1-inch door-frame ; and on it fix a 4-inch spring latch. The door to the coal-place to be
1 5-inch proper ledged ; hung with hooks and riders (bands), fixed in the wall ; with a 10-
inch stock lock and Norfolk latch. The ash-pit door to be inch-ledged, hung in the same
way, and with a thumb latch. The windows to the best kitchen to be 1^-inch ovolo
sashes, single hung, with deal-cased frames and oak sills; and 1 5-inch framed bead butt
shutters, to be made to fold (in two flaps, with a rule joint) against the wall, with a small
inch boxing, or architrave, made to receive them ; also inch rounded window boards.
5 1
87& COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
On each fix proper sash fasteners, and find lines, weights, and pulleys to the sashes. The
back kitchen window frame to be a three-light transom, the sill of oak, with H-inch
York sashes, the centre made to slide ; and in each to fix a sufficient number of iron
stanchions. Round the inside fix J-inch linings, with mouldings round, and inch
window board. The windows to the pantry, china-closet, and shoe-place to be in two
lights made to slide, and in every other respect as the last ; there is also to be a small
one-li"-ht in the water-closet. Round the best kitchen is to be fixed a 7-inch torus
plinth, plugged to the wall; and a 5i-inch by 1-inch do. round the back kitchen pantry,
closet, and passage, and also up the (stone) steps leading to the hall. Three tiers of
inch shelving, with proper bearers, to be fixed on each side of the pantry and china-
closet • and in the arch of the pantry to fix a meat rail, with meat and game hooks.
The water-closet to be fitted up with inch oak, wrought, framed, and clamped seat
board on deal bearers ; the flap to be of the same description, hung with 2^-inch butts ;
round the seat is to be a 5-inch by iV-inch oak skirting ; and round the floor is to be a
5rV-inch bv 1-inch deal do. To fix J-inch casings to the pipes where required. — Ground
Floor. The front or entrance door to be 25-inch double margined, in four panels (as
drawing, to be given), with mouldings laid on outside, and reeded and flush inside ;
him"- with one pair .and a half 4-inch butts, to 5-inch by 3-inch jambs. Round the jambs
and soffit outside fix 3i-inch by ^-inch beaded casing (behind which the stucco will
finish). A moulded and rabbeted transom rail to be framed in the jambs; and over
the door provide and fix a metal fanlight. A 12-inch best iron-rimmed drawback lock,
with brass furniture, to be fixed on this door ; also two 12-inch brass barrel bolts, and
an iron door-chain. The doors to the two sitting-rooms to be of 1 J-inch stuff, in four
panels, double margined, and moulded on both sides; to be hung to H-inch rabbeted
linings, with 4-inch brass rising butts. On each is to be fixed a mortise-lock, with
ebony furniture, the prime cost of which is to be 15s. each. The door to the basement
to be H-inch deal, in four panels, moulded and square, hung with 3i-inch butts, to
5-inch by 1^-inch rabbeted jambs ; and to have a 9-inch iron-rimmed lock fixed on it. The
doors from the hall to the conservatories to be 25-inch sash-doors, with diminished
styles, hung to 5-inch by 1^-inch jambs, with one pair and a half 3-inch butts, having a
best mortise lock, with ebony furniture on each : 1^-inch shutters to be provided for these
doors, with proper fastenings and bars (the whole more fully described by the working
drawings) ; the two doors leading out of the rooms into the conservatories to be of the
same description, with shutters, &c. (which will also be described more fully by draw-
ings at large). The doors to the hall and sitting-rooms to have 5A-inch by 1 5-inch
architraves round, with frieze and cornice. The windows to the sitting-rooms to have
2-inch sashes and cased frames, with oak sills and pulley pieces ; the sashes to be double
hung with 1 J-inch best brass axle pulleys, having patent sash fasteners, lines, weights, &c.
Each window to have boxing shutters, framed with 1^-inch moulded front flap, the other
J 5-inch square; to make also proper boxings, with inch back lining and grounds, and
a 5^-inch moulded architrave round. Also a 1 5-inch framed and moulded dado to
correspond with the shutters, backs, elbows, and soffits. On each set of shutters to fix
two 18-inch shutter bars, and two brass shutter latches, with ebony furniture. The
sashes to the conservatories to be of 2-inch double hung, with frames, &c, as last de-
scribed. The finishings, &c, shown by the working drawings. The floors of the
sitting-rooms to be laid with inch red deal, in narrow boards, and edge-nailed. Proper
margins to be laid round the hearth-stones : 2^-inch by J-inch grounds to be fixed
round these rooms, as well as the hall and staircase; and upon them is to be a 10-inch
double-moulded plinth, with backings and furrings. — Chamber Floor. The doors in
this story to be of 1^-inch deal, moulded and square, hung with 3-inch butts to 1 j-inch
linings. Round the" door in the landing is to be a 5^-inch moulded architrave, and on
the inner side of rooms a single moulding ; and on each is to be fixed a mortise-lock,
with ebony furniture ; except the closets, which are to have 7-inch iron-rimmed locks.
The windows to have 1 J-inch sashes, double hung, with case frames, oak sills, and pulley
pieces, with lines, weights, &c, complete, as before described on the ground floor. A
3-inch lining, with single mould, and inch window-board to be fixed to each window.
The floors to be of inch deal narrow boards, laid folding, with proper margins. The
grounds to be fixed as chamber floors where required; and a 7-inch by 1-inch ditto
moulded plinth to be fixed round each room and closets. The plinth round the landing
to be the same as that on the ground floor. The water-closet to be fitted up with
inch clamped Spanish mahogany seat, on deal 3^-inch by 3-inch bearers and stand-
ards ; the flap to be of the same description, beaded and clamped ; and on one side
there is to be a 12-inch by 6-inch paper-box, to be framed with coves. The riser to be
J-inch mahogany, framed and beaded in one panel ; round the closet is to be a 6-inch
by i-inch mahogany moulded skirting. To fix proper linings and casings to the pipes.
To frame a cistern over the closet, out of 1 4-inch dovetailed. Angle beads to be fixed to
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 875
all angles. — Attic Floor. The doors to be of 1^-inch deal, four-panel and square ; hung
with 2i-inch butts to lj-inch rabbeted linings, and rounded, and a spring latch with a bolt
to each. The windows to have 1^-inch moulded sashes and frames as before, single
hung, &c, complete; to have £-inch linings, with inch window-board and mouldings
round. A 5ry-inch by 1-inch torus plinth, plugged, to be fixed round each room, land-
ing, &c, on this story. The floors to be of inch deal, laid folding as below. — The
staircase is to be built on three deal carriages, geometrically hung on three bearers, and
fastened at the bottom to an oak siil. The carriages to be 4 inches by 2i inches, laid
flatwise ; and the bearers and sills to be of old oak, 6 inches by 4 inches. The treads to
be of 1 ^-inch deal, the riser of inch deal, and boxed to string, with moulded and returned
nosings and cut brackets. The strings to be moulded to correspond with the skirting in
the hall, in the ground plan. The bottom step to be curtail (the bottom step to be
longer than the others, and made to curl round in the same manner and form, and to the
same extent, as the scroll of the handrail). The handrail to be of the best Spanish ma-
hogany, 2£ inches by '2\ inches, moulded and sunk, and French polished, with proper
ramps, scrolls, twists, &c, to sweep of stairs. The fascia round the landing, and string
to the stairs, to be of inch deal, double sunk and beaded to receive the plaster ceiling.
The balusters to be of inch deal, and in every third step a wrought-iron one to be fixed ;
and on the curtail step is to be fixed a turned iron newel. To provide the necessary
screws for the rail. The upper staircase to be of inch deal treads and risers on two
carriages, with bearers and brackets. Rail skirting, &c, as before.
1806. Slater and Plasterer. To cover the whole of the building with the best imperial
slates, nailed in two places with copper nails, on 2-inch by J-inch deal sawn laths ;
the whole to be well torched. The walls and arches of the two kitchens, the passage,
the china-closet, the water-closet, to be rendered and set : those of the hall staircase,
and landing above, and the two rooms on the ground floor, to be finished, troweled with
stucco (three coats). Those of the chamber and water-closet to have three coats of bastard
stucco, as well as all partitions. The walls of the attic story to be rendered and set ;
the ceilings to the ground floor to be L. P. F. (lath, plaster, and float), and set white ;
also the chamber story. Those of the attic story to be two coats on reeds, and three
times white. The contractor to include the sum of £ 30 in his estimate for inside
plaster cornices and flowers. — The outside to be stuccoed with quicklime and river
sand, in the proportion as directed, except the cornices, frieze, columns, and all other
projections, which are to be in cement, as particularly shown by drawings at large,
&c. The chamber floors and partition to the water-closet to be well pugged (pugging
is a composition of sand and plaster, or common mortar, laid between the joists or studs,
to prevent the transmission of sounds, or dust rising from the joints of the floor).
1 807. Stone-Mason. To provide and fix Mansfield stone front steps, and all other
stonework connected therewith, as particularly shown by drawings at large; as well as a
Mansfield stone terrace, 3 inches thick. Fix stone curbs to the area gratings of the
windows, 6 inches by 4 inches and a half, well cramped and leaded together. Also a
stone, 2 feet square, over the rain-water cistern, as well as one to an opening to the coal-
place. A stone sink with plug-hole, 4 feet by 2 feet 4 inches. To cover the water-
closet of the basement with stone as terrace. To provide and fix Attleborough stone
sills to all the windows, 10 inches by 6 inches and a half, properly weathered and
throated : to provide a proper Mansfield stone for the pump. To lay the hall floor
with rubbed Hopton stone in diagonal quarries. To lay Hopton stone hearths, and
Yorkshire back hearths to the two sitting-rooms, 4 feet by 1 foot 10 inches ; to lay
rubbed York stone hearths (and back hearths) in each fireplace of the bed-rooms,
3 feet 8 inches by 1 foot 8 inches. The staircase to the basement story from the hall,
as well as the steps into the area, and from the terrace into the garden, to be of solid
Mansfield stone ; to provide and fix stone architrave over the columns and through the
walls (as shown by the plans).
1808. Plumber and Glazier. To lay all the lead gutters with 7-pound cast sheet-lead,
with 2-inch drips, to extend, in all places, 9 inches up the roof and 4 inches up the
wall ; with a lead flashing of 5 pounds to the foot, at least 5 inches deep. All the hips,
valleys, and ridges to be laid with 5-pound lead; the top of the conservatories, and
under the portico, with 6-pound lead. To line the cistern of the water-closet with
7-pound lead. To fix a pump with 3^-inch brass forcing apparatus, with every thing
necessary for the same, oak standards, stage, stays, cheeks, &c, complete ; and 2^-inch
suction pipe, stop, bib, cock, and 2-inch best screw bottom. To branch a 2-inch rising
main into the cistern of the water-closet; also a branch of 1^-inch pipe from this main,
with best brass cocks, &c, for the copper in the back kitchen. To put a half-inch
warning-pipe from the cistern to a convenient place near the pump ; and another
li-inch pipe, with brass cock, &c, to be laid into the conservatory, where directed.
To provide and fix in the back kitchen a lead rain-water pump, with 2-inch suction
S?6
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
pipe, and 3'inch cylinder, with oak standard plank, wrought-iron lift, and cheeks,
complete. To provide and fix a set of Hardcastle's best water-closet apparatus, with
service cistern and pipe, cranks, wires, &c, complete; and a 4-inch soil pipe to the
culvert ; also a self-acting water-closet in the area below, with lead service pipe, wires,
cranks, and soil pipe, as for the other water-closet. The conservatories, and the whole
of the windows, to be glazed with the best crown glass, except those of the basement
floor, which are to be of the best seconds. The whole of the work usually painted to
be done three times over in oil, and the outside to have four coats in oil.
1809. Remarks. Considering this as a suburban dwelling, where the great object is
concentration, we think its Architects have been successful in adopting an economical
form ; and in making the most of the different floors. The arrangement of the base-
ment story is very satisfactory, and the idea of adding to the width of the open area by
vaulting, open in front, is worthy of imitation in other places. This might even have
been carried farther, and a wash-house and cleaning-place might have been obtained in
this manner at b b. The flue from the boiler might easily be carried across the area
over an arch or buttress. The operation of washing ought never to be performed in
the basement story of a house, if it can possibly be avoided, on account of the soapy
steam which must inevitably ascend into the living-rooms. When washing must be
carried on in the basement story, a hood should be formed at a convenient height above
the boiler, and from it there should be a funnel connected with an air-flue, built so close
to the flue of the furnace, as that the warmth of the latter might create a draught in the
former. Air-flues for ventilation should indeed always be formed in kitchens, sculleries,
and wash-houses. The party wall between the two dwellings appears to be only nine
inches thick, which seems to us to be dangerous, with reference to the chance of fire
happening to break out in either house. About London, the party wall of such a building
is required by law to be not less than eighteen inches in thickness ; but even that is too
little, where this wall, as in the case before us, contains all the flues. The flues in this
Design are carried up in thick projections, as indicated by the jambs of the fireplaces in
fig. 1542. There are, however, no lath and plaster partitions, the absence of which is a
great impediment to the spread of fire, when it has once broken out. Whoever lives in
a house, the interior of which is subdivided by lath and plaster partitions, and which has
hollow boarded floors, with a wooden staircase, is scarcely safer that if he dwelt over a
mine of gunpowder ; as, if any part of such a house should be accidentally ignited, it
would be hardly possible to stop the rapid spread of the flames. The plan of arching
over the whole of the basement story with brickwork, § 1803, is excellent, in point of
strength, safety from fire, and for deadening the sounds proceeding from below. Indeed,
we are persuaded that the time must shortly arrive when all houses will either have
arched floors of this kind, or floors of some other description of masonry, to prevent the
spread of fire either upwards or downwards from any apartment where it may break out.
By means of iron girders, flat arches may be formed over wide apartments ; and, for small
rooms of every kind, we see no objection whatever to semicircular arches, which, as they
have no lateral thrust, would require no extra thickness in the walls. A great object in
point of external effect would be gained by highly arched ceilings ; because the character
of strength would be heightened by the increased depth of space between the tops of the
windows on one floor, and the sills of those over them. This is one grand cause of the
expression of strength in ancient castles, and in the buildings of Florence and other cities
of Tuscany. Great care is requisite in heating so small a house by hot air ; which, even
when managed in the best manner, is, in a confined space, apt to come in currents, and the
effect of a current, whether of hot or cold air, is much more powerful in suddenly raising
or lowering the temperature than a greater degree of heat or cold without motion in the
air. In consequence of this, we have observed that persons who live in houses heated
by hot-air stoves arc particularly liable to catch cold, even without going out of the
house. We are quite satisfied on this point by our own experience, having had our own
house heated several years since in the most scientific manner by the late Mr. Sylvester,
and having been obliged, from the cause mentioned, to give it up, and adopt hot water.
Mr. Sylvester's plan is by no means liable to the same objection, in the case of heating
very large houses. The great extent of steps on each side of the entrance front seems
out of proportion to the entrance itself; but these steps must be looked upon as a con-
trivance to conceal the area, and more as a stage for plants in pots, than as a flight of
steps. In point of taste, wc should have preferred enclosing the two green-houses, or
plant cabinets, with piers and flat arches, to employing either round or square columns ;
but still wc acknowledge that the round Doric columns, shown in the Design, admit
more light, both to the plants and to the glass door which connects the green-house
with the room. It will be observed by the plan, fig. 1541, that the glass case which
encloses the plants is totally distinct from the circular columns. This is highly proper,
because nothing is more inconsistent with the principles of strength and fitness, than to
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 877
see round columns joined either to panels of glass or wood, or to flat walls. Had
piers and arches, or square columns been employed, of course the glazed panels would
have been joined to them, which would have been equally proper ; because the junction
is equally consistent with strength, and more so with fitness, than if the glass case had
been an independent structure ; for its junction with the right-angled supports offers a
sufficient reason for their being so. Whether round or square columns were employed
in front of the conservatory, we should in either case have omitted altogether the pro-
jection above, supported by four Corinthian columns, which gives the edifice the expres-
sion of a public building, and which we consider as quite uncalled for in a private house,
even if the whole of this double villa were but one dwelling. We are quite aware that
the introduction of columns and projections in this manner is justified by the practice
of many who bear great names among modern Architects ; but we have no more doubt
of its being essentially in bad taste, than we should have of the bad taste of a labourer,
who arrayed himself in his holiday clothes to do his every-day work. In short, this
projection is a mere excrescence ; a kind of mimicry of a part of Roman Architecture
rather than an adaptation of it ; and, in point of fitness, it is rather injurious than useful,
because it shades the windows under it. Were it entirely removed, and a part of the
roof, and the chimney-stacks shown, the effect of the edifice would be highly respectable
as a dwelling-house ; as it is, the expression is something between that of a dwelling-
house and that of a public building.
Design XIII. — A small Grecian Villa or Casino, to be placed on an Eminence, com-
manding extensive Prospects in two Directions only.
1810. The Situation is supposed to be elevated, and the approach to be a straight
avenue, bordered by an irregular phalanx of evergreen trees and shrubs, so as to be
impenetrable to the eye on both sides, as shown in the general plan, fig. 1543, in which
1543
o
{
o
o
a is the avenue, and b b the direction of the two principal views ; c, walks round to the
kitchen court and back entrance ; d, a wire fence enclosing the lawn ; e, groups of low
shrubs and flowers ; and /, scattered groups of trees. On approaching the house, the
view within 300 yards will be as in fig. 1544, and the stranger will enter without any
expectation of enjoying a prospect from the rooms ; but whether he is ushered into the
dining-room or drawingroom, he will be agreeably surprised to find that he has. been
mistaken.
878
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1544
. • i a a* 1K4 5 shows a vestibule,
1811. Accommodation. The .plan rf J*V™"Vg "jgJfJSS, the dining-room,
i, circular in the plan, ten feet in diameter, and with a domed g ,
», drawingroom, c, ^^^^2 to^e *35g
bed-room, a'nd ™*^^^^^k^Z as to form balconies to two
and drawingroom, is roofed flat, and covereu wi
of the bed-rooms. , . „, KRn fPPf . which, at 6d., is £614.
1812. GeneraZ Erfima*. Cubic contents, 24,560 ket w , ]mJar situation ;
1813. Remarks. This is an elegant Des.gn, well adapted V
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 879
and for the occupation of a family of not more than two or three persons, with two ser-
vants, but without children. The author of this Design, and also of the Italian parsonage
Design IX., is William Bardwell Esq., a London Architect, who has distinguished
himself by erecting cottages for the poor, on his own estate at Blackheath, and letting
them at moderate rents ; by a magnificent plan for the improvement of Westminster ; and
by various other benevolent and patriotic schemes.
Design XIV. — A Villa in the Old Scotch Style, erected, in 1831, at Springfield, near
Glasgow.
1814. The Situation of this house is three miles north of Glasgow, on a hilly and
somewhat irregular surface. The offices at Springfield are at a short distance from the
house, owing to some local peculiarities ; but in this Design they are placed near to
it ; as being more convenient, supposing the whole to be executed in a locality where
nothing prevented the adoption of this arrangement. The general appearance, on
approaching the entrance front, is as shown in fig. 1546, and a nearer view of the same
front is given in fig. 1547. The principal views are towards Ben Lomond, the Vale of
Clyde, and the Campsie Fells. Every one who has seen the house of a Scotch laird,
1547
erected durino- the seventeenth century, will allow that this is a very good imitation of
the old Scotch manner, which, like the laird himself, was dignified but severe, and
forbidding rather than inviting. There is something too commonplace and town-like
in the iron rails and sunk area ; and, though porches were unknown to the old Scotch
villa, yet the Architect would have been perfectly justified in adding one to this Design ;
provided, in doing so, he adhered to the generalstyle, and manner of the building. It
must always be recollected, that, in imitating any style we are not limited to copying par-
ticular forms ; but are required to enter into the spirit of the subject or style to which they
belong, and to form a new composition in that spirit, adapted to whatever use it may be
required for. When we hear, therefore, of Architects statins' that there is no precedent
880 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
for such and such things in the models which they take for imitation, we consider that
it shows a want of comprehensive views, and indicates that man is a slave of his profes-
sion, rather than the master at it. It is, however, proper to observe that the object of
the Architect may be, to produce such an imitation as may actually be mistaken for the
thing imitated. For example, Mr. Cleland may wish his villa to be taken for a real old
Scotch house ; in which ease nothing that is not generally found in such houses should
be introduced. This, however, is a low style of art, and is to original composition
in Architecture what portrait painting is to historical painting ; drawing from an
individual instead of from the species. Any builder may copy a style, but it retmires an
Architect to compose in it. One reason why churches afford so little pleasure as archi-
tectural compositions, in proportion to their great cost, is, that they are, for the most
part, fac similes of one another ; or, at any rate, that they are more so than any other
class of buildings, public or private, whatsoever.
Ft. 10 5 o
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
ScSl
IS 15. Accommodation. The principal floor, fig. 1548, contains a vestibule, a, opening
to a hull and staircase ; a parlour, b ; store-room, or study, c ; dining-room, d ; butler's
pantry, e ; and sunk area, f. There is a back court, y ; two-stalled stable, h ; place for
fuel, t ; chaise-house, k ; wash-house, I ; and dung-pit, m. The basement floor, fig. 1 54 9,
1549
contains a wine-cellar, n ; beer-cellar, o ; laundry, p ; servants* room, q ; kitchen, r ;
scullery, s ; bath-room, t ; and sunk area, u. The upper floor, fig. 1550, contains a
small bed-chamber with a fireplace, t> ; drawingroom, w ; bed-chamber, x ; principal
bed-chamber, y, in which there is a water-closet ; children's bed-room, or dressing-
room, z ; and another water-closet, a'.
5 k
88-2
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1816. Construction. Fig. 1551 is the elevation of the entrance front, and fig. 1552
that of one end. The walls are of stone. The roofs are supported by corbel-stones.
shown in fig. 1553 : the roofs have no gutters at the eaves, but there are load gutters
along the roofs, a little way above the eaves, which collect most of the water, and
carry it across the garrets to a central gutter, from which it descends by pipes at each
end, alter supplying a cistern above the level of the two upper water-closets. In houses
of this kind the rooms on the basement are invariably arched over with masonry, which
is not only an efficient defence against the spread of fire, but, in feudal times, must have
added to the security of the family living in the floors above. In houses so constructed
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
883
-there will invariably be found a large blank space in the external walls between the
small windows of the offices in the basement story, and the larger lofty windows of the
living-rooms over it.
1553
pa* L-J
Fig. 1554 shows the stone cornice under the eaves of the roof, to a scale of two inches
and three quarters to a foot.
Fig. 1555 shows the moulding to the tops of the chimney shafts.
Fig. 1556 shows the moulding to the sills of the windows, a; and that round th
windows, b.
884 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Fin;. 15.57 shows the section of the architraves of the doors and windows of the two
principal floors.
Fig. 1558 shows the mouldings round the panels of the principal doors.
Fig. 1559 shows the moulding on the ceiling of the drawingroom cornice.
Fig. 1560 shows the skirting of the parlour.
Fig. 1561 shows the skirting of the dining-room.
Fig. 1562 shows the moulding on the wall under the coving of the drawingroom
cornice.
15.58
Fig. 1563 shows the dining-room cornice, and fig. 1564 shows the parlour cornice.
All these figures are to the same scale, of two inches and three quarters to a foot. None
of the cornices or mouldings are enriched.
1817. Estimate. The following is the actual cost of this building: — Mason's work,
i.'495; carpenter's work, j£320; plumber, £ '60 ; slater, j£S0; plasterer, £50;
marble for chimney-pieces, &c. £45 : in all, j£l000. This sum does not include the
offices nor the turrets.
1818. Remarks. We are indebted for this Design to William Reid, Esq., Architect,
Tradestown, Glasgow, by whom it was planned and executed for David Scales Cleland,
Esq., in 1831. It is rendered particularly valuable by the sections of the mouldings, and
by the other details of construction.
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
885
Design XV. — A Mansion, in the Style of a Scotch. Baronial House of the Sixteenth
Century, with the Accommodation and Arrangements suitable to a Villa of the Nineteenth
Century.
1819. Accommodation. The general appearance of this villa is shown in fig. 1566,
and the ground plan in fig. 1565. In the latter are, a, outer lobby; b, inner lobby ;
c, butler's room ; d, waiting-room ; e, housekeeper's room ; f, great staircase ; y, servants'
hall ; h, passage ; i, water-closet ; k, kitchen ; I, back stairs to the dining-room ; m, covered
passage ; n, scullery ; o, wash-house and laundry ; p, men-servants' water-closet ;
q, women-servants' ditto ; r, lobby ; s, coal house ; t, dairy ; u, potato-house ; v, coach or
gig-house ; w, stable for four horses ; x, cow-house ; y, open court ; z, gratings to the cellars,
1565
ra ra
■r"--i"t=i"^
li If "J
below the back part of the house, for wine, beei, &c. Fig. 1567 shows the plan of the
principal floor, which contains, a, stairs to the bed-rooms or attics ; b, lobby ; c, draw-
ingroom ; d, boudoir ; e, closet off the boudoir ; f, water-closet off ditto ; g, library ;
h, great staircase ; i, dining-room ; k, passage ; /, parlour, or principal bed-room ;
»», back stairs from the kitchen, and leading up to bed-rooms above.
1820. Construction. The walls, in this style, are invariably of stone ; the windows
and doors of the principal part of the building have hewn facings, and also the chimney
tops, the battlements, the cornices, and the crow-steps. The roofs are steep, and covered
with grey slate. Fig. 1568 is the south or front elevation; in which, on the left, may
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
1567
8S7
888 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
he seen a projection, n, serving as a finish to the turret, which formed the hartisan, or
watchtower; the watchman walking backwards and forwards hetween that and the
corresponding projection, o, at the other end of the line of battlements. Fig. 1569 is
the eastern elevation ; and fig. 1 570 the western elevation.
£*"
1821. Description, and Observations. This Design has been sent us by David
Cousin, Esq., Architect, Edinburgh, accompanied by the following observations : —
" In this Design, I have endeavoured to adhere closely to examples of the style cha-
racterised by turrets, gables, steep roofs, high chimneys, burtisans, &c, which may, with
propriety, be called the style of the Scottish Manor House. The examples which I have
taken for precedents are the following: — Gogar House, near Edinburgh; the Dean
House ; Audie Castle, and Tulliebole, in Kinross-shire ; Friars' Carse (an engraving of
which may be seen in Picturesque Views of Scotland, by A. De Cardonnel) ; Dairsie
Castle; Castle Grantully ; and Craig Crook; some idea of most of which may be
formed from views of them in Forsyth's Beauties of Scotland. I am not antiquary
enough to hazard any decided opinion as to the proper age to which this peculiar style
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
(T ' mi.i.i.ij
889
of Architecture may be assigned ; and, as I have not been able to lay my hands on any
work treating on the subject, I speak merely from the opinions which I have formed,
perhaps hastily enough, from examining some of these interesting remains of antiquity-
It appears to me that the existing combinations which we find in many of the best
examples, and which I have endeavoured to imitate, have not been the result of one
effort, but of several ; and that the massive square or circular tower, with its loopholes
and battlements, which gives these edifices such a lofty and commanding aspect, was the
original part of the fabric, the other parts being subsequent additions, suited to the
increased wants and refinement of a later age. The date of the one part, I think, we
may, with propriety, assign to the end of the thirteenth or the beginning of the fourteenth
century ; that of the others (the additions, if we may so call them), to the early part or
middle of the sixteenth century. The leading features of these additions are evidently
different from those of the original building (which was generally castellated), and were
5 l
890 COTTAGE, FAHM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
]>robably introduced into this country from France. This appears the more likely, as
we find, in many instances, that the French have had great influence on the manners
and customs of the Scots ; and whoever has seen any of the French chateaux of the
sixteenth century, will at once recognise the striking resemblance which subsists between
them and buildings of the same age in Scotland. The wine and beer cellars, &c,
I propose should be under the ground floor, and communicate with it, either by a stair
from the interior, commencing below the steps of the great staircase, or by an outside
stair from the court, placed in the circular tower. The whole of the ground floor of
this Design, I propose to appropriate to the servants' apartments; not only because I am
borne out, in this manner of arrangement, by almost all the examples of this style of
building which I have seen, but because the expression of the elevations requires it
should be so ; as they do not admit of large windows on the ground floor ; small open-
ings being used, as possessing greater security. The walls of the ground floor, in this
description of dwelling, were, in general, very thick ; and the ceilings were formed of
stone arches, of a semicircular form. The great staircase, I propose, should be carried
no higher than the level of the first flat (floor) ; and that the ceiling should be formed
:>n the same level with the other apartments. By this means we get rid of the attic
window shown in the elevation, which would come in rather awkwardly. The stairs to
the attics are there placed in the space above the entrance lobbies. The interior finishing
ought to be plain, rather than otherwise; this style not admitting of groined ceilings,
pointed Gothic arches, or other details of finishing peculiar to the Old English Manor
House; but rather of that mongrel Grecian sort, which sprang up in the sixteenth
century, at the introduction of what has been called the classic style of Architecture."
1 822. Remarks. This style, whatever may be its origin, is obviously highly character-
istic ; and, like that of the Old English Manor House, it admits of an unlimited extent
of additions, spread out in any, or in every direction. Both are, therefore, essentially
progressive styles, and are suitable for an age and country where mankind generally are
improving in their manner of living; or where individuals are fluctuating in their
fortunes. It cannot be recommended as the most economical style, because it departs
too far from the cube, or plain parallelogram ; but, in a country where the majority of
mansions are in one or other of the economical styles, this may be resorted to as a source
of variety, and of original character. As the residence of a Scotsman, in a foreign
country, it might raise up many associations connected with his native land ; and, though
many of these might not be of the most agreeable kind to a liberal and enlightened
mind (for the Scots, in the sixteenth century, and long afterwards, were in a state of
feudal bondage), yet still, every thing connected with a man's native land, and with the
days of his youth, recalls pleasing emotions to his mind. When the Americans have
increased in wealth and refinement, and have leisure, not only to build commodious and
substantial houses, but edifices displaying architectural style and taste, then it is probable
that they will have recourse to the ancient Architecture of the parent country ; and to
those kinds or varieties of it which prevailed in the particular localities of their ancestors.
In this point of view, the collection of published views of ancient British buildings will
be of great value to future American Architects; for an American family, in the twen-
tieth century, may order a design for a villa, in the style that prevailed in the particular
locality of the parent country, at the time of the emigration of their ancestors.
Design XVI. — A Cottage Villa, built at Chailey in Sussex, for General St. John.
1823. The Situation of this residence is on an eminence facing the south, and com-
manding extensive views of the South Downs and the adjacent country to the right
and left. Some idea of the general arrangement may be obtained from the bird's-eye
or isometrical view, fig. 1571 ; in which a is the approach ; b, a pond in the return circle
of the approach ; c, rising grounds, beautifully wooded in the natural style ; d, sunk
fence, separating the pleasure-ground from the park ; e, flower-garden ; f, candelabra
fountains, of Austin's artificial stone, supplied from the pond, g ; h, kitchen-garden;
i, melon-ground ; k, orchard ; /, rocky ridge, covered with bushes and trees ; m, the
river Newick ; n, natural oak woods; o, terrace walk; p, border for flowering shrubs;
and '/, the park.
1824. The House is shown on a larger scale in fig. 1572; and fig. 1573 is the ground
plan. In this last figure are shown, a, a porch twelve feet wide, and sixteen feet six
inches long, under which carriages drive to set down or take up ; b, an entrance hall,
entered by two folding doors; c, lobby, entered by a glass door ; d, principal staircase,
lighted from the roof; e, back staircase to the servants' sleeping-rooms in the roof;
J. dining-room, twenty-four feet four inches by eighteen feet four inches; g, billiard-
room, twenty-three feet four inches by sixteen feet four inches ; and h, drawingroom,
twenty-four feet four inches by eighteen feet four inches. The height of these three
rooms is twelve feet. The billiard-room may be separated from the drawingroom by
892 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
J 1572
*nf§ ^fifilfkiitJflilf
sliding doors ; and the bays in all these rooms may be shut out at night by curtains, to
retain the heat. The veranda is shown at t t i i ; I is a lobby, having folding glass
doors, to the water-closet, m ; n is a business-roorn, or gentleman's dressing-room ; o,
L| 1 b
^L 1
a h 01
IEL
M
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
893
housekeeper's room, with a large closet, and a door communicating with the laundry, p ;
q, conservatory, twenty-seven feet by twelve feet : r, paved walk from the conservatory
to the veranda ; s, servants' hall ; t, butler's pantry ; u, kitchen ; v, swing-door to ex-
clude smells ; w, larder ; x, scullery, lighted by a sash-door, y ; k, trap-door to cellar ;
and z, kitchencourt. The stable-offices are at some distance.
1825. Construction. The walls are built of a compact sandstone, dug from quarries
in the neighbourhood. When highly finished, this stone is more expensive than brick ;
but in common rubblework, for outbuildings, workmen's cottages, &c, it is scarcely
more than two thirds of the price of nine-inch brickwork. The roof and the veranda
are thatched with reeds; these are more expensive than slates, but they contribute
powerfully to give a cottage character to the building ; and, where there are rooms in
the roof, reeds are found both cooler in summer and warmer in winter, than either slates
or tiles.
1 826. Remarks. What we particularly admire in this Design is, the carriage entrance
porch. It is seldom that porches, sufficiently wide for carriages to drive under, are built
to any house beneath the character of a mansion ; but they contribute so much to the
comfort of the occupant and his visiters, that we think every house or cottage which boasts a
coach-house or gig-house ought also to have a carriage porch. The necessary width of
such a porch will often prevent it from looking well as a lean-to ; but we have here an
admirable specimen of the manner in which not only width, but length and height, may
be obtained, consistently with character and beauty. We are indebted for this Design
to the kindness of Joshua Mantel], Esq., of Newick, for whom the sketches were made
by James Hurdis, Esq., of the same place, the Architect, we believe, of the cottage. The
interior arrangement is good, and the general appearance quite characteristic of a cottage
villa. The grounds, as far as we can judge from fig. 1571, want grouping, and connection
among the parts ; and some of the lines formed by the fences and walks are objectionable.
A few single trees, and small groups, however, would go far towards removing this de-
formity. It must be confessed, however, that it is extremely difficult to judge of what
ought, or what ought not, to be done with grounds, without seeing them. In a bird's-
eye view, like fig. 1571, a good deal of the pictorial effect is often sacrificed for the sake
of giving the information of a map, or general plan. Objects may, also, appear scat-
tered and unconnected in a bird's-eye view, which may yet form connected and har-
monious landscapes, when viewed by the eye at the ordinary height of a man walking
or riding.
Design XVII. — A Villa in the Old English Style, the Idea taken from the Ruins of
Berwick House, in Wiltshire.
1827. The General Appearance of this villa is shown in fig. 1574, and fig. 1575 is an
elevation of the porch. Fig. 1 576 is a cross section of the porch, showing the oak door,
which is four feet wide, and eight feet high. Fig. 1577 is the parapet over the bays,
the open work of which is two feet and a half high, with a plinth of ten inches high, a
frieze of six inches, and a coved cornice of eight inches Fig. 1578 is a view of the fire-
89* COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Fig. 1579 is a
1575
place of the entrance hall, seen immediately opposite the entrance door,
view of one of the chimney tops.
1828. Accommodation. The
plan of the principal Moor, fig.
1580, shows an entrance porch,
a ; and hall, twenty feet hy
eighteen feet, and twelve feet
high, b; dining-room, twenty-
one feet hy eighteen feet, c ;
drawingroom of the same di-
mensions, d ; library, twenty
feet by eighteen feet, e ; princi-
pal staircase, f; stairs to the
kitchen, g ; servants' hall, h ;
butler's pantry, i ; housekeeper's
room, k ; with closets for stores,
/ ; back stairs up to the bed-
rooms, m ; and passage, lighted
from the back stairs window, n.
Fig. 1581 shows the kitchen
floor, which extends below the
back part of the house only, in
which o is the kitchen ; p, the -
cooking stoves ; q, the kitchen- ' '
range ; r, the back entrance ;
s, the scullery, containing an open fireplace, oven, and boiler ; t, the dry larder, with a
1576
1577
D
a
U
a
U
□
u
M
u
a
a
< —
K
1578
table in the centre, u, for cold meat; v, the meat larder; w, the
for bottles, shoes, lumber, &c. ; y, stairs up to the principal
floor, indicated by g in fig. 1580; and z, the sunk areas.
Fig. 1582 is a plan of the chamber floor, in which a and c are
the two best bed-rooms, with their dressing-rooms, b and d ; e
is a passage lighted from the back stairs window ; f, four bed-
rooms ; and g, a dressing-room.
1829. The Stable Offices are shown in figs. 1583 and 1584.
The former contains two double coach-houses, thirty feet by
thirteen feet, a ; two three-stalled stables, twenty feet by twenty
feet, b ; a two-stalled stable, seventeen feet by thirteen feet, c ;
a lobby, twenty feet by ten feet, d, with a staircase to the hay-
loft ; a harness-room, ten feet by ten feet, with a fireplace, e ;
and twi> loose boxes for hunters, f. In the two principal stables
are two trunks for letting down the hay from the lofts, g ;
and corn bins, the lids of which serve as seats, A. The trunks
are about twenty inches square, and the corn bins eighteen inches
wide, two feet deep, and six feet long each. There are two
dung-pits, i i; and behind is the farm yard, k.
1830, (''instruction. All the walling is of freestone, and the
idol's arc covered with grey slate. The width of the principal
coal-cellar ; x, places
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
1580
8<J5
^nP ^
t, r£J
It f — " — 'i — »■ — 1« — ■■ — ' i
front is about sixty feet; the bays are twelve feet three inches and a half wide, and
~^2 L_T~
project four feet outside measure, and the clear width of the windows is ten feet six
^p
1
rt=TF
"l^T
I " ' I
1582
Jbb>
896 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
E
inches; the stanchions, or muntings, are six inches wide; each light is fourteen inches
wide, and three feet high. The width of the front of the porch is nine feet eight
inches; the width of the two pillars in front is two feet four inches; the height of
the pillars is five feet three inches, and that of the cornice above them seven inches and
:i half. The height of the front arch, which is semicircular, is nine feet from the floor.
The height of the frieze above the imposts on the piers is two feet four inches, and the
cornice above is seven inches and a half. These dimensions are given for the benefit of
the curious follower of precedents.
1831. Remarks. For this Design we are indebted to our invaluable correspondent,
Seliin, the author of the description of the Beau Ideal of an English Villa, § 1675 to
§ 1735. He observes of the Design before us, that the front is nearly that of the old
house at Berwick St. Leonard, of which there is an engraving after Backler in Hoare's
Modern Wiltshire. The plan is adapted to this front by our correspondent. He says,
" I am not altogether satisfied with the plan that I have composed for the interior.
The hall, dining-room, and drawingroom are much as they were in the old house; but I
think they are too square, and I do not like the kitchen being below stairs. All the
offices appear to have been below in the original ; but, in the present state of the ruins,
it is impossible to trace the plan of any part except the front, the remainder being
converted into a barn and farm offices. The stairs appear to have been in the centre of
the house. The house was evidently one of some consequence, though not large. In-
deed, the Howes, who, I suppose, built it, were an old family of rank in this county.
It stands in a most extraordinary situation for such a house ; being let into a bank, and
the front is within twenty yards of a dry ditch, which receives the water from several
springs in winter. On the back front, the earth is up to the first floor windows. How
strange that they did not build it on the top of the bank ! It is so let into a hole, that,
although not above forty yards from the public road, it can scarcely be discovered by
strangers. As such a house would be expensive to build, I have made the plan suited
to a person of fortune ; but it wants a fourth room, as the gentleman's room for trans-
acting business." The plan, notwithstanding what the author says against it, has, we
think, much merit ; and the elevation is characteristic. The hall door is a fine speci-
men of the carpentry of the time of Henry VIII. or Elizabeth. The same kind of
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 8Q7
radiating raised panels are found in the cabinets, and other pieces of furniture, of that
time, still extant, which belonged to Cardinal Wolsey.
Design XVIII. — A Villa Residence, in the Tudor or Old English Style.
1832. Introductory Remarks. This Design has been contributed by an able and
zealous architectural critic, W. II. Leeds, Esq., the stores of whose portfolio evince him
to be as proficient with his pencil as with his pen; and we shall give his observations
upon it in his own words: — "Whatever merit they may possess in themselves,
very few published designs are at all satisfactory as regards explanatory description.
The greater number, indeed, are lamentably deficient in this respect ; so that the
Architect's ideas would be but imperfectly elucidated, by even a more copious
graphic illustration than it is usual to give. It very rarely happens (at least in English
publications of the class here alluded to) that any notice is taken of the interior of
a building; or, at most, only a general section of it is exhibited, as if the interior of
a residence required no other consideration than that of plan alone, nor afforded
any scope for the display of taste and invention. This extreme reticence, whether
arising from the excess of modesty, or the opposite quality, is not only sufficiently
provoking in itself, but tends to deprive architectural works of this class of the
interest they might be made to possess ; so that, at present, they have rarely attrac-
tions for any save the professional man, or the devoted amateur. It will, perhaps, be
said, that a design ought to speak sufficiently clearly for itself, without any assistance from
the pen, or interpretation on the part of the Architect. Were every part completely dis-
played, this might be the case ; but, even then, the Architect's silence might be a positive
injustice towards himself, since, for want of stating his own views, or the circumstances by
which he was directed, he may be criticised for not having done what it was out of his
power even to aim at ; and, on the other hand, he may obtain no credit for having sur-
mounted difficulties which, because they have been felicitously conquered, may not even
be suspected to have existed. Besides all this, there are a variety of collateral circum-
stances which, although it may not be indispensably necessary that they should be no-
ticed, might very properly be pointed out, certainly without in any degree diminishing
the interest of the Architect's performance. If the author of a design do not care to ex-
plain his own ideas — which, it is to be presumed, he must be better acquainted with than
any one else, he can hardly expect that others will take the pains to investigate them
very studiously. In an article entitled ' A Visit to Monplaisir' (see Library of the Fine
Arts, vols. ii. and iii.), I lately gave a description, at some length, of an imaginary man-
sion. The present Design is far more sober in every respect : there I indulged in rather
lavish extravagance of embellishment ; particularly in those favourites of my imagination,
the four transept galleries, and the ' saloon of the four oriels : ' here, upon a moderate
scale, not exceeding that for the residence of a private gentleman of fortune, I have had
some regard to economy, although greater attention has been had to decoration and
effect, than is observable in many houses of much greater extent. By no means does it
follow, that embellishment is to be regulated according to the actual size of the struc-
ture ; nor is there any reason why architectural elegance should not be aimed at in a
private residence, merely because the owner does not keep up an establishment equal to
that of a nobleman. There is no province of his art which opens so delightful and varied
a field to the Architect ; none which affords him so many captivating combinations as
Domestic Architecture, provided he possess any imagination or invention, and be at
all at liberty to display them. What my own notions are on this subject may be partly
gathered from some hints thrown out in the introductory chapter to Mr. Britton's work
entitled ' The Union of Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting ;' which, together with
the greater part of the remaining letterpress, proceeded from my pen. To that publica-
tion I must refer those who care to learn more of my opinions on this point.
1833. General Description. The present plan was originally designed for a villa
in a very different style of Architecture, namely, the Grecian. It would then have
had an advanced but enclosed Ionic portico in the centre, distyle in antis (a portico
of two columns, between pilasters), flanked on each side by a lesser colonnade, ex-
hibiting a different example of the same order, and raised upon a stylobate (pedestal)
concealing sunk areas. The walls behind the columns would, in this case, as a specimen
of decoration unusual in this country, have been painted with subjects in fresco ; the space
between the walls and these lateral colonnades, which would have been two columns
in depth, having skylights so as to protect the paintings from the weather, and yet
throw down the light upon them, which would be relieved by the shadow of the
inner columns, and that of the soffit. The centre portico would have exhibited quite as
striking a deviation from usual practice, inasmuch as the back or inner wall would have
risen no higher than the vestibule, so as to admit a view between the anta? (pilasters),
5 M
898
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
insulated in the upper part (if their shafts, to the wall bounding the open space beyond,
and from which the vestibule itself would have been lighted from above. Thus, much effect
of light and of perspective would have been obtained, together with a novelty of character
seldom, if ever, aimed at in such parts of a structure; all our porticoes, however they
may differ in other respects, being nothing more than a single row of columns before a
wall. (See an Essay on Porticoes, in the Library of the Fine Arts, vol. i. ) Although
this description may appear quite irrelevant to my present subject, I trust that, on con-
sideration, it will not be deemed so ; because it may not be altogether uninteresting — to
some, at least, to note, as far as they can do so from what has just been stated, the changes
occasioned by adapting a plan exactly the same in dimensions, and in the arrangement
of the principal floor, to a style requiring in many respects so opposite a mode of treat-
ment. In either instance, my aim has been, to combine architectural effect with as per-
fect convenience as possible, and, while faithful to the general character of the style, to
impart to the Design a tolerable degree of originality. It is not enough that there be a
certain air of architectural propriety ; there must be feeling and flavour likewise. It is
far better that there should be a strong relish, though even of a questionable quality,
than those insipid decencies which it is hazardous to censure, yet utterly impossible to
commend ; tolerably correct, perhaps, yet most intolerably dull.
1834. General Plan. In the annexed sketch, fig. 1585, which is intended rather la
1585
convey some idea of the relative localities as imagined by myself, than positively to deter-
mine the choice of site, it will be seen that the house, a, is placed at a moderate distance
from the road, b, which, as there is no direct view from any of the principal apartments
on that side, is not at all objectionable. On the west side, fronting the drawingrooms,
ike, are parterres and pleasure-grounds, c; and on the opposite side is a paddock, d,
screened from the road by trees and shrubberies. On this side, too, is placed the general
entrance to the offices, c; and, in order to obviate, in some degree, the disadvantage of
placing the kitchen offices in the basement story, while the conveniences of such a plan
are retained, the ground is here supposed to fall abruptly ; so that, if any descent at all
be required, one or two steps leading down to that entrance will be sufficient. Should
such a plan be selected for a level site, either an artificial declivity must be formed in the
same place, or else a commodious area. On the north side of the house is the kitchen
court, /; on the saaie level with the offices themselves, consequently much lower than
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
899
the other ground. Immediately attached to this are the stables, g, and such other build-
ings of that description, h, as the particular establishment kept up may render necessary.
In this direction may be the kitchen and fruit gardens, and the orchard, adjoining the
more ornamental grounds, i. All this might be accomplished within a very moderate
compass of land, not more than is usually attached to a country residence not seated in a
surrounding demesne of its own. Having thus, as far as it is practicable to do so before-
hand without any positive data, put these particulars into some kind of tangible shape,
the different elevations and the external character of the house are next to be considered.
1835. The Entrance Front is shown in the perspective view, fig. 1586, and in the
elevation, fig. 1587. The lower part of this front is little more than a plain
unbroken surface, with no other finish than that imparted to it by the base mould-
ings below and the ornamental string-course above. The recessed porch seen in this
front is certainly of a richer character than is usually given to porches in private
1587
residences erected in a similar style ; yet, so far from being out of keeping with the
blank surface on either side of it, it both gives to, and receives from, the latter an
additional value ; namely, that of harmonic contrast. The eye is at once directtd
900 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
to the centre, which is rendered of sufficient importance in itself to fix the attention,
and prevent any sense of nakedness that might else be occasioned by the display of so
much blank surface ; while the latter produces not only the pictorial quality termed
breadth, but repose likewise, and thereby relieves and sets off the somewhat floridly
decorated centre. Were the same degree of plainness extended upwards, the result
would be monotony and baldness rather than simplicity : to avoid this defect, the chimney
shafts are made prominent and appropriately characteristic features in the upper lateral
divisions of this front. While they immediately and distinctly announce, even in the
mere elevation, that we behold a domestic habitation, they pleasingly diversify the sur-
face, carry up the eye to an apex on either side, and serve also, by the moulded splays
below them, to break the squareness of the lower divisions, and to dovetail, if I may so
» \ press it, the inferior and superior portions of the elevation together. The splays, and
the ornamental panels with coats of arms immediately above them, are indeed essential
points in the composition, unaiFected as decoration, and withal congenial to the style
here generally followed ; although the particular combination here adopted may pro-
bably offer to other eyes than my own much that is questionable. The clusters of
enriched chimney-pots which terminate the shafts preserve a due balance in the general
scheme of decoration with the porch below ; and, at the same time, in combination with
the gables with which they are as it were incorporated, and with the pinnacles that crown
the buttresses, produce such a diversity of outline as by that single circumstance alone
to impart a more animated character to the ensemble than it would otherwise possess.
On the upper Hoor there is a smaller window on each side, between the chimney shaft
and the buttress. As regards the interior, these windows might certainly have been
dispensed with without particular inconvenience; yet, even although the plan had been
in every respect as good without them, they are of so much importance to the elevation,
that either they, or something similar, ought to be introduced in that situation. Were it
not for them, not only would the upper part seem too much a repetition of that beneath,
but the centre and sides would appear like three upright divisions, the former of which
would be pierced by an opening above and below, while the two latter would bean almost
plain surface. By these two windows being thrown in, the eye is directed horizontally,
and by the numerical increase in the features a slope is formed upwards from the porch
to the summit of the chimneys, producing an inverted pyramidal figure opposed to the
outline of the gables. There is likewise a pleasing kind of numerical harmony, yet
without the least formality, obtained by the same means : below, there are three
voids combined in the centre compartment, viz. the porch and two niches ; above,
there are likewise three, the larger and the two smaller windows, stretched out on a
wider line ; and the same system of triplicity is observed also in the composition of the
centre window, and in the gables and ornamental embattlement which crowns the
middle division of the elevation. Another circumstance, which deserves to be pointed
out, is, that these two windows not only give a certain piquancy of expression to the
general physiognomy of this front, suggesting the idea of some degree of intricacy
within, but serve likewise to produce an agreeable symmetrical irregularity ; for, although
each of the side divisions, considered by itself, is not perfectly uniform, the regularity of the
whole composition is strictly preserved, and the two antagonistic qualities, harmony and
discord, or symmetry and irregularity, completely reconciled. The last observation I shall
allow myself on this part of the Design is, that, owing to these two windows, the character
of lightness is in a similar manner combined with that of solidity, and the latter at the
same time pronounced more decidedly than if these lateral divisions had no apertures
whatever; because, there being only one window between the chimney and the centre,
the plain space on the other side of the chimney indicates firmness where it is most
wanted, both for actual propriety and artistical expression, namely, at the angles. Were
tlie situation of the window reversed, the alteration would be materially for the worse.
IS:;*.. The West, or Draivingroom, Front, shown in fig. 15S8, exhibits a different
character, in regard to mere composition and actual physiognomy, from the preceding
one, although decidedly of the same cast and style; and, like that, having little extraneous
embellishment beyond what arises from the parts themselves. Neither has it that air of
pretension so frequently affected in modern Gothic mansions, where almost all possible
varieties of feature are huddled together; and sash windows, with no other badge of the
ral livery than mere label-mouldings, are mixed up with buttresses, turrets, towers,
and embattled projections, till the whole looks more like an assemblage of fragments
than parts of one and the same design. For what effect it may possess, this elevation
depends chiefly on the windows and their disposition. The five lower ones, which are
those of the two drawingrooms, are level with the low terrace upon which they open,
and from which there is a grass slope, on the same angle as the steps; there being no
parapet, except at the end ; because the terrace itself is so low, that any sort of parapet,
while it would have interfered with the prospect from the rooms, and have been no
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
5 J 15S8
901
improvement to the external design, would have had a degree of heaviness not very
consistent with the character of the place itself. On the upper floor there are but three
windows ; for otherwise, as this portion of the elevation is quite flat, without any breaks
or divisions, two series of windows, exactly the same in number and position, and
differing in little more than their heights, would have had a formal, monotonous, and
also crowded appearance, not very agreeable in itself, and certainly not befitting the
particular style here aimed at. This, I am aware, will be reprobated by those who con-
sider it unorthodox to place a solid in one floor, over an aperture in that below. Without
appealing to actual examples, as authorities, I shall content myself with observing, that,
if it be imperiously required, in the case of windows, to have a perfect correspondence of
opening over opening, and bearing upon bearing, the principle ought to hold good in all
other instances ; yet, I have never seen or heard it remarked, as a solecism or defect,
where a lofty and almost solid mass has been erected over a gateway. Neither is it
considered any violation of this principle, to have either one or more doors, or other
apertures, in the lower part of an otherwise blank side of a building, where there is solid
brickwork carried up to the height of, perhaps, several stories above. At least, let us be
consistent ; and, if the want of bearing under bearing is to be accounted a solecism
even in a style where such licenses seem natural and characteristic, let us boldly say,
that Sir Christopher Wren has been guilty of it to a most enormous extent, in the very
finest of all his works, our metropolitan cathedral, where he has carried up a second
order of solid masonry over one pierced with large windows ; and, strange to say,
although some critics have ventured to question the propriety of a second order at all
above the first, not one seems to have noticed this circumstance. — The dormer windows
of the attics, which seem to spring up from between the battlements, give character and
variety to the upper part of the elevation, and possess sufficient embellishment in their
gables, with crockets and finials (crockets are studded or curled ornaments, running up
the upper edge of a gable wall or pinnacle, and terminating in a pointed ornament or
tini.-l), to be reckoned among the decorative features of the Design. The circumstances
of the plan — which, as I have already observed, was predetermined for another design,
rendered it rather difficult to give sufficient character to this side of the building ; and
perhaps it would appear somewhat tame and insipid, were it not for the receding portion
at the north end, which gives variety and support to the whole. This is treated inde-
pendently of the rest, and kept somewhat subordinate to it ; almost all its decoration
consisting merely in the bay window of the library, and the group of chimneys on
the roof.
1837. The Dining-room, or East, Front is shown in the perspective view, fig. 1586.
and in the half-elevation, fig. 1589. Although there is much similarity, in many respects,
between this front and that described, it is by no means a repetition of the latter. It is
more irregular in itself, owing to the inequality of the ground, which, as already noticed,
has a considerable descent on this side of the house, to the north-east angle ; in consequence
of which, the building here seems to gain an additional story. As the bay of the dining-room
produces a sufficient diversity between the upper and lower floor, five windows are here
given to the former, for the sake of deviating from the arrangement observed in the
west, or drawingroom, front. Another difference is, that the lower windows do not
reach quite down to the floor of the rooms, there being an area beneath those of the
breakfast-room, and the others being at some distance from the ground. The portion
[)0l2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1589
to the right, or north, which answers to the library in the preceding elevation, but does
not retire back so much beyond the general line of the front, is so treated as distinctly
to mark it as being of a subordinate
character; yet so that, while it 1590
tends to set off the rest, it is suf-
ficiently in keeping with it. The
features are plainer, but neither
neglected nor destitute of a certain
sobriety of adornment ; and the
solidity of the lower part, in which
there is only the door, forming the
entrance to the offices, is as valu-
able for the effect it produces to
the eye, as it is desirable in itself.
1838. The Ground Floor, fig.
1590. In this plan, the porch,
a, eleven feet by five feet six
inches, opens into an inner porch
or recess, b ; adjoining to which
is a small staircase, c, leading down
to the servants' hall, &c. In b
are a few steps, forming an ascent
into the vestibule, d, twenty-one
feet six inches by fifteen feet.
Beyond this (from which it is
detached by an open screen) is the
staircase, e, seventeen feet square, and thirty-four feet to the summit. On the right
Of the vestibule is a breakfast, or morning, room, f, twenty feet six inches by
nineteen feet ; and, next to this, is the dining-room, g, thirty-two feet by nineteen feet,
w.tli a bay window on one side, and an alcove for the sideboard opposite it, making
the entire width, including these two recesses, twentv-nine feet six inches. On the
opposite side of the vestibule are two drawingrooms, h and i, twenty feet six inches
>y '"H'teen feet, and thirty-two feet by nineteen feet, communicating with each other
Dy folding doors, so as, when required, to give an extent of upwards of fifty feet. Com-
municating „.„], t]lL, Igjgg, rf thcsc> ,nit n(j( ^ a (].rcct j^^ ^ the ^ k> twenty.
r/.umliu
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
903
four feet by nineteen feet, exclusive of the bay, five feet deep, and of tbe entrance
recess, eight feet two inches in depth. Behind the library, and beyond the dining-
room, is the back staircase, /, from which access is obtained to the vestibule, througli
the other staircase. Adjoining J are the butler's pantry, m, and his bed-room, n. The
height of the rooms on this floor is fourteen feet six inches.
18b9. Plan of the Basement Story, fig. 1591. Either descending the back staircase,
or entering by the door seen in the east
elevation, fig. 1589, there is, first, a small
lobby, «, lighted by the window over the
door, those on the staircase, and one, at
some distance from the floor, in m. Next
comes b, the housekeeper's room, with a
store-closet, c. Both these are under the
dining-room ; and the first has a bay
window, with a side light, through which
whoever comes to the private entrance
may be observed. The servants' hall, d,
is under the morning room, and con-
tiguous to the stairs at the extremity of
the passage, e, which lead directly up to
the inner porch and vestibule. By means
of this staircase some light is admitted
into the passage at this end of it ; and,
besides what it receives from a, and through
the window in m, it obtains some from
the window (near the ceiling) in c, and
from the servants' hall, the door of which
is glazed with ground glass. The letters
/, g, and h indicate three cellars ; viz.
for coals, wine, and beer ; i and I are
pantries ; k, the kitchen ; and m, a scullery,
or back kitchen, opening into the kitchen
court, n, where there might be an additional place for coals and wood, for the service
of the kitchen, &c, and for whatever further accommodation and convenience should
be found necessary, as the extent of this court would be ad libitum. Since it will be
hardly necessary to advert again to this plan, we may as well make here, at once, the
few observations that seem called for. The kitchen and scullery, being towards a spacious
court to the north, would be as well situated as if they were entirely above ground ;
while no inconvenience would be experienced from their present position, as their
windows are in another side of the house from that in which is the bay of the library ;
neither are there any windows or areas beneath the drawingroom windows. The house-
keeper's room is well situated for observing all that goes on below stairs, being placed
near the entrance and back staircase, and between the kitchen and servants' hall.
Although, too, the door of her room directly faces that of the kitchen, yet, owing to the
plan of the latter, the view into it would not be so direct as to prove awkward or dis-
agreeable. The servants' hall is equally advantageously placed for immediate access to
the vestibule, and, consequently, to any of the rooms, by means of the stairs leading up from
that end of the passage. Were it not for these stairs, the servants would have to traverse
the whole length of the passage, pass
up the back stairs, and then return
again through the other staircase and
vestibule, in order to reach the en-
trance door, or the drawingrooms.
It is hardly necessary, then, to point
out the convenience of having a
coal-cellar immediately by these
stairs.
1840. Tlie Chamber Floor, fig. 1592.
On this floor there are five principal
bed-chambers, with as many dressing-
rooms, or at least dressing-closets, at-
tached to them, and instead of opening
directly into a common corridor, each
separate apartment has its own lobby,
whereby greater privacy and quiet are
secured. Instead, too, of forming a
1592
(J04 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
spacious landing or vestibule on this floor, where it would have been rather out of character,
and would have seemed too much a positive loss of room, a dressing-room lighted by a sky-
light has been made out of this void above the vestibule, by which means two perfectly
distinct corridors are formed, one on the east, the other on the west side; whereby
not only some degree of intricacy is given to the plan, but the entrances to the rooms
are less exposed. There are also two other chambers on this floor, next to the back
staircase ; one over the library, which might be used as a nursery, or as a double-bedded
room for children; the other the housekeeper's sleeping-room, with a light closet attached
to it. In the space between the former of these rooms and the principal staircase,
which should have double doors, the outer one being made to appear like the rest
of the wall, the most valuable part of the plate might constantly be kept, it being at
so short a distance from the butler's pantry and dining-room, while the place itself is
such as almost to secure it from the possibility of robbery ; for the housekeeper's bed-room
is close by ; and that of the butler, on the floor beneath. By means of a little contrivance,
this closet might be rendered a place of still greater security, such as to render robbery,
unless by some extraordinary conspiracy among all the servants themselves, hardly possible.
Instead of making a single closet, it should be formed into two by a strong partition ;
and in this partition there should be, not a door, but a panel that would slide up,
and which would be well secured by locks; the keyholes to these locks being them-
selves concealed by a smaller panel or metal plate, removed by touching a secret spring.
After whatever was wanted to be deposited there had been put into this inner closet,
and all properly secured, a frame of shelves made so as readily to fix on, would be put
up against the partition, and articles of inferior value set upon them : thus no one could
have any idea that there was another closet beyond the first. To render • assurance
doubly sure,' there might be a wire communicating with an alarm bell on the roof of the
house to hook on to the outermost of the two doors to the first closet, so that, should
only that be forced open, the robbers would think it time to decamp ; or, should that not
have the desired effect, but they actually obtained admission, a few handsome-looking
plated articles in the first closet would be seized upon without suspicion.
1841. The Plan of the Attics will be sufficiently understood from that of the chamber
floor, and from the elevations. On either side there are three rooms, two of which are
sufficiently large to admit of being double-bedded ; and the passage leading to them is
carried over the corridor below, turning off either to the right or left, till it comes over
the northernmost of the lobbies on that side, where a door is made through the wall, con-
tinuing the passage over the other lobby ; which variation of the plan is occasioned by
the necessity for leads, and open space, on each side the skylight of the dressing-room in
the centre of the chamber floor.
1842. Detailed Examination. The reader will now be able to form an adequate idea
of the whole house, and the accommodation it affords ; and, consequently, will be prepared
for a more minute examination of such parts as stand in need of further description, or
call for critical remark. We will therefore commence with the porch.
1843. The Porch, Vestibule, and Screen to the Staircase. In the porch are stone
seats for the accommodation of servants, who may be waiting with visiters' carriages.
Instead of the whole of the vestibule, and the doors of the several apartments, being
entirely exposed to view immediately on entering, only the perforated screen on the
opposite side, and the upper part of the staircase beyond it, are shown. It is per-
haps, rather a favourable circumstance than otherwise, that, in order to obtain sufficient
room for the stairs, it was necessary to place arch the opening into the staircase at
one angle ; since the staircase is now less exposed than if that arch had been in the
centre ; and, while a sufficient degree
of symmetry is kept up, upon the 1593
whole, this species of irregularity is by
no means disagreeable. Owing to this,
too, the screen, fig. 1 593 (which is a
section on the line C D), is perhaps
more decidedly expressed as such to
the eye, at the very first glance on
entering, or as viewed through the
glazed door of the porch, than it
would have been had the opening into
the staircase been facing the entrance.
While the utility of, or rather the ne-
cessity for, this screen is obvious, both
because a perforated partition is re-
quired here, since the vestibule receives
its chief light from the staircase; and
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 905
because, for the reason already assigned, oirly the upper half of the partition could be so
pierced ; this screen becomes a striking feature, gives character to the Architecture,
and produces a pleasing degree of scenic effect, without seeming liable to the reproach
of making a more ambitious display than is consistent with the rest of the mansion.
On the contrary, it rather serves to moderate the quabty of mere space ; for, while
it permits the eye to catch a partial view of the staircase, and the arches of the
corridor above, in a manner well calculated to interest the imagination ; it also strictly
defines the limits of the vestibule, so that this shall not appear too large; yet, as far as
picturesque effect is concerned, have all the advantage arising from the space beyond it,
and with which it thus becomes in some measure identified. To many, I am aware,
the kind of merit I am willing to impute to the Design, in this respect, will seem a most
extraordinary one. They cannot comprehend how, under any circumstances, a limited
space can be preferred to a more extended one, magnitude and mere size being, in their
opinion, positive merits, for the sake of securing which, we are at liberty to make
sacrifices that no other consideration could justify. Such persons forget — in honester
language, they have yet to learn — that in Architecture many beauties are entirely relative
and conditional ; that what is an advantage in one case may in another become a defect ;
and that, consequently, it is necessary to consider what it is that actual circumstances
render most eligible. The most obvious is not always the greatest advantage ; nor is
the most unquestionable kind of beauty invariably the happiest that could be adopted.
1844. The Vestibtde. In a house of this size, any thing beyond a mere vestibule
would be rather out of character ; the vestibule here is not therefore treated as a
hall, occasionally to be used as any other room, or as having such appearance ; because,
after all, such a place will rarely, if ever, be so used, according to the present style of
living. For this reason, it professes to be nothing more than an approach to, and com-
munication between, the different sitting-rooms. Hence, it is on every account desirable
that, while this entrance sufficiently answers the expectations raised by the exterior, it
should not even seem to occupy too much space ; or become so important by its size, as
itself to excite expectations the plan would not allow of being realised. It is obvious
that, but for these considerations, it might have been made considerably larger, and that,
too. without any difficulty or study ; or rather, with far less study and thought than have
now been bestowed upon it, by merely taking in the whole space, instead of abridging it
in the manner here adopted. Equally obvious is it that this would have been attended
with material drawbacks, as far as mere convenience is concerned, because then either the
staircase immediately communicating with the servants' hall in the basement must have
been omitted altogether, or have been exceedingly awkward and confined, and the door
from it must have opened immediately into the hall ; whereas it is now so situated as to
be perfectly out of the way. In like manner, the water-closet, which now occupies the
corresponding space on the other side, could hardly have been introduced in such a
situation ; as it must have opened immediately into the vestibule, and the door would
have been almost contiguous to that of the porch. Independently, however, of these
circumstances — granting that such change would not have interfered in the slightest
degree with those parts of the plan, still the alteration would be materially for the worse
as regards effect. According to the present plan, the view is confined, framed in, if I
may so term it, by the sides of the inner porch, in such a manner that the whole of the
vestibule, and the doors opening into the apartments, are not exposed to sight as soon as
we enter the house ; which, certainly, must be allowed to be rather an advantage than
otherwise. A pleasing air of variety — intricacy it can hardly be termed, is likewise
produced by this combination of inner porch and vestibule, instead of the whole being
thrown into one space ; and this effect is again heightened by the difference of level,
slight as it is, between the floor of the one and that of the other. Another point in
favour of this arrangement is, that, on the one hand, the recess or interior porch contri-
butes by contrast to the importance of the vestibule, which is thus made to seem to
expand ; and, on the other, instead of appearing, as it actually does, to abridge the extent
of the vestibule, it rather conveys the idea of so much space being added to it. Let us
now consider what would be.the result, were the other mode to be adopted, and the whole
space included in the vestibule. Besides the loss of those positive advantages, and of
that degree of effect now obtained, by converting the vestibule into a mere simple paral-
lelogram, twenty-one feet and a half by twenty-three and a half, which would then be
its dimensions, it would be rendered larger than either the breakfast-room or the
corresponding drawingroom on the opposite side ; consequently, would detract from their
appearance, and make them seem comparatively insignificant apartments : in the next
place, it would become too wide for its height : and, thirdly, it would then seem dark
and gloomy ; for, although it has light enough for what it now is, a mere piece de com-
munication, it would not have sufficient, if converted into a larger room, which would
5 x
UOG COTTAGE, FABM, AM) VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
require a few articles of furniture, in order to prevenl it- looking absolutely naked At
present, one or two chairs, and a Blab table with a large bust, or something of the kind.
Standing upon it (and perhaps a rich carpet cover partly thrown over the slab, by way of
pre tenting some object for the eye to dwell on in the centre of the screen), are quite suf-
ficient. Taking all the above circumstances together, they furnish very sufficient reasons
for giving the preference to that disposition which has been adopted in our Design.
There is, however, still another point to he considered, and this is one that has not been
without its influence in determining our choice, even had every thing else been nearly
balanced on both sides. It is evident that what arc now the ends, or shorter sides, of the
vestibule, would have required to be very different, had any other plan been determined
upon. Either there must have been a sham door, to correspond with that of the
dining-room, or the door opening into the breakfast-room, and that into the opposite
drawingroom, must, instead of being at the angle, have been in the centre of the side of
the room. Were the former method adopted, there would be three doors on each side
of the vestibule: so that the centre one would look like that of a mere closet or passage ;
as there would evidently not be space for any thing wider, between the two other doors :
besides which, the whole would have had a crowded appearance. If, on the contrary,
the other mode were preferred ; as far as regarded the vestibule, no objection would arise ;
but then the two rooms to which those doors belong would be far from being improved
by such a change ; for, as they are not very spacious, by placing the door in the centre of
the side opposite the windows, we should bring them too near the fireplace end of the
room, where persons most generally sit ; besides too much exposing, both to observation
and to currents of air from the door, the centre of the apartment, where there would
most likely be a table. The objection would not be altogether so great, did the door
communicate with another sitting-room; but, as it would open from the entrance hall, the
comfort of the room would thus be considerably diminished.
1845. Three Sides of the Vestibule (for the one in the section exactly resembles that
opposite it) have now been shown, and in the elevation of the fourth, fig. 1594, is seen
the arch opening from the inner porch. For the sake of obtaining a sufficient degree of
general symmetry between this and 1594
the opposite side, both in the ele- , — ^.. -.■, ., , ,
vation itself and with regard to the 1 "
rib-mouldings on the ceiling, a slight
break is made in the wall in which
the arch is placed, so as to have
exactly four panels to the right and I
left of it, as is the case with the
screen. Through the arch is seen U
the entrance door, with dotted lines f}
continued below it to point out the
level upon which it is placed. The
upper panels and tracery of this
door are glazed, for the purpose of
affording additional light to the ves-
tibule besides what it receives from
tin' staircase, so that it would have : ■"
quite as much as is desirable ; because a demi jour here will set off the adjoining rooms
to so much the more advantage. As the external door is glazed, there must, for
greater security, be an inner door, with a double fold on each side like a shutter, so
as to fall completely back into a hollow in the wall made to receive it; and this woidd
be closed, and (irmly fastened to, every night. It has not been thought necessary to show
this in the elevation, because, unless on such a scale as to exhibit all its details of con-
struction, it would be of no use; and, besides this, there would he nothing to indicate it as
to appearance : for these shutters on each side of the door would be quite flush with the
wall, and be plain surfaces, coloured exactly to resemble the wall itself; consequently, they
would hardly be at all distinguishable from the rest of it. Or there is still a better
mode to be adopted: this is, to shut up the porch itself every night by a strong parte-
contuse, contrived to slide forward on either side from grooves made in the wall, in a
hollow between the vertical mouldings of the archway of the porch. This door would
be fastened from within, and externally woidd present no lock, or any thing of the kind,
by which an attempt might be made' to force it open. Another advantage attending
this latter mode is, that the porch would be kept quite dry from rain during the night ;
and this door might likewise always be closed whenever the family were not resident in
j'11' house. It must be admitted that this scheme would be attended with some difficulty
in the present plan, which would require a door of this kind to be formed of several
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
907
1595
parts sliding behind each other, there not being Sufficient space for half of it on each
side, a window being in that situation, as will perhaps have been noticed in the ground
plan, although none appear there in the elevation.
1846. The Invisible Window. The lower part of the walls of the vestibule are paneled
for about seven feet from the floor, and the two centre panels, to the right of the arch in fig.
1594, form a concealed door, open-
ing into a passage lighted from the
porch, and leading to a water-closet.
Both this latter and the staircase on
the other side of the porch are
lighted through the external niehes,
by the very simple contrivance ex-
hibited in fig. 1595. It will now
be perceived that these niches are
something more than mere archi-
tectural ornament ; that they are
of direct utility ; and, although
small windows might certainly have
been employed in this instance,
niches must be considered prefer-
able to them, because the others
would, besides cutting up and de-
stroying the breadth of the com-
position too much, have clearly
f\
indicated that there was some small closet or other just here. Now these apertures
are completely concealed, and, by being made to slope downwards, transmit the light
more directly than common windows of the same dimensions would do in a wall of
the same thickness. In regard to the situation selected for this water-closet, some difference
of opinion may be entertained as to its propriety. Many will say that the door leading
to it is too close to those on that side of the vestibule ; and so, undoubtedly, it woidd be,
were there not an intervening passage, which removes much of what might be considered
objectionable.
1847. The Staircase. Although this leads only to a few sleeping-apartments above,
and would rarely be ascended by visiters, as the house itself is not upon a scale to afford
much accommodation for resident guests, it being more of a villa than a mansion, it has
been thought proper to render it one of the most effective parts of the interior, as well
because it forms the approach to the library, as because it would be very conspicuous
from the vestibule, whence it would be viewed through the open screen. The staircase
is a square of seventeen feet by thirty-four feet in height, or a double upright cube.
On two of the sides are three open arches, and on the others three blank ones to cor-
respond, so as to produce perfect symmetry of design. The ceiling is arched and groined,
with fans at the angles ; and the upper panels of these latter, together with the compart-
ments formed by the intersecting ribs of the groining, are filled with ground glass of a
warm tint, just sufficient to shed a mellow Claudish glow over the whole space. Above
this transparent roof is a second external skylight, which not only serves as a protection
to the lower one, and to exclude wet more completely, but helps to preserve a more
equable temperature on the staircase, which, together with the vestibule, might be
warmed by hot air, steam, or hot water. By lining the walls in the space between the
upper and lower skylight with white glazed tiles, the light would also be considerably
increased, and powerfully reflected down ; and as there would be a small door from the
passage leading to the garrets opening into this intermediate space (which door would,
of course, always be kept locked, to prevent the possibility of accidents, by any one incau-
tiously stepping out), the under skylight could at any time be cleaned and dusted with
very little trouble ; a plank, or some small machine constructed for that purpose, being
laid on the ribs of the ceiling, to securely support the person so employed. As to the
decoration, it may perhaps be thought in too expensive a style, yet would in reality be
far less costly than it appears ; for most of the ornamental work would be of cast iron or
composition painted to resemble stone ; and, as their situation would preclude the possi-
bility of their being closely inspected, the embellishments might, with very little actual
finish, be made to appear even elaborately wrought. Were the staircase rather more
spacious in itself, and did it also lead to a number of bed-chambers and dressing-rooms
for strangers, the compartments formed by the blank arches might be painted either in
chiaro-scuro or fresco, as their subjects could be distinctly viewed from the open corridors,
with which they would be upon a level ; yet, such not being the case, it would hardly be
worth while to do so ; and most readers will perhaps be of opinion, that there is already
908 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
quite embellishment enough bestowed upon this part of the interior, to be consistent with
the rest of the house. We will now enter the sitting-rooms.
1848. The Morning Room calls for hardly any remark: it should he simple and un-
pretending, aiming merely at cheerfulness of character. The walls might he of a pale sea-
green tint ; the window-curtains either of the same hue, but rather darker ; or, if contrast
in this respect, and in some other parts of the furniture, should be preferred to uniformity,
buff) orange, or some colour of that kind, lined with a still paler green than the walls.
A few paintings, or choice prints, with an upright piano, might form part of the furniture
of this room.
1849. The Dining-room. In its general dimensions, this room is of the same size as
the larger drawingroom on the other side of the vestibule, viz. thirty-two feet by nine-
teen feet ; but, by the addition of the alcove for the sideboard, and a bay window opposite,
its extreme width across the centre is increased to twenty-nine feet and a half. By this
means a sufficient difference both of form and extent is obtained ; nor is the one apart-
ment, in any respect, a mere repetition of the other. We have seen how far the bay
window contributes to architectural character externally in the elevation in the cast side
of the house, fig. 1 586 ; but it -was originally suggested entirely by circumstances belong-
ing to the plan, it being judged desirable to combine here as perfect a symmetrical
arrangement as possible, with variety and extent. Towards the room, both the bay and
the alcove present uniform openings, for their arches are perfectly alike ; and this
similarity is still farther increased by their having sliding curtains hanging within the
arch ; in order that, when drawn close, none of the architectural features of the room
should be concealed. The window of the dining-room, behind the recess for the side-
hoard, is proposed to be carried up higher than the arch within the room; a disposition
contributing to variety of effect, and in many cases preferable to that of making no
division between the ceiling of the bay and that of the room itself. Except what regards
these two recesses, very little is to be learned from a section of this room, beyond its
general proportion. Here I may remark, that, although it has not been done in the plan,
there would be no great objection to forming a central door of a handsome character,
rather larger than the others, at one end of the apartment, opening from the breakfast
room, so that the latter might, at a large dinner party, serve as an anteroom, from which
this might be entered. In such case the first coup d'ceil would undoubtedly be far
more imposing; and there would be far better keeping between the different sides of the
apartment. The design of the doors on the alcove side of the dining-room, fig. 1596, it will
1596
be observed, is somewhat unusual, and rather more ambitiously decorative than a strict
adherence to actual precedents in the domestic style would, perhaps, warrant. The chief
part, however, that calls for detailed notice, is the alcove itself: this has somewhat less
depth than could be wished, but quite as much as the plan would allow ; still, if it does
not, in this respect, produce all the effect that, under different circumstances, it might
have possessed, it acquires some degree of architectural energy, if it may be so termed,
lrom its being made an expanding recess. (By the epithet expanding I would designate
any recess which is wider in itself than the opening towards the room ; by rising, one
whose ceiling is carried up higher than the soffit of the arch or opening. According to
this vocabulary, therefore, such a recess as the present one, would be termed "expand-
ing rising," by which simple terms two important circumstances would be distinctly
expressed. ) By employing this kind of recess, greater variety of perspective and a pleas-
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. [)0[)
ing degree of intricacy are obtained. Some indication of a sideboard is introduced in
the sketch, rather for the purpose of serving as a scale, and showing how it would come
in, than of giving any positive idea of its design. In order to give a definite expression
to the recess, and to keep it rather distinct from the room, the lower part of the wall is
wainscoted and paneled ; and the panels at one extremity of it form the door by which
the servants enter to serve up dinner, and which is in a straight line with the butler's
pantry. Thus, when it was closed, there would be no appearance of a door at all ; and
even when opened it would be hardly observable ; nor could there be any draught from
it into the room, as it retires so much beyond the opening of the arch. Without verbal
explanation it would be impossible to understand what the compartment above the side-
board itself really is : it is, therefore, any thing but superfluous, to inform the reader that
the divisions between the mullions %vould be tilled with mirror, so as to form, in appear-
ance at least, a kind of window, answering to, and reflecting, that in the opposite bay.
Mirrors, indeed, very seldom form any part of the embellishments of a dining-room; yet,
when applied as they are here, they assume altogether a difFerent character from their
usual one, as articles of furniture. Considerable light would thus be given to the alcove,
and the idea of spaciousness greatly heightened ; while a striking vista would be created,
as seen from the bay. In the evening the effect would be still more brilliant ; for then
the lights on the sideboard, and those of the chandelier (suspended from a richly carved
boss in the centre of the middle compartment of the ceiling), would be vividly reflected
in this mirror window. So far, however, there is no great invention shown ; for — I do
not know whether in this particular style or not, or exactly in such a situation — apparent
apertures formed by mirror, and other effects, have been frequently executed on a con-
siderable scale. We must now see, therefore, whether we can hit upon any other device
that shall produce additional effect. Each panel of the upper series should be made to
draw down behind the lower one, like a common window-sash ; which being done, there
would appear a series of rich compartments of stained glass, strongly illuminated from
behind by lights within the staircase. Or a nearly equal effect might be obtained by
painted blinds, executed in a superior and tasteful style. By this contrivance all the
purposes of a music gallery would be answered, without any of its objections, since a
harper, or one or two performers, stationed on the adjoining staircase, would be distinctly
heard, without either seeing or being seen by the company. It has not been considered
necessary to indicate this in the sections ; for unless this stained glass was required
to be exhibited, which would not be very often, it might be entirely concealed on the
side towards the staircase by one or more sash-shutters, made to slide down behind
the paneling on that side, and forming externally either ornamental compartments above
the wainscoting, or made level with, and just like, the surface of the wall : thus the
painted windows or blinds, as might be, would be enclosed between the mirror panels on
one side, and the panels just mentioned on the other. The walls should be stuccoed,
and coloured of a clear and warm reddish tone ; and, in order to give the vivacity of decided
yet harmonious opposition to them, the curtains would be fine merino, of a bright
purple, lined with silk of rather a light red colour. The balance of colour throughout
would be tolerably well preserved by the curtains within the arch of the alcove ; and, in
addition, there ought to be similar ones on each side of the mirror window, hanging
down as far as the sideboard. The panels of the doors, too, might be covered with the
same material, enriched with gilt studs ; and, if this were done, the panels within the
alcove also ought to be so covered. This wainscoting and the doors should be pale oak.
As to the carpet, with the exception of a wide border, of a bold and rich pattern, where
reds and purples would be the predominating colours, all the rest might be without any
figure, and of some agreeable neutral tint ; because, in a dining-room* when the table is
set out, and the company seated, very little of the carpet is seen or noticed, so that it can
contribute little to the general effect : the carpet alone, therefore, would form one marked
distinction between an eating-room and a drawingroom.
1850. Drawingrooms. The vestibule, staircase, and dining-room exhibit several
strictly architectural features, keeping up the character of the exterior of the house ; but
there is no reason for being particularly strict as to this, in these departments, which
would possess sufficient agremens of a different description ; and where an air of cheerful-
ness, and the lighter elegancies which modern refinement has introduced, ought at least to
be as much considered, as a rigid adherence to certain prescribed forms. Although,
however, peculiarity of style would be here less defined than in the preceding instances,
it would not be entirely laid aside, but merely lowered in its tone ; it being still so far
retained as to preserve a due degree of consistency throughout. The design of the
windows, which are both transomed and mullioned, and have their compartments arched,
requires such a degree of consistency ; and these, with corresponding paneling in the
window-shutters and doors, with hollowed corbel cornices, decorated at intervals by
delicately carved blocks, and with ribs on the ceilings dividing them into compartments,
1>10 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
would almost suffice to produce architectural expression enough. The pattern of the
carpet, too, might contribute to the same purpose, as would in some degree the general
style of the furniture; yet an attempt to Gothicise the latter, even did every thing else
seem to require it, must be strenuously deprecated. Backs of chairs exhibiting copies of
church windows, and other things of that sort, are not only complete caricature, but
downright vulgarities, hardly one remove from those Gothic patterns for paper-hangings,
which no person of the least taste can look at with satisfaction. Both rooms would be
furnished en suite, as they communicate by wide folding doors, so as to form one spacious
apartment, larger than would, perhaps, otherwise be consistent in a house of this size.
The doors themselves should be square-headed; but they might appear to be carried up
higher than the real opening, forming a low arch, with tracery in the arched part of the
doors. The doors themselves would be oak, with panels (as would be the case with those
of the other doors) of choicer specimens of the same wood. Over each chimney-
piece should be a lofty mirror, which might terminate above in an arch, with foils and
cusps (small arches meeting in points, which are often used as an enrichment in tracery) ;
and on each side might be a narrower compartment in the frame, divided by rich
transoms, and each division filled with silk in flutes, and of the same colour as the window
curtains. A framing of this description, which, as it would probably be wider than the
mantel-piece, ought to seem to rise up on each side of it, and include that as a lower
division of itself, would give the mirror more importance than, independently of such
additions, its actual dimensions could do. The walls would be hung with either silk, or
very rich paper of elegant designs, in which brown, fawn, grey, and ash tints, with a
slight intermixture of positive red, should be so combined as to produce an effect rich
and warm, yet sober and delicate. The hollow part of the cornice, and the sculptured
blocks, might be picked out with deep red or scarlet, in which case the lower edge of the
wall might have a border of the same colour. The general pattern of the carpet should
present a combination of somewhat similar hues to the walls ; but the border, which
should be sufficiently wide to extend a little beyond the furniture, should be mostly of
scarlet, and some other shades of red, to balance that colour in the cornice and window-
curtains. These latter, which, like those in all the other rooms, would be without
cornices or hanging draperies, and merely draw upon an ornamental rod, immediately
below the cornice of the ceiling, would be of scarlet silk, lined with pearl-colour. There
might be muslin curtains or not, in addition to these ; but, in order the better to exclude
the sun, to which from their aspect these rooms would be much exposed, there ought
also to be spring blinds, made so as to be tightly fastened below at each angle. These
might be made to contribute very materially to the general elegance of the rooms,
by being painted so as to represent the windows themselves, with their mullions
and transoms, but entirely filled with stained glass of a diaper pattern ; or, this,
might be confined to the upper compartments, the lower ones appearing to be open, so
as to show a continuous view through them, adapted to the natural horizon. Unless,
however, this were done in a very superior style, and with perfect taste, it would be far
more advisable not to attempt any thing of the kind ; as, so far from being ornamental, it
would be the very reverse. The mouldings of the ceilings, and the ornamental inter-
sections, ought to be gilt ; but merely partially, so as to exhibit rather sparkling streaks
of gilding than entire surfaces of it ; and the blocks in the cornice ought to receive the
same embellishment, the edges of their foliage being just tipped with metallic lustre.
Instead of a bright white hue, the ceiling and cornices should be of a cream or ivory
tint, and perhaps varnished, so as to give it something of the character of the last-
mentioned substance. On the sides opposite the windows there would in both rooms be
space for sofas, besides other furniture ; and against the window piers might be low
cabinets, book-stands, or other articles of that description, with a few pieces of ornamental
porcelain and bijouterie placed upon them. A few ornaments, tastefully disposed on the
walls, would nearly complete the embellishments. In respect to pictures, there is one
thing to be considered, namely, their size ; for, however valuable they may be in them-
selves, small cabinet pieces or drawings can seldom be so arranged as to be placed in
good situations for viewing them, and yet not interfere with the general effect of the
room, supposing it to possess any ornamental character in itself. Should there be many
of them, they must either form nearly a continued line, with a plain space above them ;
or many of them must be placed considerably higher than they ought to be, to be pro-
perly seen. If, on the contrary, there are only a fuw, comparatively with the size of the
room, distribute them as we will, they will be apt to form spots upon the walls, and to
look rather insignificant; in this case, too, their situations must be determined by the
proper height for viewing them, and not by the actual height of the room. Even where
there are many large and small pictures together, they can hardly ever be so well arranged
a-s a regard to general effect requires; because, instead of the larger ones being so hung
that each of them shall form the central point, as it were, around which smaller frames
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 911
should be symmetrically disposed; the former must inevitably be placed above the latter,
and thereby create a certain disproportion and irregularity, by no means very pleasing in
.itself. These inconveniences might generally be obviated by placing pictures of small
dimensions, whether there be any others in the apartment or not, in a pinacotheca.
1851. The Pinacotheca, As this piece of furniture is quite a novel contrivance, never
before described, some explanation of it may not be unwelcome. It is a small upright
cabinet, enclosed in front with a door of plate glass, to secure the paintings and their
frames also from dust, and to prevent their being touched or accidentally rubbed against.
Its depth need be little more than that of the frames of the pictures which are arranged
in it one above another (not more than three or four), in such a manner as that the
uppermost shall be exactly on the right level for properly viewing it. When a person
wants to examine any of the lower paintings, he is able by a simple piece of mechanism
to shift its place, and elevate it for that purpose ; and, as the pinacotheca would stand
upon castors, and be a light piece of furniture, it might easily be turned so as to catch
the most favourable light. Besides being thus of express utility, pinacothecas might be
rendered exceedingly ornamental pieces of furniture, both by their materials and their
embellishments. We will decide, then, on having two in the larger drawingroom, either
against the window piers, or one on each side of the folding doors at the end. Two
rosewood cabinets of this description, lined within with crimson velvet, puckered, and
surmounted by busts, with a rich socket for a wax taper on each side of them, springing
up from the carved work at the angles, would form, independently of what they might
contain, rather tasteful accessories to the rest of the furniture. With these two rooms a
stranger would most likely judge that all the reception apartments terminated ; at least,
he would hardly suppose that there was another sitting-room ; or, at all events, none
of any importance beyond these, since he would rather imagine that the farther door must
lead into some passage behind the staircase ; consequently he would hardly be much dis-
satisfied with the plan, on discovering that
1852. The Library is so immediately connected with the drawingrooms as to form,
although not in a direct line, a suite of three rooms all opening into each other. I can-
not help considering this disposition far preferable to one that would produce merely a
straight enfilade, certainly presenting a more imposing vista at the first glance, but
exhibiting no art or contrivance, and keeping nothing in reserve to make amends for the
monotony which would be felt after the first impression had subsided. In a very spacious
mansion, where there is scope for great variety in other respects, a lengthened enfilade
contributes to dignity : but here, considering both the size of the house and the limited
number of rooms, it should rather be avoided than the contrary ; because it would display
almost the whole of the interior at once ; whereas, by making a turn off from the direct
line, and at an angle, where, from the known situation of the staircase, there seems
hardly any possibility for communication with an adjoining room except through some
passage, a pleasing degree of variety and intricacy is produced. The house, too, appears
thus much larger than it really is ; for even the mere circumstance of turning again from
the recess into the library conveys an idea of distance and extent. Between the drawing-
room and library should be double doors, so as to exclude all sound, and keep the latter
room quite quiet, and distinct, as it were, from all the others on this floor, notwithstand-
ing that it is so completely connected with them. Whichever way it be entered, whe-
ther from the staircase, so as to have a direct and central view on opening the door, or
from the drawingroom, the effect would be pleasing, and somewhat picturesque. In
the latter case, the effect would be even the more striking of the two ; because, as the
doors in the entrance recess would be paneled with mirrors, on opening that from the
drawingroom, an apparent vista onward into another drawingroom, through the library,
would display itself. Were they not so situated, so many doors close together would be
objectionable ; yet, being placed within a recess, they seem quite independent of the room
itself; and are so far from causing any interruption when opened, that the centre door is
removed more out of the way than if there were no recess here at all. The door opposite
that leading into the drawingroom, by communicating almost directly with the back
staircase, yet not so as to expose it, is a great convenience, as it allows of persons who
come on business with the master of the house to be shown up, after entering the back
way, immediately into the library to him, without passing through the staircase, or
being seen by any one. It also affords a direct and private passage to the water-closet
adjoining the back stairs; which is also most conveniently situated for ready access from
the dining-room likewise, through the private door by the sideboard : an accommodation
of some importance, as it would remove all occasion for that of another kind, which is
a more useful than elegant appendage to a dining-room. This library, nineteen feet by
twenty-four, would be not only agreeably diversified in its form, but also rendered more
spacious by the entrance recess and the bay window. This room, however, and the whole
house, might be materially improved by an addition to the first plan, viz. a conservatory.
912 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1 597
1853. A COMervatory would also form a rery desirable screen between the garden
and the kitcheii-etmrt below. This extension of the original limits of the plan U shown
in fig. 1597, where it will he seen that the hay of the window is made somewhat deeper
than before, in order to obtain sufficient
space for a door leading to the conservatory,
a; and opposite to that is another, opening
into a small closet, b, for papers, &C, These
additional doors, however, would occasion
no alteration in the room itself, but leave
just as much wall as before for book-shelves.
The only other change this alteration would
occasion would be, that, instead of folding
back, the shutters must be drawn up from
a box made to receive them below ; which,
as there are no windows beneath the bay,
would be easily accomplished, and for a
mullioned window such shutters would be
rather more convenient than not ; since,
instead of the whole shutters being drawn
up before the window, which, owing to the
width, would be troublesome, each compart-
ment would have its separate shutter to slide
up in a groove in the mullions. By this
means each would be securely fixed, beyond
the possibility of its being removed, when a
bolt was put in it below, to prevent its being pushed down again. In order to give suf-
ficient width to the conservatory, and yet not to bring it so far forward as to seem to shut
up the library too much between two buildings, the south-west angle is cut off; which
would be rather favourable than otherwise in regard to its elevation ; and decidedly so as
catching the sun earlier in the day. Should, however, any deviation from the original
Design be adopted at all, I would not stop here, but would suggest that a considerable
improvement should be effected, by throwing out another bay or oriel towards the kitchen-
court, though not so as to look into it ; for, although it would have a window, it would
be about seven feet or more from the floor ; and there would be a book-case under
it. The window itself would be of stained and ground glass, thereby occasioning, together
with the expanse produced by the oriel itself (which might be raised a single step above the
level of the floor, and also carried up higher than the ceiling of the room), a very beauti-
ful effect as viewed from the opposite entrance. The dotted lines at c, in the plan, show
the situation and extent of this oriel. Should this plan be adopted, the door leading
into the conservatory would be made in the oriel, as affording a better entrance than
that from the bay ; and it might be covered with the backs of sham books, as the side
facing it would have book-shelves. The whole room might be rendered more symme-
trical and beautiful by making a shallow or blank recess on the chimney side of the room,
corresponding with the other three sides, and placing the chimney-piece in it ; thus con-
fining the shelves to the spaces entirely on each side of these four arches ; and as we have
already provided for shutters without having any occasion for them in the bay, there
might be shelves in the sides of that also, as well as in the oriel. A still more important
improvement here suggests itself to me, which is, to extend this bay, or rather to make it
a second but not a separate room, by advancing it as far as the dotted lines, d, leaving
the arch of the present bay, which would open into a space about thirteen feet by
twenty-four. Were the wall, e e, removed, not only would all symmetry, and even regu-
larity, be utterly destroyed, but the room itself would appear much too low for its extent;
to say nothing of the loss of space for book-shelves against both sides of the piers or
walls, e e. Neither need we be apprehensive that, owing to this division in the room,
and the distance of the window from the fireplace side, the part of the library where this
latter is situated would be dark and gloomy, because we have already obtained a spacious
window in the oriel. Taken altogether, this apartment would thus be rendered a most
delightful one : full of contrast and effect from every point of view ; complex, yet
full of order ; irregular, yet abounding in symmetries. This extension of the library
would afford additional accommodation on the floor above, as there might be a chamber
over this second or western division of the library, a passage to it being cut oil" from the
other, the window of which must then be placed on the north side. That this is ex-
ceedingly practicable, will be instantly seen by referring to the plan of the chamber floor,
fig. 1592. With regard to the conservatory itself, while it would be a material recom-
mendation to have it immediately connected with the house, nothing would, certainly, be
detracted from the value of its effect, by its appearing externally a separate building, as
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 913
there would be no obvious communication between that and the library. Supposing,
however, that the whole of the alterations just described should be carried into effect,
nothing would then be easier than to make folding doors in the centre of the south
end of the conservatory, opening into that angle of the second library ; which would
certainly afford more direct and convenient access, and a pleasing vista down the con-
servatory ; and as it would be rather an impropriety to place a large doorway quite
in a corner, and without any thing to balance it, this objection might be removed at
once, by making this door, on the library side, to appear a continuation of the book-cases,
and one of their compartments. Nor, in adopting this latter entrance, would it be at all
necessary to abandon the other, for the passage from the oriel might also be retained ;
thereby securing a double effect. The erection of a conservatory in this situation would,
besides, be attended with a collateral advantage, which is, that it would enable us to build
a laundry and additional offices beneath it towards the kitchen court ; whereby the accom-
modation afforded by the present plan would be greatly increased.
1854. Concluding Remarks. When I commenced, it was my intention to make a
few remarks relative to the chamber floor, somewhat similar to those on the sitting-
rooms ; but the latter have extended to such length, that all I can now allow myself is,
to make a few remarks as to how far the house, supposing these last-mentioned improve-
ments to have been adopted, would be calculated for effect and display on occasion of a
grand entertainment. The first thing that would present itself to the company might be
the appearance of a splendid painted window illuminating the vestibule, which piece of
decoration would be produced by merely filling the compartments of the screen with
small transparencies, with lights behind them. The visiters would then enter the
drawingrooms, which, brilliantly lighted up, woidd lose none of their effect by the
contrast they would offer to the subdued splendour of the vestibule ; and which would
be greatly heightened by the mirrors over the opposite chimney-pieces reflecting the
chandeliers into a lengthened vista of tapers. Hence they would turn into the spacious
library, where their eye would be caught by the view imaged in the mirror door facing
them, and next by the oriel window illuminated from behind. On turning into the
second library, the whole length of the conservatory, splendidly lighted, and fitted up
as a ball-room, with shrubs and exotics ranged on each side, would present itself
through the folding doors. On returning, the company might pass through the passage
leading into the oriel, and so regain the library. They would then either re-enter the
drawingrooms, or proceed straight forward to the staircase, which would also be lighted
up ; and have perhaps transparencies in the arches of the upper corridor. Here, too, a
splendid effect, of a different character from the rest, would be obtained ; for, on directing
the eye immediately upwards, would be seen, high over head, a brilliant transparent roof;
to produce which, nothing more would be necessary than to have lamps in the space
between that and the upper skylight. As the lights behind the transparencies in the
screen would destroy all effect here, if visible, they must be concealed by a plain wooden
partition lined with tin, both to increase the light, and to prevent accident by fire, for
the lamps would be affixed to it ; and this partition would in its turn be concealed by
draperies nailed up against it. After admiring, or, if not admiring, criticising, the stair-
case, the company would enter the vestibule, and turn into the dining-room, and the
adjoining one, where the supper tables would be laid out ; and, having conducted
the company to what will hardly be considered an anti-climax, the arrangements of the
entertainment, we may now take leave of them. — It is by no means my wish to be
understood as recommending the present Design as an express pattern. Upon nearly
the same scale, the same accommodation might be arranged in numberless ways ; some
far more varied and picturesque ; all decidedly different from each other ; and yet
each distinguished by some particular merit of its own. The art of laying out houses
or other buildings, by which term I would express something more than merely forming
a plan, — something analogous to what is understood by 'laying out grounds,' — that
is, planning for effect as well as convenience, is one that admits of unlimited di-
versity."— W. H. L.
[There may be some difference of opinion as to the merit of the Design itself, but
every one, we think, will allow that its author has explained and analysed it in a copious
manner, pointing out his aim in all he has done, and assigning reasons in support
of it. It is, too, no more than justice towards him, to apprize our readers that, even
extended as his description is, some parts have been omitted by us, not because they were
either uninteresting in themselves, or irrelevant to the subject, but principally because we
had no other alternative than to make such retrenchments, orjexclude his paper altogether,
in consequence of the space it would have occupied. Still, abridged as it is, it may serve
as a model for the explanatory text that should accompany published designs ; and it is
probable, that, were Architects to consider what they should say of them, they would
frequently bestow more study and consideration upon the designs themselves.]
5 o
914 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Design XIX. — A Villa in the Grecian Style, for a large Family, residing chiefly in the
Country, with an Income of from £6000 to £10,000 a Year.
1855. The Situation of this villa is on the high and steep bank of a river in Devonshire,
where it was built, a few years ago, from the designs and under the direction of Charles
Vokins, Esq., Architect, Pimlico. Fig. 1598 shows the relative situation of the house,
1598
offices, and garden ; a is the approach ; b, the entrance front of the house ; c, the stable
and kitchen court ; d, the kitchen-garden ; e, the flower-garden ; /, the family entrance,
and road to the gardens; g, drive to the wooded hills behind the house; and A, iron
fence separating the lawn from the woods. This lawn is not mown, but pastured by
sheep and deer, which are also kept from the plantations between the house a; d the
kitchen and flower gardens by a similar iron fence, in the direction indicated by the
letters t { • k is a river ; and /, a stream which joins it ; the point of the junction is about
2<)0 feet below the level of the floor of the house. The grounds behind are wooded, and
rise to hills to the height of several hundred feet. The ger?ral appearance of the house,
as seen within 300 feet of the entrance front, is as shown in fig. 1599.
1856. Accommodation. In the ground plan, fig. 1600, a is the entrance hall; b, the
Mjrary ; r, drawingroom ; d, dining-room ; e, great staircase; f, breakfast-room ; g, bed-
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
915
room for an elderly person ; h, dressing-room ; i, water-closet ; k, stairs ascending to the
bed-rooms, and descending to the cellars ; /, closet for great-coats, &c. ; m, business-
room, or study; n, fire-proof closet adjoining; o, fire-proof staircase ; p, steward's room;
q, back entrance for the children and family ; r, billiard-room, lighted by a lantern
above, with a stained-glass window at one end ; s, water-closet ; t, butler's room ; k, strong
916 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
closet for plate ; v, housekeeper's room ; w, kitchen ; x, scullery ; y, wet larder ; z, vege-
table larder ; cy, dry larder ; a, game larder ; b', servants' hall ; c', cleaning and dressing
room for men-servants; a, , servants' entrance from the yard; e' and /', coal-cellars ;
</ and h', beer-cellars ; i', brewhouse anil bakehouse ; k', open yard ; /', maid-servants'
privies; m, privies for stable-men, &c. ; n', four-stalled riding-horse stable; o, loose box
for a sick horse ; p, harness-room ; q, coach-house ; r, entrance to stable-yard ; a, coacli-
house ; tl, harness-room ; u, loose boxes for sick horses ; v, hay-room ; «/, clock-
house ; x, corn-room ; y, coach-horses' stable ; z, double coach-house ; <$-', stable-yard ;
au, private entrance from the lawn ; bb, space for conservatory. The apartments, g, h,
and i, are shut in by a door at k, and may form a suitable bed-room, dressing-room, and
water-closet for an infirm person, unable to go up stairs. The business-room, m, com-
mands a view of the yard. The gentlemen's water-closet, s, is situated near the billiard-
room and dining-room. The large vegetable larder, z, is only roofed to the line of
columns, and the outer half is left open as a yard. The ground is high opposite the
coal-cellars, e and f, and the coals are let down, in the usual way, by an opening in the
roof. The malt and hops are delivered into a gallery in the brewhouse, from the same
elevated ground. On entering the hall, a, a vista presents itself, 300 feet in length, ex-
tending through the billiard-room, r, and terminating in a beautiful stained-glass window
at its farther end. The billiard -table is fixed, altogether independently of the floor, in the
following manner : — Stone piers, two feet square, are carried up from the foundation,
which is here a freestone rock, directly under the position of each foot of the table. The
piers are terminated by cones of stone, whose bases cover the area of the piers, and whose
summits are truncated, the diameter of the section being four inches, or about half an
inch more than that of the feet of the table. The height of the upper surface of these
cones is on an exact level with the intended floor of the room ; and this floor is not put
down till the billiard-table is set and levelled. This being done, the floor is put down
altogether independently of the cones ; the object being to prevent the possibility of
communicating the slightest motion to the billiard-table, by the players or others walking
round it, while the game is going forward. The billiard-table is lighted during the day
by a lantern skylight (a skylight with upright sides, glazed, and an opaque cover), of the
exact size of the table, twelve feet by six feet, and directly over it ; and in the evenings
there is a lamp suspended from the centre of the roof of the lantern. The roof of the
billiard-room is flat, and forms a flower balcony to the dressing-room of the lady of the
house. The entrance hall, finished with niches, and lighted by a glass dome, has a very
handsome effect.
1857. The Chamber Floor, fig. 1601, shows, a, great staircase; b, best spare bed-
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. [)IJ
room; c, dressing-room ; d, spare bed-room; e, dressing-room;/, bed-room; </, spare
bed-room ; h, dressing-room ; i, water-closets ; k, back staircase for company's servants ;
/, family bed-room ; m, ladies' dressing-room, with an outlet to the flat roof over the
billiard-room ; n, passage ; o, bed-room, or dressing-room ; p, fire-proof staircase ;
q, stairs leading to the nurseries ; r and s, housemaids' closets, supplied with hot and cold
water, wood, and coals ; t, water-closet ; u, light to lower water-closet ; v, bed-room ;
w, governess's room ; x, upper part of kitchen ; y, z, and $-, sleeping-nurseries ; a!, day
nursery ; b', plunge bath. Each of the spare bed-rooms is shut in by a door, having
a dressing-room and water-closet to each. The family part of the house is quite dis-
tinct from the visiters' apartments, and has no communication with them but by the
passage, n.
1858. The Attic Floor, fig. 1602, contains, a, fire-proof staircase; 6, room containing
a furnace and boiler for heating water to supply all the bed-rooms in the floor below ;
c, closet; d, passage to the bed-rooms; e, stair for company's servants; /, concealed
passage for bell wires, &c. The other apartments, eleven in number, except the closet g,
are bed-rooms. All the bell wires rise perpendicularly in tubes from the different rooms,
to the concealed passage, /, and descend in one tube or trunk to the bells, which are
hung in the passage, I, in the
plan of the principal floor, fig.
1600. The boiler, b, supplies the
whole of the house with hot water.
The Basement Floor, fig. 1603,
contains an inclined plane, a, for
sliding down pipes of wine ; b,
cellar stairs ; c, large cellar for hot-
air stove to heat the whole house ;
d, cellar for wine in wood ; e, large
wine-cellar ; /, store-cellar ; and g,
butler's wine-cellar.
1859. Construction. The walls
are built of freestone, from a
quarry on the spot (indeed, partly
taken out of the foundations of the
house), and internally they are
lined with brick. All the partition
walls are of brick, and, for the most
part, are nine inches in thickness,
except those in the attic story,
which are of brick nogging.
There is not a single lath and plaster partition in the house ; in consequence of
which, the danger from fire, if it should break out in any part, is greatly diminished.
The roofs over the billiard-room, over the staircase,
over the smaller buildings between the staircase and the
court, and over the passage leading to the nursery, z,
are flat, as may be seen in the vertical profile of them
shown in the general plan, fig. 1598.
1 860. General Estimate. The cost of this building,
in a country where freestone is abundant, and easily
worked, would not exceed ,£10,000 ; but in the neigh-
bourhood of London, if it were built with brick and
covered with cement, the amount woidd not be less than
£20,000. The cubic contents are 460,464 feet ; which
gives about 5%d. per foot for the country, and about 1 Id.
for the neighbourhood of London.
1861. Remarks. This Design, in point of style,
affords a very good specimen of a Grecian villa, in
what may be called pure architectural taste, with the
chimney topa entirely concealed. This concealment of
the chimney tops has almost always been aimed at by
Architects, when the object in view was what is called the pure Grecian ; and certainly
the absence of chimneys is favourable to the expression of the temple-like style of
Architecture, which is characterised by porticoes, pediments, and low-pitched roofs.
Mr. Joseph Wood, for whose taste in Architecture we have the highest respect, and with
whom we agree in almost every thing, has given a sketch of a Grecian villa, to illustrate
his Essay on Villas, published in the first volume of the Essays of the London Archi-
tectural Society. We have copied a part of this sketch, fig. 1604, for the sake of showing
918
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
that chimney tops form no part of Mr. Wood's idea of a Grecian villa. It would, how-
ever, be difficult to construct such a villa as is indicated by this vignette in such a man-
ner as to have open fire-places in the apartments, and yet to be without the appearance
of chimneys externally. In the case of Mr. Vokins's villa, this is much more easily
done, because the high parapet affords an opportunity of concealing such of the chimney
tops as may be in the outside walls ; and those in the cross walls, and in the interior
walls need not be carried higher than the ridge of the roof, by which means, and by
drawing the flues to the inner slope of the roof, none of the shafts will appear on the
outer slopes of the roof, and consequently none be seen in the elevation. Notwithstanding
the facility of concealing the chimneys in the Design before us, we should, for our own
particular taste, have greatly preferred them displayed, for the sake of giving the building
tli3 expression of a dwelling-house. Looking at the edifice as it is, and without refer-
ence to surrounding scenery, it is not easy to determine whether it is a private house or
a public institution. The true principle of imitating Grecian Architecture in a villa, in
our opinion, is, not to produce a building, like that of Mr. Wood's villa, without chimney
tops, which might be mistaken for a temple, or a combination of temples ; for that would
be mere mimicry ; nor, like the Design before us, a house without chimney tops, because
that gives false expression, or, at all events, is defective in that quality ; but to imitate
the style and manner of Grecian composition, and adapt it to the particular purpose
in view. Mr. Vokins's Design wants only chimney tops to make it come up to this idea,
and, indeed, the same may be said of the villa of Mr. Wood. The same principle wDl
apply to the imitation of any of the varieties of Gothic Architecture. Indeed, the
young Architect may always bear it in mind, as a fundamental principle, that all fac-
simile imitation ranks no higher than mimicry; and that imitation, to belong to elegant
art, must be the imitation of spirit and manner, not of individual forms. — With respect
to the interior arrangement of Mr. Vokins's Design, it is admirable. The cubical
mass of the main body of the building admits of getting a great deal in little space, and
with much less expense of walling than if the general form had been a parallelogram.
The manner of setting the billiard-table (§ 1856) is worthy of notice ; and also the mode
in which hot water is supplied to all the bed-rooms, and to the nursery in the chamber
floor, from a boiler in the attics over it. The concealed passage for the bell wires in the
attic floor, and the trunk for their descent, are also judicious contrivances ; and we may
state here, that all the pipes from the roof, and from the water-closets, as well as .ill the
pipes connected with cisterns, and the cisterns themselves, are so placed and protected as
never to be liable to be frozen. In short, the interior arrangements of this house are
among the most commodious and complete that we have seen, and Mr. Vokins has intro-
duced some ingenious inventions in the internal finishings and fittings-up, which will be
found in the chapter which will hereafter be given on those subjects. We cannot say
much in favour of the laying out of the grounds. It is evident that the best views must
he obtained before entering the house, which is at variance with one of the fundamental
principles of landscape-gardening. (See Gard. Mag., vol. ix. p. 3.) The flower-garden
is separated from the house in such a manner that a back road has to be crossed in
walking to it, which is also in bad taste.
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
919
Design XX. — A Villa for a small Family, in the Castellated Style of Gothic Archi-
tecture.
18G2. The Situation for a villa, in this style, according to general associations, should
be on a bold commanding rocky prominence, where it might be supposed that, in some
former period, a baronial castle for actual defence may have been placed. It is not
necessary on that account, however, that it should be accompanied by fortified outworks;
but still the terrace-walls, and other ornamental architectural appendages which accom-
pany it, should either be in some degree marked by the lines and finish of fortified walls,
or should imitate their ruins. Even, in point of architectural harmony, the crests (tops)
of such walls should be more or less embattled, like the parapets of the house. A slight
degree of acquaintance with Military Architecture, or with the existing ruins of castles
of the fourteenth century still to be found in Britain, or on the continent of Europe, will
afford many excellent hints for designing the external Architecture of the main body,
and especially of the appendages, of buildings in this style. For the arrangement of
the interior, recourse must be had to the wants of modern society ; for, as we have
said before, the object, in cases of this sort, is never to mimic individual examples,
but to imitate the general spirit of the style and manner. Fig. 1 605 is a perspective view
of the Design before us.
1606
1863. Accommodation. Fig. 1606, is the plan of the principal floor; ^n which a is
the entrance porch ; b, the hall ; c, the dining-room ; and, d, the drawingroom ; each of
which has a light closet
attached to it ; e, water-
closet ; f, staircase ; g, coat-
closet ; h, butler's room ; i,
passage ; j, library ; k, back
staircase ; /, servants' hall ;
to, kitchen ; n, scullery ; o,
pantry ; and, p, house-
keeper's room. Above the
dining-room area bed-room
and dressing-room, and
there are similar apartments
above the drawingroom,
hall, and porch. Above
the other rooms, the ar-
rangement of the bed-rooms
and dressing-rooms is ob-
vious. Above the servants'
hall and pantry are sleeping
and day nurseries ; and in
the attic ' story are the
servants' apartments, and
bed-rooms for single gentle-
men.
920
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1864. Construction. The walls may be of brick, or of stone lined with brick ; all
the partitions on the principal floor should be of nine-inch brickwork, and all those on
the chamber-floor of 4-inch brickwork. The partitions in the attic story shou'd be of
brick nogging. The two staircases ought to be of stone, or the principal staircase may
be of solid stone and the back staircase of cast-iron framing ; the risers of grating, and the
treads of flagstone. Even the principal staircase may be formed in this manner, the effect
of which is very elegant, and which, sometimes, is useful in affording light to the stairs
below. The roof may be flat, covered with plain tiles bedded in cement, and coated over
with three thin layers of the Stanhope composition, described § 1789. The flooring of all
the rooms may be of Wright's ornamental tiles. The battlements may either be finished
in stone, which is the preferable mode ; in brick, covered with cement, and coloured in
imitation of stone; or in brick alone; those for the copings and mouldings being
moulded of suitable shapes before being burnt. This practice, as we have already
observed, § 274, is as old as the time of Henry VIII., and the bricks produced are
almost as durable as stone. The richest Gothic building in England, the house of the
late Countess of Stafford, at Jerningham, near Norwich, designed by J. Buckler, Esq.,
Jun., has all the principal ornaments of the chimney tops and mouldings executed in
brick made on the spot.
1865. General Estimate. The cubic contents are 138,422 feet; which, at 6d. per
foot, is £ 3,460: lis.
1866. Remarks. The internal arrangement of this Design is excellent, and, from the
compact, cubical form of the building the expense must necessarily be moderate in pro-
portion to the accommodation afforded. Corbeled, or far-projecting cornices, like those
here shown, were only used in ancient times, when castles were built for defence. The
parapet being thus projected from the wall, and openings being left between the stones
missiles of different kinds could be thrown down on the assailants. Such edifices were
never placed but in situations that afforded some natural means of defence ; such as
eminences, prominences projecting into lakes or the sea, or rocky steeps. Hence, to
build such a castle in a tame flat situation would be improper, because the illusion would
not be kept up. For this Design we are indebted to the author of the preceding one.
Design XXI. — A Villa in the latest Style of Pointed Architecture, with an Essay on the
Application of that Style to domestic Purposes.
1867. This Design, of which fig. 1607 is a small perspective view, has been con-
tributed, together with the essay that accompanies it, by E. Trotman, Esq., a young
Architect, who bids fair to rise to the very summit of his profession. We consider it
unnecessary to say any thing on the architectural beauty of the elevations of this Design,
because it must strike the eye of every reader ; but we must request the careful perusal
of the essay, which we do not hesitate to affirm that we consider one of the best which
hag hitherto been published on the subject of which it treats.
1868. Accommodation. In the ground plan, fig. 1 608, a indicates the porch ; b, the
hall, sixteen feet by ten feet, lighted by sash-doors, as expressed in the elevation ; c,
dining-room, twenty-eight feet by sixteen feet, and fifteen feet high, to which the old
appendage of the oriel window is attached, though with some difference of character and
position ; d, conservatory, eighteen feet by eight feet, which may communicate or not
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
1608
921
with the former by the doorway shown ; e, drawingroom, twenty-five feet by sixteen
feet ; /, library, seventeen feet by fifteen feet, which, being arranged en suite with e and d,
may command a pleasing view, if the vista be increased by a large chimney-glass ; g,
water-closet ; h, principal staircase ; i, passage, cut off from the hall by a door, and lead-
ing to the back staircase and offices ; j, butler's room ; k, kitchen, with pantry or larder, 7,
and large closet, m ; n, scullery ; o, the kitchen court ; p, coach-house ; q, a four-stalled
stable ; r, harness-room ; s, servants' water-closet ; and t, an ornamental screen and fence
wall, to conceal the kitchen court. Ample cellarage for coals, wine, beer, &c, may be
obtained in the basement. On the chamber floor, fig. 1609, a designates the landing
of the staircase, lighted by a skylight ; b, passage to the chambers ; c and /, dressing-
rooms ; d, e, g, g, bed-chambers ; h, staircase continued up to an additional room on the
second story, over the porch ; i, passage to the servants' apartments, k and I; and m, store
or linen-room ; n is the hay-loft over the stable ; and o o, the coachman's living and
sleeping-rooms.
1869. Construction and Architectural Character. Fig. 1610 is an elevation of the
entrance front.
Fig. 1611. Elevation of the garden front.
Fig. 1612. End view from the stable court.
Fig. 1613. Elevation of the stable and coach-house.
Fig. 1614. Section through the house on the line A B.
This Design (which is composed in the latest style of Pointed Architecture) might be
executed with propriety and effect in brickwork ; with the dressings, or ornamental parts
in stone. Lead lights in quarry (or lozenge) squares would have by far the most
characteristic appearance for the windows ; but in this matter considerable latitude may
be allowed. The ornamental members throughout have as much simplicity as is con-
sistent with the character of the masses and of the style ; and a design of this kind, if
correct in its simpler state, may easily be enriched at pleasure by the use of tracery,
foliage, grotesques, &c. ; care being taken to equalise the decorations of all parts which
5 i-
w
924 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1612
may be exposed to the eye at the same time. It must, however, be confessed that to do
this with propriety is, in common with the. treatment of Pointed Architecture in general,
a matter of great hazard to the mere amateur.
1613
1870. General Estimate. The cubical contents of the house itself will average
117,713 feet; which, at \0d. a foot, amounts to £4904; 14s. : 2d. Those of all the out-
buildings together, are 24,645 cubic feet, which, at 9c/. a foot, is £J924 : 3s. : 9d., making
the whole expense i.5828 : 17s. : 1 Id.
1871. The preceding Design illustrates an attempt at the composition of a villa in the
latest style in which Pointed or Gothic Architecture existed in its purity. It has not,
indeed, been our object here to present to the eye an elaborate and costly display of all
the domestic resources of Tudor magnificence, or to please the fancy of the staunch anti-
quary with the representation of a quadrangular pile, rigidly fashioned after the models
ol the year 1500 ; but to offer to the man of moderate fortune, and Old English taste, a
Design which may be characterised by convenience, architectural propriety, picturesque
effect, and simplicity of decoration, while it possesses the essential recommendation of
being within the limits of economy in the execution. Its general character and various
accommodation will, it is hoped, be sufficiently comprehended upon a comparison of the
drawings with their references. The understanding, however, of its constituent parts,
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
9C25
16H
as a composition, will perhaps be most effectually promoted by the introduction in this
place of some observations upon Pointed Architecture in general (for, on the ground of
correctness and significance, the term " Pointed," is far preferable to the nickname of
" Gothic "), and more especially as applicable to the principal subjects of which this
work professes to treat.
1872. The claims which Pointed Architecture has upon the favour of an Englishman are
indeed of a supreme and unrivalled order. It was in England that that style, the last
and finest of the great general systems of human taste, found a congenial home: and dis-
played its most luxuriant beauties, as well as much of its most impressive grandeur. It
was here that, in its progressive growth and developement, it exhibited its happy adapt-
ation to the wants of the people, the exigencies of the climate, and the diversities of
circumstances ; and it was on this land that it threw the last lingering beams of its
effulgence, which still struggled amidst the gathering darkness, until overpowered by the
night of blind affectation and lawless extravagance. Happily, however, for the interests
of sound taste, our country, after having given trial, for nearly three centuries, to the
merits of what was called Classic Architecture, both the true and the false, has begun
to discern that the native style, so long neglected, has claims to admiration which the
pretensions of foreign art can never eclipse or invalidate. Accordingly, our own nation
has been the most forward to compensate for its past indifference, by exhibiting, of late
years, the efforts of a laudable zeal in the preservation and restoration of some of the
most interesting remains of antiquity ; and, if we cannot profess any admiration for the
great mass of what are called " Modern Gothic" compositions, we must, at the same time,
confess, that the fact of their existence demonstrates, at least, a favourable direction of the
public mind, and affords a hope that future attempts will assume a far more successful
character. Indeed the daily increased extension of general knowledge involves the over-
throw of false principles and unreasonable prejudices in art ; and, when to the removal of
these is added a comprehensive acquaintance with the resources and characteristic spirit
of a system of such richness and amplitude as that of Pointed Architecture, we shall be
relieved from all fear lest that style should be undervalued, and shall suffer no appre-
hension for the purity of the new specimens therein, or the security of the old. We are
not sanguine enough to expect that Pointed Architecture should again become as fashion-
able among us as it formerly was, when it imparted a character even to the hovels of the
poor; nor, indeed, are we disposed, upon the whole, to wish that it should be so; for, in
these times of increased population, of extended building, and of freedom of opinion in
matters of taste, we should fear that, under the best practicable state of public culture,
the propagation of deformity, and of the gingerbread style of art, would be far
more rapid than that of the chaste and the beautiful. At the same time, it is our
<)2b
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
anxious hope, that, in those works over which enlightened individuals or collective
bullies are the arbiters of taste, and in which, from their locality and destination, the
adoption of such a style would be appropriate, the mode of Architecture under con-
sideration may receive a yet greater measure of patronage than it has hitherto obtained,
accompanied, however, with a more vigilant degree of scrutiny- That it deserves such
favourable yet watchful patronage, a few remarks, we think, will suffice to prove.
1873. As an ornamental Science, the Merits of Pointed Architecture are of the highest
order, arising from a combination and consummation of excellencies, which earlier styles
exhibited only in an imperfect degree. The classical structures of Greece affected
the beautiful and the simple ; those of Rome the bold and the picturesque. The former
could not have attained the masculine force and variety of the latter without the
sacrifice of their distinctive character; nor, without a correspondent loss, could the latter
have assumed the feminine grace and detailed beauty of feature peculiar to the former.
In the maturity, however, of Pointed Architecture we see this happy union of properties
completely effected. The contour of its masses displays the very essence of the pic-
turesque; the prevailing lines of composition, the aspiring and the curved, unite
dignity with grace; while the ornamental detail exhibits the most gratifying alternations
of light and shade, and often the most luxuriant richness of a playful imagination. Nor
is this all, as applicable to the style in general ; for, in its adaptation to particular pur-
poses, its universal power is ever discernible. Thus, in York Cathedral it becomes
solemnly grand; in King's College Chapel, Cambridge, it mingles in equal proportion
beauty with grandeur ; in Henry the Seventh's Chapel it assumes an aspect of dazzling
richness ; in Windsor Castle it rises bold and lordly ; in the colleges of our universities it
unites the domestic with the ecclesiastical ; and, in passing thence down to the simple
forms of the humblest cottage, it varies its character according to circumstances; being
no less consistent and successful in the last than in the first. Great as are thus its
powers, and varied as are its resources, independently considered, the merits of Pointed
Architecture are highly enhanced by the aptitude with which its productions harmonise
with the scenery and atmospherical effects of nature. How happily, as contrasted with
the square masses of Classic Architecture, do the towers, the turrets, the pinnacles, the
gables, the battlements, and the chimneys of the pointed style mingle with the sylvan
objects of the painter's study ! Observe these, gilded by the warm beams of the setting
sun, or standing in strong relief against a moonlit sky, and say where is the Greek or
more picturesque Italian structure that can hazard a comparison with them. The
terminating lines of the latter styles are almost always of a hard and square character,
setting art in marked opposition to nature ; those of the former are ever of a varied form
and aspiring tendency, mingling with all the objects of landscape aerial and terrene.
1874. Suitableness of Pointed Architecture for interior Composition. In addition to
these last observations, which affect Pointed Architecture in its external developement,
we may remark, that, for success in internal composition, no other style can for a moment
compete with it. This success is of course exhibited, to its full extent, only in eccle-
siastical interiors. In introducing a comparison between these in the pointed style,
and ecclesiastical interiors in other modes of art, we must be distinctly understood as
confining our notice exclusively to those features which come within the province of
Architecture. In buildings, however, of domestic application, and with which we are
in this place more immediately concerned, no limits can be assigned to the display
of the impressive or the ornamental ; and, indeed, with this class of Architecture, the
ecclesiastical is not unfrequently associated, as in the instance of domestic chapels.
Few, confessedly, are the apartments of modern construction that can claim a dignified
beauty, equal to that possessed by the halls and galleries of many of our old domestic
and collegiate edifices ; yet it would be frivolous to assert that even those venerable
specimens had obtained an unapproachable degree of splendour, or had exhausted the
resources of the art.
1875. The Perpendicular Pointed Style. There is one further consideration worthy of
notice in favour of the style before us, ornamentally regarded, and it is this, that the
perpendicular pointed mode of Architecture, of which we shall have occasion hereafter
to speak more fully, and which is the only genus of the style capable of application to
modern domestic purposes, is exclusiwh/ English, The finest Continental remains belong
to what we shall denominate the middle period of the art; it is to a later and more
finished class that we now refer, in which an Englishman will he proud to rank many of
the brightest architectural gems of his country, with King's College chapel at their head.
That this mode has therefore a strong claim upon the national attention and favour,
appears to us a reasonable inference; our only hope is, that that favour may be attended
with an enlightened vigilance, in order that modern productions may be rendered in
BOme degree worthy of their antique and admirable exemplars. There are, however,
other considerations of weight on the side of Pointed Architecture, as founded on its
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 9^7
adaptation to the exigencies of our climate, and to the purposes of convenience. Thus,
in the former case, we have, instead of the gently sloped coverings of southern climes, the
high roof, with its picturesque concomitant the high gable, in order the more effectually
to throw oft' the rain and snow of our less hospitable region. To obtain more, also, of
the light of day than was Deeded in the Greek or Roman structure, we have windows
of ample dimension, while of firm construction. To enjoy the benefit of the Greek
peristyle for walking in shelter, we may have the yet more closely sheltered cloister.
To screen our entrances, we are provided at pleasure with the porch ; and, to protect our
less substantially constructed walls, we are allowed to finish our roofs with projecting
eaves and ornamental verge-boards. The ample fireplace and picturesque chimney-
stack are features suited to our climate, of which ancient classic remains aftbrd no
example. Nor must we forget to notice the facility with which, in Domestic Architecture,
the Old English style accommodates itself to the opportunities, and means of building,
prescribed by diversified circumstance and locality. Thus, let freestone, brick, flint, or
timber be the prevailing material of construction in any given district, it will suit itself to
either, and assume alike a picturesque and interesting aspect in all. A further advantage
connected with the use of this mode, on the ground of convenience, is the aptitude with
which it admits of additions and alterations. Its rules of composition are not fettered
by that strict regard to uniformity which is displayed in works of Greek or Italian
origin : such a principle would tend at once to destroy the varied interest which con-
stitutes so powerful a charm in the works of that class for which we plead. Hence it is
that those alterations and additions to any given Design, which in other styles occasion
deformity, become in this, if judiciously treated, the means of improving the character of
the primitive pile, by diversifying its outline, varying its light and shade, or enhancing,
by contrast, the importance of the principal masses.
1876. Comparative Expense of Buildings in the Pointed Style. If, then, it be admitted,
from the observations already offered, that the considerations of architectural beauty,
fitness, and convenience, as well as those of association, are in favour of the Old English
or pointed style, let us enquire how the question stands with regard to expenditure.
And here we must candidly allow, at the outset, that, if it be asked whether Pointed
Architecture, when simplified to its utmost extent, is as economical as our ordinary kind
of domestic construction, when that is in like manner simplified, we are compelled to
reply in the negative. For, indeed, to put the question in this form, is to ask whether
that which is of a genuine architectural character can be executed for as little cost as
that which makes no claim to character whatever. If, however, the comparison be
formed, as it should be, between a building in the Old English mode, and one of equal
pretension in either of the classic styles, we are fully prepared to maintain that the
former will, injudicious hands, be as economical as the latter; and in this opinion we
shall be supported by a reference to the comparative cost of various works of recent date,
more especially churches. The great secret of cheapness in this style is to know how
far ornament is essential ; where it may be introduced with the greatest expression and
character ; and how its place may be most effectually supplied by force of outline and of
shadow. There cannot be a more gross error in art, than that of supposing that elabo-
rate ornament is essential to real beauty ; or, on the other hand, that the application of
such ornament can render correct that which is not consistent and spirited when reduced
to its very first elements. It is to the neglect of this fundamental principle that we
attribute the existence of heaps upon heaps of contemptible trash called Gothic, not only
in the way of metal-work, furniture, and the like, but even of Architecture itself. Let
the character and application of primitive forms, both in the mass and in the detail, be
well understood, and the pointed system may then fairly challenge a comparison with
all other modes, as well on the ground of economy as on that of taste itself.
1877. Causes of the Xeglect of the Pointed Style in Villa Architecture. Such, then, being
the recommendatory qualities of the style under consideration, it may be natural to ask
whence it arises that our own national department of art has, till lately, so completely
yielded to systems of foreign origin. This, we imagine, may be accounted for upon
various suppositions. Of these, the first is, that, under the increased pursuit of classic
literature in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, our ancestors affected a corre-
spondent admiration of classic art ; an admiration increased by the charm of novelty,
and, for a while, of exclusiveness. While, too, the more polished men of the time thus
cultivated their newly acquired taste, it is reasonable to suppose that the progress of the
principles of the Reformation would have a tendency to excite in the minds of the people
an indifference to that mode of Architecture which they had been accustomed to regard
as associated with the observances of Popish superstition. The Italian style, then, being
once established in the land, even with such an intermixture of crudities and rudeness, it
was natural to expect that, as its merits (great as they unquestionably are) became
more fully developed, they would be but the more steadfastly supported, especially a>
928 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Architecture began now to be studied as an independent profession. The practitioners
of that time, too, like many of our own, found it a much easier thing to fall in with the
fixed and mechanical rules of Italian composition, than to venture on a species of design
for which there are no such absolute laws; and which, on the other hand, demands
of the Architect the exercise of a vigorous fancy, in connection with patient and ex-
tensive study ; placing the great test of excellence in the correctness and depth of
feeling by which he is influenced. Besides this, we may remark that the Italian
style, by the period at which it had attained any thing like purity in this country, had so
accommodated itself to, and identified itself with, the conveniences which the now daily
increasing refinement of the times demanded, that it threw a shade over the old system,
which had no precedents to offer for the architectural contrivances of a more luxurious
age. Not, indeed, that there then were, or even now are, any of the conveniences of
domestic construction to which Pointed Architecture is essentially incapable of appli-
cation ; but that the artists of the times were more willing to improve upon examples of
such features already numerous and suited to their own taste, than to exercise their
judgment and feeling in the task of adapting an obsolete style of building to new and
unprecedented purposes. Indeed, even in our own day, it is to be apprehended that the
pointed style may have been depreciated, on account of a supposed intractability of cha-
racter ; when, in truth, the fault attaches, not to the style itself, but to the precipitancy of
those who reject it, without having studiously endeavoured to become acquainted with
its resources. We will not, however, deny that there are some essential characteristics in
the adaptation of this class of Architecture to ordinary purposes, which are calculated, at
first sight, to place considerable difficulty in the way of the practitioner ; and of which
the two following may be regarded as the chief, being, at the same time, matters funda-
mentally opposed to the procedure of the classic styles.
1878. Difficulties in the Pointed Style. One of the characteristics of the pointed
mode is, that, for the maintenance of strict consistency, no mass of material should ever
receive its apparent support from a horizontal bearer, but always from the intervention
of an arch ; the other is, that, in the details of this style, decoration is obtained rather by
a cutting-out of the solid than by an application of mouldings to the surface. The
former of these principles entirely forbids the use of a square-headed door, a square-
shaped chimney-piece, or a straight beam on columns ; and scarcely even admits of the
adoption of a flat ceiling : the latter altogether rejects decorations so easy of attainment
as those of pilasters, fascias, and architraves, knowing only the embellishments of moulded
jambs and reveals, solid mullions, tracery sunk into the substance of its material, and the
like. These matters are, however, difficulties only in the way of the learner ; the judicious
practitioner will find it easy to turn them to the most advantageous account, while he
discerns in them a test for the skill and feeling of competitors around him.
1879. The Progress and the Characteristics of Pointed Architecture in general, from tht
Time of its Rise down to that of its Disuse, next demand our attention ; and, where the
nature of the subject will permit, cur remarks will tend chiefly to the illustration of
Domestic Architecture. This latter application, however, we shall not be able to effect with
any success, in reviewing the more remote history of the pointed style, which we shall,
therefore, notice only for the sake of displaying to the reader the connection which subsists
between the earlier and later varieties of the art ; and the increase in refinement and
beauty by which those varieties are progressively characterised. The limited extent of
our information on the subject of domestic construction, so far back as the thirteenth
century, or, perhaps, we should rather say, the non-existence in that age of what might
be considered fair specimens of Domestic Architecture (in the sense in which we ordi-
narily understand the term), will compel us to illustrate our remarks upon the earlier
modes by a reference to ecclesiastical remains. Indeed, the ideas of our ancestors, as
exemplified in the construction of those domestic structures which have been transmitted
to our own times, were so obviously formed upon the models of ecclesiastical works,
subject to reasonable modifications, that we shall find an investigation of the latter the
means of introducing us to a comprehensive knowledge of the former. It is not, how-
ever, our intention to make this the place for a disquisition upon Sacred Architecture ;
or, indeed, to notice it to any greater extent than may be absolutely requisite for the
elucidation of the pointed style in general, and, eventually, of Domestic Architecture in
particular.
1880. Origin of the Pointed Style. It would be of little benefit or interest to the
general reader, to enter into a review of the various opinions that have been entertained
upon the obscure subject of the origin of the pointed arch. To say nothing of the
influence of capricious fancy, which might have suggested the trial of so novel a device,
we think the only two hypotheses to which any plausibility whatever can attach are, that
the pointed arch was either introduced from the East, after the expedition to the Holy
Land under Richard I., or that it was a feature suggested by the forms arising from
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLKS.
\m
1616
\he intersection of semicircular arches, as perpetually instanced in ornamental works ot'
the Anglo-Norman period, fig. 1615. Be that as it may, a considerable time intervened
between the crusade in question and the appearance,
in this country, of any thing which may he de- 1615
nominated Pointed Architecture ; and, when the ^--^ ._, — ^- — — ~~-^~~
adoption of that style to any extent took place, the rI%^^^^^^%v\^^wy
form of arch universally prevailing was that result- f/A ' m\//^ HfN/A 'M// ! iVV\
ing (according to the second supposition) from tl 111 _Ali lii 111
curves described from the extremities of the base of
an equilateral triangle; and did not exhibit that latitude of figure observable in the
Oriental specimens.
1881. Pointed Architecture assumed the Character of a System at the beginning of the
reign of Henry III. ; the commencement of that reign being dated from the year 1216.
Its progress from the first was rapid ; and, accordingly, it had been so extensively
adopted, and so assiduously cultivated, by the middle of the same century, as to have
attained all those decided characteristics which we shall consider indicative of the first
of the three great denominations under which we shall, in our present remarks, classify
die varieties of the system in general.
1882. Of the Early Pointed Style (for so we designate the species of this kind of Archi-
tecture now referred to) we have endeavoured to exhibit the most prominent features in
the accompanying sketch, fig. 1616. These features are, the high roof and gable; the
single or (as it is here represented) the triple
lancet window ; the simply bold doorway,
frequently divided, as here shown, by a central
column or cluster, and headed (as, indeed, are
the blank compartments on each side, and the
divisions of the window above) by an arch or
arches, of the curvature before alluded to ; the
massive buttress, with its deep weatherings
or water-tables between each graduation or
stage of the height, splayed angles, or angle
columns, frequently to the different faces, and
a simple pinnacle surmounting the whole. Add
to these features, that the parapets of the period
under notice often project from the face of the
•wall below, receiving an apparent support
from the introduction of little ornamental
blocks, masks, grotesques, &c. Ornaments of
grotesque and foliage, indeed, are here, as in
the later modes, frequently made to enrich
string or cornice mouldings, base mouldings of
pinnacles, &c. On turning from external to
internal decorations, we observe the high
groined stone ceiling, adorned, but with severe
simplicity, by its moulded ribs ; and springing
from light columns, which are sometimes formed
by an independent cluster of shafts, and some-
times by shafts attached like reeds around a
greater cylinder, and apparently bound to-
gether by mouldings at intervals. A corre-
spondent degree of simplicity is found to
prevail in all the minor matters of embellish-
ment. Such a style of Architecture is that
to which Salisbury Cathedral, and much of that
of Lincoln, belong ; and the same may be
instanced in the body of the Temple Church,
London, and the Lady Chapel, Southwark.
The style of this date is of so restricted an
application, that it has nothing in common with Domestic Architecture ; and we must,
therefore, refer to ecclesiastical specimens to illustrate it. That we are justified in
saying that such a style has nothing in common with the purposes of domestic structures,
will, we think, be sufficiently evident upon a glance at the unmanageable character
of lancet and triple-lancet windows, clustered columns, lofty groined ceilings, &c. ;
features in which resides the very soul of this kind of Architecture. In addition to this,
we may observe, that, however effective the early pointed style is in the mass, its details
are far from possessing that beauty, variety, and flexibility of form so naturally sought for
5 Q
930 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
by the eye that is familiar with tin- works of later date. Hence it is that Architects
who will endeavour to imitate the more ancient mode are so constantly seen to ru.i in ■>
the error of adopting with it
the ornamental details of later
1617 periods; since they find their 1618
nominal style of too strict a
character, both for their taste
and their convenience, when
applied to minutiae. Thus, the
embellishment of tracery (the
well-known kind of ornament
expressed in fig. 1617), with-
out which little of richness
can be bestowed on the detail
of Pointed Architecture, ex-
hibits, during the period under J-
consideration, only the rude-
ness of the primitive form, asa
shown in the door-head, gable
aperture, &c, of fig. 1616;
being, indeed, not far removed
from the style of ornament
characteristic of the " Carpenter's Gothic," of which we
shall have occasion to say more hereafter. The mould-
ings, also, in use at this time had not acquired either
that variety or that distinctiveness of character possessed
by those of after works. The moulded capitals and
bases of columns might readily be traced to their
Norman and thence to their Roman origin, fig. 1618, a, c.
The ribs of groined arches, &c. (b, in the same figure),
show in their section an excess of serpentine line ; and a
want of that significancy and fitness which characterise
the mouldings of the fifteenth century. The foliage,
likewise, of this date, was not unfrequently liny and
poor, as compared with the full, undulating, and shadowy
forms of a subsequent period. In short, the whole range of this species of the
style exhibits Pointed Architecture in its infancy, sufficiently dignified and picturesque,
indeed, to assert the superiority of the master principle ; but not yet sufficiently refined
to demonstrate the possibility of uniting qualities which later science has so successfully
combined, the impressive in the total, and the exquisitely beautiful in the detail.
1883. The Middle Period of the Pointed Style. But, before the close of the reign of
Henry III., the pointed style had entered upon that which we will designate its middle
period of developement, which may be considered as extending thenceforward throughout
the first half of the century following; viz., the fourteenth. The limits of this period
we fix less with a regard to the lapse of years, than to the variation of style; and thus
we consider such a work as Westminster Abbey to belong rather to this period than to
tlu' former, as having a greater affinity to the prevailing style of York Cathedral, which
also comes under this middle class, than it has to that observable in the cathedral at
Salisbury ; although its completion may be said, on the average, to have followed that of
the latter only at an interval of some twenty years. In the efficiency of the style, then,
during its middle period, we discern very rapid
advances towards perfection. Instead of a triple
window, headed by three distinct arches, we see
now single windows of as large dimensions, sur-
mounted by one arch of the same tall proportion
as before, being divided into two, three, four, six,
or eight days (bays, lights, or compartments), by
mullions, which, rising into the head, branch out
into a great variety of ornamental outlines, enriched
with tracery. The earlier and smaller attempts of
this kind exhibit simple combinations on the same
principle as that shown in fig. 1619. In larger
objects, the composition of the window head be-
came, of course, much more complex; sometimes.
indeed, uniting in one several such examples
as tig. 1619, with that more elaborate one,'
1619
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
931
fig. 1620, as a centre. In addition to the ordinary shape of windows, the huilders
cf this period now adopted various forms of circular, Catherine wheel, or rose window :
of such, fig. 1620 is properly an example; as is also that composition of which fig.
162] shows a fourth part. Fig. 1622 is another variety of the same, sketched in
outline, without its tracery. Triangular lights were also among the results of the exuberant
fancy and taste of the day. Fig. 1623 is copied from one out of many examples of these.
Of the composition of windows belonging to the
period now under notice, it may be remarked that
the earlier works exhibit a great profusion of that
kind of design which is founded upon geometrical
diagrams ; in which the prevailing outlines are
either curvilinear, as in figs. 1619, 1620, and 1623 ;
or angular, as in fig. 1622. As, however, the
resources of regular geometrical figures became
exhausted, the artists of the time began to indulge
in the use of compound curves, as in fig. 1621 ; and
;:t length to design many of their window heads on
such principles as those explained by fig. 1624, in
which a disposition of parts takes place similar
to that of leaves upon a stem. Besides the deco-
rations of windows (the composition of which
includes the elements of all the principal features
of the style), those of doors became, during this period, much more elaborate and
varied. A very common form of finish for the door head was that of the pyramidal
label, or hood moulding (see outline,
fig. 1625), which was enriched with
crockets (such ornaments of foliage as
those on the pinnacle top, fig. 1626),
and sustained at the springing line by
busts, masks, or knots ; the space
between the lines of the arch and
those of the label being filled with
compartments of tracery, &c. But-
tresses also assumed a more decorative
character, being frequently graduated,
or diminished in their projection
upwards, by the use of little gables, as
shown in fig. 1627, which were often
finished with crockets, &c. Pinnacles, too, as the terminations to buttresses, began now
to exhibit the enriched aspect described by fig. 1626, springing from gables, and dis-
playing much elegance and variety in their crockets and finials(the finial being that part
of fig. 1626 cut off by the band of moulding at a). Embattled and perforated parapets
afforded an elegant decoration to works of this period ; and, without entering into a more
1625
m
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1626
1627
1628
detailed notice, we may add that a corresponding improvement in design characterised
all the details of internal composition, whether
groined ceilings clustered columns, arches, screen*,
niches, or other features. It must, however, be
confessed, that even this middle species of Pointed
Architecture is, with all its merits as compared with
that of the former period, imperfect in decorative
character, and inadequate to the purposes of modern
application in general, and to those of domestic
fitness in particular. We have, indeed, given one
example, fig. 1628, of a window of the middle of
the fourteenth century, which may be considered of
a legitimate character for domestic use ; but it is to
be viewed as assimilating rather with specimens of a
sulwequent, than with those of a previous, date. The
st vie of the middle period is rendered unfit for
ordinary application, by the unmanageable character
of its high-pointed windows, doors, and ceilings ;
and, as to the question of beauty in matters of detail,
we may remark, in general, that the composition of
its window heads, and of its various decorations of
tracery, though at first sight dazzling, does not
or the most part ofFer to the eye, on a close
examination, that graceful developement of curves,
and continuity of line, and that union of delicacy with dignity, which constitute the
great excellence of works of a subsequent date. Subject to the same comparison, too,
the mouldings of the middle period exhibit a want of distinctive
character and of systematic application ; being frequently tortured
into the forms of tracery, or made to do the office of columns, when,
from their profile, they are rendered incapable of answering either
purpose without clumsiness.
1884. The Third and last Period in the History of Pointed Archi-
tecture displayed not only its master power and heauty, but also
its universality of adaptation. This last period we shall consider
as occupying a century and a half, from about the year 1370, which
was towards the close of the reign of Edward III. The style of
Architecture which then rose into prevalence has been denominated
the " Perpendicular Pointed," the significancy and fitness of which
term will be apparent to all who contrast the principles of com-
position in window heads and tracery at this period, with those
which regulated the specimens of the former age. We may here
observe that a distinction is drawn by some writers between the
earlier and later varieties of the period, the works of which we here comprehend
under one denomination ; a distinction founded upon the fact, that the flattened or
obtuse arch, which had its origin at the beginning of this period, was, till ahout
the middle of it, made use of only for minor purposes, and in subordination to the
simple-pointed or two-centred arch ; whereas, in the latter part of the same period,
the flattened arch assumed the predominance, giving a character of additional complexity
and elaborate finish to all inferior matters of accompaniment. This distinction, however,
is of little moment as compared with the greater differences which separate the perpen-
dicular modes, both the early and the Tudor, from the classes which we have before
noticed. Indeed, the unity of feeling which prevails throughout the whole of Perpen-
dicular Pointed Architecture is so entire that we might safely adopt all its varieties of
feature in one and the same work, provided such work were of sufficient extent to avoid
crowded composition and violent contrasts. An example
of the principal lines of window head appropriate to the
early part of this period is given, divested of its tracery,
in tig. 1629; and it will be observed that in this figure
the perpendicular lines predominate in a manner which
lias no parallel in the case of either of the before-
noticed instances. Indeed, the prevalence of per-
pendicular lines constitutes not only the distinction of
this species, hut forms also, as we before observed,
one of the most striking characteristics of Pointed
Architecture generally, as opposed to the classic styles ;
and it is in the works of the period now under con-
1629
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 933
sideration, that we see this characteristic producing its finest results, in airy lightness,
loftiness, and dignity. It is ohservable, too (in noticing some of the principles of effect
in the style before us), that the use of the pointed arch cooperates in a double manner
with the tendency of perpendicular lines; for while, negatively considered, it supersedes
the want of such features as beams and entablatures, and thus removes the depression of
aspect consequent on numerous horizontal lines, it has a positive advantage in carrying
the eye up both its curves to a lofty and decided point ; unlike the semicircular form,
which conducts the eye round, and downwards again, without fixing its attention any
where. It follows, therefore, more especially in internal composition, that loftiness is
essential to the attainment of the imposing ; length being likewise so, as presenting to
the eye a greater succession of lofty forms : and again, that perpendicular lines in an
interior should not only be numerous, but continuous; as having thus a strong tendency
to increase still further the apparent height, and more effectually to connect the
various minor features of design. Force of shadow also contributes to the effectiveness
of this style, no less than dignified forms of lines, and fine proportions. Porches,
bold buttresses, octagonal turrets, oriel or bay windows, breaks, niches, &c, afford
opportunities for the most striking management of light and shade; as well as for
the multiplication of vertical lines. Besides these features, there are others which, to the
varied effects of light and shade, add the interest of excited curiosity and imagination,
resulting from a partial interception of the view ; as in the case of screens, cloisters, pro-
jecting and retiring distributions of plan, &c.
1885. The Perpendicular Pointed Style, as applied to Domestic Architecture. But, not
to enlarge upon these and similar points, as affecting the style in general, we will consider
that style with reference to Domestic Architecture in particular. Indeed, it is only (as
before implied) in the perpendicular system, and that in its later practice, that
we shall find either principles or precedents to direct us in domestic designs after the
pointed mode; and, even those examples of the mansions of Tudor times which have
reached our own day are to be regarded only as establishing, to a certain extent, a style
of architectural decoration, and not as affording rules either for the arrangements of
plan, or the minutiae of practical construction. Before we proceed, however, we will just
remark that we use the term " Tudor Architecture, " in this place, under a limited appro-
priation, as referring only to the style in use during the reign of Henry VII., and the first
part of that of his successor. The application of one and the same epithet to the pointed
style of that period, and to the heterogeneous mode which succeeded it, and which pre-
vailed through the reign of Elizabeth, though historically correct, is not architecturally
explicit ; and may have, we fear, a tendency to create a confusion of ideas as to the
peculiarities of styles, not only essentially distinct, but diametrically opposite.
1 886. Of the Character of the more extensive Mansions of the Tudor Times, a tolerably
correct idea may be formed, by any one who is familiar with the Architecture of our
English universities, on a reference to the arrangements of individual colleges. Indeed,
we are disposed to think that the varieties of College Architecture may be fairly con-
sidered as open to domestic application, where the subject of execution is on a large scale ;
and that the strictness of character which some would make essential to propriety in
dwellings, however extensive, is neither founded upon a comprehensive view of the sub-
ject, nor is favourable to variety and spirit in composition. We would not, however, be
misunderstood as to this observation ; for when a house is so small that it cannot be
reasonably supposed to possess such appendages as a chapel and a dining-hall, it becomes
a piece of contemptible affectation to finish its exterior with members which are naturally
applicable to those appendages alone ; and the only course, therefore, which good taste
can sanction in such a case, is, to treat the subject as what it is ; uniting an honest and
obvious character with correct detail, and as much of the picturesque as circumstances
will permit. The resemblance to which we alluded, as subsisting between the larger
Tudor mansions and many of our collegiate structures, may be traced in the use of the
gate-house, the first and second courts or quadrangles with their central fountains, the
cloisters, the chapel, and the refectory or hall : the last standing distinguished by its
characteristics of the oriel window, light louvert or lantern, open-frame i roof, dais or
raised platform at one end, and perhaps a screen and music-gallery at the other. In
other instances, the necessary accommodation was comprised within the form of a paral-
lelogram ; a figure, of course, more suited to the purposes of economy than to those of
display. In this case, the porch frequently took place of the gate-house, and the use of
stone was often avoided by the execution of the plainer part of the work in brick, as
became the practice in the reign of Henry VIII. ; a favourite embellishment of such
brickwork being that of lozenges and frets formed out of the over-burnt and vitrified
bricks, sorted and used with a regularity which turned even accident to account Then,
again, we meet with smaller works of this period, the walls of which, except at the quoins
and around apertures, were formed of flints, or of rubble covered with rough-cast ; in
93 1- COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
which case the caves and gables of the roofs were very appropriately made to afford
shelter to the walls by their great projection, while their ornamental character was
improved by the use of carved verge-boards, showing either a continued pattern of foliage,
or a profusion of undulating line and elegant tracery. One more variety of external
character is that which results from the substitution of timber and plastering for solid
walls, as seen in the streets of many of our old towns. Here, too, there is great oppor-
tunity for picturesque effect, as derived from the use of overhanging stories, each pro-
jecting beyond the face of that below it, to protect it from the weather, and being sustained
by the continuation of the floor joists ; the ends of which thus assume the appearance of
a line of ornamental blocks, or corbels. The timber framing of the sides themselves,
according to the old practice, is made to unite expression with economy, by giving an
ornamental character to the crooked and less serviceable timber, and applying it to the
purposes of diagonal braces in the squares formed by the vertical posts, and the horizontal
plates and rails ; in addition to which, the surface of the plastering is also occasionally
relieved by various forms impressed upon it while moist. To this style of work, such
finishings as the carved verge-board, &c., are also applicable as before; it is a style, how-
ever, which requires considerable discrimination, lest Elizabethan specimens, of which we
have a great multiplicity, should be actually imitated, when those of an earlier date are
professedly so.
