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GIFT  OF 


MISS.      FRANCES  R.     O'HARE 


HARVARD  COLLEGE  LIBRARY 


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EPITOME 

OF 

ancie:n^t,  medijsyal,  aot) 
modeen  hi8t0ey 

BT 

CARL  PLOETZ 

TSAK8LATBD  Ain>  ENLABOBD  BT 

WILLIAM  H.  TILUNGHAST 
WITH  ADDITIONS  COVERING  RECENT  EVENTS 


BOSTON  AND  NEW  YORK 

HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

<tbe  Aitrr^be  ftt^^  Cambtibge 


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7^  ^^9 


oamaoBT  lagj  add  190$  bt  wuxiam  Mormia  TitxniaBMT 


luNIVtUSlTY* 


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PREFACE  TO  THE  REVISED  EDECION. 


In  the  preient  edition  the  reoord  of  eYents  is  brought  down  from 
the  close  of  1882,  where  it  oeased  in  the  original  publication  (1884), 
to  the  close  of  1910.  Between  1882  and  1901  this  oontinnation  is 
mainly  the  work  of  Mr.  David  M.  Matteson,  to  whom  the  editor  is 
likewise  indebted  for  the  general  supervision  of*  the  issue  of  1906.  At- 
tention is  called  to  the  cross  references  which  now  connect  the  vari- 
ous divisions  of  national  history. 

The  editor  heartily  thanks  those  readers  who  have  notified  him  of 
errors  in  the  book.    All  discovered  errors  have  now  been  corrected, 
and  it  is  hoped  that  any  which  have  escaped  detection  will  be  made 
known  by  whoever  may  find  them. 
7.  mi. 


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TABLE  OP  CONTENTS. 


«%8eotloiu]Baxtod  witfa  an  •hATO  ben  added  l^  the  truaUtor ;  tkow  naitod  wttli 
a  t  iMTB  bMu  oonalderablj  enlaigod  or  obaofad  by  the  tnoalator. 

iHTBODUCnOir.  ix 

t  BiTlflloiis  of  oniTanal  hiitCMT 1 

L  ANCHDVT  HISTOR7. 

A.  EASTERN  PEOPLES. 
HAmno. 

1.  flcypttaiu S 

Smnic. 

2.  Jewi  (Helvrewi,  IflnMUtes)       .       .       •       •              •       •  7 

8.  Babylonians  and  Auyrianii 12 

4.  FhceniolaiiB  and  Oartbaginlani       ••••••  16 

(.  lordiaaa.    •Fhryslana  .     ^ARA&S 20 

Abtax. 
t  6.  Tn<<li^Ti« 22 

7.  Baotrlan%  Medea,  Ferdaoa 24 

TUBABIAir. 

•  8.  FarOiiano 29 

•  9.  Ohlnaee 80 

•  10.  Ji9eneao  32 


B.  WESTERN  PEOPLES. 
Abtaxs. 

•  L  Oelto 84 

a.  Continental  Celts.    GanU 84 

b.  Celta  of  the  British  Isles 86 

Britain 86 

beUnd 88 

2.  Grecian  history 89 

Geographical  survey  of  ancient  Greece 89 

•Religion  of  the  Greeks 41 

Pint  Period  (x— 1104).    Mythical  Period  ....  48 

Second  Period  (1104-500).    To  the  beginning  of  the  Persian 

Wars 47 

Third  Period  (500-838).    To  the  battle  of  Chieronea  56 
Fourth  Period  (888-146).    Gr»co  -  Macedonian   or  Hellenistic 

Period 78 


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J 


iy  TaNs  of  Oonienit. 

FA«I 

8.  Bomaa  hiitory 81 

Geographical  survey  of  ancient  Italy 81 

*  Religion  of  the  ancient  Romans         •••.••  84 

Ethnographical  sketch  of  Italy 86 

First  Period  (x— 510).    Mythical  epoch  of  the  kings        .       .  87 

Second  Period  (510-264).    To  the  beginning  of  the  Punic  Wars  .  93 

Third  Period  (964-146).    Epoch  of  the  Punic  Wars          .        .  109 

Fourth  Period  (146-81).    Epoch  of  the  Civil  Wars       ...  123 
Fifth  Period  (31  n.  C.-476  a.  d.).    The  Roman  emperors  to  the 

fall  of  the  Western  Empire 147 

•  4.  Tautona 162 

•  5.  BUti  and  Idihuanians 168 

XL  MEDUBVAL  HISTORY. 

HRST  PERIOD.    (876-848.) 

L.Hiffratlonsofthe  Northern  Tribes 170 

•  2.  Teutonio  kingdoms  in  Britain  (449-828)        ....  176 
8.  The  Franks  under  the  Merovinsians 181 

4.  Mohammed  and  the  OaUphate 182 

6.  The  Franks  under  the  OarolinglanB 188 

•  6.  Hew  Persian  empire  of  the  Sasaanidss 187 

SECOND  PERIOD.    (848-1086.) 

1.  Italy  and  Qermany  (CaroliDgian,  Saxon,  Franconian  or  Saltan  em- 
perors)            .....  193 

t  2.  France  (Garolingians  and  early  Capetians)  .       .       •       •       .  201 

t  8.  Bn^Land  (West  Saxon  kings)  ........  203 

•  4.  The  North.    Denmark 207 

Sweden,  Norway        .......  208 

5.  Bpanidi  Peninsula 209 

6.  The  Bast    Eastern   Empire 210 

•  India 210 

•China 2U 

•Japan 212 

THIRD  PERIOD.    (1098-1270.) 

1.  Orusades 219 

2.  Germany  and  Italy 218 

t  8.  France 226 

t  4.  Bnsland 229 

•  8.  The  North.    Denmark 235 

Sweden 237 

Norway 238 

8.  Spanish  Peninsula 240 

7.  The  Bast    Eastern  Empire.    The  Mongols 240 

•  India.    •  China         .       .    ' 241 

•Japan M8 


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Taib  of  Conienis.  r 

FOURTH  PERIOD.    (1370-1482.) 

1  QwmMiy  to  Maxfinflf  ftp  r 844 

Origin  of  the  Swiss  Gonfedenqr 245 

Leagues  of  the  dties         •••••.•.  249 

t  a.  Fnuioa  to  OhftrlM  VUL 264 

«-I««^ 289 

t  4.  Bziitead  to  Henrj  VH. 263 

5.  SpuUflh  Ftonixiflalft     . .275 

6-  The  Vorth  and  IbMt    Scandinayia.    Russia       ....   276 

Poland,  Prussia,  Hungary     ...  277 

TuAs,  Mongols,  Eastern  Empire  I  ^^ 

•Chin*.    'Japan                           J  '       *  *^* 

XXL  MODERN  HIST0R7. 

FIRST  PERIOD.    (1482-1648.) 

L  XnToiitioiii,  diflooverlM*  and  iwlffnlmi 279 

*  2.  Amerioa.    DisooTery 280 

a.  English  colonies :  South  Virginia 291 

Plymoath  Oompany      •       ...  298 

b.  Dutch  colonies 298 

e.  Swedish  colonies 298 

d,  Kew  Fhmce  and  the  Arctic  region 299 

8.  Gennaay  to  the  Thirty  Yeara'  War.    Befimnatton   •  800 
4.  Thirty  Tears*  War a08 

1.  Bohemian  Period,  1618-1628 80g 

2.  Danish           **      1625-1629 aiO 

8.  Swedish         '*      1680-1635 8U 

4.  French           "      1635-1648 814 

t  5b  Ttaace  .....••..•..  ai8 

6.  Italy 826 

7.  Spaolah  Fenlnsula  and  the  Vetherlanda      .       •       .       •  828 

t  The  Netherlands 828 

*  8.  Xm^Umd  and  BooOand 838 

9.  The  ITorth  and  Baat 851 

Sweden,  Denmark  and  Norway,  Poland,  Russia      ...  352 

Turks.    *  India 853 

*  China 854 

•J»P»n           855 

SECOND  PERIOa    (1648-1789.) 

A.  TUB  BBCOND  HALF  OF  THB  SBVSHTBBirTH  CIXTUBT. 

*  1.  Amerioa.    Britisli,  Dutch,  and  Swedish  colonies         ...  357 

French  settlements  and  discoveries         ....  863 

t  2.  Franoe  under  Iioaia  XIV. 365 

8.  Qermany  nnder  Iieopold  I. 871 

i.  The  North  and  Baat.   Sweden 878 

Denmark,  PoUmd.  Russia  ....  874 


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Table  of  OnOenU. 


PAM 

« 5.  Bnglaad 876 

•  6.  India 889 

«  7.  Ohlxui •       .  890 

B.  THE  EIOHTEEHTH  CEHTUBT  TO  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTIOir. 

1.  The'Warof  theSikanithBaooession 890 

2.  The  Northern  IWar 894 

8.  Qermany  to  the  Bevolution  of  1789 397 

4.  The  North.    Denmark  (Norway),  Sweden 409 

Russia,  Pulaud 410 

5.  Spain  and  Portugal 414 

6.  Italy.    Savoj,  Genoa,  Venice 416 

(Tuscany,  Papal  States)  Two  Sicilies        ....  416 

e  7.  America.    British  colonies       ........  417 

War  of  Independence 426 

•  8.  dlreet  Britoin 438 

•  9.  The  Beat.    India 442 

The  British  in  India •  443 

China 444 

Japan .446 

1 10.  rnuioetotheBeTolutionofl789           446 

THIRD  PERIOD.    (1789-1816.) 

IHrst  Vrenoh  Bevolution  and  STapoleonio  Ware  ...  447 

Causes  of  the  Revolution 448 

Constituent  assembly 449 

Legislative  assembly •       .461 

^  War  of  the  First  Coalition.    National  CJonvention    .       •       •  462 

"Directory 467 

War  of  the  Second  Coalition 460 

The  Consulate 461 

first  French  Empue •  466 

War  of  the  Third  Coalition 467 

(Fourth)  War  with  Prussia  and  Russia 468 

Peninsula  War 471 

(Fifth)  War  with  Austria 471 

(Sixth)  War  with  Russia 474 

The  War  of  Liberation 476 

Congress  of  Vienna 482 

The  Hundred  Days  (War  of  1816) 483 

FOURTH  PERIOD.    (1816-x.) 
L  Inrentions.  Steam  Eng^n^.  Steam  Navigation.  Railroads.  Tele- 
graph   486 

8.  OontinentalEurope 487 

War  of  Grecian  Independence     ..*....  488 

Revolution  in  Belgium 489 

Revolution  in  Poland 490 

Revolt  of  Mehemet  AU 491 


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Table  of  Cimtents.  vii 


avil  war  in  SwitserlAiid 49S 

Confunon  in  Germany;  attempts  at  union     ....  493 

Revolt  of  the  Hongarians 4M 

Crimean  War 4W 

Kingdom  of  Italy W3 

War  tff  Austria  and  Prussia  witli  Denmark    ....  505 

Austio-Prussian  War 607 

Austro-Italian  War WO 

Nortli  German  Confederation 511 

Franco-German  War W8 

German  Empire W® 

Tnrco-Rnssian  War 522 

Congress  of  Berlin 634 

t  a.  Fnmoe  (1815-1882) 626 

July  Revolution  of  1830 629 

February  Revolution  of  1848.    Second  Republic    ...  530 

Second  Empire 631 

Third  Republic 632 

•4.  GMat  Britain  1(1783-1882) 685 

The  British  in  IndU  (1785-1836) 641 

Great  Britain  (1837-1882) 642 

The  British  in  India  (1836-1882) 646 

•  5.  The  United  States  of  Amerioa  1(1789-1883)       ....  547 

War  of  1812     .       .        . .  651 

Warwith  Mexico 664 

TheCivUWar 657 

•  6.  Ohinft  (1796-1882) 660 

•  7.  Japan  (1787-1882) 662 

Restoration  of  the  Mikado  ........  663 

APPENDIX.    (1883-x.) 

•  8.  Great  Britain  s  (1883-1903)        .......  665 

South  African  War       .........  570 

•  9.  Continental  SuropeS  (1883-1903) 573 

ArmeuiaD  Massacres 679 

Cretan  Revolt  and  Turco-Greek  War 681 

Drevfus  Affair 682 

•  10.  United  States  >  (1883-1903) 686 

Spanish  War 690 

Philippine  Insurrection 692 

•  11  AsiftS  (1883-1903) 694 

Chinese-Japanese  War 696 

Boxer  Rising 697 

Russo-Japanese  Crisis 699 

XieedinsJDvento  (1904-1908) 599 

•  Index ^1 

1  Contributed  by  Sdwaid  Ohsnnlng,  Ph.D. 
*  Ciontributed  In  part  by  D.  M.  Msttasoa. 


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INTRODUCTION. 


Pbof.  Dr.  Cabl  Floetz,  well  known  in  Gennanj  as  a  vetezan 
teacher,  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  educational  works  having  a  high 
reputation,  among  which  none  has  better  approyed  its  usefulness  than 
the  **  Epitome  of  UniTersal  History."  ^  l%e  admitted  excellence  of 
the  bode  renders  an  apology  for  its  translation  unneoessanr,  but  an 
extract  from  the  authors  preface  respecting  the  nature  and  purpose 
of  the  work  may  not  be  out  of  place. 

''The  present  'Epitome/  which  now  appears  in  a  seventh  edition,  enlaiged 
and  improved,  is  intended,  in  the  first  place,  for  ose  by  the  upper  classes  in 
higher  educational  institutions,  as  a  guide  or  handbook  m  the  historical  class- 
room. The  handy  arrangement  of  the  book  and  the  elaborate  index  are  in- 
tended to  adapt  it  for  private  use,  and  to  facilitate  rapid  acquisition  of  informa- 
tion concerning  historical  matters  which  have,  for  the  moment,  escaped  the 
memory. 

"  I  have  endeavored  to  give  everywhere  the  assured  results  of  recent  histor- 
ical investigation,  adding,  as  far  as  possible,  references  to  my  authorities. 

"  The  exposition  of  ancient  history  is  based  upon  the  works  of  Duncker, 
Cnrtius,  Mommsen,  and  Peter. 

"Mediaval  history,  which  was  treated  somewhat  too  briefly  in  the  earlier 
editions,  has  been  made  proportionately  full  since  the  fourth,  and  has  been, 
moreover,  enlarged,  as  has  modem  history,  by  the  addition  of  a  number  of 
genealogical  tables. 

"In  modem  history  the  treaties  of  peace  have  been  brought  into  especial 
prominence,  and  the  principal  conditions  of  the  g^reat  treaties,  through  which 
alone  one  can  get  an  msifht  into  the  historical  formation  of  Uie  present  system 
of  European  states,  have  been  stated  with  all  possible  accuracy. 

"  Recent  history  has  been  brought  down  to  the  present  day.  The  purpose 
and  the  compass  of  the  book  alike  permitted  nothing  more  than  a  compressed 
narrative  of  lacts^  as  far  as  possible,  free  from  the  expression  of  personal  opin- 
ion. This  limitation  of  itself  excludes  the  possibility  of  offending,  whether  in  a 
religious  or  a  poUticai  sense. 

''All  are  probably  now  agreed  that  it  is  nnadvlsable  for  scholars  to  write  out 
the  lecture  of  the  instructor  in  full,  which,  however,  should  not  prevent  them 
from  taking  notes  here  and  there.  No  one  denies  the  necessity  of  a  guide  as  a 
basis  for  instmction ;  but  widely  differing  ideas  prevail  concerning  the  arrange- 
ment and  extent  of  such  a  work. 

"  The  author  of  this  'Epitome,'  who  was  for  a  number  of  years  historical  in- 
stractor  of  the  first  and  second  classes  in  the  French  Gymnasium  at  Berlin, 
holds  the  opinion  that  even  the  best  handbook  can  in  no  way  take  the  place  of 
an  animated  lecture,  and  that  any  guide  which  gives  a  connected  narrative  in 

1  Avtatg  aui  dtr  dUen,  mittleren  und  neueren  Getekichte  von  Karl  Floeta. 
Siebente  verbesserte  und  stark  vermehrte  Aufiage,  Berlin.  A.  G.  Ploetz,  1880. 
The  preparation  of  this  edition  was  confided  to  mt  Dr.  O.  Meltaer,  author  of 
Gudiichte  der  Karthager,  i.  1880. 


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Inirdduelian. 

i  detail  neoessarily  detracts  from  the  value  of  the  teacher's  lecture,  if  in  tlM 
hands  of  the  pupils  in  the  class-ruom. 

'^  I  am  persuaded  that  such  a  work  should  place  before  the  pupil  &cts  only,  in 
the  wider  sense  of  the  word,  and  these  grouped  in  the  most  comprehensive  man- 
ner. The  task  of  animating  these  facts  by  oral  exposition  ought  to  be  left  to 
the  instructor." 

The  translator  has  enlarged  the  book  in  no  small  degree,  with  the 
hope  of  increasing  its  general  usefulness,  and  of  giving  it  especial 
lalue  in  this  country. 

Under  ancient  history  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  bring  the 
ethnofi;raphical  relations  of  the  eany  peoples  into  prominence  ;  but 
believmg  that  the  uncertainty  of  our  knowledge  in  this  respect  can 
hardly  j^  dwelt  upon  too  strongly,  the  translator  has  tried  to  speak 
ffuardedly.  Even  the  Indo-European  family  is  far  from  being  satis- 
factorily understood;  the  details  of  the  relationship  of  its  constituent 
groups  are  not  clear ;  the  theory  of  a  primitive  Asiatic  home  and  a 
wave-like  series  of  westward  migrations  is  but  one,  though  perhaps  the 
best,  among  many  speculations.  Recent  text-books  have  delighted  us 
with  minutely  nunined  tables  of  Indo-European  relationships,  show- 
ing, with  close  approximation,  when  each  group  left  the  parent  stock, 
each  tribe  the  common  group  ;  this,  though  harmless  as  speculation, 
is  dangerous  if  taken  for  knowledge.^ 

The  speculations  in  regard  to  the  early  inhabitants  of  the  British 
Isles  should  be  received  with  like  caution.  Their  provisional  accept- 
ance, however,  is  so  useful  as  to  justify  their  insertion. 

The  mythical  history  of  England,  Ireland,  and  Scandinavia  has 
been  deemed  worthy  to  stand  beside  that  of  Greece  and  Some.  The 
undoubted  historical  value  of  many  of  these  traditions  and  the  part 
which  they  play  in  general  literature  will  explain  the  presence  of 
even  the  distinctly  fabulous  tales.  The  distinction  between  myth,  a 
theoretical  explanation  of  mirths,  and  tolerably  trustworthy  histcry 
has  been  kept  constantly  in  view. 

The  history  of  certain  countries,  as  China,  Japan,  Parthia  and  Per- 
sia under  the  Sassanide,  which  the  stricter  limits  of  the  Crerman 
work  had  caused  the  author  to  omit,  has  been  added  ;  in  the  cases  of 
India,  the  Scandinavian  monarchies  before  1387,  and  France,  the 
meagre  account  in  the  original  has  undergone  considerable  amplifica- 
tion. 

The  greatest  changes,  however,  will  be  found  in  the  history  of  Eng- 

1  "  We  must  content  ourselres,  for  the  present,  with  the  recognition  of  a 
fundamental  primitive  community  of  Indo-European  languages,  and  refrain 
from  dividing  the^e  languages  into  groups  (except  in  the  case  of  the  Indo-Ira- 
nian  tongue«).  Especially  is  this  true  of  the  unity  of  the  Greeks  and  Italians,  so 
often  taken  for  ^nted.  It  cannot  be  said  that  this  unity  did  not  once  exi!<t, 
but  neither  can  it  be  asserted  that  its  existence  is  demonstrable.  Whether  or 
not  the  future  will  succeed  in  reaching  more  certain  results  remains  to  be  seen : 
until  such  results  are  reached  historians  will  do  well  to  refrain  from  making  use 
of  such  groups  of  languages  and  of  tribes  as  the  Grseco-Itallan  and  the  Slavo-Ger- 
man."  (B.  Delbrfkok,  EiiUeitung  in  dm  Sprachttudium^  Leipsig,  Breirkopf 
&  Hiirtel,  1880.)  Not  all  philologists  will  agree  upon  this  point,  —  upon  what 
point  do  all  philologists  agree  ?  — and  the  archcologists  have  something  to  sav 
upim  the  matter;  the  words  just  quoted  are,  nevertheless,  worthy  of  consid- 
eration. 


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hUrddueticn,  zi 

land  and  in  that  of  America,  which  have  been  zewritten  from  the 
begimung  with  a  foUness  of  detail  proportional  to  that  obsexred  by 
the  original  in  the  history  of  Germany. 

In  the  additions  notmng  more  than  a  compilation  from  reliable, 
bnt  easily  accessible,  soorces  has  been  attempted.  A  few  notes  have 
been  inserted  and  a  few  dates  and  facts  interpolated  in  the  text  of  the 
original,  but  these  changes  have  been  duly  attributed  to  the  transla- 
tor, either  directly  or  by  the  use  of  brackets,  where  they  seemed  of 
sufficient  importance. 

Absolute  accuracy  cannot  be  looked  for  in  a  work  dea]in|^  with  so 
yast  a  number  of  dates  and  covering  so  wide  a  range  in  tmie  ;  the 
translator,  however,  in  the  sections  for  which  he  is  responsible,  has 
endeavored  to  verify  each  date  by  reference  to  indepenaent  authori- 
ties. He  will  be  grateful  to  all  who  will  take  the  trouble  to  inf (wm 
him  of  errors  that  nave  escaped  his  notice.  That  the  proportion  ob- 
served in  the  space  allotted  to  different  countries  and  epochs  is  open 
to  criticism,  the  translator  is  well  aware  ;  the  &ult  is  due  in  part  to 
the  plan,  adopted  bv  him  of  sending  the  earlier  portions  of  the  book 
to  press  before  the  later  were  finished,  in  the  vain  hope  of  hastening 
its  completion. 

£xcept  in  the  case  of  the  Austro-Pmssian  and  Franco-Prussian 
wars,  where  much  of  the  minute  descriptive  detail  has  been  omitted, 
no  attempt  has  been  made  to  condense  uie  original. 

Various  circumstances  have  delayed  the  appearance  of  the  book 
much  beyond  the  time  for  which  it  was  announced  ;  that  it  is  at  last 
ready  is  due  to  the  kindness  of  Dr.  Edward  Chaiming,  of  Harvard 
College,  who  took  upon  himself  the  preparation  of  those  sections 
which  contain  tiie  history  of  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  from 
1784  to  1883,  and  that  of  the  United  States  from  1789  to  1883.  The 
thanks  of  the  translator  are  also  due  to  Professor  H.  W.  Torrev,  of 
Harvard  Collee;e,  for  the  loan  of  material  of  which  free  use  has  been 
made  for  English  history  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries, 
and  for  French  history  in  the  nineteenth  century ;  and  to  Mr.  Justin 
Winsor,  Librarian  of  the  University,  for  the  free  use  of  books. 

To  Dr.  R.  H.  Labberton  and  to  Messrs.  £.  Chixton  &  Co.  of  Phila- 
delphia, the  translator  is  indebted  for  courteous  permission  to  use 
certain  genealogical  tables  in  Dr.  Labberton's  exceedingly  useful 
«  Outlines  of  HLtory."  * 

The  distinguishing  feature  of  the  **  Epitome  "  is  the  arrangement 
whereby  a  brief  connected  narrative  is  accompanied  by  a  clear,  well- 
graduated  chronology  which  emphasizes  the  sequence  of  events  with- 
out breaking  up  the  story  or  fatiguing  the  nund.  An  attempt  has 
been  made,  by  tiie  use  of  italics  and  two  sizes  of  black  type,  to  mark 
and  distin^^h  events  according  to  their  relative  importance,  and 
also  to  reheve  the  page ;  while,  with  the  latter  object  in  view,  the 
use  of  capitals  has  l^en  as  far  as  possible  dispensed  with,  although 
the  manner  of  printing  the  book  has  prevented  consistency  in  this 

1  lAbberlon,  B.  H.,  Outlines  ofButory^  with  orf^nal  tables,  chronological, 
genealogical,  and  literarv.  Thirteenth  edition.  Philadelphia,  £.  Claxton  & 
Co.,  1883.  Text  and  Historical  Atlas.  The  Ubles  used  an  II.,  III.,  XYI., 
which  appear  on  pages  265, 256,  882,  of  the  present  work. 


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xii  AUroduOiaH. 

respect.  Especial  care  has  been  devoted  to  the  index,  vHbioh  lias  been 
made  yeiy  fall,  in  order  that  the  book  might  serve  as  a  historical 
dietionaiy,  as  well  as  a  chronology. 


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UNIVERSAL  HISTORY. 


A  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  ITS  PRINCIPAL  DIVISIONS. 

X  B.  c.  —  875  A.  D.  I.  Ancient  history,  from  the  begin- 
ning of  liistorical  infonnation  to  the  commence- 
ment of  the  migrations  of  the  Teutonic  tribes. 

876  — 1482*    n.  Mediaeval  history,  from  the  conmience- 
ment  of  the  migrations  of  the  Teutonic  tribes  to 
the  discoyery  of  America. 
1482 — Z.    lU.  Modem  history*  from  the  discoveiy  of 
America  to  the  present  time. 


Ancient  history,  treated  ethnographically,  falls  into  two  great  diyi- 
sions: 

A.  Xfautem  peoples:  Egyptians  (HcmuHc);  Jews,  Babylonians,  As- 

syrians, FiuBnician8,Lydians(5«mtttc);  Hindus,  Bao- 
trians,  Medes,  Persians  {Aryan);  Parthians,  Chinese, 
Japanese  (Turamdnf). 

B.  'Western  Peoples:  Celts,  Britons,  Greeks,  Romans,  Teutons 

(Aryan). 

MedisBval  history  can  be  diyided  into  four  chronological  periods: 

375-843.    1.  From  the  commencement  of  the  migrations  of  the 

Tentonio  Tribes  to  the  Treaty  of  Verdnn. 
843-1096.    2.  From  the  Treaty  of  Verdun  to  the  beginning  of  the 

Crusades. 
1096-1270.    3.  The  epoch  of  the  Crusades. 

1270->1492.    4.  From  the  end  of  the  Crusades  to  the  discovery  of 
America. 

BCodem  history  can  also  be  divided  into  four  periods: 

1492-1648.    1.  From  the  discovery  of  America  to  the  Peace  of 

Westphalia. 
1648-1789.    2.  From  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  to  the  outbreak  of 

the  first  French  Revolution. 
1789-1815.    3.  From  the  outbreak  of  the  first  French  Revolution 

to  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 
1815-x.  4.  From  the  Congress  of  Vienna  to  the  present  time. 


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Ancient  HiUory.  b.  c. 


I.    ANCIENT  HISTORY, 


A.   EASTERN  PEOPLES. 

§1.    EGYPTIANS,    ffamites. 

Geography:  Egypt ^  (Kern,  i.  e.  "black  earth*'  in  old  Egyptian) 
is  the  valley  of  the  jNile,  whidi  extends  between  two  chains  of  low 
hills  for  550  miles,  with  a  breadth,  above  the  Delta,  of  but  a  few  miles. 
It  is  divided  into  Upper  Bgypt  {PhilcBf  EUpharUine,  Thebes  or  Dios- 
pdlis,  called  by  Homer  iKaT6fiwv\os,  the  *^  hundred  gated,"  a  designa- 
tion which  must  refer  to  the  entrances  of  temples  and  palaces,  smce 
the  city  had  neither  walls  nor  gates)  and  Lower  Egypt  (Memphis; 
in  the  Delta,  Tanis,  Bnbastis,  Naucrdtis,  Sals;  west  of  the  Delta, 
CanopuSy  now  Aboukir;  on  the  east,  Pehisium;  uie  latter  cities  stand- 
ing on  what  were,  in  ancient  times,  the  largest  mouths  of  the  Nile). 
These  divisions  were  originally,  in  all  probability,  independent  coun- 
tries. They  are  not  to  oe  confoundea  with  the  separate  principali- 
ties which  became  numerous  at  a  later  time.  This  oivision  was  com- 
memorated in  the  royal  title  of  the  kings  of  the  united  countries, 
*<  lords  of  the  npper  and  lower  oountry,"  ^  lords  of  the  two 
orowns." 

Religion :  Worship  of  personified  forces  of  Nature  and  symbolical 
animal  worship.  In  Memphis  especial  reverence  paid  to  Ptahj  the 
highest  of  the  gods,  the  first  creator  ;  in  his  temple  stood  the  sacred 
biidl  Apis  (Eeypt.  Apt),  also  closely  connected  with  Osiris,  Ra^^  wor- 
shipped particularly  in  On  or  Heliapolis,  represented  the  transmitting 
and  preserving  power  of  the  godhead  embodied  in  the  sun.  Khenif 
was  the  god  of  generation  and  growth.  Reverence  was  also  paid  to 
the  goddess  Neithf  whose  worship  at  Sais  was  considered  by  the  Greeks 
to  be  identical  with  that  of  AthenGf  to  the  goddess  Bast  or  Pacht  (at 
Bnbastis),  and  to  the  goddess  of  BtdOf  on  one  of  the  mouths  of  the 
Nile. 

At  Thebes,  cult  of  Amman  (Amun),  the  god  of  heaven,  later  united 
with  Ra  to  form  a  single  divinity.  In  Upper  Egypt  worship  was  paid 
to  MerUu,  the  rising  sun;  Turn  or  Atmu,  the  setting  sun;  Chmtm  or 
Kna)hf  sod  of  the  overflow,  always  represented  with  a  ram's  head  and 
double  horns,  and  later  becoming  united  with  Amman  to  form  one 
divinity;  and  to  the  goddess  Mut  (i.  e.  "mother").  The  educated 
classes  recognized  the  various  gods  as  personified  attributes  of  the 
one  Divinity. 

1  See  Klepert,  Atlas  AfUiquut/Ttih.  III. 

*  According  to  Bosellinl  and  IjOpsius  the  title  of  Pharaoh  is  derived  from 
this  name,  and  means  Son  of  the  Sun.  Sbers  and  Bnucsoh  derive  it  froDi 
Pe-ro(o),  the  *•  ^reat  house."    (Compare  "  Sublime  Porte.") 


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B.  c.  EgypHam,  3 

Myth  of  Artm,  the  creatiye  force  in  Natore,  who  was  killed  and 
thrown  into  the  sea  by  Set  (Typhofi),  the  destructive  force  in  Nature 
(especiaUy  drought);  sought  axter  by  his  sorrowing  consort  Isis  fthe 
earth),  he  was  avenged  by  their  son  Haros,  who  slew  Set;  restorea  to 
life,  C^ris  thenceforward  ruled  in  the  lower  world  (decay  and  resur- 
rection of  the  creative  force  in  nature;  immortality  of  the  soul).  Con- 
joined with  HoroSf  the  goddess  Hathor,  considered  by  the  Greeks  to  be 
the  same  as  AphrodUe, 

Highly  developed  moral  code. 

Civilisation:  Fertility  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile  maintained  by  the 
regular  overflow  of  the  Nile,  beginning  at  the  end  of  July  and  last- 
ing four  months. 

Hieroglyphics^  very  early  in  oonjimction  with  the  hieratic,  and  after^ 
wards  the  demotic,  characters  (syllabic  and  phonetic  signs),  which 
represented  the  language  of  dauy  life,  the  dialect  of  the  common 
people. 

Embalming  of  the  dead.     (Mummies.) 

Avoidance  of  intercourse  with  foreign  peoples  and  adoption  of 
foreign  customs.  Strict  regulation  of  the  entire  life  by  religious 
prescriptions. 

Caetes :  Priests,  warriors,  agricultural  laborers,  artisans,  shepherds. 
These  castes,  however,  were  in  no  wise  absolutely  separated  from  one 
another. 

Form  of  Government:  Despotic  monarchy,  with  divine  attributes, 
also  in  possession  of  the  highest  spiritual  power.  Strong  influence  of 
the  priests,  especially  after  the  fourteenth  century,  but  they  never 
oontroUed  the  supreme  power.^ 

The  Pyramids  are  gigantic  sepulchres  of  the  kings.  Over  thirty 
still  exist*  The  largest,  at  Gizeh,  was  originally  480  feet  high,  and 
still  measures  450  feet.  The  Obelisks — of  which  one  is  now  at 
Paris,  several  in  Rome,  one  in  London,  and  one  in  New  York  —  are 
cut  horn  single  blocks  of  stone  (monoliths^,  and  were  offerings  to 
the  sun-god  Ra;  the  Sphinxes  were  symbols  of  the  sun-god. 

Chronology:  The  Egyptians  filled  the  space  before  Mena,  the 
first  of  the  historic  line  oi  kings,  by  the  assumption  of  three  dynas- 
ties of  fipods,  demi-gods,  and  <Uhe  mysterious  manes."  The  list  of 
kings  after  Mena  was  g^ven  at  length  by  the  priest  Manetho  (about 
2o0  B.  c),  in  his  history  of  Egypt.  He  arranged  them  in  thirty  dy- 
nasties, a  division  which  is  still  used.  To  reconcile^  the  names  and 
dates  fifiven  by  Manetho  with  the  records  upon  the  monuments  is  a 
difBcult  matter,  owing  in  part  to  the  fact  that  several  of  the  dynasties 
of  Manetho  probably  reigned  contemporaneously  in  different  parts 
of  Egypt,  that  it  was  the  custom  for  a  king  to  associate  his  son  with 
himself  during  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  and  that  the  son  after- 
wards reckoned  his  reini  from  the  date  of  such  association.  Hence 
the  systems  of  chronology,  drawn  up  by  Egyptologists,  vary  greatly. 
There  are,  in  general,  two  schools:  (1.)  The  long  chronology,  advo- 
cated on  the  continent,  wherein  the  dates  assigned  to  Mena  vary  from 

1  See  Dunoker,  History  of  Antiquity ^  1. 180. 

3  IiepsiuB  saw  traces  and  remains  of  sixty-seven  pyramids;  Brussoh  of 
more  than  seventy. 


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4  AncCeni  HisU>ry»  b^  c. 

5702  (Boeckh)  to  3023  (Bonsen).  (2.)  The  fihoH  chronology,  advo- 
oated  in  Enguuid,  wherein  the  dates  assigned  to  Mena  vary  between 
2700  and  2£U).  In  the  following  pages  the  chronology  of  Lepalns 
is  followed,  with  the  exception  oi  Uie  date  assigned  to  Mena,  which 
Lepsius  gives  as  3892  b.  o.  These  dates  should  be  compared  with  the 
lists  given  by  Brugsoh  ^  and  by  Rawlinson.^    Before 

3000*  The  old  empire  of  the  Egyptians,  in  the  lower  val- 
ley of  the  Nile,  founded  according  to  EWptian  tradition 
by  Mena*  (Menes).    Capital :  Memphis. 

2800-2700  (?).    The  kings  BliTifti,  Khafra,  Menkaora  (aooordinff 

to  Herodotus,  Cheops,  Chephren,  Mykerinos),  the  builders  <S 

the  largest  pyramias.     I Vth  dynasty  (Memphis)  called  the 

"  Pyramid  dynasty." 

About  2400.    Removal  of  the  centre  of  government  of  the  empire  to 

Thebes. 

Of  the  princes  of  this  line  the  following  deserve  mention:  Amenen^ 

hat  I,  (2380-2371),  who  seems  to  have  extended  the  power  of  Egypt 

up  the  Nile  and  over  a  part  of  Nubia ;  Usurtasen  L  (2371-2325)  who 

continued  the  conquests  of  his  predecessor,  and  erected  obelisks;  ilme- 

nemhat  II.;  Usurtasen  II.;  Usurtasen  III.;  Amenemhat  in.  (2221- 

2179)  constructed  lake  Meri^  (i.  e.  **  lake  of  inundations  *'),  a  large 

reservoir  for  reguhttine  the  water  supply  of  the  Nile,  and  built  S.  of 

this  lake  the  so-called  Labyrinth,  a  lai^  palace  for  ceremonial  acts 

and  sacrifices.    These  six  monarchs  belong  to  the  Xllth  dynasty  (of 

Thebes). 

About  2100.  Egypt  conc^uered  by  the  Hykaos,  or  Shepherd  Kings. 
The  Hykaos  (derived  from  Hyk,  king,  and  Schasti,  shepheixis, 
contracted  into  Sos)  were  wandering  tribes  of  Semitic  descent. 
About  1800.  Thebes  revolted  i^ainst  the  rule  of  the  Hyksos.  Native 
rulers  maintained  themsebres  in  Upper  Egypt.  After  a  long 
contest  the  Shepherd  kings  were  oriven  out  of  Egypt  com- 
pletely under  King  Aahmes  (Amosis),  of  Thebes  (1684^1659).^ 
Their  epoch  covers  the  Xlllth  to  AVIIth  dynasties. 

1670  —  625.  The  new  empire  (capital  at  first  Thebes), 
under  Thutmes  III.  (Thutmosis,  1591-1565 ;  XVIIIth 
dynasty)  increased  rapidly  in  power  and  eictent. 

1524-1488.  Under  Thutmes  and  his  successors,  especially  Amen- 
hotep  in.  (Amenophis),  successful  expeditions  against  the 
Syrians  {Ruthen)  and  against  the  Ethiopians  in  the  south. 

1  Bittory  of  Egypt,    Appendix.    See  also  I.  37,  and  xxxii.  note  1. 


*  History  of  Egypt^  or  Manual  of  History^  p.  61,  and  foil. 

*  The  royal  nomenclature  of  the  Egyptians  is  as  picturesquely  varied  as  their 
chronology.  I  have  given  first  some  form  of  the  true  Egyptian  name,  as  found 
on  the  monuments,  generally  that  adopted  by  Brogsch,  ana  have  followed  it  by 
the  more  common  name,  as  given  by  Manetho,  Herodotus,  or  the  Jewish  Scrip- 
tures, in  parentheses.     [Trams.] 

^  Called  by  the  Greeks  Maris  (Moipoc,  Herod.  I.  101),  and  erroneoosly  intei' 
preted  as  a  royal  name. 

*  Dunoker,  History  qfAnti^ity,  I.  130,  and  foil. 


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B.  a  Egyptiani.  5 

£Teeti0n  of  magnifioent  palaoes  and  templee  at  Thebes. 
(RoiitB  near  the  present  villages  of  CamaCf  iMscoTy  and  Medi- 
net'Ahu;  near  the  latter  two  sitting  colossi,  statnes  of  Amen- 
kotqkf  one  of  which  the  Greeks  cafled  the  musical  Statue  of 
Memnon.} 
1438-1388.  Similar  snooess  in  war  fell  to  the  lot  of  Setl  I.  (Setkos). 
Expeditions  to  Ethiopia,  Arabia,  and  to  the  Euphrates.  Tem- 
~  i  of.  Ammon  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  opposite  Thebes. 
I  son, 

1388-1322.    Ramessu  II.,  the  Qreat  {SesturRa,  Bamses) 
was  victorious  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign,  but  could 
not  long  maintain  his  sapremacy  over  Syria  (XlXth  dy- 
nasty). 

In  spite  of  this  a  peculiar  tradition  transformed  him  into  that  mili- 
tary hero  whom  the  Greeks  knew  as  Sesoatria  (Herodotus^  11. 102- 
110),  or  Seaooais  (Died.  Sic.  I.  53-^),  and  to  whom  they  ascribed 
fabulous  expeditions  to  Thrace  and  IncUa.  This  tradition  seems  to 
have  had  its  origin  in  the  bombastic  expressions  common  to  the  ro^ 
inscriptions  of  me  Egyptians,  and  in  poetic  exaltations  of  his  earUer 
victories.  In  the  Greek  account  we  have  besides  a  confusion  of  recol- 
lections of  the  glorious  deeds  of  ThutmeB  and  Amenhoiepy  of  Sed  and 
RametsuIIL 

During  his  lone  reign  he  covered  Egypt  with  mi^nificent  buildings. 
Splendid  palace  known  as  *<the  House  of  Ramses,"  soutii  of  Comae; 
t^ple  of  Ammon,  400  miles  above  Syene.  Commencement  of  a  canal 
between  the  Bed  Sea  and  the  Nile.  Ramessu  II.  was  probably  the 
oppressor  of  the  Hebrews.  Under  his  successor, 
1322-1302.  Mineptah,  L  e.  <<  beloved  of  Ptah,''  occurred  the  exo- 
dus of  the  Hebrews  from  Egypt  (see  page  8).^ 

1269-1244.    Ramessu  m.  (Rhampsinitus,  XXth  dpasty). 

Successful  resistance  offered  to  the  Libyan  and  Semitic  tribes; 

expeditions  as  far  as  Phoemcia  and  Syria.     (Stoiy  of  the  theft 

from  the  treasury,  Herodotus,  II.  121.) 
1244-1001.    Decay  of  the  empire  under  the  later  kings  of  the  name 

of  Ramses. 
1091.    A  new  dynashr  (XXI.)  came  to  the  throne  with  Kine^  Hlrhor 

(Smendes).    The  seat  of  their  power  was  TaniSy  in  the  Delta, 

whence  they  are  called  Tanites. 

Loss  of  supremacy  over  Ethiopia,  where  the  kingdom  of  iVia- 

pata  or  Meroe  was  founded. 
961-9«).    Shaahang  L  (Sesonchis,  Shisak),  from  Bubastis,  founded  a 

new  dynasty  (XTTTT  ).^    He  undertook  (949)  a  successful  ex- 
pedition against  Judasa.    Jerusalem  conquered  and  plundered. 

1  It  msy  have  occurred  under  his  successor  of  the  same  name ;  the  date  of 
whose  reigo,  as  well  as  the  reif^s  of  the  kings  immediately  preceding,  would 
have  to  m  placed  several  decades  earlier,  in  agreement  witti  Dunoker  and 


s  The  opinion  of  Bmgsoh,  History  ofEgypU  II.  198,  that  an  Assyrian  con- 
quest of  qzypt  occurred  at  this  time,  and  that  Shashang  I.  was  the  son  of  the 
conqueror,  JNimrod,  king  of  Ass^Tia,  has  not  found  favor  among  EgyptologistSi 
[Tbahs.] 


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6  AncierU  History.  B.  c 

790.  The  £thio{iiaii8,  under  Shabak  (Sabako),  conquered  Egypt^ 
which  they  governed  for  fifty-eignt  years  under  three  Bucoes- 
aive  kinss.     (XXVth  dynasty.) 

672.  An  expedition  of  the  Assyrians,  under  Bsarhaddon  (p.  15) 
against  Egypt.  The  king  of  the  Assyrians  and  his  son,  Asshar^ 
banipal  (Sardanapalus),  put  an  end  to  the  rule  of  tiie  Ethi- 
opians (under  Tahamk  or  Tirhakah,  the  second  successor  of 
Shabak),  and  entrusted  the  govemment  of  Egypt  to  twenty 
governors,  most  of  whom  were  natives. 

663.    One  of  these  governors,  Psaxnethik,  in  alliance  with 
Gyges,  king  of  Lydia,  with  the  help  of  Carians,  Phoeni- 
cians, and  lonians,  made  himself  independent  of  Assyria, 
and  sole  ruler  of  Egypt  (XXYIth  dynasty,  of  Sdis), 
The  tale  of  the  twelve  native  princes  Tthe  Dodecarofay  of  Herod- 
otus and  Diodorus),  according  to  which  Psammeticus  defeated  his 
eleven  co-regents  at  Momemphts,  is  not  historical.    The  number,  12,  is 
derived  from  *the  twelve  courts  of  columns  in  the  Labyrinth,  which, 
according  to  Herodotus  and  Diodorus,  was  built  by  the  twelve  princes, 
whereas  this  gigantic  building  had  already  been  standing  16(X)  years 
(p.  4). 

653-610.  Psaxnethik  I.,  king  of  Egypt,  from  ihe  mouths 
of  the  Nile  to  Elepkantinej  above  which  place  the  Ethio- 
pians held  the  supremacy.     (XXYIth  dynasty.) 

New  capital,  Sais,  in  the  Delta,  where  Psamethik  built  a  magnifi- 
cent palace.  Egvpt  opened  to  foreigners,  who  were  favored  in  the 
army  and  settled  at  various  points.  Caste  of  Interpreters.  Greek 
factory  at  NaucrStis,  Dissatisfaction  among  the  military  caste;  emi- 
grations upward  along  the  Nile  to  Ethiopia. 

Psamethik  carried  on  wars  in  Syria,  rhcenicia,  and  Palestine;  ihej 
were  probably  undertaken  in  the  first  instance  to  strengthen  his 
frontier  against  a  new  attack  by  the  Assyrians,  which  he  dreaded. 
These  wars  led  to  no  lasting  conquests.    lUie  son  of  Psamethik, 

610-^95.  Neku  (Necho),  revived  ihe  plan  of  Ramses  to  unite 
the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea  by  a  canal,  but  did  not  succeed  in 
carrying  it  out.  By  his  orders  Africa  was  circumnavigated  by 
Phcenicuin  seamen.  He  undertook  expeditions  to  Syria  where 
he  was  at  first  successful,  and  defeated  the  king  of  Judah  in  the 
battle  of  Megiddo  (609),  but  was  afterwards  defeated  by  the 
Babylonians  in  the 

605.  BatUe  of  CarchemiBh.  Loss  of  all  his  conquests  in  Asia. 
Neku's  son, 

695^589.  Psamethik  II.  Expedition  against  Ethiopia  without  suc- 
cess.   His  son, 

589-570.  Hophra  (Apries),  fought  without  lasting  success  against 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  sent  help  to  the  tribes  of  Libya  asainst 
Cyrene.  His  defeated  army  revolted,  and  he  was  deroated 
at  the  head  of  Ionian  and  Carian  mercenaries,  captured  and 
strangled. 


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0.  0.  Je¥>9.  7 

570-^26.  Aahmfwt  (AnUlfis),  an  Egypdan  of  low  origm,  JMended 
the  throne,  ^oouragement  of  foreigners,  especially  of  the 
Greeks,  carried  still  farther;  numerous  Grecian  temples  erected 
in  Naucrdtis.  Friendship  with  Cyrene  and  Polycrates  qf  Samo$. 
Magnificent  buildings,  especially  in  Sals.    The  son  of  AmisiSy 

525,  Psamethik  m.,  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Pelusium 
by  Carnbyaes.    Egypt  a  Persian  province. 

{ 2.    JEWS  (HEBREWS,  ISRAELITES).    Semitic. 

Qeography.  The  land  of  the  Jews  is  bounded  N.  by  Coda-Syria; 
W.  by  Phcmiciaf  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  hind  of  the  PhUistma; 
S.  by  Arabia  Petnxa;  E.  by  the  Arabian  Desert, 

The  name  Canaan,^  i.  e.  **  low  land,"  was  originally  applied  to  the 
region  along  the  coast,  but  was  at  an  early  date  extended  to  Uie  inland 
country. 

The  names  Canaanite  and  Phoenician  haye  properly  the  same  mean- 
ing; the  first  was  the  Semitic,  the  second  the  Grecian  name  for  the 
inhabitants  of  the  whole  land  before  the  Jewish  conquest. 

