Energy losses of waves in shallow water

Caast-Ere, pe Gan
CETA 82-2

(ee

Energy Losses of Waves in Shallow Water

by
William G. Grosskopf and C. Linwood Vincent

COASTAL ENGINEERING TECHNICAL AID NO. 82-2

FEBRUARY 1982

Approved for public release;
distribution unlimited.

U.S. ARMY, CORPS OF ENGINEERS
ze COASTAL ENGINEERING
330 RESEARCH CENTER

UF Kingman Building
ine, HE Fort Belvoir, Va. 22060

OowI0

Reprint or republication of any of this material
shall give appropriate credit to the U.S. Army Coastal
Engineering Research Center.

Limited free distribution within the United States
of single copies of this publication has been made by
this Center. Additional copies are available from:

Nattonal Technical Informatton Service
ATTN: Operations Diviston

5285 Port Royal Road

Springfield, Virginia 22161

The findings in this report are not to be construed
as an official Department of the Army position unless so
designated by other authorized documents.

MBL/WHOI

MOA

0 0301 O0897?b? 4

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. REPORT NUMBER 2. GOVT ACCESSION NO.| 3. RECIPIENT'S CATALOG NUMBER
CETA 82-2

. TITLE (and Subtitle) 5. TYPE OF REPORT & PERIOD COVERED
Coastal Engineering
ENERGY LOSSES OF WAVES IN SHALLOW WATER Technical Aid

6. PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMBER

- AUTHOR(s) 8. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(s)

William G. Grosskopf
C. Linwood Vincent

. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. PROGRAM ELEMENT, PROJECT, TASK
Department of the Army AREA & WORK UNIT NUMBERS
Coastal Engineering Research Center (CERRE-CO)
Kingman Building, Fort Belvoir, Virginia 22060

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Coastal Engineering Research Center 13. NUMBER OF PAGES
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Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.

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. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

. KEY WORDS (Continue on reverse side if necessary and identify by block number)

Energy spectra Wave height
Shallow-water waves any

ABSTRACT (Continue am reverse side if neceasary and identify by block number)

This report presents a method for predicting nearshore significant wave
height given the straight-line fetch length, the windspeed, and the nearshore
water depth. The prediction curves were generated by numerically propagating
offshore JONSWAP spectra shoreward while applying shoaling and wave steepness
limitation criteria to each spectral component. Example problems are included.

DD Hae 1473 ~~ EDITION OF 1 NOV 65 1S OBSOLETE UNCLASSIFIED

ee
SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE (When Data Entered)

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PREFACE

This report presents a method for predicting nearshore significant wave
height given the straight-line fetch length, the windspeed, and the nearshore
water depth. The wave height prediction curves were generated by numerically
propagating offshore JONSWAP spectra shoreward while applying shoaling and
wave steepness limitation criteria to each spectral component. The report pro-
vides an alternate approach to the problem of shallow-water wave estimation.
The work was carried out under the shallow-water wave transformation program
of the U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center (CERC).

The report was written by William G. Grosskopf, Hydraulic Engineer, and
Dr. C. Linwood Vincent, Chief, Coastal Oceanography Branch, Research Division.

Comments on this publication are invited.

Approved for publication in accordance with Public Law 166, 79th Congress,
approved 31 July 1945, as supplemented by Public Law 172, 88th Congress,
approved 7 November 1963.

ED E. BESHOP
Colonel, Corps of Engineers
Commander and Director

IV

APPENDIX

CONTENTS

CONVERSION FACTORS, U.S. CUSTOMARY
SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS. .... .
PN ERODU CILON Gc ican) tole loneu(o mis
WAVE HEIGHT PREDICTION CURVES. . .
WISI Ol) GUIRWRSS Go! 66 06 16 516 6
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS ~. 2. 2 2 2 «© «© «
Th ABV MOIS (IAD =G OF 66 6 6 6 0 Oo
METHODOLOGY AND GOVERNING SPECTRAL

FIGURES

TO METRIC

EQUATIONS

1 Transformation of JONSWAP spectrum in shallow water

2 Dimensionless fetch versus dimensionless wave height as
ay iROeEHom @ Glog G 6 0 6 0 0 0 0655 6 6 0 0.00 0

3 Ratio, R, of windspeed overwater, Uy, to windspeed overland, UL,

as a function of windspeed overland, Uj;......