1887. Decorative Peculiarities of Domestic Pointed Architecture. Having thus glanced
at the varieties of general aspect exhibited in the dwellings of the end of the fifteenth
and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries, it may be enquired wherein consist the
decorative peculiarities of Domestic Pointed Architecture, as opposed to the decorative
characteristics of ecclesiastical
examples. We may reply that
one striking point of difference
is, that Domestic Architecture
rarely makes use of pointed
windows, but generally of square-
headed ones, as in figs. 1628 and
1630, while the practice in the
ecclesiastical style is just the
reverse : both, however, are
subject to variations. Domestic
Architecture, again, is scarcely
ever seen to adopt the common
pyramidal pinnacle, not very
frequently the buttress, and
never the flying buttress; the
place of the former being ordi-
narily supplied by the ogee
pinnacle, and that of the others,
in many instances, by a slender
polygonal pier. High-pointed
doors with pyramidal labels,
niches and canopies, towers,
spires, &c, are excluded from
the features of the domestic
style ; as, in fact, are all those
objects generally which have
a tendency to produce an effect
of solemn grandeur, rather than an air of liveliness and social comfort. The various
members of Domestic Pointed Architecture we shall however proceed to notice more in
detail ; observing, at the outset, that it is with them that we have to do, rather than with any
general modes of domestic arrangement and collocation pursued by our forefathers.
If, indeed, the principles that regulate the form, application, and utility of such members
individually, and their effects collectively, be well understood, we shall lose nothing of
beauty or of character in departing from the old peculiarities of plan and disposition of
rooms, while modifying component features to suit our wants. To pursue imitation
farther than this would be, in fact, not only to check invention, and sacrifice sound judg-
ment, but to oppose the example of our ancient predecessors in a most important point ;
namely, the readiness with which they modelled their architectural works to meet the
Changes of time and circumstance, and the demands of convenience.
1SK8. The Windows in the Pointed Style of Domestic Architecture. In turning to the
individual members of Domestic Pointed Architecture, the first to occupy our attention
is the window, a feature upon which our old builders delighted to lavish their skill and
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
935
fancy. It may be worthy of remark, that, as another difference in procedure between
the style under consideration and the classic modes, the former endeavours to make
those members most attractive which are the most indispensable ; while the latter bestows
the greatest share of ornament upon parts which are rather the result of luxury than of
necessity. Hence, while the remains of Grecian and Roman Architecture produce their
finest effects by the decorations of porticoes and colonnades, those of the middle ages, in
our own land, make the window and the door the main sources of interest, causing
even solid masonry to assume a playful arrangement and a luxuriant richness, which, if
we could suppose such a subject beheld by an ancient Greek, would seem to him little
less than the work of enchantment. Though this is the case, as viewed in general, it is
not, certainly, in Domestic Architecture that we can see the composition of the window
carried to its finest display. Indeed, by some, the use of the pointed window, for domestic
purposes, is entirely prohibited ; the only appropriate forms being supposed to be those
oftlie square-headed window, and the oriel or bay. In all works that are on a small scale,
the introduction of the pointed-headed window, sharp or obtuse, would certainly indicate
a very erroneous taste. We cannot, however, at all understand how the strictness of the
prohibition can be maintained under circumstances wherein a domestic building assumes
the character of magnitude and complexity. It assuredly cannot be maintained on the
ground of precedent ; for, in the old dining-halls, pointed windows were features of con-
stant recurrence : witness the halls of Eltham, Hampton Court, and Croydon ; or, if it
be objected that these are instances of a palatial and not an ordinary domestic character,
take a more unassuming, but not less interesting, example in Crosby Hall. Neither are
we disposed to admit as valid the objections to pointed windows, founded upon the sup-
position that they must necessarily be insecure, because they cannot be closed their
whole height by shutters ; and that they must also be inconvenient, because not suited to
the ordinary arrangement of drapery. As to the question of security, we should think
that shutters might be altogether dispensed with, where a window is divided into narrow
spaces by stone mullions, and these, again, by stout iron stay-bars to hold the lead-lights ;
or, if not, still the part which remains undefended by shutters, being the window head,
is the very part that is best guarded by an increased strength and intricacy of masonry.
As to inconvenience on the question of drapery, we have only to say that a pointed
window is misapplied unless it be in a large, or at least a lofty apartment, and one in
which sufficient space may be spared between the window head and the ceiling to allow
of the necessary provision on the part of the upholsterer. Of pointed window heads, as
applicable to our present subject, figs. 1631 and 1632 exhibit sketches; the former from
Hampton Court, the latter
from Crosby Hall. If, how-
ever, compositions of a more
elaborate character be at any
time required for domestic
purposes, the chief points for
attention will be, first, the
subdivision of the window,
when of more than three
lights, into principal and
minor portions, by the use
of greater and smaller mullions, as shown in fig.
1629, without which there can be no force or expression of design; and, secondly,
the preservation of continuous and flowing lines, without which there can be no grace-
fulness or repose : of course, we are presupposing a regard to propriety in the forms
of moulding and of tracery. The other kinds of window belonging to Domestic Archi-
tecture are the square-headed and the oriel. Of these the former will be understood
by reference to fig. 1630. It is frequently (as there shown) divided in height as well
as width by a transom bar, or cross mullion ; each compartment being usually headed
with a flattened arch, — usually, we say, for the practice is not without variation ; and,
though some writers have considered the omission of this arched head, whether above or
below, as a mark of Elizabethan taste, it certainly is not exclusively so. Indeed, windows
divided by mullions into compartments of the simple oblong foim were in occasional use
a century before the time of Elizabeth ; nor are they at all opposed to that principle of
Pointed Architecture which requires the use of an arch for the support of superincum-
bent weight ; since, from the smallness of the spaces in proportion to the solids, the
openings of such windows come under the rule of panels, rather than under that which
governs the management of larger apertures. Simple as these windows may thus be
rendered on the one hand, they are susceptible, on the other, of as much richness of
decoration as may be required. An elaborate specimen, for one out of many, of the
ornamental kind, may be seen in the cloisters of Christ Church, Oxford. The squarc-
1632
936
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
headed window is for the most part finished Above With a label, as in fig. 1630, passing
down the rides to the springing line of the arches (if there be arches to the different
lights), and finished ordinarily with a plain elbow; sometimes with a twisting of the
mouldings into the form of a lozenge, or occassional!)' that of an octagon ; and sometimes
with a shield, bust, or figure. The oriel, or bay window, may be described as being, for
the most part, a kind of three-sided compound of the last-mentioned description. Of
this there arc two principal varieties; the one of large proportion, rising immediately
from the ground ; the other of a smaller character, and standing out from the surface of
a wall upon projecting or corbel mouldings. The former was that generally in use in
dining-halls, and may be seen finely exemplified at Eltham Palace, at Crosby Hall, and
in many of the halls of Oxford and Cambridge ; the latter was more appropriate to the
chamber, and is instanced in beautiful taste at John of Gaunt's Palace in Lincoln, Mag-
dalen College in Oxford, and numerous other places. In the adoption of either of hese
varieties, it is highly desirable, wherever it may he at all compatible with modern con-
venience, that the old style of glazing in lead-lights and quarry (or lozenge) squares
should be continued, as greatly conducive to the character and picturesque effect of the
whole ; and though the old casements formed in this manner were not remarkable for
soundness, or retention of warmth, there can be no reason why the application of modern
improvement should not make our own as commodious as are the French casements of
the present day. If, however, wooden sashes must occasionally be used, great care will
be needed to render their appearance as unobtrusive as possible, and to prevent their dis-
figuring the mullions of the window, either externally or internally. A window of ordi-
nary width, undivided by a mullion, and filled in with regular broad sashes, be it dubbed
Gothic or what it may, is only fit to be classed with the execrable designs of Patty Langley.
The management of window-shutters, if, indeed, they are to be adopted at all, is a point
attached to the former that is attended with considerable difficulty. The com-
mon boxed shutters may and do answer their purposes in our ordinary style of domestic
construction ; but they have nothing in common with Pointed Architecture ; and, if used
at all in connection with it, will need to be altogether remodelled. It would require an
elaborate drawing to afford an adequate idea of our views on this subject ; the principal
point, however, to be borne in mind, is, that a window, when closed up by its shutters,
ought to present as perfect and architectural an appearance in all parts as when open.
The customary finishings of architrave, soffit, &c, are entirely out of the question ; the
character which the whole composition must assume, to conform to the massiveness of
the pointed style, being just that of a window enclosed with folding doors.
1889. Doors in Pointed Domestic Architecture. We may next proceed to the door, or
rather the doorway, of which the peqjendicular pointed style furnishes us with several
varieties applicable to domestic purposes. For the large proportions of the principal
entrance doorway, a common and simple form is that of the obtusely arched opening,
shown in fig. 1633, with a label to correspond with the curvature of its head. Some-
times this label assumes the outline of the double ogee, as in fig. 1634; being then
1633
terminated by a finial, and often enriched also with crockets. At other times, and for
all subjects, the square form of label is of frequent use; the decorations of the doorway
being filled out to a similai and suitable shape by the introduction of spandrils of foliage
or tracery, fig. 1635. This variety is applicable, like the others, to the simple pointed
or two-centred arch ; but is more frequently found in connection with the flattened or
obtuse. There are many instances of pleasing forms besides those already noticed; but
they occur only under circumstances of minor importance, and do not belong to the
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. JK37
class of regular features. As to the details of doorways, it will be observed, in general
that their jamb mouldings are of a somewhat more-
complex character than those of windows, abounding
in slender columns, based beads, ogees, and quarter
and casement hollows ; which are ordinarily brought
down, and made to terminate upon a splayed face at
some distance from the ground, so as to produce a neat
developement of their profiles ; or at other times, as
economy or simplicity may require, the mouldings
appear only in the arch of the doorway, being made
to die away about the springing line against the jambs,
which remain plain. The character of solidity which
is necessary for effect in door jambs may appear to be occasionally attended with difficulty
of treatment ; as, for example, in the instance of a door in a common lath and plaster
partition. Hence, some modern imitators have not scrupled to adopt, in cases of that,
kind, such incongruities as architraves on the Grecian or every-day principle; though
it would be far better that the pointed style should be left unattempted, than affected in
so barbarous a manner.
The case which we have
1636
1637
.- — - s
S^^S^
~e;
i r:
supposed is one which cer-
tainly admits of little de-
coration, but that little will
'have sufficient merit in
"being consistent, whether K
it be that of a simple ||
moulding, like fig. 1636, ^
or a mere splay, as in fig. fc
1637 ; the general rule
1618
being, that the mouldings of door or window jambs should commence with the surface
of the wall or substance, and cut into the solid at an angle of not less than forty or
more than sixty degrees, fig. 1638. Together with the varieties in doorways, we have
also, in the style before us, varieties as numerous of /
doors themselves. The simplest of these is the ledged V^ /
door, studded with nails, and frequently adorned with
massive flourished hinges and strengthening irons.
Some specimens there are of doors covered with con-
tinuous patterns of wrought iron ; exhibiting, with con-
siderable delicacy, successive ramifications of foliage
and flower-work. Others, again, are framed in panels,
the rails and styles being thick, narrow, and deeply
moulded ; the mouldings very similar to those of 1*2
mullions in windows, and the fillet, which usually forms the most prominent of
them, being studded with nails. In folding doors of this kind, the outer meeting
style (as it is technically called) was usually finished with a little buttress, or columnar
bead, to hide the joint. A degree of additional richness was given to such doors by the
introduction, in their panels, of compartments of foliage, or, very frequently, of long
opened scrolls ; but the greatest display was that which arose from the use of tracery,
with which doors were sometimes so elaborately ornamented as to equal in intricacy and
beauty of design the most costly tabernacle-work. Here the same difficulty as before is
presented to the ordinary modern imitator, when he finds himself obliged to attempt con-
sistency under more economical circumstances, and with doors of a less substantial
character than those in ancient use. Hence, under the notion that the sum of propriety
consists in the imitation (no matter how distant) of arches and tracery, he plants on the
panels of his " square-framed " door some thin laminas of deal, just cut through into trefoils
or qua trefoils, and considers his work as performed to admiration. Such an imitation, how-
ever, would be far surpassed by a door framed quite plain and flush on both sides ; for the
latter exhibits at least nothing faulty, while the former is
altogether a caricature. In a paneled door of thin sub-
stance, the only kinds of moulding which can be used with
correctness are the simple hollow, or the splay, as in
fig. 1 639 ; because these are the only mouldings out of
which tracery can be formed, and all paneled work in
Pointed Architecture is presumed to be susceptible of the
finish of tracery, though it may not actually possess it.
Projecting (or what are technically called bolection) mould-
ings are quite inadmissible in doors and framing of the style before us ; and we need scarcely
5 R
1639
.\S\v.\v\\\S\V,\\v\
.^v^yy-x-^,.
<^-N ■. ,
#
r
938 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
add to what we have already said, that such things as a square-topped door and Opening,
in however obscure a situation they may be placed) are as much opposed to the
character of that style, as a pointed door would he out of place under the great portieo
of St. Paul's. In fact, though the judgment which some entertain as to matters of taste
may he satisfied with giving an architectural appearance to the prominent parts, or to
the exterior of a building, while all the rest is left destitute of character ; we cannot think
very highly of any structure claiming the name of Gothic, which does not preserve
uninterruptedly the charm of association, and which is not at unity with itself, from the
largest decorations of masonry down to the minute finishings of the ironmonger. For
even in this last department there is a style of design which also requires attention; and
there is no want of precedents for knockers, hinges, locks, escutcheons, latches, drop-
handles, and the like, all which should he in keeping with the rest, though they will cer-
tainly admit of some modification, to suit the various improvements of more recent times.
1890. Gables in Domestic Pointed Architecture. Of external features the window and
the door must be undoubtedly regarded as the most important ; next to these the gable
is that which, perhaps, contributes most to the characteristic effect of Domestic Archi-
tecture, and. indeed, to that of Pointed Architecture in general, by harmonizing with
the tendency of perpendicular lines. In this style we have the simple gable of two lines,
following the rake or slope of the roof; and the stepped gable, which may be compared
to a pile of battlements, or to the form of line called by heralds " battled embattled." In
the later practice of the Tudor times, we frequently see the apex of the gable finished
by the introduction of a little octagonal shaft, bearing a moulded capping cut into battle-
ments, and crowned with a pinnacle, of which the outline (as before noticed) was that of
the double ogee ; such pinnacle being frequently enriched with a leaf ornament, not unlike
fish scales, or with a kind of honeycomb pattern of mouldings. A substitute for the
pinnacle was often found in the figure of an animal, as a heraldic supporter or cog-
nizance, sustaining a flagstaff, on which the banner acted as a vane, at the same time
displaying in full blazon the armorial bearings of the proprietor. The same style of
termination prevailed very generally also at the various angles of buildings belonging to
the Tudar period ; such pinnacles or finishings being made to surmount slender octagonal
oicrs or shafts, which rose from the ground to fortify the corners ; and which, in the time
of Henry VIII., commonly superseded buttresses for domestic purposes. In dwellings
of a date prior to that period, there are, however, instances of the adoption of the buttress
quite sufficient to prove that it was not then regarded as a feature exclusively ecclesias-
tical, though some modern writers have pronounced it such. The truth is, that the
buttress was used by the old builders with a primary reference to its utility ; and it is
because the stone vaulting and massive roofs of churches so frequently demanded a resist-
ance to their great pressure, that we find the buttress almost identified with Ecclesiastical
Architecture. Where, however, the same necessity for its adoption arose in domestic
work, it was applied without hesitation, as it is, for instance, against the walls of
Eltham Hall, to counteract the thrust of a roof as ponderous as it is fine. In fact, the
buttress, like the pointed window, must be used sparingly ; and only where it conduces,
at least apparently, to the addition of necessary strength and stability, as well as to the
purposes of decoration : to apply either to dwellings whose construction is simple, and
whose extent is small, would be unmeaning and improper.
1891. Chimney- Shafts are additional features which contribute greatly to the
picturesque effects of Domestic Architecture. These are sometimes square, arranged
diagonally in clusters ; sometimes octagonal, occasionally having the faces curved inwards ;
and sometimes round. Under the latter form especially, their decorations are often very
elaborate, the shafts being frequently traversed by a succession of spiral reeds, or by the
same again in opposite directions, so as to divide the whole into small lozenges. Some-
times a similar moulding forms the surface into hexagonal figures ; and at other times,
in connection with hollows, exhibits parallel arrangements of zigzag lines. Other varieties
show the shafts covered with a repetition of the fleur-de-lis, lion, rose, &c. These are all
finished above with a polygonal capping, frequently cut into battlements; and, below, with
the usual plinth and plinth mouldings, following the same plan, and all sinking into
limiting with) the inclined upper faces of a genera] block or pedestal.
1892. The H'ujh Roofs of Pointed Domestic Architecture, also, though subjects which
admitted of little ornament, were not left without relief by our old builders. This relief
they derived, variously, from the use of numerous lead rolls, when lead was the covering;
or, in other cases, from the employment of shingles or wooden tiles of different shapes,
producing a pleasing alternation of line; besides which, there arc instances of a finishing
for the ridges of roofs, formed of what were called crest tiles, a little ornament of open
"ink, bearing an application very analogous to that of the ridge tiles of the Greek
temples.
189:5. Tin Octagonal Turret (which in the old style of arrangement was frequently
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. [)3(J
made to contain the staircase) was another feature possessing as much of external effect
as of internal utility. Finished with its loop-holes and battlements ; decked (as, indeed,
were the parapets in general) with " gargoyles," " gargells," or spout-heads, or otherwise
terminated with the docketed ogee cupola, it always imparted to the mass relief, dignity,
and ornament. This, however, together with the porch, a member of kindred interest,
belongs to the various principles of composition in detail, and will not admit of any fixed
definition in this place.
1894. Internal Effect. We pass from the notice of these subjects of external design,
to the consideration of those which are most essentially concerned in the production of
internal effect. Of such, the ceiling undoubtedly possesses the greatest share of import-
ance in works that pretend to the maintenance of a decorative character throughout. The
varieties of ceiling, or (to use a more comprehensive term) of internal covering, are
numerous; belonging to the departments both of masonry and carpentry. In ancient,
specimens of the former, we have the groined and ribbed ceiling, the simple vault with
transverse ribs, the fan-groin, and the disguised flat ceiling; in the latter we have the
open-framed roof, the enriched wooden vaulted ceiling, the ceiling of two inclined
planes, and the flat ceiling in panels : each of these, however, will demand a separate
notice.
1895. TJie Simple Groined and Bibbed Ceiling will be understood by every person of
ordinary observation, as being the sober kind of vaulting most frequent in our larger
ecclesiastical structures. It is, however, very rarely to be imitated with propriety in
domestic works, since it requires a loftiness of proportion altogether foreign to the usual
character of habitable apartments. In situations where the width is small in comparison
to the height it may be adopted with effect, as in cloisters, porches, and entrance halls ;
but it is totally misapplied when made to encroach upon the sides of a room whose height
is barely equal to its width.
1896. To the Plain Vault traversed by Ribs of Moulding the same observations will
apply, though this form is somewhat more manageable than the preceding one, in con-
sequence of its requiring less curvature than is necessary for the display of groining
(which term the reader will understand to refer to the figure produced by the intersection
of one pointed vault with another, whether lofty or flattened). This second and simpler
kind of ceiling admits of much pleasing decoration, from the introduction of tracery in
the compartments formed by the cross ribs, accompanied by the use of foliage in the
springing cornice, and sometimes of little corbels or pendants, as attached to such cornice,
under the feet of the principal ribs.
1897. The Fan Groin is the next description of ceiling, the general character of which
is that of a number of circles in contact, each divided by radiations of moulding and tracery,
springing from a pendent centre ; and thus producing the outline of a flattened arch
between every two adjacent centres. This variety is susceptible of a richness of deco-
ration far greater than that of any other ceiling in Pointed Architecture (beautiful as they
may all be rendered), exhibiting, even when least adorned, an airiness of character, and
a play of light altogether enchanting. It is a variety, also, that may be applied with
facility to the purposes of Domestic Architecture ; though it will be proper to bear in
mind that we should not, in lath arid plaster, multiply pendants, &c, to an extent that
would involve impracticability of execution, supposing the subject to be attempted in
masonry.
1898. The Disguised Flat Ceiling is another kind which is not without example, as
being executed even in stone. This consists of a horizontal plane, relieved with the
customary forms of moulding and tracery, the principal lines of which have a little
mrvature at the points whence they diverge ; so as to give to the whole outline, at first
right, a» appearance somewhat analogous to that of the arch. Of the application of this
variety we shall speak hereafter.
1899. In their ornamental Carpentry, both as to roofs and ceilings, our forefathers
were no less successful than in their masonry. The open-framed roof, which we have
before named, exhibits, in several remaining instances, proofs of their skill in uniting the
ornamental with the useful, and giving to their subject depth of shade and colour, and
fulness of design. "Witness the roofs of Westminster Hall and the hall at Eltham ;
compositions which will afford valuable hints to the Architect, as to the covering-in of
large and lofty apartments, for which boldness of character is desirable. Another variety
we have noticed as being that of the vaulted ceiling of wood, of which the decoration is
very similar to that of the parallel feature in masonry already described. Its ornamental
appearance may be also enhanced by the introduction of trusses of arched ribs, with
spandrels (or corner pieces) of tracery, enriched corbels, pendants, &c. For instances of
both of these we may refer to Crosby Hall. Another kind of ceiling, very common in
old churches, but very applicable, also, to domestic purposes, is that formed (as before
mentioned) of two inclined planes, as in fig. 1641 : the ceiling and the roof being, in
<JtO COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
such cases, generally one and the same thing.
The roof, thus simply constructed, showed
its principal timbers and rafters, moulded on
the under side, as greater and secondary
ribs ; the lead boarding forming the faces of
the panels, and the points of intersection
being often profusely adorned with knots of
foliage, and the like. Some examples we
find, of a date subsequent to the introduction
of plastering, in which the plainer parts are
of that material, the ribs only being of wood.
To the principal ribs were often attached
curved springing pieces (fig. 1641), so as
to "ive to the whole the contour of the flattened arch ; the weight being then
sustained, on each side, by an ornamental
corbel or capital. One more variety is
that of the flat ceiling in wood ; sometimes
simply divided by ribs into square or oblong
panels, and at other times disguised by
much the same kind of treatment as the
flat stone ceiling of which we have taken
notice. On a principle not very dissimilar
to this is executed the wooden ceiling of
the with drawing-room at Hampton Court
Palace (fig. 1642), exhibiting a succession
of stars, bearing some analogy to the
arrangement of the fan-groin ; an example which, if purified from its admixture of
Italian detail, might claim as much merit as a flat ceiling may generally be expected to
possess.
1900. The Form of Ceiling 1(1-12
which is most applicable to the
combined Purposes of Taste
and Convenience in Domestic
Architecture, we consider to be
that of two inclined planes.
The flat ceiling must neces-
sarily have the advantage over
every other kind, in point of
economy ; but it is greatly
deficient in character, as, in
its general form, it recognises
nothing of the principle of
the pointed arch ; a principle
upon which the effects of the
pointed style primarily de-
pend; and a regard to which
is conspicuous in each of the
other varieties which we have enumerated. Even in the simplest of these, the ceiling of
two inclined planes, though the rise in the middle may not be greater than eight or nins
inches, in a width of sixteen or seventeen feet, there is still a distinct and sensible analogy
to the form of the vault, in the upward tendency of the lines, and in the preservation of
a lofty central point. When, on the other hand, so important and prominent an object
as the ceiling is destitute of a characteristic form, let decoration be applied as it may, it
will fail to supply the' deficiency, or to relieve the composition from the charge of
ambiguity. If there be any circumstances under which the use of the flat ccilin ;
may be considered excusable, it becomes so only when used in rooms whose windows
finish with square upper lines; in which case, such lines may harmonise, to a certain
extent, with the horizontal surface above. To place the flat ceiling over pointed windows
is to destroy all unity of feeling, as well as to show a great misapplication of economy.
1901. Floors, in the Pointed Domestic Style. Hut the lowest as well as the most derated
objects shared the attention of our old builders, and contributed to the completeness of
composition. Hence, in their more finished structures, the decoration even of floors
was not neglected; the practice being to intermix, with stone paving, ornamental glazed
tiles, of varied colour and device. For these the achievements of heraldry afforded the
most copious exemplars ; the subjects being disposed of in circles, quatrefoils, lozenges,
&c. At other times, single and ordinary objects were adopted; or, for more economical
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLZS.
941
purposes, mere alternate patterns of different colours. The best of these tiles were
executed by indenting the required ornament in the substance of the clay while moist,
and filling up the vacuities with clay of a different colour, after which they were subjected
to the fire. Unfortunately, however, many of them appear to have had their embellish-
ments applied only to the surface, and their subjects have consequently been soon obliter-
ated. In porches, halls, conservatories, &c. in which the pointed style is imitated, the
paving might be consistently interspersed with tiles of this description, which, probably,
wodld not prove expensive, when their manufacture had once been tried with success.
[Mr. Wright's tiles (§ 1785) are exactly what is here described, but are manufactured
in a superior manner.]
1902. Chimney-pieces are matters of internal design which require much judgment,
and which would admit of considerable decoration, were excellence of workmanship pre-
ferred to expensiveness of material. As it is, indeed, the pencil is often fettered by the
fear of massiveness on the one hand, and of waste on the other (when marble is the sub-
stance to be employed), no less than by the want of spirit and feeling. Boldness, however,
is here essential to character, the composition of a well-designed chimney-piece differing
little from that of a gateway in miniature, reduced to a flattened proportion, and some-
times finished above with a course of tracery compartments, and a ledge, scarcely to be
called a shelf, arising from the projection of a massive cornice moulding; the whole
being bounded on each side, perhaps, by a slender column, or octagonal shaft, attached to
the jambs. On the other hand, this feature may be reduced to an extreme of simplicity,
equal in economy to that of an ordinary bed-room chimney. It is, however, to be so
reduced by a regard to the primitive forms of arch and jamb, and not by the sinking of
a quatrefoil on the blocks of an every-day article, and calling it Gothic.
1903. The Staircase. One conspicuous object of internal arrangement which remains
for our notice is the staircase. For this, unfortunately, we have scarcely any precedents
in old works applicable to the modern principle of construction ; the common arrange-
ment being, anciently, that of the corkscrew stone staircase, still used in church towers,
of which the steps become the radii of a circle, each lending its aid to form a round
newel up the centre. The great staircase of Christchurch College, Oxford, is one
example more closely resembling the
643
modern plan ; but it is one upon a
scale of splendour rarely to be ap-
proached under the economical re-
strictions of the present day. It
will, however, afford many useful
hints to the student; hints which
will be seconded by every principle
of architectural analogy and right
feeling ; and this, among the first, —
that Pointed Architecture knows no
such finishings as those of the com-
mon raU and baluster; but that, if
an equivalent to such be wanted, it
must be gained under the form of
the coping-moulding and the mul-
lion. Another point of observation
will be, that what are called con-
tinued handrails (even supposing
their section to be correct), are
neither so manageable nor so charac-
teristic for Pointed Architecture as
those with newels, belonging to the
form of the square well-hole, or to
what is technically termed the dog-
legged staircase. In figs. 1643 and
1644 we have offered some ideas
upon this subject, as applicable to
the purposes of modern domestic use.
In fig. 1643 the staircase is finished
with a close string-board, and witli
balusters which take the character
of plain mullions. It is easily to
be perceived that the forms here
simplified will admit of any degree
of decoration, by the introduction,
942 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
at pleasure, of arched heads and tracery to the different compartment*, and the enrich-
ment of the string-board, if requisite, in a correspondent style. Fig. 1644 shows the
same principle adapted to the form of the cut string, or that which leaves expand the
ends of the steps. In this, therefore, it is necessary to give to the mullion baluster a
kind of base, to prevent its receiving an abrupt termination upon the step ; and this
we have sketched ;us attainable in several ways, of which the uppermost form will be
perceived to be reduced to its simplest principles. The compartments produced under
this mode of arrangement are, of course, susceptible of additional decoration by the same
means with those of the former figure ; and, on the other hand, the ornamental string-
board which we have here introduced will admit of simplification if necessary.
1 904. External Colouring. Not to pursue our notice of detailed features to an extent
which might perplex the reader with minutiae, we shall conclude by offering one or two
remarks upon some matters which have a close collateral reference to the subject in
general. Of such matters, primary and evident importance attaches to the circumstance
of colour. This, though it does not, strictly speaking, come under the cognizance of
Architecture, has a very powerful influence upon its productions. Hence, viewing the
Subject with a reference to external effects, a building newly erected is, notwithstanding
the cntireness of its finishings, far less pleasing to the judicious eye than that which has
had its tints softened by the wear of years. The attention of the Architect should
therefore be directed to a consideration of the effect which the lapse of time will have
upon the materials of his works. He will accordingly see the propriety, in matters of
external woodwork, doors, verge-boards, &c. &c, of employing, where practicable,
a sound wood, like oak, in preference to an imitation in painted deal, of which the tone
of colour can never be improved by time. In instances where a partial restoration of
old remains causes a spotted and unharmonious appearance in the general aspect, he will
do wisely to subdue the glare of new materials ; as may be done, in stonework, by the
application of boiled oil, coloured water, &c. In cases where the fiery tone of red brick
requires to be lowered, or where blank spaces may demand relief, his object may be
effectually answered by the training of ivy, or any of the varieties of American creeper,
against his walls ; a mode of natural embellishment which imparts even to simple objects
an air of shadowy richness ; subdues, in rural scenery, the violence of the transition from
objects of nature to those of art; and even bestows upon the architectural subject of
recent date somewhat of the charm belonging to the venerable. He will, at all times,
shun the use of lime-white for external objects; and, if imitating, at any time, the old
style of erections in timber and plastering, he will act judiciously in modifying the
antique character of colouring, by substituting, for the favourite red and white, a brown
and a di.'ep and softened stone tint.
1 905. The Application of Colours for internal Purposes may be made productive of
great effect. The old style of painting upon minute architectural subjects often exhibits
the richness of appearance resulting from the deep colouring of hollows, striping of
beads, and gilding of fillets and foliage ; and, at other times, displays the effect of painted
i'oliage in trelliswork ; of figures, with bands and inscriptions of mottoes, " posies," and
proverbs ; thence advancing, even to the full extent of the skill of the times, in paintings
of a historical character. Beyond this, the effects of colour were occasionally heightened
by the use of painted glass ; the principal subjects for domestic application being those
of armorial bearings, badges, mottoes, and foliage.
1 906. Fittings-up and Furniture, in the Pointed Style. We might here particularise the
old decorations of hangings and tapestry ; from which we might pass to a detailed investi-
gation of the peculiarities of ancient furniture, as another collateral matter affecting
unity of character and feeling. We should, however, be unable to do justice to this
latter subject, without multiplying our sketches and remarks so as to exceed our proposed
limits; and can only, in this place, express our regret that the execution of furniture, as
appropriate to works in the pointed style, should ever be confided to tradesmen, who
cannot, in reason, be supposed to have studied this class of Architecture with that patient
attention which is necessary to a comprehensive acquaintance with its spirit ; not to say
that, of all the regular subjects of the style, scarcely any require the display of such
feeling and judgment as do these collateral objects of fittings-up and furniture.
1 907. Conclusion. We shall not extend our observations to matters of a more minute
description, or a less intimate connection with our subject ; and shall only beg to observe,
in conclusion, that we have not offered the foregoing sketches and remarks with any such
view as that of qualifying the reader to become at once a composer in Pointed Archi-
tecture ; an attainment for which the study of years will not be more than sufficient.
Our object is, rather to lead the student to seek a more intimate acquaintance with the
characteristics of this unrivalled style of art ; and to suggest to him and to the amateur
a few ideas which may place them on (heir guard against the pretensions of false taste,
and the innovations of ignorant and soulless imitators. This caution will be the more
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
943
readily received, when it is remembered that men of no less celebrity than Inigo Joins
and Sir Christopher Wren exhibited the most miserable failures, whenever they attempted
Pointed Architecture : and it is, therefore, evident, that nothing short of an entire devotion
of mind can insure an adequate command of the style ; a style which must necessarily
be profound in its principles, to stand, as it does, supreme in its effects.
Design XXII. — A Villa in the Gothic Style.
1908. Situation and Accommodation. This villa is supposed to be placed on the
summit of a knoll, in a country rather flat than otherwise. For this reason, the general
outline against the sky is rendered more irregular than it would be in a country whew
the surface was greatly diversified. As the building is supposed to be viewed on every
side, and to have no immediate background of either wood or hills, the different projec-
tions in the sides, as well as the sky outline, are calculated to produce a picturesque
effect from every point of view. The basement on which the whole is intended to be
placed, should be raised and supported by an architectural terrace, irregular in the plan,
and displaying projections corresponding, for the most part, to those of the building.
This terrace should not be less than three feet above the surface of the adjoining grounds,
and on the entrance front there should be an inclined plane, by which carriages may
ascend to the porch. The terrace wall should be finished with battlements at the more
enriched parts of the garden front ; and it may be finished with a plain parapet and
coping on the entrance front. Fig. 1646 is the elevation ; fig. 1645 is the ground plan.
In this last, a is the porch ; b, hall ; c, dining-room ; d, breakfast-room ; e, drawing-
room ; f, library ; g, picture gallery, serving also as a billiard-room ; h, principal
staircase ; ;', boudoir ; k, ante-room ; I, archway to the garden scenery ; m, passage, at
the end of which is the bell turret ; n, lobby ; o, ante-room ; p, back stairs ; and q, open
screens. The dotted lines indicate the manner of finishing the different ceilings. Some
of these (for example, the porches and the octagon boudoir) indicate groined ceilings;
but the square and parallelogram plans contain lines which indicate the mode of finish-
ing by panels between oak beams, familiar to every one who has seen an old Gothic
dining-hall in any of our colleges or inns of court. The domestic offices are in the
basement ; there is one story over the principal floor for bed rooms for the family, and
an attic story for the sleeping-rooms of the servants.
1909. Construction. Fig. 1647 is an elevation of the hall door. Fig. 1648 shows
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
[}4-5
part of the open staircase. Open staircases, Mr. Lamb, the author of this Design, ob-
serves, were not generally used until
the middle of the reign of Queen
Elizabeth ; but the effect of the in-
terior of this Design will be very
much improved by one. The stairs
to the stalls in Henry VII. 's Chapel
afford a sufficient precedent, if one be
necessary. Previously to the period
alluded to, staircases were placed in
small towers, and called turnpikes ;
the steps of which were of stone or
solid oak, winding round a large
newel, and without any nosing ; the
handrail was cut out of the material
of the wall and flush with it, but in
the inferior staircases no handrail
was provided. The octagon tower
in the elevation, fig. 1646, is a stair-
case of the above description from
the basement to the upper story ; the
large open staircase serving only to
ascend from the ground to the rooms
on the first floor. Fig. 1650 is an
elevation of the hall chimney-piece
and grate. Fig. 1651 shows part of
the ceiling of the library. Ceilings,
during the time of Henry VII. and
throughout the whole period when Tudor Architecture prevailed in the houses of the
nobility and gentry of England,
extending to near the middle of
the reign of Queen Elizabeth,
were generally divided into com-
partments, with moulded ribs,
and elaborately carved bosses
at their junction,
the hollow mould-
ings frequently |
charged with va- C7
rious ornaments ^o
at certain dis-
tances from each
other ; or with
continued foliage ;
the panels were often painted
blue, and studded with gold
stars, or emblazoned with the
family arms. Some of the mouldings and ornaments were gilt, and others painted
in rich colours; leaves and
flowers were often represented
with their natural tints; ex-
pensive modes of decoration,
but rich in their effects.
Fig. 1649 is a plan of the
mouldings of the entrance-door
jambs.
1910. Remarks. This De-
sign has been contributed by
Edward Buckton Lamb, Esq.,
the author of several preceding
designs, and the reviser of that
following. It displays a rich
fund of knowledge of the details
of the pointed style of Do-
mestic Architecture ; and i«-
1649
1
taken altogether, a very original compositic
5 s
9 U) COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1651
Design XXIII. — An Italian Villa on a considerable Scale.
l&il. This Design has been furnished by Robert Mallet, Esq., an amateur Architect
of great taste, and by this time well known to our readers by the designs for iron fur-
niture, and by various scientific contrivances, some of the more remarkable of which
remain to be described. All the general masses, and the principal features of the interior
arrangement, are the work of Mr. Mallet; but the architectural details and finishings
are by E. B. Lamb, Esq., whose thorough knowledge of the Italian villa style is evinced
by the details given as an appendage to this Design, and whose excellent taste in their
display is conspicuous in his revision of Mr. Mallet's elevations.
1 9 1 '2. The Situation of this Villa, Mr. Mallet observes, should be on a rather rapid
declivity facing the south-east, so as to give ample scope for forming, at comparatively
small expense, those magnificent terraces which vary and dignify the Architecture of the
Palladian era. The upper part of the declivity is supposed to be covered with wood,
terminating in hills, and the lower part should display garden scenery and pastures, ter-
minating in orchards and hop-grounds, beyond which may be a fertile valley, watered
by an ample river. There are many such situations in Scotland and Wales, and a number
also in England, particularly in the lake district. If the Duke of Devonshire's villa at
Chatsworth were to be rebuilt on the same site, something in the style of this Design
would be suitable to the situation.
1913. The General Appearance of this Villa is shown in figs. 1658 to 1660.
1914. This Villa should be lighted with Gas, by burners placed outside the windows,
with parabolic reflectors, as has been done in some places in England. The exterior
effect in a dark night, I am informed, is magnificent beyond description. By these means
the heat and smell of the gas in the rooms is avoided, and the light, coming from one side,
like that of day, is much more natural and agreeable. As windows are the apertures
through which natural light is admitted, nothing can be more appropriate than their
employment for the admission of artificial light. The burners, and reflectors, &c, should,
of course, be removed during the day.
1915. Accommodation. Fig. 1652 is the ground plan, in which a is the avenue or
approach road ; b, the entrance court, flagged with stones of irregular form, as in the
streets of Florence and Pompeii, where the material is lava, here it might be granite ;
c, situation of the house-porter's lodge, shown in fig. 1 653 ; d, hall ; e, gallery of
paintings, &c. ; f, dining-room; g, drawingroom ; h, library; i, breakfast-room; h,
principal staircase; /, lobby and water-closet; m, ante-room; n, boudoir; o, ladies'
private room ; p, family bed-room ; q, lady's maid's room ; r, nursery ; s, dressing-room ;
t, children's play-room ; u, butler's pantry ; v, plate-closet ; w, pantry ; x, housekeeper's
room; y, dry larder; z, stairs from the basement to the offices on the ground floor ;
»', kitchen lighted from the north; tV, scullery; c, servants' hall; d', covered passage
from the scullery to the laundry ; e, laundry; f f, porticoes, or temples provided with
terraced seats, and decorated with sculpture ; g' g', colonnades to the hall, &c, forming
an uninterrupted covered way for servants ; A', portico ; i", conservatory ; k', aviary ;
/', corridor; m', portico; n', parterre; o', museum, ball-room, chapel, or billiard-room;
p, first terrace eight feet lower than the entrance court, b ; q', second terrace fifteen feet
lower than the first, with a covered colonnade for walking under in wet weather ; r',
third terrace, with a carriage approach, laid in grass ; s', grass lawn ; t ', situation of
'.lahles, shown in fig. 1653; «', terrace seats; v', open area to light and ventilate the
passages to the offices; w', these passages; and x, fountain. The chamber plan may
l«C easily conceived.
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
947
948 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES. 949
Fig. 1653 is a vertical profile, showing the connection of the buildings with the roads
walks, and scenery; in which a is the principal approach; b, an entrance to the lower
part of the porter's tower ; c, entrance for servants to the basement story ; d, private
entrance to the staircase in the tower ; e, carriage road, serving as a private approach to
the garden front, and forming, at the same time, part of a drive through the estate ; f,
carriage road to the museum ; g, walks leading to the flower-garden, h ; i, stable court ;
k, back entrance to the hot-houses; 7, m, walk connecting the kitchen with the stable
court ; n, walk descending a steep bank, forming a private entrance to the museum : o,
sloping surface, forming part of the park ; and p, steep wooded banks, connecting the
park with rising hills.
1916. Construction. All the walls may be of brick, covered with cement, and the
roof may be covered with Italian or Grecian tiles. The building may be rendered fire-
proof by brick arches, abutting on cast-iron girders ; or by joists of timber, with floors
of large slates or tiles laid in cement, and covered with mastic (a cement formed of
powdered stone, mixed with oxide of lead and oils) ; the slates or mastic may be painted
either in imitation of mosaic pavement, of oak or other timber, or of carpeting. In
Italy, fire-proof floors are often formed of what is called composto (composition), in the
following manner : — The joists of the floor are first covered with coarse boards, and
afterwards with a layer of straw, though the boards are frequently omitted, more espe-
cially when reeds can be substituted for the straw. .On the straw is spread a layer of
common mortar, and on this a stratum of from one to three inches in thickness of ter-
razza (terrass, a compound of powdered brick and lime). The terrass is well beaten •
afterwards rolled smooth with a heavy roller, and, finally, polished with sandstone.
When it is desired to imitate a marble floor, fragments of marble of different colours,
and all reduced to equal sizes, that is, about the sixteenth of an inch in diameter, are
spread on the terrass before it is dry, in regular patterns, by the same process as that
employed in stencilling, and these are first beaten down, afterwards rolled, next polished,
and finally lines are drawn round the different forms, and filled in with lampblack and
oil. The result, when properly done, is a very successful imitation of different-coloured
marbles. Such floors are common in Genoa and Venice. (See Quatremere de Quincy
Dictionnaire Historique <T Architecture, art. Composto ; and Borgnis, Traite Elementaire de
950 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Construction, &c. p. 234. The terrace seats, u', may
the elevation is shown in fig. 1654; the section in
fig. 1657.
1917. Remarks. " The great scarp, or upright
wall of the terrace on the entrance front," Mr.
Mallet observes, " with its two flanking towers,
would be imposing ; and the building intended as
museum or ball-room at the extreme end of the
upper terrace would have a fine effect, as would the
long colonnade with its covered walk. Coal-vaults,
cellaring, &c, may be made, communicating with
the underground passage to the kitchen; and the
upper terrace might also be vaulted, if that were
desirable. It is to be remembered, that a villa is
generally to be considered as a summer residence,
and that, therefore, open passages, and the generally
open style of Italian construction, are not only ad-
missible, but characteristic. There are some minor
apartments and offices, which have no place in this
Design, which, however, may be placed under the
main court or terrace, and lighted from a range of
windows in the grand or entrance front scarp. The
other terrace might also be made subservient to the
same end, and lighted in the same manner. The
long and lofty range of Palladian windows that
would thus become requisite would have a mag-
nificent effect. Fireplaces are still retained in this
Design ; because, although, as they are commonly
constructed, they are the very worst manner of
heating a room, habit has rendered them necessary
to our comfort. To prevent the draught of air to
the backs of those who sit near the fire, air tubes
from the exterior of the house, with openings under
the ash-pan of the grate, and ventilators covering
them, should be provided to each fireplace. These
tubes might have cocks to regulate the admission
of air; and thus, by increasing or diminishing the
draught up the chimney from the air of the room,
to regulate its temperature at pleasure. In addition
to these advantages, air so admitted would be an
effectual preventive of smoky chimneys. The prin-
cipal staircase in this Design is proposed to be
heated by hot water from a boiler placed under the
hall, and supplied with fuel, &c, from a short sunk
passage, entering from beside the grand portico, and
from its situation, hidden from view. Architectural
pedestals in each room, placed where taste and con-
venience may dictate, would diffuse the heat through-
out the apartments. Such pedestals," continues Mr.
Mallet, " I have been and am constantly erecting.
They are susceptible of much variety, and of a great
display of beauty and rich ornament. They may be
made in various forms ; and one of the best of these,
when it is applicable, is a series of concentric circles
of plate iron, with alternate spaces between them for
the heated air to pass through. Concentric cylin-
ders thus formed are surrounded by a case, which
may be rendered as ornamental as is deemed proper.
Under no circumstances should pipes for circulating
steam or hot water be admitted into dwelling-
rooms ; for I have uniformly observed that when
these are introduced as skirtings, &c, they fail, from
the walls absorbing most of the heat. The heat
usually wasted at the back of the kitchen grate, in
such a Design as the present, may be made sub-
be formed as shown in fig. 1655 ;
fig. 1 656 ; and the end view in
/■
1658
fe
'■^^\
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
951
servient to heating the
whole of that wing ;
while a boiler fixed
under the staircase in
the other wing would
heat the whole of that
part of the house.
Flat pipes will not
stand pressure, and
must be used with
great caution at all
times; for, as they are fi|
usually made, they
abound in bad weld-
ings, which are not
discovered till, by the
pressure, and conse-
quent expansion, of
the heated fluid, they
burst or leak."
1918. The follow-
ing Observations on
Italian Architecture
are chiefly by Mr.
Lamb. The Archi-
tecture of modern
Italy, in a general
point of view, is of
two distinct kinds ;
viz. that of the towns
or cities, and that of
the villas or country-
houses. The Archi-
tecture of the cities is
finely exemplified in
the buildings of Rome
and Florence, and is
characterised by great
simplicity in the gene-
ral masses, and great
distinctness in the de-
tails. We have only
to refer to the street
palaces of Rome, Flo-
rence, and Genoa, or
to the successful imi-
tation of this style, in
all its simplicity and
severity, in a palace,
fig. 1661, just com-
pleted at Munich, by
the king of Bavaria.
1919. The Villa
Architecture of Italy,
on the other hand,
when on a large and
magnificent scale, is
either characterised by
low horizontal forms,
extending over con-
siderable space, and
symmetrical in the
plan and elevation ;
or, when on a mo-
derate scale, by scat-
1600
952 COTTAGE, FARM, AMD VILLA ARCHITECTURE
tered irregular masses great contrasts of
light and shade, broken and plain sur-
faces, and great variety of outline against
the sky- The blank wall on which the
eye reposes; the towering campanile,
boldly contrasted with the horizontal line
of roof only broken by a few straggling
chimney tops; the row of equal-sized
closely placed windows, contrasting with
the plain space and single window of
the projecting balcony; the prominent
portico, the continued arcade, the terraces,
and the variously formed and disposed
out-buildings, all combine to form that
picturesque whole which distinguishes the
modern Italian villa from every other.
1920. As an Example of a Villa of the
regular Kind of Italian Villa Architecture,
we may refer to that lately built from the
designs of the Italian Architect, Salucci,
in the park of Rosenstein, near Stuttgardt,
of which fig. 1664 is a general view; fig.
1663 the entrance front elevation; and
fig. 1662 a ground plan. The general
effect of this palace is simple and grand ;
and it is as admirably fitted for the country
where there is abundance of space, and no
occasion for piling one story over another,
as the Tuscan palace of Munich is for the
confined space of a city, where the repe-
tition of one story over another becomes
a necessary part of the design, and con-
sequently a characteristic feature. The
Rosenstein villa or palace affords a very
good example of the internal arrange-
ment of the principal apartments, com-
mon to Italy and the Continent generally
One room communicates with anothei
throughout every floor ; differing only in
size, and in the number of windows.
There are no fireplaces shown, but stoves
are placed in one or more of the angles of
the rooms, according to their size. As
these stoves are heated only once or twice
a day, mornings and evenings, and as wood
is the fuel used, little or no smoke is pro-
duced ; and, therefore, there is the less
occasion for conspicuous chimney tops,
which could not have the same character
of use as in a coal country, where the rooms
are heated by open fires, and smoke is
issuing from the chimneys during the
whole ot the day. In the ground plan,
fig. 1662, a is the entrance hall; b, a
grand hall for dining in on extraordinary
occasions, lighted from the sides and from
the roof, with galleries at each end for
music; c is the principal saloon; d d,
ascent for carriages to drive under the
entrance portico ; e, a flight of steps to
the main entrance portico ; /, steps to five
other porticoes ; and g, flights of steps to
loggias or recesses, each with two columns
and anta>.
1921. The irregular TtalianVitta may
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
953
1GG1
,~A
lie considered as admirably exemplified in Mr. Mallet's Design ; and we may also
produce, as a specimen on a large scale, the Villa Borghese, fig. 1665; and Petrarch's
house at Arqua, fig. 1666, or Bel Respiro, fig. 1667, in the suburbs of Paris, as Italian
villas of much smaller dimensions. This Italian style is readily distinguished from
954 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1664
the French manner, on the one hand, with its high roofs, as exemplified in Voltaire's
house at Ferney, fig. 1668; or the Swiss style, on the other, as exemplified in Silber-
1665
berg, near Stuttgardt, fig. 1669. It is unnecessary to produce examples of the modi-
fications of the Italian and French villas adopted in Germany and Russia; or of the
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
955
1667
more tame country-houses of Holland and the Netherlands, as neither of these can ever
be mistaken for the Italian manner.
1 668
1922. The Details of the Italian Style of Architecture include roofing tiles, wall stones
chimney tops, brackets, cornices, window-dressings, doors, turrets, and porches.
Statues, urns, and other such picturesque objects belong to external ornament or finish-
ing, and will be noticed in a subsequent chapter.
1923. Roofing Tiles. Much of the beauty of small Italian villas depends on the
marked character arising from the forms of the tiles employed to cover them. We have
956
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
already given several of these (see list of engravings, art. Tiles), and shall here add two
other modes.
1924. A Mode of Tiling adopted by the ancients, and of which there are specimens
still to be found in Rome, is thus described by liorgnis ( Traite de Construction, \>. 253.): —
Fig. 1670 a is a dissected view of a portion of a roof covered in the manner alluded to ;
and 6 shows plans and sections ot the separate tiles. The flat tile, with the turned-up
margins, is two feet long, and twenty inches wide at the broadest end ; and the hollow
semicylindrical or bridge tiles are eight inches in diameter at their widest end. The
flat tiles were laid in mortar, either on brickwork, masonry, or boards, as the case
might be ; and ornamental tiles were placed at the eaves, somewhat in the manner shown
in the following mode of tiling. It is to be observed, that, by having the tiles both flat
and semicylindrical, broader at one end than at the other, they are made to dovetail
into each other in such a manner that no nails are required to keep them in their places,
provided the tiles of the eaves and of the ridge of the roof are securely fixed by mortar
or cement.
1 925. The Mode of Tiling exhibited in the Temple of Diana Propyhea is given in the
engravings of that temple in the Unedited Antiquities of Attica. Fig. 1672 a is an
elevation of part of a roof of the temple, in which the crocket-like ridge tiles are shown
at b, and their vertical profile at c. Fig. 1671 d is the upper surface of one of the
flat tiles, and e its under surface. Fig. 1673 shows a perspective view of one of
the bridge tiles, f, and a longitudinal section through the same, g. The effect of
these tiles is remarkably good, and imitations of them might be introduced in villas
and cottages with excellent effect.
1 926. The Kind of Face of the Stones, and the Manner in which they are disposed in
Courses in Italian Buildings, often form a source of great beauty. In England, when-
ever the surface of a wall is otherwise than smooth, it is said to be rusticated ;
but the varieties in common use are so few, that they have not received designa-
tions as in France and Italy. The rocky surface, the stalactited, the vermiculated,
and the punctured, are among the kinds used by the Italians; and the divisions
between the stones are either triangular in the section, curved, square, or composed
of modifications of these In lig. 1674, a is a vermiculated surface; b, a surface cut
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
1672
957
1671
1673
in imitation of stalactites; c, a surface punctured in imitation of rude rock; and d,
convex surface.
1927. Chimney tops are features of consider-
able importance, more especially in the irregular
villas of the north of Italy. That eminent
artist, Williams, has selected six : of which fig.
1675 is from Rome; fig. 1676 is from Lucca;
fig. 1677 from Perugia; fig. 1678 from Flo-
rence; fig. 1679 from Zante ; and fig. 1680
from Corfu. Fig. 168 J shows four commoner
forms ; of which e is the most complicated. Fig.
1682 is a large chimney top containing several
flues, covered at their terminations with Italian
tiles. It must be observed, that, as wood is the
common fuel in Italy, the flues in the chimney
shafts are much smaller than in Britain, as the
0OO0
gg
l&ggj
[JgJBl
mmi
a
««
|~ .••:•
l! §S .'■'.' '}
smoke of wood ascends in far less space than that of coal, and produces very little soot.
Great care is requisite in distributing chimney tops, so that, when viewed in perspec-
tive, they may form groups ; and, while they break the general outline of the roof,
may not fritter it into small parts on the one hand ; or, on the other, assume so much
importance as to render other parts insignificant.
9<38 COTTAGE, FAUAI, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1675
1676
1677
1928. Brackets and Cornices are striking features in Italian buildings. In fig. 1683,
a and b are the details of brackets which may be executed in wood, such forms being
1678
1679
1680
common both in Italy and Lorraine ; c is a cantilever cornice, which may be executed
either in wood or stone. The great projection of the corona or upper part produces that
1681
deep shadow, which is the striking characteristic of the Italian cornice. An
modillion with rustic coins is shown at d, and is a common feature in the better
tion of Italian villas, and also in 1C82
the street palaces of Rome and
Florence. Of block cornices, such
as e> f> 9i there is a great variety,
many of which might be executed
with common bricks. Such cor-
nices are often introduced as (
string courses, or horizontal belts >
or bands in the walls of buildings, V
and also so as to serve for the
sills of windows. Frequently they
are made use of as a finish to the
terrace or parapet walls of a villa.
Few features of the Italian style arc less expensive, more general!
enriched
descrip-
y applicable, or more
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
1G83
959
smn
productive of effect. A building in all other respects plain, with rusticated coins,
and a blocking cornice, such as e, with similar cornices under the window sills, will
produce a striking effect, without any other exterior decoration.
19iJ9. IVindow Dressings are fine sources of character. In fig. 1684, a and b are the
1684 c
i
:
\
ill., mi.
- --J1..H i:iiiii:;i , r.lHTTi.ll'.r.l ,,! !;',l''.i .'ii.ISiI"
168
plainest forms in general use ; .ind, when properly and not too profusely in
elevation, their affect is excellent. Palladio occasionally uses the form c.
d is a specimen of a circular-headed
window with a balcony. Balconies
are used by the Italians in most
situations ; and they are most desir-
able objects, not only for their in-
dividual beauty, and their architec-
tural effect, but as places for dis-
playing flowers ; and, as a writer in
the Mechanics' Magazine has observed,
as places to go out on in case of fire,
when there are no means of internal <.
descent. The straight-headed window,
e, in this figure is highly architectural,
and is well fitted for a rustic basement.
Fig. 1686 is a row of circular-
headed windows, with a balcony, which
forms one of the most striking features
in the elevations of Italian villas. It
troduced
In fig.
in an
1685,
;)(),) COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA UlCHITECTURF.
1686
h
H
EfN|3^
In1
1 1
1
ir~]
i 11 L
..Attic
i Wl \\
■i| 14-1
m
li
ty„ i^miy;.,.,,,,,. I;|.i1;r„.|.in||,ln: |...t!|-. .i'[."';TT;t| T"ll'" T7
i,iii!,|ii"|p|iiiiii!i:iiii|ii|>iiiiiiiiiii'>niii!n
"i. ,'i'!l';t!i'",;,!iT' i: ini11!'111"!"!''""!'!'"''''!'1 v-THr
1PIPL
will be observed that the effect is produced chiefly by the contiguity of the windows, and
the repetition of parts of the very simplest description. Few features in any style are
calculated to produce so much effect, at so little expense. An arch is always expres-
sive of strength, more particularly when it is semicircular ; and the cooperation of these
arches, in this instance, is an idea at once simple and grand. In this as in many other
features of Italian Architecture, we see combined the science of the Architect and the
knowledge of effect of the painter.
Fig. 1687 is a window-head with an architrave, and a moulded sill supported by
blocks.
Fig. 1688 is a window with a plain facing, supposed to be placed in a projection from
a plain wall, and protected by a pent-roof of tiles.
1687
1688
1930. Doors, in ail styles of Architecture, are fertile sources of character and orna-
ment. In fig. 1689, b is a doorway constructed with tiles and rubble- work, and displays,
VILLAS IN VARIOUS STYLES.
96J
perhaps, the very cheapest mode of forming a semicircular arch. The use of tne tiles is
in preserving the rubble from being thrust out of form ; while they confer, at the same
time, an architectural character. The door, b, in this figure shows a double arch of
rustic work. In fig. 1690, rf is a door-head of rustic work of a peculiar description,
1690
having the angles cut off; and c is a door-head, supposed to be constructed of rough
stone, in which also is shown part of the door. Fig. 1691 is a doorway with a pro-
jecting head and rustic jambs, which
shows also part of the wall, built of _ J~ J 1691
diagonal masonry.
1931. Bell Turrets assume various
forms. Fig. 1 692 is one of the sim-
plest, being the mere continuation of
a wall, commonly a gable end, or the
termination of any division wall,carried
a few yards above the roof. Figs.
1695 and 1694 are forms of watch-
towers, common on the smaller villas,
and even farm-houses, in several parts
of Tuscany. Fig. 1695 is a cam-
panile or watch-tower of a highly
architectural character, which is cal-
culated to produce an excellent effect.
1932. Porches suited to the Italian
manner are exemplified in figs. 1696,
1697, and 1698, which are from the
portfolio of Marriott Field, Esq., a young Architect, lately returned from a profes-
sional tour through Italy. In many of the smaller Italian villas, instead of pro.
1692
1693
jecting porches, the entrance is formed within a recess, which has columns or an
arcade in front. In others, instead of a portico, porch, or recess, a projecting colonnade,
arcade, or veranda, extends the whole length of the entrance front, and the principal
902 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
doorway may be under any part of it. In most large villas the entrance doorway is
either protected by a portico that may be driven under, or it is formed on the side
1^96
of an archway through which carriages drive into an inner court, as in some of our
public inns. This is a comfortable con-
trivance, but by no means an elegant one.
In the first place, it indicates want of space;
and, next, want of means for display and de-
coration ; lastly, such entrances are always
gloomy.
1933. The modern Italian Style of Ar-
chitecture, the characteristics of which may
be given in two words — painter-like effect,
— has in this country the recommendation
of novelty ; a quality which always makes
a strong impression on the general observer.
I i is not, however, a style which can be
trusted in the hands of any Architect not a
master in the art of composition. The
great object, in designing every building, as
t'u- as exterior effect is concerned, is the pro-
duction of a whole: now, in regular symme-
trica] Architecture, this is comparatively
easy ; for, a centre being fixed upon, tin-
two sides can easily be made to correspond
with it. A beautiful design may not be
^s^
APPENDAGES TO VILLAS. <J63
the result, but, whatever it may he, it will have pretensions to being a whole. Italian
Architecture, on the other hand, is characterised by irregularity, by strong contrasts, and
by other painter-like effects. The whole, which is the result of this style, is of a more
refined kind ; it is addressed to a more highly cultivated taste; and to produce it requires
a much higher degree of talent, than to compose in any species of regular Architecture.
No Architect, therefore, ought to attempt the Italian style, who has not studied the com-
position of landscape scenery generally. If we were to look out for a young Architect to
design an edifice in the Italian style we should first show him a landscape, and ask him to
analyse it ; and next we should show him a view of an Italian building, and ask him to point
out the causes of its beauty. From the Design before us, and the excellent illustrations
of the details of Italian Arcihtecture which accompany it, it will be evident to our readei »
that Mr. Lamb is an artist of first-rate merit in this style. One great recommendation
of the Italian manner in our eyes is, that, from the cheap nature of its finishing and
decorations, it is suited to a people in moderate circumstances — to a democracy.
Another is, that, from the irregularity of its masses, which admit of a house receiving
additions in every direction, it is suited to a prosperous and improving people, — such as
the Americans.
Ckaf, IV.
Designs for Appendages to Villas.
1 934. All the Architectural Appendages of a Villa should obviously partake of the
character of the house ; not only in point of general effect, but in proportionate dimen-
sions, and in architectural style. This is a leading principle ; to which, however, there
may sometimes be exceptions, arising from local circumstances. For example, we see no
sufficient reason for laying it down as an absolute rule, that a Grecian or a Gothic villa
should never have a simple cottage for a lodge ; as situations and circumstances may
occur where such a deviation from the usual practice may become desirable. Neither
do we see why a Gothic house should have no bridges but what have pointed arches ;
that form being, in flat situations, unsuitable for a bridge, on account of the rise it re-
quires in the road over it. Unity of architectural style with the house is, however,
essential in all those buildings which are in its immediate vicinity ; or where they are
seen before a view is obtained of the house, and where a marked and different style would
create false expectations in the spectator as to that of the principal object. In garden
buildings, which are presented as specimens of Architecture, of course all styles may be
admitted, because the whole there may be considered as an architectural museum. M e
shall submit a few designs for, and observations upon, stables, riding-houses, dog-kennels,
ornamental dairies and poultry-houses, aviaries and menageries, architectural conserva-
tories, terraces, parapets and other mural ornaments, ornamental garden buildings, and
entrance lodges and gates.
Sect. I. Stable Offices.
1 9:55. The Situation of the Stable Offices of a villa, and various other particulars
respecting them, have already been noticed in the first and second chapters of this Book ;
and we shall, therefore, confine ourselves, in the present section, to describing one or two
designs.
1936. Stable Offices for Beau Ideal Villa. Fig. 1699 is the elevation of the stables
intended for Beau Ideal Villa, as contributed by Selim, and revised by Charles Barry,
Esq. ; and fig. 1 700 is the ground plan, which is supposed by Selim to contain adequate
accommodation for the horses and carriages, &c. , of the occupant of such a house. ( See
§ 1715 to § 1720.) — All the manure from these stables is wheeled every morning into
the dung-yard, u, and thrown into a large pit, where it remains till taken away for hot-
beds by the gardener ; the walls of the melon ground forming the N. E. boundary of the
dung yard. The liquid manure from all the stables is conducted through drains to a
tank, from which it may be pumped up into barrels, and conveyed to the farm. Stacks
of wood for fuel, stacks of litter, and various articles for the gardens, stables, and kitchen
court, may also be placed here. Over all the stables and coach-houses are lofts for
containing hay, drawn straw for litter, and corn ; with close-jointed floors, so as to prevent
the dust from dropping through on the horses. The corn is let down by a funnel,
fig. 1701, a, connected with a square tube or shoot, b ; this shoot has two sliding stoppers,
the handles of which are seen at c and d; and the space between the slides being ad-
justed so as to hold a feed, any quantity is readily measured out. ^VIilii this is done.
964 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
the lower slide is locked up by the head si able-keeper. The general construction of
these stables should correspond with that of the bouse; the Architecture displaying the
same character of ornament, though in an inferior degree. In fig. 1700, a is the en-
trance, with a clock-room and bed-room over it : over the clock-room is a turret-bell, the
rope for ringing which hangs down in the closet, b ; c, staircase ; d d, coach-houses, each
\l\An \o\o
1701
J-fcU-LJ
with a stove; e, harness-room, also with a stove; ////, staircases to the lofts ; g g,
coach-horse stables ; h h, lobbies open to the yard to clean horses in also for the car-
riages of visiters to back into in wet weather ; i, sick-horse box ; kk, stabling lor the
horWa of strangers; /, passage through to the back yard, where the dung is placed; m,
harness-room to the coach-house, n, for strangers; o o, boxes for hunters; pp, saddle-
horse stables; q, saddle-room, with stove ; r, broad pavement in front of the coach-
houses; ., pump and trough, with large lamp over; 1 1 1 1, sinks for carrying off the
surface-water; a, dung-yard. ,-~0 i nm
1937. Circular Stables. Fig. 1704 is the ground plan, and figs. 1/02 and 17U.5 are
suitable elevations of a building containing extensive stabling, coach-houses, and other
accommodations of the stable-yard, with a yard in the centre for young horses to run
loose in occasionally. This yard contains an open building for covering a nayncfc, a
pump, and haj racks. Over the stables, &c., are lofts for hay. com, &c, and a
STABLE OFFICES.
m
billiard-room. The ground plan of these stables was designed by us, in 1809 for
the late Colonel Mytton of Garth, Montgomeryshire; and it is proper to observe that a
L702
principal object in view was, to provide accommodation for breeding and breaking in a
superior description of riding-horses. The situation on which these stables were placed was
the summit of an elevated knoll, protruding from the side of a hill ; and their effect was
remarkably good from all the surrounding country. The elevation actually executed
lTOii
Ai\
"2'f/r '.;
from our Design was different from either of those now given, and, we need not say,
much inferior ; the latter having been suggested and sketched for us by Mr. Barry, and
prepared for the engraver by Mr. Lamb. Fig. 1702 is in the Italian style, and fig.
1703 is in the Tudor Gothic. The plan in the last case, being a polygon of as many
sides as the plan for the Italian elevation has intcrcolumniations. In both elevations
the roofs are concealed, because they are considered to be flat, and covered with lead or
96(3 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
tiles laid in cement, in the manner known about London as terrace roofs. The reasons
for omitting the roofs as features in the Design are, that the building may have a more
imposing and architectural character, and that the great expense of constructing circular
sloping roofs to be both sightly and weather-proof, which can only be effectually done
by using tiles made on purpose, might be avoided. The following are the details of the
ground plan'- — a, veranda for exercising horses, or for riding or driving under during
rainy weather, being ten feet wide in the clear, fifteen feet high, and nearly two hundred
feet long ; b, gateway to the inner court ; c, stable for farming horses ; d, coach-house ;
e, harness-room, with fireplace ; f, stall for a single horse ; g, stair to a billiard-room
over d, e, and/; h, hay-bin ; t, saddle-horse stable ; k, entrance to the stable and cen-
tral court; /, stable for hunters; m, hay-bin; n, stable for coach-horses; o, hay-bin;
;>, harness-room with stove ; q, coach-house ; r, two-stall stable ; s s, hay-racks for
horses running loose in the inner court; t, Dutch barn, covering a hayrick ; u, pumps
and troughs for supplying water ; v, situation of a cesspool, in which all tae liquid
manure of the stables is collected, and from which it is conveyed by an underground
drain to another cesspool, where it is preserved till wanted for use. The dung-pit is at
some distance, walled in, and covered by a roof.
Sect. II. Riding-houses.
1938. A Riding-house, it is observed by our correspondent Selim, § 1716, is a
luxury not often wanted in villas of moderate size; and we shall, therefore, only notice
the subject briefly. The form of a riding-house is generally that of a parallelogram;
though that at Brighton, some in London, and the veranda at Garth, as well as others
in different parts of the country, are circular. When the latter form is adopted, the
diameter should not be much less than one hundred feet; the centre of the circle may
contain one or more columns, or a tower for the support of the roof, though it is more
convenient, for the exercise of horsemanship, to construct the roof without any supports
from the ground. A parallelogram riding-house cannot well be less than one hundred
feet long, and forty feet broad ; but riding-houses of this shape are generally built of
larger dimensions. In general, at the ends of a parallelogram riding-house there are
small galleries, and seats for spectators; and in circular riding-houses the galleries are
placed round a single column, or within a circle of columns, in the centre of the structure.
RIDING-HOUSES.
96?
When a tower is used as a central support, it may have a staircase and balconies round
it. To show how these galleries are placed in a parallelogram house, we shall here give
a portion of the plan of the manege of Monaco, built for the king of Sardinia, by the
late Architect Quarenghi, from a drawing given to us by him, in St. Petersburgh,
in 1814. Fig. 1705 is half the ground plan, in which a is the inclined plane to the door
1705
11 3 x
rn— irr
TTT-rrr
iTn— nt
■i '" » f
;i n ii ( '
Tt rrt
;i n » r
by which the horses are taken in, and b the door for persons ; c is the platform, on which
those who are to ride wait till the horses are brought up to them ; d, railings which open
inwards ; and e, a staircase to the gallery over. One of the finest elevations that could
be employed for a building of this kind would be that of a Grecian temple, with open
porticoes at each end, and the spaces, between the window openings, arranged as pilasters.
Quarenghi's elevation was as bad as could well be imagined: the roof was hipped (almost
always a negative fault) at the two ends ; and pediments were raised on the sides, over the
entrance doors for the horses. Quarenghi was any thing but an Architect of reason.
1939. The Construction of the Roofs of Riding-houses is the most expensive part of the
edifice, as well as that requiring the most consideration from the Architect. The
following communication on this subject, by Mr. Mallet, we present as particularly
appropriate : — " For riding-houses, barns, large sheds, and other buildings requiring roofs
of considerable space, I conceive a roof I have some time since invented the best I have
seen. It is constructed partly of cast and wrought iron, and partly of wood ; and may
be finally covered with slates, copper, zinc, or any other material usually so applied.
Fig. 1706 is a side view of one principal, or couple, of a roof for a riding-house, supposing
it to be from thirty feet to eighty feet span. The main ribs, a a, are of cast iron, in
section as in s ; and each is trussed by a round wrought-iron rod, b b, cottered into each
end, and passed under the projection, or bracket, c. Thus, each principal rafter becomes
trussed ; and, at the meeting of the rafters above, a vertical bar, d, descends, and meets
the two inclined rods, e e, which proceed from the lower extremities of the principal ribs
or rafters, z. In this manner the whole system is resolved into two triangles, d y z;
in which the sides d y and z y are subjected to tensile, and the side d z to com-
pressing forces. Thus, the whole principal, or couple, is firmly trussed. Fig. 1707 is an
enlarged view of the centre joint of the principal rafters ; a a are the ribs ; b, the vertical
tension bar; and c, its cotter. The lap joint of the ribs is obvious at d d ; e e are the
908 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
^
n
d p—i
r^\
r^ d
1
* 1
s
u
W
\^j
LU
U
■ SJ
f
tension rods of the main ribs.
Fig. 1708 is an edge view, or
bird's-eye plan, of the same.
Fig. 170!) shows the extreme
lower terminations of the prin-
cipal rafters ; <>, the rib ; p, the
lower end of the tension bar ; n,
the retaining pin passed through
the projection attached to the
rib ; and t, the tension rod of the
main rib. The cast-iron gutter
inside the parapet, when a parapet
is used, is also shown. When
there is no parapet, any kind of
eave-shoot may be employed. Fig. 1710 shows a side view of the main centre joint;
a is a vertical rod ; and b b, the ■•
main diagonal stays to the bottom
of the main ribs. Fig. 1711 is a
plan from the top of the same. The
same letters refer to the same parts
in both figures. This completes the
details of the trussing ; and I shall
now show the application of the filling-in rafters.
1 940. Application of
the Filling-in Rafters.
Rafters are usually ap-
plied either lying parallel
to the principals, or at
right angles to them. In
the first case, purlins are
necessary ; in the latter,
each rafter is exposed
to two strains (like a
purlin) ; one vertically,
and one parallel to the
rake of the roof; and,
as each rafter so placed
is unaided by any other,
they all soon swag. To
remedy this defect, and
save material, I propose
placing my rafters dia-
gonally ; and, for this
purpose, certain sockets
are cast in the sides of the vertical part of the main ribs ; which, when seen on edge,
appear as in fig. 1712. The rafters are cut to the a
proper form, and driven into the sockets, n n. A
hole is then bored right through both rafter ends,
and through a hole cast in the iron, and an oak
trenail or dowel (to keep the rafters from blowing
off) is driven through, as shown by the dotted lines
in the figure. The arrangement of the rafters is
somewhat as in fig. 1713, supposing the centre couple,
or principal, a a, to be that in the centre of the
length of the roof. The rafters, being thus arranged,
either stout laths for slating (sawn to two inches and
a half by three quarters of an inch) are to be spiked
down upon them ; or they are to be sheeted over
with thin boards, and covered with zinc or copper.
Thus, it is seen, each rafter corroborates all the rest,
both as regards the vertical and the diagonal strain ; so that no one of these wooden
rafters can either swag, or bend aside, without bringing others with it. By this means
much timber is saved ; moreover, all wall-plates, foot rafters, rafter-plates, purlins,
&-c., are dispensed with. The ends of the couples rest on stone, built into the walls.
There is no waste of timber in cutting the rafters diagonally ; as, when proper gauges
are made, they will cut out of one another (by the property of the rectangle), like the
1710
RIDING-HOUSES.
1712
969
1713
hipping of an ordinary roof. The ridge pole of such a roof is made exactly like one
of the main ribs of the principals, with
similar sockets for the rafters. The slates
are fastened to the laths in the ordinary
way ; and, where a metallic covering is
used (which is usually cheaper, as recpuiring
a substruction of far less strength), it is
laid in the common form. It will ge-
nerally be cheapest to put perforated or
solid gables to such a roof as this ; but,
when of great length and span, it will need
to be hipped, the modification for which
is so simple, as not to need description.
The rafters may remain bare inside in
these roofs, or may be ceiled ; but when
the slates are rendered smooth underneath, or the roof is sheeted with wood, and painted
inside, it looks very ornamental, and is more suitable to a riding-house than a plastered
ceiling. The wood is all exposed, so that it is not liable to the dry rot. For spans above
forty feet this roof will always, in this country, be cheaper by far than a framed timber
roof, and better too. I have never seen a roof, or heard of one, like this ; and, therefore,
it is original with me. The roof which most resembles it, of any I have seen, is that of
the sheds at the Clarence Docks, Liverpool ; but these sheds have been erected long
since I made my original drawings of this roof.
1941. For Roofs of less than Thirty Feet Span there may be a modification of the
main tension rods, as
in fig. 1714; and
ornaments may be
applied, particularly
in the Gothic style
(where appropriate),
as in fig. 1715. These
ornaments are pro-
duced by cast-iron,
cast on the wrought-
iron tension bars ;
but when great
strains are expected, they are cast with holes, and leaded on, as casting on injures the
fibre of the wrought iron." — We greatly admire the construction of these roofs, but we
1714
cannot bring ourselves to consider as in good taste, the practice of applying ornaments
to the tension bars, either by casting on, or leading on. A tension bar of metal can
never be so expressive of its use, as when it is perfectly plain ; loading it with ornaments
5 x
JjyO COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
altogether counteracts the expression of tension ; and whenever an ornament either is,
or appears to be, at variance with the expression of the use of the pari to which it is
applied] it becomes a deformity. All the struts, or pressure pieces, of an iron roof may
be ornamented without any offence against the principle of fitness; and this Mr. Mallet
has done very judiciously, in the main ribs and pendent struts of fig. 1715.
1942. A Cast-iron Roof for a Riding-house may be formed on the same principle as one
designed by the late
Mr. Tredgold, for co-
vering the corn market
at Norwich. Fig. 1716
is a section showing the
half of one of the cast-
iron rafters of this roof,
in the form of a Gothic
arch, with the spandril
filled in with tracery.
The span is fifty-four
feet ; the columns, a,
from which the cast-iron
arches spring, are of
stone; the walls of brick,
and the roof covered
with slates, nailed to
boards, supported by
wooden purlins and
rafters. The purlins,
shown at b, are eight
inches and a quarter by
five inches and a quar-
ter, and the rafters are
four inches and a half
by two inches and a
half. This section was
kindly furnished to us
by our much esteemed
friend Mr. Thorold,
who, having been for
many years on intimate
terms with Mr. Tred-
gold, possesses his work-
ing-plans and calcula-
tions for this and for
various other great
works. It is evident
that, a roof of this de-
scription, on a riding-
house, would have a
very grand and rich
effect : there might bo
a row of Gothic win-
dows in each of the
side walls, and one
large window in each
gable reaching from the
ground to the roof; the lower parts of which windows might serve
the doors, in the inside, there might be galleries for spectators.
1 943. The Framing of a Timber Roof for a Riding-house „f ,/reat Width, and where,
as in Russia and America, timber is abundant, might be constructed on the principle
of that of the Grande Salle d' Exercice at Moscow, one half of a single truss of which
is shown in fig. 1717. This magnificent exercising-house is 150 feet (French)
broad, and 502 feet (French) long; the walls are 40 feet high, and 8 feet thick
above the ground; and their foundations, which are 12 feet under ground, are 14
Itit thick. The building was constructed in 1817, including the making and burning
Oi the bricks for the walls, and the cutting down of the timber for the scaffolding.
It was begun and finished in the short space of five months, in order to enable the Em-
peror Alexander t,» exercise his troops in it, during the winter of 1847-18 which the
doors. Above
DOG-KENNELS.
971
imperial family passed in Moscow. The roof is covered with sheet iron. It was the
invention of General Betancourt, who states that its principal merit, as a piece of con-
struction, consists in the manner in which the king and queen posts and struts are
joined to the principal rafter by iron shoes, by which the effect of compression on
timber is avoided. The various details, together with an interesting account of the
manner in which the strength of the rafters was proved before they were put up, will be
found at length in Betancourt's Description de la Salle de Moscou, &c. It appears, by
that work, that this is the largest building that has ever been covered by a single roof;
the next largest is an exercising-house, built by the Emperor Paul at St. Petersburgh,
which is 119 feet (French) broad, and 552 feet long. Beautiful as is the construction
of the roof of the exercising-house at Moscow, its exterior architectural effect, as shown
in Betancourt's perspective view, is completely spoiled by the walls being finished with
half columns, with semicircular-headed windows, and far-projecting cornices over them
in the intercolumniations. The utter destruction of simplicity by this arrangement is
to us quite intolerable. It is lamentable to see an Architect throwing away so fine an
opportunity of establishing his fame. There is nothing original in the construction of
the roof, as any one may see in the works of Borgnis, Kraft, Kondelet, and other
authors ; but there is the merit of greater dimensions than were ever before attempted.
In the works of ltondelet and Kraft, and from them copied into the Carpentry of
Mr. Tredgold, is a design for a roof of still larger dimensions than that of Betancourt,
which is there said to have been executed at Moscow ; but Betancourt informs us that
that roof never had an existence except on paper.
1944. Riding-houses in the Country are often used as tennis courts for playing at bowls
and other games ; and even for archery in wet weather during winter. When a riding-
house is to be used as a tennis court, the floor must be laid with flagstones for the latter
purpose, and the paving be covered with straw, sawdust, or sand, for the former. If,
instead of flagstones, chumps of wood are substituted for paving, the floor will serve both
purposes without any covering. Some hotels of extraordinary dimensions have lately
been erected at New York and Boston (Holt's House and Tremont House, for example),
and, as these cities increase in wealth and luxury, we have no doubt they will attempt
riding-houses of this kind ; which, in a country where the ground is covered with snow
for so many months in every year, and where the summers are so very hot, must be of
great use as places for recreation, either in severe weather or during hot sunshine.
Sect. III. Dog-kennels.
1 945. The requisite Accommodations for Kennels for Sporting Dogs have been given by
Selim, § 1721 ; and we shall, therefore, here merely describe a dog-kennel which was
erected from a Design of ours, at Garth, in 1811. The situation is on an- eminence, con-
siderably higher than that on which the dwelling-house stands ; and forming with it
and the stables, described § 1937, three architectural groups on the side of a high,
irregular, richly wooded hill. The view is most extensive, and in order that the dogs
may see it from their yards, these should be surrounded by light open railings (and not
by walls as in figs. 1719 and 1720), it being found, as Somerville and others have observed,
that dogs are always quietest when their kennels command an extensive prospect ; on the
same principle, perhaps, that the most high-spirited horses become perfectly tame when
exercised on the sea beach. Fig. 1718 is the ground plan, in which a is the vestibule
and show-room, with a stair in the centre, behind which is a stove; the stair leading to
972 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
171P
a store-room for food and for various articles required for hounds, pointers, &c. ; b is a
room for pointers ; c, breeding-rooms ; d, couches in these rooms for the dogs to sleep on ;
e, room for hounds; /, boiling-house, the flue from the boiler serving to heat the show-
room in ordinary weather, there being a separate stove for use in severe weather ;
a, place for carrion ; h, place for fuel ; i i, hospitals ; k k, small yards sloping one inch
in two feet; 11, large yards with the same slope; m, reservoir of water supplied by a
spring ; n, channels for irrigating the yards and washing the rooms. These channels
are only one inch deeper in the centre than the general surface of the yard, and their
sides are sloping, so that, when the water is turned on by raising the sluices of the
reservoir, it spreads over the whole surface of the yards, and, with very little assistance
from a broom, soon renders them perfectly clean ; o o, drains which lead to a cesspool
for the deposition of the solid part of the manure carried off by the water ; the liquid
part overflowing in gutters, so formed as to irrigate a sloping water-meadow. We
have given two elevations of this Design, both different from that which was actually
executed ; and both having walls surrounding the yards, instead of open iron railings,
ORNAMENTAL DAIRIES AND POULTRY-HOUSES. \)"/S
which, as before stated, arc preferable. Fig. 1711) is a perspective elevation in the
Tudor Gothic style; and fig. 1720 is an elevation in the Italian manner: both are
designed hy Mr. Lamb. The peculiar shape of the open courts in the plan was indicated
hy the form of the ground, and hy the necessity of having such a slope as would carry
ill' the water rapidly. If, in designing country buildings, Architects were to take hints
for the general forms and dispositions of the masses, from the ground on which they are
to he placed, and from the surrounding scenery, much more than they appear to do,
we should not have such frequent repetitions of the same form, and so many common-
place structures, such as may he set down any where. This principle ought to be
attended to even in the humblest buildings; for by it, even independently of architectural
details, the interest created by them may he much enhanced. By this means a building
may he made to appear to have arisen out of the situation in which it is placed, instead
of appearing to have been brought there from some town or village.
Sect. IV. Ornamental Dairies and Poultry-houses.
1946. The Principles for constructing Dairies and Poultry-houses have already been
laid down at sufficient length (see § 729, 1728, for dairies; and 770, 1325, and 1356,
for poultry-houses), and we shall here content ourselves with giving an example of each,
rendered ornamental, and suitable for an appendage to a villa.
1947. The Dairy, Cottage, and Poultry-hottse, at Syndal House, Kent, is shown in the
general view, fig. 1723, and the ground plan in figs. 1721 and 1722. Fig. 1721
shows the ground plan of the dairy, and cottage for the dairyman, with the position of the
poultry-yard. The dairy-cottage consists of two sitting-rooms, a a; a bed-room, b ; dairy,
c; scalding- room, d; and two covered sheds, e e : the situation of a pump, well, and
cistern in the poultry-yard is shown at f. The cow-lodge is at a short distance from
the dairy, but it is surrounded by plantations, and completely hidden from the view.
Fig. 1722 shows the elevation and ground plan of the poultry-houses; in this, g is a
pigeon-house fixed on a post ; h is a pond ; i i are two houses for hens ; k is a house for
ducks ; /, one for geese ; m, one for turkeys ; and n, one for fatting-coops. The lower
1722
97 *
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
part of the front wall of the poultry-houses is of brickwork, and the upper part of open
latticework, as shown in the elevation, pp; the latticework is painted green. For the better
1724
ventilation of the place, and the health of the fowls, this latticework is left open during
summer ; but each division is furnished with wooden shutters, attached to the plates
inside by hinges, which, during the winter nights, and especially in frosty weather, are
kept closed. The centre of the dairy-cottage is for the dairyman and his wife to reside
in ; and the large sitting-room is intended as a room in which the family at the villa
might occasionally eat strawberries and cream, &c. The dairy, which forms the corre-
sponding wing to that containing this room, is of a greater height inside, as the floor, which
is paved with square 14-inch tiles, is sunk about 2 feet below the level of the ground.
The upper shelf for the milk-pans is made of black slate, supported by brick arches, each
arch forming a recess below for a pan of milk, iig. 1724. In the space between the
doors is a small stone trough, supplied with water from
a cistern at the well in the poultry-yard, by a pipe laid
under ground. In the centre stands a large marble or
stone table. The two small windows marked oo, in fig.
1721, are blanks, forming niches in the inside, in which
are placed terra-cotta figures of a bull and a cow. In
the centre of the angles formed by the arches support-
ing the slate shelves arc fastened small rams' heads. These internal decorations give
the dairy an air of finish and taste. Instead of the marble table, there might be a
marble or stone basin, with a jet or fountain in the centre, and the floor might be
laid with Wright's tessellated paving-tiles, to be described more at length hereafter.
Where slates are abundant, they might be used, both for the floor and the central table,
and painted in imitation either of marble or oilcloth. Oil painting on slate is found
very durable, and will bear daily washing, and even scouring, without injury ; paint also
renders the slates warmer to the feet. The covered shed, fig. 1721, e, next to the dairy,
is fitted up with racks, in which the milk-pans and other dairy utensils are set to drain ;
and the corresponding shed on the other side has bins, &c, to keep the corn and pro-
visions for the poultry, and the dairyman's beer, &C. As coolness in summer and warmth
in winter are essential to a dairy, the wings of the building are neatly thatched with
a thick coat of reeds ; the centre is slated.
1948. The Dairy at Alnwick Castle is surrounded by a deep veranda, the supports of
which are festooned with climbers : this completely shades the wall, and its doors and
windows, from the sun ; except at mid-winter, and before and after tliat period till the sun
at midday is 25° above the horizon. The roofs are thickly thatched. These arrange-
ments are found to keep the interior of the dairy perfectly cool in summer ; and, with the
occasional introduction of vessels of hot water from the dairy scullery, and the heat of the
new milk itself, sufficiently warm in winter. The walls are lined with glazed white tiles,
l lie Moor is paved with tessellated bricks, the shelves are of white marble, and the vessels in
which the milk is kept are of white Wedgwood ware. The ceiling is plastered, and
there is a handsome cornice. The middle of the floor is occupied by a very large and
AVIARIES AND MENAGERIES. 975
thick white marble table, raised about two feet above the floor; on this table are placed
the dishes of new milk. These dishes are of an oblong shape, having at one extremity
the edge turned over in the shape of a lip, to facilitate the pouring out of the milk.
Large vases and jars of coloured china are placed as ornaments on the marble shelving
round the walls. ( Quart. Joum. Ag., vol. vi. p. 158.)
Sect. V. Aviaries and Menageries.
1949. Aviaries are of two kinds; those for birds of song, and those for birds of show
or curiosity. The former are not very common in Britain; but, where they do exist,
they are usually joined to conservatories. Their general form and style should harmo-
nise with those of the house ; no particular shape or dimensions are requisite, but it
is always desirable to have the whole or a part of the roof of glass; to have glass win-
dows on, at least, two sides ; and to have a complete lining of wire network within every
window and door, in order to prevent the escape of the birds, and the ingress of vermin
when the sashes are open for ventilation. There should also be a porch with double
doors, for the same purpose. Sometimes aviaries are formed on a large scale, and include
trees, shrubs, turf, and water ; the whole being covered with wire netting. In this case,
the extent ought to be considerable, and the birds few, otherwise the trees and shrubs will
soon be injured, and the whole place rendered unsightly. Where the object is simply to
bear the song of the birds, it is found a more effective and cleanly plan to distribute a
few cages up and down a conservatory ; or along a veranda. The birds are found to
sing better when they are within hearing, but not within sight, of each other ; and the
cages prevent that appearance of dirt on the trees, plants, and paths, which is generally
offensive in a crowded aviary. To prevent the possibility of any dirt, seeds, &c., being
thrown down from birds in cages, the latter may be constructed with a small cellar or
box from four to eight inches deep in the bottom ; in which alone food and water may
be placed, the bird descending through an opening in the upper floor to eat his food, and
ascending again by a small stair or ladder. This construction is found effectually to
prevent birds from scattering the husks of their seeds ; and we have seen the same prin-
ciple applied on a large scale in chamber and conservatory aviaries, where the birds are
kept in niches, with fronts of open wirework, by forming concealed recesses in the sides
of the niches, where alone the birds can take their food.
1950. Aviaries for Birds of Show and Curiosity are not uncommon appendages to
English villas. The tender exotic birds are kept in structures with windows to the south,
and heated during winter by flues, or steam or hot-water pipes, as in the extensive aviary
at Knowlesly, near Liverpool ; and in those of the Zoological Gardens, London. Birds
which will endure the open air of Britain, are confined in rustic structures resembling
large cages or hen-coops covered with netting, and containing small houses for the birds
to retire into during the night, or heavy rains. These cages or coops often contain trees
and shrubs, which are renewed as they become injured or decayed. The most complete
aviaries of this kind in England are at Woburn Abbey. Some of them, as at Knowlesly,
and in the Zoological Gardens, include enclosed basins for aquatic fowls. Those who
desire more information on this head will find it in the published descriptions of the
London Zoological Gardens. A description of the Surrey Zoological Gardens, with the
ground plan and elevation of a circular building with a glass roof, combining at once a
conservatory, aviary, menagerie, and a running stream stocked with exotic fish, will be
found in the Gard. Mag., vol. viii. p. 693.
1951. Menageries are sometimes found in villa residences, and, when combined with
aviaries for hardy terrestrial birds, and formed on a large scale, with all the birds and
animals in one enclosure, are much more interesting than aviaries or menageries where
the birds and animals are confined in separate structures. The finest we know in Eng-
land is at Cobham Hall, in Kent ; where the kangaroo, the opossum, the zebra, the
quagga, several kinds of goats, sheep, and deer, the ostrich, the emu, the cassowary,
and many other birds and beasts, live in harmony together on a lawn of several acres,
finely ornamented by foreign trees and shrubs, and surrounded by a wire fence fifteen
feet high. There are suitable ornamental structures for the animals to retire into, and
constant attendants to see that they are properly provided with food, and that they do
not injure one another. In a mixed aviary and menagerie of this kind at Chiswick,
the Duke of Devonshire had lately a great many species of aquatic fowls, a bear, several
kinds of monkeys, and an elephant ; the last being kept in an appropriate house, heated
during winter.
Sect. VI. Architectural Conservatories.
1 952. Conservatories are most desirable additions to villas, as indicating the residence
of ease and elegance ; as affording a useful source of exercise and recreation during
\)J() COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
severe weather, and in winter ; and as contributing an important architectural feature
to the genera] group of the dwelling-house and offices. There can be no reason why a
small house should not have a large conservatory ; because, the first cost once incurred,
the expense of keeping up a large one is not much greater than that of a small one ; and
more especially, because a large conservatory, unlike a large dining-room or drawing-
room, does not imply that the occupant sees much company, or is expected to indulge in
an expensive style of living. We shall consider the conservatory in regard to aspect,
dimension, modes of growing the plants, construction, mode of heating, and architec-
tural style. Our observations shall be brief; because the subject belongs more to Gar-
dening than Architecture ; and because it will be found treated of more at length in our
intended Encyclopcedia of Landscape- Gardening and Garden Architecture.
1 953. Aspect and Positio?i. The best aspect for a structure in which plants of any
kind are to be grown is, in general, the south, or any point between S. S. E. and S. S. W.
The chief advantage of a south aspect for large plants, such as those grown in conserva-
tories, is the heat gained from the sun's rays in winter and spring; but where this heat
can be supplied by art, and where the economy of fuel is no great object, it matters little
what may be the aspect of the conservatory, provided it be not shaded by some other
building, or so placed as not to admit of ventilation. The most desirable position, when
the conservatory has glass on all sides, is that in which the length of the building is due
south and north ; because, as the principal walks in it will be in that direction, the sun
will shine on the sides of the trees next the walks, every day whenever it shines, through-
out the year. This is an important object to keep in view in laying out the walks in
all conservatories ; for it will be observed that, both in them and in shrubberies, those
sides of the trees and shrubs which face the north are never so finely clothed with foliage
and blossoms as those which face the south, east, or west. For this reason, when the
position of a conservatory is east and west, the walk in the middle ought to be much
broader than when the position is north and south, in order to admit more free access to
the sun's rays.
1 954. Dimensions. The laws of vegetation render it utterly impossible that a small
conservatory can ever look well. A conservatory is for the growth of trees and shrubs,
not, like a green-house, for mere pelargoniums and other small plants in pots ; and trees
and shrubs, to look well, must have room, and especially breadth, to expand themselves.
As every conservatory, however narrow, must be at least of the height of the apartments
with which it is connected, the width, if not considerably greater than the height, will
always occasion the plants within to have an etiolated appearance. Supposing the
height of a conservatory to be twelve feet, the width should never be less than eighteen
feet ; it being understood, as will be afterwards shown to be essential, that the whole of
the roof is to be of glass.
1955. Mode of growing the Plants. There are two modes of growing plants in con-
servatories ; the one is by having them in large tubs, boxes, or pots, as in the case of
orangeries, which are properly called orange conservatories ; and the other, by having
them planted in the free soil. The first mode has several advantages belonging to it,
the principal of which is, that the trees may be removed from the conservatory, when in
an unhealthy state, and invigorated in a structure better adapted for their growth. This
also is the only mode by which trees can be kept in conservatories with opaque roofs.
In conservatories where trees are planted in beds of free soil, they almost invariably
grow with much greater vigour than when their roots are confined in tubs or boxes,
however large, and the allusion to a shrubbery in the open air is much greater ; the
expense is also very considerably less. For conservatories of this description, it is essential
that the roof be wholly of glass. Structures, where plants are kept in pots set on stages,
are called green-houses ; and, by some, these are preferred to conservatories, as admitting
of the display of a greater number of kinds of plants : but as the plants, in this case, are
always small, they can never thrive well in houses displaying architectural elevations,
from the distance at which the plants must necessarily be from the glass roof; and from
the large proportion of opaque material which the construction requires in the front of
the edifice. Small plants in pots, in short, can only be well grown in those shed-like
glass-roofed structures which belong to kitchen-gardens and nurseries ; and these, in our
"pinion, are, from the associations connected with them, utterly unfit for combining with
architectural forms, so as to compose a whole, with the dwelling-house of a villa. Where
the trees in a conservatory arc grown in tubs or boxes, these should always be covered
with cases exhibiting handsome architectural forms ; such as vases, sarcophagi, &c. ;
unless a mode be adopted which is practised in some conservatories in Italy, as at
IMon/a ; and in England, as at Nuneham, near Oxford, of having trenches or pits sunk
in the floor of the conservatory, in which the tubs or boxes arc placed, with a false cover
ol boards over them; this cover being again concealed by turf or moss. Conservatories
01 orange trees (and these and camellias are among the best conservatory plants) look
CONSERVATORIES. 977
remarkably well in this manner. Indeed, in our opinion, where conservatory plants
are not grown in the free soil, this mode is preferable to any other ; because the allusion
to natural scenery is more complete.
1956. Construction. The walls of the conservatory should always be formed of the
same material as those of the house to which it belongs ; because this is favourable to
the principle of unity of effect. Cast iron, however, is in many cases extensively em-
ployed as standards between the upright sashes ; and, in this case, the harmony may be
preserved by the introduction of stone or brick piers at the angles, or on each side of a
central door, or projection, or recess. In the conservatory of Mr. Mallet's Design for
a villa, fig. 1660, there is a great deal of ironwork exposed to view; but, by the intro-
duction of stone piers, a stone architrave, and a considerable mass of walling behind the
central semi-dome, the harmony is perfectly preserved. There is one point in the con-
struction of conservatories which ought never to be neglected ; and that is, as we have
before observed, to form the roof wholly of glass. Without perpendicular light no plant
whatever, and more especially no tree or shrub, will ever grow and look well. To be
convinced of this, it is only necessary to observe the plants grown in conservatories in
which the roof is partially or wholly opaque ; they will be found, even in the most
favourable cases, only to look well on one side. Provided the roof of a conservatory be
wholly of glass, the walks broad, so as to allow of a free circulation of air round the
trees, and provided the cost of fuel for keeping it at a temperature of 50u during the
winter months be no object, it signifies much less than is generally imagined what may
be either the aspect or the position of the conservatory. The floor of the conservatory,
where the plants are to stand in tubs and boxes, may be paved ; but, where they are to
be planted in the ground, space and sufficient drainage will be required for a bed of soil of
five or six feet in depth. As there must be walks between the beds, piers should be carried
up from the bottom, to support the pavement, or iron grating, which may form those
walks.
1957. Tlie Mode of heating Conservatories is commonly by smoke flues, or tubes of
steam or hot water carried under the paths. Other modes have been practised ; such
as flues or tubes above the surface, cisterns, or cylinders of steam or hot water, and the
introduction of hot air from cockle stoves ; but no plan, in our opinion, is so suit-
able as that of introducing whatever medium may be adopted for conveying the heat,
under the pathways ; having such an arrangement of openings in the top or sides of the
paths as will insure a circulation of air round the heating body. Without this circu-
lation to carry off the heat from the tubes or flues, heat will be given out so slowly to
the house, that in severe weather it will hardly be possible to keep up the proper tem-
perature. The circulation may be produced by enclosing the tubes, for a considerable
length, by the walling which supports the pavement of the path ; and by having an
opening at the bottom of the funnel formed by this walling at one end, and another and
larger opening at the other end, in its top, or in the pavement over it, for the escape
of the heated air. In a conservatory of considerable length and breadth, in which the
tubes are conducted round the floor, and also along the middle of the house, there may
be several systems of circulation of this kind ; say, for example, one for every thirty feet
in length of the steam or hot-water tubes. These systems may be so arranged as that
the openings for the escape of heated air, and those for the drawing in of the lower
stratum of the air of the house, in order that it may be re-heated, may be regularly
distributed over the floor of the conservatory. This has been admirably effected by
Mr. Kewley, in the magnificent conservatory heated by him at Clarence Lodge. From
not attending to this mode of carrying off the heat from flues and tubes sunk under the
floors of conservatories, some have been imperfectly heated, and others heated at a
much greater expense of tubes than would have been at all necessary by a proper plan.
This subject is better understood by Mr. Kewley than by most of the engineers who
heat by hot water or steam in the neighbourhood of London ; but a little attention to
the plan of Mr. Perkins for accelerating the production of steam by metallic linings to
boilers, will at once show the importance of it, and teach the manner of carrying it into
execution. (See Gard. Mag., vol. viii. p. 294.) In modern conservatories it is not un-
common to see the tubes or flues for heating, forming conspicuous objects along the
walks ; than which we can hardly conceive any thing more unsuitable to the idea of an
ornamental structure. It would be better far to have no conservatory at all, than to see
it thus reduced to the level of a nurseryman's show-house, or the forcing-house of a
kitchen-garden. A conservatory so constructed as not completely to conceal the mode
by which it is heated, is one of the most imperfect of villa appendages. Before the
mode of heating by hot water or steam was invented, there might have been, compara-
tively, some excuse for not concealing flues ; but now that we have Perkins's mode of
heating by hot water, by which the largest house may be heated by tubes not above an
inch in diameter, deformities of the kind mentioned are inexcusable. Pumps, cisterns,
5 v
978 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
and contrivances for watering, ought, in like manner, never to be displayed in a conser-
vatory ; nor, indeed, any tiling which is likely to create an allusion to, or a comparison
with, a common-place garden green-house.
1958. The Architectural Style of Conservatories attached to dwellings, must obviously
be governed by that of the house to which they belong ; and there are few appendages
which afford better opportunities for displaying the grander features of every style of
building; such as columns, piers, arches, &c. The elevation of a conservatory in the
Grecian style may be composed of square columns set on a plinth, and surmounted by
an architrave, frieze, and cornice; a Roman or Italian elevation may consist of an arcade,
similarly placed, with a cornice and blocking course, or parapet; and a Gothic elevation
may be formed of a series of pointed windows, with or without buttresses, or small
angular towers terminating in finials, between.
1959. One of the simplest and most economical Descriptions of Conservatories in the
Gothic Style, is described in vol. vi. of the Gardener's Magazine. It was built by a
common village bricklayer and carpenter, in the neighbourhood of Nottingham ; and,
though forty-three feet long, and eighteen feet wide, the cost was little more than £250.
Fig. 1725 is the ground plan, of which a a a are three doors, each dividing in the
middle. These doors are hung upon Collinge's patent hinges ; and are lifted on and off
with the greatest ease. The letters b b are Gothic lights or windows, resembling the
1725
4
doors. The letters c c are cast-iron pipes, conducting the rain water from the roof
gutters into the drains d d, which carry it into the tank f. The letters e e are beds
containing soil of the quality best suited to their respective plants. The tank / is
twelve feet square by ten feet deep, arched over, and covered with a movable flagstone
at the mouth, supplying the pump g, through the bottom of the trough of which, the
waste water is again returned into the tank ; m is a glass door opening into a library ;
and n a similar door opening into a drawingroom.
Fig. 1726 is a sec- 1726
tion of the main beam,
forty-four feet long,
extending through the
centre of the build-
ing, upon which the inner ribs and lights rest. The gutters lined with lead, h, are
cut out of the solid beam, and fall each way to the three hollow cast-iron pillars, c c c,
standing over the centre drain.
Fig. 1727 is a cross section of the roof, in which I 1 1 1 are the rafters on which the
lights rest, exactly after the same manner as those
of the common cucumber frame ; with the addi-
tion of a slip of wood, five inches wide, extending
from the ridge to the gutters along the rafters,
to cover the outer woodwork of the lights, after
they are returned to their places in September.
Without this the rain water would find admission
down the openings of the sides of the lights. These slips of wood are essential to the
dryness of the house; and if the two or three screws with which they are fixed are well
greased, they may be readily taken oft" from such lights as are removed during the
summer. The three lead gutters, h h h, should be wide enough in the centre to admit of
a person walking along them ; c is one of the cast-iron pipes, forming a pillar nine feet
high, supporting the longitudinal beam, and having five small wooden rods round it, to
train climbing plants upon. The ventilating shutter, I x, works upon two pivots, and is
raised by a wooden rod, which also props it open.
CONSERVATORIES. 979
Fig. 1728 is one of the upright lights, six feet eight inches to the spring of the arch,
and rising eight inches in the centre, fitting into a corresponding
frame, and secured merely by three bolts, k It k ; j j are two windows,
fourteen inches deep, each opening upon a horizontal pivot at its
centre; the panes of glass are four inches and a half by four inches.
Fig. 1729 is a slight sketch of the elevation, with the doors and
lights removed for the summer. The glazing of the roof is cur-
vilinear, each pane being only five inches and a half by four inches ;
the laps are rather more than one eighth of an inch, with putty
between, except a small opening in the centre. Where the best
crown glass is used, putty is unnecessary, where merely the usual
conservatory temperature is wanted. Not only is the original cost,
and the expense of repairs, considerably reduced by using frames of
small dimensions, but the risk of breakage from frost is completely
avoided when the laps do not exceed one fourth of an inch. Though this house is fortv-
three feet by eighteen feet, the cost of the glazing did not amount to £50. Where the
substratum of the soil does not afford a ready escape for the water from the beds, drains
1729
k _J 728
lLUlLlJ
i
should be made on the outside, and far below the foundation of the house all round ;
small openings being left in the foundation walls, to allow the water to pass off freely
from the bottom of the beds. It is often more advisable to have the plants in pots
plunged in the soil, than to plant them in the bed itself; as many species, if turned out
of their pots into the free soil, are apt to make a profusion of wood, and to bear but little
blossom. (Gard. Mag., vol. vi. p. 664.)
1 960. As Examples of Architectural Conservatories detached from Villa Dwellings, we
may refer to those of Syon House and Alton Towers. The former, designed by Charles
Fowler, Esq., is in the Italian style; the general plan is that of a crescent with a
parallelogram centre surmounted by a dome sixty feet high, with two parallelograms
terminating the extremities or wings. The central compartment is a stove conservatory,
having glass on all sides, with the supports in the outside walls, of stone ; the upright
glass of the wings is divided by stone piers on the south side, and the other walls are
without openings. The whole of the framework containing the glass is of cast iron.
A part of the roof in the centre is glazed with plate glass : the panes being large, and
their inclination to the horizon being oblique, it was deemed advisable to employ
this description of glass, in order the more effectually to resist hail. The detached
conservatory at Alton Towers is seen in fig. 1429, § 1669; and fig. 1730 is
its architectural elevation. The style may be considered as Grecian or Roman. The
back wall is of opaque masonry, and the front has stone piers and architraves, filled in
with cast and wrought iron and copper sashes. The roof and domes are also of iron-
work, and copper, glazed. The whole is richly ornamented with vases and sculptures,
and the domes are profusely gilt. The general effect is splendid to a degree, hardly, if
at all, equalled in Britain ; and the plants within, which are partly those commonly
grown in green-houses, and partly tropical or stove plants, being thinly planted, and
allowed to attain a considerable size, are as prosperous as could be desired. This Design
is in part the production of several Architects; but chiefly, we believe, of Robert Abraham,
Esq., and Thomas Allason, Esq. There is another detached conservatory at Alton,
fig. 1731, designed by Mr. Abraham, the effect of which is remarkably good. There is
also a conservatory at Alton Towers connected with the house, in the Gothic style, of
large dimensions, but of simple Architecture, having externally the appearance of a plain
cathedral, in which the plants are as prosperous as in the common shed-like glass cases
of nurserymen. This conservatory, when we saw it in 1831, was richly ornamented
with choice sculptures, fountains, piscatories, vases, china jars, cages of singing-birds,
and other suitable objects; and, taken altogether, it was then the most splendid thing of
m:>
980 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
the kind which we had ever seen. All these four splendid con-
servatories are heated hy steam-tubes, conducted under the paths.
1961. As an Example of detached Conservatories not architec-
tural, we shall give the glass dome erected in 1827, for Mrs.
Beaumont, at Bretton Hall, Yorkshire. This structure, fig. 17:5'-',
was one hundred feet in diameter, and sixty feet high. It was con-
structed entirely of cast and wrought iron ; all the perpendicular
supports being of the former, and all the sash-bar composing the
ribs of the roof of the latter, material. It was ventilated by
horizontal shutters in a low upright wall, or rather iron screen ;
by upright windows, which opened inwardly at the base of the
upper dome ; and by a skylight which was raised by weights under
the terminating gilt coronet. It was heated by steam from a boiler
placed in a house at some distance from it, the tubes being conducted
under the floors of the paths. The cost for the ironwork alone
was between i.3000 and £4000. It is worthy of remark, that
there were no rafters or principal ribs for strengthening the roof
besides the common wrought-iron sash-bar, which is two inches
deep, and half an inch thick in the thickest part, and weighs only
about one pound to the lineal foot. The upper dome had an in-
dependent support from cast-iron pillars. When the ironwork
was put up, before it was glazed, the slightest wind put the whole of
it in motion from the base to the summit; and so much alarm
did this create in the party for whom it was to be put up, or their
agents, that the contractors for the work, Messrs. W. and D.
Bailey, of Holborn, London, were obliged to covenant to keep it in
repair for a certain number of years. As soon as the glass was put
in, however, it was found to become perfectly firm and strong, nor
did the slightest accident, from any cause, happen to it, from the
time it was completed, in 1827, till, on the death of Mrs. Beaumont,
in 1832, it was sold by auction, and taken down. It brought only
about £560, though it is believed to have cost in all upwards of
£ 14,000. In the north of Europe, the conservatory or orangery
is often used as an entrance-hall, and sometimes it forms a pas-
sage, connecting the centre of the house with its wings, as in the
palace of Lazenki, at Warsaw ; or to connect the house with the
stables and farm offices, as in the elegant Italian villa of Count
Kownatski, near Brody, of which a sketch, partly from memory, is
given in fig. 1733. Plans and elevations of a number of other
architectural conservatories will be found in the Gardener s Maya-
line, and in the Encyclopaedia of Gardening.
1962. Tlie Flower-garden should generally adjoin the conserva-
tory, or at all events be connected with it by a veranda, colonnade,
arcade, or covered way of some description. There is not a greater
luxury about a villa, either in winter or summer, than a broad
veranda facing the south or south-east, and looking out on a
flower-garden in the foreground, with pleasure-ground scenery in
the middle distance, and a fertile populous valley, with a river be-
yond. The last part of the landscape is by no means necessary
to the comfort afforded by the veranda, though it adds to the effect
of the view from it ; but the flower-garden in the foreground is
essential, because in early spring, the spectator may walk dry and
sheltered under the cover, and in summer in the shade, and in
both cases be interested by the flowers immediately under his eye.
There is a fine veranda of this sort at Ashridge Park, which con-
nects the conservatory with the French flower-garden ; and there
is one at liayswater, where the roof is covered with glass, hy which
means China roses and other early flowering hall- hardy shrubs
may be trained on the back wall so as to flower early in the
season. Shade is produced so as to render the veranda agreeable
in summer, by training vines on a trellis under the glass.
1963. Architectural Flower-gardens are very suitable garden de-
corations for adjoining conservatories and verandas. The walks of
such gardens are paved with flags, and the edges to these walks
are of worked stone. Sometimes also there are baskets, boxes, vases,
or other raised architectural vessels constructed entirely of stone,
CONSERVATORIES.
981
so as to become fixtures. Some curious forms of this sort have lately been erected
in (he flower-garden in front of the house at Chatsworth. The oldest and the most
&mm i7KXjR&SEBfg£$
simple design for an architectural flower-garden is to be found in Caus's work on the
gardens at Heidelberg, the perspective view of which is given in fig. 1734. It will be
observed, that all the compartments in this garden contain water only, and that five of
t hem display fountains. Further details of this garden will be found in the Encyclo-
98 vi
podia of Gardening, 3d edit., and in the Gardener's Magazine, vol. ix. Much may be
(lout' in the way of architectural flower-gardens on the roofs of dwellings in towns and
their suburbs, and more especially on those of their offices. In Paris, Florence, and Naples
1735
there are so many examples, that a book has been written on the subject of taking care
of them. (See Jardinier des Fenetres, &c.) Figs. 1735 and 1736 are plans, which
may serve either for architectural or common flower-gardens, the walks of which
may either be of pavement, gravel, or turf, according to circumstances. The same forms
may also afford useful hints for designing mosaic flooring tiles.
1964. A Sculpture Gallery, a Picture Gallery, a Museum for Antiquities, a Library,
and other luxuries commonly contained within the walls of the dwelling-house of a villa,
are sometimes added to it as appendages ; and the advantage resulting from this arrange-
ment, in places which are shown to the public, is, that they may be thrown open at all
times, without encroaching on the privacy of domestic life. A truly liberal and bene-
volent man will take incomparably more pleasure in seeing the public enjoy his
gardens and grounds, than in having them exclusively reserved for his family and
friends. In this respect the German, the Italian, and even the Russian princes are much
more liberal than the English nobility.
Sect. VII. Terrace Parapets, and other mural Ornaments.
1965. The Value of Terraces and Parapets in uniting the house with the surface on
which it is placed, and with the grounds which surround it, has been already sufficiently
enlarged on § 1649, and we shall here confine ourselves to exhibiting a few Designs by
Mr. Varden, from which terrace parapets may be formed in the very cheapest manner,
with brick, wood, or even rope. These Designs are evidently the result of much care
and study ; and they are so distinct-, that any builder or carpenter may carry them into
execution.
CONSERVATORIES.
1736
983
m
g?m?r
V^
Irf = te^ m. H
Fig. 1737 is a brick parapet, ornamented with a projecting cornice a, formed entirely
of brick and supporting a top rail, 6, which may be also formed in brick set in cement.
1737
1738
The covering bricks, c, may be either rour.ded, or angular as at d : e is the surface of the
terrace.
1739
1740
^
mmm_
=£§
-~-tt
:;::i = ::;:i:::::;:i2;:::v.
FvT1
-i-i- -| p ■ | '-»"p
fcj
P g gj E
98t
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Fig. 1738 is a parapet constructed in the same manner as the former; the railing,/,
in this ease, may either be plain, or covered with cement; or it may be formed of stone
or slate.
Fig. 1739 is a similar parapet, in a hold style, with an enriched cornice, and having
this great advantage, that it may be executed entirely in brick and common mortar,
without the use of cement.
Fig. 1740 is a parapet formed of brick; but with the top railing supported on iron
bars, or with the bricks built in cement in blocks, and then laid on without the aid of
iron. Lintels of doors and windows are frequently formed in this manner of brick and
cement, and then introduced into walls as though they were blocks of stone. Copings
to walls are also often executed in a similar manner.
Figs. 1741 and 1742 are brick parapets, of which it has been deemed unnecessary to
show the sections.
1741
1742
Fig. 1743 is a brick parapet, and corner pier, covered with cement so as to imitate
stone. The open work, and also the top rail, may be made with brick and cement, filled
into moulds, and then built in as if they were of solid stone.
Figs. 1744 and 1745 show the open work of a parapet, without the cornices or the
hand-rails; which may be added at the pleasure of the Architect.
1744
<^m
K45
uuuuuuuliljJIJ lj "Of JUII U\U LI LI J JTftijf
I f
Fig. 1746 is a parapet, the open work or panels of which are formed of baked earth,
which may be slipped into grooves in the top rail, and in the plinth. It is evident that
a very great variety of parapets may be formed in this manner, and at a very little
expense. Balusters of various kinds may also be made of baked earth, and slipped in.
1716
1747
l*igs. 1747, 1748, and 1749 arc parapets, which may be either formed of real stone, or
Of baked earth, or of artificial stone.
ORNAMENTAL GARDEN STRUCTURES. 985
1748 1749
Figs. 1750, 1751, 1752, and 1753 are panels for parapets composed entirely of thick
old rope, twisted into patterns, and secured at the laps -with copper wire or strong twine.
Covered with a thick coating of paint, panels of this son will last probably for centuries ;
care being taken always to preserve the coating of paint entire, and free from cracks.
The top rail and the' plinth may be of artificial stone, also well painted ; and there
should be standards at regular distances for supporting the rail. These standards may
either be of stone or iron, according as they are intended to be covered or concealed.
1750
1751
1752
1753
1754
1755
1756
1757
Figs. 1754, 1755, 1756, and 1757 are parapets in the Swiss style, cut out of flat
boarding. The enriched work is sawn out of thin boards, and nailed on blocks, so as to
project a little from the face of the rest of the work.
1966. The Mural Ornaments for Terraces, Parapets, and other Walls about a Villa, are
chiefly vases ; but there are also other ornaments and finishings, such as statues, globular,
oval, square, triangular, or pentagonal forms, hewn in stone, or moulded in clay or other
materials and burnt. These are supported on necks or bases, displaying architectural
forms ; and appearing as finishings to piers, pillars, pilasters, and other component parts
of walls and parapets. The most favourable opportunities and legitimate sources for
these and such like ornaments are, the piers, lintels, or archways over doors, or other
openings filled in with open work. This department in general may be considered as
beyond the reach of rules, unless particular cases were given; and, therefore, the Architect
must be left to his own application of general principles, and to his sense of beauty, in
this description of scenery.
Sect. VIII. Of ornamental Garden Structures.
1967. The architectural Ornaments for Gardens include prospect towers, seats of
various kinds, bridges, artificial cascades, fountains, artificial ruins, rockwork, statues,
urns, sundials, grottoes, root-houses and other rustic works, trelliswork, sepulchral
structures, &c.
1968. Prospect Towers are very desirable edifices in every country seat, and even in
the grounds of suburban villas. Their use is to show a stranger the beauties of the sur-
rounding scenery, and to admit of the occupant of the villa inspecting the appearance of
his neighbourhood, at different seasons of the year, &c. The architectural style may in
general be that of the house ; but it may also, in many cases, be different ; and, in all
small villas, the prospect tower should never indicate a great outlay of expense. In hilly
countries, a judiciously contrived artificial ruin will often have a good effect when so
applied ; it being understood, that the intention is less to deceive, than to create a useful
and picturesque object. It is almost unnecessary to observe that prospect towers should
have staircases of easy ascent, and should contain a dry airy room at top, furnished with
seats and a good telescope. The roof should be flat, in order that it may be used as a
terrace; in towers in the Italian style, thk terrace will, of course, have a covering open
on the sides, in the stvle of the campaniles, figs. 1694 and 1695.
5 z
In those of the most exten-
1758
98() COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
19G9. Scuts arc essential objects in all pleasure-grounds.
rive and highly enriched description, where
a main part of the intention is to display the
wealth and taste of the owner, they may
appear as Grecian temples (fig. 1758, contri-
huted by M. Field, Esq.,) Gothic porches,
Chinese pagodas, or other foreign or antique
structures. In the grounds of less ambitious
villas, plain unarchitectural buildings may
be employed, or wooden structures, simply
protecting the seat from the weather, may be
resorted to. In England it has always
been customary since the introduction of the
modern style of gardening, to form what
is oalled rustic covered seats; of which fig.
175!) and fig. 1760, erected on the Duke of
.Marlborough's grounds at White Knights,
Berkshire (see Hqfland's Description, Sfc),
may be considered as of a superior descrip-
tion. They are constructed of oak posts
formed from young trees with the bark on ;
and the panels between these posts are first
filled in with clay nogging or boards, and
afterwards covered in the inside with hazel
and other rods with the bark on, and on
the outside with slabs of oak, birch, larch,
or other durable woods, having the bark na-
turally varied with mosses and lichens. Birch,
from its light paper-coloured bark, broad-
leaved elm grown in the shade, and alder, are
particularly useful in cases of this kind, from
the contrasts which they afford in rustic
inlaying. The whole of the Architecture
and building of structures of this kind may
be considered as a species of child's play,
which may fairly be left to the taste of those
who indulge in it.
1970. Bridges are among the noblest
structures which can be erected in pleasure-
grounds ; and, unlike rustic seats and root-
houses, they maintain this character even
when constructed of materials of temporary duration, from their obvious and unques-
tionable utility. A mere plank or tree, when thrown across a stream, assumes a character
of grandeur ; it commands respect for its power of effecting for man what he could not,
1759
by any possibility, effect for himself. On the other hand, when a trifling stream, or an
artificial river, displays a highly architectural bridge of masonry or cast iron, the effect is
"Illusive ; because the means seem out of all proportion to the end. In short, a massive
highly architectural stone bridge, built across a tame piece of water, not perhaps more
than knee-deep, and an elaborate covered seat of rustic cabinet-work, which cannot
endure many seasons, offend precisely for the same reason ; viz., the unsuitableness of
means to ends.
1971. Artificial Cascades are of two kinds : those which are constructed in imitation of
the natural ledges of rock which cross the beds of rivers in such a manner as to inter-
ORNAMENTAL GARDEN STRUCTURES.
<J«7
The Litter are sometimes
1760
rupt their streams; and those which are avowedly artificial,
constructed in the form of
semicircular upright walls,
the convex side facing the
stream, over which the water
falls in one sheet ; and some-
times, instead of the face of the
wall being left upright, a mass
of material is placed on the
under side of it in a sloping
direction, and either covered
irregularly with large block:
of stone ; or smoothly paved
so as to form an undulating
surface, with a view of causing
the water to pass over it.
like the waves of a swelling,
but yet, not tempestuous sea.
Sometimes artificial cascades
are formed by conducting the
water along an architectural
aqueduct, and terminating
this structure in a ruined arch. Tins has been beautifully done in the
Seliweitzingon, by an imitation of the ruins of a Roman aqueduct, fig. 1761.
i »7'_'. Fountains. Water, Switzer observes, is " the very life and soul of a garden,"
whether it he the ground plot of a suburban cottage, or the embellished lawn of an ex-
tensive villa. Two centuries ago, when picturesque beauty and botanical interest were
little attended to in the gardens of Europe, fountains and architectural decorations were
sought after as the grand sources of interest ; and one garden was distinguished from
another by the expense which had been incurred in its waterworks, and in its mural and
sculptural appendages. For the last century the construction of waterworks has been on
the decline ; and, in proportion as they engrossed too much attention before, they have,
during that period, been comparatively neglected. The manufacture of artificial stone
has contributed to the revival of this taste, by the facilities which it affords of forming
elegantly shaped basins, and different forms of drooping fountains. By drooping foun-
tains we mean those in which water is conveyed to a height, and then left to trickle down
over an ornamental form, as opposed to jet or spouting fountains, in which water is
forced to spout up vertically, as in fig. 1762. Another circumstance favourable to the
construction of ornamental fountains is, the facility with which iron can now be cast
into the most beautiful shapes, at a very moderate expense. With the artificial stone of
Austin, or the kiln-burnt artificial stone of Coade and Seeley, which is as durable as the
hardest marble ; with cast-iron shafts and jets ; and with iron or leaden pipes, there is now
988 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
no difficulty in constructing the most beautiful garden fountains at a trifling cost, in the
1764
1 763 grounds of every villa. Figs.
1763 and 1764 are tazza
fountains, executed in arti-
ficial stone by Mr. Austin.
Fig. 1 766 is a Gothic foun-
tain, the lower part of which
may be executed in stone or
marble, and the upper part
in cast iron or bronze. This
Design is by Mr. Lamb.
1 973. A fountain may be
formed wherever there is
either a natural or an artificial supply of Water some feet higher than the level of the
surface on which the fountain is to be placed. Where a drooping fountain is to be
adopted, such as fig. 1763, the level of the water in the head need not be higher than
the point at which the water issues from the tazza ; but if, on the other hand, the
water is to rise upwards, as in fig. 1762, the head must be higher than the height to
which the jet is expected to rise, by at least several inches, according to the diameter
of the jet. Where the jet is small, say an eighth of an inch in diameter, the height of
the head above it, provided the water in that head be always kept f.o the same level, need
not be above six inches ; but, as it is seldom practicable to keep the head to the same
level, it is better to have the bottom of the pond or cistern sufficiently high to effect the
desired object ; in which case, so long as there is any water in the cistern at all, the jet
"ill rise to the proper height. A great variety of designs for fountains will be found in
Falda't Jiecueildes Fontaines de Rome, Fontaines de Paris, De Clarac, §*c. Some are also
given in the Choix d' Edifices Publiques, and in Coussin's Ghiie aV Architecture.
1974. Where a natural head of water of the proper height cannot be obtained, recourse
may be had to artificial means of raising water to an elevated cistern or reservoir, or of
forcing (he water upwards by the direct influence of machinery. When the water is
raised to a cistern, the latter may either be placed on a natural or artificial eminence, or
<>" tin' summit of a building. In pleasure-grounds, an artificial mount or piece of
conical rockwork, would afford a good situation ; and a simple tower, round or square,
ORNAMENTAL GARDEN STRUCTURES.
989
is also at once a cheap mode of elevating a cistern, and of adding to grounds an orna-
ment, which, if not very beautiful, can yet never be considered mean or paltry. The
water may be raised to the basin or cistern so placed by forcing-pumps worked by men,
horses, wind, water, or steam ; or by that very ingenious machine, the hydraulic ram
(described, Gard. Mag., vol. v. p. 594., as being in use at Bury Hill, Surrey), which has
lately been put up in various parts of the country, for this purpose, by Mr. Rowley.
However, the mode which we would recommend, as most directly applicable where there
is no natural power, is that of having a small steam-engine, say of two-horse power, which
might be placed in the lower part of the tower containing the cistern, or in any con-
venient situation near the well, pond, or other source of supply, and set to work once or
twice a week, as occasion might require. A horizontal windmill, so disguised in the
tower as not to be an offensive object, would, in all elevated situations, as we have else-
where observed (§ 1256), be the cheapest and best that could be employed; because
it would require little or no attention, and might be left to itself to work or stand still,
according to the wind.
1975. In conducting the water from the cistern or reservoir to the jet or fountain, the
following particulars require to be attended to: — In the first place, all the pipes must be
laid sufficiently deep in the earth, or otherwise placed and protected so as to prevent the
possibility of their being reached by frost ; next, as a general rule, the diameter of the
orifice from which the jet of water proceeds, technically called the bore of the quill, ought
to be four times less than the bore erf" the conduit pipe; that is, the quill and pipe ought
to be in a quadruple proportion to each other. There arc several sorts of quills or spouts
1 766
lJ90 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
which throw the water up or down, into a variety of forms; such as fans, parasols,
sheaves, .showers, mushrooms, inverted hells, &c, or (and which is one of the newest
forms) the convolvulus of Mr. Rowley, as shown in fig. 1767. 'Die larger the conduit
pipes are, the more freely will the jets display their different forms; and the fewer the
holes in the quill or jet ( tor sometimes this is pierced like the rose of a watering-pot), the
greater certainty there will he of the form continuing the same ; because the risk of any
of the holes choking up will be less. The diameter of a conduit pipe ought in no case to
be less than an inch ; but, for jets like those in the preceding figures, the diameter ought
to be two inches. Where the conduit pipes are of great length, say upwards of 1000
feet, it is found advantageous to begin, at the reservoir or cistern, with pipes of a diameter
somewhat greater than those which deliver the water to the quills, because the water, in
a pipe of uniform diameter of so great a length, is found to lose much of its strength, and
become what is technically called sleepy ; while the different sizes quicken it, and redouble
its force. For example, in a conduit pipe of 1800 feet in length, the first GOO feet may
be laid with pipes of 8 inches in diameter the next 600 feet with pipes of 6 inches in
diameter, and the last 600 feet with pipes of 4 inches in diameter. In conduits not
exceeding 900 feet, the same diameter may be continued throughout. When several jets
are to play, hi several fountains, or in
the same, it is not necessary to lay a
fresh pipe from each jet to the reser-
voir ; a main of sufficient size, with
branch pipes to each jet, being all
that is required. Where the conduit
pipe enters the reservoir or cistern, it
ought to he of increased diameter, and
the grating placed over it to keep out
leaves and other matters which might
choke it up ought to be semiglobular
or conical ; so that the area of the
number of holes in it may exceed the
area of the orifice of the conduit pipe.
The object is, to prevent any diminu-
tion of pressure from the body of
water in the cistern, and to facilitate
the flow of the water. Where the
conduit pipe joins the fountain, there,
of course, ought to be a cock for
turning the water off and on ; and
particular care must be taken that as
much water may pass through the oval
hole of this cock as passes through the
circular hole of the pipe. In conduit
pipes, all elbows, bendings, and right
angles should be avoided as much as
possihle, since they diminish the force
of the water. In long conduit pipes,
air-holes formed by soldering on up-
right pieces of pipe, terminating in
inverted valves or suckers, should be
made at convenient distances, and
protected by shafts built of stone or
brick, and covered with movable grat-
ings, in order to let out the air. Where pipes ascend and descend on very irregular
surfaces, the strain on the lowest parts of the pipe is always the greatest; unless care is
taken to relieve this by the judicious disposition of cocks and air-holes. Without this
precaution, pipes conducted over irregular surfaces will not last nearly so long as those
conducted over a level. We shall here add a Design by Solomon Caus, fig. 1766, which
may he described as a conceit, and by no means in what may be considered the best taste.
Conceits, however, are sometimes admissible, since they can be enjoyed by those who have
not yet arrived at a just feeling for the simple and grand.
1976. The perpendicular height to which water will rise in ti jet has a limit, depending
on the diameter of the jit, and on the specific gravity of the water, and on that of the air
which it has to penetrate. A jet of salt water will rise higher than one of fresh water;
a column six inches in diameter higher than one of three inches ; and a jet of water of any
dimension, higher at Madrid or Munich, than in Paris or London, on account of the dif-
ference of the elevation of those cities above the level of the sea, and the consequent
ORNAMENTAL GARDEN STRUCTURES.
991
17G7
difference in the density of their atmosphere. The most powerful garden jet in Europe
is that in the Nymphenburg gardens, near Munich. The water is there forced up tlu>
jet by the direct influence of machinery, without the intervention of a head or reservoir ;
and it is found that a column of six inches in diameter cannot, even there, be raised higher
than 90 feet.
1 977. Fountains are generally constructed of Stone, combined with cast iron or copper.
In the fountain, fig. 1767, the quill which gives the form to the jet is new, having been
lately invented by Mr. Rowley ; it is of copper, the double vase with its column is of
cast iron, and the basin containing the water is of stone or white marble. In the very
elegant fountain, fig. 1768, which is from the pencil of Mr. Lamb, the whole of the part
above the water is of cast iron.
1978. Ruins, when artificial, are often ridiculous objects, and sometimes highly offen-
sive, from their petty mimicry of what, when real, is grand and venerable. Nevertheless,
as picturesque objects, we would in some cases admit of them ; for our motto is, let taste
be free. Ruins may be introduced where a fitting situation is pointed out by nature, or
by tradition or other accidental circumstances ; and also where they can be applied to
some useful purpose. Where a ruin does exist, we think it may often be allowable to
!)9L2 COTTAGE. FARM, AND VII, LA ARCHITECTURE.
1 7«8
heighten its architectural character; for example, hy adding to the plain walls of an old
decaying castle, a tower, a turret, a window with mullions and tracery, or a corbel
cornice and embattlements. The use of artificial ruins has been so much abused in Eng-
land, that the tide of prejudice has for some time set in strongly against their erection ;
but this does not appear to us a sufficient reason for rejecting them altogether. Now
that cement is so universally manufactured, is so cheap, and its valuable uses are so well
understood by builders, artificial ruins may be constructed in a very superior manner to
what they have hitherto been ; and correct imitations of classical edifices, instructive
from their Architecture, might be introduced avowedly as imitation, which, besides their
historical interest, might serve as useful lessons in art. A ruin of this kind has been
erected in the grounds at Shugborough, in Staffordshire ; and a ruin in the Gothic style,
Itadway Grange, fig. 1769, which has deceived many a traveller, has long existed on
both sides of the road leading from Banbury, in Oxfordshire, to Kingston, in Warwick-
shire. It is situated on the brow of Edgehill, the scene of a celebrated battle in the
time of Charles I., and may thus be considered to possess a certain degree of historical
interest. It was designed by a private gentleman of great taste, the late E. Miller, Esq.,
of Itadway (to whose son, F. S. Miller, Esq., we are indebted for fig. 1769), and was
executed by a local mason. Part of this ruin forms a prospect tower, as before recom-
mended, and the habitable part of the remainder is occupied as a public-house, and as
dwellings for labourers. In many parks in England, the farm buildings are placed on
rising grounds, so as to form conspicuous objects in the views from the house; and their
exterior elevations are disguised as ruins, or as old castles partially repaired, as in fig. 1770.
I 979. Roehoork is one of the most common ornaments of gardens ; though few of thero
ORNAMENTAL GARDEN STRUCTURES, \)\)3
1709
are worse understood. A rockery is too frequently a mere mass of stones of different sizes
and kinds, perhaps mixed with bricks, piled together without any attempt at expression or
character ; in short, more as a nidus for a particular description of plants, than for effect
as a mass of visible rock, or as fragments supposed to be connected with a mass under
ground. In small gardens this is unavoidable ; but in pleasure-grounds of any
extent the object ought to be the imitation of nature. For this purpose, the artist
should first conceive in his mind some description of natural rock, either above the sur-
face, which he intends to imitate ; or under it, which he intends to indicate. As the sub-
ject belongs much more to Gardening than to Architecture, we shall not here go into
details ; but one essential point we must mention, which is, that, in all imitations of
nature, the stones employed ought to be of the same kind. Stoneries, as they are some-
times called, might be made little geological museums, and contain, besides natural stones,
scorias, vitrified bricks, broken earthen vessels, architectural fragments, and old roots of
trees. One of the best imitations of the face of a rock we know of, is that in the garden
of the Colosseum in the Regent's Park, London.
1980. Statues in the open air are objected to by some, as unsuitable to our climate ;
and by others, as a practical absurdity. How ridiculous, say such persons, it is to place
imitations of human beings on posts and pedestals in the open air, exposed to all
weathers ! The proper answer to this last objection is, that it would be still more
ridiculous to place them only in warm rooms. Statues are to be considered as works of
art, among other works of art ; and there seems no reasonable objection to placing them
anywhere among works of art of the like kind ; such as those of Architecture, an art the
productions of which have been in all ages closely associated with those of Sculpture.
Whenever architectural ornaments are introduced in a garden, therefore, we see no objec-
tion to including among them statues and other sculptural articles, where the materials
of which these are made are of a nature sufficiently durable. There is nothing in the
way of garden ornaments which we are more desirous of seeing introduced than statues
of cast iron, and we are persuaded that the time is near at hand when statues of this
material will be ca<:t in one piece. Our patriotic correspondent, Mr. Robison, has lately
G A
99 1
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1772
produced an interesting article on this subject, in Jameson's Journal, vol. xiv. p. S64.
.Messrs. Cottam and Hallen have also lately had vases of a great variety of sizes, with
and without ornaments, cast in iron in one piece, so as to sell at very low prices.
1 98 1 . The Disposition of Statues, in
Architectural Gardens, is a matter that
requires much taste and feeling; and
it would occupy too much space to lay
down either principles or rides for it.
As a general guide, we would suggest
that no statue ought ever to be placed
where it may not be viewed in con-
nection with some architectural produc-
tion ; such as placed on the piers of a
balustrade, on the side walls of a stair,
or simpljr on pedestals among flowers ;
but so as always to have a spreading
architectural base, and to be seen backed
by a wall, or some part of a building. Statues may also be placed
where they are seen in connection with each other ; though even
this will not be entirely satisfactory without some mural appendages.
Statues placed in woods, in green arbours, verdant alcoves, in the
midst of naked grass lawns ; or, in short, in any place where they
are surrounded only by vegetation, are, from their want of har-
mony with the scene, decidedly objectionable. The streets, squares, and market-places
of cities are indeed the true situations for statues ; next to them, the exterior elevations
of edifices of any kind ; and, next to these,
architectural gardens. The subject of in-
door sculptures is not here under consider-
ation.
1 982. Busts, Therms, Vases, Urns, Sun-
dials, and similar architectural and sculptu-
ral objects, are subject to the same laws
as statues. Busts alone are more adapted
for decorating the walls of an edifice, than ] ■
for being placed on the walls or piers of a
garden; but, when they are placed on therms,
they then approach more nearly to statues,
The difference between a vase and an urn is, that the
The vase, being an open one, has frequently soil and a
plant placed in it ;
but this, in the great
majority of cases, and
at all events in the case
of all sculptured vases,
we consider to be in
bad taste. It is re-
ducing a work of art
to the level of a mere
garden flower-pot, and dividing
the beauty of the form of the vase, and of its sculp-
tured ornaments, and that
of the plant which it con-
tains. Two kinds of beauty
so different cannot be felt,
examined, and enjoyed by
the mind at the same time;
for unity is the essential
principle of every work,
the end of which is to
please. It is seldom, therefore, that vases, when used archi-
tecturally, can, with propriety, be made to serve as flower-
pots. The Italians sometimes employ them in this manner,
but not always with a proper effect. The least objectionable
cases are those in which, on the pier of a gate, a vase contains
that stiff architectural-looking plant, the American aloe ; and
so sensible are the artists of Italy of the superiority of this plant to most others in such
and may be treated like them,
latter is always a covered vessel.
1776
• the attention between
1775
ORNAMENTAL GARDEN STRUCTURES.
U95
1781
a situation, that imitations of it are commonly made of copper and painted green ; in
order that the plant may
appear always to remain
of the proper size, and
retain its proper archi-
tectural shape. A sun-
dial is one of the most
agreeable and useful of
architectural appen-
dages, and in this coun-
try is become venerable,
as a piece of garden fur-
niture. Its situation
should always be central,
and where it can be
walked round, and
viewed on every side.
There are many elegant
forms in artificial stone
by Coade and Seeley ;
and also by Austin, fig. 1771 ; in pottery, by Peake ;
and in cast iron, by Cottam and Hallen. Figs. 1772, 1773, 1774, 1775, 1776, and 1777>
are vases of Austin's artificial stone. Figs. 1778, 1779, and 1780 are urns of artificial
stone, also by Austin, and, with the
vases of the same artist, are well adapted
for decorating parapets, walls, or other
architectural objects in gardens. Fig.
1781 is a pedestal of Austin's artificial
stone, on which may be placed either
vases or urns.
1983. Grottoes, Root-houses, and si-
milar structures, were formerly common
in English pleasure-grounds. The idea
of a grotto in a British garden is of
Italian origin ; as in Italy the grotto,
in the summer season, is frequently the
family dining-room. In Britain they are generally damp, un-
wholesome places, fit only to be glanced at in passing through.
However, they add to the number of interesting objects of a demesne ; and, in certain
stages of society, grottoes, like many other objects, may form appropriate overflowing
places for superfluous wealth. The same may be said of root-houses and other rustic
structures ; which, in landscape gardening, may be compared to tapestry and other ancient
needlework in furnishing, or the elaborately enriched ornaments of Gothic Architecture
in the old cathedrals. In an enlightened age, labour employed in this manner will be
considered as in a great measure thrown away. The same observation will also apply to
the rustic stands and vessels for plants, formed of roots, bark, and pieces of branches,
which are found scattered about in various pleasure grounds, often to the utter destruc-
tion of harmony and repose. They no doubt serve to amuse the proprietor, and to
employ labourers ; but the same labour, bestowed on a more durable material, would be
equally beneficial to the labourer, and much more advantageous to the public. But the
possessors of wealth must be free to spend it as they choose ; and therefore all that an
author, writing on the subjects now treated of, is entitled to do, is, to state his opinion,
and his reasons for having formed it, with a view to the improvement of the general
taste. Decidedly the best gTotto in England is that at Pain's Hill, Surrey.
1 984. Trelliswork is a frequent ornament in gardens ; and, in many cases, forms a
useful structure for training climbing plants on ; for forming a shady arcade ; or for
clothing a naked wall. In ancient geometrical gardens, it was customary to form
arbours entirely of trelliswork, and to cover them with vegetation, so that the carpentry
or iron wire forming the trelliswork became a mere frame for the plants. In this case,
it ceased in a great measure to be considered an architectural object, and might
be set down in any situation where a seat was desirable. The employment of trelliswork
as arcades to connect one scene with another is very frequently overdone : there is
nothing either grand or beautiful in walking under such an arcade, covered with a
thick roof of unpruned plants, with their decayed leaves of twigs ; or with the sickly
green appearance in their leaves and young shoots which is the inevitable consequence
of the want of direct light. On the other hand, where the plants covering a trellis
<Ji)(i
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
782
-- ; , Sag*
'•,:>,
are vines, annually pruned, and the locality is such that grapes will ripen in the open
air, the effect is good ; as every one knows who has walked under such trellises on
the Continent. The hardy fruits of Britain, gooseherries, currants, apples, plums,
&c, trained on trelliswork, and properly pruned, have a very good effect, and afford
convenient modes of eating the fruit from the tree, agreeably to the practice of the pos-
sessors of villas in Holland and other places on the Continent. It was also the custom,
in the ancient style of gardening, to form skeletons of trelliswork, in the shapes, archi-
tectural or sculp-
tural, into which
it was desired to
clip the trees or
shrubs. The
plants intended
to form the fi-
gures, statues, or
other architec-
tural forms, or
green walls, be-
ing planted with-
in the trellis
frame, all that
the gardener had
to do was to
cut off such
branches as ob-
truded them-
selves beyond it.
On the whole,
trelliswork in
gardens is to be
considered more
with reference
to floriculture
and horticulture,
than to landscape
Gardening or
Architecture.
1 985. Sepul-
chral Structyrcs
are frequently
erected on the
grounds of villas.
As cenotaphs, or
memorials of the
dead, and as
enclosing and
marking, in a particular manner, a
place of burial, they are worthy of
respect ; but an architectural tomb, in
which the remains of human beings
are built up, and prevented from mix-
ing with our mother earth, is a struc-
ture indicating a practice altogether
unworthy of an enlightened age. Far
preferable, in our opinion, was the
grave of Thomas Hollis, Esq., of Cors-
combe in Devonshire, one of the most
worthy and most benevolent of men ; who ordered his body to be buried in one of his
fields, and the field to be ploughed immediately afterwards, that the precise place of his
interment might not be known. Cenotaphs, which may be considered as monuments, and
not as tombs, may often find a place among the architectural decorations of pleasure
grounds, and they may vary in magnitude and style, from a simple block or a tablet of
stone, to a Grecian temple or a Gothic tower. In America, it is very common for families
living on their own estates, at a distance from towns, to have their " grave-yards" generally
in an orchard near the house. They are simple enclosures, to exclude cattle or other
animals, and to convey the idea of consecration. A simple and elegant manner of en-
ENTRANCE LODGES AND GATES.
997
closing such burial-places would be by a circular arcade, the arches being open from the
foundations to the soffits, in order to admit of the spreading of the roots of trees and
shrubs in the soil, whether planted inside or outside, and the free circulation of air and
the weather. The openings may be tilled in with iron palisading. Fig. 1782 is a
perspective view of a Design of this sort, made, at our request, by Mr. Lamb ; and fig.
1783 is a Design for a Grecian cenotaph by the same author. Fig. 1784 is a cenotaph
in the Gothic style, also
by Mr. Lamb. The De-
sign, fig. 1782, might be
greatly simplified, and still
have an excellent effect ;
perhaps better than it now
has. The circular form is
so beautiful in itself, and
the repetition, at equal
distances, of the uniform-
sized semicircular-headed
openings, produces an effect
at once so simple, so grand,
and so much in unison with
the general form, that the
whole of the mouldings,
the impost stones, the cor-
nice, and especially the
breaks in the blocking
(which last are in fact a
deformity), might be dis-
pensed with. For our own
particular taste, we should
prefer such an enclosure to
a burial place, without a
single ornament of any
kind ; retaining none of
the architectural lines in the figure before us, but those showing an enlarged basement
or plinth. If the walls were raised on secure foundations, and built of brick laid in
Roman cement, they would last for thousands of years ; the ironwork would no doubt
fail, but, if a holly were planted in the centre (and this tree, which forms a conical head,
is far more suitable for such a building than that shown in the figure), its branches, long
before that took place, would spread out from all the openings, and form an adequate
defence, without the necessity of rails.
1986. The subjects slightly noticed in the preceding paragraphs of this section being
principally those which connect Villa Architecture with Landscape Gardening, their
treatment belongs as much to the one art as to the other. As we contemplate a
separate work on Landscape Gardening and Garden Architecture, we have not considered
it desirable to discuss these subjects more at length in the present volume, it being
already sufficiently expanded by those which it was more especially intended to include.
Sect. IX. Entrance Lodges and Gates.
1987. The Entrance Lodge and Gate to a Villa may either form one architectural
composition ; or the lodge alone may display architectural style, and the gate be of a very
simple inconspicuous construction. In the former case, the principle of unity seems to
require that the style of the lodge and gateway should correspond with that of the house
to which they belong ; but in the latter case the necessity for this principle is not so
obvious, and, provided the gate be without conspicuous piers, and be kept altogether sub-
ordinate, the lodge may be in any style. This style, as Mr. S. Gilpin has remarked
(Practical Hints on Landscape Gardening, see Gard. Mag., vol. viii. p. 700), may be
determined by some peculiarity in the situation ; to which we may add, or by any
peculiarity of taste in the owner.
1988. When the Lodge and Gate J or m one Composition, it is essential that the piers be
rendered architectural ; because on them mainly depends the union of the dwelling with
the gate. There are various ways in which this is to be accomplished ; by detached
stone piers ; by a single arch thrown over the roadway, and only connected with the
lodge by an intervening foot-gate ; by two, three, or more arches ; by columns united
by an architrave ; or by the most effectual method of all, that of having a lodge on each
side of the road, and forming them into one architectural whole, bv a colonnade or arcade
99S COTTAGL, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
carried across it. These being the general principles, and the rules derived from them,
a very few examples will serve to illustrate their application.
Fig. 1785 is a view of a double Roman lodge: we call it Roman, because it con-
tains columns superadded to the archway. The ground plan of this lodge, fig. 1786",
shows a dwelling consisting of a kitchen, scullery, two bed-rooms, and other conveniences,
on each side of the road. Though this lodge was contributed by a very eminent Archi-
tect, we cannot bring ourselves to approve of the columns in the piers, on account of the
large intercoluraniations, and the consequent idea of weakness produced by such a length
of architrave. It is true that the Romans introduced columns in this manner in their
triumphal arches, but they did not carry the architrave through from one column to the
other ; by which means, though the column was degraded to a mere ornament, yet no
appearance of weakness was produced. Whoever wishes to see, from an existing example,
the had effect, when executed, of columns and architraves arranged as in the Design
before us, has only to look at the new gates leading into Hyde Park from Piccadilly.
Neither in this Design, nor in the gates of Hyde Park, can the architrave be formed of
B single stone ; in the Design before us, the stone would require to be thirteen feet six
inches long, and in the Hyde Park gales several feet longer. No doubt, such stones are
ENTRANCE LODGES AND GATES.
1785
i)M
to be obtained ; but the expense would, in scarcely any case, be justifiable by the object
1786
on which it was bestowed. Fig. 1787 is an elevation of a double lodge, in the Doric
style; and fig. 1788 is the ground plan, showing the same accommodation as in the last
1787
Design. There can be no objection to the Architecture of this Design, so far as it goes ;
but, like the preceding one, it wants chimney-tops; and we do not see by what means
srl
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access is to be had to the bed-room; for, even supposing the appendages containing tbc
scullery, Sic, to have flat roofs, there cannot be headroom to ascend by them into the
1000 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
bed-room. There can be no doubt that this is a mere oversight in our contributor,
which it is easy to correct by placing the stair in the living-room.
Fig. 1789 is a view of an architectural lodge in the castellated style; and fig. 1790 is
its ground plan. In the latter, the small building to the left is for coals ; the dwelling
contains a sitting-room and scullery on the ground floor, and three bed-rooms over.
Fig. 1791 is a view of a castellated architectural lodge; and fig. 1792 is its ground
plan. The effect of this Design and the preceding one is good : in the latter, there is
a degree of symmetry, combined with variety, which is highly pleasing, and, at the same
time, there is nothing which is at variance with the laws of strength, or offensive to
reason or good sense.
17P1
1989. Wlien the Lodge is independent of the Gale, and does not form an architectural
composition with it, the gate-posts should be inconspicuous, and at some little distance
from the lodge ; at all events, never attached to it. We shall give three examples of
lodges of this description.
ENTRANCE LODGES AND GATES.
1001
1792
Fig. 1793 is a view of a lodge in the Grecian style ; and fig. 1794 is its ground plan,
in which the line of fence, a, and the gateposts, b, are shown at some distance from the
1793
dwelling. The view is taken from the interior of the park ; and the gateposts, though
of masonry, and forming with the trees one general composition with the lodge, are yet
not architecturally connected with it, and do not form an architectural composition.
1794
D
Fig. 1795 is a view of a Swiss cottage as an independent lodge; and fig. 1796 is its
ground plan. It will hardly be supposed that a cottage of this description could lead to
a villa in the same style ; because the style itself is not adapted to large buildings. The
preceding Design, however, being in a style of Architecture adapted to large buildings,
might very reasonably be considered as a prelude to a Grecian house. The preceding
six Designs are by the distinguished Architect who contributed to us the plan of his own
villa, Design III. § 1746.
Fig. 1797 is a geometrical elevation of a cottage lodge in the Old English style; and
fig. 1798 is its ground plan. This Design, having two porches, a, b, would form a very
excellent lodge for placing between two gates, to two small villas ; a practice which is
sometimes adopted in the neighbourhood of large towns. There is a bench, c, placed
outside, which serves as an. apology for the canopy which projects over it, and which adds
to the harmony of the elevation. The tiles of the roof, it will be observed, are of different
forms, arranged in the manner recommended by Mr. Varden, § 759. This Design is
by Mr. Lamb, and would suit his very elegant Gothic villa, fig. 1646.
6 B
10O2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1795
1 990. Entrance Gates to Villas are constructed either of iron or wood ; and the lines
which prevail in them should be those of the mural Architecture to which they belong
The wrought-iron gates of the age of Louis XIV. were highly enriched with foliage and
1796
flowers ; and those of modern times, formed of cast iron, are still more so. The richest
metallic gates in the world are those of Tuscany, and especially of the cathedrals of Pisa
and Florence, formed of brass. Some of the gates in British cathedrals, for example in
Henry VI I. 's Chapel in Westminster Abbey, are also highly enriched. The iron gates
1798
ENTRANCE LODGES AND GATES.
i 1 g
1003
to
I
IT
bv
F=lI
=U u:
u u
r1^
c
ift
at Leeswold, in Flintshire, are among the most celebrated in England : they were erected
under the direction of Switzer, and will be found figured in the works of different tourists.
An excellent work on Roman Gateways, by Donaldson, contains many beautiful designs
adapted for towns ; and Robertson's Gate Lodges affords resources for the Villa Architect.