Paleatine  was  originally  the  name  of  the  southern  coast-land,  which 
was  so  called  after  the  Semitic  tribe  of  the  Philistines  (Pdishtim) 
which  had  possession  of  it,  but  was  transferred  by  Egyptians  and 
Greeks  to  the  land  occupied  by  the  Jews.  In  the  Bible  the  country 
is  called  <'the  promised  land,"  L  e.  the  land  promised  by  Jehoyah  to 
the  children  of  IsraeL 

The  riyer  Jordan,  which  rises  in  the  mountain  range  of  AntUdnxnon 
and  empties  into  the  Dead  Sea  {Sodom,  Gomorrah),  runs  through  the 
middle  of  the  country.  After  the  Jewish  conquest  the  country  was 
diyided  into  the  twelye  proyinces  of  the  twelye  tnbes;  after  the  death 
of  Solomon  into  the  kingdoms  of  Judah  andjsrael;  at  the  time  of 
Christ  into  four  districts:  1.  Jndsea  (Jerusalem,  Hebr.  Jerushalalm; 
Greek  'UfMnr^^v/M,  with  the  fortress  of  Zion  and  the  Temple  on  Mt. 
Moriah;  Bethlehem,  Jericho,  Joppa,  now  Jaffa,  on  the  coast) ;  2.  Banuir 
ria  {Samaria,  Sichem);  3.  GaUlaBa  (Nazareth,  Capemaiim  on  the  sea 
of  Tiberias  or  Genezareth,  Cana) ;  east  from  Jordan  4.  Peraea. 

In  the  countiy  of  the  Philiattnea,  the  coast  region  between  Falea- 
tine  and  Egypt:  Ashdod,  Ascalon,  Gaza,  Ekron,  Gaih. 

Chronology.*  As  is  the  case  with  the  earliest  history  of  all  na- 
tions, the  chronology  of  Jewish  history  is  uncertain.  There  is  a  long 
and  a  short  system,  out  here  the  short  system  found  f ayor  on  the  con- 
tinent, while  the  long  system  preyails  in  England. 

2000  (?)•  Abraham  (Abra^n),  Patriarch  of  the  Hebrews 
(i.  e.  ''those  from  the  other  side,"  because  they  immi- 
grated from  Ur  in  Babylonia),  Isrctelites,  or  Jews, 

According  to  the  traditions  of  the  Hebrews,  Abraham  had  two  sons: 
fshmael  b^  ilagar,  the  ancestor  of  the  Ishmaelites  (Arabians);  and 
baaCf  by  his  lawful  wife  Sarah,    The  son  of  Isaac  by  Rebehah,  Jacob 


1  Of.  Kiepert,  Atlat  antiquut,  Tab.  III. 

3  Cf.  Duncker,  Bittory  qf  Antiquity,  II.  112,  note. 


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8  Ancient  IRitary,  b.  o. 

or  Itradf  tlie  true  tribal  ancestor  of  the  Hebrews.  Jacob's  twelve 
BODS :  by  Leah  —  Reuben^  Smeon^  Lem^  Judah,  IsMckaTf  Zdndon'  bj 
Rachel — Joseph^  Benjamin;  by  Bilhah — Don,  NagpHUali;  by  Zilpan  — 
Gadj  Asher, 

1560  (?)•  Joseph.  The  tribe  of  the  Hebrews  migrated  to 
Egypt.  They  settled  in  the  land  of  Goshen,  on  the  riffht 
bank  of  the  relusian  mouth  of  the  Nile.  It  is  claimed  that 
the  master  of  Joseph  was  Apepi,  the  last  of  the  Shepherd  kings 
of  Egrpt  (see  p.  4»  where  the  chronology  does  not  affiee 
with  the  theory,  which,  however,  is  no  objection,  as  it  could  be 
easily  made  to  conform.) 

1320  (?)*^  Moses  conducted  the  Hebrews  oat  of  Egypt 
Ten  oommandxnents  at  Mt  SinaL  The  laws  of 
Moses. 

About  1250.    The  Israelites  TJoshua)  after  a  long  nomadic  life  in  the 
peninsula  of  Sinai  ana  on  the  east  of  Jordan  conauered  the 
jPromised  Land,  but  without  entirely  subjugating  tne  former 
inhabitants. 
Theocracy,  i.  e.  the  nation  was  under  the  immediate  guidance  of 
Jehovah.    The  office  of  the  highpriest  was  hereditary  in  the  family 
of  Aaron,  the  brother  of  Moses,    llie  Tabemaole,  a  portable  temple 
or  holy  tent.    The  Ark  of  the  Covenant.  To  the  family  of  Levi  (son  of 
Jacob-Israd)  was  given  the  exclusive  care  and  service  of  the  taber- 
nacle and  all  things  used  in  the  relipous  ceremonial. 

The  other  twelve  tribes  (named  nom  ten  sons  of  Jacob  Tsee  above) 
and  ttoo  sons  of  Joseph,  Ephraim  and  Manasseh)  settled  m  separate 
districts,  which  were  more  or  less  cut  off  from  one  another  by  remnants 
of  the  former  inhabitants,  and  formed  an  exceedingly  loose  union  of 
twelve  small  states  under  tribal  chiefs,  which  was  at  times  hard 
pressed  by  nei^boring  tribes. 

Judges  (Shofetim):  men  raised  up  by  Jehovah  in  times  of  need, 
especially  military  leaders  in  the  wars  against  the  Canaanite  tribes: 
Amorites  (of  whom  the  Jebusites  were  a  part),  Amalekites,  Hitdtes^ 
Hmtes,  and  against  the  Philistines,  Midianites,  Ammonites,  Moabites. 
Judges  :  Ehud;  the  heroine  Deborah;  Gideon,  conqueror  of  the  Mid- 
ianitos;  Jmhthah,  conqueror  of  the  Ammonites;  Samson,  the  terror 
of  the  Philistines. 

1070.     The  Philistines  subjugated  the  whole  country  this  side  Jor- 
dan. 
At  the  demand  of  the  people,  Samuel,  the  last  ''Judge  in  Israel,'' 
anointed  a  brave  man  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin, 

1055  (?)'     8aul»  as  king  of  the  Jews. 

Victory  of  Saul  over  the  Moabites,  PhUistines,  EdomUes,  and  Amalek- 
Ues,  Samuel,  beine  at  variance  with  Saul,  anointed  David,  from  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  as  Idnfl^,  at  the  command  of  Jehovah.  David  fled  to 
the  Philistines  from  tiie  persecution  of  Saul,  Saul  defeated  bv  the 
Philistines,  put  an  end  to  his  life  (1033  ?).    For  seven  years  Damt 

I  EogUtth  scholars  place  the  EzodoB  at  1658  or  1491. 


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8.  c.  Jew%.  9 

WB8  leoogniaed  M  king  by  the  tribe  of  Judah  only,  the  other  tribes 
under  the  influenoe  of  the  captain,  Abner^  adhering  to  Saol's  son,  /«&- 
hwMk,  After  the  murder  of  Aimer  and  Ish-bosheth,  all  the  tribes 
acknowledged  David  as  king  in  the  assembly  at  Hebron. 

1026  (?)•  David.  Kingdom  of  the  Jews  at  the  highest  point 
of  its  power.  David  wrested  Jerusalem  from  the  fknutieSf  and 
made  it  his  residence.  He  restrained  the  Philistines  within 
their  own  borders.  His  sway  extended  from  the  N.£.  end  of 
the  Red  Sea  to  Damascus.  Erection  of  a  royalpalaoe  at  Zion. 
Ark  of  the  Covenant  placed  in  Jerusalem.  Organization  of 
the  armv.  Religious  poetiyof  the  Hebrews  at  the  height  of 
its  development.  The  Psalms.  Revolt  and  death  of  Absalom 
(^AhUhophd),  David  passed  over  his  son  Adonijah,  by  Ha^ 
giikf  and  other  sons,  and  appointed  his  son  by  BaUutheba  lus 
successor. 

993  (0*  Solomon.  Erection  of  the  Temnle  of  Jehovah  and 
a  new  nalace  in  Jerusalem,  with  the  aia  of  workmen  from 
Tyre.  Magnificent  court  Standing  army,  ^ctensive  com- 
merce. Defection  of  Damascus.  Foundation  of  Tadmor  in 
an  oasis  of  the  Syrian  desert.  At  the  close  of  Solomon's  reign, 
toleration  of  foreign  idolatry  in  Jerusalem.  After  the  death 
of  Solomon, 

953  Q)j    Division  of  the  kingdom  of  ihe  Jewsl^ 

The  tribe  of  Judah,  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  which  had  become  united 
with  Judah,  and  a  part  of  Benjamin  with  the  LeviteSy  remained  true  to 
Rehoboam  the  son  of  Solomon,  and  formed  the  Kingdom  of  Jndah 
(capital,  Jerusalem);  the  other  tribes,  under  Jeroboam,  formed  the 
Kingdom  of  Israel  farther  north  ^capital  at  first  Sichem,  still  later 
Samaria  and  Jezred).  These  two  kmgdoms  were  frequently  at  war 
with  one  another. 

Kingdom  of  IsraeL 

After  the  death  of  the  energetic  Jeroboatn  (953-927),  his  son  No- 
dab  was  murdered  by  the  captain  BaaSfui,  who  ascended  the  throne 
(925^.  His  son  and  successor  Elah  was  slain  by  Zimri;  Tibni  and 
Omn  disputed  the  throne,  but  Omri  prevailed  in  the  end  (899).  The 
son  of  Omri,  Ahab,  married  Jezebel,  princess  of  I^re,  whereby  the 
practice  of  Fhoemoian  idolatry  (Boo/  and  Astarte)  was  iBztended  in 

Contest  of  the  Prophets  (Elijah,  Elisha,  etc.)  with  the  idola- 
irons  monarohy.  Israel  and  Judah  united  for  a  short  time.  Ahab's 
son  Ahaziah  (853-851).  The  captain  Jeku,  anointed  king  by  Elisha, 
slew  the  brother  of  Ahaziah,  Joram  (851-843),  and  put  to  death 
Jezebel  and  seventy  sons  and  grandsons  of  Ahab.  Jdiu  (843-815^ 
destroyed  the  temple  of  Baal  and  put  to  death  the  priests  of  that  goo. 
Decline  of  Israel's  power,  which  was  only  temporarily  revived  by  the 

1  About  tlM  dhronologif,  cf .  Doncker,  II.  234,  note.  Ihe  long  system 
OTes  976  b.  o. 


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10  Jneieni  BUionf.  b.  a 

foarth  king  of  the  line  of  Jeku,  Jeroboam  11.  (790-749).  After  the 
&11  of  the  house  of  Jehu,  the  kmgdom  of  Israel  became  tribataiy  te 
the  Assyruns.  Ti^aih^Pileier  conquered  the  northeastern  part  of 
the  kingdom.  HotheOj  the  last  king  of  Israel  (734),  tried  to  nee  hia 
ooontry  from  the  Assyrian  yoke,  mit  was  defeated  and  o^tured  by 
Shalmaneser  IV.    After  a  three  years'  siege, 

722.^  Samaria  was  captured  by  Sargon,  king  of  the  Assyr- 
ians, the  Kingdom  of  Israel  was  destroyed,  and  a 
part  of  the  people  carried  away  and  settled  in  Assyria 
and  Media. 

Kingdom  of  Judah. 

In  the  reign  of  Rehoboam  the  country  was  overran  by  the  Egyptians 
under  the  Pharaoh  Shashang  {Shishak). 

Sack  of  Jerusalem  (949).  Rekoboam's  grandson  Ata  (929-873) 
abcdished  idolatry,  which  was  prohibited  by  tl^  law.  He  was  compelled 
to  buy  assistance  from  the  king  of  Danuucui  against  Baasha  of  IsraeL 
Energetic  reign  of  his  son  JehMhaj^uU  (873-848).   In  the  hope  of  put- 


ting  an  end  to  the  war  with  tibe  Kingdom  of  Israel,  Jekotkapkat  mar- 
ried his  son  Jekoram  ^848-844)  to  Atkaliah^  the  daughter  of  AMab  of 
Israel  and  JezebeL    After  the  son  of  AthaUah^  Ahaziakf  was  murdered 


while  on  a  visit  to  the  king  of  Israel,  together  with  the  whole  royal 
family  of  the  Kingdom  of  Israel  as  above  described  (p.  9),  AthaUak 
(843^7)  seized  the  sunreme  power  in  Jerusalem,  put  to  death  her 
own  grandchildren  in  order  to  destroy  the  tribe  of  David,  Joash  alone 
being  miraculously  rescued  and  brought  up  in  the  Temple  of  Jehovah, 
and  mtroduced  the  worship  of  Baal  in  Jerusalem.  Atktdiah  was  over- 
thrown and  put  to  death  by  the  high  priest  Jehaiada,  and  the  young 
Joash  raised  to  the  throne.    The  worship  of  Baal  was  abolished. 

Joash  (837-797)  was  obliged  to  purchase  the  retreat  of  the  army 
from  Damascus  which  was  besieging  Jerusalem.  Murder  of  Joash, 
Under  his  son  Amaziah  (797-792)  Jerusalem  was  captured  by  the 
Israelites;  the  Temple  and  palace  plundered.  Amaziah  was  murdered; 
but  his  son  Uzdah  {Azariaky  792-740)  successfnUy  resisted  the  mur- 
derers and  raised  the  kingdom  again  to  a  position  of  power  and  au- 
thoritv.    The  Prophet  laaiah. 

Unaer  the  successors  of  Amaziahf  the  Kingdom  of  Judah,  hard 
pressed  by  the  Kingdom  of  Israel  and  by  Damascus,  became  tributary 
to  the  Assyrians.  King  Hezeldak  (728-^97)  again  abolished  idolatiy, 
refused  to  pav  tribute  to  the  Assyrians,  and  idlied  himself  with  the 
Egyptians.  The  Assyrians  under  Sermisicherib  besieged  Jerusalem  in 
vain,  but  carried  off  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  open  country  into 
captivity.  Hezehah^s  son  Manasseh  (697-642^  transformed  the  Tem- 
ple of  Jehovah  into  a  temple  of  Astarte^  ana  sacrificed  to  Baal  and 
Moloch  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  prophets  ;  he  submitted  again 
to  the  Assyrians,  was  carried  captive  to  Babylon,  but  in  the  end  re« 

1  Tn  the  date  722,  the  Hebrew  chronolosv  a^i^rees  with  that  of  the  Assyriaa 
monuments.  ,Cf.  Bohrader,  DU  KtUintckrifttn  «.  das  alU  Testamtni^\Vl% 
1882,  and  Menant,  Anncdes  des  Hois  d^Autfne,  1874. 


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0.  O.-A.  i>.  Jiw$.  11 

■tored  to  his  thione.  Under  his  gnadmi  JoMk  (640-409)»ihe  ooon- 
by  was  ravaged  hj  So3rtliiaii8. 

Keligions  reacUon  against  idolatry  (Jerwnlah).  Reformation  of 
the  worship  of  Jehovah,  according  to  the  book  of  the  hiw  of  Moses 
which  was  rediscovered  in  the  Temple  (622).  Kin^  Jonah  fell  in  the 
batths  of  Meaiddo  {COd)  against  the  Egyptian  loDgNeeko  (Ndsu). 

The  Kingdom  of  Jndah  subject  to  the  £c7ptv>*«s  <uid,  after  the  de- 
feat of  Nedio  at  Carchemish  (605),  to  the  nabylonians.  Jehoiakim  en- 
deavored to  revolt,  but  was  put  to  death.  His  son,  Jehoiachmf  was 
carried  into  captivity  with  many  of  his  subjects  by  the  Babjionians 
(597).  An  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  last  king,  Zedekiah^  to  regain 
independence  was  nnsncoessfnl  in  spite  of  Egyptian  assistance.  Jeru- 
salem was  besieged  (588-586^;  an  Egyptian  army  advancing  to  its 
relief  was  defeated  and  compelled  to  retreat 

686.  NtdbuohadneBsar,  king  of  Babylon,  captured  Jenuar 
lem.  Destniction  of  the  city  and  burning  of  the  Temple. 
Many  of  the  Jews  were  slain ;  those  who  were  left  were 
carried  into  the  Babylonian  captivity.  (The  prophet 
Esekiel.) 

637.  The  Jews  sent  back  to  Palestine  by  Cyrus.  Rebuilding  of  the 
Temple  (Zembbabel),  which  was  not  completed,  however,  un* 
til  the  time  of  Darius  L  (616).  The  Jews  subject  at  first  to 
the  Peniana  (538-332),  then  to  Alexander  the  Great  (332-323), 
afterwards  to  the  PtoUmies  (323-198),  finally  to  the  Seleu- 
oid  kinga  of  Syria  (19^-167). 

167-130.  Emancipation  of  the  Jews  by  the  Meiooabees,  or 
AsmonsBBZis,  after  a  straggle  lasting  nearly  fourteen 
years.  Leaders:  the  priest  MatUUhtaSy  and  his  five 
sons,  especially  Judas  Maooabadus. 

A  great-grandson  of  Mattathias,  Aruiobulus,  assumed  the  title  of 
kins  (105).    Under  his  successors,  strife  between  the  Pharisees  and 
Saaducees. 
63.    PompeiuSf  called  in  to  help  the  Pharisees,  made  the  Jews  tribu- 

taxy  to  the  Romans. 
40.    Herod  (the  Great),  son  of  the  Idumsean  ArUxpSter^  recognized  by 
the  Roman  Senate  as  dependent  king  ofJudcea. 

Birth  of  Christ  (four  years  before  the  beginning  of  our 
era?). 

6  A.  D.  After  a  short  reign  of  the  three  sons  of  Herod,  Judtea  be- 
came a  part  of  the  Roman  Province  of  Syria.  (Two  7>- 
trarchiesj  however,  remained  independent:  GaUleeaf  until  32 
A.  D.;  PeroMy  until  33  A.  D.) 

41-44.  Judiea  again  a  dependent  kingdom  under  Herod  Agrippa  /., 
a  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great;  then  a  Roman  province  again. 
Agrippa  IL  was  made  king  over  a  small  portion  in  d^endenoe 
on  Rome. 

66.    Revoh  ef  the  Jews  against  the  Romao  suprenuM^,  endinjg  in  thf 


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It  Ancient  IRstory,  &•  a 

70.    Destruotioii  of  Jerusalem  by  Titua 

A  large  part  of  the  Jews  assembled  in  Jerusalem  for  the  observaiioe 
of  the  passover  perished  by  starvation  and  the  Roman  sword  ;  many 
thousands  were  taken  captive  to  Rome.    (The  historian  Josephus.) 
132-135.    Another  uprisal  of  the  Jews,  under  Hadrian,  on  account 
of  the  foundation  of  the  colony,  ^lia  Capkcilwaj  on  the  site  of 
Jerusalem,  wherein  more  than  half  a  million  perished.    Dia- 
penud  of  a  great  part  of  the  survivors;  nevertheless  a  consid- 
erable number  remained  in  Palestine. 

§8.    BABYLONIANS  AND  ASSYRIANS.    BemUic. 

Qeography :  Babylonia,^  called  by  the  Hebrews  Bhiiiar,  is  the 
country  lyiiig  between  the  Euphrates  and  TiffriSf  and  stretching  from 
the  point  where  these  rivers  approach  one  another,  about  350  miles 
from  their  mouth,  to  where  they  emptn^  into  the  Persian  Gulf  by  sev- 
eral arms,  as  Pasitigris  ^now  Shatt-el-Arab).  In  the  neighborhood  of 
the  present  village  of  Hillah  stood  Babylon  (in  the  Babylonian  form, 
Babiliif  called  by  the  Hebrews  Babel,  i.  e.  gates  or  dwelling  of  the 
god  Bel)f  a  huge  rectangular  city,  situated,  since  the  time  of  Nebu- 
ohadnezzar,  on  ooth  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  about  thirty-four  miles  in 
circumference  (Clitarchus;  Herodotus  gives  about  foity-five  miles), 
and  surrounded  by  two  brick  walls  of  unusual  thickness  and  height. 
The  city  was  larae  enough  to  afford  a  refuge  to  a  great  number  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  country  during  incursions  of  nomadic  tribes,  and 
contained  fields  of  considerable  extent,  woods,  and  gardens.  In  Baby- 
lon: (a.)  The  temple  of  Bel  (Tower  of  Babel),  a  huge  square  build- 
ing of  brick,  consisting  of  eight  diminishing  stories  rising  in  pyramidal 
form.  It  is  said  to  have  been  originally  600  feet  high.^  (b.)  Two 
Pcdaces,  the  one  on  the  east  side  of  the  Euphrates  having  the  Hanging 
Gardens,  the  construction  of  which  is  wrongly  ascribed  to  Semiramis, 
and  which  were  terraced  pleasure  grounds. 

Aaayria  (Aaahur)  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  highlands  of  Arme- 
nia^ on  the  £.  by  the  plateau  of  Iran,  on  the  8.  by  the  Didla,  a  branch 
of  the  Tigris,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Tigris  itself.  The  smaller  region 
called  Assyria  by  the  Greeks  lav  within  this  territory,  between  the 
Tigris  and  its  branch,  the  Great  J^ah,  which  flows  into  the  Tigris  below 
the  present  Mdsul.  On  the  Tigris  stood  Nineveh  (Ninua,  *<the 
Palace,''  4  Nu^ot)  surrounded  with  huge  walls.  The  ruins  lie  opposite 
the  present  Mdsul.  Oldest  residence  of  the  kings,  Asshur;  afterwards 
founded,  Calah;  founded  by  Saxgon,  Dur-Sarrukin  (Khorsabad), 

Religion  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians.  The  religion  of  the 
Semitic  peoples,  with  the  exception  of  the  Hebrews,  was  a  worship  of 
nature,  wherein  divinity  was  conceived  as  the  personified  force  of  na- 

1  See  Kiepert,  Atlas  Anajutu.  Tab.  II. 

<  According  to  Oppert  (ExpM.  Sdent,  en  M^sopoiamie)  the  temple  of  Bel  is 
to  be  eouRht  in  the  ruins  of  Burt-Nimrud  (on  the  site  of  old  Bornppa).  Raw- 
dnaon  (  The  Five  Grent  Monarchies  of  ^e  East)  disputes  this,  because  Borsippa 
was  a  separate  village  Iving  outside  the  walls  of  the  capital  until  the  reign  ol 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  dnds  the  Tower  of  Babel  in  a  great  quadrangular  ruuv 
called  BdbU,  by  the  Arabs,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Euphrates  in  Babylon. 


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B.  O.  Babylonians  and  Assyrians,  18 

tare  in  human  form,  male  and  female.  Among  the  ^ods  of  the  Baby- 
lonians the  oldest  was  El,  among  those  of  the  Assynans, .^MAur.  The 
third,  Bel  (Baal),  the  "  Lord  of  all/'  appeared  as  the  creative,  but 
also  the  destructive  force  in  Nature.  The  goddess  Belit  or  Baaltia 
(in  Herodotus  Mylitta),  the  (jueen  and  mother  of  the  gods,  is  the 
xruitful  and  reproductive  principle,  the  goddess  of  love,  fertility,  and 
birth.  Her  opposite  is  litar,  the  goddess  of  war  and  destruction. 
Confused  with  JBelit  is  the  goddess  who  brings  alternately  life  and 
blessing,  death  and  destruction  (like  the  Ashera-Astarte  of  the  Phoe- 
nicians and  Cartiiaginians).  In  Babylon  there  was  a  complicated  sys- 
tem of  star-worship. 

The  Chaldeans,  or  caste  of  priests,  in  Babylon,  possessed  soma 
astronomical  and  astrological  skill.  This  name  was  properly  that  of 
the  Semitic  population  of  Babylonia,  but  western  writers  applied  it 
chiefly  to  the  priests. 

CivllixatloiL  An  exact  system  of  weights  and  measures,  which 
was  used  far  outside  the  borders  of  Babylonia.  Cuneiform  writing, 
a  system  of  characters  formed  by  the  gradual  abbreviation  of  hiero- 
glyphics. Magnificent  structures  of  brick.  System  of  canals  for  the 
migatiott  of  the  country,  and  for  the  regulation  of  the  yearly  overflow 
of  uie  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  Important  manufacturing  industries 
and  extensive  commerce. 

Ohronology.  An  astronomical  system  and  a  mythical  history 
closely  resembling  the  Biblical  account  of  the  creation  and  deluge 
(epic  of  Izdhuber),  The  inscriptions  give  many  names ;  but  few 
dfl4;es  are  satisfactorily  established  before  900  b.  c. 

4000-731.    Old  Babylonian  (so-called  Chaldcean)  Em- 
pire. 
4000-3000.    Civilization,  originating,  perhaps,  in  a  nan-Semitic  people 
(Sumir  and  Accadi),  was  adopted,  with  the  cuneiform  writing, 
by  a  Semitic  people,  who  came,  probably,  from  the  S.    Independent, 
hostile  cities :  Ur,  Erech,  Larsam;  Agade  (Accad  ?),  Babvhn.    Sar- 
gon,  3800,  reached  the  Mediterranean,  Hammurabi  united  Babylonia.^ 
2300-2076.    Supremacy  of  Elam  (Elgmais,  Susiana),  a  non-Semitic 
kingdom  £.  of  Babylonia  (the  second  dynasty  of  Berosus^, 
Kudumanchundi  ;  Chedorlaomer  (Gren.  xiv.). 
About  2000.    Babylonia,  after  300  years,  again  independent 
About  1900.    Aasyria  settled  by  emigrants  from  Babylonia  (Nin^ 

rodfy 
1525-1257.     Cassite  kings  of  Babylonia  (the  Arabians  of  Berosus). 
1500-710.     Constant  wam  with  Assyria.     Final  subjugation  of 
Babylonia  after  the  revolts  of  Merodach-Baladan, 

1  Hammurabi's  code  of  lawa  (about  2200' b.  c.)  was  lately  discovered. 

*  Berosus,  at  the  time  of  Alexander,  compiled  from  Babvlonian  records  a 
history  in  which  he  mentioned  the  following  dynasties  (dates  from  Delitsaoh). 
Ante^iluviamj  ten  kings,  432,000  years.  Pok-dUuvian:  I.  Eighty-six  kings, 
33,091  years.  II.  Fight  Median  tyrants,  224  years  (2300-2076).  III.  Eleven 
kings.  IV.  Fortv-nine  Chaldaan  kings,  468  years  (1983-1526).  V.  Nine  Ara* 
fc'on  kings,  245  years  (1525-1257).    VI.  Forty-five  kings,  526  years  (1267-''31). 


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14  Ancient  Hittory.  B.  o* 

1900-608  (605).    Aasyriau  Empire  (p.  12). 

Colonized^  probably,  from  Babyhnia  (Gen.  x.),  Auyria  grad- 
nally  er^w  into  a  powerful  rival  of  &e  mother-state.  The  chronol- 
offy  falls  into  five  periods.^  I.  1900-1500.  II.  1500-1300.  Wars 
with  Babylaniaf  enmng  in  Babylonian  overlordship.  III.  1220-030. 
Assyria  again  independent.  IV.  930-626  (?).  BrllUant  epoch. 
V.  626  (?)-608  (605).  Fall  of  the  empire. 

1900-030.    Of  the  first  three  periods  little  is  known.    Tiglath-Adar  /., 
about  1310,  conquered  Babylonia,  but  Assyria  was  soon  subju- 
gated.   Tiglath-PilMer  I.,  1115-1105,  conquered  from  Bagdad  uid 
Babylon  to  the  Mediterranean. 

930-626  (?).    Brilliant  epoch  of  Assyrian  history.     The  inscrip- 
tions become  frequent,  full,  and  exact.     It  was  a  time  of  ex- 
pansion, conquest,  and  great  activity  in  architecture,  sculpture,  and 
literature.    Among  the  kings  may  be  mentioned  : 
886-^58.    ABshur-natslr-pal.^.    {Sardanapalus),    Military  expedi- 
tions to  Zagrosy  Armenia^  Babylonia^  Syria.    Erection  of  a 
palace  at  CaUh.    His  son, 
858-823.    Shalmaneser  n.,  fought  with  Ahab  in  Syria  and  subju- 
gated Jehu. 
81(V-781.    Ramannirari  captured  Damascus  and  made  Samaria  and 
Fhilistia  tributary.    Hb  wife  Sammuramit  (Semiramis). 
A  tradition  of  later  growth  reported  by  the  Greeks  {Diodoms  on 
the  authority  of  Ctesias)  connects  the  establishment  of  the  Assyrian 
supremacy  over  almost  the  whole  of  western  Asia,  the  building  of 
Nineveh  and  Babylon,  with  the  names  of  the  king  Ninas  and  his  con- 
sort Semiramis.    Both  Ninus  (son  of  the  ^od  Bel)  and  Semiramis 
(daughter  of  the  goddess  Mylitta)  are  mythical  creaticms,  into  whose 
reigns  tradition  hf^  condensed  the  deeds  of  a  long  series  of  warlike 
rulers,  so  that  no  achievements  were  left  for  their  successors,  and  these 
from  Ninyas  down  appear  as  effeminate  weaklings.   Ninus  is  unknown 
to  the  Assyrian  monuments,  and  Semiramis  first  appears  in  the  ninth 
century.    On  the  other  hand  we  know  that  a  goddess  answering  to 
Jstar-ielU  was  worshipped  in  Syria  under  the  name  of  Semiramis. 

Medo-Persian  bards  seem  to  have  changed  the  diyinities  Bel  and 
Istar-Bdit  into  heroes,  and  have  formed  the  names  Ninus  and  Ninyae 
from  the  name  of  the  city  Ninua  (Nineveh).^ 

745-727.     Tiglath-Plleaer  II.  (identical  with  the  king  Pul  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible)  (see  p.  13)  made  Babylonia,  which  was  at 
that  time  divided  into  several  states,  western  Iran,  Armenia^ 
Syria,  Phoenicia,  Judah  and  Israel,  subject  to  Assyria. 
727-722.    Shalmaneser  IV.  suppressed  the  revolt  of  the  Phoenician 

cities  and  the  Kingdom  oi  Israel. 
722-705.    Sargon  (Sarmkin)  conquered  Samaria  and  destroyed  the 
Kingdom  of  Israel  (see  p.  10).    He  received  tribute  from 
Arabia,  Egypt,  and  Cyprus,  suppressed  revolts  in  Armenia, 
Media,  and  Babylonia,  and  united  the  latterwith  Assyria  (710) 

\  DeUtssoh. 

^  Former  I V  called  Afthur-idanni-pal.  Bawlinson,  Five  Great  Monarchies, 
II.  246,  note*  10. 

*  Bunoker,  II.  17.  Botarader^  Die  KeiUnschriften,  etc.  "M-entait,  Annalei^ 
He     Lanormant,  LtUree  AMyrwlogiquee.    Smitb.  Auyrian  Ditcoveriu. 


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&  O.  Babylonians  and  AssyrUms,  15 

Besidenoe:  Dur-Sarrukm^  now  Khanabad,  not  far  from  Nine- 
veil.    Hisson^ 

705-681.  Sennaoherib  (Sin-akhi-irib)  retained  his  hold  upon  Bab^« 
Ionia  in  spite  of  repeated  insurrections,  but  was  unsuccessful  m 
his  wars  with  Egypt  and  Judah,  and  lost  the  supremacy  over 
Syria.  Fleet  in  the  Persian  Gidf .  Foundation  of  Tarsus.  His 
son» 

681-668.  Esarhaddon  (Asshur^ikh'iddin)  suppressed  a  new  revolt 
of  the  Babylonians,  reconquered  Syria,  ThcBnicia,  Cyprus,  Ju- 
dah,  and  a  part  of  Arabia,  and  in  672  conquered  Egypt  from 
the  Ethiopians,  entrusting  the  goyemment  to  20  goyemorSy 
most  of  whom  were  natives  (see  p*  6). 
Assyria  at  the  height  of  her  power.    One  of  his  sons  was  made 

rieeroy  of  Babylonia,  <he  other, 
668-626.  Asshur-bani-pal  (Sardanapalu8\  defended  Eg^t,  ai 
first  with  success,  against  the  kings  of  Ethiopia  and  native  in- 
surrections, but  lost  it  in  653  by  the  revolt  of  Psammetions 
(see  p.  6).  On  the  other  hand  he  strengthened  the  Assyrian 
power  in  Syria,  Arabia,  Cilicia,  as  well  as  in  Babylonia,  where 
iiis  brother  had  revolted,  conquered  the  Kingdom  of  Elam,  and 
received  tribute  from  Lydia.  Erection  of  magnificent  palaces. 
Foundation  of  a  library  at  Nineveh.  Highest  development  of 
Assyrian  art.    About 

640  (660).  Revolt  of  the  Medes.  Of  the  Modes  little  is  known 
until  they  were  attacked  by  the  Assyrians  about  830  b.  c. 
About  710  their  resistance  was  broken  and  their  country  was 
soon  subjected  tc  Assyria,  and  so  continued  until  about  640. 
Phraortes  (Fravartis%  son  of  Defoces  ^Dahydvka)^  a  petty 
ehief  among  the  Medes,  revolted  but  fell  in  battle. 

633.  His  son  Cyaxares  (Uvakhshatard)  continued  the  struggle, 
which  was,  however,  soon  interrupted  by  the 

632.  Irraption  of  Scythian  tribes  which  had  wandered 
about  western  Asia,  plundering  as  they  went,  as  far  as  the  bor- 
ders of  Egypt,  for  28  years  it  is  said,  though  8  is  the  more  prob- 
able number.  After  Cyaxfires  had  rid  the  country  of  them,  he 
made  another  attack  on  Assyria,  winch  had  been  much  weakened 
by  the  Scythians.  For  the  purpose  of  destroying  the  Assyr- 
ian kingdom,  CyazSres  allied  himself  with  the  Uluddean  Nabo- 
polassar  (Nabu-habal'tuur),  Assyrian  governor  of  Babylon 
since  625,  who  had  made  himself  independent.  Desperate 
struggle  with  the  Assyrian  king  Sarakos  {Agshiar-ehU-ili)^ 
626^K)6  (625  ?),  son  of  Sardanapalus  V.    After  a  long  siege, 

608  (605?^)  Kineveh  was  taken  and  destroyed;  as  the  enemy 
broke  into  the  city,  Sarakos  set  fire  to  the  royal  palace  and 
perished  in  the  flames  with  his  wives  and  treasurer.  End  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Assyria.    Nabopolassar  united  with  Baby- 

1  The  date  Is  doubtfal.  Herodotus  impliefi  a  date  as  late  a8  608-605.  Be- 
roeus  (as  reported  bv  Ahydentu  and  Polyhitlar)  given  625.  The  former  date 
is  advocated  by  Clinton  and  Dunoker  {JluUn-y  of  Antiq.y  III.  266-293), 
the  latter  by  O.  B»wlinaon  (Five  Great  Afonarchu*^  11.  391,  note  5),  and 
Iienormant  {LeUret  AM$riolofficueSj  1  §  12,  esp.  pp.  84, 85).  DeUtaseh,  60? 


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It  Ancient  HUtory.  B.  c. 

Ionia  the  whole  of  northern  Mesopotamia  on  the  right  hank  of 
the  Tigris,  the  rest  falling  to  the  share  of  CyaxdreSf^  who  had 
already  subjugated  Armenia  and  the  Iranian  portions  of  the 
kingdom  of  Assyria. 
The  Grecian  story  of  the  effeminate  Sardanapalus  (Ctesias  in  Dio- 
domsy  II.)  is  the  counterpart  of  their  tales  about  the  masculine  Semi' 
ramie.    According  to  this  story,  Sordancuxdus,  on  the  fall  of  the  city, 
bums  himself  upon  a  magnificent  bier,  400  feet  high,  which  bums  for 
15  days.     This  story  seems  to  be  an  a|)plication  of  the  myth  of  the 
god  who  bumed  himself  and  rose  from  the  flames,  whom  the  Semitic 
peoples  associated  with  Istar  (Aetarte),  and  whose  nature  they  con- 
founded with  hers.' 

608  (605)-538.  (New^  Empire  of  Babylon.  After  the 
Assyrian  conquest  of  Babylonia,  about  710  (see  p.  14),  the 
latter  country  continued  subject  to  Assyria,  with  interrals 
of  rebellion,  until  the  successful  combination  of  Ndbopolae- 
ear  and  Cyaxdree  destroyed  the  power  of  Assyria.  Babylon 
then  took  the  lead  among  the  nations  of  the  East,  rivalled  by 
Media  alone. 

604-661.  NebuohadneEzar  {NaJntrkudur-usmr),  son  of  Na- 
bopolassar,  during  the  reign  of  his  father  defeated  Necho,  king 
of  Egypt,  at  Can^emisch  on  the  Euphrates  (605),  conquered 
SyriOf  destroyed  Jeruealem  (586),  and  subdued  Tyre  (585). 
Enlai^ment  and  adornment  of  Babylon  (on  the  east  bank  of 
the  Euphrates).  Construction  of  a  bridge  over  the  Euphrates, 
and  of  a  new  palace,  with  the  *' hanging  gardens ''  which  tradi- 
tion assies  to  Semiramis.  Erection  of  the  Median  tcall  from 
the  Eupmites  to  the  Tieris.  Magnificent  water  works.  Hie 
reservoir  at  Sjppara  (Sepharvaim).  After  Nebuchadnezzttr, 
rapid  decline  oi  tne  dynasty,  which  became  extinct  in  555. 

688.  Babylon  (last  king  Ndbonitus^  or  Nabunahidj  reigning 
in  conjunction  with  his  son  Belshar^ussur^  the  Biblical 
BeUhazzar)  taken  by  Cyrus.  Babylon  a  Persian  prov- 
inoe. 

§  4.    PHOENiaANS  AND  CARTHAGINIANS.    Semitic 
(Down  to  the  war  of  the  latter  with  the  Romans.) 

fleography.*  Phcenicia  (^»wiKri,  Phceniee)  is  the  Grecian  name  of 
Canaan  (see  p.  7),  and  was  derived  from  the  tribal  name 
♦oirif  In  the  narrower  sense  the  name  denotes  the  strip  of 
coast,  5-14  miles  wide  and  150  miles  long,  which  lies  N.  of  the 
country  of  the  Philistines  and  the  Hebrews  and  W.  of  Mt.  Leb- 
anon. This  strip  was  inhabited  by  three  tribes  :  1.  Sidonians, 
i.  e.  <<  fishers  "  (cities:  Sidon,  Zor,  called  by  the  Greeks  Tyros); 
2.  Arradites  (city  :  Arvad,  in  Greek  Aradas);  3.  Giblites 
(cities  :  Byblus  or  Gehal,  and  Berptas), 

Eteliglon  of  the  PhcBnidana.    The  god  Baal  (Bd,  of  the  Babylo- 


1  For  the  Median  IBmpire,  see  p.  36. 
<  Duncker,  II.  chapter  i. ;  also  III.  266. 
•  Kiepert,  Atlas  Amicus,  Tab.  lU. 


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«.  c.  Phcenicians  and  Oarihaginiant,  17 

iiians^  and  the  g^dess  Ashera  (Baaltisy  BdU  of  the  Babylo- 
niaiis^f  the  divinities  of  life,  birth,  and  the  genial  forces  of  nar 
tuie,  were  opposed  to  the  god  Molooh  ([i.  e.  ''king,"  the 
Babylonian  Adar),  the  devouring  and  destroying,  and  yet  cleana- 
ing  fire,  also  gcd  of  war,  and  the  maiden  goddess  Astarte. 
Human  sacrifices:  to  Moloch^  boys  and  youths  ;  to  Astarte, 
youths  and  maidens.  Afterwards  Baal  and  Moloch  were  con- 
fused into  one  divinity,  who,  under  the  name  of  Melkart  (i.  e. 
**  king  of  the  city  "  ),  became  the  guardian  divinity  of  l^p^*  In 
the  same  way  il^A^a  and  Astarte  were  united  into  one  divinity, 
who  when  represented  as  a  grim  wandering  goddess  vanishing 
with  the  changing  light  of  the  moon  bears  the  name  Dido,  but 
when  represented  as  a  kind  and  gentle  divinity  newlv  restored 
to  the  knowledge  of  mankind  that  of  Anna  (i.  e.  "  pleasant "). 
The  Political  Gonatitation  of.  the  Fhcsnician  cities  was  an  he- 
reditary monarchy,  but  the  royal  power  was  checked  by  the  existence 
of  two  senates. 

1300.    Period  of  8idon*s  greatest  power.    Favored  by  the  sit- 
uation of  their  country,  and  urged  by  an  energetic  industry 
which  led  to  the  invention  or  development  of  many  arts  and 
manufactures,  such  as  purple  dye,  weaving,  ^bftss-making,  min- 
ing, work  in  metals,  and  architecture,  the  Fhcenicians  estab- 
li£ed  at  an  early  period,  certainly  not  later  than  1500,  a  car- 
rying trade  by  luid  (to  Babylonia,  Arabia,  Assyria,  Armenia) 
as  well  as  by  sea,  which  time  only  made  more  extensive. 
In  close  connection  with  the  commerce  by  sea  was  the  foundation 
of  numerous  colonies.    Thus  in  Cyprus  were  founded  Citkan,  Amon 
Mflf,  Paphos,  the  centre  of  the  worship  of  Ashera,  whence  originated  the 
Grecian  worship  of  Aphrodite,  that  goddess  ''born  of  the  foam  of  the 
sea  "  (i.  e.  whose  cult  came  to  Greece  by  sea).    Other  colonies  were 
founded  in  Cicilia,  Rhodes,  Crete,  Cythera,  as  well  as  on  many  of  the 
islands  of  the  ^ssBan  sea,  and  at  points  alone  the  coast  of  Greece; 
further  west,  again,  colonies  were  planted  in  MdXte  or  Malta,  in  Sicily 
(on  the  southern  coast  Minoa,  Gr.  HeraJdSa,  on  the  northern  coast 
SoUds  {sda  =  "  clifiE "),  Panormus  (Machanath  f),  at  the  western  end 
of  the  island  Motye),  on  Sardinia  (CarcHis),  on  the  north  coast  of  Af- 
rica (two  cities  of  LepHs,  Hadntmetum,  Uttca,  the  two  towns  of  Hip^ 
po),  in  the  country  called  Tarsis  or  Tarshish,  i.  e.  southern  Spain, 
oeyond  the  columns  of  Hercules  (Straits  of  Gibraltar),  Gadir  or 
Gades,  i.  e.  "  walls,"  "  fortress,"  now  Cadiz,  founded  about  1100. 

From  this  point  the  Phcenicians  extended  their  commercial  deal- 
ings still  further  to  the  western  coasts  of  Africa,  and  to  the  Islands 
of  Tin  (the  CassUerides\  Britain,^  and  the  coasts  of  the  German 
Ocean,  where  thev  bought  amber  which  the  native  tribes  obtained  by 
barter  from  the  Baltic. 

Mythical  representations  of  these  voyages  and  settlements  of  the 
PhoBnicians  are  contained  in  a  series  of  well-known  Grecian  tales. 

1  English  antiquarians  of  the  present  da}"-  consider  it  probable  that  the  Phce- 
nicians never  set  foot  e'ther  in  the  Scili}'  Isles  or  in  Britain,  but  received  whai 
British  tin  they  did  obtain,  at  second  or  third  hand,  from  the  Celts  of  Gaui 
(Veneti  ?).    Tin  was  found  in  the  river  beds  of  western  Gaul.    [Tbass.  J 


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18  AneUnt  Rttory.  B.  o. 

Stofy  of  tbe  npe  of  Europa  (L  e.  '^  the  mm  '^,  daaffbter  of  FIub- 
nix  (L  e.  '^  the  FhflBiiician  ")  from  Sidon  bj^eus  in  the  fonn  of  a  bull 
(whereby  is  denoted  the  moon-goddess  Dido-Astarte^  who  flees  to- 
wards the  west).  Story  of  Minos,  the  son  of  Zens  and  Enropa,  the 
powerful  ruler  of  Crete;  his  wife  is  PasiphaS  (i.  e.  "  she  who  shines 
npon  all  *^\  Story  of  the  Minotaur  (L  e.  Bull  of  Minoe^  another  con- 
ception of  Baal-Moloch),  shut  np  in  the  Labyrinth,  to  whom  Athens 
had  to  send  human  offerings.  JDcedalus,  builder  of  the  Labyrinth  in 
Crete,  is  the  personification  of  that  technical  dexterity  which  the  Hel- 
lenes acquired  from  the  Fhoenicians. 

Cadmugf  too,  who  in  search  of  his  sister  Europa  landed  in  Thera 
and  Thasoe^  built  the  CadmBa  in  Bceotia,  and  invented  the  alphabet, 
is  the  mytlucal  representatiTe  of  Phoenician  settlements  from  which 
the  written  alphalMt  and  other  elements  of  eastern  civiliiation  were 
carried  to  the  Greeks. 

1100.  Tyre,  though  younger  than  Sidon,  attained  Uie  fint 
rank  among  the  Phmnidan  searboard  towns. 

1001-967.    Tyre»  at  the  height  of  its  prosperity,  onder  king 
Hiran^  the  contemporary  m  David  and  Solomon^  and  the  hit- 
ter's friend.    Explorin?  expedition  of  the  Traians,  accompanied 
Sthe  servants  of  Solomon,  through  the  Red  Sea  to  the  coast 
India  (CMur), 
Hiram  filled  in  the  space  between  the  island  npon  which  stood  the 
temple  of  Melkartf  and  Neto  Tyre  (which  was  also  situated  cm  an 
island),  and  erected  buildings  on  the  new  hmd.    He  also  narrowed 
the  strait  between- New  Tyre  and  Old  Tyre  on  the  main  land. 
917  (7).   Ethbaal  (Ithabalui\  hi^h  priest  of  Astarte,  murdered  Phalei, 
the  last  descendant  of  Hiram,  and  made  himself  king. 
About  seventy  (?)  years  later,  according  to  a  Grecian  authority,  a 
grandson  of  this  Etnbaal  decre^  in  his  will  that  his  minor  son  Py^ 
maUon  and  his  daughter  ^fiiwa  should  govern  Tyre  in  common  under 
the  guardianship  of  their  unde,  the  high  priest  Sicharbaal^  who  was 
to  many  Eliua.    The  democratic  party  deprived  EUsea  of  her  share 
in  the  sovemment,  and  PyamcManf  coming  of  ase,  murdered  SichoT" 
baal.    In  consemience  of  this  internal  strue,  ana  influenced  probably 
by  the  un&vorable  state  of  the  foreign  relations  (advance  of  the 
Assyrian  newer  towards  the  Mediterranean,  see  p.  15),  a  large  part 
of  the  olaer  families  left  Tyre  with  EUsia.    On  an  excellent  site, 
on  the  north  coast  of  Africa,  they  founded  about 

860.^  Carthage  *  (in  Panic,  Kathada,  i.  e.  <<  the  new  city  '\ 
between  Utica  in  the  W.  and  the  present  cape  Bon  in  the  £., 
not  far  from  the  present  Tunis,  Double  narbor.  Citadel 
Byrsa.  Later  the  foundress,  Elisga,  became  confused  with  the 
goddess,  Dido-Aatarte,  the  protectress  of  the  colony.* 

1  According  to  TImmu,  814.  Concerning  the  chronology,  see  Dunokei^ 
11.970. 

>  See  Kiepeit,  Atloi  Anti^ut,  Tab.  YIII. 