4 Amplification ratio, RT, accounting for effects of air-sea

temperature ditherenCeme ye caenmeiic ie) 6)

5 Determining the fetch length of an irregularly shaped
water body in the wind direction... .

CONVERSION FACTORS, U.S. CUSTOMARY TO METRIC (SI) UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

U.Se customary units of measurement used in this report can be converted to

metric (SI) units as follows:

x 10°

Multiply by
inches 25.4
2-54
square inches 62452
cubic inches 16.39
feet 30.48
0.3048
square feet 0.0929
cubic feet 0.0283
yards 0.9144
square yards 0.836
cubic yards 0.7646
miles 1.6093
square miles 259.0
knots 1.852
acres 0.4047
foot-pounds 1.3558
millibars 1.0197
ounces 28.35
pounds 453.6
0.4536
ton, long 1.0160
ton, short 0.9072
degrees (angle) 0.01745
Fahrenheit degrees 5/9

To obtain
millimeters
centimeters

Square centimeters
cubic centimeters
centimeters
meters
Square meters
cubic meters
meters
Square meters
cubic meters

kilometers
hectares

kilometers per hour
hectares
newton meters

kilograms per square centimeter

grams

grams
kilograms

metric tons
metric tons
radians

Celsius degrees or Kelvins!

—aaaaaoaaeaBnBaEaEaEaDaBaIaEaoaEaEaEaEeEeEeEeEeeEeEeEeEeEeEeIeCIUQunnnonouououoanunSSsc ee SSSS==®=®oqQquqqqm SSS

1T> obtain aaa (C) temperature readings from Fahrenheit (F) ugadingss

= (5/9) (F -32).

use formula:

To obtain ee (K) readings,

use formula:

SGI) G 4D) & WSIS.

°b

Oh

SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS

wave steepness limitation factor
water depth

energy density

total energy in the wave spectrum

straight-line fetch length (for irregularly shaped water bodies, this
should be based on an average over a 24° quadrant)

frequency of spectral component

frequency of spectral peak

acceleration due to gravity

deepwater significant wave height

significant wave height

dimensionless wave height

shoaling coefficient

wavelength

land-water windspeed correction factor

air-sea temperature difference windspeed correction factor
peak wave period

windspeed to be used in wave height estimation
overwater windspeed corrected for wind instabilities
overwater windspeed

windspeed measured Z meters above land or water surface
10-meter (33 foot) windspeed

dimensionless fetch length

Phillips equilibrium constant

ratio of maximal spectral energy to the maximum of the corresponding
Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum

3.14159
left-side width of the spectral peak
right-side width of the spectral peak

wave steepness limitation factor

wave steepness limitation factor

6

ENERGY LOSSES OF WAVES IN SHALLOW WATER

by
William G. Grosskopf and C. Ltmiood Vincent

I. INTRODUCTION

The energy in an irregular wave train changes as the waves propagate from
deep water toward shore. Estimates of the total change in wave energy have
traditionally been made by multiplying a shoaling, refraction and friction
coefficient by an offshore significant wave height to yield the nearshore wave
height. Recent studies of wave spectra have provided a more detailed view of
the wave field and indicate that additional processes should be considered.
This report presents finite-depth wave height estimation curves, given an ini-
tial JONSWAP type of offshore spectral wave condition (Hasselmann, et al., 1973)
generated over a short fetch and incorporating finite-depth steepness effects
based on a study by Kitaigorodskii, Krasitskii, and Zaslavskii (1975). These
curves represent energy changes due to shoaling and an upper limit of energy
spectral density as a function of wave frequency and water depth.

Research at the Coastal Engineering Research Center (CERC) and elsewhere
indicates steepness effects that lead to breaking in a shoaling wave field
lead to a major loss of energy in addition to that lost by bottom friction and
percolation. These effects can be incorporated into wave estimation curves in
a fashion similar to shoaling because the effects can be made a function of
depth. The effects of refraction, bottom friction, and percolation are not in-
cluded in these curves because they are site specific. The effects of bottom
friction and percolation will always be to reduce the estimated wave height.
These curves should be applied only in areas of nearly parallel bottom contours.
Consequently, refraction will also only reduce wave height.

This report presents a method for estimating the significant wave height,
Hs, given the fetch length, F, the overwater windspeed, Uy, (see U.S. Army,
Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, 1981), and the water
depth, d, neglecting any additional wave growth in shallow water due to the
wind. The method differs from two recently reported methods--Seelig (1980),
who presents a method for predicting shallow-water wave height given deepwater
wave height, Ho, peak period, Tp, and bottom slope, m, and Vincent (1981),
who presents a method for calculating the depth-limited significant wave height
based on knowledge of the deepwater wave spectrum--but it does not supersede
the use of these other two methods. The report provides an alternate approach
to the problem of shallow-water wave estimation given the four quantities men-
tioned above.