Some elaborate designs for wrought-iron gates, which have been executed at Nancy, are
engraved in the Recueil des Fondations, Sfc, of that city ; and some others will be found
in Vingboon's Architecture, and in that of Dietterlin. A number of rich designs executed
in cast iron are common to the Birmingham trade, and may be examined, together with
many original drawings, in the pattern books of Messrs. Cottam and Hallen. The most
elaborate cast-iron gates in England are those of the triumphal arch, which forms the
entrance to the Green Park from Piccadilly ; they are bronzed, and, at all events, are
excessively rich, as are the cast-iron railings of the same kind flanking the entrance into
Hyde Park. These cast-iron gates and rails are bronzed, which is a very suitable
kind of colouring for them. In the palisading to the gardens of the summer palace at
Petersburgh, is a description of iron railing combining elegance with magnificence, in
which the ornaments are gilt ; but which are not so abundant as to be no longer con-
sidered as such. In the English gates the ornaments cover the whole.
Fig. 1799 is an elevation of a Gothic gateway in the style of Pointed Architecture,
prevalent during the time of Henry VII. It was furnished to us by Mr. Lamb, who
observes that " the arms of Henry VII. are used in the decorations to mark the date of
the style of Architecture. Such heraldic devices are peculiarly appropriate to the Gothic
style of art, and lend it great interest in a moral point of view, by marking the conse-
quence of the proprietor, and serving as a sort of index to the style of living which may
be expected at the villa, or baronial castle, to which they lead." In ages when mankind
were nearly on a par with regard to intellectual rank, distinctive marks of this kind
became requisite, not only to wealthy individuals, but also to professions : hence, while
the warrior was known by his arms, the priest was distinguished by his gown, and the
lawyer by his wig ; even physicians, till lately, carried with them gold-headed canes, and
they still wear black clothes. All these distinctions, even the bearing of arms, which
w-ill be the last to pass away, will disappear with the universal diffusion of education.
Fig. 1800 is a design for a Chinese gateway, copied for us, from a Chinese drawing, by
Mr. Varden. The Chinese sometimes adopt an opening of the form of three fourths of
a circle as a gateway, which may be considered a caprice ; a doorway, the opening of
which is of the form of an egg, with the broad end uppermost, and the lower end cut offi
is a better approximation to the human form.
Fig. 1801 is a Design for a Grecian gateway, by Mr. Lamb; it may be supposed w
1001 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1799
fi'£-
3 p.
^^S
1800
be the outer entrance to Mallet's Palladian villa. It would also suit very well for the
gateway to a public garden or park.
Fig. 1802 is an iron gate between stone piers. We have introduced it for the sake of
showing what we should call a gate utterly without taste, such as we might suppose a
blacksmith would design, who had few ideas
beyond the mechanical part of his profession ;
and who, in the figure before us, may be sup-
posed to have looked only to the arrangement
of the bars and braces, in such a maimer as
to make them rivet readily together, and pro-
duce a strong whole. What he would consider
as beauty in this work would be the curving of
the secondary diagonal struts ; and he might,
perhaps, expect admiration for the contrivance
of the latch. How different the effect of such
a gate, in an architectural point of view, from
any of the preceding ones. In figs. 1799 and
1801 the lines of the gate cooperate in the
production of a whole, in which there is a unity
of direction in the lines, as well as of their
kind. The gate before us, fig. 1802, would
even have had a better effect, as a work of taste, by the omission of the curved diagonals,
ENTRANCE LODGES AND GATES.
1005
I KOI
/;'" I l l I f I , 1 I
>
which add nothing whatever to the strength of the gate. The straight diagonals do add
strength, and one of them is essential to each gate. Had only one been admitted, as in
fig. 1 803, the whole would have been in much better taste, because it would have been
without pretension, and without offence.
Fig. 1804 is an elevation of a carriage and two footway gates, designed by John
Perry, Esq., and erected, under his superintendence, at Denbighs, near Haslemere,
Surrey. We have introduced it here, chiefly to show the manner of fixing wooden gates
in the country. In this figure, a, b are the ground plans of the posts ; c, d, a plank or
beam sunk in the earth two or three feet under the surface, into which the posts are
100G COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1»03
mortised, and supported by angle braces, c. By means of this horizontal sleeper or beam
and these braces, the gate-posts are kept perfectly erect and firm.
1804
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Fig. 1805 is a Design for a gateway to a menagerie, from the work of Caus, which was
intended by him to be executed as an entrance to the grotto, in the gardens at Heidel-
berg, which he laid out for the Elector Palatine, afterwards king of Bohemia. It may
be considered as an extravaganza with reference to the grounds of villas, but would suit
very well for a garden containing a zoological collection, such as it is to be hoped will
soon become appended to all our cities and towns.
EXTERIOR FINISHING OF VILLAS. 1007
Chap. V.
Of the Finishings, Fittings-up, Fixtures, and Furniture of Villas.
1991. In studying the Subject of the Finishing of Villas, the reader will take into con-
sideration, with the first two sections of this chapter, what is stated in the first two
sections of Chap. III. of Book I. p. 258, and also Section VI. of Book II. p. 650. The
fixtures, fittings-up, and furniture of villas may in like manner be elucidated by reference
to those of cottages and farm-houses ; and the reader should, therefore, turn to the sections
in our second Book treating upon these subjects, the references to which he will find
in the Table of Contents, or in the General Index.
Sect. I. Of the Exterior Finishing of Villas.
1992. The Exterior Finishing of Villas may be considered with reference to archi-
tectural style, and to general decorations applicable to all styles : the former includes the
projections, mouldings, lines, and forms which belong to each system of Architecture ;
and the latter such ornaments as statues, sculptures, &c, which may be introduced into
elevations in any style or manner.
1993. The Display of Architectural Style in the Exterior Finishings of Villas may be
obviously carried to a greater extent than in cottages, farm houses, or other dwellings of
an humbler and less expensive description. In a cottage, for example, the windows are
often left without architraves, or exterior facings ; but in a villa these should not be omitted,
unless in styles where some other mode of finishing is substituted. The entrance doors
to villas ought never to be without porches or porticoes, and these should be of a more
imposing and architectural character than those employed in cottages. Where the roof
is concealed by a blocking course or parapet, the latter may be rendered ornamental by a
balustrade, or by other open work, the piers of which may be terminated by vases, or other
sculptural ornaments. Blank windows, that is, openings in the shape of windows, without
glass in them, or without some other object that may leave no regret that glass is wanting,
we hold to be inadmissible, in either a cottage or a villa ; but, in a villa, blank windows are
more especially objectionable. In cottages and farm houses, the walls may be of mud,
of rubble-stone, of coarse bricks, or of some comparatively cheap material ; but in villas
the material ought always to be of a durable kind, and also, if possible, of an agreeable or
ornamental character ; stones ought to be squared, or, if rubble or coarse bricks be used,
the wall should be covered with cement, finished in the manner of squared stone. The
guiding principle in all this is, that, a villa being a dwelling of a higher class, there ought
to be a higher quality of building material used in its construction, and a higher degree
of architectural style displayed in its elevation.
1994. The Exterior Decorations of Villas which are common to different styles are
chiefly, statues, sculptures, vases, urns, and other ornaments of stone. Exterior window
blinds may also be included in this division of exterior finishing; in addition to the
various objects common to different styles, mentioned in preceding sections.
1995. Statues and Sculptures, as we have already observed, have at all times, and in
all ages and countries, been associated with Architecture; and, indeed, in rude ages, as
is still the case in remote districts of country, the occupations of the mason and of the
sculptor are generally found united in the same person. There can, therefore, be no
more appropriate ornament to the exterior elevation of a house than statuary works ; and
this every one must feel who is capable of deriving pleasure from either sculpture or
Architecture. A correct feeling or taste, and a sound controlling judgment, however,
are necessary to guide the Architect in the disposition of statuary work. This disposition,
as in similar cases, ought never to be left to the sculptor, who, from the feeling for his
own art inseparable from artists, will be too apt to limit his views to his productions,
instead of taking a comprehensive view of the effect of the whole. In the disposition of
statues, either on the summits of the walls of a house, or on its pediments, porticoes, and
porches, the Architect must chiefly be guided by the general principles of composition,
though in some degree, also, by the style of Architecture which he has adopted. For
example, in the Grecian style, it is most common to place statues where they will be
seen backed by the sky, by some part of the building, or by the scenery surrounding it ;
whereas, in the Gothic style, they are chiefly placed in niches. From the nature of the
art of sculpture in entire relief, or statuary, which is altogether unsuitable for representing
motion, groups of figures can seldom be used with effect in exteriors, except in those
sculptures which are called in alto, or in bas relief. Not only single statues are to be pre-
ferred, but single statues in attitudes of repose ; never in attitudes implying motion, as in the
Discobolus, which, though an antique statue, is essentially in bad taste. We may also
notice, in this place, an error pointed out by Mr. Hope, which English sculptors,
IOCS COTTA.QE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
he says, have fallen into, in imitation of the French sculptors of the List century. This
is, the practice of representing in a bust, the head, not looking straight forward and in
the same direction as the chest, but turned over the shoulder, and looking sidewise. The
reason why this is wrong is, that " in the production of the pencil, which can only
exhibit a face in a single aspect, if the most striking or most favourable view of that face
be not a direct front view, there may, in the eligibility of bringing the features more
in profile, be a very good reason for turning the head somewhat over the shoulder. Nay,
even in a work of the chisel, if it be an entire statue, the peculiar attitude or action of
the body may present a sufficient motive for giving such a turn to the head. But if a
mere bust, which we may easily view in every possible aspect, by ourselves moving round
it, in place of being allowed to leave this task entirely to the beholder, be made itself to
turn its face away from our sight though it have not a body, to account for this less easy
and less usual position of the head, the portrait loses all claim to naturalness and truth ;
it forfeits the appearance of dignified simplicity, which is so essential and so fascinating,
for an air of inane and pompous affectation ; and it, moreover, from the different direction
given to the face and to the chest, can seldom be so situated as not to look ill placed and
awkward." He .adds, " that the Grecian method of cutting the chest square, and placing
its whole mass immediately on a term or other solid support, seems much preferable to the
more prevailing Roman fashion of rounding off that chest, and balancing its centre only
on a slender and tottering pivot." (Designs for Furniture, p. 47.)
1996. The Proportion between the Height or Size of the Statue, and that of the height
and size of an ordinary human being, is a point which has given rise to much discussion.
The most eminent authors are agreed that there ought to be a certain proportion
between the size of the statues and sculptures on a building, and the size of that building ;
and that the size of ordinary life is generally too small for interiors, and always so for
statues placed externally. This seems but reasonable, and in harmony with the practice
in all buildings, of forming the doors and the ceilings of rooms higher than is necessary
for the reception of human beings. No fixed rule or proportion has hitherto been given
for determining the height of statues relatively to the height of windows, doors, and
other openings ; and all that has been suggested by the best writers on the subject is,
that there should be some general proportion between the height of the statue and the
magnitude of the building. For example, a villa of the ordinary size of villas in the
given age, country, and style of Architecture, should have the statues used in decorating
its exterior, somewhat, perhaps from a seventh to a fifth part, larger than life ; and a
villa much larger than the common size of villas ought to have the statues proportion-
ately larger than life. This point, like various others, may be considered as beyond the
reach of rules ; the principle is clearly the idea of union with the building in forming a
whole ; and this includes union in size, as well as in expression, material, and style of
workmanship.
1997. The Style of Statues should correspond with the Architecture of the elevation
on which they are employed ; and there ought to be even a historical relation between
them. For example, in a highly finished Grecian elevation, the statuary ought to be
simple, classical, and highly finished ; in a bold Italian elevation composed of coarse
materials, and producing its effect by strong contrasts of light and shade, the statues may
be rudely chiseled, so as to produce effect rather by their general form than by minute
details ; and the statues on a Gothic building, in which perpendicular lines prevail, should
exhibit a preponderance of lines of the same character, in the folds of their drapery, &c.
Historically, Grecian buildings ought to have Grecian figures, in the costume employed
by the Grecian sculptors ; and the subjects ought to be heathen gods and goddesses, or
the heroes and great men of antiquity. The statues for decorating Italian elevations
may be those of eminent men of modern times. Gothic buildings ought to display
statues of men distinguished for their military gallantry or for their devotion ; while a
cottage, being comparatively a temporary structure, may, where a statue is admitted,
copy the costume of the times in which it is built, and of the particular country from
which its own style is borrowed. A Swiss cottage, for example, might be decorated
by a figure in Swiss costume carved in oak, and protected by a projecting canopy.
We offer these remarks, not as absolute, but rather to excite reflections on the subject
in the mind of the young Architect.
1998. Sculptures in high or low Relief are of far more general application to the
external elevations of buildings than statues ; and, indeed, they may be said to be, to the
exterior surfaces of walls, what paintings are to the walls of rooms. Wherever there is
a blank window that it is not desirable to disguise by a glazed sash, it may be filled in
with sculpture ; the boundary line of the opening forming a frame, and the subject ap-
pearing as though in a sunk panel. The size of the figures for sculptures of this kind
ought to be governed by the same principles as outside statues. Historically, we think,
some subject ought to be chosen relatively to the occupants of the building, rather than
EXTERIOR FINISHING OF VILLAS. 100Q
to persons or things foreign to it. For example, in one window, figures might appear ai
if looking out at some object, and conversing about it ; another window might represent
part of the interior of a room with its occupants, and, indeed, where the panels or false
windows filled with sculpture are numerous, they might indicate the uses of the different
descriptions of rooms within. Thus, one blank window might represent some cha-
racteristic of a dining-room, another of a library, or of a drawingroom, a staircase, &c.
This is in perfect accordance with the original uses of sculptures in low relief, which,
according to Quatremere de Quincy, were originally a sort of writing, or hieroglyphics,
or signs ; and came at last to be improved into classical compositions.
1 999. Wliere Sculptures in relief are to be placed in panels so much smaller than
windows as never to be mistaken for them, the size of the figures may be proportionably
small. Reliefs of this kind may be classed with those employed by Architects in de-
corating friezes ; and they may be introduced with excellent effect in a variety of posi-
tions, where it is desirable to enhance the interest of a particular part of the elevation,
or to oppose great richness of decoration to simplicity of form. Even single portraits,
in the manner of alto relievo busts, may be introduced in some parts of the exteriors of
buildings; such as over an entrance door, over windows, in the tympanum of pediments,
in gable ends, &c.
2000. Armorial Sculptures are particularly suitable for the different varieties of Gothic
Architecture, and in no other style can so much interest be created with so little exertion
of skill or expense. The simple form of the shield, which any mason can execute, has
alone, from the train of historical associations connected with it, a powerful effect. The
cross, whether in complete or in partial relief, is also an object of great interest in the
Gothic style. The same may be said of the fleur de lis, and other forms used in armorial
bearings.
2001. Other Decorations, such as vases, urns, chimney-tops, tiles, rusticated stones,
and sculptured bricks, or weather-tiling in imitation of bricks, have been already suf-
ficiently noticed in preceding sections.
2002. The Subject of outside Blinds has also, § 554 to § 560, been treated of; but we
shall here describe the mechanism of what is considered the best description of cloth
outside blind. Fig. 1807 is a view of a bonnet blind let down as far as it will go, the lower
and projecting part being what is denominated the bonnet ; and fig. 1 806 a view of the
same blind drawn up nearly to the top. In the former figure, a represents one of the
C c
1010 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Iiooks for fastening the cord to when the blind is pulled up ; the other hook bang :i
little way above it, as shown at b, in fig. 1806". It will be observed that the hood or
bonnet is confined by the line and rod shown at c, in the same figure; the line serving
to draw up the curtain. Fig. 1808 is a skeleton view of the interior of the blind; in
*~
V o
P
1808
which a is one of the lines by which the hood is raised : it is attached to the front iron of
the hood, passes over the pulley b, proceeds along the top of the lath, passes over the
pulley c, and joins the other lines at the knot d ; e is the second line of the hood, which
crosses the pulley f, passes along the lath, and descends over the pulley g, to the knot k.
h is the third line of the hood, which passes over the pulley i, and meets the others at ri ;
k is the knot where the two lines unite, which raise the entire blind : one line passes over
the pulley /, and is attached by a hook to the slip nu which slides in a groove, and to which
the rising bar of the hood, n, is hinged. The other line crosses the pulley o, proceeds
along the lath, descends over the pulley p, and is attached to the other sliding slip at q.
r is the thick cord, by pulling which the hood is raised ; s represents the front iron ;
t is the line which the bar reaches when the hood is drawn up; and u is the thick cord,
which must be grasped together with r to raise the whole blind. An elegant improve-
ment on this description of blinds has been made by Mr. Vokins, in consequence of which
thev are much more easily drawn up, and are less likely to get out of repair.
INTERIOR FINISHING OF VILLAS. 1011
Sect. II. Of tin- Interior Finishing of Villas.
2003. The Interior Finishings of the Apartments of <i Villa embrace a variety of
details, the principal of which may be included under those relating to architectural
style, and those relating to decorations independent of style. To the latter belongs
the consideration of the materials with which the walls, floors, and ceilings are covered,
and of the colouring with which the whole is finished.
2004. The architectural Style of an Interior, it is sufficiently obvious, should correspond
with the external appearance of the building; and the degree of decoration should be
great, in the former case, in proportion as it is in the latter. The display of style in an
interior is in general made on the same parts as in the exterior; viz., on the doors and
windows, also on the chimneys which correspond to the chimney-tops, and on the ceil-
ings which may be considered as corresponding to the roofs. The ceilings of rooms,
next to the walls, are the principal parts where the expression of architectural strength
requires to be given ; and this is admirably done, in the Grecian style, by horizontal
beams and rectangular compartments ; and, in the Gothic style, by beams supported
by brackets, and other projections, in the manner of what are called groined ceilings.
2005. Internal Decorations which are independent of Style are comparatively few.
They are chiefly the disposition of mirrors, or of chandeliers, or other fixed lights, and of
fixed sculptures and statuary. Perhaps the time is not far distant, when the regulators
for ventilation, and for the admission of heat, which are fixed in floors, walls, and ceilings,
will be included under this class of finishings; but the improvements in warming
and ventilating are not yet sufficiently disseminated for this purpose. Though certain
interior decorations may be considered independent of style none whatever are inde-
pendent of construction. " The spirit of decoration," Percier and Fontaine observe (or
rather Quatremere de Quincy, who obviously wrote the introduction to their work
observes), " separated from that of construction, and not operating in concert with it, will
make light of absurdities and contradictions : it will not only pervert the essential forms
of the edifice, but it will make them disappear. Looking-glasses ill placed, or tapestry
awkwardly fastened, will produce voids where there ought to be none, and vice versa.
Construction is to buildings what the bones are to the human body : it ought to be
embellished, without being entirely concealed. It is the construction which, according
to the country, the climate, and the sort of edifice, gives the motive for the ornaments.
Construction and decoration have thus an intimate connection ; and, if this connection
does not appear, the whole is vicious. The execution of the work, whatever may be its
extent and its importance, will have no effect on the mind, if the construction has not
dictated the embellishment ; if the first form does not seem in accordance with its acces-
saries ; and if, in short, it is perceived that two wills, without harmonising together, have
operated in the execution of the work." In accordance with this principle, whether a
chandelier hang from a Grecian or a Gothic ceiling, it ought to be, or to appear to be,
suspended from a beam, or other part of the construction, obviously sufficient for its sup-
port. To suspend any light of this kind from a plastered ceiling, perhaps painted in
imitation of the sky, without any intervening decoration or preparation, but the hook to
which the chain is attached, every one must feel to be inconsistent with the principles
here laid down.
2006. The Materials with which the Walls and Ceilings of Rooms are covered have
varied in different ages, and with different styles of Architecture. In ancient times,
tapestry was the principal article employed, and this is still an appropriate covering for
the walls of rooms in the Gothic style, and even in the most ancient Italian manner of
building. To tapestry succeeded wainscoting, and to the latter the use of lime and
hair plaster and stucco, and of printed papers pasted to these, or to canvass. The most
durable mode, and that least susceptible of injury from fire, is the covering of plaster or
stucco ; even if this should require, from the style of Architecture, to be finished so as
to resemble wainscoting.
2007. Scagliola is a mode of finishing with stucco which deserves adoption, more par-
ticularly in houses in the Grecian or Italian manner. The object is an imitation of
marble, and the success is most complete. The art of making scagliola has been long
well known and extensively practised in Italy; and also by Italian artists in most of the
capital cities on the Continent ; but it was not introduced into Britain till about the end
of the last century. " In order to execute columns and their antas, or pilasters, in
scagliola, the following remarks and directions are to be observed : when the Architect
has finished the drawing, exhibiting the diameter of the shafts, a wooden cradle is made,
about two inches and a half less in diameter than that of the projected column. This
cradle is lathed all round, as if for common plastering, and is afterwards covered by a
pricking-up coat of lime and hair : when this is quite dry, the workers in scagliola
commence their peculiar labours. The scagliola is capable of imitating the most scarce
and precious marbles; the imitation taking as high a polish, and feeling to the touch as
101*2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
cold and solid, as the most compact and dense marble. For the composition of it the
purest gypsum must be broken in small pieces, and then calcined till the largest frag-
ments have lost their brilliancy. The calcined powder is then passed through a very line
sieve, and mixed up in a solution of Flanders glue, isinglass, &c, with the colours
required in the marble about to be imitated. When the work is to be of various colours,
each colour is prepared separately, and they are afterwards mingled and combined,
nearly in the same manner as a painter mixes, on his pallet, the primitive colours which
are to compose his different shades. When the powdered gypsum, or plaster, is pre-
pared, and mingled for the work, it is laid on the shaft of the column, &c., covering over
the pricked-up coat, which had been previously laid on it, and is floated with moulds of
wood to the sizes required. During the floating, the artist uses the colours necessary
for the marble which he intends to imitate, and which thus become mingled and incor-
porated in it. In order to give his work the requisite polish or glossy lustre, he rubs
it with a pumice-stone, and cleanses it with a wet sponge. He next proceeds to polisii
it with tripoli and charcoal, and fine soft linen ; and, after going over it with a piece of
felt, dipped in a mixture of oil and tripoli, finishes the operation by the application of
pure oil. This is considered as one of the finest imitations in the world ; the scagliola
being as strong and durable as real marble, for all works not exposed to the effects of the
atmosphere ; it also retains its lustre as long, and equal to real marble, without being one
eighth of the expense of the cheapest marble imported." (Nicholson's Practical Builder,
p. 382.) The principal scagliola worker in London is Mr. Brown, whose rich and
elegant museum, in University Street, contains the most beautiful specimens of vases,
columns serving as candelabras, stands for busts, and a great variety of other objects.
The chief use, however, of scagliola is for columns in rooms of a very superior descrip-
tion. Mr. Brown informs us that the art is brought to a much higher degree of per-
fection in London than it ever has been on the Continent ; the reason being, that there
it is considered as an inferior style of finishing next to marble, whereas here it is made
to serve instead of marble itself, and, therefore, more pains are bestowed upon it.
2008. The permanent Covering of the Floors of Booms is, for the most part, of boards ;
though scagliola, and various imitations of marble and stone, are common on the Con-
tinent, and especially in the villas of Italy, see § 1916. Mosaic pavement is also
frequently used. An improved description of pavement of this kind, invented by Ml*
Wright of Shelton, has already been mentioned. Figs. 1810 and 1811 show two squares,
or quarries as they are technically termed, in which the ground, or plain space, is of one
colour, and the ornament inlaid is of a different colour. Fig. 1809 is an octagon quarry
will) an^le pieces, a, and centre pieces, b. in order to complete a square figure,
1812, whatever may be the dimensions of the floor to be covered. The angle
for halls,
as in fig. lw
and centre pieces are supposed to be of a different and darker colour than the ground, or
plain part, of the figured tiles. The manner in which the inlaying ot the ornament is
effected is verv simple, and is described at length in the Bvpcrtory of Arts. A depres-
sion is made on the surface of the tile, in the form of the intended ornament, and the
Cbvity thus formed is filled in with coloured clay ; the tile is afterwards burned in the kiln,
so that the ornament may form one mass with the rest. Mr. Wright informs us that
INTFIUOIt FINISHING OF VILLAS.
1013
1810
1811
nothing can exceed the Strength and durability of these tiles, and from their appearance
we do not doubt it: they are also very smooth, and highly ornamental. Another descrip-
tion of flooring tiles for halls, Mr. Peake of TunstaU informs us he has seen at Lillie's
Hall, in Shropshire, of which fig. 1813 will give a general idea. Various descriptions of
1812 1813
plaster floors arc in use for villas, which may either be painted in imitation of marble,
or kept covered by carpeting. In some cases the preferable mode is to paint the margin
of the floor round the room in imitation of marble or other stone, or of oak, or of some
other dark wood ; or to finish this margin with scagliola, and cover the interior with
carpeting. A very successful imitation of Portland stone, which does not cost half the
price of that material, has lately been made by Air. Bagshaw. Were it not for the cold
impression made on the feet by stone, slate, tile, or plaster floors, their introduction in
all houses whatever would be very desirable, as lessening the risk of danger from lire.
2009. Boards have long been, and probably long will be, the principal covering for
the floors of villas in Britain. Three improvements have been made in them. To prevent
warping, and to lessen the risk of their being burned through by fire, they are some-
times laid down in large houses three inches thick. For the first of these objects, and
also to get rid of inequalities, and save the expense and disagreeable labour of continually
washing with soap and water, our correspondent, Mr. Robison, proposes, " when the
floors are newly laid and in good order, to cover them over with a copious soaking of
boiled and hot linseed oil, and afterwards to paint them with two coats of good oil colour.
Very little warping will probably take place after this, and a slight sponging with cold
water will at all times be sufficient to render them perfectly clean and clean-look-
ing." The third great improvement is the use of the planing machine, invented by
Mr. Milne, Engineer, Ilutchesontown, Glasgow, by which a board of the ordinary
width, and twenty feet long, can be reduced to an equal thickness, planed perfectly
smooth on one side, and grooved on one edge and tongued on the other, in one minute.
This greatly lessens the labour of laying the boards down as floors, and insures the ad-
vantage of an even surface.
2010. Parquetted, or Inlaid, Floors took their origin fiom the circumstance of long
thin boards being liable to warp. The first and simplest kind of inlaid floor is formed
by using boards of three or four feet in length, and three or four inches in width, and
disposing of them as in fig. 1814. A second mode employs veneers three feet in length,
and from a quarter to half an inch in thickness, interlacing them so as to form a square
or panel, in the manner represented in fig. 1815; the smaller squares or quarries being
filled in with the same, or with a different kind of wood. A more refined description of
inlaying, which the French, call marquetterie, consists in the employment of different
colours, which are laid down in such a manner as to imitate mosaic work. The practice
1011' COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1814 1815 1S16
was first introduced in Florence, and it has subsequently been employed in most of the
great palaces of Europe. It has lately become fashionable in Britain) partly in conse-
quence of the recent inventions that have been made of machinery for sawing up
and planing wood, in which great improvements have been made since the first planing
machine was invented by General Bentham, about the beginning of the present century.
At the exhibition of the National Repository in 1829, a very handsome specimen of
inlaid flooring, fig. 1816 (from the Mech. Mag.), was exhibited by Mr. James White.
Each of the compartments, in this specimen, is formed of a different kind of wood, and
the colours are arranged so as to harmonise. Inlaid floors, when composed of different
colours, should never be entrusted to the sole management of a common joiner ; and
Architects need not consider them beneath their attention.
2011. Colour, next to the size and general proportions of a room, exercises the most
important influence on the eye of a spectator. Colour may be either communicated to
the walls by printed papers, by hangings of plain cloth or tapestry, or by painting. To
the ceiling it is, for the most part, only communicated in the latter manner ; and to
floors, in Britain at least, the carpet affords the principal medium of colouring. " A
handsome room may be quite spoiled by bad finishing, and by ill-chosen colours of the
walls and furniture ; and the defects of a poor one concealed, or at least much diminished,
by good management in this respect." ( Wood, vol. i. p. 451.)
201 '2. With respect to Hangings of Plain Cloth and Printed Paper, very little can be
laid down in the shape of rules that will not be included under the general principles,
and the rules drawn from them, taught by the art of painting or colouring apartments
generally. It must be confessed that this department of the art of interior decoration
has not been hitherto reduced to any regular theory, and that the subject appears to be
only understood by artists of a superior description, whose employment is necessarily
very limited. After consulting all the works that are considered the most valuable on
the subject of house and ornamental painting, we think that by far the best, and indeed
the only one that embraces principles, is a small work entitled the Laws of Harmonious
Colouring, fyc, by Mr. D. Hay, House Painter, Edinburgh. For the mechanical part
there is a very complete work, in a thick quarto volume, by Mr. N. Whittock, called the
Decorative Painter's and Glazier's Guide ; which also embraces the subjects of imitating
a great variety of woods and marbles, and of staining glass. From the former work we
have drawn the following paragraphs; but to understand the theory of house-painting
so as to be able to act on it, the reader must consult Burnet, Syme, Lairesse, Hassel,
Reade, Schimmelpennick, &c, including an able article on painting in Brewster's
Encyclapaidia. For varnishing, the most useful work is by Tingry.
2013. Harmony of Colours is produced by the juxtaposition of two colours, such as
red or yellow, with an intermediate colour, such as orange, to unite them. " Harmony
consists more in the media which unite the several colours, than in the colours them-
selves ; and therefore, in completing the arrangement of colours for an apartment, a
neutralising colour, possessing the properties of both contrast and harmony, should be
introduced, in order to give keeping and repose to the whole. The colouring of rooms
should be an echo to their uses. The colour of a library ought to be comparatively
severe ; that of a dining-room grave ; and that of a drawingroom gay. Light colours
are most suitable for bed-rooms. The colouring of all rooms depends so much for its
effect on the colour of the furniture, that this ought always to be known to the decorator,
before he determines his system of composition."
2014. Defects in the Colouring of Rooms. " The first and most obvious defect in the
colouring of rooms is, when there is no particular tone fixed on for an apartment ; that
is, when one part of the furniture is chosen without any reference to the rest, and the
painting done without any reference to the furniture. This generally produces an in-
congruous mixture; and is, in comparison to a tastefully decorated apartment, as far as
INTERIOR FINISHING OF VILLAS. 1015
regards colouring, what a child produces with its first lx>x of paints, to the work of a
great master. A second and more common fault i> the predominance of some bright
and intense colour, either upon the walls or floor. It is evident that the predominance
of a bright and overpowering colour upon so large a space as the floor or wall of a room
must injure the effect of the finest furniture. This great error often arises from the
difficulty of choosing a paper hanging or carpet, and our liability to be bewildered
amongst the multitude of patterns which are produced ; the most attractive of which, on
a small scale, are often, from this very circumstance, the more objectionable in regard to
their forming a large mass in an apartment; particularly as the artists who design them
seem to be regulated by no fixed principles ; but, from their repeated deviations from the
established rules of harmony, appear to give themselves up to the vague pursuit of
novelty alone. A third error is, introducing deep and pale colours, which may have been
well enough chosen in regard to their tints, but whose particular degrees of strength have
not been attended to. Thus, the intensity of one or more, may so affect those whicl
they were intended to balance and relieve, as to give them a faded and unfinished ap-
pearance. This may proceed from applying the fundamental laws without any regard
to the minutiae ; for although it is always necessary to subdue and neutralise such colours
ns are introduced in large quantities, yet, when they are reduced by dilution alone, the
effect is very different. There is a fourth defect, and rather a common one, and that is.
a want of the media which unite and harmonise an assemblage of bright colours which
may, in other respects, be perfectly well arranged ; for it is a rule in the higher branches
of the art, that confusion of parts of equal strength should always be avoided. A room
of this description resembles a Chinese landscape, where foreground and distance are
jumbled together. An opposite effect to this Is monotony, or a total want of varietv ;
for some are so afraid of committing errors in point of harmony, that neutral tints alone
are introduced, and sometimes one tint of this kind alone prevails. Variety is a qualitv
found to exist in the most trifling as well as in the grandest combinations of Nature's
colouring; and it is, as already observed, in uniting and making an arrangement of
various colours, harmonious and agreeable to the eye, that the skill of the house-painter
chiefly consists. It is this which produces what Ls termed repose in a picture, a qualitv
equally desirable in the colouring of an apartme .
2015. Requisites for good Colouring. '■ All colours brought together, to form an
agreeable whole, should be considered not only in regard to tint, but tone, depth, quan-
tity, and situation. The tone is the first point to be fixed, and its degree of warmth or
coldness will be regulated by the use, situation, and light of the apartment. The next
point is the style of colouring, whether gay, sombre, or otherwise. Unison, or a proper
combination of parts, is the next consideration."
2016. Tfie Tone of Colouring " is generally fixed by the choice of the furniture ; for as
the furniture of a room may be considered, in regard to colouring, in the same light as
the principal figures in a picture, the general tone must depend upon the colours ot
which it is composed : for instance, if the prevailing colour of the furniture be blue, grev,
cool green, or lilac, the general tone must be cool ; but if. on the other hand, it is red,
orange, brown, yellow, or a warm tint of green or purple, the tone must be warm. But,
as hinted before, there can be no pleasing combination of colours without variety ; this,
by judicious management, may be given without in the least interfering with the tone,
for it is merely the general colour of the furniture which ought to fix the tone, and there
may be the most decided contrasts in its parts, which, by the introduction of proper tints
u;>on the other parts of the room, can be reconciled and united. Apartments lighted
from the south and west, particularly in a summer residence, should be of a cool tone ;
but the apartments of a town house ought all to approach towards a warm tone ; as also
should be such apartments as are lighted from the north and east of a country residence.
When the tone of an apartment is therefore fixed by the choice of the furniture, it is the
business of the house-painter to introduce such tints from the ceiling, walls, &c, as will
unite the whole in perfect harmony ; and this it may be observed, is a difficult task.
The colours of the furniture may be arranged by a general knowledge of the laws of
harmony ; but the painter's part can only be done by the closest attention to all the
minutias of the art."
2017. T7ie Style of Colouring ■ is the next point to be fixed, and will depend entirelv
on the use of the apartment. In a drawir.groom, vivacity, gaiety, light, and cheerfulness
should characterise the colouring. This is produced by the introduction of light shades
of brilliant colours, with a considerable degree of contrast, gilding, &c. ; but the brightest
colours and strongest contrasts <=bou'd be upon the furniture, the effect of which will
derive additional value and brilliancy from the walls being kept in due subjection,
although, to a certain extent, they 2iso should partake of the general lightness."
2018. The characteristic Colouring of a Dining-room " should be warm, rich, and
substantial ; and, where contrasts are introduced, they should not be vivid. This
lOlt) COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
style of colouring will be found to correspond best with the massive description of
the furniture: gilding, unless in very small quantities, for the sake of relief, should be
avoided."
2019. Parlours " ought to be painted in a medium style between that of a drawing-
room and that of a dining-room."
2020. For Libraries, " the most appropriate style of colouring is solemn and grave,
and no richer colouring should be employed than is necessary to give the effect of gran-
deur, which can scarcely be done where one monotonous tint prevails ; but care should
be taken not to disturb the quiet and solemn tone which ought to characterise the colour-
ing of all apartments of this description."
2021. In Bed-rooms a light and cheerful style of colouring is the most appropriate.
A greater degree of contrast may here be admitted between the room and its furniture,
than in any other apartment ; as the bed-curtains, &c, form a sufficient mass to balance
a tint of equal intensity upon the walls. There may also, for the same reason, be ad-
mitted gayer and brighter colours upon the carpet.
2022. Staircases, Lobbies, Vestibules, fyc., " should all be of rather a cool tone ; and the
style of colour should be simple and free from contrast. The effect to be produced is
that of architectural grandeur, which owes its beauty more to light and shade, than to
any arrangement of colours. Yet they ought not to be so entirely free from colour as the
exterior of a mansion, but should be in colouring, what they are in use, a link between
exterior simplicity and interior richness. Staircases and lobbies, being cool in tone, and
simple in the style of their colouring, will much improve the effect of the apartments
which enter from them." (Hays Harmonious Colouring, p. 28.) We strongly recom-
mend Mr. Hay's work to every painter who aims at excellence in his profession, and to
every amateur who wishes to judge for himself. To those who are at such a distance
from Mr. Hay as not to be able to employ him, we would suggest the idea of sending
him descriptions of their rooms, with the kind of furniture, hangings, and carpets which
they are intended to contain, the mode of lighting, proportionate surface of pictures, &c,
and to procure from him directions for proceeding, together with specimens of the dif-
ferent tints which he would recommend to be employed. Next to this we would recom-
mend applying to an eminent scene-painter. This is the practice in Paris. In London,
the house-painter of the greatest taste that we know is Mr. Fair, of Mortimer Street,
whom we can strongly recommend.
2023. The Arabesque is a description of fanciful ornament, comprising a great variety
of objects, brought together apparently without order or reason. Though it chiefly
belongs to the Italian style, yet it is applicable to any manner of finishing; because
the objects, brought together, may always be chiefly taken from the style of Architecture
employed, and from natural objects. At first sight of an arabesque, the mind of a
person unaccustomed to see this description of ornament, is apt to ask, what can be the
meaning of such a composition ? The answer, according to Quatremere de Quincy, is
to be found in the natural love of mankind for the marvellous. Man is not able to
create any particular object, but he can create combinations of objects already existing.
He can bring together objects which are never found together in nature ; he can compose
plants and animals different from any plants or animals now existing, by joining the parts
of one animal or plant to the parts of another ; or by joining parts of animals to parts of
plants. In short, the composition of arabesques is a capricious exercise of the imagin-
ation, by an artist whose mind is richly stored with ideas, and whose hand has great
facility with his pencil. Nevertheless, in all this, the same author observes, there must
reign a certain comparative regard to truth, and to the production of a harmonious
whole. Lor example, the most delicate foliage must not be represented as supporting
an object of great weight ; solid bodies must not be shown as hanging in the air ; in every
thing, possibility must be kept in view, and the whole must express a unity of purpose,
and a harmony of lines, forms, and colours. No one ought to attempt the arabesque,
whose mind is not fertile in resources, and whose pencil is not apt in delineating every
description of object. The term arabesque, the author quoted has shown, is erroneously
applied to ornaments of this description ; for, so far from their having been invented by
the Arabs, they were found on the walls of the ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii ; and,
indeed, the Arabs are forbidden by their religion to imitate the figures of men or
animals. In short, this mode of varying the forms of natural objects is seen more or
less in all architectural sculptures; and, indeed, in all imitations of nature, not intended
to be fac similes, or scientific representations, of animals or plants.
2024. Egyptian Ornaments. Mr. Hope recommends young artists " never to adopt,
except from motives more weighty than a mere aim at novelty, the Egyptian style of
ornament. The hieroglyphic figures, so universally employed by the Egyptians, can
afford us little pleasure on account of their meaning, since this is seldom intelligible : they
can afford us still less gratification on account of their outline, since this is never agree-
INTERIOR FINISHING OF VILLAS. 1017
able ; at least in as far as regards those smaller details which alone arc susceptible of
being introduced in our confined spaces. Real Egyptian monuments, built of the
hardest materials, cut out in the most prodigious blocks; even where they please not the
eye, through the elegance of their shapes, still amaze the intellect, through the immensity
of their size, and the indestructibility of their nature. Modern imitations of those won-
ders of antiquity, composed of lath and plaster, of calico, and of paper, offer no one
attribute of solidity or grandeur to compensate for their want of elegance and grace, and
can only excite ridicule and contempt."
2025. Gilding, as forming a part of decoration, is a subject on which there is some
diversity of opinion. All, however, arc agreed, that its effect in interior finishing is
rich and magnificent beyond that of any other material. The richness seems to arise,
in a great measure, from the actual value of the gold, or the associations of value con-
nected with it ; because, in Architecture, as in all other arts, where two objects are equally
beautiful in regard to forms and lines, that will be most esteemed of which the material
is of the greatest intrinsic value. The magnificence appears to result from the brilliancy
of the colouring. Merely as a colour, therefore, gilding appears desirable where the
furniture of a room consists of rich-coloured woods. Where there are a number of
different-coloured marbles, and white cornices, with crimson or orange curtains, gilding
is a great addition. " Gilding, or a small portion of bright yellow," that excellent prac-
tical artist Hay observes, " will be found to heighten the effect of a room, wherever scarlet
is the prevailing colour." (p. 53.) Hence we find that artists generally prefer a crimson
or scarlet ground for the wall on which their gilt-framed pictures are hung.
2026. Plating or Silvering may sometimes be used in decorating rooms ; but the prac-
tice is by no means general. A correspondent informs us that a gentleman residing in
the neighbourhood of Edinburgh made the experiment on an extensive scale, at con-
siderable expense. He furnished a drawingroom with pale green, as the prevailing tii-t,
the hangings and furniture were silk damask, and the walls were covered with plain flock
paper. The mouldings and picture-frames were silvered, and likewise the door handles,
and some other matters. The effect was not satisfactory to most observers, who said
that the room had a raw look by daylight; and that, by artificial light, the picture-
frames, &c, appeared as though they were formed of tin or pewter, not well scoured.
2027. As an Example of the Finishing of a Room in a new style, we shall quote, from
a letter of Mr. Robison, an account of his own drawingroom, " I have lately ven-
tured to try an experiment in the finishing of my principal drawingroom, and I send
you the particulars, because they coincide in a curious manner with much of what your
correspondent Selim recommends, in his description of the interior of Eeau Ideal Villa.
In the first place, there are only three colours throughout the whole ; viz., white (or
rather new-milk colour), pure crimson, and green. The ceiling, cornices, woodwork,
and canopies of the window hangings are white, enriched with gilding ; the hangings
(silk damask), the ground of the walls, and that of the carpet, crimson ; and the pattern
on the carpet a sort of tracery of creeping plants in shades of green. The chimnev-
picce is of white marble, reaching nearly to the ceiling, with a panel, equal in width to
the opening of the chimney, filled with mirror, as in fig. 1817. The walls are 13 feet
3 inches high, and are painted in imitation 1817
of morocco leather, enriched with roses in
gilding, shaded by hand ; the whole var-
nished with copal. The woodwork (there !
is no dado or surbasc) is flat white, with the
convex mouldings gilded (in oil gold, and
varnished). The painter's work was done
by a most ingenious artist here, a Mr. D.
It. Hay, who has written a very instructive
work (before quoted) on the laws of harmo-
nious colouring as applicable to house work.
The imitation of morocco has been most
successful ; so much so as to deceive a book-
binder, who enquired where such enormous
skins were to be obtained. The window
hangings are of the simplest form ; mere
large curtains, without draperies or fringes.
They hang in vertical lines, and catch no dust. They run on gilt wooden poles, 5 inches
in diameter, a in fig. 1818, having two slips of brass beading (such as is used by
coachmakcrs) laid along the top, so that the curtain rings, b, run on the poles without
injuring the gilding ; the curtains are hooked on at c, in the usual manner. This
arrangement is better than having brass poles, and makes little noise. In the inside
of the Canopy or cornice (from which the large pole advances far enough to allow room
C a
1018 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
for the rings to p;iss free) is a common French curtain-rod, on which runs a very fine
hut plain muslin sun-curtain, edged witli crimson cherry fringe. The 1818
cords for drawing the curtains, instead of being concealed, are made very
conspicuous, and contribute much to the general effect. They are about
the thickness of half an inch, of plaited worsted cord, with handsome
terminations. They run on sheaves of 6 inches in diameter, let into the
knobs at the extremities of the poles, and are long enough to admit the
ends to be reached by the hand in the extreme positions of the curtains,
when, of course, one is shortened and the other lengthened to the extent of
the width which the curtain has traversed. The long end is then looped
upon the bracket which confines the curtain. The idea of this arrangement
was suggested to me by an old picture. The whole of the crimson in the room is, as near
as practicable with the different materials, of the same hue; the lake for the walls having
been first procured, and the silk and worsted dyed to match it. From this circumstance, and
from its being contrasted by the green, and relieved by the white and gold, it has no more
of a predominant hue in the arrangement than is perfectly agreeable ; while it gives great
distinctness to the pictures, and a general air of warmth and comfort, without appearing
glaring or gaudy. In the design and construction of every thing in the room, the aim
has been, to avoid harbourage for dust, and to reduce to a minimum the time required
for keeping it in order. If this principle were kept in view by cabinetmakers and
upholsterers, we should be spared the sight of such a variety of meaningless draperies and
dirty finery as are constantly exhibited; and which, although often of flimsy and com-
mon materials, are made to cost more than properly made furniture, of materials of the
best and most lasting description. The room your correspondent, Selim, mentions at
Earlstoke must have been delightful. Titian could not have produced more harmonious
colouring ; the drawingroom proposed with bright blue hangings would be difficult to
carry through ; as the tints which would be required to make a regular optical harmony
by daylight would show quite different by artificial light, which has so little of the
yellow part of the spectrum in it, that even orange (the contrasting colour to the blue
of the spectrum,) would appear a dirty white by candlelight, while the blue would retain
all its clearness. I suspect it is from feeling this, that, in arrangements where delicate
blue is introduced as a principal colour, the contrast is generally sought in pure white
and gold."
Sect. III. Of the Fixtures and Fittings-up of Villas.
2028. The Fixtures and Fittings-up of villas include many articles already described
when treating of the fittings-up, &c, of cottages, farmhouses, and inns; never-
theless, there are a few articles remaining to be noticed, which we shall include in two
subsections.
Subsect. 1. Of the Fixtures and Fittings-up of Villa Offices.
2029. Tlie Kitchen. In the neighbourhood of Leamington, in Warwickshire, we
are informed, open fireplaces are entirely laid aside in the kitchens of a number of
villas. Instead of them, a fire is made in a furnace in the middle of a raised hearth
or brick bench : it is covered with a cast-iron plate, having an opening of about nine
inches in diameter, into which a lid is fitted. This lid is taken off when broiling is to be
performed, but at all other times it is kept on. Two flues pass from the furnace, one
to the right and the other to the left, and there is a damper to each flue, so that at any
time the whole of the heat can be turned into any one of the flues. There is also a third
flue, which communicates directly with the upright chimney, into which the whole of the
smoke and heat can be at any time thrown. To the right of the central fireplace, and
next to the fire, there is an oven, properly arranged for roasting meat ; beyond it, there
is another arranged for baking ; and farther on, a third, serving as a closet for keeping
articles hot. The fire, after having passed round these ovens, returns to the central
chimney in a flue with a cast-iron cover; on which cover stewing may be carried on in
different saucepans. The flue which passes out of the furnace to the left has a cast-iron
cover, which can be rendered sufficiently hot to boil articles, and here both boiling and
stewing can be performed. In returning, this flue passes round a boiler, which contains
a perpetual reservoir of hot water, and round a second oven for roasting meat. We have
been informed by a gentleman who has paid great attention to subjects of this kind, that,
in kitchens thus fitted up, there is a great saving of fuel and labour ; and that the heat
of the apartment is much less than in kitchens having open fireplaces.
2030. A Kitchen and its Appendages, as designed by Mr. Mallet. In fig. 1819, A
is the entrance to the kitchen from the dining-room, and from the two corridors, m m,
running parallel to it, and communicating wit li the housekeeper's, steward's, and butler's
rooms, and other servants' offices ; 15, the entrance to the scullery from the kitchen court ;
C, the kitchen, twenty-five feet by thirty feet ; I), the scullery, thirty feet by sixteen feet ;
FITTINGS-Ur OF VILLA OFFICES.
1819
1019
=/
E, the larder, sixteen feet by sixteen feet; F, the pantry, of the same size; G, refrigeratory,
under an open shed ; H, apparatus-room, sixteen feet by sixteen feet ; I, pastry-room ;
K, store-room ; and L, fuel-room, each sixteen feet by sixteen feet. The fuel-room is
divided into six bins for charcoal, coal coke, wood for lighting fires, common coal, coal
cinders, and coke cinders, or coke breize as the cinders of coke are usually called. " The
details of this plan are as follow : — In the kitchen, C, a a are large kitchen tables, which
are fixtures with cast-iron legs and oak tops ; each table has a row of large strong drawers
beneath, nine feet long by three feet three inches wide; b b are two long ranges of what
are commonly called ' stew-holes,' or apertures of various sizes in a cast-iron hot plate, for
the admission and application of various culinary vessels, all heated by one close fire or
small furnace at the end next the kitchen door. Beneath the flue which heats the
top plate and stew-holes may be placed a range of hot-closets for heating plates or other
things, or performing operations requiring a low heat ; c c are two plates, or hearths, on
which any large or wide vessels may be placed to boil, &c. ; beneath each is a cubical
oven, round which the flame of the fire or furnace, which is placed at the ends, y y, is
caused to play, and in these ovens such is the heat, that meat may be roasted, or baked,
by proper regulation of the tire. Dampers should be provided to all flues in kitchens, in
order that a perfect command of heat may be obtained. Both b b and c c may be about
two feet six inches wide ; the wall against which they are built should have a proper
cast-iron skirting, one foot above their top level ; d is a range of charcoal hearths or
grates, such as are in common use on the Continent. Each is simply a frustum ot
1020 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
an inverted quadrangular pyramid, terminated at the less end by an open grate, and
dropped into a square hole formed in a cast-iron or earthenware tabic t.> receive
it, as in 6g. 1820. They are especially used in Italy, and [have often watched the
dispatch and neatness with which cookery may be performed by this simple apparatus.
As a first-rate kitchen is but a kind of culinary laboratory, it is well to have such a uni-
versally available apparatus at hand ; as it can be used with elfect at five minutes' notice,
while every other kind of appa-
latus, except that for cooking by \V\CT\\ 182°
gas, requires some time to be put
into working trim. Charcoal, of
course, is the fuel used; which, un-
fortunately, involves the necessity
of having a hood over this appa- Vb ca t=j m □
ratus : tliis hood may be made of
wood, tin, copper, or iron, or it may be neatly and well made of earthenware tiles.
A table apparatus fitted up with gas burners for cooking, in a manner hereafter to be
more fully described, is shewn at e. The table itself is of cast iron, and underneath it
are several wrought- iron cylinders, made steam-tight, with manhole covers properly
secured for cooking, and particularly for making soup, by high pressure steam, generated
by the boiler placed in the scullery immediately behind. Soup can be made, by these
means, from almost any kind of bones (say those offish, for instance), superior, I think,
to any other."
9031. The Scullery, D. In this room, /is a large cast-iron sink for washing fish, and
vessels of different kinds; g is a similar sink, to be used solely for washing vegetables
(sec figs. 1259 and 1332). A flap-board may be added to/, for laying down plates and
dishes, when washed, to drain. Each sink has a supply, by cocks, of hot and cold water ;
// is the high pressure steam-boiler before mentioned : it is of wrought iron, cylindrical,
with hemispherical ends, two feet long, and ten inches in diameter, and the iron is nine
sixteenths of an inch thick. It may be worked to eight atmospheres, and should have two
safety valves, each one inch and a quarter in diameter : one of them should be locked up,
in order to render it inaccessible to servants. The steam from this boiler may be used
to warm the store-room occasionally ; i is an open boiler for boiling and cleansing the
cloths used in culinary operations, such as pudding-cloths, &c, which are not things that
should be sent to the general laundry. It is also to be made, by the circulation of hot
water, subservient to heating the apparatus-room, pantry, and larder, through the line of
pipes shown by the dotted line, x. This open boiler will also afford a supply of hot
water to both the sinks, /and g. The cleaning of cloths may be done by night, so as
not to interfere with the purity of the water by day. This boiler must be self-supplied.
There are two tables, k k, of considerable magnitude, on which culinary materials, when
first introduced from the kitchen court, may be laid. Large plate drainers may be
placed in the corners, z z.
2032. Tfie Fuel-Room, L, must have an external door, as shown at w, for the intro-
duction of fuel : it should be divided into bins of brickwork for the various kinds of
fuel.
2033. Apparatus- Room, H. This is a room in which bright copper vessels, and all
the finer utensils of the culinary art, should be kept. No vessels are so safe, in a poisonous
point of view, as glass ; and, if cooks were only a little better educated, almost any
operation at present performed in copper vessels might be done in glass, or porcelain,
over gas flames, charcoal, or hot air. If this idea were reduced to practice, an apparatus
room would be essential. It should contain a knife-cleaner, and a broad band of buff
leather, coated with fine emery, to clean the vessels with rapidity : this should be worked
by the foot. The room should be fitted up with shelves, racks, &c. ; and should have a
middling-sized table in the centre.
2034. Pantry and Larder, E and F. Both these rooms should be fitted up with
shelves, and drawers in abundance ; and a table, as large as convenient, should be placed
in the centre, on which should be fixed a pair of scales with weights. The windows
should have fly wirccloth, and be capable of giving abundant ventilation.
2035. The Store-Room, K, should be fitted up with shelves, drawers, books, &c. ; and
should have a table with drawers and fixed scales of various sizes. A desk and books
may be placed here, for the clerk of the kitchen, or head cook.
2036. Pastry-Room, I. This room is devoted solely to making and baking pastry.
It has a large capacious oven of brick, cased in cast iron ; and must have abundant
ventilation. A table and scales must also be provided for Ibis room, and various ovens
may be suggested; but I think one on the plan of the common confectioner's oven as
good as any.
2037. General Construction. The kitchen, scullery, fuel-room, and pastry room should
FITTINGS-UP OF VILLA OFFICES
1021
be flagged with Yorkshire or Scotch flagstone, rubbed smooth, and given one coat of oil,
to prevent grease from marking it. The store-room, larder, pantry, and apparatus-room
should be hoarded. The kitchen court should he flagged; and it should have a good fall
from the kitchen to a drain with an air-trap. The kitchen itself should he lighted hy
skylights, as this mode throws the light best into open vessels. The roof may be constructed
as shown in the vertical profile, fig. 1821, and in the elevation, fig. 1822. The top, a, is
Nil
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II
;
!
0
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1821 <i
— 1
ErEE
M\\
M
III
i
i
111
a copper flat platform, surrounded by a continuous skylight of rolled sash-bar, like the
roof of a hot-house, with principals strong enough to support the weight of the platform.
There should he large opening ventilators below the cornice of the building, as shown
at b ; there should also be a large gas burner in the centre of the kitchen, with several
over the hot hearths, &c, and in each other apartment one, except the scullery, which
should have four at least. In building the kitchen, as many flues should be provided as
possible, which may either join into one stack, or be carried up separately according to
convenience ; but none should be less than forty feet high, and they should not terminate
under any large or very close building. In the scullery, both plate-drainers should be
enclosed in front and at top with wooden casing, one end being placed against the outer
wall, through which there should be a large aperture opening into the case, and covered
with fly canvass; and the other end, that is, that opposite, should be likewise only covered
with canvass. The casing should have doors in front, to take plates and dishes in and
out : by these means, a current of fresh air will always be rushing in through the plate-
drainers, which will, in a very short time, dry the plates perfectly. The chief ventilation
to the scullery and kitchen should be through these plate-drainers. A large heavy
block of wood should stand in the scullery, like an anvil block, for pestles and mortars to
be used on ; and, besides this, a heavy chopping-block, with a cover to keep the dust from
it, for meat. Above each of the main cooking apparatus should be placed some small
racks and shelves, in order that the cooks may have always at hand such utensils, as forks,
ladles, spoons, plates, &c, as are necessary for immediately removing matters cooked.
2038. The Walls of the Kitchen, for seven feet high from the ground, should not be
plastered, but built of rubbed sandstone, and left bare ; because plastering is continually
broken in such situations, looks ill when greased, and, if whitewashed frequently, is con-
tinually scaling off" in small flakes, which fall into the cooking vessels, &c.
2039. A large Table should be appropriated solely to the purposes of dishing dinners
on ; and I would propose to make its surface of a sufficient number of two-feet wide
flat wrought-iron tubes, heated by means of hot water circulating in them, from the
waste heat of any of the neighbouring fires : an underground air tunnel should he pro-
vided, opening from the external air under this hot-water table, to be opened after the
dinner is taken to the dining-room, in order that this great heated surface may not
render the kitchen too hot.
2040. To prevent the Smell of the Kitchen from reaching the Dining-room various plans
have been proposed ; but the only effectual mode is, either wholly or in part, to ven-
tilate the kitchen by a current of air, from the direction of the dining-room passage,
and towards the kitchen ; and thus drive back the smell.
2041. A covered Shed, Veranda, or Passage, should be formed round the whole of the
kitchen buildings, on three sides, to keep off the sun in summer, and to serve as a place
for airing vessels, and for performing some of the coarser operations connected with
the kitchen.
2042. Among the Utensils of large Kitchens, a potato-washer by rotation may occa-
sionally be admitted ; and a sieve hung from a flexible pole in a large tub, with a constant
supply of water, for washing the softer vegetables, such as celery, &c, as in fig. 1823.
This is, in fact, a ready mode of sousing them, and is the only way to get the aphides,
etc., out of them ; unless, indeed, salt and water or lime water should be used, as
recommended in the first volume of the Gardener's Magazine.
2043. Evaporator;/ Refrigerating Apparatus, G. Most fluids of culinary use may be
vapidly cooled by means of certain little vessels, sold by ironmongers] on the principle oi
L022 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
the refrigerators used by brewers; but others, as jelly, cream, ice, &c., can only be
cooled by contact of cold fluids, or
solids, in a state of rest. For per-
forming this more effectually and
rapidly, fig. 1824 is proposed as a
kitchen fixture: a is a parallelo- 1823
piped pan of bright planished (a
planished surface is one first
polished, and then pressed by a
stamp with a smooth bright die)
tin for holding water, filled by
the cock, /;, emptied by c, and ar- ^
ranged to hold ice pails, &c. &c,
by immersion. From the upper
part proceeds a horizontal pipe
to a series of common one-foot flat wrought-iron pipes similar to those used for heating
bv hot water ; the other extreme of which is connected with the bottom of the tin
vessel, by the pipe d. The flat pipes are covered loosely over with patent felt, kept
moist by the dropping of a cock placed over it. The series of flat pipes is placed in a
draught of air, or in an artificial draught caused by a tunnel, leading to the ash-pit of any
furnace in the kitchen ; and thus such an evaporation is kept up on their surface as cools
the water in them; and, a circulation taking place, the fluids in the tin vessel are cooled
likewise. Thus, blancmange, &c, may be readily cooled in the height of summer."
2825
F1TTINCS-UI' ()!•' VILLA OFFICES.
10-23
2044. Mullet's Apparatus for Cooking by Gas Flame. " Annexed you have two or
three figures (figs. 1825 to 1829) of my ideas for cooking by gas flame; a tiling which
has long floated in my head, but which I have said nothing of, lest the folks should
.suppose me ' daft, ' as they say in your country. Some few years ago, I had occasien to
make some weldings of iron where it was an important object that the metal should
not be burnt away in the fire; and for this purpose I endeavoured to use a kind of huge
gas blowpipe. I got one made of the kind shown in fig. 182.5 as far as each jet is con-
cerned, but of a much larger size. In this figure, a is the air tube ; b, is the gas tube ;
c, the gas cock ; and d, an end view of the point of the blowpipe, in which e is the circular
orifice for the emission of air, and /that for the emission of gas. Mr. Daniell, of King's
College, London, has since published the same thing as new, and of his invention ;
however, I can establish priority by my laboratory journal. To proceed : the jet, or
blowpipe, is so made, that a current of atmospheric air is forced into the centre of the gas
flame, by which means the latter is converted into a blowpipe of great power. Instead
of a mere circle of gas-burners, I use a certain number of such blowpipe flames, arranged
as radii of a circle, as in fig. 1826, in which g is the air pipe, and h the gas pipe ; and
each of the branches to the jets from these pipes has four small collars of leather or stuffing
boxes, so that any one can be approached to, or withdrawn from, the centre of the circle,
or raised or lowered, as occasion may require.
Fig. 1827 is a sectional view of such an apparatus complete, in action ; a circular main
tube, i, supplies the gas to all ; and another, k, supplies the current of air, the means
for producing which I will describe hereafter. The article to be roasted, /, is suspended
from a bottle-jack, but with a swivel (such as those used by anglers) interposed; so that
it may be permitted to turn, or be stopped, the jack still going on, as may be required.
Above and below it are parabolic plated copper reflectors," m m ; the lower one with a
receptacle for dripping, n ; and the upper one with six or eight small discs of plate
glass, o o, inserted in proper places, to enable the operator to view the progress of coc-
tion. Each burner has a copper cone, p, placed so as to slide over it ; by which means,
besides the radiated heat convergent on the roasting matter, a current of hot air is con-
tinually urged against it, as shown more fully in fig. 1828. The upper reflector
is hung by balance weights, so as to throw up in a moment ; and, besides a
cock to each individual gas tube of each burner, there is a general one to each or
the air and gas main-tubes, so as to diminish the heat generally, or in any particular
spot.
1828
10^4 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
8045. The Advantages of this Arrangement over tlint of Mr. Ilicks, which yon
have described, § 1515, appear to me to be, a much greater economy in fuel
(as the waste heat from the upper re-
flector may he collected and conveyed
away in a tube, and applied for the
purposes of heating water, &c); per-
fect combustion at a greatly increased
temperature (viz., one sufficient to
melt wrought iron), without any
smoke ; the means of a more perfect
regulation, application, and adapt-
ation of the heat to any given sub-
stance ; a better form for the reflec-
tors, and less escape of heated air by them ; the application of copper funnels to
the burners, by which a continuous current of hot air is urged against the article being
roasted ; and the capability of adapting the cordon of burners to an irregular mass, at
equal distances every where.
2046. The Expense of this Apparatus is far greater than that of Mr. Hicks ; but
fewer sets of apparatus will answer by this than by that mode ; for the common circle
will only suit tilings of nearly the same size, while my apparatus may be applied to any
thing that can be admitted within it.
2047. The Current of Air may be producedby means of fanners, such as are occasionally
used for producing a blast on a large scale, in iron founderies. These are to be
worked either by a common jack, a smoke jack, or any other power at hand. The
fanners are simply a few vanes of sheet iron, revolving with great rapidity (1500 times per
minute) in a cylindrical case with a lateral aperture for the emission, and two others at
the axis for the admission of air, as in fig. 182!).
The vanes are set tangentially to the axis, and
so revolve, that, by communicating a centrifugal
force to the air in the cylinder, it is expelled at
a, and fresh air drawn in at b, to be, in its turn,
expelled likewise. Mr. Daniell proposed to
heat the air in a red-hot tube for the purpose of
this blowpipe, which would certainly be an im-
provement, and could readily be done by insert-
ing a tube in the kitchen fire.
2048. Blowpipe Flames for boiling or stewing
may be made on the same principles ; and those
described, only placed vertically, will do : all that
is necessary is, that several concentric alternate tubes of gas and air may be burnt. But
I do not conceive cooking generally by gas, in the present state of the gas manufacture,
and consequent high price of gas, economical ; I, however, esteem it admirably appli-
cable to cooking wildfowl, and similar exquisite morceaux of govrmanderie. When gas is
publicly made from the decomposition of water, and I think the time is not far distant
when that will be the case, it will be a cheap fuel for many purposes."
2049. Remarks. The foregoing very complete Design for a kitchen, and its appen-
dages, and machinery, is on too expensive a scale to be generally adopted ; but, once
understood, it will be easy for the Architect to reduce all its parts to a minimum ; or
to reduce the essential parts, and omit altogether such as may be totally unnecessary for
a villa on a very small scale. We do not offer an opinion on Mr. Mallet's plan for cook
ing by gas, as compared with that of Mr. Hicks; but the more we see and hear on the
subject generally, the more we are convinced that the time is not far distant when cook-
ing by gas will become common in all towns where lighting by gas is employed. Our
correspondent, Mr. Itobison, informs us that Messrs. Steele, brothers, ironmongers, in
Edinburgh, are about to erect a kitchen for a gentleman in the neighbourhood of that
city, on the plan given in p. 714 of this work, but substituting gas stoves for the coke
fires, and adding a roasting and a baking oven, both heated by gas. A canopy is to be
put up over the cooking hearth, like the sounding-board of a pulpit, and its apex is to
be connected with a flue in the kitchen wall, by which means all the smells produced by
cooking will be carried away as fast as generated. Mr. Milne, an eminent brassfounder
in Edinburgh, who lias had great experience in fitting up gas apparatus both in England
and in Scotland, is of opinion that, in the city just mentioned, gas, in the better classes of
houses, will soon take the place of coal fires, not only for cooking, but also for beating.
We have lately seen not only roasting, but boiling and stewing, performed at Mr. Hieks's, .
and earthenware cones and radiating discs substituted for metallic ones, in a similar
manner to that suggested by Mr. Mallet. For broiling, a disc is substituted for a cone.
FITTINGS-UP OF VILLA OFFICES.
1025
A very complete plan of a brewery, which was fitted up in
2050. The Brewery
Mr. Vokins's Gre-
cian villa, fig. 1 599,
has been furnished ~
to us by that gen-
tleman. Fig. 1830
is the ground plan,
in which a is the
brew-house,having
an oven, B, on one
side, and two cel-
lars, C C, for ale
and beer, on the
other. I nthe brew-
house, A, z is a
dotted line indica-
ting the situation
of a gallery, by
which access may
be had to the two
boilers, a a; b is
the situation of the
mash-tub ; c, that
of a tub or cistern
for receiving the
wort, or decoction
from the malt, pre-
viously to its being
pumped up to the
boilers; d d, &c,
are coolers, or
shallow troughs,
on different levels,
falling by steps
from the boiler at
y to the working tun at x ; e, x are two working tuns
the direction of D E ; in which
f is the gallery ; g g, the two
boilers ; h, the mash-tub ; and i,
the under-back, or tub for re-
ceiving the wort when it runs
off from the malt in the mash-
tub. In the process of brew-
ing, the malt is brought through
the door, k, into the gallery, /,
and dropped down into the mash-
tub, h, into which boiling water
is introduced by means of the
two cocks shown in the boilers,
g g. When the decoction is
completed in h, the wort is let
down through a hole in the
bottom of that tub, to the tub,
i, from which it is pumped up
to the boilers, boiled in them, and
then let off by cocks to the cool-
ers, d d, from which it passes
round nearly three sides of the
building to the tuns, e e, where
it is worked, and from these con-
veyed into the casks in the cel-
lars by a leathern pipe. In this
small building three hogsheads
can be brewed at a time; the
coolers being capable of hold-
ing that quantity when filled onlv
G K
Fig. 1831 is a section, taken in
1831
102G
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
to the depth of two Inches. Tin/ coolers arc eleven in number, and tit 1 1 from the boilers
to the tuns, each the depth of itself.
'20.) 1. A very complete Brewery, on a smaller Scale, lias been invented, and is now
manufactured, by .Messrs. Cottam and Hallen; of which fig. 1832 is the ground plan,
and fig. 183:3 the elevation. In these figures, a is the boiler, whicli holds one hundred
gallons; b, the gallery for examining the boiler, and working the pump; c, the coolers,
i ssa
seven inches and a half deep ; d, the mash-tub; e, the cistern for receiving the wort
from the mash-tub over it ; /; the pump for drawing up the wort to be boiled ; g, the
cock by which the boiled wort is let into the coolers; /;, a cock by which the hot water
from the boiler is let down through the first cooler into the mash-tub upon the malt ;
and i, a cock and tube, by which the wort when cooled is returned to the mash-tub
(after the grains have been removed from it), in order to be worked.
2052. Remarks. The first brewery is one of the most complete things of the kind
any where to be mil with on a similar scale; and the second, not less so, on a smaller
scale. The coolers, in the plan of Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, are of sheet iron, and
they are taken down and put up in very little time. The mash-tub, d, can also be re-
moved, so as to be out of the way when the brewhouse is used as a wash-house ; and
there is a cover to c for the same purpose. To save trouble, on first filling the boiler
with water, it may be poured into e, and pumped up.
2053. Drying Closets, Mr. Mallet proposes to form in a different manner either from
that described by us, § 306", or that adopted in the Derbyshire Infirmary, and in a
number of private laundries, as noticed in § 1466". He proposes to dry household
linen " by its revolution over copper drums, heated by filling them with steam, as in the
calico manufactories. The diagram, fig. 1834, shows at a the edge of a web of linen
passing over and under the rollers. The linen to be dried is laid on it at b; it then
FITTINGS-UP OF VILLA DWELLING-ROOMS. 1027
18:$'J
passes over and under the heated rollers, and is removed at c, having been dried in its
course; d is a roller pressed hard against the middle copper one, which is made strong
for the purpose. By these means the linen is mangled in its course of drying, so that
both operations are performed together. The linen web is contrived with endless
tapes, as in the patent printing machinery of Robson ; so that the piece of linen to be
mangled and dried may be carried over the rollers any number of times before it is re-
moved, when it is once settled. The details are not complex ; the steam goes into each
roller at the axis, which is a stuffing-box. There may be frames placed under the rollers,
to produce a current of air, and assist in the desiccation of the linen. The mangling
roller may be thrown out of gear at pleasure. The rollers at x merely sustain the linen
web. Two men's power would be sufficient to turn the whole machine, and one machine
would dry thirty or forty shirts, five or six pairs of sheets, or other matters equivalent
to that bulk at one operation. A boiler is indispensable in every laundry ; and that, by
having one of Perkins's linings, might be easily made to produce the steam both for
drying the clothes, and for beating the water for washing them." In the laundry at
Dunse Castle, near Dunse, Berwickshire, we saw in 1804, a mode of drying the family
linen, which was somewhat similar to this, and was found to succeed perfectly. " In
great houses," a correspondent observes, " unoccupied bed-rooms are sometimes damp.
Mr. \V. Strutt had a compartment in the drying-closet in bis laundry, into which the
whole bedding of one bed (included in an open-sparred wooden frame) could be put,
like one of the clothes-horses. All the beds in his house were in turn aired in this way,
one or two being done each day that the closet was heated for other purposes."
Sobsect. 2. Of the Fittings-up and Fixtures of the Dwelling- Rooms of Villas.
2054. The Filtings-vp and Fixtures required for heating and lighting are those of
most importance in villas, as in every other dwelling; but we have not much to add to
what will be found in the sections on these subjects in our preceding books.
2055. Lighting Rooms by Gas has hitherto been chiefly employed in towns and suburban
villas ; but we have no doubt that, with the progress of improvement, it will be found worth
while to adopt it in all country villas, except those of the smallest size : for example, in all
those where more than thirty lights are required for the living-rooms and offices; and as it
is by no means improbable that gas may be soon employed not only for lighting, but for
cooking and heating, in that case it may become desirable for every villa to have a gasometer.
The saving in labour would be great ; but, what to us is still more gratifying to con-
template, it would render lighter and more agreeable the situations of cooks and house-
maids. It appears that the progress made in lighting private houses by gas has been
much greater in Edinburgh than in London ; though in the latter city there are some
houses (for example, that of Mr. Hicks, 18, Wimpole Street,) most beautifully and
perfectly lighted up with it. Our correspondent, Mr. Robison, speaking on this subject,
observes, " I have long looked on lighting by gas as the most elegant and comfortable of
all our domestic improvements. Every stationary light in my own house is of this sort,
and I have never experienced any inconvenience from it, except sometimes the heat ; and
that I have now done away with, by carrying away the hot air from the ceilings of the
drawingrooms between the lathing and the wall, through openings made over the archi-
traves of the windows, where they are concealed by the draperies. The walls and ceilings
of my drawingrooms are enriched by gilding, and there are multitudes of gilt frames, and
the draperies are of silk damask of a bright tint ; yet nothing has been injured by the gas,
although some part of the family use the rooms all the year round. The dining-room is
lighted by five argand burners, which have been in regular use since the year 1825, when
the ceiling was painted in cream-tinted flat oil colour, which is still as fresh in the middle
of the room as in other parts of it, and this could hardly be the case if any smoke
necessarily arose from the gas. 1 am aware that both the gas and the gas fittings are
better made in Edinburgh than in London ; but I am confident that, even as you are, you
might, by a little care, prevent almost all the inconveniences you complain of. Nine
1028 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
tenths of all the dirt and smoke produced from gas lights are from the careless way of
lighting the burners without taking oft' the chimneys (funnels). If the cock be fully
turned before the match be applied, the gas catches fire with a sort of explosion, and a
cloud of dense black smoke is formed : if this be repeated daily on a number of burners,
it is no wonder that a ceiling should become coated with soot in a short time. The
method I cause my servants to follow is this : every night, when the lights are put out,
the chimneys are taken off, and little metal caps are put over the burners to keep dust
from settling on their holes while not in use. When they come to be lighted next
morning, the caps are taken off, a match is applied, and the cock turned sufficiently to
let the gas just catch fire, but no more; the chimney is then set firmly in its place, and
the flame raised to two inches high, at which height, if your burners and chimneys be
properly proportioned in number of holes and area of openings for air, you have nearly
a maximum quantity of light in proportion to the consumption of gas." Fig. 183G is
one of the best and most easily managed burners and chimneys in use in Edinburgh.
In this figure, a represents the screw on which the burner is fixed ; b, the burner, drilled
with twenty-four holes ; or it may be drilled with thirty holes ; in which case, if the
funnel be diminished one fourth of an inch in diameter, it will burn most beautifully,
/
but the flame must be lighted and extinguished very gradually, in order to prevent
cracking ; c is the bell of the glass chimney, which is ground inside to the height of the
burner, in order to conceal it. A burner of this sort may be placed over each pier of a
chimney-piece, as in fig. 1835. Fig. 1837 is the gilt metal cap which is put over the
burner in the daytime, when the glass chimney is removed. In fitting up gas apparatus
in private houses, Mr. Robison observes, " great advantages result from having the
tubing and joints well executed, and of large capacity. Drawn block-tin tubing is the
best and safest. Copper tubing is much dearer, and is very apt to become leaky.
York cathedral is fitted up with copper tubing, which has been made of confined
diameters to limit the expense ; and, although it has cost much more than it would
have done if it had been fitted up with tin tubing of due capacity, it will not give the
FITTINGS-UP OF VILLA DWELLING-ROOMS. 1029
name satisfaction, and may even lead to accidents from leakage in the confined space of
the crypt, where the principal part of the tubing is laid."
2056. The Heating of the Rooms of Villas embraces the general heating of the air of
the house by a stove, or by a hot-water or steam apparatus, placed in the basement story,
whence the heat ascends into every part of the house ; and the heating by open fires, or
stoves of some kind, every particular room. We shall first notice a few of the plans for
general heating, and afterwards give one or two designs for open fireplaces.
2057. Among Stoves for general Heating, to be placed in the basement story, one of the
most powerful is Mr. Sylvester's, as used in the Derby Infirmary, and fully described in
his Philosophy of Domestic Economy. A substitute for this stove, which is employed in
the large mansions built by Mr. Thomas Cubitt, in the neighbourhood of Belgrave
Square, London, is formed entirely of cast iron, cast in lengths, which fit into each other,
without requiring screws or rivets, and which for the sake of durability, are upwards of an
inch in thickness. The construction is simply
a furnace, or closed fireplace, with an up-
right flue which rises to the height of five or
six feet above it ; then turns downwards as
low as the level of the fireplace, and next
turns up, and at a convenient height enters
the chimney flue. A stove of this kind
costs a good deal at first, but, being of great
thickness, it is very durable, and retains a
great body of heat. The fireplace being
small, the iron is never so heated as to de-
compose the water of the atmosphere; and
the whole is so strong, simple, and so easily
managed, that it cannot be broken, or put
out of repair by servants. One of the
greatest objections to all new stoves, and
other improvements which are to be managed
by servants, is their liability to be injured or
put out of order by them ; partly from their
extreme ignorance of the nature of the ob-
jects to be taken care of, but chiefly, we
believe, from their carelessness, and that
utter disregard for the interest of their em-
ployers, which is the consequence of the
great distance at which they are kept, and the manner in which they are treated ; evils
which can only be
cured by the universal
diffusion of education,
and the comparative
equalisation of wealth.
2058. The German
Stove is one of the
most economical which
can be used for general
heating ; but it is
troublesome to build
or repair, in countries
where the generality
of bricklayers are un-
accustomed to it. Ger-
man stoves are re-
markably well put up
by a London stove-
builder, Mr. Selane,
Vauxhal Road, who
has furnished us with
the plan, fig. 1838, and
the section, fig. 1839.
In the former, a is the
furnace ; b, the first
column of smoke-flue
which rises to the
height of six or eight
1030 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
again rising by d, descending by e, :md finally rising by f,
1839
feet, and descends by
whence it passes into
the chiinncy-fiue. The
walls of the partitions
of this flue are of brick
on edge ; and the
bricks used are of a
particular finality, ob-
tained by washing the
clay, and mixing it
with fine sand, which
admits of their being-
cut, or sawn, so as to
form the dovetails
shown in the plan, fig.
1838. The air is
heated in the spaces
between the smoke-
flues, it entering at g,
inthesection, fig. 1839,
and passing off' into a
trunk, or other means
of dispersion, at h.
These stoves are both
agreeable and econo-
mical, and they may be
designed in the most
architectural forms.
Some, built by Mr.
Selane, who also ma-
nufactures a very beau-
tiful description of
vases, and other or-
naments in artificial
stone, have the outside
casing of that material ;
and these are well
adapted for entrance
halls and staircases. It
must be confessed, how-
ever, that in countries
where coal is the prin-
cipal fuel, the flues of
German stove become
so soon coated with
soot, that they either
do not give out the ne-
cessary supply of heat,
or they require to be cleaned (which cannot be done without the aid of a bricklayer) so
often as to add greatly to the expense of using them. In Germany, where wood is
always employed for fuel, and consequently for heating these stoves, they are found to
answer admirably. In Britain, the best substitute for wood is coke. In most cases, we
should prefer a hot-water or a steam apparatus, for the general heating of a house ; but
still there are situations in which a brick stove may be found most eligible, and under
such circumstances we know of none equal to that of Mr. Selane.
2059. Nott's Stove may either be used for general heating, or for the heating of single
rooms. The following description of this stove has been sent us by Mr. Nott : — " The pro-
duction and the application of heat arc two distinct processes, requiring distinct arrange-
ments and localities in the construction of a stove. The producing part of any apparatus
may be considered as a prism, or cylinder, of about thirty inches in height. The interior
is composed of fire-brick, and the exterior of iron. The cavity for receiving coals is nearly
twenty inches in height, rising from a base of six inches by seven inches, or ten inches,
as the case may be. The coals arc put in at the top, and rest upon a grating of peculiar
construction. It is intended that the coals should be ignited at the bottom, and the
draught is through a lateral outlet immediately above the grating. Three fourths of all
the fuel lies above this outlet, and, as the draught is not up through the incumbent fuel,
FITTINGS-UP OF VILLA DWKLLINCi-UOOMS.
1031
this part (llie three fourths) will not become ignited; but will remain as a supply to the
(ire; gradually becoming heated, and gradually sinking down to supply the place of the
lower portion which has been consumed. )>y elongating this chamber at its upper
extremity, it is apparent that this principle may be carried to any extent ; and that a
reservoir of coal may he formed, which will supply a continuous fire, for ten, twelve, or
any number of hours, or even days, if necessary. Upon the top of this pile of heating
coal there is placed a movable ceiling; consisting of an iron or brick slab, which
descends as the pile of coal sinks. The effect of this movable ceiling is, to keep the air
that enters through the crevices of the stove from acting upon the coal lying above the
outlet ; either by cooling it, or by supplying it with the means of combustion. The
foregoing arrangement insures the continued supply of heated coal, after an hour or two
has elapsed ; and the next thing to he pointed out is the contrivance by which a constant
supply of heated air is obtained lor supporting combustion. This last is a condition of the
greatest importance ; for a much greater amount of heat is produced by burning hot coals
with hot air, than by an opposite arrangement. The grating before mentioned, as sup-
porting the coals, is of peculiar construction. It consists of thin bars which are segments
of circles bolted together ; and the whole, when bolted, is sustained by an axle protruding
through one side of the heat producer, or fuel-chamber. To this protruding end of the
axle, a winch is applied ; so that the grating may be either rocked from side to side, and
thus sift the ashes into the ash-drawer beneath ; or else it may be turned round, and thus
empty the fuel-chamber of its contents. The meshes of the grating, being thin and
numerous, present a great extent of heated surface ; by passing over which the air is
heated as it enteis the stove. In one word, this rotatory grate approaches as nearly as
possible fo the wire gauze of Davy's safety lamp, and its operation is precisely the con-
verse of that of the wire gauze. In the lamp, the flame is cooled as it issues through
the meshes of the gauze ; in my stove, thp air is heated as it issues through the numerous
insterstices of the grating. In the front of the fuel-chamber is. placed a fine vertical
grating, covered with a sash glazed with talc, of several inches square, by means of which
1032 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1842
the fire is seen, although burning in a close stove. Having shown in what manner heat
is produced by this stove, it remains for me to describe the receiver, or that portion of it
by which heat is applied. The receiver is connected with the fuel-chamber, at the
lateral outlet before mentioned. It is made of iron, and sometimes consists of one vertical
tube, sometimes of numerous parallel and vertical tubes, and sometimes of one or more
tortuous tubes or pipes. Hut, whatever may be its form, three things are uniformly
observed in its structure ; viz., to expose the greatest possible surface to the cooling
agency of the air, to govern the extremity of the tube with a damper, which has the
double office of regulating the rate of burning, and of compressing the elastic contents to
facilitate the escape of the heat; and, lastly, to attach a ventilator, which, upon being opened,
allows the air of the room to enter the receiver, and thus at the same moment cools it
and ventilates the room. A review of the foregoing imperfect description, and an exa-
mination of the stove itself, will convince every one of the novelty of its structure. It
differs materially from the furnace of Watt, and that of Perkins; the only ones to which
it has any resemblance, even in shape. As a practical proof of the soundness of the
principles here detailed, it may be mentioned, that stone coals, and even black lead, burn
with freedom in these stoves, though with only a moderate draught, while the same
description of fuel requires an intense draught to be imperfectly consumed in ordinary-
stoves." Figs. 1840 and 1841 are perspective views of two forms of Nott's stove, suit-
able for situations where height can be obtained. Fig. 1840 is six feet nine inches high,
two feet wide in front in the lower part, and one foot seven inches thick, and costs ten
guineas. Fig. 1841 is six feet four inches high, one foot five inches and a half wide, and
one foot five inches and a half thick; and costs eight guineas. Fig. 1842 is a form
adopted in situations where much
height cannot be obtained, or as a
handsome substitute for an open
fireplace : it is three feet one inch
high, two feet nine inches wide, and
one foot two inches thick; and costs
twelve guineas. Wherever an iron
stove is to be used, we are inclined
to believe that this will be found
the most economical : it is decidedly
the most scientific in its construc-
tion, and, having had one of them in
use for a short time, we can assert
that the shining of the fire through
the talc window has a very cheerful
appearance.
2060. Other Stoves might be men-
tioned, possessing different degrees
of merit. One, in the form of a vase,
invented by Burges, and manufac-
tured at Birmingham by Gough and
Rowan, has been strongly recom-
mended, as showing the fire, and
radiating heat through openings in
the cover of the vase, yet not heating the iron so strongly as to decompose the water
in the air of the room. The common Dutch stoves, formed of thin plate iron, and covered
with a casing of the same material about an inch distant from the stove and its tube, we
know to be very economical and effective, where charcoal, or fuel which burns well and
produces very little smoke, is used. By means of the casing, a continual current of air
is kept passing over the heated surface, and thus rapidly carries off the heat, and dis-
perses it through the room, or wherever it may be desired.
2061. Moser's open Fireplace for Rooms we consider one of the very best that has been
invented. Fig. 1843 is one of the plainest kind of these grates, which we have had in
use in our library for upwards of five years, to our entire satisfaction. The fluted back
and sides of the fire-chamber are formed of fire-clay in four lumps: two of these, which
enclose the lower part, are thicker than the others, and form a secure basis for them to
stand on, without any description of fastening. These blocks are manufactured by
Tatnell, Whitecross Street, Southwark, London, at the rate of 46s. for a fireplace of the
dimensions of that figured. They are also manufactured at Stourbridge, and may be
made wherever fire-loam or fire-clay (which is an argil very free from sand) can
be procured. Our fireplace was furnished by Mr. Methley, ironmonger, of Frith Street,
London, successor to Mr. Moser. The card-case shown over the mantel-shelf may be
worth the notice of Architects and other professional men. The lower range of divisions
FITT1NGS-UP OF VILLA DWELLING-ROOMS. 1033
is for the cards of tradesmen, which are generally large, and the upper for those of
private persons. On the small projecting shelf between them are placed the cards of
persons who have called in the course of the day, or of persons whose names and addresses
it may be desirable more particularly to impress on the memory.
2062. Sylvester's Fireplace exhibits one of the last improvements in this mode of gene-
rating heat. It pre-
sents a return to the
primitive simplicity
of making fires on the
hearth, but it has
joined to that sim-
plicity a beautiful ap-
plication of science.
One of the greatest
novelties in the ap-
pearance of this fire-
place, fig. 1844, is,
that it has no fender.
Fig. 1845 is the plan
of the fuel-chamber,
and a vertical profile
of the hearth ; in
which the latter is
shown composed of
radiating spokes of
cast iron, the narrow
extremities of which
serve as the bottom bars of the grate. Fig. 1846 is a section through the centre of
the fireplace, in which a is the broad part of one of the spokes mentioned; b, the narrow
6 F
1034 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
part forming the bottom grate of the fire ; c, the ash-pit, which is large enough to con-
tain the ashes made
during a week; d is
a piece of firestone,
or fire-brick, forming
the back of the fuel-
chamber ; e is an ori-
fice by which air enters
under each spoke to
the ash-pit, and, rising
up among the bars, b,
supports combustion ;
f is the hearth-stone ;
and g, cast-iron plates,
placed like luffer-
boards: which form the
back of the fireplace.
These plates are all
movable : and their use
is to regulate the draught, by dividing the current up the chimney. In ordinary cases,
the whole of the plates may remain as in the figure ; but where it is desired to increase the
draught of the fire, by taking out only two of these luflfer-plates at the bottom, next the
firestone, d, a draught will be created like that of a close furnace ; and hence it is, that
this fireplace will cure any smoky chimney whatever. In the ground plan, fig.
1845, it will appear that the two sides of the fire-
place, h h, are not in contact with the jambs, I, or the
back, m ; in consequence of which, much heat will be
radiated into the space n, and will pass into the room
through the openings of the sides, k k. The use of
the screen shown in fig. 1844 is to conceal the open-
ings between the fuel-chamber and the jambs ; yet,
at the same time, to admit of the free circulation of
the air. These stoves are of such very recent inven-
tion (1833), that little can be said respecting them
from experience. From theory these stoves appeared
to us superior to all other open fireplaces ; and we
accordingly (in 1833), had one of them, fig. 1844,
put up for our own use After above a year's trial,
however, we found several objections to it, and have
now (1835) replaced it with one of Methley's, of the
same general character as fig. 1 843.
2063. Chimney-pieces are conspicuous fittings-up of
the rooms of villas. As we have already given several
both in the Gothic and in the Grecian styles, we shall .
here only observe that of late they may be obtained J "-
of different kinds of marble, at much less expense
than formerly, in consequence of the application of
machinery to the sawing and polishing of that ma-
terial. In the London marble-works at Millbank,
Westminster, such chimney-pieces as those shown in
figs. 1843 and 1844, which cost us, at the trade price,
in 1824, seven and ten guineas, may now be obtained
for four and six guineas, and of better workmanship. Designs of greater intri-
cacy, and requiring much manual labour, such as those of the age of Louis XIV., which
abound in curved lines ; and those in the Gothic style, which abound in carving, are not
cheap in proportion : nevertheless, they are also now very much lower than formerly ;•
partly in consequence of the diminished price of manual labour, but principally on
account of the importation of many of the chimneys of Louis XIV.'s time, from France,
where they have been taken from the mansions of the decayed noblesse. America and
other countries might import such chimney-pieces, both from France and Italy, at a
very low rate ; or they might send designs to Genoa, Leghorn, or Bordeaux, and have
them executed in the native marbles of either country, at less than what Portland
stone costs in England. Some fine specimens of chimney-pieces in foreign marble,
at low prices, arc generally on sale at the richly stocked museum of Mr. Brown, the
scagliola manufacturer, in University Street, London. We recommend to young
Architects Mr. Robison's plan of having a sort of upper chimney-piece over the lower
one, for forming a frame to the mirror usually placed over fireplaces. The most magni-
FITT1NGS-UP OF VILLA DWELLING-ROOMS.
103.5
Fig. 1847 is a chimney-piece and
1347
ficent designs might he formed from this idea,
grate, furnished hy Mr.
Lamh ; the object of
which, he says, is " to
show what can be done
in the adaptation of
ancient forms to modern
customs. This grate
represents as nearly as
possible the andirons
and creepers (terms
for the dogs, or ii re-
irons, for supporting
logs of wood in open
chimney-pieces) used
for burning wood in
former times ; and it, at
the same time, possesses
all the lequisites for
burning coals." Fig. 1848 is a Design for a chimney-piece in the style of Louis XIV,
fitted up with
one of Sylvester's
open grates, and
with one of the
front screens re-
quired for those
grates, in the
same style. It
will be seen that
this grate differs
in some respects
from that shown
in fig. 1344, and
that two of the
luffer-plates are
removed. This
rich Design is
by Mr. Lamb.
Some hundreds
of marble chim-
ney-pieces in this
style, and in that
of Francis I.
(which differs from that of Louis XIV. chiefly in giving greater elevation to the chimney
openings), have been lately imported by Nixon and Son, Great Portland Street, London.
These upholsterers more particularly devote themselves to furnishing in the style of
Louis XIV. ; a style which, though unsuitable for persons in moderate circumstances,
yet, could we indulge in it, we woidd display in one room, as we would all the other
distinctive styles in so many different apartments. Our beau ideal of an amateur
Architect's house is, a display of all the styles of Domestic Architecture, that have ever
existed, in distinctive masses on the exterior ; and of all the styles of furnishing, that have
ever existed, in separate rooms in the interior. This would be to the Architect such a
practical school of his art, as the representative system of the whole vegetable kingdom,
which we have in our small garden at Bayswatcr, is of botany to the horticulturist.
There are few or no Architects, however, in the world, that could afford to indulge in
such a school ; but the idea may afford a useful hint to some wealthy citizen of America,
who may wish to leave a sort of architectural museum to his native town. We mention
America, because sucli a museum would be a much greater curiosity there than in
Europe ; and we suggest the idea of leaving it to a town, to prevent the risk of dispersion
in a country where, happily for the inhabitants, there are no laws either of entail or
primogeniture.
2064. The Ventilation of Booms is equally imperfect with the usual mode of heating
them ; because the air, being carried off by the chimney, can never be much changed
higher than the chimney breast. The whole of the stratum above this height must
remain, when fires are used, comparatively unchanged. To rerr.edy this evil, it is
requisite to have ventilators, concealed in the cornice or ceiling, communicating with
1030 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1849
18.TO
flues adjoining the smoke flues, in order to create a draught: a valuable addition to this
plan would be, to have the fires principally supplied with air from tubes descending to the
basement story, and opening there into a large air drain ; such tubes, of course, having
regulating cocks. The nearest approach to this arrangement seems to be that of
Mr. Sylvester's open fireplace; in which combustion is supplied from a thin stratum of
the heaviest air of the room, which slides along the floor. With Mr. Sylvester's open
fireplaces, and concealed openings for ventilation in the cornices or ceilings, connected
with flues, so placed alongside of other flues as to create a draught, the system of venti-
lation might, we think, be rendered as perfect as could
be reasonably desired. This, we know, was the opinion
of the late eminent Mr. Tredgold, with whom we have
had much conversation on the subject. ( Walk. Rem.')
2065. The Wainscoting of Rooms in the Gothic style
is a source of very great beauty, and might afford ex-
cellent opportunities for admitting fresh air, and with-
drawing that contaminated by respiration. In some
cases, pipes of steam or hot water are concealed behind
the wainscoting,
and clothed with
other tubes, in
order to heat the
room, without
showing the appa-
ratus, by creating
on the surface of
the inner tube a
current of heated
air, on the prin-
ciple of Mr. Per-
kins's lining to his
steam boiler. When the pipes are clothed, this mode
is very effective, but not so, as "Mr. Mallet has observed, when they are left naked. On
the whole, we prefer an imitation of wainscoting in plaster, painted to resemble oak, elm,
maple, or other wood, and introducing the heat in
ornamental vases or other vessels, as also suggested
by Mr. Mallet, and practised by him and others.
Fig. 1 849 is an ornamental panel, supplied to us by
Mr. Lamb, similar to those sometimes found in old
English mansions, which may be easily executed
either in plaster or wood. Fig. 1850 is an angle
for a panel for a dado, or door, &c, of oak; a very
neat manner of finishing in use among ancient
joiners. This has also been
furnished to us by Mr.
Lamb.
2066. Windows. Much
of the comfort as well as
the beauty of a room de-
pends on the manner in
which light is admitted to
it. Whenever the main
object is to display pictures,
the windows should never
be continued down to the
floor; because the light,
when reflected upwards on
the picture, is at the same
time reflected on the eye
of the spectator, and pre-
vents him from seeing it
to advantage. On the
other hand, in the case of
rooms on the ground floor,
where it is desirable that
the windows should open,
so as to admit of going out
1852
1851
FITTINGS-UF OF VILLA DWELLING-UOOMS.
1037
185S
on a terrace, or under a veranda, much of the comfort of the occupant will depend
upon these windows opening like doors, in what is called the French manner. The
mechanism of windows of this description has been carried to a high degree of per-
fection by Smith of Prince's Street, Haymarket, London. The great objection to
French windows used to be, the difficulty of making
them watertight, and even in some cases airtight ;
but these objections Mr. Smith has completely over-
come. Such windows have another advantage; viz.,
that they are easily kept clean by common servants.
Modes of fitting-in the upper sashes of windows so
that they may revolve on centres, and thus be easily
cleaned by servants from the inside, have been devised
by Saul, by Tuely, and others : for the details of the
first two methods, we refer to the Mechanics' Maga-
zine, vol. i. p. 265, and p. 337.
2067. The Doors to the principal rooms of villas
should be hung with Redman's or other rising hinges,
which are a great improvement, as they raise the door
so as to make it to pass freely over the carpet. For
outside doors to Gothic villas, Mr. Lamb has supplied
us with the binge, fig. 18.51; the doorhandle and
keyhole, fig. 1852; the door, or drawer, handle, fig.
1853; and the nail heads, figs. 1854 and 1855. It
is a great beauty in all buildings, but more especially
in villas, to have the outside doors formed of some
description of timber, which shall not require to be
painted. An entrance door of heart of oak, with the
handles and fastenings of iron, oiled, but not painted ;
or, what is preferable, of copper, left to be bronzed by
the atmosphere, every one must feel to be much more
architectural, and to convey a far greater idea of dura-
bility, than any description of material coated over with
paint. There are some other British woods, such as
chestnut, Scotch elm, and Highland fir, which might
answer for the same purpose ; and, among exotic woods,
there is the New Holland mahogany, which only costs
about double the price of deal, appears to be nearly as
durable as teak ; and is suitable both for outside and
inside work, without any paint whatever. Mr. Perry has used this timber for the
entrance door and the fittings-up of his own house; and he considers, that, as it requires
1854
no paint, it is ultimately as 1855
much cheaper than deal, as it is
unquestionably far handsomer.
2068. The hanging of Pic-
tures in Booms is sometimes
performed, in a clumsy manner,
by means of brass-headed nails
driven into the wall, in a line
immediately under the cornice,
from which the frames are sus-
pended by cords. There are
two improved methods, however,
of effecting this, the first of
which, as practised by Mr. Vokins, is as follows : — Fig. 1 856, a is a hollow iron rod or
rail, coated on the outside with brass gilt, of any required length, which is fixed or screwed
to the wall by means of plates, as at b b, at regular distances. The pulleys, c c, have a
broad hook, which fastens on to the rod or rail, and can be moved along it as the pictures
are required to be shifted to the right or left ; these pulleys have also small iron pins
to which one end of each of the cords which support the picture must be fastened.
Iron staples, e e, are screwed into the back of the picture-frame, having two holes in
each to keep the cords or lines apart, and the frame from pressing against them. Pulleys,
f f, are fixed to the bottom of the picture at each end ; and at g are male screws on which
brass ornaments, as at i, are fixed to hide the pulleys. It is evident that, by pulling the
cords h h, the picture may be raised to any height ; and may be moved along the rail,
either to the right or left, at pleasure. The second method, which is found to be
both neat and economical where numerous small pictures are to be suspended, is thus
1038 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1857
\b
described by Messrs. Cottam and Hallen : — Fig. 1857, a is an iron rod sheathed with
brass gilt, about three quarters of an inch in diameter, which is fixed to the wall by
kneed gilt studs immediately under the ceiling ; b is a rod of brass gilt, about half an inch
in diameter, and of such a length as to reach within about five feet of the floor ; c is a ball
or knob, about three quarters of an inch in diameter, which moves on this rod from one end
to the other, but which can be made fast in any position by the screw e, the head of which
serves at the same time as a hook on which to hang the pictures. It is to be observed
that the centre of this ball coincides with that of the diameter of the rod, so that it
keeps the latter at the distance of a quarter of an inch from the wall. The same effect is
produced by the knob d, at the end of the rod. When small pictures are to be
suspended, they may be hung by their centre of gravity one above another on a single
rod; but larger pictures should be hung on two rods, as shown aXf. By this mode of
hanging, neither the pictures nor the rods touch the wall in any part; and, as the
perpendicular rods may be moved along the horizontal ones, the position of the pic-
tures may be shifted at pleasure. That the movement may not be interrupted, it is
essential that the studs be kneed or angled, otherwise they will prevent the horizontal
movement of the hooks of the upright rods.
2069. On the Subject of Bell-hanging we have nothing to add to what has been
already mentioned, §590 and § 1473; and by Mr. Vokins in his description of his
Grecian villa, § 1858. The handles to bells may always be rendered highly ornamental.
2070. Water- Closets. " Where practicable, it is desirable that a communication should
pass from the ceiling of every water-closet to a flue in the wall of the house, so situated,
in respect to chimney-flues, that the warmth they impart should cause a rising current
of air from the closet. Where a flue is made from the ceiling of the kitchen to carry off
the heated air which accumulates there, it may sometimes be possible to lead the com-
munications from some closets into it. When the water-pipes of a house, leading to
these closets, are subject to being frozen, they should be placed in a flue or trunk through
which warm air may be ascending from some source likely to be constant ; or the main
pipe, before it begins to rise, may be made to take a few circuitous turns in a fixed boiler,
under which a fire may be kept in time of frost. The water in the boiler will of course
keep the pipe hot, and will communicate sufficient heat to water flowing through it, to
prevent accidents from freezing. If the boiler be large, and the coil long, heat enough
may lie given in this way to warm a bath, by regulating the supply cock so as to make
the batli (ill slowly. N<) accident can happen from the- heat while the cocks are shut."
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 103(J
Chap. VI.
Of the Furniture of Villas.
2071. In giving Designs for the Furniture of Villas, our object shall be more to exhibit
variety and display style, than to enter into the details of construction ; because the
patrons of this branch of Domestic Architecture require rather to have a direction given
to their taste, than to have sources of comfort and economy opened up to them. It is
almost unnecessary to observe that the principle of unity of expression requires that the
style of the furniture should correspond with that of the house ; but it cannot be super-
fluous to remind the reader, and especially the young Architect, of the necessity of the
building and furnishing of a house being under the control of the same mind, and that
this mind should be equally conversant with both departments.
2072. The principal Styles of Design in Furniture, as at present executed in Britain,
may be reduced to four ; viz., the Grecian or modern style, which is by far the most pre-
valent; the Gothic or perpendicular style, which imitates the lines and angles of the
Tudor Gothic Architecture ; the Elizabethan style, which combines the Gothic with the
Roman or Italian manner; and the style of the age of Louis XIV., or the florid Italian,
which is characterised by curved lines and excess of curvilinear ornaments. The first or
modern style is by far the most general, and the second has been more or less the fashion in
Gothic houses from the commencement of the present century ; since which period the third
and fourth are occasionally to be met with, and the demand for them is rather on the
increase than otherwise. Till the commencement of the present century, the most gorgeous
furniture in the great houses of England was in the style of Elizabeth, and made during
the reigns of Henry VIII., Elizabeth, and James I. ; or in the style of Louis XIV., and
made during the reign of Charles 1 1. All the gorgeous furniture in the great houses of
France, and all the most sumptuous altar-pieces in the churches, were made during the
reign of Louis XIV. In consequence of the first French revolution, and the recent
changes in the fortunes of many of the English nobility, much of the furniture of these
two styles, formerly almost exclusively used by the great, has been exposed to sale, and
consequently has attracted the notice of gentlemen of less opulence ; and this has called
into exercise a taste among them which had lain dormant for many years. Hence it is
that we have now upholsterers in London who collect, both in foreign countries and in
England, whatever they can find of curious and ancient furniture, including fragments
of fittings-up of rooms, altars, and religious houses ; and rearrange these curious speci-
mens, and adapt them to modern uses. Among these may be mentioned Wilkinson
of Oxford Street, Hanson of John Street, and Nixon of Great Portland Street, who
have curious collections ; made not so much with a view to gain, as from the pleasure
attending the pursuit of a favourite object. We have also a very curious work on the
subject of furniture, chiefly prior to the time of Queen Elizabeth, by Henry Shaw, Esq.,
an artist of great antiquarian research, and devoted to the subject of displaying to the
world the taste of our ancestors. The designs in this chapter for Grecian or modern
furniture have been almost entirely made by Mr. Dalziel, and, indeed, have been exe-
cuted in his manufactory ; those in the Gothic style have been supplied by Mr. Lamb ;
and those in the Elizabethan style by Mr. LamD and Mr. Shaw. We have given
but few designs in the style of Louis XIV., on account of the great expense of
carrying them into execution, and because we think a style distinguished more by its
gorgeous gilding and elaborate carving than by any thing else, unsuitable to the present
advancing state of the public taste. We should make nearly the same observations on
the style of Elizabeth, distinguished by its rude and grotesque carvings, were it not that
it is seldom necessary to manufacture objects in this manner, farther than by putting
together ancient fragments which may be purchased at the sale of old buildings.
Whoever in the present time (1833) wishes to furnish and fit up a house in such a
manner as to produce a new and strange effect on the spectator, cannot attain his end at less
expense than by having recourse to Elizabethan fragments. We shall arrange our designs
in the order of Grecian and modern furniture; Gothic furniture; and furniture in the
Elizabethan style.
Sect. I. Grecian and Modern Furniture.
2073. Modern Furniture may either be arranged according to the rooms in which it is
to be placed, or to the particular denomination of the furniture : we adopted the latter
mode when treating of the furniture of cottages which consist but of few rooms ; but we
shall here take the former mode, and give, in succession, designs of furniture for the
kitchen and offices; for the porch, hall, and billiard-room; for the parlour and dining-
soom ; for the library ; for the drawingroom and music-room ; for the bed-rooms and
dressing-rooms ; and for the nursery.
1853
KMO COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Subsect. 1. Furniture for Villa Offices.
2074. The Subject of Kitchen Furniture may be considered as having been sufficiently
noticed, when treating of that for cottages, farm-houses, and inns. The dressers and
tables recommended for those dwellings require only to be enlarged for villas, and chairs
are nearly the same every where, if their object be chiefly use. We shall only introduce
one or two articles in addition to what we have already given.
2075. The Wringing-Machine, fig. 1858, we can from experience strongly recommend
for small laundries. The articles to be wrung,
when large, are taken out of the washing-tub,
and, being passed over the pin at a, the two ends
are put through the hole of the twister, b,
which is turned round by the spokes, c. The
water drops into the trough, d, from which it
runs off into a tub or other vessel through the
tube, c. When small articles are to be wrung,
tliey are put into a coarse hempen bag, which
is then treated as above mentioned. By means
of this machine, which does not wear the linen
more than common wringing, all the most
laborious part of washing is done away with in
small families, as it is by the larger machine,
fi°\ 1262, in laundries on a large scale.
2076. There are two Washing- Machines for
small families; one of which is the washing part of fig. 1262, on a smaller scale, and the
other is fig. 1335, also on a smaller scale. We have tried both these machines, and find
both good, the latter being best for small delicate articles. The objection brought against
the lever machine is, that it wears out the linen ; but this we believe to be chiefly pre-
judice, and in part neglect of putting into the machine a sufficient quantity of water.
The barrel washing-machine, as manufactured by Weir and Co., and the wringing-
machine, fig. 1858, are used in our family, and are found to save much labour, and not
to do the clothes the slightest injury.
2077. A Filtering- Machine, portable or fixed, and of a temporary or permanent con-
struction, ought to be considered essential in every family, whether poor or rich. We
have already pointed out a cheap filter for the cottager, and there are several which claim
the attention of the occupier of a villa. Mr. Melhuish, a plumber in Gray's Inn
Lane, not onlry filters water by a very simple process in kitchens, but has an apparatus
by which it may be filtered in ships, during their motion at sea. Mr. Struthers, in
Parliament Street, manufactures a cheap, expeditious, and most excellent filter, the case
of which is slate ; an article which he also applies to the construction of milk-coolers,
saiting-troughs, dairy-tables, cellar-doors, and safes for the preservation of papers from
fire. There are, besides, the portable filtering-machines of Robins and of other can-
didates for public patronage.
Subsect. 2. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the Porch, Entrance Hall, and Billiard- Room.
2078. Chairs. Figs. 1859 to 1862, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, are hall chairs,
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1041
which may be made either of mahogany or oak, or of deal painted and grained in imi-
tation of the latter wood. In the backs are tablets or panels, for heraldic shields or
crests, which are generally painted ; but which have a more architectural effect when
carved out of the solid wood, or when cast in composition, glued on, and painted after-
wards. Chairs of this sort cost in London, in 1833, from 35s. to 50s. each. With
respect to the taste of these chairs, we object to the front legs, as being too much orna-
mented for those behind. Who, on being shown the front legs, while the back legs
were concealed, would ever expect to find the latter united in the same whole with the
former ? Certainly no one would do so who understood the principle of unity of style
in composition. The reason why cabinet-makers are in the habit of bestowing so much
work on the straight legs of chairs and benches, and so little on those which are curved,
is, that the straight legs are readily ornamented at a cheap rate in the turning lathe ;
whereas, all the ornament that is bestowed on the curved legs must be carved by hand,
at a great expense. The question is, how far the designer of a chair is justified in
deviating from the principle of unity, for the sake of displaying more ornament than he
would otherwise be able to show. Ask a cabinet-maker, and he will tell you at once,
that his customers prefer the ornamented chair, and care nothing about the unity, or the
want of unity, of style. Their great object is to get a display of rich workmanship, at
as cheap a rate as possible. Our readers, we are sure, will agree with us, that this taste
on the part of the purchaser is of a vulgar and grovelling kind, and ought to be cor-
rected. This can only be done by enlightening the minds of the public in general on
the subject of taste ; and this is one of the grand objects of our work.
2079. Benches. Fig. 1863, to a scale of three quarters of an inch to a foot, is a
hall bench for a porch, or a small hall, where there is not much room to spare. This
bench, made in London, costs from £ 3 : 10s. to ,£4 : 10s. The legs are all alike
ornamented, as are *.he supports to the arms, so that there is a perfect unity of style
6 (,
L0i<L2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
in these parts of the bench, and on the whole it affords a favourable contrast to tin'
chairs in the preceding paragraph. The front edge of the seat ought to have been carved
a little, to harmonise with the legs and arms.
Fig. 1864, to the same scale, is another hall bench, in which there may be a tablet in
the centre part of the back for heraldic insignia ; and castors may be sunk in the legs,
iW&^
— : .,', i .....n.i.lil I —BUB in1.. i... i i '■ ..;,,'.,.{ i„. i. ,.i i,„ i„.,i.i.i...h..i..i,
(
without being exposed to view. We consider this bench in very doubtful taste. In the
first place, the outline of the back, which is a principal part of the composition, is the
outline of a mere ornament ; and ornaments, in all compositions whatever, ought to be
accessories and not principals. We are satisfied that no man of correct feeling in matters
of form, or who could apply the principles of design and taste (a connected outline of
which will be found in our Fourth Book), would derive pleasure from looking at such a
bench as this. We are informed however, by Mr. Dalziel, that he has made great num-
hers of them, and that the shape is considered very fashionable. The great recom-
mendation to it, in the eyes of its purchasers, is the quantity of ornament which is
displays. The unsuitableness of the front legs to those behind is sufficiently obvious.
2080. Brackets. Fig. 1865 is a bracket for holding a lamp: it may be made of oak
or mahogany, or of deal, and bronzed. The upper moulding rises above the top, in order
to prevent the lamp from being pushed off. Fig. 1866 is a side view of fig. 186.3.
1865
Fig. 1867 is another hall bracket with a raised bead at top, which may be used either
for supporting a lamp or a clock. The expense of these articles is from 20s. to 40s..
according to the style of carving introduced. Hall brackets of the most beautiful
forms may be executed in cast iron, and bronzed, as indeed may most articles of hall
furniture. These brackets, the supports to which are in the style of Louis XIV., may
be considered as in very good taste of themselves ; but the style to be adopted in such
articles must always he governed by the furniture and finishing of the apartment in
which they are to he fixed.
2081. ./ Billiard Table forms a useful source of recreation, both for gentlemen and
ladies ; and no villa ought to be without one. It may be placed either in the hall, if
that be large, or in a room built on purpose, in the bouse, or connected with it by a
covered way. There is a smaller sort of billiard table for moving about from place to
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1043
place; in which a spirit-level is fixed, and which contains screws for adjusting it to a
perfect level ; and large billiard tables are not unfrequently made of cast iron, the top
being in one piece, which is planed smooth by machinery. In general they are made of
mahogany, and covered with green cloth.
2082. Tables for other Games, such as bagatelle, trou madame, &c, which are kept
in the hall, library, or other rooms, we have not thought it worth while to describe or
figure; considering the billiard table to be the only desirable piece of furniture of this
description, as contributing to the health of sedentary persons.
Subsect. 3. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the Parlour and Dining-Rooms.
2083. Sideboards. Fig. 1 8G8, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a pedestal side-
board; there is a drawer in the centre, which pulls out by means of the lower part of the
front projecting downwards, thus rendering a knob unnecessary. In the right-hand
pedestal there is another drawer, partitioned into divisions for holding decanters, and
lined with lead, to hold ice round each bottle. The left-hand pedestal may have a drawer
for plate, with tray shelves below it. The locks are fixed to the inside ends of the
pedestals; and, therefore, are not seen in front. The linings to the keyholes are of wood,
or brass bronzed.
Fig. 1 869 is a handsome but rather expensive sideboard. The expense may, however,
be reduced without materially injuring the effect, by omitting the carved foliage attached
to the drawers. There may be a panel of looking-glass introduced in the back-board.
A design of this kind will be spoiled, if the carving be not executed with skill and
1044 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Fig. 1870 is a sideboard in what Architects call cabinet-maker's Gothic; it is neat and
plain, but lias no claim to merit in point of style.
Fig. 1871 is a pedestal sideboard, with carvings at the back, and in front. There are
four drawers under the top, and a cupboard at each end, divided as may be found most
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1045
■Ar-&-
1
1873
i
111
vil ,
-
4= — Trr^rjfrz^rr----— j^--^
1
1
i ill >
Ik
\ ^^5/
convenient. There is an open sarcophagus-shaped wine-cooler beneath, standing on a
plinth. The inside of this wine-cooler may either be lined with lead, or it may contain
a block-tin case, with handles, to lift out. Ice is frequently put into these wine-coolers,
in order to surround the decanters or bottles set in them, when the wine is to be cooled.
Castors are sunk into the plinth of the sarcophagus, that it may be drawn out from
beneath the sideboard, and pushed in again at pleasure.
Fig. 1872 is a sideboard supported in front by carved scroll standards, rising from a
hollow plinth ; there are two drawers under the top, and bronzed rods at the back. A
1874
1875
sarcophagus with a hinged lid below,
fixed on a hollow plinth with castors,
is partitioned and lined with lead, so
that ice can be put round each separate
bottle.
Fig. 1873 is a sideboard supported
in front by massive carved standards,
with what is called a " shaped sarco-
phagus" underneath ; the top of which
lifts off by means of the carved handle.
There are bronzed rods at the back of
the sideboard.
Figs. 1874 and 1875 are end views
of figs. 1872 and 1873 ; by which
it appears that the carved standards are
a good deal in the style of Louis XIV.
Figs. 1876 and 1877 are two small sideboard tables, usually placed in large dining-
rooms, for the convenience
of holding the dessert, the
plate, the glasses, and other
articles in use, while the
top of the principal side-
board is covered with ar-
ticles for display. These
side-tables should always
be placed on castors, for
the convenience of moving
them about from one part
of the room to another ;
or out of the rooms occa-
sionally, when they are
covered with things to be
carried away. Most of the
articles in this subsection
we consider in very good
taste. There is not the
1010 COTTAGE. FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
same objection to the front legs of figs. 1872 and 1873 being carved, and the back sup-
ports being plain, that there
is in the case of chairs;
because the sideboard is
such a massive article as to
be in effect a fixture, and
the back pillars arc always
at such a distance from the
eye, and so concealed by
the top, as not to be con-
spicuous. Nevertheless, a
little more ornament in
the pillars referred to
would be desirable. The
scroll ornaments at the
back of fig. 1871 are beau-
tiful of themselves, but
they are too conspicuous
features in the composition,
and aspire to being prin-
cipal parts, instead of being
accessories. Fig. 1868 is
ornamented, and at the
same time forms a harmonious whole, as does fig. 1869. We may observe that the plan
of drawing out the front drawers in these sideboards without the aid of knobs, by avoiding
the necessity of introducing these, adds much to the massive and architectural character
of furniture. Fig. 1876 is handsome, rich, and harmonious. Fig. 1877 is elegant : we
say elegant, because the supports, relatively to those in fig. 1876, and to those of tables for
dining-rooms generally, according to the modern taste, are light; and the forms indicate
great play of outline, and of light and shade, and, thus conveying impressions analogous
to motion, may be called graceful.
2084. Table-flap Cases. Figs. 1878 and 1879 are cases for holding the movable
flaps of dining-tables. They may be made either of oak or mahogany, according to the
1879
187?
style of the furniture in the dining-room in which they are to be placed. They are
made open, in order not to exclude the air ; and there are thin slips nailed on the
bottom, and under the top, between which the flaps slide in, and which keep them from
rubbing against or touching each other, and admit at the same time of a current of air
to pass between them. The price of fig. 1878 is about 50s.; of fig. 1879 from £7 to
£12. In some cases, the flaps of tables are kept in the upper drawer of the sideboard,
the front of which falls down to allow them to be taken in and out; and there are slips
mi the sides, to keep the flaps apart There ought also to be a concealed opening, the
whole length of the front, at the bottom of the drawer, for the admission of air ; and
GRECIAN AND .MODERN VILLA FURNITURE.
1047
another, in the top part of the back, for its escape. Fig. 1880 is a sideboard case tu
be placed in a dining-
room, for the purpose
of holding the loose
flaps of a dining-table ;
the top of which, in a
large room, is useful as
a sideboard. It is made
to suit the style of the
sideboard, fig. 1871.
Fig. 1881 shows the
top of this sideboard
case lifted up; at one
end may be seen the
slips, between which
the flaps slide in. The
slips and the spaces be-
tween them are covered
with green baize. The top is supported, when thrown open, by a quadrant, by which
means one person can put the flaps in, or take them out. These are useful objects in
families where large
dinnerparties are given. 1881
We give the preference,
for our own particular
taste, to fig. 1880, as
being massive and ar-
chitectural ; and if care
be taken to have the
bottom open, and to
have proper openings
under the top to admit
of ventilation, the flaps
may be preserved from
rotting in this case as well as in
while to steep such flaps in the deuto-chlo-
ride of mercury (corrosive sublimate), as
suggested long ago by Sir Humphry Davy,
and as recently employed by Mr. Kyan for
the prevention of the dry rot, by neutral-
ising the cause of vegetable fermentation.
2085. Dining- Tables. The general form
of these is regulated by that of the room
in which they are to be placed ; round
or square tables being preferred for round
or square rooms, and oval or oblong tables
for oblong rooms. Round tables are
sometimes made so as to admit of the
addition of flaps or segments to their cir-
cumference, so as to increase their size at
pleasure. These segments are secured,
by lopers or other fasteners, to the body of the table, and to one another,
alluded to a table of this kind
as being in use in the villa, De-
sign III. § 1749.
Figs. 1882 and 1883 are small
dining-tables, called cottage or
Pembroke tables. They stand
on four legs, which should be
large and massive, and have good
castors, or large wheels. They
have two flaps, which fall down ;
and which, when up, are sup-
ported by fly brackets. They
divide in the middle, and draw
apart by means of lopers, or
slides, of a peculiar construction,
Perhaps it might be worth
We have
lOlnS COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
to any moderate length, from seven to nine feet, without requiring any additional legj
for their support. Thus, a table may be made nine feet long by any width, say four
feet, supported by four legs ; and this length may be reduced in one minute, so as
to form a table only two feet by four feet. The fork fasteners, by which the top Haps
are fastened to each other, are placed at a distance from the edge, so as to be completely
concealed, which adds to the strength of the table, and yet does not disfigure its appear-
ance. These tables were invented in the manufactory of Mr. Dalziel.
Figs. 1884 and 1885 are tables also invented at Mr. Dalziel's. They may be placed
together so as to form one
square table, made fast by
thumb-screws ; or they
may be taken apart, and
placed against the sides
of the room.
Fig. 1886 shows the
under side of fig. 1885, in
which a a indicate the
situation of the two corner
legs, and b b that of the
two inner legs. It will
be observed, that the two
latter are so far within
the edge of the top as
not to come in the way of
the feet of guests, and that the corner feet, such as a a, however near the edge, never
offer any obstruction to the feet. Mr. Dalziel's dining tables
are generally allowed to be of the very best kind manufac-
tured in London. It is a great advantage to be able to draw
out a table to the length of thirteen or fourteen feet, and to
support the whole securely on no more than four legs.
The advantage is, that such a table may be used where the
floor is not perfectly level, as well as on one which is so ;
and this cannot be done so well with tables having six or
more feet. This desirable result is obtained by compound
slides, which, when drawn out to their full extent, form, in
effect, a series of joists on which the flaps composing the top
of the table rest. These tables are sent by Mr. Dalziel to
all parts of the world.
Fig. 1888 is the view of a semicircular dining-table ; and
fig. 1887 is a plan of the top. It is chiefly used by gentlemen
after the ladies have retired to the drawingroom. This table
is then placed in front of the fire, with its convex side out-
wards, and the guests sit round that side, with their feet to the
fire. It has a triangular frame which works on a centre ; the
broad end of the triangle sliding in a groove on rollers, so as
to admit of the decanters being moved from side to side with
ease. There is an open space between the decanters and the
screen, which forms two sides of the triangle, and protects
the decanters from the fire, in order that the wine may be
kept cool. There are horseshoe tables for the same purpose, of
a simpler description, but without the moving bottle-stand,
about eighteen inches broad, and
not more than half an inch
thick ; the legs are slender and
tapering, in order, not only to
give an elegant appearance, but
to render the tables light, and
easily moved further fronvor
nearer to, the fire, as may be
desired. The wine which stands
on the common horseshoe tables
is liable to be heated by the
direct radiation from the grate,
and thus to lose that refreshing
coolness which is the great
luxury of wine drinking, as contrasted with the use of malt liquors and ardent spirits
The top of these tables is
1887
GRECIAN AND .MODERN VILLA FURNITURE.
1049
1888
" If with hot wine we insack us
Say our name 's not Karchus.
Serve, serve up a dozen,
15ut let it be frozen." Bacchus in Tusc.
When such tahlcs are used, if the
party is not sufficiently numerous to
finish a bottle before it has made twice"
the circuit of the table, it is, after the
glasses are filled, set in a small vase
or sarcophagus, which stands on the
floor, and which sometimes contains
ice, and at other times only water.
Some, however, instead of a sarco-
phagus placed on the floor, make use
of what is called an earthenware wine
cooler placed on the table. This vessel,
every body knows, is made of porous
earth open at the top, and somewhat larger wit'iin than is sufficient to contain a quart
decanter. The earthenware cooler is steeped in water for half an hour, previously to
its being used; after which, being emptied and set on the table, on a small mat or on a
stand of any kind, the decanter of wine is placed in it. The greater the heat of the fire,
the more rapid is the evaporation of the water which has been absorbed by the porous
earth ; and consequently the greater the absorption, from the wine, of the heat which is
required to carry on this
evaporation. Earthen-
ware wine-coolers of this
description are manufac-
tured by Peake of Tun-
stall, of very elegant
shapes, and are sold at
moderate prices.
Fig. 1889 is a Pem-
broke table with two
flaps ; the front is made
to imitate two drawers ;
but it falls down, and is
supported by a quadrant,
as in fig. 1890.
2086. Chairs. Figs. 1891 to 1894 are Designs which may be executed in mahogany,
the legs being supposed to be in the same style as those of the tables, and the seats
to be covered with morocco of the same colour as the curtains. The seats are
1889
1890
quilted, but, instead of tufts, small rings arc used, covered with the same leather as
the chair; these rings being found to look as well as, and wear better than, tufts of
silk ; at the same time that they do not harbour dust.
Fig. 1895 is a dining-room chair, with a stuffed back and seat covered with morocco
and tufted. It is considered an easy and elegant seat.
6" H
1050 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
..irmni"TIi^
2087. A Leg Rest, fig. 1897, called an "ease and comfort," is sometimes used in
dining-rooms by old gentlemen after the ladies are gone. It requires to be carefully
stuffed, so as to fit the calves of the legs.
2088. Candlestick Stands, fig. 1898, are used in some dining-rooms to raise the candle-
sticks placed on the table, in order, by elevating the light, to throw it better over the
dishes. Each of these stands has a raised rim round the top, to keep the candlestick it
supports from falling off.
1896
^^^fe-.
2089. Fire-screens. Fig. 1896 is a sliding fire-screen, which
mahogany, oak, or deal. The frame
has three slides ; one draws up, and
two draw out to the right and left.
It should be covered with tammy
(a sort of worsted stuff) or moreen,
of the same colour as the curtains. It
moves on castors, which are sunk into
the feet.
Fig. 1899 is a fire-screen with two
swinging leaves, which fold out on
each side, and, being hinged with
may be made of
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE.
1051
s^3
centre-point hinges, turn round either way. This screen is considered handsomer than
the preceding one.
2090. The Win-
dow Curtains for the
dining-room may be
of the same patterns
as those exhibited in
figs. 705, 708, 710,
and 711. The hang-
ings should be of mo-
reen, cloth, or some
similar material, less
delicate and orna-
mental than silk,
chintz, &c.
2091. A General
View of the interior
of a dining-room in
the Grecian style, by
Mr. Lamb, is shown
in fig. 1900. In this
Design, Mr. Lamb
ODserves that " in the
centre of one side
there is a large pier
glass over the side-
board, and a window
in each side to the
right and left. The
servants' entrance to
the room is opposite
to the principal en-
trance, and communi-
cates directly with the
kitchen and other
offices. Appropriate
sculpture and ara-
besque ornaments are the principal decorations. The curtains are placed close to
the windows, and within the pilasters, in order that, when drawn, they may not interfere
with the Architecture of the room. — In taking a general view of the modern dining-
room furniture here given, we shall commence with the sideboards and wine-coolers
under them, which are, for the most part, very good. The idea of cooling wine in a
sarcophagus, however disagreeable it may be to those who know the meaning of the
word (flesh-devourer), and the original uses to which vessels of this shape were applied, is
yet so sanctioned by modern habit, as to be, in our opinion, quite unobjectionable. There
is no law in nature against the changing of the uses of objects ; and the laws of society
are, or ought to be, made by society for themselves, and not by past ages for those which
are to succeed them. The dining- tables, as we have already observed, are excellent ; the
legs, being all straight, are consequently all turned, and are ornamented in the same style,
so as to produce unity of effect. The dining-table, fig. 1887, is a luxury, worth the
attention of bachelors ; but unworthy of any family who do not prefer wine to the
rational conversation of women. Happily, in England, we are now borrowing a part
of the very superior manners of the French, witb regard to the dining-table. The
circular table capable of enlargement, alluded to in § 2085, is an excellent article. All
the dining-room chairs are more or less liable to the objections made to the hall chairs
in § 2078 ; they are in other respects good, and we have no doubt would be sufficiently
easy to sit upon. In the chairs seen in the interior, fig. 1980, there is just as much
carving shown on the front legs relatively to the back ones, as there ought to be ; per-
haps, indeed, there is too much, but some allowance must be made for the facilities
afforded by turning for bestowing ornament. In the chairs designed by Mr. Hope, and
published in his great work, there will not be found any great difference between the
ornaments on the front, and those on the back legs ; and in the chairs in the Elizabethan
style, where both the front and back legs were generally turned, the ornaments on them
were exactly alike. Let the reader, if he has access to Flaxman's Eschylus, examine the
chairs in that work. The fire-screens are good, and the candlestick stand, fig. 1898,
convenient, where lamps are not used. The furniture in Mr. Lamb's interior is original,
and yet classical ; that is, it abounds in forms belonging to, or associated with, the antique.
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE.
Subsect. 4. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the Library.
1053
2092. Libraries on a large scale, and which are really intended to contain a collection
of books, are fitted up with fixed book-shelves, occupying every part of the sides of the
room, except the doors, the windows, and the fireplaces. If the books are enclosed by
doors, the panels are commonly filled in with brass wire. An architectural character
should always be given to the bookcases of a large library, corresponding with the style
of the house. In small libraries, where the collection of books is not numerous, portable
bookcases are resorted to ; and it may be observed of them, in general, that they ought to
be comparatively simple, and grave in expression. Panels of looking-glass in the doors
or styles of bookcases are, for this reason, in our opinion, always objectionable ; as there
seems to be a want of harmony between looking-glasses, excess of carving, arabesques,
and such finery, and the solid treasures of knowledge contained in the books enclosed.
2093. Bookcases. Fig. 1901 is a bookcase, the front of which breaks forward (pro-
jects). There are four doors below, the panels of which are wood ; and four doors in
the upper part, glazed with plate glass. There is a carved pediment in the centre of the
top. The doors may either be plain, like those in the centre ; or with ornaments, like
those on the outsides, which are introduced to enable the reader to make a choice
between them.
Fig. 1 902 is a bookcase having the lower part finished with pilasters, or carved capitals ;
and having what are called carved trusses (projections serving, either really or apparently,
as supports) to the upper doors. The panels of the lower doors are of wood ; and those
of the upper of plate glass, or of flatted crown glass. (Flatted crown glass is produced
by heating the glass quite hot in an oven, on aflat iron plate laid perfectly level, to which
the heated glass adapts its surface ; the operation is performed for the cabinet manufac-
1054 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1902
tnrers, and others who require perfectly flat glass, by a distinct class of artisans, called
glass annealers.)
2094. A Pedestal Case, for holding Papers and other Articles. Fig. 1 903 is formed of
mahogany outside, and encloses five boxes, which are made of pasteboard and covered
1903
with leather. Every box, a, takes out, and its top lifts up, which allows its front to fall
flown, and its contents to be examined. There is a small ring in the front of each box,
to pull it out if required ; but it is not necessary to pull any box out its whole length, in
order to open it sufficiently to let down its front. The right-hand pilaster of the pedestal
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE.
1055
is hinged at the side, and locks at the top; the keyhole being covered by the patera, b,
which slides over it in a dovetailed groove. By this means, all the boxes are secured by
one lock, and they may be all opened instantly. There may be spaces left for labels in
the front of each box if required, and the top may be made to rise up with a horse, like
the desk, fig. 1 904, so as to serve for reading on. The top is lined with embossed leather,
of the same colour as that of the cases. Castors may be concealed in the plinth. This
is considered a very useful piece of furniture for keeping select papers.
2095. Library Tables. Fig. 1 904 is a pedestal library table, which may have drawers
on both sides ; or doors and cupboards on one side, and drawers on the other. There is
a rising flap on the top, which may be raised to any height, to write or read upon; and,
when not required, it can be let down flush with the top of the table. The ends are
hinged at the bottom, and fold outwards ; remaining open in consequence of being sup-
ported by a joint stay near the bottom. This forms a very convenient place for
portfolios, or large drawings. The depth of the recess may be varied according to the
width of the pilasters. The top is covered with embossed russia leather. For the private
room of an Architect, such a table may have a drawer immediately under the top, of
the same length and breadth as the table ; and of five or six inches in depth, for the purpose
of holding large drawing-boards with drawings on them, T squares, &c. In this drawer,
the drawing in pro-
gress is kept com-
pletely from the dust ;
while the sightliness
of the room is pre-
served, at times when
drawing is not going
forward. A rising
portable desk, with
double horse and
rack, may be placed
on the table, and
raised to any con-
venient height for
reading, writing, or
drawing on, in a
standing position, in-
stead of the sinking
fixed desk shown in the figure ; or a false bottom may be made to the drawer, on which
the drawing-board and all the drawing materials may be placed, in such a manner as that,
when the drawer is pulled out, and the false bottom is raised to the required height by a
rack and horse, the artist may go to work without any previous preparation, or arrange-
ment of his instruments or materials ; and he may leave off, lower down the false bottom
and its contents, and shut up the drawer, in an instant.
Fig. 1 905 is a very handsome library table, on four carved legs, with four drawers
and a carved moulded
edge. The drawers pull
out from under the rail,
thus rendering knobs
unnecessary, and main-
taining an architectural
character.
2096. Writing. Tables,
or Secretaries. Figs.
1906, 1907 represent a
handsome writing-table,
with numerous drawers
and divisions for con-
taining papers, money,
&c. ; and having on the
top a shelf for books.
The mechanism is such, that, notwithstanding its apparent intricacy, it can be opened
and its contents displayed, or shut up and locked, in an instant.
2097. A sloping Writing-Desk, such as fig. 1 908, to a scale of one inch to a foot, is
frequently used for placing on a library table. A part of the top is made flat, with a
small lid which turnsjup, and displays inside the inkbottles, pens, wafers, &c. When not
in use, the flap turns down, to keep every thing clean. The sloping part may be covered
with embossed leather.
10.3(3 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1906
2098. A Reading-Desk. Fig. 1909, to the same scale, is a small rising reading-desk,
which stands flat on a table, and occupies but little space.
1907
2099. An enclosed Wath-hand Stand, such as fig. 1910, to a scale of half an inch to a
toot, is commonly placed in a library closet, or in a gentleman's study or business room.
GRECIAN AXD MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 10.57
1908
There is a slip of wood fixed on the under side of the top, which drops down in front,
and completes the panel ; thus shutting the whole up close. A glass is fixed on the
under side of the cover, which rises with a rack and horse. There are two doors below,
in the inside of which are shelves, and a space for keeping the ewer with the water ; or
it may be fitted up with any appropriate convenience that may be desired.
2100. Chairs. Figs. 1911 and 1912 are two easy reclining chairs for a library, parlour,
or other sitting-room. They are covered with morocco leather, with button tufts ; and
they are very easy to sit upon.
Fig. 1913 is a view of Dawe's reclining chair for an invalid : the position of the back
of this chair can be varied at pleasure, and the projecting part in front can be elongated,
or adjusted to any slope. When it is not wanted to be used as a reclining chair, the back
can be fixed upright ; and the front projection slid in, so as to produce the appearance of
a common easy chair.
2101. Library Glass. Fig. 1914
is a library chimney-glass, the frame
of which may be made of maho-
gany or maple wood, or of deal
gilt or bronzed. A plinth for it
to stand on, half an inch in thick-
ness, of ebony, ought to be added ;
not only for effect, but to prevent
the gilding or bronzing of the
frame from being injured by
washing the mantel-shelf. We
may observe here, that it is a
common and commendable prac-
tice, when housemaids are dusting
the walls of rooms, to have a
narrow slip of thin deal in one
hand to place against the edges of
the mouldings to prevent them
from being rubbed.
2102. The Window Curtains of
a Library may be formed of the
same shapes and materials as those
recommended for the dining-room,
§ 2090.
2103. The general Appearance of a library fitted up with a continued range of book-
shelves is so simple as not to require delineation in a work like the present. A very
6 I
1058 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
chaste design for such a library was sent us by Mr. Field, from the following description
of which, by that gentleman, any young Architect may embody it in light and shade : —
" The dimensions of this room
are about thirty feet by eigh-
teen feet, and it is thirteen feet
high. The ceiling is surrounded
by a large cove, intersected by
arches over the divisions of the
book-shelves, five in number
lengthwise, and three breadth-
wise, of the apartment. The
walls are entirely covered with
shelves, except where the en-
trance door is shown in the
centre of one end of the room,
and where there are spaces for
two or three windows, corre-
sponding with the recess for
the door, on the side opposite
to the fireplace. The pilasters
and entablature may be exe-
cuted in scagliola marble, and
the cove and ceiling may be
coloured a light tint, to con-
trast with the pilasters and
the graining of the woodwork.
The books are secured by brass lattice doors. If a sky-light in the ceiling were in-
troduced in lieu of windows, the uniformity of the Design, and the capacity of the library,
would be increased."
Subsect. 5. Grecian and Modern Furniture for the Drawingroom and Music- Room.
2104. Couches. Figs. 1915 and 1916 are two Designs for couches, lnthesecond,
the castors are sunk in the legs ; and to each there is a loose squab (a sort of mattress
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE.
1916
1059
serving as a seat) and bolster of hair, and a pillow filled with down. These couches we
consider as handsome articles. The four feet, being all straight, are equally carved and
ornamented. The carved foliage, embracing the frame of the head, and the hand-rail at
the back, exhibits a happy specimen of the application of ornament, in such a manner
as to make it appear as if it arose out of the construction of the article ; the curvature
of the frame of the head is of itself highly beautiful, being a modification of the Greek
cyma (wave), the most elegant and graceful of all curves ; and, as Mr. Hosking has
happily shown, identical with Hogarth's serpentine line of beauty. Couches in small
rooms are generally preferred to sofas.
2105. Sofas. Figs. 1917 and 1918 are two Designs for sofas; the ends of which,
if desirable, might be made of a similar pattern to those of the preceding couches. The
1917
coverings and finishings of couches and sofas should harmonise, in colour and material,
with the window curtains. The framework of these sofas we consider elegant • the
1918
ornaments harmonise with the arms ou which they are placed, and with one another
the general outlines and forms are simple, and the details rich.
IOoO COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1919
2106. Ottomans arc stuffed seats for several persons to sit on at once; they may be
placed either against the walls of a room, or in the open floor. Fig. 1919 is an ottoman for
the corner of a small room ; and fig. 1 920 is another for the centre of a room of consider-
able size. The back in the centre is fixed ; the seats are stuffed on a wooden frame, and
iakc oflT, leaving a well or cupboard beneath, for holding the loose linen cases by which
they arc covered, when the drawingroom is not in use.
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE.
1001
2107. Ottoman Footstools. Figs. 1921 and 1 922 arc ottoman footstools, which may
have the same-coloured coverings as the ottomans, or as the curtains ; the material
being fine cloth. The carved part may be of mahogany or rosewood.
2108. Chairs. Figs. 1924, 1925, 1926 exhibit three varieties of easy chairs. They
may be covered with morocco, or with the same furniture as the sofas and window
curtains.
Fig. 1923 is another easy chair, with a richly carved frame, and cane seat. It should
have a cushion covered with the same stuff as the curtains. These chairs are all to a
scale of three quarters of an inch to a foot.
Fig. 1 927 may be made of maple, or any other veined wood ; or of beech painted
or japanned. The variety of chairs of this kind
is endless ; they are not very strong, but their
appearance is light, and, their proportions
being slender, they may be considered as not
inelegant.
Figs. 1928 to 1932 are what are called
fancy chairs for drawingrooms ; they may be
made of rosewood, maple, satin, or any other
kind of fancy wood ; and French polished
(that is, polished and varnished with a par-
ticular composition invented in Paris, and
brought to this country after the peace of
1814). The seats are first caned, and then
covered in patterns with willow (split willow
rods) of different colours, produced by stain-
ing, so as very successfully to imitate various
kinds of wood. These chairs, when not so
expensively finished in the seat, will also
serve for bed-rooms. Their great advantage
in a drawingroom is their lightness. They
may have hair cushions covered with the
same furniture as the curtains and sofas ; or
they may have stuffed seats covered with da-
mask.
Figs. 1 933, 1 934, and 1 935 are also drawingroom chairs. The first has a carved seat
and back ; the other two are made of maple or satin wood with matted seats. The splats
(the middle part of the back, which either connects the top and bottom rails, or the two
side styles) are carved in the forms of the rose, the shamrock, and the thistle.
Figs. 1936 and 19S7 are drawingroom chairs. Fig. 1936 has an open back, which
may be executed in rosewood or mahogany. Fig. 1937 has a stuffed back, and is a very
easy chair to sit upon, though rather expensive. In point of taste, the chairs from
1062 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1928
J !)2V>
fig. 1923 to fig. 1927 are objectionable, on account of the difference between their front
ani- back legs in point of ornament. The front legs, and supports of the back and arms,
1932
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1 06'3
of the Designs alluded to, are most richly ornamented, and the decorations in general are
judiciously applied ; that is, they appear as if they resulted from the construction ; yet
the hind legs are as bald as those of the hall chairs, or of any chair which could be
constructed for the humblest cottage. A very little reflection will convince any one
that this cannot be in good taste. The Designs, fig. 1928 to fig. 1935, do not show so
great a discrepancy between the front legs and the back ones ; and to us they are, on
that account, much more satisfactory. There are none of these chairs, however,
entirely to our mind ; because there is scarcely one of them in which there is perfect
harmony in the direction of the lines. Not one of these chairs can have been designed
by an Architect, or other artist ; they are much more like the efforts of a mechanic in
search of novelty. Fig. 1937 is not bad, with the exception of the hind legs.
2109. The Polishing of Chairs and other Furniture is a matter which should not be
lost sight of by a purchaser. In large towns, such as London and Edinburgh, where
the art of polishing furniture forms a distinct occupation, what is called the French
polish is by far the best for bringing out the beauties of the wood, and giving it a bright-
ness and richness of colour which nothing else hitherto invented can produce. An
important advantage of the French polish is, that it is not liable to crack or show
scratches, like varnish. Wherever, therefore, the French mode of polishing is practised,
we would recommend its adoption at least for all drawingroom furniture, and for the
finer articles of libraries and dressing-rooms. For dining-tables, Mr. Dalziel states
that by far the best polish for the tops is cold-drawn linseed oil alone, rubbing them
1064
COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
hard with any soft cloth tor a period of several hours till they are got to a bright polish ;
which, when once obtained, can be kept up with little labour, and will stand hot dishes
and boiling water better than the French or any other polish. The ordinary polish
used by cabinet-makers consists of bees' wax mixed with spirits of turpentine and a small
proportion of rosin. When this has been all dissolved together, the wood to be polished
is thinly washed over with it, and it is immediately afterwards rubbed off by clean soft
cloths. For polishing carved work, a clean soft brush must be used for laying it very
thinly on, and another brush, in a very slight degree harder, must be employed for rub-
bing it off.
21 10. Consol Tables. The term consol is applied from the form of the front leg or pillar
by which such tables are usually supported, which is that of a carved ornament called
a 'consol, frequently placed on the front of brackets, and on the keystones of arches.
Fi<*. 1938 is placed at the ends of drawingrooms, or against very broad piers between
doors or windows. The panels in the back are of looking-glass ; and the doors of the
two pedestals have panels filled in with fluted silk, or looking-glass may be substituted.
The tops of such tables are frequently formed of statuary marble, and the supports and
upper shelf of the finest rosewood; sometimes the shelf is omitted. The looking-glass
is sometimes carried up to the height of five or six feet. On the bottom board, in front
of the lower glass, are placed vases for holding flowers, and a number of other ornaments.
Fig. 1939 is another table of the same description, but of a different pattern.
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE.
10G.5
2111. Pier Consol Tables. Figs. 1910, 1941, 1943, 1944 exhibit four varieties of pier
consol tables, with marble tops, and silvered plate-glass backs. They are commonly placed
against the piers between windows. They are made of rosewood, and sometimes gilding
is introduced en the carving, especially when the style of Louis XIV. is imitated, as in
figs. 1943 and 1944. The looking-
glasses are placed in gilt frames, and
they are carried up nearly as high as
the ceiling. The tops of these tables
are sometimes covered with scagliola,
instead of marble, which comes a great
deal cheaper ; and, when executed in
Mr. Brown's very superior manner,
looks nearly as well.
2112. Pier Tables with Marble Tops
may be supported by cast-iron brackets,
or other stands of that metal, gilt or
bronzed, at very moderate expense, and
with excellent effect. We have already
given various Designs for brackets, and
for the ends of tables, to be formed of
cast iron, from sketches by Mr. Mallet ;
and we might here add a number of
others from the same fertile and tasteful
contributor, but we think it unneces-
sary. Almost every thing in the style
of Louis XIV. may be executed in cast
iron cheaper than in wood. Pier and
consol tables are great ornaments ip
drawingrooms, and ought never to be omitted where splendour is an object to be desired,
and money is not wanting. One great advantage of them is, that the glasses which
form a part of them multiply every
7
1941
object in the room, from the floor to
the ceiling, and not only every object
in the room, but the views of objects
reflected from without ; whereas chim-
ney-glasses only reflect objects at a cer-
tain height between the floor and the
ceiling.
2113. Chiffoniers. Fig. 1942 is a
chiffonier pier table for placing between
windows. These tables are usually
finished with white marble tops, with
plate glass behind, and a shelf supported
by brackets for holding ornaments.
The panels of the doors may be sil-
vered plate glass, or of fluted silk.
These are most useful objects for fa-
milies who cannot afford to go «the
expense of pier or consol tables. In
parlours, and even lady's libraries, they
may be used as a sort of morning side-
board for containing any light species
■of refreshment.
2114. Devonports (so called from
the inventor's name) are drawingroom
writing-cabinets used by ladies. Fig.
1945 is a very convenient piece of furniture of this description ; the top part, forming
the desk, pulls forward to come over the knees when it is to be used. A sliding flap
draws out on each side, to hold papers, a candle, &c. The desk lid lifts up, and beneath
it is a space for papers, and several small drawers. There is besides a drawer which
pulls out at the side, and turns round, as shown in the figure, for pens, ink, wafers, &c.
Beneath the flap are drawers on one side, and the other side is finished with the appear-
ance of drawers to correspond. The back is handsomely paneled, so that each side of
this piece of furniture looks well. The flaps and sides are lined with morocco leather
embossed. There are castors concealed in the feet.
Fig. 194G is a Devonport which stands on a plinth, having concealed castors, and
G k
.
1066 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1,1!!
19-14
which resembles the preceding one in every respect, except in being rather plainer
These are very useful articles for
industrious young ladies. We have
seen some of them, and also of the
articles in the two preceding and two
following paragraphs, in Mr. Dalziel's
show-room, of much more elaborate
beauty, executed in the rarest exotic
woods, and finished with French polish ;
but we have preferred giving these
simple Designs, as likely to be more
generally useful.
2115. Lady's Work Tables. Figs.
1947 and 1949 are fitted up with
drawers for holding cottons ; and they
have bag frames, which are of wood,
covered with fluted silk, and fringed at
bottom for containing work.
2116. Sofa Tables. Figs. 1918,
1950, 1951, and 1952 are four dif-
ferent varieties of sofa or occasional
tables for drawingrooms. Drawers may
be introduced under the tops ; but the
effect is not then so good, as it requires
the upper part of the frame to be made
deeper, and consequently gives the table too massive a character for an article of drawing-
room furniture. In examining whether the tables, in this and the preceding paragraph,
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. lOt)J
1948
are in good taste, let us first see how far they display unity of style. In the legs and
bottom rails this unity is con-
spicuous. Looking at the former
apart from the latter, we should
never expect to find the bottom
rails joined to them, square in the
section ; neither should we expect
cylindrical rails perfectly plain.
The legs being turned and carved,
the rails, to be in unison with
them, ought to be turned and
carved also ; and, as they are so,
they are therefore in good taste.
The style of the supports of the
table ought, of course, to give a
general idea of the style of the
top, and here we find that some
of the tops, for example those of
figs. 1949 and 1951, have carved
mouldings round the edges, and therefore they harmonise with the legs and rails, and
consequently may be considered in
good taste; but the tables, fig.
1948, fig. 1950, and fig. 1952,
though tbeir legs are equally en-
riched with those of the other De-
signs, have plain mouldings on
their edges ; hence we have no
hesitation in determining them to
be in comparatively bad taste.
The justness of this criticism will
appear more obvious, by applying
it to the table, fig. 1948, which
has two supports more highly en-
riched by carving than those of
any of the other figures, and yet
has a plain top. This is in bad taste, and ought not, in a work like the present, to be
passed over without notice. In
order to show the utility of this
kind of criticism, and of giving
Designs which are less perfect
than they might be made, let
us suppose, for a moment, that
we had only given the tables
figs. 1949 and 1951, which we
allow to be in tolerably good
taste. All that we could have
said of these tables is, that they
were very good of their kind,
displaying unity of style and of
1 008 COTTAGE, FARM. AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
ornament; and, therefore, that
they deserved the approbation
of the reader. By intro-
ducing other tables, however,
less perfect with regard to
unity of style, we have an op-
portunity of contrasting the
good and the bad ; and of
showing forcibly, in what the
difference between these qua-
lities consists. We think it
the more desirable to do this,
because these tables, both the
good and the bad, are made
in hundreds by the London
cabinet-makers ; and are purchased by their customers, without the latter thinking any
thing about their unity of style.
2117. Card Tables. Fig. 1953 is a card table with a carved pillar and a revolving top,
the principle of which has been already explained, § 630.
2118. Loo Tables. Figs. 1954 and 1955 are loo tables, which may be executed in
rosewood, or in any other rare and handsome foreign wood. These tables, appear to us
unobjectionable, in point of taste ; the legs and bottom rails are of elegant forms, ex-
hibiting a great variety of lines, and of light and shade, all in harmony among them-
selves, and not inconsistent with the tops.
2119. Ecarte Table. Fig. 1956 is a table of this description, with the top open. The
oval part is lined with cloth or velvet ; the top revolves like that of a card table, and shuts
up so as to form a small work table, when not wanted for playing on.
2120. Chess Tables. Figs. 1957 and 1958 are two different patterns of chess tables
richly ()inamented, and considered handsome. There is a semicircular compartment on
each side, on which to place the chessmen, or lights ; there is also a drawer to each table ;
and there are concealed castors in the legs.
2121. Stands for Boohs. Fig. I960 is a pedestal stand for containing such books as
may be considered ornamental in a drawingroom. There are shelves on all the four
Bides, and the angles are cut off by coves, as shown in the plan. On the top of the stand
may be placed an elegant vase, with or without flowers ■ a globe of water containing gold-
fishes ; or a bust, or other object, according to the taste and pursuits of the lady of the
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1U(>(J
1958
Fig. 1959, to a scale of one inch to a foot, is a bookstand to be placed on a table.
There is a drawer for letters or other papers, and at top a rack for holding cards; and
two handles, for removing the whole when necessary.
Stands for books might be made in a great variety of
forms, and, to those who derive great part of their happi-
ness from reading, bookstands are always welcome pieces
of furniture. " One of the grandest detached bookstands
I ever saw," says an American correspondent, " was placed
in the centre of a square library, with a lofty ceiling,
lighted from the roof. It was in the form of a pyramid ;
the shelves rising above one another like the steps of a
stair to the height of twelve feet ; and each step, though
narrow, was yet sufficiently broad to admit any person to
walk up and walk down in order to take out or put in books.
The whole was sur-
mounted by a statue of Jefferson, and at the angles
was a light mahogany handrail to assist in walking up
and down. The artificial light was from gas, placed
outside the skylight, and within an outer glass case.
Underneath the pyramid was a pedestal filled with
steam-pipes, for heating the room. The four sides of
the room were fitted up with bookshelves to the height
of twelve feet, with a travelling step-ladder, similar
to one which I saw, when in England, in one of the
London club-houses."
2122. Piano-fortes. The forms of piano-fortes have
been lately much 1962
improved, so that
they now harmonise
with the general
forms of drawing-
room furniture bet-
ter than they ever
did before. The
first step in the road
to this desirable end
was made by the
manufacturer Sto-
dart, who invented
the upright and
1070 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
cabinet pianos about the beginning of the present century ; and the last by Wornum,
Store Street, London, in the year 18S3. This last ma-
nufacturer, in that year, exhibited a piano-forte that
could hardly be distinguished from a library table.