*  The  credibility  of  this  narrative  and  the  interpretations  put  npon  it  both  m 
Mgaids  the  chronology  and  the  facte,  are  contested  by  O.  Meltaer,  Getch,  d 


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B.  c.  Phcmicians  and  Carthaginians.  19 

Carthage,  so  far  as  it  comes  within  the  realm  of  history,  appears  to 
have  heen  an  aristocratic  republic,  with  two  Sufetea,  or  jadges,  fre- 
quently called  ''kings,''  and  compared  with  the  Spartan  kings,  and 
two  senates,  a  large  and  small.  Only  upon  occasion  of  a  disagree- 
ment between  these  branches  of  the  government  were  the  people 
called  upon  to  give  their  opinion.  The  government  tended  constantly 
toward  the  oligarchical  form. 
860.     Decline  of  the  power  of  the  Phcsnician  cities,  especially  of 

are,  which  was  distracted  by  civil  dissension, 
oenicians  fell  repeatedly  under  the  rule  of  the  Assyrians,  and, 
for  a  time,  under  that  of  the  Egyptians.    After  the  fall  of  the  Assyr- 
ian empire  (625,  606),  they  became  dependent  upon  the  Babylonians, 
ll^re  alone  maintjunifig  its  freedom  until  57B. 

Favored  by  the  poutical  situation,  the  Greeks,  who  had  already 
(about  1000)  driven  the  PhoBnieians  out  of  the  ^gean  Sea,  began  to 
extend  their  influence  in  the  eastern  Mediterranean,  and,  especially 
after  the  second  half  of  the  eighth  century,  along  the  coasts  and 
islands  of  the  western  Mediterranean,  and  in  Lower  Italy  and  Sicily 
(p.  61). 

Foundation  of  Cyrine  (p.  49^  and  Mcaaalia  (about  600^,  attempted 
settlements  upon  Conica^  Sardinia^  and  the  shores  of  Spam,  In  short, 
the  Fhcsnician  power  was  threatened  with  destruction  throughout  the 
entire  West. 

Brought  face  to  face  with  this  dai^r,  Carthage,  which  had  mean* 
time  ^n[pwn  considerably  stronger,  began  about  600  to  gather  the 
other  rhcsnician  cities  under  its  control,  to  subjugate  the  country 
around  its  own  commercial  stations,  and  to  secure  its  possession  by 
the  establishment  of  new  colonies.  The  Carthaginians  annexed  to 
their  territory  the  African  coast  from  Hippo  in  the  W.  to  beyond 
Lq>tis  in  the  £.,  and  opposed  armed  resistance  to  the  advancing  power 
of  Cyrine,  In  the  peace  which  was  concluded,  the  aUars  of  the  Phi* 
kmif  £.  of  Leptis,  were  made  the  boundary.  The  Carthaginians 
subjugated  Southern  Spain  and  Sardtnia,  and,  with  Etruscan  aid,  drove 
the  Phocceans  from  Corsica  (537  ?). 

686-^73.    Tyre  successfully  endured  a  thirteen  years'  siege,  from 
the  land  side,  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  but  was  finally  £roed  to 
acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the  king  of  Babylon. 
5d8.     After  the  destruction  of  the  Babylonian  monarchy,  by 
Cyrus,  Fhcenicia  became  subject  to  Persia.    The  Phcsnician 
cities,  however,  retained  their  independence  and  their  native 
kings.     The  PhoBnioians  henceforth  furnished  the  principal 
part  of  the  Persian  fleet.     An  expedition  for  the  conquest  of 
Carthage,  proposed  by  Cambyses,  lang  of  Persia,  after  the  con- 
quest of  Egypt,  was  rendered  impossible  of  execution  by  the 
refusal  of  uie  Phosnicians  to  fight  against  their  colony. 
During  the  Persian  supremacy,  Sidon  was  again  the  first  city  of 
JPhcenicia.    The  Carthaginians,  favored  by  the  civil  dissensions  of  the 

Karihagtr,  Bd.  L.  1879,  who  admits  the  truth  of  these  statements  only:  that 
Carthage  was  a  Tyrian  colony,  and  was  certainly  founded  before  the  eifitbth 
tentuiy. 


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20  Ancient  HUtory,  B.  a 

Greeks  in  Sicily,  and  by  the  Persian  war  with  Greece,  attacked  the 
Greek  colonies  in  Sicily  (being  secretly  in  alliance  with  Xerxes  ?) 

480.    War  of  the  Carthasrinians,  in  alliance  with  Selinusj 
against  the  other  Greek  cities  in  Sioily. 

The  Carthaginian  army  under  HamUcar  was  utterly  defeated  and 
scattered  at  aim&ra  by  the  tyrants  Gelon  of  Syracuse  (XupdKowrat)  and 
Theron  ofAgngentum  (*AKpdyas)' 

The  Carthaginians  purchased  peace  for  2000  talents,  thereby  say* 
ing  their  Sicilian  cities,  PonormtM,  SolceiSf  Motye. 

409-839.    Repeated  wax  a  between  the  Carthaginians  and 
Greeks  in  Sioily. 

The  Carthaginians,  called  in  to  assist  Segeeta  (^ytara)  against  Sdi^ 
nOs,  after  conquering  SeliniiSf  HimSra^  Agrigentum,  and  Gela,  secured 
the  supremacy  over  the  western  half  of  Sicily,  a  position  which  they 
maintained  against  all  attempts  of  the  tyrant  Dionysius  I,  and  Timo- 
leariy  who  restored  republican  liberty  to  the  Grecian  cities,  to  dislodge 
them. 

332.    Capture  of  the  ialand  city.  New  Tyre,  by  Alexander  the 
Great  after  a  seyen  months'  siege. 

PhcBiiioia  became  a  part  of  the  great  GhrsBOO-Maoedonian 
monarchy,  and  later  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  SeleuoidsB, 
and  for  a  time  of  that  of  the  Ptolemies. 

317-275*    New  wars  between  the  Carthaginians  and  Greeks 
in  Sioily. 

AgathdcleSf  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  sought  to  bring  all  Sicily  under  his 
rule.  The  Carthaginians  despoiled  mm  of  his  conquests  and  besieged 
Syracuse.  Agath&es  effected  a  landing  in  Africa  (310^,  and  oyerran 
a  large  part  of  the  Carthaginian  territory,  while  the  Syracusans  re- 
pulsed and  annihilated  the  C^urthaginian  army  under  the  walls  of  Syra- 
cuse. Agathdcles  returned  to  Sicily;  his  army,  which  he  left  before 
Carthage,  was  destroyed.  In  the  peace  with  Syr^use  the  Cartha- 
ginians regained  their  former  possessions  in  Sicily  (306). 

After  the  death  of  Agathdcles,  party  broils  in  Syracuse  fayored  the 
adyance  of  the  Carthaginian  power.  Pyrrhtis  of  Epirus,  then  in 
Tarentimi,  was  called  to  the  aid  of  the  Syracusans  (278).  He  was  at 
first  successful,  but  offending  most  of  the  Grecian  cities  by  his  seyer- 
ity,  they  took  sides  with  the  Carthaginians,  and  Pyrrhus  was  forced 
to  leaye  Sicily.  On  the  yoyage  back  to  Italy  he  was  defeated  by  a 
Carthaginian  fleet  (276). 

§  6.    LTDIANS  AND  PHRYGIANS. 

Lydians.     Semitio. 

Geography :  Lydia^  in  the  strict  sense,  or  Msonia,  was  the  middlt 
one  of  the  three  divisions  of  Asia  Minor  lying  on  the  ^giean  Sea,  ths 
northem  being  Mysia,  the  southern  Carta,    Kiyers:  HermuSf  Caystrutf 


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B.  c.  Lydtam  and  Phrygians.  21 

Pactelus  (golden-sand)  in  Lydia ;  Mceander  in  Caria.  Capital  of  Lydia: 
Sardes  at  the  base  ox  the  Tmolva  ran^.  The  Lydians  belonged  to 
the  Semitic  race,  like  the  Cilicians,  and  probably  the  CarianSf  whereas 
the  Other  peoples  of  Asia  Minor  were  in  all  likelihood  Aryans. 

The  kingdom  of  Lydia  at  the  period  of  its  greatest  extent  reached 
to  the  H^ys  river  (now  the  KvU  Irmak),  and  included,  beside  the 
countries  mentioned  above,  BUhynia  and  Paphlagonia  on  the  Pontus 
Examtis  (Black  Sea\  and  the  inland  country  of  Pkrygia. 

Religion:  Worsnip  of  the  sun-god  Sandon^  and  the  goddesses 
Bla  {MyUtta-Ashera)  and  Ma  (Astarte).  The  last  two  became  united 
in  one  goddess,  under  the  name  **  the  great  mother  "  {Cybde),  who 
was  worshipped  in  Ephesus  as  Artemis  {Diana). 

Clironologj:  Lycua  was  ruled  by  two  successive  mythical  dynas- 
ties, the  Auyadcs  from  AUys^  son  of  the  god  Manes  (prior  to  1229), 
and  the  SandarUdce,  who  traced  their  origin  to  the  wodSandan  (1229- 
724).  The  Greeks  saw  in  this  latter  divinity  uieir  Herades,  and 
called  this  dynasty,  therefore,  the  Heraclidce.  The  last  king  of  this 
line,  CandauleSf  was  murdered  (689  M  by  his  favorite  Gyges  in  collu- 
sion with  the  king's  consort.     With  Gyges  the 

689  *-^9  (?).  Dynaaty  of  the  Memmadfls  came  to  the  throne. 
Unaer  these  sovereigns  the  Lydian  kingdom,  after  suffering 
severely  from  the  Cvmmerians,  and  being  at  times  subject  to 
Assyria f  grew  in  power  and  extent.  Qyges  himself  extended 
his  sway  over  Mysia  and  to  the  HdUaponl.  His  two  sucoea- 
sors  conquered  Phrygia,  and  carried  on  an  unsuccessful  war 
with  the  Urecian  cities  on  the  sea  coast. 
Alyattea,  the  fourth  of  the  Mermnadcs,  warred  with  CyaxAres, 

king  of  Media,  with  success. 

610  (?).  Indecisive  battle  between  Alyattes  and  Cyax&res.  Bolipse 
of  the  sun  predicted  by  Thales  of  Billetas.  In  the  treaty 
of  peace  the  Halys  was  made  the  boundary  between  the 
Lydian  and  Median  kingdoms.    The  daughter  of  Alyattes  was 

fiven  in  marriage  to  Astyages,  son  of  Cyaxares.  Alyattes  sub- 
ned  Biihynia  and  Paphlagonia  in  the  north,  Caria  in  the 
south,  took  Smyrna  and  Colophon,  but  failed  to  subdue  the  re- 
maining coast  towns.  A  vast  treasure  collected  in  the  royal 
palace  at  Sardes.  Magnificent  buildings.  Buins  of  royal 
tombs  north  of  Sardes. 

563-549  (?).  CrcBsus,  Son  of  Alyattes, 
captured  Ephesus,  and  afterwards  subdued  all  the  Grecian  cities 
of  the  coast,  Ionian,  .£olian,  and  Dorian,  with  the  exception  of 
MiUtus,  with  which  he  formed  a  league.  Active  intercourse  with 
European  Greece.  Solon,  of  Athens,  visited  Sardes.  After  the 
deposition  of  his  brother-in-law  Astyages,  of  Media,  by  Cyrus  the 
Persian,  Crcesus  attacked  the  Persian  empire.  Following  the  am- 
biguous advice  of  the  Delphic  oracle  he  crossed  the  Halys.  Inde- 
eiaive  battle  between  Crcesus  and  Cyru8  at  Pteria.     Crcesus  returned 


1  Eusebius,  699 ;  Herodotus,  719. 

s  Dunoker,  Hitt.  of  Antiq.,  III.  414,  note  2. 


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22  Ancient  IBsiary.  b.  c 

irreBoluiely  to  Sardes,  whither  he  was  followed  by  Cyrus,  who  de- 
feated him  in  a  second  battle,  oaptnred  SardeSf  and  took  Cratui 
prisoner  (see  p.  26). 

649  (?).  Fall  of  the  kingdom  of  Lydia,  which  was  muted 
with  the  Persian  empire. 

Phrygiana 

760,  or  earlier,  an  independent  monarchy  was  formed  in  N.  W. 
Fhrygia,  having  its  capital  at  GorduBum,  Its  monarchs,  the 
dates  of  whose  reigns  are  uncertain,  bore  the  names  of  Gardias 
and  Midas  altem^ly.  A  Midas  contemporary  with  Alyat' 
tes  (about  600^70^,  and  a  Gardias  with  Crcssus  (570-n560> 
Fhrygia  conquered  oy  Lydia  about  560.    (Rawlinaon.) 

§  6.    INDIANS.    Aryan. 

Geography :  India,  the  central  peninsula  of  the  three  which  pro- 
ject from  tiie  southern  coast  of  Asia  into  the  Indian  Ocean,  is  a  vast 
triangle,  having  a  base  and  a  height  of  about  1900  miles,  bounded 
on  t£s  N.  by  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  on  the  £.  by  the  Bay  oj 
Bengal,  on  the  W.  by  the  Gulf  of  Arabia.  It  falls  into  three  geo- 
graphical divisions  :  L  The  region  of  the  Himalayas.  The  central 
range  forms  an  almost  impassable  barrier  between  India  and  the 
MoDgol  tribes  of  central  Asia  (Mt.  Everest,  29,000  ft.).  On  the 
£.  t^  region  is  separated  from  Btarmah  by  the  lower  ranges  of 
the  Ndgd,  PaHcoi,  and  Yomas  {Aeng  Pass),  which  are  pierc^  by 
the  Brahmaputra,  On  the  W.  the  S\{fed  Koh,  SuUamAi,  and  the 
Hdlas  separate  India  from  Afgh&nistdn  and  Baluchistan,  but  are 
pierced  l^  the  Indus  River,  the  Khaibar  Pass  (3373  ft.),  and  the 
Tioldn  Pass  (5800  ft.).  This  region  includes  Nepal  and  Kashmir. 
«I.  The  fertile  valley  of  the  great  rivers,  wnich  receives  the 
iraiuage  of  the  northern  as  well  as  of  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Hima- 
layas. River  systems:  Indna,  Sutlef  (provinces  of  Puimah,  i.  e.^  the 
five  streams,^  Sind);  Gkmges  (provinces  of  Bengal,  Oudh,  Rdjpuf 
tdna ;  cities  :  Calcutta,  Benares,  Delhi,  Allahabad)  ;  Bramaputra 
(province  of  Assam),  DeUas  of  the  Granges  and  Brahmaputra, 
ni.  The  Deooan,  or  muthem  plateau,  sepanuted  from  the  Ganges 
valley  by  the  Viniikya  mountains  (5000  ft.),  and  bordered  by  the 
East  Ghats  (1500  ft)  and  West  Ghats  (3000  ft).  Rivers:  Goddoari, 
Krishna,  Kdveri,  all  flowing  throu^^  the  £ast  Ghats  into  the  Bay  of 
BengaL    Provinces  :  Madras,  Bombau,  Mysore,  etc. 

Religion :  The  religion  of  the  early  Indians,  as  portrayed  in  the 
Vedio  hymna,  was  a  worship  of  Nature  :  Dyaush-pitar,  Father  of 
Heaven;  Varuna,  the  sky;  /nara,  the  rain-vapor;  Agni,  flre;  Maruts, 
gods  of  the  storm.  After  the  settlement  in  the  Ganges  valley,  this 
primitive  faith  underwent  a  change. 

History  :  The  Indians  (^Hindus)  migrating  from  the  northwest, 
came  at  first  to  the  vallev  of  the  Indus  and  uie  Punjab,  and  thence 
slowly  pushed  their  settlements  down  the  valley  of  the  Gangei^ 

1  Indui,  Iktlum^  Chenamb,  Ravi,  Budej  (modern  names). 


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B.  c  Vidians.  2S\ 

where  they  were  probably  established  as  early  as  1500  b.  c.  The 
native  tribes  whom  they  found  in  the  country  they  either  enslaved  or 
pushed  into  the  Himalayas  on  the  N.,  and  on  to  the  Deccan  in  the 
S.  {Dravidiaru).  At  a  later  date  the  Hindus  spread  along  the  coasts 
of  the  Deccan  and  reached  Ceylon^ 

Foundation  of  numerous  despotic  kingdoms.  In  the  conquered 
district  strict  separation  of  the  Aryan  conquerors  from  the  subjugated 
aborigines.  Development  of  the  royal  power  and  of  the  priestly  in- 
fluence. Four  principal  castes:  Brahmana,  priests;  Kahattxlyas, 
warriors;  Vaisyas,  agricultural  settlers.  These  three  were  of  pure 
Aryan  descent.  The  Sddras,  or  servile  caste,  were  of  aborinnal 
desoent,  the  Ddsas,  "  slaves."  Transformation  of  the  ancient  faith 
into  the  religion  of  Brahma :  Brahma,  the  creator;  Vishnu,  the  pre- 
server; Siva,  the  destrover  and  restorer.  Spiritual  tyranny  of  the 
Brahmans,  accompanied  by  a  high  development  of  philosophy,  gram- 
mar, eto.,  by  the  Brahmans,  in  connection  with  the  explanation  of  the 
Vedaa  {**  revelations "),  or  services  for  the  various  religious  cere- 
monials:  Rig' Veda,  the  simplest  form;  Sama-Veda;  Yayur^Veda 
(black  and  white),  Atharva^Veda.  To  these  were  in  time  attached 
prose  treatises  composed  by  the  priests  and  called  the  Brahmanas,  one 
being  attached  to  each  Veoa.  A  second  series  of  additions  were  the 
StoA  ("sacred  traditions").  Poetry,  the  epics:  Maha^hdrata, 
Ramdyana.  Regulation  of  the  entire  thought  and  life  in  accord- 
ance with  strict  prescriptions,  which  were  afterwards  (about  600  ?) 
gathered  tocether  into  the  book  of  the  laws  of  Manu,  being,  as  it 
was  claimed,  a  divine  revelation  to  him,  the  tribal  ancestor  of  the 
whole  race.  Complicated  system  of  rites  and  ceremonies.  Pre* 
scriptions  concerning  cleanliness.  Terrors  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
second  birth. 

Magnificent  monuments  of  Indian  architecture,  especially  the 
Cliff'  Temples,  which  were  excavated  in  the  rock,  both  upon  and  be* 
low  the  simaoe  of  the  earth.    Later,  Pagodas. 

In  the  sixth  century,  appearance  of  the  reformer  Buddha,  i.  e 
"the  enli|rhtened"  (623  to  543),  properly  Gautama,  afterwards  Sid 
dhartha  (i.  e.  "  he  who  has  f  lUflUed  his  end  **\  son  of  prince  Sud* 
dhodana.  Buddhism,  called  after  its  founder,  was  originally  t 
philosophical  system,  without  creed  or  rites,  having  for  its  (U)ject  thi 
attainment  of  moral  perfection.  Through  its  doctrine  of  the  essen* 
tial  equality  of  all  men,  it  was  directly  opposed  to  Brahmanism. 

The  progress  of  Buddhism  produced,  alon^  with  certain  changes  ii 
the  old  system,  a  strong  Brahmanistic  reaction.    The  war  of  the  re- 
ligions ended  with  the  expulsion  of  Buddhism  from  India.    It  main* 
tamed  itself  in  Kashmir  and  Ceylon  only,  but  the  loss  was  offset  b} 
great  gains  in  central  and  eastern  Asia,  where  it  has  to-day  ovei 
300,000,000  devotees  in  Thibet,  China,  Japan,  ete. 
327.    Invasion  of  the  Punjab  by  Alexander  the  Great  (p.  75).. 
317-291.    Formation  of  great  empires  of  short  duration  (empire  of 
Magadha,  under  Chandrorgupta  (Greek,  Sandrorhottos),  and 
his  grandson, 
263-226  (?).  Acoka,  the  friend  of  Buddhism.  After  the  reign  of  A<^ 
ka  the  Punjab  fell  under  the  supremacy  of  the  Grseco-Bactnan 


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24  Ancient  Hittory.  B.  a 

empire  in  central  ABia,  and  thus  some  tinctore  of  Greek  civ- 
ilization was  imparted  to  this  part  of  India.  The  Bactrian 
rulers  were  finally  expelled  by  Scythian  invaders,  several  dy- 
nasties of  whom  appear  to  have  rei|;ned  in  the  Punjab  and 
along  the  Ganges.  Wars  of  the  native  prince  VUcramadUya 
against  the  Scythians  (57  B.C.  ?).  Kanishka,  Gr.  Kanerhef  was 
the  founder  of  the  last  dynasty  of  Scythian  kings,  who  were 
succeeded  by  an  unknown  people,  the  Guptas,  Another  branch 
of  the  Indo-Scythians  making  their  way  down  the  Indus  came 
into  conflict  with  the  Guptas,  and  with  a  general  league  of  the 
Hindus  of  the  south.    In  the 

78  A.  D.  (?)    Battle  of  Kahror  the  invaders  were  utterly  defeated 
and  are  henceforward  not  mentioned. 
The  Gretas  reigned  in  Oudh  and  northern  India  until  they  were 

overthrown  by  foreign  invaders  (Tatars  ?)  in  the  latter  half  of  the 

fifth  century  A.  B. 

§  7.    BACTRIANS,  MEDES,  FERSUNS.    Aryan, 

Gtoography:  The  Bactrians,  Medes,  and  Persians  inhabited  the 
plateau  of  Iran,^  between  the  SxddxmSn  range  on  the  E.  and  the  val- 
ley of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  on  the  W.,  oetween  the  Caspian  Sea 
on  the  N.,  and  the  Erythrcean  Sea  (Indian  Ocean)  on  the  S.  On  the 
western  border  of  this  highland:  Media  (Ecbatana,  Med.  Hangma" 
tana,  i.  e.  ''place  of  assemblies");  on  the  southern  border  along  the 
Persian  Gulf,  Persia  (Pasarg&dce,  Persepdlis),  Carmania:  on  the  Ery- 
thrtean  sea,  Gedrosia;  on  the  eastern  bonier,  Arachosia,  the  land  of  the 
Paropanisddce,  at  the  foot  of  the  Paropanisus  (Hindu  KoosK) ;  *  on  the 
northern  border,  Baotria  or  Baotriana  (Baktra),  Parthia  and  Hyr- 
cania  on  the  Caspian  Sea;  in  the  centre.  Aria  and  Drangiana;  between 
the  Oxus  and  the  Jaxartes,  Sogdiana  (Maracanda), 

East  of  the  lower  course  of  the  Tigris,  in  the  lowlands:  Suaiana 
(the  ancient  Elatn)  with  Susa,  tho  principal  residence  of  the  Persian 
kings.  Within  tins  broad  plateau,  a  widely  accepted  theory  locates 
the  primeval  home  of  the  Aryan  or  Indo-Europtan  or  Japhetic  race, 
from  which  in  prehistoric  times  successive  colonies  wandered  away  to 
the  south  and  west. 

About  1000  (?)•  Zoroaster  (Zarathustra)  whose  doc- 
trine, a  spiritual  reform  of  the  old  Iranic  superstitions,  was 
contained  in  the  21  (?)  books  of  the  Aveata,  of  which  one 
only  has  come  down  to  us:  the  Vendidad,  i.  e.  "delivered 
against  the  Daiva,"  the  bad  spirits.  The  pith  of  the  doctrine  as 
set  forth  in  the  Avesta^  is  the  conception  of  a  continuous  war- 
fare of  the  fi;ood  spirits,  whose  leader  was  the  good  god  Ahurch' 
mazda  or  Auramazda  (in  modem  Persian  Chmuzd),  and  the 
evil  spirits,  or  Daeva,  whose  leader  was  Angromainvu,  in  mod- 
em rersian  Ahriman),  over  the  life  and  death,  welfare  or  in- 

1  Kiepert,  Atlat  Antiouug,  Tab.  II. 

2  Kiepert,  Manual  of  Ancient  Geography,  p.  39. 

*  Avetta  IB  the  law  itself,  Zend  the  later  commeDUry  on  tho  law;  hence  Z«flMli 
mvesta,  and  the  expressions  Zend-langtULge,  ZendipeqpU, 


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B.  o.  BactrtanSy  MedeSj  Persians.  25 

jury,  of  man  and  his  soul  after  death.  In  this  new  doctrine 
MUhra  the  son-god,  orig;^laUy  the  lughest  of  the  Iranian  gods, 
appeared  as  a  creature  of  the  creator  AhuramasBdcL^  but  never- 
theless the  equal  of  the  latter  in  dignity  and  diYinitjr.  Worship 
of  fire,  whose  blaze  scared  away  the  evil  spirits  of  the  night ; 
reverence  paid  to  water,  and  the  fertile  earth,  the  daughter  of 
Ahuramazda.  Hie  priests,  called  Athrava  (from  aUKadt  fire), 
by  the  Bactrians,  and  'Magians  (Magkush)  by  the  Modes, 
formed  a  distinct  hereditary  class  ;  an  institution  which  was 
copied  by  the  ancient  priestly  families  of  Persia,  after  the 
general  acceptance  in  that  country  of  the  reformed  faith, 
which  came  to  them  from  Bactria,  through  Media. 

About  1100.     Formation  of   a  powerful  Empire  in  Bao- 
tria,  mythical  reminiscences  of  the  deeds  of  whose  kings 
are  perhaps  contained  in  the  Shahnameh  of  the  poet 
Pirdusi  (about  1000  a.  d.). 
As  early  as  the  ninth  century,  the  Assyrians  imdertook  ezpedi- 
tioDS  against  the  plateati  of  Iran,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  eighth 
century,  the  western  portion  of  this  plateau.  Media,  and  Persia,  be- 
came permanently  subject  to  Assyria. 
640.    Revolt  of  the  Modes  from  the  Assyrians. 

640-658.    Median  Empire. 

The  first  prince  of  a  Median  dynasty  mentioned  was 

706-655.  Dejdces  (Aiju^kiis,  old  Pers.  Dahyauka),  to  whom  b  as- 
cribed the  foundation  of  the  capital  EcbatSna.  He  does  not 
appear,  however,  to  have  reigned  over  the  whole  of  Media,  or 
to  have  been  independent,  but  rather  to  have  continued  to  pay 
tribute  to  the  Assyrians.    His  son, 

655-633.  Phraortes  (<f>paopi^,  Pers.  Fravartis),  was  the  first 
who  united  the  whole  country  under  one  ruler  and  established 
the  independence  of  Media.  He  made  the  Persians  tributary, 
although  their  native  ruler  AchamSnes  (HaJchaTnanis),  who  was 
raised  to  the  throne  after  the  revolt  of  the  Persians  from  As- 
syria, retained  his  crown  under  Median  supremacy,  and  be- 
queathed it  to  his  descendants. 

After  Phraortes  had  fallen  fighting  against  the  Assyrians  (p. 
15)  his  son, 

%33-59S.  Cyascftres  (Kva^dfnis,  Pers.  Uvahksathra^  succeeded  him 
and  continued  the  war  with  Assyria  successiully.  Inroad  of 
the  Scythians.  After  their  departure  (about  626  ?  see  p.  15), 
Cyaxdres  subjugated  Armenia.  War  with  Alyattes  kmg  of 
Lydia  (p.  21). 

606  (625  ?).  Cyaxdres f  in  alliance  with  Ndbopclassar  of  Babylonia, 
captured  Nineveh  and  destroyed  the  Empire  of  AsBjrria 
(p.  15),  whose  territory  on  the  left  shore  of  the  Tigris  fell  to 
the  Medians.  He  also  conquered  eastern  Iran.  Media  at  the 
death  of  Cyax&res  was  the  most  powerful  monarchy  of  Asia. 
His  son, 

693-558.     Astyages  ('AoTviTi^f),  last  king  of  the  Medes.     CyrrUt  of 


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26  Andent  History,  b.  o. 

the  family  of  the  Ackcemenidce  id  the  Fenian  trihe  of  the  Pa* 
sargadcB^  which  reigned  in  Penia  nnder  Median  suptemacy, 
deposed  Astydges,    The  snpremaoy  passed  (668)  ^m  the 
Modes  to  the  Persiana. 
Herodotus  (L  107,  eto.)  reports  a  tradition  of  the  Median  descent 
of  Cyrtit  through  his  mother  Manddne,  daughter  of  AstydgeSy  which 
ia  adorned  after  the  Oriental  manner,  with  the  dream  of  A$tydges,  the 
interpretation  of  the  Magi,  the  exposure,  miraculous  rescue  and  rec- 
ognition of  the  hoy  Cyrus,  the  cruel  punishment  of  Harpdgus,  his 
treachery,  eto.     This  story  is  evidently  an  invention  of  the  Modes, 
who  would  not  admit  that  they  were  conquered  by  a  stranger. 

According  to  Ctesias,  the  daughter  of  Astydges  was  named  Amy* 
tis,  and  was  the  wife  of  a  Mede,  Spitanuu,  After  the  depoaiticm  of 
Astydges  and  execution  of  SpUamas,  Cyrus  made  her  his  consort. 

558-330.    Persian  Empire  founded  by 

558-529.    OyruB  (Kvpoc,  Pars.  Kurus). 

Cyrus  strengthened  the  Persian  power  over  those  peoples  of 

Iran  which  were  formerly  subject  to  the  Modes,  and  orer  the 

Armenians  and  Cappadocians,    War  against  CrcBflua  of  Lgrdia 

(p.  21).    After  the  indecisive  battle  of  Pteria  (664?^,  Cyrus 

advanced  on  Sardes,  defeated  CroBsus  in  a  secona  battle. on  the 

Hermus,  stormed  Sardes,  captured  Cr<BSus,  and  deprived  him 

of  his  langdom,  but  otherwise  treated  him  as  a  friend  and  ad^ 

viser  (554).* 

The  Grecian  story  told  by  Herodotus  (I.  86)  of  Cyrus'  intention  to 

bum  CrcBSus,  who,  on  the  pyre,  calls  to  mind  his  interview  with 

Solon,   of    his  consequent  pardon  by   Cyrus,  and  the  miraculous 

quenching  of  the  flames  by  tne  Delphic  Apollo,  who  had  formerly  re-* 

oeived  viOuable  presents  nom  Cnssus,  betrays  a  purpose  of  bringing 

Grecian  wisdom  mto  strong  relief  (proverb  of  Solon,  that  no  mortu 

is  to  be  called  fortunate  before  death),  and  of  vindicating  the 

Greciangod.    It  is  inconsistent  with  the  command  of  the  Persian 

faith,  not  to  contaminate  the  sacred  fire.     Probably  Crcssus  wished 

to  appease  the  anger  of  the  gods  against  his  people  and  country, 

according  to  Semitic  usage,  by  burning  himself;  according  to  the 

Lydian  story,  the  sun-god  Sandon  does  not  accept  the  offering,  but 

puts  out  the  flames  vrith  rain. 

Cyrus  returned  to  Ecbatfina.  A  revolt  of  the  Lydians  was  quickly 
repressed.  Mazdres  and  Harpdgus  made  the  Grecian  coast  cities 
tnoutary  to  the  Persians.  A  portion  of  the  Phocceans  migrated  to 
Corsica;  driveki  thence  (see.  p.  19)  they  went  to  Elea  ^elid)  in 
southern  Italy.    Harp&gus  conquered  Caria  and  Lycia, 

539-538.  War  of  Cyrus  against  the  Babylonians.  After 
a  siego  of  nearly  two  years  (diversion  of  the  Euphrates) 
Babylon  was  captured.  The  Babylonian  Empire  was  in- 
corporated with  the  Persian ;  the  Phoenicians  and  CiUcians 

1  The  date  ol  the  fall  of  Sardes  is  disputed.  Donoker  (Book  viii.,  chap.  6> 
gives  M9. 


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B.  c.  Bactriansy  Medes,  Persians*  27 

retained  their  oaiive  rulers  nnder  Persian  supremacy ;  the 
Jews  were  sent  from  Babylon  back  to  Palestine  (p.  11). 
S29.  CyruSf  who  was  occupied  during  the  last  nine  years  of  his 
reign  with  wars  against  the  eastern  peoples,  fell  in  one  of  these 
expeditions.  The  story  of  his  death,  like  that  of  his  birth, 
has  been  poetically  adorned  and  variously  related.  According 
to  one  tradition,  probably  of  Median  origin  (Herodotus,  L 
202-214),  Cyrus  fell  in  battle  against  Tompris,  the  cjueen  of 
the  MassaoetcR,  whose  son  he  had  overcome  by  deceit.  She 
thrust  the  dissevered  head  of  the  Persian  monarch  into  a  skin- 
bag  of  blood  that  he  might  <<  drink  his  fill  of  blood."  Ac- 
cording to  CtesiaSf  Cyrus  died,  on  the  fourth  day,  of  a  wound 
which  he  received  in  a  victory  over  the  Derbices,  The  son 
and  successor  of  Cyrus, 

62d-S22.     Gambyses  (Ka/AjSixn;?,    Pers.  Kambujiya)^  con* 

quered  Egypt  by  his  victory  at  Pelusium  (p.  7). 
526.^   Capture  of  Memphis,  En)edition  up  the  Nile  toward  ^Ethiopia; 
failure  of  provisions  in  the  desert  compelled  hun  to  turn  back. 
The  tyrant  ot  Cyrene  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  Cam- 
byseSf  but  a  projected  attack  upon  Carthage  by  sea  was  pre- 
vented by  the  refusal  of  the  Phcmicians  to  lend  their  shipa 
(p.  19).   X)estruction  of  the  army  corps  dispatched  against  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon  (Oasis  Sivah). 
Cambyses  slaughtered  the  bull  Apis  in  Memphis  *  (?^,  and  mani- 
fested in  all  ways  a  choleric  and  bloodthirsty  disposition.    On  the 
way  back  from  Egypt,  he  died  in  Syria,  either  from  an  accidental 
wound,  or  by  his  own  hand.    A  Magus  seized  the  sceptre  and  pro- 
claimed himself  the  brother  of  Cambvses, 

522.  Bardija  (6r.  IfiipSii),  who  had  been  murdered  at  Cambyses' 
command.  After  a  short  reign  the  usurper  was  put  to  death 
by  the  princes  of  the  seven  Persian  tribes,  the  most  influential 
of  whom, 

621-485.  Darius  (Aapcto*?,  Pers.  Darayavus),  son  of  Hys- 
taBpea'(  Vista fpa),  was  made  king. 
The  father  of  Darius,  Hystaspes,  was  the  head  of  the  younger  line 
of  the  Achcsmefiida  (the  elder  became  extinct  with  Cambyses  and 
Bardija)  and  the  rightful  heir  to  the  Persian  throne.  The  son, 
Darius,  however,  was  recognized  by  the  other  princes  as  king.  Later 
his  accession  was  ratified  bv  the  production  of  auguries.  (Anecdote 
of  the  neiffhing  horse  in  Herodotus,  III.  85.) 

Revolt  of  the  Babylonians,  The  city  of  Babylon  recaptured  only 
after  a  siege  of  more  than  20  months.  (Self-mutilation  of  Zopprus, 
in  order  to  deceive  the  Babylonians.) 

518  (?).  Afterwards  Danus  suppressed  revolts  which  had  broken 
out  in  other  parts  of  the  empire  (in  Media,  Persia,  ParthiOy 
etc.),  and  conquered  the  right  bank  of  the  India. 

1  AocordinfT  to  Bmgsob,  527. 

«  See  on  this  point  Bruirsoh,  ffitt.  of  Egypt,  II.  289  ff.,  who,  by  the 
genealogy  of  the  Api,  showed  the  improbability  of  the  story. 


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28  Ancient  Hlitory.  b.  c. 

513  (?).    Unsnccessful  expedition  of  Darius  against  the  Seythians 
with  a  land  force  of  700,000  men.     The  fleet  of  the  Greeks  of 
Asia  Minor  was  conducted  by  the  tyrants  of  the  Ionian  cities. 
Bridge  of  boats  across  the  nosphorus.    Bridge  over  the  Ister 
(Danube).     After  an  aimless  advance,  lack  of  provisions  in- 
auced  a  retreat  (Herodotus,  IV.  130  seq.).    Darius  rescued 
by  the  faithfulness  of  Histiceus  of  Miletus  (against  the  advice 
of  MiUiades  of  AthenSy  tyrant  in  the  Chersonese).    Thracia 
made  subject  to  Persia.     Cyrene  conquered  by  a  force  sent 
from  Egjrpt. 
Busa,  in  SusianOf  since  the  time  of  Darius  the  principal  residence 
of  the  "Great  King"  (jSourtXe^v  r&v  $aai\4uvy  fi^yas  paa-tK^^s,    Pers. 
Khshayathiya-Khshayathiyandm,  whence  the  modem  Persian  Shahin- 
shah).    Echatdna  in  Media  was  the  summer  residence.     Erection  of 
a  new  royal  palace  at  Persepolis  in  Persis,  where  ruins  with  inscrip- 
tions and  sculptures  have  been  discovered,  as  well  as  at  Susa.    At 
Persepolis,  too,  the  tombs  of  the  kings. 

Divine  worship  paid  to  the  king,  the  satisfaction  of  whose  wants 
was  the  final  purpose  of  the  state.  Maintenance  of  a  costly  court, 
with  an  elaborate  ceremonial.  Construction  of  great  military  roads. 
Completion  of  the  canal  from  the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea,  which  kamessu 
II.  had  be&^n  and  Nelcu  had  continued  (p.  5).  Establishment  of 
postal  stations,  of  course  only  for  the  carriage  of  royal  messages. 
Division  of  the  empire  into  20  (?)  satrapies,  each  under  a  satrap 
(Persian  Khshatra-pati,  i,  e.  "  lora  of  the  province "),  with  regal 
accommodation  in  palaces  surrounded  by  extensive  gardens  (Para- 
disics).  Subject  cities  or  tribes,  and  indeed  whole  nations,  enjoyed 
their  own  laws  and  separate  administration,  under  native  though  de- 
pendent princes. 

500-494.  Revolt  of  the  Ionian  Ghreeks,  incited  by  Hi^ 
tiasus  of  Miletus,  who  had  been  accused  to  Darius  and  sum- 
moned to  Susa,  and  his  son-in-law  Aristagdras,  With  the 
assistance  of  Athens  and  Eretria,  Sardes  was  captured  and 
burned.  The  lonians,  defeated  by  the  Persian  army,  were 
abandoned  by  their  allies  from  Athens  and  Eretria;  their  fleet 
was  defeated  at  Lade,  opposite  MUetus.  The  lonians  were 
again  reduced  to  subjection,  and  the  Milesians,  by  command  of 
Darius,  were  settled  about  the  mouth  of  the  Tigris. 

493-490.  War  of  Darius  against  the  European  Greeks  (p.  56). 
Great  preparations  for  a  new  expedition  against  Greece.  Be- 
volt  among  the  Egyptians. 

485.     Death  of  Darius,     He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

485-465.     Xerxes  I.  (E€p|7?s,  Pars.  KhskayarsTia). 

480.  War  against  Greece  (p.  68).  Xerxes  and  his  eldest  son  mur- 
dered by  Artabdnus,  captain  of  the  body-guard.  The  second 
son  of  Xerxes, 

465-424.  Artaxerxes  I.  (Pers,  Artachshatra),  called  MaKp6x^tp,  Lar^ 
gimanus,  succeeded  to  the  throne. 

462-455.    Second  revolt  of  the  Egyptians  under  In^frds,  assisted  by 


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B.  o.  Bactrians,  Medes,  Persians.  29 

the  Athenians,  suppressed  by  the  satrap  Megdhyzmt  (Amyr" 
tceus  alone  maintained  himself  about  the  mouths  of  the  Nile). 
Wars  with  the  Greeks  (p.  63).  Beginning  of  the  internal  de- 
cay of  the  Persian  empire.  Revolts  of  the  satraps.  Merce- 
nary troops.    The  son  of  Artaxerzes, 

424.  Xerxes  II.,  after  ruling  one  month  and  a  half,  was  murdered, 
by  his  brother, 

Sogdianus,  who  after  six  and  a  half  months,  was  murdered 
by  his  brother  Ochus,  who  reigned  under  the  name 

424-405.  Darius  II.,  Natkus,  He  was  under  the  influence  of  his 
wife  Parysdtis.  Third  revolt  of  the  Egyptians,  who  maintained 
their  independence  for  sixty  years  (414-354). 

405-362.  ArtEucerzes  II.,  Mnemon.  Revolt  of  his  brother,  the 
youn^r  Cynia,  who,  assisted  by  Grecian  mercenaries,  attacked 
the  kmg  in  the  neighborhood  of  Babylon. 

401.  Cyrus  fell  in  the  battle  of  Cunaza  in  personal  combat  with  his 
brother. 

400.    Retreat  of  the  10,000  Greeks,  Xenophon  i 

362-338.   Artaxerzes  m.    Revolt  of  the  Fhoeni 

suppressed.  Artaxerxes  poboned  by  his  favorite,  the^£!gyp- 
tian  Bagoas,  who  placed  on  the  throne  the  king's  youngest  son, 

338-336.  Arses,  whom  he  likewise  murdered,  in  or&r  to  put  a  great- 
grandson  of  Darius  Notkus  in  his  place. 

336-330.  Darius  m.,  Codamannus.  Joagoas  executed  by  poison. 
War  with  Alexander  of  Macedonia  ;  Darius  murdered  by  the 
satrap  Bessus  while  fleeing,  after  the  battle  of  Gaugamela 
(331). 

330.  Destruction  of  the  Persian  Empire.  See  Grecian  history, 
4th  period,  p.  74 » 

§  8.    PARTHIANS.1    Turaniant* 

Geography:  The  Parthian  empire  extended  from  the  Evphrates 
to  the  Indus,  from  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Araxes  to  the  Indian 
Ocean,  covering  nearly  the  same  ground,  and  having  in  the  main  the 
same  divisions,  as  the  Persian  empire,  of  which  it  was,  indeed,  in  many 
ways  an  avowed  imitation.  Paruda  proper,  the  region  between  the 
Jaxartes,  and  the  desert  of  Iran,  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  province  of 
Aria,  was  a  satrapy  of  the  Persian  empire.  About 
250.    The  Parthians  revolted  under  the  lead  of  Arsaoes,  the  chief  of 

a  tribe  of  the  Dahas  (Scythians).    The  revolt  succeeding, 
250(?)-247.    Arsaoes  I.  was  raised  to  the  throne.    He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother  Tiridates  as 
247-214.    Arsaoes  n.,  who  firmly  established  the  independence  of 

Parthia.    His  son, 
214-196.    Arsaoes  m.,  successfully  resisted  Antiochus  the  Great. 
Arsaces  IV,  (Priapatius)  and  Arsaces  F.  (Phraates  7.)  accom- 
plished but  little  of  importance.    The  son  of  the  latter, 

1  Bawlinson. 

3  The  use  of  this  name  must  not  be  understood  as  implying  belief  in  the  racial 
nnity  of  all  the  peoples  to  whom  it  is  applied.  It  denotes  merely  the  maw  of 
iUiatics  who  belonged  neither  to  the  Semitic  nor  to  the  Aryan  family. 


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80  Ancient  HUtwy.  b.  0.-A.  ix 

174-136.  Mithridates  I.,  founded  the  Empire  of  the  Par- 
thians,  extending  his  sway  over  Media^  Susiana,  Per- 
siaj  Babylonia,  Bactria.  Subject  nations  were  permitted 
to  retain  their  native  kings  in  subjection  to  Parthia.  The 
Parthian  civilization  was  rude  and  of  a  low  order. 

13^127.  Phraates  n.  {Anaces  VII.^  repressed  a  revolt  of  Babif^ 
Ionia,  but  fell  lighting  against  tne  Turanians.  The  incursions 
of  these  nomadic  tribes  became  more  frequent  under  Artabanus 
(Anaces  VIIL),  127-124,  who  likewise  fell  in  battle  against 
them.  They  were,  however,  effectually  checked  by  Mith- 
ridates n.  {Anaces  IX,),  124-^7,  who  also  extended  the 
power  of  Parthia  in  other  directions,  until  towards  the  close 
of  his  reign  he  was  defeated  by  Tigranes  of  Armenia.  Under 
Phraates  IIL  (Arsaces  XIL),  69-^0,  the  Parthians  first  be- 
came embroilea  with  Rome,  war  with  this  power  breaking  out 
in  64.  Under  Orodaa  I.  {Arsaces  XIV.),  54-^7,  EzpeditioD 
of  Craaaoa  (p.  140).  £n>edition  of  Antonina,  36,  against 
PkraaUs  IV.  (Arsaces  XV,).  From  37  b.  c.  to  107  a.  d. 
•  Rurthu  was  ruled  by  a  series  of  ten  monarchs,  whose  reigns 

were  mostly  occupied  with  strugffles  for  the  succession.  Veto- 
geses  /.,  60-90  ;  Armenia  last.    An  attempt  made  by 

107-121  A.  D.  ChoaroAs  {Arsaces  XXV.)  to  recover  Armenia 
brought  about  the  successful  Parthian  expedition  of  Trajan, 
whose  conquests  were,  however,  abaudonea  as  soon  as  made. 
Vologeses  III.  {Arsaces  XXVII.),  149-192  a.  d.,  became  in- 
volvM  in  a  war  with  M.  AwrtUus,  which  terminated  in  the 
complete  submission  of  the  Parthian.  His  sucoessor,  Vologeses 
IV.,  192-213  A.  D.,  lost  northern  As^ria  to  Rome. 

216^26  A.  D.  Artabanus  UL  {Arsaces  XXX.),  last  king  of  Fkf^ 
thia.  In  his  reign  Parthia  suffered  severely  at  the  hands  of 
Caracal  but,  after  his  death  and  the  defeat  of  Macrinus,  had 
regained  its  former  power,  when  the  empire  was  brought  to 
an  end  by  the  success  of  an  insurrection  of  the  Persians  under 
Artaaoerzea,  son  of  Sassan^  who  defeated  and  slew  the  Pkrthiaa 
monarch.  The  Tatar  empire  was  replaced  by  the  Aryan  king- 
dom of  the  Baaaanidae,  or  the  ITew  Persian  Empire  (22$- 
e52  A.  D.  (p.  187). 

$  9.    CHINESE.     Tumnum. 