II. WAVE HEIGHT PREDICTION CURVES

A series of JONSWAP spectra was generated numerically in deepwater condi-
tions for varying windspeeds and fetch length, and propagated into shallow
water over parallel bottom contours. A frequency-by-frequency calculation was
made at various depths shoreward applying independently the wave steepness
limitation criterion (Kitaigorodskii, Krasitskii, and Zaslavskii, 1975) and a
shoaling coefficient to each spectral component. If the shoaled wave energy
exceeded the limiting value, the limiting value was retained. A detailed ex-
planation of the methodology involved in this computation is presented in the

Appendix. Resulting spectra at gradually decreasing depths for a given case
are shown in Figure 1. This analysis provides the wave height prediction
curves shown in Figure 2. These curves provide the nearshore significant wave
height, H,, at a given water depth which is related to the total energy, Er,
in the nearshore wave spectrum by

given the fetch length, the overwater windspeed, and the deepwater wave height.
Note that in Figure 1 there is a slight shift in the wave period toward lower
frequencies as the spectrum moves into shallow water. Later work will attempt
to quantify this shift and incorporate bottom friction effects.

III. USE OF CURVES
There are certain restraints on the use of the curves which are as follows:

(1) Curves are designed to be used for fetch-limited, wind-generated
waves in deep water over short fetches, i.e., up to 62 miles (100 kilo-
meters).

(2) This analysis includes only the wave steepness criterion and
shoaling. It does not reflect other energy losses such as refraction,
friction, or percolation (parallel bottom contours are assumed).

(3) The fetch length, F, is strictly the straight-line fetch
unless the water body is irregularly shaped where the fetch would be
based on an average over a 24° quadrant.

U=49.2 t1/$ {15 m/s)
F=65,600 fi (20,000 m)
Curve |!
Deepwater
JONSWAP
Spectrum

d=131.2 (40m)

d=32.8 ft (10m)
d=19.7 ft(6m)

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Frequency

Figure 1. Transformation of JONSWAP spectrum in shallow water.

Deepwoter Wave Ho}.

Hy? 1.6 x 103 /E Ua

Peak Period

A

= F
Dimensionless Fetch, X = “ae

0.025 0.075 0.125 0.175 0.225 0.275 0.325
Dimensionless Wave Hot., He gH, //?
a

Figure 2. Dimensionless fetch versus dimensionless
wave height as a function of d/Ho.

(4) To calculate the adjusted windspeed,

Ua, the following pro-
cedure should be used:

(a) If windspeed is observed at any level other than 33 feet
(10 meters) windspeed on land or water, the adjustment to the 33-
foot level is approximated by:

where Ujg is the 10-meter windspeed in meters per second, Z
the height of wind measurement above the surface in meters, and
Uz the measured windspeed in meters per second. This method

is valid up to about Z = 66 feet (20 meters). If the windspeed
was measured at 33 feet, Uj9 = Uz.

(b) If windspeed was measured overland, correct to overwater
windspeed by

Uy

1.1U;9 for F < 10 miles (16 kilometers)

Uy = RUjq for F > 10 miles
where U, is the overwater windspeed in meters per second; R

is given in Figure 3. If windspeed was measured overwater and
adjusted to a 10-meter height, U, = Uo.

Example 2
For U, > 36

knots
R=0.9

|
|
|
|
|

|
Windspeeds are referenced
to 10-meter level

“o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 kn

35 40 45 50 55. 60 m/s
45 mph

Figure 3. Ratio, R, of windspeed overwater, Uy, to windspeed
overland, Uz, as a function of windspeed overland,
UL (after Resio and Vincent, 1976).

(c) To correct for wind instabilities over fetch lengths
greater than 10 miles:

WA S Ossi weece

where U, is the adjusted windspeed in meters per second. If
the F < 10 miles, U, = Uy.

(d) To correct for air-sea temperature differences,

Ua = Rr UA for F > 10 miles

UA for F < 10 miles

Uy

where U, is the new windspeed adjusted for the temperature dif-
ference; Rp is given in Figure 4.

10

lL.
hp x
z
09 x
joa}
0.8

0.7
-20 -15 -10 -5 {e) 5 10 15 20
Air—Sea Temperature Difference (Gace) °¢

Figure 4. Amplification ratio, Ry, accounting for effects of air-sea
temperature difference (Resio and Vincent, 1976).