The piano-fortes of this maker, which are most fre-
quently used, are the two sizes, figs. 1961 and 1962:
one of the smallest size, ex-
hibited in fig. 1962, costs
from thirty-six to fifty-five
guineas; and one of the
largest, shown in fig. 1 963,
costs from fifty to one
hundred guineas. The
first instrument is three
feet four inches, and the
second six feet six inches,
in height. There are nu-
merous other forms of
piano-fortes and organs ;
and also of what are called
harmonics, which produce
music by machinery. The
advantages of Wornum's
instruments are, that, with the same degree of tone and excellence, in a musical point ot
view, as the horizontal pianos, and with the convenient form of the upright pianos, they
1965
96 6
are finished behind in such a manner as to have a handsome effect whichever side is pre
sented to the
to the company.
The old upright and ca-
binet pianos were generally
placed against walls.
2123. Music-stands. Fig.
1 963 is a stand for holding
music-books- The upper
part rises out of the pillar
to any convenient height ;
1967
l'J68
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE.
1U71
and the pillar of support is round in the upper part, so as to change the position of the
desk at pleasure.
Fig. 1964 is another music-stand, the desk of which also rises out of the pillar. The
top, when not wanted for music, folds down quite flat, and forms a small table.
Fig. 1965, to a scale of three quarters of an inch to a foot, is what is called a music
Canterbury. Its use is to hold music-books ; and, as may be seen in the figure, the feet
have castors for moving it about at pleasure.
Fig. 1966 is another music Canterbury, of an elegant but rather expensive con-
struction. Musical instruments being, in all cases, articles of luxury, ought never to be
made otherwise than ornamental. For this reason, not only the most beautiful forms
ought to be employed, but rare and curious woods, shown off to the best advantage by
French polish. Brass candlesticks, and other brass ornaments attached to them, we, for
our own particular taste, would avoid, and either use plated steel, or bronze ; possibly
ivory or ebony might, in some cases, be partially or wholly substituted for brass or any
other metal.
2124. Music- Stool. Fig. 1968 is a music-stool, pillow-stuffed. It rises from the stand
by turning round the top, which raises a male screw contained in the female one formed
in the pillar. The screw is commonly made of wood ; but iron is preferable, as working
better, and lasting longer.
2125. Portfolio-stands are useful pieces of furniture both in libraries and in drawing-
rooms. Fig. 1967 is a
view of a stand for port-
folios, or large prints, in
which the portfolios can
be conveniently locked up
when the family are from
home. The two fronts fall
down to any degree at
pleasure, till they both be-
come level, as shown in
the section, fig. 1969, and
thus admit of easily exa-
mining the prints or draw-
ings. Articles of this de-
scription are usually made
without the ends, and with
the two framed sides; but
by this plan the portfolios
have to be taken out before
they can be opened, and,
besides, they cannot be
locked up.
2126. Flower-sta nds.
Fig. 1970 is a kind of
flower-stand, which is com-
monly called a jardiniere.
A tin pan fits into the top, which has a cover of trelliswork, or of pierced tin, through
which cut flowers are put into wet sand. A loose top of rosewood is made to fit into the
recess which contains the tin pan, to be put in when the stand is not wanted for flowers,
in order to render it useful as a small table. Prince Piickler-Muskau mentions a flower-
1971
1072 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
stand, in which the tray is placed in the bottom of a drawer which slides in under a
plate-glass top, which may be used as a writing or work table ; and, when the fragrance
of the flowers is desired as well as their sight, it is only necessary to pull the drawer out
a little. The prince expatiates on the luxury of a lady sitting at work by the table,
looking through the glass at the flowers, and now and then pulling out the drawer to
enjoy their fragrance. We hardly know whether this half-radical prince is in jest or
earnest when talking in this manner ; but we must say, for our own part, that we think
the idea much more suitable for the diseased feeling of pampered luxury than for healthv
active intelligent women. The woman who cultivates her own flower-garden, and
watches the progress of vegetation in it from day to day, has every chance of receiving far
more enjoyment from flowers than she who has them reared and gathered for her, and sees
them for the first time through a plate glass.
Fig. 1971 is another Design for a flower-stand, the top part being of a circular shape.
2127. Candelabra are isolated supports for lights. They are formed of wood or bronze,
with three feet, and an upright pole, carved and ornamented, and terminating in a capital,
on the flat top of which a lamp is placed. Sometimes, instead of terminating in a capital
with a flap top, the candelabrum ends in branches for candles. Some of the handsomest
lamp candelabra in present use are the scagliola columns manufactured by Mr. Browne
of University Street, London. The cost of these candelabra is seven guineas each.
2128. Fire- Screens. Figs. 1972,
1973, and 1974 are Designs for
drawingroom fire-screens. The
poles may be of brass ; as wood,
and especially rosewood, is apt to
warp or break.
Fig. 1973 is a fire-screen with
one slide, and a stuffed flat rail at
bottom for the feet. There is a
flap for holding a candle supported
by a bracket. The fluting is of
silk, of the same colour as that of
the other furniture in the room.
A fire-screen is an article of fur-
niture almost exclusively British,
because Britain is the principal
country in Europe where open
fireplaces formed, till lately, almost
the only mode of heating the rooms
of the wealthy classes. At present
fire-screens are less in repute than
formerly, because they are ren-
dered less necessary by the im-
proved modes of heating used in
connection with open fires, which,
by raising an equal temperature
in every part of the room, lessen
the inducement for the company in the room to collect round the fire,
in the screen part of this piece of furniture with fluted silk, a pic-
ture is frequently introduced ; sometimes a map, and at other
times some curious performance of the needle. Large fire-screens
for parlours are frequently covered with odd prints, and especially
portraits of men, animals, plants,&c, and even with select passages
from newspapers ; or with conundrums, riddles, enigmas, and
charades. For a large library fire-screen, nothing could be more
appropriate than good maps; and, indeed, we have seen a globe
raised on a pole, and sliding up and down it at pleasure, used as
a small fire-screen. It is a great advantage for young persons to
have frequently put in their way, such instruments of education,
as globes, maps, chronological tables, tables of the heights of
mountains, the lengths of rivers, &c. ; for in this manner the
contents of these instruments, insensibly, and without effort, im-
press themselves on the mind. A material is sometimes used for
nlhng in fire-screens in some of the great houses in England,
which would not at first sight occur as eligible: this is glass,
through which the (ire is seen, but through whicli it is found
that the heat of the fire will not penetrate. This opticians account for, from the
1973
1 M7 1
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE.
1073
circumstance of the spectrum being imperfect, and in a great measure deficient in
the calorific rays. Sometimes the glass is stained to represent a painting, like the
stained glass in church windows ; and in this case the effect is remarkably rich and
grand. Such a material is particularly suitable for filling in screens in the Gothic
style ; and those who are acquainted with the stained glass windows of our ancient
cathedrals will readily conceive the endless source of variety and interest that might be
added to this description of firescreen. In all rooms where there is a great quantity of
furniture, and a great number of objects, it may be allowable, occasionally, to introduce
one or two of a subordinate description as articles of curiosity, and which, like all other
articles of curiosity, do not come within the pale of regular criticism. On this prin-
ciple, Chinese and Indian firescreens are allowable, even though there should be no
other article of furnituie in the same style in the room.
2129. Chimney-glass. Fig. 1975 is a Design for a Grecian chimney-glass, the beauty
of which will depend much on the carving. Chimney and pier glasses should correspond
1975
in the style of their frames, with that of the room in which they are placed. A pier-glass
placed opposite the chimney-glass always has an excellent effect, as they reflect one another ;
so that the size of the room is doubled from whichever end the spectator directs his view.
A black ebony plinth, French polished, is preferred to a gilded one, on account of its not
tarnishing with the cleaning of the mantel-shelf. This plinth need not be above an inch
and a half deep. Chimney and pier glasses, being comparatively fixtures, and belonging
more to the permanent or constructive Architecture of the room, than to the furniture,
ought, in our opinion, to be treated in a different manner from what they generally are.
Their frames ought to be plainer, and more architectural ; and rather to harmonise with
the architraves of the doors and windows, and the marble of the chimney-pieces, than, as
they now do, chiefly with the gilt frames of the pictures. A marble frame for a glass, such
as Mr. Robison has introduced in his drawingroom, fig. 1817, we think in good taste;
not only over a marble chimney-piece, but over a marble-topped pier or consol table.
Perhaps there is no piece of furniture, put up by the London upholsterers, which is more
generally in bad taste than looking-glasses ; and this arises, as it appears to us, from that
fertile source of bad taste in articles formed for those who have abundant wealth, — an
excessive love of ornament. In this department of furniture, as in some others, we are
certainly far excelled by both the French and Germans. We shoidd say, let small, and
especially portable, looking-glasses have highly enriched frames; but let those for large
6 L
10/ t COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE
plates, to be placed against walls, always be simple and architectural, seeming to belong
to the construction of the room.
2130. Window Curtains. Fig. 1976 shows a window curtain with a gilt cornice and
handsome drapery, the hangings being either of damask or chintz, with bullion fringe
1976
(so called because it is made in the style of epaulets, the pendent part of which is called
bullion, though for what reason we have not been able to discover,) with silk drops.
The curtains are tied up with tassels and hands, instead of being fastened back with
brass pins; a hook being placed on the architrave, on which the band is slipped. In
general the material and colour of window curtains should be the same as that of the
other drapery in the room ; for example, as the covers of sofas in drawing-rooms and as
bed curtains in bed-rooms. In the cases of dining-rooms and libraries, where there is
no other drapery than that belonging to the window curtains, the colour, and the ma-
terial of these should be such as to harmonise with the colouring, and style of finishing
and furniture, of the room. For example, if the furniture be chiefly mahogany, the
material of the curtains should be moreen or cloth ; and the colour should be of the
same tone, and strong or dark ; say some shade- of red, brown, or scarlet. If, on the
other hand, the furniture be chiefly of oak, or of different-coloured foreign woods, the
or other light-coloured cloth, or moreen, or some description of chintzes or cottons, will
be more suitable; in both cases the colours in the carpets should be in part thoseof drab
window curtains. When the chairs of a room are covered with cloth, the principle of
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1075
unity requires that this cloth, and that of the window curtains, should be the same both
in kind and colour.
Fig. 1977 is another diawingroom curtain, in which muslin hangings are shown
beneath the damask ones. The use of curtains in living-rooms is chiefly confined to
c^frfP,/?,™ r^ ■--
1977
cold and temperate climates ; and, even in these, they are found to convey the idea of
too great warmth in summer. We except, however, muslin curtains, the use of which
is to exclude insects, and in some degree to soften the direct light of the sun. In warm
climates, and during the heat of summer in the temperate regions, when it is desirable
to exclude heat, and, consequently, to a certain extent, light, the means which are most ef-
fective are the use of outside lufFer-blinds ; the glass of the windows being either altogether
removed, and replaced by wire gauze or fine muslin curtains ; or, as is commonly the
case in England, the sashes of the window being kept open at bottom and top. In all houses
whatever, it is a matter of considerable importance to moderate the light of the sun in the
hottest days of summer. The advantages of this are, coolness, the almost total exclusion
of insects, and the retention of colour in the different articles of furniture in the room.
For this reason, as it is very desirable, in every house, whether of the poor man or of the
rich, to preserve the colour of such expensive articles as window curtains and carpets,
and to exclude flies, which totally destroy gilt picture-frames, and gnats, which are a
personal annoyance, all houses that can afford it ought to have either shutter-blinds, or
some description of outside blinds, such as those mentioned, § 2002.
10?t) COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Fig. 1978 is a curtain with a richly carved and gilt cornice.
1978
Fig. 1979 is a drawingroom curtain with a fringed valance attached to gilt brass
rings, which move along a wooden pole sheathed in gilt brass. A silk drop is attached
to each ring, and from each ring the fringe forms a swag (curve). The curtains draw
behind the valance on a rod, as before described, § 6C9. As far as we have observed,
the taste of upholsterers is much more correct in window curtains, and in hangings and
draperies of every description, than in articles of furniture where form is chiefly con-
cerned. We can only account for this from their being, in this department, under the
control of a more enlightened public opinion, viz. that of women ; who, from the
milliner upwards, have generally a more correct sense of harmony in colouring than men.
In the fashions of window curtains, as in almost every other article on which fashion
operates, the change is alternately from simple to complex, and from what is old to
what is new. The prevailing taste is for simple draperies, and the four Designs here
given we consider to be nearly unexceptionable. It is a great advantage, in every
desoriptiotl of hangings, to have them so put up, as to be easily taken down and
cleaned ; another desideratum is, that they can be easily drawn and withdrawn ; and a
third, as Mr. Robison judiciously remarks, is to have the folds perpendicular, in order
that thi'y may not harbour much dust. A variety of useful details respecting the hang-
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE.
1077
ing of curtains and window blinds will be found from § 669 to § 675 ; and those ladies
who may wish to cut out their own curtains will find every thing they can desire in the
Upholsterer's Accelerator.
1979
2131. 77ie General Appearance of a Drawingroom f.tted up in the Grecian Style is given
in fig. 1 980. This Design is by Mr. Lamb, who observes " that this room communi-
cates with a library through a conservatory. The opening to the latter should have
shutters with their backs lined with looking-glass, for effect when they are closed at night ;
it should also have glazed sashes to let down, when it maybe found necessary to close the
room in the daytime. These shutters and sashes should be in three parts, to slide in
grooves ; the centre forming one panel. Within the room, on the sides of this opening,
are large looking-glasses, and in the four angles from the ceiling are suspended glass
vases for flowers. The whole of the decorations should tend to give a lively character
to the room, and flowers will materially assist in doing so. The opposite side of the
room should exactly correspond with this, and should open upon the lawn." We
need hardly say that we think this Design one of great beauty and novelty. The
idea of a suspended glass jardiniere appears to us much more elegant than shutting
flowers up in the drawer of a table, as before alluded to. Mr. Lamb's furniture is, like
his Architecture, always in good taste, and always combining novelty with correctness of
design and harmonv of style.
1 !)S0
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE.
1079
Subsect. 6. Grecian and Modern Furniture fir Bed-rooms and Dressing-rooms.
2132. Bedstead*. Fig. 1981 is a bedstead with ;; mahogany ogee cornice, in the
hollow of which is fixed a small brass or bronzed rod, a, by a bronzed or brass bracket,/;,
which is placed on the angle of the cornice ; c shows the front of the bracket, looking
at it on the angle. The curtains are hooked on to the rings in the manner described
§ 669, and there are small roses sewed on over each hook, which add much to the
effect. There is a fringed valance inside the cornice. The headcloth and tester are
fluted in a particular manner ; that is, with one wide flute and a narrow one on each
side of it, leaving a space between it and the next flute. The footboard, which is made
to slide out and in, is fluted to correspond with the head cloth and tester. The curtains
may be looped up by a small cord. All bedsteads should have castors with wooden
wheels ; a variety known as the French castor is considered the best.
Fig. 1982 is a four-post bedstead and furniture, with the cornice of mahogany, and
French-polished. The mahogany cornice is considered to be much preferable to a
painted and japanned one, both in point of effect and in durability ; though it is some-
what more expensive. The curtains of all beds ought to correspond with those of the
windows of the rooms in which they are placed. Chintz is generally preferred for bed-
curtains, as it admits of being washed. Bed curtains, when of chintz, are generally
lined with cotton of a different colour, sometimes plain and sometimes spotted. Dyed
1080 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
1982
Z£NS
linings were formerly common, but they have now given way to plain white or spotter]
ones ; the reason for which is, that the latter will admit of being washed, without injuring
the colour of the spots, which the former do not. Dimity curtains, for both beds and
windows, are considered in good taste, especially in the country, where they keep long
clean. Moreen used to be employed for the hangings of best beds and bed-room win-
dows ; but it is now considered as apt to harbour moths and other vermin ; and there-
fore, in these economical times, it is much less used than formerly. It has, however, the
advantage of not taking fire so readily as chintz or dimity ; but were these latter, imme-
diately after being washed, dipped in a solution of alum in clear water, they would be
rendered much less liable to injury from fire than moreen, or any other stuff of which
wool is the basis. Any one may prove this, by trying the effects of a solution of alum
on a cambric pocket handkerchief.
2133. French Bedstead. Fig. 1984, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a French
bedstead with a circular top ; and with round projecting pillars in front, in which the
castors are concealed. The drapery may be of chintz, dimity, or muslin, so as to cor-
respond with the window curtains of the room.
2134. Bed Pillars. Fig. 1983 shows four patterns which may be executed in
mahogany, oak, or beech ; or they may be made of deal, and painted and grained.
These four patterns of bed-pillars will be considered by most persons, as well cabinet-
makers as others, to be very handsome; and it may be worth while to enquire in what
their beauty consists. The first thing that strikes the eye in them, after surveying their
genera] form, is the quantity of carving with which they are decorated, and the different
narrow-turned necks or mouldings, which occur on that portion of the pillar, which is
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE.
10S1
1983
above the square, or rectangular part. How far then may this carving, and the intro-
duction of these necks, or circular parts, he admitted, and yet be consistent with archi-
tectural design and taste? The answer on architectural principles is, just so far as they
do not interfere with the
expression of the pillar.
The next question is, what
ought this expression to be?
First,suitablencss of strength
and form to its use ; and,
secondly, the expression of
some kind of beauty or style,
for the gratification of the
beholder. The lower part
of the pillar is very properly
formed square on the sides ;
because that form is best
adapted for being mortised
to receive the tenons by
which it is joined to the
framework of the bed.
The upper part of the pillar
is conical or tapering ; and
it is smaller than the lower
part, because the same kind
of strength and application
is not there wanting ; this
part having only to support
the perpendicular pressure
of the roof. The feet, claws,
or bottom knobs, of the pil-
lars are brought to points ;
partly, we may suppose, be-
cause, the narrower the
space on which a foot can
stand, the more easily is it
adjusted to any surface on
which it may happen to be
placed ; and, partly, because
the only kind of strength
required there being that of
resisting perpendicular pres-
sure, the trouble of preserv-
ing the square form becomes
unnecessary. Thus it would
appear, that, as far as expres-
sion of purpose is concerned,
these bed-pillars are, at least,
unobjectionable ; and we
shall now, therefore, examine
them with respect to their
expression of beauty or style.
It is a fundamental principle,
both in nature and art, that
the stronger and more mas-
sive parts of any object
should support the lighter
and more elegant forms of
it ; and this it is, which is
the cause of the satisfaction
which we feel when we see
a cylindrical column placed
over a square pedestal, and
the conical upper part of
the bed-pillars, in the De-
signs before us, rising out of the rectangular part. The beauty of the conical part
of these pillars is great, in proportion as one part seems to arise out of another ; and
6 M
108^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
as no part which follows seems to counteract that which went before. In this point of
1985
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE.
10&
view, the most satisfactory of these pillars is that marked b ; because the base of the
conical part being commenced by the mouldings at e, the upper part of the cone appears
to rise beautifully out of the foliage over it; whereas, in the Design a, the continuity
of the cone is first interrupted by the hollow at f, and afterwards by the neck at g,
though above this last letter, the cone rises in a satisfactory manner from the foliage
which embraces it. In the De-
sign c, the cone rises satisfactorily
from the double neck ; but the
Design d is altogether bad, from
the multiplicity of its parts, the
apparent weakness and want of
continuity and of cooperation
in its lines, and the obvious ef-
forts of the designer to display
ornament and produce novelty.
Of the feet of these different
Designs, that of a is unquestion-
ably the handsomest ; and that of
c the worst, in as much as it ap-
proaches nearer than any other
to the expression of weakness.
If the preceding reasoning be
found correct, it follows that,
beautiful as these bed-posts ap-
pear to be on the first glance, yet
that, when examined and tested
by principles, there is not one of
them to which great objections
cannot be made. If the foot, or
claw, as it is technically called,
of a were substituted for the
claw of b, then b would be the
pillar most to our taste ; and next
would be the pillar c, with the
same change effected on it. In
this case, as in most others, the
great fault is the deviation from
simplicity. The cause of this
fault is, that, in London, so great has been the demand for cabinet furniture, and so
ardent the desire for novelty, that the great and incessant efforts of the upholsterer are
directed to the production of something new ; and that this demand for novelty, instead
of being met by taste and invention adequate to the supply, has only called forth mecha-
nical changes or combinations of forms. The essential cause of this is the want of dis-
crimination on the part of the public, between 1988
what is a mere mechanical change in the dispo-
sition of parts, and what is really original design
in composition.
2135. Bed-steps. Fig. 1985 shows a set of
bed-steps, with two of the steps arranged as
cupboards. The tread of the top step is hinged,
and lifts up ; the middle step pulls forward ;
and when drawn out its lid lifts up, and shows
a space for a bidet, or other convenience. Where
there are steps of this kind on each side of a
bed, the middle step of the one may contain a
night convenience, and that of the other a bidet.
2136. Bed Cupboard. Fig. 1986, on a scale
of three quarters of an inch to a foot, forms a
very convenient cupboard, with a shelf and top having two flaps, which fold out for
books, &c, so as to form a table at pleasure, and thus disguise the use for which it is
principally intended. Pieces of furniture of this kind are often made in the shape of
pedestals, square or round, with marble tops, shelves within, and a hinged door opening
from top to bottom.
2137. Wardrobes. Fig. 1987, to a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a lady's winged
wardrobe, to be made of any fine wood, French polished, and showing no brasswork in
any part of the front. The knobs are of mahogany or ebony ; the mouldings on the
108't COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
doors are made to project ; and the fronts of the drawers are made to recede, and to have
a moulding raised upon them. Fig. 1989 shows the interior of this wardrobe. In one
1989
wing there is a rail with pegs, for hanging dresses, which folds out in the centre, so as
to enable a greater quantity of articles to be hung upon it. There is a shelf above the
rail, for holding shoes, &c. In the other wing are four shelves, for bonnets ; and below
is a locker, for dirty linen, the front of which folds down, and, when closed, fastens by a
catch. The centre part contains five tray shelves and four drawers.
Fig. 1988 shows a portion of the interior of a wardrobe, containing a horizontal brass
rod, on which is hooked another article of brass, having two arms, or cross-pieces, to put
into the arm-holes of ladies'
dresses ; a number of which by
this means may be hooked on
to the rod, and slid backwards
and forwards on it, so as to
lie examined, or taken off, at
pleasure. This is found by far
the most convenient and eco-
nomical mode of hanging up
ladies' dresses, without in the
slightest degree creasing or
otherwise injuring them. The
other part of this wardrobe
contains seven press shelves,
and a deep drawer for hold-
ing bonnets, &c, as described
in § 626. Presses are often
made four feet six inches, and
even seven feet, wide, for the
Mile purpose ofholding dresses,
with a horizontal rod, as in
the figure, and with a number
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE.
1085
of brass arms hooked on it. A variety
of other forms for wardrobes will be found
among the cottage furniture, § 626.
2138. Dressing- Table. Fig. 1990, to
a scale of half an inch to a foot, is a lady's
enclosed dressing-table on pedestals.
There arc three drawers in the frame, and
the pedestals have doors, with shelves or
drawers within. There is a glass fixed on
the top, and the castors are hidden in the
plinths of the pedestals. This very useful
piece of furniture is often made without
the glass being fixed.
2139. Dressing- Glasses. Figs. 1991 and
1992, to a scale of three quarters of an
inch to a foot, show patterns for dressing-
glass frames, which are now seldom made
with drawers. Drawers, however, seem not only to be useful for holding small articles
necessary for the toilette, but advantageous as forming an architectural plinth or base
for the support of the glass, as well
as to prevent it from being blown
over by the wind. When dressing-
glasses have no drawers, the frames
are generally loaded with lead, to pre-
vent them from being blown down.
2140. Cheval Glass. Fig. 1994
is a cheval dressing-glass, with
castors concealed in the feet, and
with the face of the frame beveled.
It has brass or bronzed candle-
brancher, which turn round with
joints; and the centres or screws
on which the glass turns have knobs
of wood fixed over the iron screws
to hide them. Fig. 1 993 is a cheval
glass of a more simple construction.
2141. Wash-hand Stand. Fig.
1 995 is a wash-hand stand of ma-
hogany, with a marble top and wash-board. It contains two drawers, and a shelf
below with a circular piece of marble fixed on it, for the ewer to stand on. The best
1992
1993
1086 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
kind of marble for wash-hand stands is the variety of French marble known in London
as St. Anne's : it is not
so light as some blue-
veined marbles, but it
is considered much
more durable than any
other, from the lime
being chemically fixed,
by combination with
iron, in such a manner
as to prevent the latter
from being easily acted
upon by the alkali of
the soap. The price
of marble being now
greatly reduced, in con-
sequence of the appli-
cation of steam ma-
chinery to its sawing
and polishing, the tops
of wash-hand stands,
and other articles of
bed-room furniture, are
very frequently made
of it.
Fig. 1 996 is a vase, which may be of marble or of cast iron bronzed, or of various other
materials, supported on a cast-iron bronzed column, with project-
ing handles to serve as soap-holders. If this article were made a
fixture, two small tubes could be conducted up the supporting co-
lumn, the one to supply clear water, and the other to carry off the
dirty water. This elegant Design is by Mr. Mallet.
2142. A small Ebony Waiter or Tray is frequently used for
holding jugs, &c, of hot water, for the washing-table: they are
eight or nine inches in diameter, turned, with the edges projecting
over, so as to serve as a substitute for handles. This, however, is
not the only article of furniture and furnishing that we have
omitted to figure and describe in this work. The truth is, that
there are hundreds of small articles required in furnishing a house,
which might have been introduced in a work professing to describe
and figure all the utensils, implements, and instruments used in private houses : but
our principal object is, to communicate our ideas on the taste or no taste of the more
conspicuous articles of furniture at present generally fabricated.
Subsect. 7. Furniture for the Nursery.
2143. Bassinet (barcina, Sp., a rush basket). The first piece of furniture which an
infant can be said to use is a bassinet, or portable bed. Fig. 1997 is a bassinet two feet
and a half long, the frame
of which is made of wicker-
work, with a hood which
falls backwards or forwards
as required. It is generally
lined with printed furniture,
or sometimes with dimity,
to keep out the draught
The hood is covered with
furniture, and two little
curtains drop down from its
front, which are looped up
witli tapes or ribands in the
same manner as tent-bed
furniture (see fig. 698).
A hair mattress stuffed very
■oft, and a small down pillow, complete the bed. " The advantage of this bed," Mr.
Dalziel observes, " is great; as the child, when asleep in it, is protected from currents
of air from whatever direction they may come. The child may also be removed in it
1998
GRECIAN AND MODERN VILLA FURNITURE. 1087
from one room to another without being disturbed. A mother will find such a bed par-
ticularly useful in the evening when the child is asleep beside her in the sitting-room ;
because it need not be disturbed, but may be carried in the bassinet to the bed-room,
and there placed by the side of the bed ; whereas, if the child were asleep on a sofa, its
removal, by taking it up in the arms, would be certain to awake it, and the mother might
lose her rest for several hours."
2144. Cribs have been already figured and described § 662. They come into use
after the bassinet ; that is, when the child is about a year old, and has been 'yeaned. We
may here mention a description of crib, which has hooks or other fastenings ; by which,
when one side of it is taken out, the crib can be made fast to the side of the mother's bed,
so that she may have access to the child during the night, by merely stretching out her
arms, and taking it to her.
2145. Chairs are the next articles made use of
by children ; and those about London are of four
kinds. Fig. 1 999 is a child's chair of the first kind,
having a night pan, and a matted seat. A small
stuffed flannel of the size of the seat, and having a
round hole in the centre, is generally placed over
it when it is to be used, in order to prevent the i
pan from hurting the child. (In some districts of
Italy, and other parts
of the Continent,
rings of stuffed
cloth, or stuffed lea-
ther, or of rush
matting, are used for
the same purpose by
grown-up persons.)
In England, infants
of ordinary health
and strength are
put into chairs of
this kind, when be-
tween three and four
months old.
Fig. 1993 is a
child's high chair,
to be used when it first begins to sit at table. There is a bar or stick put across between
the arms, to keep the child from falling out, and sometimes there is a foot-board. A
2000
stands on a stool.
child in average health
is put into such a chair
when about twelve or
fourteen months old.
Fig. 2000 is an Astley
Cooper's chair ; being a
form recommended by
that eminent surgeon,
with the view of pre-
venting children from
acquiring a habit of lean-
ing forward, or stooping ;
the upright position of
the back affording sup-
port when the child is
placed at table, and eat-
ing, which a sloping-
backed chair does not.
It is proper to observe
that some medical men
do not approve of these
chairs.
Fig. 2001 is a child's
elbow-chair, or bergere,
as it is commonly called
in England. This chair
to which it is attached
2001
thumb-screw ; and, when the
1088 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
chair is removed from the stool,
the latter forms a table for the
child to put its playthings on.
The shelf for the feet is made to
move higher or lower as may be
required. The chair is only fixed
on the stool when the child is to
sit at table to eat, which it may do
when about eighteen months of
age.
2146. A Child's Washing-stand.
Fig. 2002 is a child's washing-
stand, consisting of a table about
eighteen inches high, with a large
basin and a soap cup sunk in one
side of the top. The table is made lower than a chair, in order that the nurse may
have the more power over the child when she is washing it. When the child is only a
few weeks old, it is immersed, or bathed in the basin ; but as it grows larger, it sits
on the top of the table, with its legs in the water.
Sect. II. Gothic Furniture for Villas.
2147. The Designs for Gothic Furniture which we shall submit are few; because
such designs are, in general, more expensive to execute than those for modern furniture ;
partly from the greater quantity of work in them, but chiefly because modern workmen
are unaccustomed to this kind of workmanship. What passes for Gothic furniture
among cabinet-makers and upholsterers is, generally, a very different thing from the
correct Gothic designs supplied by Architects who have imbued their minds with this
style of art. Wherever, therefore, a house is to be furnished in the Gothic style, we
repeat our recommendation to put the whole under the direction of a competent Archi-
tect. Indeed, it would be of great advantage to the wealthy, who have not leisure
themselves to attend to the subjects of taste and purity of design in furnishing their houses,
if they were, on every occasion, not only of furnishing a room, but even of adding or
changing a piece of furniture in a room already furnished, to consult an Architect before
doing so ; since nothing is more common than to find the style (in regard both to art
and expense) in which a house is furnished, totally at variance with its external Ar-
chitecture. Even in single rooms, we find the most heterogeneous mixtures of forms and
colours, arising from the desire of the occupant to possess such or such a particular
article of furniture, which has been seen somewhere else, without at all considering pro-
priety either with regard to expense, style, or effect. This arises from one of the most
common errors of mankind; viz., that of looking to parts by themselves alone, and not
considering them with reference to the whole to which they belong. We have before
observed, and it cannot be too deeply impressed on the mind of the reader, that the
first glance at the exterior of a house, like hearing the sound of the first bar of a piece of
music, ought to give a correct idea of the style of all which is to follow. Whoever has
cultivated a taste for architectural beauty must feel the force of this truth.
2 1 48. Previously to the Time of the Tudors, Mr. Hunt observes, " household furniture was
in general of a rude substantial character : the tables were formed of boards on tressels ;
the seats were massy oak benches or stools ; and the floors were strewed with straw."
( Chaucer. ) The higher orders had, nevertheless, many costly and splendid articles :
such as embroidered beds, tapestry hangings, and magnificent plate. From the time of
Henry IV. to that of Henry VI. it appears that the same style of furniture prevailed
throughout Europe. An improved style was introduced into England during the reigns
of Henry VII. and Henry VIII., in consequence of the encouragement held out by
those monarchs to induce artisans of all countries to settle in their dominions. Some of
the handsomest pieces of furniture of those days belonged to Cardinal Wolsey, as ap-
pears by the fine specimens in the possession of John Thompson, Esq., of Frognall
Priory, Hampstead.
Subsect. 1. Gothic Furniture for Halls.
2149. Tlie Hall of the manor-house, in the times when Tudor Architecture prevailed,
was the usual place for dining in. It was a large room, in the form of a parallelogram,
having an oriel window at the upper end, and other windows, filled with painted glass,
high up in the side-walls. Near the oriel window was the dais, or raised floor, set aside
for the master of the house and his most distinguished guests. Under a screen was the
passage to the offices, and over it the gallery for the minstrels. The fire was originally
GOTHIC VILLA FURNITURE.
1089
placed against what was called a reredoss, in the middle of the floor, the smoke ascending
to the roof, and escaping there by one or by several openings, sometimes lufFer-boarded, to
keep out the rain. The timbers of the roofs were framed with pendants, carved, and more or
less emblazoned with heraldic "insignia. The " top beam of the hall," and the " roof-tree "
of the Scotch houses, both terms signifying a beam of timber now seldom introduced in
roofs of such massive dimensions as formerly, were common toasts both in Wales and
Scotland.
2150. The Furniture of the Hall consisted chiefly of clumsy oak tables covered with
carpets ; of benches or forms of the same material ; of cupboards for plate and various
articles for the dining-table ; and in the centre the reredoss, or fire-iron, one of which
may still be seen in the hall at Penshurst, near Tunbridge Wells, in Kent. Against
this fire-iron the faggots were placed which made the fire, and they were surrounded by
2004 jj?
a raised rim of stone or tile, on which lay a fire fork and tongs. We saw this interesting
hall in 1828, and Mr. Britton, who examined it in 1832, describes it at length in his
very interesting Sketches of Tunbridge Wells. " The south
side of the court is occupied by the fine old baronial hall,
which, though disfigured and mutilated, is still an apart-
ment of magnitude and architectural interest. It measures
about sixty feet in length by nearly forty in width, and at
least sixty in height. It is open to the roof, where there
was a louvre, or lantern, for ventilation. Beneath it, on the
floor, is the original fire-hearth, with a large andiron for
sustaining the blazing log." The designs for hall furniture
which follow are not to "be considered as servile copies of
what actually existed in the Tudor times, either at Pens-
hurst, or any where else, but as an exemplification of that
style of Architecture applied to articles suited to modern
habits of society.
2151. Benches. Fig. 2003 is a hall bench, designed by
Mr. Lamb. In the preceding part of this work will be found
two figures of hall benches, from existing specimens, both
copied from the work of Mr. Hunt (see figs. 1346 and 1347.)
2152. Chairs. Fig. 2004 is a hall chair, also designed
by Mr. Lamb, who observes " that the heraldic devices on
it should be painted in their proper colours."
2153. Tables. Hall tables, as we have already observed,
were of a simple massive construction, displaying little
ornament. The top was generally of oak planking, two or more inches thick, and the
frame supporting it consisted chiefly of two massive horizontal top rails, joined to
massive pillars. Sometimes there were both top and foot rails, but in the more massive
designs the latter were entirely wanting.
Subsect. 2. Gothic Furniture for Parlours and Dining-rooms.
2154. Sideboard. Fig. 2005 is an oak sideboard, which may be either executed in
that wood, or in deal and painted and grained in imitation of it.
6 N
1090 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
2155. Tables. Fig. 2006 is a dining-room table of oak or chestnut, or of any soft
wood painted and grained.
2156. Seats. Fig. 2007 is a parlour chair turned in oak, chestnut, or any other
British wood that has
colour and variety in
its texture. It may be
painted, or even gilt,
according to the cha-
racter of the room in
which it is to be placed.
The cushion may be
of figured chintz. For
a Gothic chair, Mr.
Lamb considers that
this Design would be a
cheap one.
Fig. 2008 is a din-
ing-room chair, having
a stuffed cushion of crimson damask ; the vine leaves and grapes in the back should be
painted of their natural tints.
2007
GOTHIC VILLA FURNITURE.
2009
1091
109'2 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
2157. The General Appearance of a dining-room finished and furnished in the Tudor
style is shown in fig. '2009. In this Design, the curtains, Mr. Lamb observes, " are
to be transparent, in order that they may not hide the Architecture of the windows.
The ceiling is to be of oak, and the ornaments in the corners are to be gilt. The dado
should also5 be of oak. The dado did not come much into use till the latter part of the
Tudor period. Two additional patterns for chairs will be seen in this Design."
Subsect. 3. Gothic Furniture for Libraries.
2158. Bookcases. Figs. 2010 and 2011 are bookcases in two different varieties of
Tudor Gothic, both remarkably plain, so as to be easily executed by any joiner who has
been accustomed to fit up houses or churches in the Gothic style. Such a joiner will,
for the most part, have the proper tools for the different mouldings, and wili understand
better what they are, than even a cabinet-maker, who has always been executing designs
in the modern style.
2159. Seats. Fig. 2013 is a carved oak arm-chair, with a cushion of green and gold.
2160. Tables. Fig. 2014 is an oak table, which will serve either for a parlour or a
library, the pillar might be of cast iron, properly painted, and the top might be of
marble. Our correspondent Mr. Robison has sent us a very handsome design for a
tabic somewhat resembling this in general form, but made entirely of cast iron and
marble, which he has bad executed in Edinburgh, and finds to be " handsome, service-
able, and economical.'1 The style of his house being modern, he had the base and
pillar bronzed; the circular marble top was of Bordeaux marble, forty-two inches in
diameter, and cost, prepared and polished at Bordeaux, and finished with a raised border,
only about eighty francs. Without this raised border, it would not have cost more than
forty-two tVai.cs. The freight from Bordeaux to Leith is only 3s. 6d. per cwt. We
introduce these facts to show how much may be done, in the way of improving house-
GOTHIC VILLA FURNITURE.
1093
hold furniture by the more general introduction of cast iron and marble. Were the
taste for marble greater, and the steam-machinery for working it more generally-
known, there can be little doubt that the increased demand would stimulate to such an
abundant supply, that the price would be lowered, and all parties be gainers.
2161. The General View of the Interior of a Library in this Style is shown in fig. 2012.
2012
AGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
The roof is of oak, with the bosses at the inter-
section gilt. The shields should be painted of their
proper colours. At the end of the room is an
enclosed bookcase, and opposite each window is a
corresponding recess for books ; these recesses may
have carved oak doors. In this Design, Mr. Lamb
has shown two elegant chairs, a library table, and
=r& footstool. Those of our readers who have paid
any attention to the remarks which we have made,
in different places in the preceding section, on modern furniture, must, by this time, have
formed some idea as to what constitutes unity of style' in this department of Domestic
Architecture. We would direct their attention to the whole of this interior of a
library, to the interior of a dining-room, and to each of the pieces of furniture in
this, and the two preceding subsections, separately. In every one of these will be
found the most perfect unity of style. On examining the chairs, it will be seen that
there is not that discrepancy between the hind and the fore legs, that there is in the
designs for chairs in the modern style. The backs also of these chairs seem to arise out
of the seats, and to be firmly fixed to them, instead of being twisted about in all direc-
tions like the chairs in p. 1062. Their forms are no doubt what might be called stiff, in
comparison with the forms of the chairs alluded to ; but that stiffness belongs to the style.
The tables, we think, are eminently beautiful ; more especially the legs and pillars.
Subsect. 4. Gothic Furniture for Drawingrooms.
2162. Seats. Fig. 2015 is an oak drawingroom chair, with a stuffed cushion of blue
2015
2017
GOTHIC VILLA FUliNlTUItK. 1095
damask, and silver edging and tassels. We may observe here, tliat there is no end to
the variety of form and combination which might be introduced in Gothic chairs. The
Gothic style of Architecture, is, of all others, that which affords the most fertile sources
of invention ; not
only in the forms 2018
and disposition of
its masses, or prin-
cipal parts, but in
all its various details
and ornaments. The
Grecian style of art
is directly the re-
verse. The expense
of the Gothic style
is the only serious
objection which can
be made against it.
To a Briton this
style is rich in as-
sociations of the
most interesting
description.
Fig. 2016 is a
drawingroom chair
with a cane back
and seat. It may
be executed in oak, or oak and ebony, the ornamental carvings being gilt. The whole
chair may also be executed in any easily carved wood, and afterwards painted and gilt,
so as to imitate oak, ebony, ivory, and gold. This was not an uncommon practice in the
more magnificent articles of furniture of former times, as we may still see by the chairs
at Knowle, in Kent, and by those in the collection of Mr. Thompson of Frognall Priory.
Fig. 2017 is a drawingroom chair of oak, partly gilt, and having the cushion of blue
damask.
Fig. 2018 is a light drawing-
room chair, made of any soft
wood, and painted. The hollow
moulding is supposed to be of a
light green colour ; the fillet gilt,
and the cover of the cushion green,
with gold edging.
Fig. 2020 is a stool with a
stuffed top, which may serve either
for a drawingroom, or a library.
2163. A Sofa in the Gothic
style will be found in the general
view, fig. 2021, and also a piano-
forte ; both of which are charac-
teristics of the drawingroom.
2164. Table. Fig. 2019 is a
drawingroom table. The top is
supposed to be inlaid with variously figured oak, ebony, and ivory ; the pillar is of oak,
encircled with ebony, and striped with gold.
2165. A General View of the Interior of a Drawingroom, fitted up and furnished in the
Gothic Style, is given in fig. 2021. " The tracery of the ceiling should be of oak, or of
stucco painted in imitation of that wood. The fillets and flowers
should be gilt ; the panels painted blue, and the ornaments of the
cornice also gilt. The dado should be of oak, painted and gilt.
In this Design are shown two different varieties of chairs, a
piano-forte, a music-stool, a music-desk, a Canterbury, a sofa, a
fire-screen, and a footstool." We need not express an opinion
of this interior ; for every reader, we think, must be pleased with
it. Even the studies of furniture which it affords are interesting ;
the Gothic piano-forte and music-stool, with the Canterbury on
the left hand, and the music stand on the right ; the Gothic couch,
with its footstool ; the two beautiful chairs ; and, finally, the fire-
screen, all claim attention, and are each separately worthy of study
2020
1096 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
2021
GOTHIC VILLA FURNITURE.
1097
Subsect. 5. Gothic Furniture for Bed-rooms.
21 G6. For Chairs, Tables, Chests of Drawers, and other common Bed-room Furniture,
we have here given no designs, because any one at all conversant with the subject may
easily confer a Gothic character on the different articles before given as modern furniture
for the bed-rooms of cottages and villas. We are enabled by Mr. Lamb to give one
Design for a bedstead, fig. 2022, which is sufficient to prove that there is no piece of modern
furniture whatever to which this style may not be applied with admirable effect. We
have seen a number of Gothic bedsteads executed under the direction of the late Duke
of Norfolk, in Arundel Castle ; but none of them are correct in regard to style, or at all
to be compared with Mr. Lamb's Design for splendour of general effect. Arundel Castle,
our readers are probably aware, was for many years the scene of the late Duke of Nor-
folk's trials at building ; by which, as his own Architect, he sought to instruct himself in
the Gothic style. After being occupied in this way for upwards of forty years, and
spending several hundred thousand pounds, he just arrived at last at that point where a
man discovers his own utter ignorance. We make no reflection on the memory of the
noble duke on this account, we merely state the fact. A man of overgrown wealth may
be allowed to spend it in any way he pleases, as the greatest injury he can do society is
to hoard it. Had the duke employed an Architect, he would, no doubt, have possessed
a castle in a very superior taste, both externally and internally, to what Arundel Castle
now is ; but it does not follow, on that account, that he would have been so happy in seeing
the more perfect works of his Architect, as he was in realising the crude ideas of his own
mind. These observations cannot be considered altogether irrelevant to a work of this
kind, because they will serve to teach by example the consequences of a man's attempt-
ing to be his own Architect, before he is sufficiently acquainted with the subject, to be
aware of the precise state of his own architectural knowledge.
2167. Remarks. For all the designs of Tudor furniture in the preceding subsections,
we are indebted to Mr. Lamb ; whose mind is richly stored with all the forms both of
modern and ancient Architecture, and whose pencil is as rapid and accurate as his con-
ceptions are fertile. Mr. Lamb is one of the few young Architects who, like Mr. Mallet,
G o
1098 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
can draw with equal case whatever comes before them. Trees, plants, flowers, animals
human figures, landscapes, marine scenery, and buildings are all transferred by him to
paper with equal facility and rapidity. When we mention that, in addition to this, lie is,
like Mr. Varden (a young Architect similarly gifted), a practical surveyor, and a drav.-er
up of specifications and estimates, our readers may imagine how well we think him
deserving of public patronage.
2023
Sect. III. Elizabethan Furniture fur Villas.
2168. The Style of Finishing and Furniture which prevailed in England during the
Reigns of Elizabeth and James I. exhibits a mixture of the Italian Architecture with the
Gothic ; sometimes very rudely composed ; and, at other times, in consequence of being in
the hands of superior artists, forming harmonious compositions of lines and forms. The
remains of furniture
in this style are abun-
dant throughout the
country ; and, as we
have before observed,
it has of late become
fashionable among the
metropolitan cabinet-
makers to collect it.
We shall give a few
examples, for the sake
of showing that this
mixed style may be
easily applied to all
the articles of mo-
dern convenience and
luxury. Those who
wish to see designs for Elizabethan furniture on a larger scale will find whatever thry
could desire, by consulting the elegant work of Mr. Shaw, or the splendid description
of Hatfield House by
Mr. Robinson. Hat-
field House is one of
the most perfect exist-
ing specimens of Eli-
zabethan Architecture
externally, and of Eli-
zabethan finishing and
furniture within. Mr.
Robinson's descrip-
tion is, therefore, a va-
luable reference book
for Architects. The
object of Mr. Shaw's
work is " to extend
"historical correctness
in art, by placing within the, reach of its professors a standard authority for all articles
used in domestic purposes ; from the earliest period in which such specimens exist, to the
reign of James I." We may here observe that the pleasure derived from seeing or
possessing curious ancient furniture, is of a kind often quite distinct from that derived
from seeing or possessing furniture in correct style, or in elegant forms. Let, for
example, any reader observe the chair given in the next paragraph, fig. 2027, and then
turn to any of the chairs shown in FlaxmatCs Compositions from Eschylus and Homer, or
even look on some of those in Mr. Hope's work, figs. 2023 to 2026. There is no one
who would not be desirous of possessing a chair both of the Grecian and the Elizabethan
kind ; but the Elizabethan chair would be valued merely as a curious piece of antiquity ;
while the other would be prized for its expression, for its suitableness as a seat, for its
simplicity, and for the great effect produced in it by a very few lines. This effect of the
Grecian chair being independent of all historical associations, since it is, in fact, merely an
imaginary composition, results wholly from the beauty of the design. A chair in the Tudor
style is equally expressive in its way ; and is a far more perfect object as a work of art,
independent of historical associations, than any description of mixed or Elizabethan
chair : but, though it possesses the beauties of unity of expression and of style in the
highest degree, it wants that beauty of simplicity, or that evidence of effecting the most
ELIZABETHAN VILLA FURNITURE.
1099
2027
*&> \lW
important ends by the simplest means, which the Grecian chair displays, and which indeed
is characteristic of the whole of Grecian art. The object of these observations is, to show
that the present taste for Elizabethan furniture is more that of an antiquary, or of a
collector of curiosities, than that of a man of cultivated mind.
2169. Chairs. In Elizabethan houses, Hunt observes, we find in most apart-
ments two great chrirs : "these were arm-chairs, with stuffed backs and sides, entirely
covered, and similar to the
lounging-chairs of the pre-
sent day. Others, described
as * Flemish chairs,' ' scrolled
chairs,' and ' turned chairs,'
were wrought in ebony, wal-
nut, cherry-tree, &c, with
high backs ; and either stuff-
ed in one long upright panel,
or filled in with wickerwork ;
the seats being also stuffed,
and covered with costly
kinds of materials, as various
as their shapes. To these
may be added low arm-chairs,
tastefully turned, and carved
in ebony, enriched with ivory
knobs and inlayings, chiefly
of Italian or Flemish manu-
facture, with cushions or pil-
lows on the seats. Besides
these, there were ' some little
gilt chairs for women;' and
long seats, with backs and
prms, resembling in form the
more ancient settle, and holding several persons, were also much in use." (Hunt's
Tudor Architecture, p. 146.)
Fig. 2029 is a low arm-chair in the Elizabethan style, contributed by Mr. Shaw ; and
fig. 2027 is a drawingroom chair, sent us by the same gentleman.
Figs. 2028, 2030, and 2031 are chairs now existing in the
neighbourhood of Haslemere, in Surrey, the drawings of
which were sent us by Miss Sarah Perry of Stroud House.
Fig. 2032 is a richly carved Dutch chair, in the possession
of a family at Bayswater, from a very beautiful and accurate
drawing of which our engraving was made.
Fig. 2033 is an arm-chair and cushion from Hunt, said to
be of the time of Henry VIII., and to be now existing. It
has nothing to recommend it but its antiquity : the form of
the seat is the very reverse of what may be called natural ;
since, so far from its affording relaxation and ease to the body,
the person sitting on it must inevitably be cramped and con-
fined. This is not the only chair or piece of ancient furniture
to which similar remarks may be applied. The truth is, that neither in ancient furniture,
dress, nor even Architecture, is there any thing to admire, in point of comfort or use
when viewed with reference to our own times. There is much of taste and beauty in manv
parts and articles, considered with reference to their composition ; because excellence in
art depends more upon the natural talent and exertion of the individual, than on any
stores of scientific knowledge left him by his predecessors; and art may, consequently, be
carried to a high degree of perfection in an age of general ignorance. Hence, numerous great
painters, sculptors and carvers existed in the dark ages, when philosophers and men of
science were rarely to be met with : hence, also, while science progressively improves, in
consequence of the discoveries handed down from one generation to another, the
imaginative arts, in any one age, depend mainly upon the individual exertions of the artists
of that age. No natural process of human improvement could produce a Shakspeare ;
but thousands now know more than Brindley did in his time. We state these facts to
show that the admiration which is bestowed on many of the works of art of the dark ages
may often proceed from the justest taste, and be neither the admiration of ignorance, nor
the mere veneration of antiquity. The finest proofs of this may be obtained from the
magnificent work of Seroux d'Agincourt; and also from Perrault, an Architect who, as
Mr. Hope finely observes, " knew how to unite philosophy with bricks and mortar."
1 10D COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
2170. Tables in the Elizabethan Style displayed no great variety of form; but the
splendour of their coverings, Hunt informs us, " amply compensated for the rudeness
i.'03 i
and simplicity of the work .so concealed : the most elaborate embroidery wrought on the
finest grounds, velvets and satins fringed with gold and silver, Turkey carpets, and the
ELIZABETHAN VILLA FLUIN11 URE.
1101
2034
2035
choicest tapestry were devoted to these purposes." The ornaments, which consisted
principally of carving, were chiefly bestowed on the legs and pillars; and of such tables
there are numbers to be met with in different ancient houses throughout the country.
Fig. 2034 is a hall table in this style, designed by Mr. Shaw ; and fig. 2035 is a side-
board table for a dining-room, by the same artist.
2171. Cabinets, Coffers, and
Chests are well-known pieces
of ancient furniture, and are
to be found in every house
that has the slightest preten-
sions to antiquity. Cabinets,
Hunt observes, " were of
massive proportions, carved in
oak, ebony, walnut, and other
woods, and sometimes inlaid.
Some of these answered the
double purpose of depositories
and cupboards for plate ; and,
from having drawers and re-
cesses enclosed by doors, and
broad shelves between the tiers
of turned columns, were conspicuous objects." (p. 148.) Their exterior appearance often
displayed much carving and other decoration, with curious hinges, escutcheons, handles,
and angle ornaments. The
coffers and chests were covered
with iron straps and bands,
and had curiously formed
locks, hinges, and corner orna-
ments. For the termination
of the strap and hinge bands,
the fleur de lis was often re-
sorted to; and the general
form and proportion of these
ornamented bands of iron were
something like those of a
sceptre. The handles were of
curious workmanship ; and sometimes the chest was raised on feet, and at other times
on a plinth. Oak was the wood of which these chests were most frequently made, but
sometimes they were inlaid with different woods. In all houses in the country, where
there are large halls and passages, massive chests are most useful pieces of furniture,
for containing articles which it is desirable to conceal ; especially lumber or fuel.
The exterior of all such chests or wardrobes might be rendered curious, and highly
interesting, though we do not say in correct or architectural taste, by covering them with
the Elizabethan, Dutch, Louis XIV., or Francis I., ornaments, which are now to be
purchased in abundance, either at home or abroad. We have already, § 2063, referred
to Nixon and Son, for the two latter kinds of furniture ; and we may here observe that
Wilkinson of Oxford Street, and Hanson of John Street, have extensive collections of
Elizabethan and Dutch furniture and carvings, from which a judicious compiler of ex-
teriors might clothe skeleton frames, so as to produce objects of curiosity and interest, at
a very trifling expense. Kensett of Mortimer Street has also some curious specimens
both of Elizabethan and more ancient furniture. Among these, we may mention a
correct fac-simile of a chair taken from Tintern Abbey, and now in Troy House, Mon-
mouthshire; and two other chairs from Glastonbury; one of which, called the abbot's
chair, is of very elaborate workmanship, and the other no less remarkable for the sim-
plicity of its construction. Correct copies of these celebrated chairs are manufactured
by Mr. Kensett for sale. A fine specimen of the manner of fitting up a room with Eli-
zabethan fragments may be seen in Mortimer Street, at the office of Mr. Fairs, a London
house-painter of the very first taste.
2172. Bedsteads, and the other Articles of Furniture in Bed-rooms, fitted up in the
Elizabethan Style, were curiously wrought and carved. The wood was generally oak
or chestnut ; but walnut, elm, holly, and box were used, painted more or less, and some-
times profusely gilt. It does not appear that curtains formed so important a part of the
ancient bed as they do of the modern one. The chief expense seems to have been
incurred in carving the posts ; in the head-boards, which extended from the pillow to the
canopy ; in the canopies themselves; and in the deep cornices, or rather architraves, which
surrounded the whole. In designing modern beds in this style, the artist should bear
1 102 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
in mind, not merely the great cost of* such carving relatively to the effect produced, but
also that this kind of ornament is more apt to harbour dust, and that it is more difficult
to clean, than any other. This also is an argument against the extensive use of the highly
enriched Gothic style. In an age like the present when all, from the highest to the
lowest, are beginning to recognise their equal natural right of enjoyment, it will soon
become a part of the business of Architects and upholsterers to design and prepare
articles of furniture, both for use and luxury, in such a style, as will reduce the labour
of servants, in keeping them in order, to a minimum. Fig. 2036 exhibits six Designs
2036
£=-
w s
for balusters, selected, by Mr. Varden, from old specimens, which at once afford hints for
bed-posts, staircase railings, backs to settles and to chairs, and open screens. It is
almost needless to add that all these forms might be enriched by carving ; or that they
arc in any thing but good taste when considered with reference to abstract principles.
2173. Interiors in the Elizabethan Style. Fig. 2037 is a general view of a dining-
room ; and fig. 2038 that of a drawingroom : both are by Mr. Lamb.
2174. Remarks. Much more might have been said on the subject of Elizabethan
furniture, and it would have been easy to give numerous designs : it must, however, be re-
collected that our object, in this work, is, not to display antiquarian lore, or articles which
would require enormous expense to execute, but simply to give an idea of the style of
composition known as Elizabethan, and to show how it may be applied to articles in modern
use. No one ought to attempt it who is not a master of composition on abstract prin-
ciples; but, indeed (in London, at least), the attempt is scarcely necessary; since there
are abundant remains of every kind of Elizabethan furniture to be purchased of col-
lectors. These, when in fragments, are put together, and made up into every article of
furniture now in use ; and, as London has a direct and cheap communication with every
part of the world by sea, the American citizen or the Australian merchant, who wishes
to indulge in this taste, may do it with the greatest ease, and may purchase real antiques
at much less expense than he could have the articles carved by modern artists. To those
who wish to study the furniture and furnishing of the times of Elizabeth and James, we
recommend Mr. Hunt's very excellent and entertaining work on Tudor Architecture and
i'n r ii it nre. ; and " the .antiquary, who desires a perfect idea of any article of furniture
mentioned by Froissart, Chaucer, or Shakspeare ; the Architect, who wishes for standard
authorities for the restoration or imitation of ancient buildings; the painter, who is
anxious to produce a historical picture which shall challenge the most fastidious cri-
ticism ; or tlir histrionic manager, who is ambitious, in scenery, to rival John Kemble's
correctness in costume, "we refer to Shaw's Designs for Ancient Furniture.
ELIZABETHAN VILLA FURNITURE.
£037
1103
1101< COTTAGE, FARM, ANTD VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
2038
PRINCIPLES OF CRITICISM. 110,3
BOOK IV.
THE PRINCIPLES OF CRITICISM IN ARCHITECTURE.
2175. The Principles of Criticism, in any art, are nothing more than the principles on
which that art is founded. They are termed principles of criticism by those who consider
themselves judges, merely with reference to their application to the productions of art,
when a judgment is to he expressed upon those productions. Every person who forms
an opinion of, or passes his judgment upon, any work of art or literature, must do so with
reference to some previously received ideas; and these ideas, whether well founded or not,
are to him at once his scientific principles of the art which forms the subject of his
opinion! and his principles for criticising that art. This is one reason for the very dif-
ferent opinions formed of works of art by critics : but another reason, and one perhaps
more powerful, arises from the difference in the natural susceptibility of men's minds to
the impression of beauty ; in other words, from the original difference between men in
those perceptive powers, which, when united, constitute what is called the faculty of
taste. It is evident, therefore, that the principal causes of the differences of opinion
which exist among critics are their different degrees of knowledge of the hist prin-
ciples of the art to be criticised; and their different degrees of natural taste for its
various productions.
2176. The Productions of any Art maybe examined in two wavs : first, with reference
to what they are in themselves; and, secondly, with reference to what the artist intended
to make them. In the one case, the effect df the object, or the pleasure or dissatisfaction
which it occasions, is analysed, and referred to first principles, without the critic haviiv
had any previous knowledge of the intention of the artist ; and, in the other case, the
design or intention of the artist being known, the beauties or effects which ought to be
the result of that design, are sought for in his production, which will be blamed or
praised according as these may be found present or wanting. The first mode of
criticism may be called analytical ; and the second, synthetical. Both equally suppose
in the mind of the critic a knowledge of the principles of art, and the power of applying
those principles to its productions.
2177. The Criticisms in the preceding Part of this Work have been chiefly analytical;
and they have, in few instances, embraced either the whole of the merits, or of the
demerits, of any one particular design. The reason is, that our object, as expressed in
the Introduction (p. 1.), was, to develope principles, " as it were, incidentally, and by
little and little ; " with a view first to excite, and afterwards gradually to increase, a taste
for the study of Architecture, in minds which had previously paid but little attention to
the subject. We trust that the reader has borne constantly in his mind, while perusing
the preceding pages, that such has been our intention ; for, unless this has been the case,
those who were previously masters of the subject must have been surprised to find that
we have sometimes passed over both faults and beauties without notice. All this, how-
ever, was the necessary consequence of the plan which we laid down as our guide when
we set out. As the result of that plan, we hope we may conclude that the causes
which we have assigned for the beauties and defects of the designs given, have, by this
time, impressed on the minds of our readers all the leading principles of Domestic-
Architecture as an art of design and taste.
2178. The Object of the present Book is, to collect, and to present in a systematic form,
those leading principles of architectural criticism which have been scattered throughout
the work ; as well to show the reader their relative importance, as to afford him an easy
means of comprehending them as a whole, and of storing them up in his mind. By
finding here collected together, and connected by the relation which they bear towards one
another, those principles which he had before become acquainted with separately and in-
cidentally, their repetition, when thus combined, will reiterate the impression they had
already made on his memory, and will enable him, if he should re-examine our designs,
to complete those criticisms which we have only commenced ; or, should he direct
his attention to the designs of others, to detect in them whatever faults or beauties
they may happen to possess. The use of the present work, in improving Domestic
Architecture in Britain, America, and Australia, will materially depend on its rendering
the reading classes architectural critics; and more especially on the influence which it
has, in this respect, in improving the taste of women. The Designs we have given will,
no doubt, be of essential service as models ; but the grand and permanent effect of
this work must depend on the spirit of observation and inquiry which it excites in
the general reader. We have stated, in our Introduction, that the principles of
Domestic Architecture as an art of design and taste, may be reduced to three: viz.,
fitness for the end iii view; expression of the end in view ; and, expression of architec-
lural style. To each of these principles we shall devote a short chapter,
t; p
1106 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Chap. I.
Of the Principle of Fitness, as applied to Architecture.
2179. The Subject of Fitness, in Architecture, naturally embraces the fitness of the plan,
or arrangement, of the building Cor its uses ; the fitness of its construction for strength and
durability, and the adjustment of the whole design to the pecuniary means employed.
21 HO. " The Fitness of the Arrangement of a Design for the uses for which it is intended
must necessarily depend on the knowledge which the Architect possesses of those uses.
The purposes fir which buildings are erected are so various, that it is not to be expected
they can be all equally known to any one individual : nevertheless, the Architect must
be supposed to understand the uses of whatever building he undertakes to design ; for,
Otherwise, we cannot with justice examine his works by fitness for the end in view, as a
principle. All buildings may be arranged under certain classes; such as, human
dwellings, lodging-places for animals, and buildings for carrying on trades or manufac-
tures, for public assemblies, for public instruction, for the purposes of the administration
of the laws, &c. The first class mentioned (that of human dwellings) may be sub-
divided into orders; such as, villas, farm-houses, cottages, &c, according to the different
habits or modes of living of the persons by whom they are to be occupied. The
second class of buildings (lodging-places for animals) may be divided in a similar
manner, according to the kind of animals that are to be lodged in them. The same may
be said of the class of buildings for carrying on trades and manufactures, which may be
divided into an almost endless number of orders, according to the respective arts or
manufactures to which they are adapted. Public buildings will admit of a still greater
number of divisions ; but, without attempting to enumerate them, the classification already
mentioned will sufficiently show the great extent embraced by the subject of architectural
design; and how unlikely it is that any one Architect can be equally conversant with
the principle of fitness, as far as regards design or intention, in every order of buildings.
if we even take human dwellings, we shall probably find that the Architect is only master
of the subject of fitness for that description of dwelling in which he has been used to
live, or which he has been accustomed to construct. In proof of this, we may refer
to most of the books of designs by Architects for cottage dwellings and farm buildings
which have hitherto appeared; and to the remark made by one of our correspondents,
on this subject, at the conclusion of § 1368. In like manner, the Architect's powers
of design, in contriving houses for lodging animals, will depend on the knowledge that
he has of those animals, and of their uses to man ; and thus, though most Architects
may design a stable, with which every one is familiar, yet those whose practice has been
chiefly confined to towns, and who may excel in designing street buildings for either men
or animals, may yet know very little of the requisites for a dairy, a poultry-house, or even
a pigsty. Hence it may be affirmed that, as far as respects design or intention with
reference to use, no persons can be so competent to point out the arrangement of a
building, as those who use, or whose business it is to direct the use of, such buildings;
provided such persons are sufficiently enlightened on the subject to be able to conceive
improvements, and have the power of conveying their ideas to others. It does not follow
from this, however, that no Architect should undertake to design a building with the
uses of which he is not previously familiar ; but it does follow, that, when employed in
such a case, he should endeavour by every means in his power to make himself master
of those uses. Among the principal of these means, after referring to books, will be
found consultation with the user, or party for whom the building is to be erected. From
these observations three conclusions may be drawn : first, that all those buildings which
are not of frequent and general construction by Architects are more likely to be imperfect
in arrangement than those which are continually being erected by them ; secondly, that
a division of labour among Architects, by which each would devote himself solely to some
particular branch of his profession, is a very natural, and would be a very desirable,
arrangement ; and, thirdly, that very few architectural critics can be supposed to be com-
petent to judge of a building with reference to the most important point connected with
it ; viz., its fitness for the use in view.
21 si. The Fitness of the Construction for Strength, Durability, and the pecuniary Means at
the Command of the Architect, involves in it a variety of considerations ; but the quali-
fications for this department may be all acquired by any individual who devotes himself
to Arch it cct inc as a profession. The strength of a building depends chiefly on the dis-
position of the materials; and its durability on their nature, or chemical composition.
The fundamental principle on which all construction, which has for its object strength,
is founded, is die law of the gravitation of materials ; or, in mathematical language, the
law oi motion. From this law has been deduced the problem of the composition and
ARCHITECTURAL FITNESS. 110/'
resolution of forces, by which every point relative to the strength of a building may
be tested. This problem was first given to the English reader by Emerson, in his
Mechanics, and will be found familiarly explained to tlie young Architect in Tredgold's
Carpentry, Gwilt's 'Rudiments, and other works. The practical object of the problem is,
to enable the builder to determine] with ease and absolute certainty, what parts of con-
struction, whether of timber, stone, iron, or walling, act as tics, or binding parts; and what
as struts, or parts supporting weight; and what is the proportion or amount of tension or
pressure on each. .Much of the strength of all modern buildings, of several stories,
depends on the walls being tied together by the different floors, and by the roof. De-
prive the walls of the greater number of the dwelling-houses in the principal towns
in Britain of these sources of strength, and they would be blown down by the first storm
of wind which occurred, notwithstanding the durable nature of their materials. The
durability of a building, no doubt, depends, in part, on its construction: but, essentially
and principally, it depends on the durability of the materials of which it is composed;
and the tests for ascertaining this durability are derived from the principles of chemistry,
and chiefly from the law of al tract ion. A very strong construction may be formed of
timber; but the duration of such an edifice could never be put in competition with that
of one built of bricks or stones, united by mortar or cement. From the preceding
observations on strength and durability, are drawn the following well known practical
precepts : viz., to have solid and secure foundations ; to use materials of the best quality -.
to dispose of them in a manner suitable to their natures ; and, to employ only the best
workmanship. The following observations are illustrative of some of these precepts.
2182. The Strength of Building Materials, such as timber, brick, stone, iron, &c, may
readily be ascertained by subjecting them to pressure, tension, and torsion, by mechanical
means, or by loading them with weights.
2183. The Durability of Building Materials is more commonly ascertained from the
previous experience of builders, than by experiments made on scientific principles; never-
theless, there are some geological facts, relative to the stratification of rocks, which ought
to influence the builder as to the position in which stones taken from such rocks ought
to be placed in walls ; and there are some chemical facts, relative to the decomposition
of the integral particles of stone, from which conclusions may be drawn as to its
durability, previously to its being applied. The stones, or earths, which, when reduced
to powder, are made into mortars, or cements, may always be subjected to experiments,
so as to prove their value before employing them. With regard to timber, there are
compositions which have been applied to it for the purpose of increasing its natural
durability, and others for rendering it less destructible by fire.
2184. All stratified Stones used in Jf'aUs should have the plane of their layers or
lamina; declining towards the outside of the wall ; or, at all events, pieced horizontally.
The object of this position is, to present the edges of the lamina to the action of the
weather, and not their broad surfaces. There are some exceptions to this rule ; but
they are so few as not. to require notice. When the face of the lamina? forms the surface
of the wall, the water which runs down it after rains, sinks into the interstice between
the outside lamina and the next to it ; and in time, with the aid of frost, causes the
outside surface to scale off: and this process many times repeated, will at last so far
destroy the stone, as to undermine the superincumbent parts of the wall. On the
other hand, when the edges of the lamina; are presented to the action of the weather
horizontally, and rather declining outwards, though the rain-water will still enter
between them, yet, as it cannot penetrate far horizontally, the injury done by it will be
comparatively trifling.
2185. Brand's Test for ascertaining the. probable Action of Weather on Building Stone
is as follows : — Boil two one-inch cubes of the stone to be tried, in a solution of sulphate
of soda saturated at a common temperature, for half an hour : then expose the cubes to
the air for evaporation. The salt crystallises, and has the effect of freezing on the stone.
Then dip the stone in the cold solution until the crystals fall. After this, expose the
stones to the air. This experiment repe..*ed, during five days, will produce the same
effect on the stone which exposure to the open air would do in many years. {Lit. Guz.
for 1829, p. 633.)
2186. The Art of mixing Earths so as to form Mortars which will set, or solidify,
either by themselves, or in conjunction with stones or bricks, can only be scientifically
understood through some knowledge of chemistry. All lime mortars depend for their
strength on their quality of absorbing carbonic acid gas and water, and solidifying them.
All cements, or rapidly solidifying mortars, though the)' depend for their strength on
the same qualities as lime mortar, owe their power of rapid solidification to the presence
of some metallic oxide, the value of which principally results from its capacity for
absorbing oxygen.
2187. The Solidity of Walls depends on their homogcr.cousncss, on the position of
1108 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE;
their materials relatively to the centre of gravity, and on the stability and security of
their foundations. The most durable of all walls are those built of brick with good
mortar, because they attain a degree of homogeneousness which no construction of
mortar and stone has ever vet equalled. The proof of this is to be found in the ancient
brick buildings of Italy- The walls next in durability are those formed of fragments of
porous stone, compactly bedded in good mortar or cement; as in the remains of old
Roman castles in Britain and in Germany. The third in order are those (commonly
reckoned the first) which are composed of very large blocks of squared stone, and the
strength of which does not at all depend on mortar or cements of any kind.
2188. To preserve Timber in Buildings from Decay, the most certain means are so to
dispose it, as that it shall have efficient ventilation : but other methods have also been
employed. Among these are, Steeping the timber, previously to use, in water, and after-
wards drying it in the air ; subjecting it to the action of steam, and afterwards drying it;
removing the atmospheric pressure, and at the same time applying artificial heat, so as
to promote evaporation ; or steeping it in a solution of corrosive sublimate, which is now
found the most efficient remedy, next to ventilation, for what is called the dry rot. The
object of all these operations, except the last, is, to remove, by extraction and evapor-
ation, what is called the sap, or the watery part of the alburnum, or last-formed layers of
the wood, which are found to decay sooner than the interior and firmer, or less porous,
layers ; and the object of the last process is, to saturate the sap wood with a poison,
which, combining with the alburnum, will prevent its being attacked either by insects,
or by those fungi which identify themselves with decay. According to Mr. Kyan, who
has taki.'n out a patent for preventing the dry-rot in timber, cloth, and a variety of other
articles, by steeping them in a saturated solution of corrosive sublimate, oak, fir, and
other woods, absorb about the same quantity of the solution ; viz., five ounces for
216 cubical inches, the cost of which is a mere trifle. A fir deal will take in a sufficient
quantity to saturate it in forty-eight hours ; but an oak beam will require a month.
Canvass, leather, &c, may be completely saturated in an hour or two. It is thought
that the outside wood, at present cut off" as useless, the timber of young trees, and the
soft woods, such as poplar, American pine, &c, may by this means be rendered as durable
as the harder woods, and as heart wood. (See Quart. Rev., vol. xlix. p. 125.)
2189. To lessen the Destructibility of Buildings by Fire is an important part of the prac-
tice of construction ; and one which ought never to be lost sight of by the architectural
critic. No building can be completely fire-proof, into which timber enters as a com-
ponent part ; but this timber may in some degree be made to resist fire, by saturation
with sulphate of iron : and fire can always be prevented from spreading in a building, by
having all the partition walls solid, the interior of them being filled up with brick, stone,
or mud ; and by having all the floors of stone, brick, or some earthy composition. Where
the floors are of timber, coatings of mortar may be introduced under the boards of the
flooring between the joists, in the manner invented by Lord Stanhope, and described in
the Animal Register, vol. xxii. Linings of sheet iron may also be applied between floors
and ceilings, and in the middle of partitions ; the panels of doors may be formed of
sheet iron, or of corrugated iron, for the same purpose. In all dwelling-houses, where it
is an object to guard against danger to life from fire, there ought to be stone staircases,
and a balcony to at least one of the windows of each story above the ground floor, to afford
means of escape. All houses of several stories ought to have the staircase continued to
the roof, not only to admit of easy escape in that direction in case of fire, but to afford
ready access to the chimneys when on fire, or when they may require sweeping ; and
also for general repairs. As Mr. Kyan's composition by neutralising the albumen of
woods, destroys the fermentative principle, and thus prevents decay, by putrefaction or
rot ; so, at no distant period, the discovery may be made of some solution of silex, or of
some other earth or metal for saturating timber, &c, and thus rendering buildings of com-
mon construction indestructible by fire. Such a discovery, added to that of the means of
preventing the dry rot, would prove of incalculable benefit to mankind, by diminishing
the expense and increaing the durability of the dwellings of the humblest classes, in
every part of the world. The architectural critic should be alive to all improvements of
such general application, whether realised or anticipated.
2190. To guard against the effects of lightning. The use of lightning conductors is
well known. They arc commonly made of iron rods, pointed at the upper end, higher
than the highest part of the building to which they are attached, and having the lower
and inserted in the earth ; the rod following the outline of the building from the highest
part to the ground, and being prevented from touching it by glass studs. A more im-
proved form, however, has been introduced by a distinguished philosopher, John Murray,
Esq., who has paid the greatest attention to this subject, both theoretically and practically.
1 he following is a description by this gentleman, of a conductor, constructed and at-
tached to St. Taid's church, lluddcrslield, in 1831, under his directions. "This con-
ARCHITECTURAL FITNESS. 1109
ductor,' says Mr. Murray, " is altogether unique, and without its counterp-trt in Europe]
as 1'ar as I know. It is constructed on principles deduced by me not merely from
electrical phenomena developed by artificial experiments, but from repeated and careful
inspection of the effects of lightning. It consists of copper gas-piping in lengths of
about ten feet, screwed into sockets. The conductor terminates at the summit, in a
pyramidal form, inserted by a joint into the hollow pipe ; the lightning therefore finds
a ready entrance, not only by the sharp point, but by the angles of the copper pyramid.
The pipe immediately beneath this joint is perforated, so that the lightning may be
diffused over both surfaces, internal as well as external, and the facilities of escape to the
earth will be further increased by the wet that penetrates the tube during the rain which
falls during the storm. This lightning rod is secured from oxidation by ribands of zinc
attached at specific distances, which operate on galvanic principles ; and the conductor,
thus constructed, enters the earth at a slight angle, and terminates in a stone trough,
which will be supplied with sufficient moisture by the pipe. Here it is split in two,
and its ramifications pass over the edge of the tank into the subsoil. Perhaps this con-
ductor is not only the cheapest but the best ever constructed. The first, because, from a
hollow pipe being employed, the weight of the copper, and consequently the expense, is
materially diminished ; and the second, because in these conditions all the principles of
security are provided. Copper is the best conductor of lightning, and, as lightning does
not penetrate a good conductor to any appreciable depth, an extensive and an ample con-
ducting surface is provided, and facilities both for its reception and final transfer to the
earth fully supplied. Add to these, last not least, in the train of securities, there is no
interruption whatever, from beginning to end, in the channel by which it descends from
its elevation. A conductor on these principles has also been attached to a private house
in the vicinity of Huddersfield."
2191. The Construction of Fireplaces and Chimney-flues in dwelling-houses is still
very imperfectly understood ; very little having been added to our stock of knowledge
on this subject since Franklin's Letter, See., was written in 1785 ; or Count Rumford's
Essays, a few years afterwards. The principal requisites to insure the draught of a
chimney appear to be, a considerable height in the Hue, such a construction at the fire-
place as will allow as small a quantity as possible of air which has not passed through the
fire to ascend the chimney, and a free supply of external air to the room in which the
fire burns. This supply should be obtained directly from the exterior atmosphere, either
by having the windows not to fit too tightly, by letting down the upper sash at the top,
or by having a tube of several inches in diameter, from underneath the fire-grate to an
under-ground drain of ample dimensions. Clavering, Chadley, and Hiort agree in
recommending circular or oval flues, as being more suitable to the motion of the smoke,
and being more easily cleaned, than square ones. They also agree in recommending a
zigzag or bending direction for flues, as preventing the wind from blowing down the
smoke by the resistance offered by the bends ; and, according to Chadley, even improving
the draught, which, it appears to us, they can only do, by producing a greater quantity
of heated material in the sides of the flue, in proportion to its direct vertical height, than
can be done in a flue carried up straight. It may also be observed, that the smoke, in
a perpendicular flue, ascends in a column composed as it were of straight lines, like
water running along a straight brook ; whereas, in a circuitous or zigzag flue, it
ascends in curved lines, or curls, or what may be called eddies, like water in circuitous
brooks. In the first case, it is evident that the wind, striking down on the smoke, when
it escapes the top of the flue, would produce such a pulsation as would force it out into
the room ; whereas, in the other case, the force of the stroke of the wind would have
to counteract all the different eddies, before the pulsation could reach the fireplace. In
general, by attending to these desiderata, those unsightly objects, chimney-pots, may be
avoided ; and indeed, our opinion is, that every one who employs an Architect or
builder ought to engage with him, under a heavy penalty in case of failure, to arrange
his design and its execution in such a manner that no chimney-pots shall ever become
requisite. Thick walls for containing the chimney-flues, and for keeping them warm ;
placing these flues as much as possible in the interior walls ; having lofty and winding
flues, circular or oval in their section ; and having a supply of air to every hearth, or the
back part of every fireplace, from air drains of large capacity, seem to us to be the prin-
cipal means of insuring bright fires and freedom from smoke. Such fireplaces as
Mcthley's and Silvester's are also eminently favourable for this end. Methley's fire-
places, by having the breast or upper part beveled downwards towards the fire, not
only greatly diminish the quantity of cold air which enters what is called the throat of
the chimney ; but, this beveled space being of metal, must necessarily raise the temper-
ature of such air as does enter. In short, we do not know of any form of fireplace so
well calculated for preventing a chimney from smoking, unless indeed it he that of
Sylvester, fig. 1844, of which, however, we have only had a few weeks' experience ;
IliO COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
whereas we have proved Mcthlevs fireplace) fig. 1 84 3, for nearly six years. Circular
(lues might readily he built, in a winding or zigzag direction, perfectly smooth in the
inside, and at a comparatively small expense, by using sections of earthenware pipes as
suggested, § 4o"3 ; and, to render the walls containing such flues perfectly strong, they
might be built with mortar of a superior description, or with Roman cement. A pecu-
liar form of bricks for this purpose has been invented by Iliort, but they are found much
too expensive; another and a very superior kind, which, from their shape, have the great
advantage of bonding in with the wall, have been invented by Chadley, and deserve to
come into general use. However, were Roman cement used in building the walls con-
taining flues, whether these walls were constructed of brick or stone, flues might easily
be formed circular in the section, and with perfect strength, by carrying them up round
a flexible mould, or leathern bag filled with sand, drawn up the flue as it proceeded.
One great use of circular flues is, that whatever may be their direction, they are easily
swept without the aid of climbing boys. About London, where houses are almost
always built on ground only held on lease for sixty or a hundred years, the thick walls
containing the flues are generally the weakest in the building, instead of being, as they
ought to be, the strongest ; and hence the great danger which exists, not only of their
tumbling down, but of their being penetrated by fire. Were such walls built with
Roman cement, though hollow, they would be as strong and perhaps stronger than if
they were solid. Nothing is more to be desired than that some mode of constructing
flues should be generally adopted, which would render climbing boys unnecessary; and
this, the government might easily effect in all houses to be built, with very little addi-
tional expense to the builder, by enacting that all flues should be built circular, and be
perfectly smooth inside. This is a point which, we have no doubt, will be attended to as
it deserves, by the public, in a very short time ; and, when this is the case (as with every
thing else which the public decidedly wills), it will become law. It is well known that
(all other circumstances being the same) the short chimney flues of garrets and cottages
never draw so well as those of rooms which have very high chimneys. This is an
undeniable fact; it was noticed by Franklin; and, as it concerns servants and poor people
in every part of the world, it merits the particular attention of the Architect. How is
the imperfect draught of short chimneys to be remedied? On the same general principles
which we have laid down ; viz., increasing the height of the chimney as much as possible
(which is the reason why we have shown such high chimneys to most of our designs for
cottages); adjusting the throat of the chimney to the quantity of air and smoke required
to make the fire burn properly ; forming one or more bends in the flue, to prevent the
smoke from being driven down by the wind, and to increase the draught (which has the
additional advantage of preventing the rain from falling down perpendicularly, and car-
rying the soot before it) ; but, above all things, by having an opening at the tops of the
windows or near the ceiling, in each apartment, for the admission of external air to
supply the draught. It may be laid down as an indisputable fact, that it is impossible
to have all the doors and windows of an apartment very tightly fitted, and at the same
time to have the fireplace draw well, without the addition of such openings as have been
mentioned, or of an underground air flue, and a communication between it and the
hearth. As this would occasion too much trouble and nicety in the construction of
common cottages, nothing remains in the case of such dwellings, but to provide openings
elose under the roof, or over one door or window in each apartment, for a sufficient
supply of external air. These openings may be furnished with shutters so as to regulate
them at pleasure ; but, as even this might be too much trouble to a common cottager,
the simplest mode is for him to push down the upper sash of his window an inch or two,
or to open his outer door to the same extent. The whole of this subject merits the
attentive consideration of the architectural critic ; who will find, that, in proportion to the
perfection of the fitting and finishing of doors and windows, in the same proportion is
the risk created of having smoky chimneys.
2192. Ventilation is a subject intimately connected with that of the preceding para-
graph. The perfection of ventilation consists, not in suddenly expelling the air from an
apartment, and supplying its place with external air ; but in first gradually mixing the
external air with that of the apartment to be ventilated, and next in carrying off this
mixture by degrees, and supplying, by degrees, a fresh mixture in its place. When warm
air is to be mixed with cold air, the latter ought to be admitted from above, in order that
it may descend, and intermingle with the former: on the contrary, when cold air is to
be mixed with warm air, the latter ought to be admitted from below to intermingle with
the cold air in ascending. Hence, for the first purpose, the best practical mode of venti-
lation; ;l room is to have all the windows carried up as close to the ceiling as is prac-
ticable; and, when the air of the room is to be cooled, simply to slide down the upper
sash of the window or windows, for a very small space, which, in t'cw rooms, need exceed
an inch for each window. When the air of a room is colder than the external air, and
ARCHITECTURAL FITNESS. 1111
».-. to be warmed by its admission, then the lower sash of the window ought to be raised
up; but as this description of ventilation is seldom required, little need be said about it,
farther than observing that when any material, Such as a coil of steam or hot-water
pipes, &c, in a room, is to be heated in order to increase the temperature of that room,
the heated body ought to be placed on the floor, or as near to it as possible. Id like
manner, when a room is to be heated by the admission of heated air from a stove, that
air ought to enter through the floor, or by the skirting or bottom part of the walls. The
most convenient means for carrying off the air of the room, so as to induce a perpetual
current of entering and escaping air, is the chimney ; for which purpose, it is desirable
that the chimney breast should be somewhat higher than it generally is. As a high
chimney breast is. however, inconsistent with a good draught, and with the throwing out
of a maximum of heat from a given quantity of fuel, builders generally content them-
selves with leaving this part of ventilation imperfect; though they might remedy it by
taking the trouble of forming openings close under the ceiling of the room, communi-
cating with vertical air flues, placed in close contact with smoke flues, in order to create
a draught. This last improvement comprehends all that is necessary, for the most per-
fect ventilation of a room which can be conceived; as a proof of which, we need only
refer to Mr. Tredgold's excellent treatise on the subjects of warming and ventilation,
already mentioned.
2193. The Deafening, or Pugging, of Partition Walls, and of Floors in Houses of more
than one Story, is a subject that the critic ought net to lose sight of, in judging of the
fitness of the construction of a house for the end in view. There are two modes of
effecting this object ; first, by filling the interstices between the joists of the floor, and
the quartering or studwork of the partition, with some description of light material, such
as sawdust, wool, charcoal, ashes, moss, or even earth ; and, secondly, by introducing
interpartitions. The latter mode is by far the best, where lightness is the object; and
where it is necessary to preserve ventilation, in order to guard against the dry rot. This
mode is also fully as efficacious against the spread of fire as the former. Supposing a
floor to be deafened in this way, the mode is, after the joists are laid down and fixed in
their places, to nail slips of wood an inch square along their sides, within two inches of
the bottom, and within three inches of the top. On these slips are laid short laths,
which are afterwards plastered on each side, care being taken that the coats of plaster are
not thicker than to leave a clear inch and a half between them and the lower and upper
edges of the joists. When the boards of the floor are nailed to such joists above, and
the lath and plaster of the ceiling is put on below, a section across the joists will show,
between each pair, one large cell in the centre, and two long narrow cells, the one over
the centre cell, and immediately under the boards of the floor, and the other under the
centre cell, and immediately over the lath and plaster of the ceiling. Through such a
floor no ordinary sounds will be found to pass, whether to persons above from people
talking in the room below, or to persons below from any one walking on the floor above.
Partitions may be treated in the same manner ; but, in general, one vertical stratum of
lath and plaster in the centre will be found sufficient. In extraordinary cases, two will
render a partition wall of nine inches thick as impenetrable by sound, as a solid brick or
stone wall of the same thickness. It must not be forgotten, that these measures for pre-
venting the spread of sound are known to be equally effective in preventing the spread of
fire ; while, at the same time, they admit of complete ventilation to protect the timber
of the partitions and floors from the dry rot. — Such are a few of the particulars which
the architectural critic ought to attend to, in judging of the fitness of the construction of
a dwelling-house for the end in view ; for a great many others, as well for dwelling-
houses as for agricultural and other buildings, we must refer him to the three preceding
Books of this work.
2194. The Adjustment of the Construction of a Building to the pecuniary Means at the
< 'ummand of the Architect supposes an intimate practical knowledge, in the latter, of the
most advantageous manner of disposing of forms and quantities. Every architectural
critic ought to know that the cube is a form that encloses more useful space, with a
given quantity of walling, flooring, and roof, than any other. This was long ago ex-
plained at great length, and applied to the designs of a number of dwellings, by Morris,
an architectural writer of the last century : but a short extract from Gwilt's Rudiments
will be sufficient for our purpose here. " Suppose a square, the sides of which are forty
feet in length : it is manifest that the walling required to enclose this figure will be 160
feet in length, and the area enclosed will be equal to 1600 square feet: whereas, in a
building, the form of which, on the plan, is that of a parallelogram, and the opposite
sides of which are sixty feet and twenty feet respectively ; the same quantity of walling
will be required to enclose it, as was necessary for the square ; though its area will be
equal to only 1200 feet, or one fourth less than that of the square. Thus the square is
proved to be superior to the parallelogram, though inferior in capacity to the circle.
111^ COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Hence edifices in which the greatest symmetry exists are invariably (other circumstances
being the same) of the least cost ; and hence, also, simplicity and regularity in the
general plan and its parts are always conducive to economy." (G wilt's Rudiments of
Architecture, p. C>. ) Though this knowledge can never enable an architectural critic
to discover whether the Architect has solved the problem of erecting the desired build-
ing for the given sum ; yet it will enable him to judge, from external appearances, of the
comparative expense of buildings. He may also deduce from it this rule ; viz., that,
when economy is the main object, the parallelogram form should never be preferred to
that of the cube, except in those cases in which the diameter of the cube would be so great,
as to prevent the proper admission of light and ventilation to the interior parts.
Chap. II.
Of the Expression of the End in View, in Architecture.
2195. The Expression of the End in View comprehends the expression of the use for
which the building was erected, and the expression of a suitable construction for that
end. Every building should appear to be what it is, and every part of an edifice ought
to indicate externally its particular use. When we are satisfied that we have discovered
the use of any building, or the intentions of the Architect in this respect, the next thing
which we enquire is, how far he has succeeded in carrying his intentions into effect ;
that is, whether the expression of the construction which he has adopted is in accordance
with the expression of the use. To give a familiar example : suppose a building, the
expression of which was that of a stable, and that the entrance to it was up steps. In this
case, the expression of construction would be decidedly at variance with that of use.
2196. That which constitutes the Expression of Use or Purpose, in the Exterior of a
Building, must be some quality which we have been accustomed to associate with that
use or purpose. It follows, therefore, that all the various uses of buildings and their
different parts must be understood by the critic, before he can judge whether the uses
of those parts are properly expressed. As this is equally as impossible, with respect to all
buildings, as that an architectural critic should always understand what constitutes fitness
for the end in view ; it follows, that his judgment in this particular, as in various others,
must often be imperfect. Every one has some idea of what constitutes expression of
purpose, in the common dwelling-houses of the country in which he lives ; but no person,
who was not either an agricultural Architect, or familiar with agricultural buildings,
could recognise the expression of purpose in the separate buildings of a farmery ; nor
could any one who was not well acquainted with the appearance of manufactories, or was
not a constructor of them or of their machinery, expect to do this with reference to the
buildings in which manufactures are carried on. Still, the architectural critic may
acquire sufficient information on the general uses of all the classes of buildings con-
structed in the country in which he lives, or described in books, to enable him to judge
of their general expression.
2197. The Expression of Suitableness of Construction supposes a knowledge of what
constitutes strength and durability in buildings ; a kind of knowledge which, as we have
already observed, is much more within the power of either Architects, or architectural
critics, than a knowledge of the uses of buildings. In illustration of these two prin-
ciples, we shall subjoin a few remarks.
2198. In Divellinq-houses, the expression of use is indicated, in a decided manner, in
all cold countries, by their having a number of chimney tops, or other outlets, for
permitting the escape of smoke from separate fires. In all countries whatever, a dwell-
ing-house is indicated by its windows, and by their being filled in with glass, more or
less, according to the nature of the climate and the character of the dwelling. A dwelling-
house is also known by its entrance door, which is generally ascended to by steps ; a
proof that it is not a door for any of the inferior animals, or for taking in and out heavy
articles in use in agriculture, trade, or manufactures. These are general features of
expression, of which there are many shades ; but there are also a number of particular
features, indicative of the different apartments contained in the house, and of the style
of living of the occupants. In a cottage of the smallest size, having a living-room, a
bed-room, and a closet, the windows to each of these will be of different dimensions ;
the largest window will at once be recognised as that lighting the living-room, and
the smallest as that belonging to the closet. In dwellings of larger dimensions, the
windows of the different living-rooms will or should be formed, not only larger than
tin' others, but occupying what, in the given country and locality, is considered the
principal floor of the house. Large windows, with considerable space on each side
EXPRESSION OF PURPOSE. 1113
and over them, indicate wide and lofty apartments within ; whereas numerous small
windows, with narrow piers between them, and small spaces over them, indicate nu-
merous small and low apartments, or apartments extending in length, but not in
height, and without space for large pieces of furniture ; consequently, ill-proportioned
and badly furnished. Windows in the roofs of dwelling-houses are also expressive of
imperfect accommodation and ventilation, as are small windows in sunk stories. The
windows of entresols (floors with low ceilings introduced between floors with high
ceilings), which are common in France and Italy, are expressive of servants' apartments,
and seldom fail to convey the idea of want of space, and of bad ventilation. When the
base line of the windows on the principal floor of a house is horizontal, it is favourable
to the expression of large rooms, and of rooms on the same level : on the other hand,
when the windows are placed irregularly, and on no regular axis, either horizontal or
vertical, they convey the idea of small rooms irregular in every respect, and altogether the
opposite of being either comfortable or elegant. Turrets and projections of every kind,
viewed with reference to use, convey the idea of commodiousness and convenience ; it
being supposed that their object, in modern houses, is to supply closets and cabinets, and
other minor apartments. A square house may have all these conveniences included
within its cubical form; and they may have cost less, in building, than if they had been
contained in projections : but the cubical form will give no indication of their existence
to the external spectator ; and therefore, though it may be well adapted for economy, it
cannot be considered as one expressive of ease and comfort. It will merely express,
by its uniform-sized and regularly placed windows, apartments of equal dimensions and
regular arrangement. Porticoes, colonnades, verandas, and balconies are all expressive,
more or less, of comfort and elegant enjoyment on the part of the occupant. It is unne-
cessary, however, to pursue this subject farther ; for every person of the slightest observ-
ation can refer all the different external parts of a house, in the country where he lives,
to their internal uses : in other words, he recognises their expression.
2199. The Expression of Use in farm buildings, though it can only be perfectly
recognised by an architectural farmer, can yet be so, to a certain extent, by every one
accustomed to live in the country. The barn is known by its large roof, or by its
greater height ; or, in countries where threshing-machines are common, by the ap-
pearance of the mill-shed; the granary by its luffer-boarded windows, and its elevated
floor ; the feeding-house by its porthole windows, &c. The expression of the particular
manufacture which is carried on in any large building can hardly be recognised by a
stranger to that manufacture ; nevertheless, the general appearance of the walls and
windows ; their great plainness, and even meagre effect; the number and regularity of
the windows ; and the comparative inattention shown to the beauty and clearness of the
glass, enable almost any one to decide that the edifice is destined for manufacturing
purposes. The expression of churches and chapels is recognised by all ; because all are
accustomed to enter them; so is the expression of schools, and of other buildings with
which we are familiar, such as inns, corn mills, &c That a building, when expressive
of its use, affords more satisfaction than when it is either not expressive of that use, or
expressive of some use to which it is not applied, every one must feel. A barn disguised
as a church would afford satisfaction to none but those who considered it as a trick.
The beauty of truth is so essential to every other kind of beauty, that it can neither be
dispensed with in art nor in morals.
2200. T7ie Expression of adequate Construction is, to a certain extent, recognised by
every beholder. Every one knows walls of brick or stone to be more durable than
those of earth, of wood, or of plaster; and no one considers a high and narrow building so
strong as one which approaches nearer to the cubical form. Roofs which project con-
siderably at the eaves, by exposing a part of their timbers to the eye, never convey the
idea of the same degree of durability as when the walls are terminated by stone or brick
cornices ; and walls thus finished never give the same idea of a permanent roof, as when
to the cornice is superadded a blocking course or parapet. The roof, in the latter case,
is supposed to be flat, covered with lead, and calculated to resist the effects of time.
The common precept, that openings ought in general to be made perpendicularly over
other openings, rather than disposed indiscriminately, is founded on the principle of
strengtb ; for every one feels that the lighter members should be carried by the stronger.
Without disputing this general rule, Mr. Wood observes, " perhaps two exceptions may
fairly be made: the first in small buildings of no pretensions to magnificence, where the
appearance of convenience may be allowed to overweigh the character of durability ; and
the second, where the general appearance is so solid, and the openings are so small, that
it matters not where they are put. In this last case, the very want of correspondence
announces an exuberance of power, which disdains attention to trifles; and, what is, in
some degree, in ordinary cases, a source of absolute weakness, becomes a means of ex-
pressing strength." The indication of the thickness of wall, produced in a wall seen
G Q
]lli COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Only on one side, by those ledges, or " settings hark," which become necessary when it
diminishes as it ascends, is expressive of strength ; and the excess of the length and breadtli
of a building, relatively to 'us height, is indicative of stability. The value of these kinds
of expression is found by contrasting them with whatever, in the elevation of a building, is
indicative of weakness, temporary duration, or deformed construction. The reader will
easily be able to supply, iron his own observations or experience, innumerable instances
of the same kind as those here given; the tendency of all which is to prove, that the
expression of fitness of construction for the end in view, is a beauty in Architecture as
positive, as that of the expression of fitness for the end in view itself.
Chap. III.
Of the Expression of Architectural Style.
2201. The Expression of Architectural Style, as may be inferred from the two preceding
chapters, is not an essential beauty in a building. An edifice may be useful, strong, and
durable, both in reality and in expression, without having any other beauties than those
of use and truth ; that is, of fitne3S for the end in view, and of expression of the end in
view ; or, in familiar language, of being suitable to the use for which it was designed,
and of appearing to be what it is. The object of Architecture, as an art of taste, is to add
to the beauties of use and truth other beauties, the creation of which is its peculiar pro-
vince. The beauties of use and truth address themselves chiefly to the reason ; those of
Architecture, as an art of taste, address themselves jointly to the reason and to the imagin-
ation. All the arts of taste produce their effect upon the mind through the senses. Thus,
music affects us by sounds, painting by colours, and poetry and oratory by words.
Architecture and sculpture operate almost exclusively by forms ; and they differ chiefly
in this respect, that sculpture has for its object the production of the imitations of
natural forms, while Architecture operates by combinations of forms entirely artificial.
2202. The Beauty of Architectural Forms arises from two causes : the expression of
certain qualities which result from combinations of those forms, such as unity, variety,
symmetry, &c. ; and the expression of certain forms and details which have been con-
secrated to Architecture by long-continued use. The first may be called the universal
and inherent beauties of all architectural styles; and the second, the historical or
accidental beauties of particular styles. The first kind of beauty is altogether inde-
pendent of any style of Architecture which has hitherto existed, or which may here-
after exist ; its effect resulting entirely from organic impressions, and associations of a
general nature: the second depends on the addition, to the first class of beauties, of the
associations connected with the known forms and details of the different styles of
Architecture hitherto in use, or which may hereafter come into use, in this and in other
countries.
Sect. I. Of the universal and inherent Beauties of Architectural Composition.
2203. T/ie Production of a Whole is the first object in every composition ; because the
mind can only comprehend with ease and satisfaction one object at a time. If two objects
of different natures, in the same scene or view, present equal claims to attention, we can
derive pleasure from neither, unless we have the power of abstracting the mind from one
of them, and directing the attention wholly to the other.
2204. Unity. Hence it is that unity is the fundamental principle of all compositions
whatever. If the reader will turn to the designs given in this work, and examine them
one by one, without the slightest reference to their fitness for dwellings, or to their archi-
tectural Style, he will find that a principal cause of the pleasure which he derives from
observing them arises from their expression of unity. He will find that their general
arrangement indicates a unity of mind and of system; that the prevailing forms, in any
one design that strikes him as beautiful, are of the same kind ; that the shapes and sizes
of the openings are similar ; and that the prevailing or most conspicuous lines arc chiefly
in one direction, and either perpendicular or horizontal. So much, indeed, is this the ease,
that we will venture to assert, if the reader finds the lines of some of the masses in any
one design exceeding in a vertical direction, and those in other masses of the same design
exceeding in a horizontal direction, that design will not give him much pleasure. Hence
it is that a Grecian church with the long horizontal and depressed lines of its architraves
and cornices, and a lofty spire at one end with its preponderance of perpendicular lines,
never pleases so well as a Gothic church and spire, where the principal lines of the
buttresses, and even those of the steep roof, .'ill tend upwards, in unity with those of the
spire. Hence, also, the reason why a portico to a circular building never forms such a
EXPRESSION OF STYLE. 1115
good whole with ii as when it is placed against a right-angled building, or where the
pediment over it forms the termination of a roof. For the same reason, a dome rising
from a square base, or seeming so to do, is never so pleasing as one obviously forming
the termination of cylindrical walls. The Architect, therefore, must have constantly
in view the production, ami the critic the discovery, of unity of system and principle,
unity of conception and composition, unity of plan and elevation, unity of decoration,
unity of style and taste, unity of the nature of the materials of which the building is
composed, and unity even in the age, the colour, and the appearance of those materials.
This fundamental principle of criticism the Architect ought to keep continually in view;
not that the knowledge of tin's or of any other principle will insure his success in com-
position ; but that, having a composition before him, or in progress, the principle ol
unity is one of the very best by which he can test what he has done, or proposes to do.
To the critic this principle is also of more value than any other, from the great ease
and certainly with which it may be applied.
2205. Variety. in order to keep alive in the human mind an interest in any subject,
it is necessary that it should be operated upon by alternate excitement and repose.
Now, as unity, when carried to its utmost limits, degenerates into monotony, the introduc-
tion of contrasts into every composition is necessary for the purpose of relieving it, and
producing variety and harmony. Variety differs from harmony in having reference more
to the details of the different component parts of a building, than to the effect of
the building as a whole. Both variety and harmony are produced by contrast ; but
harmony, implying a greater combination of parts, admits of more numerous and
powerful contrasts. (See Harmony, § 2217.) To produce variety in any composition, a
certain degree of contrast becomes requisite in the lines, forms, colours, light and shade, and
even, sometimes, in the nature of the materials. In introducing contrasts, the dangers to be
avoided are, too great feebleness on the one hand, in which case they lose their effect, and
produce insipidity ; or, too great opposition on the other, when their effect is too powerful,
and they produce discords. Discordance of form is one of the most conspicuous faults in
Architecture; because, form being the principal attribute of matter with which the artist
works, an error in this important feature of his composition is greater than one in
lines, in light and shade, or in the nature of the materials. The introduction of contrasts,
for the purpose of producing variety, is not only liable to end in discord, but it is also apt
to degenerate into diversity. Diversity differs from variety, much in the same manner
as complexity does from intricacy. Variety may be produced by a few kinds of lines
and forms varied in their disposition, but always with a certain degree of connection ;
diversity is produced by many different kinds of lines and forms, also differently disposed,
but having no leading principle of connection, and so little accordance among themselves
ss not to compose a whole. In attempting to produce variety, therefore, by the only
maimer in which it can be done, viz. the introduction of contrasts, the artist must be on
his guard against creating discord, by having his contrasting forms of too large a size ;
or diversity, by having them too numerous, and of too many different sizes and shapes.
For example, if to add some variety to the otitline of a building, in which a square tower
arose above the roof, a circular tower were added beside it, of the same height and
general size, the effect would be discord ; because the two objects, being of the same
kind, of the same bulk, and at the same distance from the eye, would present equal
claims to attention : while, from the total difference of their forms, that attention would
be divided. Let, however, the circular tower either be of the same diameter as the
square one, and raised only a few feet above the roof; or, let it be of the same height as
the square one, and only a ilxv feet in diameter, and the effect will be variety; because
the attention will be then directed to the large tower, and the very low or very narrow
one will not interfere with the claims of the large one. At the same time, the small
tower, by being something different from the large one, will also excite a certain though
less degree of attention, and thus occasion a varied exercise of that faculty. To show
how diversity or complexity may be produced under similar circumstances, we have
only to suppose that, instead of one tower, several were added, all of different forms, and
all of the same size, and equidistant. They would, consequently, have all equal claims on
the attention, which would thus be distracted; and the mind would be unable to trace
any principle of order, by which so many different forms could be reduced to a whole.
'2206. Intricacy is produced by number joined to variety, by which a certain degree
of concealment is effected. It is a beauty chiefly sought for in the details of ornaments ;
but sometimes also in the composition of elaborate elevations, or in extensive interiors.
The opposite of intricacy is confusion, into which this beauty is in continual danger of
degenerating. To prevent this, a certain degree of unity of system, and unity of forms
and lines, must pervade the whole composition ; the same forms must frequently occur,
and also the same manner of connecting them. " Nothing," says Alison, " is more
delightful than, in any subject where we at first perceived only confusion, to find
lll(j COTTAGE, IARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
regularity gradually emerging, and to discover, among the apparent chaos, some uniform
principle which reconciles the whole. To reduce a number of apparently dissimilar par-
ticulars under one general law of resemblance, as it is one of the strongest evidences of
wisdom and design, so it is also productive of one of the strongest emotions of beauty
which design can produce." (Essays, Sec, vol. ii. p. 68.) Something of this kind of
beauty may be felt on approaching an extensive villa in the Gothic style, with numerous
towers and projections : seen in distant perspective, blended with trees, it appears a mass
of parts which the mind cannot reduce into any order; in advancing towards it, some of
these parts appear larger than others, and the smaller seem to be grouped around them ;
but, on arriving at the front of the building, the whole assumes a symmetrical disposition,
and the mind and the eye become alike satisfied.
2207. Symmetry, Uniformity, and Regularity are terms which are considered by many
as constituting the principal beauties of architectural productions. The reason is, that
every one can recognise by these properties, in any object whatever, the evidence of de-
sign, and the idea of a whole. The rudest mind sees the evidence of design in a house
with a door in the centre of the front, having a window on each side of it. This is
symmetry; and it conveys the idea of unity, or a whole, because every thing that is to
be found on one side of the door is to be found also on the other. The prevalence of one
form for all the general masses, and of one form for all the doors and windows of a
building, is what is called uniformity or similarity ; and this gives pleasure for the same
reason as symmetry ; viz., that it gives evidence of design, and indicates the idea of a
whole. The regular recurrence of any form at certain distances is also an evidence of
design, and gives pleasure for the same reason ; viz., that of assisting the mind in com-
prehending what is before it. These beauties are also more easily produced, and com-
prehended, than many others ; and are, therefore, very properly, of universal application.
The opposite extremes, into which they are apt to degenerate, are, dissimilarity in form
and irregularity in disposition.
2208. Irregularity, when not carried so far as to produce confusion, is, however,
desirable, as it joins to the beauty of uniformity the beauties of variety and of intri-
cacy. " In general," observes Alison, " regular figures are more beautiful than irregular
ones ; and regular figures of a greater number of parts are more beautiful than the same
figures of a smaller number of parts : they cease only to be beautiful when the number
of their parts is so great as to produce confusion, and, consequently, to obscure the
expression of design. It is the same principle which seems to produce the beauty of
intricacy." (Essays, &c., vol. ii. p. 67.) See, on this subject, the remarks in § 119.
2209. Simplicity may be considered a negative quality in objects, since it does not
imply any thing produced, but merely the absence of something else ; that is, of com-
plexity. The value of simplicity chiefly consists in its facilitating the comprehension of
a whole ; but, by contrast, it may become a positive beauty. In situations where all the
buildings are of several stories, and elaborately finished, a shed or a cottage, with plain
walls and a plain projecting roof, will be hailed as an object of simple beauty, from the
repose which it affords to the eye, as contrasted with the excitement produced by the
variety and intricacy of the more finished edifices by which it is surrounded. Simplicity,
however, as Wood observes, " may be carried to an extreme, and persons of the best and
purest taste will differ as to the precise degree of it required." Mr. Hosking, the
author of the very excellent article on Architecture, in the seventh edition of the Encyclo-
pedia Britannica, mentions simplicity as one of the fundamental elements of beauty in
Architecture. Simplicity in form and outline he considers above all things essential,
and he illustrates his opinion by reference to various existing examples. It appears to
us, however, that he has, in some cases, made use of the word simplicity, where the
term unity would have been more appropriate. For example, he says, " few can admire
the external effect of the Pantheon in Rome, or of the Colosseum in London, though
certain features in both may be indisputably good. To these may be added the church
in Langham Place, London. The complication of straight and circular in the com-
position of these buildings, and their consequent irregular forms and discordant outlines,
totally destroy both simplicity and harmony." We entirely agree with this criticism ;
but we think that the want of harmony is not produced by the absence of simplicity,
but by the want of unity of form. At all events, this would be our mode of expressing
what we consider wanting in such a case; and we have thought it necessary to stale this
here, to show that two critics may entirely agree in their opinion of a work, and yet
differ in the use of terms for expressing that opinion. As a farther example of want of
implicity, Mr. Ilosking refers to the more simple form of the Egyptian obelisk, as
compared with the monumental column ; and in this use of the term simplicity we
wholly concur. Not so, however, in comparing the monument on Fish Street Hill with
the shot tower at Waterloo Bridge. " They are both of cylindrical form," Mr. Hosking
observes ; « but the one is crowned by a square abacus, and the other by a bold cornice,
EXPRESSION OF STYLE. 1117
which follows its own outline. The greater simplicity, and consequent beauty, of the
latter is such as to strike the most unobservant." To us it appears that the chief cause
of this beauty is the unity of form in the two parts, and not the simplicity of the cornice,
because the square projection, when taken by itself, is equally simple with the round one.
Langham Church is objectionable, not from its want of simplicity, because nothing can
be more simple than the form of the main body of the building, which is that of a
parallelogram, witli a roof and sides as plain as those of a country barn ; or than the spire,
which is that of a cone ; but from the want of accordance between the forms of a cone
and a parallelogram ; or, in other words, from the want of unity in the whole, which is
thus attempted to be produced. Suppose the Architect had taken simplicity as a prin-
ciple by which to test his design before it w;is executed; how far would that have enabled
him to correct his work ? Not far, we think ; for both forms, as we have just shown, are
simple enough. Suppose, on the other hand, that he had tested his work by the prin-
ciple of unity ; the want of unity of form between the body of the church and its spire
must at once have taught him the risk which he incurred of producing that discordant
result) which is now one of the most glaring deformities in the public buildings of the
metropolis. It is singular that, among all the different criticisms which were made on
this church at the time it was completed, not only in the newspapers, but in parliament,
no one ventured to assign any cause for the dissatisfaction which every one felt. Had
the principle of unity been familiar to its critics, the cause would have been assigned at
once ; and, indeed, in all probability, the bad effect of such a discordance of parts would
have been foreseen before the building was erected, and an alteration would have been
made in the Design.
2210. Order and Propriety. Order, in Architecture, implies the relation of one part
to another, with reference to the production of a regular or symmetrical whole. The ap-
pearance of windows on one side of a building, if not followed up by windows on
the next side, indicates a want of order; as it does, to find the windows of one side
differ in size and disposition from those of the other. It is in the order of parts rela-
tively to uses, that a porch, or portico, should protect a door ; but, if, under such a
projection, we find a window, instead of a door, while the door is perhaps seen in the
same elevation without any protection at all, we feel the want both of order and pro-
priety. The indication of a roof, where, according to the construction, a roof could not
be placed, or woidd not be required, is, in like manner, a violation of both these prin-
ciples. The opposite of order is disorder, which would be conspicuous in a building
showing, on the same floor, windows of different sizes, and scattered irregularly over
the surface of the elevation, without being grouped, or on a regular axis, vertical or
horizontal.
2211. Proportion is one of the principal beauties of Architecture, as an art of design,
though none appears to be more difficult to explain satisfactorily. Perhaps the principle
on which proportion is founded may be defined to be, that relation between the dimen-
sions of things of the same kind, which, in the given age and country, is generally con-
sidered the most pleasing. The origin of our received ideas on the subject of proportion
must have been habit, perhaps founded on some reasons relative to fitness in the material
employed. It is altogether unreasonable to suppose that the same proportions are in
their nature equally beautiful, when applied to supports of timber, stone, and iron ; but,
from the habit of studying, with profound deference, the proportions of the columns
used in Grecian Architecture, these proportions become familiar to the eye, and afford
satisfaction, even when applied to different kinds of materials. The idea of certain pro-
portions of columns, and of intereolumniations, possessing absolute beauty in themselves,
without relation to the associations connected with them, appears to us a species of archi-
tectural bigotry altogether unworthy of an enlightened mind. " Our sense of propor-
tion in every form," Alison observes, " keeps pace with our knowledge of the fitness of
its construction : where we have no acquaintance with the fitness of any form, we have
no sense of its peculiar proportions." (Essays, &C, vol. ii. p. 1S4.)
'_"_'12. Tin- Proportions of Rooms are nearly agreed upon by British Architects. Sir
William Chambers says " that these proportions depend, in a great measure, on the use
and actual dimensions of the rooms; and that all figures, from a square to one in which
the length is to the breadth as three to two, may be employed in the plan, and great
licence taken with regard to elevation. Inigo Jones extended the plan to a double
square ; and galleries are frequently made four or five times as long as they are wide.
When this is the case, however, they are better divided into moderate lengths, by piers
projecting from the sides, as in the galleries of the Louvre in Paris, and that of Sans
Souci, at Potsdam. " The heights of rooms," Sir William Chambers continues,
" depend upon their figures : flat-ceiled ones may be lower than those that are coved.
Jf the plan be a square, the height should not exceed five sixths of the side, nor be less
than four fifths; and, when it is at oblong, the height may be equal to the width. But
1118 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
coved rooms, if square, must be as high as broad, and, when oblong, their height may be
equal to their width ; increasing the height one fifth, one quarter, or even one third of
the difference between the length and width, as may be thought desirable; and galleries
should, at the very least, be in height one and one third of their width, and, at the mostj
one and a half, or one and three fifths." (Civil Architecture, &c. Gwilt's edition, vol. ii.
p. 390.) These precepts may be taken by the critic as those generally received by
most European Architects and amateurs; and, though it is always a mark of a narrow
mind to judge of any work solely by a reference to rules, instead of trusting to first
impressions, and afterwards testing those impressions by general principles ; yet it is well
to know the limits within which an Architect supposes himself to be confined, in so
important a matter as the proportions of rooms.
L"_'l:5. Magnitude. " The Architect Vanvitelli," Forsyth observes, "sought, in his
design of the palace of Caserta, grandeur from every dimension;" and it is certain
that a building, like that palace, of great magnitude, regular in its general form, and
enablin ; the spectator from one point of view to conceive an idea of its height, its
length, and its breadth, produces an impression on the mind at once simple and grand.
" There is always," says Wood, " something to admire in works of great magnitude and
expense. One cannot walk along the covered way, about three miles long, from Bologna
to the church of Madonna del Monte, without feeling impressed with admiration at the
courage and public spirit which could undertake such a work, and the perseverance neces-
sary uncomplete it." (Letters, &c, vol. i. p. 285.)
2214. Magnificence is an expression produced by the union of magnitude with general
simplicity of form, and with great richness in the details. A large house, simple in its
general forms, with large spaces between the external indications of the different floors,
and between the windows of the same floor ; but with the walls terminating in a highly
enriched cornice, and with richly decorated architraves round the windows and doors,
must be felt by every one to convey an idea of large and lofty apartments within, and of
great wealth in the builder. " To produce the effect of magnificence in Architecture,"
Wood observes, " three things seem to be necessary; viz., greatness of dimensions, sim-
plicitv of design, and liclmess of decoration. To satisfy the mind after examination, three
other tilings are requisite ; viz., correctness of proportion in the parts; graceful drawing
of the details ; and delicate execution of the mouldings and ornaments. Great space left
between the ranges of windows gives an air of solidity and magnificence to the front, and
suggests the idea of lofty rooms within ; and it is a great point gained, when, in addition
to the magnificence which is seen, the artist can excite the idea of the magnificence which
is not seen." (Letters, &c. ) In general, magnitude, in connection with any circum-
stance which gives evidence of great wealth, is favourable to the idea of magnificence,
tables of the Prince of Conde, at Chantilly, are magnificent, from their magnitude,
and their costly finishing ; though, as the traveller Duppa observes, they are in the
highest degree unfit for their purpose. They are without accommodation for a bushel of
coin, or a single truss of hay ; but they are upwards of forty feet high from the floor to
the ceiling, and 600 feet long, with walls of polished freestone, and a magnificent dome
in the centre. In the interior of towns and cities, it is an evidence of great wealth to
find mansions situated in the midst of trees and gardens, surrounded by lofty walls, and
entered by magnificent gates. Such mansions are more common in Moscow and Warsaw,
vn in Paris, than in any other cities in Europe. In London, on the contrary,
t hough there are numerous mansions, in all respects superior in accommodation, com-
fort, and luxury, to those of any other city in the world; yet, from their being in close
contact with each other, and ranged in lines without any thing to distinguish them from
common street buildings, but the absence of shops, and their having a somewhat more
extensive frontage, they are totally without that expression of magnificence, to which
they are amply entitled from the expense incurred, and the accommodation produced.
In the last great square which has been, or perhaps, ever will be, erected in London,
Belgrave Square, where the houses rent from 5001. to 1000?. a year each, there is not
one of them that can have the slightest pretensions to magnificence. They have not
even an element of this quality ; and if a city tradesman, on his entering the square for
the first time, were informed that houses, which are at present occupied by dukes, and
Other nobles of the first families in the land, were the residences of city merchants, or
wealthy retired tradesmen, there is nothing in their appearance which could lead him to
express the slightest degree of surprise. Let such a person go to Paris, and observe the
hotels, which here and there occur, enclosed by walls, entered by magnificent gates, and
surrounded by thickly-wooded gardens; and the evidence of great wealth, which these
appearances afford, will prevent a doubt from arising in his mind of the grandeur and
magnificence of their occupants. The impression will be still stronger if the traveller
proceeds to Warsaw, to Moscow, or to Florence, Rome, and some of the other great cities
of Italy. The truth is, that Englishmen excel in displaying magnificence only in the
EXPRESSION OF STYLE. 1111)
interiors of their town houses; reserving all external magnificence for their palace-like
villas in the country.
2215. Elegance and (irace, in objects of art, are terms generally understood to imply
lightness of form, or delicacy of proportion, as contrasted with inelegance; that is, heavi-
ness or clumsiness of form, and want of proportion. The terms lightness and heaviness
are frequently applied to buildings by general observers; but they seldom convey any
definite ideas to the mind. The term lightness seems to be commonly applied to
elevations, in cases where the openings are more numerous, in proportion to the plain spaces
of the wall, than usual ; and, when the contrary is the case, the term heaviness is made
use of. The same idea may be extended to the intercolumniations, and proportions of
the columns of porticoes, and to various other parts of buildings.
2216. Effect is a painter's term, and in some cases it is synonymous with the word
result ; but in others it refers only to the light and shade of a picture or a building.
Where there is a striking prominent part or principal light in a building, supported by
a broad receding mass or a mass in shade, the effect is said to be good; but a building
so plain in its principal front as to produce no striking lights and bold shadows is said to
have no effect. The Italian manner of placing windows close together in series, and,
alternating with these, large blank spaces without any openings (see § 1929.), produces
a result which, in building, may, to a certain extent, be considered analogous to the
effect of light and shade in painting.
2217. Harmony is a term transferred from music to Architecture, and implies such a
composition of lines and forms as will produce a powerful, a varied, and an agreeable
whole. Where great contrasts exist among the parts, and yet all of them are in accord,
the effect is harmony ; and this is the highest result, with reference to organic impressions,
that can be produced in an edifice, short of, or next to, the beauties of decoration and
character. Harmony, therefore, supposes unity, contrast, variety, order, proportion, and
various other subordinate beauties. Notwithstanding this, however, harmony in Archi-
tecture, as in music, may exist independently of ornamament or of any distinctive
character.
2218. Ornament or Decoration, in Architecture and furnishing, is the addition of some-
thing, not necessary to unity of expression, but added solely for the purpose of enrich-
ment. Considered in an abstract point of view, the effect is produced by a certain
degree of variety, and intricacy of outline; and, by blending, in a harmonious manner,
lights, shades, and colours. The ornaments in exterior Architecture may be considered
as exclusively sculpturesque; but those of the interior include colours, gilding, and
mirrors, and may he called scenic. The too general distribution of ornament, or rich-
ness, on an elevation or a piece of furniture, is destructive of that simplicity and repose,
which is necessary to the full enjoyment of any scene; but, on the other hand, when
decoration is judiciously introduced, and correctly executed, it gives an air of high finish-
ing and completeness, which leaves in the mind of the spectator nothing to be desired.
Every thing in a building, or a piece of furniture, may be considered as ornament, which
does not form a necessary part of the construction. In this point of view, the lines and
mouldings of architraves and cornices, the facings of windows and doors, and the pro-
jecting mouldings of chimney-tops and other parts of dwelling-houses, may all be con-
sidered as ornaments ; and, as they necessarily arise out of the construction, they may be
termed ornaments of the simplest, but, at the same time, of the most appropriate kind. A
step higher in the progress of ornament or decoration, consists in the introduction of
carving or sculpture, such as foliage and flowers, on the members of architraves and
cornices, or other appropriate ornaments. The introduction of sculptures in high or
low relief, in sunk or raised panels, or other compartments prepared on purpose to receive
them, constitutes a third step. The last step is that of introducing vases and detached
figures, in suitable situations, such as on the summits of pediments, or as terminations
for piers, pilasters, columns, Sec. ; and these may be considered the noblest ornaments of
all, since they are without any other use than as such. This scale of ornament will
enable any one clearly to understand in what ornament consists ; and it will also show the
propriety of consistency, in the degree of ornament to he applied. For example, in a very
plain elevation of a house, without facings to the windows, or a porch to the door, or a
terminating cornice to the wall, it would be an improper style of decoration to add vases
or statues. The first step in ornamenting such an elevation would be, to add facings or
architraves to the doors and windows ; next a porch, and a cornice under the roof, or
near the top of the walls. After this was done, if a degree higher in the scale of orna-
ment should be considered desirable, perhaps vases might form terminations to the sup-
porting pillars of the porch, or projecting balconies might be added to some of the windows.
Instead of proceeding in this manner, we frequently find Architects, when they are called
upon to decorate a naked elevation, introduce ornaments of the highest class, such as
sculptures or vases ; while all appropriate ornaments, such as finishings to windows
11 20 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
and doors, are omitted. It must be clear to our readers that this is in the very worst
taste: as had as it would be in a lady to wear a pearl necklace and diamond tiara with
the costume of a kitchen-maid. A number ol* the Designs in this volume, when tested
by this principle, will be found sadly deficient. Let the reader turn to them, and
exercise his critical skill ; he will gain far more in doing so, than if we had presented
him with a series of faultless objects; for we are convinced, with Wood, that the young
Archkect will learn much more by the discovery of faults, and their causes, than by the
mere admiration of beauties. As affording much valuable instruction on this subject,
we would strongly recommend the young Architect to consult Quatremere de Quin-
cy's Essai sur C Imitation, and the Preface to Percier and Fontaine's Decorations
Intt'rieures.
2219. Character, in Architecture, as in physiognomy, is produced by the prevalence of
certain distinctive features, by which a countenance, or a building, is at once distinguished
from every other of the same kind. Hence, numbers of buildings, like numbers of human
beings, may exist without exhibiting any marked character. On the other hand, there
may bo edifices, which, from their general proportions being exalted, and from all their
parts being justly distributed, exhibit what is analogous to nobleness of character :
edifices having, as a conspicuous feature, a form not common in Architecture, will
assume a character of singularity ; others, having a common form placed in an un-
common position (such as a large window in a spire, or, as is the case in some of Sir
John Vanbrugh's buildings, and in the offices of one of the houses at the north-west
corner of Belgrave Square, a doorway introduced in the parapet to a roof), will appear
to possess a character of extravagance or caprice. In general, whatever is productive of
character in a building mast be conspicuous and distinctive ; and it should rather consist
of one than of many features.
2220. Novelty. In all arts, novelty is a source of pleasure ; because every new object
that is presented to the mind excites it to action ; and the mind of man, to be kept in
a healthy state, requires exercise as well as his body. The effect of novelty can be felt by
the most ignorant and also by the most learned observer ; and, though it has been customary
for critics to rail at it under the denominations of fashion and innovation, yet nothing
can be more certain than that this quality is what all artists are in pursuit of, in connec-
tion with other kinds of excellence. It is equally certain that this incessant desire for
novelty has been the cause of great departures from propriety of design in all the arts ;
and, therefore, though the artist ought to be unceasing in his endeavours to attain it, he
ought never to indulge in novelties which are in opposition to what are considered
established principles. Precepts and rules, however, are subordinate to principles ; and
a precept or a custom may be departed from for the sake of novelty, provided that in so
doing no infringement be made on such principles as those of fitness, utility, or propriety.
For example, it would be a novelty, in the elevation of a house, to have the windows
broader at bottom than at top, or circular at bottom as well as at top ; but, the unfitness
of these forms for the application of window-shutters, and other ordinary purposes,
would occasion the innovation to be instantly condemned, when examined by the
principle of fitness. It would be a novelty, in this country, to connect the different
apartments of a house by means of outside stairs and balconies, as in Switzerland; or to
have the kitchen in the attics, as in Italy ; but these innovations would be objected to
in Britain, on the principle of unsuitableness for use. A window used as a door, and a
door used as a window, are also objectionable, from the obvious want of propriety in their
application. The attempts at novelty, which have ended in absurdities, have been much
more numerous in the interior and furnishing of houses, than those which have been made
in exterior elevations: the chief reason is, that the interior finishing and furniture of a
house are much more frequently changed .and remodelled than the house itself; less care
and skill are bestowed upon them, and less exertions are made to procure the opinion
of Architects of taste (as we have before recommended), on every change, however small.
samples of bad taste, resulting from a desire of novelty without regard to con-
sistency, we may mention, that of graining wood with blue veins, blue being a colour
never found in nature in the interior of timber; and that of reversing the positions of
the vase and the sarcophagus when placed under sideboards as wine-coolers, thus
converting some of the most beautiful forms of antiquity into the clumsiest and most
inexpressive shapes. Yet, we have seen both these examples of bad taste perpetrated
in the houses of wealthy Londoners. The great aim of the artist ought to be to create.
and that of the critic to search for, the union of novelty with other beauties, without any
greater innovation of established rules than is consistent with fundamental principles.
l"r example, let the artist introduce a new style of Architecture and furniture, if lie can ;
but, in doing so, let him never violate the principles of unity and harmony. Let him
introduce a new description of porch or chimney top; but let the one always be a
protection to a door, and the other afford a favourable outlet to smoke. One of the
EXPRESSION OF STYLE. lll21
safest manners of introducing novelty, without any violation of established precepts, is by
the revival of ancient styles of art; by which is produced what is at once new and yet
familiar, instead of what is new and at the same time strange. Hence, the satisfaction
that has, for some time past, been produced, in this country, by the revival of the Gothic
style, in external elevations, and by its application to modern uses in internal finishing
and furniture. More recent examples of the same kind will be found in the present
taste for the Elizabethan style, and for that of Louis XIV. in furnishing. To imitate
freshness in an old building by renovation, or the appearance of age in a new building
by weather stains, are both sources of novelty, of no great value certainly, but still suitable
for occasional use. For example, the general effect of an old ruin may be increased by
renovating, and producing an appearance of freshness in a small part of, or in some
appendage to, it. In a line of detached villas newly built, all exactly of the same form,
material, and style of finishing, one may be i-endered strikingly different from all the
rest, solely by weather stains.
2221. Other Terms of Art might here be introduced, and their application to Archi-
tecture explained; but to do justice to the subject would require much greater space
than would be admissible in this volume: it would, indeed, require a volume itself. The
truth is, that .all the works of man are only manifestations of himself, representing the
qualities of his own mind, moral and intellectual, good or bad, ignorant or refined.
Hence, most of the terms that are applicable to manners and to mind are applicable
also to art ; and a building or a picture may exhibit beauty, deformity, boldness, timidity,
strength, weakness, nobleness, meanness, grandeur, littleness, wisdom, folly, reason,
caprice, and many other qualities. For example, the projections of the cornice of a
building carried rather farther than usual would be considered bold, and give that
character to an elevation ; carried too far, they would be considered rash ; and not far
enough, timid. Walls thick in proportion to their height indicate strength ; and the
contrary, weakness. Dimensions and proportions of all the parts, and especially those
which regard height, larger than what are usual, produce an impression on the mind
analogous to nobleness ; and smaller than usual, and especially as regards height, mean-
ness : to be mean, a building must be low. The expression of grandeur is easily
understood; that of littleness is produced by comparative smallness of dimension applied
to objects generally seen large. The want of wisdom will be conspicuous in any building,
the expression of which does not satisfy the mind as well as the eye ; for example, if the
artist appears to have bestowed too much strength or skill on one part, and too little on
another. The folly of an Architect would be conspicuous, were he to sacrifice the main
body of a building to any inferior part, as for instance to the portico; or to attempt
to build and ornament a cottage in imitation of a palace. Nothing is more common
in the works of Architects even of genius, such as Vanbrugh and Borromeo, than caprice.
It is the business of a critic, after he has allowed the full effect to be produced on
him by the first impressions of an object, to search for its deformities as well as its
beauties ; and to point out the one to public attention, as well as the other.
2222. Relation. After the critic has applied all the preceding principles to any edi-
fice, and various others of the same nature, which will readily occur to a thinking mind,
it remains for him to examine it in its several relations. If it is seen in the same
view with other buildings, it must be considered not merely as a whole by itself, but also
as forming a whole in connection with the other buildings which are near it. In this
point of view, an edifice may be so plain in itself, as to exhibit little or no variety or
intricacy ; and yet, when viewed along with the other buildings, it may produce one
general combination of harmonious forms. For example : suppose a line of five or six
detached but nearly adjoining houses, already existing, each house broken into several
parts, and that an Architect were required to add an additional house at one end of, or
any where near, the line ; it might reasonably become a question with that Architect,
whether it would not be advisable for him to render the additional house one simple and
grand mass, so as to form with the whole line, when taken together, a predominating and
principal part. In like manner, in judging of a building of any particular age or
country, the circumstances of that age or country at the time, require to be taken into
consideration. In judging of the modern buildings of Italy, for instance, it must not
be forgotten that almost all the modern Italian Architects were painters as well as
Architects ; and that almost the whole of their public buildings are addressed more to the
eye than to the reason. In judging of the buildings of the reign of Louis XIV., it
must be considered that the great object of the Architects was to follow the taste of the
court, which was that of extravagant decoration. In judging of the taste of churches,
and of sumptuous public buildings in all countries, it must not be forgotten that the
great object was to excite the admiration and the astonishment of the spectator. In
judging of those public buildings in Britain, in the Grecian style, which were erected
previously to the publication of Stuart's At/tens or Wilkini's Magna Grcccia, it
C ft
1122 COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
would be altogether unreasonable to compare them with the designs constructed since
that period. The Gothic Architecture of Batty Langley (a name sneered at by
modem critics), or even that of Inigo Jones, it would not be just to compare with the
Gothic of the present day; a knowledge of which has been matured by the excellent
publications of Carter, Murphy, Britton, Pugin, Cottingham, Lamb, and a number
of other authors. Thus, a critic must always have two standards of comparison to judge
by : the one, that (as well as he can conceive it) of the time when the building was
erected ; and the other the beau ideal of perfection in his own mind. There is another point
that must not be lost sight of, in judging either of ancient or of modern productions in
Architecture ; and that is, the means which the Architect had at his command, and the
control which he was under from his employers, at the time of erecting the building-
There is not, perhaps, one edifice in a hundred, either public or private, where free scope
is left to the Architect, even where he is previously informed of the amount which will
be allowed to be expended for the work, and keeps within that amount. Numerous local
circumstances, which could not be foreseen, or over which he has little or no control,
continually interfere to prevent him from completing his designs agreeably to his own
taste and judgment. Since, then, few persons have ever an opportunity of doing their
best, charity should, in all cases, be exercised by the critic. To those who wish to pur-
sue the subject of this section farther, it is satisfactory to be able to recommend three
works which are within the resell of every one; viz., Alison's Essays on Taste, Wood's
Letters of an. Architect, and the Dlctionnalre Historique a" Architecture of Quatremere de
Qtilncy. The works of Durand, Kepton and Papworth, Aberdeen's Inquiry, and
Carlisle's Hints (or rather scraps), may also be read with advantage, by those who wish
to unite the study of Landscape Gardening with that of Architecture.
Sect. II. Of the different Styles of Architecture.
2223. The different Styles of Architecture have grown up with mankind, and arc
easily recognised by every one as beauties of art, originally composed to be admired, and
subsequently sanctioned by the admiration of ages. Hence it is that the Architect who
endeavours to effect his object through the medium of any known architectural style
will be much more likely to attain it, than he who depends for success on the organic
impressions and general associations which form the subject of the preceding section ; or
on what an Architect might call the abstract composition of lines and forms. In that
section, we have chiefly endeavoured to show that every thing in Architecture connected
with use, the expression of use, and the expression of those qualities which are common
to all the fine arts, can be effected without the introduction of a single form or line
which is considered characteristic of any known architectural style. It must be obvious
to the reader who has understood our preceding observations, that, in the employment of
any of the architectural styles which form the subject of the present section, the Archi-
tect, to produce a satisfactory whole, must be governed by the abstract principles of com-
position already laid down, as much as if no style were resorted to. The principle of
unity must govern a composition, whether it consist of mere walls with openings ; or, as
a painter would say, of mere light and shade; or of Grecian columns and entablatures;
or Gothic gables and buttresses. Variety is required for a Grecian or a Gothic com-
position, as well as for one of mere lines and forms ; and simplicity is as necessary for the
general form of a Gothic cathedral as it is for that of a Grecian temple. There are,
however, great advantages in the employment of style in Architecture.
2224. By the Employment of Style in an Edifice, the Architect takes immediate pos-
session of the prejudices of mankind. He gains a positive beauty at once by the mere
exhibition of style; because thousands of spectators in Europe and America, for example,
have some crude ideas of what is Grecian and what is Gothic, while comparatively few
understand what constitutes a whole in mere combinations of form. Style, therefore,
ought never to be neglected by Architects who wish to gain general applause.
222.5. The different Styles of Architecture are so well known by Architects, and this
knowledge is so readily accessible to the general reader, that very little need be said
respecting them in a work like the present. All the styles which have ever existed, or
which now prevail in the world, may be reduced to two, the Gothic, or perpendicular,
and the Grecian, or horizontal; or that in which perpendicular lines, and that in
which horizontal lines, predominate. As it is essential that all walls be built erect, it
is not probable that, in any style whatever, curved lines should prevail over straight
lines; unless, indeed, fitness and reason should be entirely laid aside.
2226. The Grecian Style may be considered as characterised by porticoes of columns,
with pediments joined to parallelograms, in regard to general forms ; and by a particularly
l.e.iutitul description of mouldings and ornaments in the details. The porticoes and
pediments are altogether unlit for private dwellings, and there is no evidence that thev
were ever so applied by the Greeks. At aU events, that there is « great difficulty," as
DIFFERENT STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE. \icZ'3
Mr. Husking observes, " in applying pure Grecian Areliitecture to modern practice," is
evident from the buildings of the Romans, and from the want of success which has
attended the attempts which have hitherto been made in Britain to introduce the pure
Grecian style into villas and private dwellings in the country. We may pass over this
style, therefore, for that modification of it known as the Roman or Vitruvian, which, till
the publication of Stuart's Athens, and similar works, was considered by Architects as
Grecian. Before proceeding to Roman Architecture, we may briefly notice the alleged
prototype of the pure Grecian style; viz., a wooden hut; the roof supported by trunks
of trees, and these trunks joined by horizontal beams. That there is a semblance of truth
in this is evident: a hut may have given rise to the Grecian style; but if it did, still its
construction appears to us to afford little or no information as to the management of
Domestic Architecture in that style. All arts have had their origin in some very rude
beginning; and the first artificial human shelters must, no doubt, have been either huts
formed by the trunks or branches of trees, or caves dug in the sides of hills or banks.
The hypothesis before noticed, of Eaugier and others, that Architecture on this account
is an imitative art, we consider to be altogether fanciful ; and, if we were asked to refer
to any work where this hypothesis was disproved, we should point to the Dictionary of
Quatremere de Quincy, and to the articles in that work attempting to prove it.
2227. The Grecian Architecture of the Romans is characterised by the introduction of
arches ; by the placing of several stories one over another ; and by great licence in every
thing relating to proportion. It may be described as having little or none of that sim-
plicity which is one of the greatest beauties of the Grecian temples ; but, on the other-
hand, it admits of all that variety of form, disposition, and details which is suitable for
the construction of private houses. It is, in fact, the prevailing Architecture of Europe,
and of the civilised world ; simply because it is the easiest, and, when without columns
and decoration, the most economical, style of building.
2228. The Modern Roman, or Italian, Style of Architecture differs from the ancient Roman
partly in the introduction of still greater licence in regard to columns and their dis-
position, but chiefly in its aim to produce painter-like effects. There are several varieties
of the Italian style, distinguished by the names of the centuries in which they prevailed ;
and some of these varieties contain a mixture of Gothic forms and mouldings. The
great object of the modern Roman Architect seems to be, to produce harmony by means
of various contrasts of form, and of light and shade. Enough of Roman details are
exhibited by this manner, in even the plainest buildings used as country residences, to
keep up the idea of style, and to create allusions to Roman Architecture ; but, when this
is done, the next grand object appears to be, to please the eye of a judge of general com-
position, rather than that of a servile follower of the five orders. We have already
expressed (§ 1933) how highly we approve of this style, as being economical, and suit-
able for dwellings for the general mass of society.
2229. The Gothic Style, characterised, as we have already observed, by vertical lines,
or lines pointing upwards, consists of many varieties : some of them so delicate and
peculiar, that they are difficult to describe. In almost all of them, Hosking observes,
" the arch is considered the index to the variety, as the column is to the different orders
in columnar Architecture." After the very excellent essay by Mr. Trotman on this
style (§ 1872), it is unnecessary here to enter into details; but we must observe, that all
the different varieties of Gothic Architecture are, in an especial manner, adapted for
domestic use. In no style is unity of form and system more easily given and main-
tained ; and, in Britain more especially, none is better calculated for producing emotion,
for the reason before stated; viz., that almost every one who has been in the habit of
frequenting a country church is familiar with its details. The superiority of this style
to the Grecian, Roman, or Italian, in a scientific point of view, is well known to every
one at all acquainted with the principles of construction. This superiority was for the
first time pointed out in detail to the English reader by Dr. Anderson, in a series of
essays, published in his Recreatioris in Arts and Natural History. Before the appearance of
these essays, the merits of the Gothic style were not at all understood. It is now
acknowledged by the first Architects, that the ancients knew very little of the science of
construction ; and the precepts of Vitruvius and Pliny on that subject are considered as
imperfect or erroneous. It is also allowed that " the strength and duration of the
Egyptian, Greek, and Roman structures are more owing to the quantity and goodness
of their materials, than to any great art in putting them together." ( Chambers.) There
is more constructive skill shown in Salisbury and others of our cathedrals," Mr. Gwilt
observes, " than in all the works of the ancients put together." An ingenious hypo-
thesis on the origin of Gothic Architecture, by Sir James Hall, who considered wicker-
work and the interlacing of young trees as its original type, is about as plausible as the
hypothesis of the hut as the type of Grecian Architecture. In the admirable work of
Seroux d'Agincourt, it is proved that the first Gothic building in Italy was an excavation
1121, COTTAGE, FARM, AND VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
in a soft rock ; the coved ceilings and the arches to tlie doors and other openings being
finished in imitation of the Grecian ogee moulding. It is clear also from Mr. Trot-
man's essay, and the work of Mr. Rickman, that the Gothic style originated in an
iinitation of the Roman. The reader who wishes to study the different varieties oe
Gothic, or Pointed, Architecture may turn back to Mr. Trotman's essay, or have recourse
to Mr. Hickman's succinct, and, at the same time, comprehensive, work on that subject.
2230. The Elizabethan, '»• Old English, Style, or rather manner, of building, is to the
Gothic, what the Modern Italian is to the Roman: it is a mongrel style (more so, indeed,
than the Italian), composed of Roman and Gothic details. From its extensive use in the
mansions of this country, at a time when some of the largest were built, it has come to be
considered as peculiarly appropriate to country residences. Perhaps, as a British domestic
style, it has more interesting associations connected with it than any other ; and
there is nothing in its forms and details but what may readily be adapted to every
modern convenience and luxury.
2231. There are various other subordinate Styles or Manners of building, to which the
student may have recourse, in order to store his mind with ideas, and enable him to
produce novelty in connection with excellence. There is the Egyptian style, character-
ised by its colossal forms and massive grandeur ; from which, however, but few ideas
can be derived applicable to domestic puqioses ; and the Chinese style, the type of which
is a tent, but which, as far as it is known in this country, seems by no means a complete
system in itself. There appear to be two styles or manners in India ; one, the Hindoo
Architecture, analogous to the Egyptian, the type of both being an excavation in the
front of a rock, or on the side of a hill ; and the other, bearing some resemblance to the
European pointed style, and which has been called the Indian Gothic. This style is
also sometimes called Arabian, Saracenic, or Moorish Architecture ; and is an interesting
and fanciful style, which owes its birth to the Mahometan religion. All these styles
and varieties of styles will be found described in Letters on the Principles of Design in
Architecture, and in the History and Analysis of all the Principal Styles of Architecture ;
both small and cheap books, easily to be procured. See also the very excellent Treatise
on Architecture and Building, by William Hosking, Esq.
2232. On the Subject of Style in Architecture much more might here be said; but we
conceive it of far greater importance that the render should understand the general
principles of composition, than that lie should become learned in the details of any par-
ticular style. Hitherto Architecture has been too generally considered as consisting of
an accurate display of the features and details of the best precedents of some particular
style, without reference to abstract principles of composition ; but we think that the
student who would excel in this art should, i:i the first instance, have recourse to the
study of general composition ; and should consider the study of the Grecian and Roman
orders, and of their various proportions and mouldings, as altogether subordinate. We
are persuaded that the leading causes why Architecture has made such little progress in
this country are, the general neglect by Architects of universal principles, and the almost
exclusive attention paid by them to precedents and to established rules. Were we to
direct the studies of a youth intended for the profession of an Architect, the very last part
of the course of instruction which we should prescribe to him would be the study of
the five orders. We consider them about as necessary to good sense, and good taste,
in Domestic Architecture, as the study of the Greek and Latin languages is to the
knowledge of what is good sense and good taste in the general conduct of life. Before,
however, we recommended any youth to study Architecture as a profession, we would
endeavour to ascertain, upon phrenological principles, or from general observation, whe-
ther his organisation was favourable for that pursuit. One of the grand causes of the
slow advancement of all the arts of taste, and of the great prevalence of mediocrity
among artists, is, the utter neglect of this preliminary measure on the part of their parents
or advisers. Young men are articled to Architects, or sent to study painting or sculpture
in academies, on the same principle as they are brought up to the common trades of life ;
and the result is, that, instead of men of native genius being, by cultivation, rendered
skilful artists, the same degree of instruction, bestowed on men not possessing any natural
talent, only produces mechanical artisans, or servile imitators of what has been done
by their predecessors.
SUPPLEMENT.
INTRODUCTION,
Since the publication of this Encyclopaedia, in 1833, we have carefully watched the
progress made in the knowledge and practice of the subjects of which it treats, in order
to add to our stock of ideas with a view to a new edition, or a Supplement. For this
purpose we commenced the Architectural Magazine in 1834, and continued it for five
years, recording in it a variety of information, not only on the subjects embraced by
this Encyclopaedia, but on every other department of architecture, public as well as
private, with the view of rendering architecture a popular study. Though we gave up
the Architectural Magazine in 1839, yet we have been ever since not less eager in col-
lecting materials for this Supplement. We have examined all the recent publications
which bear on the subject, including the Sanitary Report of the Poor Law Commis-
sioners just published ; and we have inspected a great many cottages, villas, farmeries, and
schools, in different parts of England and Scotland. We have had designs of cottages
and villas submitted to us for criticism and amendment from all parts of the country,
and even from North America and Australia ; and we have been in the constant habit
of receiving architectural communications from professional friends and correspondents,
more especially since we announced, above a year ago, our intention of bringing out
this Supplement. From the great abundance of materials thus brought before us, we
have made a careful selection, which we have arranged under the heads of — 1. Cot-
tages for Labourers and Mechanics; 2. Cottage Villas and Villas ; 3. Farmeries; and
4. Schools, Public-houses, Union Work-houses, and Alms-houses. We have added, 5.
a chapter on Construction and Materials ; 6. one on Fittings-up, Finishing, and Furni-
ture, generally applicable; and 7. one containing Hints to Proprietors desirous of
improving the Labourers' Cottages on their Estate ; and we have given a new General
Index, including in it the body of the work as well as the Supplement.
We have numbered the paragraphs in continuation from the last paragraph in the
Encyclopaedia, for the sake of uniformity both in the text and the Index ; and we have
frequently referred to paragraphs and pages in the body of the work, in which the same
subjects are treated of, for details which it would have been superfluous to repeat.
Chap. I.
Cottages for Country Labourers and Mechanics, and for Gardeners, Foresters, Bailiffs, and
other upper out-of-door Servants iti the Country ; including Gate-Lodges and Gates.
(Encyc. of Cott. Arch., p. 8.)
2233. (1336. to 1341.) Present State of Labourers' Cottages. Instead of adding any
remarks of our own to those already given in the Encyclopaedia, on the present state of
labourers' cottages, or the benefits to labourers and to the country generally from
improving them, we give the following extracts from a recent pamphlet, entitled The
Peasuntry of the Border, &c, by the Rev. Dr. Gilly, Vicar of Norham, in Northumber-
112G
SUPPLEMENT.
land (1841), from the Sanitary lieport of the Poor Law Commissioners (1842), and from
a recent work on Manures and Farming by Mr. Donaldson. We give these extracts
to prove to the reader the great necessity of improvement in the cottage of the la-
bourer, and more especially of the agricultural labourer.
" The general character of the best of the old-fashioned hinds* cottages in this neigh-
bourhood [Norham, on the banks of the Tweed, not far from Berwick] is bad at the
best. They have to bring every thing with them; partitions, window-frames, fixtures
of all kinds, grates, and a substitute for ceiling ; for they are, as I have already called
them, mere sheds. They have no byre for their cows, no sties for their pigs, no pumps
or wells, nothing to promote cleanliness or comfort. The average size of these sheds is
about twenty-four feet by sixteen feet. They are dark and unwholesome. The windows
do not open, and many of them are not larger than twenty inches by sixteen inches.
And into this space are crowded eight, ten, and even twelve persons. How they lie
down to rest, how they sleep, how they can preserve common decency, how unutterable
horrors are avoided, is beyond all conception. The case is aggravated when there is a
young woman to be lodged in this confined space, who is not a member of the family,
but is hired to do the field-work, for which every hind is bound to provide a female. It
shocks every feeling of propriety to think that in a room, and within such a space as I
have been describing, civilised beings should be herding together without a decent
separation of age and sex. So long as the agricultural system, in this district, requires
the hind to find room for a fellow-servant of the other sex in his cabin, the least that
morality and decency can demand is, that he should have a second apartment, where
the unmarried female and those of a tender age should sleep apart from him and his
wife." ( Tlie Peasantry, See, p. 20.)
The agricultural labourers' cottages in Bedfordshire, according to the Sanitary
Report, are not much better. " If we follow the agricultural labourer into his miserable
dwelling, we shall find it consisting of two rooms only. The day-room, in addition to
the family, contains the cooking utensils, the washing apparatus, agricultural imple-
ments, and dirty clothes, the windows broken and stuffed full of rags. In the sleeping-
apartment the parents and their children, boys and girls, are indiscriminately mixed,
and frequently a lodger sleeping in the same and only room ; generally no window, the
openings in the. half-thatched roof admit light, and expose the family to every vicissi-
tude of the weather : the liability of the children so situated to contagious maladies
frequently plunges the family into the greatest misery. The husband, enjoying but
little comfort under his own roof, resorts to the beer-shop, neglects the cultivation of
his garden, and impoverishes his family. The children are brought up without
any regard to decency of behaviour, to habits of foresight or self-restraint ; they
make indifferent servants. The girls become the mothers of bastards, and return home a
burden to their parents or to the parish, and fill the workhouse. The boys spend the
Christmas week's holiday and their year's wages in the beer-shops, and enter upon their
new situation in rags. Soon tired of the restraint imposed upon them under the roof
of their master, they leave his service before the termination of the year's engagement,
seek employment as day-labourers, not with a view of improving their condition, but
with a desire to receive and spend their earnings weekly in the beer-shop ; associating
with the worst of characters, they become the worst of labourers, resort to poaching,
commit petty thefts, and add to the county rates by commitments and prosecutions."
(p. 178.)
The same writer gives the following picture of an improved cottage : —
" On entering an improved cottage, consisting, on the ground floor, of a room for
the family, a wash-house, and a pantry, and three sleeping-rooms over, with a neat and
well cultivated garden, in which the leisure hours of the husband being both pleasantly
and profitably employed, he has no desire to frequent the beer-shop, or spend his evenings
from home; the children are trained to labour, to habits and feelings of independence, and
taught to connect happiness with industry, and to shrink from idleness and immorality :
the girls make good servants, obtain the confidence of their employers, and get pro-
moted to the best situations." In short, as another Bedfordshire writer observes, in
the same Report, the cottager feels that he is somewhat raised in the scale of society.
He sees his wife and family more comfortable than formerly ; he rises in respectability
of station, and becomes aware that he has a character to lose. Having acquired these
important advantages, he is anxious to retain and improve them. (p. 177.) On the
other hand, " a man who comes home to a poor comfortless hovel, after his day's
labour, and sees all miserable around him, has his spirits more often depressed than
excited by it. He feels that, do his best, he shall be miserable still, and is too apt to
fly for a temporary refuge to the ale-house or beer-shop. But give him the means of
making himself comfortable by his own industry, and I am convinced, by experience,
that, in many cases, he will avail himself of it." (p. 178.)
DESIGNS FOR MODEL COTTAGES. 1127
Speaking of the cottages in the improved districts of Scotland and the North of
England, Mr. Donaldson, in his excellent work on Manures and Farming (London,
8vo, 1842), expresses a hope that improvement, now so general in every department
of rural economy, will soon be extended to them. " The square space," he says,
" forming one apartment, huddling together a numerous family as in a penfold, cons
stitutes a blot of no small magnitude in the social economy of those northern countie-
where the genius of agriculture has been truly said to have fixed its chosen residence.