Qeography :  China  in  the  broad  sense,  or  the  Gliineae  Empire, 
embracing  Mandkuria,  Mongolm,  and  TtfteC,  as  well  as  China  proper, 
is  bcmnded  N.  by  Asiatic  Russia,  £.  by  the  Sea  of  Japan,  the  Ydlow 
^Mo,  and  the  Sea  of  CAtna,  &  and  S.  W.  by  the  Sea  4f  China,  Cochin 
China,  Burmah^  W.  by  iiasi^attrand  East  Turkestan.  China  (land  of 
the  Seres  among  the  ancients,  Cathay  in  the  Middle  Age),  comprises 
less  than  half  (3  the  Chinese  empiike,  being  about  1474  niiles  long  by 
1355  wide.  Vast  alluvial  plain  and  delta  in  the  N.  £.  Moontaiuoos 
and  hilly  in  south.  Rivers:  Hwang-4io  {YMm  Rioer);  Tans-taae- 
~       llSe-teamg.    Frovinoes:  1,  CAiMi  (or  Pe^sUMO,  with  Peking 


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B.  G.  Chtnese*  81 

the  capital  of  the  empire;  2,  Keanf-foo^  the  most  popnloiu  and  best 
watered  of  the  provinoes,  with  the  cities,  Nan-kmgy  Shang-kai:^  Qan" 
hwuy;  4,  Keang-se;  6,  CkS-keang^  with  the  citj  Nmg^:  6,  Fuhrhem^ 
comprisiiig  the  island  of  Fonnoaa  (Taiwan);  7,  Hoo-ph;  6,  Hoo-nan; 
9,  Jaa^nan;  10,  Shan-iung  with  the  TairMhan  mountaiii;  11,  Shan^e; 
12,  Shen^e;  13,  Kanrtuhj  14,  Sze-chuen;  15,  Ktoanp-tung,  with  the 
cities.  Canton,  Macao,  Hong-Kong  (properly  Hiang-hang) ;  16,  Kwang* 
te;  17,  ytw-non;  18,  Kwei-chow;  19,  Skingimg, 

Religion:  Unoertainty  concerning  the  oldest  religion  of  the  Chi* 
nese.  By  some  writers  it  is  considered  little  higher  than  fetichisn^ 
while  others  see  a  monotheistic  belief  in  the  worship  af  Ti,  Their 
reli^on  embraced  a  worship  of  ancestors,  of  deified  rulers,  and  of 
spirits  generally,  classed  in  antitheses  of  opposing  qualities  (jyang  and 
ytn),  heaven  and  earth,  male  and  female,  from  whose  interaction 
all  created  beings  sprang.  Ideas  of  future  life  indistinct,  no  system 
of  rewards  and  punishments.  System  of  offerings;  nerer  human  sao- 
rifices.  In.  the  Hfth  centuzy  b.  c.  appeared  the  philosopher  Con* 
fdoina  (k'ung-foo-tsze,  551-478),  who  taught  no  new  theology,  and 
did  not  remodel  the  old  religion,  but  whose  ethical  code  and  personal 
influence  secured  for  him  an  enthusiastic  following.  It  was  a  revi- 
yal,  rather  than  a  reformation,  of  the  ancient  faith.  Enunciation  of 
the  Golden  Rule.^  Contemporary  with  Conjucius  was  L&o-tase,  the 
author  of  a  s^rstem  of  ethical  philosophy,  Tdoisnif  the  "  my  or  method 
of  liying  which  men  should  cultivate  as  the  highest  and  purest  devel-  ^ 
opment  of  their  nature"  (Leege).  At  a  later  time  there  grew  up  a 
mtem  of  gross  and  mystical  superstition,  which  took  the  name  of 
Tdotfm,  deified  L6o-t8ze,  and  became  one  of  the  recognized  religions  of 
the  empire.  Buddhism  introduced  into  China  about  A.  D.  65,  where 
it  has  degeneratecTiiifo  aTow'supersiition,  but  still  numbers  many  dev- 
otees and  has  deeply  affected  the  older  reli^ns.  Begging  priests. 
Mohamm edanj am  has  also  its  adherents.  The  common  religion  of 
the  lower  classes  is  the  old  ancestor  and  spirit  worship,  complicated 

5r  the  introduction  of  elements  from  all  the  sects  above  mentioned, 
o  state  religion;  toleration  of  all  faiths. 

Chronology.  The  Clunese  regard  themselves  as  aborigines.  For- 
eign scholars  derive  them  from  wanderine  bands  of  Tatars,  or  from 
the  peoples  of  Tibet  and  Farther  India.  It  is  probable  that  the  first 
settlements  were  made  in  the  valley  of  the  Htoang-ho, 

The  Chinese  possess  an  intricate  system  of  chronology  which  ear- 
lier writers  trusted  almost  implicitly,  but  which  modem  scholars  have 
severely  criticised.  The  dates  assigned  before  800  b.  c.  are  probably 
wholly  untrustworthy.  Chinese  annalists  place  the  creation  oetweeu 
two  and  three  millions  of  vears  before  ConfudWy  and  divide  the  inter- 
vening space  into  ten  epochs.  In  the  eiffhtn  of  these  are  placed  the  fa- 
mous emperors  Yeny-chaou  She  Q^  nest  builder  "),  Suy-jin  She,  the  dis- 
coverer of  fire,  Fuhif  Chvh-nung,  inventor  of  the  plough,  and  Taon, 
who  first  drained  the  valley  of  Hwang-ho,  These  sovereigns  are  to  be 
regarded  as  largely  mvtiiical,  as  are  the  dynasties  of  Hia  (2205-1766) 
and  Bhang  (1766-1123). 

RtUgum  ofC%ina,  137-189. 

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82  Ancient  History,  b.  C.-A.  ix 

1123-255.  Chow  Dsmasty.  During  the  time  of  UiIb  dynasty 
we  reach  historic  ^pound.  Deyelopment  of  a  feudal  systenu 
The  imperial  domain  lay  in  the  middle  of  the  empire,  whence 
the  name  applied  to  the  empire,  **  BCiddle  Kingdom."  Un- 
der Sing-wang^  birth  of  Coniucius,  651  B.  c. 

255'-206*  Dynasty  of  Tain,  famous  for  the  energetic 
monarch  Che-^wana-te  (246-210),  who  extended  the  empire  to 
the  sea,  defeated  the  Mongols,  built  the  Chinese  Wall  (1400 
miles  long,  15-^  feet  high,  15-26  feet  broad);  213,  Chi^ 
wang^  oraered  the  destruction  of  many  thousand  historical 
and  philosophical  books. 

206  B.  C.-221  A.  D.  Dyna49ties  of  East  and  West  Han. 
Brilliant  period  of  Chinese  history.  The  power  of  the 
feudal  lords  limited,  the  empire  consolidated  and  strength- 
ened, and  extended  westward  to  Russian  Turkestaiu 
CSonquest  of  northern  Carea  (109  A.  d.).  Annexation  of 
ffainaiu  This  period  was  succeeded  by  one  of  great 
confusion. 

221-265  A.  D.  Epoch  of  the  Three  Kingdoma:  Wei,  in  the  north; 
TTu,  in  the  east;  and  Shuhf  in  the  west  WuH,  265  A.  D.,  re- 
united a  large  part  of  the  empire  and  founded  the  dynasty  of 
Tsin,  but  the  country  soon  relapsed  into  a  divided  state,  which 
continued  until 

590  A.  D.  Tang-Kian,  prince  of  Suy,  in  the  northern  king- 
dom of  Wei,  extending  his  conquests  southward,  united  the 
whole  empire  under  his  sceptre  and  founded  the  dynasty  of 
Suy. 

§10.    JAPANESE.    Turanitm, 

Qeograpfay :  The  Japanese  ^  empire,  Dal  Nippon,  is  a  chain  of  isl- 
ands which  skirts  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia  opposite  Corea,  Man- 
churia, aad  Amur.  It  comprises  four  lar&pe  islands:  Kiushiu;  Shiko- 
IrtfyHondo,^  or  Honshin,  the  principal  ishmd;  Yezoj  and  some  three 
thousand  small  islands.'  Nature  of  the  country,  rock^,  mountainous, 
volcanic.  Highest  mountain,  Fiuiyaima  (12,000  ft.),  m  the  centre  of 
the  east  coast  of  Hondo.  Rivers  numerous  but  small;  among  the 
largest:  Tone-gawa,  Shinano-gatoa,  Ktod-gawa,  Ti-gawa,  Lake  Bitoa 
in  Hondo.     Pnncipal  cities:  Kioto,  Yedo,  or  Tokh,  Yokohama,  OsdkxL. 

Religion:  The  most  ancient  religion  of  Japan  bears  the  native 

name  of  Kami-no-michi,  "  the  way  of  the  gods,'    but  is  better  known 

Vdbroad  by  the  Chinese  term  Shinto,    It  consisted  of  a  theology  which 

comprised  the  gods  of  heaven,  the  mikados,  many  deified  mortals,  ani- 

^  Jaiwn  (Zipangu  in  the  Middle  Afi^e)  is  a  name  given  to  the  empire  by 
foreiffnera.    It  is  probably  of  Chinese  oriffin. 

s  This  is  the  name  recently  applied  to  the  main  inland  by  the  Japanese  gov-> 
emment;  previously  the  Japanese  had  no  name  for  this  island.  Nippon,  th» 
name  frequently  fpVen  it  bv  forel^nem,  is  the  name  of  the  whole  empire. 

s  Saghalin  was  given  to  ttuasia  in  1876  in  exchange  for  the  Kurile  ialaadat 


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B.  C.-A.  D.  Japanese.  83 

Bials,  plants,  and  natural  objects,  and  of  a  ritual  for  the  worship  of 
these  deities.  The  chief  command  of  the  religion  was  implicit  obedi- 
ence to  the  gods,  especially  to  the  mikado.  It  had  no  moral  code. 
It  was  emphatically  a  state  religion,  and  was  often  used  as  a  political  -. 
engine,  in  552  A.  D.  Buddhism  was  introduced  into  Japan,  where  "^ 
it  spread  rapidly.  Development  of  a  score  or  more  of  sects.  (Among 
others  Shin^huy  which  teaches  salvation  by  faith  in  Buddha.)  Bud- 
dhism for  a  time  overshadowed  Uie  older  religion,  but  the  present 
government  has  fully  reinstated  the  Shint5  faith. 

Chronology:  The  origin  of  the  Japanese  is  uncertain.  They  in- 
vaded the  islands  from  Asia,  and  conquered  them  frqm  the  savae^e 
AinoSf  whom  they  found  there.  The  present  Japanese  are  certaimy 
a  mixed  race,  containing  Turanian  and  Malay  elements. 

While  the  mythical  £story  of  Japan  comprises  a  dyuurty  of  gods, 
followed  by  a  dynasty  of  rulers  descended  from  the  sun-goddess,  and 
who  are  sometimes  assigned  reigns  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years 
each,  the  earliest  date  of  what  is  believed  in  Japan  to  be  authentic 
history  is  660  B.  c;  the  dates  are  probably  untrustworthy  until  much 
later. 

660-585  B.  c.  Jimmu  Texino,^  the  first  Mikado,^  being 
the  5th  in  descent  from  the  sun-goddess.  He  was  leader  of 
the  invasion,  and  conquered  Kiushiu^  ShihoJcUy  and  a  part  of 
the  main  island.  Jimmu  is  regarded  by  many  foreign  scholars 
as  a  mythical  character.  He  was  the  founder  of  an  unbroken 
dynasty,  of  which  the  reigning  mikado,  Mutsti'Hito,  is  the  122d 
(123d  counting  Jingu)  sovereign.  The  10th  mikado,  Sujin 
(97-30  B.  c.)  introduced  reforms,  reorganized  the  administra- 
tion of  the  empiro  and  generally  advanced  the  civilization  of 
the  people.  Intercourse  opened  with  Corea,  Succeeding  em- 
perors continued  the  war  with  the  native  Ainos,  who  wero 
pushed  further  and  further  to  the  north.  Especially  famous  is 
the  reign  of  the  12th  mikado, 

71-130  A.  D.  Keiko,  whose  more  famous  son,  7amato-Dake,  <*  the 
warlike,"  conquered  the  great  eastern  plain,  the  Koanto,  The 
14th  mikado,  Chinaiy  dying  suddenly,  was  succeeded  by  his  wife 
the  renowned 

201-269  A.  D.  Jingu-Kogo,  sometimes  called  the  15th  mikado,  al- 
though never  formally  crowned.  She  suppressed  a  rebellion 
in  Kiushiuy  and  herself  led  an  army  to  Corea,  which  she  re- 
duced to  submission.  Diplomatic  relations  with  China.  Her 
son  and  successor, 

270-310  A.  D.     OJin,  was  a  great  warrior,  and  is  still  worshipped  as 

1  HiR  true  name  was  Kan-yameUo^ware-hiko-no-miioto.  After  the  introduc- 
tion of  Chinese  characters^  the  long  native  names  of  gods  and  emperors  were 
transcribed  into  the  shorter  Chinese  eauivalents.  It  also  became  customary  for 
the  mikados  to  receive  after  death  a  different  name  from  that  which  they  had 
borne  while  living.  The  first  mikado  received  the  name  Jimmu^  "spirit  of 
war/*  to  which  was  joined  one  of  the  official  titles  of  the  mikado,  Tenn&f  '*  lord 
of  heaven." 

S  MikadOf  the  most  general  title  of  the  emperors,  fs  derived  either  from  Mi, 
*•  honorable,''  and  Kado^  **  gate  "  (compare  **  Sublime  Porte,"  and  *'  Pharaoh  ' 
p^  1,  note  3),  or  from  Mika,  *' great,"  and  to,  <*  place.'' 
o 


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84  AneierU  History.  b.  a 

the  pA  of  war.  Introduction  of  Chinese  literature  and  dyil- 
ization,  which  at  this  date  was  far  in  adyanoe  of  the  Japanese. 
From  this  time  to  the  sixth  century  the  annals  of  Japan  are 
marked  hj  no  great  events. 

B.   WESTERN  PEOPLES. 

•    §  1.    CELTS.    Aryan. 

CeltBj  or  KdtSf  is  the  name  nven  to  that  race  which,  at  the  dawn  of 
authentic  history,  occupied  the  extreme  west  of  Europe.  The^  he- 
longed  to  the  Indo-European  family,  and,  if  the  Asiatic  origm  of 
that  fandly  be  accepted,^  were  the  first  branch  to  enter  upon  the 
wnstward  migration. 

a.    Continental  Celts.    Gauls. 

Oeography:  At  the  time  of  the  Roman  conquest  (59-51), 
Gaul,  or  thid;  part  of  Europe  occupied  by  the  Celts  (KcXroQ  or 
Gatds  (rtUXoi),  was  divided  among  three  great  groups  of  tnbes: 
Belgians,  dwelling  between  the  lower  Rhiney  the  forest  of  Ardenms^ 
the  Mamet  and  Seme.  This  people  have  been  claimed  as  Teutons, 
but  the  weight  of  evidence  assi^;ns  them  to  the  Celts.*  Tribes : 
RenUy  Suessiones,  Neroii?  Menaph.  Oauls,^  dwelling  between  the 
Seiney  Mame^  middle  RhinCj  Rhonet  and  Garonne.  Tribes :  In  the 
valley  of  the  Seine  {Sequana):  Parisii  (with  the  city  LtUetia  Parisi' 
orunif  now  Paris),  Sendnes ;  in  the  valley  of  the  Loire  {Liger) : 
Namnetes,  TuHSnes,  Camutes,  Boii,  JEdui,  Avemi;  W.  of  the  Seine : 
Treviri;  in  the  valley  of  the  Saone  and  Rhone:  Sequaniy  AUobroges. 
The  Aquitanians,  between  the  Garonne  and  the  Pyrenees,  were  not 
Celts,  but  Iberians.    In  Switzerland:  Helvetii,  Vinddid. 

Religioii :  Soon  after  the  conquest  the  theology  of  the  Gauls  was 
largely  superseded  and  corruptea  bv  the  introduction  of  the  Roman 
gods.  Little  is  therefore  known  of  the  pure  Celtic  religion,  whose 
nature  has  consequently  become  a  favorite  subject  for  mspute.  It 
was  a  pantheism,  which  had  its  cycle  of  great  gods,  its  local  divin- 
ities, its  deifications  of  forests,  rivers,  and  foimtains.  Among  the 
great  gods  are  the  following,  with  their  Roman  equivalents  :  Bormo, 
Grannus  (Apollo),  with  his  companion  the  goddess  Damona  i  Segomo^ 
(Afar«),  ^    " 


Cannulus  (Jiiars),  with  the  goddess  Nemetonia;  Belisama  {Minerwi  t); 
Tammicus  (Jupiter).  Complicated  and  imposing  ceremonial,  con^ 
ducted  bv  the  Druids,  or  priests,  who  were  accoraed  at  least  equal 
honors  with  the  nobles.  They  did  not  form  an  hereditary  class,  but 
were  recruited  from  the  people.     Exemption  from  military  service 

1  See  Introduction. 

>  The  Belgians  are  also  claimed  as  non-Aryans,  of  the  same  race  as  the 
Aquitanians. 

*  Daho,  Urtfttch,  d.  Germ.  HI.  26,  note  9. 

4  In  spite  of  (ytc^oar'a  statement  that  the  Gauls  were  called  Celts  in  their  own 
lananiage,  the  two  names  are  not  considered  synonymous.  It  is  probable  that  the 
Gallic  tribes  formed  a  division  distinct  from*  the  t)eltic  tribes  (using  Celt  in  the 
narrow  sense  of  inhabitant  of  Gaul).  The  attempt  has  even  been  made  to  draw 
the  geographical  boundary  between  them. 


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B.  c.  OelU.  3  J 

and  taxes.    Use  of  writing,  with  Greek  alphabet.    Exeroifle  of  jnria- 
diction.    Human  sacrifices. 

Civilisatioii:  That  the  Celts  of  Ganl  had  reached  quite  an  ad* 
Tanced  stage  of  civilization  ^  is  dear  from  the  readiness  with  whidi 
ihe^  accepted  the  higher  civilization  of  Rome,  andirom  the  fact  that 
iheir  social  state  as  depicted  by  C»sar  exhibits  a  degeneracy  which 
was  not  seen  again  in  northern  Europe  until  the  decay  of  the  Neus- 
trian  state  under  the  Merowiugians,  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  a.  d» 
Ghronology:  Before  the  conquest  the  history  of  tho  Celts  of 
Gaul  is  the  history  of  their  collisions  with  the  southern  nations. 

The  Celtic  migration  was  slow,  and  large  bodies  were  left  behind 
at  various  points,  as  in  Bohemia  and  throughout  Germany,  where 
many  traces  of  Celtic  occupation  survived  the  Teutonic  conquest 
According  to  some  writers  the  Celts  immigrated  in  two  bands,  the 
GtrideUc  or  Gadhelic  Celts  being  the  more  northerly,  and  the  Bry- 
thonk  or  Cymric  Celts  the  more  southerly ;  this  is  but  a  surmise. 
Not  earlier  than 

200a  The  Celta  reached  the  western  shores  of  Europe.  Their 
principal  settlements  were  made  in  central  France.  They 
here  attained  their  highest  culture,  and  from  this  point 
detachments  went  forth  to  conquer  new  lands.  Then  were 
four  principal  emigrations. 

1.  To  the  Bxitiah  Jalaa.    Date  unknown.    See  p.  36. 

2.  To  Spain,  where  they  mingled  with  the  D)erian  inhabitants 
and  formed  the  Celtiberians,  Celts  in  Spain  were  known  to  Herodo- 
tus in  the  fifth  century  B.  c. 

3.  To  Northern  Italy.  The  legendary  history  of  Rome  places 
this  event  in  the  reign  of  Tarquinius  Priscus,  or  about  600  B.  c. 
Tribe  followed  tribe  until  the  whole  of  northern  Italy  was  occupied 
(Gallia  Cisalpina).  Tribes  :  Bituriges  (Milan),  Cenomam  (Brescia  and 
Verona),  Bon  (Boloena),  Senones  (coast  between  Rimini  and  Ancona). 
390.    Conquest  of  Kome  by  the  Benonaa  under  their  BrennuB,  L  e. 

military  leader. 
283.    Extermination  of  the  Senones  by  the  Romans ;  defeat  of  the 

Boii  on  the  Vadimonian  lake. 
238.    General   league  of  Cisalpine  Gauls  against  Rome.    Defeat 

of  the  league  at  TXomon,  225.    Capture  of  Milan  by  Sc^, 

Formation  of  Roman  colonies  at  PlacemiOf  Cremona,  MtUma. 

In  the  second  Punic  War,  Hannibal  induced  the  Grauls  to 

take  up  arms,  but  in  the 
193.    Battle  of  Mntina,  the  last  resistance  of  the  Boii  was  broken 

and  northern  Italy  was  rapidly  Romanized. 

4.  To  Greece  and  Aaia  Minor.  In  278  a  band  of  Oanla  under  a 
Brennus  ravaged  Macedonia  and  Greece.  After  a  futile  attack  upon 
Delphi,  the  survivors  made  their  way  by  land  to  Asia  Minor,  where 
they  settled  in  the  interior,  and  gave  their  name  to  Oalatia. 

1  The  nUfle  of  development  in  civilisation  attained  by  ancient  peoples  must 
be  largelv  determined  by  the  degree  of  complexity  found  in  their  social  and 
political  aystenu.  In  our  day,  when  material  comforts  and  conveniences  form 
a  so  much  larger  part  of  the  popular  idea  of  civilization  than  they  ever  did 
before,  it  ia  weU  to  remember  this  in  judging  the  dviliaations  that  are  gone. 


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36  Ancient  Bistory.  B.  a 

Of  tlie  C«li8  of  Oanl  little  is  known  until  the  Ronum  oonqnest 
Some  time  before  this,  it  is  probable,  the  preasnre  of  the  Teutonio 
migration  had  made  itself  felt  in  the  west,  bnt  the  details  of  the 
oonnicts  are  unknown.  Celts  and  Teutons  became  here  and  theva 
Interspersed,  but  in  general  the  Rhine  was  the  boundary.  About 
125-121,  the  Romans  conquered  Southern  Gaul  and  made  it  a 
province  (GaUia  Narbonensis).  While  the  Celtic  orinn  of  the  Cimlni 
may  not  be  admitted  without  question,  it  is  certain  that  Gallic  tribes 
played  a  considerable  part  in  that  great  invasion  of  Italy  (113-101). 

58-6L  Conquest  of  Gaul  by  Caesar  (p.  138),  after 
which  the  history  of  Gaul  belongs  to  that  of  Borne. 

b.    Celts  of  the  British  Isles. 

BRITAIN. 

Oeography :  The  island  of  Britain  forms  an  irregular  triangle,  and 
18  bounded  E.  by  the  Oerman  Ocean,  S.  by  the  Straits  of  Dwer  and 
the  English  Channel  W.  by  St.  Georm's  Chofmd,  the  Irish  Seoj  North 
Chafmdf  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  It  falls  into  three  geog^phical 
divisions,  corresponding  somewhat  to  the  later  ^litical  £visions.  I. 
The  extreme  north,  beyond  the  deep  indentations  of  the  Frith  of 
Clyde  and  the  Frith  qfPorthf  is  mountainous  and  barren,  with  numer- 
ous smaU  lakes  (Loch  Ness,  Loch  Tay,  Loch  Lomond),  and  sharply 
out  coasts  on  the  west.  II.  The  southern  and  eastern  portion  :  huly 
in  the  N.  and  W. ;  on  the  £.  a  broad  plain,  well  watered  and  fertile. 
Eastern  rivers :  Humber  (Ouse,  Trent),  Witham,  Wetland,  Nen,  Ouse^ 
running  through  a  broad  fen-land  into  the  Wash,  Thames.  Western 
livers  :  Severn,  Mersey.  Island  of  Wight.  In  early  times  the  greater 
part  of  this  plain,  the  modem  England,  was  covered  wi£h  forests, 
of  which  scanty  traces  remain.  The  Andredsweald  covered  a  large 
part  of  the  counties  of  Surrey  and  Sussex ;  north  of  the  Thames  a 
nnge  forest  extended  nearly  to  the  Wash,  of  which  Eppmg  and  /Totn- 
ouS  forests  formed  a  part.  The  fens  about  the  Wash  were  much 
more  extensive  than  now.  III.  The  broad  western  promontory  of 
Wales,  mountainous  with  small  rivers.    Island  of  Anglesea. 

Religioii  and  Civilisation:  The  Celts  of  Britain  were  ruder  than 
their  brethren  of  Graul,  and  never  reached  the  same  stage  of  civilizar 
tion,  but  the^  seem  to  have  resembled  the  oontinental  Celts  in  cus- 
toms and  rebgion.    Druids.    Bards. 

History,  a.  Mythical:  Inordinate  pride  of  ancest^,  a  fertile  ink- 
agination,  and  an  acquaintance  with  Biolical  and  classical  history  en- 
abled the  British  bards  and  priestly  historians  to  compose  for  their 
race  a  mythical  past,  unique  in  its  extent,  its  detail,  ana  its  disregard 
of  time  and  space.  Gaul  was  colonized  by  Meschish,  son  of  Japhet, 
son  of  Noah,  about  1799  (Anno  Mundi^  under  the  name  of  Samotkes. 
Meschish  ruled  Graul  109  years,  when  he  conquered  Britain  in  1908 
(a.  m.)  and  reigned  over  Doth  countries  47  years.  He  was  followed 
by  six  sovereigns  of  his  race,  but  on  the  accession  of  the  seventh, 
Lucius,  2211  A.  M.,  Britain  was  wrested  from  his  rule  by  Albion,  a 
dcioaBdant  of  Ham,    He  and  his  successors  reigned  over  Britain 


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B.  C.-A.  D.  Celti.  87 

Qntil  2896  A.  M.  or  1108  b.  c,  when  the  line  of  Japhet  reeoyered  the 
island  in  the  person  of  Brute,  greai-grandBon  bi  .^neas  of  Troy. 
Brute  huilt  Troynouant^  afterwards  Lud^s  Town,  London,  He  was 
followed  by  his  descendents,  among  whom  we  may  mention  Bladud, 
founder  of  Bath,  Leir  (841-791^,  Ferrex  and  Porrex  (496-491),  with 
whom  his  line  expired.  Britam  for  a  time  divided  into  five  king- 
doms, was  finally  reunited  under  Mdbnucws  DunwaUy  the  son  of 
Cloten  king  of  Cornwall  (441-401),  whose  son  Brennus  left  his  island 
home  to  sack  Rome,  assault  Delphi,  and  found  the  kingdom  of 
GaUxtia.^  Among  the  successors  of  Malmncius  were  CoUl  (160-140). 
Pyrrhug  (66-64),  and  Lud  (who  in  some  mysterious  manner  began 
to  reign  in  69)  Casswelaunus  (expedition  of  Gesar),  Cymbeiine  (19 
B.  C.-16  A.  D.),  Caractacusy  Vortigem  (445-455  (485)  a.  d.).  Arthur 
(50&-^542).  Finally  the  list  merges  in  the  historical  one  of  the 
kings  and  princes  of  Wales. 

b.  Probable,  The  Britons  of  historic  times  were  Cdts  who  came 
to  the  island  from  Gaul  at  two  periods.  The  first  invasion  was  very 
early,  and  the  invaders  were  Celts  of  the  Cfaidelic  ((radhelic)  or 
northern  branch.  From  the  testimony  of  sepulchral  monuments  it  ^^ 
ifl  conjectured  that  the  Celts  found  two  races  in  Britain :  a  small,  -'^f^ 
dark-haired  race,  perhaps  of  Iberian  stock,  and  a  large  light-haired 
race  of  Scandinavian  origin.  The  Goidelic  Celts  conquer^  without 
exterminating  the  previous  inhabitants,  and  held  the  land  many  cen- 
turies, until  a  new  invasion  of  continental  Celts  occurred.  This  time 
it  was  the  Brythonic  or  Cymric  Celts  of  the  southern  stock,  who  crossed 
the  channel,  probably  not  very  long  before  the  expedition  of  Csesar, 
ancl  dispossessed  their  kinsmen  of  the  southern  and  eastern  portion 
of  the  island.  Tribes :  Cantii,  the  most  civilized,  AUrebatU,  Belgce, 
Damnoniiy  SUitres,  TrinobanteSy  Iceniy  Brigantes,  etc. 

The  ancients  received  their  first  direct  knowledge  of  Britain  from 
Pytheas  of  Massilia,  who  landed  on  the  island  in  the  third  centurv 
B.  c.  That  the  Phoenicians  ever  visited  Britain  is  doubted  by  English 
scholars,  who  contend  that  they  obtained  their  tin  either  from  the 
rivers  of  Graul,  or  from  the  Crallic  tribes  who  imported  it  from 
Britain.    With 

55-64  B.  c.  The  two  expeditions  of  GsBsar,  the  actnal 
history  of  Britain  begins.  The  effect  of  the  invasions  was 
transitory. 

43  A.  D.  Claixdiixs  began  the  conquest  of  Britain  in  earnest,  and  his 
generals  reduced  the  country  south  of  the  Avon  and  Severn. 

58.     Revolt  of  Boadicea,  leader  of  the  Iceni ;  her  defeat. 

78--85.  Agricola,  under  Vespasian  and  Domitiany  carried  the  Roman 
arms  far  into  Scotland  and  built  a  wall  from  the  Frith  of  Forth 
to  the  Friih  of  Clyde  as  a  defense  against  the  wild  tribes  of 
the  north.  Henceforward  Britannia  formed  a  tolerably  quiet 
part  of  the  Roman  empire.  Roman  fortresses,  towns  and  villas 
covered  its  soil  in  prolusion. 

121.    Hadrian  built  a  waU  from  the  Tyne  to  the  Sdway,    In 

1  Brennus  killed  himself  aftei*  the  repulse  from  Oeiphi;  his  army  settled  in 
fialatia. 


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88  Ancient  History.  b.  cl 

139.    Antoninm  strengtheiied  the  wall  of  Agricola.    In  210  Sevenu 

added  new  defenses  to  that  of  Hadrian. 
180l    Legendary  conversion  of  Luoiiis,  king  of  the  Trinobantes,  to 
Cluistianity,  after  which  the  new  religion  spread  through- 
out the  country,  a  church  was  organized  and  bishopries  founded 
at  Canterbury  and  York  (f). 
With  the  decay  of  the  empire  its  power  in  Britain  declined.    Troops 
were  withdrawn  to  assist  in  defending  the  continental  borders,  or  m 
supporting  the  claims  of  rival  aspirants  for  the  crown.    During  the 
third  century  the  attacks  of  the  Pict8  and  Scots  in  the  north  erew 
more  and  more  severe,  while  the  southern  and  eastern  coasts  sufrered 
from  the  ravaees  of  'the  Frank  and  Saxon  pirates.     Count  of  the 
Saxon  Shorty^  me  officer  in  charge  of  the  coast  between  the  Wath 
and  Southampton  water,  which  was  most  exposed  to  these  ravages. 
From 
286-294  Britain  was  independent  under  Cemiisiiis,  who  proclaimed 

himself  emperor  oi  Britain. 
360.    Scots  from  Ireleuid  ravaged  the  western  shores. 

410.  Honoritis  renounced  the  sovereignty  of  Britain.  The  with- 
drawal of  the  legions  left  Britain  to  her  own  resources.  A 
period  of  civil  dissension  and  exposure  to  foreign  inroads  fol- 
lowed, broken  by  the 

411.  "Alleluia  Victory  ['  of  the  Britons  accompanied  by  St.  Ger^ 
manusy  over  the  Picts,  Finally  the  king  of  the  Damnonii, 
Vortigem  {Guorihigen),  either  by  usurpation  or  election,  ob- 
tained the  soverei^ty  over  a  large  part  of  the  island,  and,  as 
the  story  goes,  invited  the  invasion  of  the  Teutonic  conquer- 
ors (p.  176). 

IRELAND. 

Oeography :  Lyine  W.  of  Britain,  Ireland  is  boimded  on  the  £. 
by  the  Nokk  Channel^  the  Irish  Sea,  and  Sl  George^s  Channd;  on  all 
.)ther  sides  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  It  is  a  low  plain,  frineed  with 
iiilly  tracks  upon  the  coast ;  abounding  in  lakes  {Lough  CorHb,  L. 
Mask,  L.  Emey  L.  Neagh,  Lakes  of  KiSameyy  L.  Dearg,  L.  Ree),  and 
rivers  (Boyne^  L\ffeyy  Boarrowy  BlackuxUer,  Shannon), 

Religion  and  Civilisation:  In  Ireland  as  in  Britain  we  find 
Celtic  inhabitants,  Celtic  reliffion,  and  Celtic  culture,  but  both  in 
a  still  more  primitive  form  than  in  England ;  so  much  so,  indeed, 
that  it  may  be,  the  Celts  of  Ireland  were  the  best  representatives  of 
primitive  Aryan  civilization.    Druids.    Bards, 

History:  Again  the  historian  is  confronted  with  a  vast  mass  of 
very  valuable  tradition  mingled  with  a  great  amount  of  priestly  in- 
vention. The  Irish  historical  books  speak  of  five  invasions  of  Ire- 
land.   I.  Partholan  led  a  force  from  central  Greece,  which  ruled 

1  Comet  Litorit  Saxonici  per  Britanniam,  An  attempt  has  been  made  /Lap- 
penberg,  Kemble)  to  show  that  this  name  indicates  the  settlement  of  Saxons 
upon  this  shore  long  before  the  Teutonic  conquest  What  people,  it  has  been 
asked,  would  name  a  portion  of  their  country  after  its  worst  enemies  ?  A  ref- 
erence to  our  **  Indian  Frontier,"  b^  which  is  meant  land  held  by  the  whites 
but  molested  by  Indians,  might  dispel  this  objection.  The  argument  from 
coinage  is  stronger,  but  on  the  whole  the  assumption  does  not  seem  to  bt 
provMl. 

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B.  c.  GredcM*  89 

Ireland  900  yean,  and  4ien  died  of  the  plague,  and  were  itaoceeded 
by  II.  Nemed,  from  Soytfaia,  who  also  died  of  the  plague.  III.  Flr- 
bolga,  who  came  under  five  chie&  and  settled  m  various  parts  of 
the  island.  IV.  The  Taaiha  D^  Danann,  of  the  race  of  Nemed^  who 
defeated  and  nearly  exterminated  the  Firbolffs.  V.  Mllealana  or 
Boots,  who  under  Ckdam,  son  of  Breopany  came  from  Spain,  and 
conquering  the  Tuaiha  De  Danann^  divided  Ireland  among  the  sons 
and  other  relatives  of  Gralam.  The  ancestry  of  Gakan  goes  back 
to  Noah.  The  historical  interpretation  of  these  legends  seems  at 
present  to  be  that  Ireland  at  the  commencement  of  the  Christian 
era  was  occupied  in  the  north  by  Gaiddic  Celts  (Cruiihni,  Picts) ; 
in  the  east  and  centre  by  British  and  Belaie  tribes  (Cymric^,  and  in 
the  southwest  {MuntUr)  by  a  people  of  southern  extraction  (i6e-  ^^ 
rianst).  Between  the  numerous  petty  kingdoms  thus  established 
incessant  war  prevailed,  with  the  detaiis  of  which  the  legendary  his- 
tory is  filled.  Tnathal  (died  160  a.  d.\  a  powerful  king  who  reigned 
over  Leinster  and  Meaih,  and  warred  with  the  rival  kingdom  or 
kingdoms  in  Munster,  is  probably  historic.  Isiah  Invaaioiia  of  Brit- 
ain: Settlements  in  Wtles,  Devon,  and  Cornwall,  and  especially  in 
the  north.  Ireland  was  never  conquered,  or  even  invaded,  by  the  ^ 
Romans,  though  Aericola  had  i>lanned  an  Irish  expedition.  The 
Irish  were  converted  to  Christianity  in  the  fifth  century.  PaUadiaSf 
sent  to  Irehind,  431  a.  d.,  died  soon  after.  St.  Patrick  {Succaih  or 
Maun),  took  up  the  work  and  brought  it  to  a  successful  conclusion. 
Establishment  of  numerous  monasteries,  which  in  the  next  cen- 
tury attained  wide  renown  for  the  learning  of  their  members. 

§2.    GREaAN  HISTOBT.    Aryam. 

GEOGRAFHICAL  SURVEY  OF  AITCIENT  OBEECB. 
See  Eiepert,  Atlas  Antlqaus,  Tab.  Y  and  YI. 

The  peninsula  of  Oreeoe  (Hellas,  j^  'eaa^)  bounded  N.  by  Mace- 
darda  and  lUyriOf  and  on  all  other  sides  by  the  sea  (£.  mare  j£gceum, 
S.  mare  MyrUnan  and  mare  Creffcvm^  W.  mare  Ionium),  is  divided  into 
four  principal  regions :  Peloponnaaus,  Central  Oreeoe,  Theaaaly, 
Epiraa. 

A.  Peloponnesua  (i  n9kor6yyii<rosf  Island  of  Pelops),  connected 
with  the  mainland  bv  me  narrow  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  washed  on  the 
N.  by  the  waters  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  is  divided  into  nine  dis- 
tricts :  1.  Aohaia,  formerly  inhabited  by  lonians,  in  twelve  com- 
munities, or  cantons.  jEgUmij  capital  of  the  confederacy,  Patras, 
2.  mis  or  Eleia,  in  .£olio  dialect,  Volis,  drained  by  the  Alphius  and 
Penius.  It  is  subdivided  into  Ella  Proper,  or  Hollow  Elia:.£/tt 
and  its  harbor  Cyllene,  Piaatla  :  Olynmia,  not  a  city  but  a  temple  of 
Zeus,  in  a  walled  grove  ("AKrts),  with  places  for  games,  altars,  and  va- 
rious building,  and  Triphylia.  3.  Meaaenia :  Pylos,  the  home  of 
Nestor,  opposite  the  islsiid  of  Sphacteria,  Messene,  built  in  369  B.  c, 
the  hill  fortresses  of  Ithome  and  Ira.  4.  Laoonla  (Aaiewvur^),  with 
the  mountain  range  of  Tayg&us,  ending  in  the  promontory  Tsenfirus  : 
Sparta  {Tiwifm),  on  the  right  bank  of  the  EurGtas;  north  of  Sparta, 
Sellasia;   on  uie  exmstȣelos,  and  Gythium  the  harbor  of  Sparta, 


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40  Ancient  History.  b.  o* 

5.  Argolis  {rh  'A^^of ,  1^  'ApTf  (a)  comprised  many  cantons,  politically 
independent  of  one  another :  Argas,  with  its  hii^bor  NmqmOy  on  the 
ffolf  of  Argolis,  near  by  Tiryns,  with  Cyclopjean  walls,  Hernddne, 
Trceziriy  Epidaurus,  on  the  Saranicus  sinus;  inland,  Mycena  with 
C  vdopean  structures.  The  Lion  Gate,  the  so-called  Treasure  House 
ofAtreus.  6.  Phliaaia :  Phliiis.  7.  Corlnthia :  Corinth,  formerly 
Ephyra  with  its  citadel  Acrocorinthus,  8.  Sicyonia:  Sicyon  (SonN^r). 
9.  Arcadia,  the  mountainous  region  in  the  interior,  with  the  ranges 

SlUne  and  Erymanthus  on  the  borders  of  Achaia;  MantmeOf  TegeOf 
igalopdliSf  the  latter  founded  in  370. 

B.  Central  Greece,^  also  divided  into  nine  districts:  1.  Megarifl» 
since  the  Dorian  conquest,  belonging  ethnographically  and  politi- 
cally to  Peloponnesus:  MegdrOf  and  its  harTOr  Niscoa,  2.  Attica 
QArrudi)  with  the  mountains  PamSs,  BfHissus  (Pentdicus),  Hymetius^ 
and  the  promontory  of  SunXum,  the  riyulets  Cephissus  and  IlissuSm 
Athens  {*A$^tw)  with  the  AcropdUs  (PropykeOf  ParthSnon^  Ereck* 
theion),  the  fortified  harbor  of  Pirceus  (Ilcipaiciif),  connected  with  the 
city  by  the  Long  Walls  (rib  fuucpd  rflxn:  ^  aKdxri),  the  two  unimportant 
harbors  MunycMa  and  Zea  and  the  open  bay  of  Phaleron,  which  served 
as  a  roadstead.  Attic  demes  :  EUusis,  Mardtkon^  Deeelea,  Phyle,  etc. 
3.  BcBOtia,  with  Mts.  HdXcon^  and  Cithceran,  LaJte  CopaiSt  traversed 
by  the  Cephissus;  Thebes  (hrrdMvXos),  with  its  citadel  the  Cadmia; 
Themias;  Leuctra ;  PkUcsce,  which  separated  itself  very  early  from 
the  BiBotian  league  and  allied  itself  with  Athens  ;  Hcdiartus,  CoronSa^ 
OrchomiSnos.  On  the  coast;  AuLis,  Delfum,  and,  not  far  distant.  Tan* 
Mgra.  4.  Phocis:  At  the  base  of  Mt.  Parnassus,  Delphi  (AfX^), 
with  the  oracle  of  the  Pythian  Apollo,  _0»«a,  with  its  harbor, 
Cirrha ;  ElaUa,  5.  Eaatem  Iiocrla  :  (Aoxpol  ^^oi),  for  a  time  di- 
vided by  a  part  of  Phocis  into  the  southern  respon  of  the  Opnntian 
Iiocriana  with  the  town  Opus,  and  the  noruem  of  the  Bpicne- 
Tr<«^<a"  Locriana  (i.  e.  they  who  dwell  on  the  mountain  of  Cnemis) 
with  the  town  Thronium.  6.  Western  Locris  (Aoirpol  imrtptoh  called 
by  the  other  Grecians  AoKpol  6(6KeUf  «the  stinking").  Amphissaf 
Jyaupactus,  7.  Doris  (A«pft),  between  the  mountains  (Eta  and  Par^ 
nassuSf  the  country  of  a  small  body  of  Dorians,  who  at  the  time  ol 
the  Dorian  invasion  remained  in  the  north,  called  from  its  four  unim* 
portant  vilUges,  the  Tetrapolis,  8.  JBtolia,  CalydOa,  PleurSn,  and 
Thermum  (afterwards  the  place  where  the  assembly  met  at  the  time 
of  the  ^tolian  lea^e).  9.  Acamania,  with  the  promontory  Actium; 
Str€Uus,  near  the  nver  Achelous,  ('AxcX^iot)  which  separates  Acama^ 
nia  from  JEtdia. 

C.  Thessaly,  watered  by  the  Peneus  (valley  of  Tempe),  with  the 
mountain  range  of  Pindus  in  the  W.  on  the  border  of  Epirus;  in  the 
S.  Othrys;  in  the  E.  Pelion,  Ossa;  in  the  N.  Olympus  and  the  Cambu^ 
nian  mountains.*  Five  divisions  from  S.  to  N.:  1.  Phthiotis,  in  the 
most  southern  part,  MaliSf  on  the  Sinus  Maliacus  was  the  Pass  of 
Thermopylas,  i.  e.  "  gate  of  the  warm  springs ; "  LanCUi,  2.  Theasa- 
Uotis,  PharsOlus.    3.  Pelasgiotis,  Pherce,  Crannon,  Larissa  on  the 

I  The  exprewion  ffeUaa  propria  first  appears  in  the  Roman  period  ;   the 
fireeks  never  used  HelloM  for  the  name  of  this  particular  part  of  the  country, 
s  But  see  Kiepert,  Lthrb,  d,  a.  Geoyr.,  §  210,  note  1.  "^ 


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B.  0.  Greeki.  4t 

PenSus.     4.  HestiaBOtlfl.     5.  The  eastern  coast  land,  Magneata^ 
lolcas,  on  the  Sinus  Paffogasus,  Demetrias, 

D.  Bpima.  In  historic  times  inhabited  by  niyrian  tribes  not  of 
pure  Grecian  blood.  Principal  tribes:  Moloaaians,  in  whose  terri- 
tory was  AmbradUif  not  far  from  the  Ambracian  golf,  and  DodGna 
(oracle  of  Zens);  ThaaprotiaxiB,  Pandosfa  on  the  Ach^on,  Chao 
niana. 

In  Blaoedonia,  which  lay  north  from  Thessaly,  the  following 
places  are  to  be  noted:  Pydnoy  Pella,  the  royal  residence  since  the 
reign  of  Ajrchelans  (formerly  jEffoe  or  Edessa  enjoyed  this  distinc- 
tion). On  the  peninsula  Chaloidioe:  Olynthus,  PoHdcea,  Staglrus,  In 
Thrace:  Anmh^f)&i8  near  the  month  of  the  Strymon,  Philippaey  Ahdera, 
PerirUhus  {HeracUd)y  ByzaniXum,  In  the  Thradan  Chenioneae: 
SistoSf  opposite  Ahydos  in  Asia  Minor. 

Most  important  islands:  In  the  ^gean  sea:  1,  Crete 
(ILpfirnii  UarifiwoMi):  Cnosus  (Gnossns),  and  Gortyn(a);  2,  TherOf  a 
colony  of  Sparta,  itself  mother  city  of  Cyrene  in  Africa  (p.  49)» 
Mdos;  3,  the  12  Cyoladea:  Paroi,  Naxos,  to  the  north  the  small  De- 
les (Mt.  Cynthusy  sanctuary  of  Apollo),  CythnoSf  Ceos,  Andros,  TenoSf 
etc.  In  the  Saronic  gulf:  4,  JEgfna  (Aiytya);  5,  Salamis.  In  the  sea 
of  Evbcea;  6,  Eubcaa  with  the  promontory  of  Artemisium  in  the 
north.  Chalets,  Eretria,  In  the  Thr€UMin  sea:  7,  Limnos;  8,  Sojno' 
thnux;  9,  Thasos.  On  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  from  N.  to  S.:  10, 
Ten&ioSf  not  far  from  Ilium  or  Troyf  in  the  district  of  Troas;  11, 
Iieaboa:  Mitylene,  Methymna;  12,  Chios;  13, 5aiiu»  opposite  the  prom« 
ontory  of  Mycdle;  14,  Cos;  15,  Rhodaa. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  Mediterranean  the  island  of  Cypms, 
(K^pos),  cities  (originally  PhcBuician,  afterwards  Greek):  Salamis 
(Schal&n\  Paphos  and  Amaihusj  centre  of  the  worship  of  AphrodUe 
(Venus  Amathusia). 

In  the  Ionian  sea  from  S.  to  N.:  1,  Cythera,  south  of  Laoonia,  with 
temple  of  Aphrodite;  2,  Zacynthos;  3,  CepkalleniOy  called  by  Homer 
Samos;  4,  Ithaoa;  5,  Leucas;  6,  Corcyra  (KtpKvpa),  perhaps  the  Scherim 
of  Homer. 