IV. EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

kK kK kK kk kK KOK & KX EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1 * * *¥ * ¥ KK KKK KR KEKE

GIVEN: Deepwater fetch, F = 24.9 miles (40 kilometers), adjusted 33-foot (10
meter) windspeed, Ua = 65.6 feet (20 meters) per second (an example of com-
putation of the adjusted windspeed can be found in U.S. Army, Corps of
Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, 1981).

FIND: Significant wave height and peak period of the wave spectrum at depths
of 23 and 9.8 feet (7 and 3 meters).

SOLUTION: The dimensionless fetch, x is

F (9.8 2) (40,000
x= a = 980 = 9.8 x 10?
Ua m/s

The deepwater significant wave height and peak period are

Hy S 1G & 10-3 JE ug = 1.6 -* 10-3, 402000 OO Al) S 2.0% messes

vax ‘/3 20(980) “/3 Bee :
= = ———__ = 5. seco
DT 9.55 3.5(9.8) a

In Figure 2 at x = 9.8 x 102 and interpolated between curves for d/Hg of
3 and 5, reading down for H,

H
fe 22 | o.087
UA

Hs = 1.51 meters

At a depth of 3 meters, d/Hg = 1.47, providing an H = 0.025 or Hg = 1.02
Meters. The peak period, T,, and the local wavelength would increase over
that at a 7-meter depth and currently must be calculated by the tables given
in Appendix C of the Shore Protection Manual (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers,
Coastal Engineering Research Center, 1977).

AoA & & KKK KK KK KOK ® & EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2 * * * & ¥ & ¥ KR KK RK KK

GIVEN: The wind direction is predominantly from the southwest over the deep, ~
irregularly shaped water body shown in Figure 5. The windspeed to be con-
sidered is 49.2 feet (15 meters) per second measured on top of an instru-
ment shack at 13 feet (4 meters) from the ground. The air temperature when
these conditions occur is 50° Fahrenheit (10° Celsius) and the water tempera-—
ture is 60° Fahrenheit (16° Celsius).

e
* Anemometer

Site
5 C)
eS eee

Scale in Kilometers

Figure 5. The fetch length for this irregularly shaped water body in the wind
direction is determined by drawing nine radials at 3° increments
centered on the wind direction and arithmetically averaging the
radial lengths as illustrated. The average fetch in this example
is approximately 22.2 miles (36 kilometers).

I2

FIND: The significant wave height at a 16.4-foot (5 meter) depth just off the
coast near the anemometer site.

SOLUTION: The fetch is found by averaging over a 24° quadrant since the body
of water is trregularly shaped. As shown in Figure 5, nine radials are

constructed at 3° increments and the average fetch length of 22 miles (36
kilometers) is found.

The adjusted windspeed is found following the steps outlined previously:

(a) Adjust wind from the 4-meter to the 10-meter level

Wi, ia,
Uio = (2) Uz = ee) (15) = 17.1 meters per second

(b) Adjust overland wind to overwater wind with R from Figure 3

U,

Ww = RUio = 1.25(17.1) = 21.4 meters per second

(c) Correct wind for instabilities
= 0.71 Uwl:23 = 0.71(21.4)1+23 = 30.7 meters per second

(d) Correct for air-sea temperature difference with Rr from Figure 4
UA = Rr UA = 1,.17(30.7) = 35.9 meters per second

The dimensionless fetch, x, is

es 2
oe a (9.8 m/s Sea m) = 273.7
UK (35.9 m/s)

The deepwater significant wave height and peak period are

1.6 x 10-3 |5e2080 (35.9 m/s) = 3.5 meters

a . SOC
P 3.5(9.8)

Ho

= 6.80 seconds

At a 5-meter depth

eT ee
aS ae a lols
In Figure 2 at x = 273.7 and d/Hp = 1.43
a mic
He raya 0.012
Uy
and mn
HU4 (0.12) (35.9)2
Hg = ceri Womeyso2)" = 58 meters

& 9.8

I3

LITERATURE CITED

HASSELMANN, K., et al., "Measurements of Wind Wave Growth and Swell Decay
During the Joint North Sea Wave Project," Deutsches Hydrographisches
Institut, Hamburg, Germany, 1973.

KITAIGORODSKII, S.A., KRASITSKII, V.P., and ZASLAVSKII, M.M., "Phillips Theory
of the Equilibrium Range in the Spectra of Wind-Generated Gravity Waves,"
Journal of Phystcal Oceanography, Vol. 5, 1975, pp. 410-420.

RESIO, D.T., and VINCENT, C.L., “Estimation of Winds Over the Great Lakes,"
Miscellaneous Paper H-76-12, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, Miss., June 1976.