The accommodations provided for the farmer and the farm stock have formed a most
marked, and it may be added, a very discreditable contrast with the habitations pro-
vided for the labourers, without whom the former could not exist. The arrangement
of the dining and the drawingroom has engaged the attention of the farmer ; the skill
of the architect has been employed in erecting convenient accommodations for the
poultry and the pigs, the gig and the saddle horse, while any hovel is reckoned suffi-
cient for the labourer ; the moving power, the sinew and strength of every active
employment. Any improvements in cottage accommodations have mainly arisen from
the manufacturing class ; and wherever the number of that class is greater, there the
country is richer, and the social condition improved in every respect ; for a purely
agricultural district is ever a poor one for the labourers. Payment of wages partly in
produce is preferable for resident country labourers ; and a garden, and accommodation
for cow and pig, will add much to their comfort." ( Treatise on Manures, 8fc, p. 384.)
Though we are convinced that the only permanent security for the amelioration of
the lowest classes is to be found in enlightening and elevating their minds by education,
yet, as this can only apply to the rising generation, or rather perhaps, in this country
at least, to a generation yet unborn, the existing race can only be benefited by the
humanity and kindness of those of their employers who are men of wealth. The
unhappy unsettled habits of common British labourers, whether in agriculture or in ma-
nufactures, which, we believe, far exceeds anything of the kind which exists in any other
country, can only be changed by something which will induce them to forego a present
enjoyment for a future good ; and, in the present state of things in this country, we
know no way in which this can be so easily done, as by arranging so as that every
married country labourer may occupy a comfortable cottage and garden.
We shall arrange this chapter under the heads of — 1. Designs for Model Cottages.
2. Select Cottages erected. 3. Miscellaneous Designs partly erected. 4. Details
of Construction. 5. Cottage Fittings-up and Furniture ; and 6. Villages.
Sect. I. Designs for Model Cottages. (Encyc. of Cott. Arch., p. 8.)
2234. (13.) The model cottages given in the body of the work are to be regarded
as exhibiting the beau-ideal of the accommodation and comfort which a building of the
humblest class may be made to supply: those which we are now about to submit are
progressive in accommodation ; and in the lowest of them there is absolutely nothing
that can be omitted without destroying the comfort of the occupant, and, in short,
reducing the accommodation to that afforded by those wretched Northumbrian
hovels, so feelingly described by the Rev. Dr. Gilly. We have given two fundamental
models : one calculated for agricultural labourers, and especially ploughmen, who, in
many parts of the country, keep a cow and pig, and have a garden of from one eighth to
one sixth of an acre ; the other calculated for working mechanics, living in outskirts of
towns or in villages, who are supposed seldom to keep a cow, though sometimes a pig,
but who, generally, in addition to a cottage, occupy a piece of garden ground of from
an eighth to a sixth of an acre, or more.
2235. The Cow-house and Pigsty. Many persons object to having these appen-
dages near a dwelling, as tending to render it unhealthy, from damp, smells, &c. ; but
practically, where the construction and management, and especially the drainage,
are good, we consider the objections as unimportant. On the Continent, where
the summers are much warmer than in England, the smell of a stable or a pigsty,
when under the same roof as the cottager's dwelling, is often a nuisance : but this is
chiefly when they are entered by the same door as the living-rooms ; for, when they
are entered at different doors at some distance apart, the case is totally different, more
especially in our comparatively cool climate. As a proof of this, we may refer to those
agricultural districts where the cottages, cow-houses, pigsties, &c, are properly con-
structed, and placed ; as, for example, the Earl of Leicester's estates in Norfolk.
The agricultural labourers, in many parts of Scotland and the North of England,
are allowed the keep of a cow as a part of their wages. In the summer season the
cow is generally grazed in the fields along with those of the master, and sometimes
(and this we consider the best mode) the winter keep is given along with that of the
master's cows. In this last case no cow-house is required as an appendage to the
agriculturist's cottage. There are, however, many cases in which the master allows
112S SUPPLEMENT.
the ploughman so much food for the winter's keep of his cow; and there are, besides,
a numerous class in agricultural districts who look upon a cow as essential to the
comfort of their families. Under these various circumstances, therefore, we have con-
sidered it advisahle to provide a cow-house to this class of our model cottages.
2236. Pigs, Rabbits, and Poultry. Wherever there is a garden there is always a
quantity of refuse, and though this, with the waste of the family, will not fatten a pig,
yet it will keep it in a growing state; and, when full-grown, corn, beans, or meal, may
be purchased for fattening it. At all events, if it will not keep a pig it will keep
rabbits. (§ 769. and 1394.) Poultry may almost always be kept by the cottager; and,
to derive the greatest advantage from it by having eggs in the winter season, the poultry-
house should always be in a warm situation. (See § 1329.)
2237. General Arrangement. In the models we have supposed the cottages to be
placed on platforms, raised eighteen inches above the natural surface, to insure dryness;
and the floors of the yards behind we have supposed to be raised one foot, for the same
purpose. The terrace or platform may, however, be dispensed with, provided the floor
of the house be raised sufficiently high by any other means ; in which case three or
four steps must be placed as an ascent to the door of the porch. When there is a plat-
form, the door in the porch of the house is ascended by a half step of three inches, and
the back door by a full step of six inches. The aspect of the porch is supposed to
be south or south-east, as the best aspects, or, as the next best, south-west; the object
being that a north and south line should form a diagonal to the square or parallelogram
formed by the general mass of building; in consequence of which (as observed § 24.)
the sun will shine on every side of the house during a portion of every day on which he
appears. Three aspects are mentioned, in order that the one may be adopted which may
be most suitable to the direction of the road near which the cottage is placed ; the pre-
ference, however, should always be given to the south-east when practicable, as the
wind, in most parts of Great Britain, blows seldomer from that quarter than from any
other, and when it does blow it is always warm. The south-west is a boisterous quar-
ter, and should only be had recourse to when it is necessary in order to obtain a diagonal
to the plan which shall be a south and north line. We wish it to be distinctly under-
stood, that it forms no part of our plan to have either the front or the back of the
cottage next to, and parallel with, the road ; on the contrary, we prefer, in almost every
case of single cottages, to have next the road an angle of the building, by which the
views across the road will be oblique instead of being direct ; as the former, in every
case, exhibits a longer perspective, which must consequently contain a greater number
of objects. The grand point to be attended to in putting down every cottage, single
or double, ought to be to have the diagonal to the main building a south and north
line. This rule ought to be considered as absolute.
The floors of the models have all a gentle inclination, from the front door to the back
door, of about three inches, so that no water can stand on any part of them ; and the
yards all slope to the tank for liquid manure, which is so low as to receive all the water
of the yard. An underground drain surrounds the house and yard, three or four feet
from the walls, as well for the purpose of cutting off the overflowings of the well or
rain-water tank, as for keeping the floor of the house quite dry. To avert damp
from the surface of the platform on which the house stands, and also of the back yard,
gutters are fixed all round the eaves of the roof of the house; by which the water fall-
ing on it is collected and filtered, by some of the simple modes shown in the Ency-
clopaedia (§ 30. and 305.), or by a still more simple mode which will be described
hereafter, into a tank or well, from which it is drawn up by a pump placed in the back-
kitchen, close to the sink. From the sink, which has a bell-trap to prevent the
rising of smells, there may be a small drain or earthenware pipe to the liquid-manure
tank ; but a simpler and better mode is to have a tub or pail beneath the sink-stone,
for collecting the water, which renders it obligatory to carry it from time to time direct
to the privy, where it is necessarily poured through the pan into the liquid-manure
tank, thereby making certain of keeping the pan constantly clean and not losing any
of the liquid. The liquid is to be drawn from the tank by means of a well close to it,
eighteen inches square, and of the same depth as the tank, and covered with a stone in
which is a bell-trap to admit the water from the yard. When the liquid is to be
taken up, this stone or lid must be taken off, and the liquid lifted by dipping a vessel
into it ; but the best mode is to have a pump in one angle of the well. Between the
tank and the well there is an iron grating to prevent the escape from the tank of
grosser impurities. It may be built of brick or stone, and either arched over, leaving
a man-hole to be covered with a stone, or it may be covered with flag-stone; in either
case covering the whole with a layer of earth, to prevent the possibility of the escape
iA smells. This tank will be described in detail in a future chapter.
The pit for solid manure may be four feet deep, and, ii'it bethought necessary, it may
DESIGNS FOR MODEL COTTAGES. 1 V2[)
be covered with a boarded shutter, hinged at half its width, which can be kept closely
shut at all times, except when manure is being put in or taken out.
The principal difficulty which we feel we shall have with the cottager will be in
convincing him of the importance of the liquid manure tank. We consider the liquid
manure of a cottage as decidedly of more value to the garden than all the solid manure
which the cottager is likely to be able to collect ; and, therefore, in our opinion, wherever
there is a garden to a cottage, there ought to be a liquid manure tank.
'2238. The Accommodation in the model designs varies from three to six rooms ; one
or more of these rooms in the latter case being intended as a working-place for village
mechanics, such as a tailor, shoemaker, weaver, &c. Besides these living and working
rooms, there are, in each cottage, a small back-kitchen or wash-house, a pantry, a place
for fuel, &c. ; and in the agricultural cottages, except the lowest in the scale, a dairy
and a pigsty. We have so arranged that the living-rooms in all the cottages may be
heated by Hues under the floor, proceeding from an oven or furnace in an outbuilding.
We are aware that we shall have great difficulty in getting this arrangement adopted,
but we introduce it because we consider it by far the most economical mode of applying
fuel when that material is scarce, and, in particular, the only mode in which faggot-
wood, slender branches, or spray, can be made the most of. This we have shown in the
Encyclopaedia, in § 34. and '.','>., p. 17. At the same time there are open fireplaces in
the usual manner, to be used in conjunction with this mode of heating, or exclusive of
it, for those by whom it is not approved of. Such persons, therefore, will merely con-
sider the furnace to the flue as an oven for occasional use for baking ; or, if the place is
used as a poultry-house, for which it is well adapted, for communicating warmth to it.
2239. Construction. The materials with which these cottages may be constructed are
not limited to any particular kind or kinds. Whatever is most abundant or cheapest in
the locality where the cottage is to be built will be most suitable. In Britain, the most
general material for walls is stone, and for covering roofs thatch. We have, therefore,
shown the walls of sufficient thickness for being built of rubble stone ; hut if, in any
part of the country, brick should he found cheaper, hollow walls of that material (see
§. 25. 336. and 374. ) may be adopted ; or, in those parts of the country where the con-
struction of cob walls, or walls of clay lumps, is properly understood and practised, no
material can be better for cottages of this description. The roofs of most of the models
we have supposed to be covered with thatch ; because that material is found every
«lure, and because in the common mode of putting it on by the use of layers of turves,
instead of sewing, and by using turves also for the ridges and hips, it is both cheap and
durable. We have known many roofs of this kind in Scotland which have lasted the
length of a farmer's lease (nineteen or twenty-one years) without any repairs : the sur-
face of the thatch becoming covered with growing moss excludes air and moisture, and
prevents decomposition. In many parts of England, particularly in Sussex, instead of
thatch, the chips made in working up coppice-wood, with or without spray, are used ;
and this makes a warm and durable roof, which might, perhaps, be rendered still more
durable by steeping the chips in lime-water, or in Burnett's or some other preserv-
ative solution. The great advantage of roofs of thatch, chips, spray, or heath (which
forms a common and most durable roof in the Highlands of Scotland), is, that they
retain the heat of the rooms in winter, and exclude that of the sun in summer : but one
disadvantage is their liability to be consumed by fire, which, however, rarely happens ;
and another, that, in the case of straw roofs, a quantity of material is lost, which might
otherwise have been converted into manure. Those who disapprove of thatch may use
tiles or slates, with a ceiling parallel to the sides of the roof about eighteen inches
within it, so as to form, as it were, a double roof, which will, to a certain extent,
answer the same purpose as a roof of thatch. The floors should slope gradually, that
is, at the rate of one inch to seven feet, from the entrance porch, which should be the
highest point, to the outer door of the back kitchen, which ought to be the lowest; in
order that, when they are washed with a mop, the water may run before the operator, in
whatever part of the house she may commence, towards the hack door. The floors of
the upper rooms may either be laid with boards, or with a composition of lime and
clay, or lime and ashes, beaten smooth, in the manner to be hereafter described. This
kind of bed-room floor is not uncommon in the East of England, particularly in Nor-
folk and Huntingdonshire, and also in Staffordshire. The height of the rooms on the
ground floor should not be less than nine feet, nor should those in the roof be less in the
middle, though at the sides they need not be more than five or six feet. The windows,
Where economy is the object, may be of cast iron, and either of the form used at Belper,
or that recommended by the Highland Society of Scotland, both of which will be de-
scribed in the chapter (v.) on construction.
9240. The Elevations to the models are wholly without ornament, unless facings
or architraves to the doors and windows, a plinth to the walls, and a cornice to the
6 s
1130 SUPPLEMENT.
chimney tops can lie considered as such ; but we have given some ornamental elevations
to the same plans, and others to plans having the same amount of accommodation.
2241. The Gardens we have shown as surrounding the cottages ; being convinced
that a garden docs not afford half the enjoyment to the possessor, when it is separated
from his dwelling, that it docs when attached to and surrounding it; and that, though
those portions of ground called cottage allotments are better than no garden at all,
yet they arc, and ever will be, very far from answering the end of gardens at-
tached to dwellings. We have shown the garden to each cottage surrounded by a hedge,
which ought generally to be seven feet high for the sake of privacy ; and we have shown
it cut architecturally, because we think the cottager ought to be encouraged by
every means to show his taste in and about his garden, so as to win applause for his
exertions. Indeed, we are of opinion that all garden hedges that are cut or clipped
into regular forms ought to have piers at the angles and openings, and sometimes even
pilasters at regular distances, terminating in balls or other forms : in other cases there
may be arcades, open or recessed, and ornamented by verdant vases, or other objects
that can be readily formed in living materials, at no other expense than that of a little
labour with the hedge-shears. The planting, cropping, and culture of the garden, we
think, should in general be left to the cottager, as otherwise he cannot take sufficient
interest in it; assisting him with fruit trees, seeds, and ornamental plants, and with
advice, or a suitable gardening book, if he require it. The extent of garden ground,
in all ordinary cases, need not exceed one sixth of an acre, including the space occupied
by the house and court-yard. A greater space than the sixth of an acre a labourer
who has nearly constant employment cannot properly manage ; and even this space,
unless he has a large family, will admit of his occasionally producing articles for sale,
whether vegetables, fruits, flowers, seedling plants, or seeds. We have shown, in the
model designs, the gardens surrounded by hedges, as being cheaper than any other
kind of fence ; but we greatly prefer walls, as affording an opportunity of covering
them with fruit trees and ornamental plants, and as not exhausting the soil.
2242. The essential Requisites for a comfortable labourer's cottage may be thus
summed up : —
1. The cottage should be placed alongside a public road, as being more cheerful than
a solitary situation ; and in order that the cottager may enjoy the applause of the public
when he has his garden in good order and keeping.
2. The cottage should be so placed that the sun may shine on every side of it every
day throughout the year, when he is visible. For this reason, the front of the cottage
can only be parallel to the public road in the case of roads in the direction of north-
east, south-west, north-west, and south-east ; in all other cases the front must be placed
obliquely to the road, which, as we have previously shown, is greatly preferable to having
the front parallel to the road. (See § 2237.)
3. Every cottage ought to have the floor elevated, that it may be dry ; the walls
double or hollow, or battened, or not less than eighteen inches thick, that they may
retain heat ; with a course of slate or flagstone, or tiles, bedded in cement, six inches
above the surface, to prevent the rising of damp ; the roof thick, or double, for the sake
of warmth ; and projecting eighteen inches or two feet, at the eaves, in order to keep the
walls dry, and to check the radiation of heat from their exterior surface.
4. In general, every cottage ought to be two stories high, so that the sleeping-rooms
may not be on the ground floor, and the ground-floor ought not to be less than from
six inches to one foot above the outer surface.
5. The minimum of accommodation ought to be a kitchen or living-room, a back-
kitchen or wash-house, and a pantry, on the ground floor, with three bed-rooms over ;
or two rooms and a wash-house on the ground floor, and two bed-rooms over.
6. Every cottage, including its garden, yard, &c, ought to occupy not less than one
sixth of an acre ; and the garden ought to surround the cottage, or at all events to ex-
tend both before and behind. In general, there ought to be a front garden and a back
yard ; the latter being entered from the back-kitchen, and containing a privy, liquid-
manure tank, place for dust and ashes, and place for fuel.
7. If practicable, every cottage ought to stand singly and surrounded by its garden ;
or, at all events, not more than two cottages ought to be joined together. Among other
important arguments in favour of this arrangement, it may be mentioned, that it is the
only one by which the sun can shine every day on every side of the cottage. When
cottages are joined together in a row, unless that row is in a diagonal direction, with
reference to a south and north line, the sun will shine chiefly on one side. By having
cottages singly or in pairs, they may always be placed along any road, in such a manner
that the sun may shine on every side of them ; provided the point be given up of
having the front parallel to the road ; a point which, in our opinion, ought not for a
moment to lie put in competition with the advantages of an equal diffusion of sunshine.
DESIGNS FOR MODEL COTTAGES.
1131
8. Every cottage ought to have an entrance porch for containing the labourer's
tools, and into which, if possible, the stairs ought to open, in order that the bed-rooms
may be communicated with without passing through the front or back kitchen. This,
in the case of sickness, is very desirable; and also in the case of deaths, as the remains
may be carried down stairs while the family are in the front room.
9. The door to the front kitchen or best room should open from the porch and not
from the back-kitchen, which, as it contains the cooking utensils and washing-appara-
tus, can never be fit for being passed through by a stranger, or even the master of the
family, where proper regard is had by the mistress to cleanliness and delicacy.
10. When there is not a supply of clear water from a spring adjoining the cottage,
or from some other efficient source, then there ought to be a well or tank partly under the
floor of the back-kitchen supplied from the roof, with a pump in the back-kitchen for
drawing it up for use, as hereafter described in detail. The advantages of having the
tank or well under the back-kitchen are, that it will be secure from frost, and that the
labour of carrying water will be avoided.
1 1 . The privy should always be separated from the dwelling, unless it is a proper water-
closet, with a soil pipe communicating with a distant liquid-manure tank or cesspool.
When detached, the privy should be over or adjoining a liquid-manure tank, in which
a straight tube from the bottom of the basin ought to terminate ; by which means the
soil basin may always be kept clean by pouring down the common slops of the house.
No surface being left from which smell can arise, except that of the area of the pipe,
the double flap, to be hereafter described, will prevent the escape of the evaporation
from this small surface, and also insure a dry and clean seat.
12. The situation of the liquid-manure tank should be as far as possible from that of
the filtered water tank or clear water well. It should be covered by an air-tight cover
of flag-stone, and have a narrow well adjoining, into which the liquid should filter through
a grating, so as to be pumped up or taken away without grosser impurities, and in this
state applied to the soil about growing crops.
13. In general, proprietors ought not to intrust the erection of labourers' cottages on
their estates to the farmers, as it is chiefly owing to this practice that so many wretched
hovels exist in the best cultivated districts of Scotland and in Northumberland.
14. No landed proprietor, as we think, ought to charge more for the land on which
cottages are built than he would receive for it from a farmer, if let as part of a
farm ; and no more rent ought to be charged for the cost of building the cottage and
enclosing the garden than the same sum would yield if invested in land, or, at all
events, not more than can be obtained by government securities.
15. Most of these conditions are laid down on the supposition that the intended
builder of the cottage is actuated more by feelings of human sympathy than by a
desire to make money ; and hence they are addressed to the wealthy, and especially to
the proprietors of land and extensive manufactories or mines.
Subsect. 1. Agriculturist's Model Cottage. — No. I.
The elevation of this cottage is shown in fig. 2040.
«A
2040
2243. The Accommodation in this cottage is the lowest in the scale, and may be
considered as offering the first stage of improvement, in departing from those agricultural
1132
SUPPLEMENT.
hovels in the South of Scotland and North of England which at present consist only od
a single room. (§ 2239.) In this model wc have two rooms, each seventeen feet square, a
back-kitchen or wash-house, and two garrets of the same size as the rooms over them.
The access to these garrets is by a step-ladder in the porch. The garrets may be used
as sleeping-places, the one for grown-up girls or a female lodger, or both ; and the other
for grown-up boys or a male lodger, or for both. The bed for the master and mistress,
and the bed or cradle for the infant children, may be in the best room on the ground
Boor. The details, as shown ill fig. 2041., are as follow.— a is the kitchen, seven-
2041
=±Ul
teen feet square, containing a boiler at one side of the fireplace, and, if necessary,
an oven may be placed at the other ; /;, the best room, in which is a closet or press, "//,
and room for two beds; c is the back-kitchen, with a sink and pump; tl, the
pantry ; e, the dairy, or place for beer, Ike. ; and /, a place for an oven, for occasional
baking, and to heat the floors of the two rooms, as indicated by the dotted lines g.
Should an oven not he wanted, or this mode of heating not be approved of, then this
compartment may be used for containing fuel or roots, poultry or rabbits, or for any
other purpose that may he wanted. The highest point of the sleeping-room floor is at
h and of the kitchen floor at</; the highest point of the pantry floor is at <l, and of the
dairy floor at e; and from these four points the floors gradually slope, at the rate of one
inch to seven feet, to the sill of the hack-kitchen door at m. A place for wood or other fuel,
or for a pig or rabbits, according to the taste or circumstances of the occupant, is shown at
R, a privy at o, a tank for liquid manure communicating with the privy at p, a place for
pumping or lifting out the liquid manure at q, and a pit for solid manure at r. The sur-
face ol the yard slopes from the entrance-door, s, to the liquid-manure pump, q ; and the
to the hack-kitchen, and the door to the porch in front, at t, are each entered by a
The terrace platform is entered by three steps, as at u. In the front garden are
two idols, v v, which may be planted with low fruit trees or fruit shrubs; and there
are two other plots at w to, which may he planted with standard fruit trees to shade
and shelter the hack court: x shows "the commencement of that part of the garden
where culinary vegetables are supposed to be growing. The narrow borders, walks,
the low box hedge to the parapet, and the boundary hedge, require no explanation.
1. Construction and Materials. The walls are supposed to be of rubble stone, or
DESIGNS FOR MODEL COTTAGES.
113.3
of prepared earth, and the roof of thatch. The floor of the Kitchen is to be paved with
stone or brick, or, at all events, the flues are to be covered with these materials, and the
rest of the floor of composition of lime and clay, or of lime and smithy ashes, or of
whatever may be cheapest and best in the given locality. The floor of the best room, il
heated by a flue beneath, may be of the same material as that of the kitchen ; but if not
heated by a flue, then it ought to be of boards.
2245. The Garden is only partially shown, the portion omitted being a parallelogram
of the breadth indicated, and of sufficient length to make the contents of the whole plot
one sixth of an acre. It is surrounded by a thorn or holly hedge. The slope of tin'
terrace or platform may be covered with small stones, flints, or any other similar
material most abundant in the country, as requiring less labour to keep it in order than
turf: or it may be planted with chamomile or lavender, for the sake of the flowers, which
may be collected and sold ; with low creeping ornamental plants, such as ivy or peri-
winkle ; or with thyme, heath, or some other low flowering plant, for the sake of the bees.
The best effect, however, will be produced by covering it with the same kind of stone
or brick as is used in the walls of the house. No shrubs are proposed to be trained
against the walls of the house, except a vine, an apricot, or a pear, at each end, according
to the climate; but a border six inches wide is shown close to the wall of the house, in
which may be planted a few China roses and some early flowers ; while currants, morello
cherries, or apples, may be trained on the outside of the walls of the court-yard. The
narrow borders next the hedge may also be planted with flowers ; and the larger com-
partments with gooseberries, currants, and dwarf apple trees. The culinary crops are
proposed to be grown in the back compartment, the commencement only of which is
shown in the plan.
2246. General Estimate. The cubic contents are 10,1 G3 feet, which, at 2d. per foot,
is £84 ; at \d., £42; and the actual cost would not, it is believed, amount to much
more than the latter sum. As a proof of this we refer to § 2263.
2042
rwv;
2247. Remarks. The idea of this model cottage was suggested to us by the plan
of the Closeburn cottage, given in next section. It may be lowered in its accommo-
dation by omitting the bed-rooms in the roof, and making the porch narrower and
without a step-ladder. If the places for the oven or the dairy arc not wanted, they may
be added as closets, the one to the kitchen and the other to the bed-room, by opening
doors in the back wall. An oven might be added to the kitchen fireplace on the opposite
side to the boiler. All the divisions in the lean-to behind, which now form the pantry,
dairy, back-kitchen, &c, might be enlarged by continuing the lean-to the whole length
of the house. Fig. 2042. is an elevation with a slate roof for this plan, by Mr. Lamb.
Subsect. 2. Ayriculturisfs Model Cottage. — No. II.
The elevation of this design is shown in fig. 2044., and a variation of it in fig. 2045.
2248. Accommodation. Here we have obtained one good room, fig. 2043. a, instead of
the cow-house and pigsty. This, with two bed-rooms over the two principal rooms, will
form a very commodious cottage, and enable the occupant to let out a room to a lodger.
1134.
SUPPLEMENT.
204 3
l""l""l i 1 i 1
The cow-house, b, and pigsty, c, are separated from the house, and placed along with
the other buildings in the yard. There are a privy, d; liquid-manure tank, e ; poultry-
house for heating the floor,/; two flower-beds, gy ; and a passage to the back-yard, for
the cow, &c, serving for two cottages, h.
2044
DESIGNS FOR MODEL COTTAGES.
1135
2249. Remarks. When the cow-house and pigsty are not wanted, they may be
united, and by opening a door in the parlour they may form a bed-room or work-room
communicating with it, and lighted by a window either at the end or at the back.
This may also be done with the dairy and oven rooms, should they not be wanted ; so
that, by this means, two additional rooms may be obtained on the ground floor.
Subsect. 3. Mechanic s Model Cottage.
2250. The Mechanic's Model Cottage may be built singly, but the most economical
arrangement is obtained by building them in pairs, as in fig. 2046. For the idea of this
model we are indebted to Thomas Wilson, Esq., of the Banks near Barnslev, who sent
us the design, fig. 2048., on which our draftsman, Mr. Marks, made the improvement,
with a view to economy in building, shown in fig. 2049., which being sent to Mr.
\. 2046
Wilson, he completed the work by changing the entrance to the stair from the back-
room to the porch, as in fig. 2050., the advantages of which, to use his own words, " are
great : the sitting-room is altogether private ; and, in case of illness, there is an obvious
gain in not having to pass through the house from a sick-room. There is another point
not usually considered : when an inmate has to be removed to his last home, the pre-
113G
t-T^
I
SUPPLEMENT.
2047
J u u.
m
. ~~~a.~ r{" "">'
x^:
parations, and particularly the carrying down stairs, would by this arrangement of the
stair, all be accomplished while the family were in the sitting-room. In cottages as they
are at present built, that which is never accomplished without difficulty, is almost
always rendered scarcely practicable by the narrowness and awkwardness of the stairs.
No architect of feeling should overlook this." In fig. 2047. a is the porch into which the
staircase opens ; h is the back-kitchen, with a pump and sink-stone, arranged in con-
nexion with a tank or well, as in the agriculturist's model cottage; c is the principal
room ; </, a pantry ; and there is a light closet under the stair, c, in fig. '2050. There are
time bed-rooms shown in the plan of the adjoining cottage at e, f, </, in fig.2048. In
the back-yard, //, there is a place for fuel, i ; a privy, If, a liquid-manure tank, /; and
place for ashes, &C, m. The gardens may be arranged as in the figure, or in any other
mode that is considered most convenient. The isometiical elevation of lig. '_'017. is
shown in li^ 20 16,
DESIGNS FOR MODEL COTTAGES.
1137
2251. (intend Estimate. The
cubic contents of the two cottages
are 15,200 feet, at 6d. per foot,
£380; at4tf.,£253; at 3d., £190;
and at 2d., £126; or for each
cottage, £190, £126, £95, and
£63.
2252. Remarks. Our readers,
we are sure, will agree with us in
thanking Mr. Wilson for his most
economical and commodious plan,
and for his very humane and feel-
ing observations respecting it. We
consider the design, finally im-
proved, as uniting more comfort
at less expense than any other
given in this Supplement. The
only drawback to the arrangement
that we know is, that it is neces-
sary to pass through the back- kit-
chen in order to enter the best room ;
but this might be remedied, either by enlarging the porch, or by adding aporch in front.
In either case additional expense would be incurred. Where comfort is more the
object than expense, we would recommend the fireplaces not to be placed in the angles,
but back to back, as in fig. 2048.,
by which more room is obtained
for persons sitting round the fire,
and the heat is more equally radi-
ated through the room. For the
sake of economy we have shown
dormer windows in the elevation,
tig. 2051., and also in the isome-
trical view ; but where economy
is not an object, we would prefer
having the side walls as high as
the tops of the windows. A cot-
tage of this form may be rendered
highly ornamental by enlarging
the parlour window, and project-
ing it with a bay ; by forming two
separate windows to the principal
bed-rooms, ornamenting the ga-
bles, and forming a group of co-
lumnar chimneys. It might even
be rendered more artistical by simply splaying the jambs of the doors and windows,
slightly rounding their upper angles, and either raising the side walls so as not to
have the windows in the roof, or
2049
retaining them in the roof and
finishing them with pediments and
span-roofs.
As this design is not shown
placed on a platform, it is pecu-
liarly suitable for having the walls
covered with ornamental shrubs,
such as climbing roses, honey-
suckles, clematises, chimonanthus,
and Virginian creeper ; or with
fruit trees or vines.
All the ornamental climbers
which have been mentioned, with
the exception of chimonanthus,
may be planted about two feet
apart, and trained in direct lines
from the ground to the eaves ;
but the chimonanthus, being a
woody plant, should be trained
2050
6 T
1138
SUPPLEMENT.
2051
more in the fitn manner prac-
tised with plums, peaches and
apricots.
The fruit trees should be
trained different] y, according
to their kinds : the pear and
the apple horizontally ; the
plum, cherry, apricot, and
peach, in tin.- fan manner; and
the gooseberry and currant
perpendicularly, one shoot
only, or at most two, being
carried up from each plant.
The vine may ho trained in
the perpendicular manner,
placing the plants at two feet
apart, retaining only one
shoot to each plant, and ob-
taining the bearing wood by i_li i ' ; < i < ■ \ , . ,
spurring in that shoot : but
the best mode of training the vine against a house is to have the main branches of
every plant in the form of the letter T, and to train the bearing branches upwards
from the two horizontal arms, in the manner practised at Thomery near Fontainebleau,
on the houses in Stockbxidge and Broughton in Hampshire, and in the vineyard of
Mr. Iloare at Southampton. These hints on training trees against the walls of cottages
will be sufficient for any one who knows a little of gardening ; for those who do not,
we would recommend the Suburban Horticulturist, in which the subject of training trees
is treated in detail, and more especially the training of vines against cottages.
With respect to the propriety of training fruit trees against cottages, much depends
on the climate and aspect. We cannot recommend it as a general practice in a wet
climate, because it would have a tendency to keep the walls damp after rain was driven
against them; nor on cottages that have one side to the south, and another to the north,
except on the south side, because on the north side fruit trees would do little good,
and any other description of deciduous plant would prevent the evaporation of the rain
driven against them from the north. On the walls of all cottages placed with their
diagonal line in the direction of south and north, trees may be trained on every side,
without danger of producing damp, as every side would enjoy sun.
Subsect. 4. Placing the Model Cottages in Rows.
2253. The Agriculturist's Model Cottage may be placed in rows in the manner shown
in fiu;. 2052. ; in which the entrance to the yards being from a back passage, and the
DESIGNS FOR MODEL COTTAGES.
1131)
public road being in front, the kitchen-garden to cacli cottage will be most conveniently
placed behind, on account of the manure, and especially the liquid manure; which, if
the kitchen-gardens were in front, would either have to be carried through the house, or
a good way round.
2254. The Mechanics Model Cottages may be placed in rows, in contact, by the addition
of a front porch to each cottage ; but much the best mode for this style of cottage is to
have them in pairs, as already shown in fig. 2047.
2255. Remarks. The objections to placing these cottages in contact in rows are,
that it lessens the privacy of each dwelling, and in many cases would prevent the sun
from shining on every side of them. It is a great source of independence and comfort
for a cottager, to be completely surrounded by his own garden. It is not pleasant,
when walking or working in our garden, to be overlooked by our neighbour; or, when
sitting quietly in the house, to hear the sounds of his children through the party-walls.
It is a great mistake to suppose that this feeling is confined to the educated part of
society : it exists among all classes, and certainly much more strongly among persons
accustomed to a comparatively solitary life in the country, like agriculturists, than
among mechanics accustomed to live in streets. Where cottages of this kind are joined
in rows, and indeed in every case of cottages being joined, we would recommend
building the party-walls thicker than usual, and having the garden walls or hedges
seven feet high, with here and there a standard fruit tree in them, to break the view
from the bed-rooms of the adjoining dwellings.
Subsect. 5. Forming Combinations of Dwellings of the humblest Class.
1156. In the Encyclopaedia (§ 493.), we have shown with what economy combinations
of dwellings might be built, and how greatly the comforts of the individuals occupying
them might, in various ways, be increased by cooperation. It does not appear, how-
ever, that mankind is yet in a fit state for entering on this stage in the progress of
improvement. To be able to do so men must have been educated from infancy to
live in society ; and when this shall have been the case, then the increase of comforts
and enjoyments that may be obtained by living together in masses will be duly
appreciated by themselves. In the meantime, the working classes of society, in
common with every other class, appear to us to have a much greater taste for isolation
than for cooperation ; more particularly in every thing relating to domestic arrange-
ments. In short, we
are inclined to think
that little good will be
effected by arrangements
of this kind, till those
classes for which they
are intended, in conse-
quence of superior edu-
cation, see themselves
the benefits which would
accrue from them. They
will then endeavour to
procure their establish-
ment.
2257. A College for
single Working Men.
The only addition that
we shall make to what
we have already ad-
vanced on this subject is
a design, fig. 2053.,
taken from one which
we made in 1819, and
published in the Me-
chanics Magazine, vol.
xvi., for what may be
called a college for
single working men.
Each floor will contain °° g f jj; s» i» > , n
eight distinct dwellings,
and each dwelling will consist of a living-room twenty-one feet by thirteen feet, a ;
sleeping-room, ten feet by seven b ; and washing-room, with a sink and water-closet,
ten feet by seven c ; the circular stair is shown at d, and the landing to each floor at e.
2C 53
mo
SUPPLEMENT.
The building is supposed to be of a cubical form, of eight or ten stories high, with a
staircase in the centre, and a series of fire-proof rooms on each floor, communicating
with a common gallery.
The whole building we propose to be heated from one stove at the bottom of the
stairs; and in <;ach separate apartment might be placed two jets of gas for
cooking, and one for lighting. As there would be a gas-meter to each apart-
ment, DO individual would pay for more gas than what he consumed. The floorings
of all the rooms would be of flag-stone, the under side of which would form the
ceiling to the room below; and as all the partitions would be of brickwork, or
might also be of flag-stone, the first cost of the building would be comparatively
low, and the expense of repair very trifling. On the lowest floor a house-keeper
might reside, who would have the general charge of the building, and who, if it
were thought advisable, might lay in a stock of such articles as were generally
wanted by the occupants, and retail them to them at nearly cost price. There might
also be a restaurateur and dining-room on the ground floor, arranged so as to supply
food on the most economical terms. The building, however, would be chiefly valuable
as supplying lodgings of the most comfortable kind at a very moderate expense. As
no fires would be wanted in the different rooms, there would be no occasion for fuel,
which would be a great saving both of labour and expense; and as water would be
laid on to every apartment, to which also there would be a water-closet for waste water,
the labour of cleaning would be reduced to a mere trifle. In short, for large towns,
there could hardly be a more economical and comfortable mode of lodging single men,
such as clerks, shopmen, working mechanics and artisans of every description, and even
literary men and artists.
Sect. II. A Selection of Plans of Cottages which have been erected in different Parts of
the Country.
2258. This Selection of plans is chiefly taken from the Sanitary Report of the Poor Law
Commissioners for 1842, which contains the best plans which the commissioners could
procure from their correspondents in every part of the country. We have only given the
plans, because the elevations have no particular merit; and the plans are, in our opinion,
defective in not in general showing the relative situation of the back-yard and ap-
pendages, and of the garden ground. On the situation of both these depends much
of the comfort and beauty of every country dwelling, from the palace to the cottage ;
and yet, in most cases, when cottages are put down, the situation and arrangement of
the garden are commonly left to chance. The garden, whenever it is practicable, ought
to surround the cottage, and the boundary ought always to be clearly defined by a
hedge or wall. Whatever be the direction of the road before the cottage, the cottage
ought always to front the south-east if
possible, if not the south-west. There 2054 I !
is no comfort in a cottage in our cold
moist climate when it fronts either the
direct south or the direct north ; be-
cause, in either case, one side must be
in the shade for half the year.
2259. The Closeburn Cottage. — Seve-
ral of these cottages have been erected
by Sir Charles Stuart Menteath, one
of the most enlightened and benevo-
lent men of his time and country, at
Closeburn in Dumfriesshire. Fig.
2054. shows the plan of the Closeburn
cottage, in which a is the kitchen,
sixteen feet square and eight feet
high ; b, the sleeping-room, of the
same dimensions; c, the back-kitchen,
with a sink ; d, the dairy ; e, the pan-
try ; f, the cow-house ; g, the privy ;
and h, a porch, in which there may
be a step-ladder to the garrets, if
these are used as bed-rooms. In the Closeburn plan, as published in the Sanitary Re-
port, the stairs are shown in the bed-room, but the porch is a much better situation for
them, ihe Bleeping-room, 6, may be warmed by having a sheet-iron back to the kitchen
'"I'l'". interposing a flag-stone or some bricks between it and the flue, to prevent
the sheet-iron Irom being too much heated. In the summer season the heat may be
SELECTION OF PLANS OF COTTAGES.
1141
kept from entering the room by enclosing the iron plate with a case or box of
boards. If there should be bed-rooms over the two lower rooms, these may also be
heated by air warmed in the recess at the back of the kitchen fire, by the following
arrangement : —
Fig. 2055. is a ground plan of the kitchen fireplace and iron box, in which a is
the fireplace; b, the orifice by which air is admitted ..,,. i %
to the iron box by means of the under-ground tube ' I I -<o — 1 I — g
or drain, c ; and d, a wooden box for enclosing the iron t^ — - " ■■"*
box in the summer season, when heat is not wanted Lj ■ lJ
in the room, or when it is desired to enclose articles to keep them warm, or to dry
clothes in Mr. Sylvester's manner. (§ 306. and 2053.)
Fig. 2056. is a section through the kitchen fireplace and the iron
box, in which e is the orifice of the cold-air tube ; /, the iron box ; g,
the wooden box ; h, the tube for conveying hot air to the bed-rooms ;
and i, the kitchen fireplace and flue. When the air is not wanted for
the bed-rooms, it might be convenient to be able to let it escape by
turning it into another flue, which might be added to the stack of
chimneys ; but, if care is taken to open the bed-room windows a little,
the escape of the air through them would be advantageous, even in the
summer season.
Sir Charles Menteath's son, J. S. Menteath, Esq., in answer to our
enquiries as to how this plan was found to work in practice, says : " I
consider the introduction of these iron plates into our cottages, whereby
two apartments are most economically and most comfortably warmed
by one fire, as among my father's most valuable, and most benevolent
attempts to make our cottagers happy and healthful." Were we
called upon to improve this cottage, we would enclose a small yard be-
hind, the commencement of which is indicated by the dotted lines at
k, k, in fig. 2054. ; make the door of the cow-house open from the yard,
as indicated at I ; place a liquid manure tank behind the privy, as
indicated at m ; open a door from the back-kitchen to the yard, as at n ;
and place the whole on a platform, and surround it with a garden, as in fig. 20-10. in
p. 1131. It is probable that some of these improvements may actually exist; but
they are not shown in the plan, or in a model which, in 1840, at the request of Sir
Charles Menteath, we placed in the Adelaide Gallery.
2260. The Dalmeng Cottage, fig. 2057. — This cottage has been erected by Lord Rose-
berry on his estates in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and has been justly con-
sidered, by the Highland Society and other competent judges, as a considerable
improvement on the habitations for country labourers as they now exist in most parts
of Scotland. The custom of having cottages of only one story, and of only two rooms,
and of having box beds (see § 658. 1338.) in the kitchen as well as in the other rooms,
is general in Scotland ; but it is evident that no great improvement can take place in the
habits of the people till they have back-kitchens for their cookingand washing utensils, and
till their beds are removed from their living-rooms. The very circumstance, as we have
observed (§ 1338.), of having to go up stairs to a bed-room is favourable to delicacy,
cleanliness, and health. Nevertheless, Lord Roseberry's cottage is a great improvement
on the kind of ploughman's cottage common in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh ; and
as such we have considered it desirable to republish here the plan and specification as
given in the Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland, vol. xii. p. 527.
2261. Specification. The following is published in the work above referred to:
" The walls to be of the best rubble-work, founded with large flat stones, and all well
packed and pointed with properly prepared lime mortar. The rebates, soles, and
lintels for doors and windows, to be droved on the head and cheek, and broached on the
breast. Corners to have broached stone ; and both corners and rebates to be of a
proper size, and square-tailed ; the skews to be broached on the top, and droved on the
edges, with a proper raglin for the tile ; the chimney tops to be of broached stone, with
droved water berge, plinth, and cope ; the jambs, lintels, and hearths of fireplaces to be of
droved stone, and the vents made 12 inches by 13 inches, and plastered with haired lime.
The partitions to be of stone and standard, the standards to be 4| Inches by 2 inches, placed
2 feet apart upon a sill-plate, laid on a proper stone footing; all between standards to
be filled in with small flat stones, bedded and jointed with lime, and to have warpings 4.J
inches by three fourths of an inch, every 2 feet in height, nailed to standards. The floors
of porches and privies to be laid with scabbled stone flags ; all the other floors to be laid
with a composition of lime and engine ashes, in proper proportions, well riddled, tem-
pered, worked, laid 3 inches thick, smoothed, and well rubbed in ; under the compo-
sition, 9inches in depth of small broken stones to be laid, the earth being first excavated
1142
SUPPLEMENT.
to admit of their being put in. The floors of ash-pits and soil-pit in privies to be
kepi I* inches Iowa than floors of cottages, and an opening made in wall from soil
to ash-pit.
" The safe lintels for doors and windows to be of 1 1 -inch by 3-inch red Petersburg plank,
with 9 inches wall-hold at each end, the whole space covered and saved by a hammer-
dressed stone arch where there is room. Wall-plates to be of single battens, 7 inches
by I inch and a quarter. The rafters and balks of cottage roofs to be of Memel, the
si/e marked in the section, or of red Dram battens Clinches by 'J.1, inches, placed 20
inches from centres, and the balks half-cheeked to rafters with double-garron nails, three
in each joining. The roofs of coal-places and privy to be of the lean-to kind; rafters
•1 inches by 2 inches, cheeked to wall-plates at toes, and let 9 inches into wall at top.
Tile lath to be 1 inch and a quarter by 1 inch and five eighths each, cut out of red
Petersburg batten. The windows to be made of Memel, in the sliding manner, sashes
2J| inches thick, well glazed, primed, and bedded in and drawn up with lime ; the win-
dows of kitchen and room to have counter-cheek screws and plain deal shutters, barred
and beaded on inside; the pantry window to be hinged, and to fasten by an iron button,
with ling, &C The outside doors of cottages, places for coals, and privy, to be of plain
deal, 1 inch and one eighth thick, cut out of red Petersburg batten, three bars on
the back, hung on crooks and bands; coal-place and cottage doors to have stock-locks
of 4s. till, value, and strong thumb-latches; privy doors, a thumb-latch and iron bolt on
inside. The inside doors to be also of plain deal, barred and beaded, hung with 1, '5-inch
T bands upon door- standards of red Dram batten 6 inches by 2± inches, and all to have
plain beaded facings and keps, to have neat thumb-latches, aud the press and pantry '2s.
press-looks. All angles to have jj-inch beads; and ceilings of cottages lathed with best
split lath. The pantries and presses to have three shelves each. A hatchway to be
made in ceiling of porch, with hinged cover. The privy to have a properly formed
seat of 1-g-inch timber. The inside doors, window-shutters, and other inside finishing,
may be of yellow American pine or white plank; all the other timbers to be of the
best red wood, of Baltic growth. The roofs to be covered with grey or red tile,
rendered with lime. The walls of cottages to get one coat of plaster, the ceilings two
coats, and well finished." (//. Trans., vol. xii p. 534.)
2057
2262. Accommodation. The cottages are built in pairs, and each consists of a porch, c ;
a kitchen, a, sixteen feet by twelve feet three inches, in which are two beds ; abed-room,
6, eleven feet six inches by seven feet, containing one bed; a pantry, d, four feet by four
feet and a half; and, as appendages, a privy and a place for fuel, e e, and an ash-pit. In
general, these appendages are placed at one end, but they illicit be placed behind, as shown
h> the dotted lines; and sometimes there may be at the end
//;
potatoes or other roots, or for poultry or a p.g, , /; »uu a pnvy, (/; a.m ».c ,,.<
tor ashes at the hack, as indicated by the dotted' lines. The gardens to these c<
tagesare placed there; and there is a passage through to them between each pair
as Bhown at /., I,
a shed for fuel ; a place for
with a privy, ;/; and the place
cot-
gh to them between each pair of
SELECTION OF PLANS OF COTTAGES.
1143
2263. General Estimate. Cubic contents, 14,100 feet, at Gd. per foot, £352; at 4«7.,
£235; at 3d., £176; at Id., £117; or for each cottage, £176, £117, £88, or £58.
The actual cost of these cottages, it is stated in the work referred to, was generally
from £75 to £85 a pair. We have given the general estimate in this case and gome
others, to show that for cottages of the simplest kind '2d. per cubic foot is much more
likely to be above than under the actual cost.
2264. Remarks, The Dalmeny cottages are certainly a step in advance of the com-
mon cottages of Scotland, where a taste for comfortable dwellings and for cleanliness is
just beginning to be cultivated. The improvements which may be made in them are,
the addition of a back-kitchen, which we consider indispensable to comfort, and the
detachment of the privies, and their connexion with liquid manure tanks, as shown in
our model designs; but, as most farmers in Scotland are not sufficiently aware of the
great value of liquid manure, it is not to be expected that their labourers can set a
due value upon it. Something ought to be done, however, to introduce these tanks,
for the sake of the great additional garden produce that would be obtained by the use
of their contents. We have generally found it easier to introduce a taste for ornamental
appendages to a cottage, than for improvements or changes which are merely useful ;
but the former, we also find, seldom fail to pave the way for the latter. We would,
therefore, have front gardens added to these cottages, solely for the cultivation of
flowers and flowering shrubs ; and we would add porches, and either surround the front
gardens with low walls, or with hedges cut architecturally, or formed in some wax-
that would call forth the skill and taste of the occupant in managing them.
2265. The HolkhamCottage,ftg. 2058. — Someofthe cottagesof the Earl of Leicester, it
isstated in the Sanitary Report, "areperhaps
the most substantial and comfortable that
are to be seen in any part of England."
They are built in pairs, or in groups of
four cottages. The accommodation of a
single dwelling consists of a front room,
a, seventeen feet by twelve feet in width,
and from seven feet to seven feet six
inches high ; a back-kitchen, b, thirteen
feet by nine feet, and of the same height ;
a pantry, c ; and, on the floor above, three
bed-rooms. Behind is a wash-house, d ; a
dirt-bin, e ; a privy, f, and a pig-cot, g.
The drainage is excellent, and the water
from a pump-well good, and each cottage
has about twenty rods (an eighth of an
acre) of garden ground.
2266. Estimate. The actual cost of two
such cottages, as stated by Mr. Emerson,
the Earl of Leicester's builder, is from
£110 to £115 each; which a proprietor,
we think, might let for £4 a year, though
Mr. Emerson thinks £6 ought to be the
minimum rent for such a cottage. We
agree that this would be a proper rent to
one who had built them with a view to the employment of capital; but we think a
landed proprietor, building on his own estate for his own workmen, ought to be content
with 3 per cent, or what he would procure from the government funds.
2267. Remarks. These cottages, it is observed in the Sanitary Report, show what may be
done " by a landed proprietor who takes as great a pride in his good cottages and farms
as others in fine hunters and race-horses." It is remarkable that with so much lateral
accommodation in the rooms of these cottages, they should only be from seven feet to
seven feet six inches high ; a height which, from the small quantity of air which it allows
for breathing in, must be utterly unwholesome in the bed-rooms, and only tolerable in
the rooms below in consequence of the frequent opening and shutting of the doors.
The improvement that we would make to these cottages would be, raising the rooms to
the height of nine feet, forming liquid-manure tanks to all the privies, adding porches,
and surrounding them by their garden ground.
2268. The Culford Cottages. — These are double and sometimes treble cottages,
built with bricks faced with blue flints, and with freestone facings to the doors and win-
dows. At the distance of a few feet behind there is a wooden building roofed
with tiles, which comprises a space for fuel, a privy for each cottage, and a
common oven. Fig. 2059. shows a double cottage, in which a is the principal room,
1114
SUPPLEMENT.
fourteen feet by twelve feet, ami seven feet
high, willi a small closet, <l ; />, a l>aek
room, or scullery ; c, a pantry ; and there
is a staircase, with a closet under, to two
bed-rooms.
2269. Estimate. The average cost of
these cottages, of which above fifty have
been built within the last twenty years,
by the Rev. E. Benyon, at Culford in
Suffolk, is stated to have been about £170,
or £85 each. Kent, £2 10s. to £S 3s.
2270. Remarks. The rooms have the
same fault as those of the Holkham cot-
tages, very few builders, until quite lately, >j-^i y^
being aware of the importance, with a
view to health, of breathing in a large volume of air. There is an objection to the
door opening at once into the principal room ; which might be obviated by porches,
which would at the same time take away from the dull uniformity of the exteriors.
2271. The Harlaxton Cottages. — These cottages, which have been erected by Gre-
gory Gregory, Esq., at Harlaxton in Lincolnshire, are chiefly remarkable for their
picturesque effect, and for the admirable management of the exterior appendages with
a view to this result ; but at the same time most of them have large rooms, eight feet
or nine feet high, and all of them have large gardens. Fig. 2060. shows a plan of a
2060
-~~-j tp :::;■
.1
h
f
double cottage, in which a is the living-room, thirteen feet square, and eight feet high,
independently of room for two closets at bb, and a large pantry ate. The stairs are
roomy, and lead to two good bed-rooms, the one opening out of the other. To each
cottage there is a building apart, forming a detached wing, containing a privy and
hovel, d, and a hogsty, with yard, e. There is a front garden to each cottage, and a
back garden of an eighth of an acre.
2272. Estimate. The actual cost of these two cottages is about £130, or £60 each ;
by which, allowing something for the garden, they might he let at £3 each.
2273. Remarks. A liquid-manure tank, with dung-pit or ash-pit over, might easily be
added behind the privy, as at/; and an oven at one side of the kitchen fire, and a boiler at
the other, as indicated by the dotted lines at g g, would be an improvement. A great
defect is the want of a hack-kitchen ; but this might easily be obtained for each cot-
tage by lean-tos, as indicated by the dotted lines h. No cottage, in our opinion,
however humble, ought to be without some description of back-kitchen , for even
I hough it had no fireplace, yet if it have a sink-stone and a window, it is well adapted
for washing in, and for keeping tubs and other vessels that ought never to be in sight.
A porch, as indicated by the letter i, would also be a great improvement. The combi-
nation of the privy and the hovel for fuel or pig's food is good. The elevation, like all
the others in the village of Harlaxton, is eminently picturesque ; the architectural taste
of the proprietor being of the very highest order, as will hereafter appear in our section
on villages.
2274. The Turton Cottages were built by Messrs. Ashworth of Turton, near Bolton
in Lancashire, for the accommodation of workmen attached to their manufactories; and
they are calculated for being placed in close contact, in rows. In fig. 2061. a is the
living-room, five feet by thirteen feet; b, the kitchen, fiftecu feet by nine feet, with an
oven, grate, boiler, sink, and a closet under the staircase: above are three bed-rooms,
with separate entrances from the landing, as shown in fig. 2062. There is a back-yard,
r, twenty-live feet by thirteen feet, containing an ash-pit and a privy, with a door to a
piece of garden ground or a back lane. If a garden is attached, then assuredly we
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES.
1145
should recommend a liquid-
manure tank under the place
for ashes, as a certain means
of doubling the produce of the
garden.
2275. Street Cottages, or La-
bourers'Tenements in Towns. —
The plans of these supplied to
the Sanitary Report, by the
committee of physicians and
surgeons of Birmingham, as
being the best in use in that
town, are considered by the
authors of the Sanitary Report
as the best they know of (see
Report, p. 185.); but, as street houses do not come within
our plan, we refer to the Report itself. We may observe
that the Turton street houses are among the best of the kind
that we know of in England. In Scotland, those at Dean-
ston are of a very superior description, as are those at New
Lanark, and at Crosslee near Paisley. Some at the latter
place, built by Archibald Woodhouse, Esq., have two good
rooms each, with a pantry and closets ; a cellar for fuel and
lumber ; a wash-house, privy, and dung-pit, common to six
families ; and a garden to each. They are let so as to pay
3 per cent on the prime cost. In general, the owners of mills
and manufactories in every part of the country build far
better cottages for their workmen, than the owners or occu-
piers of land, and the comfort of families lodged in them is
<ireat in proportion.
Sect. III. Miscellaneous Designs for Cottages, chiefly ornamental.
Design I. — A Cottage with ornamental Elevations in the Style of the ancient half-
timbered Houses of England. By T. J. Ricauti, Esq., Architect.
2276. Accommodation. In the ground plan, fig. 2063., a is a porch, which is for one
modification of this design shown in fig. 2064., but which, for the elevations figs. 2067.
_j and 2068., contains a stair; b is the
kitchen shown rather larger, seventeen
feet by fourteen feet, than the parlour,
c, which is fourteen feet by thirteen
feet; d is the back-kitchen, which
contains an oven and sink at e, and a
pantry, f; g is a dairy ; h, a pigsty ;
i, a water-closet, which, however, would
be better placed over or adjoining the
liquid-manure tank, n, because where
it is there will be a risk of its con-
taminating the air of the pantry ; k. a
place for poultry, most advantageouslv
placed adjoining the sources of heat ;
/, a place for fuel ; both these places
are low lean-tos. The cow-house, ten
feet by seven feet, is shown at m, and
the liquid-manure tank and dung-pit
at n and o ; p is an open court, with a
door at q.
2277. The Elevations. Fig. 2064.
is a front elevation on the supposition
that the cottage contains only on;.
story. Fig. 2065. is a side elevation,
•''**'••' ' ' ' ! ' showing the cow-house, the entrance
to the court-yard, the porch, and the parlour window. Fig. 2066. is a perspective view
combining both elevations. Fig. 2067. is a perspective view on the supposition that the
cottage is raised higher, so as to contain two small rooms in the roof, and a small loft
over the cow-house. Fig. 2068. shows the walls of the cottage carried up higher so
6 o
2063
1 1 1<;
SUPPLEMENT.
!06 i
as to contain two good
bed-rooms, and, if it were
thought necessary, a third
bed-room over the back-
kitchen, dairy, &c. It "ill
l>c observed, that in this
elevation the porch is roof-
ed in a different manner
from what it is in any of the
others, and that the addi-
tional height given to the
walls is contained between
a horizontal framework,
sufficiently high to admit
of bringing the roof of the
porch below the line of the general roof. This, it will be seen, greatly improves the
picturesque effect of the group.
2278 The
__/o. me /_^ 2065
I '/instruction and
Materials. The
foundations are
of concrete, or of
whatever other
suitable material
the locality af-
fords, and they
are carried up
eighteen inches
above the gene-
ral surface of
the surrounding
ground. The
floor within is
raised one foot or two steps above the general surface, so that it is six inches lower
than the top of the plinth formed by the foundation. On this plinth the framework
is placed, which
2066
I
consists of a sill,
into which are
framed uprigbt
stancheons, form-
ing the angles
and the sides of
the doors and
windows, nine
inches square ;
and they are
framed into hori-
zontal pieces of ^^^-^j^-^-^52**— =a-I;— — i«iij»_II l!^
the same dimen- ~*-^» —
sions, the interstices being tilled in with diagonal pieces, as shown in the elevations and
views. The roof is proposed to be covered with thatch or reeds, in either case steeped
in lime-water, and the
chimney shafts to be of
brick, to be splashed
coarsely so as to imitate
weather-stained bricks
"I' stones. The fol-
lowing details are taken
from the descriptive
specification of Design 1.
of Kicauti's Ruaft'c At
chiteeture: — " In fram-
i ig the roof, British fir
may l.e used for the
piece, nine inches
by two inches, and th
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES.
2068
l li-7
wall-plates, six inches by four inches, which are continued through the walls, as
shown in the elevations. The ceiling joists are to be of rough wood, four inches by
three inches, also continued through the walls, as shown in side elevation, fig. 2065".
The collars of rough wood, five inches by three inches, notched down on the
joists, and the openings boarded, or lath and plastered, so as to form ceilings.
Forest timber, or the loppings of trees, may be chopped into shape, about six inches
by three inches, for the rafters ; these are crossed with light stuff, and covered
with thatch. The inside of the walls may be battened and lath and plastered, and co-
loured with the following preparation, which, when properly mixed, will cover twentv-
six square yards : — Quicklime, six ounces, rubbed down with a muller, to free it from
all roughness ; linseed oil, six ounces ; Burgundy pitch, two ounces; skimmed milk,
two quarts. The pitch to be melted with the oil over a gentle fire, and gradually in-
corporated with the mixture. Any kind of colouring in-
gredient may be added, to bring it to the tint required.
The doors to be hung with T hinges, twelve inches long,
ornamented with rough wood ; a Norfolk latch and a 3s.
lock to be attached to each door. The ceiling joists,
collars, wall-plates, &c, in the interior, should not be
concealed ; for it may be observed in the perspective
sketch, fig. 2069., that they may be rendered highly orna-
mental, both as a canted cornice and as a ribbed ceiling.
This will be quite in character with the exterior parts
of the building, with no additional expense, but only
the exercise of a little taste in applying the material."
Where such a cottage is to be considered principally as an ornamental structure in a
pleasure-ground, for example, as a place of repose, or to drink tea in occasionally,
Mr. Ricauti would recommend the finishing and furniture to be entirely in the rustic
manner, the bark being removed, and the wood, as well as the floor, when the latter is
of wood, stained with a decoction of walnut husks, to give it a subdued tone.
2279. Remarks. Half-timbered cottages are very picturesque objects, and seem
particularly appropriate to a woody country ; nevertheless, we cannot recommend them
for general adoption, even if the expense were not an object, on account of the thinness
of the walls, and the care requisite to keep the roof and other parts of the exterior in
nice order. As ornamental objects in parks they are very desirable, both on account of
their beauty and their historical interest ; carrying back, as they do, the mind to the
time when not only all the better kind of cottages in the central districts of England
were built in this manner, but, as Holinshed informs us, most of the houses of the
landed proprietors. A cottage built in the half-timbered style, in those parts of Eng-
land where stone is the building material, or in Scotland where this is also the case, is
not appropriate to the scenery of the country ; but it has a strikingly ornamental effect
in another point of view, that is, from its rarity and its contrast with the local cottages.
No architect, that we are acquainted with, has paid so much attention to timber con-
struction as Mr. Ricauti, of which this design and those in his published works bear
ample evidence. In some parts of England half-timbered houses have the roofs covered
with tiles, but this material is never so suitable as thatch or reeds; or, what is still
better in point of economy and durability, as well as in appropriateness, the chips made
by woodmen in working up coppice wood into wattle-work, hurdles, &c.
2280. General Estimate. Cubic contents of figs. 2063. and 2064. arc 10,336 feet, at
6d. per foot, £258 8*. ; at \,I , £172 5s. Ad ; and at 3t/., .£129 4s.
1H8
SUPPLEMENT.
Design 11. — ./ Gate-Lodge, combining a Stable, in the Siviss Style. By It. Varden,
Esq., Architect.
2281 Description. The elevation is shown in fig. 2070. The situation of the cottage
•lativeiy to the house, stahles, and other buildings, is shown in fig. 2071., in which a is
2070
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES.
1149
the lodge ; b, the house ; c, the stable-yard ; d, the coach-houses ; e, the stable end of
the lodge ; and /, cottages, which are screened by the lodge in the view from the house.
The ground plan of the lodge, fig. 2072., shows the cottage, with stairs to bed-room,
a ; outside stair, b ; upper gallery, c ; four-stall stable, d ; seed-room, e ; harness-room,
f; and lower-gallery, with balustrade, g.
The chamber-floor plan, fig. 2073., shows the cottage bed-chamber, h ; loft over the
2073
stable, i; granary, k ; brackets, 1,1,1; and dotted lines, showing the distance which
the roof projects from the walls, m.
Fig. 2077. is an elevation of the cottage end of the lodge ; fig. 2078. is an end
view of the stack of chimneys ; fig. 2074. is a part of the ornamental weather-boarding
on a large scale ; fig. 2075. is an enlarged view of one of the brackets for the gables, in
which a is a section of the inner barge-board ; b, a section of the outer barge-board ;
c e, rafters, and d, the purlin ; fig. 2076. is an enlarged view of part of the balustrade.
2074
2075
2282. Description. This building is just erected at Powick in Gloucestershire, for
J. B. Morgan, Esq. It was designed under peculiar circumstances. A new approach
road having been formed in a cutting ten or twelve feet deep, almost in front of the
dwelling-house, and a screen being required on the farther side of this cutting, to exclude
the view of several unsightly cottages, /, in fig. 2071., from the dining-room and draw-
ingroom windows, it was decided to place there the stables and a small lodge residence,
which were to form one building, and be of a somewhat ornamental character. The
site being on the abrupt edge of the cutting, a bold and picturesque style of build-
ing was required, and the Swiss style was ultimately adopted. The walls under the
balustrades are made two feet six inches thick, to support the earth bank on which the
building is placed : they are built of unsquared granite, with garreted joints made very
rough to enhance the picturesque appearance, and suit the character of the architecture.
The walls of the building are formed of nine-inch brickwork, covered with deal weather-
L150
SUPPLEMENT.
2078
boarding. The boards for this purpose must be chosen free from knots, and are best if
cut out of Quebec red pine balk (log or squared trunk) or Riga balk. About one balk
out of five of the former, or one out of a hundred of the latter, will be found clean enough
for the purpose ; and as several must be opened to select from, the same description of
wood should be used for the timber framings, that the knotty balks may be converted
without loss to the builder ; and both these woods are suitable for the purpose.
Wood bricks, two feet three inches apart, should be inserted in every seventh course
»f the brickwork ; and to them upright fir battens, three inches by one inch, should be
fixed, and the weather-boards nailed on. The weather-boards should be neatly wrought,
Beven inches wide, seven eighths of an inch thick on one edge, and five eighths of an
inch on the other, nailed on the lower or thick edge only, which will be sufficient to
keep them firmly in their places, and allow them sufficient play to expand and contract
without splitting.
The brackets are formed of oak, three inches by four inches, fixed with screw-pins to
tin- wall and plate, and arc covered with i-inch boards. The edges of the framework are
wrought, and a &-inch round fillet put on the centre.
The barge-boards are three inches thick, cut out of solid boards.
The roof is covered with patent slating, which is of more suitable character than the
common kind, and may be laid much flatter.
'_'_'S:i. Patent Slating. " In covering a roof with patent slates, which were first
brought into use by .Mr. Wyatt, the common rafters must be left loose upon their pur-
lins, as they require to be so arranged that a rafter may lie under all the meeting joists ;
hence neither boarding nor battens will be needed; and, since the number of rafters
depends on the width of the slates, when they are large, very few are necessary. This
kind of slating may be laid on a much less elevated rafter than any other, as, the laps
much less than in common slating, it is considerably lighter. It is likewise com-
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. 1151
menced at the eaves, but is neither crossed nor bonded, the slates lying uniformly, with
each end reaching to the middle of the rafter, and hutted up to each other through the
length of the roof. The eave slates are screwed down to the rafters by two or three
strong 1^-inch screws, at each of their ends. The joints are secured by filleting,
or covering them with fillets of slates, about three inches wide, bedded in putty, and
screwed down through the whole into the rafters. Slating is sometimes laid in a lozenge
form, but it is much less durable than the common method." (Stuart's Diet, of Arch.)
2284. Hoofs covered with this Description of Slating do not require lead hips and ridges,
for the slates, when properly fastened and puttied, are sufficient to exclude rain and
moisture. The projection of the caves and gables being very great, it wTas feared strong
winds might raise and damage the roof, therefore a course of bond timber was built into
the walls, four feet from the top, to which the plate of the roof was attached by long
screw-pins. By this arrangement the weight of brickwork keeps the roof steady.
Buildings of this character might be formed of timber framing, or of any common ma-
terial, such as rough stone, concrete, chalk and straw, the consolidated earth or pise
walling, that would be cheapest in the particular locality. For the sake of additional
durability, I have sometimes had Roman cement substituted for the weather-boarding,
but worked into the same kind of pattern, and, when properly executed, it can scarcely
he distinguished from wood ; but, it must be acknowledged, the effect is rather inferior.
The boards may be painted or not, according to the taste of the owner. The building at
Powick is grained and varnished to imitate deep-coloured fir-wood ; but a less expensive
method I adopted at Cheltenham, by merely giving the boards two or three coats of
boiled oil, slightly tinted with burnt umber, which preserves the wood as well as paint,
and produces a lighter and more transparent effect, from the natural grain of the wood
remaining visible. If the boards are knotty, the painting is to be preferred.
2285. Remarks. It is quite unnecessary for me to offer any remarks on the strong
and picturesque character of the Swiss style of architecture, or of its applicability to
entrance lodges, park buildings, and small dwellings for gamekeepers, &c. I reget it is
not more frequently adopted, for it offers a pleasing variety from the Tudor and the
Italian styles, now so generally, indeed almost universally, adopted for such buildings:
it is no more expensive than other descriptions of ornamental building. With the ex-
ception of those I have erected, I do not remember having seen above three or four true
Swiss buildings in the kingdom, though my travels, as you are aware, have not been
confined to a few counties ; no doubt there are many others, but they have not come
under my observation. A suitable situation is of great importance to a Swiss cottage,
but such may generally be found in an undulating, and always in a hilly, country. The
edge of a steep bank, whether natural or artificial, is very appropriate. The slopes of
railway cuttings and embankments are features that point out this style as suitable for
small station-houses, if quite in the country ; but there the character of the masses and
the detail must receive more attention than railway engineers (who generally reject the
architect's aid) are in the habit of devoting to their miscalled Gothic structures, which
have become the laughing-stocks of every person conversant with the true principles of
Gothic architecture. — R. V. February 3. 1842.
Design III. — A Gate- Lodge and Gates. By F. H.
The elevation of the lodge is shown in fig. 2080., and of the gates in fig. 2081.
2286. The Accommodation is shown in the ground plan, fig. 2079., and consists of a
living-room, a ; sleeping-room, b ; back-kitchen, c ; two closets, d, e ; place for fuel and
lumber, f; and privy, a.
2287. Remarks. The exterior captivates at the first glance by its air of simplicity
and elegance, produced by the general forms
and lines, the arches rising from the columns,
the arched windows, and the projecting eaves
and chimney shafts, which are taller and
much more elegant in the original than in our
figure. So far the general design is good ;
but the artist has failed in his manner of con-
struction ; in a word, the materials he has
used are not homogeneous. The walls are of
plain brickwork, with stone dressings (or
which, with respect to effect, is the same thing,
and quite unobjectionable, dressings of cement
in imitation of stone), and a freestone pronaos
or porch, consisting of an arcade of three
arches, of a very solid character, without archi-
115^
SUPPLEMENT.
2080
volt (an archivolt is the architrave of an arch) mouldings. Under this heavy mass of
finished masonry, represented in coloured cement, three columns with the bark on,
which may be taken for shores or props, are placed, provisionally, as it would appear,
till the stone columns are prepared to take their place. To see a mass of stone or
brickwork supported by props of wood, even though the latter should be hewn, is
unsatisfactory even in the wall of a common shed or cottage ; but to see green wood with
the bark on used in a regular architectural design, is contrary to all ideas of fitness and
propriety. The stone or compo arches over the green wood columns are without
dressings though with keystones ; whereas, to be consistent with the windows, they
ought, like them, to have had archivolts as well as keystones. We think these objec-
tions unanswerable, and yet perhaps it is hardly fair to make them, for the artist, in all
probability, intends, or intended originally, to clothe the wooden columns with cement,
and to put cement architraves over the arches. This may yet be done, and then the
building, as far as seen in the elevation before us, would, in our opinion, be unobjec-
tionable. The gate is handsome; the piers and their terminations are designed in a
style adapted for being executed in wood, and not in stone, as are the forms which we
sometimes see given to wooden piers. We have not stated the name of the architect of
this lodge, nor the place where it is erected, lest by any means we should give offence ;
more especially as we requested the permission of both parties, whom we highly respect,
to publish the design.
Design IV. — A Gate- Lodge at Ravensworth Castle. By the Hon. Thomas Liddell.
The elevation is shown in figs. 2082. and 2084., and the ground plan in fig. 2083.
2L'HH. The Accommodation shown in the latter is a porch, a ; living-room, b ; bed-
room, r ; pantry, 4; and back lobby, e. The other conveniences are in a detached
building.
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES.
11.03
2084
The walls are of stone, and two feet thick; and the pitch of the roof is high, in order
to throw off the wet quickly, and it is covered with tiles, which are perfectly weather-
tight, and proof against any force of wind. The form
of the tile is shown in fig. 2085., and the appearance of
a portion of roof covered by them in fig. 2086. It will
be seen by fig. 2085., which shows only one tile, that the
semi -cylindrical part and the flat part of each tile are
moulded and cast together. The material of which the
tiles are formed is the Mulgrave cement, mixed with
coarse grit, in the proportion of equal parts of each.
The composition, after being put in the mould, sets in
a quarter of an hour. Each tile is eighteen inches
square, and it laps over the adjoining tile about three
inches, which renders the roof very little heavier than
one of ordinary slate, and perfectly water-tight.
2289. Remarks. We were struck with the hand-
some and substantial appearance of this lodge, when
in the neighbourhood of Durham in the autumn of 1 841 ;
and having heard that it was designed by the Honourable Thomas Liddell, we applied
to him, and he kindly sent us the sketches from which the engravings have been made.
Mr. Liddell is an amateur
architect, whose architec-
tural knowledge and taste
are such, as to enable him
to design and superin-
tend the execution of the
additions which have been
making for several years
past to Ravensworth Cas-
tle, the seat of his noble father. The elevations of the gate-lodge are far from doing
justice to the originals, from the roofs not showing the peculiar character given by this
description of tile.
6 x
1151
SUPPLEMENT.
Design V. —A Cottage in the Style of the Wingfield Station- House, on the North Midland
Railway. By Francis Thompson, Esq., Architect to the North Midland Railway
Company.
The elevation, on the supposition that there is a bed-room floor, will be as in fig. 2087.
or should there be no bed-room floor, as in fig. 2089.
2088
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES.
\\55
2039
2290. The Ac-
commodation is
shown in the
ground plan, fig.
2088., in which
a represents a
terrace ; b, a ve-
randa ; c, the
entrance-door ; d,
living-room ; e,
scullery ; f, bed-
room ; g, bed-
room ; h, dairy ;
i, pantry; k, yard; /, piggery; m, cow-house; n, coals; o, privy; p, liquid-manure
tank ; q, dust ; r, dairy ; s s, garden ; t t t, flower-beds; a, terrace steps.
2291. Remarks. This may form a very comfortable cottage, as well as a handsome
one, as the living and sleeping rooms are large and convenient. The two parallelogram
flower-beds are not of forms that harmonise very well with the situation, but that is
not the fault of Mr. Thompson, as the alterations were made by our draughtsman.
Bv Francis
2090
Design VI. — A Cottage in the Style of the Eckington Railway Station.
Thompson, Esq., Architect.
The elevation is shown in fig. 2091.
2292. The Accommoda-
tion is shown in fig. 2090. ,
in which a is a terrace ; b,
a porch ; c, a living-room ;
d and e, bed-rooms; f,
scullery ; g, pantry ; h,
dairy ; i, coals, &c. ; k,
passage leading to the
privy ; I, privy ; m, cow-
house ; n, liquid manure ;
o, dung ; p, pigs.
2293. Remarks. The
plan and elevation are both
original and handsome, and
the arrangement of the of-
fices admirable. This de-
sign and the others contri-
buted by Mr. Thompson
are very different in cha-
racter from ornamented
cottages generally. They
appear to us admirably
adapted for the dwellings
of persons connected with
public or national works,
such as railroads, canals,
public parks, promenades,
gardens, &c. ; and they
would also be very suit-
able for country public-
houses along main roads.
With an additional room
or two, any one of them
might be rendered fit for
the occupation of a gentle-
man with a small family.
We cannot sufficiently express our admiration of the public spirit of the directors of
the North Midland Railway, in causing the erection of such architectural gems along
their line of works. They are great ornaments of themselves, and as they will be seen
by many thousands of all ranks, and remain, it is to be hoped, for several generations
standard models of cidtivated design, they can hardly fail greatly to improve the gene-
ral taste of the country. Even the mechanics who have worked at their construction
1156
SI 1'1'I.KMENT.
2091
must have had their ideas enlarged, and their taste more or less refined by them. We
wish we could see the same spirit actuating the directors of all railroads, the result of
which 'vould be, provided some attention were paid to the verdant scenery on the banks,
the most interesting public ways in the world.
Design VII. — A Cottage in the modern Italian Style. By Francis Thompson, Esq.,
Architect.
The elevation is shown in fig. 2092.
2092
SB
2294. The Accommodation is shown in fig. 2093., in which a is a terrace ; b, porch ;
2093
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES.
1157
c, living-room ; d, scullery; e and/, bud-rooms; g, pantry ; h, cellar; i, cow; k, |>ig;
/, privy ; m, liquid manure; n, coals ; o, dung; p, yard; and tj, dairy.
'2295. Remarks. The ground plan is extensive, and the elevation elegant.
Design VII I. — A Cottage in the Style of the Belper Railway Station. By Francis
Thompson, Esq.
The elevation is shown in fig. 2094.
2296. Accommodation. Fig. 2095., which is to a scale of twenty-five feet to an inch,
shows a, terrace ; b, living-room ; c, scullery ; d and e, bed-rooms ; /, dairy ; g, pantry ;
h, piggery ; i, cow-house ; k, coals ; /, yard ; m, garden ; n, privy ; o, liquid manure ;
p, dust ; q, dung ; r, back entrance.
2095
2297. Remarks. The plan is commodious, and the elevation simple and grand. To
render this residence fit for a gentleman, we have only to turn b and c into living-rooms ;
/ and g into bed-rooms ; d into a kitchen ; h and k into a pantry and dairy, or a ser-
vant's bed-room and pantry ; i into a bed-room ; and e into a general dressing-room
and cloak and boot room ; a -very convenient room in the country, where the master
and his friends are much out of doors, and where visitors are received without much
ceremony. The cow-house, i, may be placed in the yard, adjoining p, and if a cow is
not kept it may be used as a stable, and a gig-house may be built adjoining it. The
place for coals, k, may be transferred to the space between the porch, r, and the window
to d. The piggery may be placed in the yard, beside n. We have now a very comfort-
1158
SUPPLEMENT.
:ible small house, with a yard in which any additional offices may be erected that are
thought accessary. If the yard is enclosed by walls there should be a broad border for
flowers and ornamental climbers; and, if it is enclosed by a hedge, there ought to be
ornamental standard trees in it, and flowers and roses in the border. If any plants are
trained against the house they ought to be confined to the plain spaces between the
quoins and the architraves, so as not to interfere with architectural forms and lines ; in-
deed, as a general rule, all edifices that show much of architectural design should be
left free from plants. If a few are introduced in any plain part, that part should first
be covered with a wooden trellis painted of a stone colour, on which to train the plants.
The subject of training plants, and especially vines and fruit trees, on cottage walls and
roofs, will be found treated of at length in our Suburban Horticulturist.
Design IX. A Cottage in the Style of the Ambergate Railway Station.
Thompson, Esq., Architect.
The elevation is shown in fig. 2096.
Bv Francis
2298. Accommodation. Fig. 2097. shows a porch, a ; passage, b ; living-room, c ;
staircase, d ; bed-room, e ; scullery, f; dairy, g ; pantry, h ; back-entrance, i.
2299. Remarks. This
design is chiefly remark-
able for the elevation,
which is surpassingly
handsome. Those who
wish to see beautiful en-
gravings of the railway
stations which form the
types for these five de-
signs should have re-
course to .Mr. Thomp-
son's splendid work enti-
tled Railway Stations,
folio, 1842, 25s. This
work also contains en-
gravinga of three other
beautiful station houses,
mi the same line of rail-
road, besides the splen-
did terminus at Derby,
which is upwards of one
thousand Peet in length,
and replete with every
convenience required in
such n structure.
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES.
1159
Design X. — The Edentor (,' ate- Lodges and Gates at Chatsworth. By the late Sir Jeflfrjr
Wvatville, Architect. The Description by John Rohertson, Esq., Architect, Chats-
worth.
The elevation of one of the lodges is shown in fig. 2098., and of hoth, together with
the gates, in fig. 2099. The ground plans are shown in figs. 2100. and 2101.
2300. Description. Fig.
2100. is the plan of an old
English lodge, built of
bricks and timber, as shown
in fig. 2098. In this plan,
a is a covered way or open
porch ; b, porch ; e, lobby
or inner porch ; d, parlour ;
e, stairs ; /, pantry ; g,
another pantry ; h, a rece
from the living-room, i; h, .<ij!&
kitchen ; /, privies ; m, shed
round the piggeries ; n,
yard ; o, gate to yard. Two families live in this house, which accounts for the two
pantries, and the parlour d is converted into a living-room.
2099
-•• & -
Fig. 2101. is an Italian lodge, shown in the right side of fig. 2099., built of stone:
a is the entrance-porch, open ; b, porch ; c, lobhy and staircase ; d, living-room ; e,
2 ICO
2101
*tffl?l
9L d
1 7. %m
ft;
8 '.
l j
parlour ; f, kitchen ; g, pantry ; A, lobby and back-door ; ;', covered way to privy, h ;
I, shed including pigsties ; m, yard ; n, gate to yard ; p, road leading to Pilsley and Bake-
well ; q, road to Edensor Inn ; r, gate ; s, road to Edensor and Chatsworth. Both
houses have chambers over the lower rooms.
2301. Remarks. These lodges were both built from designs by the late Sir J. Wvat-
ville : they were finished in October, 1839. They have no merit in an architectural
11(30
.SUPPLEMENT.
point of view; but the one is historically interesting, as showing the kind of building
which was formerly constructed of timber framing filled in with bricks, in no very scien-
tific manner ; and the other is a specimen of what, twenty years ago, was Beckoned the
Italian manner. Such, however, is the grandeur of the scenery where they are placed,
and to which the road leads, that these lodges escape critical notice. "There are two
handsome lodges at the Baslow entrance to the park, nearly completed. They are also
from designs by the late Sir Jeffry. They are built of beautiful rubbed or polished
stone in the modern Italian style. Two are likewise to be built at the Beely entrance.
These lodges were the last productions of Sir Jeffry for Chatsworth. An entrance-
lodge to the village of Edensor is now being built in the castellated style: it is one of
mine. — J. R. Chatsworth, March 15. 1842."
Designs XI. to XIV. — Four Ornamental Cottages, with the same Accommodation as in
the Model Cottage No. I., p. 1141. By E. B. Lamb, Esq., F.I.B.A.
2:302. Design XL, of which fig. 2102. is the elevation, and fig. 2103. the ground
2102
plan, is in the Scotch style, and characterised by steep roofs, slated, and with the gable
walls furnished with what are called crow steps. The ground plan contains a porch a,
adjoining which is the staircase; a kitchen, b ; best room, c; bed-room, d ; back-
kitchen, e; pantry,/; dairy, g ; poultry-house or oven-house, h ; and cow-house,?.
The rest is supposed to be as in the agricultural model cottage. This design may he
DESIGNS TOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES.
1 1CJ1
considered as an example of the Scotch style, ennobled by the grandeur of the propor-
tions, and by the projection of the chimney from the gable wall ; a feature never seen in
the unimproved Scotch cottage, but one, as we have elsewhere observed, essential to
cultivated architectural expression.
2303. Design XII., of which fig. 2105. is the elevation, and fig. 2104. the plan, is in
the Italian style. The accommodation is much the same as in the model cottage No. I.,
but somewhat differently arranged. The plan shows a porch, a ; passage, b ; kitchen,
c ; two bed-rooms, d, e ; back-kitchen,/; pantry, <?; dairy, A; and cow-house and pig-
sty, i, k. The other appendages are as in the model cottage.
'^304. Design XIII., the elevation of which is shown in fig. 2106., is adapted for
a plan nearly the same as in the model cottage, but without a porcli, or, rather, with
the porch inside of the house. The walls in this design are shown of great thickness
■J I on
which renders it suitable for being executed in rough stone, in compressed earth, or
in cob ; or, where workmen can be induced to take the trouble, in hollow walls of
brick on edge, two feet in thickness, and filled in with concrete or with a mixture of
clay and lime. Where a cottage is only one story high, we greatly prefer thick walls of
earth, on a solid foundation of brick or stone, to walls nine inches or a foot in thick-
ness, built of brick, or of any other material whatever, on account of their great
warmth. Such walls may always be finished within, in as good a style as brick or
stone walls ; as a proof of which we have only to refer to the houses built of com-
pressed earth at Woburn Abbey.
2305. Design XIV., of which fig. 2107. is the elevation, is a cottage of two stories,
containing exactly the same accommodation as the model cottage No. I., but in a
substantial massive style, and with the stack of chimneys carried up in a small
tower.
C Y
1162
SUPPLEMENT.
* ,.«iu« .jx^nv"!--
2108
2:?0fi. Remarks. These designs are given to show how the humblest dwelling may
he ennobled, when it passes through the hands of an architect of genius like Mr. Lamb.
It will be observed, that in all of them the ornament is bestowed on the essential parts
of the construction, such as the porch, chimney tops, doors, windows, gables, &c, and
not tacked on the naked parts of the walls, as frequently practised by architects and
amateurs, who do not know the difference between covering an object with ornaments,
and enriching it.
Design XV. — A Cottage in the Style of HerioVs Hospital, Edinburgh. By John
Henderson, Esq., Architect.
The elevation is shown in fiff. 2108.
2307. Accommo-
dation. The plan,
fig. 2109., shows a
porch, a ; a lobby,
b; a living-room, c;
a kitchen, d; back-
kitchen, e ; a pan-
try, f; dairy, g ; a
bed closet, h ; store
closet, »; fuel, k;
cow-house, I ; pig,
m ; yard, n ; privy,
o ; liquid manure,
p; dust and dung, q.
2308. Remarks.
The inhabitants of i
Edinburgh are
great admirers of Jp
this style of archi-
tecture, which no
man understands better than Mr. Henderson ; as his very beautiful design for a seed-shop,
connected with an agricultural museum, erected, the former for Mr. Lawson, and the
latter for the Highland Society of Scotland, on George IVth's Bridge, Edinburgh,
sufficiently proves. No person of taste can have visited Edinburgh without having
been struck by that splendid edifice, Heriot's Hospital, which is the central building of
an institution lor the gratuitous education of natives of Edinburgh. Fortunately the
institution is rich, and the trustees have been enabled to erect branch schools in different
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES.
1163
parts of the city, and
these, with all the
farm buildings and
cottage dwellings on
their extensive landed
estates, when rebuilt,
are erected in the
style of the parent
building. This, we
think, evinces much
propriety and good
taste on the part
of the trustees, and
cannot fail, by the ex-
ample which it exhi-
bits, to have a favour-
able influence on the
general progress of
improvement in agri-
cultural buildings,
schools, and labourers'
cottages. In Mr. Law-
son's seed-shop, every
part of the fixtures and
fittings-up, and even
the furniture, partakes
of the style of the ex-
terior ; and, in short,
it is, we believe, the
most complete seed-
shop in the world.
Heriot's Hospital was built in the beginning of the seventeenth century, and the archi-
tect is commonly said to be Inigo Jones, and the style that of James VI. or Elizabeth.
Many competent judges, however, are of opinion that Inigo Jones was not the architect,
the style of that artist partaking much more of the Roman and the Italian, as it existed
in his time, than of what we now call Elizabethan. According to Hakewell, in his
Attempt to determine the exact Character of Elizabethan Architecture (8vo, 1835), the
Elizabethan style, or, as its earliest manifestations are called, the style of James VI.,
is a modification of the cinque-cento style of Italy. This style, he says, is wholly un-
mixed with Gothic forms or Gothic enrichments ; it has not the ornamented gable, the
bay, or the oriel window, of the domestic Gothic, for these were all in common use
long before : but it consists of a number of forms more easily executed than those of
either the Grecian or the Gothic styles ; and we may add that these forms were chiefly
such as could be delineated by the aid of the rule and compasses. A great many
Elizabethan houses were erected by John Thorpe, and there is a MS. book of plans
and elevations by this architect in the Soanean Library : the plans and elevations are
neatly drawn, but, wherever the smallest attempt is made to introduce ornament, or the
human figure, it is not above the execution of the most ordinary mechanic. Architects,
in those days, were not, as they frequently now are, good artists. Hence, as we have
just hinted, all the ornaments and ornamental finishings in the Elizabethan style con-
sist of combinations of geometrical curves and circles with straight lines, angles, and
cubes. The Elizabethan style, Mr. Hakewell continues, may be classed under two
divisions ; the first, or proper, being the cinque-cento style of Italy, as introduced at
Longleat and part of Hatfield ; and the second, or lower order, that in which, as far
as possible, the same forms were observed, but the decoration and enrichment confined
to such figures as the common mason or joiner could execute, as at Wollaton, Dorton,
and many other mansions. It would thus appear that the Elizabethan style, like every
other, arose out of a sort of necessity, viz., that of adapting the style of ornament to the
means of getting it carried into execution. In the present day the revival of this style
pleases by its novelty, and the skill of modern artists has carried it out to such an extent
as greatly to increase its beauty, and its distinctive characteristics as a style.
Design XVI. — The Dairy Lodge erected at Chequers Court, Buckinghamshire, for
Sir Robert Frankland Russell, Bart. By E. B. Lamb, Esq., F. l.B. A.
2:309. The Chequers Dairy Lodge, of which fig. 21 10. is an elevation, and fig. 2111. a
plan, is placed near the entrance to the beautiful valley called the Velvet Lawn, at
1164
SUPPLEMENT.
the ancient seat of Chequers, in Buckinghamshire, for the protection of the property m
this situation, and also as a dwelling for an upper servant. It is about a mile from the
mansion, and a lew yards from a beautiful and plentiful supply of water.
2110
•■^ISI&gfe^fe
2:310. Tlie Lodge contains on the ground floor a porch, a; sitting-room, b; kitchen, c;
passage, d; pantry, e; and back entrance, f. On the one-pair floor are three bed-rooms.
The lodge is surrounded by a garden, s ; and from the back entrance, by the path y,
there is a communication to the dairy. There is a privy, h, with a cesspool behind,
open at top ; i is a wood and coal house ; k, a churning-room ; /, passage and steps
descending to the dairy ; m, the dairy, the floor of which is three feet below the surface
of the ground.
The walls of the ground floor of the cottage are built with brick and flints in chequered
courses, flint being one of the common building materials of this part of the country.
The sills of the windows, and the arches of the porch and back door, are of Bath stone.
The walls of the upper floor are formed of timber framing, covered with ornamental tiles
on the outside and plastered within. The verge-boards and pinnacles, also all the
mullions of the windows, are of Memel timber, and painted to imitate oak. The tiling
is coloured to harmonise with the other materials, and the roof is thatched. The whole
of the woodwork is prepared by K van's process ; and, indeed, all the woodwork for the
buildings recently erected and now erecting on this property is prepared in this manner,
a tank having been formed for that purpose.
2311. The Dairy, fig. 21 1 1., m, is fitted up with stone shelves on three sides, and paved
with tiles : the window is in the north side ; and, when it is necessary to admit air, the
casement only is opened, gauze wire being fixed to keep out the flies. On the south
side, externally, every alternate rafter of the roof is continued down, so as to form a lean-to
shed, in order to keep the sun off* the wall as much as possible ; and under this shed,
close to the ceiling of the dairy, are openings for ventilation. The shed is also useful
for placing pans, tubs, &c, to dry and season. It is covered with tiles, as in this situa-
tion thatch would be liable to be injured by the cows. The other part of the roof is
thatched. The walls of the dairy are built hollow.
2312. The I'iniltri/-litmsvs, n n, with a dove-house over them, adjoin the dairy. The
cow-house and pigsties form a group by themselves. The cow-house is erected with
unharked timber, and covered with thatch ; o are the cow-stalls; p, calf-pen, which is
made large enough to serve as an occasional stall for a horse ; q q, pigsties and yards ;
and r the yard to the cow-house, poultry, &c. This building is erected entirely with
unbarhed timber, principally larch, and some beech. Young trees, from six inches to
nine inches in diameter, are sawn down the middle, and placed in upright, horizontal,
and diagonal forms, so as to produce an ornamental appearance. The whole of the
timber was cut down near the spot, and cut to the proper lengths and Kyanised. The
thatching is also Kyanised. This is a mere experiment. As the thatch absorbs a con-
nderable quantity ,,f the liquid, the expense is greater than that of Kyanising timber.
1 lodge is surrounded with a fence of wood in the same character as the building.
The posts have ornamental caps. The fence of the yard is of unbarked larch.
DESIGNS FOll ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES.
116,5
■ "■
T~]
9
h
V
.
■ 0
' —
2111
1166
SUPPLEMENT.
Designs XVII. — XXV. The Cottages in Cassiobury Park.
2313. The late Earl of Essex took- great delight in improving the cottages on his
estate at Cassiobury, and many of them were built or improved from his own designs.
The following views and plans were published by Mr. liritton, in his very elegant and
interesting Ifistori/ of Cassiobury Park, published in 1837 ; and to that gentleman we are
indebted for the use of the engravings. " In different parts of the park and grounds,"
Mr. Britton observes, « are various cottages and lodges, which are distinguished at once
for their exterior picturesque features, and for the domestic comfort they afford to their
humble occupants. Unlike the ragged wretched sheds and hovels which are too often
seen by the road side, and even in connexion with some of the large and ancient parks of
our island, the buildings here delineated are calculated to shelter, to console, and gratify
the labourer after his daily toil, and to make his wife and family cleanly and diligent.
The cottages at Cassiobury have been designed with the twofold object of being both
useful and ornamental. They are occupied, exempt from rent and taxes, by men and
women who are employed by the noble landlord in various offices about the park, the
gardens, and the house ; thus, the park-keeper, a game-keeper, a shepherd, a lodge-
keeper, a gardener, a carpenter, a miller, a lock-keeper, &c, are accommodated."
In the interior arrangement of these cottages, most of them contain a porch, a sitting-
room, one or two bed-rooms, and a wash-house, with an oven and copper.
2314. Design XVII. — Great Beech Tree Cottage. Fig. 2112. is a plan of Great
Beech Tree Cottage, which, being of larger extent than the others, and highly orna-
mented exteriorly, may be considered in the light of a cottage ornec. It has five rooms
on the ground floor, and others up stairs. The ground plan contains, a, sitting-room ;
/., bed-room ; c, porch and passage ; d, sitting-room ; e, housekeeper's room ; /, pantry ;
(/, cellar; k, back entrance ; i, kitchen ; k, porch.
2315. Design XVIII. — Ridge LaneCottage. Fig. 2113. is Ridge Lane Cottage, which
is of two stories, each appropriated to a family. In the elevation of this cottage (not
given) there is a porch of entrance for the family who occupy the ground floor, and a
porch at the top of an outside staircase, for the occupant of the upper floor. The ground
plan contains, a, kitchen ; b, sitting-room ; c, bed-room ;
d, wash-house, oven, &c. ; e, pantry ; /, staircase to a floor for
another family ; g, porch.
2316. Design XIX. — London Entrance Lodge to Cassiobury.
Fig. 2114. is the entrance lodge for two families, in which
a and g are sitting-rooms ; b, staircase; c, entrance; d, wood-
house ; e, passage, with dwarf wall ; f, gates ; h, octagon
staircase to bed -room ; i, wash-house. This cottage forms the
lodjje to the London entrance, and is understood to have been
partly the design of Wyatt, and partly of the earl. It certainly
forms a very handsome group. The massive gates are hung
with Collins's hinges, and move so easily that they may be
opened or shut by a child.
/;
21 1 4
\
DESIGNS FOIt ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES.
1167
2317. Design XX The Pink- Keeper's Cottage. Fig. 2115. is a ground plan
of the park-keeper's cottage, in which a is a slaughter-house; /;, a dairy and larder; c,
a sitting-room ; r/, kitchen ; e, entrance;/, porch ; and g, staircase.
2318. Design XXT. — Thorn Cottage. Fig. 21 17. is a ground plan of Thorn Cottage,
in which a is the sitting-room ; b, hakehouse and scullery; c, privy ; d, cellar ; e, shed
over well ; /, porch and covered way.
2115
2116
J'I_
2117
2319. Design XXII. — The Shepherd's or Keeper's Lodge. Fig. 2116. is the shep-
herd's or keeper's lodge, in which a is the sitting-room ; b, wood-house ; c, wash-house
and oven ; d, pantry ; e, staircase ; f, porch.
2320. Design XXIII. — The Russell Farm Lodge. Fig.2118. is called Russell Farm
Lodge, and is erected at the entrance to Russell Farm, hy the side of the public road
between Watford and Berkhampstead. Russell Farm is occupied by General Sir
Charles Colville, Bart., who rents it from the Earl of Essex. The ground plan con-
tains, a, back porch ; b, kitchen ; c, sitting-room ; d, bed-room ; e, wash-house, &c. ;
f, front porch, with seat.
2321. Design XXIV. — Russell Cottage. Fig. 2119. is Russell Cottage, for two la-
bourers' families. The ground plan contains, for the one cottage, a porch, a; sitting-room,
b; staircase, c; wash-house, d; and oven and copper common to both cottages, e. The
other cottage contains a wash-lwuse, communicating with a room containing the
common oven and boiler; a living-room, h ; stairs to the bed-room, g ; and porch, j.
2322. Design XXV. — Cassio-bridge Cottage. Fig. 2120. is Cassio-bridge Cot-
tage, for two labourers' families. The walls of this cottage are covered with split hazel, and
other rods, the flat side being applied to the walls, and the bark exhibited externally to
the weather and the eye. The pieces are all of the same diameter, but of different
lengths, and they are arranged so as to throw the surface into panels, variously composed,
in the manner of the Duke of Marlborough's garden structures at White Knights.
inks
SUPPLEMENT.
The ground plan of each of these eottages
shows exactly the same accommodation as
in the Russell Cottage; viz. two porches,
«> j\ txvo living-rooms, b, h; two stairs, c,
g ; two wash-houses, </,/'; an oven and
boiler room common to both houses, e.
2323. Remarks. There is much to ad-
mire in the arrangement of the plans of
these cottages ; though there are none of q^
them that might not be improved, if we
apply the tests of the model cottages.
Nevertheless, they afford excellent hints for qt|
composition, and do great credit to the me-
tnory of the late Earl of Essex, who was a
man of great taste, as well as of active
benevolence ; his chief enjoyment, for the
latter years of his life, consisting in seeing
every one about him happy.
§p-2gJ
lii-iii
Design XXVI.— A Gate- Lodge or Cottage. By G. B. W.
2324. The. front or principal Elevation is shown in fig. 2121. ; the other elevations,
of less importance, are not given. Fig. 2122. is the ground plan, in which
2121
a is the porch ; b, the living-room, or parlour, sixteen feet by twelve feet ; r, the
kitchen, sixteen feet by thirteen feet; and d, a bed-room, fourteen feet by ten feet.
I .... I ■ . ■ i I
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES.
1169
2325. Remarks. This plan is deficient in not having a back-kitchen or a pantry,
and also in the access to the stairs being through the best room.
Design XXVII.— A Turnpike Lodge. By W. P. G.
The front elevation is shown in fig. 2125., and the side elevation in fig. 2124.
2326. The Plan is shown in fig. 21 23. The room a is fifteen feet six inches by six feet ; one
side is to be used for
depositing the money
and keeping the tickets,
and on the other side
there is room for a chair
or two, for the accom-
modation of any person
that might be waiting
for the stages. The
room b is intended, in
the daytime, for the
collector to eat his meals
in, and at night as a
bed-room, having a
turn-up bedstead ; c is
a closet ; d, a water-clo-
set.
2327. Remarks. The
marking of the stones in
the architrave is de-
ficient in the semblance
of truth ; half of them
appearing to rest on the
wall and not on the "' — ' — ' — ' — ' — '
pilasters; and the defective construction in this part is aggravated by its being con-
spicuously exhibited in the arches in the wall below, where it ought not to have ap-
peared ; since ostensibly
these walls have no
weight to bear, and
might, in fact, accord-
ing to the principle of
Grecian construction,
have been of earth. In
other respects the de-
sign may pass, though
the clock in the front
elevation ought to have
been placed on a raised
panel or frame, and
there ought to have
been a panel for the
name of the gate-keeper
on the frieze over the
door ; and another at
the end, between the
pilasters, for the toll-
regulations. What we
mean will be, perhaps,
better understood from
the following remarks on the buildings at the railway stations. We greatly admire
the expression of purpose in the bridges and other buildings connected with the rail-
ways, but instead of having the name of the station painted sometimes on one part
of the structure, and sometimes on another, we would have had it sculptured on a
conspicuous part of the front, especially designed and peculiarly characterised for that
purpose; and we would have had the name itself in sunk or in raised letters ; coloured,
if it should have been thought necessary, but, at all events, formed either by sinking or
in relief. At most of the railroad stations there are large boards, on which are painted
regulations, or other information relative to matters connected with the railroad ;
and as these regulations may be supposed to be occasionally altered, we would still
6 z
1170
SUPPLEMENT.
2 1 2
continue to have them painted
on boards ; Init we would form
panels on raised surfaces in
which these boards should be
lixed, or slipped in, in the Bame
way as a picture is slipped into
a frame. The panels should be
made sufficiently large to ad-
mit ofa larger board than migbt
be wanted at the time the sta-
tion-house was built, in order
to provide room for additional
regulations that may be sup-
posed to become necessary as
the traffic on the railway in-
creases ; but the board, whether
covered with lines or not, should
always be sufficiently large to
till the whole of the panel.
We would carry this principle
of rendering writing architec-
tural to turnpike-houses and
gates, and to the signs and
names of inns, public-houses,
and shops to names on the gates of manufactories ; to those on private doors ; to the
names of gentlemen's seats, which, we think, ought to be sculptured on sunk or
raised panels or shields on their entrance-lodges or gates ; to the names of cottages and
villages ; and, in short, to every architectural structure where a name was required or
would be useful. Had the art of writing been coeval with that of architecture, there is
little doubt that writing would have been introduced on buildings in an architectural
manner, as ornaments of leaves and flowers have been, and as writing is on ecclesiastical
buildings in the Gothic style. In this style the very character of the letters is archi-
tectural, and the words are always placed on scrolls or labels. It is for the modern
artist to introduce writing on edifices artistically, and, in doing so, to produce something
superior to the mode of putting the hieroglyphics on the Egyptian tombs or obelisks;
or the letters on the jambs of the shop-doors in Pompeii, or over the doors and windows
of shops in modern towns; something, in short, analogous to what is done in the Gothic
Style of lettering. ( Gard. Mag. for 1842, p. 50.)
The design fig. 'J 126. was made for a gate-lodge to a private road through a demesne,
and is very suitable for such a purpose, though by no means so for the gate-lodge ofa
public road. The
'E
2126
k
latter seems to
require a more
severe style of
architecture, more
durable materials,
and a more per-
manent manner of
putting these to-
gether. There is
a curious omission
in figure 2126.,
wz., that of the
verge-board, while
the hip-knop, or
finial and pendant,
are inserted both
in the gable end ^L
and porch, with- fi&jf
out any meaning * ''^J
whatever. •• The -<«V««V,
-hoards, or] barge-boards, of gables were intended to cover and preserve the ends
ot the purloins and covering of the roof, which projected over to shelter the front of the
building. ri,0 hip-knop which terminated the ancient gables was, in reality, a king-
''"''' " l!l-' iunction of the barge-boards, and into which they were tenanted."
ill's ' hrintian Irchittcture, p. 89. )
DESIGNS FOR ORNA I\I KN'l A !. COTTAGE
11/1
Design XXVIII. — A Cyclopean Cottage. By William Wells, Esq.
'2328, The term Cyclopean, as here used, applies only to the lower part of the wall
of the cottage, as shown in the elevation, fig. 2127., which are formed of irregular
blocks of sandstone, without the slightest indication of horizontal or vertical courses
The effect, as contrasted with the nu-
merous straight perpendicular lines
formed by the studwork in the upper
part of the walls, and with the hori-
zontal lines of the roof, is exceedingly
good. The studwork is filled in with
brickwork plastered over; the smooth-
ness and finished appearance of which,
as contrasted with the rudeness of
the Cyclopean part, is forcible, and
at the same time pleasing. A great
beauty in this cottage results from
the horizontal division of the main
body of the roof; the upper part
of which projects slightly over the
lower part. The chimney-top is
massive, and original. The whole
was executed by a local carpenter
and mason, from the sketches of
Mr. Wells, out of timber and stone
produced by the estate. The plan, fig.
'J128., contains a porch, a ; kitchen,
l>; parlour, c; light closet, d; pantry,
c; a staircase,/, to two good bed-rooms
above, and to the cellar under the
parlour below ; also an open shed, q,
for fuel ; It is a place for rabbits or
pigs ; and i, a privy. The oven in the kitchen is shown large, to suit the description of
fuel in general use by cottagers, viz. faggot wood. We have shown, in our Manual of
1172
SUPPLEMENT.
Cottage Gardening, how this fuel may be grown by every cottager for himself, provided
lie has an acre of ground, instead of one sixth of an acre.
Design XXIX.— The Penshurst Gate-Lodge, at Eedleaf, the Seat of W. WeUs, Esq.
The elevation is shown in fig. 2129.
2329. Accommodation. The plan, fig. 2130., shows an entrance-porch, a; lobby, b :
kitchen, c; parlour, d; family bed-room, e ; and back-kitchen, f. From the kitchen a
staircase leads to three sleeping-rooms in the roof, and down to a cellar, pantry, &c,
under the parlour and fa- .....
mily bed-room floor. A ' <■ ■ : 1
shed for fuel, which in
this part of Kent is chiefly
wood, a drying ground,
small kitchen-garden, and
other needful conveniences,
are placed adjoining, and
appropriately arranged.
2330. Remarks. Much of
the beauty of this cottage,
and ot the cyclopean cot-
tage at Redleaf, fig. 2127.,
results from the break in
the roof, by which the
vulgarity of so large a plain
surface is removed, and a
second horizontal shadow
obtained, in addition to that
produced by the eaves; thus
breaking up the plain surfaces
and rendering them more pic-
turesque. The connexion of
the rooms with the lobby, b,
is good, and there is no great
objection to the stair in this
case being in the kitchen,
because it leaves the entrance to the room free.
1 Ins cottage forms the entrance-lodge to one of the most remarkable country seats in
England ; one which combines the romantic with the pastoral, and wild nature with a
very high degree of horticultural cultivation and riches. A singular feature in the lawn
a rocky flower-garden, formed in an excavation, two sides of which are masses of
native rock, and the other a smooth even surface, blending with the sloping lawn. In
consequence of this flower-garden being sunk, no part of it is seen from the house,
though it is within two or three hundred yards of it; and hence all the beauties and
enjoyments of a flower-garden are obtained without injuring the romantic character of
the view from the house or the main walks.
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES.
1173
Design XXX. — The Home Lodge at Chequers Court. By E. B. Lamb, Esq., F. I. B. A.
The elevation of the north front is shown in fig. '2131, and of the east front in fig. 2132.
2331. The Accommodation is shown in figs. 2133. and 2134., in which a is the entrance
porch, communicating with a stair up to the bed-rooms and one down to the kitchens ;
b, the living-room ; c, the kitchen ; d, the back-kitchen or wash-house ; e, the pantry ;
/, a dairy ; and g, g, h, three bed-rooms. The position of the lodge relatively to the
road is shown in fig. 2135., in which i is the situation of the gate, and k, the block plan
of the lodge.
2332. Remarks. The plan is commo-
dious and convenient, and the elevation
picturesque. The position of the stairs
in the tower, opening into the lobby, is
good, and the descent of a few steps
from the living-room to the kitchens
2133
and pantry enables the latter places to be made of a good height in the ceiling, without rais-
ing the exterior elevation too high; while, at the same time, it reduces the number of
1171
SUPPLEMENT.
2 1 :55
teps necessary for the main stair, the bed-
rooms being over that part of the house, and
not over the living-room. This way of ar-
ranging the stairs is a great comfort both to
old people and young children. This lodge
was executed some years ago, with some si ight
variations in the tower and chimney-shafts.
Sir Robert Frankland Russell, Hart., the
proprietor of Chequers, is a gentleman of
high artistical knowledge and taste, and both
he and Lady Frankland Russell are devoted
to the improvement, not only of their estates
here and in Yorkshire, but of the churches
and schools in their neighbourhood : both of
them are amateur artists.
Design XXXI. — The Keeper's Loch/ c at Bluberhouses. By E. B. Lamb, Esq..F. I. B. A.
This lodge, with some slight variations, was built for Sir R. F. Russell, Bart.
on hi1
. • •-■•" _
iE^lfe^Jx IK
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES.
1175
estate of Thirkleby Park, in the neighbourhood of Thirsk in Yorkshire, some years ago.
The entrance elevation is shown in lig. 2136"., and that of the next best front in fig.21S7.
2333. The Accommodation, shown
in figs. 2138. and 2139., is a porch,
a ; stair and lobby, 6 ; parlour, c ;
kitchen, d; back- kitchen, e ; pantry
and dairy, /; and four bed-rooms,
g, h, i, k.
2334. Construction. The walls
are of stone, and the roof is co-
vered with thin flag-stones, or what
are called in some parts of the
north, slate stones. One of the bed-
rooms is intended for a lodger.
2335. Remarks. The general ar-
rangement of the plan is consistent
with the greater part of our data
given in p. 1128., though by acci-
dent a small window has been omit-
ted in the porch. The spaces be-
tween the mullions in the bed-room
windows are narrower than the cor-
responding spaces in the ground-floor
windows, which, according to one of
Mr. Lamb's principles, ought never
to be the case without a sufficient
and obvious reason. The fault,
doubtless, has been committed by the
engraver, in reducing the drawings.
Mr. Lamb's principle is, that all the openings for light in the same building, whe-
ther these openings are singly between jambs, or two or more together between
jambs and mullions, ought to be of
the same width. A certain width is
taken as the element or type, and this
is repeated, singly or in combination,
according to the size of the apartment
to be lighted, and quantity of light
required, wherever a window is want-
ed. Another principle might be laid V/p
down with respect to the height of
windows, viz., that the height of all
those on the same floor ought to be
the same. To this we may add a third
principle, viz., that stair windows
should never be on exactly the same
horizontal line, and of exactly the V;
same height, as room windows, in
order that they may give externally
the expression of a stair. Of course,
these principles must frequently be
modified by others of a higher kind ;
as where the window of a chapel
forms part of the elevation, or those
of a greenhouse or conservatory ; or
where the object is the imitation of
some old building, in which, to ren-
der it faithful as well as character-
istic, the accidental deformities must be imitated as well as the accidental beauties.
Design XXXII. — A Cottage in the Gothic Style for an Upper Servant. By John
Dobson, Esq., Architect.
The elevation is shown in fig. 2140., and is in the genuine style of English cottage
architecture, purified by the taste of an architect of genius, and of extensive experience,
not only as an architect, but as a landscape-gardener. Mr. Dobson's taste in the latter
art, it delights us to say, is not inferior to what it is in the former ; and of his practice
1176
SUPPLEMENT.
in both arts examples maj be »een in almost every part of Northumberland and Dur-
ham. The ground plan is shown in fig. 2141.
2140
2336. The Accommodation (as shown in the plan) consists of a porch, a ; sitting-room,
fourteen feet by sixteen feet, b ; kitchen, sixteen feet by fifteen feet, c; staircase, d ;
scullery, thirteen feet six inches by sixteen feet, e; pantry,/; cow-house, <? ; dairy, ^i ;
pisstv, i ; privy, k ; dung and ashes, I ; and coal-house, m.
I ii i • ' ■ ■
2337. Remarks. This cottage was designed for Richard Ellison, Esq., of Ludbrook,
Lincolnshire, and contains accommodation fit either for an upper servant with a family,
or a Miigk' gentleman. Of this any one will be convinced by observing the plan; the
upper Boor of which may contain a drawingrooni over the parlour, and bed-rooms over
the kitchen and scullery, or it mav contain only bed-rooms.
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES.
1177
Design XXXIII. — Double Cottage for Two Upper Servants. By J. Dobson, Esq., Arcli.
The elevation is shown in fig. 2142., and the ground plan in fig. 2143.
2142
2338. Accommodation. The ground plan of each dwelling exhibits a porch, a ; sitting-
room, fourteen feet by fifteen feet in one house, and ten feet by thirteen feet in the
other, with a bed-room over, b ; staircase, c ; kitchen, fourteen feet by fifteen feet in one
house, and eighteen feet by fifteen feet in the other, with a bed-room over, d; scullery, e ;
Jj?-
pantry, f; dung-pit, g ; place for ashes, h ; privy, «; coal-house, k; pigsty, I; cow-
houses, m m ; pigsty, » ; coals, n ; dung and ashes, p ; privy, q ; liquid- manure tank, r
7 A
1178
SUPPLEMENT.
2:539. Ranarka. The arrangement of the plan is wry ingenious, and the deration is
eminently piftuvesque. With a view to the liquid manure, the two privies ought to
have been placed next to the two cow-houses, and next to the privies the pigsties; be-
cause this would have facilitated the conducting of the liquids from these places to the
central tank. It is very possible, however, that this oversight may have been made in
sketching the plan, which Mr.' Dobson most kindly did for us entirely from memory.
He also furnished us with a plan for a treble cottage, which we much regret that time
has prevented us from having engraved. We shall, however, publish it in the Gar-
dener1 » Magazine. We have shown, in the Suburban Horticulturist, how the walls and
roofs of fig. 2142. may be covered with grape-vines trained on Mr. Hoarc's principle,
by which a pound of fruit is produced on every square foot of wall or roof.
Design XXXIV. — A Cottage in the Old English Style. By John Dobson, Esq.,
Architect.
The elevation is shown in fig. 2144., and the ground plan in fig. 2145.
214 4
2:540. Accommodation. The ground plan shaws a porch, a ; sitting-room, twelve feet
(ZZ| 2145
W
1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 • 1 1
-i//.
DESIGNS FOR ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES. 1 17!^
Sfjuarc, b; kitchen, twelve feet by eighteen feet, c ; stair, three feet wide, d ; scullery,
ten feet by twelve feet, e ; pantry and dairy, /; coal-house, g ; privy, h ; dung and
ashes, i ; pigsty, k; and cow-house, /. There is a communication from the cow-house
and the pigsty to a liquid manure tank, which is placed behind so as to be centrical to
both. There is a wood at m, and the garden is at n.
2341. Remarks. The privy, as we think, ought to have been placed adjoining the
cow-house or the pigsty, for the sake of the liquid manure. We should have preferred
placing the staircase so as to open into the porch, for Mr. Wilson's reasons, men-
tioned §2252.; but this is perhaps being too fastidious. In every other respect we
approve of the plan, which is compact, and contains every thing that could be wished ;
and the elevation we think admirable. This cottage was executed at Lilburn, in
Northumberland.
Sect. IV. Construction and Materials of Cottages.
2342. We have little to add to what is contained in the Encyclopaedia. Some
improvements have been made in cottage windows by the Highland Society, and by
the Messrs. Strutt of Derby, which will greatly reduce their price and facilitate venti-
lation. A mode of building brick walls, fourteen inches in thickness, with a very flw
more bricks than what are required for a solid nine-inch wall, deserves attention for its
greater economy and warmth, and also because a wall so constructed can be carried to a
greater height without piers than a solid nine-inch wall. The patent brick walls of
Mr. Hitch promise to be very durable and economical, though, like other deviations from
routine practice, they have not yet become so general as they deserve to be. The mode
of building walls of " clay lumps," practised in Suffolk, appears to be both durable and
economical, and to make a very dry warm cottage. Cottages that have only walls nine
inches in thickness, and roofs covered with slates or tiles, must necessarily be exceedingly
cold in winter and too hot in summer; in the former case requiring a great expenditure
of fuel, which is almost everywhere scarce and dear. If the walls of a cottage were
made two feet in thickness, and the roof covered with one foot in thickness of thatch,
heath, spray, or the chips of woodmen, they would be warmer in winter (the floor being
perfectly dry) almost without fire, than they are now with it. Whatever heat was gene-
rated in the cottage could neither escape through the walls nor the roof; and if the build-
ing was placed so that the sun shone on every side of it every day in the year, great part
of the heat which was radiated externally from the walls and roof during the night
would be replaced during the day. As there is a prejudice against thatch in many parts
of the country, there should, where tiles or slates are used, always be a plastered ceiling
to the rooms in the roof, made air-tight, and enclosing a vacuity between the plaster and
the slates of at least a foot, so as, in fact, to form a double roof: this is the nearest
approach that can be made to a thatched roof. If the durability of timber, and espe-
cially of young native timber, could be increased by any of the compositions, such as
Burnett's, now being experimented with, it would greatly lessen the first cost of cottages,
as well as increase their duration. As most of the improvements in the construction
of cottages which we have to notice are applicable to farm buildings, and in part to
villas as well as to cottages, we have brought the whole together in our fifth chapter,
p. 1245., to which we refer the reader. (See Contents in p. 1 124. )
Sect. V. Cottage Fittings-iip and Furniture.
2343. Little Improvement has been made in this department. A cheap and econo-
mical cottage fire-grate is still a desideratum, and probably will continue to be so till a
change takes place in cottage cookery, roasting against open fires is dispensed with,
and the value of stews understood. The most economical stove for warming a cottage,
and at the same time for cooking food, is, beyond all doubt, in our opinion, the Bruges
stove, but unfortunately it cannot at present be procured under £7. If, indeed, there
were a general demand for these stoves, they might probably be manufactured at little
more than half the price, but the difficulty is to introduce them at all. Next to this
stove we would recommend one in very general use, which has a small fireplace in the
middle, an oven at one side, and a boiler for water at the other ; they cost from £'1 to £3
each at the wholesale cast-iron warehouses. If these are carefully set, and the throat of
the chimney contracted, so as not to create too great a draught, a good deal of heat will
be thrown out into the apartment, though nothing like so much as by the Bruges stove;
which, being of iron except the fire-pot, supported on legs, and completely isolated
except by the connexion of its small smoke-pipe with the chimney, radiates heat on
every side. In various parts of the country a brick oven is used, heated bv faggot-
wood ; and if it could he so contrived that this oven could be placed below the kitchen
floor, and the smoke conducted from it in a flue under the floor, a large portion of heat
now lost would he saved. There is, however, a prejudice against this mode of adding
H80 SUPPLEMENT.
to the licat of a cottage ; and, therefore, though we have indicated it in our model de-
signs, we do not expect it will be much followed at the present time. Were some such
stove as the Bruges stove employed, such a mode of heating would be in a great measure
unnecessary. An improvement has been made in the box bedstead which deserves
adoption where that kind of bed is still used ; and some minor improvements in furni-
ture and fittings-up, applicable to cottages, will be found in our sections on fittings-up
and furniture, in a subsequent page.
Sect. VI. Villages.
2344. The congregating of Cottages in Villages is attended with many advantages and
with vexy few inconveniences. The advantages are : society ; the use of certain articles in
common, such as a well or other source of water ; a common sewer for drainage ; a school ;
a public wash-house and drying-green; a general play-ground for children; a village
library and reading-room ; and, if the village is large, a church or chapel, not to mention
the proximity of village tradesmen, mechanics, &c. The chief disadvantage that we
know is, the distance to which agricultural labourers and out-of-door country me-
chanics, such as carpenters, masons, &c, have to go to and return from their work. On
the Continent, and in this country, cottages and farm-houses were formerly collected
together in villages for mutual protection against thieves and wild beasts, and in a more
civilised and refined state, they are, or will be, similarly congregated for social comforts
and enjoyments. These comforts and enjoyments might be greatly increased, were the
art of cooperation for their attainment properly understood; were the village to have a
common kitchen, dining-room, wash-house, dairy, &c, as well as a common school and
Church : but the time has not yet arrived for improvements of this kind, and it would
be of little use attempting to introduce them, till every member of society is enlightened
and refined by a general system of education, which shall comprehend every kind of
useful instruction, communicated alike to all, even the poorest, up to a certain age.
Such a national education as we contemplate already exists in some parts of North
America and Germany, and will unquestionably, sooner or later, be introduced into this
country ; but, in the meantime, we must take men as they are, and endeavour to sug-
gest what may be useful for the present generation.
2345. Rows of Cottages. Next to congregating cottages together in villages, that of
placing them in rows or groups of half a dozen or a dozen is to be recommended ; be-
cause in this state one cottager may assist another in case of distress, and there is also an
opportunity given to the families to mix together occasionally, without which there can
be no civilisation. But though such a congregating of cottages as admits of the families
associating together at pleasure is desirable, it ought not, in the present state of things,
to be carried so far as to compel any two families to come constantly in contact.
The selfishness and bad passions are not yet sufficiently under control, nor the benevo-
lent feelings sufficiently developed, for this purpose. For this reason we would as seldom
as possible join a row of cottages like the houses of a street, but rather isolate each by
surrounding it with its garden. In some cases one family occupies the ground floor of
a cottage, and another the floor above, which is in general very disagreeable to both par-
ties. This is also the case when two families enter through the same porch, or through
the same front garden, or when cottages joined together have only thin party-walls.
Complete isolation, therefore, ought, if possible, to be joined to congregation.
2346. Solitary Cottages, such as gate-lodges, cottages for game-keepers, gardeners,
&c, are generally not merely isolated, but solitary ; but common humanity requires that
this solitariness should be mitigated by building some dwellings for persons of similar con-
dition near them. For example, the habitations of the gardener and bailiff might fre-
quently be placed at no great distance from each other, and the dwellings of the carpenter,
mason, hedger, and woodman, of a large estate, might form a group. It is unnecessary,
however, to go into details ; it is sufficient to direct attention to the general principle,
founded as it is on the fact, that man is a social animal, and only to be improved in
manners and increased in happiness by social intercourse.
2347. Laying out Villages. The most beautiful villages in Britain are, for the most
part, the result of accident, heightened by the taste of the proprietor of the estate ; as,
for example! in the case of Dirleton, one of the handsomest villages in Scotland, or of
Ilarlaxton, one of the most picturesque in England. There are many very formal and
disagreeable villages, designed purposely to be ornamental, or to give consequence to the
entrance-lodge of a mansion ; and if we compare these with an agreeable village that has
sprung up by accident, we shall soon find what we should imitate and what we should
avoid. In villages the houses ought never to be put down in rows, even though de-
tached, unless the ground and other circumstances are favourable for a strictly regular
or symmetrical congregation of dwellings. There is not a greater error in forming ar-
tificial villages, or in placing houses by road-sides, either singly or in rows, than always
VILLAGES. 1181
having one side of the building parallel with the road. Instead of making this a leading
principle in the country, it ought to be a subordinate one; since it is unfavourable both
to the comfort and enjoyment of the cottager, and the beauty of the cottage and the
scenery. It is unfavourable to the comfort of the cottager, because it often requires his
cottage to be set down with one side to the south and another to the north ; whereas, as we
have shown in a hundred places, one of the fundamental principles of setting down a house,
whether a cottage or a palace, ought to be to place it so that the diagonal to its square
shall be a south and north line. It is unfavourable to the cottager's enjoyment, because,
as the principal room is generally placed next the road, the occupant is forced to look, di-
rectly across the road, which is the dullest and stupidest view that the situation admits, and
not for a moment to be compared with looking obliquely across or along the road ; while,
if the front is to the south, it is impossible for the occupant to look out at the windows
during the finest part of a sunny day. These arrangements are unfavourable to the
picturesque beauty of the cottages composing the village, because it necessarily produces
a great degree of sameness in the manner in which they group with the scenery. On
the other hand, when the principle of the diagonal line is constantly kept in view, the
cottages on both sides of a road, even if they were built all of the same form, can never
be placed in the same manner ; and the moment the idea of the usual dull repetition of
the same forms in the same relative positions is got rid of, that moment the idea of pic-
turesque beauty begins : the cottages will be put down in all manner of positions ; some
will be nearer the road than others, some will look across it at one angle, and some at
another ; if the general surface of the ground is uneven, some will stand on a higher
level than others ; and if the direction of the road should be any other than straight,
the general effect will be every thing that could be wished. It cannot be too strongly
impressed on the mind of the reader, that the idea of putting down all cottages that are
built along a road with their sides or ends parallel to that road is destructive of all
picturesque beauty. The idea of doing so can only have arisen from the practice of
building streets in towns, where the great value of the land obliges the builder to place
the houses as close together as possible, and where, in consequence of this, the only part
seen by the public is the front ; but even in towns, where this continuity of frontage
is interrupted by projecting buildings and retiring ones, the beauty and variety of the
elevations is greatly increased.
2348. Every Character of Surface is adapted for a particular Character of ViEage, but
on all surfaces it is necessary to the full enjoyment of the advantages of congregation,
that there should be a certain degree of concentration. Every cottage in a village
should be surrounded with its own garden ground, and nothing more. If fields are
allowed to intervene, the too great separation of the cottages will interfere with the
advantages of concentration. Nevertheless, we are far from asserting that all the
cottage gardens ought to be of the same size ; on the contrary, variety will be produced
by a difference in this respect, as well as by a difference in the accommodation and
style of the cottages. The dwelling of the clergyman and of the schoolmaster will not
only be larger than the others, but will have more ground attached ; and there may be
a row of almshouses with very little ground, and, in the outskirts of the village,
a union workhouse with a great deal. The most favourable surface for a regular or
symmetrical arrangement of roads and dwellings is one that is perfectly even. In a
village on such a surface all the water will generally be obtained from wells. A village
on a knoll, with the church or school in the centre, will not be so favourably supplied
with water ; but one on the side of a hill will generally have water in abundance,
which, as it descends from the upper to the lower part of the declivity, may form a
succession of fountains of different kinds, which is beautifully effected in the village of
Great Tew in Oxfordshire; and will generally prove highly ornamental as well as
useful, because, without abundance of water, there can be no efficient cleanliness. In
all villages there ought to be a system of drainage for carrying off the superfluous rain
and subsoil water, and the overflowings of the liquid-manure tanks ; though, if these
tanks are properly attended to, they will never be suffered to run their precious
contents to waste. Villages along rivers or streams ought always to have an inter-
cepting drain close to the river, and parallel with it, to keep its waters pure, and at the
same time to remove from the village what is superfluous. It is almost needless, to
observe that the main drain of a village, like that of a field, ought to commence at a
lower level than that of the surface to be drained, and that this may frequently be at
some distance. It is no part of our business here to speak of the sewerage of lar^e
towns, otherwise we would recommend to notice the improvements suggested for the
London sewers by Mr. Roe in the Sanitary Report.; nor does it form part of our plan to
speak of the formation of towns, otherwise we should refer to Fleetwood in Lancashire,
one of the best arranged artificial towns, and at the same time one of the most
piosperous in the empire. We shall conclude this section by an account of the village
1182 SUPPLEMENT.
of Hanaxton in Lincolnshire, the property of Gregory Gregory, Esq., of Harlnxton
Manor, a gentleman of the- most refined taste in architecture and gardening, and who
devotes his time and his income to the display of these arts on his estate in a manner
which we cannot sufficiently admire.
•_'.) I'i. The I'illat/e of Harlaxton is situated about nine miles from Grantham, in Lin-
colnshire, and occupies a portion of the bottom of a broad fertile valley, through which
runs a stream of pure water, that expands into a broad pond near the ancient Manor
J louse of Harlaxton, one of the oldest manorial dwellings in England. We have seen
many ornamented villages, both at home and abroad, but none so original, and so much
to our taste, as this of Mr. Gregory's. Some of old date are too like rows of street
houses, such as those of Newnham Courtenay near Oxford, and Ilarewood near Leeds ;
others are too affectedly varied and picturesque, such as that at Blaize Castle near
Bristol; and some have the houses bedaubed with ornaments that have not sufficient
relation to use, as when rosettes and sculptures are stuck on the walls, instead of facings
being applied to the windows, porches to the doors, and characteristic shafts tothechimney-
topa We recollect one near Warsaw, which is a repetition of the Grecian temple, with
a portico at each end; and one at Peckra, near Moscow, every opening in which has a
pediment over it, with highly enriched barge-boards. In some villages, the attempt is
made to ornament every house by trelliswork round the doors and windows, which pro-
duces great sameness of appearance, and, if ornamental, is so at the expense of comfort ;
the creepers, by which the trelliswork is covered, darkening the rooms, and encouraging
insects ; while, in other villages, the cottages are so low and so small, that it is obvious to a
passing spectator that they cannot contain a single wholesome room. However, though
we rind fault with villages ornamented in these ways, we are still glad to see them ; be-
cause any kind of alteration in the dwellings and gardens of country labourers can
hardly fail to be an improvement on their present state, both with reference to the
occupiers and to the country at large.
The great value of Mr. Gregory's improvements in the village of Harlaxton is, that
all the leading features have some kind of relation to use, and are, in fact, to be con-
sidered more as parts added to the very plainest cottages, in order 10 render them com-
plete, than as ornaments put on to render them beautiful. All the cottages were built
by Mr. Gregory's predecessor in the plainest possible style, but fortunately substantial
and comfortable, and two stories high ; some of them single, and some of them double ;
and almost all of them of stone, some yards back from the street, and surrounded
by ample gardens. In improving them, Mr. Gregory would appear to have been guided
by the following considerations : —
1 . To bestow the principal expense on the main features, such as the porch, the ehimney-
tops, and the (/aniens. Almost all the cottages have porches, some projecting from the
walls, and others forming recesses: the latter have sometimes open places like loggias
over them ; and the former, sometimes roofs in the usual manner, sometimes balconies,
and occasionally small rooms with gable-ends, or pavilion roofs, according to the style.
The greatest attention has been paid to the chimney-tops, which are in some cases of
brick, and in others of stone ; sometimes of English domestic Gothic, at other times
local English, such as those common in the neighbourhood of the Lakes or in Derby-
shire, See. ; Italian, French, or Swiss, chimney-tops, of different kinds, also occur. The
gahle-ends are finished with crow-steps in the Belgian and Scotch style in some cases,
with Gothic parapets in others ; and various descriptions of barge-boards are used,
wherever the roof projects over the end walls. Porches, cornices of brick or stone,
ornamental cornice boards, and stone or wooden brackets, are also introduced in front, as
supports or ornaments to the roof. Every garden has been laid out and planted by
Mr. Gregory's head gardener; creepers and climbers being introduced in proper places,
in such a manner as that no two gardens arc planted with the same climbers.
l2. Always to have some architectural feature in or about the garden, as well as on the
cottage, for example, almost every garden here has its draw-well, and each of these
wells is rendered architectural, and ornamented in a different way. All the wells are
sin rounded by parapets, either circular or square, of open work or solid. Some are covered
with root'-, supported by carpentry, others with roofs supported by stones, round or
square ; some are ill the form of stone cupolas: in some, the water is raised by buckets
suspended from a picturesque architectural appendage ; in others, it is raised by pumps
attached to wooden framework of most original construction, massive and architectural ;
• n. 'I so on. All the gardens are of course separated from the street by a fence, and there
are not two of these fences in the village exactly alike. Some are hedges rising from
the inside of dwarf walls; some are walls like those of sunk fences, the garden in the
inside being of the height of the top of the wall, which is covered in some cases with a
plain stone coping, in others with a brick coping; in some with a stone coping in the
Gothic manner, in others with an Elizabethan coping ; in some with a parapet of open-
VILLAGES. 11 S3
work, in others with stone or brick piers for supporting horizontal bars of wood for
creepers, as in Italy, or without being connected by bars of wood, but terminating in
rough earthenware jars for flowers. Each front wall must, of course, have a gateway to
enter to the garden and the cottage, and no two of these gateways throughout the
village are alike. Some are wickets between wooden posts, others Gothic or Eliza-
bethan gates between stone piers, square or round ; some are close gates, in the manner
of many in Switzerland, in others the gates are under arches, some of which are pointed,
and others round-headed; some have pediments over the arches, others horizontal high-
raised copings, as in the neighbourhood of Naples ; and some have small wooden roofs
or canopies after the manner of the gateways to the country houses in the neighbourhood
of Dantzic. The gateways, in short, afford great variety of character. Besides the
front boundaries of the gardens, there are the side boundaries, which are also varied,
partly in a similar manner, and partly differently. In some cases, the boundary, though
sufficiently well known to the occupants, does not appear at all to the stranger; in
others it is of holly, of box, of laurel, of thorn, of flowering shrubs, of fruit trees, or of
a mixture of several or all of these, with or without architectural piers, bee-houses,
arbours, covered seats, tool-sheds, or other appendages. The gardens, it may be ob-
served, are all laid out differently. In some, the main walk from the street gate to the
porch is of flagstone, in others it is paved with small stones ; in some with wood, in
others with brick ; in some with gravel, and in others with broken stone. It is edged
with box, with thyme, with ivy, with a broad belt of turf, with a raised edging of stone,
or with a flat belt of brick, and sometimes even with wood. The gardens are variously
planted, and in some there are very properly trees and shrubs clipped into artificial
shapes ; two spruce firs form very handsome balls.
3. Never to employ two styles or manners of architecture in the same cottage, or at all
events not to do this so frequently as to lead a stranger to suppose that it has been done
through ignorance. We omit what may be said on the necessity of keeping the recog-
nised eras of the Gothic distinct, as well as the Elizabethan, Swiss, Italian, &c, as suffi-
ciently obvious. In every cottage and its accompaniments, the appearance of one
system of construction should prevail, as well as one prevailing direction in the lines
of the masses. For example, in a Swiss cottage, with its far projecting eaves and
its surrounding balcony, horizontal masses, lines, and shadows are decidedly prevalent ;
and, beyond a certain point required for contrast, it is not desirable to introduce any
vertical masses, lines, or shadows. The windows, therefore, in such a house, should be
broad rather than high ; and, as those of the ground floor are protected from the
weather by the balcony, and those of the upper floor by the projecting eaves, the very
simplest form of dressings to the doors and windows is all that is required. To surround
them with rich dressings, or protect them by cornices or pediments, such as indicate the
purpose of throwing off the rain, or casting a shade on the glass, would be in bad taste,
because it would be superfluous,, or working for an end that could not be attained ; it
would, in fact, be counteracting nature, and setting at nought the principles of art ; not
to speak of weakening the associations connected with style independently of the use of
parts of walls and roofs.
4. Not altogether to omit objects purely ornamental, where they can be introduced with
propriety. There is no reason why a cottage garden should not have its sculptural
ornaments as well as the garden of a palace ; and it is quite reasonable that in both
cases the occupant should endeavour to get the best ornaments he can afford. For-
merly, the doctrine used to be, that the dwelling of the cottager ought to be low, in
order to be expressive of humility ; and void of exterior ornaments except creepers and
flowers, to express the condition of life, or, in other words, the poverty of the inhabitant.
But the cottager is now becoming a reading and thinking being ; and having a taste for
health, comfort, and ornament, in common with other classes of society, he requires higher
and better lighted and ventilated rooms ; and these, as well as his garden, he will orna-
ment as far as his circumstances will permit. The time has gone by for one class of so-
ciety to endeavour to mark another with any badge whatever ; and therefore we would
wish all architects, when designing cottages, to abandon their long- received ideas. " In
the construction of cottages, as well as of all other kinds of buildings, great care should
be taken that every part should be in its proper character ; for nothing can appear more
absurd or out of place, than to see mouldings or ornaments which belong to the regular
styles of architecture introduced in a cottage." This was published in 1805, in a work
on Labourers' Cottages, by an architect of eminence; but in 1840, in the recently im-
proved cottages throughout the country, we see the " mouldings and ornaments which
belong to the regular styles of architecture " as carefully applied as in larger dwellings ;
and, fortunately, vases of the most elegant forms are so cheap, that no cottage parapet,
seat, or bee-house, need be without them. What is most offensive to taste, both in the
gardens of the wealthy and of the poor, is the misplacing of sculptural ornaments. In
118-1 SUPPLEMENT.
Harlaxton village there arc sundials and vases, of different forms and kinds, most ju-
diciously plated ; for example, as terminations to piers to gates, or along parapets on
piers or other preparations, on the piers at the ends of stone seats, &c. In how many
Instances, not only in cottage gardens and on cottages, but in the gardens and on the
buildings of the wealthy classes, do we not see vases set down where they have no legiti-
mate right to be placed whatever; in places from which they might be removed without
ever being missed, or without any derangement to the scene in which they were put,
but of which, in an artistical sense, they formed no part. Some of the situations proper
for vases are : where the vase forms a termination to an object, as to a pillar of a gate,
a pier or pilaster in a wall, or a detached column, &c. ; where lines of walks or of walls
join, meet, or intersect, as in the centre of a system of beds for flowers, or at the angles
made by the junction of walks in a pleasure-ground ; where niches in buildings, or gra-
velled or other recesses along walks, are prepared for them, &c. In all cases where a
vase is put down in a garden, it ought not only to have a base formed of one or more
plinths, but a pedestal to raise the vase nearer the eye, and above the surrounding vege-
tation, as well as to give it dignity of character. No ornament whatever, whether in a
garden or on a building, ought ever to be placed in an inconspicuous situation, or in the
less noble parts of the grounds or edifice; and no ornament ought to be made use of
which is formed of a material of less value or durability than the material or object on
or against which it is to be placed. Hence the bad effect of rootwork and rusticwork
in many situations in gardens, and in verandas and other additions or accompaniments
to brick or stone houses.
5. To indicate the occupation of the inhabitant, where it can be done. For example, the
smithy, or blacksmith's forge, when properly introduced, can never be mistaken, nor
the carpenter's shop. These two village tradesmen require houses, yards, and gardens,
peculiarly arranged, and afford fine sources of variety. The shoemaker may have
his stall as a projecting appendage, and the tailor his workshop. Some of the cottagers
will possess cows, others pigs or rabbits ; some pigeons, and all more or less poultry.
The provision required to be made for these kinds of live stock affords interesting
sources of architectural and picturesque effect ; though in small villages a common
cow-shed, as well as a common bakehouse, wash-house, and drying-ground, is frequently
found preferable. The house of the schoolmaster adjoining the village-school, and the
house of the clergyman near the church, will always be principal objects ; and shops for
the sale of different articles speak by their windows. Every large village ought to
have an open shed, or other public building, in a central situation, to serve as a kind of
market or gossiping place, and also as a playground, or place of amusement, for the boys
in rainy weather.
Whoever intends to ornament and improve a village, we would strongly recommend
to study Harlaxton. It is impossible to reflect on that village without imagining
what a continued scene of ornament and appearance of comfort all England, and even
all Europe, would present, if proprietors would follow the example of Mr. Gregory.
Happily, in this country, many have been engaged in this work for a number of years,
and considerable progress has certainly been made. Though the best mode to succeed
is to have the very best advice at the commencement, and submit every elevation that
is to be carried into effect to an architect of taste, yet let those who do not value advice
of this kind make the attempt with what knowledge they have, or can derive from
books, or from observing what has been done by others, and they cannot fail to do good
to a considerable extent. The way to insure artistical buildings throughout the
country is, not so much here and there to employ a first-rate architect, who may erect
a splendid mansion with a handsome cottage as an entrance-lodge, as to create a demand
for architectural taste and knowledge among country builders, carpenters, masons, and
bricklayers, generally, since it is by these persons that the great majority of country
buildings are both designed and executed. For the general improvement of cottages,
therefore, we must educate the eye of the country carpenter and mason, and give the
cottager himself a taste for architectural and gardenesque beauty.
The Village of Eden.sor at Chatsworth, which was beginning to be improved when we
last saw it in 1839, is said by a writer in the Gardener's Chronicle to be a dell gradually
opening as it descends gently towards the park, profusely studded with architectural
gems. " The buildings embrace houses of almost every calibre, from the spacious farm-
house to the humble cottage, and they are distributed with admirable skill ; some on the
level ground at the mouth of the dell, and others on gentle declivities, while not a few
overhang the brow of a precipice, or occupy a snug position that has been excavated out
of the solid rock. The buildings are entirely of stone, except where enriched wooden
Sables or other ornamental carvings have been introduced; and they present a perfect
Compendium of all the prettiest styles of cottage architecture, from the sturdy Norman
to the sprightly Italian." (Gard. Chron. for 1812, p. 187.)
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS.
1185
Chap. IT.
Cottage Villas and Villas.
Design I. — A Villa in the Swiss Style. By E. B. Lamb, Esq., F.I. B.A.
The elevation is shown in fig. 2146., and the ground plan in fig. 2147.
2350. Accommodation. The plan shows a covered doorway, with the house-bell over, a ;
entrance-court, b ; porch to the house, c ; hall, and staircase to drawingroom and bed-
rooms, d ; study, sixteen feet by twelve feet six inches, e ; dining-room, twenty feet by
2147
*^E=qj-- -■- -.,'.p — -^ _; h r i^-^i ~~7'^~ "" ~T"
:
ff,-^. . i ( ■ ■ ■ . H
7 B
\fl
1186
SUPPLEMENT.
sixteen feet six inches, with dfawingroom over,/; kitchen, sixteen feet by fifteen feet,
p ; back-kitchen, with boiler, h ; kitchen-court, i ; two huts lor holding the water from
the roof, It It ; place for dust and ashes, / ; (or coals, m ; and servants' water-closet, n.
2351. Remarks. This design was made by Mr. Lamb for John Murray, Esq., the
author of many esteemed works on natural and experimental science, who intends it
for a very interesting situation on liis property in the neighbourhood of Stranraer.
Here it will be backed by a steep « led bank on which Mr. Murray has created various
interesting scenes and walks, and will have a rich garden immediately before it, bordered
by the magnificent bay of Stranraer, and in the distance a range of mountains. It will
be executed at a very moderate expense, from there being abundance of stone on the
spot, and from the great simplicity of the roof, which does not contain a single gutter,
and on which there are neither hips nor valleys. The estimated cost is about £650.
In the neighbourhood of London it would cost considerably more.
Design II. — A Villa adapted for a Situation in the Neighbourhood of Ayr.
By E. B. Lamb, Esq., F.I.B.A.
The elevation is shown in fig. 2148., and the ground plan in fig. 2149.
2352. Accommodation. The plan shows a porch, a ; hall, b ; dining-room, eighteen
feet six inches by fifteen feet, c ; parlour, fifteen feet six inches by thirteen feet six
inches, d; staircase, with closet under, e ; kitchen,/; scullery, <7 ; pantry, h ; and back
entrance, i. In the floor
of the dining-room, c, there
is a bath, the lid to which
opens like a trap-door, and
the descent is by steps, as in
the design for a parsonage-
house, by Mr. Barry, in
p. 841. The bath is sup-
plied with hot water from
the boiler in the scullery, p,
and with cold water from
a cistern also in the back
kitchen.
2353. Remarks. This de-
sign was made for a situa-
tion in the neighbourhood
of Ayr, nearly flat, with a
command of the sea. The
walls are of freestone, and
of considerable thickness
to insure warmth. The
design is massive and ori-
ginal. The estimated ex-
pense is about £500.
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS.
1187
I i !i Ul. — Asmtdl Villa in the Modern %/e. By E. B. Lamb, F.I.B.A.
The elevation is shown in fig. 2150., and the plan in fig. 2151.
2150
2354. Accommodation. The plan shows an entrance-porch, a ; hall, b ; dining-room,
twelve feet by ten feet, c; parlour, ten feet by nine feet, d; staircase, with closet
under, e ; kitchen, ten
feet by nine feet, f;
water-closet, <?; back
entrance.^ ; pantry, i;
scullery, A; and place
for coals and lum-
ber, I.
'2:155. Remarks.
The staircase is
lighted from the
tower, and there may
be a borrowed light
either from the stair-
case or the passage
to the water-closet,
which, being com-
pletely within the
house, is less likely
to be injured during
severe frosts. As the
situation is on a le-
vel with the sea, and
quite near it, a salt-
water bath might
easily be contrived
in a cellar, or under
the floor of one of
the parlours. Estimated expense about £500.
Design IV. — A small Villa for a Gentleman much attached to Gardening.
2356. Covering the Walls with Vines or Fruit Trees. Fig. 2152. is the front elevation of
this design, in which is shown the manner of covering the walls of a house with vines
and fruit trees. There are seven vines, a to g ; and four fruit trees, h to /. The vines
d and e are trained in the Thomery manner, each with two arms, which produce short
bearing shoots, to fill that part of the wall which is under the sill of the parlour window,
and between the bed-room windows and the roof. The other vines are all trained in
.Mr. Hoare's manner, each with two arms, and each arm producing onlv two shoots, viz.,
one for bearing, shown by wavy lines in the figure, and the other for producing wood,
winch is indicated by dotted lines. The length of the wavy lines may varv from five
feet to ten feet ; and there is no limit to the length of the main stems, but the height
1188
SUPPLEMENT.
of the wall or house. The fruit trees, h, I, on the lower part of the wall may be apples,
cherries, or plums, and those on the upper part pears.
2357. Accommodation. The ground
plan, fig. 2153.,showsaporch,a; dining-
room, sixteen feet by fourteen feet, b ;
library, fifteen feet by fifteen feet, c;
drawingroom, of the same dimensions as
the dining-room, d; water-closet, e;
kitchen, /; pantry, g ; back-kitchen, h ;
open court, i ; conservatory, opening into
the drawingroom, k ; tea-room, three steps
higher than the floor of the conservatory,
/; propagating-house, m ; and covered
way to the garden and to the stoke-hole
to the propagating-house n. The bed-
room floor, fig. 2154., shows four good
bed-rooms, each with two closets, and a
water-closet, o.
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS.
1189
2358. Remarks. This design was made for a retired mercantile man, who has
given himself up to the culture of his garden, in the open air during summer, and in
his propagating-house during winter and early spring.
Design V. — Annat Cottage, near Errol, Perthshire. By Archibald Gorrie, Esq.,
F.H.S.,&c.
The elevation is shown in the isometrical view, fig. 2157. ; the plan in fig. 21 55., and
the section on the line a b in fig. 2156.
2155
2359. Accommodation. The plan, fig. 2155., contains a lobby with flower-stage, a;
sitting-room, b ; stranger's bed-room, c ; kitchen, d ; writing-closet, e ; lobby or passage,/";
bed-room, g ; pantry, h ; greenhouse, i ; place for fuel, k ; raised terrace, with open ve-
randa, on which roses may be trained as seen in the isometrical view, I.
2360. Description. Lofty trees surround the cottage on three sides, and I feared
that this might cause the chimneys to smoke, to prevent which, on the plan of Dr. Dick
of Broughtyferry, I caused the masons to contract the chimney flues about eighteen
inches above the lower part of the lintel to about seven inches square, widening gradually
to ten inches. This had the effect of promoting a draught, and keeping the rooms clear
from smoke. The place for plants in the lobby is two feet and a half above the floor ; it
contains a small space in the centre for silver or gold fish. The pots are plunged in
fine sand, removable at pleasure. Under this floor is ample room for cellarage. The
terrace, suggested by several plans in your excellent work, is generally admired. I
preferred reeds to slates, as more in character with the cottage and grounds. The
veranda pillars are covered with Noisette and other roses, reaching over the terrace
walk on cross rafters, three or four feet separate, to admit light. The cottage is happily
1190
SUPPLEMENT.
-sss^
situated, having a finely wooded background, with an extensive view of the rich vale
of the Carse of Gowrie in front, and is generally reckoned a good thing of its kind.
The artificial stone chimney-tops seem to stand the weather well, and, at a very cheat)
rate, add to the safety from fire by conveying the sparks to a considerable height above
the reeds. They also, it is thought, improve the appearance of the roof. — A. G.
2361. Remarks. We admire this design exceedingly, and we are informed by our
friend, Robert Chambers, Esq., the editor of the most useful journal of the age, who
has seen the interior, that the house is as comfortable within, as its exterior is pic-
turesque. The terrace, the veranda, the plant-stage on the entrance lobby, and the
greenhouse, heated from the room c, and doubtless looked into through a window over
the fireplace, have a fine effect in elevating the character of the cottage, and bringing it
within the regions of elegance and taste.
Design VI. — A Cottage in the Old English. Style. By John Robertson, Esq. ,
Architect.
The elevation is shown in fig- 2160. ; the ground plan in fig. 2158., and the bed-room
floor in tig. '2159.
62. Description. This cottage is about to be built in Berkshire, for a gentleman
witli a small family. The ground to be attached to it is chiefly level throughout, with
tin- exception of a raised bank near the adjoining property, which woidd have been the
host site fur the intended building; but the proprietor objected to this situation, lest at
a future period his neighbour should erect any thing near the cottage that might give
annoyance, or appear disagreeable. It was not likely that this would be the case ; but
its bare possibility led the proprietor and architect to adopt a situation at the opposite ex-
tremity of the ground, near the public road. The first object in choosing this latter site
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS.
1191
was to select the highest and driest spot, and that whence the most extensive and best
view could be obtained from the windows, as well as to secure the greatest seeming ex-
tent of pleasure-gardens when the ground should be properly laid out.
The entrance-porch was originally in the garden front, in the situation of the ante-
room, fig. 2158., and the approach swept round the east end of the building from the
public road behind; but here again the proprietor suggested that, while the chief front
was to the south, and consequently facing the pleasure-grounds, he should like the en-
trance-porch to be behind, or to the north ; as it would, he thought, give the family, in
his absence, a feeling of greater security in so lonely a spot, by having the entrance to
the public road. The plan was, therefore, altered to suit these views, and is here pre-
sented in its amended form.
The building is to stand about fifteen or sixteen yards from the road, and is to be
approached by a covered way to the entrance, from which no view will be had on
either side. This arrangement is intended to carry out the idea, that however ill chosen
or unsatisfactory the situation may appear to a visitor on his first entrance, yet, when
taken to the sitting-room windows, or to the lawn in front, he would be rather surprised,
and ready to give up his first impressions as to the inapropriateness of the site.
The family at present being small, the two servants kept are to occupy one of the up-
stairs bed-rooms ; but should the family become larger, it is intended to raise the wine
containing the wash-house, &c, and make two bed-rooms over for the servants.
2:563. Accommodation. Fig. 21.58. is the ground plan, in which a is the entrance-
porch, which is to be finished with a coved roof, and to have Gothic niches in the angles
for statues, &c. From this we pass to the hall and staircase, b, by a Venetian door, the
upper part of which is glazed with stained glass ; thence to a small ante-room, c, from
! :E
which there is a door to the covered terrace, n. From the hall we enter the dining-room, d,
the two windows of which are to be brought down to the floor, and to open like French
casements, so as to admit of easy access to the terrace when the ante-room is occupied.
From the hall we likewise enter the drawingroom, e, which has a door to the ante-
room; also the kitchen,/. The kitchen-door from the hall is finished on the staircase
side in the same manner as the doors of the principal rooms. This door will only be
occasionally used as an entrance from the porch to the kitchen, as there is a back
entrance through the yard and wash-house for servants, See. From the kitchen there is
a coal-closet, (? ; back-kitchen or wash-house, with copper, h ; place for cleaning knives,
&c, i; larder, k ; store-closet or pantry,/. There are two water-closets, m m, both
under cover, one entering from the porch, and the other from the terrace. Under
the principal stairs is a flight of steps, o, shut in by a door, descending to the wine and
beer cellars, &c, which are underneath the dining-room and terrace, and are lighted
from grated openings in the paved flooring of the latter. Behind the wash-house, at p,
there is a kitchen-yard hid by shrubbery in front, which contains the undressed meat
larder, coal-shed, wood-house, privy, well, drying-ground, &c.