BEUGIOK  OF  THE  GREEKS.^ 

The  religion  of  the  early  Greeks  was  a  pantheistic  nature-worship, 
distinguished  among  others  by  the  multiplicity  of  its  deities,  and  their 
intricate  gradation,  as  well  as  by  the  wealth  of  biographical  detail 
which  the  imagination  of  the  poets  proyided  for  them.  The  great 
^ods,  Olympic  deities,  were  12  in  number.  Male  divinities:  Zeus  "the 
God,"  lord  of  the  sky,  and  ruler  of  all  other  gods  as  well  as  of  men; 
Poseidon^  god  of  the  sea;  ApoUoy  probably  originally  the  highest  god 
of  some  Iwsal  district,  the  divinity  of  wisdom,  of  healing,  of  music  and 
poetry,  but  not  until  later  the  sun^god;  Ares,  god  of  war;  HephcBStus, 
god  of  fire,  and  of  work  accomplished  by  the  application  of  fire,  set 
apart  from  the  other  gods  by  his  lameness;  HermeSy  god  of  invention, 
commercial  skill,  cunning,  bravery.     Female  divinities:  Hera,  eon- 

1  Bawlinson.  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World.  Alno  Orote,  BisC,  of  Gretcef 
vol.  I.;  Ourtlus,  Oriech.  Gach,  I.  543-60;  456-549  passim. 


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43  Ancient  Hittory.  B.  o. 

sort  of  Zena;  AihenHf  the  maiden  goddess  spmii^  £roin  the  head  of 
Zeus,  the  embodiment  of  wisdom  and  of  housewifery;  Artemisy  god- 
dess of  hunting,  afterwards  connected  with  the  moon,  as  her  brother 
Fhcebus  Apollo,  with  the  son ;  AphrodUe,  goddess  of  sensual  love,  prob- 
ably introduced  from  the  East;  HestiOf  goddess  of  fire,  especially  of 
the  hearth-fire  ;  Demeter,  '^  earth-mother,    presiding  over  agriculture. 

In  the  lower  rank  of  gods  may  be  mentioned:  Dionysws,  god  of 
wine  and  drunkenness;  Hades,  god  of  the  lower  world,  the  Gracest 
the  Muses,  the  FcUes,  the  Fiaries,  etc.  The  fields  and  forests,  the 
ocean  and  the  rivers  were  crowded  with  Nymphs  and  Hamadryads, 
Naiads  and  Nereids,  while  creatures  of  a  lower  order.  Satyrs  (among 
whom  Pan  rose  to  the  level  of  a  god  of  the  second  rank)  and  monsters 
{Cydopes,  Gfargons,  Centaurs,  etc.)  abounded. 

Aeverenoe  was  also  paid  to  the  heroes,  ideal  representations  of  fa- 
mous men,  real  or  imaginary.  Such  were  Cadmus  (Thebes),  Theseus 
(Athens),  and  Herades,  the  mostly  widely  known  of  all  Tsee  p.  45). 

The  gods  were  worshipped  by  mvocation,  and  bv  sacrifices  offered 
in  accordance  with  a  rigid  ritual  at  altars  which  could  be  im- 

Srovised  anywhere.  There  were,  however,  permanent  altars  for  all 
ivinities,  in  temples  where  the  statue  of  the  divinitv  was  also  en- 
shrined. These  temples  were  frequently  erected  on  lofty  and  com- 
manding sites,  and  upon  their  construction  and  decoration  was  lav- 
ished Uie  highest  skill  in  architecture  and  sculpture.  Brilliant 
coloring  was  also  employed  upon  the  temples,  i^ich  family,  tribe 
and  race,  each  city,  district  and  country  had  its  recurring  fes- 
tivals of  special  honor  to  the  gods  (PanathenoBa  at  Athens).  Re- 
ligious festivals  of  all  Greece:  Olympian  (Zeus)  every  fifth  year,  in 
July  or  August,  at  Olympia  in  Mis;  PyOdan  (Apollo),  every  fiLfth 

gth)  year,  at  Delphi;  I^mian  (Neptune),  every  five  years  on  the 
thmus  of  Corinth;  Nemean,  every  tnird  year,  at  Nem^  in  Arg51is. 
These  festivals  were  the  centre  of  Grecian  national  life.  Amphyctio" 
nic  Council,  the  most  important  of  the  Amphyctionics  (p.  51),  a  reli- 
^ous  conference  which  met  at  Delphi,  and  represented  the  political 
side  of  the  Pan-Hellenic  religion.  Consultation  of  orades,  for  obtain- 
ing the  counsel  of  the  gods,  especially  at  Ddphu  Mysteries,  or  rites  of 
secret  religious  societies,  the  most  renownea  at  Eleusis,  No  hierarchy 
of  priests;  yet  those  who  had  charfi;e  of  the  sacrifices,  and  more  espe- 
eiatly  of  the  oracles,  often  attained  great  influence. 

Ideas  of  future  life  vague  and  unwttisfactorv.  The  more  advanced 
minds  among  the  Greeks  undoubtedly  attained  to  the  idea  of  the  es- 
sential oneness  of  divinity. 

GRECIAN  HI8T0RT  CAN  BE  DIVIDED  INTO  FOUR  EPOCHS. 

^-1104  (?).    I.  Mythical  period  down  to  the  Thessalian  and  Dorian 

mig^tion. 
1104  (?)-500.    II.  Formation  of  the  Hellenic  states.    Period  of  con* 

stitutional  struggles  down  to  the  Persian  wars, 
500-338.     III.  Persian  wars  and  internecine  strife  for  the  hegemony 

down  to  the  loss  of  independence  at  the  battle  of  Charonia, 
338-146.    IV.  Grseco-Macedonian  or  Hellenistic  period  down  to  the 

subjugation  of  Greece  by  the  Romans.    Destruction  of  Corinth, 


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B.  a  Greeks.  43 

FIRST  PERIOD. 

Mythical  time,  down  to  the  Thessalian  and  Dorian  migration 
(x-1104?).! 

The  Greeks,*  or  as  they  called  themselves  the  Hellenes  ("EAAifycf), 
belong  to  the  Indo-European  or  Aryan  family. 

The  Greeks  state  that  the  original  inhabitants  of  their  countrr 
were  the  Pelasgians.  The  meamng  of  this  name  is  much  disputed. 
According  to  some  sohoh&rs  it  denotes  the  band  which  afterwards 
divided  into  the  Italians  and  Hellenes.  Another  view  regards  the 
Pelasgians  and  Hellenes  as  the  same  people,  bat  holds  that  the  latter 
name  is  applied  to  those  tribes  which, "  endowed  with  peculiar  abil- 
ities and  inspired  with  peculiar  energy,  distinguished  themselves  above 
the  mass  of  a  great  people,  while  tiiey  extended  their  power  within 
the  same  by  force  of  arms,"  *  so  that  their  name  became  in  historic 
times  the  one  generally  accepted.  Others,  again,  regard  the  name 
Pelasgian  as  Semitic,  and  so  applied  originally  to  the  Phoenician  in- 
habitants of  the  coast,  especially  to  the  Minyas  of  Orch5menoe,  and 
afterwards  erroneously  transferred  to  the  lUyrian  aborigines  of 
Epirus,  Acadia,  etc. 

Dodona,  in  Epirus,  with  the  oracle  of  Zeus,  the  god  of  the  sky, 
was  the  oldest  centre  of  the  Pelasgian  life  and  religion.  Remains 
of  Pehugian  buildings,  called  by  the  Greeks  Cyclopean,  are  found  in 
Tiryns  in  Argdlis,  and  in  Orchomenos  in  Boeotia. 

Our  earliest  historical  information  shows  the  Hellenes  divided 
into  various  tribes.  Of  these  the  AchSBans  were  most  prominent 
during  the  heroic  times,  and  their  name  was  therefore  used  oy  Homer 
to  denote  the  entire  race.  In  historic  times,  on  the  contrary,  the 
Dorians  and  lonians  occupy  the  foreground;  the  other  tribes  are 
then  classed  together  under  the  name  iBolian,  and  the  dialects 
which  were  neither  Dorian  nor  Ionian  are  known  as  ^olian.  The 
following  mythical  genealogy  seems  to  have  been  invented  at  a  very 
late  period,  and  to  have  originated  at  Delphi. 

Hellen  (son  of  Deucalion) 


.£olus  (L  e.  the  many-colored)        Dorus         Xuthus  (i.  e.  the  exile) 

, ^ ^ 

Ion  Acheus. 

We  have  no  authentio  information  about  the  manner  of  the  Hel- 
lenic migration  into  Greece.  According  to  one  well-founded  theory, 
a  part  of  the  immigrants,  and  among  them  the  ancestors  of  the  Do* 
rians,  forced  their  way  over  the  Hellespont  into  the  mountainous 
region  of  northern  Greece,  where  they  established  themselves  as 
fhepherds  and  tillers  of  the  land.  Other  bands,  amonp^  whom  were  the 
ancestors  of  the  lonians,  having  descended  from  the  highlands  of  Phry-« 

2  According  to  Duncker,  Bitt.  o/Antiq.,  100  years  later. 

'  Grdken  (Grtecif  rpauc^)  wan  the  name  priven  to  the  Greeks  by  the  people  of 
Italy;  it  was  the  name  of  a  tribe  in  Eplru*,  or  the  lUyrian  name  for  the  Hellenes 
H  general. 

*  Ourttus,  Griechtsche  Gefchichfe,  I.  29:  Bist.  of  Greece,  N.  Y.  1876. 1.  41 


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14  Ancient  Hittory.  B.  o. 

gia,  by  way  of  the  valleys,  to  the  ooaot  of  Asia  Minor,  were  there 
iransrormed  into  a  race  of  seamen,  and  gradually  spread  themselves 
over  the  islands  of  the  Archipelae;o  to  the  mainland  of  Greece.^  (The 
former  formed  the  western,  the  latter,  the  eastern  Greeks). 

Remembrance  of  the  fact  that  western  Greece  received  its  civilixa* 
tion  from  the  East  gave  rise,  at  a  later  period,  to  stories  about  un- 
authentic  immigrations.^ 

Ceoropa  (ViiKpo^Y  according  to  the  original  story  autochthonus 
king  of  Attica,  ana  builder  oi  the  Cecropla  (Acropolis  of  Athens), 
was  afterwards,  in  consequence  of  that  identification  of  Grecian 
and  Egyptian  mythology  which  is  illustrated  by  the  conception  of 
iVotA,  ioddess  of  Sais,  as  Palku  Athena  (p.  2),  falsely  represented 
as  an  Egyptian  immigrant  from  Sais. 

The  truth  seems  to  be  that  the  cliffs  by  the  Ilissus,  which  were 
called  the  Cecropki,  formed  the  first  fortress  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  region,  upon  which  their  altars  and  sanctuaries  found  protec- 
tion, and  around  which  the  first  beginnings  of  political  life  in 
Attica  grouped  themselves.  Afterwsjrds  the  Cecropla  was  per- 
sonified under  the  name  Cecrops.  According  to  the  legend  Cecrops 
was  succeeded  by  Erichihomos^  the  latter  by  ErechtheuSf  the  two 
becoming  soon  united  into  one  person,  in  whom  the  Erechtheion^ 
the  temple  of  Poseidon  Erechtheug,  on  the  Acropolis,  is  personified. 
The  legend  makes  Erechtheus  the  founder  of  the  festival  of  Panr' 
athencBa  and  conqueror  of  Eumolptu  (i.  e.  sweet  singer^  of  Eleusis, 
the  centre  of  the  worship  of  Demeter  (story  of  her  daugnter  Cori^  in 
the  lower  world  Proserpina;  the  Eleusinian  mysteries),  Eleusis  was 
united  with  Athens  into  one  community.  Erechtheus,  according  to 
the  legend,  was  succeeded  by  (Eneus,  the  latter  by  ^geus,  the  father 
of  Theseus,  the  national  hero  of  the  lontans  (p.  4^. 

A  later  legend  tells  how  Danaua,  brother  of  AEgyntus,  came  from 
Upper  Eeypt  to  Argos,  He,  too,  with  his  fifty  daughters,  the  Dan- 
aidea,  who,  with  the  exception  of  Hypermnettra^  murdered  their  hus- 
bands, the  sons  of  ^gyptus,  and  were  for  this  crime  condemned  to 
fill  the  bottomless  tub,  belongs  to  the  native  mythology.  The  Dan- 
aides  are  the  springs  of  Argos,  which,  in  the  summer  time,  exert 
themselves  in  vain  to  satisfy  the  soil ;  the  water  which  gushes  from 
them  being  dried  up  in  the  chalky  earth.  According  to  the  legend 
the  descendants  of  Lynceus  and  Hypemmestra  ruled  in  Argos. 

On  the  other  hand  the  legend  of  the  migration  of  the  PelopldaB 
from  Lvdia  to  Greece  seems  to  have  a  historical  foundation.  Pekps, 
son  of  king  Tantalus,  who  ruled  the  country  about  the  Sipylus,  came 
to  Elis  in  Peloponnesus.  His  sons  Atreus  and  Thyestes,  with  the 
help  of  Achceans  from  Phthiotis,  made  themselves  masters  of  Tiryns 
ana  Mycince,  which  had  been  founded  by  Perseus.  Of  the  sons  of 
Atreus,  AgoTnemnon  reigned  over  the  whole  of  Argolis,  while 
Mendaus  became  king  of  Sparta  and  Messina.  The  buildings  and 
sculptures  in  Mycenie,  which  are  ascribed  to  the  Airidct,  resemble 
Assyrian  art,  and  Assyrian  art  could  have  come  to  Greece  earliest 
by  way  of  Lydia. 

^  Ourtius,  I.,  Griech.  Gench.,  \.  29  J»nq.;  Hitt.  of  Greece,  I,  41. 
>  Cf.  PuDCker,  Ge*ch,  des  Alth.,  TIT.  (2  Aaflage),  1  Kap.  i-6.    OurtiuiL 
Oriech.  Geich.,  I.  68;  li'ut.  of  Greece,  I.  73.  ^ 

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m.  c.  Greeki,  45 

CadmtiB,  the  mythical  founder  of  the  Theban  state,  is  the  pei^ 
■onification  of  Phcmician  colonization,  or  at  leait  of  that  dyiliiatioii 
which  Hellas  had  received  from  FhcBnicia  (p.  18). 

The  national  heroes  of  6i*ecian  legend. 

The  myth  of  Heraoles  (*HpaicXi)f,  HerdUes),  son  of  Zeus  and  Ah- 
mtnOy  grew  up  out  of  the  union  of  various  religious,  historical,  and 
ethical  elements.  Heraoles  was  in  the  beginning  an  actual  divinity 
whom  tradition,  in  the  course  of  time,  degraded  to  a  demi-god.  La 
him  are  united  the  Fhosnician  Mdkari  (p.  17)  and  Sandony  the  sun* 
god  of  Asia  Minor,  and  his  heroic  deeds  are  for  the  most  part  adaptar 
tions  of  the  deeds  ascribed  to  these  two  divinities.  Heraoles  is  at 
the  same  time  the  ncpular  symbol  brought  by  the  Fhcenicians  to  the 
eastern  Greeks,  and  m>m  them  to  the  western  Greeks,  of  the  pioneer 
activity  of  the  ancient  settlements.  A  portion  of  the  mass  of  leffenda 
oonnected  with  Herades  after  his  transformation  into  a  Greek  is  ez« 
plained  by  later  historical  relations.  The  Dorians  adopted  him  aa 
their  tribal  hero.  Their  kings  called  themselves  his  descendantSi 
HeraclidSB ;  from  him  they  aerived  their  rights  to  the  Pdoponnenm. 
Hence  his  rights,  in  the  legends,  not  only  over  Mydna^  in  oppositioa 
to  Eurystheus,  but  also  over  other  parts  of  the  peninsula  (Aug^as  in 
Elis,  Tyndarid9  in  Sparta).  The  poetry  of  a  later  time,  regarding 
Herades  as  an  ethical  conception,  presented  him  as  the  model  A 
heroism,  moral  force,  and  renunciation,  especially  of  willing  obedi- 
ence (the  12  labors  at  the  behest  of  £ury8theus;  the  choioe  of  Hei^ 
cules). 

Theaens  (ei^crc^i),  son  of  JEgeus,  the  descendant  of  Cecrops,  is  the 
family  hero  of  the  loniana,  and  of  the  Atheniana  in  particular. 
He  cleared  the  road  from  Troezen,  where,  according  to  the  legend, 
he  was  ham,  to  Athens  (especially  the  isthmus),  of  roBbers  (Peri^ietes, 
SmniSf  Sciran,  Daanastes  or  Procrustes),  so  tiiat  the  lonians  of  the 
Peloponnesus  and  of  Attica  thenceforward  could  assemble  on  the 
isthmus  at  the  sacrifices  to  Poseidon.  Theseus  put  to  death  the 
Minotaur  in  Crete,  and  rescued  the  Athenian  youths  and  maidens 
sent  as  a  sacrifice  to  him.  He  conquered  at  Marathon  the  wild  bull 
which  is  said  to  have  likewise  come  from  Crete.  He  repulsed  the 
Amazons  who  made  an  attack  upon  Athens  for  the  purpose  ol  avenging 
the  rape  of  AntiUpe.  These  three  myths  express  the  historical  fact 
of  the  liberation  of  Attica  from  the  tribute  which  it  owed  to  the 
Phcenicians  of  Crete  and  the  smaller  islands,  who  oifered  human 
sacrifices  to  their  god  Moloch.  The  origin  of  the  story  of  the 
Amazons  is  to  be  found  in  the  virgin  servants  of  the  RiOBnioian 
ffoddess  Astarte,  who,  at  the  religious  ceremonies,  executed  dances 
in  armor.  The  leefend,  moreover,  ascribes  to  Thesena  the  union  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Attica  into  one  state,  and  the  separation  of  the 
people  into  the  three  orders:  EupatridcB  (nobles),  Geomori  (peasants), 
and  Demiurgi  (artizans),  whereas  the  arrangement  of  the  four 
ancient  classes  (Phylos) :  GtleorUes  (nobles),  HoplUes  (warriors), 
Araadeis  (artizans),  JEgicoreis  (shepherds)  was  referred  by  the 
Athenians  to  the  mythiod  tribal  ancestor  of  the  Ionian  tribe,  /os 
(P.4S). 


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16  Ancient  History.  B.  o. 

The  Grecian  legends  adopted  MOiioa  (HUmt),  also  originally  of 
FhoBnidan  origin,  and  transformed  him  into  a  Hero  of  the  Dorians 
who  dwelt  in  Crete  siuce  1000,  and  a  wise  legislator  and  suppressor 
of  piracy.    Advanced  civilization  existed  in  Crete  before  1500. 

Conoerted  enterprlBes  of  the  heroio  time. 

Bxpedition  of  the  Argoxiauts.    The  golden  fleece. 

PhrixoBt  son  of  the  king  of  the  Minvts,  AthSnuu  of  loloos,  in  Thessaly, 
whom  his  father  was  ahont  to  sacrifice  to  Zeus  in  order  to  obtain  rain, 
fled  with  his  sister  HdUf  on  the  ram  with  the  golden  fleece,  who  was 
ffiven  them  by  their  moUier  Nephde.  Helle  during  the  journey  fell 
mto  the  sea,  which  is  now  called  Hdiespont  (**  sea  of  Helle  '*),  near 
Abydos.  Phrixos  reached  ColdM^  on  the  Pantut  Ewtlnus,  and  king 
jEeieB.  The  ram  was  sacrificed,  the  golden  fleece  preserved  in  a 
gfove  of  the  god  Are»t  guarded  by  a  dr^eon.  Jason^  from  lolcos,  in- 
cited by  his  uncle  Pettas,  sailed  m  the  Sap  Argo  to  Colclus  at  the 
head  of  a  band  of  heroes  consisting,  aocordmg  to  the  original  myth,  of 
Minyn  alone,  but  aocordins^  to  the  later  legends  accomiNinied  by 
Heracles,  Theseus,  Castor,  Pollux,  Orpheus,  etc.  They  gained  pea- 
sesrion  of  the  fleece  by  the  aid  of  the  enchantress  Media,  daughter 
of  JEeLee.  Betom  to  iolcos.  Fellas  murdered  at  the  instigation  of 
Medga.  According  to  a  later  continuation  of  the  legend,  flight  of 
Jason  and  Medea  to  Corinth,  where  Jason  fell  in  love  wiUi  Gtaucoy 
the  dauffhter  of  the  king.  Medea  poisoned  Glauca,  and  killed  her 
own  children.  Medea  went  to  Athens  and  became  the  consort  of 
^geu8» 

This  myth  seems  to  have  been  originally  purely  symbolical.  The 
golden  ram,  which  Nephde,  that  is,  the  "cloud,"  sends,  is  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  fertilizing  power  of  rain-clouds.  The  doud-ram  de- 
parts to  lus  home,  the  land  of  the  sun-god.  His  fleece,  a  pledge  of 
blessing,  is  brought  back  by  J(uan  (the  "  healer,"  the  ''  bringer  of 
blessings  '*),  with  the  help  of  the  duighter  of  the  son  of  the  sun, 
.£§te6,  who  is  learned  in  magic.  This  myth  was  afterwards  expanded 
and  localized  in  a  manner  which  hints  at  the  early  voyages  of  the 
Pelasgic  (p.  43)  Minyss.  The  principal  site  of  the  wealth  and 
power  of  the  Miny»  was  Orchomiruu  m  Boeoda;  but  the  gulf  of 
PuffdeOf  on  which  lolcos  is  situated,  is  the  scene  of  their  early  inter- 
course by  sea. 

War  of  the  Seven  against  Thebes. 

The  story  of  (EdXpus  appears  in  its  simplest  form  in  Homer,  and 
was  expanded  by  the  Attic  tragic  poets.  GEIdipas  (pUknvs),  son  ci 
Jocasta,  and  Ldioe  king  of  Thebes,  a  great-grandson  of  Cadmus,  is 
exposed,  in  infancy,  in  consequence  of  an  oracle  which  prophesied 
injury  to  Ids  parents.  He  was  rescued  and  brought  up  by  Pcipbos  in 
Corinth.  At  Delphi  he  kills  his  father,  without  recognizing  him, 
solves  the  riddle  of  the  Sphinx  (What  creature  is  there  which  goes 
on  4,  2,  and  3  feet  ?  Man,  in  childhood,  in  manhood,  in  old  age^, 
becomes  kins^  of  Thebes,  and  marries  his  own  mother.  When  his 
erime  is  made  known  to  him,  he  puts  out  his  eyes.  His  daughters 
AnHgdne  and  lamine.    Quarrels  of  lus  sons  Etedcies  ('ErcoicX^ff}  and 


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B.  c.  Greeh.  47 

PolyfOces  (nokuP§Uiis).  Polymces  attacks  Thebes  wifb  bis  allies: 
AdrastuB,  Tifdeus,  Amphiardus,  Capdneus,  HippomMon^  Parthenopceus. 
The  hostile. brothers  fall  in  personal  contest;  of  the  other  princes  all 
perish  bat  CreoOf  the  ancle  of  the  brothers,  who  becomes  king  of 
Thebes. 

War  of  the  Epiffoni. 

Ten  years  later,  expedition  of  the  Epigoni  (sons  of  the  Seren^. 
Thebes  captured  and  plundered.  Thenander^  son  of  Polynlces,  maoe 
long  of  lliebes. 

1193-1184.    Trojan  Wax. 

Priam  was  king  of  Tray,  or  /7tum,  in  Asia  Minor  j  his  consort  was 
HecSba  (Hecabe).  Of  his  fifty  sons  the  following  appear  in  the 
legend  :  Hector  (TErrwp),  whose  wife  is  Andromache,  and  Paris 
(Alexandroe).  The  latter  abducts  Helena  (^4yri),  wife  of  MeneUtus^ 
of  Sparta.  The  noblest  princes  of  Greece  onite  to  bring  her  back. 
Agamemnon  of  Mycinsd,  brother  of  Menelaos,  and  leiMer  of  the 
Greeks;  Sthendus  of  li^ms ;  Nestor  of  Pylos ;  AchiUee  CAxiAAc^), 
king  of  the  Myrmidons  nom  Fhthia  in  Thessaly,  son  of  Peleus  and  . 
the  Nereid  Thetis;  Patroclns;  Ajax  (AXa»),  and  Teucer,  sons  of  Tela- 
mon  of  Sal&mis;  the  younger  Ajax,  son  of  O'ileus,  leader  of  the 
Locrians;  Diomedes  of  Argos,  son  of  Tydeus;  Odysseus  of  Ithaca, 
son  of  Laertes;  IdomSneus,  of  Crete,  grandson  of  Minos,  etc. 

Among  the  allies  of  the  Trojans  m>m  Asia  Minor  are  :  Sar]Mon 
and  Glaucus,  leaders  of  the  Lycians,  troops  from  Mysia,  MoBoma  (in 
Lydia^,  PaphlagorUa,  and  Pkrygia,  also  ITnadans  and  Pcsones  from 
the  other  side  of  the  strait. 

The  historical  kernel  of  this  great  Grecian  legend  is,  perhaps,  the 
fact  of  a  military  expedition  of  Grecian  tribes  against  the  Trojans 
and  the  conquest  of  Troy;  eyerything  else  in  the  story  is  mythicaL 
Perchance  the  iBolian  colonization  of  historic  times  (p.  49)  and  the 
ensuing  contests  with  the  native  population  gave  rise  to  the  romance 
of  the  TVojan  war,  which  tradition  then  removed  to  the  time  befo;^ 
the  Dorian  migration.  The  prehistoric  existence  of  a  powerful  city 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Troy,  and  its  name  'Tpolii  and  *'IAioy,  is 
certain. 

Connected  with  the  tale  of  the  Trojan  war,  are  the  stories  of  the 
return  of  the  Grecian  princes.  The  mimler  of  Agamemnon  by  his  wife 
Clytemnestra  and  her  jMiramour,  and  the  vengeance  of  his  children 
Orestes  and  Electra,  The  ten  years  wandering  of  Odysseus  and  his 
many  adventures  (Polyphemus,  Lastrygones,  Circe,  Calypso^  the 
Fhffiacians,  etc.). 

SECOND   PERIOD. 

From  the  Thessalian  and  Dorian  Migration  to  the  beginning 
of  the  Persian  Wara,  (1104  (?)-500.) 

Migration  of  the  Thessalians  from  Epirus  to  the  valley  of  the 
Feneus,  thenceforward  called  Thessaly.  Of  the  former  inhabitants, 
^EcUanSj  part  became  serfs  (wwSerai)^  part  fled  the  country.    A  por* 


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48  Ancient  Hittory.  b.  a 

tion  of  the  latter  conquered  BcBotia.  The  preYious  inhahitaats  of 
ficDotia,  probably  PelasgiiuiSy  as  for  instance  the  Minyie  in  Orchom^' 
nos,  and  the  Cadmeons  in  Thebes,  were  {Murtly  subdued,  partly  scat- 
tered in  various  settlements.  Their  name  is  henceforward  un- 
known to  history. 

The  Dorians  were  likewise  driyen  away  by  the  Thessalians.  They 
had  inhabited  the  country  about  the  Othrys  and  (Eta,  and  the  small 
mountainous  region  where  they  maintained  themselves  after  the  in- 
vasion, and  which  was  known  as  Doris.  That  portion  of  them  which 
emigrated  also  took  the  southern  way.  Strengthened  by  ^tolian 
bands,  they  ciossed  to  the  Peloponnesus  between  NaupactuSy  where 
they  constructed  vessels,  and  the  promontory  of  Rhion.  This  is  the 
so-caUed 

1104  (?).*  Dorian  migratioii,  or  the  oonquest  of  Pelo- 
ponnesus by  the  Dorians  and  ^tolians,  according  to 
the  story,  under  the  leadership  of  the  HeraolidsB  {Teme* 
nu8j  Cresphontes,  Aristodemus,  descendants  of  Heracles. 

The  conquerors  crossed  the  northern  portion  of  the  Peloponnesus 
without  making  a  settlement,  and  turned  towards  the  countries  on 
the  western  coast.  The  inhabitants  of  these  regions,  the  Epei,  being 
subdued, iheJStoUans  established  themselves  here,  and  founded  anew 
commonwealth,  called  EUs.  Out  of  the  mixture  of  the  ^^t^li»»Jiif  and 
Epei,  sprang  the  new  tribe  of  the  Elel.  The  Dorians  passed  through 
southern  Arcadia,  probably  up  the  valley  of  the  Alpheus,  and  esti^ 
lished  themselves  in  the  south  and  east  of  Pehiponnesus.  Hie 
native  population,  consisting  of  Achseans  and  .^olians,  were  in 
part  expelled,  in  part  placed  m  subjection;  while  in  some  regions  they 
gave  up  certain  territories  to  the  new-comers  by  treaty.  The  last 
was  the  case  in  Laconia,  where  the  native  chiefs  made  treaties  with 
the  invaders  and  thereby  received  for  a  time  recognition  of  thmr 
princely  rights  and  support  in  their  supremacy. 

So  arose  in  Peloponnesus,  one  after  another,  but  slowly  and  after 
much  fighting  and  many  revolutions,  the  following  Dorian  communi- 
ties: 1.  Messenia  (Cresphontes) ;  2.  Sparta  (Proclea  and  Eurysih&ieSf 
.3ons  of  Aristodemus) ;  3.  Argoa  (^Temenus), at  first  the  most  powerful 
otate,  at  the  head  of  a  lea«^e,  to  which  Epidaurus  and  Troexin^  under 
their  own  rulers,  belonged;  4.  Fhlius;  5.  Sicyon;  6.  Corinth,  these 
three  containing  many  of  the  old  inhabitants,  who  lived  among  the 
new  inhabitants  under  the  same  laws.  Outside  of  Peloponnesus:  7. 
Megara;  and  8.  the  island  Agina  (Kiyiva). 

The  remains  of  the  old  population,  the  Achasans,  who  were  driven 
from  their  homes,  expelled  or  subjugated  the  ASgialian  lonians,  who 
inhabited  the  northern  coast  of  Peloponnesus. 

The  whole  region  was  henceforward  called  Achaia. 

1068  (?).    CodruB   (K6ipos),  the  hat  kinjr  of  Athens,  fell  a  vol- 
untary sacrifice  in  battle  against  the  Dorians. 
According  to  the  legsnd,   Codrus  was  the  son  of  the  Nestoriaq 
Melanthus,  who  had  flea  from  Pylos  to  Athens. 

^  See  p.  43,  note  1. 

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B.  c.  Greeh.  49 

The  immediate  eonsequenoe  of  these  migrations  and  conquests  was 
the  practioe  of  colonization,  on  a  great  scale,  which  at  first  was  ca^ 
ried  on  by  the  tribes  which  had  been  expelled  from  their  homes,  but 
in  which  the  conquering  Dorians  soon  took  active  part. 

The  Felasgic  population,  driven  from  Thessaly,  settled  partly  on 
the  peninsula  ChauMice,  partly  in  CWte,  and  partly  on  the  coast  of 
Mysia;  the  MinyoR  from  lolcos,  and  Orchomenos  occupied  LemnoSf 
Imbros,  Samothrace.    More  important  were  the 

1000-900  (?)     ^olian,  Ionian,  Dorian  colonies  which 
settled  along  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  and  its  islands. 

2lolian  and  AcliSBan  colonies:  Mitylene  and  Methymna  on  the 
island  of  Lesbos;  Cyme  and  Smyrna  on  the  mainland  of  Asia  Minor 
(SmyrtM  afterwards  became  Ionian). 

The  lonians,  who  were  driven  away  by  the  Achseans,  fled  first  to 
Attica,  but  finally  founded  along  die  coast  of  Lydia  12  cities  with  a 
common  sanctuary  at  Paniordum  on  MycSle,  the  most  important  of 
which  were:  MUetus,  mother-city  of  more  than  80  colonies,  Eph&ms, 
Phoctxa  (p.  26),  Ccldphdn^  and  occupied  the  islands  of  Somas  and 
Chios. 

Dorian  colonies,  along  the  coast  of  Caria:  HcUicamassus  and  Cni' 
dus.  Dorians  and  Achceans  founded  settlements  in  Crete,  Rhodes^ 
where  they  gradually  drove  out  the  Fhcenicians,  in  Melos  and  in 
TAyra,  whence  in  631  the  colony  of  Cyrine  was  sent  out  to  the  north 
coast  of  Africa! 

1000  (?).^    Homer  and  his  anoceaaors  (Homerids).    Iliad  and 
Odyssey. 

Conatltntion  of  society  and  government.  During  the  heroio 
period,  and  at  the  beginning  of  historic  times,  we  fijid  everywhere  a 
patriarchal  monarchy,  the  hereditary  property  of  families  who  derived 
their  descent  from  the  gods.  In  the  historic  times  gradual  formation 
in  all  states  of  a  republican  constitution,  partly  through  the  eztinctiony 
partly  through  the  expulsion,  of  the  old  dynasties.  Hiis  republican 
constitution  was  at  first  aristocratic;  later,  in  most  states,  democratic^ 
frequently  reaching  the  latter  state  through  the  intervening  suprem- 
acy of  a  Tyrant  (ji^Mvyos),  a  name  applied  to  every  one  who  attained 
supreme  power  in  an  iUe^  manner,  and  originally  not  conveying  the 
idea  of  an  arbitrary  or  cruel  government. 

The  democracy  of  antiquity  was  not,  however,  a  form  of  govern- 
ment in  which  tlw  majority  of  the  inhabitants,  but  in  which  the  major- 
ity of  the  citizens,  took  part  in  the  conduct  of  the  conmionwealth.  In 
most  of  the  Greek  states,  the  majority  of  the  population  consisted, 
not  of  citiaena,  but  of  aiaves.^  Democracies  m  the  modem  sense 
were  almost  unknown  in  ancient  times. 

In  Doric  Sparta  the  population  consisted  of  three  classes,  strictly 
distinct  from  one  another:  1.  Spartiatce  (^ifaprtaTM,  comprising  8/ioio(» 

1  Hie  Grecian  statement  concerning  the  epoch  of  Homer  differ  almost  five 
kandred  vears  from  one  another. 

s  Cf.  Becker,  CharicUs  (trans.  )i  361:  and  Sohoemaim,  AtUigmUes  of 
Greece,  L  100  loll.  ^^         ^ 


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50  Ancient  History.  b..g« 

L  e.  those  haying  full  rielito,  and  dwo/tMioptt  i-  e.  those  of  less  means, 
who  could  not  rumish  toe  reqttired  contribution  to  the  Syasites)  di- 
yided  into  three  Fhyls,  each  composed  of  10  Obe  («r/3a/);  these  were 
the  Dorian  oonqaerors,  who  occupied  the  fertile  portions  of  the  La- 
conian  territory^  the  valley  of  the  Eurotas,  and  the  lowlands  extendin^^ 
to  the  sea;  2.  Lacedcemonians  or  Perked  (w^ptoucoi,  i.  e.  they  who  dwell 
round  about),  descendants  of  those  Achseans  who  had  submitted  to 
the  conquerors  by  treaties.  They  were  free,  but  payed  dues,  as  trib- 
utary property-holders  and  small  land-owners,  and  were  without 
Sihtical  rights,  but  were,  however,  bound  to  militaiy  service;  3. 
dots  (from  «1X»T«f,  "prisoners  "?),  serfs  of  the  state.  They  were 
^  divided  among  the  Spi^tiate  by  lot,  and  tilled  their  lands,  paying  to 
their  lords  a  £ced  portion  of  the  harvest.  The  number  of  the  Perit9ci 
was  almost  four  times  that  of  the  Spartiatce,  while  the  number  of  the 
Helots  was,  perhaps,  from  2  to  3  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  Pe^ 
ricBci, 

820  (0*    Constitutioxi  and  Laws  of  Lycurgus. 

Lycnrgus  (Avmovpyos),  according  to  tradition  of  royal  descent,  and 
guardian  of  the  younf^  kins  Chardaus,  arranged  the  relation  of  the 
three  classes,  as  described  above,  according  to  settled  principles.  His 
code  of  laws  was  for  the  Spartiatie  alone.  The  form  of  government 
was  an  aristocratic  republic,  in  spite  of  the  two  hereditary  kin^ 
(generals,  high  priests,  judges).  Both  kings  must  be  of  the  HeracUd 
race,  one  a  member  of  the  A^cr  (from  Affis^  son  of  Eurystheus),  the 
other  of  the  EuiyponUdas  (from  £urypon,  j;randson  of  Frocles;  see 
p.  48).  The  Council  of  Elders  (ytpowria,  28  Gerontes,  at  least  60  years 
of  age,  elected  for  life)  under  the  two  kings  as  presiding  officers  had: 
1.  the  previous  discussion  of  everything  tlukt  was  to  be  laid  before  the 
popular  assembly;  2.  jurisdiction  over  capital  crimes.  The  popular 
assemblv  (&xta),  consisting  of  all  Spartiatflo  over  thirtv  years  of  age, 
who  had  not  lost  their  political  rights,  had  no  rieht  of  initiation,  and 
decided  without  debate.  At  a  later  period  the  five  Bphora,  i.  e.  in- 
spectors (for  the  5  wards)  who  had  probably  existed  before  Lycnrgus, 
acquired  great  power  (p.  66). 

Assignment  of  an  heredituy  landed  estate  to  every  Spartan  family, 
which  had  lost  its  possessions  since  the  conquest;  equal  division  of 
the  HdotSf  or  slaves  of  the  state,  for  the  purpose  of  tilUng  these 
lands.  No  new  division  of  all  landed  property.^  (Tradition  makes 
Lycnrgus  divide  the  land  into  9000  (4500  ?)  lots  for  the  Spartiate, 
and  30,000  for  the  Perioeci.)  Establishment  of  social  unions  or  com- 
pulsory clubs  ((Tinyra/),  whose  members  ate  together,  even  in  time  of 
peace  :  Phiditia  or  Syssitia.  Children  were  brought  up  in  common, 
and  the  youn^  men  of  the  Spartan  warrior-nobles  dwelt  together. 
The  Crypteia  {Kpvwrtia),  an  organized  guard  over  the  Helots  by  young 
Spartans.    No  actual  hunting  of  the  Helots.' 

776.      First  Olympiad,  that  is,  the  first  year  in  whick 

1  Orote,  Ei3t.  of  Greece  (Boston,  1851),  II,  393  ffilL 
t  Bohotaiann,  Antiq.  of  Greece^  1. 195. 


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B.  o.  Greeis.  61 

the  name  of  the  Olympian  yictor  was  reeorded.     (The  first  was 
CoroibuB.) 

Ofympian  games  (raised  to  greater  importance  since  820,  by  the  par* 
tioijpation  of  Sparta  ?) ;  Nemean  games  since  573,  in  honor  of  Zeus, 
Istmnean  games  (Poseidon^  since  ^2),  and  Py^tan  fames  (Apollo,  en- 
larged after  590).     Oracle  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  funded, ) 


to  tradition,  at  the  command  of  the  eod,  by  Cretans  (i.  e.  Darians^ 
from  Cno8U8,    Amphictyoniea,  societies  for  common  worship  (per- 
formance of  sacrifices),  the  most  important  of  which  was  the  Delpnic. 
734.    Foundation  of  Syraciiae  ^  by  the  Corinthian  Archiaa,    . 
743-724.  (?)   First  Messenlan  war.     Aristodermu  king  of  the  Mes- 
senians.     Defence  of  Ithome.    Those  Messenians  that  did  not 
emigrate  became  tributaiy.    A  part  of  the  land  was  confis- 
cated as  conquered  territory. 
706.    Foundation  of  Tarentum  by  the  Spartan  Phalanthus, 
645-628. '    Second  Measenian  war.    Aristom&ies.    Defence  of  Ira 
(MJpa),  for  nine  years.    The  Athenian  bard  Tyrtieus  accom- 
panied the  Spartans.    After  the  fall  of  Ira  the  greater  part 
of  the  Messenians  fled  to  Sicily;  Zanole,  also,  was  occupied  by 
them,  but  does  not  appear  to  have  received  the  name  Meaaana 
before  the  fifth  century.*    The  remaining  Messenians  became 
Heloto. 
In  Athena  government  of  the  nobles  (Eupatridce)  since  the  death 
of  Codrus  (1068  ?).    The  chief  ofBcers  of  state  were  the  Archona, 
at  first  (1067-753)  chosen  for  life,  from  the  family  of  Codrus  ex- 
clusively, afterwards  (752-68S0  elected  for  ten  yeaia,  the  first  four 
only  bemg  of  the  family  of  Cfodrus,  the  rest  taken  from  the  Eupa- 
trida  in  general 

From  682  on  there  were  nine  archona  chosen  every  year,  and 
serving  only  one  year,  taken  from  the  Etmatrida  alone,  and  chosen 
by  them  alone.    These  were:    1.  Archon  Eponymu$  (i.  e.  he  from 
whom  the  year  is  named),  the  presiding  ofiBcer.    2.  BasUeus,  i.  e. 
king  of  the  sacrifices,  hieh  priest.    3.  Polemarcku$f  at  first  leader  of 
the  army,  afterwards,  when  the  military  command  was  entrusted  to 
Strateges  by  turn,  only  superintendent  of  military  affairs;  the  other 
six  were  ThesmothetcB^  judges,  heads  of  the  deparbnent  of  justice. 
Cir.  621.    Laws  of  the  ArcLou  Draco.    No  iteration  of  the  oonsti- 
tntiou,  only  reform  of  the  criminal  law,  and  the  law  relating 
to  debts,  introducing  great  severity,  frequent  use  of  the  death 
penalty,  aud  heavy  Hues.     Heuce  later  known  as  the  "  Law  of 
Draco,  written  with  bluod." 
624?    Inanrreotion  of  Cylon,  who,  with  the  assistance  of  his 
father-in-law  TheagSnes,  tyrant  of  Meg&ra,  seized  the  Acropo- 
lis.   Cylon  was  driven  into  banishment  by  the  Archon  Megades^ 
of  the  family  of  the  Alcmasonidce,  and  his  followers  were  put  to 

^  Concerning  the  date  of  the  foundatbn,  see  Holm,  Guch.  Sicilien^f  L 
181  aqq. 

s  Accordinflf  to  Dunoker,  Gtsch,  dei  Altherth.^  and  Ourttos,  I.  240.  Ae* 
tordmg  to  the  older  but  very^oubtful  aseumptioD,  685-668. 

•  Holm,  Gesch,  8icUietu,h  900.. 


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02  AncierU  Bist€fy.  b.  g. 

death  while  clinging  for  protection  to  the  altan.    On  aoeonnt 
of  this  sacrilege  the  Archons  for  the  year  were  haniahed.    Re- 
ligions purification  of  Athens  by  EjnmenXdes  of  Cnossns. 
Bolon,  of  the  family  of  the   Kelios,  gained  great  inflnence  by 

the  recapture  of  Salamis,  which  had  been  taken  by  the  MeganeanSy 

and  through  his  share  in  the 

600-590.  ^    First  aaored  war  against  Crisa  and  Cirrha,  whose  in- 
habitants had  robbed  the  temple  of  Apollo  in  Delphi.     The 
Amphyctyonies  destroyed  both  cities  after  a  long  contest ;  the 
inhabitants  were  enslaved  and  their  land  consecrated  to  the 
'  Pythian  Apollo. 
Growing  dissatisfaction  in  Athens  with  the  govenunent  of  the 

nobility,  and  internal  disorders.    The  citizens  were  divided  into  three 

parties:  1.  The  gfeat  land-owners  of  the  plain  {ol  U  rov  vtilw),  the 

^upatridcB,    2.  The  peasants  of  the  mountainous  districts  (htdicpuu). 

3.  The  inhabitants  of  the  coast  (vdpaKoi),  a  well-to-do  middle  class. 

694.  Solon,  while  Archon  EponymuSt  being  aathoiized 
by  a  special  enactment  to  negotiate  between  the  aristoc- 
racy and  the  people,  proposed  and  carried  out  at  first  the 
Seisaohthela  (i.  e.  tiie  removal  of  burdens),  whereby  debts 
secured  by  mortgage  were  reduced  about  27^  by  the  intro- 
duction of  a  new  standard  of  coinage;  the  AtUc  or  Eulxean 
talent  ($1078.87)  instead  of  the  Asuietan  talent  (91630.60); 
personsl  security  for  debts  was  alxmshed,  and  all  money  fines 
as  yet  unpaid  were  remitted.  Amnesty  for  all  who  had  been 
deprived  of  their  political  rights  (Ati/um).  Return  of  the 
Alcmseonidie. 

The  Constitution  and  Laws  of  Solon  were  established 
for  the  oitixens  (xoArrot)  only.  Excluded  from  all  political  rights 
were:  1.  The  metceoi  (JUtoikoi^  foreigners  not  citizens,  but  living  in 
Athens  under  protection  of  the  government),  who  were  regarded 
in  law  as  minors,  and  re<]^uired  to  be  represented  by  a  patron 
(wpwrrirns)  who  was  a  citizen,  in  all  legal  transactions.  2.  The 
»lave»  (SovAoi). 

The  two  latter  classes  formed  the  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants. 
In  her  most  prosperous  days  the  citizens  of  Athens  may  be  estimated 
at  90,000,  the  metaci  at  45,000,  the  sh&ves  at  360,000.  So  that  in 
the  period  of  most  ertreme  democracy  the  sovereign  people  formed 
a  sinaU  minority  of  the  population. ' 

Division  of  all  citizens,  for  purposes  o'  military  service  and  the 
exercise  of  political  rights,  into  classes,  according  to  income  received 
from  proper^  in  land,  no  regard  being  paid  to  movable  property  of 
any  kmd.  llie  unit  of  measure  was  the  medimntu  (52.53  liter),  for 
grain  and  vegetables;  the  metretes  (39.39  liter),  for  wine  and  olive 
oil.     The  following  four  classes  were  formed:  — 

l.'Pentakosiomedimnif  men  whose  estates  brought  in  a  minimum  of 
600  medimni  and  metretes. 

1  Accordinfir  to  Onrtius,  ffiti.  of  Greece,  I.  281.    The  date  formerly  so* 
cepted  wan  696-586. 
*  Cf .  Sohoemann,  Antiq.  of  Oreeee,  I.  348,  853. 


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B.  c.  Greeki.  53 

2.  KnigkU  (bnrttsY  yield  of  estates  dOO-fOQ  medimni. 

3.  Zeugita  (L  e.  tney  who  work  their  land  with  one  span  of  mules), 
yield  of  estates  at  least  150  medimm. 

4.  Thetes,  oomprising  aU  who  owned  land  yielding  less  than  150 
medinmiy  or  possisssed  no  land,  but  were  either  day  laborers  in  the 
country,  or  artisans,  sailors,  tradesmen  in  the  city. 

Taxation  consisted  in  the  duty  of  the  citizens,  as  arranged  in  these 
four  classes,  to  systematically  supply  ships,  horses,  and  arms  for  mili- 
tary seryioe.  The  members  of  the  Jint  three  classes  served  as  hoplites 
(irkhoi),  heavy  armed  foot^soldiers;  members  of  thejirst  two  classes 
served  also  in  case  of  need  as  cavalry,  furnishing  their  own  horses  ^ 
while  members  of  ihe  first  class  furnished  ships  for  Uie  fleet  at  their 
own  expense,  for  which  puipose  they  were  enrolled  in  48  naucrarie; 
the  thetes  were  to  be  called  upon  to  serve  as  light-aimed  foot,  or 
upon  the  fleet,  only  to  defend  the  country  from  invasion.  There  was 
no  other  regular  taxation  of  citizens;  state  officials  served  without 
pay,  and  the  other  expenses  of  the  commonwealth  were  covered  by 
the  yield  of  the  mines,  which  were  state  property,  by  fines,  by  a  poll- 
tax  laid  on  the  metcecif  and  by  the  harbor  dues.  When  extraordinary 
taxes  were  necessary,  they  were  adjusted  on  the  basis  of  the  classes 
described  above,  iAte  fourth  class,  however,  being  exempt. 