SEELIG, W.N., "Maximum Wave Heights and Critical Water Depths for Irregular
Waves in the Surf Zone," CETA 80-1, U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal
Engineering Research Center, Fort Belvoir, Va., Feb. 1980.

U.S. ARMY, CORPS OF ENGINEERS, COASTAL ENGINEERING RESEARCH CENTER, "Method
for Determining Adjusted Windspeed, Ua, for Wave Forecasting," CETN-I-5,
Fort Belvoir, Va., Mar. 1981.

U.S. ARMY, CORPS OF ENGINEERS, COASTAL ENGINEERING RESEARCH CENTER, Shore
Protectton Manual, 3d ed., Vols. I, II, and III, Stock No. 008-022-00113-1,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1977, 1,262 pp.

VINCENT, C.L., "A Method for Estimating Depth-Limited Wave Energy," CETA 81-16,
U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Fort
Belvoir, Va., Nov. 1981.

APPENDIX

METHODOLOGY AND GOVERNING SPECTRAL EQUATIONS

1. Deepwater Representation of Fetch-Limited Wave Spectrum.

A spectrum of wind waves, generated in deep water for a long period of
time, is limited by the length of the fetch over which the wind is blowing.
The wind will generate a spectrum with a shape which has been parameterized
by Hasselmann, et al. (1973). The parameterization, or JONSWAP spectrum, pro-
vides a functional relationship between energy and frequency as well as the
windspeed, fetch length, and width of the spectral peak:

ex (ffm)?
E(£) = ag? (27)7* £75 ex |- 5 (£)-.| Y Nora (A-1)
and
o, for f < fm
o =
Cis asOie JE > Be
where
E = energy density
F = fetch length
f = frequency of wave component
fm = frequency of spectral peak = 3.52/(Ui0 x */3)
g = acceleration due to gravity
Ua = adjusted 10-meter windspeed
x = dimensionless fetch = gF/UA
a = Phillips equilibrium constant = 0.076 x ~9:22
Y = ratio of maximal spectral energy to the maximum of the corresponding

Pierson—Moskowitz spectrum = 3.3
Og = left-side width of the spectral peak = 0.07

0, = right-side width of the spectral peak = 0.09

This equation provides a wave spectrum as shown in curve 1 (Fig. 1), with a
total energy equal to the deepwater significant wave height, squared over 16.

15

2. Energy Reduction in Shallow Water.

As an irregular wave train enters transitional and shallow-water depths,
the presence of the sea bottom causes changes in wave steepness which, due to
the limitation on wave steepness, lead to a loss of wave energy. Kitaigorodskii,
Krasitskii, and Zaslavskii (1975) suggest that an upper limit of energy exists
at a given frequency which is a function of depth and a:

E(f£) = ag? £72 (27)7"+ (A-2)
)
where

Cy, tanh (wp, Gy) Sk
d = water depth
fol = 0.0081

2 2 2 rae
6 = Ch{l + [2up Cy/sinh(2up Cp) 1} 72
Wh = Phine elie

This equation represents a stability limit or "limiting form criterion" on a
wave component. Kitaigorodskii, Krasitskii, and Zaslavskii used a value of

a of 0.0081 based on field data. Recent work at the U.S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station (WES) has indicated that another mechanism, non-
linear wave-wave interaction, has an equivalent effect but that oa would vary
with dimensionless fetch (gF/U4) . The application of this theory is further
outlined by Vincent (1981).

Shoaling of a wave in shallow water also changes wave energy. A shoaling
coefficient can be calculated as in the Shore Protection Manual (App. C in
U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, 1977) for
each frequency component according to linear theory:

ke 2nd 4nd/L(£) Vee
Kee) & ([tans | [2 SGI Gace) ) SS)

and can be multiplied by the deepwater energy at each frequency band to obtain
a "shoaled" spectrum,

E(f) shoaled = Kg(f) E(f£) deep (A-4)

3. Determination of Shallow-Water Energy Spectrum.

Figure A-1l is a flow chart describing the solution process used in produc-
ing the design curves presented in this paper.

Generate deepwater JONSWAP spec-
trum using equation (A-1) based
on windspeed and fetch length.

At each frequency compare energy from equation
(A-2) with that from (A-4). The greatest of
the two values at each frequency band is re-
tained to form the spectrum at the particular
shallow-water depth.

Calculate significant height at the depth.

No

New
deepwater
fetch

Figure A-1. Flow chart illustrating the use of equations (A-1) to
(A-4) in generating the curves presented in Figure 2.

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