1192
SUPPLEMENT.
Fig. 2159. is the plan of the chamber floor, in which q and r show the landing and
stairs ; s, balcony over ante-room, entered from the staircase window ; t, principal bed-
room ; u, second bed-room ; v, third bed-room ; w, linen-closet ; x, lobby.
Fig. 2160. is a perspective view of the south and east fronts.
2160
A few other apartments and conveniences might have been introduced in this design,
did the amount to be expended and the size of the family warrant it, but this not being
the case, the architect's endeavour was to make the most of the means allowed him, and
to produce a comfortable little habitation for a gentleman of limited income. His
instructions were, to design " a neat cottage in a Gothic style, with a covered terrace,
that should contain two sitting-rooms and three bed-rooms, with other conveniences, and
the estimate not to exceed from £650 to £700." How far he has succeeded he leaves
the reader to judge.
2364. Specification. The foundations are to be eighteen inches thick, with proper
footings, and the walls carried up of fourteen-inch brickwork ; the best grey stocks to
be used externally, and to be picked of a uniform colour for the fronts, and finished
with a neat straight joint. The openings all round, and chimneys, to be faced with
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS.
1193
cement in imitation of stone. The roof of the terrace to be supported l>y rustic
limbs of trees having the bark left on, and placed on stone plinths with woodei
caps, frieze, and cornice. The pendants and finials to gables to be of oak, and the
- to be finished with moulded boards, and ornamental hangings, of L'-incli well
seasoned deal, painted in imitation of oak. The bow window to be finished above the
level of the sills with wood painted in imitation of oak, and covered with lead. The
to be covered with countess slates laid on |-inch deal boarding, with proper lead
flashings to chimney-shafts. The ridges and valleys to be covered with lead. The
windows to be splayed and ^finished with mullions and transoms as shown bv the
drawings. The balcony to have an ornamental iron railing in front. The flues to be
ten inches by twelve inches except that of the kitchen, which is to be twelve inches by
fourteen inches. The terrace wall, above the surface, to be bounded by a stone plinth,
and the door steps and steps from the terrace to the garden to be of York stone. Hie
bearing timbers to be of the best Dantzic or Memel fir, with oak sleepers for the ground
floor, and oak lintels over the openings &c The windows to be glazed with the best
second crown glass.
The interior to be finished with the best well seasoned yellow deal, in a plain but
substantial manner, and all the door panels mouldings room cornices, chimney-pieces,
and other finishing, characteristic of style, to be of a Gothic description. The stairs to
have an ornamental Gothic railing or balustrade, and boarded in from the string to the
floor. The upper part of the door from the hall to the ante-room to be glazed with
stained glass. The whole of the woodwork, externally, to be painted in imitation of oak.
2365. Estimate, including the out-offices &«•> about £670.
Design VII. — A small Roman TWa. By E. B. Lamb, Esq., F. I. B. A
An elevation of the garden front is shown in fig. 2161., and fig. 21 G2. shows the
ground plan.
2366. The Accommodation which the latter contains is an entrance hall, a ; drawing-
room, b ; library, c ; dining-room, d ; passage to the kitchen and stairs to the bid-rooms
and cellars « ; kitchen, /; back-kitchen, g ; pantry, h ; conservatory, i ; and terrace
and stairs on the lawn front, k. On the floor above are three good bed-rooms and a
servant's bed-room ; and on the cellar floor there are a dairy, larder, and other conve-
niences required for servants" use.
2367. Remarks. This 1==} I * 21 r 9
casino was designed for
a citizen, chiefly for the
purpose of occasional re-
tirement. During the
greater part of the week,
the only occupants will
be the gardener and his
wife. There is a stable,
coach-house, and other
offices at a short dis-
tance ; and the whole is
surrounded by a lawn,
enclosed by a shrubbery,
in which the height of the plants and especially of the evergreens, is calculated to exclude
other houses or buildings and admit, as much as possible, such verdant scenerv as is
characteristic of the country. Over the fireplaces in b and c there are windows into the
conservatory, each of which consists of one plate of glass without bars. There is no
communication between the rooms and the conservatory by doors, a prejudice existing
in the family against the moist air essentia] to healthy and vigorous vegetation.
7 r
1191
SUPPLEMENT.
Design VIII. — A Roman Villa, designed for a particular Situation. By E. B. Lamb,
Esq.. F.I.B.A.
The front elevation is shown in fig. 216.3. This villa was designed by Mr. Lamb
for one of those beautiful knolls which occur on the Dover road, between Dartford and
Canterbury. Like the preceding design, it was made at the desire of a wealthy
citizen, chiefly for the purpose of enabling him to display his wealth and taste to his
friends on holidays. Hence, as it will be observed in the plan, fig. 2164., all the rooms
are arranged for the purpose of display, and the whole building is surrounded by an
elevated paved terrace, which commands, on every side, the scenery of one of the richest
and best of England's counties, and her noblest river.
2368. The Accommodation contained in the principal floor consists of an entrance-porch,
a; lobby, hall, and staircase,/); library, r; drawingroom, d; dining-room, e; back-stairs,
/; water-closet, g ; dressing-room for day visitors, h ; statuary room, i ; conservatory,
It k k; and terrace, I. There is a passage between the conservatory and the house,
which is shut up at the ends so as to form an aviary, and the birds can be admitted to
the conservatory, the drawingroom, the dining-room, and the sculpture room at pleasure.
2369. Remarks. The windows to the offices have each small sunk areas, taken from
the terrace, and covered with iron grating. These windows, though not seen in the
elevation, being concealed by the terrace parapet, yet reach nearly three feet above the
level of the terrace, so that there is abundance of light to all the lower apartments. By
Closing the doors at the ends of the covered passage m m, and taking out the conserv-
atory windows on that side, the width of the conservatory may be increased at pleasure ;
and by taking out the windows of the dining-room and drawingroom, the conservatory
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS.
1195
may be united to them, so as to have the appearance of the whole being only one
apartment, or, rather, one Oriental garden. In the centre of the aviary there may be a
fountain ; and in the sculpture saloon there ought only to be one group of statues in the
centre, and one statue against each of the eight piers between the windows, in order not
to interrupt the view of the conservatory and the fountain from the saloon and the two
principal rooms. The conservatory is heated by hot water, from the sunk story.
Designs IX. to XII. — Small J'illas in the Gothic Style. By E. B. Lamb, Esq.
These villas are some out of a number that were designed by Mr. Lamb for a gen-
tleman who had taken an ex-
tensive tract of land in Kent,
not far from Gravesend, on a
building speculation. As it
ultimately failed, none of them
were erected, except one,
which, with some variations,
was built by a gentleman in
the neighbourhood.
2370. Design IX. is shown
in elevation in fig. 2165. ; and
the plan, fig. 2 166., contains on
the principal floor an entrance-
porch, a ; staircase, b • lobby,
c; drawingroom, d ; dining-
room, communicating with
the drawingroom by folding
doors, e; kitchen,/; back-kitchen, g ; a gravelled terrace, li ; and a paved terrace, i.
2371. Remarks. The ar-
rangement is good. The pas-
sage between the kitchen and
the dining-room affords a
convenient way out to the
kitchen-garden, and there is
a door in the back-kitchen
which communicates with a
small kitchen court not shown
in the plan. The elevation
is picturesque, and though the
situation of the barge-board
may be objected to by the
rigid followers of Pugin, yet
what is to be done in a case
like this, where the roof pro-
jects as much as the chimney ?
2372. Design X. is shown
in elevation in fig. 21 67. ; and
the plan, fig. 2168., contains an entrance-porch, a ; lobby, b ; dining-room, c ; drawing-
room, d ; kitchen, e; back-kitchen,/; water-closet, with door to the kitchen-garden, o ;
stair to bed-rooms, h ; plant cabinets, i i i ; and paved terrace, with steps to the lawn, k.
2373. Remarks. The recesses, i i i, are intended as plant cabinets, with glass roofs,
the windows of the room forming ornamental Gothic screens glazed with long strips of
glass. If these cabinets are separated from the rooms by sliding sashes, they may be
taken away in summer, and the space added to the room.
1196
SUPPLEMENT.
2:374. Design XI. is shown in elevation in fig. 2169. : and the plan, fig. 21 70., con-
tains an entrance-porch, a; dining-room, b ; drawingroom, c; stair down to kitchens
and up to bed-rooms, d ; and glazed verandas,
open in front in summer, and closed by glass in
winter, e, e.
2375. Remarks. There is something grand in
this elevation, from the prevalence of vertical
masses, and the small proportion of wall pierced
with doors or windows, as compared with the
solid part. Add also, that both in the plan and
elevation the walls appear thicker than usual.
The design might crown the summit of one of
those low hills which often advance into the
plain from the lower part of ranges of moun-
tains ; such hills, sometimes rocky, sometimes
smooth, are frequently met with in the north of
Scotland. The unusual thickness of the walls is
required in consequence of their being of rubble.
The quoins are of scappled stone, and the mould-
ings and other dressings worked smooth or
finely tooled. The whole of the woodwork
throughout the house might be of larch, and, where it is used for doors, &c, it
should be either oiled or varnished ; painting would be quite unnecessary. The ap-
proach will be obtained of a very gradual ascent, so as to display the house in connexion
with the scenery, in a variety of combinations.
2376. Design XII. is shown in elevation in fig. 2171. ; and the plan, fig. 2172., con-
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS.
H97
tains an entrance-porch, «; hall and staircase, b ; dining-room, c; drawingroom, d;
library, c; reading-closets, f, g ; and conservatory, h. The dotted lines show the manner
in which the ceilings of these rooms are to be finished.
2377. Remarks. This design is chiefly to be valued for the ingenious manner in
which the space is disposed of. Like the last design, it seems peculiarly adapted for
crowning an eminence.
2173
3
Design XIII. — Sir John Robison's House, Randolph Crescent,Edinburgh. By John Milne,
Esq., Architect.
2378. Sir John Robison's House, Randolph Crescent, Edinburgh. This house is given
as an example of the most perfect application of the system of heating with hot air that
we have any where met with, except in the houses of the inventor, VV. Strutt, Esq., and
his friends in the neighbourhood of Derby. This house is also equally perfect in every
other respect ; and, in short, it is allowed to be the most complete street dwelling in
Edinburgh. It is a first class house, forming one of a crescent built on a very steep
bank on the river Leith, presenting three stories to the street, and six stories to the
river, on the sloping side behind. There are small gardens on the slope, and a sunk area
of two stories next the street. The following account was drawn up by John Milne, Esq.,
architect, Edinburgh, in November, 1839; and we had ourselves an opportunity of ex-
amining every part of the house in September, 1841, and found it exactly as described
by our correspondent. " Pursuant to your instructions, I applied to Sir John Robison
for the loan of the working-plans of his dwelling-house here, and for leave to view and
examine the house itself. Having obtained free access, and every information 1 required,
I have been enabled to make out the accompanying sections and relative details, figs.
2173. to 2184. In describing these, I shall confine myself to such points in the con-
struction or arrangement as appear to be improvements on the usual routine followed
in the laying out and fitting up of street houses of this class. The distribution of the
space is so managed, that, with the exception of two partitions in the first chamber
floor, which cross the floors without resting on them, all the internal walls reach from
the foundation to the roof. The two par-
titions above mentioned are likewise of stone,
and are supported in a manner which in-
sures their permanent stability. The walls
forming these partitions stand on cast-iron
beams, isolated from the floors, the joists of
which are supported by wooden beams placed
alongside, but not connected with the iron
beams, as shown in fig. 2173., in which m is
the cast-iron beam. The movements of the
flooring, therefore, are not communicated to
the partitions, which, not being subject to
vibration, remain secure. By this construc-
tion, also, the spreading of fire must be im- , , ,
. . j, r, ° , . „. . U, Wooden beams for supporting the floor.
pcded and danger lessened, as it affords the m, Isolated cast-iron beam for supporting the
means of continuing a stone staircase to the brick partition.
attic chambers; see section, fig. 2174., and section, fig. 2177., at the chamber floor.
2379. The System of Ventilation employed in this house appears to be as perfect as
can be desired ; as, while the mass of air in the rooms and passages is constantly under-
going renewal by the escape of the vitiated air above, and the admission of large supplies
of fresh air from below, no currents are perceived in the apartments, which, even when
crowded with company and amply lighted, preserve a remarkable freshness of atmo-
sphere. The sectional area of the cold-air passages is equal to nearly fourteen square
feet ; in calm weather, however cold the season, both passages are quite open.
This is effected by means of cylindrical flues of earthenware, nine inches in dia-
meter, built into the gables, in close proximity to the smoke flues of each room. The
lower ends of these ventilating flues open into the spaces between the ceilings of the
respective rooms and the floors of those above them ; and there is one or more of these
exit air-flues in each room, according to its size and use. The heated and vitiated
vapours pass upwards through the ceilings by a continuous opening of about one inch
and a half wide (behind one of the fillets of the cornice) all round the rooms, and
having thus passed into the space between the ceiling and the floor immediately above,
they ascend by the flues in the wall, and are discharged by them into the vacant space
between the ceilings of the attics and the roof; from whence they find their way through
the slates to the open air. The passage for the air through the cornice is not visible
from the floor of any of the rooms, as you will see in section, figs. 2174. and 2177., and
on a larger scale in fig. 2178. The air-flues are made to terminate above the ceilings of
13
rZJ
111)8
SUPPLEMENT.
2174
firrlion through the
Building on the lAn-.;
A I? in fig. 2175.
a. The cold-air passage
or tunnel from the
Harden opening into
the stove place ?«, tig.
•2175.
h. Situation of the stove.
c, Opening to the bot-
tom of smoke-flue for
the removal of depo-
siled soot.
rf, Opening, with sliding
damper, which, by ad-
mittrng air to the flue,
checks the draught
when the fire is too
strong.
e, Pipe which conveys t
the smoke from the
furnace into the flue.
/, Warm air chamber.
//, exit passage for
the warm air from the
stove into the well of
the staircase.
g. Opening in the ceil-
ing of the dining-room
all round it, by which
the vitiated airescapes
into
It, The ventilating flue
for the dining-room.
»', The ventilating flue
for back drawing-
room ; both terminat-
ing as at xx in fig.
2177.
X
■^w
the attics, and In-low the roof of the house, rather than at the chimney heads, in
order to prevent the possibility of smoke being ever brought down by reverse cur
rents; and an advantage is likewise gained in protecting the attic story from tb
cold which would otherwise be communicated from the roof during winter. Tb
the
he
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS.
1199
2175
Plan of the Kitchen Floor,
showing only half the thickness
of each gabte.
a, Sunk area.
b b b b. Cellars under the
foot-pavement of the street
in front. Two open into
the area, the others commu-
nicate with the interior.
c, d, Outer passages.
dd. Trap for shooting down
coals for the service of the
furnace.
e, Servants' hall, 19 feet by 14
feet.
/,#, A, Bed-places and press.
i", Press.
k, Flue of furnace.
m. Situation of heating appa-
ratus,
n, Inner lobby.
o, p, a. Presses,
r, Kitchen, 20 feet by 17 feet,
s, t, Open grate and oven,
u, Steaming apparatus and
hoi closet.
v, Ventilating flue from
kitchen ceiling.
vv, Smoke flue from laundry
below the kitchen.
w, Projection containing gas
cooking stoves.
x, y, Scullery, &c.
z, Staircase downwards to
ground floor, and upwards to
dining-room floor.
1, Housekeeper's room.
2, Bed alcove.
3, Press in passage.
continued supply of fresh air to the lower part of the house to replace that which
goes off by the ventilators and by the chimneys, is brought in from the garden behind
woo
SUPPLEMENT.
Plan of the Dining-room Floor and Entresol.
a, Street door, b. Sunk area.
C, Hall, 19 feet by 10 feet.
<t. Parlour, 19 feet (i inches by 19 feet.
'', Dining-room, 27 feet by 18 feet.
/. Well of main staircase, lfi feet by IS feet.
g, Butler'g |>antry in entresol
n. Stair to kitchen, from the landing in which is seen a water-closet.
f, Covered raglel (groove) in wall of staircase, in which the water service-pipe is situated.
j. Dotted lines showing the opening by which the wanned air enters the staircase under the stair.
the house l>y a passage, the sectional area of which is eight superficial feet. The cold
■ in admitted by this passage (or hy another similar one from the front of the house)
is made to pass over a stove in the chamber /», in fig. 2174., on the principle of the late
" illi.nn Strutt, Esq., of Derby, which has a surface of nearly ninety feet, by which means
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS.
1201
-r-r -r- t- i— -ur .-^. ....-
Section of the Building on the Line C D in fig. 2176.
<i, Laundry. 6, Wine-cellar, c, Stove-room, d, Entrance from area to kitchen floor.
A, Door to garden, e, Steps to garden. //, Bins of wine-cellar, t, Kitchen, k, Ventilating flue
from cooking-stoves.
/, Kxterior of staircase to the lower floors, m, Dining-room, n. Parlour.
o. Back drawingroom. oo, Front drawingroom. p, Chamber, q. Beam carrying the joisting.
r, Iron beam carrying brick partition and attic stairs, s, Attic staircase, t, Chamber.
v, Passage to rooms on attic floor. u>, Attic chamber, x x. Openings of ventilating flues over the
ceilings of attics, y. Cupola lighting the principal staircase, z, Chimney-heads.
a temperature varying from 64° to 70° of Fahrenheit is communicated to it. In very
cold weather 70° is occasionally given to compensate the cooling effect of the walls and
glass windows, so as to keep up the temperature at 60° throughout the house ; but
the usual temperature of the air issuing from the stove is as low as 64°. The whole of
this air is discharged into the well of the staircase, which forms a reservoir from which
the rooms draw the quantity required to maintain the upward currents in the chimneys
and in the ventilating flues. The air in the staircase finds its way into the apartments
by masked passages, of four or five inches wide and four feet long, over the doors, and by
openings left under each door of about one inch wide. The sectional areas of these
passages are more than equal to the areas of the chimney and ventilating flues ; there is,
7 n
120-2
SUPPLEMENT.
2178
2179
Section of Part of the Ceiling and
Floor over.
The object of this section is to show the
manner in which the air passes into
the vacuity between them by means
of concealed openings at n, which are
also shown at g in tig. 2174.
Continuation of the Section in the Direction of
C D in fig. 2176.
I, Main entrance under an open porch, b. Opening
in the side of the street for shooting down coaU,
with a cast-iron cover, c, Coal-cellar, d. Door and
window to the passage marked c in fig. 2175.
therefore, no rarefaction of the air within the" rooms, nor any tendency of the external
air to enter at chinks of windows, or other irregular apertures. The course of the air,
from the great aperture over the stove, through the staircase, over and under the
doors, into the rooms, and thence through the ceilings and upwards by the escape-
flues, is shown throughout both sections by the direction of the arrows; and the
quantity of escape is regulated by hand by means of throttle-valves at the mouth of
each escape-flue: hence, by opening or shutting these throttle-valves, the rate of
the ventilating current is augmented or diminished. In consequence of the peculiar
situation of this house, on the steep slope of the bank of the river Leith, there are two
complete stories below the level of the entrance from the street. This gives great ad-
vantage in the employment of Mr. Strutt's stove, for producing the temperature re-
quired to be given to the air so freely distributed in the upper parts of the building.
Circumstances might render this less easy in a house differently situated, and in some
cases it may be necessary to have recourse to hot- water pipes or other known methods of
communicating heat ; but, whatever means of heating may be employed, a proper system
of ventilation requires that the supply of fresh air should be large, and that the tempera-
ture of it at its issue from the stove be not higher than 70° of Fahr. In houses where
the supply of external air is more limited, and where a higher temperature is commu-
nicated to it by the heating apparatus, its salubrity is always more or less impaired, as,
even at a temperature far below that of boiling water or of steam pipes, the air of towns
begins to give out unpleasant effluvia from the animal and organic matters held in sus-
pension in it ; and when a high temperature has been attained, air becomes so absorbent
of moisture, that it acts unfavourably on the lungs of those by whom it is breathed.
Again, when a heating apparatus of small extent of surface is used, and a small supply
of external air is admitted, this air is usually raised to a high temperature ; and, as a
sufficient supply of air must necessarily get in somewhere else, to enable the chimneys of
the house to draw, the hot air coming from the stove is speedily diluted by the cold air
entering furtively. The same temperature may be partially produced as in the ar-
rangement above described ; but the unequal distribution of the hot and cold currents
causes discomfort in some parts, while the over-heating of the portion which passes the
stove renders it less salubrious, and sometimes offensive. It is imagined by many that
air is not vitiated by artificial heat when under 100° of Fahr. ; but this is a mistake, as,
besides the ill effects arising from its too great avidity for moisture, a heat considerably
less than this is sufficient to extricate effluvia from it, as has been already observed :
hence, a copious supply of air at a moderate temperature is more agreeable and more
conducive to health than an atmosphere of the same temperature formed by a mixture
of cold and over-heated air. [On the occasion of our visit to Edinburgh, in September
last, we took the opportunity of enquiring whether experience had suggested any altera-
tions or improvements in these arrangements. Sir John Robison's reply was, that, if
the house were to be built again, the only difference he should make would be to form
the air-passages still wider.]
2380. The Kitchen is ventilated on the same principle as the rooms above stairs. One
flue proceeds from the ceiling over the fireplace, and another from over the gas cooking
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS.
1203
Section through Gas cooking
Stove Table.
a, Tube of sheet iron, thirty
inches long by four inches'
diameter, open at the bot-
tom and covered at top by
wire gauze, through which
the gas, mixed with com.
mon air, passes before it
is inflamed.
b, Gas-pipe and regulating
stop-cock.
rf, Siphon, forming a wa-
ter-joint to allow of the
escape of condensed water.
c, Nozzle of gas-pipe, ad-
mitting gas to mix and
rise with the air in a.
stoves, seen in section fig. 2177., and alsoin fig. 2180. The first flue is built in the gable,
close to the smoke-flue ; and the second passes upwards by the back of the cistern and pipes
of a water-closet, defending them from the action of frost in
winter. The gas cooking stoves are of the form which you have
already described (p. 690. ). They are eight in number, the
mouth of each being four inches in diameter, a size which
experience has shown to be the most useful. An improvement
has lately been introduced in these stoves, which consists in
spreading a layer of fine gravel, or coarse sand, of half an inch
thick on the wire gauze tops. This completely protects them
from oxidation and over-heating, yet does not interfere with
the free passage of the current of mixed gas and air. The
kitchen fireplace is no larger than is requisite for roasting ; all
the other processes being performed either in the oven, the
steam vessels, or on the gas stoves. These stoves are placed
in the bay of a large window, giving the cook the advantage
of a good light above the level of the pans. A close boiler
at the back of the grate affords steam for the cooking vessels,
and for a hot closet. This boiler also contains a coil of iron
tubing, through which the water of a bath, placed in a dress-
ing-room in the chamber floor, is made to circulate when a
hot bath is wanted.
238 1 . The House is lighted by Gas in every part ; but no
offensive vapour nor inconvenience of any kind appears ever
to be felt from it. The distribution pipes are of greater
diameter than are generally employed, and the pressure or
current thereby so equalised, that no sinkings or flutterings
of the flame are caused by the opening and shutting of doors.
The forms and proportions of the Argand burners and glass
chimneys are also so arranged as to effect nearly a maximum
development of light (of an agreeable hue) from the gas, and
to prevent any disengagement of sooty vapour; that this last object has been obtained,
the perfect purity of tint of the white and gold ceilings in the drawingrooms is a satis-
factory proof. The mirrors over the chimneys
have statuary marble frames, as shown in fig.
2181., and each chimney-piece has two gas-lights.
The convenience and economy of gas light being
undeniable, it is important to know that in cer-
tain circumstances, of easy attainment, it may be
rendered as elegant and agreeable a light as any
that can be produced from more expensive ma-
terials. A paper on the subject of the best mode
of employing gas for illumination, by Sir J. Robi-
son, appeared in Jameson s Journal, and in the Me-
chanic's Magazine, in 1839 and 1840.
2382. In the Distribution of Water through the
house, the pipes and cisterns are, as fir as possible,
placed out of the reach of frost. Instead of the
ball-cocks usually placed in cisterns, an apparatus
represented on an enlarged scale in figs. 2183. and
2184. is used. It has the advantage of not being
subject to wear or to leak, and is not liable to
cease to act from becoming stiff.
2383. Chimney- flues. As before mentioned
n „ L- a c ■ «-, j the marble jambs, with a narrow border
(§ 2379. ), the chimney-flues tor carrying off heated moulding.
vapours from the ceilings are made of cylinders of *> Mirror.
red earthenware, of eight or nine inches' diameter ; those by which the smoke of the fires
is carried away are cylinders of fire-brick clay from two to three inches thick, according
to their diameters, which vary from ten to seven inches according to the size of the fire-
place they belong to. In each fireplace, where the throat of the chimney is gathered
together over the grate, there is a valve made of rolled iron plate, which fits into a
cast-iron seat fixed in the brickwork : when this valve is in its seat neither soot nor
back smoke can pass; and when it is thrown back the passage to the flue is unob-
structed. (See fig. 2182)
2384. Escape of melted Snow. There is a provision for the free escape of melted snow
from the roof, which, I am informed, has been copied from the Derby Infirmary. It
2181
Drawingroom Fireplace,
a, Flat marble frame, similar in quality to
1204
SUPPLEMENT.
2182
2183
Part of a Water Cistern, showing fke Substitute for
ike common Cock,
a, The discharging orifice, shown enlarged in lip.
2164. 6, The float which, when it sinks, raises
the cross-piece at <«, and opens the bullet valve,
it. The end of the lever, which operates on the
wires and cross-jSiece. e. Communication with
service-pipe, r, Air-vessel, to prevent rupture
of the service-pipe by sudden closing of the
valve.
Section of the Throat
of a Chimney.
a. The valve-seat and
valve when shut.
b, The valve when
open. A short chain
hangs from the un-
der side of the
valve, by which it is
pulled down to the
seat.
seems so simple and obvious that it may be wondered why
it is not universally adopted. It consists in covering all the
gutters and the openings of the vertical pipes with thin
boards laid on cross bearers. When snow falls, it lies on
these boards and leaves a clear passage underneath, by
which, when a sudden thaw takes place, the water runs
freely away, instead of being impeded by a mass of half-
melted snow, which would otherwise choke up the passages,
and might cause an overflow to penetrate the boards on
which the slates are laid, and to do damage to the ceilings
and walls below.
2385. The Ironmongery. Among the excellent articles
of ironmongery used in fitting up this house, I may notice
.. .. , , . , _,. ,, ., .i* , Enlarged View of the Termma-
the mortise-locks on the doors of all the rooms, as they have tian & the Discharge Pipe at
the advantage of being let into the doors without weakening a, in fig. 2183.
them, the latch being contained in a brass tube seven eighths
of an inch in diameter and eight inches long, and requiring only a hole of an inch
diameter for its reception. The latch is pressed out by a helical wire spring lodged within
the tube i the action of the knob against this spring is particularly agreeable to the hand,
as there is no sensible friction. The doors are locked or bolted by a small bolt which
fixes the latch bolt. The two-way door-springs on the doors in the lobby and passages
are also remarkably good (made by Beattie, Canal Street, Edinburgh); they retain the
doors in their middle position with sufficient firmness to prevent them from yielding to
the ordinary pressure of the wind, on an external door being opened; yet they do
not oppose an increasing resistance when pushed either way towards the wall, and there-
fore oil'er no difficulty to servants when passing through them with both hands occupied
in carrying any thing. The locks were furnished by W. and P. Steele, George Street,
Edinburgh, and the door-springs by J. Beattie, ('anal Street, Edinburgh.
2386. The Joiners' Work. As provision is made in the construction of the house for
an abundant supply of external air to maintain the necessary upward currents in all the
chimneys and ventilating flues, cue has been taken to prevent the access of air by irre-
gular entrances. The window frames are very carefully fitted ; and of the French sashes
on the drawingroom floor, one leaf only in each room is made to open. In the usual
Way in which French sashes are constructed, it is nearly impossible to make them weathcr-
liglit, as, when pressed by the wind they yield sufficiently at the joints to allow of rain
being blown in. To prevent this lure the leaf opens outward ; and its frame being
beveled, the joint becomes (lie closer the more pressure it sustains from the wind.
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 1205
2387. I shall conclude these details by mentioning the way in which the drawing-
room suite of rooms has been painted, as it appears to me to be new, to produce a good
effect, and to be very durable. The walls have been prepared with several coats of
white lead grained to imitate Morocco leather ; on this a pattern of gilded rosettes has
been laid, and the whole varnished with copal (including the gilding). Another
pattern lias then been superadded in flat white. The result gives the appearance of
a lace dress over satin and spangles, which harmonises with the doors, cornices, &c,
which are painted in flat white, with gilt mouldings. — J. M. Princes Street, Edinburgh."
2388. The Painting and Paperiny were executed under the direction of that eminent
decorator Mr. Hay, whose scientific work on the subject of his profession, The Laws of
harmonious Colouring, we have frequently referred to in the body of this work. On
applying to Mr. Hay, he sent us the following particulars : — " There was nothing very
much out of my usual practice in the painting done in Sir John Itobison's house in
Randolph Crescent, except the walls of the drawingrooms and staircase. The bed-
rooms were done in the usual way ; namely, ceilings sized on two coats of oil paint ; walls
papered with a white, embossed, satined ground paper, with small brown sprigs, and the
woodwork painted white, and finished with copal varnish. The dining-room and Sir
John's own room were both done in imitation of wainscot, with white ceilings var-
nished. The staircase ceilings and cornices, painted white and flatted ; and the walls
and woodwork painted also white, and varnished with copal. The drawingrooms and
ante-room were all painted white ; the ceilings and cornices, as well as the woodwork, being
finished flat, and heightened with gilding. The walls are, as I have already said, rather
peculiar in their style of painting, The groundwork is rendered regularly uneven by
being granulated, by working it over with the point of a dry brush, immediately after
applying the two last coats of paint. This is partly varnished and partly flat, the flat
parts forming large rosettes. Between these rosettes, are smaller ones gilded; not in
the base metal used upon paper hangings, but in sterling gold leaf. This style of
decorative painting, from the great body of paint employed in producing the granu-
lated surface, the copal varnish, and the gold leaf, must be of the most durable de-
scription. I may here mention, that, during the last two or three years, I have painted
a very great number of drawingrooms in various styles, some with rich borders, others
in my patent imitation of damask, and a few in styles similar to that employed upon Sir
J. Itobison's ; and have papered very few. I feel very sure that as the advantages of
painting over papering, especially in the public rooms of a mansion, become generally
known, the latter style of decoration will be entirely given up. As to the colouring of
ceilings, that must be left in a great measure to the taste of the proprietor; as some like
pure white, others delicate tints, and a few go the length of the most intense colours, or
polychrome. With this last class I myself agree; but I am at the same time aware, that
if this be not done with the strictest attention to the laws of harmonious colouring, the
effect must be bad. It would be like a person unacquainted with the science of music,
running his fingers at random over the keys of a powerful organ. In the one case, white
or a light tint is better than colours ; and in the other, silence better than such an at-
tempt at music. — D. Ii. Hay. Edinburyh, January 13. 1840."
Design XIV. — A Land- Steward's House in the Neighbourhood of Inverness.
The main features of this design were given by the gentleman by whom the house
is to be occupied, and the arrangement and details were improved under our direction.
The elevation, which is by Mr. Lamb, is shown in fig. 2185. The simplicity of the
general outline, and the compact rectangular form of the building, arc favourable for
economical execution, and for interior warmth ; and we think the mode of beating the
air of the hall and staircase by an air-stove in the sunk story, and by the same means
preserving the water in the cisterns from freezing, is simple and likely to be effective. ,
The serving-room, and the butler's pantry, are placed conveniently for the dining-room.
Three sides of the building will appear rising from a terrace, on which, near the con-
servatory, there will be some flower-beds. In order that this house may be in some de-
gree fire-proof, the floors of the office, the nursery, the kitchens, and all the bed-rooms,
are proposed to be laid with stucco. (§ 2457.) On the drawingroom front there will
be a terrace garden, connected with an orchard and kitchen-garden by an arcade of
trelliswork covered with creepers, and the whole will be sheltered by a plantation, in
which will be introduced all the trees and shrubs which will endure the open air in the
climate of Inverness, and are procurable in British nurseries.
2389. Accommodation. In the basement floor, fig. 2186., there is a scullery with
a sink and plate-rack (and it may also contain a baking-oven and boiler), a ; back-
stair, b\ wash-house, with fixed washing-troughs supplied with pipes of hot and cold
water, c ; servants' hall, d ; and White's warm-air stove, e. The flue from this stove
1206
SUITLEMENT.
is to be conducted up the adjoining pier, and close to the cisterns of the three water-
closets ; while the heated air is to ascend to the hall above, v, in fig. 2187. This floor
also contains a small door to the coal-cellar, for procuring coals for the hot-air stove,/;
and a coal-shoot, g. The cover to this shoot or opening, by which the coals are to be
introduced, is a plate of cast iron, made to lift up when the coals are to be thrown down ;
it may form the lower step to the side entrance, or it may serve as part of the floor or
path before the steps : by means of an iron rod, staple, and padlock, it can easily be
secured inside. A closet is shown at h : a servants' water-closet at i ; the coal-cellar at
k ; wine-cellar at I; beer-cellar at m; stoke-hole to the conservatory at n ; conservatory
2186
i ■—* r
furnace at o ; cook's pantry at p; and kitchen at q; the kitchen grate being supposed
to contain a boiler behind, and a roasting-oven on one side. There are two back en-
trances ; our tin,. ugh the back-kitclien, a, and theother through the wash-house, c ; both
these doors open into a small kitchen-court, round which are ranged a place for ashes,
a cleaning-room, bottle-rack, &c, peat-house, wood-house, &c.
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS.
1207
The principal floor, fig. 21 87., contains an entrance-lobby, r ; a lobby to the business
room, s ; a separate entrance to the business room, t ; water-closet, u ; beneath which
is one for the servants, and over which is one for the bed-rooms ; the cisterns and pipes
being kept from frost by the heat of the stove, e, in fig. 2186. ; hall and staircase, v ;
business-room, w ; drawingroom, x ; and dining-room, y. By introducing a temporary
screen of glass, or sliding-doors of glass, so as to separate the bay in this room, a green-
house may be obtained in the winter season, and the same thing might be effected in
the drawingroom. The object in separating the plants from the general atmosphere
of the rooms is, to preserve them from the dust and dry air which they contain, which
is so unsuitable for plants, and partly also to make sure of their being kept near the
light. There is a school-room at z, and a bed-room connected with it at $• ; a staircase
to the bed-rooms at 1 ; a swing-door, 2, to exclude draughts of air and smells from the
kitchen or wash-house; a serving-room to the dining-room, 3, which may have a hot
closet and shelf, heated by the circulation of hot water from the cistern at the back of
the kitchen fireplace below ; and a butler's pantry, 4. Above this floor are three good
bed-rooms, with dressing-rooms, a nursery, and three small bed-rooms.
2390. Remarks. The accommodation and its arrangement being adapted to a parti-
cular case, have been studied with the greatest care, and we consider that the result is
satisfactory.
Design XV.— A Villa in the Italian Style. By E. B. Lamb, Esq., F.I.B. A.
2391. The Object of this design is to show the marked distinction of the Italian style
of architecture, as applicable to a moderate-sized English villa, where utility is more
attended to than expensive decoration. Fig. 2190. is the elevation of the garden front.
The style of architecture intended to be conveyed by the elevation is decidedly of
Italian origin, and the general form perfectly simple, the variety in the external eleva-
tions being produced by the terraces and projecting steps. The small balconies of the
chamber floor also tend to enliven the design, and are always an agreeable addition to abed-
room. If it were desirable to make the building fire-proof, or nearly so, the staircases
should be of stone, the walls of solid brickwork or stone, and the joists, girders, rafters, &c,
of cast and wrought iron. If the ceilings are well plastered, they will be sufficient to cut
off any communication of fire. Unless very considerable expense is incurred, there must
be a certain quantity of combustible material in the construction of a house, such as floor
boards, window frames and shutters, doors, &c, but by some little contrivances, if fire
should happen, it might be confined to one spot, and would thus soon be extinguished.
120S
SUPPLEMENT.
2188
I S
L_J^
(H&t-Q.
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS.
1209
Except in bed-rooms, the furniture of
private houses is not usually very com-
bustible, unless some pains are taken to
ignite it.
2S92. Accommodation. On the plan
of the principal floor, tig. 2188., are
shown : a, the approach road; b, the road
to the under hall; ccc,steps and land-
ings to the hall ; </, great landing ; c,
porch ; /', hall ; g g, stairs from the un-
der hall ; h It. h, corridor ; i, breakfast-
room ; k, drawingroom ; /, library; m,
dining-room; n, principal stairs; o,
back-stairs ; p. dressing-room ; q, water-
closet ; r, arcade ; s, landing ; t t, steps
to the lawn, &c. ; u u, terraces ; t>, steps
to conservatories ; w, steps to billiard-
room.
In the basement plan, fig. 2189., a is
the approach road ; b, the road to the
carriage porch ; c, the carriage porch ;
d, the under hall, with the staircases
leading to the upper hall ; e, alcoves
with seats ; this forms part of the found-
ation of the upper steps, and, for the
sake of giving some pictorial effect, has
been opened in this manner : f, kitchen ;
g, scullery ; h, pantry ; i, larder ; It, ser-
vants' hall ; /, housekeeper's room ; mi,
bed-room; n, passage ; o, stairs to the wine
and beer cellars ; p, china closet ; q, stores ;
r, stairs ; s, water-closet, and coat and
boot room; 1 1 t, coal and wood cellars;
u u, archways shown in the elevation,
fig. 2190. ; v, w, x, z, a', men-servants'
bed-rooms; y, stairs from the terrace;
over z and a1 is the billiard-room ; b',
yard ; c', d', e', under-gardencr's rooms ;
/', conservatory vestibule, with the stairs
to the terrace; this vestibule should
have an entire glass roof, but the walls,
stairs, and other parts, should be deco-
rated with sculpture and architecture,
interspersed with flowers in ornamental
pots or beds ; </, conservatories. The
principal chamber floor contains six bed-
rooms and three dressing-rooms ; and
the attics contain four maid-servants'
bed-rooms.
2393. Description. The house is
adapted to a situation near a high road,
within a short distance of a large town,
but placed sufficiently far from the road to prevent any annoyance from the dust, or
from idle gazers. The terrace walls divide the pleasure-grounds from the entrance
drive, giving as much seclusion to the grounds as possible. The principal floor is raised
upon terraces, as the views from the windows range a considerable distance beyond
the private grounds, and can be seen properly only from an elevated situation, such
as the terraces afford. The terraces, being extensive, afford an opportunity of obtaining
considerable variety in the prospects, and, by descending to the lawn and pleasure-
grounds, the scene becomes immediately changed, and we have numerous beautiful
views of another description. The main entrance is placed on the north-east, and is
ascended to from the double approach road by a double flight of broad steps to the
principal hall, landing, and porch. The porch is entered through the centre arch, which
is five feet wide, the side arches being smaller, and enclosed at the bottom, about three feet
from the ground, by open paneling and pedestals bearing vases for flowers. The hall is
entered through folding sash-doors, and is otherwise lighted by the side windows, which
7 K
1210
SUPPLEMENT.
2190
COTTAGE VILLAS AMD yiLLA^. 1211
correspond in size with the small arches of the porch. These windows are filled in with
stained glass. The double lines on the plan mark the situation of stone paneling, or balus-
trading, terminating at the ends in pedestals bearing appropriate sculpture, or candelabra.
This balustrade is the protection from the stone stairs to the lower hall, of which more
hereafter. It will be seen from the plan, that the hall forms part of the corridor,
extending the lenzth of this floor, and lighted at each end by rich stained glass windows.
The hall ceiling is flat, divided into nine panels, by four beams intersecting each other:
these beams should be of wood, or in imitation of wood ; and in the centre is a panel
with a circular shield within a wreath, the shield bearing the family arms painted of
the proper colours. The ceiling should be supported by a deep bold block cornice, in
imitation of stone. The walls are of stone, or in imitation of stone, and jointed. The
corridor should be finished to harmonise, both in construction and decoration, with the
hall ; and at each end might be placed a vase for flowers or a statue; the vase, perhaps,
would be most suitable, as in this situation any object must be almost always presented
to the eye in shadow; but where the outline is of particular beauty, and the whole
subject does not depend so much upon minute detail as pictorial effect, in no situation
can it be better viewed ; and, in fact, figures have frequently a more imposing effect
when so placed than when in full light. A vase situated here might be properly and
agreeably used for containing flowers ; or a pedestal, with a glass globe, containing gold
fish, would look well. The paving of the hall and corridors should be in patterns,
resembling in their general form the panels of the ceiling : this may be effected with
Portland stone, and any other stone which would contrast with it ; or, if covered with
oil-cloth, simple patterns are best. All the doors from the corridor should be framed
in three panels, and moulded ; they should be of oak, and should be circular-beaded
to correspond with the windows, so that all the openings should be of the same form
on this floor. The handles should be of wood ; ebony outside, and cut glass within
the rooms. The inside panels of the doors may be ornamented with gilt ornaments,
or painted upon the oak ground. If painted, the sort of ornament most suited for this
purpose is a flat pattern without projecting shadows, but merely depending upon
contrast of colour for effect, it being part of the architectural decoration : imitations of
real shadows, or a desire to give relief to flat objects, which, if embossed, would project
various shadows, is mean and unarchitectural, and can nerer produce the effect desired.
As a general practice, the imitation, by painting, of wood, stone, or other material, is
not satisfactory to the mind, and conveys mean impressions ; but increasing the beauty
of wood by varnish or polish, and of stone by delicate work, is far more suitable, as
presenting the actual material without any attempt to deceive. All deceptions in
architecture fail in producing the desired effect. Painting would also become infinitely
more beautiful, if applied in a legitimate manner as a decoration, and not merely as a
disguise to other materials, and more frequently to bad work.
The library should be furnished with book-cases all round the room ; but great
attention should be paid to their composition and arrangement, so that each side of the
room should be of an equally consistent architectural character. As the peculiar con-
struction of the room will not allow of recesses in the walls for book-shelves, without
considerable expense, we must endeavour to produce as much effect as we can by
detached book-cases, projecting from the walls yet sufficiently connected so as to pre-
serve the unity of the design. The skirting of the room must necessarily form the
most important connexion ; by the breaking of which round all the cases, and then again
round the chimney-piece, though in this place of a different material, the line of
connexion is immediately preserved in a satisfactory manner to the eye. Another
connexion may be made in the cornice ; the impost of the arches may very properiy
form the cornice of all the cases, and this would be quite high enough for book-cases
in a private library. Over the chimney-piece might be a large mirror, or a piece of
sculpture, and on the book-cases might be arranged, in a pleasing manner, the busts of
some of the most eminent authors. The ceiling should be paneled, and coloured in
imitation of wood ; the principal beams might be oak, and the panels of a lighter
wood. Some few raised ornaments might be placed upon the ceiling, and painted in
various colours, and some gilt. Painted ceilings in allegorical subjects, or skies, clouds,
moons, stars, and other things of the like nature, have happily gone out of fashion.
Nothing can be so ill adapted to a ceiling as a painting with figures and architectural
subjects ; the situation being such, that when you do strain your neck to obtain a glimpse
of them, and endeavour to unravel their mysteries, you are generally puzzled to fix a
point where the design can be viewed without distortion. The painted ceilings of the
British Museum are sufficient evidence of the absurdity of this practice. The custom
is now completely altered, and from the dark gloomy coloured and painted ceilings
of the seventeenth century, the opposite extreme is frequently taken, and flat unmeaning
1212 SUPPLEMENT.
plaster, with wiry ornaments which it requires the keenest vision to decipher occupy the
place of learned allegorical mysteries.
In the dining-room many sculptural subjects may decorate the walls, and the ceiling
may he well and appropriately adorned with heraldic devices. The entrance to the
room is in the centre, and on each side should be placed pedestals, or side tables in
lieu of the large sideboard, which could not be so well placed in this room. These
little circumstances may frequently be the means of producing something out of the
common way in composition ; and in this room the door forms such an important
feature that its position should not be altered. The space on each side is sufficiently
wide to admit of handsome designs for the demi-sideboards, where as much display of
plate may be made as any person can possibly wish for. At the back of each might be
a large plate of looking-glass, which would greatly add to the splendour of the furnished
sideboards. Much may be done in this way with good effect, provided a little thought
were given to the subject. The windows, which should all open outside, should be glazed
with some stained glass and some plain figured glass ; the lower portions of the sashes
should be plate glass : and in the construction of the sashes, and also in the glazing of
them, care should be taken that no sash-bar should come in the way of the sight of a
person of ordinary height, either sitting or standing ; and that the stained glass should
not be placed in the direction of a person's sight, so as to obstruct his view, except in
side borders : of course, there may be exceptions to this rule.
From the dining-room is an entrance to the loggia, the ceiling of which should be
paneled, so as to harmonise with the rooms to which it is attached ; the decorations
should partake of some of those of the other three rooms, but still, as the loggia is a sub-
ordinate object, its ornaments should be unobtrusive. The heraldic devices of the dining-
room, the sombre yet marked display of the library, and the elegant lightness of the
drawingroom, should all be united in this loggia ; and at the same time we should bear
in mind, that, as it is an entrance porch from the external part of the house, the walls
should be of stone, and in the ceiling alone can the connecting links be preserved.
The drawingroom, k, in fig. 2188., may be decorated upon the strictest architectural
principles, and still the lightness so necessary for this room may be maintained : beauti-
fully grained wood may be distinctly shown in the ceiling, as the apparent strength
might require ; this wood may be moulded and decorated with gilt and painted carved
work. Satinwood panels, with elegantly designed scroll ornaments upon them, would
have a rich and beautiful effect ; the centre panel should have a rich flower, from which
should hang the chandelier. The skirting of the room might be in imitation of Sienna
marble, and the walls might partake of the hues most prominent in the ceiling, and so as
to combine with the skirting. The centre panel of the door might be looking-glass,
upon which should be placed some decoration, picked out in appropriate colours. The
windows should have some ornamental stained glass in the upper parts ; and much deco-
ration and taste might be shown, not only in the arrangement of the stained glass, but
also in the form of the inside of the window-frames, bearing in mind always, that al-
though the general character of the building may be marked as of a particular style, yet
the spirit of that style may be strictly followed up without any of the minor details being
copied from known examples. However much we may err in our endeavours to produce
something new, this should not deter us from persevering; and, if we do so upon fixed and
sound principles, success must ultimately be the result of our endeavours.
The decorations of this room may appear at first rather extravagant; but, when we
consider the means that are employed for the purpose, it will be found, that in a house
where architectural decoration is required, the means here employed are not too great
for the end in view. Looking-glass, judiciously applied, it is scarcely necessary to
remark, gives great splendour to a room.
The chimney-piece I would wish to be of Sienna marble, or, at least, the lower portion
of it, which should be a continuation of the skirting or plinth of the room : this forms the
connecting link between the walls and the chimney-piece, and this, in an architectural point
ill view, is of the greatest importance. The upper portion of the chimney-piece may be
ol statuary marble : it then becomes a separate part of the design, or, in fact, a part
added for a particular purpose to the plinth, which plinth then holds its proper situation
in the architecture of the room. It is the bearing part, the base of the whole, and its
office should be distinctly marked. A distinct material can be used for the upper part
ot the chimney-piece with the greatest propriety ; for, as the walls of the room, the plinth,
and the ceiling, are of different materials, a variety or contrast in this situation will be
quite admissible. Connecting lines in the general composition, masses of colour, variety
"f material, and a single prominent feature, make up the whole of architectural design.
This single prominent feature is the leading object from which all others emanate, and
it unites itself in its form and colour with the surrounding objects. Suppose, for instance,
the chimney-piece were made the most prominent feature in a room, the lines of the plinth
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 1213
are continued round, and the upper portion is repeated in other objects in form and
colour, but in a less decorated manner, as they recede from the main feature : they
continue round the room till the least decorative parts, as they radiate from the centre,
meet and unite in each other. The blending of form and colour is much more difficult
in architecture than in painting. In the former, the crude nature of the materials, the
limited scale it must be brought to, and the necessity of making numerous and frequent
changes, are disadvantages difficult to surmount, and only, perhaps, to be properly sur-
mounted in the actual building; but in painting, the subject is in the hands of the artist
at once, and when once finished no change can take place in it.
The breakfast-room, i, in fig. 2188., requires but few words, as what has already been
said applies as much to this room as to the others. In many of the buildings designed
in the present day, too much attention and expense have been bestowed on the exterior;
and when you enter the house, after seeing the hall and staircase, few of the rooms pre-
sent a better appearance than those of the meanest cottage : a cornice, with some en-
richments, but very moderately applied, and frequently in doubtful taste, and a centre
flower, supplied from the plasterer's stores, are usually the utmost decorations, even in large
houses. The ceiling is flat, and as white as possible ; but the walls are papered with
rich papers and gilt mouldings by the professional decorator. Now, it must have been
observed by nearly every person, that the bareness of the ceiling never unites with the
rich covering of the walls. Let us spare a little expense externally (and frequently it
may be spared without being missed), and apply it to internal decoration. Let us be
consistent in our designs; and, if we have the means of giving a princely appearance to
the exterior, let us remember that it should only prepare us for equal, if not superior,
display within. The resources should be carefully husbanded, that the whole design
may be in proper unison, admitting only just such discords as are sufficient to prevent
monotony, and give zest to the general effect of the composition.
The principal stairs, n, in fig. 2188., should be of stone; the first flight enclosed, as
shown in the plan, for the dressing-room, p. The upper part of the staircase may be
open ; and, as these stairs lead to the bed-rooms, only a moderate degree of decoration
will be sufficient for them ; but some basso-relievo may be very properly placed here,
and some attention should be paid to the ceilings and walls, so as to preserve the strictest
unity in the design. The back stairs, o, will be enclosed by a swing door. These stairs
lead from the basement to the different floors of the house.
The landing, s, in fig. 2188., from the arcade or loggia, r, is made broad and ample,
as it will form a delightful situation for flowers, for vases, or pieces of sculpture, or for
many other subjects of interest, which could not be placed in the open grounds. This,
with the terraces, u u, if supplied with seats of an architectural character, would form
very agreeable lounges when the grounds were too damp to walk in. The terrace from
the dining-room is properly terminated by the billiard-room, and that from the drawing-
room by the conservatory. The basement plan, fig. 2189., shows the entrance to the
conservatory at/', and the conservatory, g'. All the terraces are approached from the
grounds in the manner clearly indicated by the plan. — E. B. L.
Design X fl. — A small Gothic Villa, suited to the Suburbs of a large Town. By E. B.
Lamb, Esq., F.I.B.A.
The elevation is shown in fig. 2191. As a general remark, perhaps you will allow
me to say a word or two on the wood-engravings. Frequently the artist who draws the
design on the wood, previously to the cutting, from a want of knowledge of architectural
forms, or, perhaps, in many instances it may be carelessness, absolutely puts into the
drawing the very things I have been writing against, as in the instance pointed out in
the windows of the keeper's lodge, § 2335. in p. 1175. In this design, fig. 2191., the
parapet appears like a Grecian guilloch instead of Gothic perforated paneling ; the
arches do not present the easy curve of the Gothic four-centred arch, and the scroll label
over the projecting bays assumes also a different character. In other respects, this is a
good specimen of the art It is rather provoking to see sometimes such mistakes that
the character of a design is completely altered : but I will not now bring a list of
grievances forward ; the subjects, I have no doubt, are difficult for wood-engravers, and,
at. any rate, I cannot complain more than others.
The intention of this design is to show an ornamental style of architecture, to be
executed in a substantial manner at comparatively small cost, as all the external decora-
tions can be executed in Coade's terra cotta, which is certainly more durable than some
real stone : the colour can be made of any tint ; and, as the material is burnt in a kiln,
it is harder than most stone, and much less porous. It is also much better than common
cement, as it does not require colouring.
2394. Accommodation. In the ground plan, fig. 2192., a is the porch ; b, the hall ;
1214
SUPPLEMENT.
'<, corridor; d, lobby to the staircase; e, staircase; /, dining-room; g, drawingroom
ft, library; i, conservatory; k, arcade; /, landing and steps down to the grounds ; m,
landing, or terrace, and steps to the grounds from the conservatory; nw, areas; oo,
sunk or sloped ground to give light and ventilation to the basement ; and p. approach
road. i > rr
2395. Description. To the entrance of every house a porch is not only a luxury,
Out ls necessary to protect the house from cold, and to form a suitable' shelter in
< H-Munt weather. The entrance archway of this porch, a, should be the largest opening
UHS tront, and it should be conspicuously decorated, in order that it may at once mark
«M Principal entrance. In the gable there should be a panel, with an enriched shield,
motto, crest, or other mark, distinguishing the owner. On the apex of the gable would
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS.
1215
W'"r
be the best place for the crest. It may be objected to by some that heraldic devices have
the appearance of family pride, when conspicuously displayed in their buildings ; but
this is not considered to be the case by architects and antiquarians. They are forms
and decorations intimately associated with the style of architecture in which they are
employed, and constitute some of the most interesting and picturesque combinations.
In ancient architecture, they are frequently the only means by which we can trace the
founder of a building, or the contributor to its decoration or enlargement : in those days,
brass plates, with huge letters setting forth the names of benefactors, were seldom used,
as in the present time, in which the useful decoration is seldom properly applied, but
the brazen name shines forth in the most glaring manner. Heraldic forms, monograms,
rebuses, and other devices, in addition to rich sculptures and appropriate foliage, form
1216 SUPPLEMENT.
the most interesting Bubjects fox Gothic buildings; but none should be used which
could not be shown as perfectly consistent, and connected, either with the building as a
work of line art, or with the founder as the badges of his family, his name, or his occu-
pation. This was the custom of the " Masonic Craft : " but mark the difference of the
present time. The noble buildings of antiquity are copied, not only in their windows,
doors, and gables, but in their heraldic emblems ; and frequently we see the anus of
monarchs, palaces, and cities, monasteries, abbots, and colleges, jumbled together in one
confused mass on a modern domestic building, which, with a little thought, might have
been appropriately decorated with the founder's own devices. In this porch I would
have the groining executed either in stone or in terra cotta, and not in plaster or papier-
mache (the latter method is now adopted at Ripon Minster for restoring the groining
of the transepts); and at the angles, suitable sculpture in corbels, arms, bosses, &c. The
ribs of the groining might be executed on the same principle as in ancient buildings, and
the interstices built with squared chalk ; a common practice with the freemasons, and
very suitable from its lightness, and, if not exposed to the weather, durability ; and each
gusset being perfectly independent of the rib, this method is found to be sufficiently strong.
All the heraldry should be properly emblazoned, and not indicated by the modern
method, which is poor and insipid, compared with the effect produced by the combina-
tion of colours and gilding. A little colour in the groining, and all the proper joints of
the masonry, showing the principle of the construction, is highly satisfactory to the
mind : again, in the masonry, small forms of stone, in this situation, would be most
pleasing, as indicating a lighter method of construction in this manner than could be
produced by ponderous masses of material ; the latter, presenting a large surface to the
eve, conveys an idea of immense thickness, and our sensations are unpleasing, from the
apparent insufficiency of the walls, buttresses, or other supports, to bear the burden. At
the same time, and probably from the same cause, the large masses do not harmonise
with the small general forms so well as small masses. I have mentioned sculpture as
appropriate decoration, in foliage, flowers, fruit, and heraldic emblems : the judicious
study of ancient examples, for their forms, would be excellent, but then the spirit that dic-
tated the design, and the hand that executed the work, should be clearly understood and
impressed upon the artist, that he may do as has been before done, viz. invent new
forms, and execute them in the same bold manner, without stooping to the lazy expe-
dient of copying, or rather moulding and reproducing, the ancient works, and placing
them in inappropriate situations. With regard to heraldry, the ancient forms must be
preserved : they should be considered as mere devices ; and when we see animals repre-
sented in form and colour as they never did exist in nature, we can only be reminded of
the uses which required these incongruities : and, as in all countries, and almost in all
ages, these means have been resorted to for distinguishing persons, and are still handed
down to us for the same purpose, however incorrectly applied, we should preserve them
as symbols of an occasion now no longer required, and records of chivalric ages and his-
toric legends. But not so with regard to distinct grotesque figures, busts, corbel heads,
and such things : the artists of the middle ages knew not how to execute their work
better ; but, at the present time, it would be absurd indeed to copy the faults of the
ancients. Figures should have their proper proportions ; grotesque corbel heads, if
used at all, should be sparingly used, and the execution should not be contrary to
nature. Perfect beauty in things of this kind is not so necessary as correct anatomical
proportion. Much of the good effect we observe in the application of sculpture ( I
mean figures) in ancient buildings is owing to the material being of the same descrip-
tion as in the architecture, and to the method of disposing the drapery, so that it har-
monises with the architectural forms. In all ancient buildings the figures are fully
clothed : there are exceptions, of course, but these are few : they are generally placed
in niches (internally more especially), and have canopies over them, the niche is only
sufficiently large to admit the figure, and the parallelism of the folds of the drapery, the
closeness of the arms to the sides, and the perfectly upright position of the figure, em-
bodies it, as it were, with the architecture.
On each side of the porch is a window, which, to preserve its use and comfort, should
he glazed) and some small compartments of stained and painted- aims, figures, or mot-
toes, might very appropriately be used here. The door to the hall should be of oak, with
the upper panels glazed, to admit light to the hall. The decorations of the hall, b, and
the corridors, c c, and the lobby, d, should be of the same character, and be groined in
the ceiling, in the same manner as the porch : the other decorations should be also of
similar character, partaking of the same forms, but in a richer degree. The two win-
dows should be glazed with stained glass; and here might be some figures, emblems of
the arts ot peace, mixed with the heraldry, as appropriate historical mementos. In the
hall there might be some ancient armour hung up, with banners and other appropriate
implements of war ; now merely preserved as matters of history, but all tending to in-
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. J *2 J 7
struct and give interest as well as picturesque beauty. The window in the lobby, d,
should also have some painted glass. The effect From the porch, looking through the
building to the lobby window, and then to the grounds, would, I think, be pleasing ;
as there would be a depth of shadow from the hall, with some half lights, forming a
varied foreground to the enriched window, with its brilliant hues, in the distance. Al-
though I would wisli to have a great deal of stained glass in the lobby window, yet some
should be quite plain, that the scenery may be viewed from it with proper effect.
I pass now to the dining-room,/. Here a distinct contrast is produced from the
groining of stone to the ceiling of wood. Oak is the material usually employed in
these situations in ancient buildings, but I should not object to fir; larch, for instance,
would have a beautiful effect, if varnished with boat varnish, or asphalt mixed with
varnish. These produce a rich brown tint without disguising the material. I know
we arc apt to associate meanness with deal, but if the colour be sobered down, the effect
will be exceedingly good, and while much more satisfactory than painting in imitation
of more rare woods, is also cheaper. The ceiling should have transverse ribs, as
indicated by the dotted lines in the plan, fig. 2192., and might be curved at the ends
to form an open cusped spandril, the curve terminating with a corbel. The corbels
should be of stone or terra cotta : in the cornice might be carved wood ornaments,
appropriately interspersed witli heraldic devices, monograms, &c. In the recess for
the sideboard I would have a window entirely filled with rich stained glass, which would
catch the eye as the main object when the plate was displayed here, and would group
the whole in the most pleasing manner. The other windows should be sparingly glazed
with stained glass, as it would be inconvenient for viewing objects in the grounds, and
would tend to give too sombre a character to the room. Where transoms are used in
Gothic windows, great care should be taken that they come above the eye when a
person is standing in a room, so that no disagreeable obstruction may prevent the view
from the window. The fireplace I would take care should form a component part of
the architecture of the room, and not be, what it too frequently is, of quite a different
and distinct character. This was frequently the case in old buildings. For the walls, if
I could not cover them with velvet hangings or tapestry (not subjects full of monstrous
figures), I would use flock paper in imitation of velvet hangings; the effect would be
good, and at any rate it would be quite as consistent as painting them stone colour;
yet other colours might be used ; and, in general, the fewer imitations there are in
a building, the more perfect the effects will be. But there are some things that pre-
sent difficulties in our way, and therefore paper may with propriety be used as a
covering for a wall, where a covering is required in domestic architecture, and more
especially where the building is not on a large scale ; but in public buildings, churches,
or cathedrals, it would be quite inadmissible. The windows, or rather sash-doors, at
the end of the room, are convenient means of descending to the grounds or to the
arcade ; and the recess at the end, with the arch corresponding with the sideboard arch,
would form an agreeable nook, but more useful as a " retiring place for conference " in
the drawingroom.
I will pass through the corridor, which should be similarly decorated to the porch, to
the drawingroom, g. The same principle which governed the composition of the other
parts of the building should be strictly followed here. The ceiling should be of wood,
but supported by two large ribs, and divided into panels, as indicated by the dotted
lines in the plan. A more lively decoration is necessary for this room, more colour may
be used, and gilding should be called in to aid the effect ; but the main supports of the
ceiling should be wood, and it shotdd be clearly indicated as such. The panels might
be richly ornamented with diaper patterns in gold or coloured grounds, or colour on
gold grounds. But even in this kind of decoration in ancient times something of a
heraldic system was employed ; that is, metal formed the ground of colour, and colour
the ground of metal ; but seldom was colour the ground for colour, or metal the ground
for metal ; and to these simple rules we owe the most brilliant effects. In their deco-
rations the ancients were not sparing of their positive colours. As much attention
should be paid to the forms of patterns. Large forms, as I have shown before, tend to
diminish the apparent size of the room, and small forms to increase the size : warm
colours also give the appearance of diminution, but, at the same time, of compactness ;
whereas cold colours produce distance or space, but frequently a want of cheerfulness ;
therefore, the proportion of warm colours should be greater than that of cold colours.
There are many little elegancies fitted for this room which my limits will not allow me
to mention ; but the cultivated and delicate tastes of the ladies would, if they built upon
such a plan, soon furnish the design, so as to make it perfectly suitable to its purpose.
I have mentioned the fireplace in the dining-room, but not the material of which it
should be made. In the present time we generally look upon mantelpieces that are not
marble as mean and unsuitable. This occurs in consequence of their mean forms ( I
7 f
1218 SUPPLEMENT.
speak of moderate-sized buildings) being lost in their costly material. If the marble were
worked with suitable decorations and more beautiful forms, the expense would pre-
vent its application ; but if the suitable forms and decorations were executed in free-
stone, the comparative meanness of the material would be doubly compensated by the
beauty and appropriateness of the composition. Therefore, however opposite to the pre-
sent received custom, I would not scruple to use a fine freestone for this building, appro-
priately carved and decorated, in preference to the mean form in the costly material.
The library, h, is divided from the drawingroom by an open screen, behind which,
when more privacy was required, a curtain would form an appropriate division. The
screen should be carved wood, and of the same colour as the other wood in the room,
with rich tracery, which might be partially painted and gilt, so as to produce an exceed-
ingly i ich effect, and should otherwise correspond with the decorations of the room.
It should be about seven feet high, and surmounted with a rich Tudor parapet. The
actual partition of the room should be arched. This library, which, in fact, may be
considered only a small book-room, or boudoir, attached to the drawingroom, should
be fitted up much in the same manner as the drawingroom, only preserving so much
difference as woidd give variety to the general composition.
.Much of the effect of the conservatory (which we now enter), as an architectural
composition, will depend upon the walls being pierced with windows as little as possible ;
and to preserve the character of this portion of the building some sacrifice must be
made as regards the plants, but, as the whole roof may be of glass, the sacrifice will be
only to a small extent. In a house of decidedly architectural pretensions, if the con-
servatory is not kept up in the same manner, the pleasure we should otherwise derive
from the building, as a work of art, would be destroyed. Many ways are employed
to give an architectural character to conservatories ; for example, by high decoration
with cast-iron or wood ornaments of an expensive nature : but seldom do we see any of
the forms of the main building repeated in the conservatory ; too often the design is
produced by a different person, whose patterns have been used in similar instances, and
the consequence is, that the house and conservatory present totally opposite characters.
Although we see immediately what is intended by the erection, yet the flimsy wood or
iron so called Gothic architecture of the conservatory but ill accords with the massy
stone of the building : the horizontal lines of the framing, the thin sash-bars, the low
pitch of the roof, and the glaring white paint, offer too great a contrast to the vertical
character, the high-pitched gable, and the solid mullion of the building to be pleasing.
These things, I am quite aware, are not so much observed when applied to a conser-
vatory, as they would be had the building been erected for another purpose ; so much
are we reconciled to mean forms when associated with agreeable objects.
I have yet to say a few words on the staircase, which I would have constructed with
equal regard to the strict character of the building; but I would not bestow
upon it that high decoration which is so frequently done, as if the whole effect
of the building depended upon the splendour of the staircase. In this building the
st.iirs might be of stone, the balusters of bronze or iron, and the handrail of oak ; the
balusters should be ornamental, either in single forms or in connected paneling.
There are yet remaining several examples from which, without exactly copying, we
might obtain good ideas for these forms ; and if we attend to the purpose for which
we study them, a little more than to the wish of applying the same design, something
consistent will necessarily be the result. The handrail should be in straight pieces, or
merely curved upwards next the newels, which at each angle of the stairs should form
the abutments; but in no case would I use the distorted, ramped, and twisted slip of
mahogany, which modern ingenuity calls a handrail : it is perfectly void of beauty, and
the only thing that can be said in its favour is, that the hand in descending the stairs
can slip from the top to the bottom without interruption. Can this usefulness make
up for its deformity ?
The general effect of these rooms, if constructed and decorated in the manner de-
scribed, would be, I think, satisfactory, as presenting the actual material, and using co-
lour only as a means of giving to that material its best appearance. At once we should
observe, upon entering the building, that it was substantial and consistent in con-
struction, appropriate in decoration, and possessing an air of comfort with pictorial
effect. I dwell somewhat upon the necessity of applying materials properly, that is,
undisguised ; as of late years the decorator, instead of the architect, is called in to com-
plete the building, and the architect is dismissed almost immediately after the mere
shell is erected. Then come imitations of satinwood, rosewood, oak, or other mate-
n ils, with plaster ornaments, gilding, gaudy stained glass (if stained glass is used at all),
immense plates of looking-glass in frames of all conceivable forms, gold and embossed
papers of Alhamhra (the fashion now) patterns; wretchedly designed furniture, with
Gothic windows and gables for chair -backs; gilt curtain cornices, with inverted crockets,
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. l^H)
pinnacles, and tinials; thickly folded drapery twisted into every variety of grotesque
form ; Gothic fire-screens, fireplaces, stoves, sideboards, in short, every subject where
two segments of a circle can be made to meet in a point : these things, which would have
thrown discredit upon Batty Langley, are, after the architect has terminated his
labours, thrust into his rooms, to the total destruction of all style, date, and harmony of
proportion or colour. I do not wish to quarrel with the decorators; there are many
who, I dare say, are capable of carrying out a design with fitness and propriety ; but
now nearly every house-painter or paper-hanger, without having studied any thing
beyond the compounding and laying on of colour or hanging of paper, calls himself
a decorator, and performs his work without knowing one principle of composition, or
perhaps scarcely discerning Grecian from Gothic architecture ; and the miserable
result of his labour is the perversion of all good taste and sound principles.
In the elevation, fig. 2191., I have endeavoured, by appropriate decoration, to give
suitable character to a simple general outline, preserving all through the decorations
harmony of form: for instance, all the gables are of equal angles; the mullions of the
windows of the same form and dimensions, and the openings between the mullions of the
same width ; and the arches only used where transoms would be liable to break from their
inconvenient length. The stones all through should be small, seldom larger than a man
can carry on his shoulder, and, if the walls are of brick, the jambs of the windows
should show the bond into the brick and never a vertical joint ; the former giving the
appearance of strength, the latter of weakness. With regard to windows, much of the
effect of modern Gothic, ay and of ancient too, is sometimes, destroyed by the variety of
dimensions in the mullions and openings. To produce harmony of form throughout a
building, very little difference in these dimensions should take place, except where suffi-
cient reason can be assigned for it. Mullions and openings of windows evidently
belonging to a series of apartments connected with each other should be of equal
dimensions ; but a chapel, an institution, or other building, joined to a range of domes-
tic buildings, and requiring windows of larger dimensions or otherwise, to mark its
character, should be designed upon the same principle, and the mullions should bear the
same proportion to the openings as in the domestic building. A little attention to these
rules would produce happy results, but a total disregard of them is mischievous in the ex-
treme ; since, if the mullions of a large window, where the openings would necessarily be
large, were of the same dimensions as those of the small windows, where the openings
are small, it would destroy the effect of the whole building, by presenting, by compari-
son, on the one hand heaviness, and on the other meagreness. To produce good effects,
the balance of parts should be equal. Of external colour I have little to say, except
one thing which has struck me in many instances, but more particularly during a late
visit to a modern castle in Scotland, viz., that the mullions of windows that are seen
from a distance should be of the same material as the jambs of the windows, and not
of a dark colour ; for if this be the case, the windows, at the distance the building should
be seen to advantage with the accompaniment of beautiful scenery, become mere square
unmeaning holes, combined with high gables, battlements, and pinnacles, apparently of
a totally different character. This subject requires much consideration, and cannot be
too clearly impressed upon those who wish to build. Too frequently the fear of pro-
ducing heaviness in the windows obliges the architect to reduce the mullions until they
become, at a proper distance to view the building, mere clumsy sash-bars ; and at the
point where the sky line of the building would be seen to the best advantage, namely,
when the sun is behind it, the mullions are mere unmeaning lines, lose their distinct-
ness, and produce a poor and insipid effect. It only remains for me to say that the
domestic offices are in the basement, and that the chamber plan contains six bed-rooms,
all of which I would erect and decorate in suitable character.
Design XVII An Anglo- Grecian Villa. By E. B. Lamb, Esq., F.I.B.A.
The elevation is shown in fig. 2193.
2396. Accommodation. In the ground plan, fig. 2194., a is the portico ; b, the hall ;
r, the saloon ; d d, ante-rooms ; e, drawingroom ; f, dining-room ; g y, librarv ; /^li-
brary ante-room ; i, portico ; k, breakfast-room, or music-room ; /, principal staircase ;
m, water-closet ; », passage to the offices ; o, housekeeper's or butler's room ; p, pantry ;
</, servants' hall ; r, s, china closets ; t, kitchen ; u, scullery ; v, servants' water-closet ;
w, back-stairs ; x, servants' entrance. The chamber plan contains seven rooms in the
principal body of the house, and six rooms in the wing.
2397. Description. The object of this design is, to show the application of decided
Grecian forms and character to modem purposes ; not as a copy from the works of an-
tiquity, but to be treated in the spirit of the style, as far as that style can be so treated
in a modern habitation. The remaining works of the Greeks are taken at the present time
as precedents, but seldom are they applied in a manner suited to our climate and customs.
Precedent has been the evil genius of the art, the trumpet sound of the employer, and
1 220
SUPPLEMENT.
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS.
i^l
2194
a, Portico.
b, Hall.
c, Saloon.
d d, Ante-rooms.
e, Drawingroom.
/, Dining-room.
g g. Library.
A, Library ante-room.
I, Portico.
k, Breakfast-room, or
music-room.
/, Principal staircase.
m. Water-closet.
n, Passage to offices.
o, Housekeeper's or
butler's room.
p. Pantry.
q. Servants' hall.
r, s, China closets.
t, Kitchen.
u, Scullery.
v. Servants' water-
closet.
w. Back-stairs.
x, Servants' entrance.
3 1
IS |
a
IS '
«ir r
< .
the trammel of the genuine architect. Happily, a change is now taking place, and the
forms of Greek temples are seldom applied to domestic edifices. The application and
arrangement of columns in modern buildings should be quite different from what it was in
ancient temples ; nor would I scruple to alter the proportions of columns or entablatures,
if it suited my purpose. In blindly adhering to precedent, how many have failed in
producing the effect they desired ! How many temples have been erected with three
or four tiers of windows in the height of the columns ! How frequently have fitness
and propriety been violated by this mistaken predilection for ancient temples 1 How
absurd would it be to copy York Minster, or Westminster Abbey, and put floors into
them, for a dwelling-house ; and yet the religious edifices of the Greeks have been fre-
quently copied in this way, without the absurdity being noticed. The characteristic
1222 SUPPLEMENT.
features of a particular style of architecture inay be employed in a modem building,
without its presenting the appearance of a temple, and in this design I have attempted
to do so; preserving, in the first instance, a prevalence of horizontal lines. The appli-
cation of columns, pilasters, and entablature, the introduction of square-headed openings,
and, although the pediment is omitted, the raised centre and lantern, will carry the mind
to that form as associated with the buildings of antiquity, and thus mark the proper ad-
herence to precedent. I speak of the precedent of temples only, as we know so little of
the private dwellings of the Greeks; but, if we knew more, probably we should be less
able to apply them to our own climate than the temples.
The effect of the portico, a, in fig. 2194., will be greatly aided by the entrance-door
being placed in the partition wall of the hall at u, and thus forming a doorway of solid
masonry, and behind a less solidly moulded door-frame for the doors. In the recesses
might be placed figures on pedestals, or candelabra ; if the latter, it would be a novel
and pleasing way of lighting the hall through the large glass doors. There is much
difficulty in constructing the architrave over the intercolumns consistently in this style,
as we are frequently at a loss to obtain so large a piece of stone as will take a solid bear-
ing upon the columns. For this reason, we are obliged to construct it on the principle
of an arch, and thereby destroy the propriety of the application of the architrave. This
is a difficulty only to be surmounted in the way mentioned, and few people consider the
impropriety of this construction, unless the architrave settles, and thus forms a curved
line between the columns ; it then becomes painful in the extreme to look at : this has
not unfrequently occurred in some of our new public buildings. In the choice of an
order of architecture, some care should be taken, if we do not use the exact copy of the
antique, that it is not one that is most elaborately sculptured, as, in a very short time,
the beauty of the ornament is lost by the discolorations and other effects of this climate.
In fact, the materials we use being of a coarser nature than the marbles of the Greeks,
the elaborate detail, however good it may be, has seldom sufficient brilliancy of light to
show it to advantage. We require more decided forms and bolder execution to produce
our effects.
The hall, b, should be the height of both stories, and should be stuccoed with a marble
cement to receive a polish, if it was not entirely built with stone, which could be the
case only in certain situations. On the walls I would have some basso-relievo, of appro-
priate subjects, and let into the wall in such manner as to form a perfect connexion with
the architecture. All the doorways in the hall should have their mouldings of stone, or
marble cement ; the doors might be of mahogany or wainscot, or even of larch or other
wood appropriately paneled, but not painted, unless the painting were used as a deco-
ration, not a disguise.
The saloon, c, forms the connecting link in the composition between the drawingroom,
library, dining-room, and hall, and therefore it should partake of some of the character-
istics of each. It is a small apartment, but I prefer this division from the hall to making
that apartment of such large dimensions as it is usually of. In this arrangement of
the rooms, the saloon becomes at any time a private apartment, and can be used as an
appendage to either of the other apartments, if required. Some sculpture, an ornamental
coffered ceiling, supported on cantilevers, the centre being figured glass, round which,
on the landing of the chamber floor, should be a close screen to protect it. The lantern-
light shown in the elevation is, of course, the means of lighting that landing and the
saloon. The floor might be of mosaic or marble.
From this room we pass to the dining-room. Here, as in all modern rooms in this
st vie of architecture, there is great difficulty in keeping up a consistent construction.
The width of the room will, therefore, oblige us to use wood as the principal material for
all the ornamental paneling of the ceiling, but the walls might be scagliola ; and in this
situation 1 would place sculpture as the principal decoration. The sideboard should
form part of the architecture of the room, and the effect would be exceedingly good, by
having a large mirror covering the whole of the back of the recess, and reflecting the
windows, grounds, and sculpture. In the decorations of the ceiling for this room
I would provide two flowers or other ornaments, superior to the rest, from which
chandeliers should be suspended. The chrmney-pieee should be of sculptured marble,
harmonising with the walls of the room. The windows might have some coloured
glass, with characteristic ornaments painted upon them, but not in gaudy colours.
A severe style would be most suitable, as uniting better with the decorations of this
room. Generally, plate glass suits Grecian architecture admirably, as it preserves the
massy character and distinctness of form so essential to the style. Broad masses ot
light and shade, continuous lines, and square openings, are equally necessary. The
general tone of colour should be warm; some ornament might also be painted; but
this should l)i- done with great caution, as it would be difficult to make the painted
decoration harmonise with the sculpture,
COTTAGE VILLAS AND VILLAS. 1223
From the ante-room, d, we enter the library, g,h,g. The numerous breaks, and
varied form of these rooms, would produce a good effect, and are capable of high archi-
tectural decoration. The bookcases would require to partake of the same character as
the rooms; but if placed in recesses terminated with pilasters, and the cases only about
eight feet high, the upper parts would form suitable pedestals for sculpture, bronzes,
rases, &C, so that a great interest may be given to this room, in addition to its
usefulness. The compartments in this room not being so large, stone might be used as
a ceiling, but still I think, in this country, wood is most suitable; and by constructing
the ceiling in wood, and being directed by the principles of the ancients, we might pro-
duce some new arrangement, which, though different from the forms we are accustomed
to see, might be in the spirit of their buildings. An interesting question arises out of
this difficulty ; namely, What is the principle the ancients, when the arts were in
the highest perfection, would have adopted in their ceilings had they constructed them
of wood instead of stone? or, if any have been constructed in wood, what was the prin-
ciple? The ante-room, /(, in the library, would form an agreeable adjunct, and an easy
means of passing to the grounds.
I will now speak of the drawingroom, which, to produce those pleasant sensations of
cheerfulness associated with rooms of this description in this country, must be light and
rather gay, not gaudy, in its decorations ; but all the consistency of construction might
as well be preserved here as in the other rooms of the house. The ceiling should be a
framing of wood in coffers or panels supported upon beams of wood having all the
strength necessary for the purpose. Great variety and beauty might be given by wood
of various descriptions, gilt mouldings, and painted ornaments. The columns at the
window recess should have their proper entablature, which should pass round the room,
and should support the wood ceiling. Some appropriate sculpture in the frieze, also
some, but sparingly introduced, in the walls, of figures, wreaths of flowers, &c. Within
the recess, between the columns and pilasters, might be pedestals for elegant glass vases
for flowers ; or even small statues of marble or bronze, or other little articles of rarity,
might be properly placed in this room ; but, unless the furniture was designed in the
same spirit, the effect woidd be destroyed ; so that, in fact, the whole arrangement of
this room should be under the direction of one person. I would have a fireplace at
each end of the room, with a window over it : this should be of one sheet of glass, and
should slide back at night, and into its place a shutter should slide in the same manner,
but with a looking-glass on the inside. The effect, when the room was lighted in the
evening, would be exceedingly striking.
As much attention to style and consistency of construction should be preserved in
the breakfast-room, k, as in the drawingroom. The stairs, /, should be of stone, the
balusters of metal, and the handrail of mahogany or oak ; and, as I have mentioned in
another place, the handrail should stop at the angles of the stairs against the newels,
which should be solid and surmounted with some appropriate ornament to give picto-
rial effect, but not to make the staircase too prominent a feature. The arrangement
of the offices is sufficiently marked on the plan ; they are conveniently situated for the
accommodation required in this design.
There are several effects which would require more notice than I have now time to
give them. The vista from the dining-room through the ante-rooms to the drawing-
room and grounds, from the variety of lights and shades, would be exceedingly pleasing ;
and again from the drawingroom to the dining-room, but this would be terminated by
the blank wall of the room. The view, again, from the hall to the ante-library, h, and to
the grounds in this direction, would be striking. Other views will occur upon examining
the plan that may be pleasing, and would constantly be changing from the varied light
during the day : and when lighted up at night, with all the rooms open, showing the
proper distribution of sculpture, gilding, and other decorations, with appropriate furni-
ture, the effect then would be exceedingly interesting and satisfactory.
2398. Remarks applicable to this and the two preceding Designs. In a hasty way I
have endeavoured to give some account of three distinct styles of architecture, as
applied to moderate-sized villas. The elevations in themselves clearly distinguish these
styles, but, in addition, I will point out more clearly the marked difference of the styles
generally. In the Grecian, of course, the temple forms the type of the style ; the
horizontal lines predominate, the cornices continue round the buildings in an uninter-
rupted manner, columns are symmetrically disposed, the openings have all horizontal
lintels, the pediments have very obtuse angles, and the stones with which the buildings are
erected are of immense size, particularly in the architraves. The ceilings, at least those
we have any knowledge of, are flat, and constructed with stone, in coffers, or panels ;
the sculptured foliage also partakes of the same character, it is severe, but usually beau-
tifully executed. Their statuary, which has served as models for all the schools of
Europe, has still, when connected with the architecture, a severity and even formality,
I g£ J SUPPLEMENT.
which completely unites the two arts. In a general view the buildings are flat
masses, with little variety, but possessing much sublimity from their simplicity of form,
the magnitude of the materials, and great antiquity.
The distinguishing character ot 'the Italian style I have adopted is great breadth of
effect, by masses of blank walls contrasted with richly decorated openings, which
latter are frequently curved, combining with the horizontal lines in roofs and terraces ;
columns of different orders placed over each other, and only used the height of each
story ; arches used between columns, and constructed with several stones ; small stones
generally used in the construction : and, internally, coved ceilings coffered, arches rising
from imposts, great richness in the sculptured foliage, and generally much variety of
form and masterly execution ; a frequent application of colouring and fresco-painting ,
and statuary more varied in form, but not blending with the architecture so well as in the
Grecian edifices. In a general view, the Italian maimer possesses more appearance of
comfort and pictorial effect, but less sublimity, than the Grecian, and its forms are more
readily applied to modern architecture.
In the Gothic style, the difference is more obvious to every one; the leading features
are the openings, and the prevailing character in the lines is vertical, the windows divided
by mullions and transoms, the roofs are generally acute angles, the columns seldom
single, but formed in clusters; no horizontal cornices upon them, but pointed arches of
complex mouldings ; the stones seldom larger than can be carried by one man ; immense
variety and beauty in the foliage; frequent representations of fruit, flowers, and leaves;
a profusion of heraldic emblems ; groined ceilings of the most elaborate tracery ; im-
mense quantities of statues, ill designed and executed, but still connected with the
buildings from the admirable disposition of the drapery and their compact forms ; gor-
geous display of colours in glass, but figures badly drawn; great variety of colouring
and gilding in the ceilings, niches, and canopies ; rich tapestry, cloth of gold, and em-
broidery ; all combining to produce effects of the greatest variety and picturesque cha-
racter, and forming a style of architecture which it is almost impossible to believe
could ever be traced back to the simple grandeur of the Greek temples. Picturesque
and interesting, and intimately associated with our earliest history, and furnishing as it
does many valuable precedents to study from, there is still much difficulty in applying
this style of architecture to modern buildings. Our knowledge has extended, our
customs improved, and we wish to combine the useful portions of each style into one
that will meet our demands ; but this has not yet been done. Perhaps, when a few
years more have rolled over, some mightier mind than all who have passed before him
may blend in one perfect style all the useful and beautiful now scattered amongst so
many — E. B. L.
Chap. III.
Farm Buildings.
We are not aware of much improvement having been made in this class of buildings
since the publication of the Eneyclopasdia. Several plans of farmeries have been given
in the London Farmer's Magazine for 1839 by Prof. Donaldson; and the same gentleman
has just published two plans in his Treatise on Manures and Farming, of which, as
they may be considered as models, we shall here, with his permission, give copies.
Prof. Donaldson is a native of Berwickshire, and has practised the most approved modes
of farming in that county, in Ayrshire, in Northumberland, in Leicestershire, and in
Kent ; and he is now Professor of Agriculture in the Agricultural College at Hoddes-
don. In short, we know no person whatever so competent to give plans for farmeries
adapted to the most approved systems of agriculture, as Prof. Donaldson.
2399. An improved Farmery, Prof. Donaldson observes, will often induce a tenant to
pay interest on the cost during a lease of twenty years, besides offering a better rent for
the farm. But a new farmery, he says, is not always an improved one. " In many
places, where large sums of money have been expended in erecting farm buildings, very
glaring blunders have been committed, and much ignorance has been displayed, even of
the most simple and evident details of practice, arising from the incompetency and con-
ceit of the persons employed, who have never practised the art they pretend to assist, and
therefore do not know the wants they attempt to supply. The landowner generally
makes an unprofitable expenditure in unnecessary erections and in useless decorations, or
is led away by the plans of architects, who, however well qualified to build dwelling-
houses, Gothic windows, pointed arches, and spiral columns, experience has shown to be
miserably deficient ill contriving and placing the accommodations required on a quantity
FARM BUILDINGS.
1225
of land in cultivation. The economy of labour tliat is derived from the juxtaposition of
objects that are required to act or to be used in combination has been wholly dis-
regarded ; barns and rick-yards have been placed at opposite sides of a large farmery ;
stables and cart-sheds in a similar manner, and the granary removed to a distance from
the barn, for the apparent purpose of creating useless labour in carrying the grain from
one place to the other. Farm horses are often allowed to enter by the fold-yards, and
in many cases must travel round the farmery to reach the cart-shed. Many similar
blunders might be pointed out, which must be obvious to any experienced person, and
which abound in the best publications on the subject. However simple the matter may
appear, no person is capable of devising plans of convenient farmeries without the most
intimate knowledge, from long and continued personal experience, of the most minute
details of practice ; and the first requisite is to ascertain the number and size of build-
ings that may be required for any lands under a certain system of cultivation, without
too much curtailment to create inconvenience, and without any useless appendages that
require an unnecessary expense, and the second how to connect them so as to afford the
greatest possible convenience with the least possible labour."
2400. In Prof. Donaldson's Model Plans, the form of a square with an open front to
the south, as a warm exposure, has been adopted as the most suitable and convenient for
the purpose of combining the necessary accommodations, and at the same time separating
the different parts so as not to incommode each other. He has given two designs, each
adapted for three hundred acres of arable land, the one with the yard separated from the
buildings by a road, which leaves the yard detached in the centre of the square ; and the
other with the road exterior to the buildings, by which the yard occupies the whole in-
terior of the square.
2401. Model Plan No. 1., Jiff. 2195. In this plan of a farmery, " a road of fifteen feet
in width divides the covered houses from the open sheds, and admits no disturbance to
2195
Elevation, on flu UneA..B Length 180 i?
ST Jtal'l<\ Way
m* ■ — i| " ~
JBarn Cart-
/ Way
J0*'6 Wrf
Scale 50 F' Loan Inch
the cattle, except in supplying them with food, which may be much lessened by deliver-
ing it through holes in the walls. This separation is of great importance, though the
road has met with the objection of occupying space unnecessarily in the interior of the
farmery, and hence our second plan, fig. 2196., is given, in which the road is outside
the houses, which saves room in the interior, but with the objection of causing a passage
through the feeding-yards, and with many persons this objection would have great
weight. The admission of any passages through yards, as the drawing of grain threshed
or unthreshed, the entry of any thing except the cattle and the carting of the food and
7 G
1226 SUPPLEMENT.
dung, is discarded in this first plan, and each department is arranged so as to afford
mutual convenience, and at the same time admit carrying forward each separate business
without intruding on another.
2402. " T/n DweUmg-house, Garden, and Orchard are supposed to be placed on tlie
west side of the farmery, as being the most sheltered quarter in our climate; but in
particular situations either side may be adopted, and probably an eligible situation may
occur partly in flout of the farm-yard, though that exposure may better be left open.
On the end of the west wing of the farmery, adjoining the dwelling-house, the cow-
shed is placed, tor the sake of convenience, and extends thirty- six feet in length, and will
contain ten cows, and the inside width of sixteen feet will afford a feeding-passage, if
thought necessary. The calf-pen extends sixteen feet in length, and is divided into five
apartments, for one calf in each, either for weaning or when suckling, the bottom being
laid witli thin laths, or with boards bored with auger-boles, and provided with a drain
or open space underneath, that the calves may be on a dry bed. An inside communi-
cation to the cow-shed admits the calves to be suckled with as little labour as possible.
A stable of two stalls of eight feet each in width, which may be converted into loose
b.)xes, is intended for the riding-horses, and a gig -house is placed next to it; and botli
houses may be opened to the west, for the convenience of the dwelling-house. A house
lor a bull or any single animal opens into the yards, and the spare house at the end may
open westward, and also communicate with the straw-barn, and serve any purpose that
may be required. The exterior length of the wing is 114 feet.
" The back range of the buildings comprehends a straw -barn of forty feet in length,
in which machines are fixed for cutting straw, hay, and roots, which are driven by the
threshing machine when at work, and by a shaft for horse power when required. Wide
doors open on both sides, and all the roots and hay are introduced from the stack-yard,
which is placed immediately behind the range of buildings. The length of forty feet
may afford ample room for cutting all food for cows, feeding-cattle, and horses, fbr which
purpose deep mangers must be provided on the ground. Straw for litter may be cut by
the same machine, by making a change in the power of the feeding rollers. Doubts are
yet expressed of the utility of cutting any food for stock, and it certainly wants confirma-
tion ; if it be not adopted, the barn will contain the straw and trussed hay, and the root
which will be in daily request during the winter, and the length of the house could be
partitioned for that purpose. The threshing-barn is placed next, and may be used by
.my kind of machinery ; the unthreshed corn is brought into the cartway adjoining, and
thrown to the second floor. An ii side stair leads to the granary over the cart-shed,
which is forty-eight feet in length, and consists of six arches for holding carts and other
implements, exclusive of a tool-house; the second floor extends over the end of the
stable, and affords an opportunity of conveying into a chest the grains allowed to the
horses, without any labour in carriage. When the grain is bruised by machinery, it may
be conveyed to the stable by the same method, and given out in measured quantities,
cut straw being used at pleasure, which may be lodged in a bin in the hay-house or
straw-barn. A range of granary does not appear to be an essential requisite on any
farm, but it may be useful in containing grain, cheese, and wool, and the expense of
raising side walls is not very great, nor the flooring that is required for the purpose.
The grain for market is let down into the carts in the shed by means of a pulley fixed
in the cross beams, and through a trap-door in the floor. The external length of the
back range of building is 180 feet.
" The east wing of the farmery comprehends a stable of seventy-two feet in length,
with a loose box in one end, and the corn chest in the other, and an end door leading to
the cart shed, and another in front for a communication with the yards. A hay-house
adjoins, and may be useful in containing cut food, and occasionally for a sick animal, or
any similar purpose. A root-house is placed next, and may open eastward, for the pur-
pose of receiving roots from the rick-yard; and communicates inside with the steaming -
house, in which are prepared in vats and boilers all cooked food for any stock, cows at
calving, and particularly for pigs and poultry. The accommodation for the latter kind
of stock is shown separately, and will be hereafter described.
" A paved road of fifteen feet in width runs round the inside of the farmery, and gives
access to each yard and house, without entering into any one enclosure in order to reach
another. The interior space is divided into four yards, with sheds 12 ft. and 16ft. in
width, which may be covered by a common roof, or raised in the front wall and slope
backwards, in the manner of an attached building, which will prevent the cattle dis-
placing the tiles or slates with their horns, if a roof of asphaltum be not preferred. The
bottom of the yards is sunk about two feet below the surrounding locality, and that of
the sheds is raised to throw the water outwards, that the cattle may lie in a dry apart-
ment. In order that the yards may be of a square compact form, a cross wall divides
the space equally, and the front yards have sheds placed longitudinally, that the sun may
FARM BUILDINGS. l^Z'j
not be excluded from the yards In-hind by a cross position of the sheds in front. The
piggery is placed in the middle of the interior space, and contains a yard and shed for
store pigs, which is supplied with litter from the stables, as that article forms an excellent
bed for the swine, which must be well supplied with green food during winter and
summer; and a few small animals may be allowed to run at large in the yards, to pick
any offals that may be dropped, and they are found to move and turn the manure very
beneficially. Six or eight sties are built in the remaining space, for brood sows, and for
the feeding hogs; and each house is provided with a back-door, by which the dung is at
once discharged into the yards; and it is very necessary that all kinds of dung carried
into the feeding-yards be spread eveidy and thinly over the whole surface, that an equal
mixture and quality may be obtained. A road of live feet in width divides the rows of
sties, and by it the food is brought forward in a wheeled carriage from the steaming-
house.
" A pump may be sunk in a convenient place, or a pond formed, and water may be
forced into a cistern placed in the roof of a shed or spare house, from which, by means
of pipes and ball-cocks, it may be supplied to the yards in troughs, which may be placed
in the division walls, and thus supply two yards by means of one article ; or the water
may be supplied to the troughs, as it is required, by pipes leading directly from the
pump. The feeding-cribs may be placed in the sheds, and the turnips supplied through
openings in the walls, and the cattle may eat under cover. Cribs standing in the open
air, and made of wood or built with stones, with close bottoms, are found to retain
much filth ; and movable hoxes, with latticed bottoms, are now preferred. The bottoms
of the yards are intended to be flat ; but if moisture be in excess, a declivity may be
formed, and the liquid matter carried in a drain to a sunk pit or reservoir, where it will
be absorbed by earths, along with similar substances. In most cases, the straw and
litter will absorb all the moisture, but if it abound very much, such an application will
be more useful than in a liquid state. The wings of the farmery are one story in height,
and the range of barns and granary extends to two floors, or sixteen feet : a height of
three stories has been proposed, that the grain may pass through two fanners, and be
prepared at once for the market. All the walls are supposed to be of stone and lime, or
brick ; the doors, gates, and all articles to be plain and substantial, and the posts of wood,
as they are easier repaired and less susceptible of damage. This farmery will cost about
£600."
2403. Model Plan No. 2., Jig. 2196. "In this plan, the road is outside the farmery.
The north range extends in length one hundred and seventy feet, and comprehends barn,
straw-barn, and stable, and spare house ; the straw-barn being considerably larger than
in the former sketch. The straw and roots introduced from the stack-yard are proposed
to be cut in the straw-barn, and then conveyed, cut or uncut, by the central road often
feet, which divides the farmery, and may be given to the cattle in the sheds on both sides,
through openings in the walls. The stable contains a walk to communicate with the
straw-barn, from which all the provender will be carried to be placed in the mangers.
The cart-shed, tool-house, and open shed for cattle in the front yard, occupy the east
wing, and on the opposite side of the yards, which are divided by a cross wall, there are
a steaming-house on the end of the buildings, and a root-house, which extend the length
of the front yard ; the remaining space affords a shed for the back yard, and a smail shed
for the pig-yard, which is placed here to obtain the benefit of the litter from the stable,
and divided by an open paling fence to admit the heat of the sun. On the opposite side
of the central road, the longitudinal extent of the back yard is occupied by a shelter-
shed, and a small feeding-house where five cattle may be tied up to feed if desired ; the
extent of the front yard is occupied by a shed, and a house for a bull on the end of the
range. The cow-shed, calf-pen, riding-stable, and gig-house, all of the same dimensions
as in plan No. I., occupy the west wing of the farmery, and are convenient to the dwell-
ing-house. The granary that may be required can be raised over the spare house, and
gig-house, and riding-stable, or over a part of the straw-barn, and not unfrequently over
the threshing-barn, but in both cases very inconveniently ; and the first position is most
eligible, as it affords an inside communication, which is an object of great convenience.
The pigsties are placed inside the front walls, and are convenient to the steaming and
root houses, and to the wash of the dairy and kitchen. A separate piggery, in the form
of a square, may be placed opposite the central road, with sties ranged round, and en-
closing a yard for store-pigs in the centre. This arrangement may be preferable, as it is
convenient for the steaming-house, and removes the smell of pigs, which is thought to be
very offensive to cattle. A pond of water in the yard would be useful, if it could be
got. The moisture from the yards is conveyed, if necessary, to a pit, as in the former
plan ; the walls are intended to be plain work, of brick or stone and lime, and the roof
to be slates or tiles. If decorations be wished, the eaves may project, and an arch may
1228
SUPPLEMENT.
2196
Elevation on bark range
U .50 Ft to an Ttnh
be thrown over the south end of the central road, in both plans, and may contain a
pigeon-house, and be surmounted by a clock. Some small architectural decorations may
be added, which would vary the uniformity of plain building, and much improve the
appearance.
'2404. " The Poultry-yards are here made a separate erection, which may be placed
on any dry sunny situation that may be convenient to the dwelling-house and farmery.
Suitable provision is seldom made for this kind
of stock, which is generally huddled into one
house in a corner of the farmery, without any
regard to distinction or separation. The small
square here shown in fig. 2197. may be built of
timber in warm latitudes, and may be very
cheaply erected in any place. Each kind of
animal is provided with a separate apartment,
which may be heated as the nature of the species
requires. The food is chiefly composed of boiled
or steamed potatoes, mixed with the flour of
lifjht grain, cooked in the steaming-housc, and
given to the poultry in troughs under the
shelter of the open sheds. The small cribs leaning on the ends of the wings of the
Bquare are intended for the purpose of confining the young broods of any kind, until
they are grown sufficiently strong to go to the roosting-houses. Such separate confine-
ments may be found very convenient.
1 \0S. " Pasture near the Farmery. A field of permanent grass, near the homestead,
to serve as a pasture for the cows, is a valuable acquisition, where it can be got well
sheltered and watered. If it does not exist, and if locality suits, a new formation should
be effected, in order to obtain convenience in labour and travel. A paddock is also
necessary, and in many places the orchard will suit admirably for the young calves that
arc weaning, to which they may be brought in succession from the calf-pen, and taught
to cat green fond, and may then be removed to the pasture-fields. A shelter-shed must
f/eatzng
Pipe
I\wslifty
Turkey
Rouse
o • c
Fire £
Toad House
Hatching
lLwse
Rvosliiy
House
Shed
( Pond \
2197
Shed
Goose
House
Duct
House
1
1
Poultry Yard
FARM BUILDINGS. 1229
be provided ; and the same convenience will suit for lambing the ewes in the spring,
which process will be finished before the season admits the exposure of calves in the
open air. This enclosure and the cows' pasture must be enriched by top-dressing, fre-
quent rolling, harrowing, and duly provided with water and shelter.
2406". " The Rick-yurd. In both plans, or rather in No. 2., the ricks of grain stand
in two rows, with a railway between them, along which a light four-wheeled waggon
will convey the unthreshed grain to the barn, and may be moved without horses, as the
railroad may have a slight inclination to favour that purpose. The way may be con-
structed with flat stones, or with cast iron, as may be found most convenient, and runs
directly to that part of the barn whence the unthreshed corn is supplied to the feeding-
board. But each rick might stand on a four-wheeled platform, in the same position as
shown in the plan, and at a sharp angle of divergence, for the purpose of running easily
into the railway ; and the entire rick would be conveyed to the barn, and placed under
a light covering on posts erected outside the barn walls ; and the unthreshed grain would
be pitched to the second floor, through a door with a lowered platform. A travelling
carrier, driven by the machinery, may be devised to convey the sheaves of grain from any
quarter, and deposit them on the second floor, which would add to convenience, and
save labour. By the plan of moving the entire rick under cover at once, any damage
from rain by exposure during the process of threshing would be avoided, which, on large
farms, is often attended with much inconvenience ; and the expense of the iron railway,
and of the wheeled platforms, will not much, if at all, exceed the cost of stone or iron
stands for each rick, and the yearly expense will be saved in horse labour by the usual
mode of carting, which on a farm of the extent now mentioned will amount to the sum
of £3. to £4. If the barn were built on a line with the western wing, the railway would
be lengthened, and would afford more room for ricks ; and as the straw-barn would be
enlarged, a house may be divided by partitions at the end near the open way, for the
purpose of containing the cut food of roots and straws. If the spare house form part
of the barn, the latter would project only about twelve or fourteen feet ; and in that case
the railway would run to the end of the barn, and deliver the unthreshed grain to the
second floor. A transverse motion of the machinery might be devised to throw the
straw longitudinally into the straw-barn. Covers for ricks may be adopted of caout-
chouc or waterproof clothing, which, being easily applied and removed, will protect
newly made ricks from damage, until time be obtained for threshing. If such coverings
be not adopted in the full number of ricks, a few of them on every farm, especially in
wet climates, will be found very useful for the above purpose. The rick-yards may be
laid with gravel and broken stones, and should be surrounded with a sunk fence, or a
wall with a hedge inserted near the top or midway. In a corner of the rick-yard, a
shed with a light roof may be placed, for the purpose of keeping dry a few loads of corn
over a wet night ; and it would be very useful in covering any implements not used con-
stantly during the year.
2407. " Machinery is adopted for threshing grain, on the principle that it produces the
result at one fourth or less of cost incurred by the usual mode of flails, and the necessary
accommodations are erected at one third less expense at the outset ; and the saving
effected in both ways may be applied to increasing the produce, which will afford profit-
able labour in the production, additional employment for the machinery, and a more
abundant supply of the necessaries of life.
2408. " Horses are preferred to Oxen in performing farm labour, and carts to waggons
in general, because experience has most amply demonstrated that lands can be cultivated
in the most improved modes by the former, without any assistance of the latter, but not
in any case by the latter without the aid of the former, and with equal profit and ad-
vantages in the despatch and economy of labour.
2409. " The Dwelling-house should be constructed to afford ample accommodation.
The dairy should be placed near the cow-shed on the west wing of the farmery, and,
being half-sunk into the ground, will enjoy the coolness of the eastern exposure, which
may be much assisted by a plantation of tall shrubbery. The cheese may be made in
the pressing-room, and may be half-dried on latticed racks, and may be afterwards re-
moved to an airy place in the granary, which may be separated and fitted for that pur-
pose. The offals of the dairy and kitchen may be collected in vats, and prepared by
cooking with farinaceous matters, and then given to swine ; and not unfrequently it is
given in an unmixed state. Of all kinds of live stock, pigs are most benefited by cooked
food, and it may be justly supposed that the cold mass produced by souring may be ad-
vantageously superseded by a cooked application of the different substances.
2410. " Six Cottages for Labourers will be required on a farm of this extent, and may
be placed not far distant from the farmery, in some situation where suitable spots can
be found for gardens, and where an unsightly intrusion shall not be made on a metho-
dical arrangement of the farm." ( Treatise on Manures, §*c, p. 383.)
1 230
SUPPLEMENT.
241 1. On the Management of the Farm-yard, and on various other matters connected
with it, many excellent practical observations will be found in Prof. Donaldson's work,
which we cannot too strongly recommend to the reader who is at all interested in farm-
ing. In the Booh of the Farm, an excellent work, by Mr. Stephens, editor of the
Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, some good designs of farmeries will also be found,
adapted for the same style of farming as the model designs of Prof. Donaldson, ar-
ranged on the soundest principles, guided by experience ; and all the fittings up and
furniture of farmeries are given in that work in great detail, and illustrated with en-
gravings in a very satisfactory manner.
2412. The Park Farm-yard at Goodwood. In the London Farmer's Magazine for
November, 1841, there is a plan of a farm-yard erected by His Grace the Duke of Rich-
mond in the park at Goodwood, Sussex. The editor observes of it, that " it is not
calculated for business upon an extensive scale, but taken as a whole is one of the best,
if not the best, and most convenient which he hasseen." (Vol. iv. p. 326.) The merits
of this plan, as compared with those of Prof. Donaldson's models, are not great, but, as
compared with Sussex farmeries in general, they appear to consist in keeping the cattle
yards distinct from the implement-houses and stable-yards.
Mr. Curtis of West Iiudham, near Rougham in Norfolk, who has paid great atten-
tion to farm buildings in his part of the country and in Suffolk, says that the great
objection to most farm-yards is, that the barn communicates directly with the yards,
which consequently become thoroughfares, and the stock in them, whether fattening or
otherwise, are disturbed whenever anything is carried to or from the barn. In the plan,
fig. 2198., a a are dung or cattle yards ; b, the rick-yard; c, the yard to the stables and
/ a
a
e
21 98 '
f
a
h\e
' >!
b
\
r
Idfl
. . n
cart-house ; d d, barns, each eighty feet long by thirty feet wide ; e e, enclosed hovels
for implements ; f f, open sheds for oxen, each sixty feet long and twenty feet wide ;
g g, hay-lofts ; h h, bed-rooms ; i i, stables, each forty-two feet long by twenty-three
feet wide ; k, poultry-house ; /, cart-house, sixty-five feet long by twenty-four feet wide ;
m, pond ; n, granary, thirty feet by twenty feet, supported on stone pillars, with pro-
jecting caps ; o, double cottage ; p p, washing-houses to cottages ; q, well ; and r,
garden.
2413. The Demesne Farm-yard at Putteridgebury, the seat of Colonel Sowerby, near
Luton in Bedfordshire, when finished, will be one of the most comprehensive and best
arranged park farmeries in England. Besides feeding-houses for cattle, it contains open
sheds and yards for feeding sheep, a complete range of poultry-houses heated by hot
water, an elegant dairy, a brewhouse, and a bailiff's house. All the stalls for the cattle
are supplied with water delivered into troughs by pipes from an elevated source, and
all the liquid manure is drained into one large tank. The buildings have brick walls,
and they are thatched with reed, the ridge of the roof being finished with plain tiles,
reaching down three feet on each side, to protect the reeds from pigeons. All the sub-
divisions of the yards are of strong fencing, formed of wrought-iron rods; and the whole
is so arranged, that every part may be inspected by the master and his friends from a
SCHOOLS, INNS, WORKHOUSES, AND ALMSHOUSES. 1231
path, sometimes under cover and sometimes through the open yard, without coming in
contact with or disturbing any of the animals, or walking among anything offensive or
that can soil the shoes. The effect of the whole group of buildings from the park and
the pleasure-ground is excellent, and from the latter scene there is a private entrance.
The arrangement is not yet quite completed, otherwise we should have applied for per-
mission to publish the plan.
Chap. IV.
Schools, Inns, Workhouses, and Almshouses.
A great many schools have been built in different parts of the country within the
last ten years, and a great many plans have been published in the Minutes of the
Committee of Council on Education, printed for the House of Commons in 1840, but
we are not aware of any new feature in school arrangements. Some very handsome
elevations have been sent us by Mr. Lamb, Mr. Wild, Mr. Elliott, Mr. Henderson,
and others ; but we have preferred giving a design from Parker's Villa Rustica, and the
details of a small Sunday-school erected in Warwickshire ; because the former design
is in a style at present little used for schools, and the expense of the latter is within the
reach of a great number of persons. We have given only two public-houses, but they
are very handsome ones ; and we have added to this chapter a union workhouse, as a
specimen of that description of arrangement, and a design for a row of almshouses.
Design I. — A School in the Italian Style.
This design, of which figs. 2199. and 2200. are elevations, is taken from the Third
Part of Parker's Villa Rustica, by the kind permission of the author. The whole of
this part of Mr. Parker's work consists of plans, elevations, and views of school-houses in
the Italian style. These are all of great originality and beauty, and we consider their
publication at the present time (1842) peculiarly fortunate, since there is a general
tendency throughout the country to build schools in the Gothic style, with but few
exceptions, even in favour of the Elizabethan manner.
The designs for schools published in the Minutes of the Committee on Education
being all by the same architect, and that architect also the author of the numerous
designs for union workhouses published in the Reports of the Poor Law Commissioners,
there is a degree of sameness of style in both schools and workhouses, and of meanness in
the elevations given for the schools, that in point of taste is to us quite intolerable.
1232
SUPPLEMENT.
2200
This is a subject which, in our opinion, demands the notice of the legislature, or of pub-
lic bodies; for why should not the exterior appearance of schools and workhouses be
cared as much for by the nation as the dress of soldiers or sailors, or the architecture of
other public buildings ? That only one artist should have been employed by the Poor
Law Commission to design the whole of their published plans, and that the same artist
should also have been employed by the Committee of Education to design the whole of
L_iL i '. . y .^wg -^Cl D11^
FARM BUILDINGS.
1*233
the plans of schools published in their Report, amounting to twenty-three, when there are
so many able architects in the country, we consider to be disgraceful to these bodies.
2414. The Accommodation and the details, as shown in Mr. Parker's ground plan,
fig. 2201., consist of a school-room, a; class-room, b ; lobbies, c c ; master's room, d;
shed, e ; play-ground for the senior division, /; for the junior division, g ; and master's
garden, h.
2415. Description. " The building," Mr. Parker states, " has two entrances, with
lobbies for the children's hats, and a small class-room. It is intended to instruct the
boys and girls together, but, if this be found inconvenient, a movable partition of
wood affords the means of separating them. Communicating with the school-room is
the residence of the master, containing a sitting-room, two chambers on the upper plan,
with convenient offices in the basement. The play-grounds are divided into two com-
partments, one for the senior and the other for the junior scholars, and both are under
the master's supervision. The sketch given in fig. 21 99. conveys the front view of the
building. At each end there are separate external entrances for the boys and the girls.
The light in the interior is obtained on three sides of the school-room, and the windows
are raised sufficiently above the floor to allow all the operations of the master to be
seen by the scholars without fatigue or distraction. The door-way, bell-turret, and
gable ends of the school and master's house, all severally features of Italian architecture,
form portions of the view shown in fig. 2200. The principal window is composed of
two circular-headed openings, making together a graceful combination, and differing
from the apertures on the side of the building. The chimney-shaft of the master's
house, perceptible in the distance, is decorated with an enriched shield, on which the
arms of the patron are supposed to be carved." (Parker's Villa Rustica, explanation
of plates lxv., lxvi., and lxvii. )
Design II. — Description and Specification, with Details, of Dunchurch Sunday- School.
By F. Wood, Esq., Architect.
This school has been recently erected at Dunchurch, adjoining the churchyard and
rectory.
JV,
fl
Fig. 2202. is the ground plan, surrounded by walls and railing, in which a is the
entrance gateway from the churchyard; b, entrance porch; c, boys' school; d, girls'
school, separated from the boys' school by folding-doors ; e, porch to boys' yard ; f,
porch to girls' yard ; g, boys' yard ; h, girls' yard ; i, shed ; k, coals ; /, dust ; m m,
privies ; n n, garden, or play- ground.
7 h
1234
SUPPLEMENT.
Fig. 2203. is a perspective view, showing the effect of the north and east elevations.
We have omitted some of the elevations and sections, which, though not necessary for
understanding the plan and elevation, are yet essential to the parties contracting to
execute the work.
2416. Description. The design is in a plain Gothic, or modernised old English
stvle ; and hy reference to the plan, fig. 2202., it will be seen that every essential
accommodation is supplied. The site was of rather a peculiar description, being
an old moat, and the foundations otherwise bad ; consequently, the footings were
carried much below the usual depth, and abutments were formed to carry an arch over
the moat under the floor of the school-rooms. The description and quality of the
materials is given at length in the subjoined particulars, therefore it is only necessary
here to describe the engravings.
24 1 7. Details. Fig. 2204. shows a plan and elevation of the doors ; they are surrounded
on one side by splayed bricks, and are six feet high to the springing of the arch.
<g
B^
2206
2205
1
2207
Fig. 2206. is a section of the window centre mullions, one third the full size.
Fig. 2205. shows a plan and elevation of the chimney shafts ; the base and cap of which
are of stone, and the shaft and plinth rising from the roof of brickwork ; the diameter of
the Hues, nine inches.
Fig. 2207. is a section of the stone coping for parapets, to a scale of an inch to
a foot.
SCHOOLS, INNS, WORKHOUSES, AND ALMSHOUSES. 1235
Fig. 2208. is an elevation of part of the verge-board of the east, west, and south
gables, showing also sections, to a scale of one inch to one foot.
Fig. 2209. is an elevation of part of the verge-board of the north gable, to a scale of
one inch to one foot.
Fig. 2210. is a section of the architrave for the doors, one half the full size.
2208
2418. Specification {or
Particulars) of the several
Works to be done in Build-
ing a Sunday- School at
D unchurch, according to the
Plans, Elevations, Sections,
a?id Details, severally signed
by the Parties undertaking
the same.
2419. Excavator's, Brick-
layer's, Plasterers, and Sla-
ter's Work. To dig out
the earth for the several
trenches and piers, for the
foundations of the whole of
the building, of the respec-
tive depths and widths re-
quired, and to fill in and
well ram round the work.
Raise the ground with good dry gravel, well rammed together, to the height of the
several floors, and back up and well cover over the arch over the moat under the girls'
school, to a uniform level with the boys' school, ready to receive the floors. Level the
ground all round the buildings, and clear away any rubbish that may accumulate during
the execution of the work, and leave the same in a clear and perfect manner. Lay
drains from the rain-water spouts all round the building, and thence conduct the water
into a well on the west side of the building, with a drain tile set with compo on a brick
12S6
SUPPLEMENT.
2211
2213
hid flat as in fig 2211. Build the walls of the several dimensions and thicknesses, and
with proper footings, as set forth and described on the plans, sections, &c, with good,
sound, and hard, well-hurnt hricks, and mortar composed of well-burnt fresh Neobold
lime, made up with sand, to be got on the ground or carted to the spot, m the propor-
tions of at least one part lime to two parts sand,
and work all the walk above the surface with a
neat flat joint, jointed and struck (struck with
lines between the hricks, by an instrument called
a jointer) on both sides. Lay two courses of
eighteen-inch work for the foundations of the main
building, and two courses of fourteen-inch work
to the walls where nine-inch work is intended
above. Set over, fourteen inches below the sur-
face of the ground, two inches and a quarter for a
plinth to the main building, on both sides of the
walls ; the outer side, a, to be carried up one foot
above the surface to form a plinth, and the inner
side, b, to be carried nine inches above the floor to
form a skirting, both to be neatly jointed, and to
finish in again to the fourteen-inch work with
proper plinth bricks made for the purpose, with
the upper angles taken off, as in fig. 2212. No
plinth is requisite for the privy, yard, and mound
walls, which are to be carried up with nine-inch
work from within six inches of the foundations,
the latter consisting of fourteen-inch footings ;
these walls to be covered with proper coping
tiles, made for the purpose. The window jambs
and arches to be built and turned on both sides,
within and without, with splayed bricks ; as also
the inner and outer side jambs and arches to all the
doors and openings, with projecting bricks round
above the arches on the tops of all the window
openings, to form a label to be worked in compo,
as in fig. 2213. Put a rubbed and gauged fourteen-inch brick arch over the opening
in the east porch. The whole of the external walls of the main building to be faced
with picked white bricks, and all the piers and chimney shafts to be built octagonal
shape, with bricks to be made on purpose, the bases and caps of which to be worked
in Attlebury stone (see § 2420., Stonemason). The pediment of the porch on the east
side to be carried up six inches above the ramp of the slates, and coped with stone.
To pave the porches on the west side, also the privies and shed, with seven-inch
square paving quarries, set in mortar and jointed. The school floors and east porch
to be laid with nine-inch red and blue Newcastle quarries, bedded and jointed in
mortar, and laid diagonally. No part of the walls, while building, to be carried more
than four feet above the other, but the whole to be carried up in a regular, uniform,
and equal manner. To fix all the wooden bricks and bed all the plates, bond
timbers, and lintels in mortar. To cut all the rakes and splays, and all chasings
required for lead flashings, and to make good and stop the same with Roman cement;
to bed and point the door and window frames in lime and hair, and underpin all the
sills. Colour all the internal walls and roofs of a neat drab colour. To cover the
whole of the roofs with the best countess slates on |-inch deal laths, and nailed with
copper nails ; the ridges to be covered with the blue Newcastle tiles, and the whole
to he done with particular care, so as perfectly to exclude the snow, rain, and wind.
The fillets, listings, and vergings, to be of Roman cement. The bricklayer to find all
materials, ropes, boards, tackle, tools, centres, scaffolding, workmanship, and iron-work
for the completion of his work (exclusive of the carriage of the bricks, slates, and
quarries only), and to do the whole in the best and most workmanlike manner. To
do all the beam-filling and wind-pinning required, and the whole to be done subject
to the provisions of the general particulars at the end hereof. The plasterer to lath,
lay, float, set, and whiten the ceilings to the porches and privies. The inside of the
Bohool walls to be left neatly pointed down in brick, and coloured over with a drab or
■tone colour.
I, the undersigned, hereby undertake to perform the foregoing bricklayer's, slater's,
plasterer's, and excavator's work, for the sum of three hundred and fifty-nine pounds
eight shillings and fburpence.
(Signed) W. S.
SCHOOLS, INNS, WORKHOUSES, AND ALMSHOUSES. 1'237
2420. Stonemason. To put Yorkshire stone steps and riser to the entrance of the
east porch, and to provide and set seven Attlebury stone window-sills, according to the
enlarged drawing. To put moulded caps and bases to the two chimney shafts, and two
octagonal stone caps to piers ; also one date, one shield, and one inscription stone, as in
the drawings. To put York stone slabs to cover privy wells, and Attlebury stone
coping to the pediment of the east porch, with one projecting stone at gable, and key-
stone to the gauged arch in east porch. The contractor to find all materials, work-
manship, and carriage, and setting the same in a workmanlike and satisfactory manner.
I, the undersigned, hereby undertake to perform the foregoing stone-masonry, for
the sum of seventeen pounds two shillings and one penny.
(Signed) E. A.
2421. Carpenter and Joiner's Work. The whole of the materials to be sawed out
square, free from waste, and of the several scantlings and thicknesses herein specified ;
to be carted to the spot by the contractor, and to consist of the best yellow Dantzic or
Memel fir. The whole of the carpentry is to be framed in a workmanlike manner,
according to the drawings ; the carpenter finding labour, nails, and tools, and all kinds
of iron-work required for the purpose : the whole to be done subject to the general
particulars at the end hereof. To frame and fix a span roof, with four sets of prin-
cipals, braces, strutts, purlins, rafters, ridge-pieces, gutter-planks, wall-plates, &c, of
the several scantlings set forth in the plans and sections. The purlins to be let into
the principal rafters, so as to admit of the common rafters lying flush with them on the
upper side. All the timbers and scantlings to the internal part of the roof to be neatly
wrought and chamfered on the edges, and the principals ornamented with noggings
spiked on, and neatly wrought down to form one uniform appearance, according to the
section produced. A three-inch diameter stafF-bead, neatly wrought, to be put round
the internal walls, to hide the intersection of the wall-plate with the rafters. The wall-
plates to be dove-tailed and bolted together at the angles, with three-quarter- inch bolts,
nuts, and screws. Proper lintels to be provided, and put over all the openings for
windows and doors, and wood bricks built in, as the building proceeds, for fasten-
ing the door-jambs, architraves, &c. Provide and fix four-inch diameter cast-iron
spouts round the eaves, supported from every other rafter by a wrought-iron bracket,
or holdfast, as shown in the section of eaves, with four upright cast-iron wall-spouts,
and heads properly fastened and connected with the spouts, and connecting with a shoe
to the drains. — Scantlings of timber. Principal beams, ten inches by eight inches ;
principal rafters, nine inches by seven inches and by five inches ; purlins, six inches by
five inches; king-posts, seven inches by five inches; strutts, four inches by five inches;
ridge-piece, eight inches by one inch and a half; wall-plates, nine inches by three
inches; valley planks, nine inches by two inches and a half; common rafters, three
inches by two inches and a half. The lintel over the folding-doors to be ten inches by
eight inches, and to have a bearing of at least nine inches at each end, with an inch bolt
through the middle, and keyed up to the arch. To put inch yellow deal gutter-boards
round all the eaves and chimney-shafts, &c.
2422. Joiner's Work to be done according to the several drawings and details. All
the stuff to be of the best yellow deal, listed free from sap and shakes ; the whole to be
neatly wrought and finished off in a workmanlike manner. To put four two-inch
paneled doors according to the drawings, with 4^-inch rebated and headed frames, to be
built in as the work proceeds. Two one-inch six-paneled doors, made with one fold
each, to turn back into the recesses between the two schools, each seven feet six inches
wide, by ten feet high (the openings being ten feet by fifteen feet), hung to two-
inch rebated jambs beaded on edge, and finished round on both sides with an architrave,
as shown by the drawings. To put one-inch ledge deal doors and frames with oak
sills between the boys' and girls' yard, and in the yard dividing the boys' yard and
church-yard. No doors are required for the privies. To frame five window-frames
with square heads and chamfered edges, of well seasoned yellow deal, with middle
mullions and Gothic heads to oak sills ; and two frames with pointed heads, as shown
by the drawings: these are to be set and built up with the brickwork. To put 1^-
inch well-seasoned yellow deal carved verge-boards, with crown mouldings and cham-
fered edges, to all the gables, with carved pendants of oak, as expressed by the
drawings. To put ^-inch soffits to all the eaves and gable-hangings, with 1^-inch
staff-moulding in the angle against the wall. The carpenter and joiner to find
all materials, tools, labour, nails, glue, and every description of ironmongery, locks,
bolts, bars, hinges, and fastenings, and the carriage and fixing thereof, and every
thing required for the completion of his work in the best and most workmanlike
way ; and to prepare and fix all manner of beads, stops, fillets, grounds, linings,
and backings, required for the perfect execution of the work, whether the same
1C23H SUPPLEMENT.
may or may not be minutely specified in this particular; and the whole to be done
subject to the general particular at the end hereof.
I, the undersigned, hereby undertake to perform the foregoing carpenter's and
joiner's work for one hundred and ninety pounds thirteen shillings and seven-pence.
(Signed) W. L.
2423. Plumber, Glazier, and Painters Work. To put flashings of milled lead, eight
inches wide and five pounds to the foot superficial, chased into the brickwork, and fas-
tened with wall-hooks to each of the chimney-shafts, and where the roofing abuts
against the buildings and front parapet of porch. To put milled lead, fifteen inches
wide, to all the gutters and valleys. To glaze all the windows with second Newcastle
crown-glass in diagonal shape, properly leaded, and neatly pinned at convenient dis-
tances to cross-bars of iron ; with an iron casement in each window, to swing on a centre,
complete with staples, cords, and hooks. Paint all the woodwork, within and without,
of a drab colour, twice in oil. To put a lead pump, with pipe and all complete, to the
soft-water cistern in the back yard, and leave all the windows, &c, in a perfect and com-
plete state.
I, the undersigned, hereby undertake to perform the foregoing plumber's and painter's
work for the sum of thirty-seven pounds ten shillings and three-pence.
(Signed) G. K.
2424. General Particulars. The contractors to find all and every kind of material,
labour, and workmanship, scaffolding, and carriage, &c. (except such as hath herein-
before been specified to the contrary), necessary, proper, and requisite for the due execu-
tion of all and every part of the works. And if any alteration shall be made in any part
thereof, by direction of the employer, during the progress of the works, it shall not
vitiate or annul the contract ; but the value of such alteration shall be ascertained ac-
cording to the annexed schedule of prices ; and if to such other portion of the work to
which the annexed schedule does not refer, then according to the customary prices of
the neighbourhood, by the architect, whose decision between the parties shall be final.
The whole of the works must be executed of the best materials of their respective
kinds, and in the most substantial and workmanlike manner ; and the rooms to be
scoured, and the chimneys cored, the windows cleaned, and the whole building left
clean and complete on or before the 10th day of October next.
rw. S.
Dated, Rugby, Aug. 5., 1837. ,c- jn I W. L.
(Signed) Fred. Wood, Architect. (SlgneflM E. A.
[g. K.
Recapitulation.
£ s. d.
Excavator's, bricklayer's, plasterer's, and slater's work (§ 2419. ) 359 8 4
Stone-mason (§ 2420.) 17 2 1
Carpenter and joiner (§ 2421.) 190 13 9
Plumber, painter and glazier (§ 2423.) 57 10 3
Actual cost 604 14 3
2425. Remarks. The architect's fees are not included in the above sum. In mode-
rate foundations the above estimate would be less 70/. at least, the site of this school
being peculiarly situated over an old moat, the foundations consequently were bad, and
had to be laid at a great depth, and arched over, as expressed in the section of the
foundations.
Schedule referred to.
s. d.
Nine inches reduced brickwork 4 6 per yard super.
Paving with seven-inch red quarries 3 0 do.
Do. do. nine-inch red and blue Newcastle quarries ... 4 4 do.
Tile drain on brick flat set in compo 0 6 per yard run.
Coping to nine-inch walls, with tiles 0 2 per do. do.
Ridge coping with Newcastle tiles 0 10 per foot
Lath and plaster to ceilings 1 6 per yard
Stucco on walls 1 1 do.
Countess slating on longf-inch laths and copper nails 36 0 per square
Paving with brick flat 1 10 per yard.
SCHOOLS, INNS, WORKHOUSES, AND ALMSHOUSES. 1239
Design III. — A Union Workhouse. By C. Eales, Esq., Architect.
2426. Description. This design was prepared and submitted to the guardians of the
Horncastle Union, Lincolnshire, in the early part of the last year, for their proposed
workhouse, in accordance with the terms of an advertisement which appeared in the
daily papers ; viz. to accommodate two hundred inmates ; the expense not to exceed
£J2,800. The drawings (figs. 2214. to 2218. ) are accurately reduced from those sent in,
which, however, were not adopted.
Fig. 2214. is the elevation of the principal front of the main building.
Fig. 2215. ground plan of the work-
house. The first building, forming the
gate-house, is two stories in height, and
comprises on this plan every convenience
for the officers of the establishment ; viz.
a, porter's room ; b, relieving office ; c,
waiting-room for the poor ; d, searching-
room, together with a staircase leading to
the board-room on the story above. A
water-closet for the use of the guardians
is intended under these stairs. Right and
left of this building are the various offices
and receiving wards for the use of the
girls and boys, women and men's wards,
and general purposes ; e, work-rooms ; f,
receiving wards ; g, baths ; h, washing-
rooms, fitted up with troughs ; i, privies ; k,
refractory cells ; l, coal-house ; M, wood-
house ; n, bakehouse ; o, flour and mill
room ; p, bread and potato stores ; q,
laundry ; r, ashes. The main building
upon this plan comprises, s, chapel. It
is proposed, as the service will be attended
by the inmates on the sabbath only, that
during the week it should be appropriated
for the purpose of the girls' and boys'
school and dining-rooms, which could he
conveniently done by movable partitions
on the dotted lines, at the same time re-
serving ample space for the performance
of daily worship should it be necessary.
On either side of the chapel, t and u are
women's and men's dining-rooms, classi-
fied, each of which have staircases, v, con-
ducting to the dormitories on the stories
above ; w, staircase to master's and mis-
tress's rooms, each of which have separate
access to their respective departments ; x,
store-rooms, kitchen, scullery, and larder.
Considering it most essential, in an esta-
blishment of this nature, to keep the sick
in as isolated a situation as possible, par-
ticularly in case of an epidemic or con-
tagious fever, the building containing the
infirmary has been placed at the back of
the premises, forming a separate structure,
and contains, on this plan, y, dead-house
for each sex ; z, staircases for men and
women to infirmary, &c.
Fig. 2216. Plan of the first Story. The
gate-house comprises a spacious board-
room, a ; clerk's office, b ; strong room, c.
In the main buildings, d is the master's
bed-room ; f, master's parlour ; f, mis-
tress's parlour ; g, women's and men's dor-
mitories, classified, each of which have
1240
SUPPLEMENT.
tie
SCHOOLS, INNS, WORKHOUSES, AND ALMSHOUSES. 1241
2218
— rrr~7 — w^' .7 — r_T~
1 242
SUPPLEMENT.
staircases, H, conducting to the dormitories on the stories above. Two water-closets
and washing-troughs are provided in each dormitory. I, staircase and water-closet for
master's apartments ; k, women's ward, and women's sick and lying-in ward ; l, surgery ;
m, wards tor the insane of each sex, with separate staircases and water-closets.
Fig. 2217. Plan of second .Story. The main building comprises, a, mistress's bed-
room ; b, staircase and water-closet ; c, boys' first class dormitory ; i>, women's and
men's dormitories, classified, as in the story beneath. In the wings are staircases com-
municating with the story above; E, men's sick ward, with separate staircase, water-
closet, and washing-trough : p, nurses' rooms.
Fig. 2216. Plan of third Story : the main building, a, girls' bedrooms, classified;
B, boys' second class dormitory ; c, nursery.
Summary of Accommodation.
1st Pair.
Men 40
Women 40
Boys —
Girls —
2d Pair
3d Pair.
Total
40 ...
... — ...
.. 80
40 ...
... — ...
.. 80
14 ...
.. 26
— ...
... 30 ...
.. 30
216
Design IV. — The Almshouses at Oring. By John Elliott, Esq., Architect.
The elevation is shown in perspective in fig. 2220., and the ground plan in fig. 2219.
This plan is shown in isometrical perspective with the walls raised the height of four
feet, a mode which renders plans much more easily understood, and consequently more
interesting than the ordinary mode.
2427. Accommodation. The dwellings at the two ends of this line of building are
larger than the others, and consist of a living-room, twelve feet by fourteen feet, a ;
scullery, twelve feet by ten feet, which contains a stair to two bed-rooms, b. The other
dwellings, of which there are four, are smaller, and each of them consists of a living-
room, twelve feet by ten feet, c ; a bed-room, six feet by seven feet, d ; and a scullery,
live feet six inches by six feet six inches, in which there is a stair to two small bed-rooms
0Ver,e. Behind each dwelling is a small garden; and there is also in front a narrow
slip of ground, neatly laid out and planted with shrubs and flowers. The situation is on
a bank or ridge along the public road, and separated from it by a small watercourse.
The cost of these six dwellings was about £650.
2428. Remarks. These almshouses were built for Miss Woods of Shopwyke, the pro-
prietress of the village of Oving, near Chichester. This village she has greatly improved,
by rebuilding most of the cottages from designs by Mr. Elliott, adding large gardens to
them, and charging a rent for each cottage which does not pay more than between 2
and 3 per cent on the capital employed. The church of Oving lias also been repaired
SCHOOLS, INNS, WORKHOUSES, AND ALMSHOUSES. 1243
nnd restored by Miss Woods ; and the churchyard we have noticed in the Gardeners
Magazine for 1841, p. 591., as reformed in the very best taste, under the care of the
rector, the Rev. G. H. Langdon. Miss Woods has also built a commodious school at Oving,
from the designs of Mr. Elliott, which, like all that gentleman's designs that we have
seen (and they are numerous), is in excellent taste. We regret much that time and
space prevent us from taking advantage of Mr. Elliott's kindness in offering us the use
of any of his designs for publication in this Supplement.
Design V. — A Public-house. By I. W. Wild, Esq., Architect.
The elevation is shown in fig. 2222., and the ground plan in fig. 2221.
2429. Accommodation.
The plan shows a porch, a ;
lobby, b ; kitchen, c ; par-
lour, d, with a bay, o, which
may be separated in the win-
ter season by a screen of
glass, so as to form a small
greenhouse ; an open veran-
da, e, with seats for smoking
and drinking, the liquor be-
ing served out through the
small window shown at the
bottom of the staircase ; /,
the staircase, over which
there is a pigeon-house, and
from which the sign is pro-
jected; g is the back-kitchen ;
h, the pantry ; i, the dairy ;
k, water-closet ; /, open porch ;
m, cow-house ; and n, dotted
lines, showing in what man-
ner the bay of the parlourmay
be extended, so as to afford a
larger space when partitioned
off as a greenhouse.
2430. General Estimate**"
The cubiccontentsare 1 8,583
feet; which, at 6d., amounts to £464 14s. 6d.; at 4d., to £309 14s. 3d. ; and at 3rf.,
to £232 7s. 3d.
2431. Remarks. The walls of this cottage are supposed to be covered with stucco
between the principal timbers of their construction ; thus being divided into panels,
which, again, may be ornamented with patterns stamped by plates of wickerwork
upon the stucco while yet moist. The impression would resemble interlacing basket-
work, according to the disposition of the wicker, of which there may be many beautiful
patterns. Some of the panels might be ornamented with initial letters, appropriate
devices, foliage, &c., easily executed and of good effect; as in ancient plastered houses
in many parts of this country. Perhaps the most beautiful example in the world, of
15J14
SUPPLEMENT.
elaborate ornament in stucco-work, is the Moorish palace of the Alhambra in Granada.
In tliis building there is an endless variety of patterns, many of them so complicated
as to have three planes of ornament, one overlying the other, yet each perfectly distinct ;
others, again, are simply formed by the intersection of geometrical patterns, in lines
slightly engraven in the stucco. This building, so elaborately illustrated by Owen Jones,
is a complete encyclopaedia of ornament, and deserves especial attention when the sub-
ject of enriched stucco is considered. The practice of covering walls with cements has
been condemned by some architectural writers, but upon insufficient grounds. The
material, particularly, is of the greatest value, as it enables us to make a thin wall more
weather-proof than one much thicker and more costly without it. When used exter-
nally it should be protected by projecting eaves.
Design VI. — The Hand and Spear Hotel, at Wet/bridge, Surrey.
2432. A perspective view of this very picturesque hotel is shown in fig. 2223. We have
not given the plan, because there is nothing remarkable or characteristic in the arrange-
ment ; in short, it is merely an old public-house with some additional rooms. The
whole, however, is commodious and comfortable. The elevation, as it appears in the
figure, was designed by the Honourable Peter John Lock King, the proprietor of the
estate on which the inn is built, who, with his brother, the Earl of Lovelace, appears to
inherit a taste for architecture from their ancestor, Mr. Lock of Norbury Park, in
Surrey. (See Gilpin's Cumberland.) The view shows the inn as seen from the South-
ampton Railroad.
FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS.
1245
/
1
CHAP. V.
Details of Construction applicable to Cottages, Farm Buildings,, Villas, §-c.
As many of these details are alike applicable to several classes of buildings, we
have, for more convenient reference, brought them all together. We shall begin with
foundations, and take, in succession, walls, roofs, interior arrangements, and miscel-
laneous matters.
Sect. I. Foundations and Walls.
2433. Concrete. The use of this mixture of lime, gravel, and sand, in foundations,
and for floors of sheds, and even of cottage dwellings, is now very general. In using it
in the foundations of a house, a trench is dug out about
eight inches wider than the lowest course of brickwork 2224
or masonry, and to such a depth as is necessary to arrive
at firm soil. This is shown in fig. 2224., in which a is
the floor line ; b, the ground line ; and c, the concrete.
When the trench is made, coarse and fine gravel are
thrown into it, just as they come from the pit, to the
thickness of about four inches ; it is then grouted with
thin hot lime, just enough to bind the gravel together,
and afterwards rammed quite hard. Course after course
must then be laid, and so treated till the mass reaches within
about eighteen inches of the ground line. The proportion
of hot lime to the gravel is about one eighth part only.
Others use lime in the proportion of one to five of loamy
gravel. In countries where gravel is not common, dry brick rubbish, broken stone,
flints, or any material that will bind into one mass, will answer. Carter informs us that
the foundations of Westminster Abbey, erected in 1 245, consist of flints, irregular stones,
rubble, and mortar, forming an almost impenetrable body. In many of the ancient
castles, particularly in Kent, the foundations are thus made. {Arch. Mag., i. 248.)
2434. Preventing Dampness in Foundation Walls. Fig. 2225. represents the section of
a wall built on a concrete foundation, c, formed within a trench, the sides of which
are pared down inwards, so as slightly to in-
crease the base. Around all the walls of the
foundation against which ground will lie a dry
area should be formed, in order to prevent
dampness within the building. This may be
done with a half-brick wall, placed at a little
distance from the part to be protected, as repre-
sented by the annexed sketch. The space thus
enclosed must be arched over at the top, just
below the level of the ground ; and if iron air-
bricks, or small gratings communicating with
the dry area, be introduced, wherever open areas
arc formed, around windows or elsewhere, a free
circulation of air will be obtained. Should no
open areas occur in the basement story, small ,
flues, or throats, may be formed at certain in-
tervals within the wall, terminating just above
the ground, to receive an air-brick, as shown
at a in the figure. The wall of the dry area,
although under ground, should not be care-
lessly executed, as it must necessarily be sub- - '.'.•f:-.'»,'i|.,.v.v^.^
jected to considerable pressure, and the work- 3 1^
men should be directed to put in whole headers "^ 7~~ "',• -s
at certain distances, that is, bricks placed length- '\
wise in the direction of the thickness of the wall, v ' ;■'..:.'■ ' . ■ ' . - \
as at 6 6, so as to stiffen it.
2435. To prevent Damp from rising in Wulls, a vacuity may be left in the centre of
the wall just above the surface of the ground as at a, in fig. 2226., laying over it slabs
of stone or slate, chamfered off so as to form a neat finish to the plinth round the outside
of the building. At various intervals, small openings, commuuicating between this
channel and the interior of the building, should be made as at b, so that a current of air
may be driven through the vacuity and openings under the floors, in order to ventilate
them. (A. M, i. 233.)
(
2225
1246
SUPPLEMENT
222G
2436. To prevent Damp from ascending the Walls of a House already built, introduce
;i water-proof medium through the wall, just above the level of the ground, in the
following manner : First, make a hole through the wall, over the ground course, taking
out two courses in height, and two bricks in length ; consequently, the hole will be six
inches high and eighteen inches wide. Then fill up half this hole, at one end, with two
courses of sound bricks, laid in Roman cement. It is clear that the operation could
not injure the wall, the width of eighteen inches not allowing of any settlement. Two
courses more, of nine inches in width, are next removed, making the hole again eighteen
inches wide ; the half of which is then filled up with bricks and cement as before. The
operation is to be repeated until the whole of the walls of the house are underpinned by
two courses of hard bricks and three joints of Roman cement ; constituting a water-
proof septum, through which the damp cannot rise. (A. M., i. 123.)
2437. Brick Walls. In addition to the various modes of building hollow walls shown
in the Encyclopedia, we give the following mode of building a wall fourteen inches in
2227
thickness, with only a small additional
quantity of bricks to what are required
for a nine-inch wall. Fig. 2227. shows
the plan, or first course of bricks, of
such a wall, and all the rest is mere re-
petition. Walls built in this manner
may be carried to the height of ten or
twelve feet, without any piers, and hence they are suitable both for the walls of cottages
and gardens. For the latter purpose two courses of cross bond may be left out, on a
level with the surface of the ground, in order to leave room for a hot-water pipe, which,
in consequence of the vertical vacuities, will heat the whole wall. If we suppose
that only half the amount of cross bond is used, then the saving of bricks will be
still greater. A rod of solid nine-inch brickwork requires 4,500 bricks; a rod, of hol-
low fourteen-inch brickwork, such as fig. 2227., requires 3,600 bricks; and a rod
with only half the amount of cross bond shown in fig. 2227. requires 3,200 bricks.
If the whole of the brickwork were set on edge, then, for a common nine-inch wall,
hollow, the number of bricks required per rod will be 3,000; for a fourteen-inch
wall, hollow, on the principle of fig. 2225., but with bricks on edge, the number
required per rod will be about 2,800; and for a wall, brick on edge, with only half
the cross bond shown in fig. 2227., the number per rod required will be about 2,500.
2438. It is evident that hollow walls might be made eighteen inches or two feet in
thickness, either with brick in bed or brick edgewise, on the same principle as fig.
2227.; and if such walls were filled in with concrete, they would form excellent walls
for cottages. When cottage walls are built hollow, it is necessary to have solid piers
to the doors, and to have a space carried up solid from the foundation to each window,
the jambs of which, like those of the doors, must of course be carried up solid. In
brick-on-edge work the solid parts must still be built with all the bricks set on edge,
but no bricklayer will find any difficulty in effecting this object.
2439. Brick Walls, seven inches and a half thick, and fair or smooth on both sides,
are convenient, not only for partitions, but even for the outside walls of sheds and
other buildings, and for garden walls. A common nine-inch wall, as every reader
of any experience in building knows, can only be built fair on one side, unless built
hollow, as in the one in the preceding paragraph, but 7:j-inch walls having no bricks
which pass right through the wall, the attention of the bricklayer is only required
to one side at a time. These 7J-inch walls are formed of bricks of the common size,
and of bricks of the same length and thickness, but of only half the width of the com-
mon bricks, by which means they can
be " worked fair " on both sides.
rhese are laid side by side, as in
fig. 'i'_'2S. ; in which a represents the
firs! course, and /. the second course.
The bond, or tying together of both
2228
"1
FOUNDATIONS AND WALLS.
1247
i~r — '
sides of the wall, is not obtained by laying bricks across (technically, 2229
headers), but by the full-breadth bricks covering half the breadth of the
broad bricks, when laid over the narrow ones, as shown at b, and in the
vertical section, fig. 2229. Besides the advantage of being built fair on
both sides, there briny no headers, or through and through bricks, in these
walls, the rain, when they are used as outside walls, is never conducted
through them, and the inside of the wall is consequently drier than
the inside of a wall nine inches in thickness. These walls are adapted
for a variety of purposes in house-building and gardening. The only
drawback that we know against them is, that the narrow, or half-
breadth, bricks must be made on purpose.
2440. Hitch's Patent Rebated Brickwork. The bricks are much larger
than usual, and the walls are said to be stronger, and twenty per cent
cheaper. Some walls and buildings at Brompton have been executed —
with them under the direction of Mr. Godwin, but they are far from— S —
being generally known. Fig. 2230. represents a longitudinal section of a nine-inch
header, and fig. 2231. part of one course of nine-inch work. From this it will be seen,
2230
:i
j
~
2232
that the headers and stretchers are rebated together, and form two external faces of brick-
work enclosing a hollow space, or series of hollow spaces. Each of the headers has two
dowel-holes through it, in the direction of its height, and is hollowed out on the under side
as shown in fig. 2230. ; so that these spaces communicate with one another, by means
of the dowel-holes, throughout the whole extent of the wall. Now, into these chambers,
as each course is laid, a concrete, properly compounded of gravel and lime, is intro-
duced ; and the whole, when finished, is thus rendered a solid and well-combined mass.
The appearance presented by walls built in this manner is uniform and bold (each
brick being five inches high, and proportionally long) : very little mortar is required
for laying the bricks ; so that, if affected by frost, the work may be repaired at small
cost. Again, the importance of giving to the bricks the perfect shape of the mould
entails the necessity of previously well kneading the clay, and, when
moulded, the form of the brick allows full effect to the fire while burn-
ing ; so that, in composition also, these are generally superior to common
bricks : and, notwithstanding all these supposed advantages, brickwork
can be executed in this manner twenty per cent cheaper than by the
ordinary method. A variety of other bricks, besides those we have
mentioned, are used in this system of construction, such as bat-headers,
closers, reveal-headers, and angle-headers; and this slight complexity
seems to be the chief objection to its general adoption, as common
workmen are unable to execute it without some little previous instruc-
tion on the subject. In thick walls, for the interior of which the patentee
uses what he calls a " clenched core-brick," to tie the whole together, and
prevent the walls from splitting, almost any degree of strength may be
attained ; and here, inasmuch as a greater proportion of concrete is em-
ployed, a much larger saving than that mentioned above may be effected ;
probably as much, in some cases, as 40 per cent. For arches, Mr.
Hitch has made wedge-shaped bricks of various radius, by means of
I which the larger mortar joint occurring when common bricks are em-
ployed for this purpose is avoided ; and ordinary vaults may thus be formed
of five- inch " arch bricks," having over them a thin layer of concrete, for
about 5s. per yard superficial. Several small bridges have been suc-
cessfully built with them. For garden walls, bricks are especially made
with merely two dowel-holes in them ; so that iron
rods or oaken stakes may be passed through, thus
stringing them together, the interstices being filled up
with concrete. Fig. 2233. shows
the plan of one of these bricks ;
and fig. 2232. exhibits a section
of garden walling constructed with
them, under Mr. Godwin's direction, in several places. A footing
of concrete, about twelve inches in thickness, is first thrown in. Upo
this is laid one course of nine-inch work, and one course of splayed bricks, made for the
1248 SUPPLEMENT.
purpose) from which commences the six-inch walling of doweled bricks, terminating
with a bead-brick and coping of the same material, set in cement. At certain interval-;
angular piers are formed, to strengthen the wall ; and iron rods, as before mentioned,
are introduced in various places. One of the latter is shown in the engraving, passed
through the bottom courses into the concrete. The cost of a wall thus constructed,
with six-inch bricks, including the coping and piers, but exclusive of the concrete
footing, is about 5s. per yard (being little more than the price of wooden fencing, which
constantly requires repairs, and is, therefore, a continual source of expense) ; and a
similar wall may be built with four-inch bricks for 4,s-. per yard. For horticultural pur-
poses the patentee has occasionally glazed the face of bis bricks: this is the case with a
garden wall in the garden at Hampton Court Palace, built by him several years ago.
{Arch. Mag., vol. i. p. 581.)
2441. Hitch's Brick Drain, for which he has a patent, is of simple but excellent
construction, of which fig. 2235. represents a section. Each "9<734
brick is about thirteen inches long, segmental, and wedge-
shaped ; and is rebated at the ends (as shown by fig. 2234., which
is a longitudinal section of a single brick), so as to fit together
accurately without much cement. On the top of each two
indentions are formed, in order to lessen the quantity of earth
required for making them, and afford a handle to the workmen.
Four bricks form a nine-inch drain, as represented by the sketch,
which can be executed complete for ll^d. per foot running;
and six of them, having a slightly different radius, make a twelve-
inch drain, costing Is. 4^d. per foot: in both cases exclusive
of digging. The bricks themselves cost about 17s. per hun-
dred, and the amount of labour and cement required is very small.
2442. Bricks may now be made of ornamental Forms, or coloured, on payment of double
duty, which it is to be hoped may lead to the revival of brick cornices, architraves, &c,
such as were in use till ornamental bricks were heavily taxed. The fine effect of
coloured bricks is admirably shown in the Lombardo- Venetian church, recently built
from the design of Mr. Wild, at Streatham. How the colouring of bricks is effected
in the manufacture has been shown by John Dobson, Esq., in the Proceedings of the
British Association for 1838.
2443. Building Cottage Walls of Clay Lumps. John Curtis, Esq., of Rougham, in-
formed us that he had built cottages, barns, and farm-yard walls, with what are called
clay lumps. They are, he says, more durable than any thing except stone, very
dry, and from fiOO to 700 per cent cheaper than bricks. " I have built the walls of a
farm-yard one foot thick with clay lumps; and, when at the desired height, made
a coping for it of a frame-work of boards one inch and a half thick, and six inches
wide. These, nailed together with cross pieces at every four or five feet's distance, are
laid on the top of the wall, which thus forms the eaves, by projecting two inches on
each side of the wall ; the outer edges of the boards being beveled or sloped off to fa-
cilitate the drip of the water from the wall, similarly to a drip brick. The coping is
then finished by covering it with worked clay, in the state that it is when ready for
making lumps. This, with a little occasional repairs, will last for many years."
2444. To make Clay Lumps. Three loads of soft tender clay, which should be
yellow, not blue, the latter being too strong, will make one hundred lumps; which,
when dry, will weigh six stones, of fourteen pounds each. The three loads should be
put into a heap, all large stones being carefully picked out, and soaked with as much
water as the mass will absorb ; then tread it with one or two horses, and, as it is trod-
den, mix as much short old straw as can properly be mixed with it, by adding more
water as may be required. The edges of the mass should be turned into the middle of
the heap from time to time ; and the horses should be kept treading it till all the clay is
thoroughly broken, and mixed so as to become like stiff mortar. All the secret depends
on well mixing the clay with plenty of straw. It should not be made too thin. As soon
as this quantity is properly prepared, men shoidd be making it into lumps, which is done
by putting sufficient clay into a mould of wood, of the following dimensions : eighteen
inches long, twelve inches wide, and six inches deep, no bottom. The mould, when
well filled, by the men putting in the clay with a spade, and pressing it with the foot,
the top being smoothed with the back of the spade, should be lifted up, and the lump
will then be left perfect. Wet the mould with a wisp of oat straw, to prevent the clay
hanging to it, and place the mould about two inches from the first lump, and fill as
before ; then wet the mould and place it about two inches off, and proceed as before.
This filling of the mould is best done on level grass ground. As soon as the lumps get
a little stiff, that is, just enough to admit of handling them, they should be set on one
edge, and as they dry be turned ; and in doing this, place the wet side to the sun. The
ROOFS AND FLOORS. 1*249
rough edges must be trimmed with a spade, or any edged tool, as they become dry
enough to be baled (that is, built up in rows about three feet high, one brick wide, and
the lumps one or two inches apart at the ends, as new-made bricks are before thev are
burned), so as that the wind can pass between each lump. Winter is the best time to
get the clay into heaps, that the frost may pulverise and mellow it. In March, as soon
as the severe frosts are over, begin to work the clay and make the lumps, and, if the
weather is favourable, they will be fit to build with in three weeks or a month.