After  the  time  of  Solon,  the  nine  archons  were  taken  from  the  first 
elass;  every  citizen  had  a  vote  in  their  election.  The  council  (fiov\^) 
of  400,  formerly  chosen  from  the  EtmatridcB  alone,  was  henceforward 
open  to  all  citizens  of  ihejirst  three  dosses  over  thirty  years  old.  The 
fxmular  assembly  (iiucKnala)  consisted  of  aU  citizens  over  twenty  years 

The  Areopa^  (from  "kp^tos  wJefQu^  Hill  of  Ares,  or  Mars),  the  an- 
eient  court  which  had  jurisdiction  over  murder  and  arson,  and  a  general 
supervision  over  the  entire  administration  of  the  state,  was,  after  this 
time,  composed  of  archons  who  had  retired  from  office.  Legal  mat- 
ters were  adjusted  bv  the  hdUuta  (^Xiorral,  so  called  from  the  haUs, 
^Aioio,  where  they  sat),  bodies  havinff  something  of  the  nature  of  both 
ludge  and  jury,  and  consisting  of  citizens  over  thirty  years  old,  chosen 
by  Uie  thesmodieta,  out  of  alist  of  6000  citizens  which  was  formed 
l^lot 

This  tmocraHe  constitution  of  Solon  paved  the  way  from  aristocracy 
to  democracy.  In  itself  it  was  essentially  conservative,  since  the 
larger  landed  estates  were  nearly  all  in  tiie  hands  of  the  nobles. 
Solon  also  established  a  code  of  lawa  for  regulating  the  entire  civil 
life,  which  was  not  completed  until  later. 

Solon  left  Athens  for  ten  years.  Travels  in  eastern  Asia,  Crete, 
and  Egypt.  Kew  party  divisions  in  Athens.  The  nobles  were  led 
by  Lycurgus:  the  middle  class  by  the  Alcnueonid  Megacles;  the  poorer 
classes  by  PisistrdtuSt  who,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  Solon,  who 
had  returned  to  Athens  and  was  now  an  old  man,  constantly  chained 
new  supporters,  and  finally  made  himself  master  of  the  Acropolis. 

1  The  hUl  only  was  so  called  by  the  ancients.    Tne  eourt  was  known  as  4  Ip 

Vkptiy  vaYV  t^^» 


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54  Ancient  History,  b.  o« 

660-627*     PlBistratus  (ncurtorparos),  tyrant  of  Athens. 

Emigration  of  Athenian  nobles,  nnder  MiUiades  the  elder,  to  the 
Thracian  Chersonese.  Solon  left  Athens  again  and  went  to  Asia 
Minor.  Conyersation  with  CroBsus  in  Sardes  (see  p.  26).  He  died 
(559)  at  SoU,  in  Cyprus  (?). 

Pisistratos  ruled  in  Athens  nnder  the  forms  of  the  Solonian  consti- 
tution, which  he  did  not  revoke.  He  managed  that  the  people  should 
always  choose  archons  who  suited  him.  Driven  out  by  a  coalition 
of  the  nobles  and  the  moderates,  569,  he  returned  five  years  later 
(554).  A  second  time  exiled  in  552,  he  again  regained  his  power 
after  eleven  years  absence,  and  ruled  without  further  interrup- 
tion from  541  to  527.  New  emigration  of  noble  families,  particu- 
larly that  of  the  Alcmceonida,  Pisistratus  conducted  his  government 
until  his  death,  with  mildness  and  wisdom,  and  bequeathed  it  to  his 
son, 

527-610.    Hipplas  ('Iwwlas),  under  whom 

519.  PlatceoB  seceded  from  the  Bceotian  Lieague  and  entered  into 
alliance  with  Athens.  The  BcBotians  were  defeated  by  the 
Athenians.  Hippias  conducted  the  government  after  the  man- 
ner of  his  father,  until  his  brother,  Hipparchus,  was  murdered 
by  Harmodius  (^ApfUiios^  and  AristocUon  (^Apurroytir^i)  in  514. 
(See  Thuc3rdide8,  VI.  54-69,  where  he  criticises  tiie  traditional 
tilde  of  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton.)  Hippias  took  a  cruel 
revenge,  was  driven  out  of  the  city  by  the  exiled  nobles  (C/is- 
thenes  at  the  head  of  the  Alcmceonidai)  in  connection  with  a 
Spartan  army  under  Cleomenes.  He  took  refuge  with  Darius, 
kmg  of  Persia. 

50B*  Beforms  of  disthenes  (EAcur^^c),  son  of  Mega^ 
des,  grandson  of  Clisthenes,  of  Sicyon. 

This  was  not  only  a  change  in  the  constitution,  but  a  social  reform 
as  well.  The  constitution  of  Solon  was  not,  however,  repealed,  but 
only  further  developed  in  a  democratic  manner,  without  as  yet  intro- 
ducing equal  political  rights  of  all  citizens.  The  Solonian  arrange- 
ment of  classes  for  purposes  of  taxation  remained;  the  archonship 
was  as  before  restrictea  to  the  first  class,  and  membership  of  the 
council  to  the  first  three  classes. 

With  the  consent  of  the  Delphic  oracle,  now  indebted  to  the  Alo- 
nueonidie,  for  the  erection  of  a  new  temple,  the  four  old  Athenian 
tribes  (^vXaH,  Geleontes,  Hoplites,  Argddeit,  JEgicoreis(ip.  45),  which 
Solon  had  len  in  existence,  were  set  aside,  and  there  were  substituted 
for  them  ten  new  tribes,  which  were  political  and  religious  unions. 
These  new  tribes  did  not  form  oonneoted  territoxial  diyiaions.^ 
Each  tribe  consisted  of  ten  demes,  or  local  communities,  which,  how- 
ever, were  not  contiguous,  but  were  scattered  about  the  country  and 
interspersed  toith  demes  belonging  to  other  tribes.  In  all  there  were  100 
domes,  later  174.  This  arrangement  was  designed  to  break  up  the 
local  influence  of  the  aristocracy,  and  put  an  end  to  the  old  patri- 
archal condition  of  things,  whereby  only  nobles  and  large  land-ownezf 

^     1  Bonoker,  IV.  454;  Bohoemann,  Antiq.  of  Greece,  I.  869. 


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B.  c.  Greeks.  55 

eould  hold  the  position  of  demarch  (54/uipx<>0>  ^^®  presiding  offioer  of 
a  oommunitj. 

Henceforward  every  two  demes  formed  a  naacrary,  which  was  ex- 
pected to  fit  out  and  man  a  trireme  (a  vessel  with  three  hanks  of 
oars^;  whereas  the  old  division  of  Attica,  made  in  682,  into  48  natt" 
cranes f  had  heen  hased  on  the  old  poUtUxhrdigious  division  into  tribes 
and  pkratries.  These  phrcUries  {<pp«rp(ah  12),  the  subdivisions  of  the  eld 
tribes  (jpv\al),  were  untouched  by  the  reform  of  Clisthenes,  but  they 
were  reducca  to  the  condition  of  religions  corporations  for  keeping 
lists  of  births,  marriages,  and  deaths,  bat  without  political  impor- 
tance. 

The  council  (BovA^)  was  increased  from  400  to  500  members,  fift^ 
for  each  tribe;  and  each  of  these  sets  of  fifty  presided  in  the  council 
for  the  tenth  part  of  a  year  (pnftany,  vpvroyfk);  the  members  of 
these  presiding  committees  of  fifty  were  called  ^^rytoniev.  Instead  of 
four  popular  assemblies  in  a  year,  as  formerly,  ten  were  held  heneo- 
forward. 

608.    The  Athenian  nobility,  headed  by  IsaffdraSf  with  the  help  of 
a  SjMirtan  army  under  Cleomenes,  brought  about  a  short  re- 
action.   ClisthSnes  fled;  the  Acropolis  was  delivered  to  the 
Spartans  by  a  treacherous  archon.    A  revolt  of  the  Athenian 
populace  compelled  Cleom^es  to  make  a  disgraceful  capit- 
ulation :  withdrawal  of  the  Spartans  without  arms,  and  sur- 
render of  the  leaders  of  the  aristocracy.    The  latter  were  put 
to  death,  and  Clisthgnes  was  recalled. 
606.    An  expedition  of  the  Spartans  against  Athens  under  their  kin^ 
CleomSnes  and  Demeratus,  at  the  head  of  their  Feloponnesian 
allies,  was  broken  up  by  the  sudden  withdrawal  of  the  Corin- 
thians and  the  lack  of  harmony  between  the  Spartan  kings. 
The  allies  of  the  Spartans,  the  Boeotians  and  the  Chalcidians 
from  EuboeOf  were  defeated  by  the  Athenians.    The  latter  con- 
quered a  part  of  Eubosa,  and  apportioned  4000  peasant  holdings 
among  Attic  farmers,  who  retained  their  Athenian  citizenship. 
The  Athenian  democracy  derived  an  accession  of  strength  from  a 
reduction  in  the  powers  of  the  archons.    The  place  of  holding  the 
popular  assembly  was  changed  from  the  mariLct-place  (iyopd),  where, 
according  to  a  custom  sanctified  by  its  antiqmty,  the  first  archon 
presided,  to  the  rocky  hill  of  the  Ptayx ;  and  the  duty  of  presiding 
m  the  popular  assembly  and  in  the  council  was  fixed  upon  an  offi- 
cer (ivtardrrit),  who  was  chosen  by  lot  from  the  prytany,  for  the  time 
being,  and  who  was  changed  every  day.    This  officer  also  held  the 
keys  of  the  Acropolis  and  of  the  archives.    It  is  uncertain  how  far 
Clisthenes  had  introduced  the  use  of  the  lot,  in  selecting  state  offi- 
cials (of  course,  only  from  the  numbers  of  qualified  candidates). 
Election  of  ten  Strategic  one  from  e&ch  tribe,  each  of  whom  had  by 
turns  the  chief  command  of  the  aimv,  which  formerly  belon|^d  to  the 
archon  polemarchus.    The  right  of  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the 
thesmotnetee  to  the  heliasts,  which  had  oeen  introduced  before  Solon 
for  certain  cases,  was  now  extended  to  all  cases.    Establishment  of 
(he  ostracism  (6<npaKurfi6s,  used  until  417^,  i.  e.  the  power  of  the 
•overetgn  popular  assembly  to  decree,  by  means  of  a  secret  ballot^ 


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66  Jneient  BUiory.  B.  a 

with  bits  orpotteiy  ^Arrpoica),  the  banishment  of  any  citizen  who  en- 
daagered  the  public  liberty,  without  process  of  law.^ 

In  Peloponnesiza,  during  this  period  of  internal  development  at 
Athens,  Sparta  had  become  the  first  power.  Soon  after  the  first 
Messenian  war,  an  essential  increase  in  the  powers  of  the  Ephors 
had  taken  place  (under  king  Theopompus).  About  660,  another  re- 
form had  been  accomplished  by  the  Creront  ChUon^  with  the  aid  and 
religious  consecration  of  Epimenides  of  Cnosnis,  which  completed  the 
aristocratic  form  of  government  at  Sparta,  and  gave  increased  strength 
to  the  commonwealth.  The  I^ora  received  an  extraordinary  dls- 
omlinary  power  over  every  individual,  not  excepting  even  the  kines. 
llie  power  of  the  latter  gradually  dwindled  to  a  shadow.  After  uio 
victory  at  Tkyria  (549^,  the  power  of  Argos^  which  in  the  seventh 
century  had  again  attamed,  under  King  Fhidon,  a  transient  increase, 
was  broken,  and  the  Argive  league  was  dissolved.  The  Spartan 
state,  which  was  everywhere  the  opponent  of  tyranny  and  the  pro- 
tector of  republican-aristocratic  governments,  became  the  leader  of 
a  league  of  the  Pelopontieaian  states,  and  claimed  the  Hegemony  over 
all  the  Hellenic  cantons. 

TfflRD  PERIOD. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  Persian  wars  to  the  loss  of  inde- 
pendence by  the  Battle  of  ChsBronea.    500-338. 

500-449.    Persieui  wars. 

500-494.  Revolt  of  the  Ionian  Greeks  against  the  Persians  (p.  28). 
The  assistance  rendered  them  by  Athens  and  Eretria  was  the 
Immediate  cause  of  the  attempt  of  tiie  Persians  to  subjugate 
European  Greece. 

493-479.    Attack  of  the  Persians  upon  the  Greeks: 

493  (492  ?).  First  expedition  of  the  Persians  against  Greece, 
under  Mardonius. 

The  land  force  subdued  the  coast  of  Tltrace;  the  fleet  conquered 
the  island  of  Thasas.  Alexander,  king  of  Macedonia^  submitted  volun- 
tarily. The  Persian  armv,  surprised  by  a  Thracian  tribe,  suffered 
great  loss;  the  fleet  was  for  the  most  pa^rt  destroyed  bv  a  storm  off 
the  promontory  of  Athos.    Mardonius  thereupon  decided  to  return. 

Construction  of  citadels  on  the  Thracian  coast  to  serve  as  points 
of  support  in  future  campaigns :  Byzantium,  Sestos,  Abdira,  received 
Persian  garrisons. 

491.  The  Persian  heralds,  who  required  signs  of  submission  (water 
and  earth),  were  sacrilegiously  murdered  at  Sparta  and  Athens 
The  Cydades  and  jEgina  promised  submission  to  Persia.  The 
Athenians  received  from  the  Spartans  JSginetan  hostages. 


Second  expedition  of  the  Persians  against  Greece,  an> 

*    *"    I  dwiBion,  but 

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490. 

^  The  ostracism  was  In  no  sense  a  sentence  or  a  juridical  dwision,  but  s 
purely  political  act  of  the  highest  power  in  the  state. 


B.  a  Greeks.  57 

der  ATti4;>henieB  (the  young  nephew  of  Darim)  and  an 
older  general,  the  Mede  Datia. 

.  A  fleet  of  600  triremes  and  the  same  nmnber  of  transports,  with 
100,000  in&ntry  and  10,000  cavalry  on  board,  crossed  the  ^gean  sea. 
After  destroying  the  city  of  Naxoe,  the  Persians  landed  in  Eubaa. 
The  city  of  Eretria  was  stormed,  and  taken  by  treachery  ;  those  of 
the  inhiuntants  who  were  not  put  to  death  were  sent  as  prisoners  to 
the  great  king  at  Snsa.  By  the  adyice  of  Sippias  (p.  B4)  the  Per- 
sians landed  on  the  east  coast  of  Attica,  and  encamped  in  tne  vicinity 
of  MttHUkon, 

At  Athens  the  entire  military  power  of  the  city  (9-10,000  Hop- 
lites)^  was  called  to  arms  under  the  ten  Strategi  of  the  ten  tribes, 
among  whom  were  Aristldes,  ThemUtddes,  and  Bfliltiades  ^the 
70V>i^g®0>  ^ho  had  been  recalled  from  the  Chersonese.  The  Athenians 
crossed  iJie  Brilessus  and  advanced  to  meet  the  Persians;  they  en- 
camped in  face  of  the  enemy  for  nine  days  in  a  position  strengthened 
by  entrenchments,  and  whence  they  covered  the  road  to  Athens.  Re- 
inforoed  by  1000  Flatnans,  the^  attacked  the  Persians  without  wait- 
ing for  the  arrival  of  the  assistance  which  had  been  sought  from 
Sparta.  It  is  |^robable  that  the  Persians  had  at  this  time  embarked  a 
portion  of  their  army,  especially  the  cavalry,  in  order  to  attempt  a 
second  landine  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Athens.  After 
hard  fighting  3ie  Athenians  defeated  the  enemy  in  the 

490.  12  September.    Battle  of  Marathon^ 
under  ^e  leadership  of  Miltiades. 

.  The  plan  of  the  Persians  to  surprise  Athens  from  the  sea  was 
prevented  by  a  forced  march  of  the  army  back  to  the  city.    The  Per- 
sian fleet  returned  to  Asia  Minor.    Hippias  died  in  Lemnos. 
489.    ni-considered  and  unsuccessful  attack  of  Miltifides,  who  had 
been  clothed  with  unrestricted  power  as  military  commander, 
upon  Paros.    Miltifides,  on  his  return  to  Athens  wounded,  was 
brought  to  trial  at  the  complaint  of  Xanthippus^  and  con- 
demned to  pay  the  costs  of  the  expedition,  amounting  to  fif  tv 
talents,  which  sum  was  paid  by  his  son  Cmon,  after  Sic  death 
of  his  father. 
Ariatldes  and  Themlstoclea  were  now  the  leading  statesmen  at 
Athens.    The  latter  devoted  special  attention  to  increaae  and  im- 
provement of  the  fleet,  the  necessity  of  which  was  proved  to  the 
Athenians  by  an  unsuccessful  war  with  JEgina,  which  occurred  at 
this  time,  and  for  which  they  were  obliged  to  hire  ships  from  the 
Corinthians.'     On  the  motion  of  Themistocles,  the  income  from  the 
silver  works  at  Laurium  were  spent  upon  the  fleet,  and  20  triremes 
were  built  every  year. 

483.  As  the  growing  rivalry  between  Aristides  and  Themistocles 
endangered  the  commonweal,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  council 
the  assembly  decided  between  the  two  men  by  the  ostracism 
(p.  55).  Anstides  was  condemned  to  ten  years'  exile  from 
Athens  by  more  than  0000  votes. 

1  Doncker,  Gttek.  d,AU€rthum,  lY.  673.  Cnrttoflv  Hid.  ofGrue^,  II.  340. 
>  Onrttoa,  HkL  rf  Greece,  U.  962. 


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58  Ancient  Hutory.  B.  a 

Themistdcles  urging  the  f  ordflcation  of  Puraens,  a  strong  wall  was 
built,  the  foundations  of  which  are  yet  visible,  which  also  enclosed 
the  small  harbors  of  Munychia  and  Zea  on  the  southeast  of  Rneus, 
Radical  refonn  of  the  naval  department.  The  naucraries  (p.  55), 
which  had  not  been  able  to  furnish  all  the  ships  needed  by  the  state, 
since  the  year  500  B.  c,  were  dissolved,  and  tneir  place  supplied  by 
a  new  arrangement  known  as  the  trierarchies.  The  building  of  ships 
and  the  supply  of  the  more  essential  portions  of  their  equipment  were 
undertaken  oy  the  state ;  the  completion  of  the  equipment,  the  repairs, 
and  the  suppues  of  the  crew,  durmg  service,  of  one  ship  was  assigned 
as  a  service  due  the  state  (Acirovpy/a)  to  one  well-to-do  citizen,  who 
in  return  was  appointed  trierarch,  or  commander-in-chief  of  the 
ship.  Whereas  m  the  naucraries  the  expenses  of  the  ships  had 
fallen  exclusively  ujpon  the  Pentahmomednnni  (i.  e.  the  large  land- 
owners, p.  52),  all  dtisens,  whether  landnnonen  or  not,  whose  property 
exceedea  a  certain  standard  could  be  called  upon  for  this  purpose, 
and  were  entitled  to  the  honor  of  the  trierarchy.^ 

481-480.  Third  ezpedition  of  the  Persiaixs  against  Greece, 
under  Xerxes. 

This  expedition,  planned  by  Darius,  was  carried  out  by  his  son 
Xerxes,  after  extensive  preparations.  PieistratuSf  son  of  EUppias, 
and  Demar&tus,  the  deposed  long  of  Sparta,  accompanied  Xerxes  on 
the  expedition. 

Construction  of  a  oanal  at  Acanthus  by  the  force  on  the  fleet 
and  the  subject  ThracianSf  to  avoid  the  storms  about  Mt.  Athos. 
Bridge  over  the  Hellespont,  between  Sistos  and  Abydos,  built  by 
FhcBiiician  and  Egyptian  laborers.  Erection  of  large  magairines  in 
Asia  Minor  and  on  the  coast  of  Thracia. 

481.    The  troops  from  the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the  empire 
assembled  at  Critalla  in  Cappadocia,  whence  they  were  con- 
ducted to  Sardes  by  the  king  m  nerson. 
480.    In  the  spring  departure  from  Sardes  (about  900,000  men). 
March  through  Afysia,    Passage  of  the  Hellespont,  lasting 
seyen  days.    March  through  Thrace  and  Macedonia,    Passage 
of  the  fleet  (more  than  1300  triremes,  among  which  were  over 
400  Grecian  ships  from  Asia  Minor)  through  the  canal  at 
Acanthus, 
After  the  Greeks  had  given  up  the  plan  of  defending  the  pass  of 
Tempe,  the  Persian  army  traversed  Thessaly  without  opposition.    Not 
oidy  the  ThessalianSf  but  also  the  Bceotian  cities,  with  the  exception  of 
Platoeas  and  Thespim,  sent  the  king  symbols  of  submission. 

480.  July,  Battle  of  the.  Greeks  under  Leonidas,  at  Ther- 
xnopylfiB  (i.  e.  warm  gates,  a  pass  at  the  foot  of  Calli- 
drOmus,  near  hot  springs)  against  the  army  of  Xerxes. 

The  Spartan  king  Leonidas,  defended  the  pass  of  Thermopj^lsB, 
with  about  6000  HopUtes,  among  whom  were  300  SpartiatCBf  and 
1000  Lacedeemonian  Periceci,  against  the  overwhelming  force  of  the 

1  Boaokh,  Public  Economy  of  the  Atheniam  (Lambda  trans.  )>  358,  695-7ili 


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B.  G.  Greeks*  59 

Fenians,  while  1000  Phocians  ffoarded  the  footpath  over  CEta.  The 
Persians,  guided  oyer  this  poSi  by  the  traitor  EpkUdteSy  drove  bock 
the  Phocians  and  attacked  the  Grecian  aimj  in  the  rear.  Leonldas 
ordered  the  Periceci  and  the  troops  of  the  allies  to  retire,  and  died 
a  heroic  death  with  his  300  SpartiatsB  and  700  Thespians,  who  re- 
fused to  leave  him.  The  Thdnmsy  who  had  fought  under  Leonldas 
against  their  will,  laid  down  their  arms;  part  of  them  were  cut  down: 
part  branded,  at  the  king's  command,  and  sent  back  to  Thebes.  At 
the  same  time 

480*    IndecislTe  searfight  at  Artemisium, 

a  promontoiy  and  temple  at  the  northern  point  of  Eubaa, 
During  the  first  day  about  280  Grecian  ships,  under  conduct  of  the 
Spartan  EurybiSdes,  fought  against  the  Persian  fleet,  under  Aeha>' 
m&ies,  which  was  weakened  through  losses  by  storms,  and  the  dis- 
patch of  200  ships  around  the  southern  end  of  Eubcsa.  Night  put  an 
end  to  the  indecisiye  battie.  Loss  of  the  200  Persian  ships  which 
W€sr%  sent  around  Eubcea. 

On  the  second  day  the  Grecian  fleet,  reinforced  by  53  triremes, 
had  a  victorious  contest  with  Cilician  ships. 

On  the  third  day,  also,  the  battle  remained  undecided,  although 
the  Persians  attacked  with  their  whole  fleet.  , 

On  receipt  of  the  news  of  the  capture  of  the  pass  of  Thermop^Ue, 
the  Grecian  fleet  hastened  to  the  Gidf  of  Saldmis,  The  Pelopon- 
nesian  army,  having  established  itself  on  the  isthmus,  began  the  con- 
struction of  a  wall  across  the  isthmus,  instead  of  coming  to  the  as- 
sistance of  the  Athenians. 

Xerxes  traversed  central  Greece,  without  meeting  with  resistance. 
Locrians  and  Dorians  submitted.  He  ravaged  the  land  of  the  Pho- 
eianSf  the  detachment  sent  to  Delphi  was,  however,  driven  back,  with 
the  help  of  a  thunderstonn.  Boeotia  was  treated  as  a  friendly  coun- 
try.    Thespice  and  Plataxe  alone  were  destroyed. 

The  Athenians  abandoned  their  city,  leaving  only  a  garrison  in  the 
Acropolis.  The  fortifications  of  the  Pirous  being  incomplete,  the 
fleet  conveyed  the  old  men,  women,  and  children,  with  all  personal 
effects,  to  Salamis,  ^gina^  and  Argolis,  in  which  latter  pLeuce  the 
Athenian  children  were  provided  with  schooling  at  the  expense  of 
the  inhabitants.  Betum  of  the  exiles  permitted.  Xerxes  entered 
the  city,  the  Acropolis  was  taken  by  storm,  the  temples  thereupon 
and  the  city  burned  to  the  ground. 

480.    20  Sept    Naval  battle  of  Salamis. 

The  Grecian  fleet,  now  united  and  strongly  reinforced  (378  tri- 
remes, 7  fifty-oared  vessels),  was  imder  the  command  of  the  Spartan 
Bnrybiades.  The  Grecians,  being  through  the  contrivance  of  the 
strategus  ThemistSdeSj  surrounded  by  the  enemy  and  forced  to  fight, 
wqn  a  brilliant  victoiy  over  the  Persian  fleet,  which  still  numbered 
750  (?)  vessels.  The  island  of  PsyttaleOf  which  the  Persians  had  oo- 
tnpied,  was  recaptured  by  Aristldes,  who  had  hastened  from  ^gina  to 
take  part  in  ibe  combat  The  Greeks  lost  40,  the  Persians  200,  ships. 
The  Persian  fleet  anchored  in  the  bay  of  PhaUron.    Retreat  noi 


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60  AnctetU  History^  b.  c. 

flight,  of  Xerxes.    Mardonius  wiu  left  in  Theasalff  witii  the  beat  pazi 

of  the  armj  (260,000  men). 

480.  Nov.    Xerxes,  after  suffering  cfreat  loss  through  drought  and 

lack  of  provisions,  reached  the  Hellespont,  where  he  found 

the   fleet,  which  transported  the   army,  the  bridge   having 

been  carried  awaj  by  stprms. 

The  Grecian  fleet,  instead  of  pursuing  the  Persians,  as  Themis- 

tddes  wished,  laid  unsuccessful  siege  to  the  city  of  Andras.    The 

Athenians  returned  to  their  city,  and  at  once  began  its  reconstruction. 

479.     Fourth  expedition  of  the  Persians  against  Greece. 

After  MardoniuB  had  in  vain  offered  the  Athenians,  through 
Alexander  of  Macedonia^  a  separate  peace  with  recognition  of  their 
independence,  he  entered  Attica  and  advanced  on  Athens,  strength- 
enea  by  a  reinforcement  under  Artabdzus,  and  by  contingents  from 
his  allies  in  northern  Greece,  TkessdUans,  BceotianSf  a  ^SLrt  of  the 
Phocians,  and  the  Argives,  The  Athenians,  being  a  second  time  faith- 
lessly left  in  the  lurch  by  the  Spartans,  retired  again  to  Salamis. 
Whatever  had  been  rebuilt  in  the  citv,  the  Persians  destroyed. 
Finally  the  whole  Peloponnesian  force  of  30,000  hoplites  and  twice 
as  many  lieht-armed  troops  having  crossed  the  istmnus,  Mardonius 
retired,  and  took  up  a  favorable  position  in  B<Botia  on  the  Asdma, 
More  than  10,000  Ameniatis,  Platceanst  and  Thespians  joined  the  Hel- 
lenic army.  Pausaniaa  was  the  leader  of  the  Spartans  and  of  the 
whole  force.  He  commanded  the  most  imposing  army  that  Hellas 
had  ever  seen.    The  Hellenes,  however,  had  no  cavalry. 

479  •    Sept    Battle  of  FlatsBSB. 

After  Ion?  delay  and  much  marching  back  and  forth,  PanaauiiaB, 
who  had  twice  entrusted  the  most  dangerous  positions  to  the  Athe- 
nians under  the  command  of  Aristides,  decided  to  retreat  without 
offering  battle;  being,  however,  attacked  by  Mardonius  and  com- 
pelled to  defend  himself,  he  fought  bravely  at  the  head  of  the  Pelo- 
Sonnesians,  and,  being  well  supported  by  the  Athenians,  gained  a 
ecisive  victory.  Mardonius  fell.  Rout  of  the  Persians;  their 
camp  captured  by  the  Greeks. 

The  Grecian  army  advanced  before  Thebes;  the  leaders  of  the  Per- 
sian party  were  given  up,  and  executed  on  the  isthmus. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  campaign  against  Mardonius  a  Grecian 
fleet  under  the  Spartan  king,  LeotycMdas^  —  XanOdppus  commanding 
the  Athenians  under  him,  —  had  been  dispatched  to  patrol  the  ^gean 
Sea.  At  the  call  of  the  Samians  the  fleet  sailed  for  Asia  Minor,  and 
took  the  offensive  against  the  Persians. 

479-449.  Offensive  war  of  the  Qreoians  against  the  Persians. 
The  Persian  admiral,  Mardontes,  distrusting  the  Greeks  of 
Asia  Minor,  who  were  in  liis  fleet,  did  not  venture  to  accept 
the  naval  battle  offered  him  near  Samos.  He  beached  his 
fleet  at  the  promontory  of  MycdUf  opposite  Samos,  and  en- 
trenched himself.  The  Grecian  marines  landed,  and  utterly 
defeated  the  Persians  in  the 


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479.    Battl6  of  MyoaLe 

(on  the  day  of  the  battle  of  Flatees  ?),  captured  the  camp  and 
burned  the  Persian  ships.    Several  of  the  i^and  cities,  par- 
ticularly SamoSf  LesbaSf  and  ChioSf  and  afterwards  the  Grecian 
coast  towns  of  Asia  Minor,  joined  the  Hellenic  league.    The 
Peloponnesians  returned  home;  ihe  Athenians  and  loniant  con- 
C|uered  Sestos  in  the  Thracian  Chersonese. 
Rebuildinfi^  and  enlargement  of  Athens,  which,  in  spite  of  the  ob< 
jection  of  Uie  Peloponnesians,  was  surrounded  with  strong  walls. 
(Stratagem  of  Themistdcles.)     Completion  of  the  fortification  of 
HrsBus,  where  a  lar^  city  grew  up. 

478  (?).    Reform  of  ArisMes,  from  which  dates  the  real  supremacy 
of  the  democracy  in  Athens.   The  state  offices  were  opened 
to  all  four  classes  alike  (p.  53). 
Under  the  command  of  Patuanias,  the  united  fleet  of  Peloponne- 
sians, Athenians,  and  Ionic  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  conquered  Bysan- 
tiiiiii,  and  acquired  a  rich  booty.     The  overbearing  demeanor  of 
Pautanias  toward  the  other  members  of  the  league,  and  the  winning 
manner  of  the  Athenian  leaders,  A  risMes  and  Otmon,  brought  it  about 
that  after  the  recall  of  Pausanias  by  the  Ephors 

477  (?).     The  Hegemony  (chief  conduct  of  tiie  war)  was 
transferred  from  Sparta  to  Athens,  and  a  Hellenio  oon- 
federacy  (synunachy)  was  formed,  the  political  head  of 
which  was  Athens,  and  whose  religious  centre  was  the 
temple  of  Apollo  in  DeloSy  where  the  treasury  of  the 
league  was  also  established.     The  smaller  states  contrib- 
ute money  OTily,  instead  of  furnishing  contingents  of  ships. 
Riyalry  between  ThemistSdes  and  Oman.    The  supporters  of  the 
latter  procured  the  ostracism  of  Themistdcles.    He  retired  to  Argas. 
While  there  suspicion  attached  to 'him  of  beiuff  implicated  in  the 
treasonable  intrigues  of  Pausanias,    The  latter,  threatened  with  im- 
prisonment by  the  Ephors,  took  refuge  in  the  temple  of  Athena  at 
bparta,  and  there  died  of  starvation  (467  ?).    Themistdcles,  driven 
from  Argos,  went  to  Corcyra,  thence  to  Epirus,  and  finally  to  Susa, 
where  he  offered  the  Persian  monarch  his  services  against  his  native 
land.     Artaxerxes  L  (p.  28)  gave  him  a  princely  domain  in  Asia 
Minor,  where  he  died  (460). 

After  the  retirement  of  Ariatides  from  political  life,  and  his  death, 
which  occurred  soon  after  (467  ?),  Cimon  became  the  leader  of  the 
Athenian  commonwealth.  He  began  the  constniction  of  the  two  long 
toalls  (r^  aicfKii)^  one  of  which  connected  the  city  with  Pineus,  and  the 
other  with  Phsderon.^ 

Cimon,  the  victorious  leader  of  the  fleet  of  the  league,  captured 
those  places  on  the  Thracian  coast  which  were  still  occupied  dv  the 
Persians  (EidUy  469) ;  chastised  the  pirates  of  Scyra,  and  carried  the 
bones  of  Theseus  to  Athens;  captured  Naxos,  which  had  revolted 

1  Onckon  {Athen  «.  Bellat,  I.  72)  holds  that  the  walls  were  begun  doring 
the  banishment  of  Cimon;  so  also  Ad.  Schmidt,  Das  perikUische  Zeitalter, 
I.  57,  who,  however,  places  the  banishment  of  Cimon  in  461. 


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62  Ancient  ERslary.  B.  c. 

from  the  leagae,  and  now  lost  its  independence,  as  punishment  (467); 
defeated  the  fleet  and  army  of  the  Persians  in  the 

465.    Battle  of  the  Exurmedon, 

in  Pamphylia.    Cimon  conquered  the  Chersonese  and  punished 

the  island  of  Thasos,  which  had  seceded  from  the  confederacy. 
464.    Earthquakes  in  Sparta;  insurrection  of  the  Laconian  helots, 

a  portion  of  whom  joined  the  Messenian  helots  and  occupied 

Ithome. 

464r456.    Third  Messenian  war, 

in  which  the  Spartans  were  forced  to  implore  the  help  of 

Athens,  which  was  furnished  at  the  instance  of  Cimon,  but  was 

afterwards  sent  back  hj  the  suspicious  Spartans  (461V    The 

Athenians,  offended,  aUied  themselves  with  the  Argwes^  the 

principal  enemies  of  the  Spartans  in  the  Peloponnesus. 

In  Athens,  rivalry  between  Cimon,  head  of  the  aristocratic  party, 

and  PeMes,  the  son  of  XarUhippiUf  leader  of  the  democracy.    The 

latter  party  suooeeded  in  establishing  the  payment  of  citizens  serving 

in  the  army,  or  as  judges,  and  the  bestowal  of  alms  of  the  state  upon 

the  poor  at  festivals  out  of  the  public  treasury.    The  beginning  of 

the  decline  of  tiie  Athenian  democracy. 

The  Athenians  sent  aid  to  the  Egyptian  rebel  In&ros  (p.  28)  against 
the  Persians.  The  expedition  came  to  an  unfortunate  end,  the  Athe- 
nian army  being  surrounded  on  one  of  the  islands  of  the  Nile,  and 
compelled  to  surrender. 

460.    The  law  of  EphiaUes  took  from  the  court  of  Areopagus  the  cen- 
sorship over  the  state,  which  had  been  intrusted  to  it  by  Solon 
(p.  63),  and  limited  its  sphere  of  action  to  its  judicial  powers. 
459.    After  this  democratic  victory  Cimon  was  banished  from  Athens 
by  ostracism. 
About  this  time  (between  460  and  454),  the  treaaury  of  the  con- 
federacy was  transferred  from  Delos  to  the  Acropolis  of  Athena. 
The  contributions  of  the  members  of  the  league  thereby  acquired  the 
character  of  a  tribute  paid  to  the  Athenians.    The  confederates  be- 
came for  the  most  part  subjects  of  Athens,  which  became  the  capital 
of  a  great  coast  ana  island  empire.^ 
159.    Meg&ra,  threatened  by  Corinth,  ^gina  and  Epidanrus,  was 

Sliced  under  the  protection  of  the  Athenians,  who  connected 
[egfira  with  its  port,  Niscea,  by  long  walls. 
458.  The  Athenians,  after  suffering  a  defeat  in  Arg5lis,  gained  two 
battles  at  sea  over  the  allied  Corinthians,  Epidaurians,  and 
iCginetans;  blockaded  iGg^na,  and  energetic«dly  defended  Meg- 
ftra.  This  great  development  of  power,  on  the  part  of  Athens, 
caused  a 

457-445.    War  of  the  Spartans  and  Boeotians  against 
Athens. 
A  Spartan  army  under  Nicomedes,  the  guardian  of  the  young  king, 
Plistoanax,  had  been  sent  to  Central  Greece  to  protect  the  l>oriaia 

1  Curtiua,  Eisi.  qf  Grttct,  II.  378. 


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B.  a  Greek*.  6S 

tetrapolis  aeaiiurt  the  attacks  of  the  Fhocians,  who  were  compelled 
to  give  up  their  conquests.  The  Spartan  army,  cut  off  from  a  return 
OTer  the  isthmus  bj  the  Athenians,  retired  to  BcBotia,  where  it  assisted 
the  BcDotians  aeainst  Athens. 

457.    Battle  of  Tanagra,  a  Spartan  yictory,  which  thej  neglected 
to  utilize.    They  concluded  an  annistice  with  Athens  and  re- 
turned to  Sparta. 
Very  soon  the  Athenians  again  invaded  Boeotia,  defeated  the 
Thebans  at  CEnajphyta  (456),  and  replaced  the  aristocratic  goyem- 
ments  in  most  cities  by  democratic,  which  were  friendly  towards 
Athens.      The  Phocians  and    Opuntian    Locrians    joined    Athens. 
yp^na  YFBA  forced  to  surrender  to  the  Athenians  after  a  long  siege, 
save  up  its  ships  of  war,  and  became  tributary  (456).   The  Athenians 
Cud  waste  the  coasts  of  Laconia,  and  conyeyed  the  Messenians,  whom 
the  Spartans  had  granted  a  free  departure  from  Ithome,  to  Naupacttu 

S[>.  40),  where  Uiey  formed  a  settlement.    Reconciliation  between 
brides  and  Cimon;  the  latter  recalled  after  an  exile  of  nearly  five 
years  (454).    The  influence  of  Cimon  brought  about  an 
451  (?).   Armistice  between  Athena  and  Sparta  for  five  years,  and 
a  new  naval  expedition  against  the  Persians.   Cimon  conducted 
200  ships  to  Cyprus.    He  died  during  the  siege  of  Citium. 
After  his  death  his  fleet  gained  a  brmiant  victoiy  over  the 
Persian  (i.  e.  Phoenician,  Cmcian)  fleet,  and  the  hostile  troops 
on  the  hmd  in  the  double 
449.    Battle  of  Salamis  (laXafui)  in  Cyprus. 

New  party  struggles  in  the  Boeotian  cities.  The  aristocrats,  who 
had  been  driven  out  by  the  Athenians,  returned;  the  Athenians,  called 
to  the  assistance  of  the  democrats,  were  defeated  at  Coronea  (447). 
The  old  aristocratic  constitutions  were  restored,  not  only  in  Jaceotia 
but  also  in  Locrisy  PhociSf  and  MegSnif  which  became  free  from 
the  supremacy  of  Athens.  After  the  expiration  of  the  five  years* 
armistice  the  Spartans  sent  an  army  under  their  young  king,  Flis- 
toanax,  to  Attica,  in  order  to  assist  the  Eubceans  in  a  revolt  against 
the  Athenians.  Pericles  bribed  the  advisers  of  the  ^onng  king 
ind  secured  the  withdrawal  of  the  army;  then  hastenmg  rack  to 
Euboea  with  an  Athenian  army,  he  subdued  the  island  anew  (446). 
Second  assignment  of  Euboean  lands  to  Athenian  citizens. 

445*     Thirty  years'  peace  between  Athens  and  Sparta.     By 
this  peace,  or  more  properly  armistice,  the  Peloponneaian 
and  Athenian  leagues  ackoowledged  themselves  to  be  two 
distinct  and  independent  confederacies. 
About  this  time,  or  at  least  after  the  death  of  Cimon,  negotiations 
for  peace  were  opened  between  Athens  and  Persia,  and  an  Athenian 
embEissy  under  Callias  was  sent  to  Susa.     No  formal  peace,  however, 
was  concluded,  but  peaceable  intercourse  under  a  tacit  recog^tion  of 
existing  political  relations  gradually  took  the  place  of  a  state  of  war. 
The  Athenians  gave  up  Cyprus  and  sent  the  Egyptian  rebels  no 
further  aid.    They  continued  to  control  the  Mgesai  Sea,  and  the 
Grecian  coast  towns  of  Asia  Minor  were  mostly  uieir  allies  or  sub- 
jects, —  in  any  case,  practically  free  from  the  Persian  sceptre.    The 


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64  Ancient  History.  B«  c. 

8o-caIled  peace  of  dxnon,  wherein  the  king  of  Persia  is  siud  to  have 

formally  acknowledged  the  independence  of  the  Greeks  of  Asia 

Minor,  and  promised  to  send  no  more  ships  of  war  into  the  ^gean, 

would  seem  to  be  the  invention  of  a  later  time.^ 

441.    At  Athens  Thucydldes  (the  son  of  MeUmas,  not  the  historian 

of  the  same  name),  became  the  leader  of  the  aristocratic 

party.    His  party  attempted  to  secure  the  ostracism  of  Peri- 

des,  but  when  the  votes  were  counted  it  was  found  that 

Thucydldes  was  banished. 

444-429.    Athens  under  the  administration  of  Pericles, 

who,  although  never  archon,  conducted  the  government  of  the 
city  by  his  influence  in  the  assemblv,  and  in  his  official  capac- 
ity as  strategus,  as  superintendent  of  the  finances  (TamUu  or 
Epimeletes),  and  as  superintendent  of  public  buildings  and 
otner  public  works. 
440-439.    Revolt  and  subjugation  of  Samos. 

443.    Foundation  of  Tkurii  in  Southern  Italy  on  the  ruins  of  SybSris. 
437.    Foundation  of  Amphipdlis  on  the  Strymon.    Completion  of  the 
fortifications  of  Athens  by  the  construction  of  a  mird  long  wqllf 
parallel  with  the  first  leading  to  the  PirsBus  (p.  61).    Mag^ 
nificent  buildings,  especially  on  the  Acropolis:  the  Hall  o/Ae 
Caryatides  in  the  Erechtheion,  the  PropyloMy  the  Parthenon^  or 
Hecatompedoiif  the  bronze  statue  of  Athena  PromachoSy  a  co- 
lossal figure  over  50  feet  high. 
By  the  Age  of  Periolee  is  commonly  understood  the  whole  time 
of  his  political  activity  (466-429),  or  even  the  entire  period  from  the 
Persian  expeditions  to  the  Peloponnesian  war.    This  was  the  most 
brilliant  epoch  in  the  history  of  Athens,  not  only  in  its  political 

Sower,  its  trade  and  commerce,  but  in  art  and  literature.  The  tragio 
ramatists:  JBschylus,  526-455;  Sophocles,  496-405;  Boripideey 
480-406;  later  the  comic  dramatist,  Aristophanes  456  (?)-380? 
The  historians:  Herodotos  of  Halicarnassus,  484-424?;  Thncy- 
dldes,  470-400  ?  The  sculptor:  Phidias ;  the  architects  Icttnns, 
Calliorates,  and  Mnesicles ;  the  painter  Polygnotus.  The  phi- 
losophers, Socrates,  469-399,  Zeno  of  Elea,  Anazagoraa,  Prota- 
goras.   Aspasia  of  Miletus. 

431-404.  PELOPONNESIAN  WAR. 

Causes:  Enivy  of  the  Dorian  confederacy  at  the  power  of  Athene^ 
the  ambition  of  the  Athenians,  and  the  discontent  of  those  of  their 
allies  who  had  been  reduced  to  subjects. 

Immediate  causes :  1.  The  interference  of  Athens  in  the  war 
between  Corcyra  and  Corinth  (435-432),  which  had  broken  out  con- 
cerning Epidamnus  (afterwards  Dyrrhachium)  in  Illyria,  a  colony  of 
Corcyra.  The  democrats  of  Epidamnus^  hard  pressed  by  the  exiled 
nobles  in  alliance  with  Illyrian  barbarians,  imi^ored  aid  from  their 

1  Cf.  Cortius,  Higt.  of  Greece,  IT.  456  (after  Dahlmann  and  KrCiieerV 
Other  writers  consider  that  a  treatv  wan  concluded.  Cf.  Hieoke,  De  Pact 
Cinumica^  1863.  B.  Miiller,  Uher  den  cimon  Frieden^  1866-1869.  JLd, 
Sobmidt,  Dot  perikleUche  ZeitalUr. 


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B.  o.  Greeks.  65 

moUier  city  CoTcyra  in  vain,  but  obtained  help  from  Corinih^  the 
mother  cxtj  of  Corcyra.  Enraged  at  this,  the  Coroyneans  took  sides 
with  the  aristocracy  of  Epidamnosy  defeated  the  Corinthians  at 
Actium  0^34),  and  captored  Epidamnos.  Corinth  and  Corcyra  vied 
with  one  another  for  help  from  Athens.  The  Athenians  decided  in 
faTor  of  Corcyra,  and  took  part  ai  first  with  10,  afterwards  with  30, 
ships  in  the  battle  of  Sybdta  (432),  between  the  Corinthians  and  Cor- 
oyneans,  wherein  the  Corinthians,  at  first  victorious,  afterwards  retired 
before  the  Athenians.  2.  The  inhabitants  of  PotidcsOf  a  Corinthian 
colony  on  the  peninsula  of  Chalcidlce,  revolted  from  the  Athenian 
league  (432),  and  received  support  from  Corinth.  The  Corinthians 
were,  however,  defeated  by  the  Athenians  at  Olynthus,  and  Potidjea 
was  surrounded  and  besieged. 

The  Corinthians,  supported  by  the  Megareans,  who  (since  432  ?) 
had  been  excluded  from  all  Attic  harbors  and  markets,  and  by  the 
^ginetans,  entered  a  complaint  against  the  Athenians  at  Sparta. 
The  popular  assembly  at  Sparta  h&Ymg  voted  that  the  Athenians  had 
broken  the  treaty,  the  Pelaponnenan  Omgren  resolved  on  prepaiatun 
for  war. 

Military  power  of  both  parties:  Ackaia  and  Argot  remainea 
neutral  at  first.  The  Peloponneaians  were  joined  by  the  Megareamy 
BceotianSf  Opuntian  Locrians,  Pkodans.  Independent  allies  of  the 
Athenians:  Platcece^  Corcyra^  ZacynthuSy  Chios,  Lesbos,  Thessalians^ 
Acarnanians,  The  Athenian  league,  including  almost  all  the  islands 
and  coasts  of  the  archipelago  and  the  regions  beyond,  had  been 
transformed,  by  naval  stations  and  garrisons,  into  an  extensive  emr 
pire. 

431.  The  war  ^  began  with  the  surprise  of  Flatiese  by  the  Thebans. 
The  gates  were  o^ned  by  treachery;  but  the  Thebans  were 
driven  out  of  the  city ;  many  were  captured  or  cruelly  slaugh- 
tered. 
431-425.  Five  invasions  of  Attica  by  the  Peloponnesians,  4  un- 
der the  Spartan  king  Archiddntus,  the  5th  unoer  Agis.  While 
the  Athenian  fleet  hud  waste  the  coasts  of  Peloponnesus,  the 
inhabitants  of  Attica  took  refuge  in  Athens,  Finsus,  or  en- 
camped between  the  long  walls.  The  JEgvnetans  were  en- 
tirely driven  away  from  their  island  by  the  Atiienians,  and  their 
land  divided  among  Athenian  citizens.  The  country  around 
MegSra  was  harried  by  an  Athenian  army. 
430.  A  pestilence  resemblii^r  the  plague  broke  out  at  Athens,  of 
which 

429.    PerioleB  died. 

In  the  spring  of  this  year  capture  of  PoHdcea,  Cleon  ^  came  for- 
ward as  the  leader  of  tiie  democratic  party;  the  head  of  the  aris- 
tocratic party  was  Nioias. 

1  This  firRt  period  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  dowD  to  the  peace  of  Nidos 
(421),  commonly  known  aa  the  Archidamian  war,  is  called  by  Thucydldes  (Y. 
25)  o  t*Kiwri\s  noXtfiof. 

3  IV ot  a  tanner,  but  an  owner  of  manufactories,  who  carried  on  \iiB  busineai 
by  means  of  slaves.    Curtias,  Hiti.  of  Greece^  III.  61. 
5 


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Ameiemi  SatOFj.  b.  c. 


KewA^  MgHUmeim: 
Ife  AAemmmy    Before  ftlw  ; 

the  flftwiiM  Mrfer  Padba.  IWs . 
iSktlaadiizauef  M^fOUme  Aaaid  be  put  to  doth,  m  aeoteoee 
widefa  OB  Ike  nOowin^di^  wMieetnetod  to  Uie  anrtoente. 
Miife  Una  a  tlioaaMid  were  alain,  the  city  WM  laaed,  and  Uie 
kiid  OB  Ike  Uaad,  with  Ike  exeepiioB  of  Uie  temftoty  of  if ef4- 
jfMnOy  dhrided  amoo^  Atheniaii  atixeoe. 
427.  P/<ataieforeedtonzmder.  IW  nrriTon  of  its  bnTe  defenders. 


225  in  munliCTy  wefe  ezecnted  bj  Uie  Spertaiis.    Blood j  peiiy 

t  last  lemi 


Corc|fra,  wfaeie  vietoiymt  usi  lemaiiied  wiUi  Uie 
demoents.  Soeecaaful  rippditinn  of  Uie  Atheniaiis  under  De- 
mtmUkif^  to  mmaA  the  Ararmumine  agaiut  the  AwUmtdoU^ 
who  xeeeiired  help  beat  the  Pekponnesians. 

Dionaifftdiei  huded  m  MeiKnm  and  fortified  the  mined  foctreas 
of  Pt^.  The  Spartans  under  BraOdoM  oeeimied  the  isfauid  of 
Spkadaia^  oppoAke  Fylos.  The  Atheniaa  fleet  under  Niclas 
eot  off  their  retreat.  Spartan  envoys  in  Athens  offered  pMse, 
bat  their  proposals  were  rejected  at  the  instigaUon  of  Cleoo, 
who,  being  appointed  bjthe  people  tiraiegus  in  plaee  of  Nidas, 
took  Sphaetena  by  storm,  and  broogfat  292  of  the  enemy,  among 
whom  were  120  SpartiaJUEj  withhnn  to  Athens.  The  Athenians 
threatened  to  pat  the  priaaoers  to  death  whenever  the  Pelo- 
poonesians  shmdd  invade  Attica  again. 

The  island  of  Ctftkera  oecapied  by  the  Athenians.  From 
Cythera  and  frmn  Pylof ,  to  which  latter  place  the  AUienians 
conveyed  3feiMnaans  from  Naupactos,  the  TjMMwiian  teiritoiy 
was  haraseed  incessanUy.  Hie  Athenians  invaded  Bceotia,  bat 
were  defeated  by  the  Boeotians  at  Ddtum  (Socrdia,  AldbtOda). 
Expedition  of  the  Spartans  under  BraMa$  by  land  to  Mace- 
donia and  Thrace,  with  the  design  of  putting  an  end  to  the  sn- 
premacy  of  the  Athenians  there.  Revolt  of  several  towns  from 
Athens;  Brasldas  captured  An^mdlit,  on  account  of  which  the 
Athenian  general  lliucydldes  (the  historian),  who  lay  with  a 
aqnadron  at  Tktuot,  was  banished.  The  Athenians  sent  Cleon 
to  Thrace.    Cleon  was  defeated  in  the 

422.  Battle  of  Amphipolia 

by  Btasldas,  and  fell  during  the  flight    Brasldas  died  of  his 
wounds. 

421.    Peace  of  Nicias, 

eondnded  for  fifty  years.  Both  sides  restored  conquests  and  pris- 
onem,  a  condition  wluch  was,  however,  but  imperfectly  executed.  Al- 
though Sparta  even  entered  into  alliance  with  Athens  to  force  this 
peace  upon  their  confederates,  the  war  broke  out  again  in  three  years, 
when  Aloibiadea  persuaded  the  Athenians  to  join  the  league  which 
Argos  had  formed  with  several  Peloponnesian  states,  in  oider  to  op- 
pose the  oppressive  ascendancy  of  Sparta.  The  united  Argiveg  and 
Athenians  were  defeated  in  the 


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B.  c.  Greeks.  67 

«ia  Battte  of  Mantinea. 

Bj  this  victory  the  Spartans  regained  their  supremacy  in  Pelo- 
ponnesus. 

416.  llie  Athenians  captured  Melos  and  put  all  the  citizens  to  death. 

415-413*     Expedition  of  the  Athenians  against  Syracuse, 

Suggested  by  the  request  of  Egesta  for  help  against  Selinus  and 
Syracuse  (Hermocr&tes),  which  was  granted  by  the  advice  of  Aid- 
hiddes.     A  fleet  of  134  triremes,  carrying  36,000  men  inclusive  of 
sailors,  among  which  number  were  5100  hopUtes,^  sailed  for  Sicily 
under  AlcQnddes,  NidUu^  and  Lamackue.    Aft&r  the  occupation  of 
Naxos  and  Catanay  Alcibifides  was  recalled  to  answer  to  a  charge  of 
participation  in  a  sacrileee  (mutilation  of  the  HermcCf  ridiculing  the 
Elensinian  mysteries).    He  went  to  Argos,  was  condemned  to  death 
in  his  absence,  and  his  property  was  confiscated.     Seeking  revenge  on 
bis  enemies,  he  forthwith  went  over  to  the  side  of  Sparta. 
414.  Niclas  gained  a  victory  before  Syracuse  and  besieged  the  city 
with  some  success.    Death  of  LamSchus.    At  the  advice  of 
Alcibi&des,  the  Spartans  sent  a  small  fleet  under  G^/t^^ptM  to 
the  assistance  of  Syracuse.    The  Athenians  attacked  the  city 
413.     by  storm,  and  were  repulsed.  They  suffered  from  sickness  and 
want.    Reinforced  by  73  triremes  and  6000  hoplites  under 
Ikmo9thSne»y  they  were  nevertheless  defeated  in  two  naval  bat- 
tles in  the  harbor  of  Syracuse;  their  fleet  was  surrounded;  the 
413.      renmauts  of  their  army  on  Utte  retreat  by  land  (on  the  AssmO' 
Sept.    rttf)  were  in  part  out  to  pieces,  in  part  captured.    NidUu  and 
Demasthines  were  executed  in  Syracuse;  7000  prisoners  were, 
sent  to  the  quarries  (Aoroju/oi). 
413.       Bv  the  advice  of  Aldbiades  the  Spartans  occupied  and  forti^ 
March,    ned  the  village  of  Decdea  in  Attica.    The  last  nine  years  of 
the  Peloponnesian  war  are  therefore  known  as  the 

413-404.    Decelean  war. 

The  Spartans  made  forays  from  Decelea  into  all  parts  of 

Attica. 
Distress  of  the  Athenians,  flight  of  slaves,  financial  difficulties  of 
the  government.  The  influence  of  the  aristocratic  party  revived. 
Establishment  of  a  new  board  of  ten  councillors  (vp<i/3ovXoi).*  Regu- 
lation of  the  finances.  Renewed  preparations  for  war.  Alcibifides 
induced  Chios,  Erythrce,  ClazomSna,  and  Miletus  to  revolt.  He  was  in- 
strumental in  f orminfi^  an  alliance  between  the  Spartans,  who  declared 
their  willingness  to  abandon  to  the  Persian  kine  all  Greek  cities  for- 
merly subject  to  him,  and  the  Persian  satrap,  TissaphemeSf  who  paid 
a  subsidy  to  the  Spartans.  A  new  Athenian  fleet  appeared  off  the 
coast  of  Asia  Minor  and  defeated 
412.  the  Peloponnesian  fleet  near  Miletus,  but  was  prevented  from 

takine  uie  city  by  a  squadron  from  Syracuse.    The  Athenian 

fleet,  mcreased  to  104  ships,  anchored  off  Samos.    AlcibiAdes, 

1  OurtiQS,  Hitt.  ofOrttee,  III.  867. 

*  Their  functions  are  a  matter  of  dispute.     Cf.  Grote,  Hittory  of  Qreece^ 
Vn.  362. 


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68  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

being  gospected  and  maligned  by  the  Spartans,  went  to  Tissa^ 
phemes,  over  whom  he  soon  exercised  great  influence.  At  the 
same  time  he  intrigued  with  the  oligarchs  in  the  Athenian 
army,  whom,  however,  he  only  kept  in  suspense  and  finally 
deceived.  In  the  mean  time 
411.  the  oligarchs  overthrew  the  democratlo  constltntion  at 
Biarch.  Athens  by  a  cmm  d'etat.  A  new  oligarchical  council  of  400 
citizens  was  established  ;  the  popular  assembly  was  limited  to 
6000  members;  the  payment  of  all  state  salaries,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  pay  of  citizens  serving  in  the  army,  was  abol- 
ished. The  olisarchy  entered  upon  negotiations  for  peace 
with  Sparta,  and  endeavored  to  break  up  the  new  order  of 
tilings  by  executions  and  banishments.  Their  rule,  however, 
was  of  short  duration.  The  anny  before  Samos  refused  to  rec- 
ognize the  alteration  of  the  constitution;  elected  new  leaders 
(^hrtuvbohts)  and  recalled  Aldbiadea,  who  assumed  com- 
mand, but  refused  to  lead  the  fleet  against  the  oligarchs  in 
Athens,  and  insisted  that  it  should  remain  in  the  face  of  the 
enemy.  At  Athens  the  oligarchical  rule  of  the  new  council  of 
400  was  broken  after  it  had  lasted  four  months  without  direct 
interference  on  the  part  of  the  army;  the  old  council  of  500 
was  reestablished;  the  popular  assembly  remained  limited  to 
6000  members  (until  410  ?).  The  abolition  of  salaries  was 
not  repealed. 
The  Spartans  broke  off  all  coimection  with  TLssaphemes,  and  en- 
tered into  alliance  with  Phamabdzus,  satrap  of  Bithynia. 

The  Athenians  under  ThrasybQlw  defeated  the  Peloponnesian  fleet 
under  Mindarus  and  Phamabizua  in  the 

411.   Sea-fight  at  the  promontory  of  CynossemOj  near  Abydoe. 
July.  Three  months  later  Alcibifides  defeated  the  Peloponnesians 

in  a 
411.  Second  sear-fight  at  Abydos. 

Alcibifides,  tf^en  prisoner  by  Tissaphemes,  soon  escaped,  as- 
sumed command  of  the  Athenian  fleet  again,  and  annihilated 
the  Peloponnesian  fleet  in  the 

410.  Battle  of  Cyzictui, 

Feb.     where  he  also  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  enemy  after 
he  had  escaped  to  the  land.    Having  subdued  the  coasts  of  the 
409.     Hellespont  and  Propontb,  and  captured  Byzantium^ 
406.  Aloibiades  returned  to  Athena  in  triumph. 
June.  The  sentence  of  Aldbiddes  was  repealed,  and  he  was  ap- 

S tinted  commander  by  land  and  sea,  with  unlimited  power, 
e  e^uarded  with  the  army  the  festal  procession  to  Eleusis, 
which  had  been  for  a  long  time  discontinued.  Alcibifides  con- 
ducted the  Athenian  fleet  to  Asia  Minor.  The  Spartan,  Ly- 
sander,  had  in  the  mean  time  assumed  the  command  here,  and 
the  brother  of  the  future  kine  of  Persia,  Artaxerxes  11.,  the 
younger  Cyrus  (son  of  Darius  Ii-)jft  friend  of  the  Spartans,  had 
become  satrap  of  Asia  Minor.  While  Alcibifides  was  engaged 
on  a  foraging  expedition  in  the  country  around  PhocoM^  tha 


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6.  C.  GreekM.  69 

Athemaa  fleet  was  involTed  bj  the  janior  commandeis  in  an 
engagement,  and  defeated  by  Lysander  in  the 
407.  Battle  of  Notium,  in  the  gulf  of  EphSsos. 

On  account  of  this  misfortune,  Aloibifides  was  deposed  from 
his  command.  He  retired  to  the  Hellespont,  and  died  in  404. 
The  new  Spartan  admiral  Callicratides,  surrounded  the  Athenian 
fleet  under  Conon  at  Mytilene,  The  Athenians  with  the  greatest  ex- 
ertions fitted  out  a  new  fleet,  which  hastened  to  the  aid  of  Conon. 
The  united  Athenian  fleet  completely  defeated  the  Peloponnesians  in 
the  great 

406.  Battle  of  ArginussB, 

Sept.  (oi  'Afywovvat^  small  islands  off  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  east 
of  LesbosV  Six  of  the  victorious  generals  were  sentenced  to 
death  in  Athens  for  havinff  abandoned  shipwrecked  troops  in  a 
storm  and  not  buried  the  bodies,  and  were  actually  executed. 

Lysander,  again  appointed  admiral  by  the  Spartans,  defeated  and 
annihilated  the  Athenian  fleet  in  the 

405.    Battle  of  JBgoapotami  {Kijhs  rtorofuol,  goat  river),  opposite 
Aug.  ?  Lampsacus.     Conon  escaped  with  eight  ships.    Slaughter  of 
3000  Athenian  prisoners.     Lysander,  having  first  completely 
destroyed  the  Athenian  power  on  the  coasts  and  islands,  and 
everywhere  established  oligarchical  constitutions,  appeared  with 
the  reloponuesian  fleet  before  Firseus,  while  the  Peloponnesian 
army  enclosed  Athens  on  the  land  side.     Starvation  caused 
the 
404.  Surrender  of  Athens  and  end  of  the  war. 
April.     The  walls  of  Pineus,  and  the  lon^  walls  between  the  city 
and  the  harbors,  were  torn  down.    AUl  ships  of  war  but  twelve 
were  delivered  to  the  enemy.  The  democracy  was  overthrown, 
and  the  government  entrusted  to  thirty  men  of  the  oligarchical 
party. 
404-371.    Second  Hegemony  of  the  Spartana. 
404-403.    Government  of  the  so-called  Thirty  Tyrants,  of  whom 
the  best  known  is  Critias,  at  Athens. 
The  Thirty  J  instead  of  forming  a  new  constitution,  endeavored  to 
secure  the  permanent  control  of  the  state,  and  to  strengthen  their 
power  by  receiving  a  Spartan  garrison  in  the  Acropolis,  and  by  numer- 
ous executions.    At  last,  one  of  the  Thirty,  Therameues,  was  put  to 
death  at  the  instance  of  Critias.    Thrasybulus  assembled  the  demo- 
cratic fugitives  in  Phyle^  defeated  the  troops  of  the  Thirty,  and  seized 
Pineus ;  Critias  was  slain.    Ten  more  moderate  oligarchs  took  the 

Elace  of  the  Thirty.  Through  the  mediation  of  PausarAaSy  king  of 
iparta,  an  understanding  was  reached  between  Thrasybulus  and  the 
oligarchs  in  Athens.  Tbe  remainder  of  the  Thirty  were  put  to  death. 
General  amnesty.  Reestablishment  of  a  moderate  democracy.  The 
government  was  rearranged  by  the  revision  of  the  laws  made  by 
Endides  (403). 

401-400.    Retreat  of  the  10,000  under  Zenophon  (p.  29). 
899.     Socrates   (469-399)  executed  in  Athens  by  poison.     His 
scholar,  Plato  (427-^48). 


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70  Anciefkt  Hiitory.  B.  o. 

^99-394.  War  between  the  Spartans  and  Persiaas.  The 
Persian  satrap,  TissaphemeSy  attempted  to  punish  the  Greek 
cities  of  Asia  Minor  for  their  share  in  the  expedition  of  the 
jounger  Cyrus.  The  Spartans  came  to  the  aid  of  the  cities, 
at  fint  under  Thibrorif  then  under  DercyUXdas,  finally  under 
A^esUaus.  The  hitter  forced  his  way  into  Asia  and  defeated 
Tissaphemes,  who  was  executed  by  command  of  his  successor, 
Tithfinutes,    Persian  gold  produced  the 

305^387.  Corinthian  war  asainst  Sparta,  whose  hamiosts  {hptiovroi, 
goyemors)  had  made  uiemselyes  uniyersally  hated.  Coalition 
of  Thebes^  Corinth^  and  Argoe,  joined  by  Aiheru,    The  Spartan 

395.  LTsander  fell  at  Haliartaa  in  Bcsotia,  in  battle  with  the 
allies.    The  LacedflBmonian  fleet  was  defeated  in  the 

394.  Battle  of  Cnidna  by  the  Athenian  Conon  and  the  Persian 
satrap  Phamabazus,  The  Spartan  harmoets  were  driyen  from 
the  6reeian  cities  of  Asia  Minor.  AgesilCtua  was  recalled, 
trayersed  Thrace,  Macedonia,  and  Thessaly,  and  defeated  the 
allies  in  the 

394.  Battle  of  Coronea  in  western  BoBotia. .  Ccncn  and  the  Per- 
sian satrap  Phamabdzus  plundered  the  coasts  of  Laconia.  Conon 
rebuilt  the  (2)  long  walla  with  Persian  money.  After  some 
years  of  fighting,  in  which  IphkrlUet  and  ChabrUu  were  the 
Athenian  leaders,  the 

387.  Peace  of  Antaloidaa  was  concluded  between  the  Grecian  states 
and  the  Persians.  It  took  its  name  from  the  Spartan  admiral 
who  was  sent  as  enyoy  to  Susa.  The  Grecian  cities  of  Asia 
Minor  and  the  islands  of  CkuomentB  and  Cyprus  were  abandoned 
to  the  Persians.  The  Athenians  retained  control  of  LenmaSf 
ImbroSf  and  Scyros  only ;  all  other  states  and  islands  were  to  be 
independent  under  Spcurtan  and  Persian  guaranty. 

379-362.    War  between  Thebes  and  Sparta,  caosed  by  the 
occupation  of  the  Cadmia  in  Thebos  (383)  by  the  Spartan 
PhaMdaSf  who  was  urged  to  take  this  step  by  the  aristocratic 
party  in  Thebes,  as  he  was  conducting  an  army  through  Boeotia 
funinst  OlyrUhus, 
The  IHieban  democrats  had  taken  refuge  in  Athens,  whence  under 
PelojMas  they  liberated  Thebes  in  379  and  compelled  the  Spartans 
to  withdraw  from  the  Cadmea.     CUombrdtus  and  AgesilOus  were  dis- 
patched to  BoBotia,  but  met  with  little  success.    The  Spartans  at- 
tempted to  surprise  Pirteus.    This  induced  the  Athenians  to  enter 
into  open  alliance  with  Thebes.    They  founded  a  new  confederacy 
(symniachy),  embracing  seyenty  communities,  under  more  just  con- 
oitions  than  those  of  the  first  league  (378).     The  Spartans  were  re- 
peatedly defeated  at  sea  by  the  Athenians  Ch<ibriiSt  Phoctarif  and 
Timotheus.    Peace  between  Sparta  and  Athens.     Cleombrdha  inyaded 
ficBotia  anew,  but  in  the 

371.    Battle  of  Leuctra,  he  was  defeated  by  Epaminondaa,  and 
fell  on  the  field. 

371-362.    Hecremony  of  the  Thebana. 

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B.  a  Grteh.  71 

370.  Fizst  invanon  of  PeloponneBiis  bj  ihe  Thebanfl,  under  Epam- 
mondaa  and  PdoMas  in  order  to  protect  the  AroadianB, 
who  had  revolted  from  Sparta.  Meffohpolis  founded.  An 
attack  hj  the  Thebans  on  SpartaN)roved  nnsuocessfuly  but 
they  ravaged  Laconia  and  prodaimed  the  independence  of  the 
Messenians.  Foundation  of  Messene.  The  Athenians  came  to 
the  aid  of  the  Spartans.  Retreat  of  the  Thebans. 
969.  Second  Theban  invasion  of  Peloponnesus. 
967.  Third  invasion.  Sicyon  revolted  from  Sparta.  The  third  in- 
Tasion  produced  a  momentary  alliance  of  Achaia  and  Thebes. 
The  Cormthiant  and  Phliasians  concluded  peace  with  Thebes. 
In  the  north  the  Thebans  sent  several  expeditions  against  the 
tvrant  Alexander  of  Pherce  for  the  liberation  of  the  ThessaUana. 
On  the  second  expedition  PdopKdas  was  captured,  but  soon  set 
free  by  Epaminandas  ;  on  a  new  expedition  he  fell  as  victor  at 
364.      CynocephdUjB  {kwU  Kc^aQ- 

Fourth  expedition  of  the  Theuuis  against  Peloponnesus.    Epam- 
Incmdas  fell  in  the     • 

362.  Battle  of  Mantinea  as  viotor  against  the  Spartans  and  their 
allies  (among  others  6000  Athenians), 
Greneral  peace  Mtween  the  Grecian  states,  which  the  Spartans 
alone  refused  to  accept,  not  being  willing  to  acknowledge  the  inde- 
pendence of  Messenia.  AgesiUha  went  to  Egypt  to  the  assistance  of 
the  rebels  under  Tachos,  whose  fleet  was  commanded  by  the  Athe- 
nian Chabrias.    AgenLdm  died  on  the  voyage  home  (360). 

Rise  of  the  Macedonian  power. 

359-336.  Philip  (^/Ainror),  son  of  Amyntas,  had  passed  three  years 
(368-d6&)  in  Thebes  as  a  hostage,  and  haa  there  learned  to 
appreciate  Grecian  culture  and  military  science  through  intercourse 
with  Epaminondas  and  other  men  of  note.  After  the  death  of  his 
brother,  Perdiccas,  he  succeeded  him  as  king  of  the  Macedonians  at 
the  age  of  twenty-three.  Gifted  with  courage  and  a  clear  political 
insieht,  he  strengthened  the  royal  power  in  a  country  torn  by  party 
strife,  defended  the  borders  against  the  restless  Pceoman  and  luyrian 
tribes,  and  established  a  standing  army  (Phalanx\  After  he  had 
given  his  own  state  a  firm  or^nization,  he  tumea  his  attention  to 
extending  his  power  along  the  Thracian  coast,  and  by  cunning  trick- 
ery encroached  on  the  Athenian  territory.  He  captured  Amphipolis 
(367),  Pydna,  Potidcea,  gained  possession  of  the  Tlmusian  mines,  con- 
cluded an  alliance  with  Olynthus  against  the  Athenians,  and  founded 
PhUippi.^ 

357-355.  Social  war  of  the  Athenieui  league  against  Athena. 
Since  378  Athens  had  regained  much  of  her  former  influence. 
It  was  speedily  lost.  Chios,  Cos,  Rhodes,  and  Byzantium 
revolted.  Chabrias  perished  in  the  harbor  of  Chios.  Iphicr&tes 
and  Timotheus,  leaders  of  the  Athenians.  The  laUer  were 
forced  to  acknowledge  the  independence  of  their  former  allies. 
355-346.  Second  Holy  War  against  the  Phocians,  who 
i  Ourtiua,  HitL  of  Greece,  Y.  sa 


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72  Ancient  Hitiory,  B.  o« 

had  been  condemned  by  the  Amphidyonic  oonnoil  to  paj  an 
enormous  fine  for  having  used  the  holy  Und  of  Cirrha  (p.  52), 
which  was  consecrated  to  the  Delphian  Apollo.    The  Thebans 
managed  to  have  the  collection  ox  the  fine  entrusted  to  them- 
selves. 
The  Phocians  plundered  the  tomple  of  Delphi  and  were  thereby 
enabled  to  maintain  by  means  of  mercenary  troops  a  long  and 
dubious  war  afindnst  Thebans,  Locriane,  and  Thessalians.    Leaders  of 
the  Phocians,  JPhUomelus  (f  354),  Onamarchus,  his  brother  Phayllus, 
and  son  Phalascus.     After  a  lone  contest  Onomarchns  fell  (352) 
in  battle  against  Philip  of  Macedonia,  whose  entrance  into  central 
Greece  was  prevented  by  an  Athenian  army  at  Thermopyls.    At  a 
later  period  Philip  was  caUed  upon  by  the  Thebans  for  assistance 
against  the  victorious  Phaloeciu.    The  Phocians  forced  by  Philip,  who 
had  subdued  the  Thessalians  and  secured  Thermopj^ls,  to  lay  down 
their  arms;  their  cities  were  deprived  of  their  walls  by  a  decree  of 
the  Amphiotyonie  council;  the  mhabitants  were  separated  into  vil- 
lages, and  made  tributary  to  the  Delphian  god«    Philip  waa  elected 
to  the  Amphictyonic  council  in  place  of  Uie  Phocians. 

Philip,  whose  power  had  steadilv  increased,  had  been  at  war  with 
Athens  since  his  occupation  of  Amphipolis.  In  Athens  Demoa- 
thenea  (383-322),  since  351,  when  he  delivered  his  first  Philippic, 
was  the  soul  of  an  organization  of  a  national  opposition  to  the  threat- 
ening power  of  Macedonia.^ 

OlynthuB,  having  revolted  from  Philip  and  made  peace  with 
Athens,  was  hard  pressed  by  the  kins^,  and  begged  aid  from  Athens. 
The  three  Olynthiac  orations  of  Demosthenes.  Before  tiie  arrival 
of  the  Athenian  assistance  Philip  captured  Olynthus  by  treachery 
and  destroyed  the  city  (348),  as  well  as  a  large  number  of  smaller 
places  in  Chalcidice,  and  sold  the  inhabitants  as  slaves. 

The  opponents  of  Demosthenes,  Eubulus  and  JBschinea  (Jdrxivnt). 
Formation  of  a  Macedonian  party  in  Athens.  Negotiations  with 
Philip,  which,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  Demosthenes,  led  to  the 
shameful  peace  of  Philccratea  (346),  which  left  all  conquests  in  the 
hands  of  the  king.  A  complaint  being  entered  at  Athens  by  Hy- 
perides  against  Pmlocrates,  he  went  into  exile.  Demosthenes  lodged 
a  complamt  against  iEschines,  who  was  declared  not  guilty  (343^. 

Philip  endeavored  to  extend  his  power  to  the  Propontis  ana  the 
Pontus  Euxinus,  and  founded  Qumerous  colonies  in  Thrace  {Philip^ 
popolis).  The  national  party  at  Athens  succeeded  in  forming  a 
lea£^e  of  Hellenic  states  (among  others  Megdra,  Achaia^  Corinth), 
under  the  lead  of  Athena  against  Philip.  The  king  besieged 
Perinth  and  Byzantium  in  vain.  The  Athenians  declared  war  against 
him,  sent  a  fleet  and  an  army  to  Byzantium,  and  forced  him  to  raise 
the  siege.  Athens  derived  her  supply  of  g^rain  from  the  countries  on 
the  Black  Sea;  hence  her  sensitiveness  in  regard  to  Byzantium,  which 
was  the  key  to  the  Eiudne. 

339-338.    Third  Holy  "War   (against  Amphissa).    At  the   insti- 
gation of   Philip  (ASschXnes)  the  Amphictyonic  council  had 
decreed  the  punishment  of  the  Locrians  of  Amphissa  for  haT« 
1  A.  Sohaefer,  Demotthenet  «.  jetii«  ZtiL 


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R  a  Gh-eeks.  79 

ing  occupied  some  ground  whicli  was  consecrated  to  Apollo. 
Pmlip,  entrusted  with  the  execution  of  the  sentence  by  the 
Aniphictyons,  seized  Elatea,  which  commanded  the  entrance 
to  BcBotia.  Great  dismay  in  Greece.  The  Athenians  fitted 
out  a  fleet  and  an  army  at  the  instance  of  DemosthSnes,  who 
went  in  person  to  Thebes  and  induced  the  Thebans  to  form  an 
alliance  with  Athens.  The  allied  Thebans  and  Athenians  were 
defeated  in  the 

338.  Battle  of  Ghadronea  (Xaip^v€ta)  by  Philip,  whose  son 
Aug.  Alexander  decided  the  battle  by  annihilating  the  Holy 

Band  of  the  Thebans.  Philip  punished  the  Thebans  severely  and 
placed  a  sarrison  in  the  Cadmea;  to  the  Athenians  he  granted 
a  fayorable  peace.  Peace  of  Demadee.  He  advan^  into 
Peloponnesus,  took  a  large  part  of  her  territory  from  Sparta, 
and  diyided  it  among  the  Messenians,  Argives,  and  Arcadians. 

Macedonian  Hegemony.  At  a  national  assembly  at  Corinth, 
where  the  Spartans  only  did  not  appear,  Philip  caused  himself 
to  be  chosen  leader  (with  dictatorial  power)  of  the  Grecian 
forces  against  the  Persians  (ffrparrryhs  kvTOKpdrwp  rw  'EAX^vwr^. 
In  other  respects  the  Grecian  cantons  were  to  retain  their 
autonomy;  a  congress  (jrwiZpiov)  at  Corinth  should  adjust 
their  differences. 

FOURTH  PERIOD. 

Grseco-Macedonian  or  Hellenistic  Epoch  down  to'  the  Sub- 
jugation of  Greece  by  the  Romans  (338-146). 

After  the  murder  of  Philip,  who  was  on  the  point  of  beginning 
the  war  against  Persia,  by  Pausanicu  (336),  the  Macedonian  throne 
was  occupied  by  his  son,  who  had  been  educated  by  Aristotle 
('Ap<0Tor^Ai}s,  384r^2),  and  was  now  20  years  old. 

336-323.    Alexander  the  Great  ('AXcfavSpo?).^ 

He  forced  the  Greeks  to  transfer  to  him  the  Hegemony  and  the 
command  against  the  Persians,  quickly  reduced  the  revolted  Thracians 
(^TribcUUans),  Getas  and  Illyrians  in  the  north,  appeared  on  the  news  of 
a  Grecian  uprising  (of  the  Athenians  and  Thebans)  for  the  second  time 
in  Greece,  defeated  the  Thebans,  destroyed  Thebes  with  the  exception 
of  the  house  of  the  poet  Pindar  (522-442  ?),  and  sold  the  inhabitants 
as  slaves.  The  terrified  Athenians  submitted  and  were  pardoned. 
Antipdter  left  as  vicegerent  in  Macedonia.  In  330  revolt  of  the 
Spartans  put  down  by  Antip&ter  in  the  bloody  battle  of  MegalopdliSj 
where  5000  Spartans,  under  their  king  Agis  II.y  met  a  heroic  death. 

334.  Expedition  of  Alexander  asrainst  Persia,^ 
Spring.  which  was  not  merely  a  war  of  conquest,  but  also  a  scien- 

1  Droysen,  Oetekichte  Alexanders  des  Grosun  (GeschichU  de»  ffellenismut, 
2  Aiifl.,  1877,  Th.  I.  with  5  maps  by  R.  Kiepert).  Hertaberg,  Die  anatitchen 
Feldz&ge  Alexandert  d,  Gr.,  with  a  map  bv  H.  Kiepert. 

s  Foir  the  route,  see  Kiepert,  Atlat  Antiqutu,  Tab.  II. 


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74  Ancient  BiUory,  b.  c 

tifio  expedition,  and  a  jonimey  of  discovery.  Alexander  crossed 
the  Hellespont  at  Abydos  with  30,000  infantry  and  5000  cav- 
ally  (generals:  Perdiccas,  CUtus,  Parmenio,  HephcBsHo^  CreUinu, 
PtoUmoBus,  Antigdnus),  defeated  the  Persian  satraps  and  Meok' 
norif  leader  of  the  Grecian  mercenaries  of  Darius,  completely 
in  the 

834.    Battle  of  the  Qranious  (a  rivulet  in  Trtxis). 

Rescue  of  Alexander  by  Clitus.  Advancing  throug^h  Mysia  and 
LydiOy  Alexander  procUimed  the  freedom  of  we  Grecian  cities  and 
iiJands  from  Persian  rule,  conquered  Miletus  and  Halicanuusus,  and 
traversed  Caria  and  Lycia.  F^vented  from  advancing  further  by 
the  steep  mountains,  he  went  northward  through  tlie  land  of  the  Piai' 
dians  to  Phrygia  by  way  of  CekeruE,  Gordium  (the  Gordian  knot),  and 
through  Cappcuiocia  to  Cilicia  (bath  in  the  Cydnus),  At  Tarsus  he 
was  taken  ill,  but  speedily  recovering  (potion  of  the  physician  PhUip-' 
pus)  he  passed  through  the  Syrian  Gates  to  Myricmarus  on  the  coast 
m  Syria.  Meantime  i^e  Persian  king,  Darius  III.  (p.  29)  had  ap- 
proached from  the  Euphrates  with  a  k^ge  army  and  got  to  the  rear 
of  the  Macedonians.  On  hearing  this,  Alexander  turned  back  from 
Syria  and  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Persians  in  the 
333.  Battle  of  Issua,  in  Cilicia. 
Nov.    An  immense  number  of  Persians  fell;  the  rest  were  captured 

or  scattered.    Darius  escaped,  but  his  mother,  his  wives,  and 

daughters  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victor. 
In  order  to  completely  destroy  the  Persian  power  at  sea,  Alexander 
conquered  Syria,  Phoenicia,  where  he  besiesfed  Tyre  for  seven  months, 
and  Palestine,  advanced  into  Egypt  without  opposition,  and  went 
from  PdusUim  to  Memphis,  Foundation  of  Alexandria  on  a  well- 
ohosen  site.  Expedition  across  the  Libyan  desert  to  the  oracle  of 
Zeus  Amman  in  the  oasis  of  Sivah.  Leaving  Egypt,  Alexander  passed 
through  Palestine  and  Syria  by  way  of  Damascus,  crossed  the  Eu' 

Shrates  at  Thapsacus,  traversed  Mesopotamia,  crossed  the  Tigris,  and 
efeated  the  Persian  army,  which  outnumbered  his  own  20  times,  in 
the 

331.    Battle  of  Oaugamela  or  Arbela  (rh,  "ApiScXa), 
Oct     not  far  from  the  ruins  oi*Nineveh.    While  Darius  fled  north- 
ward, Alexander  crossed  the  Tigris  a  second  time,  entered 
Babylon  without  resistance,  traversed  Babylonia,  crossed  the 
Tigris  a  third  time,  captured  the  capital  of  Persia,  Susa  in 
Susiana,  and  traversed  Persis,     Capture  of  Pasargddcs  and 
Persepdlis. 
In  the  spring  of  330  Alexander  set  out  in  pursuit  of  Darius. 
Crossing  media  to  Ecbaidna  in  the  north,  he  hastened  through  the 
Caspian  gates  to  Parthia.     There,  in  the  neighborhood   of  Heca- 
tompylos,  Darlna  Codomannus  was  murdered  (330)  by  the  satrap 
Bessus,  who  fled  to  Bactria  and  assumed  the  royal  tide.    After  an 
expedition  northward  to  Hyrcania  against  the  Grecian  mercenaries, 
Alexander  traversed  Parthia  toward  the  east,  turned  southward,  for 
the  purpose  of   punishing  an  insurrection  of  satraps,  and  crossed 
Aria  and  Drangiana.    In  Prophthasia  discovery  of  the  conspiracy  of 


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8.  c.  Cfredks.  75 

Philotas,  who  was  oondemned  by  the  army  and  executed;  his  father, 
Parmanio,  was  put  to  death  in  Ecbaidna  (330)  at  Alexander's  corn- 


Alexander  now  crossed  Arachosia  in  a  northeasterly  direction, 
crossed  the  Paropanigus  (p.  24^,  or  Indian  Caucasus,  in  the  spring 
of  329  (foundation  of  a  new  Alacandria),  adyanced  into  Bactria,  pur- 
sued Bessus,  who  had  retreated  beyond  the  Oxus,  but  was  delivered 
to  Alexander,  and  ultimately  crucified.  Alexander  went  northward 
as  far  as  the  Jaxartes  (the  modem  Sir  Darid),  where  he  founded 
Alexandria  Eschdta;  after  some  short  expeditions  against  the  nomades 
(Scythians)  on  the  other  side  of  the  Jaxartes,  he  remained  for  some 
time  in  Sogdiana  (murder  of  Clitus  in  328  in  Maracanda,  now 
Samarcand),  after  which  he  went  to  Bactria.  Marriage  with  Rox- 
ana,  daughter  of  a  Bactrian  prince.  Alexander  began  at  this  time 
to  adopt  oriental  clothing  ana  customs. 

327.    E3q>edltion  of  Alexander  to  India. 

Haying  once  more  crossed  the  ParopanisuSy  Alexander,  after  sharp 
flghtine  with  the  mountain  tribes,  reached  the  Indus,  crossed  it,  ana 
entered  the  Punjab  (country  of  five  rivers).  In  alliance  with  the 
Indian  prince  Taxiles,  at  the 

326.    Battle  of  the  Hydaspes  (VitastH,  now  Ihelum) 

he  defeated  Porus,  and  took  him  prisoner,  treated  him,  how- 
ever, with  magnanimity,  and  replaced  him  on  his  throne  as  a 
dependent  prince. 
Foundation  of  Niccea  and  Bwxphdla.  Alexander  went  eastward 
as  far  as  the  Hyphasis  (Vip&9ft,  now  Vjdsa,  or  Beyas),  when  the 
Macedonian  soldiers  refused  to  go  farther,  and  compellea  him  to  re- 
turn to  the  Hydaspes,  Construction  of  a  fleet  or  some  2000  (7) 
ships,  which  conveyed  a  portion  of  the  armj  down  the  Hydaspes  to 
the  Acesines  (now  ChenatO),  while  the  remaming  part  (with  200  ele- 
phants) marched  along  the  shore.  Contest  with  the  Mcdli.  Alex- 
ander's rash  bravery  and  severe  wound.  After  his  recovery  the  fleet 
and  army  proceeded,  and  finally  reached  the  junction  of  the  united 
Pimjdb  rivers  with  the  Indus,  In  325  army  and  fleet  went  down 
the  Indus,  Crat&rus  returned  to  Persis  with  a  part  of  the  army  by 
the  short  route  to  the  west.  Alexander  continued  with  the  fleet  and 
land  force  to  the  delta  of  the  Indus,  where  the  fleet  under  Nearchus 
entered  the  Indian  Ocean.  Ebb  and  Jlow  of  the  tide,  Nearchus 
coasted  to  the  west,  and  discovered  the  entrance  to  the  Persian  Gulf, 
while  Alexander  conducted  the  rest  of  the  army  through  the  desert 
of  Gedrosia  (Baluchistan),  After  terrible  sufferinff  and  severe  loss 
he  arrived  in  Carmania,  met  CratSrus,  and  later  JNearchus  on  the 
coast.  The  latter  was  dispatched  to  discover  the  mouths  of  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates, 

324.  Return  of  Alexander  to  Persis  ;  arraig^nment  and  punishment 
Jan.  of  the  avaricious  and  cruel  governors  who  had  given  up  the 
long  and  his  army  for  lost.  Arrival  in  Susa,  Here  Alexan- 
der disclosed  his  great  plan  of  Hellenixing  the  East,  imiting 
the  victor  and  the  vanquished  into  one  great  nation  and  found- 
ing a  great  Macedonian-Peraian  nniveraal  empire  on  a 


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76  Ancient  BtMtory,  b.  c 

bftBuiol  equality  of  the  GnBco-Maeedonuuiaiid  the  Oriental  po- 
mJation.  Marriage  of  Alexander  with  the  eldest  daufi;fater  of 
Darins  III.  and  the  yonngest  sister  of  Artaxerxei  III,,  while 
HephoBStion  took  to  wife  the  youngest  daughter  of  Darius  IIL 
Eighty  Macedonian  officers  married  Persian  ladies  of  good 
family,  and  in  consequence  of  rewards  offered  hy  the  king» 
10,000  Macedonians  took  Persian  wives.  Great  plans  for  open- 
ing conunercial  reUitions  with  other  nations  and  for  the  con- 
struction of  roads  on  a  large  scale.  Alexander,  as  successor 
of  the  Great  King,  required  to  be  worshipped  as  a  divinity. 
324.  A  mutiny  of  the  Macedonian  army  at  Opis  on  the  Tigris  was 
July,  quelled  by  Alexander's  courage  and  wisdom.  The  veterans 
were  disbanded  after  receiving  great  rewards  and  sent  to 
Macedonia  under  Cratems,  while  ArUipdter  was  to  bring  new 
troops  thence.  Death  of  Hephoestion.  Alexander  undertook 
the  exploration  of  the  Evphrates, 

323.    Death  of  Alexander  the  Qreat, 

June,  at  Babylon,  which  he  had  destined  for  the  o^ital  of  the  new 
empire. 

323-276.  Wars  of  the  Dieulochi  (suooeesors  of  Aler- 
ander.)^ 

These  long  and  complicated  contests,  which  broke  out  immediately 
after  the  death  of  Alexander,  destroyed  the  newly  founded  universal 
empire,  but  carried  on  successfully  in  another  way  the  work  which 
Alexander  had  begun  of  HeUenizing  the  east,  and  spreading  Grecian 
language  and  culture.  (Hellenistic  language,  ^  koiv^  SidKeicros),  so  that 
the  new  Persian  empire  which  afterwards  grew  up  on  Uiis  g^und 
was  very  different  from  the  old  Persian  monarchy,  and  a  worthy 
rival  of  its  great  opponent,  the  empire  of  Rome. 

Perdiccaa  became  regent  in  Asia  for  Alexander's  half  brother 
Philip  Arrhidceus  and  his  posthumous  son  by  Roxana,  Alexander.  An- 
tipater  and  Cratema  shared  the  regency  of  the  west.  The  other 
generals  received  lieutenancies :  Ptolemaetis,  Egypt ;  Antigonua, 
PamphyHa,  Phrygia  and  Lycia;  Bumenea,  Alexander's  secretary,  Pa- 
pfdygonia  and  Cappadoda,  which  however  he  had  first  to  subdue; 
Caaaander,  Caria;  Iieonnatns,  Phrygia  on  the  Hellespont.  The  plan 
of  Perdiccas,  who  married  Alexander's  sister,  to  make  himself  king, 
caused  a  league  of  the  other  generals  against  him.  Perdiccas  was 
murdered  by  his  own  troops  whue  on  an  expedition  against  Ptolemseus 
(321).  The  new  re^nt,  Antipater,  made  a  new  assignment  of  the 
lieutenancies,  wherem  Seleucua  obtained  the  satrapy  of  Babylon. 
After  the  death  of  AntipSter  (319)  a  war  followed  between  his  son 
Cassander,  and  the  aged  Polysperchon  over  the  regency.  Antigdniis, 
in  league  with  Cassander,  was  victorious  in  Asia  over  EumetieSy  who 
was  betrayed  by  his  own  soldiers  and  whom  he  executed,  while  Cas^ 
Sander  was  victorious  in  Europe  (316).  Lysimachus  made  himself 
master  of  the  lieutenancy  of  Thrace, 

Antig5nus  wishing  to  bring  the  whole  empire  uuder  his  sceptre,  a 

1  Droysen,  Geschichle  dei  HelUnismut,  2  Ed.  Ft.  2  a.  3,  1877,  78 


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B.  c.  Greeks.  77 

31B-S01.    war  broke  ont  between  Antigontus  and  the  other 
generals, 

in  the  oonrse  of  which  Antlgonuji  and  his  son  Demetrius 

Poliorcetes  (UoXiopmrrfis)  aaaumed  the  royal  title  (306). 

Their  example  was  followed  by  Seleuctu,  Lysimachus,  CcMonder. 

During  this  period,  a  time  abounding  in  horrors,  every  member 

of  the  royal  family  of  Alexander  perished,  mostly  by  murder. 

His  ambitious  and  cruel  mother  Olymplaa  was  condenmed  to 

death  at  the  instance  of  Cassander,  and  stoned  by  the  relatives 

of  her  own  victims. 
After  a  long  contest  attended  with  varying  success,  the  war  against 
Antigdnus  was  ended  by  the 
301.    Battle  of  Ipsus  {"l^os  in  Fhiygia). 

Antigdnus  fell,  his  son  Demetrius  fled  and  led  for  many  years 

an  adventurous  life  as  a  pirate. 
In  Europe  the  war  still  lasted.  After  the  death  of  Cassander  (297), 
his  two  sons  quarreled  about  the  succession.  Demetrius  took  the 
opportuni^  to  seize  tlie  supreme  power  in  Macedonia  and  Greeoe. 
He  lost  his  power  indeed  throue^h  arrogance  and  desire  for  conquest 
after  a  reign  of  seven  years,  but  his  son  Antlgonna  Gonataa  after  a 
changeful  career  gained  permanent  possession  of  Macedonia  (277). 

Thus  after  msaxj  divisions  and  the  formation  of  many  sovereignties 
of  but  short  duration,  there  grew  up  out  of  the  Macedonian-Persian 
universal  empire,  five  monarohles,  of  decidedly  /fe^^^nw/u;  character, 
in  which  Greek  was  the  language  of  the  court  and  the  government, 
of  inscriptions  and  coinage,  and  of  the  educated  classes,  and  in  some 
of  which  Grecian  art,  literature  and  learning  reached  a  high  develop- 
ment. Nevertheless,  these  five  monardiies,  fsom  their  formation  to 
their  fall,  bore  the  imprint  of  the  deepest  moral  decay.  These  five 
states,  to  which  we  must  add  the  republic  of  Rhodes  and  the  Grecian 
Cantons,  were : 

1.  Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies  or  LagidSB  with  its  capital 

at  Alexandria. 