2445. To build a Cottage, Barn, or any Building, with Clay Lumps, the foundation must
be good ; that is, built with brick or stone at least eighteen inches above the surface of
the ground. The larger the building, the higher the foundation should be ; say three
feet ; and it should be two inches wider than the lumps, so that one inch of plaster may
be put on each side of the wall ; the width of the walls being according to the size of
the building. Of course lumps can be made to any size, according to the building in-
tended. The expense of building the walls (which are eighteen inches thick) is 6d. per
yard ; and lt/.per yard, covering each side of the wall with cement, which is only common
clay mixed well with very short straw, being very particular in picking out every stone,
and treading it more than usual. Let it lie in the heap till the autumn, and then (in
October) apply it to the walls as a coat of plaster is applied to any common wall. —
J.C. Feb. 3. 1842.
The only objection that we see to these walls is, that they do not appear to admit of
finishing with common lime plaster within ; but on writing to Mr. Curtis on the sub-
ject, he informed us that he had no doubt lime plaster will adhere equally well with
plaster of clay. It does so in the pise walls of France.
Skct. II. Roofs and Floors.
2446. Terrace Roofs have of late years become very general in and about London.
They are formed of thin arches of tiles and cement, supported on cast-iron bearers or
ribs, which arc placed about three feet apart. The arch is composed of three courses
of common plain tiles, bedded in fine cement without sand. In laying the tiles, laths
or small slips of wood are used, resting on temporary bearers between the iron ribs ;
the laths being shifted as the work advances, in the course of about half an hour after
the tiles are laid. Particular attention is required to bonding the tiles both ways ; and
they are rubbed down closely upon each other, much in the same manner as a joiner
glues a joint. Mr. Fowler covered a wing of his bouse with a roof of this kind, over
which he laid a bed of coarse gravel, and on that nine inches of soil, so as to form a
terrace-garden : he also covered the roofs of two taverns in Hungerford Market in this
manner, and found it a more agreeable surface for walking on than lead, both as to
texture, and from being a non-conductor of heat. Where a covering or roof of tiles
and cement is not intended to be walked on, two courses of tiles are considered suffi-
cient ; but where it is liable to be loaded by persons standing on it in crowds, three
courses should be used. Two courses of tiles on iron joists amount to one third less
expense than covering with " eight-pound lead" and fir joists. ( Trans. Inst. Brit. Arch.,
vol. i. p. 4S.) This covering has the advantage over one of asphalte, in not being liable
to be softened by the beat of the sun ; but asphalte, being much lighter, may be laid on
wooden joists, covered with boards, in the same manner as if lead were to be used.
2447. Asphalte is one of the most remarkable introductions for building purposes
which has taken place since the publication of the Encyclopaedia. Asphalte had been
in use in France for many years, but was comparatively neglected there till the
stimulus given to improvement by the Revolution of 1830. It is now in very general
use in France for foot-pavements, flat roofs, and lining water-cisterns; and in England
it lias also been a good deal used for the same purposes, and for flooring to barns. We
are not aware that it has been used as flooring for cottages, but we know of no objection
to it, at least for rooms on the ground floor in which there are no fireplaces. Asphalte
is found in a natural state in the Obsaun and other parts of France ; but it may be
formed artificially in every respect equally good, and in England much cheaper. A
very good recipe is : eighteen parts of mineral pitch, and eighteen of resin, put in
an iron pot, and boiled for a little ; after which, sixty parts of sand, thirty of small
gravel, and six of slacked lime, are to be added. The foundation being rendered drv,
and being brought to a level with gravel or small stones, the mixture is taken out of
the pot, or caldron, in which it was boiled, with an iron shovel, in a boiling state, and
spread evenly over the prepared surface about the thickness of two inches for ordinary
pavements, and about a third part thicker for barn floors and flat roofs. According to
Dr. Ure, boiled coal-tar, mixed with powdered chalk or bricks, will make as good
asphalte as the natural kind. {Diet, of Arts, §•<;., Bitumen.)
2448. Pocock's flexible Asphalte Roofing is intended to supersede the use of slates, tiles,
zinc, thatch, &c, in the covering and lining of farm buildings, sheds, cottages, and other
1250
SUPPLEMENT.
erections; and, from its durability, lightness, and economy, it is in very general use.
The weight of this manufacture being only sixty pounds to the square of one hundred
feet, the walls and timbers to support it are required to be but half the usual substance ;
it is also a non-conductor of heat, impervious to damp, and will bear a heat of two
hundred and twenty degrees without injury. Several architects and railway engineers
have already adopted the asphalte rooting for sheds and other buildings; it has also
been used instead of mats or boards for covering glass frames in gardens. The materials
of which this roofing is composed are the refuse felt of batters, and natural or artificial
asphalte, mixed together and compressed into thin plates.
2449. The new French Roojiny Tiles (fig. 2236.) were introduced from Paris by Sir
John Robison in 1840. These tiles are square in form, about nine inches or ten inches
on the side, with a raised ledge on two sides. They may be either laid with or without
mortar or cement, but they are better with a little, by which they effectually exclude
water. The boundary lines of the tiles being all diagonal, the rain-water tends to run
to the lower points (instead of hanging in the joints by capillary attraction), where
the nosing on the lower angle of the tile, shown in the section (fig. 2237.), conducts the
2237
stream or drops, on to the flat part of the next tile below it. To finish the roof at the
ridge half tiles are placed there, analogous to those placed at the eaves, but having
a raised ledge along their upper edge, over which edge a peculiarly shaped ridge-tile is
inverted to complete the whole. These tiles are lighter than pantiles, in the proportion
of sixty-eight pounds to one hundred and ten pounds per square yard, which is
the usual weight. The general aspect of roofs covered with them is agreeable, and
the cost will be evidently much less than that of any description of tile roof at present
in use. The Highland Society is endeavouring to introduce the tiles into Scotland,
and we have sent drawings of them to Mr. Varden, at Worcester ; Mr. Elliott, at
Chichester; and Mr. Wilds, at Hertford.
2450. Cubilt's Improvements in Roofing are of a very ingenious character, and though
confessedly not adapted to first-rate or other houses requiring roofing of a permanent
and perfectly weather-tight description, will be found, nevertheless, of very extensive
application. Wherever quickness of construction, lightness, and cheapness are objects
ot importance, and no more is cared for than protection overhead during ordinary states
of the weather, as in the case of colonnades, verandas, penthouses, drying-houses, tool-
houses, summer-houses in gardens, boat-houses, workmen's sheds, railway stations, &c,
these improvements will be found of great applicability and value. (Mech. Mag., vol.
xxxm. ]>. 210.) It would occupy too much space to describe this mode of roofing,
which will be found illustrated with engravings in the work quoted. We shall only
add, that its appearance is very light and elegant, but that it could not be executed
without the aid of the circular saw.
HOOFS AND FLOORS.
1251
2451. Suspension Roofs. The principle employed in suspension bridges is beginning
to be applied to roofs both in Fiance and England. In the back premises of Messrs. Gil-
low, the extensive upholsterers in Oxford Street, part of a roof was suspended by a chain
in 1840, under the direction of Messrs. Abraham, architects; and Mr. Hansom of
Foley Place, architect, proposes a roof of this kind for the Metropolitan Music Hall,
now in contemplation, which, if carried into execution, will be the largest room in
the world. The four angles of the building are proposed to he carried up a sufficient
height to form the fulcrums for the suspension chains, which may, perhaps, be most
advantageously applied in the manner adopted by Mr. Dredge of Bath, in his suspension
bridges. (See Mech. Mag., vol. xxxiii. p. 500. )
2452. Sunk Wooden Eaves- Trotigh for Cottage Roofs, figs. 2238— 2240. This finish
to the eaves of a roof has now become very general for country-houses, and deservedly
so; being the neatest, cheapest, and most durable of any, and adapted to the humblest
cottage as well as to the elegant villa. In order to obtain a fall in the old metal troughs,
they are obliged to be fixed a little slanting, which adds to the otherwise unsightly
appearance of them; they are also liable to be crushed in by the weight of ladders, &c,
placed against them, as well as to a sagging or dropping down between the several
iron brackets which support them, and the water from time to time lodging in these
parts very soon renders them useless. This is made of the best clean seasoned fir timber,
with as few joints as possible, the mitred joints at the angles put together with a copper
22:58
tongue and white lead ; about four inches by four inches, more or less, according to the
character of the building. It is fixed perfectly level, the fall being within itself, which is
obtained by hollowing out the middle, beginning at x in fig. 2238., the highest part of
the fall, and proceeding gradually deeper to z, the lowest ; thus, a trough of this
description may be fixed along a front of forty or fifty feet in length, the fall being given
from the centre to the right and left. It requires no lining, but a thorough good
painting, which should be repeated every three or four years. A large moulding being
wrought on the front, it is thus made to represent the crowning member of a cornice.
Fig. 2239. represents the application of it to a cottage ; where a is the moulded
front of the eaves-trough; b, the hollow; c, the plastered soffit; d, bearer; e, rafter;
f, slating; g, front wall of house ; h, fascia; o, wall-plate. Fig. 2240., the same with a
higher style of finish. The same letters of reference answer : in addition, i shows a lead
moulding and fascia in cement, and the plancier, c, is curved. It may be finished in a
still more elaborate style, with dentils or cantilevers, if required. — W. Wilds, Architect,
Hertford.
2453. Cast-iron Gutters to Roofs, as a substitute for leaden ones, are found eco-
nomical and effective. Fig. 2242. is a section of a gutter between two roofs, in
which a a show the gutter, with a flange, b b, for joining the different pieces together ; c c,
the slates ; d d, the rafters ; and e, the gutter-beam. The fall requisite to carry oft'
the water is found to be from a half to three quarters of an inch in the yard, and this
necessarily occasions the plane of the roof to rise towards the centre of the building, as
shown in the section, fig. 2241., in which the rise is indicated by the dotted lines////.
1252
SUPPLEMENT.
All the care that this requires in slating or tiling is, to bring the upper edge of the
lower course of tiles to a level, as indicated in the longitudinal section through the
gutter, fig. 2243. ; in which g is the gutter ; h, the lower course of tiles ; i, the gutter-
beam ; and h, the hollow posts for supporting the gutter-beam, and serving as pipes for
conducting away the water from the gutter. Cast-iron gutters of this sort will be
found peculiarly adapted for ridge and furrow hot-house roofs.
2454. Hoofs of native Scotch Fir. The Closeburn method of preserving the dura-
bility of timber consists in first cutting it to the size required, and then steeping it in a
pond of limewater for a fortnight, or more or less, according to the dimensions of the
pieces. It is found that the acid contained in the wood is crystallised, by combining
with the alkali of the lime. Sir Charles Menteath has now some farm buildings on his
estate, the timber in the roofs of which is the common young Scotch fir ; but, having
undergone the limewater process, it is as sound after a lapse of forty years as the day
it was put up. The same timber, under ordinary circumstances and in similar situa-
tions, would rot in from three to seven years. (Mech. Mag., vol. xxxi. p. 105.) Not-
withstanding this statement, the preservative effect of limewater is denied by some, but
there can be little doubt that sulphate of copper would be effective.
2455. Thatch maybe rendered comparatively incombustible, by soaking it in whitewash
made of lime, or whitening and size, in the usual way, to every four gallons of which has
been added one pound, or rather more, of alum. Alum would suffice by itself, but the
rain would wash it oil'. The lime and size form a film over every straw, insoluble in
water. {Mech. Mag., vol. xxxvi. p. 106.) If the interior of a thatched roof be kept dry,
it will last as long as the timber which supports it. Possibly something might be gained
by covering a thin layer of thatch with Pocock's asphalte roofing.
'J 156. Marlins Fire-Proof Cement has been used in various cases by Mr. Cubitt as a
substitute I. ir boards in flooring, anil it is said Mr. Harry intends to use it in the new
House ••! Parliament. Applied to floors, stairs, and partitions, even though only as a
WINDOWS AND DOORS.
i£d3
covering to boards, it would go far to render private houses fire-proof. (Mech. Mag.,
vol. xxxvi. p. 85.) The principal ingredient in this cement is gypsum.
2457. Cement Floors for Cottage Bed-rooms have been strongly recommended for their
durability, and as, in some degree, rendering cottages fire-proof. They are common in
Italy, and to be found in some parts of France and Germany, but they are compara-
tively rare in England. The best that we know of are at Houghton, in Norfolk, which
we examined upwards of thirty years ago, and through the kindness of John Curtis, Esq.,
who sent us the information respecting building walls with clay lumps (§ 2443.), we are
enabled to give the following account of them : —
2458. The Cement Floors at Houghton Inn, and in some of the farm-houses on the
Houghton estate, are thus formed. The floor joists are laid in the same manner as if
for boarding, but well stiffened by what is locally called bridging, which consists of
pieces mortised into each joist, as shown in fig. 2244., in which a is the plan and b the
section. But as this mode weakens the joists by cutting into them, a better one would
2244
F
U
2245
be, to use cross strutts in the usual manner, as shown in fig. 2245. , in which c is the plan
and d the section. Some floors are first laid with reeds, so as to bear the cement on a
floor of reeds ; and others (which is the better way) are covered with double laths, but
the ends of these laths should only just meet in the middle of the joists. The cement
is then laid on, half an inch or two inches thick, and the floor must not be left by the
workmen till it is quite finished ; that is, they must keep beating and smoothing it over,
night and day, till it is completely set, in order to prevent its cracking. This can only
be done by having a swinging scaffold from the ceiling for the men to work from. The
cement must be laid on directly it is made ; therefore, while some persons are making it
up, others must be laying it on. The cement is commonly called red plaster, which is
red gypsum. It is burnt for this purpose, by making a fire with small billets of wood,
and mixing small lumps of gypsum with the wood, and then covering the whole with
turves to prevent the fire escaping, in the same manner as billets are covered when they
are made into charcoal ; or a better way is, to grind the gypsum in the flour stones of a
mill, and then bake it in an oven, before mixing it into a cement, which should be done
with the iron dust which falls from a blacksmith's anvil, and not with the smithy ashes ;
the scales of iron being so much harder and better for the purpose. Chalk and lime
are both unfit for the purpose, though ground floors for cottages and barns are fre-
quently made of these materials, well beaten together — J. C.
2459. Bed-room Floors, formed of two Courses of plain Tiles laid in Cement, resting on
joists lathed over in the manner described, would, we should think, make very good
floors ; but, unless they came cheaper than boards, it would scarcely be worth while
adopting them. Cottages might be roofed with semicircular arches of tiles, laid in ce-
ment, and covered with turf or creeping plants or ivy, so as to render them warm as well
as durable.
2460. Equal Parts of Lime, Sand, and Cinder-dust, worked up well together, make very
good malting-floors ; but, as in the process of malting they are occasionally moistened,
this composition may not be so well adapted for the bed-room floors of cottages. — S. T.
2461. Clay Floors, that is, floors formed of a mixture of clay and marl, were formerly
a good deal used in Norfolk for barns, malt-houses, hay-lofts, cottages, &c. They are
composed of clay and marl mixed with chopped straw, well trodden by horses, and
mixed together in the manner clay lumps are to be made (§ 2444.) ; and, when the
mixture is to be used for malt-floors, bullock's blood is added. Much of the excellence
of these floors depends on the thoroughly mixing and working of the material W. T.
Sect. III. Windows and Doors.
A great drawback to the improvement of cottages, both in Scotland and England, hi-
therto has been the expense of the windows; but these are now manufactured of cast iron
at so moderate a rate, that the expense can no longer be an object of solicitude.
1254
SUPPLEMENT.
224(7
2462. Windows having been generally among the worst constructed parts of Scotch
cottages, the Highland Society offered a premium for the best cottage window, which was
awarded to Messrs. M'Culloch
and Co. of Glasgow, for the form
shown in figs. 2246". to 2S48.
This form, of the dimensions
shown in the figure, viz., three
feet three inches by two feet,
without the wooden frame, costs,
in cast iron, only 5s., and the
glass for such a window may
be purchased at 2j|d. per square.
This kind of window admits
of being formed of any size, and
is equally adapted for work-
shops, farm buildings where
glass windows are required, and
cottages.
The dimensions that have been
recommended for the windows
of ordinary cottages are, thirty-
nine inches for the height, and
twenty-four inches for the width,
within the wooden frames. The
size of glass required for these
frames is seven and a quarter
inches by five and a quarter
inches. The sash is divided
into two unequal parts, the lower
part having three squares in
height, and the upper part two.
The lower part is permanently
fixed, while the upper part is
;;\-
-M-L+J
-I H
•~
constructed to turn in the vertical direction on pivots, which are situate in the line of
its middle astragal ; and both parts are set in a sub-
stantial wooden frame, which may be either built in
while the wall is erecting, or may be set in afterwards
in the ordinary way, with or without checked rabbets
(§ 911.), according to the taste of the proprietor.
The window, and its arrangements, will be better
understood by reference to the annexed figures.
Fig. 2246. is an inside elevation, fig. 2248. a plan,
and fig. 2247. a vertical section, in each of which a
portion of the wall is exhibited, and the same letters
refer to the corresponding parts in each figure ; a is a
portion of the surrounding wall ; b, the wooden frame
of the window ; c, the lower sash, which is dormant ;
and d, the upper and movable sash.
In fig. 2247. the upper sash is represented as open
for ventilation ; when shut, the parts of the opening-
sash cover and overlap the fixed parts in such a man-
ner as to exclude wind and water; but, when venti-
lation is required, the arrangement of the parts which
2248
WINDOWS AND DOORS.
produce this is such as to enable the housekeeper to admit air to any extent. For this
purpose the notched latch, e, is jointed to a stud in the edge of the sash ; a simple iron
pin or stud is also fixed in the wooden frame at s, and the notches of the latch being
made to fall upon this stud at any required distance, the requisite degree of opening is
secured, and when the sash is again closed, the latch falls down parallel with, and close
to, the sash. To secure the sashes when shut, the Tbolt, f, in the middle of the meeting
bars, has only to be turned one fourth round, and the movable sash is held fast in close
contact with the other. The figures represent the window as finished up with single
dressings, viz., plain deal shutters, facings, and sole, which, at a small expense, would
give an air of neatness and comfort to the apartment, and promote a corresponding
taste in the other parts of the cottage. Though the dimensions of the window here
stated may be conceived sufficient for lighting an apartment of ordinary size, they can
nevertheless be varied to suit every purpose. This may be done either by employing
two such windows as above described, with a mullion of wood or stone between them,
or the single window may be enlarged by one or two squares in width, or in height, or
in both directions. " (Highland Soc. Trans., vol. xiii. p. 541.)
2463. The Belper Cottage Window is formed entirely of cast iron, and has a com-
partment in the centre which opens. It differs from the Glasgow window in the
nature of the fastening which keeps the window
open or shut. To give an idea of the value of
this fastening, it is necessary to observe that, in
the latticed windows of cottages, there is very
frequently either one entire frame, or a portion
in the centre of one, which opens, and is kept
open by an iron stay-bar, with an eye at one end
which moves on a staple attached to the fixed part
of the sash, and a hook at the other which drops
into an eye in the part of the sash which is to be
opened. Now, the objection to this hooked fas-
tener is, that, as there is only one eye for the hook
to drop into, the window can only be opened to
the same width, whether the ventilation required
be little or much ; and when the stay-bar is not
in use, it hangs down and is blown about, and
very frequently breaks the glass. The new stay-
bar, on the other hand, opens the window or door
to which it may be applied to various widths at
pleasure, from an inch to the whole width of the
window or door, and the stay-bar can never hang
down, or run the slightest risk of breaking glass. The general appearance of the new
stay-bar, supposing the window to be open to its full extent, is shown in fig. 2249. ;
in which a is the stay-bar, which turns on the pivot b at one end, and slides along a
horizontal groove under the guide-bar, c, at the other.
Fig. 2250. is a view of the stay-bar apart from the window, showing the eye, d; the
handle, e ; and the stud,y, which drops into holes in the horizontal groove, so as to keep
the window open at any desired angle.
2250
ft
//
=^^51
I2J
*■
|2J
1 i c=
o o o
~ I '
2252
Fig. 2251. is a view of the groove and the guide-bar; g is the guide-bar, or small
rod, which is for the purpose of keeping the stay-bar in its place in the groove h ; ii
are two plates with holes, by which the groove and guide-bar are riveted to the window;
k, vertical profile of the groove, the guide-bar being removed, so as to show the holes
into which the stud of the stay-bar drops. The groove is of cast
iron, and the guiding-rod is of wrought iron, let into it and riveted,
and both are bolted to the bar of the window by means of the
plates i i, which are of cast iron. Fig. 2252. is a section across
the groove, the guiding-rod, I, and the bar of the window, m, to
which the groove is bolted ; n is the handle of the guide-bar.
The window is cast in two pieces; the larger, fig. 2254., being two feet ten inches
high by two feet one inch broad; and the smaller, fig. 2255., being one foot four
1256
SUPPLEMENT.
225:5
2255
incheshigb by
a foot broad,
exclusive of
the lead along
bottom and
s'uk's, which
Ion i is the re-
bate, and co-
vers the joint.
In casting the
smaller win-
dow it is es-
sentially ne-
cessary that it
be somewhat
less in its di-
mensions than
the space into
which it is to
shut, in order
that it may
always move freely. The air is kept out from the room within, not only
by the tight fitting of the sides of the small window to the sides of the
frame, but by the contact of the edges of the sides of the small window
with the heads forming the rebates attached to the inside of the frame ;
i and also by means
l
il
2 u 6 8 -iu 121*4
of the contact of the
beads, or rebates, of
the small window
with the edge of the
sides of the large
one, or frame, into which it shuts
225';
£
3
In consequence of the sides never touching, the
window moves with the greatest ease, whether expanded by heat in summer, or con-
tracted by cold in winter, and whether painted and smooth, or unpainted and rusty.
Fio-. 2256. is a horizontal section across the small window and the two side bars,
showing the outside beads at g g, and the inside beads at h h. Fig. 2253. is a vertical
section through the small window and the top and bottom bars of the fixed frame,
showing a weather-fillet, or weather-table, which projects half an inch from the general
face of the window at h, and the stay-bar in the situation in which it rests when the
window is shut, and also the groove and guiding- rod at i. The total weight of this
window, before being glazed, is about 61^1b., and the prime cost in Derby is 12s. 4±rf.,
thus : —
Two castings, GOlb., at lid. - -7
Iron-work, l^lb. at Is. Id. - - 1
Fitting-up, 6 hours, at 24s. per week - 2
Scurfing castings, 4 hours, at 12s. per week 1
Priming window, 3d., and paint, 3d. - 0
Prime cost - 12 4i
We can bear testimony to the excellence of this window, having seen it extensively in
use at Millford and Belper, near Derby, where it was invented by Anthony Strutt, Esq.
2464. A Cast- Iron Window and Wooden Shutter, adapted to Warehouses, Granaries, and
other Farm Buildings. The accompanying sketches, figs. 2257. to 2259., are of a cast-iron
window and shutter, which, from the simplicity and security of the construction, appear
to be worthy of imitation. Fig. 2258. is a section of the window, in which a a repre-
sent the shutter open ; it being hung upon centres fixed to its two sides, and working
in the outside frame. The outside, or top, of the shutter is the longer, and, consequently,
the heavier, end ; or the shutter may be kept open by a bolt or wedge under it, as at
b. The sashes c and d are so far apart as to leave room for the shutter at e and f,
when it is closed ; and at g there is a fastening to secure the bottom of the shutter.
Fitf. 2259. is an elevation of the window, with the shutter in the position in which
it is shown in the section fig. 2258.; and fig. 2257. is an elevation of the window when
the shutter is closed ; both of which are sufficiently explanatory to render description
unnecessary. It will be seen that, by this mode of constructing warehouse or granarj
WINDOWS AND DOORS.
1^7
2257
windows, there is, when the shutter is open, excellent
ventilation and light, as well as perfect security. Bru-
met and Cope's Venetian blinds of wrought iron have
been very generally employed in London, as protective
shutters to the windows of dwelling-rooms and to shops.
The Duke of Wellington first brought them conspicuously
into notice by employing them to protect his first-floor
windows in Piccadilly. When not in use they are rolled
up, and sheltered from the weather by a hood ; and, when
let down, they have rather an elegant appearance than
otherwise, from their resemblance to Venetian blinds.
They are commonly painted green ; but this colour seldom
harmonises with exterior architecture.
2465. The upper Sashes of Windows should not be fixed,
because, when this is the case, the room to which they give
light can never be properly ventilated (2475.). As an
additional argument against having the upper sashes of windows fixed, a practice com-
mon in the north of England and Scotland, the windows, whenever they are above
6
\\ vOW/,
~M I Uj
225'*
1
six feet high, cannot be cleaned, painted, nor a new pane put in, without the use of a
very long ladder. {A. M., i. 247. ) An apparatus for cleaning the outsides of lofty
windows of this kind is described and figured in Arch. Mag., vol. i. p. 392.
2466. IVindows brought down to the Floor, by reflecting light up to the eye, are much
less agreeable than those that do not come lower than the height of a chair back, and
they also give the worst light for displaying pictures. Nevertheless, windows down to
the floor are more cheerful where there is any thing near at hand worthy of being
looked out on.
2467. A Door Stay-bar. The Belper window stay-bar, it will readily be conceived,
may be applied to the opening of doors to any angle, or keeping them closely shut.
All that is necessary is to place the groove,
in which the bar works, against a wall or
other fixture, so that it shall stand hori-
zontally at right angles to the door or gate.
Fig. 2260. represents a horizontal section
through a door, a ; the wall of the hanging
style to which it is hinged, b ; and the wall
against which it shuts, c. The gate or door
is supposed to be shut, and it is held in its
place bv the stay-bar, d, which moves on a
stud at a, and at the end along a groove
from f to g. If we suppose the end of the
stay-bar at f secured in its place by a pad-
lock, it will be next to impossible for house-
breakers to open the door, a ; because they
could not by any means reach as far as /,
to pick the padlock. Other details of this
door stay-bar, and its application to various
7 L
2260
1258
SUPPLEMENT.
kinds of doors and gates, will be found by referring to the Gardener's Magazine for 18Sf9j
p. 440.
2468. Cast- Iron Angles for outside Doors would render them more durable. In fig.
2261., a is the upright style; b, the bottom rail; c, the horizontal section 2263
at e,f showing the top of the iron angle foot, and the section of the style.
There would be much saving of labour and great durability in making door-
frames in this manner.
2261
2262
.___
h s
2469. Cast-iron Sockets to Wooden Posts, fig. 2262., may be made very
light, and being fitted to the part of the post to be inserted in the ground
would render them much more durable, as well as much more architectural,
since the posts would rise out of a proper base.
2470. Doors to Rooms should be hung on the Side nearest the Fire. First,
then, I have observed that when doors are not hinged on the side nearest
the fireplace, the smoke is drawn out every time they are used; secondly, I
think I can account for this circumstance in a very simple way : the air
that is displaced by the motion of the door is supplied by that which is
near the fire ; and, consequently, a vacuum is created, or the current of air
that is feeding the fire is interrupted, and part of the air that had entered
the chimney returns with the smoke to supply its place, or, in common
parlance, it " puff's out." In the case of the door being hinged on the op-
posite side, the vacuum is supplied either by the expansion of the whole
of the air in the room, or by some current, without disturbing the cur-
rent of air that flows to the fire. — T. W.
2471. To prevent the slamming of a Passage Door. Fig. 2263. represents one
side of the door-case. Instead of fixing the piece of wood which joiners call the check-plate
on this, a similar piece is taken and prepared by being cut hollow on the edge a, which
the door strikes on, and then cut down by saw-draughts (slits made by the saw), as repre-
sented by the lines b b in the figure, leaving a portion in the middle equal to one fourth or
one fifth of the length uncut; it is then securely fixed by screws to the door-post, as shown
in the sketch at c. The door, of course, first strikes against the top and bottom extre-
mities of this check, and must press them back before it can reach the solid part of the
plate in the middle. If, therefore, the plate of wood be made of such breadth and
thickness as that the united resistance of its ten or twelve springs be a little greater than
the force the door strikes with, it will never reach the solid part at all, and its slamming
will be nearly inaudible, however strong the current of air may be. This has been
proved to succeed perfectly, after all sorts of iron springs and checks have failed to
remove the nuisance. — J. R.
Sect. IV. Chimney- Tops and Smoky Chimneys.
2472. Every Chimney or Stack of Chimneys, to be truly architectural, ought to be
treated as a column, or as a group or series of columns ; and as every column consists
of three parts, a base, a shaft, and a capital, so ought every chimney-top. As an
example of this we shall take fig. 2265., which is a column from a stack in Easthury
Mouse, in Essex. It is entirely built with brick, and rises seventeen feet above the
cornice of the base on which it is placed. In fig. 2264., a is the plan or horizontal
section of one half of the shaft at a in fig. 2265. ; and b in fig. 2264. is the plan of
tho upper member of the capital at b in fig. 2265. There is a stack of five of these
shafts in the centre of Easthury House; and by their beautiful proportions, and com-
manding height above the roof, they produce a strikingly grand and picturesque effect.
1 here are many examples of brick chimney-shafts still remaining in the ancient
mansions of England well deserving the attention of the architect ; and as chimney-
CHIMNEY-TOPS AND SMOKY CHIMNEYS.
1259
2264
265
<S^
shafts form a principal feature in modern domestic architecture, their forms and
situations cannot he too much studied. — E. B. Every person that has a house
designed for him ought to
object to every chimney-top,
whether Grecian or Gothic,
that docs not consist erf an
obvious base, shaft, and ca-
pital, and the base ought in
general to be somewhat higher
than the ridge of the roof.
In general, all the upper ter-
minations of a building ought
to be bold and free ; and this
cannot be the case with chimney-shafts, unless they have
a distinct base, a shaft of considerable length, and a ca-
pital consisting of several members according to the style
of architecture employed.
2473. In Chimneys of Cottages built in Woods, and where
overhanging brandies of trees may prevent the egress of
smoke, care should be taken to contract the smoke-
flue or vent, in an ordinary-sized room, to seven inches
square, at about eighteen inches above the grate,
gradually widening it to ten or eleven inches square.
The heat forces the smoke through the narrow aper-
ture, and it increases in volume the farther it rises from
the heat, as may be easily observed, as it ascends in curls,
gradually increasing above the chimney-top. By attend-
ing to this simple rule, which was with some difficulty
imposed on the masons who built Annat Cottage
(§ 2360. ), which is surrounded with lofty trees, the
rooms are free from smoke. — A. G.
2474. A Chimney-pot for preventing Smoke from being
blown down a Chimney has been in use at Poole Park,
near Ruthin, Denbighshire, for se-
veral years ; and we are informed,
by Lord Bagot's agent there, that it
has answered, and continues to an-
swer, in every instance in which
it has been applied. It is formed
of cast iron ; and the appearance of
it as seen from below is shown in
fig. 2266. It is cast in eight pieces,
which are put together as shown in fig. 2267. a; by which it ap-
pears that the upper part of the pot is one foot four inches in
height ; and the neck, which is inserted into the flue, is eleven
inches on the side. The length of the neck may be increased at
1 pleasure, so as to produce the appearance shown in fig. 2266.
A vertical section of this chimney-pot is shown at fig. 2267.
b : c and d are elevations of the two pieces, four of each of
which, when screwed together, form the pot. We have sent a
model of this pot, which was kindly forwarded to us by Mr.
Tumor, Lord Bagot's agent at Poole Park, to Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, iron-
founders and manufacturers, Winsley Street, Oxford Street, London ; from whom pots
2267
1260
SUPPLEMENT.
of this kind may in future be purchased. Fig. 2268. shows the form of a cast-iron
chimney-pot, in use in the neighbourhood of liarnsley, in Yorkshire ; where it has been
tried for a number of years, and is considered to be an effective cure for a smoky
chimney, where the smoke is blown downwards by wind. Fig. 2269. shows the gene-
ral appearance of a chimney- top furnished with pots of this kind. The usual form
of this pot is that of a truncated pyramid, as in fig. 2268. ; but it might easily be
made to terminate in a Gothic pinnacle, or in any other ornament which was consi-
dered suitable to the style of the building to which it was to be applied. It might
even be made circular, and used in the case of cylindrical chimney-shafts, built in
the form of Grecian columns. Where the form is that of fig. 2268., the four sides
are cast separately, and bolted together ; and, where the pot is to stand alone, or with
a short distance between it and other pots of the same kind, each side is fitted up
with a hinged door, as shown in figs. 2268. and 2269. ; but, where the pots are to
stand close together, these hinged doors
are only placed on the two exposed sides.
The top, in either case, is closed with
an iron cap. Each hinged door is con-
nected with the opposite one by a rod of
iron, about two inches longer than the
diameter of the pot ; so that, when the
weather is calm, the lower part of each of the four doors projects from the chimney-pot
about one inch ; while, on the other hand, when the wind blows, it closes the door on
the side against which it strikes, and opens the door on the opposite side to the extent
of two inches. It is evident that the same kind of doors might be introduced near the
termination of each flue, in an architectural chimney-top without pots. Other modes of
curing smoky chimneys by pots, either ornamental in themselves, or rendered so by
architectural casings, will be found in the Suburban Architect, fyc, chap. i.
Sect. V. Ventilation.
2475. Ventilation. The following extract is from a work which ought to be in
the hands of every individual, but especially in those of every architect, viz., Combe's
Principles of Physiology applied to the Preservation of Health, third edition. " One of
the evils of ignorance is, that we often sin and suffer the punishment, without being
aware that we are sinning, and that it is in our power to escape the suffering by
avoiding the sin. For many generations mankind have experienced the evil results
of deficient ventilation, especially in towns, and suffered the penalty of delicate
health, headachs, fevers, consumptions, cutaneous and nervous diseases ; and yet, from
ignorance of the true nature and importance of the function of respiration and of the
great consumption of air in its performance, architects have gone on planning and con-
structing edifices and houses, without bestowing a thought on the means of supplying
them with fresh air, although animal life cannot be carried on without it ; and, while
ingenuity and science have been taxed to the uttermost to secure a proper supply of
water, the pure air, though its admission is far more essential, has been left to steal in,
like a thief in the night, through any hole it can find open. In constructing hospitals,
indeed, ventilation has been thought of, because a notion is prevalent that the sick
require fresh air, and cannot recover without it ; but it seems not to have been per-
ceived, that what is indispensable for the recovery of the sick may be not less
advantageous for preserving from sickness those who are well. Were a general know-
ledge ol the structure of man to constitute a regular part of a liberal education, such
VENTILATION. 1261
inconsistencies as this would soon disappear, and the scientific architect would speedily
devise the best means for supplying our houses with pure air, as he has already sup-
plied them with pure water." (p. 236.)
Few modern practices in building are more absurd than that of making the doors and
windows of rooms air-tight, and yet expecting that there can be a sufficient draught in
the chimneys to prevent them from smoking. There ought to be a contrivance in
the upper part of every door and window for admitting air, merely for the sake of
supplying the chimney. (See Sir John Robison's House, § 2378. ) In the case of doors,
instead of having them to fit exactly at the top, we would leave from a fourth to half
an inch, according to the size of the room ; and, in the case of windows, we would leave
that space in all those that fronted the points from which the wind was mildest, and
half as much in the case of windows facing the north. The advantage of admitting
the fresh air at the upper part of the room is, that it comes immediately in contact
with the hottest air of the room, and is thus rendered temperate before it reaches
persons seated in the middle of the room, or near the fireplace ; whereas, when the air
is admitted or drawn in by the bottom or lower parts of doors or windows, it slides
along the floor towards the fireplace to supply the draught, at once cooling the feet of
every one in the room, and leaving the great body of the air of the apartment entirely
unchanged. It thus frequently happens that a person is seated in a room in which
there is a brisk fire, with his feet and legs in an atmosphere of forty degrees of air
continually changing, and consequently carrying off heat from him, and his head in an
atmosphere of a temperature of sixty degrees, which, unless the door of the room is
frequently opened and shut, or the breast of the chimney is higher than usual, is never
changed at all, and, consequently, is breathed and rebreathed by the occupants. We
have often been perfectly astonished at the ignorance of professional men on the subject
of ventilation, and equally so sometimes at their speculative impracticable notions ; such
as ventilating by small tubes, &c. The only practicable mode of judiciously ventilating
apartments in modern houses, without radical changes in construction, we venture to
state is that above suggested : but even that simple mode will not be adopted till the
occupiers of houses are aware of the importance of ventilation. One piece of advice we
would wish to impress upon every reader, viz. never to take a lodging, or rent a house,
in which the windows are not carried up as high as the cornice of the room. Unless
this be the case, the ventilation, even by the mode we have suggested, must necessarily
be imperfect ; because the stratum of air between the top of the window and the ceiling
will remain unchanged, and of no sort of use to the occupants of the room. Many
hundreds of houses about London, which have a splendid appearance exteriorly, have
this defect within. It will be found in the bed-room floors of most of the houses round
the Regent's Park, and, indeed, more or less, in almost all the new houses everywhere,
that have any pretensions to exterior architecture, and especially to a frieze and cornice.
As these houses are generally built on speculation, by persons whose great object is to
get them sold as soon as possible, this utter neglect of the health of the occupant is not
to be wondered at, more especially as the occupant is generally too ignorant to detect
the evil ; but what excuse shall we find for architects who commit the same fauit in the
country-houses of wealthy noblemen ? We could refer to many new country-houses
where this is the case : we have in our mind's eye the state bed-room of a noble
marquess lately married, in which the space above the windows is upwards of ten feet,
and, the whole height of the room being twenty feet, it follows that exactly one half of the
atmosphere of the room is rendered useless. The misery and suffering in cases of this kind,
however, are nothing to that which must be endured by those who have no other room
to live in but one, and that one perhaps not above seven or eight feet high. It is
lamentable to think that this misery must be endured by the passing generation, and
even by that which is rising to succeed it, till, as Dr. Combe observes, a general know-
ledge of the structure of man enters into a system of general education. There is no
better substitute for this defect in our education, that we know of, than Dr. Combe's
most excellent work.
2476. Ventilation in Public Buildings is most effectually obtained by having a fire
in the upper part of the building, which can only be supplied by air drawn from the
different rooms below by means of air-flues. In private buildings, instead of a fire,
these flues may communicate with, or be carried up alongside of, the smoke-flue of a fire
kept constantly burning, such as that of the kitchen.
2477. Ventilation of Bed-rooms. There should be a constant circulation of fresh air
in bed-rooms. The lungs must respire during sleep as well as at any other time, and it
is of great importance to have, when asleep, as pure an air as possible. L is calculated
that each person neutralises the vivifying principle of a gallon of air in one minute :
what havoc, therefore, must an individual make upon the pure air of his bed-chamber.
<vho sleeps in a bed closed snugly with curtains, with the doors and windows shut, and
1262
SUPPLEMENT.
perchance a cliimney-board into the bargain. Our health and comfort depend more
upon these apparently trivial points than most people are aware of. (A. M., i. 87.)
2 178. Warming and Ventilating. The objects to be aimed at are, pure and cool air
to breathe, and radiant heat to warm the person. The evils to be avoided are, currents
and draughts, whether hot or cold, and over-heated air for respiration. The larger and
loftier the room, the more effectually can fresh air be introduced, without any rapidity
of current. The impure exhalations rise to the ceiling, and their place is supplied by
fresh air from below. In short, the upper part of a room may be considered as a re-
servoir of the impurities which are generated in the lower part by the persons breathing
there. In ordinary houses, the simplest and best mode of warming and ventilating is
to have some description of hot-air stove placed at the bottom of the staircase, which
shall heat a current of air introduced from without, or, in small houses, drawn from the
air within the lower part of the house. The heated air so generated will ascend the
staircase, and, consequently, enter all the rooms which open into it. There are many
different kinds of stoves that maybe used for heating the air ; one of the best is the
invention of White of Haddington, of which there are various sizes, at different prices,
from £3 10s. to £30 or £40. The smallest size will suffice for a house of ten or twelve
rooms. ( See next chapter. )
2479. Cooling and Ventilating in warm Climates. Captain R. Wainhope, R. N., has
shown, in Jamesons Journal, Oct. 1831, that this may be easily effected by forcing in
air through porous earthenware tubes, kept rnoist exteriorly. The great evaporation
which will take place on the outer surface of the pipes will cool the air in its passage
through them. If, by some similar process, the air charged with moisture in cold cli-
mates could be deprived of that moisture before it entered dwelling-houses, the benefit
to invalids would probably be very great.
Sect. VI. Tanks and Cottage Privies.
2480. A Tank for Rain-water. The ground having been taken out to the required
depth, pave the bottom with one flat course of bricks grouted with cement, and on this
set singly two courses of plain tiles in the same material Form the sides each of two
four-inch walls of bricks and cement, breaking the horizontal joints : and, when com-
pleted, render tlie whole of the interior with cement one inch in thickness. Turn a
brick arch in mortar over the tank thus formed, leaving a man-hole, two feet square,
with proper trimming stones, and a Yorkshire stone-paving cover ; or cover entirely
with flag-stones. The suction-pipe of a pump placed within a few inches of the bottom,
and a small drain introduced at the top of the tank, and communicating with a sewer or
cesspool, to carry off the superfluous water, when there is any, are then all that are re-
quired to render the tank fit for use.
2481. Filtering the Water from the Roof of a Cottage into a Tank or Well. The
well, of which a in fig. 2270. is a ground plan, is supposed to be formed adjoining the
sink in the scullery, or partly within the scullery and partly without, as indicated in
the model plan in p. 1138. ; and the filter, b, is supposed to be formed adjoining the
wall, but outside the house : c is the situation of the pump, which ought to be such as
to deliver the water into vessels held over the sink-stone. Fig. 2271. is a section of the
well and of the filtering apparatus ; the latter being placed close to the wall outside the
scullery: d is the slate cover to the filter; c, the tube which conveys the water direct
down from the gutters to a plate of slate or zinc, e, pierced with small holes; /, sand
and charcoal, supported on a lower plate, also marked e ; the opening by which the
water passes into the well is shown at^j and the cover to the well, consisting of a
Caithness flag-stone, at a short distance beneath the surface, is shown at h. The two
TANKS AND COTTAGE PRIVIES. BATH-ROOM. 1 2( j-S
2272
plates of slate or zinc, e e, rest on pieces of slate which project from the sides of the
filter-box, as indicated by the dotted lines at b in fig. 2270. The sand and charcoal
can be taken out and cleaned at pleasure.
2482. Constructing a Cottage Privy in Connexion with a Cesspool or Tank for Liquid
Manure. The privy may be either partially or wholly over the tank, which ought to
lie closely covered, on a level with the privy floor,
by a flag-stone, as shown in fig. 2272. In this
figure, a represents the seat, which is hinged, in
order that when the slops of the house are being
thrown in from a pail, or other large vessel, the
seat, or pierced flap, may be lifted up, to keep it
from being wetted(see page 1 131 . No. 11.); b shows
the fixed and permanent seat, on which the move-
able seat, a, rests ; c shows the movable seat par-
tially raised up ; i, the flap or cover to the whole-
raised up ; (/, the basin of stone ware, cemented at
/ into a tube, e, also of stone ware, or it may be of
wood or metal ; g is the surface of the water in the
tank, higher than which it can never rise, in con-
sequence of a waste drain ; and it will only fall
lower than the bottom of the tube e when the tank
is nearly empty ; h h, the walls of the tank, and of K'>>
the back of the privy.
2483. The Liquid-Manure Tank. Fig. 2273. is
a section of the liquid-manure tank, supposed to
form also the tank for the privy. In this figure,
a represents the liquid ; b, a pierced slate or
grating, through which the liquid filters into the
well, c ; d, a bell-trap to admit the drainings of
the yard, and to prevent the rising of smells ; and e,
the covering of flag-stone and earth. On a level
with the surface of the water in the well, c, there is an opening to a small waste drain,
which, as it can only be entered by filtered liquid, cannot readily be choked up.
Wherever a proper value is set on liquid
manure, however, the cesspool will never
be allowed to overflow. The most conve-
nient mode of taking out the water from
the well, c, is by a pump ; but where this
is wanting, the cover, d, may be taken off,
and a vessel dipped into it. It is unneces-
sary, after what has been stated in § 2408.,
to add, that the sides and bottom of the
tank and well should be built in Roman
cement; or that occasionally, perhaps every
year or every two years, the tank will re-
quire to be cleaned out. Some recommend
mixing powdered gypsum with the liquid,
in order to neutralise the ammonia
Sect. VII. Construction and Arrangement of a Bath- Boom.
2484. The Bath- Boom, comprisitig a common and Shower Bath. Invalids sometimes
require to know exactly the quantity of water which forms the shower, as well as its
temperature, and for this purpose there is a supply of both hot and cold water to the
shower cistern. A gauge to indicate the quantity of water in the cistern and its tem-
perature, and also the means of regulating them, is contrived in the following manner :
The gauge consists of a tube as high as the cistern is deep, fixed on the outside of the
cistern, and communicating with the bottom of the inside ; in consequence of which,
when water is let into the cistern, it rises to the same height in the tube. In order that
the water may be seen, the front of this tube, which may be about three inches in width,
and a foot in height, is formed of a narrow pane of glass, and one side of the case into
which the glass is fixed is divided into equal parts, like the scale of a thermometer, each
part or degree representing a pint of water. This tube is open at top, for the purpose
of cleaning the glass, should it get dim, but chiefly for the purpose of putting in and
taking out a thermometer with coloured spirits of wine, which shows through the pane
in front the temperature of the water admitted into the cistern and rising into the gauge.
There is a pipe of cold, and another of hot, water, communicating with this cistern ; and
12(34
SUPPLEMENT.
eacli is (dosed or opened by a trigger-stopper, operated on by a cord ; and hence the
temperature may be regulated by the thermometer at the pleasure of the bather.
Fig. 2274. is a plan of the bath-room, in which a is the door; h, a. window; c, the bath ;
(I, a chaise- percee, with a fixed waste-pipe ; e, awash-handstand, with a fixed basin, sup-
plied with hot and cold water in the usual manner, with a waste-pipe for letting off
the water ; f, two Steps to ascend to the bath ; and g, a movable seat in the bath,
formed of bars two inches broad, with intervals of two inches. The lateral dimen-
sions of the room are about ten feet by twelve feet, and it is twelve feet high.
Fig. 2275. is a section on the line a b, in which h is the upper edge of the bath ;
j, the chaise-percee ; k, the steps ; /, the glass front of the gauge of the shower-bath ; and
m, the cistern of the shower-bath.
Fig. 2276. is a section on the line c d, in which are shown the bath with the stool,
n ; the steps, o ; the chaise-percee, p ; the wash-hand stand, q ; the shower-bath cistern,
r; and the glass gauge, in which is also kept the thermometer, s.
2485. When a shower-bath is to be taken, the bather first pulls a string to admit the
cold water into the cistern ; or, if it is to be slightly warmed, he pulls a second string,
observing the gauge as to quantity, and the thermometer within it as to temperature.
He then takes a small tray of sheet lead, about eighteen inches square, with the sides
raised about two inches ; he sets this on the top of the seat, having previously moved
it to the end of the bath from which the shower is to fall. He next draws some water
from the cock in the wash-hand stand in a jug, and pours it into the tray, to prevent his
feet from feeling the chill of the lead. He now ascends the bath, stands on the leaden
tray, having previously opened two doors,
which, when closed, appear as part of the
sides of the upper part of the bath, as indi-
cated by the double lines at t in fig. 2276.
These two doors, when fully opened, com-
pletely enclose the bather, who has only to
pull a third string, which furnishes the
shower. The doors may be kept in their
new position by a fastening, which may be
moved either from within or from without
(the latter in case of accident to the bather) ;
but this is only found necessary when the
risk of the bather falling is apprehended from
the violence of the shock. There are a great
many different kinds of baths, portable and
fixed, recommended by tradesmen, and, in
consequence of ill health at various periods
during the last forty years, we have had oc-
casion to try several of them. We are compelled to acknowledge that most of the
portable baths heated by small stoves with movable smoke pipes, the ends of which
are inserted in the chimney of the bed-room to which the bath is brought, have, in our
case at least, proved unsatisfactory, from the length of time required to heat the water.
A good plan for small houses and ordinary establishments is, to have a bath-room on a
level with the kitchen or scullery floor, and to have, when a bath is wanted, the water
heated in the copper in the kitchen or scullery, and conveyed to the bath by pipes re-
GATES AND FENCES.
1265
gulated by cocks. We are aware of a great variety of modes by which the water may
be heated and conveyed to different parts of a house ; but, except where such kitchen
apparatus as that employed by Messrs. Steel and Co. is in use, or where there is a boiler
in the attics (see §1858.), they cannot, as we have experienced, be depended on.
This bath-room (described from one in a house in the neighbourhood of London)
is on the bed-room floor, and supplied with hot water from a boiler in the 9277
floor above, which also supplies the nursery and all the other bed-rooms
and dressing-rooms. The cold water is supplied from a cistern in the
upper part of the house, which is completely excluded from the frost by
a double roof. The cold and the hot water are incorporated by stirring
with the pierced spatula, fig. 2277., in the usual manner ; the round
holes in the spatula having been made by a gimlet of large dimensions.
There is ready access to the cistern by a door, by opening which heated
air can be admitted at pleasure during severe frosts. From this cis-
tern pipes are conducted in situations where they are secure from frost,
and where they can be readily examined and repaired, to all the water-
closets, and fixed wash-hand basins, &c. There are two water-closets on
each floor, near the two extremities of the central passage, and there is
a housemaid's closet on each floor, with a sink supplied with hot and cold
water, immediately adjoining the servants' stairs. The roof of the main
body of the house is of brick arches covered with lead ; and that of
the kitchen and other offices is formed of flat tiles and cement, in Mr.
Fowler's manner. (§ 2446.) All the waste-pipes lead to a large cesspool
in the yard, which has a man-hole for cleaning it out ; and adjoining it
is a well, into which the water overflows, and whence it can be pumped up
at pleasure, to be used as liquid manure.
Sect. VIII. Gates and Fences.
2486. A Lodge- Gate Fastening. Lodge-gates, when in one piece, or single, as
the technical term is, are commonly hung at the side farthest from the lodge, with
a view, it may be supposed, of bringing the latch as near the person who comes out
from the lodge to open the gate as possible. But it must be recollected, that, after the
latch is lifted, the operator (who is frequently an old person) must walk across the road,
perhaps in the night when it is dark, or during rain or snow, and he or she (for this
operation is generally performed by the female occupant of the lodge) must wait on the
opposite side, " gate in hand," till the carriage has passed through. Sometimes, also,
when the horses are impatient in the day-time, or when it is dark at night, the gate-
opener, while crossing the road before the horses' heads, is liable to be knocked down by
them, or by the pole of the carriage. These and other inconveniences attending this
mode of opening gates are avoided by hanging the gate on the side next the lodge, and by
having a long horizontal rod, reaching from the latch to about the middle of the gate.
The gate-opener advances only half across the road, pulls the rod to raise the latch, and
walks a few steps backwards, opening the gate to its full width, and is at the same time
protected by it. The application of the rod by which the gate is to be opened depends
on the kind of fastening used. One of the simplest is, when the latch is retained in its
place by a spring, and the rod being used to pull it back so as to open the gate; when the
gate is again shut the latch returns to its place of itself. The rod may either be con-
ducted along the top or the side of the upper bar of the gate, or under or along one side
of a bar from three to four feet from the ground.
Fig. 2278. shows the mode adopted at Bridge Hill and Allestree, in which a is the
latch, supported on a fulcrum at b, operated on by the S lever c, by means of the rod d
2278
and the handle e. This handle serves both for pulling the rod backwards towards the
hinges, so as to raise the latch, and for pulling the gate towards the operator, so as to
open it by his walking a few steps backwards. For this benevolent invention the public
is indebted to the late George Strutt, Esq., of Bridge Hill, Belper, near Derby.
2487. Cast- Iron Heads or Hanging- Styles to Gates, and Wrought- Iron Rods as diagonal
Braces, are common in field and other gates in the neighbourhood of Derby. The cast-
7 M
1266
SUPPLEMENT.
(
zz\
iron hanging-styles have mortise holes for the ends of the wooden bars, and these are
made fast in a very simple but effective mode, which consists in having the mortise wider
at one end than the other, as indicated in fig. 2279., in which a is a section of the mor-
tise ; b, the end of the bar which is fitted into it ; and
c, a wedge, which, by keeping the tenon of the bar 9070
in its place, effectually prevents it from being
drawn out. The hinges of such a gate are much ,
less costly than the common ones, and the gate bars
are preserved in their full strength at the tenons.
Two wrought-iron rods pass from the bottom of
the falling-style through the top of the hanging-
style, where they are made fast by nuts on their
screwed ends, by which nuts they can be drawn up
as tight as may be desired. The wrought-iron
rods at the lower end are passed through a thin
wrought-iron plate, which forms a sort of shoe to the falling style.
2488. Cottarris Iron Field
Gate, fig. 2280., has not been
surpassed for strength of con-
struction or durability of ma-
terial. It is made of wrought
iron, and the horizontal bars
and braces are of flat bar iron,
riveted together at every in-
tersection, in order to prevent
the swagging or sinking of the
head. The cost singly is 26s.,
but by the dozen it will be charged much less.
2489. Buisfs Fan Wire Gate, fig. 2281., is at once light, strong, and economical.
The wires which constitute the fan are fastened at their outer extremities by being
driven up like nail
heads ; and at the
point of their con-
vergence, at the
upper hinge of
the gate, they are
screwed up tight
by nuts. The gate
is so close as to be
nearly game-proof, C
and so strong, that
one of the form shown in the figure, with a weight of eight hundred and sixty pounds
at its extremity, after being made to swing for some time to and fro, did not undergo
the slightest alteration in shape. The weight of this gate is from eighty-five pounds
to ninety-five pounds, and its cost from £1 15s. to £2. The same principle is equally
applicable to toll-bars as to park gates ; and, indeed, is the more important in its uses
the more extended is the span of the gate. Fig. 2282. is a park gate with wickets on
/f=5s_
*~^
"~^^
1
^^
^
j
jf ^,h=
^ ^^J
^
S^
^■^
^5r-._!
Y
2280
J
2281
this plan. The span of the gate is twelve feet ; the wickets are two feet and a half wide
and six feet high. The supporters may be made of open iron castings. The wickets
could be made for about 18s. a piece, the gate itself for .£4 ; or £5 10s. in all : a very
sin ill traction indeed of the price commonly paid for park gates of similar appearance and
show. Much depends on the excellence of the workmanship of these gates, and Mr. Buist
the inventor, now in Bombay, strongly recommends Mr. John Douglas, blacksmith,
Cupar, Fifeshire. (See also Gard. Mag. for 1840, p. 193.)
MISCELLANEOUS DETAILS.
1267
2283
2490. A fall-down Gate-stopper, fig. 2283. Where double gates are used, the gate-
stopper standing up in the middle of the road or walk is a great nuisance, both to men
and horses, but, by having the
stopper to work on pivots,
as in the figure, it can be
raised up when the gate is
shut, as at a, and turned
down when it is open, as at
b. These stoppers are the
invention of Messrs. Cottam
and Ilallen.
2491. A Gate Latch, which
cannot be shaken out by cat-
tle, is represented in fig.
2284., in which a is a side
view, and b a transverse sec-
tion. The upright latch, c, is
held in the catch by a spring,
so that it cannot easily be
shaken out by the rubbing
of cattle, or the shaking of
boys or idle persons, while it can be easily opened
by a person on horseback placing the end of his
whip or stick in the hollow thumb-piece d, which,
acting as a lever on the upright piece e, pulls back c, and compresses the spring, by
which the gate is readily opened.
2492. A Cap for the' upper Hail of a Wooden Fence, in which no nails are to be used,
is shown in the section fig. 2285., in which a is the cap, having
one end of a strong wooden pin, c, driven tight into it; ee,
the angles of the cap, formed so as to drip the water clear of
the rails; dd, the rails, overlaid and fastened in the post b
by the pin c. The other rails need not have any fastening, }
further than being halved and overlaid, as the bottom end of ^
the post is fast in the ground. Some very handsome designs \_
for rustic fencing and gates, by Mr. Ricauti, will be found in
the Gardener's Magazine for 1842; but more especially in
Kicauti's Sketches for Rustic Work, now publishing.
L
228:
r— 1 <L
Sect. IX. Miscellaneous Details.
2493. To prevent Sash- Windows from shaking and rattling with the Wind. This evil
arises from the sashes not having been tightly fitted to the grooves, and is to be pre-
vented by tightening them,
which may be done in two ways.
The most common is by a sash-
fastener, fig. 2286., one part of
which, e, is screwed to the side
of the lower rail of the upper
sash, and the other part, bed,
to the upper side of the upper
rail of the lower sash. Then
the part a being brought down
over the part b, which travels
backwards and forwards in the
box c, is made tight by the
thumb-screw d. In this way
botli sashes are drawn to press
against the parting bead which
separates the two sashes, and, in
consequence, they are effectually
prevented from shaking, or from
any lateral or perpendicular movement whatever, when the window is shut. Another
mode of effecting the same object, and keeping the sashes from shaking, whether the
window is shut or open, is by inserting a double bead of well-seasoned oak in the
groove of the window case in which the sash moves up and down. This is
shown in fig. 2287. at « ; and, as the style of the sash moves up and down on this
1268
SUPPLEMENT.
2287
bead, it is kept firmly in its place,
altogether independently of the part-
ing beads or the outside beads. The
situation of the outer sash is shown at
b, and it works on a similar double
bead ; d is the boxed frame for the
shutters inside the room ; e is the box
for the weights ; /, the brick forming
the outside jamb of the window ; and
c, the outside sill. This is a very
effectual mode of preventing large old
windows from shaking, whether open
or shut, but it is rather expensive.
2494. A Hinge for a Jib-door. A
jib-door is a door which opens either
by being pushed from, or drawn to-
wards, the opener, and which, after
being opened, shuts of itself. The
action of these doors is founded on the
construction and application of their
hinges, and hence various forms have
been adopted, aided by springs in
some cases, and weights and pulleys
in others. But the cheapest, and that
which operates with the greatest ease,
is the one which we are about to de-
scribe. The top hinge of the door is
merely a pivot, which works in a pro-
jecting eye ; and the folding-hinge is
fixed on the lower part, or heel, of the
hanging-style of the door.
Fig. 2288. is a general view of the
folding bent hinge, before being screwed on to the door ; c being the plate screwed to
the jamb, and b that screwed to the style, both parts being connected by a. It may
be made either of cast iron or of brass. Fig. 2289. is a horizontal section through the
2288
2290
hinge when the door is shut, in which / is the jamb ; /, the style of the door ; g g, screws ;
and h h, parts of the folding hinge which project beyond the door on each side. Fig.
2290. is a horizontal section, showing the door partially opened.
2495. Lath and Plaster Partitions, when open from the bottom or from any floor
of the house, admit of a current of air from bottom to top, and in the case of fire
greatly accelerate its progress. It is, therefore, recommended to fill them in solid
behind the skirtings of the rooms, which can readily be done by common mortar, with
fragments of tiles or bricks, or by cement.
2496. Fire-proof Floors and Partition Walls. Much might be done to effect these
objects by iron joisting, laid two feet or thirty inches asunder, and covered with Caith-
ness flags, the flattest, the hardest, and the most tenacious of this class of stones. They
are incapable of being cut by masons' irons, but they saw easily ; and, being truly flat
by nature, they require no farther dressing than being sawn square. They are found of
all thicknesses, from a quarter of an inch to three inches and a half, and are so strong
at two inches thick that no accident which can occur, in ordinary cases, could injure a
square of thirty inches, or even three feet. If, therefore joists of iron, as shown in sec-
tion fig. 2291. (in which a is the line of flag-stones forming the floor; 6, the cast-iron
2291
MATERIALS.
U69
joists; and c, the wrought-iron rod for stiffening them), were covered with tliese flags
a substantial fire-proof floor might be made of any extent. In many cases, the natural
surface of the stone may do ; but, in conspicuous places, where neither carpet nor oil-
cloth is laid down, the slabs may be polished by rubbing one against another, and,
when finished in this way and oiled, they look as well as Tournay marble. Sir John
Robison heated a portion of this stone red hot, and quenched it in water, without its
cracking, or appearing to lose its peculiar tenacity. This stone may be had in London
of Messrs. Freeman, Milbank Street, Westminster.
2497. Thin fire-proof partitions with Caithness stone, or with Arbroath stone,
may thus be formed. Suppose a set of upright iron standards, like a a or b b, in the
horizontal sections figs. 2292. and 2293., were erected, and stone slabs, grooved or plain
3E
HE
2E
HE
2292 a
(according to circumstances), were dropped into the spaces, a very firm partition
might be built up, without requiring any fastening, except the top course, where, of
2293
-CT7Z1.
necessity, there could be no feather or ledge, as all the stones would have to be let in
there. Other and better forms would probably occur on further consideration. — J. R.
2498. Windows in Roofs. In introducing windows in roofs, care should be taken
that the panes of glass are flat, and not in any way globular, like what are called bull's-
eyes, it having been found that a house was set on fire by a bull's-eye being introduced
in the roof, in order to light a garret. The bull's-eye concentrated the sun's rays on a
muslin dress lying exposed on a large box beneath. From the flame communicating
to the box, its contents were soon set on fire, and the flooring and rafters were in a short
time completely in flames. This happened in the house of a gentleman on the Stroud
road, near Gloucester. (Scotsman, Aug. 3. 1839.)
2499. An Air and Vermin Trap for Drains. In fig. 2294. a a represent the drain,
c the bottom of which
is straight or circular,
as the ease may be ;
but it projects at b
over the water in the
trap c, from three
inches to six inches,
which prevents the
vermin from passing
one way, as will be
perceived. The level
of the water in the
trap is several inches
below the under side of the bottom of the drain. (A. M., iii. 192.)
2500. To guard against Mice and Rats. The aliment of mice and rats consists of
nearly equal food and water. In farmeries the first cannot be withheld, but the latter
may. All drains should be made of close-jointed stone, or of bricks, with properly con-
in which a is a stone, which is made to lift up, to clean
out the earth cr other matter from the trap. Roof
gutters, if any, should be made as inaccessible as pos-
sible ; water troughs decidedly so. This is easilv done.
Project a wooden fillet, or frame, all round within the
trough, making it project three inches or thereabouts
into the trough, and keep the surface of the water
about three inches below the frame. By this method
no rat of the ordinary size can get a drop. To prevent
them from getting up into the roof, let a flagstone be projected over each of the interior
angles. No walls, especially of dry stone, should be allowed near the buildings ; or, at
least, to come in contact with them near the level of the walls. — /. M.
Sect. X. Materials.
2501. Cements. Various kinds of cements have been introduced since the Encyclo-
paedia was published, but none surpass that variety of the old Roman cement called
the Mulgrave Cement, and sometimes Atkinson's Cement. It is double the price of
structed air-traps, see fig. 2295
a
__
2295
1270 SUPPLEMENT.
the common Roman cement, but it is proportionately superior in point of strength and
durability. As a proof, we may mention that houses built of stone in the neighbour-
hood of Whitby, and, among others, Mulgrave Castle, have been covered with it, to
protect the stone from the effects of the sea air. In our opinion, the walls of a house
built of brick, and covered with good cement, are far stronger than walls of brick with
outside casings of stone. In all cases, therefore, where walls of great strength and
durability were required, and where they could not be built wholly of stone, we should
build them of brick, cither laid in cement or covered with it. The facility which
cement affords of introducing architectural forms, such as architraves, cornices, &c, at
little expense, requires no eulogium, since it has contributed more than any thing else
to the present highly improved state of British architecture. When plain walls are
covered with cement, the surface ought always to be marked by lines, so as to give the
expression of stone; and this imitation of stone ought not to be confined to stone with
a smoothly hewn surface, as it generally is at present, but every manner of hewing
stone ought to be imitated, including plain ashlar, tooled ashlar, random-tooled,
chiseled, boasted, pointed, rusticated, frosted, scappeld, hammer-dressed, &c.
2502. A Metallic Cement, formed of powdered scoria from copper-works and stone
lime, sets rapidly, and takes a fine metallic polish. It is sold in powder, mixed in due
proportions; price 9d. per bushel. (A. M., i. 46.)
2503. Asphalte, Caithness Stone, and Slate. Asphalte, as a material of recent introduc-
tion, and its various uses, have already been noticed (§ 2447.), as has Caithness stone
(§ 2496.). Slate is coming into very general use for shelves to pantries, dairies, &c. ; for
kitchen tables, for panels to doors, for flooring to rooms, and for a great variety of other
purposes. A layer of asphalte in a wall is found as effective in preventing the rising of
damp as a course of slate or flagstone, or a layer of Roman cement. Caithness flagstone
is at last acknowledged by some of the first architects, both in Scotland and England, to
be superior to all others for works in the open air. " As regards strength and hardness,
it is not to be equalled by any paving-stone used in London : it completely resists the
action of the severest frosts ; it neither scales, flakes, nor becomes slippery ; and, from
not being porous, it dries rapidly after rains: in fact, none of the objections so common
to the Yorkshire paving, or any other freestone, seem to apply to the Castlehill Caith-
ness paving. The method of squaring the stone, with sawn joints, is also of great ad-
vantage, by securing a close joint, and thereby contributing to the solidity and ornament
of the work."
2504. Cylindrical Earthenware Tubes for Flues are in general use in building all good
houses in the North of England and in Scotland. The cylinders are about ten inches in
diameter, one foot in length, and an inch in thickness; one end of every cylinder being
rectangular, and the other oblique, in order to admit of building the flues either
straight or curved at pleasure. When they are to be built curved, the oblique ends are
joined to straight ends, and when they are to be built straight, the oblique ends and
straight ends are put together alternately. The great advantage of this kind of flue is,
that it is easily swept by machinery, and that much less soot adheres to the sides than in
square flues. A series of bricks of different forms, for effecting the same purpose, has
lately been invented by Mr. Welch, architect, Liverpool.
2505. Sheet Glass for Windows, and especially for sashes for greenhouses, has recently
come into use. This glass is thicker than common crown glass, though not much
dearer, and it can be obtained in panes of any length under six feet, and of any breadth
under two feet. It has been extensively used at Chatsworth, both in the roofs of
hothouses and in the windows of cottages. Its great advantage for hothouse roofs,
and sashes for garden frames of every kind, is, that very few joints are required, and
hence the heated air within is prevented from escaping, and the rain from being driven
in. In short, the introduction of this glass into hothouse buildings is one of the
greatest improvements that have been made in their construction since the substitution of
roofs of glass for roofs of opaque materials. Where the ridge and furrow mode of form-
ing hothouse roofs is adopted, there need not be a single glass joint in the entire roof.
Verandas may be glazed without joints, by using panes of the full length, and the ad-
vantage, both in point of beauty, admission of light, and saving of breakage, is in-
credible, as we have proved in our veranda here. This glass is manufactured by different
persons, and we can very strongly recommend Messrs. Claudet and Houghton, Holborn.
2506. Plate Glass, when it is to be ground on the surface, may be obtained of the
manufacturers at a very moderate rate, because the slightest defect in the material unfits
it for being polished, but is no drawback to its being ground. The ceilings of lobbies,
passages, and all rooms having skylights, may be finished with this glass below the sky-
light with admirable effect, as may be seen in the houses of various gentlemen in New-
castle, Liverpool, and Edinburgh. The same damaged glass, without being ground, is
admirably adapted for cottage windows, not only because it is not easily broken, but
FITTINGS-UP, FINISHING, AND FURNISHING. K'/ 1
because from its thickness it is a very bad conductor of heat, and might almost serve as
a substitute for window-shutters.
2507. Preservation of Wood. Sulphate of copper, which abounds in the mineral waters
of the mines in Cornwall and Anglesea, has been proved to be an excellent preservative
of timber which has been immersed in it. (See Mech. Mag., vol. xxxiii. p. 568., and
Gard. Mag. for 18 12, p. 174.)
In the last work the following recipe is given for preparing the composition: —
Take fifteen pounds of sulphate of iron (7s. 6d. per hundredweight); twelve pounds of
sulphate of copper (45s. per hundredweight) ; twenty-four pounds of sulphate of zinc
(45s. per hundredweight); one quart of sulphuric acid(3rf. per pound). The sulphates
to be well pounded, and dissolved in hot water; and then the sulphuric acid to be mixed
in the solution, and well stirred up with a scrubbing-broom. The above, added to
thirty-six gallons of water, is ready for the tank. Time of saturation : for one-inch
board, three days; three-inch plank, or scantling, seven days; five-inch to six and seven
inch scantling, all twelve to fourteen days; large timber, twelve inches to fourteen
inches square, will require twenty-one days.
Creosote has been employed for ages in the preservation of animal structures for ana-
tomical purposes, and is found also the most effective in preserving timber. Mr. Be-
thel's mode of preservation consists in impregnating the wood to the centre with this
substance. {Mech. Mag., vol. xxxi. p. 309.)
2508. Ironwork coated with Gas Liquor, Tar, or Pitch, is found to be far less durable
than when painted with lead and oil in the usual manner. The oxidation is greatly
accelerated in a damp situation, but it takes place even in coal-scuttles kept in dry
rooms : of course this does not render gas liquor, tar, or pitch, less fit for preserving
wood. {Gard. Mag., 1840, p. 514.)
Chap. VI.
Fittings-up, Finishing, and Furnishing.
Sf.ct. I. Modes of Heating.
2509. Many different Kinds of Stoves for heating the general air of a house have been
invented or brought into notice within the last seven years. Among these, the more
remarkable are Arnot's and Joyce's stoves. The latter needs only to be mentioned to be
avoided ; since, in effect, it is nothing more than burning charcoal without a flue to carry
off the fumes, the deleterious effects of which are so frequently exemplified in the
case of suicides. Arnot's stove is unquestionably the best apparatus of the kind that
has yet appeared, since the quantity of heat produced is regulated with the greatest
nicety ; the fuel, in consequence of being burned in an enclosure of fire-brick, is tho-
roughly consumed, and, by regulating the supply of air, but a small proportion of heat
is allowed to escape with the smoke. For the halls or passages of small houses, and for
large rooms, in addition to open fires, Arnot's stove is therefore one of the best ; but it
must be borne in mind that it introduces no fresh air, and is therefore altogether unsuit-
able in cases where ventilation is to be combined with warming. For this purpose it is
essential that a stream of fresh air should be introduced from without, as in Strutt's stove
(§ 2530. ), and be heated by the stove before being allowed to escape into the apartment.
This has been effected by many different stoves, and with Arnot's stove, by a modifi-
cation introduced by Mr. Jeakes. An excellent ventilating stove, combining an open
fireplace, has also been invented by Mr. Jeffery, the inventor of the respirator, and
may be seen in action at No. 148. Regent Street. The stoves of Mr. White, already
mentioned (§ 2478.), are calculated either to heat the air of the apartment, by passing
it through a flue or case, or to heat the external air by the same means. There are
various other stoves ; such as the Chunk stove, Kirkwood's stove, the Vesta stove,
Brown and Green's ventilating stove, the Olmsted stove, &c, but the three which deserve
the preference, in our opinion, are : Arnot's stove, alone for a small house, or with
Jeakes's improvement for a larger house ; White of Haddington's warm-air stove, and
Jeffery's warm-air stove, where it is desired to combine an open fireplace. The price
of one of White's stoves of the smallest size is £3 10s., which is about the same price as
Arnot's stove without Jeakes's improvement : Jeffery's stove is much dearer. The great
merit of Dr. Arnot's stove consists in the saving of fuel ; but, as ventilation by this stove
depends solely on combustion, it is diminished in proportion to the saving. It can
never, therefore, be recommended as the sole means of warming living-rooms ; but for
halls and staircases, or small houses where outer doors are being constantly opened.
1272
SUPPLEMENT.
it will be (bund more economical than any other. To derive the full benefit from
Arnot's stove, the outer casing ought to be of sheet iron, in order to disperse the heat
generated as rapidly as possible ; for, when cast-iron casings are used, great part
of the heat is carried up the chimney- In large houses, we repeat, White's stove
deserves the preference. It may be some recommendation of this stove, to mention
that it is the only one introduced into his new buildings by Mr. Burn, the most
extensively employed architect in Scotland. Much discussion on Dr. Arnot's stove,
and on the others mentioned, will be found in the Architectural Magazine.
2510. Heating the general Atmosphere of a House by Hot Water is occasionally resorted
to, as producing a more agreeable heat, from the moisture it contains, than dry air,
which, when too dry, abstracts moisture from the skin, and also as not admitting of
overheating the air by the apparatus. This mode of beating is variously effected, but
the best apparatus for the purpose, in our opinion, is that of Price and Manby of Nelson
Street, Bristol, and of Chester Place, London. The air is heated in a cellar by a series
of shallow flat closed vessels, or cases, of hot water, and rises through a trunk or flue in
the same manner as by Mr. Sylvester's mode (§ 2379.). As the air by this mode can
never be heated much above 100°, the risk of (ires from the apparatus is much less than
by any mode of heating by a stove or cockle.
Sect. II. Interior Fittings-up and Finishing.
251 1. Fittinqs-up of Cottages. It has been suggested by the Highland Society, that, if
doors, shelving, and other wooden work for cottages, could be manufactured in the
wholesale way, like M'Culloch's windows, it would
materially lessen the expense. We have suggested
in the Gardener's Magazine the idea of manufacturing j
cottage fittings-up and furniture in Norway, and im-
porting them in a state fit for use. Were there a
sufficient demand, the manufacture would be carried
on as regularly as that of Norway battens, and the
saving to the builders and occupiers of cottages would
be very great.
2512. A Fold-up Step- Ladder is often a conve-
nient substitute for a stair in cottages. Fig. 2296.
shows a ladder of this description hinged at d, and
with a joint at c. When folded up it has the ap-
pearance shown in fig. 2297., there being a stud at f
which rests on the hook e.
2513. CowelUs Sash- Suspender enables sash-win-
dows to be cleaned, painted, or repaired, without
the operator's going outside for these purposes. The
line by which the sash is suspended, instead of being
nailed to it, is secured in a socket provided with a
hook. To this is fitted a plate or eye, which is let
into the sash, so that it can be attached or detached in an instant, and with the greatest
ease. A complete set of the brass suspenders, including an ingenious brass bolt for
fixing the bead, instead of nailing it, costs
only Si, Gd. ( See the figures of this invention,
and farther details, in Arch. Mag., vol. iv.
p. 72.)
2514. The Rollers of Window- Blinds, for-
merly made cylindrical, are now made octa-
gonal or polygonal, which is found to give them a better hold of the blind or other
material to be rolled round them than cylindrical rollers. A pulley-rack for blinds,
invented by Messrs. Loach and Clarke, is considered a very great improvement, as is a
wedge-fastener by the same party. We have tried both, and consider the pulley-rack
very superior to that in common use.
2515. Preserving the Tapes of Venetian Blinds from the Sun. This object is attained by
two slips of wood the length of the blind, connected as a parallel ruler, and screwed
within the frame of the blind upon both sides. When the blind is about to be let down,
the preserver is drawn out, and the slip of wood covers the whole of the tape, which
would be otherwise exposed to the action of the sun. By this simplest of all con-
trivances, the durability of the blind is insured for a considerable period.
2516. Venetian Blinds made of Glass instead of Wood have recently been invented,
and may come into occasional use in dwelling-houses, water-closets, &c. (A. M., iv. 206. )
2517. The Poor Man's Window- Blind. The simple homely furniture of the poor cot-
tager requires to be protected from the scorching rays of the noonday sun as much as
2297
INTERIOR FITTINGS-UP AND FINISHING. Ic2j3
the more elaborately finished articles which occupy the apartments of the citizen and
tradesman ; but the expense of the roller, the pulleys, the trap-rack or slide, the stretch-
ing-rod and line, as well as the holland (cotton cloth not being capable of being rolled
evenly), places that description of window-blinds which is generally used beyond the
means of the poor labourer ; therefore a simple window-blind may be made as follows.
After a piece of cheap thin calico of the proper size has been hemmed, attach a few
small rings to the upper edge ; fix a nail on each side of the window case at the top,
and extend a strong piece of cord across, on which the blind is to be hung in the
manner of bed-curtains. A small string is then attached to the last ring on the left
side, and hanging down on the same side, to pull the curtain on the window ; and an-
other string is to be fixed to the same ring, but passing through all the other rings, and
hanging down on the right side, to pull the curtain ofF. Each of the two strings to have
a small ring fixed at the ends, by way of finish to them ; and if the labourer has a tidy
wife, she will not fail to make a little frill or vallance, with a loop at each end, to hang
upon the nails, so as to hide the working of the rings. The whole would not, for an
ordinary-sized cottage window, cost above lOd. — S.
2518. Painting and Papering, as Modes of Finishing, compared, with Reference to
Salubrity. Of all the arts connected with domestic comfort, there is scarcely one on
which so little has been written, and consequently of which so little is known, as house-
painting. It is well understood that the ceilings and walls of all the apartments of
dwelling-houses and other buildings, in this country, are now almost uniformly finished
in plaster; and the nature and properties of this composition are also well known. One
of these properties is its power of absorbing moisture, or, in other words, its facility in
attracting and imbibing dampness. Consequently, when an apartment is left for any
length of time without the benefit of a fire, or of heated air supplied by other means,
the plaster will continue to absorb a portion of the dampness from the atmosphere with
which the room is filled ; and it is natural to suppose that, when a fire is put on, or
heated air is otherwise admitted, this dampness will be gradually given out by exha-
lation from the plaster. This process of exhalation must affect the durability, not only
of the plaster itself, but of the woodwork under it, and must also render the apartment
much less comfortable than if it had been rendered incapable of such absorption.
It therefore becomes an enquiry of some interest, whether painting or papering (the
two methods by which the walls of our apartments are usually decorated) is the better
adapted to counteract these disadvantages.
2519. The Process of painting Plaster-work is as follows. White lead and linseed
oil, with a little litharge to facilitate the drying, are mixed together to about the con-
sistence of thin cream ; a coating of this being applied, the oil from it is sucked into
the plaster in the course of a few hours, leaving the white lead apparently dry upon
the surface. In the course of a day or two, when this coat has sufficiently hardened,
another is given a few degrees thicker, the oil from which is partially absorbed accord-
ing to the nature of the plaster. In the course of a few days more a third coat is
applied. This coat is made pretty thick; and, if the absorption of the oil from the
second coat has not been great, about one fourth of spirits of turpentine is added ; but
when the absorption has been great a less proportion of the spirits of turpentine is
employed. Into this coat are put the colouring ingredients, to bring it near the shade
intended for the finishing coat. Should the plaster now be thoroughly saturated, the
flatting or finishing coat is applied ; before this is done, however, a fourth coat, thinned
with equal portions of oil and spirits of turpentine, is generally given, particularly
when the work is wished to be of the most durable kind. The flatting, or finishing
coat, is composed entirely of paint ; that is, of white lead, and the colouring ingredients
mixed together, and ground in oil to an impalpable paste. This mixture is of a very
thick consistency, and must be thinned with spirits of turpentine until it will flow
easily from the brush. The spirits of turpentine, being very volatile, evaporate
entirely, leaving the surface of the paint of a very compact and hard nature. By this
process, the plaster is rendered incapable of absorption; and the surface of it is hardened
by the oil which it has sucked in from the first and second coats, and is thereby rendered
less liable to breakage, with the great advantage of being washable.
2520. Paper-hangings. It now remains to be seen whether paper-hangings are
equally well adapted to the comfort, cleanliness, and durability of the generality of
apartments, as a decoration for plastered walls. Every one knows that paper is more
or less absorbent, according to its quality. When it is manufactured into paper-
hangings, it is washed over with a coating of size colour, equally absorbent with the
paper itself, upon which a pattern is stamped with the same material. To prepare the
plaster for papering, it receives a coating of a weak solution of glue in water ; and the
paper, as every one knows, is fixed on the wall by paste. Paper-hangings, therefore,
cannot be considered, in a general point of view, as being so well adapted to plastered
7 v
1274
SUPPLEMENT.
walls as paint ; and there are particular situations in which serious disadvantages
attend paper, which a short explanation will make apparent to every one. Take a
dining-room for example. The papered wall has nothing in it to resist the absorption
of the steam of the dinner, or breaths of the large parties by which it is often crowded :
the glue and paste used in paper-hanging mast be thereby softened, and the moisture
absorbed must, of course, be afterwards gradually given out in connexion with the
natural effluvia of these, the former of which all know to be extracted from animal
substances, not of the most cleanly nature, until the wall be again thoroughly drv.
Besides, a papered wall is liable to be injured past remedy by so common a casualty
as the starting of a bottle of table-beer, champagne, or soda-water. Lobbies and stair-
cases are sometimes papered, although the practice is not very common in Scotland.
This is very objectionable, as the condensation of the atmosphere, which always takes
place upon the walls of such apartments on a change of temperature, from cold to
warmth, must be absorbed, and again given out as before explained. They are like-
wise very liable to accidental injuries, and should therefore have the hardest and most
impervious covering. In regard to drawingrooms and bed-rooms, these particular
objections to paper-hangings do not apply, yet there are modes of painting drawing-
rooms superior, not only in point of utility (to which for the present these observations
are confined), but also in effect. — D. R. Hay. Mr. Hay is at the head of his profession
in Scotland ; and we are happy to be able to state that Mr. Moxon, who has been for
several years in Mr. Hay's establishment, and is equally enthusiastic in his art, has re-
cently commenced business in High Street, Marylebone, London. Mr. Moxon is the
author of the Grainer's Guide, folio, £2 2s., a work by far the best of its kind which
has yet appeared.
252 1 . Principles of papering Rooms. The following remarks are by Mr. Pugin.
'• I v. ill commence with what are termed Gothic pattern papers, for hanging walls, where
a wretched caricature of a pointed building is repeated from the skirting to the cornice
in glorious confusion ; door over pinnacle, and pinnacle over door. This is a great
favourite with hotel and tavern keepers. Again, those papers which are shaded are
defective in principle ; for, as a paper is hung round a room, the ornament must fre-
quently be shadowed on the light side. The variety of these miserable patterns is quite
surprising ; and as the expense of cutting a block for a bad figure is equal, if not greater,
than for a good one, there is not the shadow of an excuse for their continual reproduc-
tion. A moment's reflection must show the extreme absurdity of repeating a perspective
over a large surface with some hundred different points of sight : a panel or wall may
be enriched and decorated at pleasure, but it should always be treated in a consistent
manner. Flock papers are admirable substitutes for the ancient hangings, but then they
must consist of a pattern without shadow, with the forms relieved by the introduction of
harmonious colours. Illuminated manuscripts of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth
centuries would furnish an immense number of exquisite designs for this purpose." —
Pugin.
2522. Carpets. These observations will apply to modern carpets, the patterns of which
are generally shaded. Nothing can be more ridiculous than an apparently reversed groin-
ing to walk upon, or highly relieved foliage and perforated tracery for the decoration of
a floor. The ancient paving tiles are quite consistent with their purpose, being merely
ornamented with a pattern not produced by any apparent relief, but only by contrast of
colour ; and carpets should be treated in precisely the same manner. Turkey carpets,
which are by far the handsomest now manufactured, have no shadow in their pattern, but
merely an intricate combination of coloured intersections.
2523. Curtains. Modern upholstery, again, is made a surprising vehicle for bad and
paltry taste, especially when any thing very fine is attempted. To arrange curtains
consistently with true taste, their use and intention should always be considered : they
are suspended across windows and other openings to exclude cold and wind, and, as they
are not always required to be drawn, they are hung to rings sliding on rods, to be
opened or closed at pleasure : as there must necessarily be "a space between this rod and
the ceiling, through which wind will pass, a boxing of wood has been contrived, in front of
which a valance is suspended to exclude air. Now the materials of these curtains
maj he rich or plain, they may be heavily or lightly fringed, they may be embroidered
with heraldic charges or not, according to the locality where they are to be hung, but
their rc;il use must be strictly maintained. Hence all the modern plans of suspending
< normous folds of stuff over poles, as if for the purpose of sale or of being dried, is quite
contrary to the use and intentions of curtains, and [therefore] abominable in taste ; and
the only object that these- endless festoons and bunchy tassels can answer is, to swell the
nils and profit, of the upholsterers, who are the inventors of these extravagant and ugly
draperies, which are not only useless in protecting the chamber from cold, but are the
depositories of thick layers of dust, and in London not unfrequently become the strong-
INTERIOR FITTINGS-UP AND FINISHING. 1275
holds of vermin. It is not less ridiculous to see canopies of tomb and altar screens set
up over windows, instead of the appropriate valance or baldaquin of the olden time. It
is proper in this place to explain the origin and proper application of fringes, which is
but little understood. Fringe was originally nothing more than the ragged edge of the
Stuff, tied into bunches to prevent it unravelling further. This suggested the idea of
manufacturing fringe as an ornamental edging, but good taste requires that it should be
both designed and applied consistently.
1. In the first place, fringe should never consist of heavy parts, but simply of threads,
tied into ornamental patterns.
2. Secondly, a deep fringe should not be suspended to a narrow valance.
:5. Thirdly, no valance should be formed entirely of fringe, as fringe can only be sup-
plied as an ornamental edging to some kind of stuff.
4. Fourthly, fringe should not be sewed upon stuff, but always on the edges. It is
allowable at the very top, as it may be supposed to be the upper edge turned over."
(Puffin's Christ. Arch., p. 29.)
2524. Metal-work. The Gothic architects, Mr. Pugin informs us, suited the design
to the material with which they worked ; and instead of concealing construction, they
avowed and decorated it, whether in the elevation of a house, or in the smallest article of
furniture. Hinges, locks, bolts, nails, &c, which are always concealed in modern
designs, were, in pointed architecture, rendered rich and beautiful decorations, not only in
doors and fittings, but in the smallest cabinets. The hinges, in former times, covered
the whole face of the doors with varied and flowing scroll-work ; and such hinges were
not less beautiful in design than they were practically good, by extending the whole
length of the door, and being bolted through it in various places. Stock-locks were
also avowed, and rendered very ornamental, but now they are concealed, by being let
into the styles of doors, which are often cut more than half through to receive them.
" A lock was a subject on which the ancient smiths delighted to exercise the utmost
resources of their art. Keys were also highly ornamented with appropriate decorations
referring to the locks to which they belong." (Puffin's Christ. Arch., p. 21.)
2525. Cast Iron-work, when viewed with reference to mechanical purposes, Mr.
Pugin observes, " must be considered as a most valuable invention, but it can but
rarely be applied to ornamental purposes. Iron is so much stronger a material than
stone, that it requires, of course, a much smaller substance to attain equal strength ; hence,
to be consistent, the mullions of cast-iron tracery might be so reduced as to look painfully
thin, devoid of shadow, and out of all proportion to the openings in which they are fixed.
If, to overcome these objections, the castings are made of the same dimensions as stone,
a great inconsistency with respect to the material is incurred ; and, what will be a much
more powerful argument with most people, treble the cost of the usual material. More-
over, all castings must be deficient of that play of light and shade consequent on hold
relief and deep sinkings, so essential to produce a good effect. Cast iron is likewise a
source of continual repetition, subversive of the variety and imagination exhibited in
pointed design. A mould for casting is an expensive thing ; once got, it must be worked
out. Hence we see the same window in greenhouse, gate-house, church, and room ;
the same strawberry -leaf, sometimes perpendicular, sometimes horizontal, sometimes
suspended, sometimes on end ; although, by the principles of pure design, these various
positions require to be differently treated. Cast iron is a deception ; it is seldom or never
left as iron. It is disguised by paint, either as stone, wood, or marble. This is a mere
trick, and the severity of Christian, or pointed, architecture is utterly opposed to all decep-
tion ; better is it to do a little, substantially and consistently with truth, than to produce
a great but false show: cheap deceptions of magnificence encourage persons to assume a
semblance of decoration far beyond either their means or their station, and it is to this
cause we may assign all that mockery of splendour which pervades even the dwellings of
the lower classes of society. Glaring, showy, and meretricious ornament was never so
much in vogue as at present ; it disgraces every branch of our arts and manufactures,
and the correction of it should be an earnest consideration with every person who desires
to see the real principles of art restored." (Pugin s Christ. Arch., p. 30.)
2526. The Manner in which Fenders are fitted to Fireplaces is almost everywhere
unarchitectural ; and there is not a single feature in the interior of living-rooms that is
more in want of reformation. The meagre iron or brass rim of the fender abuts ab-
ruptly against the marble plinth of the chimney jambs, sometimes against the middle
of the plinth, and sometimes against one side. There is nothing either in the jambs or
in the fender to show that they are intended to be joined together ; nothing to indicate
whether the rim of the fender should abut against the jamb of the grate, middle of the
plinth, or its outer edge; or whether it should not abut on the front of the grate within
the jamb altogether. It is astonishing that so glaring a defect in the adaptation of fur-
niture should so long have escaped the notice of architects, and that it should still
1216
SUP PL OIK NT.
prevail in some of the most magnificent houses in Britain; for example, in Windsor
Castle 'and Hamilton Palace, in both of which the principal rooms have lately beat
newly fitted up and furnished in the most splendid style. There are various ways in
which this evil might be remedied. I. The fender being of metal, might be so con-
trived as to fix into and connect architecturally with the grate, as being also of metal.
2. Grooves or recesses may he made in the plinths of the jambs, into which boxings of
metal might be fixed, and into these the fender might be made to drop, and be taken
out at pleasure ; or projections from the jambs might be made, either in marble or
metal, extending on the hearth as far as might be necessary, and between these the
lender might be dropped in. An idea of this mode may be formed from fig. 2298. [n
this figure the two projecting blocks may be of marble, stone, or of cast iron, hollow ;
and they may be attached to the hearth by two wooden pins in the under sides of
the blocks, which should drop into two small holes in the hearth. On the blocks
might be raised the supports to the fire-irons, as shown in the figure. Some further
discussion on the adaptation of fenders to fireplaces will be found in the Suburban Ar-
chitect and Landscape- Gardener, p. 125. to 127. ; and we would strongly recommend
the subject to the attention of architects, convinced that, if they were to see this de-
formity in the light we do, the evil would soon disappear, at least in first-rate houses
and palaces.
2527. Cornices, Ornaments in Papier- Machi, and various Architectural and Sculptural
Details, are now very generally introduced in interior finishing. The principal manu-
facturer is Mr. Bielfield of Wellington Street, who has published several books of
cornices and ornaments, and other details, from which selections may be made.
2528. The Italian Mode of excluding the common House- Fly from Apartments, and
which is as old as the time of Herodotus, is simply to cover the openings of the windows
by a net of white or light-coloured thread. It is remarkable that the meshes of this
net may he an inch or more in diameter, so that there is actually no physical obstacle
presented to the entrance of the flies, even with expanded wings. The flies seem to
he deterred from entering from some inexplicable dread of venturing within the net-
work. It is even found that " if small nails be fixed all round the window-frame, at
i hi' distance of about an inch from each other, and threads be then stretched across
both vertically and horizontally, the apparatus will be equally effectual in excluding the
Hies." It is essential, however, that the light should enter the room on one side of it
only ; for if there be a thorough light, either from an opposite or side window, the flies
pass through the net without scruple. ( Trans. Ent. Soc.)
Sect. III. Kitchen Fittings-up and Furniture.
2529. Various Ovens and Kitchen- Ranges have been brought into notice since the En-
cyclopedia appeared; but no oven has equalled that of Count Rnmford as modified by
W. Strutt, Esq., a man of most extraordinary genius (§ 1503.), and no cooking and
warming apparatus for cottages has been produced that at all approaches the Bruges
stove ( § 59 i | Nevertheless, some good kitchen-ranges have been invented, the most
KITCHEN FITTINGS-UP AND FURNITURE.
1277
complete of which is one by Messrs. Steel of Edinburgh, adapted for first-rate bouses.
and described in the Repertory of Arts, vol. xiv. p. 159. There are also three different
ranges of recent invention, each of which has a closed fireplace, and consequently not
only cooks very economically, with great cleanliness and with much less trouble or
excessive heat to the cook, but is an effectual cure for a smoky chimney. The most
complete of these is Braithwaite's, price £13; and the most economical, Brown's of
Luton, price between £6 and £7. We shall first give a description of Mr. Strutt's oven,
next of an improved Bruges stove, and lastly of one of the closed kitchen-ranges.
2.530. The Roasting- Oven which has been in use in the kitchen of Joseph Strutt, Esq.,
of Derby, for upwards of thirty years, is represented by two sections and a plan, figs.
2299. to 2301. The front section, fig. 2299., shows the interior of the oven (the door
2299
in
! lllHiilfalMWM Jill'
~~W "IWiil
1 -^::liai::fcAlll,
being removed), and also the cavity surrounding the oven. The oven rests upon bricks
placed edgewise along each side, which forms a cavity under the oven, similar to that
seen on the top and its other sides in the above figure. An opening into this cavity is
seen at e, in the side section, fig. 2300. The fire, which is introduced at n, it will be
seen, does not immediately act upon the oven : the flame branches on each side along the
flues rr in fig. 2301., and then ascends perpendicularly, enveloping the hack, the
two sides, and the top of the oven ; it is not, however, allowed to escape till it descends
to E in fig. 2300., there being a similar hole on the other side. It is now compelled
to pass under the oven, and thence into the chimney c, so that the bottom of the oven,
which is generally the hottest part in other ovens, is the coldest in this ; since the hot
vapour does not reach it until it has given the greatest part of its heat to the top and
sides.
In the front section, fig. 2299., is an opening, o, which indicates the mouth of a tube
fastened into an iron plate, which is seen to close the front of the under cavity. This
tube proceeds in a straight direction under the bottom of the oven, the whole length ;
it then turns with a curve, and comes back on the opposite side, where it terminates in
the bottom of the oven, which communicates with the cavity, as seen in the side sec-
tion, at c. This cavity is formed of sheet iron, similar to that of which the rest of the
roaster is formed, and screwed to the door g. Towards the top of this cavity in the
door is an aperture, h, opening into the oven. The tube p communicates with the
oven and the chimney above the damper d. Now it will be evident that, when the
door of the roaster is shut, a current of cold air will enter at o in the front section, and
will become heated in passing along the curved tube under the oven ; it will then
enter the cavity < in the door G, and pass out at the hole h into the roaster, and thence
1 :7<S SUPPLEMENT.
through the pipe p into the chimney, to the draught of
which it owes its motion.
This contrivance has two great advantages: its heat is
sufficient to have a great effect upon the substances to be
baked or roasted, and the constant change of the air
contributes to the crusty brown so generally liked. Its
greatest advantage, however, consists in carrying off the
disagreeable smell complained of when meat is roasted in
a common oven.
a is a register-door, opening into the ash-pit ; n, the door
for the fuel : beyond this is a second door, which opens by
a hook attached to the first door.
Opposite to the cavity on each side and the cavity under
the roaster are three small doors, n, ?i, n, which are opened
occasionally for raking out the soot and ashes. This last
operation is not required very often. The top and sides,
which will soon become clogged with soot, are raked very
frequently by another contrivance, which we can better
describe than represent in the drawing. In the front
section, fig. 2299., suppose the dark space, s, which sur-
rounds the roaster to be a piece of sheet iron capable of
being moved backward and forward, by means of a rod of iron fastened into the middle
of that part which fits the cavity at the top of the roaster, and projecting to the front,
like the rod of the damper, d, in the side section ; then it will be evident that a rake of
this form will, by its motion, completely scrape the top and sides of the roaster; an ope-
ration frequently necessary. This rake brings the soot to the bottom of the cavities ;
and when it is accumulated there to a certain extent, it requires to be withdrawn from
the openings, n n n.
The above description was sent to us by Mr. Joseph Hunt, ironmonger, Derby, who
put up Mr. Strutt's oven, and who informs us that one similar to that above described
may be fitted up complete in Derby for £10 10s.
Mr. Strutt has two of these ovens in his kitchen ; one similar to that described for
common use, and another about twice the size for extraordinary occasions. Nothing
has been roasted before an open fire in Mr. Strutt's kitchen for upwards of thirty years.
To the excellence of Mr. Strutt's table all who have enjoyed that gentleman's hospitality
will bear testimony.
2531. The Bruges Stove, as improved by Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, figs. 2302. to
2304., appears to be better adapted both for warming a common cottage and cooking
at the same time, than any other either of British or foreign invention. The Fle-
mings are a rigidly economical people, and therefore whatever is in use among them
deserves serious consideration. This led us to figure and describe this stove in the
Encyclopaedia, p. 285., and we have now to present an improved form of it as exhibited
in the figures referred to. It will, no doubt, be extremely difficult to get a British
cottager, with all her prejudices for an open fire, to use this or any other cooking stove;
nevertheless, we cordially agree with Mr. Cottam, that this stove will do more with a
given quantity of fuel than any other stove or fireplace whatever. It has the means
of stewing, boiling, broiling, roasting, and baking, at one and the same time, with a small
quantity of coke or cinders from any other fire. It is simple in form, and there is not
the slightest difficulty in its use. The holes in the top may be arranged as is found most
convenient for the situation in which the stove is to be placed, either in a line, as in
fig. 2300., or in the form of a triangle. One thing is indispensable for the proper
action of this stove, and that is a good draught. It must therefore have a separate flue.
KITCHEN FITTINGS-UP AND FURNITURE.
1279
As it stands quite detached, heat is radiated from a 2304
it on every side, and only that small portion is lost
whieh goes up the chimney. In the figures, a is the
top of the stove; b is the fire-pot ; g is the lid of the
hole for feeding the fire-pot ; f is an asli drawer ; c
is the flue ; n is the oven door ; h is the oven ; e is a
space for the fire to pass to the flue, c, and for heat-
ing the whole of the top plate, any part of which
will produce sufficient heat for culinary purposes;
i i i have lids, whieh may be taken off, and the
battery of stew-pans or boilers will then be in eon-
tact with the flame. A gridiron fits on any of these
openings, which has the advantage of not smoking the article broiled, the draught being
downwards. (Arch. Mag., i. 77.) Unfortunately, the cost is between £6 and £7.
2532. Brown of Luton's improved Kitchen-range, fig. 2305., is founded on the principle
of economising fuel. Its appearance is that of an ordinary range with oven and boiler,
with the front and top of the fire-grate shut in, and the space beneath the bottom of the
grate also partially enclosed. The fireplace is cased with fire-brick on the back and
sides, and an iron plate forms the front, which, becoming red hot, supplies the heat ne-
cessary for roasting ; when not in use for that purpose, it is screened by an outer plate
sliding in groves on either side : a portion of the top plate is removable at pleasure, to
afford an opportunity of boiling, frying, broiling, &c. The fire plays round the oven,
and partly under the boiler, and the vapour escapes by a pipe into a chimney or other
flue. The top forms a hot plate. The space under the grate-bottom in front is en-
closed in part with talc, and the drawer for receiving the ashes occupies the remainder.
There can be no doubt of the improvement effected in this range in the avoidance of
smoke and dust, economy of fuel, &c, over the common range ; the oven and boiler ap-
pear to act well in every respect ; and the inventor states that he had roasted a leg of
mutton by the red-hot plate of nineteen pounds and a half weight. This range is made
in different sizes, and sold at from sis to ten guineas each, at Luton, in Bedfordshire,
and at 34. Gracechurch Street, London. Stoves very similar to that of Brown's are
manufactured by Braithwaite, White Lion Court, Cornhill, at nearly double the price ;
by Wright of Arthur Street, London Bridge, by Nicholson at the Baker Street bazaar,
and by E. Brown of Birmingham. They are all excellent in principle, cleanly, econo-
mical, and effectually cure a smoky chimney ; and Mr. Brown's of Luton has the merit
of being the cheapest.
2533. Saufs improved Cottage Fireplace. On the grate, fig. 2306., is placed a cast-
1280
SUPPLEMENT.
iron plate, with a circular aperture in the centre at a. It is eight inches and a half in
diameter, which just takes a
common tea-kettle, and answers
well for other-sized pans, as it
is of no moment if the pan is
larger than the aperture. By
this plan the heat is confined in
the grate ; and, by several expe-
riments, it has been proved that
any thing will much sooner boil
in this closed grate than in an
open one: and it also throws out
a greater heat in the room, and
prevents smoke ; and, when the
fire is not wanted for cooking,
there is a plate to cover the
aperture. It also consumes less
fuel, and is a sure remedy for a
smoky chimney. When an oven
is also made in the same fire-
place, as seen at b, the whole
heat is made to pass under the oven by turning the damper in the flue c, which is behind
the iron plate, when the smoke is carried up the oven flue, d. When the oven is not
wanted, the flue d is closed with the damper, and then the smoke rises through the flue
c. A small aperture is made on the top of the iron plate at e, to admit any smoke that
may arise when putting on the fuel, or changing the kettles or pans. This plan may
be adapted to any grate now in use. It is only necessary to get a cast-iron plate the size
of the grate. It is to rest upon the top bar of the grate, and on the brickwork on the
back ; and a small aperture is to be made for the smoke to escape, and an iron plate
fixed in front, to prevent the smoke from entering the room. (A. M., v. 226.)
2534. A portable Roaster, formed of tin, is considered a most useful and economical
apparatus for roasting meat before an open fire. The ordinary size of this roaster is
about three feet long, two feet high, and one foot deep ; but some are made nearly twice
as large. The front which faces the fire is open, and the back and sides are of tinned
iron. The spit is let into notches in the ends, and is turned by a small wind-up jack.
The American oven is formed of tinned iron, and when used is set before the fire, the
heat of which it receives directly in front, and by reflection from the inside of the bottom
and top, which slope, the one upwards and the other downwards, at an angle of about
40 . The editor of the British Farmer's Magazine, speaking of this oven says, " it is
one of the most valuable inventions of the kind we know, and ought to be in every farm-
house and every cottage in the kingdom. Our own family bread is chiefly baked in one
of these ovens placed before the fire, and better bread there cannot be from any oven
whatever. For roasting (not baking) small joints, we know nothing equal to it." (Brit.
Farm. Mag., new series, vol. vi. p. 98.) Another very economical oven is thus formed.
A circular bottom of sheet iron, eleven inches in diameter, has a rim raised round it
one inch and a half deep. To this bottom there is a cover four inches and a half, or at
most five inches deep, which fits easy within the rim of the bottom. This forms the
oven ; and it only requires a handle by which to suspend it over the fire, which handle
must be sufficiently high to allow of taking off and putting on the cover without incon-
venience. There is a movable small hoop of sheet iron, about five inches in diameter and
three inches and a quarter deep, to put the dish upon, and keep it from the bottom to pre-
vent burning. The cost is about 3s., and it bakes meat or bread well. A figure of this
oven is given in Mech. Mag., vol. xxxiii. p. 569. To these kitchen apparatus we must be
excused for adding Platow's automaton colFee-pot, which is universally allowed to be by far
the best utensil for making coffee that has hitherto been invented, price from 4s. upwards.
2535. An economical Hot Closet may be formed at very little expense, by taking
a common hastener for placing before a kitchen fire when meat is roasting, and closing
up the front, or side next the fire, with black sheet iron, forming a door at the back
for putting in and taking out the articles to be kept hot. Black iron absorbs the
heat powerfully ; and the heated air within not being allowed to escape, becomes very
hot. When it is desired to use this hot closet as a hastener in roasting meat, it is only
necessary to hang in from, before the black iron, a covering of tinned sheet iron, which
may be in two or more plates, according to the size of the hastener, for convenience
of lifting on and off. Fig. 2307. is a back view of such a movable hot closet, with
the door open, showing the shelves, &c. It is scarcely necessary to observe that
white sheet iron will, in many cases, be preferable to black iron; because, while it
KITCHEN FITTINGS-UP AND FURNITURE.
1281
reflects the heat and hastens the meat, it will
conduct and radiate quite enough into the hot
closet; and what is collected there will not be
so easily radiated through the tin as through
the black sheet iron.
2536. An improved Ironing Stove, in which
the fire is enclosed in brickwork, and con-
sequently the fuel is more completely con-
sumed, and the heat longer retained, than in
the common stoves of this kind, which are
wholly of cast iron, is strongly recommended,
both in point of economy of fuel and avoid-
ance of smoke.
2537. Clarke's Blower, as a Substitute for
Bellows. Clarke's blower is a tin tube, about
eighteen inches long, tapering about one inch
and a half in diameter, at an average. At one
end is a circular box, containing a wheel with
four fans, which is turned by means of two
multiplying wheels, with a catgut rigger, these
being set in motion by a winch. The velocity
of the revolution of the fans draws in the air, and forces it through the mouth of the
tube. The price varies from 4s. 6d. to 15s. (A. M., 1. 87.)
2538. Fuller's Ice-Box. This may be described as one box within another, the
inner box being six inches apart from the outer box on every side, and at the top and
bottom. The space between the outer box and the inner box is filled up with burnt
cork in a state of powder, as being a better nonconductor of heat than powdered char-
coal of common wood. The lid is double like the sides, and the vacuity filled with
charcoal in the same manner, to prevent the possibility of air getting in to the contents
of the box when it is shut. The lid has ledges which project downwards into a gutter
containing water, so as to render the junction airtight. The ice is contained in the
well or space thus enclosed and protected, which is lined with cork ; and which will
keep the rough ice for three, four, or five weeks, in the hottest weather of summer.
The usual size is three feet five inches by two feet eight inches, and three feet five
inches in depth, outside measure; and the well, or inner box, will contain three hundred
pounds of rough ice. The cost of a box of this size complete is £25 4s. The cost of
the ice which is required to fill it, and which is supplied by a large wholesale dealer in
that article at Southgate, Mr. Symonds, is about 15s. ; the price per cwt. varying from
4s. to 6s., of three sorts, sweepings,
mixed, and pure, at different prices. The
box three times filled will serve an ordi-
nary family for a whole season. The box
is the invention of Mr. Fuller, No. 60.
Jermyn Street.
2539. The Refrigerator, or American
Portable Icehouse. Fig. 2308. exhibits the
refrigerator with the lids raised, and
showing the interior, with its sliding
and perforated shelves (under which the
ice is placed) for cooling and preserving
wines, fruits, and provisions, without
permitting them to come in contact one
with another. The letters a and b re-
present two lids, with which the box is
furnished to render it perfectly airtight:
a, which is the inner lid, is formed of
cork, and it is so constructed as to fit as
tightly as possible in the inner box ; b is
the lid of the outer box, and the space
between the two boxes is also filled with
cork. The box, when filled with a few
pounds of Wenham Lake ice, will pre-
serve it for a fortnight. The boxes are
made of two sizes, the smallest of which costs £4 10s., and the larger one £6. It may
be observed that the Wenham Lake ice is remarkably clear and firm, and from its
being brought to this country in large blocks of immense thickness, it remains un-
1282
SUPPLEMENT.
230 y
melted much longer than the thin ice usually
preserved in icehouses in this country.
2540. A temporary Table. It is a matter of
some difficulty, in small cottages, to place the
shutters to the windows on the ground floor in
such a manner as to answer the purpose, and yet
be out of the way. The following plan has been
adopted in some buildings of that description
which have been lately erected. The shutters in
fig. 2309. are hung on hinges in such a manner
as to fall down into a recess below the window
during the day time ; and, consequently, they
are quite out of the way when not wanted for
shutting up the house, or for temporary pur-
poses. The idea suggested itself, that shutters
might be occasionally used as a table ; and, to
effect this end, two movable bars, as supports,
were let into mortises in the floor, and made to
abut against similar mortises made in the ledges
on the under side of the shutters. The two cor-
nices were slightly rounded, and the upper sur-
face was left plain without paint. Two swing
iron or wooden brackets might be used, instead
of the two wooden bars, as they could be folded
back into the recess also. {Arch. Mag., v. 75.)
Sect. IV. Bed-room Furniture.
2541. An Improvement in the Box Bedsteads used in Scotch Cottages, made by Dr. Wil-
son of Kelso, is shown in fig. 2310. It consists of a curtain-rod and curtains, which
may be drawn out about three feet from the front
of the bed, so as to form sufficient space between
the curtain and the bed to serve as a dressing-
room. Some of the Leitb and London steamers
had the berths in the ladies' cabins fitted up in this
way some years ago. Another improvement, in-
troduced by Dr. Wilson, in these beds, consists of
the hinging of a part of the roof of the bed so that
it may be opened like a trap-door, at pleasure, for
ventilation ; and the hinging of boards at the foot
and at the back, for the same object, and for giving
access to a medical attendant. These improve-
ments, we trust, form one step towards getting rid
of box bedsteads altogether. They may be very desirable in the wretched hovels in
which they are generally found, but in comfortable cottages they are neither favourable
to health nor to habits of cleanliness.
2542. A travelling Bed, fig. 2313, which was used by Charles Fellowes, Esq., during
an excursion in Asia Minor, in 1838, and is described and illustrated by figures in his
Journal in Asia Minor, §-c, p. 306, will be found a valuable article of travelling furni-
ture for being used in countries abounding with gnats and other insects. Mr. Fellowes
2311 ta
~_rz~~
2312
\
== _==_
■
r. \L-~-
-. ■
1 -51 -==. Si
has kindly permitted us to make the following extract from his work, and to copy the
engravings. " For the plan of this bed I was indebted, many years ago, to my friend Mr.
Godfrey Levinge, and have ever since by its use been rendered independent of all the insect
world. The gnats, flies, beetles, &c, never agreeable even if harmless, are constantly
attracted by the light of the candles or the warmth of the mattress; and this simple
BED-ROOM FURNITURE.
1283
contrivance I have found the only plan for preventing their intrusion. Thus insuring
an undisturbed night, I have cared little for their attacks by day. The whole appa-
ratus may be compressed into a hat-case. A pair of calico sheets (fig. 2311.), six feet
long, sewed together at the bottom, and on the sides (except where the neck is added),
are continued with muslin of the same form and size, sewed
to them at their open end (fig. 2312.), and this muslin is
drawn tightly together at the end with a tape ; a: this end,
on the inside, are fastened three or four loose tapes, about
eighteen inches long, with a noose at the end of each, through
which from within a cane is threaded, so as to form a circle,
extending the muslin as a canopy ; and in this form it is
suspended by the strings to a nail or gimblet in the ceiling.
(The gimblet I have always found a great convenience in
travelling, as a substitute for nail, hook, and hammer : in-
serted into the wall, it forms a peg, by which my clothes are
frequently kept from the dirty or damp floor, or to which I
can hang my glass, watch, or thermometer.) These canes
must be in three pieces, three feet long, each fitting into the
other with a socket or ferrule. The entrance to the bed is
by a slit in the muslin, near where it is added to the calico,
and which is furnished with a string to draw it tightly
together when you are within : it is desirable that the tra-
veller should
enter this bed
as he would a
shower - bath,
and having
bis night-shirt
within. When
the end, form-
ed of niusiin, is suspended, the bed forms an airy canopy, in which the occupant may
stand up and dress in privacy, no one being able to see him from without, while he
can observe all around. I have often, when annoyed by insects, sat to read and write
within this shelter in the evening, with a candle placed near me. To prevent accident
from tearing the apparatus, I have found that the best mode of entering was to keep
the opening on the middle of the mattress, and standing in it, to draw the bag-entrance
over my head. The figures will, I think, supply the place of any further description."
(Journal in Asia Minor, See., p. 306.)
2543. Concealed Washhand-stand. In a room which serves both as a sitting-room
and bed-room it may often be desirable to have a concealed wash-stand. The
recess by the side of the chimney is often enclosed as a cupboard by a door in
the usual manner ; against the inside of this door may be screwed a common wash-
stand, having its legs cut short enough to pass over the wash-board of the room
without throwing the basin too high for comfortable use. When the door is shut
the washing apparatus is in the cupboard, but when the door is open the means of
washing are in the room in a most convenient situation. This contrivance, and a
sofa bed, together, afford the economist the uses of a bed-room without the appearance
of one. — J. /. //.
25-14. Ti net I- stands may be fixed to the top of wash-stands in the same manner as
rails are often affixed to side-boards. They would occupy no additional space, and
would protect the wall or paper from splashings. Towel stands frequently occupy
2314 more room than can be spared, but brackets (fig. 2314.), which may be of
iron or wood, may be screwed to the washhand-stand, with a bar, either
round or polygonal, fixed between them. This would be ornamental rather
than otherwise to the stand, and it would not be inconvenient to place the
towel upon : if two sets could be fixed, they would have the appearance of
handles, where an angular stand was used ; and if it should be more conve-
nient, these brackets might be affixed to the side of a chest of drawers, or against any
part of the wall. (Arch. Mag., vol. i. p. 391.)
2545. An oral Hip-bath, made of tin or copper. The depth of this bath, inside
measure, is twelve inches : the base on which it stands is three inches ; the length of
the bath is thirteen inches and a half at the top, and nineteen inches at the bottom -,
its breadth, twenty inches at the top, and twelve inches and a half at the bottom ; the
shoulder-piece is eight inches deep. This bath may be used as a child's bath, hip-hath,
foot-bath, spunging-bath, or even as a washing-tub. A circular piece of oil-cloth, at
least three times the diameter of the bath, having the edges turned up over a piece of
1 88 1-
SUPPLEMENT.
rope, so as to form a water-tight rim, receives any splashings from the bath, and
saves the carpet or the floor. When not wanted, this oil-cloth saucer goes into very
little bulk.
2546. A cheap portable Shower-bath has been manufactured by Milne and Son,
Edinburgh. Fig. 2315. is a section of the bath, with its cistern, or outer case ; and
2315
BED-ROOM FURNITURE.
1285
fig. 2316. is a top view, showing the manner in which it is connected witli its
case, so as to be carried from one place to another ; a is the cistern, or outer
case, made about I in. larger in diameter, and 1 in. deeper than b ; b is the vessel
to contain the water to produce the shower, having a bottom perforated with fine
holes, about 3'5 of an inch in diameter, the top a little raised having in the centre
a tube (m) soldered into it ; c is an airtight valve, with a leather face (/), which
the lead weight e pulls close, so as to exclude the pressure of the atmosphere ; /
is a bow or handle, to carry or hang the bath by, having a slit at n to allow the
wire lever d to pass through. The lever (d) is connected with the valve (c) by a
hook, and has its fulcrum at w, on a wire pin soldered across the slit in /. By
pulling the string o, and raising the valve, the pressure of the atmosphere is admitted
to the surface of the water in b, allowing the water to escape in a shower from the
bottom. The moment the string is let go, the water ceases to run. The shower may
be continued as long as there is water in the vessel, by continuing hold of the string.
h h h are three pins soldered to the vessel b, near the top, which pins slip under three
plates, kneed down at one end to stop the pins, and soldered to the inside of the ves-
sel a. When the pins are turned to the left, to the position of the dotted lines, the
outer case is lifted along with the vessel b. To use the bath, fill the outer case with
water, either cold or tepid, till within one inch of the top, then sink the bath into the
water, pressing it down gently, keeping the valve open all the time, to allow the air to
escape, till it reaches the bottom ; then turn
the bath a little round, as shown in fig. 2316.,
by the position of the pins, and carry it to the
place where it is to be used, and hang it from
the roof by a hook, or raise it by a cord over
a pulley ; then turn the outer case to the
right, to free the pins, and remove it from
the vessel ; the water will remain in the bath
till the air be admitted by the valve. By
pulling the string you can have a shower at
pleasure, short or long, while there is water
in the vessel. The bath may be made of any
size by any country tinsmith. A cock may he
used instead of the valve, having a long lever
attached to the key, with a balance at the op-
posite end to the string of sufficient weight to
overcome the friction of the cock, and keep it/
always shut, except when kept open by the '
string. {Arch. Mag., vol. v. p. 468.)
2547. Hazard's portable pneumatic shower-
bath. This bath (fig. 2317.), though much |
smaller and more simple than that of Mr.
Milne, acts on the same principle. When it
is to be used it only requires to be immersed in sufficient water to cover it, and when
filled, the patient must take hold of the handles and press the thumb of the right-hand
on the aperture at a, so as to prevent any air from entering. The bath may then be
raised and placed in the proper
position, without any fear of the
water running from it till the
thumb is removed, and the air
admitted through the tube, when
the water will descend in a co-
pious shower.
2548. A Dressing-table with a
Hag Drawer, fig. 23 1 8., is a most
useful piece of bed-room furni-
ture. It is three feet seven
inches long, two feet seven inches
high, and two feet six inches
wide. There are two upper
drawers, and a frame resembling
a drawer externally, of the
length of the table beneath. To this frame a bag of fluted silk is attached, taper
ing downwards, and reaching within six inches of the floor, leaving just enough of
space to allow room for the feet and knees when the lady is sitting before the table.
The bag pulls out like a drawer, and has a wooden bottom, to which may be fixed
l<28(i
SUPPLEMENT.
stands (fig. 587. in p. 304.) on which to place bonnets; and hooks may he attached
to the inside of the wooden frame from which the silk bag hangs, on which to place
caps. — Selim. (The author of the " Beau Ideal of an English Villa," in p. 790.)
Every lady will see at once the saving of room that this kind of dressing-table is
calculated to effect.
2549. Swing Glass Fastening. The object of this fastening, which is represented
in fig. 2319., is to give the power of fixing the swing looking-glass in any one position.
This is done by compressing a movable portion of the case in which the gudgeon
works, by means of a screw. The contrivance will be very easily understood by fig.
2319. ; in which a is a front view of the apparatus, the gudgeon being in its socket,
and the plate and screws seen, by which this socket is fixed to the frame of the glass ;
b is a section showing the movable portion of the socket, and the screw which
is used for compressing it ; and c is the front view of part of b. This invention is known
by the name of Cope and Austin's Swing-glass Fastening. (Arch. Mag., vol. v. p. 605.)
Sect. V. Furniture for Living- Rooms
2550. A Sideboard, fig. 2320., of common deal, painted so as to resemble oak, with
the top of one plate of Penrhyn slate, which can be had in slabs ten or twelve feet long
and broad, and of any thickness, is strongly recommended. In setting down glasses on
slabs of slate or marble, servants are apt to break them for some time at first, till they
get accustomed to the difference between these materials and wood. Slate is expedi-
tiously cut dry with a common hand-saw, and afterwards wrought with rasps and files,
without the aid of water and sand, as in cutting stone and marble.
li'HN-lTURE FOR LIVING-ROOMS.
1-287
a Dining- Table. A side-board or side-table may contain tli
•STMTiT
2S21
2551. Leaves for
leaves of a dining-
table immediately
under the slab.
They may slide
horizontally into
grooves, and be
concealed and pro-
tected from dust
by a flap, opening
down like that of
an escrutoire.
2552. A hand-
some Architectural
Chiffonier is shown
in 'fig. 2321. ; the
top may be a
marble slab, and
the panels of the
doors filled in with
green silk, protected by gilt wire.
2553. A very elegant Sofa, fig. 2322., has been invented by Mr. Lamb. As its merit
depends entirely upon its form, it may be made of any materials which suit the general
■
. „ .. — ,
.
style of furniture in the room. The squabs are square, and movable at pleasure ; the
seat is stuffed below them ; and the covering is carried on over the back and arms,
hanging in loose drapery, and finished by a deep fringe. The legs are richly carved,
and very massive. {Arch. Nag., vol. v. p. 605.)
2554. Drawing-room Seats. Fig. 2323. is a reading-seat; fig. 2324. is a circular
1288
SUPPLEMENT.
Ottoman sofa ; and fig. 2328. an hour-glass seat. The last, besides its use in the
drawingroom, may be made of straw, or, in some countries, of heath, and appropriately
placed in the centre of a large rustic summer-house. The reading-seat, fig. 2323., is
by no means elegant in form ; but we can assert, from experience, that it is exceedingly
comfortable to sit on ; not only
the back, but the head being sup-
ported by the peculiar form of the
upper part of the end, or support
for the back. A footstool is shown
ivi fiff. 2325.
2327
2555. A Child's Chair, fig. 2327., with a well in the middle of the seat, is a piece of
useful cottage furniture, as a child may be put into it at seven months old. It is
twenty inches square at the ground, twenty-three
inches square at the top, and -twenty inches high.
Price, in common materials, 2s. 6d.
2556. A Card-Table, fig. 2326. The concave
curve at a, as contrasted with the convex curve
at b, has a good effect. The scroll foot, exhibited
at c, is rather plain, and would be improved, as it
appears to us, by some such addition as we have
shown at d.
'2557. An occasional Table in the Elizabethan Style
is shown in fig. 2329. It is very handsome, and
highly expressive of the most cultivated variety of
that manner of architectural design.
2558. Poys, or supported Tea- Chests, are shown in figs. 2330. and 2331. ; both
handsome.
2559. Work- Tallies for Ladies are shown in figs. 2332. and 2333., the latter in the
style of Louis \1Y. ; very handsome.
FURNITURE FOR LIVING-ROOMS.
i — m
1289
7 p
1290
SUPPLEMENT.
2560. Mr. Lamb's Piano, fig. 2334. In describing this piano, Mr. Lamb observes,
" when recently sketching various designs for furniture, among the number the grand
pianoforte presented the greatest difficulties to surmount: the form prescribed by its
uses, the great space required for it in a room, and the very unarchitectural character
it assumed, set me to consider whether some alterations could not be made, so as to
embrace all the utility of the present instrument with more beauty ; and for this end
the sketch, fig. 2334., was produced, which I send merely as a hint to manufacturers;
at the same time stating my objections to the instruments now in use : it will be for
others to object to mine. The horizontal grand pianoforte, which is the most perfect
instrument now in use, is of such an awkward shape, that it is almost impossible to give
2SS4
any expression of style to it ; and, in a moderate-sized house, it occupies so large a
portion of the room in which it is placed, that now the upright grand pianoforte is
generally substituted for it. This is a more recent invention, and certainly is more
compact in form ; but, although much might have been done in the way of charac-
teristic decoration, it is seldom distinguished by any marks of judgment or good taste.
The upholsterer (if he makes the design) gives it columns so shrunk in the shafts, that
they may frequently be seen twenty or thirty diameters high : the capitals and bases
are equally inconsistent ; and the cornice is a crowning absurdity of massive ovolo and
turned beads. But, if no attempts at strict architecture had been made, the form
would, perhaps, by its simplicity, have been more in character with the architecture of
the room. To produce architectural fitness of expression, it is not necessary to employ
columns; and where they are introduced so small, and in such situations, they rather
create a disgust, than the pleasurable sensations they inspire when viewed as the neces-
sary adjuncts of a portico. The objection to an upright grand pianoforte is, in my
opinion, great; for, when the player is also 'obliging us with a song,' at least half the
delight we should feel from those 'dulcet sounds ' is lost in the silk which faces the
Singer. As this is known and acknowledged to he a defect by all makers, I am sur-
prised that no remedy for the evil has been attempted by keeping the whole body of
the instrument below the head of the performer, which a very little contrivance might
effect. Cabinet, cottage, and other small pianofortes, are sufficiently below the voice
generally for all the purposes of a singer; but they do not possess the power and
FURNITURE FOR LIVING-ROOMS.
1291
▼ariety of the grand piano. In the sketch fig. 2334. I have endeavoured to obviate ail
the difficulties above mentioned : that it can be constructed I have no doubt, and that,
too, with very little alteration in the present mechanism ; this alteration being princi-
pally in the keys and hammers. But I may just mention one obstacle, which is in-
dependent of the instrument ; viz. the great difficulty of getting makers out of the
beaten track. This design resembles a grand, or rather a large square, pianoforte,
turned on its edge, and the keys projecting at right angles from it : the whole body of
the instrument is thus kept below the performer, which renders it equal to the horizon-
tal grand piano ; while it occupies much less space than the latter instrument, and it is
superior as an article of furniture. As all the sides could be finished alike, it can be
placed in almost any situation, so that the performer can face the company, and thus
the full effect of the voice be heard; and, if surmounted with vases of glass or alabaster,
bronze figures, candelabra, or other ornaments, it would form an agreeable acquisition
to the drawingrooin. It may be constructed in the most simple manner, or it can be
richly decorated." (Arch. Mag., vol. v. p. 20.)
2561. Bookcases and Desks. Mr. Lamb has invented a very ingenious architect's
desk, and the following is his de- f jZZZrr.ZZ"-'.'.
scription of it. «< I have recently j
had a new desk made ; and, as it
comprises some things which, per-
haps, are novel, I send you five
sketches of it (figs. 2335. to 2339. ),
together with some of the reasons
which led me to adopt this design ;
though, as a production of my own,
I may show a greater degree of par-
tiality for it than it merits. I found
that the most convenient drawing-
table or desk for my own use was
one that would take little room, and,
at the same time, could be extended
at pleasure, so as to give me an opportunity of having a number of drawings or
books of reference always within my reach; and, that I might not be frozen in in-
clement weather, by being obliged to be seated at a fixed desk, or, at least, one that
could be moved only with difficulty, the one I
required should move with the greatest facility ;
so that, in whatever situation I might choose to
place myself in my study, little more than the
mere will was necessary to obtain it. A flat
table I considered objectionable to draw upon,
for obvious reasons ; and a moveable support
for a drawing-board I have always found to be
inconvenient ; therefore an inclined desk was
determined upon, as, on removing the drawing-
board, a writing-desk is obtained. The means
of extending the top by flaps (figs. 2337. and
2SS8. ) is the most simple and expeditious I could
devise. I found it desirable to keep the centre
part higher than the sides, in order that, when
the centre is occupied by a drawing-board, which
may extend somewhat over the flaps, they being
lower, drawing-boards may be placed upon them
when necessary, without being in the way of the
free use of the T square on the centre board ; or
books and papers may be laid here open, without
the liability of their being injured or pushed off by any movement required by the centre
board. In fig. 2335. will be seen the general plan of the lower part ; in which a is the
space for the knees in front, 18 in. wide, 13 in. deep, and 25 in. high to the drawer rail :
bb are side closets, with one shelf in each; the dotted curve lines show the way these
closets open : c is a closet at the back, with one shelf for books, papers, &c. ; the closets
in front being used for rolled up drawings, and other papers in present use : dd, the side-
flaps, when down. It will be seen from this plan that the mouldings at the angles are
all of the same form, and return round the sides ; thus making a border to the flaps the
same as the one to the desk in the centre. The sections of these mouldings are neces-
sarily quad rants of circles, or what workmen call quarter rounds. By the perspective sketch
(fig. 2339.) the effect of this arrangement will be seen. Fig. 2337. is the plan of the
1292
SUPPLEMENT.
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top, with both flaps up ; the whole extent of which, when thus opened, is 6 ft. 9 in. ;
the top of the desk alone is 2 ft. 11 in. wide, and the depth 2 ft. 1 in. ; the flaps are
2 ft. 1 in. by 1 ft. 11 in. The dotted lines at e in this figure show a small drawer, over
the recess for the knees ; / is a long drawer for pens, pencils, wax, &c. This drawer is
divided in the manner shown on the sketch ; and one part, which turns nearer the hand,
is supplied with ink-stands ; the dotted lines in the upper part show the situation this
drawer occupies ; and the dotted lines at g show the situation of the bearers of the flaps,
which bearers draw out from under the desk. Fig. 2336. is an elevation of one of the
sides. The back, with the flaps up, is shown mfig. 2338. Fig. 2339. is a perspective
sketch, showing the appearance when the flaps are down. The drawer, the front closets,
and the desk, are, by a very simple contrivance, fastened at the same time ; and only
one lock is required to be used. The closet at the back has a separate lock ; but the
same means of securing this at once could be applied, if it should be required. This
design mi^ht be useful for a small library, the centre top being horizontal ; or as an
office or a counting-house desk I think it would be found convenient. It would then,
perhaps, be necessary to cover the centre top with leather, in the usual way of office
tables; but, for an architect's desk, a leather top would be liable to be scratched and
defaced by drawing-boards. It might display a great deal of ornament, or be con-
FURNITURE FOR LIVINU-K< N 'Ms.
1293
2SS9
structed with ornamental woods. The one I have had made is of wainscot ; my object
being to obtain convenience combined with neatness and simplicity." (Arch. Mag.,
vol. v. p. 265.) In the Archittctural Magazine several other desks, and some bookcases,
are figured and described; and T. Sopwith, Esq., of Newcastle, has invented a Mono-
cleid Writing- Cabinet, which is adapted to save much time, and to secure a systematic
arrangement of a great number and variety of papers. Mr. Sopwith has described this
piece of furniture in a pamphlet, and it is manufactured for sale by Mr. John Sopwith,
of Grey Street, in Newcastle.
2562. German Silver. Keys, shields to locks, finger plates, and various ornaments,
especially in the Gothic or Louis XIV. styles, may be made in this metal, much cheaper
and handsomer than in steel or brass.
2563. An Ash- Pan with Venetian Blinds, figs. 2340. to 2342., is in general use in
Birmingham, and in districts in that neighbourhood, where the coals produce a large
2342
proportion of ashes. The object of the blinds is to prevent the ashes from being
seen when lying in the pans. The blinds for sitting-rooms are of polished iron, or of
tinned iron, perfectly smooth, so that no ashes may adhere to them, and they are set at
an angle of 52°, as shown in the section, fig. 2342.
For kitchens and common cottages the blinds are
black. When the pan is to be emptied, all that is
necessary is to lift out the blinds. Fig. 2340. shows
the pan with the blinds complete ; fig. 2341., the pan
with the blinds taken out ; and fig. 2342., a section of
the blinds. The common price is from 8s. to 10s. There are ash-pans made in
Birmingham, with the bottoms sloping backwards, so as to throw the ashes as much
as possible back, and out of sight ; and sometimes the hearth is so formed. A metallic
hearth, somewhat in imitation of Sylvester's open fireplace (§ 2062.), has recently been
invented by Methky, of Frith Street. Soho.
1294 SUPPLEMENT.
In the Architectural Magazine a great many other handsome pieces of furniture, in-
cluding sideboards, dinner waggons, desks, bookcases, ladies' work-tables, &c, will be
found figured and described.
Chap. VII.
Hints to Proprietors desirous of improving the Labourers' Cottages on their Estates.
2564. On estates of moderate extent, where the proprietor looks into every thing
himself, much may be done by his personally examining, along with his carpenter,
the Labourers' Cottages already existing, and ascertaining their present state with
reference to the list of essential requisites in p. 1 130. This being done, the next step
is to devise improvements : — by draining ; by additions of garden ground ; by putting
the garden and the cottage, if practicable, in a ring fence ; and by such alterations and
additions to the cottage as may appear necessary for health and comfort. To assist in
this manner of improvement the following particulars may be found useful.
2565. Situation. It ought to be constantly borne in mind, that the main object
in building a cottage is to produce a comfortable dwelling ; and that for this purpose a
dry airy situation, in which, if possible, the ground falls gently from the cottage on
every side ; an aspect that will allow the sun to shine on every side wall of the cottage
a portion of every day in the year; thick walls, and thick or double far- projecting
roofs of high pitch ; are most desirable requisites. Whether the front, the end, or
one side of the cottage is parallel to the adjoining road, ought to be considered a
matter of no consequence ; indeed, so far from a parallel position being desirable, an
oblique one is in general preferable, as we have shown § 2237.
2566. Garden. The garden ought always, if possible, to surround the cottage, and
it ought never to be less in extent than a sixth of an acre ; but as in cottages already
existing it may often be found impracticable to surround the cottage with its garden, the
next best arrangements are, to have the garden before, or behind, or on one side ; or partly
before and behind and partly on one side. If the main body of the garden must of
necessity be separated from the cottage, then there should be a direct communication
with it by a path, so as to diminish as much as possible the inconvenience and dis-
comfort of an isolated garden. Cottage allotments, by which are to be understood
portions of ground in a field allotted to cottages at some distance, are much better than
no gardens at all ; but they are far from producing the comfort and enjoyment of a
garden in close contact with the cottage to which it belongs.
2567. Materials. When the walls are of pise, mud, cob, clay lumps, or any other
description of consolidated earth, the thickness of two feet may be obtained in solid
materials ; and this may also be the case where stone is abundant : but where brick
must, of necessity, be used, the thickness of eighteen inches or two feet is to be
attained most economically by building the walls with brick on edge hollow, and
rilling them up with concrete. By this means we form a mass of solid material,
which will, of course, have a greater capacity for heat than a hollow wall, and con-
sequently give out more when it is wanted for heating the air of the rooms. The
advantages of thick walls, and of thick or double roofs, of high pitch, and projecting at
the eaves, with reference to retaining heat, are greater than can well be conceived by
those who have not dwelt in a cottage. A high and dry floor is essential, whether this
be obtained by placing the cottage on a terrace, as in the model cottage No. I. in p. 1131.;
or by raising the floor inside, and ascending to it by outside steps, as in the mechanic's
model cottage in p. 1 135.
2568. Designing Cottages. In page 1 130. we have summed up the essential requisites
for a labourer's cottage, with a view to convenience, comfort, and other directly useful
properties. The following Rules are to be considered as additional to those given in
the page referred to, and as having for their object to superadd to comfort and conve-
nience the beauties of Architectural Design and Taste.
1. Every exterior wall should show a plinth at its base, and a frieze or wall-plate
immediately under the roof. In the case of earthen walls, the plinth should be of
brick or stone, and the wall-plate of wood. The stones of the plinth should be larger
than those used in the plain parts of the wall which are above it; and the upper
finishing of the plinth may be the outer edge of a course of slates, flagstones, tiles, or
bricks, laid in cement, extending through the entire thickness of the wall, in order
to prevent the rising of damp ; the appearance of the edge of this course as a
moulding or string course crowning the plinth, will, therefore, be highly expressive of
HINTS TO PROPRIETORS. \°Z{)')
utility : or the entire plinth may be built in cement, which will be equally effective
in preventing the rising of clamp, as well as expressive of that important use.
2. The pitch of the roof, whatever may be the material with which it is covered,
should be such as to prevent snow from lying on it ; and for this purpose the cross
section should generally be an equilateral triangle. Cottages which form gate-lodges in
the Grecian or Italian styles form exceptions to this rule ; but such lodges never ex-
press the same ideas of comfort as high-roofed cottages, with high and bold chimneys.
Such lodges, indeed, are commonly called "boxes; " and in fact many of them are so
deficient in height, and in every other dimension, that they give rise to ideas the very
opposite of those of freedom and comfort.
3. When the wall of a house is built of rubble-work, small stones, or bricks, the
sharp right angles formed at the sides of the doors and windows, and at the corners of
the building are liable to be injured by accident or the weather; so that first the mortar
of the joints, and afterwards the stones or bricks, drop out. To guard against this evil,
or the idea of it, larger stones are used in building jambs and corners, or the jambs are
splayed or rounded off"; while the lintels and sills of the doors and windows are formed
of single stones. Hence all doors and windows in such walls should be surrounded by
casings of some sort ; or have the jambs, sills, or lintels, splayed. Hence, also, the
propriety of quoin-stones at the angles or corners, of coping-stones to the gables, of cut
and dressed stones to the chimney-tops, and of larger stones to the plinths than those
generally used in the plain parts of the wall above them. In the case of earthen
walls, the jambs, sills, and lintels may be of timber, or formed of brick carried up from
the plinth.
4. Every stack of chimneys should consist of four parts: a plinth, which should be
distinctly seen above the roof; one or more base mouldings, or splayed weatherings
resting on the plinth ; a shaft rising from the base mouldings, of analogous propor-
tions to the doors and windows ; and a capital or cornice moulding and cap or blocking,
as a termination to the shaft. The materials of the chimney-tops ought in general to
be superior in quality to those of the walls ; for example, if the walls are of rubble
stone, the chimneys should be of stone squared and dressed. When the walls are of
earth the entire stack of chimneys will of course be built of brick or stone.
5. When the flues of the chimneys are carried up in the outer wall, there ought
always to be a projection outwards in that wall, beneath the chimneys, carried up from
the ground, so as to give the necessary space for the flues, the strength of a buttress to
the wall, with a sufficient breadth for supporting the chimney-tops, and the architec-
tural expression of all these purposes.
6. Eaves-gutters, and ridge and hip coverings, with similar details essential as " finish-
ings," as well as for habitableness and comfort, should never be omitted. The eaves-
gutters should be properly supported by brackets, these being of stone or brick, except
in the case of earthen walls, where they ought to be of wood.
7. Over the front door or porch of every cottage there ought to be a worked stone,
on which should be cut the name of the cottage, the initials of the first occupant, a
number, a sign, or some distinctive mark of the cottage, by which it may be registered
in the Book of the Estate. See § 2327.
8. In rendering cottages ornamental, the most important parts and members of
structure are those on which most decoration should be bestowed ; such as the porch,
entrance door, window of the principal room, upper parts of the gables, chimney-tops,
&c. : and, in ornamenting each particular part, the most important details of that part
should receive the highest degree of decoration ; for example, the hinges and latch or
lock of a door should be made richer than the muntings and styles, and the muntings
and styles richer than the panels ; and, hence, a door in which no ornament is bestowed
on the latch or the hinges ought not to have the muntings, styles, or panels, studded
over with ornamental nail-heads, as is often done.
9. Nothing should be introduced in any design, however ornamental it may appear
to be, that is at variance with propriety, comfort, or sound workmanship. The mind
revolts at the idea of tacking the walls of houses with ornaments that have no con-
nexion with construction or use.
2569. For the Labourers' Cottages on Estates managed by Agents, we would recom-
mend a tour of inspection by a competent person, and a Report drawn up on their
present state, and on the means of their improvement. The Report should include the
character of the surface soil and subsoil on which each particular cottage stands ; the
state of surface and underground drainage ; the aspect of the different sides of the cot-
tage, and its shelter or exposure; the sources of water and of fuel; the state of the
back-yard, &c, if any; the state of the garden; and the connexion of the cottage with
the nearest public road. The cottage itself ought next to be examined as to plan and
accommodation, height of the side walls, thickness of the walls, roof and gutters, floor,
1296
SUPPLEMENT.
windows, stairs, fireplace, bed-rooms, exterior appearance, &e. The Report should then
point out the additions and alterations necessary to render the cottage what it ought to
be, illustrating these by plans, sections, and sketches, and giving lists of fruit-trees and
shrubs, where these are wanting for the garden. Would that we could hear of some
of the first landed proprietors in the country having such Reports made on the la-
bourers' cottages, and the school-houses, on their estates ! The practice would soon
after become general, and the good that would ultimately result to the cottager and his
children, and the accession of beauty, and appearance of comfort, to rural scenery,
would be immense.
To be a possessor of landed property, we consider the greatest worldly privilege which
any man can enjoy. No other kind of property is calculated to afford to the possessor
so much rational enjoyment, whether in the occupation required for its cultivation and
improvement, or in the recreation which it procures in its embellishment. In many, if
not in most, cases, landed property enables its owner to contribute, in a more imme-
diate and direct manner than many other kinds of property, to the happiness of his
fellow-creatures by improving the dwellings of those who reside on it; and it enables
him to procure the applause of the public, by combining improvement with embellish-
ment in such a manner as to render his estate an ornament to the country in which it
is situated. There are few or no landed estates which do not include a number of
habitations, more or less scattered over the land, occupied by the humblest and most
helpless class of society, common country labourers. These dwellings, as we have seen
(S 2233.), are in many places miserable within, and in few are they respectable with-
out. Now our earnest desire is, to direct the attention of landed proprietors to this
subject. On some estates the cottages may be already sufficiently comfortable ; but
in much the greater number we know that this is far from being the case : and what is
lamentable, but nevertheless proved to be true beyond all doubt, is, that on those estates
in which agriculture is arrived at the highest degree of perfection, for example, in the
North of England and the South of Scotland (see Dr. Gilly and Mr. Donaldson in
§ 2233.) the cottages of the farmers' labourers are far worse than they are any where
else. We would entreat landed proprietors to examine the cottages of their labourers
themselves, or institute inquiry into their condition by competent persons. We would
suggest that increasing the comforts of the labourer's home is the most effectual means
that can be taken, not only for rendering him a better member of society, but a better
labourer ; and there is, also, no doubt that he will be more likely to bring up his family
in moral and industrious habits. ( See the description of an improved cottage and its
occupants in p. 1126.) It used to be alleged by some that increasing the comforts of
cottagers only increased their numbers, and ultimately added to the mass of misery
among this class ; but this opinion has more recently been found to be erroneous, for
thinking parents, who possess a strong sense of comfort and future enjoyment, will
not risk the diminution of the sources of happiness by burthening themselves with large
families. As a proof of the effective working of this principle, we refer to those parts of
Germany where the labouring population are highly educated ; as for example, Austria,
Bavaria, Wurtemburg, and Prussia.
The power of improving the health and adding to the comforts of a number of indi-
viduals, who in a great degree look up to and are dependent on us, must surely be a
source of happiness to every rightly constituted mind. The increased attachment of
the benefited party that will thus be produced ought equally to be a source of grati-
fication ; independently altogether of the increased value to the property, by more
durable habitations, stronger and steadier workmen, and by families less likely to
become paupers, vagrants, or pilferers.
The improvement of labourers' cottages recommends itself to the landed proprietor
in another point of view, viz., the ornament which such cottages will confer on his
estate. What can have a more miserable appearance than a wretched cottage out of
repair, and without a garden? No one blames the cottager for this state of things ;
but the idea of a thoughtless or inhuman landlord, or of an unfeeling mercenary agent,
immediately occurs. What, on the contrary, gives a greater idea of comfort, and of an
enlightened benevolent landlord, than to see every cottage on his estate rearing its high
steep roof and bold architectural chimney-tops, indicating ample room and warmth
within ; the whole in good repair, and surrounded by fruit-trees, in a well stocked and
neatly kept garden? Every one, in travelling through a country, must have observed
how much of its beauty depends on the state of its cottages and their gardens. We
would, therefore, entreat the possessors of landed property to consider how much of the
beauty of the country depends upon them; and we would farther beg of them to ask
themselves, whether it is not one of the duties entailed on them by the possession of
landed property, to render it not only beneficial to their families, and to all who live
on it, but ornamental to the country.
GLOSSARIAL INDEX.
/l BACVS, a square forming the upper member of
the capital of a column, on which the arcbttrave
rests.
Abutment, the solid part of a pier from which an
arch springs : or, in carpentry, the junction of
two pieces of timber, one supporting the other at
right angles.
Acroler, a pedestal on the summit of a column for
supporting a statue.
A. .V.. finding all materials.
Angle of repose, the point up to which an arch may
be built without watering.
Ante, pilasters attached to a wall.
Anttfiice, in Grecian architecture, ornamental ter-
minations to the raised joints of the tiling.
Anthracite, or blind coal, a species of coal, found
principally in Wales, which gives out very little
smoke during combustion.
Apex, summit.
Apron for a veranda, ornaments attached to the
lower side of the gutter in front.
Arabesque, a fanciful kind of ornament, comprising
a great variety of objects, brought together ap-
parently without any reason, yet so arranged as
to produce a harmonious effect.
Architrave, ornamental bordering to a door or
window ;,also a part of an entablature.
Arris, a projecting angle.
Arris girders are thicker in the middle than at
each end.
Artesian veils, wells formed by boring, first prac-
tised at Artois, in France.
Ashlar work, rough stone laid in irregular courses.
Ashlcring, partitions for lath and plaster.
Astragal, a fillet moulding with a rounded edge.
Back laps, the parts of a shutter which fold back
behind the part seen.
Bailey's composition, a kind of cement made of one
part of limestone, recently burned, and mixed
immediately after being slacked, with three parts
of clean sharp sand.
Balk, or Bavlk, a tie beam.
Baluster, a short circular pillar, generally support-
ing a rail. The word baluster is derived from
the Greek, and signifies a wild pomegranate, from
balusters being generally made tapering at both
ends, and swelling out in the centre, like the
form of that fruit.
Bands in Norfolk, strap hinges.
Banker, a stone or wooden bench.
Barge boards, ornamental finishings to the gable
end of a house.
Barge stones, a corruption of verge stones.
Barn-door lift, ledge to prevent the corn from fall-
ing out of the ham when it is threshed.
Barrel curb, a cylindrical frame of wood, used in
sinking a well.
Barrel drains, cylindrical drains made of brick-
work, generally from nine inches to a foot in
diameter.
Bartisan, a watch-tower in an old Scotch manor-
house or castle.
Bast matting, Russian mats made of the inner
bark of the lime tree.
But, a strong piece of iron passing through two
boards to fasten them together, and secured by a
screw nut on both sides.
Batted. Iron rails are said to be batted when they
arc put into holes cut for them in stone or brick-
work, and rendered firm with melted lead.
Battened floors, floors laid with narrow boards, only
one inch and a half thick.
Battening, pieces of wood fixed to the bond tim-
ber in the walls, at regular distances, on which
laths are to be nailed, and either covered with
plaster or canvass for papering.
Battens, narrow boards.
Battering, sloping inwards.
Bay window, a projecting window on the ground
floor, generally consisting of two bevelled sides
and a centre.
Bays, divisions of a barn.
Bead and batten, a cheap kind of entrance door,
formed of wood only one inch thick, aud finished
with a circular moulding on the edge. Doors of
this kind are only used for cottages, and they are
generally strengthened by cross bars inside.
Bead and butt doors, framed in panels, with the
beads struck only on the panel side.
Beam-filling, filling up with brick-work the inter-
stices in the walls between the ends of the
beams.
Bedding and pointing, laying a quantity of mortar
for either bricks or timber, and when they are
laid, smoothing the mortar on the outside, so as
to fill up all the interstices.
Bell trap, a contrivance to prevent the rising of
bad smells.
Bevelled, sloped off in a slanting direction.
Billets, wooden bricks.
Binilcrs, tie beams.
Binding joists, horizontal pieces of timber in floor-
ing, lying in a transverse direction to the girders.
Bird 's-mouth splay, an oblique angle to a tower,
instead of a sharp corner.
Blasting rock, splitting them into fragments by
means of gunpowder.
Blinded, a term applied to a causeway which has
been made of small broken stones, and had the
intersticf s filled up, so as to render the surface
smooth, with clean water sand.
Blocked, small pieces of wood fixed at the back of
6kirting or wainscot, so as to keep it a little dis-
tant from the brickwork or partition.
Blushes in plastering, blisters.
Bolection mouldings , projecting mouldings.
Bond stones, stones running through a wall at
right angles with its face, so as to bind it to-
gether.
Bond timber, horizontal pieces of timber built into
the wall to strengthen it.
Bonnet blinds, outside blinds, projecting from the
window like the front of a bonnet.
Bore of a pump, the hollow inside.
Borses, projections in plaster work, occasionally
lor suspending a chandelier, &c.
Bothy, a hovel used for labourers to take their
food in.
Bote window, a projecting window on the ground
floor, made semicircular or curvilinear.
Box beds, beds made of wood fixed in the wall, like
berths in the cabin of a ship.
Boxed in, filled up completely.
Boxes for blinds, a framework of wood fixed on the
outside of a window, to protect the outside
blinds.
Boxes for hunters, stables containing each only one
horse.
Braces, diagonal pieces of timber.
Bradded, fastened by 6mall nails without heads,
which are sunk into the wood, so as not to be
seen.
Breaking joint, laying bricks or tiles in such a
man.ier as to have the joints of one line come
midway between those of the former line.
Breaks forward, projects.
Breast tree, a horizontal rail put in front of the
manger in a stable, to which the staples and
rings are attached for fastening the horses.
Breast water-wheels, wheels which are moved with
7Q
1298
GLOSSARIAL INDEX.
water running under the wheels. They differ,
however, from under-shot wheels, since the prin-
cipal power is derived from the weight of the
water, and not from its impulse.
Breast summers, girders.
Bridle coins, corner* made of brickwork.
Brick dressings, bricks ornamentally arranged over
doors and w 1
Brick nogging, a framework of timber filled in
with brick.
Brick-on-edge trails, thin walls built with the bricks
laid edgeways, 11 st< ad of Bat.
Brick trimmer, a brick arch.
Bricks laid in bed. a kind of brick nogging, so con-
trived that the bricks shall not project
the wooden framework.
Bridging joists, lying parallel to the girder, and to
which the boards of the floor are nailed.
Bridled, trimmed.
Broached, pointed.
Broached ashlar, rough stone work, with the inter-
stices filled up with mort.ir.
Broached tails, a regular breadth on each side of
the angle of corner stones hewn smooth, while
the remainder ol the stone is left rough.
Bulil work is a term applied to borders of coloured
or metal, let into articles of furniture. The
process is as follows : — Two pieces of veneer, of
two colours, are pat together, with paper between
them, each being glued to the paper. Upon the
surface of the upper one is placed the print or
drawing of an ornamental border, the on
which are cot through by means of a very line
saw. made of a watch-spring. The parts are
then separated: that which was taken from the
dark wood is let into the light wood, and vice
versa.
Built in the heart, a wall built solidly, and not filled
up in the middle with rubbish.
BulCs-eye, a circular opening left in the upper
part of a building for the sake of ventilation.
Bull's-eye rack, a crescent-shaped iron rack pro-
jecting from the wall.
Butt and ben (Scotch), a kitchen and a parlour.
Butt hinges, hinges which, when expanded, form a
square. ( See Jig. 65.)
Byres, cow-houses.
C.
Cabers, laths for thatch.
Calorifere, apparatus for heating by hot water.
Campanile, bell turret, or watch tower.
Canted corners, corners, the sharp angle of which
is cut off.
Canterbury, a- stand for holding music books.
Cantilevers, blocks of wood or iron built into the
outside wall of a house at regular distances, so as
to project at right angles from it, to support such
mouldings as may be placed on them, or more
generally the eaves of the roof.
Cap ufa chimney, the upper and projecting part of
the shaft.
Cap of a mill, the upper part of a mill, to which the
sails are attached, and which is so contrived as to
be turned, so as to enable the sails to be acted
upon by the wind.
Capotum, a Hindu torus moulding, with an orna-
ment like a pigeon's head at the termination.
Capping, the coping or covering to panels of wood-
work.
Carcass of a building, the brick framework of a
house before theinterior is finished.
Carriage of a staircase, pieces which bear the
brackets till the steps are fixed.
Cart shades, the Scottish term for cart sheds.
Carved trusses in furniture, projections or brackets,
appearing to be designed for supports.
Castramctation, camp making, or the science of
forming camps.
Catacombs, or bins, brick divisions in a cellar for
holding wine.
Cat-bar, an iron bar three-quarters of an incli
square, for keeping a folding-door fast when
shut. It has a ring at one end for fastening to
the wall with a staple, and is bent at the other
end, so as to hook into the door by another
staple on the inside.
Causewayed, paved with pebbles or irregularly-
shaped stones.
Caortto, a species of curved moulding forming the
outer line of the segment of a circle.
Cella, the part enclosed by walls in a Grecian temple.
(', n daph. an architectural building raised as a
monument or memorial of the dead.
Centre-poini binges, swing hinges, made either
with the pivot of the edge turned down, so as to
work in an iron socket let into a stone, or with
two pivots working on two hooks ; the object in
both cases being to make the points of rest of
the gate the same as the shutting point.
Centring, frames of timber by which the brick or
stonework of an arch is supported during the
time of its erection.
Chace of a cider milt, is a circular trough in which
the apples are put to be crushed by the revolving
circular stone.
Chocked, notched or slit, so as to fit the piece to be
joined to it.
Chain-work, horizontal bond.
Chamfered or Champhered, rounded on the cor-
ners, generally applied to gate-posts made of a
square piece of v. 1.
Chased, lead let into the brickwork.
Chasings, openings cut in the brickwork for lead.
I It -eked <biwn cm. notched one into another.
Cheek, or plate, the piece of wood in the lintel of a
doorway, against which the door shuts.
Cheek pieces, pieces of wood in a cow-house, be-
tween which is placed the cow's head.
Chevron, indented moulding in the Anglo-Norman
style.
Chimed, let in neatly.
Chimney bar, a strong iron bar placed across the
mouth of the chimney to support the breast-
work or front part of the tine.
Chimney pot, a short funnel, made of earthenware,
metal, or artificial stone, frequently placed on the
summit of the chimney shaft, to prevent smokiutc.
Chimney shaft, called in Scotland chimney stalk,
is the partterminating a chimney or flue, which
is carried up above the roof.
Chimney stack, a number of chimney tops joined
and placed on one base.
Chimney stalk. See Chimney shaft.
L'h anion, an Indian plaster or cement.
( ill. see Sill.
Cincture, a ring or fillet, serving to divide the shaft
of a column from its capital, or base.
Clamp kilns are nothing more than stacks or
masses of bricks interspersed with coal cinders.
Clamped, when applied to a kitchen table, signifies
that each flap or leaf is bordered at the end by a
piece of wood the reverse way to the grain of the
wood of which it is composed. The clamp is
generally grooved, and the wuod of the table
tongued into it. (See page 306.)
C/eaded. clothed.
Ch re story, the centre of a church which rises
above the two aisles.
Clinkers, small bricks burnt very hard.
Coins, corners.
Cob trails are composed of earth and straw mixed
up with water, like mortar, and well beaten and
trodden together.
Cockles, iron furnaces with inverted iron pots, for
generating heated air.
Cogged, notched.
Columns, a member, in architecture, the plan of
which is circular, and which consists of a base, a
shaft or body, and a capital.
Combed wheat straw, straw from which the ears of
grain have been cut or combed off, instead of
being threshed, and the straw of which is conse-
quently unbruised by the flail.
Composition flours, floors formed of one part of
quick-lime, two of sharp sand, and as much oil
of any kind as will bring the other ingredients to
the consistence of mortar.
Concrete, a mixture of clean gravel, or sharp sand,
and quick lime, mixed while the lime is still
hot.
Congee, a species of moulding which consists of a
straight line, curved in at the bottom.
t>, tory,a house for keeping exotic plants,
either planted in the soil or in large tubs. When
the plants are kept in flower-pots, on wooden
stages, the house is called a green-house.
Consol table. The term consol is applied from the
form of the front legs or pillars by which such
tables are usually supported, which is that of a
carved ornament called a consol, frequently
placed on the front of brackets, and on the key-
stones of arches.
GLOSSARIAL ENDEX.
1299
Coping, a covering laid on the top of a wall, gene-
rally projecting beyond the wall on both Miles,
and being of a different material Iron li.
Copper Ancerf. joined together by beat, in the same
manner as soldering.
Corbel atones, stones projecting from a house si at
to support the roof, the end* of which ■
carved.
Coretl, a word applied tn chimneys when they are
cleared of th rt.ir and other rubbish
left in them while building.
Cornice, a moulded projection, which crowns or
finishes the member to which it is attached.
Corona, the crowning member of an entablature.
Corrugated, wavy, wrinkled, or Hi '
-■•. ( See/c.
Couch frame in a mail hotae, a square frame,
formed of boards, 3d inches in depth, in which
the barley lies after being steep< (!.
I particular kind of slate (See
Slates.)
Couplings, or couplet, principal raft' rs
I rubble work, course! of unequal height,
hut of hammer-diessed stones.
•lings, ceilings made high in the centre, but
- in the corners of the room.
■ Uites, metal plates used in lire- places to
throw the opening into a semicircular form.
Crabs, machines for being attached to and raising
weights.
Crank, a piece of brass used to connect two wires
i 271.)
■ '/ walls, walls oi cob, mud, or other soft
rial, which have swerved from the ;
dicular in consequence of having been built too
rapidly.
< . studded or curled ornaments, running up
;ier edge or' a gable end or pinnacle, and
imating in a pointed ornament or finial.
Crouds and bands, hook and strap hinges.
Cross-tailed hinges, strap hinges, with a cross
sometimes shaped like a trefoil at the end.
Crown glass, glass that is white or colourless.
is, the coping stones of a gable rising one
above another, like steps.
Crypt, an underground church, or vaults used as a
church.
Cubic inches of surveyors. What surveyors call a
cubic inch is the twelfth part of a cubic foot, and
equal to '2>tH common cubic inches.
Culms, the hollow stalks of any reed, corn, or
grass.
Cnpples, couples or rafters.
Curbed, contracted towards the ceiling by being
carried up into the roof.
Currented, laid to such a slope as to carry off
water.
Curtailed step, the bottom step of a flight of stairs,
v. bicb is longer than the others, and made to curl
round in the same form and manner, and to the
same extent, as the scroll of the baud rail.
Cusps, points formed in the upper corners of a win-
dow by uniting two curves.
Cyclopean waits, walls built with land stones
! upon each other without mortar.
Cylindrical, a tube circular in the section.
Cyma recta, a moulding, the outline of which is
formed by two curves, the upper one concave and
projecting, and the other convex and receding.
Cyma r, versa, curves outwardly and projecting at
the base, and inwardly and receding at the upper
part.
Cyma talon, or ogee , curves inwardly at the base,
and outwardly forming a projection at the upper
part.
D.
Dado, the flat side of a pedestal, between the plinth
and the cornice ; applied also to the space be-
tween the skirting and the chairs' back moulding
in rooms.
Dais, raised platform.
Deal keys, the same as strutting pieces, that is,
pieces of timber driven fast between each pair of
joists, with their hutting against the grain of the
joists
Deal matched, the edge of one board grooved, and
that of the adjoining board tongued, so that one
may fit into the other.
Deal slips, very thin boards.
Deals, boards sawn to a proper thickness for use.
Dentils, from the Latin word dens, a tooth ; small
square blocks or projections, used in the lower
moulding! of cornii sdth of dentils
should be half their height ; and their Intervals,
according to Vitrurius, two thirds of their
breadth.
Discharging arches, arches built over lintels, to
relieve them from part of the superincumbent
weight.
Dish unit current, a basin in the centre of a cattle
yard, with sloping gutters to carry oil' the wet.
Distemper, a mode ot colouring wails.
Distyle in antis, a portico of two columns between
two pilasters.
Dog-legged staircase, a staircase in which the stairs
rest on a spandril, or on what is called a string,
on the one side, and are housed into the wall on
the other.
Door bracket, a slight projection over the top of
the door, to serve as a substitute for a porch, in
protecting any one standing at the door from the
rain.
Door of two leaves, or folding door, a door opening
in the middle.
Door soles, door sills.
r windows, windows in the roof.
Dots, broad-headed tacks or studs, used to fasten
lead on roofs or in cisterns.
Double hung. Windows are said to he double
hung when both sashes w ill pull up and down.
Dove-tailed, the end of one piece of wood cut so as
to tit into a space left in another piece of w ood.
(.See fig. bl.)
Doweled floors are nailed to the joists ; but so that
the nails are not seen. The first board that is
laid is nailed on one edge, by the nails being
driven straight through the board, the heads of
the nails being afterwards concealed by the
skirting ; and, on the other edge, by nails driven
in slanting, through about half the thickness of
the board, to the joist below. Dowels or pins,
either of iron or wood, are previously let into the
boa'd at given distances, one end of each pro-
jecting, in order that they may be fitted into
holes made in the thickness of the next hoard,
which is not to be nailed on the edge where it is
joined to the first board. The whole floor is laid
in this manner, each board being nailed only on
one edge, and that through half its thii
except the first board and the last, both of which
are nailed on both edges, the nails, which would
otherwise be seen on the outside, being hidden
by the skirting. The dowels are for keeping the
boards firm on the side on which they are not
nailed.
Dowels, projecting points of either iron or wood.
lies, iron straps to tie together the wall
plates at the external angles of the building.
Dram timber battens, narrow deal boards (supposed
to be of spruce fir), from Drammcn, a sea-port
in Norway.
Draughted and broached, that is, worked smooth
rou.id the joints with a chisel about three-quar-
ters of an inch on the face of the stone, while
the remaining part is roughly worked with a pick.
Drawn, that is. when a house is covered with
Roman cement, marked with lines to make it re-
lemble stone.
Drawn about, carefully pointed with lime mortar
mixed with hair.
Drawn battens, deal boards carefully selected, so as
to be free from knots and other inperfections.
rendered smooth by working with a tool.
paving-bricks, bricks smoothed on one
side by passing a cylindrical rule, wetted, over
them when they are just moulded and quite soft.
Dressing barn, the part of the barn set aside for
separating the grain from the chaff.
Dnp moulding, a projecting stone at the base of
chimney shafts, or above windows.
Droved edg s. tie edges of stone worked smooth
with a broad chisel, called a drove, which leaves
its ma Ks. somewhat like the squares in a very-
small che;s hoard.
Drum, a cylinder upon which a belt works for
turning machinery.
Drying floor in a malt kiln, is a floor made of cast
iron, with an apparatus for heating it below.
Dunge. is the space between the kiln and the fur-
nace in a malt-house.
Dynamics, the science of moving forces.
1300
GLOSSARIAL INDEX.
E.
Eaves, the margin or edge of a roof overhanging
the walls.
Elbow buckets, partitions formed of two boards
each, put together so as to form an angle or
elbow, and used to catch the water in an overshot
water-wheel.
Elbows of a window, the two pouched flanks, one
under each shutter.
Endless cloth, a piece of cloth sewed together at
the extreme ends.
Enfilade, a view seen through several rooms at
once.
Engaged columns, columns attached to a wall, and
projecting from it half or three quarters of their
diameters.
English bond, walls built with alternate courses of
headers and stretchers, stretchers being bricks
so placed as to show their whole length in the
face of the wall, and headers showing only the
narrow part or head of the bricks.
Entablature, the horizontal mass placed on Grecian
columns : it consists of three parts, the archi-
trave, the frieze, and the cornice.
Episiijlium, architrave.
Facade, the principal front or elevation of a build-
ing.
Facings, architraves without mouldings.
Fall o) land, thirty-six square yards.
Falling style of a gate, the style or post to which
the latch is fixed.
Fan blinds, outside Venetian blinds projecting
from the windows.
Fan groin, a particular kind of ceiling, consisting
of a number of circles intersecting each other.
Fanners, a winnowing machine.
Fascia, a band or broad fillet ; also the face of an
architrave.
Feather-edged, boards rendered very thin at the
sides.
Feeding-ports, openings furnished with small doors,
hung on pulleys, through which food is given to
cattle put up to feed.
Ferrol, a term used by plumbers for a brass tube,
which is soldered to a lead pipe at one end, and
then driven into the main water-pipe in order to
supply a cistern.
Feuars, persons renting land for building on in
Scotland, on leases for 999 years.
Fillet, a narrow vertical band. The slips between
the (lutings of pillars are also called fillets.
Filleted rootns, rooms in which the wood-work is
ornamented by narrow strips of deal, so as to
give the effect of fluting, mouldings, &c.
Filling in lintels, lintels placed behind the front
lintels.
Finial, a pointed ornament, frequently placed at
the summit of the gable end of a house.
Fir, as applied by builders, signifies Baltic timber ;
what they call pine being American timber, and
generally considered of an inferior quality.
Fir keys, strutting pieces formed of Baltic timber.
(See Deal keys.)
Fire bricks are formed of clay very free from sand
or iron, which does not vitrify from heat.
Fire stone, stone that will stand fire without be-
coming calcined.
Fire wood, a kind of wood never exceeding 12 feet
in length, and 6 inches on the side. These are
the usual dimensions of the wood sold for fuel,
which is always sold cheaper than timber.
Firrings, pieces of wood fixed on the joists under
the boarding, to give a current to the water which
may be used to wash the floor.
First floor. In Scotland the first floor is the ground
floor ; but in England the first floor is up oue
pair of stairs.
Flag stones, large stones split or sawn into thin
limine, having a flat smootli surface.
Flanchcs, projecting edges in iron work, generally
curved, for the purpose of uniting and strengthen-
ing the parts to which they are applied.
Flange. A flange is a projection round the edge of
a pipe or other article in metal, to admit of its
being fastened to a similar projection by screws
or rivets.
Flank tier, valley rafters, that is, the rafter! re-
quired to support the lower part of a roof.
Flap, the leaf of a table which can be letdown
when not in use.
Flashings, or flushings, strips of lead laid over
joints.
Flat, in Scotland, floor or story of a dwelling-
house.
Flat-bedded stones, stones laid perfectly level, on
the under surface.
Flat-ruled joint. A ruled joint is a joint struck
flat with the trowel, with a line drawn in the
centre by a small iron instrument called a jointer
(see.fig. 207.), and an iron straight edge or flat
ruler.
Flatted crown glass is produced by heating the
glass quite hot in an oven, on a flat iron plate
laid perfectly level, to which the heated glass
adapts its surface.
Flatted paint. Paint is said to be flatted when the
glossy appearance is taken off by using turpen-
tine in the last coat instead of oil.
Flemish bond, bricks laid with an alternate header
and stretcher in each course.
Float, a kind of oblong flat trowel, with the handle
fixed in the centre, used by plasterers.
Floats and float boards, the narrow boards or wings
fixed on the circumference of undershot water-
wheels.
Floor cloth, canvass or some other material painted
with oil.
Flush, even with, not projecting.
Flush brass bolts, bolts let into the wood-work, so
as not to project beyond the face of it.
Flushed up or solid, pointed or filled up smoothly
with mortar.
Fly brackets, brackets used to support the flap of a
table, but which push back or fold up when the
flap is not in use.
Flyers, straight steps.
Fly wire, wirecloth or loile mitallique, for putting
in windows to admit the air, while it excludes the
Hies.
Foddering bay, a place in a stable or cow-house for
keeping green food.
Foddering passage, for conveying food to cattle.
Foils and cusps, small arches meeting in points.
Folding camp bed, a bed so contrived as to fold up
and put away when not in use. (See p. 329.)
Folding doors, doors composed of two leaves open-
ing in the middle.
Folding floors. When these floors are laid, the first
and fourth boards are nailed down with brads
(small nails made without a head, in order that
the nail may be sunk in the wood), in such a
manner as to leave an intervening space, some-
thing less than the breadth of the second and
third boards, so that when these two last are
placed, they rest as it were folded together, form-
ing a ridge, on which the workmen jump till they
have forced the second and third boards down
into their proper places, the object being to have
the boards fit as tight as possible. ( See p. 239.)
Folding gates, gates opening in the middle, or
hinged like folding window shutters, so that one
part may fold back over the other.
Folding handles, handles that hang down, or fold
aside, when not in use.
Folding hinges, hinges so contrived as to fold back,
or pieces of girth webbing or leather, nailed al-
ternately to one side of one hanging style, and
the opposite side of the other. {Seefig. 731.)
Folding register grate, a grate contrived with doors
which are in two parts, and each part in four di-
visions hinged to each other so as to fold back
over each other when not in use. (See p. 697.)
Footings, the lower courses of a foundation.
Fotherum, the Scotch name for the passage by
which the fodder is conveyed to a cow house.
Framed work, frames of wood, having the panels
filled in with mud, lath and plaster, turf, &c, to
serve as walls.
I reestone, any stone that can be worked by the
saw and chisel.
French casements, windows opening in the middle,
and hinged on the sides.
French polish, a kind of varnish used for polishing
furniture.
Fresco, painting in water colours on plaster, which
is newly laid on, and has not set.
Fret, an ornament consisting of one or more fillets
at equal distances, either vertically or horizon-
tally.
Frieze, the flat sunk part of an entablature.
-.VRIAL INDEX.
1304
Frustum of a pyramid, the lower part, supposing
the upper part to hare been cut off horizontally.
G.
GabUs, pediments of the roof. < See |
Gable tops, the upper parts of crom walls.
Galilee, the name anciently given to the part of the
church where corpses were deposited previous to
their interment.
Galley, the kitchen of a ship.
Galloway cope, a coping formed of large irregular
stones projecting on both sides of the wall.
Gangway, an inclined plane extending from the
rick yard to the floor for unthreshed corn in a
barn.
Gargells. or gargoyles, ornamented spout-head*.
Garnet hinges, binges with a bar attached. (See
fig.au.)
Garreted joint, a joist stock with small pieces of
stone.
Garron nails, six-inch spikes.
Gauge for tiling, is reckoned from the distance
which the first and third lath* a.-e apart mea-
suring from centre to centre. ( See p. * ."
Gauged arches, arches built with bricks ground
down to the shape
the lower part of the ar. i
line instead of a curved one. | ieefig. .
Geometrical drawing, a dra i a scale
representing the flat side
Geometrical stairs, a staircase winding round, and
having a circular well-hole in the
Gtn wheel, a wheel with an upright shaft. ■
the teeth or cogs in a h< nz '»utal rim.
Girders, the principal beams for supyuitiitg a
floor.
Granting, a mode of imitating the different kinds
of wood by painting.
Greek cross, a rectangular cross, the limbs of
which are all equal.
Grey lime, lime produced by burning linn' nl ore.
not ■•
Grey stocks, bricks made of marly clay. at
mixed with chalk.
Grieve, the Scotch name for bailiff.
Grip, the Scotch word for gutter.
Groined roof. Groins are angular cones formed
by the intersection of two arches which cross
each other.
Grooves, slits hollowed out for some other sub-
stance to f '
Grounds, slips of wood built into the foundations
of walU to fix the skirting to : also to secure
the architraves of the doors and windows, and to
support the walls over ape-
Ground shot water-trkeels, undershot wheels, that
is, where the water is below the wheel.
Grouting, pouring fluid mortar into the joints of
brickwork.
Gudgeon, a small pin which works in a socket.
Guilloches. a series of curveu i
Gussets, the r. • iase continued
beyond the newel up to the ceiling, in a triangular
shape.
H.
Half couples, hip and valley rafters.
Hilf-uster bedstead, when the upper part piojetls
half way over the bed. ( See fig. ■■• -
Haired and spiked, a mode of joining boards to-
gether by cutting a piece out of each, so that they
may fit one into the other.
Halted on. Joists are «aid to be halved on when
they are joined by half being cat oat at* the joist
and half out of the rafter.
Hamlin's mastic, a calcareous cement which con-
: :' earth pulverised, to which are added any
of the oxides of lead and a quantity of glass or
flint stones : the whole reduced to a fine powder,
and intimately incorporated with any therm
vegetable oil.
Hammeis. sheds for cattle to take shelter from the
son or rain.
Hammer-dressed, stone worked smooth with the
chisel end of the hammer.
Hanging post, or hanging state, the post to which
a gate is nun?
Hurras, studs of horses.
Hardware, ironmongery.
Hard wood, oak, elm, and ash.
left "a the vail of ahen-
."'- ■■"- " - .
.: _
' .•■-'-:.'-■: .
-
a man to descend to clear oat the plirr
•'- '■'■' ' ■'• ■-"■ • -■:'.::
of the arch.
■
covered with part of the bed-hangings, and some-
.:~*?s cmmd the ~ -it. -..-rce.
Headed stoma, stones squared at the ends.
Bead rati, the rail for HHiymlh.g the curtains of a
;.•" :.: .-.-• ; i :■■::.:;■ ■ -. - -_j- ;
the latch is fixed
Headers, bricks placed so as to hare their beads to
the surface of the wall.
.-':--- -.'.: '-.■.::■-.•-■■--■■ _ .• _ . L..
i..r>: ■ ».;.:•: Mm. _ci.--.i-- m : ■ :-.
.":'-■. r..;:.r --.-:■:•:>•.:».-_.:.■_ :-- :_-..; .:' i ;u: .
are attacbed.
fienvj '.--.-r.j t rri- inn-ose-i ■'hewn msne.
:rs. rafters at the ■mgiri of a pariboa roof.
■:-■' *me ' A r s ami ■- be -' mmen the cmm
-.-■-: i ■;. : r •.: i r _:..:.: i .. : -
.-: " : 1"." :' --.-•: ":!"•'■
Hips and ralleys are formed wherever roofing
meets at a right or other angle. ( See fig. OS.>
i.-e-j by the side of a grate.
'.'. ■■-■■ i.i ■- ■■---■ :■■-? :-_■- \-st_ ■
the tmt end :: wbfck ihtl.ts nmj te named.
-
■ '■•:■'-: - .-•■•.-;•; i i i.: •
, ■-.. : -.:-.- :•: • >-.-'.- :~-
Hood moulding, a label rising over a door or win-
dow. (See/g •
Hoop chips are the shavings made by the cnrnnte
cutters, when splitting and preparing large hoops
from long hazel and other rods grown m coppice
woods -, they are used tike thatch. < See p. «5.)
-.' -. - ;..-.. -:-. .- -.11 i ■ . ■;-... li -- . i; li.
stymn
I-: -';-:■; . - : i~ ■ \-. \ ' . - _• - ;
r: ', : i .-- .:-_- _ .1 .: :: : — .
.: :-• ■ -. :..-- -•-_.;: '■■- '-■.:- "" ' ---
-..'.' .' '-::'. 1 " " 1 1 1;H-1 i^ ; '.-■> - :* I* "D
aredbeat- On this plate are placed >.
:' - .. ....-..- ill ;-.--. .J .- 1 -
-
:.- .__-. ; ... . - - ...... -
}: •-.. : -1 .11 • - £"« ■:
r. : . -:■>-_, :- . ■ ■
awns of barley.
Hutches, small boxes, or dens, for ke
;- nm m he as- lamah nm
stretchers. ( See p. 488.)
li".i'\i rj MB] i-i-irn.
/» "
B*gSMMa,jnmhsari i-
■
. ' . • ' '1: ; i • 1 - i i - m --
Amti'wWvmmfinB i ibt mnmmt hmmnm *i. n-
."i:-- ' ~-- 1 i .. : ~ r
. . - ■ " ■ i : - i ." : . ■-.--_-- -
I'..-.-- - " - .- i- :*:-■■.--*. ■-:-_-.
and intrnrled to equalise the fweisme of the
: ... .1.1 -., - i - ■■_- i_.il- . - i- -.-::-.
-..a- i - i.—. ~ *- : - .i_i _.- : - - •
7- .-..--:;. i - -:"■: :..-;.•- i-n _. i -- x - -
quently made with openings in it. was to form a
grating, so as to act as a ventilator, t See fig.
/'.•:,' • _.;-—.- --•-• _ - . ; - _ -..
of timber used in the cocstruccon of roofs, or
. ' 1 - • ' ---;-.--._; .." ■ It _: . : : 1 .li
to carry off water.
jErm tea, a piece of iron, two or three inches
. Z- -S -.-.•-. . i- - 1: - ■ ^-^5
I" --.I 1 ' -" ' : I.-- .' 1_. .1 1.1: :^ " - . ■:. .-. "
.-: r. li . i .. -- . •..-•_-=.-: :..-
.; --..-,-■ " -i - :. ■ -.. r -1- .■ . - - ..- -
pan f tins book is amtam • Mmintth«smmre
note in the iron turn, and the upper part is cylin-
drical, so as to allow the turn, when lifted up, to
more round upon it- Hence, to
1302
GLOSSARIAL INDEX.
shutter, the turn must be slipped on the square
part of the hook, where it will remain fixed ;
and, to relieve the shutter, the turn must be
slipped up, so that it may move round <n the
cylindrical part. In the accompanying figure
(fig. 2343), a is the shutter ; b, the turn ; c, the
piii on which the turn moves ; and </</, the two
irons into which the latter is riveted, and which
are leaded into the wall, e.
lsometrical perspective is a term applied to a pro-
jection made in rays parallel to the diagonal of a
cube, upon a plane perpendicular thereto, so as
to give a clearer idea of a place than either a
plan or a perspective view, as it may be said to
combine both.
J.
Jambs, side-pieces.
Jib brackets, brackets that can be turned so as to
lie flat to the wall.
Juggled on, one piece of wood let into another.
(See Jig. 50.)
Jointer, tools used both in building and carpenter-
ing.
Joists, pieces of timber between the beams for sup-
porting floors.
Jumped, secured by a bolt passing through a hole
made in the wall, and fastened with a nut on the
other side.
Jumper, a blunt chisel used in boring holes in a
wall or rock.
Jumping holes, made to contain the gunpowder re-
quired to blast or rend asunder rocks.
Jutted, projecting.
Kiln tile, a particular kind of tile used for paving
kilns.
King-post, the middle post of a roof.
Kneading trough, a trough for making bread.
Knot, an imperfection in a board, being the re-
mains of a branch which was in the tree the
board was cut from : when used as a verb it sig-
nifies to cover the knots in the wood with paint,
before the wood is properly painted.
Knotted, the knots smoothed and filled up previ-
ously to painting.
Labels. A label is an outer moulding crowning a
door or window-head, either plain or carved, and
always returned at theends when straight. (See
M 188.)
Lacing courses, vertical and horizontal bond.
Lancet window, windows formed with pointed or
lancet heads. (Seoflg. 1616.)
1. amling, a broad square stair used in the better
kinds of staircase in the corners, instead of
winders.
Landing stone, stones of remarkably large size,
used to form the landing-places in stone stair-
cases and other similar situations.
Lantern skylight, a skylight in the shape of a lan-
tern, raised above the roof, and admitting light
through the glass in the sides.
Latent, hidden.
Lateral thrust, the weight or other pressure of the
materials sideways.
Lath, a slender piece of wood, generally used to
support plaster.
Lath, plaster, float, and set. The laths are nailed
over framework ; they are then plastered, that is,
covered roughly with mortar ; afterwards a
second coat of plaster is given, which is applied
with an oblong trowel, having its handle in the
centre, called a float, and lastly a smooth coat of
plaster is applied, which is called setting.
Lu/hing diagonally, is nailing on the laths in an
oblique direction, to lessen the chance of cracks
in the plaster.
Lead aprons, strips of lead to overlap the flashings.
Lead-Headed nails, nails, the heads of which have
been dipped in lead to prevent their i listing.
Lean to roof, a roof, the rafters of which lean
against the wall of another building.
Lime ridd/ings, pieces of lime that will not pass
through a riddle.
Lime shells, a term for calcined lime, used in
Scotland.
Lime white, to whitewash or wash over a wall with
whiting mixed with water and size.
Lintel, the head piece of a window frame or door-
way.
Listed boards, boards sorted, or rather matched, so
as to make the floor appear all of one colour.
Listings, narrow strips of lime and hair, or ce-
ment, used to cover the joints.
Lithic paints, stone paints.
Loggia, a porch, open room, or small veranda.
Loose stable, a stable not having any divisions of
stalls, or place for tying up a horse.
Lopers, sliding pieces of wood that draw out of a
bookcase or bureau, to support the sloping flap,
and make it serve as a desk.
Louvert, a lantern.
Louvre boards, inclined narrow boards, arranged
one above another, like Venetian blinds, but
fixed in an npe'ture, so as to admit the air, but
exclude the light.
Low-pitched rooj', a roof where there is little slope
from the ridge tiles to the eaves.
Low room windows, windows on the ground floor.
L., P., /•'.. lath, plaster, and float.
Luffer boards, the same as louvre boards.
Luggage chair, a particularly strong and broad
wooden chair to put in the bedrooms of inns to
hold the luggage.
M.
M roof, a roof formed of two valleys.
Man-hole, an opening in a cesspool, drain, &c,
large enough to admit a man to clean it out
when necessary. Man-holes are usually fitted
with a close cover when not in use.
Marqnetterie, a mode of inlaying floors with dif-
ferent colours, so as to imitate mosaic work.
Matched boards, the edge of one board is grooved
and that of the other tongued, so as to fit into
each other.
Milled lead, lead pressed out to the required thick-
ness by a machine.
Milled slate, slates sawn out of blocks by machinery,
instead of being split in the ordinary way by
wedges.
Minnies, subdivisions of Perrault's scale, for draw-
ing the orders of classical architecture.
Mitre wheel, a wheel fitted in a particular manner,
so as to work in another wheel.
Mi/red. Slates are said to be mitred when two
planes meet against a diagonal line.
Moilillions, a species of ornament in classic archi-
tecture resembling a bracket.
Modules, equal parts into which a diameter is di-
vided, lor tin- purpose of facilitating its measure-
ment or delineation.
Monied out, calculated.
Mortise holes, holes for the projecting ends of the
wooden fl amework.
Mortised locks, locks which are inserted in a mor-
tise cut edgeways in the style of the door.
Moulded nosings, the edges of steps which are
exposed to view.
Mows/ends, frames of wood work boarded, carried
up to the height of two or three feet in a barn, to
separate the corn which is being threshed on one
side, and the corn or straw on the other.
Mud walls are formed of clay worked with straw
and then put into a frame 18 inches in length, b'
inches, deep, and from 9 to 12 inches in diameter.
GLOSSARIAL INDEX.
1303
The lumps are afterward) dried, .inil then laid
with mortar like bricks. (See p. 77.)
MuUiont, or munitions, the fixed vertical divisions
of a window, in both the Qothlc and the Eliza-
bethan styles.
Munting, the centre vertical piece which divides
the panels of a door.
Neckings, members which are always used on the
top or a column or pilaster, iii the Tuscan and
Soman Doric orders, i cdiately under the
cap.
Nick of a chimney, the part immediately under this
caps.
Newcastle crown gluts, the best crown glass.
Newel, the turning post of a staircase, that is, a
posl firmly fixed, to which the handrail of the
staircase Is Framed. I Seeflg, '241.)
Noggingflat, brick Dogging built with the bricks
on end.
Norfolk Inlrh, thumb latch.
Northumberland mortar is composed of one cart
load of Rood well-burnt lime (from limestone)
mixed with three cart loads of clean sand, which
are well mixed and beaten together before add-
ing the water.
Nosings to stairs, the edge of the stair which forms
the angle.
Nulling, a turned moulding, representing strings
of beads.
O.
Oetostijle, a building with eight columns in front.
Office houses, farm buildings.
Ogee moulding, called also ryma talon, a moulding
nearly in the form of an S.
Openfi/leting, strips of deal nailed at one or two
inches apart.
Open sparred frame, a frame filled in with lattice
work at short distances asunder.
Oriel or compass window. An oriel window is a
projecting window in an upper story.
Ordonnance, any order in classic architecture.
Overlap, is one substance lying a little over an-
other.
Ovcrsailing, protruding.
Overshot water-wheel, when the water falls from
above the wheel.
Ovolo moulding, a quarter round or egg-shaped
moulding.
Ouolo sash bars, sash bars finished with ovolo
mouldings.
P.
Pace, a square landing-place dividing stairs into
flights, and used to form a turn without winders.
Pair of grates. The front and bottom bars of
common grates that are set in brickwork are
called a pair.
Pagoda caps, for ventilation.
Palliasses, remarkably thick straw mattresses.
Paneled piers, piers having sunk panels.
Panels, sunk surfaces in frames.
Pantiles, hollow tiles
Parapet, a dwarf wall, or palisading.
Patgetied. A chimney is said to be pargetted
when it is plastered inside with a mixture of
lime mortar, fresh cow dunj;. and loam.
Pai quelled floo's are floors laid with small pieces
of wood of the same kind and colour, fitted into
each other so as to form regular figures.
Patera, the representation of a cup or rose in has
relief; a common ornament in stone work.
Pavilion roof, a roof hipped or sloping equally on
all sides.
Pebble-dashed, plaster sprinkled, while quite rough
and wet, with small pebbles.
Pebble-paved, laid with small round stones, gene-
rally In some kind of pattern.
Pendants, an ornament in the centre of a barge
board. (Seefig. 181.)
Penstones, arch stones.
Penthouse, a roof projecting from a wall and not
supported by pillars.
Piends, or piens, ridge pieces of a roof
Pier, a pillar without any regular base or capital.
Pigeon-hole manner of building walls, leaving out
a brick occasionally.
Pi/aster, a rectangular pillar attached to a wall.
Pillar, an upright support of some regular figure
in the plan.
Pine. This word is used by builders to signify
American deals.
Pining, shrinking.
Pinnacle, a pointed ornament terminating a pedi-
ment or gable.
Pinned, let into a wall by a hole cut for the
purpose.
Put, walls formed of mud or clay rammed into
moulds.
Pitched roof, a roof which is highest in the middle,
and slanting on both sides.
Pitched i/arr/s, paved yards.
Pivot, a point on which a hinge turns.
Place bricks, soft half-burnt bricks.
Planceer, a moulded capping to the stringing
bo el, into which the balusters of a staircase are
dxed.
Planished. A planished surface is one that is
first polished and then pressed by a stamp with
a smooth bright dye.
Plant it. fixed.
1'late of the stair, first landing-p'ace (Scotch).
/'/ \te glass, glass cast in a mould instead of being
blown.
Platting course, a brick flat arch over a brick on
edge one.
Plinth, the lower part of a column.
Ploughed and tongued, a groove made in one piece
of board, and a projection left in the one that is
to be joined to it.
Plugged, nailed to plugs of wood driven into the
wall.
' mortar finished smooth between the
bricks.
Pointed architecture, a kind of Gothic.
Pole plate, a beam, or piece of timber, supported
on the ends of the tie beam' or principal rafters
of a roof, over which are fixed the lower ends of
the common rafters.
Polished pavement, stone pavement rubbed smooth.
Press bedsteads, bedsteads that fold up so as to re-
semble a wardrobe or a chest of drawers.
Prime, the lirst coat of paint.
Principal quarters, the upright pieces of timber in
a partition.
Principals, principal rafters.
Profile chimney-pieces, are such as have projecting
jambs, with their sides covered with marble or
stone.
Proper borings. The frames which receive the
architraves of a window, and the outer edges of
the shutters, are called proper boxings when
they are wrought, framed, rebated, splayed, and
beaded.
Proper door-cases are those which are wrought,
that is, planed, framed, ret nted, and beaded.
Proper /edged door has the boards planed, tongued
into each other, and beaded. They are placed
vertically, and nailed to horizontal pieces at the
back called ledges.
Prop rly gathered, the flues of a chimney drawn in
above the fireplace till they are of a proper size
to secure a good draught.
Puddled. Puddle is a mixture of clayey loam and
water, well incorporated together ; and to puddle
is to place this material in a stratum in any po-
sition where it will prevent water from pene-
trating through.
Pugm II. a machine for working and kneading clay
before it is made into bricks.
Pugging is a substance genera ly composed of sand,
plaster, and hair, laid between the joists of a
floor so as to fill up the space between the boards
and the ceiling of the room below.
Pulborough stair, a species of green sandstone,
which is found to resist the action of the water.
Pulley rack, the contrivance affixed to the sides of
window frames for drawing up the blinds.
Pullet/ style, the hollow space in the window frame
which contains the pulleys, lines, and weights for
balancing the sashes.
Puncheons, short pieces of timber used in framing
partitions.
Purlins, horizontal pieces of timber, supported by
the principal rafters of a roof.
Puzzle latch, a substitute for a lock, contrived so
as not to be opened by a person who does not
understand it.
Puzzoiana, volcanic earth, or rather decomposed
1304
GLOSSARIAL INDEX.
lava, found new Naples. It consists of silica,
alumina, and oxide of iron, and is used princi-
pally to form cement under water.
Pyramidal lab I. a label rising in a pyramidal
manner over the moulding of a door. (See
fig. 1625)
Pyroligneous acid, an acid extracted from wood.
Q.
Quarries of brick earth, square paving-tiles.
Quarries of glass, very small square panes.
(luarry-stone, stone cut into the shape required in
the quarry, and consequently not so carefully
prepared as that cut in the mason's yard
Quartering, quarters are formed of upright pieces
of timber, to which laths are nailed. Formerly
a tree, after being felled, was first sawn up into
four equal parts : and hence the origin of this
term.
Queen posts, the side posts of a roof
Quill of a fountain, the upright pipe through which
the water rises.
Quirk moulding. A quirk in a moulding signifies
a sharp turn.
Quoins, corners.
R.
Rab and dab. This term is used when coh (that is
earth and straw mixed with water) is used for
filling in partitions instead of brick nogging.
Rabbet heads of windows. The rabbet head of a
window is a Scotch term for what is called in
English the reveal or outside jamb of a window.
Race for tail water, space left for carrying off the
surplus water of a waterwheel.
Rack and horse, contrivance for raising a writing
desk to different slopes. (See fig. 610 )
Rack in a stable, space for containing the hay for a
horse to eat.
Ragalels, grooves.
Haggled, let into a wall or post.
Ragvlings, ceiling joists.
Rails, the cross pieces of a frame.
Raising plates, wall plates.
Rakes. To cut a rake, is to reduce to a smooth
slope the face of brick-work, which has been left
in a rough state.
Raking torus wall, building a sloping wall by the
side of a staircase to support the steps and risers.
Ramp, inclined plane.
Ramped cup, crossing to the partitions between the
stalls made sloping or curved. (See Jig. 779.)
Random-jointed ashlar work, stones laid irregu-
larly, so as not to form proper courses.
Rebated laths, laths cut so that the upper half is
higher than the lower half, so that when they are
used in slating, the slates fit close, and can be
nailed in the middle. (See fig. 1099.)
Reduced brickwork. In estimating the price of
brickwork in Britain, the quantity, of whatever
nature and thickness it may be, is always reduced
to walls of one and a half brick in thickness,
272± square feet of which form a rod of brick-
work.
Reduced stonework. Stone walls are reduced to
one and a half brick in thickness.
Reed, combed wheat straw, that is, straw that has
had the heads cut off and not been threshed.
Refectory, a hall used in religious houses, such as
monasteries, Sec, for dining in.
Register, a contrivance for contracting the throats
of chimneys by a plate of cast iron. (See
fig. 543.)
Rcigncr work, ornaments made by inlaying wood
in the manner of buhl work, with leaves, &c. of
different colours.
Render float, putting the first coat of plaster on
brickwork.
Render set, first and second coats of plaster in two
coat work.
Reveals, the exterior sides of a window.
Ribbel. See Habbet heads.
Riders, bands built into the wall.
Ridge and piens, angles of the hips.
Ridge pieces, pieces to support the apex of a roof.
Ridge roll, a piece over which the lead is turned
which covers the ridge and hips of a roof.
Ridge spikes, nails with large heads for fastening
on the lead.
Ridges of flanks, gutters in the valleys.
Rigger, a smooth cylinder, fixed upon the end of a
shaft that couples to the drum-shaft of the
threshing-mill.
Riser, the upright part which supports the flat
part, or tread, of every step-in a flight of stairs
Rising boards, boards belonging to a water-wheel,
the use of which is to prevent the water from
flowing over the Heat-board into the interior of
the wheel.
Rim ted, two pieces united by an iron pin being put
through '.hem, and fastened OB the other side.
Roach-bellied laths, that is, laths which form the
segment of a circle on the uuder side. (See
p. 598.)
Road metal, broken stones and other materials
used for making or mending roads.
Rod-bolts, bolts that pass through three rings. (See
fig. GS.)
Rolls, pieces of wood rounded to dress the edges of
the lead over.
Roofs of a low pitch, roofs not much elevated in the
centre.
Roofs pointed to the pin, mortar laid under each
course of slate from the lower edge to the pin
that fastens the slate.
Rose window, a particular kind of ornamental
window. (See fig. 1620.)
Rough arches, arches prepared to have discharging
arches over them.
Rough wall, stone rubble-work.
Rough casting, plastering the outside of walls
roughly with a mixture of lime, fine gravel, and
water.
Rounding the chimney-breast, contracting the
throat of a chimney to improve the draught.
Row of blockings, a row of projecting blocks of
stone, or of projecting bricks, sometimes called
a blocking course.
Rubble-stone, stone rough from the quarry.
Rule joints, joints like those of the common foot-
rule.
Run, as used by plasterers, meaning to form a
moulding, &c. The word is also used by plum-
bers to signify pouring melted lead round a
piece of iron, let into a hole in stone or brick-
work, to render the iron firmer.
Run, or lineal measure, length in a straight line.
Run beams, front rails.
Run channels, gutters.
Run tree, a rail fixed along the tie-joists.
Run with lead. See Run.
Rungs, spokes.
Runner for a cider mill, a circular stone roller used
for crushing the apples. ( See p. 616.)
Runners, pieces of wood for the drawers to slide
on, and to guide them.
Rusticated corners, with the joints channelled, or
cut in grooves.
Rustic work, stones made rough on the outer sur-
face, by tools. There are several kinds of rustic-
work, the most common of which are the lined,
in which the hollow marks are straight ; and the
vermiculated, or wormed, in which they are in
curved or tortuous lines. (See fig. 1674.
Rybcts, reveals.
S.
Saddle-bars, cross-bars to which the leadwork of
glazing is fixed.
Safe lintels, inside lintels.
Sailing over, projecting.
Sails of a windmill, sails in the form of a trape-
zium, for catching the wind ; usually nine yards
long and two yards wide.
Sand dashing, rough casting.
Sapweod, the outside wood of a tree which is never
properly matured.
Sarking, thin boards for lining, &c. ; also boarding
for slates, or lead to be laid upon.
Saveall, a pierced plate of pewter.
Saw draughts, longitudinal slits made by the saw
in a thick board, but leaving the thin boards thus
formed attached at both ends.
Scag/iola is a mode of. finishing with stucco, in imi-
tation of marble.
Scantlings, in carpentry, signify the breadth and
thickness of timber.
Scappled, stones are said to be scappled, or scab-
bled when they are dressed with the pick end of
the hammer. They are said to be draughted and
scappled when they are worked round the edges
GLOSSARIAL INDEX.
1305
or joints with a chisel and hammer, dressed in
the centre.
Scarp of a terrace, the upright wall in front.
Searsenunis, sets back.
Scored, lined in imitation of stono.
Scctia, a species of hollow moulding, curved out so
as to project more at the base than at the tn|>.
Screw gutter, a gutter like a corkscrew, made to
wind round a column or circular building.
Screw pin, a long pin ending in a screw, in order to
pass through a thick substance and screw into a
hoard on the other side.
Scribed. To scribe is to cut the edge of a board or
fillet, so as to make it fit and touch every point
of an irregular surface.
Scroll hinges, T hinges, with their projecting
points terminating in scrolls.
Scuttc/ieons, the bevelled parts of the elbows of the
inside of a window opening, where the shutters
are placed.
Set and rendered, plastered.
Set back hinges, hinges so contrived as to make the
shutters fit close to the window when shut, and
close back to the wall when open.
Set-off, a sloping face of masonry.
Settlements, when the foundation gives way un-
equally.
Settling pits, liquid manure tanks.
Shakes, fissures in the wood.
Shaped columns, balusters.
Shield or escutcheon of a lock, a piece of brass that
turns over the keyhole when it is not in use.
Shingles, oaken boards used instead of slates to
cover a building, and generally from eight to
twelve inches long, and four broad, thicker on
one side than the other.
Shoe, the part at the bottom of a water pipe, in-
tended to turn the current of the water.
Shooting, planing the edge of a board straight.
Shouldered, slates are said to be shouldered when
a thick layer of mortar is put on the upper part
of a row of slates, to serve as a bed on which to
lay the next row.
Shouldered in haired lime, the lower part of each
row of slates bedded in lime.
Shutting point of a gate, the line at which the gate
remains when it is shut.
Side arms, pieces of bond timber built into the sides
of the openings for windows.
Sills, cills, or soles, large pieces of wood or stone
fixed in the lower frames of doors and windows,
so as to project beyond the wall.
Silvered plate glass, looking-glass.
Sink stone, a stone perforated with holes, in order
that, when the dirty water in which dishes have
been washed is thrown away, any spoons 01
other articles of value may be retained.
Sinking on. In making iron chairs and other articles
of furniture, some of the parts are slipped on
while quite hot, and this is called sinking on.
Sizes fixed for bricks. Building bricks are never
allowed to be larger than nine inches by four
inches and a-half, and the head two inches and
a-half.
Skeleton roof, the wooden framework of a roof.
Skewback arch, a bevelled abutment, which serves
instead of a common arch. (See fig. 45.)
Skew stones, the coping stones of a gable, com-
monly called barge stones.
Skirting, thin pieces of wood nailed against the
walls of living rooms at their base.
Slabs of trees, trees of which only a piece on one
side has been sawn off, so that they are fiat on
one side and round on the other.
Slate boarding, boards placed on the roof, on which
to nail the slates : the same as sarking.
Slates are generally known by the following names,
the sizes of each description being annexed : —
Doubles, 1 ft. by 6 in. ; ladies, 1 ft. 3 in. by 8 in. ;
countesses, 1 ft. 8 in. by 11 in. ; duchesses, 2 ft. by
1 ft. ; imperials and patent slates, 2J ft. by 2 ft. ;
and Welsh rags and queens, 3 ft. by 2 ft. See
Wyatt's patent slates.
Slates rendered, plastered inside.
Sleepers, joists to support a boarded floor, laid on
the tops of dwarf walls.
Sleepy water, when water is conveyed to a fountain
by pipes which are of the same diameter for a
considerable distance, it is found to lose much of
its power, and to become what is technically
called sleepy, instead of rising up properly
through the jet. See p. 990.
fitter, i i'i.c .■ of wood which pulls out in front
from a chest of drawers, below the top, and
above the first drawer,
Sliding hatches, covers or shutters fitted in grooves.
Sliding shackle, iron rods in a cow-house, on which
a moveable collar is fixed for binding the cow.
Slip centres to arches, a slip of deal cut to the in-
tended line of the soffit of the arch, and sup-
ported by an upright piece against each jamb.
(See fig. MB.)
Slips, the marble or stone fixed to the jambs of a
fireplace.
Slots, crossbars.
Small couple rafters of narrow houses.
Smithy, a blacksmith's forge.
Smock windmills are built of timber covered with
narrow boards.
Snatch blocks, blocks of pulleys with hooks at-
tached.
Sneck, a latch.
Soffit, the part of the architrave which projects
over the columns ; but the term is used generally
for the underside of any horizontal projection.
Sole tree in a cow-house, the sill into which the
posts, to which the cows are tied, are mortised.
Sorted in courses, generally applied to slates when
they are laid so that the joints form regular
lines.
Spandrils. the space between the springing of an
arch and the flat surface it is intended to support ;
also the space forming the side of a flight of
stairs. (See fig. 241.)
Span of an arch. The span of an arch is the dis-
tance between the two points from which it
springs.
Spare-house, a place for a sick horse.
Spark-plate, a broad plate of cast-iron placed over
the stone in a hop-kiln to reflect back the sparks,
and prevent their reaching the hops.
Spars, the common rafters of a roof for supporting
the tiling or slating.
Spiked, nailed with spike nails.
Spiral stairs, stairs winding round a newel, or a
well-hole.
Spit, spade.
Spits, or broaches, short pieces of wood, steeped in
water to render them flexible, and then bent
into the form of staples, and used to fasten on
the thatch.
Splashing vails, throwing colour upon them with a
broad brush, to give them the appearance of age
by imitating weather stains.
Splat, the middle part of the back of a chair, which
either connects the top and bottom rails, or the
two side styles.
Splayed, bevelled off.
Splayed elbows, the bevelled sides of a recessed
window.
Spongy bricks, porous bricks, from not being made
of proper earth.
Springing course, the horizontal course of stones
from which an arch rises.
Spring stay-irons, irons for keeping lattice windows
open.
Spruce deals, boards of the spruce fir, ,4'bies com-
munis.
Spurs, lower stones of the sloping part of a gable,
generally called summer stones.
Spur wheel, a wheel on the main shaft of a mill
with the cogs or teeth standing outwards, the
wheel operating on a pinion.
Square (J carpenter's work, one hundred super-
ficial feet.
Square of slater's work, one hundred square feet.
Stacked, set up to dry, horsed.
Stark of chimneys, several smoke flues united in
one column, and generally carried up to some
height above the roof of the building to which
they belong.
Staff-beads, upright comer beads put at the exter-
nal angles of chimney jambs, and in similar
situations. (See p. 125. and Jig. 243.)
Stalks for chimneys, chimney shafts.
Stanchion bars, supporting bars.
Standard grates, kitchen grates supporting them-
selves by feet in front.
Standard rack, a rack so placed that horses or
cattle may eat from its top when standing, and
from its side when lying down.
Standards, the upright pieces of deal to which the
ends of shelves are fixed.
Stays, supports, generally of timber.
7 B
130G
GLOSSAItlAL INDEX.
Slewing a well or cesspool. To stecn is to line
with brick or stone.
Ste/l, in Scotland, is a square or circular fold, into
which sheep are driven and fed.
Stenciling is .said to be a corruption of stained eeil-
i 11 tz, but it is now generally used for the walls of
interior rooms. A pattern is cut out in paste-
board or oil cloth, and being put against the wall,
it is washed over with the colour which the pat-
tern is to be, the rest of the wall covered with
pasteboard being left while.
Step flashing, pieces of thin lead let into the joints
of brickwork, so as to fall One above another.
Step gable, a gable, the outline of which forms a
series of projections like steps.
Stink-trap, or bell-trap, a metal vessel for per-
mitting the escape ot water into a drain or sewer,
without admitting the fetid air trom the drain.
(Seed's- 222 to 224.)
Stock lock, a common kind of lock having wood at
the back.
Stocks, sound, hard, well-burnt bricks.
Stone joggles, pices of stone let Into each other In
the same way that boards are when they are
joggled on.
Stone t ablings, large stones.
Stones laid in random courses, land stones placed
irregularly.
Stones prepared, cut so as to lie flat.
Slimes properly headed, squared at the ends.
Stoothed, battened.
Stoolhing, quartering.
Stops, a term variously applied, but chiefly to slips
nailed on for doors or shutters to shut against, or
for fixing work.
Storm-head windows, windows projecting from the
side of a roof, so as to form a small gable. (See
fig- 380.)
Story posts, posts for supporting a building.
Stourbridge lumps, that is, masses of burnt clay,
18 in. or 2 ft. long, 9 in. or a foot broad, and (i in.
or Sin. thick.
Straighted, when the plasterer's work is made
smooth and even by a board or float.
Straight-jointed floors are floors made of boards of
the same width, but not joined so carefully to-
gether as doweled floors.
Strap irons are binding plates of iron.
Stretchers, bricks placed so as to have their length
appear on the surface or outside of a wall.
String-course, horizontal band.
String-courses, marked and projecting lines of
separation on the face of a building.
String moulding, a string-course decorated with an
ornamental moulding. ( See fig. 370.)
Strings of the stairs, the piece of wood above the
spandril in which the steps of the stairs are fixed.
SlrTits, pieces of timber which support the rafters,
and rest against the principal posts of a roof.
Strutting pieces, pieces of timber driven fast be-
tween each pair of joists, with their ends butting
against the groin of the joists.
Stub mortise, a mortise which does not pass through
the article mortised.
Stud work, framework.
Stuff, pieces of timber.
Stump bedsteads, bedsteads without any tester.
Styles, vertical side pieces of the frames of win-
dows, doors, &c.
Stylobate, a pedestal.
Subsills, pieces of wood or stone sunk into the
ground for gate posts to be fastened in.
Summer, a beam tenoned into a girder, to support
the ends of the joists on both sides of it.
Summer stones, stones placed on a wall or on piers
lor the support of beams, or to form the lower
angle of gable ends, as an abutment of the barge
stones.
Sunk sills, the upper part of the sill of a window,
sunk or grooved out so as to prevent the rain
from driving under the sash.
Superficial measure, measure in height and
breadth.
Sin base, the moulding round a room close to the
floor.
Surface draining, cutting gutters along the surface
ot the ground.
Surplice pins, hat pins.
Stray of a curtain, the curved part of the drapery.
Swagged taper, iron legs or other supports of
chaos or tables which are gradually tapered to
the bate.
Swagging applied to walls, swerving from the per-
pendicular.
Swill cisterns, cisterns for containing wash and
pigs' meat.
Swill house, a place for preparing pigs' food.
Swing doors, doors hinged so as to open either
way.
Sicily hinges, centre point hinges.
T.
T hinges, hinges somewhat in the shape of the
letter T. (See fig. 982.)
Tabling stones. See barge stones.
Tacks, small nails made of iron tinned.
Tacksman, the Scotch term for a tenant on lease.
Tallb i/s, high chimney pots put on to prevent the
chimney from smoking.
Tannin/, a kind of coarse woollen stuff, generally
highly glazed.
Tanks, square or oblong pits, lined with cement or
metal, for holding water, liquid manure, &c.
Tar r as, a volcanic earth, used as cement.
Tazza, a kind of flat wide cup, generally used for
fountains. ( See fig. Ill)
Templets, short pieces of timber laid under girders
and beams to distribute the weight.
Tenons, small square or round projecting pieces ot
iron or stone, which are let into mortises or
holes made to receive them.
Tessellated pavement, mosaic work composed of
small stones, &c, called tessella?.
Tethering stake, a stake for tying cattle to.
Therm, a pedestal increasing upwards for the re-
ception of a bust.
Thill, or train horse, the horse which is put be-
tween the shafts of a cart or waggon.
Thorough, the space in which a water-mill works.
Three-barred doors, ledged doors with three back-
boards.
Threshing mill course, the circular space upon
which the horse walks when turning the gin-
wheel belonging to a threshing-machine.
Throated, grooved underneath.
Throughed, walls built with cross-tie stones.
Tickcn, coarse twilled linen, generally striped.
Tie, a piece of timber or iron, acting as a string or
tie, to keep two things together which have a
tendency to fall asunder.
Tie-beams, horizontal pieces of timber. (Seefig.
54.)
Tie-joists, joists acting as strings or ties to keep
two masses together which have a tendency to
separate.
Tie-rods, iron rods answering the same purpose as
tie-beams.
Tillers, tilting fillets.
Tilting-fillels. narrow strips of wood, used to give
a slight inclination to the verge or border slates
where they butt against brick-work, in order to
divert the water. (Seefig. 55.)
Tongued, cut so as to fit into a groove.
Tontine system, where a building is raised by sub-
scription, and is to become the property of the
surviving subscriber. (See p. 738.)
Ton weight, ship measurement.
Tooled. A stone is said to be tooled when it is
hewn but not rubbed smooth afterwards.
Top plates, wall plates.
Top stones, the course of stones immediately under
the coping, generally in single blocks.
Torched, slates plastered at the crevices on the
under side, to keep the wind out.
Torus ?noulding, a semicircle between two rect-
angles. (Seefig. 240.)
Tower windmill, a windmill built of brick.
Tracery, various figures cut in stone, and generally
laid on other stones. (Seefig. 1617.)
Transepts. When a church is built in the form of
a cross, the two shorter limbs are called tran-
septs.
Transom, a cross beam forming the horizontal bar
of a window in the Gothic or Elizabethan style.
Tread, the horizontal part of a step or stair.
Trelliswork, reticulated or netlike framing, made,
of thin bars of wood, and generally used as sup-
ports for verandas, &c.
Trenail, a wooden pin or nail.
Tressel, a sort of stool used for supporting scaf-
folding boards. (Seefig ,217 )
Trevises, or Travises, partitions.
GLOSSAIUAL INDEX.
1307
Triglyphs, certain distinctive marks in the frieze of
the Doric order, formed by three glyphs, or
grooves.
Trimmed, framed or cut round so as to leave a
clear opening.
Trimmed in, a piece of work fitted in between two
other pieces previously executed.
Trimmer arches, an to support the
hearth-stones, abutting at one extremity on the
wall of the chimney, and at the other on trim*
ming pieces. See fig. I 'J IS.)
Trimmers, or trimming pieces, are pieces of timber
framed at right angles to the ends of joists.
Tripoli, a kind of stone used by lapidaries for
polishing jewels.
Truncated, cut off.
Trundle, a kind of wheel used In windmills.
Ti unhs, or tub
Truss To truss, in carpentry. Is to form a system
Of ties and struts for the support of a roof or
weight.
Tumbler lock. The tumbler of a lock is a piece of
iron, or other metal, inside the lock, to make the
bolt act truly and easily.
Turnpike staircase, a staircase where the stairs
wind round a central newel, reachiug from the
top to the bottom.
Tympanum, the space enclosed by the side and
horizontal cornice.
U.
Underground hraccs, cross-pieces or braces, sunk
into the earth to give firmness to gate-posts.
(Seejfc. 888.)
Underpinned sills, sills left hollow between the
two points of bearing till the walling is com-
i and then tilled up ; the filling up of the
hollow being called underpinning.
Under racks, standard racks, standing on the
and.
Undershot water-wheel, where the water is under
the wheel. (Seep. 570.)
Union joints, when pipes are connected with double
screws.
V.
Valley gutter, a gutter between two roofs.
fane, a weathercock.
Venetian frame, a frame in three divisions, the two
side divisions being narrower than the centre
one.
Vents, flues.
Verge slates, end slates.
Verges. Verges are the external edge of the tiling
in gables, which are covered with lime and hair,
or Roman cement.
Vertical and horizontal bond. Vertical bond is a
course of bricks, stone, or other materials, tend-
ing to support or strengthen the building verti-
cally ; horizontal bond is a similar course, tending
to bind or tie together the building horizontally.
{See Jig. 326.)
Vertical windmill, consists of an axis or wind-shaft
placed in the direction of the wind, and usually
inclining a little upwards from the horizontal
line. At the end of this are four long arms or
sails.
Vestibule, an ante-hall, or lobby, or inner porch.
Volutes, scrolls.
Voussoir, the overhanging part of an arch, looking
up from under it.
W.
Wall docks, plugs of wood.
Wall-head tailings, copings bevelled to throw off
the rain.
Wall-holed, deeply inserted into a wall.
Wall hooks, pieces of iron, one end of which is
fixed in the wall.
Wall plates, horizontal pieces of wood laid on walls
to support the rafters.
Wall straps, battens, or pieces of quartering, on
which to nail the laths.
Wanes, deficiencies in timber, owing to marking the
dimension too near the circumfen
Warnings, bracings.
d off, sloped.
Water tables, or weatherings, a species of ledge left
upon stone or brick walls, al t Ik in. or20in.
or more from tiie ground, from which place the
thickness of tin- wall i- diminished.
Water-trunks, wooden pipes to conduct the water
down. (Seejfe. tin.)
Water verge, a Blip nailed on to throw off the rail).
Wattled work, frames filled in with stakes or osier
twigs, interlaced in the manner of basket-work.
Ways, the opening to a chin
Weather-boarding, feather-edged boards, lapped
and nailed on each other, so as to prevent wind
or rain passing through.
Weathered, bevelled otf, to prevent the snow, &c,
from lodging.
Weather tiling, tiles for covering walls. (See Jigs.
392 to 402.)
Welding, the union of two pieces of iron by heating
and hammering.
Well holes, the opening left for a staircase.
Well-seasoned timber, timber kept till it is so dry
as to be in no danger of shrinking when it is
used.
Welsh cornice, two or three protruding courses of
brickwork, one of which has dentils formed by
the edges of bricks projecting at equal and regu-
lar distances.
Welsh lumps, large bricks made of fire-clay.
Wet larder, place where uncooked meat is kept.
Whin stones, broken pieces of granite, or any other
stone not freestone.
White deals, deals formed of pine wood, generally
of /"Inus Strdbus, in which there is little resin.
Winders, diagonal stairs for corners, where there
is no landing-place.
Wind-pinning, filling in the angle between the
wall-plate and the roof.
Windlass, wheel and pinion for raising weights.
Window board, a narrow shelf in the interior, at
the bottom of the sash. (Seejig. 73.)
Window dressings, labels, architraves, and other
ornaments surrounding windows.
Window frames deal cased, having frames with
wooden cases at the back of the pulley styles for
the lead weights to hang in.
Window frames properly bedded, having a sufficient
quantity of mortar between the frame and the
wall to render the frame perfectly secure.
Windows hung folding, casement windows hung to
open and shut against each other, as shown in
.fc- 177.
(I indsor chair, a wooden chair, the seat of which
is of elm, somewhat hollowed out ; the outer rail
of the back is of one piece, bent in the form of a
horse-shoe, by being previously heated or
steamed. (See p. 319.)
Wire cloth, very fine lattice-work of wire.
Wire-springs for stuffing mattresses, cushions, t/c,
are spiral coils of wire, generally the eighth of
an inch in diameter.
Wooden bricks, pieces of oak cut to the size and
shape of bricks, and built into walls for the pur-
pose of nailing joiners' work to them, when
finishing the rooms.
Wyatt's patent slates. Wyatt was architect to
George 111. ; he introduced a new mode of slat-
ing with very large thin slates, laid on rafters „f
much less elevation than any other kind of slat-
ing, and with the breadth of the laps much li ss.
Imperial slates are usually employed for this
purpose, as they have their lower edges sawn
smooth, and have consequently a much neater
appearance.
Y.
Yellow deals, deals of fir wood, properly the wild
pine, Plnus sylvestris, which abound in resin,
and are, consequently, more durable than white
deals.
York landing, an extra-sized stone laid down before
duors, and in the landing-places of stairs.
GENERAL INDEX.
«»* Where the letter p. does not occur, \ is to be understood.
Acres, a farm of 500, 1176, 1182; of 25, 1193; of
30, 1196.
Adjustment of construction to pecuniary means,
principle of, 2181.
Agreement for building a water-mill, 1250, 1252,
1254.
Agricultural manufactures, buildings for, 803.
Agriculturist's model cottage, 2243, 2248, 2253.
Alehouse of the smallest size, design for an, 1446.
Almshouses at Oving, 2427.
Alton Towers, valley-garden of, 1669 ; scenery of,
1669.
Ambulatory farmery, 1232.
Ambulatory cottages, 515.
American scrubbing-brush, 1384.
American stove, 1377.
Ancient style of architecture, how applied to
modern buildings, 2397.
Aunat Cottage, near Errol, Perthshire, 2359.
Air-trap for cottages, 237, 502.
Apartment, every one should convey the idea of
its use, 523.
Apparatus for cooking by gas, 1415 and 2044 ; for
baking by hot water, 1511 ; by steam, 1510.
Approach-roads to villas, principles of laying out,
1647.
Approach to a villa, 1677.
Arabesque ornaments for villas, 2023.
Arbroath flagstone, 334.
Arcades, 1665.
Architect, the great object of the, p. 4.
Architects, their efforts hitherto chiefly directed to
public buildings, 1.
Architects, the study of furniture necessary to,
p. 1.
Architects study more the expression of style than
the expression of use or purpose, p. 4.
Architecture, its use as a fine art, p. 2. ; the study
of its first principles necessary, p. 2. ; its
excellence the result of its principles, p. 4.
false expression in, 1861.
character in, 2219.
its leading principle, p. 4.
associations of Gothic, 1652; of Grecian, 1653.
of Italy, the landscape, 1 657.
fitness in, 2179 ; the different styles of, 2225.
expression of end in, 2195.
founded upon and guided by utility, 400.
influence of, on taste and morals, 1.
style of statues adapted to, 1997.
the merits of the pointed, 1873.
causes of the neglect of the pointed style in
villa, 1877.
of the Greeks, how applied to modern build-
ings, 2397.
novelty in, 2220 ; symmetry in, 2207 ; irregu-
larity in, 2208 ; simplicity in, 2209 ; propriety
in, 2210 ; proportion in, 2212 ; on the subject
of style in, 2232.
rustic, 2278.
heraldry as applied to ancient, p. 1226.
of Britain, defects of the villa, 1667.
application of cast-iron work to, 2525.
expression of character in cottage, 2349.
Architectural conservatories, 1952.
commode, 2543.
flower-garden, 1963.
gardens of villas, 1650.
ornaments for gardens, 1967.
ftyle in the exterior finishings of villas, 1993.
Architectural drawing, the study of, p. 2.
style in a farmery, 1224.
style relatively to natural situation, 1652.
Armorial sculptures on the exterior of villas,
2000.
Arithmetic frame, for schools, 1614.
Art, origin of, pref. v. ; the study required for
eminence in, pref. v.
Art of brickmaking, 1290.
Art, principles of criticism in, 2175.
Arts, the causes which have retarded their pro.
gress, pref. v.
novelty in the, 2220; terms of, 2221.
the influence of society on, pref. v.
Artificial cascades, 1971 ; stone, 1972 ; ruins, 197h.
Aspect in building, importance of considering,
1628.
Aspects, best, for cottages, 2237.
Asphalte, 2447.
Associations of Gothic architecture, 1652 ; of
Grecian, 1653.
Aviaries and menageries, 1949 ; at Cobham Hall,
1951 ; at Knowesly Hall, 1950.
B.
Bakehouse for farmeries, 727.
Baker's oven, improved form of, 1507, 1508 ; with
poultry-house over, 1508 ; improved form by
Mr. Hicks, 1509 ; for high-pressure steam, 1510;
by hot water, 1512 ; by gas, 1515.
Baker's patent mangle, 1381.
Baking bread, an oven for, 1505.
Bar, the fixtures of the, 1458.
Bar of an inn, 1415.
Barge-boards for cottages, and other external or-
naments, 550.
Barley-chopper, or hummelling machine, 1402.
Barn "for hay, 781 ; for maize, 782 ; for corn, 774.
Barns, fittings-up for, 1395.
Baronial house, design for a, 1819.
Bath-room, construction and arrangement of a,
2484.
Beau ideal villa, 1675. See English villa, beau
ideal of.
Beauty in architecture, which is the most essen-
tial, p. 5.
Beauty of certain Tillages in Britain, 2347 to 2349.
Beauties of irregular buildings, 117, 119, 120.
Bed-cupboard, 2132.
Bedding. See Cottage furniture.
Bed-room and dressing-room, furniture of, 2128.
Bed-rooms, proper colouring for, 2021.
Beds. See Cottage furniture.
Bed-room furniture, 2538.
Bed-rooms, ventilation of, 2477.
Bedsteads for villas, 2128.
Bed-steps, 2131.
Bee-houses for a farmery, 792.
Bell-hanging for cottages, 590 ; for inns, 1473 ; for
villas, 2069.
Bell turrets, 1931.
Billiard tables, 1856, 2081.
Blinds, 2515 to 2517.
Blinds, outside, for villas, 2002.
Boards, to prevent warping in, 2009.
Boarding floors of villas, manner of, 2009.
Boilers for cooking in inns, 1483 ; covers for, 1485.
Boilers for cottage wash-houses, 598.
Boiling-houses, 1169.
Bookcases for villas, 2093, 2185.
Book-stands, 2121.
GENERAL INDIA
1S09
Hothics, or lodges for single ploughmen, 1335,
1337.
Bowling-greens lor inns, 1480.
Box-beds, an of, 1886.
Brandt's test for proving building stone, 2185.
Brechin, 1390.
Brewery for villas, by Mr.Vokins, 2050; by Messrs.
Cottam and Hallen, 1061.
Brewhouse of farmeries, 728.
Brick-kiln, 1300.
Bricklayer's work for a water-mill, 1346,
Brlcklayer'a work of a farmery, 849, 868,
Bricklayer'* work for a cottage, 234, 295, 464, 849 ;
for a farm, 868.
Bricks made of ornamental forms, 2442.
Bricks of the time of Henry VI 1 1., 274.
Brick walls, modes of building, 2437.
Bridges for gardens, 1970.
Bridle for cows, 1390.
Britain, villas of, I667>
Bronze, to imitate by painting, 551.
Bruges stove, 594, 2343, 2531.
Buist's fan wire gate, 2489.
Building stone, test for proving, 9166.
Building, in the cubic form, advantages of, 2184.
the picturesque in, 1660.
importance of considering aspect in, 1628.
the first Gothic, In Italy, 8339,
Building cottage walls of clay lumps, 24 13.
Building cottages, essential requisites in, 2242.
Building a Sunday-school, specification for, 2418.
Building a water-mill, agreement for, 1250, 1252,
1254.
Building brick walls, 2437 to 2440.
Building walls, 2342.
Buildings, their influence on the mind, p. 3.
beauty of irregular, 117, 119, 120.
foundations of, 2433.
the application of ancient architecture to
modern, 2397.
farm, 2399 to 2413.
by fire, to lessen the destructibility of, 2189.
Italian, masonry of, 1926.
Buildings which Raphael and other eminent paint-
ers superintended, 1660.
Buildings in the pointed style, expense of, 1*76.
Buildings for agricultural manufactures, 803; for
containing mills, 1237, 1244.
Bullet-proof blinds, 556.
Burges's stove, 2060.
Bury Hill farmery and farm-house, 846; specifica-
tion for, 849.
Busts in gardens, 1982.
Calf-houses and cattle-sheds, fixtures for, 1390.
Calf-houses, models for, 760.
Caithness flagstone, 334.
Caithness stone and slate, 2503.
Candelabras, 2127.
Canopies to doors and windows of cottages, 561 .
Card-table, 2117, 2545.
Carpenter's and smith's yard for farmeries, 820.
Carpenter's and joiner's work of a farmery, 852,
869, 919, 983, 989, 1064, 1100, 1207.
Carpenter's and joiner's work for a water-mill, 1251.
Carpenter's shop and smithy for a farmery, 790.
Carpenter's work for a cottage, 238, 465, 852 ; for
a farm, 869, 983.
Carpets, the kinds most suitable to cottages, 681 ;
geographical, 683 ; substitutes for, 684.
Carpets, 2522.
Cascades for garden scenery, 1971.
Casino, 1810.
Cassiobury Park, cottages in, 2313 to 2323.
Castellated style, design for a villa in the, 1862.
Cast-iron gutters to roofs, 2453.
Cast-iron work, its application toarchitecturc,2525.
Cast-iron bedstead, 1407.
Cattle-houses, models for, 756.
Cattle-sheds, models for, 761 to 763.
Cattle-sheds and calf-pen, fixtures for, 1390.
Causewaying, 1160, 1206.
Cellars of farmeries, 713 to 718.
Cements for stuccoing cottages, 527, 532.
Cement, Mulgrave, 2288.
Cement, Martin's fire-proof, 2456 ; various kinds
of, 2501.
Cement floors for cottage bed-rooms, 2456 to 2459.
Ceilings of large rooms, 564 ; plaster ornaments
on, 568.
Ceilings, groined and ribbed, 1897.
painted, p. 1 221.
Cess-pools lor liquid manure, construction ot, 16.
Chadiey'i chimney-bar lor cottages, 002.
Chailey, cottage villa at, 1823.
Chairs for a nursery. 3149; for drawingrooms,
210S, 2ID2, 2168 ; lor dining-rooms of villas,
8086, 2156 ; for halls of villas, 2078, 2152.
Character in architecture, 2219.
Cheese-press, 1380.
Cheese-room of farmeries, 732, 733.
Chequers Court, home lodge at, 2331.
Chess-tables, 2120.
Cheval-glass, 2140.
Chiffoniers, 2113.
Chimney-gla6s, 2129.
Chimney-pieces for cottages, 588, 589.
Chimney-pieces for villas, 2063.
Chimney-pots called tall-boys, 432, 463.
Chimney-tops, designs for, 1794.
Chimney-tops for cottages, 29, 64.
Chimney-tops and smoky chimneys, 2172, 2474.
Chimnev-flues, 3888.
Chiswick, menagerie at, 1951.
Chubb'l patent latches, 1598.
Church, the village, 1733.
Churns for farm dairies, 1380.
Cider- house, 735.801.
Cider-house, mill, and press, 1295, 1310.
Cider.press, 1295, 1318; implements, 1312; Kent's
cider-press, 1316; stirrer, 1313; scoop, 1315;
racking-can, 1319 ; tun-pail, 1320 ; dropping-
bag, 1321 ; bottling-bench, 1322 ; bottle-box
1313.
Cinder-sifter, 1385.
Cinder-sifter for a farm-house, 1385.
Circular stables, 1937.
Clamp-kilns for burning bricks, 1292.
Claude's, picture of, 1660.
Clay lumps, building with, 2443, 2445.
Clay floors, 2461.
Cleaning-place of farmeries, 723.
Climate, in building, importance of considering,
1625.
Closeburn Cottage, plan of, 2259.
Coal, oven for, 1507.
Coal-house and wood-house of farmeries, 721.
Cob walls, mode of forming, 839.
Cobham Hall, aviaries at, 1951.
Coke instead of coal, burning lime with, 1283.
College for single working-men, 2257.
Colouring of furniture, 642 to 646 ; of rooms, 2013 ;
the interiors of cottages, 570 to 574.
Colouring, external, 1904 ; defects in internal,
2014; tone of, 2016, 2388.
Colours of carpets, 682.
Colonnades of villas, 1665.
Columns, effect of, 1796.
Combinations of dwellings of the humblest class,
2256,2344.
Compositions for the exterior colouring of cottages,
534 to 541.
Concrete, 2433.
Conditions, specification, ftc, for building a villa,
1802.
Conductors, lightning, 2190.
Conduits, 1160, 1205.
Confectioners' cooking-hearths, how formed, 1502.
Conservatories, architectural, 1952 ; aspect and
position, 1953 ; dimensions, 1954 ; mode of grow-
ing the plants, 1955; construction, 1956; mode
of heating, 1957 ; architectural style, 1958 ;
economical conservatory, 1959 ; detached con-
servatory, 1960; conservatory at Alton Towers,
1960; conservatory not architectural, 1961 ; at
Britton Hall, 1961.
Consol-tables, 2110.
Constructing a cottage privy in connection with
a cess-pool or tank for liquid manure, 2482.
Construction and materials of cottages, 2342.
of ovens for roasting meat, 1503.
of cess-pools for liquid manure, 16.
of fire-places and chimney-flues, 2191.
of flues for heating floors of cottages, 20, 34,
35, 489.
of a hop-kiln, 1278, 1288.
of an ice-house, 737.
of conservatories, 1956.
of cottages, 25, 57,62, 74, 103, 512 ; of farms,
999, 1024, 1155.
Construction and arrangement of a bath-room,
2484.
1:510
GENERAL INDEX.
Cooking anil heating by gas, 1445, 2044.
Cooking-hearths of confectioners, how formed,
1602.
Cooking-stoves for cottages, 594.
Cooling and ventilating in warm climates, 2479.
it ion of the working classes promoted by
combining their dwellings, 2256.
Copper conductors of lightning the best. 2190.
Copper cramps, why preferred to iron. 1599.
Coppice- win id chips, roofs made of, 2239, 2279.
Corn yard, 808.
Corn-mill, portable, 1404.
Corn-mills, 707 ; to be driven by water, 1240 ; by
wind, 1256.
Cornices for cottages, SOS,
Corrugated iron for roofs and other parts of con-
struction in farm buildings, 420.
Cottage, ambulatory, 515 ; ambulatory and co-
operative, 816.
one constructed of turf, and lined with brick,
38(5.
at Chingford, in Essex, 438.
building, as generally practised, 400.
English, for ploughmen, 1341.
French, for ploughmen, requisites of, according
in Morel- Vinde, 1361; construction of the
oven and warming-stove, 1362.
for ploughmen, by Mr. Marriage, 1368.
ovens, how to form, 1356.
portable, for emigrants, 509 ; sent to the Swan
River by Mr. Manning, 513 ; used as a
substitute for a country residence on the
banks of the Thames, 514.
villa in the Gothic style, 1759 ; at Edinburgh,
1776.
covering tiles for, 1368.
colleges, 486, 493.
decayed, improvement of. 359.
for a village tradesman, 362.
ovens, 596.
of one story, design for, 16, 43, 474; of two
stories, 47.
plan of the Closeburn, 2259 ; of Holkham, 2265.
the essential requisites for a labourer's, 2242.
a Cyclopean, 2:i2-s.
architecture, remarks on, 2349.
in the style of the Wingfield station-house, on
the North Midland Railway. 2290.
in the style of the Eckington Railway station,
2292.
in the modern Italian styles, 2294.
in the style of the Belper Railway station, 2296.
in the style of the Ambergate Railway station,
2298.
in the style of Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh,
2307.
in the Gothic style, for an upper servant, 2336.
in the old English style, 2340, 2362.
villas and villas, designs for, 2350.
fittings-ill) and furniture, 2343.
Cottages, designs for, exhibiting the greatest com-
fort and convenience, 14.
castellated, 164,439 ; Indian. 171 ; Elizabethan,
164, 310, 320; Scotch, 455; in the Gothic
style, 1759.
cooperative, 308.
double, observations on, 370.
erected at Shooter's Hill, 480 ; at Abersythan,
481.
external ornaments for, 1368.
exterior finishings of, 517, 526 ; interior finish-
ing of, 518, 564.
fitting up of, 519, 586 ; fixtures of, 520, 591.
for farm labourers, competition, plans for, sent
in to the Highland Society of Scotland, 1368.
for ploughmen, fixtures and furniture for,
1406.
for ploughmen of the Carse of Gowrie, 1335.
for ploughmen, specification for, 1351.
for farm servants, 795.
for lodging horses and cattle in the ground
Hour, 203.
for milestones, 142.
for Northumberland farmeries, 988.
furniture of, 521 .
heating the floors of, by steam, 1334.
heating of, from the back of the kitchen fire,
314 ; heating of, from the back of the par-
lour lire, 340.
on the Duke of Buccleugh's estate, in Dum-
iiire, 266 ; in Wigtonshire, 260.
illustration of expression in, 60.
Cottages, principles in finishing and furnishing,523
ornamenting them by means of vegetation, 563.
designs lor, in various styles, 54 to 516.
construction and materials of, 2342.
on platforms, advantages of placing, 2237.
by the road-side, position of, 2237.
in villages, 2344.
why their front should be placed obliquely to
the road. 2237.
training fruit-trees against, 2252, 2356.
built in woods, chimneys of, 2473.
in Northumberland described, 2233; in Bed-
fordshire, 2238,
Cottages in Cassiobury Park, plans of, 2314 to
: the best aspects for, 2237 ; gardens to,
2241 ; composition floors of, 2239.
Coitam's iron field-gate, 2488.
Couches, 2104.
Country school, 1572.
Country seats of the Italians, 1660.
Covered seats for gardens, 1769.
Covering walls with vines or fruit trees, 2356.
Cow-houses, models for, 757 to 759.
Cow-house, situation of, 2235.
Cowell's sash-suspender, 2513.
Creosote, preservation of wood by, 2507.
Cribs for villas, 2144.
Criticism of design in cottages, 366, 370, 371.
Criticism, principles of, in architecture, 2175;
analytical criticism, 2176 ; synthetical, 2176 ;
fitness, 2179 ; of purpose, 2180 ; of construction,
2181; in strength and durability, 2182; mortar,
2186; solidity, 2187; preservation from decay,
2187 ; from fire, 2188; expression of purpose,
2195; of style, 2201.
Cubic form in building, advantages of, 2184.
Cubitt's patent mill sails, 955.
Cubitt's improvements in roofing, 2450.
Cupboards, rising, for inns, 1457 ; rising cupboard
used by confectioners, 1457 ; in large inns, 1457.
Cupboards, corner, for cottages, 617.
Cupboard, bed, 2132.
Curb for well, 238.
Curtains, modes of hanging, 2523.
Cyclopean cottage, 2328.
D.
Dairy and poultry-house at Syndal House, 1947 ;
at Alnwick Castle, 1948.
furniture, fittings-up, &c, 1380.
of farmeries, 729 to 731.
Dairy lodge, erected at Chequers Court, Bucks,
2309.
Dalmeny cottages, remarks on the, 2264.
Damp in cottages, modes of preventing, 2237, 2435.
Decoration of villas, 1994.
Decoration, principles of, 2005.
of rooms, 2395.
Demesne and park of beau ideal villa, 1734.
Derby Railway terminus, 2299.
Designing cottages, architect's fee for, 254.
Designs, the guiding principle in, p. 6.
objects in the composition of, 15.
for buildings, use of, to an architect, 3.
for parochial schools, 1516.
for model cottages, 2234 to 2255.
for ornamental cottages, 2276
for cottage villas and villas, 2350.
Devenports, 21 14.
Dining-room, proper colouring for, 2018.
Dining-tables for villas, 2085.
Dog-kennels at Garth, 1945 ; for farmeries, 793.
Door hinges for cottages, 70, 84, 210, 317.
Door, to prevent the slamming of a passage, 2471
Doors of cottages, 2462,
Doors of cottages, to render ornamental, 551 .
of the rooms of villas, 2067.
Double cottage for two upper servants, 2338.
Drainage of a farmery, 821 to 825.
Drain to cow-house, 759.
Drain, Hitch's brick, 2141.
Drains, an air and vermin trap for, 2499.
Drawingroom, interior of, 2131.
furniture of, 2104.
Drawingroom of a villa, 1684, 1850; seats, 2544.
Dressers and sideboards for inns, 1459.
Dressing-room and bed-room, furniture of, 2132.
Dressing-tables, 2138.
Dressing-table with a bag drawer, 2542.
I Drying-closet for cottages, 306.
i Drying-closets for villas, 2053.
GENERAL INDEX.
1311
Drying-shed for farmeries, 784.
Dryness in cottages, modes of insuring. 2237.
Dry rot in timber, cause and cure of, 524.
Dwellings, their improvement, beneficial to so-
ciety, p. 1.
provisions for the fittings-up and fixtures of,
525.
Dwelling-houses and offices, gardens on the roofs
of, 1963.
Dwelling-rooms of villas, fittings-up and fixtures
of, 2054.
Dwellings of the humblest class, 2256.
Eaves-trough for cottage roofs, 2452;
Kcarte table, 2119.
Edifice, the employment of style in an, 2224.
Edinburgh reform mangle,
Egyptian ornaments for villas, 2024.
-. 1662 ; of columns, 1796.
Elevation of a villa relative to scenerj
Elizabethan cottage, 310 ; furniture, 2169 to 2172 ;
interiors, 2173.
I hau furniture for villas, 2168 ; chairs,
2169; tables, 2170.
Elizabethan style, 2308.
Emigrants, portable cottage for, 509.
Engine-house to farm, 1094.
English villa, beau ideal of, 1675; situation. 1 f!70 ;
approach, 1G77 ; architecture, 1678; gardening,
1679; porch, 16H0; eutrance-hall, 1681 ; gallery,
1682 ; saloon, 1683 ; drawingroom, 1684 ; library,
1685 ; dining-room, 1686 ; study, 1687 ; staircase,
1688 ; upper gallery, 1689 ; bed-rooms, 1690 ;
nurseries, 1691 ; governess's sitting-room, 1692 ;
servants' bed-room. 1693 ; housemaid's closet,
1694 ; bath-room, 1695 ; servants' office.
housekeeper's room, 1697 ; still-room. 161 8 ;
store-closet, 1699; china-closet. 1700; butler's
pantry, 1701 ; servants' hall. 1702 ; men's washing
and dressing closet, 1703; knife and shoe cleaning
place, 1704 ; kitchen, 1705 ; scullery, 1706 ; lar-
ders, 1707; salting-room, 170s ; smoking-room,
1709; wash-house, 1710 ; kitchen court anil its
appurtenances, 1711; cellars, 1712; ice-house.
1714; stable offices. 1715; dog-kennel, 1721 ;
kitchen-garden, 1723 ; pleasure-garden, 1724 ;
farm, 1726, 1729; dairy, 1728; village, 1732 ; de-
mesne, 1734 ; appendages to, 1934.
Entrance-lodges and gates, 1987.
Estimate for a farmery, 856, 1078, 1128, 1116. 1199.
Estimates for cottages of various styles, 40, 58, 67,
71, 88 to 97, 116, 124. 146, 245, 253,441 to 450.
Essay on Gothic architecture, by Air. Trottman,
1871 to 1907.
Evaporatory refrigerating apparatus, 2043.
Excavator's work of a farmery, 849, 868, 908.
Expression in cottages, illustrated, 60.
Expression of end in architecture, 2195 ; of ad-
quate construction, 2200.
Expression of character in cottages, 2349.
Fan wire gate, 2489.
Farm house, model plan of, 740 ; larger plan, 741 ;
French model farm house, 742.
Farm house and offices, finishings, fittings-up, and
furniture for, 1369 ; recesses for cupboards, clo-
sets, and pantries, 1372 ; parlour fireplace and
grate, 1373 ; furniture for the living and sleeping-
rooms, 1374; Vokins's bookcase, 1374; Saul's
bookcase and writing-desk clock, 1375; farm-
house sideboards, 1376; kitchens, 1377 ; tables,
1377; kitchen-ranges. 1377; back-kitchen furni-
ture and fixtures, 137*; washing-machine. 13*1 ;
mangle, 1381 ; brcwhouse fixtures and furniture,
1382; cider-house, 1383; cleaning house, 1384;
cinder-sifters, 1385.
Farm houses and farmeries, designs for, 703 ; model
designs, 709.
Farmeries, miscellaneous designs for, 845 ; Bury
Hill farm and bailiff's house, 346 ; Halstone farm
house and farmery, 882; Gatestack farm house
and farmery, 885 ; farm house and farmery in
Buckinghamshire, 888; in Ayrshire, 891 ; at In-
glestone, 894; at Alton, 896; at Grebten, 900 ;
in Dumfriesshire, 902 : at Kiddenwood, 904 ; in
Norfolk, with a windmill attached, 954 ; in North-
umberland. 956 ; at Cocklaw East Farm, 960 ;
at Newnham Barns, 964 ; in Northumberland,
for fourteen ploughs, 968 ; f'>r three plougl
at Hallington New-houses, 977; Caller, 997;
French farmery, 1001 j (bailout Lodge', 1019;
farmery in Strathmore, 1026; In the ('arse of
Gowrle, 1029; of Harleston, 1033; In the West
Highlands, 1041 ; in the west of Scotland
in Hoss-shire, 1048; in the pari.-li of Tarbet,
1051; Greendykes, 1085; Elcho Castle, 1130;
for a publican and a butcher, 1 119 ; lor a cheese
dairy, 1152; for a mixed stock farm in a hilly
country. 1151; for a garden farm, 1173; for a
farm of 500 acres, 117G ; for a dairy farm of 500
acres, 1182; for a breeding and feeding farm,
1190 ; for a cottage farm of 25 acres, 1 193 ; for a
cottage farm of 30 acres, 1196; a farmery ili«-
playing architectural taste, 1220 ; temporary,
portable, and ambulatory farmeries, 1229.
Farmeries, finishings, fittings-up, fixtures, and
furniture for, 13*7 ; chimney-tops for the *!ei;:!-
engines of threshing-machines, 13*7 ; chimncy-
for ploughmen's cottages, 13*7 ; internal
finishings of stables, 1389; harness pegs, 1389;
gruel troughs, pails, and other utensils, 1389;
cow-house fixtures and furniture, 1390 ; Nor-
mandy kitchen, 1390; piggeries, 1392; rabbit,
poultry, and pigeon houses. 1394 ; barn-,
steam threshing-machine, 1395 ; saw-mills, 1400 ;
portable threshing-machines, 1401 ; corn-mills,
1102; steaming apparatus, 1405; furniture and
fixtures for single ploughmen's rooms, 1407.
Farmeries, situation for, 833, 834 ; size of, 835 :
position of the farm house, 836 ; materials of,
v';-- ; roofs, 843 ; details of construction, 844.
Farmeries, temporary, portable, and ambulatory,
to convert monasteries, manufactories,
and other buildings into, 1234.
Farmeries, yards for, *07 ; corn-yard, 808 : rick-
yard. 809 to 816; hay-yard, 817 ; dung-yard, 81 8;
poultry-yard, 819; carpenter and smith's yard,
820,
Farmery, details of the various parts of, 744.
extra buildings for. 796.
Farm buildings, designs for, 2399 to 2413.
Farm-yard, on the management of the, 2111 ; at
Goodwood, 2412 ; at 1'utteridgebury, Bedford-
shire, 2413.
Feeding-houses, 1019 ; feeding-byre, 1136.
Fenders, 678.
Field-gate, 828, 829, 830.
Fields, gates for, 827, 828, 829, 830.
Filtering water, 2481 .
Filtering of water for cottages, 30, 305.
Filtering-machine, 698.
Filtering-machine for villas, 2077.
Fireplaces for inns, 1458.
Fireproof houses, general remarks on, 1809.
Fireproof kitchen ceiling, 1803.
Fire-irons, 679.
Fire, protection against, by public institutions,
1793.
Fireproof villa, 1781 ; Mr. Varden's plan for ren-
dering villas fire-proof, 1787 ; Mr. Frost's plan,
1788 ; French method, 1789; to render common
houses fire-proof, 1790 ; to render houses already
built comparatively fire-proof, 1791 ; to render
any building completely fire-proof. 1792.
Fire-screens, 2128; for the dining-rooms of villas,
2089.
Fire-place for a cottage, a simple and economical,
600.
Fire-places, the manner in which fenders are fitted
to, 2526.
Fire-place for cottages, Saul's improved, 2533.
Fireproof floors and partitions, 2496.
Fitness in architecture, 2179 to 2194.
Fittings-up and fixtures of the dwelling-rooms ol
villas, 20.54.
Fittings-up and furniture to cottages, 2343.
Fixed corner cupboards for cottages, 617.
Fixed dressers for cottages, 614.
Fixed rat-trap, 1407.
Fixed washhand-basins, washing-troughs, and
slabs for cottages, 608.
Fixtures for cottages, 591 ; kitchen-ranges, 592 ;
cooking-stoves, 594 ; warming-stoves. 595 ; ovens,
596 ; wash-house boilers, 598 ; parlour and bed-
room grates, 599; American stoves, 603; sinks,
607 ; fixed washhand-basins, washing-troughs
and slabs, 608 ; towel-roller, 609 ; towel-rail,
610; hat and cloak-pins, 611; iron hand-mill,
1319
GENERAL INDEX.
01'2 ; ironing-boards and flaps, 013 ; dressers, 014 ;
earner cupboards, 017.
Flagstone, Arbroath or Caithness, 384.
Moors of cottages, formation and ornament of, SS5.
of villas, manner of boarding, 2009 ; of in-
laving, 2010.
Flour-mill, portable, 1402.
Flower-garden, 1968; architectural, 1963.
Flower-stands, 2120.
Flues for heating the floors of cottages, con-
struction of, 20,34,489.
Folding register-stove, 1458.
Fountains for garden scenery, 1972.
French cottage for ploughmen, 1301.
French farm-house, 100H; French farmery, 1011.
Fruit-rooms of farmeries, 717.
Fruit-trees, how to train against cottages, 2252.
Fuller's ice-box, 2530.
Furniture and furnishing of cottages, 020 ; side-
boards, 022 ; dumb waiters. 02.'! ; bookcases, es-
crutoires, secretaries, or bureaus, 624 ; book-
shelves, 025 ; wardrobes, 020 ; chests of drawers,
627 ; kitchen tables, 62!) ; parlour tables, G30 ;
bed-room tables, 631; seats, 632; stools, 633;
footstools, 034 ; forms, 035 ; benches, 030 ; chairs,
637; lobby chairs, 038; kitchen chairs, 639;
parlour chairs, 640, 647, 64X ; bed-room chairs,
64'.) ; sofas, 050 ; sofa-beds, 651 ; beds of various
sort6, 052 ; folding camp-beds, 053 ; stump
bedsteads, 054 ; couch beds, 057 ; box-beds, 658 ;
French beds, 059 ; tent-beds, 000 ; four-post
bedsteads, 001 ; cribs, 662 ; bedding, 663 ; sub-
stitutes for stuffing cottage-beds, 664 ; wire-
springs. 665; air-beds and cushions, 660; hy-
drostatic beds, 667 ; bed-furniture, 663 ; window-
curtains, 669 to 672 ; window blinds, 073 to
675 ; looking-glasses, 070 ; dressing-glasses, 677 ;
fenders, 678 ; carpets and their substitutes, 080
to 085 ; hearth-rugs, 080 ; floor-cloths, 087 ;
mats, 688 ; scrapers, 689 ; hat and umbrella-
stands, 691 ; towel-horse, 092 ; clock-cases, 093 ;
folding screen, 694 ; fire-screens, 695 ; clothes-
horses and stands for brushing coats, 696 ;
children's furniture, 697 ; other articles of cottage
furniture, 698 ; pictures, sculptures, and other
internal ornaments, 699.
Furniture for inns, 1470.
of villas, 2071 ; of villa offices, 2074 ; for halls,
Gothic, for villas, 2147 ; Elizabethan, 2168.
Furniture, bed-room, 2538.
Flint walls, 331.
Floor-cloths, painted, 687.
Floors of cottages, composition, 2239.
Floors of cement, 2457 to 2459 ; of clay, 2461.
Footstool, 2544. See Furniture.
Foundations of buildings, 2433.
Foundation walls, preventing dampness in, 2434.
Gable-ends to Scotch cottages, 455.
Gates and entrance-lodges, 1987.
Gates for farm-yards and fields, 827 ; Buchanan's
field-gate, 828 ; Cottam and Hallen's field-gate,
829 ; the Closeburn field-gate, 830 ; gates to
open by machinery, 831 ; a gate with a puzzle-
latch, 832.
Gates of farmeries, 953.
Gate-lodge, design for a, p. 1180.
in the Swiss style, design for, 2281.
Gate-lodge or cottage, design for a, 2324, 2329.
Gate-lodges and gates at Chatsworth, 2300.
Gate-lodge and gates, design for a, 2286, 2288.
Gates to a lodge, design for, 2286 ; field, 2488 ; fan
wire, 2489.
Gate-stopper, 2490.
Gardens, rules for laying out architectural, 1650 ;
the Italian architectural, 1051.
Garden, value of liquid manure to a, 2237.
Garden structures, 1967.
Gardener's house, model of, 1751.
Gardens on the roofs of dwelling-houses and
offices, 1903.
Garden hedges to cottages, 2241.
Garrets, ladder for cottage, 180.
Gas, apparatus for boiling water by, in inns, 1445.
Gas cooking-apparatus, by Hicks, 1445 ; by Mallet,
2041. * *
Gas-lighting the rooms of villas, 2055.
Gas cooking-stove, 2380.
Gas, house lighted by, 2381 .
Geographical carpets, 0S3.
German stove, 2058,
(Milling Id decorating villas, 2025.
Gladstone's improvement on the threshing-ma-
chine, 1399.
Glazier's, painter's, and plumber's work for a
water-mill, 1253.
Glazier's, plumber's, and painter's work for a
farmery, 854.
Glazier's work for a cottage, 241, 298 ; for a farm,
870.
Goat-houses, 708.
Gothic architecture, essay on, by Mr. Trotman,
1871 to 1907.
Gothic architecture, as adapted to farmeries, 837.
Gothic furniture, 2147 ; for the hall, 2149 ; for the
parlour and dining-room, 2154 : for the library,
2158; for the drawingroom, 21G2 ; for bed-
rooms, 2100.
Gothic architecture, associations of, 1652.
Gothic style, small villas in the, 2370.
Gothic style, 2398.
Gothic villa, suited to the suburbs of a large town,
design for a, 2394.
Gothic furniture, remarks on, 2395.
Granary, model for, 778 ; French granary, 779.
Granary windows, 1117.
Grass-plots for drying clothes for cottagers, form-
ation of, 188.
Grates for cottage parlours and bed-rooms, 599,
600, 601, 692.
Grecian architecture, associations of, 1653; re-
marks on the characters of, 2397, 2398.
Grecian style, 2220.
Grecian arid Gothic style, compared, 1653.
Grecian forms and character to modern purposes,
the application of, 2397.
Grecian villa, design for a, 1737.
Groined ceilings, 1895, 1897,
Grounds to a villa, planting of the, 1748,
Guttering for cottages, 180, 190.
Gutters between roofs, mode of preventing the
snow, when thawing, from penetrating the roof,
1350.
Gutters to roofs, cast-iron, 2453 ; of wood, 2452.
H.
Half-timbered houses, remarks on, 2279.
Hall, Cobham, aviary at, 1951 ; Knowesly, 1950.
Halls, Gothic furniture for, 2149.
Hand-mill for cottages, 612.
Hanging of pictures in villas, 2062.
Hangings for the rooms of villas, 2012.
Harness-room for a farmery, 787.
Harlaxton, village of, 2349.
Harmony of colours, 2013.
Hat and cloak-pins for cottages, 611.
Heating and cooking by gas, 1445.
Heating cottages by hot water, 306, 498; Perkins's
method, 500 ; by steam, 498.
Heating the rooms of villas, 2050.
Heating conservatories, mode of, 1957.
Heating, modes of, 2509.
Hedge ale-house, design for, 1446.
Hedges for cottage-gardens, 128.
Height in building determined by the character of
the country, 1626.
Heraldic ornaments, remarks on the application
of, p. 1225.
Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh, 2308.
Hewn-work, 1089, 1204.
Hicks's improved oven, 1509, 1510; apparatus for
cooking by gas, 1515.
Hilly country, a mixed stock farm in a, 1154.
Hitch's patent rebated brickwork, 2440.
patent brick walls, 2342.
History of pointed architecture, 1881 to 1885.
Hinges, door, for cottages, 70, 84, 210, 317.
Hinge for a jib-door, 2494.
Hollow walls, 25, 336 to 340.
Hop-kilns, 799 ; as constructed at Farnham, 1270 ;
as improved by Read, 1272.
Hotel at Weybndge, Surrey, 2432.
Hope's villa, 1668.
Hospital, Heriot's, at Edinburgh, 2308.
Houses, remarks on fireproof, 1809.
House for a land-steward, 2389.
House in the town and a house in the country
compared, 1655.
GENERAL INDEX.
House, sir John RobUon's, Randolph I reicent
Edinburgh, 2378.
House, circumstances which influence the p
of a, 1642.
Or horned cattie, 766 ; Gar working oxen,
764 ; fur sheep, T» >'* -
, half-timbered, 2279.
By, the Italian mode of excluding it iron)
apartments, 2528.
I.
Ice-box
Ice-house, 736 to 738.
Implements foi 1312.
Implements of a barn, 1 102.
Infant scl of, 1619, 1623, 1614
Inlaid Boors, 2010.
Inn, design for, In the Italian style, 1122, 1438,
1450; in the Gothic style, 1436: in the Italian
Gothic manner, 1434; in tl I.I BuglUh style,
1442; hedge alehouse, 1446: in the Swiss style,
1 152.
Inns and public-houses, principles for designing,
I 113.
Inns, appendages to, 1 117 ; garden, 1417, 1428, fte.;
skittle-ground. 1429; bowling-green, 1430; tea-
garden, U31.
Inns, finishing, fittings-up, and furniture for, 1460 ;
general store-room, 1 160 ; larders, 1461 ; napkin-
press, 1460; cast-iron wine-bins, 1462; bottling
and corking machine, 1463 ; Mallet's air-peg for
ale and beer-casks. 1463; washing and wringing-
machine, 1 164 ; drying-closet, 1466 , watei
1467 ; cleaning-shed IfiN; heating-stove, 1471 ;
apparatus for lighting l>y gas. I 172 ; system of
bells and spe: I 73; descending table,
1474 ; system of distributing water, bath, 1 176 ;
Anglo-American stove, 1477 ; chairs ol east and
wrought iron. 1 177 - . 1177 ;
other articles, I 17^ and 1479.
Inns, fittings-up and fixtures for, 1443; bar, coun-
ter, beer.and spirit apparatu OOking-
apparatus, 1445 ; water-closet. I 153, 1467 ; lor
the bar, 1466; rising cupboards, 1457; folding
register-grates, 1468; sinks, I486; side-tables
and dressers, 1459 ; for the store-room and
larder, 1460, 1461 ; cellars, 1463; washing and
wringing-machine, 1464, 1465; for the laundry,
I466g cleaning-house, 1468; baths, 1470.
Inns of Germany and other countries, 1410; of
recreation, 1410 ; model designs for inns, 1413 ;
accommodations for the house, 1414 ; of the bar
or office, 1415 ; of the stable-court, 1416 ; of the
grounds, 1417.
Inns, situations for, 1419 ; style of, 1420.
Interiors of rooms in the Grecian style, 2091, 2103,
in the Gothic style, 2157, 2161, 2165; in
the Elizabethan style, 2173.
Interior composition, suitableness of pointed ar-
chitecture for, 1874.
Iron-boards and fixed flaps for cottag
ir buildings, beauties of, 117, 1 19, 120. 2208,
Iron In ' I 107.
Iron hand-mill for cottages, 612.
Iron sheep-rack, 1393.
Iron, preventing rust In
iron roofs for cottages, 419 ; corrugated, 420.
Italian architects worked on the principles of the
painter, 1121.
Italian villas, 1659.
Italian architecture, observations on, by Mr. Lamb,
1918 to 1932,
Italian villa, 2391.
Italian styles, design for a cottage in the modern,
2294.
Italian style of architecture, characteristics of,
1933.
Italy, villas of, 1657 ; landsca|>o architecture of,
1668.
Jeakes, his mode of fitting up stewing-hearths in
kitchens. i 501.
i. mi, rich Gothic mansion at
Joiner's and carpenter's work of a farmery. 9
919, 983. 989, 1064, 1100, 1297.
Joiner's work for acotl
for a school,
K.
Keeper's lodge a) Bluberhousi i, 2338.
Kilns for malt, 1262; for hops. 1270, 1272 ; for lime,
1281; for bricks or tiles, and other |
Kilns for malt, 798; for bops, 7V.I ; for general
purpoii
Kinzigthal, cottages In, 206.
Kitchen-range in use near Leamington in War-
wickshire, 2029.
Kitchen-ranges and cooking-apparatus for inns.
I (81 ; for cottages. 592.
Kitchen-ranges with baking and roasting ovens,
I Mil.
Kiti hens of inns, finishings, fittings-up, and fixtures
for, 1-180.
Kiti hens of villas, fittings-up, and fixtures for,
. a kitchen, by Mr. Mallet, 2030.
Kitchens, principles and rules for fitting up. as laid
down by Count Kumford, 1482 to 1500; practice
usual in London, 1501.
Kitchen fireplace for cottages, improvements in,
Kitchen-garden of a villa, 10p;
Kitchen-range, improved, 2532.
Knife-board, 1384.
Labourers' cottages, 334, 385.
Labourers' cottages in Bedfordshire, 2233.
Labourer's cottage, the essential requisites for a,
2242.
Ladder for cottage garrets, i
Ladies, how they may educate themselves in archi-
tecture, and influence which that will have on
art, 1.
Lady's work-table, 2115.
Lancasterian schools, 101 1 .
Landscape architecture of Italy, specimens of, 1658.
Landscape drawing, the study of, p. 2.
Landscape-gardening, at connected with build-
ings, 9 ; how it may be acquired bv an architect,
1674.
Land-steward's house, design for a, 2389.
Larder and pantry of farmeries, 719; of inns, 1461.
Latches, Chubb's patent, 1598.
Latch, a gate, 2491.
Lath and plaster partitions, 2495.
Laundry of farmeries, 726.
Laying out villages, 2347.
Laxton's cinder-sifter, 1385.
Library, interior of, 2161.
Library furniture for villas. 2092, 2158.
Library tables for villas, 2095, 2160.
Library, proper colouring for, 2020.
Lighting the rooms of villas by gas, 2055, 2381 .
Lime-kiln, 802.
Lime-kiln, as improved bv Mcnteath, 1282 ; other
forms, 1289.
Limestone, modes of burning. I Js| .
Liquid manure, tanks for, in a farmery, 825, 826.
Liquid manure tank, 2237. 2483.
Lithic paints for covering cement, 528.
Locality, what is to be understood by it, 1633.
Locks and other fastenings for cottagi
Lodge, in the Swiss si
Lodge, a turnpike, design for a, 2326.
Lodge, the Chequers Dairy. 2309, 2331.
Lodge at Bluberhouses. keeper's, 2333.
Lodge, design for a castellated
Lodges, entrance, designs for, 1987.
Lodging-places for animals, principles for design-
ing, 745 to 749.
Loo-tables, 2118.
M.
Machine, barlev-chopper, 1402; for filtering, 698
2077.
Machines of a barn, 1402.
Machinery, gates to open by, 831 ; threshing, 1135.
Madras schools. 1530.
Maize, barn for, 782.
Mallet's cottage range, 503 ; apparatus for cooking
by gas, 2044.
Malt-houses. !
Malt-kilns, designs for, 1262.
Mangers, 751 to 753.
Mangle, Baker's patent. 1381.
■ S
1314
GENERAL INDEX.
Mansions of the Tudor time?, 1886.
Mansions, to convert into farmeries, 1234.
Mansions, Gothic, at Jerningham, 1865.
Manufactures, buildings for agricultural, 803.
Manure tank, 304.
Manure, underground gutters for liquid, 825.
Map of beau ideal villa, park and farm, 1734.
Mason's work for a farmery, 851, 871,909, 981, 1073,
1088, 1201 ; for a water-mill, 1249.
Mason's work for a cottage, 237, 446, 851.
Mathematical tiles, 547.
Materials for walls of cottages, 330; for farm
buildings, 838.
Materials of cottages, 2342.
Matting of different sorts, 688.
Mechanic's model cottage, 2250.
Menageries and aviaries, 1949; at Cobham Hall,
1951.
Menagery at Chiswick. 1951.
Men's lodge for a farmery, 794.
Metal-work, 2524.
Mignonnette boxes of artificial stone or Stafford-
shire ware, 222.
Milk-pans for dairies, 1380, 1947.
Mill for cider, 1295, 1310.
Mills for grinding corn, buildings for, 1237.
Mills, water, 1240.
Model cottages, designs for, 2234 to 2255.
Models for calf-houses, 760; cattle houses, 756.
Modern Italian style, a cottage in the, 2294.
Monasteries, to convert into farmeries, 1234.
Moorish tiles, 382.
Mortar, principles of making, 2186.
Mulgrave cement, 2288.
Mural ornaments, 1966.
Music-rooms, furniture of, 2122.
Music-stands, 2123.
Music-stool, 2124.
N.
Natural history paper, 584.
Normandy brechin, 1390.
Northumberland cottages described, 2233.
Nott's stove, description of, 2059.
Novelty in the arts, 2220.
Nursery furniture, 662, 696, 2143.
O.
Observations on Italian architecture, by Mr.Lamb;
1918 to 1933.
Offices of a villa, 1644.
Oil, painting rooms in, 576.
Old English style, design for a villa in the, 1704,
1827 ; cottage in the, 2340, 2362.
Order in architecture, 2210.
Oriel window for cottages, 215.
Ornaments, Egyptian, for villas, 2024.
Ornaments, mural, for terrace parapets and archi-
tectural gardens, 1966.
Ornaments, internal, 699 ; in papier mache, 2527.
^Crnamental effect of half-timbered cottages, 2279.
cottages, designs for, 2302 to 2307.
Ornamental carpentry, examples of, 1899 to 1903.
Ottoman footstools, 2107.
Ottomans, 2106.
Outside blinds for cottages, 555 ; Venetian, 556 ;
other varieties, 559 ; wire blinds, 560 ; for villas,
2002.
Outside shutters for cottages, 553; shutter-blinds,
554.
Ovens for baking bread, 1505; for burning green
wood, 1506 ; for burning coal, 1507 ; for cottages.
596, 597 ; for inns, 148U; for roasting meat, con-
struction of, 1503.
Oving almshouses, 2427.
Oxen-houses, models for, 764.
P.
Pagoda at Alton Towers, 1670.
Paint, cheap sorts for cottages, 575, 577.
Paint, the most suitable for the outside work of
cottages, 540.
Painter's, plumber's, and glazier's work of a farm-
l »70, 986, 993.
Painter's plumber's, and glazier's w ork for a water-
mill, 1253.
Painter's work for a cottage, 242, 299 ; for a farm.
870.
Painters, eminent, 1660.
Painted floor-cloths, 687.
Pointed ceilings, p. 1221.
Painting rooms, 2388, 2393, 2518.
Painting of rooms, principles of, 2013.
Painting the woodwork of cottages, 544 ; tiles for
bricks, 545.
Pantry and larder for villas, 2034.
Papering the walls of cottages, 581 to 584 ; natural
history paper, 584.
Papin's "digester, use of, for cottages, 1353.
Paper-hangings, 2520.
Papier-mache ornaments, 2527.
Parlour, proper colouring for, 2019.
Parapets for terraces, designs for, 1965.
Parochial schools, 1575, 1593, 1605, 1612.
Parqueted floors, 2010.
Parsonage house in the Old English style, 1757; In
the Italian style, 1772.
Particular lor building a villa, 1802.
Particular. See Specification.
Partitions, fireproof, 2496.
Pastry-room for villas, 2036.
Patent slating described, 2283.
Paving with clumps of wood, 1944.
Penshurst gate-lodge, at Redleaf, 2329.
Perkins's oven for baking by hot water, 1511.
Pianofortes, 2122.
Picturesque in building, 1660; effects of buildings
the study of, 1648.
Pictures in villas, hanging of, 2062.
Pictures, 699.
Picture gallery, 1964.
Pier consol tables, 2111.
Pier tables, 2112.
Pigeon-houses, 771 ; fittings up for, 1394.
Piggeries, models for, 765.
Pit for solid manure, 221(7.
Planing machine, 20(19.
Plastering cottages, 531.
Plaster-work, process of painting, 2519.
Plaster ornaments for cottages, 568.
Plasterer's work for a cottage, 235, 447, 850.
Plasterer's work for a water-mill, 1247; for a
farmery, 850, 936, 982, 989, 1215.
Platform or terrace for cottages, construction of,
26.
Plating, or silvering, in decorating the rooms of
villas, 2026.
Pleasure-grounds of villas, 1648.
Ploughmen, dwellings for, 1330.
Ploughmen's cottages of the Carse of Gowrie,
1335.
Ploughmen's cottages in Northumberland, 1339 ;
in Wilts-hire, 1341 ; in Gloucestershire, 1345 ;
by Mr. Tugwell, 1352 ; in France, 1361 ; double
cottage, 1365.
Plumber's and painter's work of a farmery, 854,
870,986,993, 1110.
Plumber's, painter's, and glazier's work for a
water-mill, 1253.
Plumber's work for a cottage, 240, 448 ; for a
farm, 870.
Pointed architecture. See Gothic.
Police office of Edinburgh, mode of heating,
1334.
Polishing of furniture, 2109.
Ponds for farmeries, 806.
Porch for cottages, 28.
Porches of villas, 1664.
Porches, Italian, 1932.
Portland-stone chimney-pieces, a valuable sub-
stitute for, 589.
Portable cottage, design for, 509.
Portable farmery, 1231, 1615.
Porticoes for cottages, 149.
Portfolio-stands, 2125.
Position of cottages by the roadside, 2237.
Post and clothes-pegs, 188.
Potato- washer for villas, 2041.
Poultry, management of, 1327 ; poultry-house for
cottagers, 1329.
Poultry-houses, 770, 1325 ; for a ploughman's cot-
tage, 1366 ; fittings-up for. 1394.
Poultry-yards for farmeries, 819.
Poultry-house, situation of the, 2236, 2404.
Poultry-yard, 2404.
Poussin, Nicholas, picture of, 1660.
GENERAL INDEX.
1315
Poys, or supported tea-chests, 2547. See Furniture.
Preservation of wood, 2507.
Preserving the tapes of Venetian blinds from the
sun, 2515.
1310.
Principle! In designing infant schools, 1518;
schools for mutual Instruction, i
Principles in designing windows, 2S36.
Process ol painting plaster-work, 2">I9.
Projecting fixed canopies for cottage doors and
windows, 561.
Proportions of rooms, 2912.
Propriety in architecture, 2210.
Prospect !■>»! i
Public-house, design for a, 2429.
Public-house*. See Inns.
Pugging of walls and Boors, 2193.
Puinp, 1407.
R.
Rabbit-houses, 709 ; fittings-up for, 1394.
Racks and mangers, 751, 752,
Kadway Grange, ruins of, 1978.
Railway stations, 2299, 2327; terminus at Derby,
2299.
Raphael, the buildings he superintended, 1600.
Rebated brickwork. Hitch's patent, '.Mia
Relief, sculptures in high and low, 1998, 1999.
Remarks on style of villas, 1652.
Register-stove, folding, 1458,
Regularity in architecture, 2207 ; relation in,
2222.
Rlck-stands, various sorts, 809 to 816.
Riding-houses, designs for, 1938; roofs for, 1939 ;
(-house "I Monaco, 1938; of Moscow,
1943 ; cast-iron roof for, 1942; timber roof for,
of 14") ft. span, 1943; riding-houses used as
tennis-courts, 1944.
Road-scrapings, when a substitute for sharp sand,
527.
Roads, principles of laying out approach to villas,
1617.
Roaster, a portable, 2534.
Roasting-oven, 253U.
Rockwork, 1979.
Roman mode of tiling, 1924.
Roman cements, 527.
Roman villas, the transition from the, 1658.
Romans, villas of the, 1658, 2366.
Roof, cast-iron, by Mr. Tredgold, 1942 ; timber,
1943; for riding-houses, I
Roofs, iron, for cottages, 419; corrugated iron
roofs, 420.
of cast iron for cottages, 153.
of thatch, chips, spray, or heath, 2239; native
Scotch fir, 2454.
terrace, construction of, 2146 ; suspension,
2451 ; windows in, 2498.
of farm buildings, 843, 1102.
Roofing, asphalte, 2448 ; improvements in. 2450.
Room, account of one finished in a new style,
2027.
Room of all work for a farmery, 791 ; for smoking
hams and other dried provisions, 739.
Rooms of villas, gas-lighting the, 2055.
proportions of, 2212.
painting and papering of, 2388, 2518, 2520,
2521.
Roughcasting, or harling, cottages, 529, 532.
Rows of cottages, remarks on, 2345.
Rubble -work, 1088.
Ruins for garden scenery, 1978 ; of Radway
Grange, 1978. .
Rustic architecture, 2278.
Rusticated work
S.
Saloon of an English villa. 1683.
Salting-room of farmeries, 7 J'1
Sash-fastening, 2493; sash-suspender, 2513.
Saul's reform mangle, 1381 ; improved cottage
fireplace, 2533.
Saw-mills, 1400.
Scagliola, process of, 2007.
Scenery, cascades for garden, 1971.
characters of, 1652.
of Alton Towers, 1669.
Scraper
School fittings-up, fixtures, and furniture, 1007;
forms and desks, 1540 ; telegraphs, 1543 ;
drawers, 1544, semicircles, 1545; various other
articles, 1549 to 1558; general rules for fitting-
up school-rooms, 1559; fittings-up of infant
schools, 1608; of Madras schools, 1580; of cir-
culating schools, 1610; of Lancasteriau schools,
1611 ; of paroi blal schools in the country, 1012.
School in the Italian Style, design for a, 2414.
in the Gothic style, 2202.
Schools for mutual instruction, principles for de-
signing, and model forms, 1528; according to
the Madras system, 1530; to the circulating
system, 1532; to the Lancasteriau system,
1533.
Schools, model designs for, 1521 ; miscellaneous
designs for, 1574 ; a parochial school in the
modern style, 1575 ; specification fur, 1578 ; a
parochial school in the Gothic style, 1593; spe-
cification for, 1595; a parochial school in the
Italian style, Hid.").
Schools, parochial, principles for designing, 1516;
infant schools, 1518; Wilson's model infant
school, 1521 ; Wilderspin's model infant school,
1523 ; Westminster infant school, 1527.
Scotch cottages, gable-ends for, 455.
Scottish cottagers, habits of, 1649.
Scullery for villas, 2031.
Sculpture and picture gallery, 1964.
Sculptures, their application to the exterior of
villas, 1995; armorial sculptures, 2000.
Seats for gardens, 1969 ; hour-glass seat, 2544.
Sepulchral structures iu garden scenery, 1985.
Shafts, chimney, 1891.
Sheep-houses, models for, 766 ; French, 767.
Sheep-rack, iron, 1393.
Sideboards for villas, 2083, 2154, 2170.
Sinks for cottages, 007 ; for inns, 1459.
Simplicity in architecture, 2209.
Single cottages, advantages of, 2242.
Situation proper for farmeries. 834 ; for infant
schools, 1518; fur villas, 1624.
style relative to natural, 1652.
of a villa, 1676.
lor buildings in the Swiss style, 2285 ; for a
labourer's cottage, 2242.
Skittle-grounds for inns. 1429.
Slater's work for farmeries, 1122, 1216; for a
water-mill, 1248.
for a cottage. 236, 443.
Slating, Tugwell's mode of, 1222.
patent, 2283.
Slaughter-house for a farmery, 789.
Small villas in the Gothic style, designs for,
2370.
Smith's work for farmeries, 984, 991.
Smithy and carpenter's house for a farmery, 790.
Smoke, the consumption of, 605.
Smoking-house, 73'.i.
Smoky chimneys. 2472. 2474.
Snow, escape of melted, in roofs, 2384.
Sofa-table, 2116.
Sofas, 2105.
Soil, considerations of, in the choice of a villa,
1629.
South-east aspect the best for cottages in Great
Britain, 2237. <<*
Specification for building a villa, 1802.
Specification, or particular, for a cottage, 78 ; for
a farm house and farmery. 849. 907, 979, 1053,
1200.
for building a Sunday-school, 2418.
Specifications and estimates for cottages, 78, 233,
294,441.
Splashing the walls of cottages, 542.
Square buildings, advantages of, 118.
Stables for farmeries, 750 ; model farms, 752 to
755.
Stables for villas, 1935 ; for beau ideal villa,
1936; circular, 1937.
Staining furniture, process of, 641.
Staircase of a villa, 1688, 1847 ; ornamental, 1903.
Statues for garden scenery, 1980 ; their applica-
tion to the exterior of villas, 1996.
Steam, heating the floors of cottages by, 1334.
Steam-engine, purposes for which it may be ap
plied in cottages, 498.
Steam threshing-machine. 1395.
Steaming-house and boiling apparatus, 1405.
Stencilling the walls of cottages, 578 to 580.
Step-ladder, a fold-up, 2512.
Stone, artificial, of the time of Henry VIII., 274.
Stone for building, test for proving, 2185.
l:ilo
GENERAL INDEX.
Stonehenge, imitation of, at Alton Towers, 1670.
Storehouse for a farmery, 773, 789 ; for pig '« food,
783 ; for hair, wool, and feathers, 784 ; for im-
plements and machinery, 785, 786.
Storeroom for villas . ■
Stove, American, for cottages, C03.
Stoves for consuming smoke in cottages, 605.
Stoves for villas, 2057 ; Sylvester's, 2057 i German,
2058 ; Nott's, 2059 ; Burges's, 2060, 2343 ;
■: .1^-1 kill- .
for heating, different kinds of, 2509.
Street cottages, 2275.
Style of villas, remarks on, 1652 ; remarks on the
pointed, 1875 to 1885; origin of the pointed,
1880.
Style adapted to scenery, 1652 ; fitness of for com-
fort, &c, 1654.
Style of conservatories, architectural, 1958.
Style of statues adapted to architecture, 1997 ; of
colouring, 2017.
style, Elizabethan, 2308.
Styles of architecture, on the different, p. 4.. '2225 j
Grecian, 23S7 ; Gothic, 2398.
Suburban villa, 1746.
Sunday-school, specification for building a, 2418.
Surface in building, character of, 1627.
Suspension roofs, 2451.
Swiss style, design for a .rate-lodge in, 2281.
Sylvester's mode of heating by a cockle stove,
1809, 2057.
open fireplace, 2062.
Symmetry in architecture, 2207.
T.
Tables of various kinds for drawingrooms, 21 1 1
to 21 10; 2546; for dining-rooms, 2085; for li-
braries, 2095.
Tank for filtering and preserving water, 151, 722.
Tank, Mr. Mallet's plan for, 805.
Tanks for liquid manure in a farmery, 825, 826.
Tank for rain-water, 2480.
for liquid manure to cottages, 2237, 2483.
Tea-chests, or Toys, 2547. See Furniture.
Tea-gardens for inns, 1431.
Tea-pots of cast iron, 1338.
Tennis-courts, 1944.
Terraces and parapets, 1965.
Terrace, 26.
Terrace roofs, 2446.
Tesselated pavement with common bricks, 1785.
Thatch and thatched roofs, 2239, 2455.
Therms in gardens, 1982.
Threshing-machine, to be impelled by steam,
1396 ; Burstall's mode, 1397 ; driven by water,
1399 ; threshing-machine at Bagshot and at
Wynnstay, 1399.
Threshing-machines, portable, 1401.
Tiles, Grecian, for cottages, 50 ; Italian, 50 ; curved
and angular, 172 ; semi-cylindrical Italian, 18:, ;
Moorish, 382 ; weather-tiling, 459 ; pantile for
admitting light, of pottery, 490; of cast iron,
954 ; mathematical, 547.
Tiling for cottages, 547.
Tile, improved form of, 2289.
Tiles, the new French roofing, 2449.
Timber, British, price of, 293.
Timber, principles of preserving from natural
decay and dry rot, 2188 ; from destruction bv
-189.
i roof of 145 ft. span, 1943,
Timber in buildings, to preserve, 2188.
Timber, preservation of, 2312, 2342,
i houses of England,
rimbers In a farm. 1066.
[itian's, picture of, 1G0O.
Toll-house, 347.
Toll-bar, the German, 831.
Towns, labourer's tenements in, 2275.
1968.
609, 610.
Training plants against a house, 2252, 2297.
Trap, air, for cottages, 237
the injury tiny do on the windowed side of
a house, 59,
I I Ottages, -.raining. 2252.
Trellis-work in garden ,1984
Trivi ilnli.
Tudor villa, I
architecture, Iksp,.
Turf, ci
Turnip-chopper, 1404.
Turnpike-lodge, plan and elevations of, 2326.
U.
Uniformity in architecture, 2207.
Union workhouse, design for a, 2426.
Use in architecture, expression of, 2199.
Urns in gardens, 1982.
Utensils of a barn, 1402 ; of kitchens, 2042.
Vases in gardens, 1982.
Vault. 1896.
Ve [etables, cellar for forcing some kinds of cu-
linary, 716.
Vegetable- washing machine for villas, 2042.
Venetian blinds, 556.
Ventilation of villas, 2192.
Ventilation, remarks on, 2475 ; in public build-
176; of bed-rooms, 2477, 2478, 2379.
Verandas of villas, 1665.
Verandas, ornaments for cottages, 156.
Vertical windmill, construction of, 1257.
Vestibule to a villa, 1845.
Villa, beau ideal of, 1675 ; described, 1676 ; maps,
plans, and elevations of, 1734.
Villa, Grecian, 1736; Grecian, of moderate size,
1742; suburban, 1746; Anglo-Italian, 1753 ; par-
sonage-house, 1757; cottage villa, 1759; old
English villa, 1764; villa at Hannafield, 1768;
cottage villa at Edinburgh, 1776; modern villa,
fire-proof, 1781; double suburban villa,
small Grecian villa, 1810; villa in the old Scotch
Style, 1814; Scotch baronial house, 1819; cot-
tage villa, 1823; old English villa, 1827; Tudor
villa. 1832 ; villa in the Grecian style for a large
family, 1855; villain the castellated style, 1863;
villa in the latest style of pointed architecture,
1868; mixed Gothic villa, 1908: Italian villa,
1911 ; in the Italian style, design for a, 2391;
in the Swiss style, 2350; in the modern style,
2354 ; a small Roman, 2366 ; an Anglo-Grecian,
2396.
Villas, principles for laying out, 1623; choice ot
situation, 1624; climate, 1625; elevation, 1626;
character of the surface, 1627 ; aspect, 1628 ;
soil aud subsoil, 1629 ; water. 1630 ; vicinity
to the sea, 1631 ; locality. 1633 : other circum-
stances, 1634 to 1637 ; position of the house, 1639;
features in the ground, 1640 ; various circum-
stances, 1641 to 1646; approach road, 1647;
pleasure-grounds, 1648 ; architectural gardens,
165ft
Villas, appendages to, 1934.
Villas, exterior finishing of, 1992; interior finish-
ing of. 2003 ; gates and lodges to, 1987 to 1990 ;
heating rooms of, 2054.
Villas, Gothic furniture for, 2143.
Villas of Italy, 1657 ; of the Romans, 1658 ; of
Britain, 1667; villa of Lucullus, 1658; of Depc-
dene, 1688.
Villas in the Gothic style, designs for small, 2370.
Village, observations on the, 1732.
every character of surface is adapted for a
particular character of, 2348.
Village of Harlaxton, 2349 ; of Edensor, p 1194.
Villages, remarks on, 2344 ; laying out, 2347, 23 19.
Vine, mode of training it against a house, 2252,
2356.
\V.
Wainscoting of rooms lor villas, 2065.
Walls, COO or mud. 839 to842.
Walls, different modes of constructing, 158 ; mud
walls, 159.
Walls, hollow, 11 in. wide, formed of brick, con-
struction of, 25 ; Dearne's hollow brick walls,
336; Silverlnck's hollow brick walls. 371,
Walls, hollow, how to form when built of stone,
1354,
Walls, materials for, 330 ; of flint, 331 .
Walls, principles on which their solidity is founded,
21*7.
Walls, to prevent damp from rising in. 2434, 2435
2436.
Wardrobes. 2137.
Wanning stoves for cottages. 596.
GENERAL INDEX.
1317
Warming and ventilating, 2478, 2379.
Wash-hand sland, '2141.
Wash-hand stand, ac ealed, 2539.
Washing-machine for a (arm house, 1381; for
villas, 2076.
-stand for a nursery, 2146.
Wash-house, brewhouse, and bakehouse of far-
med,s, 724 to 728.
Wash-houses, boilers for cottage, 598.
Water, system of distributing, In inns, 1476; tank
for filtering and preserving, 151, 722; mode of
supplying tn a farmery, Hill ; distribution of,
2382; altering of, 2481.
Water-closets for cottages, 37, 3H, 39. 302, 464,
490 ; for villas, 2007 ; for inns, 1453, 1467.
Water-mill, agreement for building a, 1 250, 1252,
1254.
Water-wheels, undershot, 1241 ; breast-wheels,
1242 ; overshot wheels, 1243.
Weather-tiling for cottages, 459.
Well, barrel curb for, 238.
Weighing-machine, 1379.
Well-digger's work of a farmery, 849, 868.
Westminster infant school, 1,027.
Westminster Abbey, foundations of, 2433.
Wheels, undershot water, 1241 ; breast, 1242 ; over-
shot, 1243.
Whitewashing cottages, 533, 543 ; internally, 570.
Window-curtains for drawingrooma, 2130.
Windows, iron, for cottages, 807.
Wind. iws of cottages, to render ornamental, 552;
of vlll i
Windows, principle! In designing, 2335, p, 122'j.
Windows "i cotti ;es, 2462; In roofs, .
Window-blind, the p< or man's, 2517.
Windmill, vertical, 1257; smoke, or tower wind-
mill, 1266.
Wire outside blinds, 560 ; wire springs for stuffing,
605.
Wood, oven for green, 1506 ; paving with chumps
ol 1944; preset < ation of, 2507.
Wooden fence, cap for the upper rail of a, 2492.
Wooden eaves-trough for cottage roofs, 2453.
Woodhouse for farmeries, 721.
Workhouse, design for a union, 2426.
Working houses for a farmery, 788.
Wren, Sir C, remarks on his errors in the Gothic
style, 1836.
\\ ringing-machine, 2075.
Writing-tables for villas, 2096.
Wrought-iron chairs, 1477.
Yards for farmeries, 807 to 819, 241 1 to 2413.
London :
Printed by A. Spottiswoodb,
New-Street- Square.
October 1846.
NEW WORKS
1 V
General anti JttisrcUaneous iUtnatuic,
PUBLISH KD BY
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, & LONGMANS, PATEBNOSTEB ROW, LONDON.
CLASSIFIED INDEX.
eultureund Rural Affairs.
■ *
■ ng - - 7
B
tei - - 11
1
Loudon's Encyi : Iture IT
"Sell - - n
" Lady's Country l
culture I i
" Cat leBi - 18
« On I mde '• Property - - Is
'« On the D I nimals 18
Thorns. m On 1 - 3D
- ;
101 - - •
■
- - :
miy - I
Arts and Manufactures.
Brande' >*"■ 5
5
I
,p. of Architecture 11
i i In Painting and Dei ign - 12
Holland's Manufactures in Metal - 12
Loudon's Encvcl. of Rural Are'into t. Is
h • < Porcelain ■
, ir.l On Ventilation - - 25
I neine,b] the Artisan CluB 4
rjre'a Dictionary of Arts, &c. - 31
Biography.
Aikin's Life ol Addison -
Bell's Eminent British! -J
i i0vi , i,i- il the Kirn; m' Prussia 8
m's Early British « rib
'. Livesol British Dramatists 9
Forster's Statesmen - - - >"
l:, v.( . Til- - - 1 B -
Grant's Memoir & Correspondence 11
James's Life of the Black Prince - 11
" Foreign Statesmen - - l '
le - - 16 I
Life of a 1 ng Ph] cdan - is
Mackintosh - 1 -it.- ol Mi 1 . More - IS
Maundl ' Treasury- 2"
Mignet's Antonio Peres and Philip 11.21 |
Mohan Lai's Mohammed - - 21 j
imouth - 25
spnndcnce 4
Shi [ley's 1 it 1 iry Menof Italy, &o. 27
■< ' Lives of French Writers - 2i
Southev'» Lives of the Admiral
« ' Life of Wesley - - 28
end's Eminent Judgi s - 81
Watertoi *l* 3-
Buoks of General Utility
Acton's Cookery - - - - 3
Black's 1 ■'"'
" Supplement on Bavarian Beer 4
- 6
"Homy - 8
Hand book of Taste - - - J2
Hmt, on Etiquette - - ■ ]-
Hudson's Parent's Hand-book - 14
1 - - 14
Making Wills - - 14
- 17
" Lady's Comp.inion - 17
" Amateur Gardener 17
Maundei
Biographical Treasury - 20
" Scient. and Lit. Treasury 20
" Treasury of History - 20
Parkea' ties - - 23
Pycroft's Rev. J.) English Beading 24
" " " H
Eiddle's Latin-En*. Dictionaries 25
Robinsnn'sArtofCuring,Pickling&c.2S
Rowton's Debater - - - - 26
B lany and Gardening.
Abercrombie's Pi
I Main'sGardem
il -
Conversal ii
Drumraond 8 First Steps
Glend
Col.) Tree-1
loareOnl
" on tli" Roots of Vines
Hooker's British Flora -
« M -mica -
ra - - 14
I ,,l Horticulture - 17
" ' Orchards Kitchen 1
'* Introduction to Botany - 16
■ < Flora Medics - 16
" Sjn
Loudon's Hortus Britannicus - 18
*• " Ligposis Lon I
" Amateur Gardener - 17
Bell Instruction - - 17
•• Trees and Shrubs - - 17
Gardening - - - 17
Plants - 17
" Suburban Gardener - 18
111? - 25
8 Bose Amateur's Guide - 25
Cultivator - 26
s, ieiititic Hot. my - 26
Smith's Introduction to Botany - 27
English flora - - - *«I
Compendium of Eng. Flora 27
Chronology.
Blair's Chronological Tables - 4
, 1 hronolog] ofHlstor
Riddle's Ecclesiastical Chronology 25
Tate's Horatiue Bestitutus - - 2a
Commei-ce&i Mercantile Affairs.
Baylis' Arithmetic of Annuities - 4
iriner 17
Mm uiioeli's Hi. t...i'c.,mm.ftNavig. 19
Beader's Time Tables - - 25
istant - 28
S ival Book keeping • - 29
on's interest Tables - 30
Wail, irds Customs' Laws - - SI
Geography and A
1 aphy - - - 6
Atlas of Modern Geography 6
« " Ancient do. - - 6
» " General do. 6
\\ arid Surveyed - - "
lie Stnelecki's New South Wales - 8
Hist. Geography of Arabia 10
eneral Atlas - - U
M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary 19
Murray's Encyclop, ol G
Ordnance Maps, &c. - - - 23
Pan it's Ascent of Blount Ararat 7
History and Criticism.
Acts of Parliament of Scotland - 3
Mission to Vienna - - 3
" Constantinople 3
Addison's Hist of Knights Templars 3
■ llistorv of the Temple Church 3
Bell's History of Russia - - 4
Blair's Chron. and Histor. Tables - 4
Bloomfield's Edition of Thueydidcs 5
" Translation of do. - 5
Pages.
History of Discovery - 7
History of France - - 7
Da I Ei , 1 B< volution - 7
Ds Bism nipire 8
11 ,, Republics - 8
Dunham's Spain and Portugal - 9
Middle Ages - - 9
" German Empire - - 9
" Denmark, Sweden, &c. 9
Poland - 9
Dunlop'sHistory of Fiction 9
.iiMiah Antiquities - 9
Fergus' - - - 10
Co n-spondence 11
- 11
1. 11, nl. lot's Win. ill. ft Lonii XIV. 11
Guieciardiiii's Historical Maxims- 11
11.,1-t I ird III. 12
11 1 ,don ' Id Painting and Design - 12
iii tori. JPictt ol the Middle Ages 12
Horsley's Bp.j Bii.l H'nti. ism- 13
Lore!) Contributions - 14
Out I History - 15
Sings of Norway - - 15
Dll tionary - 16
, s (lit. and Hist. Essays 18
Mackinnon'sHi Ion 19
us Works 19
<• History of England - 19
MM Inlloch'aGeograpbicalDictionary 19
Maunder 's Treasury of History - M
Mignet's Antonio Peres and Philip 11.21
Milncr's Church History - - 21
M. mrc's History of Ireland - - 22
Mosheim I 1 d History 22
MuUer's Mythology - - - 22
5 Chronology of History - 22
i; take's History ol uie Reformation 25
- Duke of Monmouth - 25
I!.,,,,.-, History of - - - - 26
Russell's Bedford Correspondence 4
History of Scotland - 26
Byways of History - - 27
Stebbing's History ofthe Church- 28
" llistorv of Reformation 2»
<• Church History - 28
BwiUerland, History of - - - 29
- .nitb's Works - 28
ThirlwalPe History of Greece - 30
History of Prices - - 30
Turner's History of England - 31
Tytler'a General History - - 31
Zumpt's Latin Grammar - - 32
Juvenile Bonks.
Amy Herbert 3
own Hook (The) - 5
Gertrude 10
Hawee'a Tales ofthe Indians - 12
• intryBook 14
I.aiit-t'.n Pal - - 15
Marcel's Couversjabioni —
On the History of England - 20
On Chemistry - - - 19
On Natural Philosophy - - 19
On Political Economy - - 19
On Vegetable Physiology - 20
On Land and Water - - 21>
On Language - 20
Marryat's Masterman Ready - - 20
" Mission - - - - 20
" Settlers in Canada - 20
" Priyateers-man - - 20
Pyeroa's (Rev. J.) English Reading 4
Medicine.
Bull's Hints to Mothers 5
Management of Children - 5
Copland's Dictionary of Medicine - 7
siology - 9
Esdaile'a Mesmerism in India - 9
Holland's Medical Notes - .13
Pereira On Food and Diet - - 23
Reece's Medical Guide - - 25
Saudby On Mesmerism - - 26
Thomson On Food - - 30
B
Miscellaneous, rages.
Brajr'i Philosophy a\
- - 6
st Life C
Cocks'a Bordeaux, its Wines,&c. - 6
Guide (The] - - B
- 7
De Burtin on Pictures 8
- 6
New South Wales • -
DunlO] i ntion - 9
Good's Book of Nature - - - ]u
Graham's English - - - -11
Grant'* Letters from tin- Mountains 11
Guest's Mabinogion - - - 11
Hand i ' - - - 12
Hobbes (Tims.), Works of . i"
Howitt'e Rural life of England - 13
" VUits to Remarkabli I
" stu.lcnt Life of German; 13
" Social Life ..i Gen |
" . .nit} 11
Contributions - 15
King's Argentine Republic - 15
- 16
Life of a Travel ing l'hvsi. n.n - 16
Loudon .. . it
Macaulay's Crit.and Hist. Es
Mackintosh's Miscellaneous VI i
Maitland's Church in the Catai ■
Michel. - - - 31
Moore On the i se ofthe Body - 22
Boul hi. I lto.lv' - 22
- 22
Neckei I . Edu. ation '."-'
I l,:.. rsityEducation23
i'. ter Pljrmli y's Letters - ji
Pycroft's Com ing 24
Hoard
Band by On Mesmerism - - - 26
Bandfor t - 1 Imr h, School, & Parish 26
- Narr.it u... I l,isShip«reek2K
rdney) Works - 28
Bouthey'8 Common place Book - 28
" ' The Doctor, &c. - - 28
Taylor's statesman - - -29
Thomson On 1 .....1 ... 30
\\ .Ik. is Chess studies ... 31
on tin- English Language 32
Willoughb] I ad) Diary - - 32
Zumpt's Latin Grammar - - 32
Natural History.
Callows Popular Conchoids; - 1
Doubleday's Butterflies and Moths i
Drumm.md's Letters to a Naturalist !
Grays Molluscous Animals - 1
" and Mitchell's Ornithology - 1
Kirhy and Spence's Entomology" - 11
Lee's Taxidermy --..](
" Elements of Natural History l(
Newell's Zoology ofthe Eng. 1'oeti 2'
Stephens's British Coleoptera - 2'
Swainson On Study of Natural Hist. 2!
Animals - - - oi
u Taxidermy - - - 2t
B Quadrupeds 21
w Birds - - - . or
Animals in Menageries - 21:
lis!., Amphibia, \c - 2£
" Insects - - _ - 2£
" Mai. oology - - - 2£
" Hal. its and Instincts - 29
Turton's Shells of theBritishlslands 31
"alei ton's Essays on Natural Hist, 32
W estwnod's Classification of Insects 'V
Zoology of HMSS. Erebus and Terror 32
Novels and Works of Fiction,
Novell ... 5
p's History of Fiction - 9
Fawn of Sertorius - in
Margaret Hussell - - . . i ,,
Marryat'a Masterman Ready - - 20
Settles in Canada - 20
Mission - - - - 20
", Privateers man - - 20
Pericles, a Tale of Athens - 23
Southcy's The Doctor, &c - - 28
Willis's (N. P.) Dashes at Life . 32
1 vol. Cyclopedias^ Dictionaries.
'-ports - . . 4
"'■' »' iature,&Art 5
I'.naryol Medicine - 7
itiI Engineering . 7
- 11
i.er's Encyclopedia- 15
Loudon's Agriculture - . . ,7
(J Rural Architecture - ih
It nine - . 17
" i'1""- - - - ; I
M.r-'n ,'' "'■'- 'T'd Shrubs . . 17
" '"','' J Dictionary 19
Murray ■ Em yclop.of Geography - 22
En--, Dictionary ofArt.,jg '- 31
em, 32
Poetry anil the Drama.
1tis.l1 Poets - -" 27
Ballads ofthe East - 4
ia - - - -6
6
Poetii .1 Remains - 6
Colli. 1 illads- - 7
en - 7
ted by Wright - 9
Goldsmi - - - 10
Gray's Elegy, illuminated - - 11
- - - - 29
Howitl • - i.i
Poetical Works - - 16
Linwood's Anthologia Oxoniensis - 17
1
Mackay's English Lakes - - 19
s Poetii al Woiks - 2!
I tnal Works - - 21
I.ail.i RookJh - - - 21
" Irish Melodies - - - 21
Moral of Flowers - 23
Pleasaunce - - - -24
Pope's 'Works, by Roscoe - - ''1
id the Fox - - - - 2n
Shakspeare, by Bovrdler - - 27
Sheldon's Minstrelsy - - -27
I ■ . . ! - - os
Southcy's Poetical Works - 38
" British Poets - - - 27
" Oliver Newman, &c. - '.;-.
Spirit of the Woods - - 28
Thomson's Seasons - - -30
Turner's Richard III. - - - 31
Watte's Lyrics of the Heart - - 32
Political Economy ^Statistics.
Gilbart on Banking - - - 10
M'Culloch'sGeog. Statist. &c. Diet 19
Dictionary of Commerce 19
Political Economy - 19
Statistics of Gt. Britain 19
' On Funding & Taxation 19
Thornton On Overpopulation - 30
- History of Prices - - 30
Twiss'e Oregon Question Examined 31
Religions and Moral Works,
Any Herbert - - ... 3
Bailey's Essays on Pursuit of Truth 4
Bloomneld'e Greek Testament - 5
" ' hool do. 5
" Lexicon to do. - - 5
Burns's Christum Philosophy - 6
,. ,, " Fragments - 6
' s Scripture Herbal 6
C....[.eis Sermons 7
Dale's Domestic Liturgy 8
Dibdin's Sundav Library 8
Doddridge's Family Expositor - 8
Englishman's Greek Concordance 9
Enghshman'sHeb.&Chald.Concord. 9
I. th. aidge's Syrian Churches - 9
Fitxroy's Scriptural < onversationa 10
I 01st, ,s Hist. Geography of Arabia 10
Lite ol Bishop Jebb - 10
From Oxford to Rome - - - 10
Gertrude _ jq
Hook's Dr.) Lectures onPassion Week 13
Home's Introduction to Scriptures 13
" Abridgment of ditto . 13
Hoisley's Bp.,i Biblical Criticism- 13
" f Psalms - - - 13
J ebb's (Bp.) Protestant Kempis - 14
" Paste,,.,! Inst, lut ,,ns 14
_ ' Correspond, with Knox 14
Knox's (Alexander! Remains - 15
Notes on Ronge's Schism- 15
Laneton Parsonage - - 15
Letters to My Unknown Friends - 16
Maitland's Church in the Catacombs 19
Marriage Gift ----- 20
Michelet'sPr,ests,Women,& Families^
,,., " and Qu.nefs Jesuits - 21
Milners Church History - - 91
Moore On the Use of the Body - 22
„ " " Soul and liodv" - 22
Mosh< im's Ecclesiastical History - 22
Parables (The) - . - - ?3
Parkes's Domestic Duties - - 23
: lymley's Letters- - . 24
Pitman's Sermons on the Psalms- 24
Quinet's Christianity - - - 25
Riddles Letters from a Godfather - 25
l...l.,ns,,n's,,r,.ek.t.l;ngl,sbI.exicon 26
Sandford'a Paroi bi ilia - - - 26
" I einalc Improvement - 26
On Woman - . 2r
Sermon on the Mount, The) - - 26
Shepherd b Hone Lpostolica - 27
Bmjth's G.) Perilous Times - - 27
' Religion ol Anc. Britain 27
Female Disciple - 27
o .'. ons - - 27
Southcy's I.,),. ,,| \\ fslev . Ofl
"-'- 'Lurch His tor, - . I
late s HiatOTJ ..I St. Paul' - . 09
Tayler'sDoraMelder - - !g*29
' !•,"'> M'r> - 29
Margaret; or, the Pearl - 29
Sermons - - - - 29
emy Works - 29
lomhne's Christian Theology - 30
" Introduction to the Bible 30
- Analects Theologica - 30
Turner's Sacred History - - . 31
Win. Haw's Suciniaii ControTBrSjr - 31
Bible Koran, and Talmud 32
w hitley'a Life Eve, la, ting - - 32
W Of Christianity 32
Willoughby'e Lady Diary - - 32
Ihirul Sports.
Blaine'- i . porta . i
Hansard's 1 ishins m \\ ales - 12
Hankers Instill. ,,en 12
Loudon's Lady's Country Comp. - 17
Stable Talk and Table Talk - - 28
The Scl ncesand Mathematics.
.'!- Introduction to Geology 4
k. in, .mi's Lessons on Chemistry - 4
■ Dictionary of Science, Ac 5
a - - - .5
Creay's Civil Engineering - - 7
'.gvofCornvvall,K:c. 8
Donovan's < hemistry 8
Elliot's Geometry 9
1 1 the steam Engine - - 9
Fosbroke ( in the Ancient Arts, &c. 10
Greener On the Gun - - - 11
Herschel's Natural Philosophy - 12
" Astronomv - - _ jo
Holland's Manufactures in Metal - 12
Humboldt's Cosmos - - - 14
Hunt's Researches on Light - - 14
Kane s Elements of Chemistry - 15
Eater and Lardner's Mechanics - 15
La Place's system of the World - 15
Lardner's Cabinet Cvcloptedia - 16
" Hydrostatics* Pneumatics 16
" and Walker's Electricity 16
" Arithmetic - 16
" Geometry - - - 16
" Treatise on Heat - - 16
Ler. hours on Photography - - 16
Lloyd On Light and vision - - 17
..('Vision - 19
Marcet ations 19-20
M. nioir,- of the Geological Survey 20
Moseley's Pract . al Me hanics " - 22
" Engineering^ Architecture 22
Nesl.it s Mensuration - - - 22
Owen's I.ecturesonC'omp Anatomy 23
Pearson's Practical Astronomy - 23
P.s, hel'8 Elements of Physics - 24
Phillips's Fossils of Cornwall, &c. 24
Guide to Geology - - 24
" Treatise on Geology - 24
" Introduct. to Mineralogy 24
Poisson's Mechanics - - . 24
Portlock's Geology of Londonderry 24
- Natural Philosophy - '- ''4
Quarterly Journal ofthe Ge'ol. Soc. 24
Kit. hie On Railways - - - 25
Roberts's Dictionary of Geology - 26
Thomson's Algebra - - - 30
Travels.
Allan's Mediterranean - - - 3
Cooler's World Surveyed - - 7
Costello's Miss North Wales - 7
De ( ustine'e Russia 8
De Strzelecki's New South Wales - 8
Erman'a Travels through Siberia - 7
II. in is s Highlands of .Ethiopia - 12
How,tt's(H.) Aust, alia Felix - 14
King's Argentine Republic - - 15
Laing s Notes of a Traveller - - 15
" Tour in Sweden - - 15
Life of a Travelling 1 hvsician - 16
Mai kay's English Lake's - - 19
Montauban's Travels in the East - 21
Parrot's Ascent of Mount Ararat 7
Paton's (A. A.) Serria - - - 23
" '" Modern Syrians - 23
I edestrian Reminiscences - - 23
Seaward 's Narrative - - 26
Tis. hendorf's Russia - - - 30
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WHITLEY (DR. D-THE LIFE EVERLASTING:
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ZOOLOGY OF THE VOYAGE OF H.M.SS. EREBUS AND
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ZUMPT (PROF.) -A GRAMMAR OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
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W 11 von AM- '
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