Ptolenumu  I.  ^323-285),  called  Sotir,  i.  e.  saviour,  because  he  sent 
aid  to  the  Rhodians,  or  £a^  i.  e.  son  of  Lagus,  founder  of  the  king- 
dom. PtoUmeeus  II.  (285-247)  called  Philadelphus  from  being  the 
husband  of  his  sister  Arsmde;  foundation  of  the  museum  with  the  Alex- 
andrine library.  PtoUmeeus  III.  (247-221),  called  EuergjStis,  i.  e. 
benefactor,  by  the  priests,  temporary  conquest  of  Caria,  Lycia,  Cilicia, 
Cvprus.  PtoUmteus  IV.,  PAt/(>pater  (221-205),  decline  of  the  power 
of  the  monarchy.  PtoUmeeus  F.,  EpipMbnes  (205-181);  Egypt  be- 
comes dependent  on  the  Romans. 

2.  Syria,  under  the  Seleucidee.     Capital  at  first  Seleucia, 

on  the  Tigris,  afterwards  Antioofda  on  the  Orontes. 

SeUueus  L  Nicator  (312-281),  founder  of  the  kingdom.  Ant%6chus 
/.  Sotir  (28i-261).  Antiochus  IL  Theos  (261-246).  SeUucus  IL 
(246-226).  SeUucus  III.  (226-222).  Antwchus  III.  the  Great  (222- 
187).     Defeated  at  Maguesia  (190)  by  the  Romans,  Antidchus  was 


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78  Ancient  History.  B.  a 

eompeUed  to  aiscept  a  peace,  which  strack  the  kingdom  of  the  Selen- 

cidjB  from  the  roll  of  the  great  powers. 

The  following  states  separated  themselves  from  the  Syrian  realm  of 

the  SeleucidiB,  and  did  not  belong  to  the  Hellenistic  system  of  states. 

278.  a.  The  confederacy  of  the  Qalatiana  (p.  35)  in  Asia  Minor> 
between  Bithynia,  Phryeia,  Lycaonia  ana  Cappadocia,  founded 
by  GaUic  tribes,  who,  during  the  wars  of  the  Diodochi,  had 
ravaged  Macedonia  and  Greece,  crossed  the  Hellespont  and 
in  278  settled  in  Asia  Minor.  They  consisted  of  tne  three 
tribes  of  Trocmt,  Tectasages  and  Tdistoboii  (each  under  four 
Tetrarchs)  with  the  three  capitals  Tavia,  Ancyra  and  PesnnQs. 
In  the  fi»t  century  before  Christ,  Deiotdrus  became  king  of 
aU  Galatia,  which  Augustus  made  a  Roman  province. 

260.  b.  The  Parthiana  (p.  29)  who  under  the  Arsacidas  (250 
B.  c.  to  226  A.  D.)  conquered  all  lands  between  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Indus,  and  formed  a  dam,  in  the  east,  first  agamst  the 
Hellenistic  and  afterwards  against  the  Roman  power. 

167.  o.  The  Jews  under  the  Maccabees  (p:  11). 
The  two  following  countries  were  never  dependent  on  the  empire 

of  the  Selencidfld. 

a.  Pontua,  which  had,  it  is  true,  submitted  to  Alexander  the  Great, 
but  was  recoenized  as  independent  under  its  own  kings  of  Persian 
descent  (of  the  Acluemenid»  it  was  claimed,  p.  25),  by  the  victors 
at  Ipsus  (p.  77).  The  kst  kings  were  Mithrtdates  VL  the  Great, 
and  his  son  Phamdces  (see  Roman  Hlatory,  Fourth  Period,  p.  129). 

b.  Armenia,  although  kings  of  Armenia  first  appear  after  the 
battle  of  Magnesia,  (190). 

3.  The  kingdom  of  Persamon  under  the  AttalidsB,  Capi- 

tal, Persaxntus  in  Mysia. 
Founded  by  PhUeUxrus  (283-263)  who  had  been  appointed  gov- 
ernor by  Lysimachxis,  EwnSnes  L  (263-241).  AUSUts  I.  (241-197). 
EuniSnes  li,  (197-159),  founder  of  the  library  of  Pergamus.  Attn- 
Ins  IL  (159-138).  AUaUm  III.  (138-133),  who  bequeathed  the 
kingdom  to  the  Romans. 

4.  Bithsmia.    Capital,  Nioomedia. 

Foujided  by  Nicamides  I,  (277-260?).  ZeOas  (250-228?).  Ph*- 
sias  L  (228-183),  with  whom  Hannibal  took  refuge.  PrusUu  IL 
(183-149).  Niamides  IL  (149-91).  Nicamedes  IIL  (91-75),  who 
bequeathed  the  kingdom  to  the  Romans. 

5.  Ma<;edonia  under  the  descendants  of  Demetrius  Poli- 

orcetes.  Capital,  Pella. 
Antigonus  Gonatas  (277-239).  Demetrius  IL  (239-229).  Antiganus 
Doson  (229-220).  PhXIip  V.  (Ill),  (221-179)  defeated  by  the 
Romans  at  Cynascephdlai  (1^7).  Perseus  (179-168).  After  the  battle 
of  Pydna  (168)  Macedouia  became  a  dependency  of  Rome,  in  146 
it  was  made  a  Roman  province  (p.  122). 

6.  The  island  of  Rhodes  (To8os), 

•ince  the  battle  of  Ipsus  (301)  an  independent  state  ;  since  the  8eo< 


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B.  c.  Greeks.  79 

end  century  (b.  c.,)  dependent  ally  of  the  Romans ;  made  a  provinoe 
by  the  Emperor  Vespasiany  71  a.  d. 

7.    The  Greek  oantons, 

under  the  lead  of  Athens,  made  a  fatile  attempt,  immediately  after 
the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  to  throw  off  tne  Macedonian  yoke. 
From  the  city  of  Lamia  in  Thessaly,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which 
the  war  was  principally  waged,  it  was  known  as  the 

323-322.    Lamlan  War. 

The  Greeks  were  at  first  successful  under  Leosthffnes,  and  defeated 
LeonnOtus,  but  were  defeated  by  ArUipdier  and  Crath^a  at  Cranrum^ 
south  of  the  Peneus.  The  cantons  submitted  one  after  another. 
The  Athenians  were  compelled  to  receive  a  Macedonian  garrison  in 
Munychia  and  to  give  up  their  democratic  constitution.  (PHwAon 
and  l)emdde8f  the  political  leaders).  Citizenship  was  regulated  bjr  a 
property  census.  jDemosthenes  fled  and  took  poison  on  the  island  of 
Catauria  (Argdlis).  During  the  war  between  Ccut^ander  and  Polys* 
perchon  (p.  76)  the  democratic  party  regained  its  supremacy  in  Athens, 
and  Fhoc^>n  was  executed ;  later,  however,  Demeirhu  of  PhaUrwiy 
the  political  companion  of  Fhocion,  became  under  Macedonian  su- 
premacy, the  ruler  of  the  Athenian  commonwealth  (317-307).  In 
the  course  of  the  wars  of  the  Diadochi  Demetrlua  Polioroetes 
gained  possession  of  Athens  several  times  and  made  the  Acropolis 
tiie  scene  of  the  ereatest  debauchery  (307-205).  The  last  attempt  to 
throw  off  the  Macedonian  yoke  and  reeain  its  old  importance  in 
Greece  was  made  bv  Athens  under  Giaucon  and  Chremontdes  in 
263  B.  c.  but  it  was  aefeated  after  a  three  years'  war  and  continued 
to  be  tributary  to  the  Macedonians.  Thenceforward  Athens  had  no 
political  influence  in  Greece ;  it  retained,  however,  its  autonomy  as 
rentrded  its  municipal  administration,  and  continued  to  be  the  seat  of 
cmtnre  and  learning. 

Thessaly,  during  this  period,  was  a  Macedonian  province  ;  Epims 
was  for  a  time  a  separate  state,  afterwards  it  was  allied  with  Maoe* 
donia.  Most  of  the  cantons  of  central  Greece  and  Peloponnesus  became 
allies,  more  or  less  dependent,  of  the  Macedonian  sovereigns.  The 
complete  subjugation  of  Greece  by  Macedonia  was  prevented  by  the 

280.    ^tolian  League  founded  about  280,  and  the  AohSBan 

"League  which  was  renewed  at  the  same  time. 
The  latter  grew  to  considerable  power  and  acquired  the  hegemony 
in  Peloponnesus  after  it  was  joined  by  Bicyon  (251)  which  was 
freed  from  its  tyrants  by  ArOtus,  and  by  Corinth  (243),  which  Ard- 
tus  had  freed  from  the  Macedonian  garrison. 

Jealous  of  this  hegemony  the  ^tolian  League  and  Sparta^  which 
had  completely  lost  her  ancient  simplicity  of  life,  and  was  in  the 
hands  of  a  wealthy  oligarchy,  joined  forces  against  the  Achsan 
League.  The  young  king  Agis  /F.  paid  with  his  life  for  his  attempt 
to  induce  a  reform  of  tiie  Spartan  state  (241  ?).  A  similar  at- 
tempt made  by  King  Cleomenes  TIL  had  better  success,  though  for  a 
time  only :  he  caused  the  ephors  to  be  surprised  and  put  to  death, 


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80  Ancient  Hutory.  b.  c« 

baniBhed  eighty  olinicbs,  and  established  a  reformed  oonstitatioiL 
CUomines  conquered  Argos  and  Mantinia,  and  waged  successfol  war 
against  the  Achsan  Leiu^e.  ArStus  sought  aid  against  Sparta  from 
the  Macedonian  king  Antigdnus  Doson^  luod  delivered  the  AcropoUa 
of  Corinth  into  his  himds.. 

The  Spartans  were  defeated  in  the 

221.    Battie  of  Sellasia  (in  Laconia). 

Cleomenes  escaped  by  flight  and  died  in  Egypt  ^220).  The 
Macedonians  entered  Sparta,  restored  the  oligarchy  and  lorced  upon 
the  Spartans  an  alliance  with  the  Achsan  League,  now  under  Mace- 
donian Supremacy.  The  latter  was  immedia4;ely  afterwards  in- 
volved in  a  war  with  the  ^toUan  Leae^e,  during  which  the  Spartans 
took  sides  against  the  Achieans,  and  Peloponnesus  was  horribly  rav- 
aged (220-217). 

About  this  time  the  Italian  League  formed  an  alliance  with  the 
Romans  against  Philip  V,  ^III-),  of  Macedonia,  who  was  allied  with 
Hannibal,  (Fint  Macedonian  war,  see  Roman  history,  third  Period, 
p.  116). 

Philopcunen,  who  has  been  called  **  the  last  of  the  Greeks,''  be- 
came Stratee^us  of  the  Achean  League  in  207,  and  defeated  the 
Spartans  under  their  tyrant,  MachantdaSj  in  the 

206.    Battle  of  Mantlnea,  and  slew  the  tyrant     In  the  second 
Macedonian  war  ^see  Roman  history,  p.  118).  the  Achaxm 
League  likewise  jomed  the  Romans  against  PhiUp  V.  {IIL)^ 
who,  after  the  battle  of  CynascephaUe  (197),  was  forced  to 
abandon  the  hegemony  of  Greece.    The  Romans  proclaimed 
the  freedom  of  all  the  Grecian  cantons,  but  they  gave  support 
everywhere  to  that  party  which  devoted  itself  to  the  advance- 
ment of  Roman  interests,  and  caused  themselves  to  be  fre- 
quently appealed  to  as  arbitrators. 
After  the  death  of  a  second  Tyrant  of  Sparta,  the  cruel  NabiSf 
PhUopcemen  humbled  the  Spartans  again,  and  forced  them  to  reenter 
the  Acluean  League,  but  was  soon  after  taken  prisoner  and  put  to 
death  in  a  war  against  the  Messinians,  who  had  revolted  at  tne  in- 
stance of  Deinocrdtes  (183).  After  the  death  of  Philopcemen,  decline 
of  the  pcwer  of  the  Achaan  League^  which  made  a  final  exertion  in 
the  so-cfdled  Achasan  war  against  the  Romans,  which  ended  with 
the 
Defeat  of  the  Greeks  at  Leucopetra,  on  the  isthmus,  and  the 

146.    Capture  and  destruction  of  Ck>rintlu 

The  Corinthians  were  sold  as  slaves;  a  part  of  their  land  was 
given  to  Sicyon;  the  rest  became  the  property  of  the  Roman 
state.  The  remaining  Greek  cantons  were  treated  with  kind- 
ness, and  for  the  most  part  retained  their  own  administration 
and  jurisdiction,  but  were  subject  to  the  Roman  governor  of 
Macedonia,  It  was  not  until  later  (27)  that  Peloponnesus  and 
Central  Greece  seem  to  have  become  a  Roman  province 
under  the  name  of  Aohaia. 


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B*  O.  Roman  Hutwry.  81 

§  8.    ROMAN  BISTORT. 

GBOOBAFmOAL  SUBVXT  OF  AKCIEKT  ITALT. 

(See  Kiepert,  Atlat  Antiqum,  Tab.  YII.,  VIIL,  and  IX.) 

Italia  was  first  used  as  the  general  name  of  the  larger  part  of 
the  peninsula,  which  is  traversed  by  the  Apennines  and  extended  to 
the  Macra  and  Rubicon,  since  the  middle  of  the  third  century  before 
Christ;  as  applied  to  the  whole  peninsula,  as  far  as  the  Alps,  Italia  was 
first  employed  in  scientific  usage  by  Pdybius  (about  150);  it  waa  not 
used  ofBcially  and  in  a  politi^  sense,  until  after  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus. It  was  divided  into  Upper  Italy,  Central  Italy,  and 
liower  Italy. 

I.  Upper  Italy,  traversed  by  the  Padtis  (Po),  and  the 
Athi^Ms  or  Ai&gia  (Adige,  Etsch),  and  containing  the  lakes,  Locus  Ver- 
hdnus  (Lago  Maggiore),  Locus  LoHus  (L.  di  Como),  and  Locus  Bend^ 
cus  (L.  di  Uarda),  comprised  the  following  three  districts  which,  before 
Augustus,  were  not  reckoned  a  part  of  political  Italy:  1.  Ligaria, 
VerceUoi  (Vercelli),  Tourasia,  later  Augusta  Taurinorum  (Torino, 
Turin),  Genoa  (Gendva);  2.  Gallia  Ciaalpina,  also  called  togata, 
in  distinction  from  transalpine  Gaul,  which  was  known  as  Gallia  bra- 
cata,  divided  by  the  Pculus  (Po)  into:  a.  Oallia  tranapadana,  Co- 
snum  (Como)  ;  AfediolCtnum  (Milano,  Milan)  ;  Ticlnum  (Pavia),  on  the 
Tic^ius,  a  branch  of  the  Po;  CremSnOy  on  the  Po;  Mantua^  on  the 
Mindus^  a  branch  of  the  Po,  near  which  was  the  village  of  Andes, 
the  birthplace  of  Virgil;  VerOnOj  on  the  AthSsis.  b.  Gkillia  ciapa- 
dana:  Pfocentia  CPiacenza),  at  the  junction  of  the  Trebia  and  the 
Podus,  Muifna,  (Modena),  Parma,  Jaononia  (Bologna),  Ravenna,  in 
ancient  times  a  seaport.  3.  Venetia:  Poiav/tum  (radua),  birthplace 
of  Livius,  Aquileia. 

II.  Central  Italy,  lying  between  the  little  rivers  Macra  and 
Rubicon  in  the  N.,  Sildrus  and  Frento  in  the  S.,  was  usually  divided 
into  six  districts:  Etruria,  Latitun,  Campania,  on  the  Mare  Tyrrhe- 
num,  or  InfSrum;  Umbria,  Picenum,  Sanmium,  on  the  Mare  Ad- 
riaticum  or  Stjq>irum.  The  Tiber,  running  from  N.  to  S.,  divided 
Etnaria  on  the  right,  from  Umbria  and  Latium  on  the  left  bank.  The 
name  of  Somnium  is,  however,  moro  corroctly  applied  to  the  southern 
inland  district  of  Central  Italy,  so  that  the  ScHetlic  tribes,  who  wero 
related  to  the  Sanmites  and  Picentes,  formed  geographicallv  a  sepa- 
rate seventh  group,  under  which  were  included  the  Vesiini,  marrucmi 
and  Frentani,  extending  to  the  Adriatic  coast,  and  the  inland  districts 
of  the  Sabvnes,  Podigni,  and  Marsi, 

1.  Etraria,  inhabited  by  the  Etruscans  (Rasenna),  or  Tuscans,  in 
twelve  communities  under  kings .  or  Lucumos.  These  formed  a  con- 
federacy, whose  federal  constitution  seems  to  have  been  exceedingly 
loose.  The  most  important  places  in  Etruria  were,  from  N.  to  S.: 
Pises,  Volaterrcs,  Arredum  (Arezzo),  Cortona,  Perusia  (Perugia,  west 
of  which  Lake  Trasimenus),  Popuhnia,  on  the  coast,  Clusium  (Chiusi)| 
VolsinHf  TarguinUt  Faleriif  CoBre^  VdL 

A 


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82  Ancient  History,  b.  g. 

2.  Ziatiiiiii.  In  the  smaller  district  of  the  LaiMi  Roma,  on 
the  left  hank  of  the  Tiber  (a  part  of  the  modem  city,  Tnutevire 
and  Borgo,  is  on  the  right  bank,  but  the  principal  nart  of  the 
city  is  still  on  the  left  bank),  traditionaUy  said  to  be  bmlt  on  seven 
hills-  (montes:  CapUolimu,  Palatinus,  Aventinuif  Ccduu^  EsquUinuB; 
coUes:  FtmtraoZtf,  Q^irinali8).^  On  the  southern  summit  of  the 
Mens  Capitolinus  the  Camtolium  with  the  temple  of  J^^nter  CapUol^ 
wu$,  and  the  Tarpeian  nock;  on  the  northern  summit,  separated 
from  the  southern  by  the  IntermorUktmf  the  Arx  with  the  temple  of 
Juno  Mon&a,  At  the  foot  of  t&e  Capitol,  the  Forum  Romdnum  (ihe 
market-place),  consisting  of  the  Forum  proper,  and  the  ComUwm^ 
with  the  speakers'  platform  (fioetrHj  named  from  the  prows  of  the 
ships  from  ArUium)  between  the  two.  In  the  last  century  of  the 
republic  the  forum  was  surrounded  by  temples  and  basilicas  (e.  g. 
Boiilica  Julia),  Hie  imperial  forums  were  not  open  places,  but 
masses  of  buildings  and  columned  porticos.  The  Palaimui  with  the 
palaces  of  the  emperors;  £.  of  this,  the  Amphitheatrum  Flavium 
(Colosseum,  for  80,000  spectators).  N.  from  the  Capitolinus  to  the 
Tiber  lay  the  field  of  Mars,  Campus  MarUus,  during  the  renublio 
an  open  field  used  for  military  practice,  athletic  sports,  and  political 
gatherings,  after  Cesar  and  during  the  imperial  period  covered 
with  splendid  buildinss,  now  the  centre  of  the  modem  city.  The 
buildings  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber  did  not  belong  to  the  Urifs 
proper.  They  were  situated  partially  on  the  Afons  Janiadus,  par- 
tially on  the  Mons  Vaticanus,  where  the  Vatican  and  the  church  of 
St.  Peter  now  stand;  eastward  stood,  by  the  Tiber,  the  MausoUum 
Hadrianij  where  the  Castle  of  St  Angela  now  stands.  Finally  must 
be  mentioned  the  island  of  &e  Tiber.  Sixteen  ^reat  artificial  roads 
ran  from  Rome  in  various  directions  :  Via  Appm  and  Via  Latina  to 
the  S.,  Via  Valeria  to  the  £.,  Via  Flaminia  to  the  N.,  Via  Awrelia  to 
the  W.,  etc. 

OstiOf  the  harbor  of  Rome,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber,  existed 
at  the  time  of  the  kings;  under  the  emperors  a  second  harbor,  Portus, 
on  the  right  bank  of  me  Tiber.  Laurentum,  Lamnium^  Ardia,  Suessa 
Pometia,  Arida  (on  the  Via  Apma),  Velitros  not  far  distant,  AUm 
Longa  on  the  slope  of  Mt.  AIImuius,  near  the  lake  of  Albania, 
Tu^um  (near  the  present  Frascati),  Gabiiy  TUmr  (Tivoli)  on  the 
Anioy  a  branch  of  the  Tiber;  Fidence^  north  of  Rome,  south  of  the 
brook  AUku 

In  the  land  of  the  JEqui^  Prceneste  (afterwards  a  Latin  city  (  ^ 
In  the  land  of  the  Hemicoiy  Anagnia.  In  the  land  of  the  Vi 
Fregelks,  Arpinumj  the  birthplace  of  Marius  and  Cicero  ;  on  the  coast, 
Antium  and  Tarracina  (Anxur^,  south  of  the  Fomptine  marshes. 
In  the  land  of  the  Aruncii :  Formice,  MintumcSf  on  tne  Liris  (Gfari- 
fl^iano) ;  Suessa  (Aurunca)^  near  the  Mons  Massicus  and  the  Ager 
Falemus  (famous  wines). 

^  The  expression  '*  seven- hilled  city  '*  applies  properly  to  old  Rom€f  the  pala- 
tine city.  Its  transfer  to  the  Servian  and  repuhlican  komie  is  the  result  of  a 
later  misunderstanding;.  The  description  of  the  city  of  the  time  of  Con- 
Btantine,  leaves  out  the  two  oolUs^  Quiriftalis  and  Viminali»j  and  increases  the 
number  of  montet  to  7  by  adding  the  Vaticanus  and  the  Janieultu,  which 
lay  outside  of  the  city  proper.    See  Momnuen,  Eitt.  bf  Rome,  I.  116,  note. 

uigitized  Dy  \.j\jkjwi\^ 


B.  c.  Reman  History,  83 

3.  Campania,  trayersed  b^  the  VoUumus  (Yoltarno),  with  the 
mountains  Gaums  and  Veswniu  near  Naples.  Two  bays  separated 
from  one  another  by  a  rocky  isthmus:  Sinus  Cumanus  (Bsky  of 
Naples),  and  Sinus  Pcsstanus  (Bay  of  Salerno).  Along  the  eoast: 
Lilemum;  CumcB  (K^/ti},  foundea  by  a  colony  from  Chalcis  in  Eubcna 
in  1050  ?)  ;  Misenum  near  the  promontory  of  similar  name ; 
Pnte51i  (Piuzuoli) ;  Bates  near  lake  Lucrinus,  famous  as  a  watering 
place;  Parthenope  or  PalaBopolis,the  oldest  part  of  Neapdis  (NmCiroXis, 
Napdli,  Naples^;  Herctdaneum  and  Pompeii,  buried  m  79  a.  d.  by 
lava  and  ashes  m>m  Vesuvius;  Salemum  on  the  Sinus  Pestanns,  the 
chief  city  of  the  Pieenles  who  had  been  transferred  thither.  Inland: 
Capaa  (not  the  modem  Capua,  but  Santa  Maria  Maggiore),  with  an 
immense  amphitheatre;  Noia, 

4.  Umbrla.  On  the  coast:  Arimmuin  (Rimini),  Pisaurum,  Sena 
GaUica  (Sinagaglia).    Inland:  SenthDunty  Iguviuin,  SpoUtium, 

5.  Picennm.    Anccna  on  the  coast;  Asculum  Picenum. 

6.  Samnium  (in  the  wider  sense,  see  p.  81).  In  the  land  of  the 
Sabini :  Amitemumf  birthplace  of  Sallust ;  Cures,  Reate.  In  the  land 
of  the  Pcdigni:  Corfinium;  Sutmo,  birthplace  of  Ovid.  Li  Samnium 
proper:  Bcmanum;  ^semia;  Beneventum  rBenevento),  former  Mai- 
ventum;  Caudium,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Caudine  Pass  (Furculcs 
Caudtncs), 

m.  Lower  Italy,  also  called  Greater  Greece,  Magna 
Gneca  ('EAA^  v  fityd\ri),  was  divided  into  four  districts  :  Apulia, 
Calabria  in  the  east,  Lucania  and  Bruttinm  ^  in  the  west. 

1.  Apulia  :  Luoeria,  A(u)sciUum  ApiUum,  Canncst  Venusia,  birth- 
place of  Horace,  near  Mt  Vuliur.  2.  Calabria :  Bnmdisium 
(Brindisi),  the  port  of  depaiiure  for  Greece;  Tarenium  (Tdpasf  see 
p.  51).  3.  Luoania:  Pcestum  (Posidonia,  Tloauiwta),  with  notable 
jninsof  temples;  Metapontvm;  HeracUa  ('HfNUcXcia).  4.  Bmttium: 
Syhdris  ^S^/Elopis),  destroyed  in  510,  by  tiie  Crotonians  ;  Thurii 
afterwards  btult  in  its  neighborhood  ^see  p.  84);  Croton  (K^nv), 
not  far  from  the  promontory  of  Lacimum;  Loan  Epizephyrii  (Aoicpoi 
'Evi^c^^ioi);  Khegium  (^Viryioy,  i.  e.  rent,  from  f^ry^t^  the  present 
Reggio).     Consentia  (Cosenza  on  the  river  Busento). 

Italian  Islands. 

Bicilia  (Xuctxia),  separated  from  Italy  by  the  Fretum  SiciUum 
(Strait  of  Messina),  formerly  called  Sicania,  also  Trinacriay  with 
its  three  ci^s,  or  promontories:  Peldrum  in  the  north,  Pachynum  in 
the  south,  and  Litybceum  in  the  west.  On  the  eastern  coast  from 
north  to  south :  Messthia  (formerly  Zancle,  p.  51),  TauroTnenium 
rTaormina),  CatSna  (Catania)  at  the  base  of  2ltna,  ByracnssB 
(2vpc(iroii«rcu,  Siragossa,  see  p.  51),  at  the  time  of  its  greatest  extent 
comprising  five  cities:  Ortygia,  situated  on  an  island,  and  hence  also 
called  NasoSf  which  now  forms  the  whole  city,  with  the  spring  of 
Arethusa,  Achradina,  Tycha,  Neapolis,  and  Epipolcs,  at  first  a  suburb. 

1  This  form  (inntead  of  Bruttii,  BrtUtiue  Agtr)  has,  however,  no  ancient 
anthority.  The  Byzantines  after  the  tenth  century,  A.  d.,  gave  Bruttium 
the  name  Calabria^  after  the  Normans  had  di^poAsessed  them  of  Calabria 
proper,  and  the  eastern  peninsula  was  knovrn  after  that  time  as  Apulict. 


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84  Ancient  Bittary.  b.  c* 

On  the  soath  coast:  Camatinaf  Oela^  Agrigenium  ('Axpctyas,  now 
Girgenti),  between  Gela  and  Afi;rigentam  the  promontory  of  Ecnomos^ 
not  far  ^m  the  mouth  of  the  (southern)  river  Himeray  SelinuB 
(ScXmwvs).  On  the  west  coast:  LibybcBumy  DrepQnum,  Eryx,  On  tiie 
north  coast:  Panarmus  (n^b^op/ios,  now  Palermo,  see  p.  17),  Htmera^ 
MyUz,    In  the  interior  of  the  island:  Henna. 

Sardinia  (2ap8ii):  Car&lis  (Cagliari). 

Corsica  (K^iwf):  Alalia^  later  the  Roman  colony  of  Aleria,  Of 
the  amaUer  islands  the  following  are  noteworthy:  1.  Meliia,  now 
Malta,  and  Gtnuios,  now  Gozzo,  south  of  Sicily.  2.  The  Insulae 
JEgaies,  on  the  west  of  Sicily,  not  far  from  the  promontory  LUybseum. 
3.  The  Insula  Police  (now  the  Liparian  islandb)  the  largest,  Lip&ra^ 
north  of  Sicily.  4.  Caprea,  now  Capri,  and  JEnaria^  now  LMihia,  at 
the  entrance  to  the  Bay  of  Naples.  5.  The  Pontian  islands,  PantiOj 
Pandaiaria,    6.  i/tHx,  now  Elba. 

BBUOION  OF  THE  ANCIENT  BOMANS.^ 

The  Romans  possessed  an  ancient  relirion  entirely  distinct  from 
that  of  Greece.  It  was  a  common  inheritance  of  the  Italians, 
though^  probably  early  receiving  Etruscan  and  Grecian  elements. 
In  the  last  centuries  of  the  republic  the  theogony  of  Greece  was 
imported  into  Roman  literature,  and  to  some  extent  Into  the  state  re- 
ligion. At  a  still  later  time,  imder  a  policjr  of  tolerance,  aU  forms 
of  faith  and  superstition  were  represented  m  the  great  capital. 

The  religion  of  the  Romans  was  a  polytheism,  but  their  deifica- 
tion of  nature  was  not  so  detailed,  nor  were  their  deities  so  human  as 
was  the  case  among  the  Greeks.  Their  faith  had  a  sterner  aspect, 
the  practical  side  of  religion  was  more  natural  to  them  than  the 
poetic  side.  They  honored  and  utilized  their  gods,  but  they  wove 
few  fancies  about  them. 

The  great  gods  were:  Jnpiter,  god  of  the  sky,  << father  of  gods 
and  men; "  Juno,  his  wife,  goddess  of  maternity;  Minerva,  goddess 
of  intellect,  presiding  over  the  arts;  Mara,  god  of  war,  the  most 
representative  of  the  Italian  divinities;  Bellona,  goddess  of  warj 
Vesta,  patron  of  the  Roman  state,  goddess  of  the  national  hearth 
where  burned  the  sacred  fire;  Cerea,  Satomua,  goddess  and  god 
of  agriculture;  Ops,  goddess  of  the  harvest  and  of  wealth;  Her- 
oulea,  god  of  gain,  presiding  over  the  sanctity  of  contracts;  Mer- 
onrina,  god  of  traffic;  Neptunna,  god  of  the  sea. 

Venus  seems  not  to  have  been  one  of  the  original  Italian  divinities. 
She  first  appears  as  a  goddess  of  agriculture,  but  was  soon  identified 
wiUi  AphroaUe,  the  Grecian  goddess  of  love.  Of  the  lesser  gods  there 
were  many,  watehing  over  every  act  of  individuals  and  of  the  state, 
and  over  every  stage  of  ^prowth  and  development.  Such  were  Tdlus, 
SUvaniiSf  TerminuSy  Qiarmttf,  Janus,  the  god  of  the  beginning  and  end, 
represented  with  a  double  face.  (Gate  of  Janus  in  the  comiturm, 
open  in  time  of  war,  closed  in  time  of  peace).  Lares  and  Penates^ 
presiding  over  the  family  and  the  home,  5a/,  Ztma,  ete. 

1  Bawlinaon,  Religiont  of  the  Ancient  IVorld.  chap.  VIII.  Hommseiv 
Mitt'  of  Rome,  Book  I.  chap.  XII.    Iieisliton,  Uitt,  qf  Borne,  chap.  lY. 

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B.  c.  Roman  History,  85 

Worship.  The  worship  of  the  Romaos  consisted  of  a  ronnd  of 
ceremonies,  —  prayers,  sacrifices,  games,  —  of  strictly  prescrihed 
form,  with  the  object  of  securing  the  good-will,  averting  the  anger  or 
ascertaining  the  intentions  of  the  gods.  In  private  life  these  ceremonies 
were  performed  in  the  family  and  were  conducted  by  its  head,  the 
paterfamilias;  in  matters  affecting  the  whole  people,  the  state,  which 
was  a  larger  family,  conducted  the  worship.  In  early  times  the  king 
presided  at  the  ceremonies.  Under  the  republic  a  rex  sacrifiadus  was 
appointed  to  perform  those  reli^ous  acts  which  were  formerly  the 
exclusive  right  and  duty  of  the  kmg. 

The  state  maintained  at  public  cost :  1.  **  Colleges  of  sacred  lore  " 
having  general  supervision  over  religion  and  all  matters  connected 
iherewitiL  The  most  important  were:  The  college  of  PontifioeB, 
four  in  nimiber  (afterwards  nine  and  sixteen),  the  highest  religious 
power  in  the  state.  With  them  rested  the  decision  as  to  which  days 
were  suitable  for  the  transaction  of  business,  public  or  private,  and 
which  not  (dies  fasti  et  nefasti).  Hence  they  controlled  the  calendar, 
whereby  they,  with  the  augures,  became  important  instruments  in  the 
hands  of  the  government.  The  pontifices  also  decided  upon  the  ac- 
tion made  necessary  by  the  augunes.  At  their  head  stood  the  pantifex 
maximuSf  who  appointed  the  rex  sacrificulus,  the  flamines  and  vestales. 
College  of  Augures,  originally  four,  then  nine  and  sixteen,  who  con« 
suited  the  will  of  the  c^ods,  as  revealed  in  omens,  by  the  observation 
of  the  flight,  cries,  and  manner  of  feeding  of  certain  birds.  College 
of  Fetiales,  twenty  (?^  in  number,  presiding  over  the  relations  be- 
tween the  Romans  ana  other  peoples.  They  conducted  the  conclu- 
sion of  treaties,  acted  as  heralds,  and  performed  the  ceremony  of  de- 
claration of  war,  by  throwing  a  blood-tipped  spear  into  the  hostile 
territory.^  Duumviri  Saororum,  having  the  charge  of  the  Sibylline 
books.  The  haruspices  exercised  the  art  of  interpreting  the  will  of 
the  gods  from  the  examination  of  the  entrails  of  slaughtered  victims. 
They  were  an  Etruscan  institution. 

2.  Colleges  of  officiating  priests:  Flamines,  who  presided  in  va- 
rious temples  with  chapters  of  assisting  priests.  Salli,  or  dancine 
priests,  of  Quirinus  and  Mars,  the  latter  having  charge  of  the  sacred 
shields  of  Mars  (anciUa),  Vestal  Virgins,  guardians  of  the  sacred 
fire  of  Vesta,  six  maidens  who  had  taken  the  vow  of  virginity.  Lu- 
peroi,  Fratres  Arrales,  etc. 

Besides  the  observance  of  sacrifices  and  the  offering  of  prayers,  the 
priests  had  charge  of  conducting  various  public  games:  Lupercalia, 
(Feb.  15th),  Feria  LatintZj  Saturnalia  (Dec.)  and  others. 

BTHNOGRAFHICAL  SKETCH  OF  ITALY.* 

At  the  extreme  south  the  lapygians.  Their  descent  is  not  certainly 
established,  though  they  undoubtedly  belone^  to  the  Indo-European 
family  and  probably  to  the  lUyrian  race.  In  historic  times  the  rem- 
nants of  the  tribe  appear,  in  striking  contradistinction  to  the  true 
Xtalici,  in  process  of  rapid  Hellenization. 

1  When  the  growth  of  the  Roman  dominion  had  made  this  a  milter  of  diffi" 
cnlty,  a  plot  of  ground  in  Rome  was  set  apart  to  represent  hostile  territory,  and 
kito  this  the  spear  was  hurled. 

9  Mommsen,  ffisi.  of  Rome,  I.  chap.  2. 


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86  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

To  the  Indo-Buropean  family  belonged  likewise  the  inhabitaats 
of  central  Italy,  the  Italioi  proper,  who  were  divided  into  the  Latin 
and  the  Umbro-Sabelllan  (Oskan),  tribes.  They  were  the  next  of 
kin  of  the  Hellenes.  The  Italic!  entered  Italy  by  land.  The  LcUini 
occupied  the  western  lowlands  {Latium,  connected  with  IStus),^  the 
Umbro-SabdLian  tribes  spread  themselves  over  the  eastern  part  of 
Central  Italy  (JJwbrians,  Picentes,  Sabines,  Maniy  Hemici,  VciUcix^, 
A  main  division  of  this  group,  the  Samnites,  occupied  the  mountam 
region  which  was  named  after  them,  and  drove  back  the  lapygians. 
From  the  Samnites  several  tribes  branched  off;  so  the  CampOmans^ 
called  after  the  plain  (Campus)  which  they  settled  along  the  lyr- 
rhine  sea. 

Peculiarly  distinct  from  the  Latin  and  Sabellian  Italici,  in  language, 
religion  and  customs  were  the  Etruaoans  (in  their  own  language, 
Raaenna).  Up  to  the  present  time  all  attempts  to  establish  their 
ethnographical  position,  have  failed  to  reach  settled  conclusions. 
The  attempt  recently  made,  to  prove  them  members  of  the  Indo- 
European  family  and  the  Etruscan  language  closelv  related  to  the 
Latin,  must,  it  would  seem,  be  regarded  as  a  failure.^ 

Perhaps  the  Etruscan  people  were  formed  by  the  union  of  two  dif- 
ferent tribes,  one  of  which  came  to  Italy  over  the  Retian  Alps,  while 
the  other  came  by  sea. 

Before  the  invasion  of  the  Cdts,  Etruscans  dwelt  north  of  the 
Apennines,  on  both  sides  of  the  Po,  between  the  territory  of  the 
VenSti  (as  far  as  the  Adis^),  and  the  LigOnans, 

The  whole  of  Upper  Italv  was  occupied  by  Celtic  tribes  (about 
500  B.  c.?),  which  graduaUy  forced  the  Etruscans  and  Umbrians  south- 
ward. 

Besides  all  these  migrations  into  Italy  from  the  north  by  land, 
colonization  of  no  mean  extent  began  very  early  on  the  part  of  the 
Hellenea,  in  Sicily  and  Lower  Italy,  by  sea.  mie  Dorians,  Chalcid" 
ians  (i.  e.  lonians),  and  Motions  were  principally  engaged  therein). 

Roman  Hiatory  can  be  divided  into  five  periods. 

753(?)-510(?)  I.  Mvthical  time  of  the  kings. 

510-264.  II.  Development  of  the  constitution  by  struggles  between 
Patricians  and  Plebeians.  Subjugation  of  Italy  proper  (Cen- 
tral and  Lower  Italy),  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  Punic  wars, 

264-146.  III.  Epoch  of  the  Punic  wars,  and  beginntna  of  the  univer- 
sal rule  of  Rome,  down  to  the  destruction  of  Carthage  and 
Corinth, 

146-31.  IV.  Firm  establishment  of  the  universal  supremacy  of 
Rome,  by  the  conquest  of  the  East^  Spain,  and  Gaul.  Epoch 
of  the  civU  wars,  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  absolute  rule 
of  Octavian,  in  consequence  of  the  battle  of  Actium, 


1  The  Autonii  {Aurunci^  in  Campania)  probably  belonged  to  the  I^tin  race, 
as  well ;  al»o,  perliaps  ihe  Italici  in  the  narrower  sense,  who  dwelt  originally  in 
the  w^estern  part  of  lower  Italy,  and  the  Siculi. 

*  "W.  Oomsen,  Uebtr  die  Sprache  der  Etnuker,  1874.  W.  Doeoke, 
Etruskigcke  Forschungen^  is  of  the  contrary  opinion,  as  is  K.  O.  Mtkller,  /He 
Etrusker,  ed.  by  W,  Deeeke,  2  vols.,  1S77. 

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B.  c.  Soman  Hiilnry.  87 

31  B.  C.-476  A.  D.    V.  Sway  of  the  Boman  Coaan^  down  to  tbe  fall 
of  the  Roman  Empire  of  the  west. 
The  last  period  extends  into  Mediaeval  History. 

FIRST  PERIOD. 

Mythical  Bpooh  of  the  Kings  (753  ^-510). 

Foundation  of  Rome  acoording  to  the  Roman  legends. 

King  NumXtor  oi  Alba  Longa,  the  descendant  of  jEneas,  who  had 
settled  in  Latium  with  some  Trojan  refugees,  was  deprived  of  his 
throne  by  his  brother  AmuHtu,  who  put  his  son  to  deaths  and  caused 
his  daughter  Rea  Silvia  to  become  a  vestal  virgin,  in  order  that  the 
line  of  Numitor  should  perish.  The  twins,  Romulns  and  Remns, 
the  sons  of  Rea  Silvia  and  Man,  the  god  of  war,  were,  by  command 
of  the  kin^,  thrown  into  the  Tiber,  then  overflowing  its  banks.  Ilieir 
cradle  being  caught  by  the  roots  of  a  fig-tree,  the  children  were 
rescued  from  drowning,  were  suckled  by  a  she-wolf,  and  brought 
up  by  the  royal  shepherd  FamtulM,  As  they  ^w  up,  Rommus 
and  Kemus  led  other  shepherds  on  the  hunt  and  m  forays  for  booty. 
At  the  festival  of  the  Zt^MrooZto,  they  were  surprised  by  robbers ; 
Romulus  was  taken  prisoner,  brought  before  Numitor,  and  accused 
of  having  plundered  his  fields',  ^nunltor  recognized  his  grandsons. 
The  latter  thereupon  attacked  the  usurper  Amulim  at  the  head  of 
their  band,  slew  lum,  and  placed  the  rightful  kine,  their  grandfather 
NumitOTy  again  on  the  throne  of  Alba  Longa.  With  the  king's  per« 
mission,  the  twins  founded  a  city  on  that  place  on  the  bank  of  the 
Tiber  where  they  had  been  exposed.  (Festival  of  Palilia  or  PariHOf 
April  21,  celebrated  as  the  anniversary  of  the  foundation.)  In 
a  quarrel  as  to  who  should  give  his  name  to  the  city,  Remus  was 
killed.  Romulus,  being  now  the  only  king,  called  the  city  after 
liimself ,  Roma^ 

Surmises  about  the  real  origin  of  Rome.  The  results  of  mod- 
em scientific,  investigations  leave  not  the  least  doubt  that  the  Ro- 
man story  of  the  foundation  of  the  city  is  not  historioal,  but  an 
invention,  bavins  not  the  slightest  basis  of  fact.  It  is  perfectly 
clear  that  in  reality  Rome  and  the  Romans  did  not  derive  their 
name  from  the  founder  of  the  city,  but  that,  on  the  contrary,  the 
name  Romulus  was  formed  by  the  mventors  of  the  legend  from  the 
name  of  the  city  and  the  people.'  All  tribal  heroes  are  of  divine 
origin  ;  that  those  of  the  Romans  should  be  sons  of  Mars,  the  god  of 
agriculture  and  of  war,  needs  no  explanation.  The  legend  of  the 
exposure  of  the  twins  and  of  their  miraculous  preservation  and  recog- 
nition bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  story  of  the  youth  of 
Cyrm  (p.  26).  The  ^bulous  descent  from  the  Trojan  iBneas  a»- 
eribed  to  the  family  of  the  founder  of  Rome  was  an  invention  of 

^  Acoording  to  Yarro*8  era  753,  according  to  Cato's  751 ;  but  to  change 
years  of  the  citv  into  years  before  Christ,  754  or  752  must  be  used  as  the  minu« 
tfld.    Both  dates  belong  to  the  conventional  chronology.    See  pp.  88  and  89. 

«    liivius,  I.  1-7. 

•  Compare  besides  Mommsen,  Bohwegler,  ROm,  Getch,,  and  Peter,  ROn, 
9t9ch,,  I.  56. 


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88  Ancient  History,  b.  c 

Grecian  writers  (StenchSrus  in  the  sixth  century,  Timcau  in  the  third 
century,  B.  c).  The  tale  of  the  building  of  Rome  by  emigrants  from 
Alba,  under  guidance  of  two  princes  of  divine  birth,  was  a  nai've 
attempt  to  explain  the  growth  of  a  city  in  the  barren  and  unhealthy 
Roman  Campagna  by  connecting  it  with  the  common  metropolis  <2 
Latium. 

Nothing  can  be  considered  historical  except  that  Rome  was,  as 
regards  the  greater  part  of  its  population,  a  Latin  settlement. 
The  city  was  founded,  or  rather  gradually  arose,  at  a  wholly 
unkno'vm  time  and  under  wholly  nnknoiRm  oironmatanoca. 
The  settlement  was  formed  very  near  the  border  of  Latium,  and  just 
at  the  head  of  navigation  (for  small  vessels)  of  the  Tiber,  the  natural 
highwav  of  commerce  for  Latium,  without  regard  to  the  sterile  char- 
acter of  the  immediate  neighborhood.  This  gives  probabilitgr  to  the 
supposition  that  Rome  in  its  earliest  days  *'  was  a  border  tradmg-post 
of  the  Latins."  ^  Not  that  Rome  was  ever  a  mercantile  city,  after 
the  manner  of  Corinth  and  Carthajze  ;  it  was  merely  a  trading  village, 
where  the  imports  and  exports  of  Latium,  which  was  essentially  an 
agricultural  district,  were  exchanged. 

The  opinion  that  the  Roman  people  was  a  mixed  race  cannot  be 
maintained,  when  it  is  considered  that  the  development  of  the  Roman 
language,  political  institutions,  and  religion,  was  free  and  individual 
to  a  degree  seldom  equalled.  Of  the  three  tribes  or  townships 
((ratlin)  which  seem  to  have  united  to  form  Rome  (the  Ramnet 
(identical  with  Rcmani),  the  Titi(efMSe9^  and  the  Lucires)^  the  first  waa 
certainly,  the  third  in  all  probabihty,  Latin ;  the  second  was,  it  is 
true,  Sabine,  but  it  was  soon  completely  blended  with  the  Latin  ele- 
ments, as  the  Roman  lang^uage  shows. 

The  Royal  Epoch,  according  to  the  Roman  Legend.* 

753-716.    RomuluB, 

warrior  king.  Establishment  of  a  retreat  on  the  Capitolinus.  Ap- 
pointment of  100  Senatores  or  Patres  (fathers),  whose  descendants  are 
called  Patricians,  The  three  centuries  of  knights :  Ranrnes,  Titi(en8)es9 
and  Lucires.  Rape  of  the  Sabine  women;  war  with  the  Sabines  fok 
lowing,  their  king,  Titus  Tatius,  seized  the  fortress  on  the  Capitol 
through  the  treachery  of  Tarpeia,  Battle  between  the  Romans 
and  Sabines  intemrpted  by  the  Sabine  women,  who  had  been  carried 
off.  Union  of  the  Romans  and  Sabines  in  one  double  state  under  the 
eommon  rule  of  Romulus  and  Tatius,  until  the  latter's  death.  War 
of  Romulus  with  Fidence  and  Veii,  Romulus  is  translated  during  a 
thunder-storm,  and  henceforward  worshipped  as  the  god  Qutrinus. 
715-673.    Numa  Pompiliua 

of  Cures,  elected,  after  a  year's  interregnum,  by  the  Romans  from 
among  the  Sabines.  Peaceful  king;  arranges  the  religious  services  of 
the  Romans  according  to  the  advice  of  the  Camoenas  (prophetess) 
Efferia,  his  consort.  Temple  of  Janus.  Appointment  of  the  five 
PantificeSf  the  first  of  whom  is  the  Ponti/ex  Maximus,  the  Flam^kes, 

1  Mommsen*  Ilitt.  of  Borne,  Book  I.  Chaps.  2  and  4. 
s  liivius,  I.  8  foil. 


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B.  c.  Soman  History,  89 

Fefiato,  the  iova' Auffures^  the  fonr  vestal  virgifiSf  afterwazds  inaeMed 

to  six. 

673-641.    ToUtui  HoBtUins, 

warlike  king.  War  with  Alba  Lonaa;  contest  of  the  Horatii  and 
Curatii  decides  in  favor  of  Rome,  to  which  Alba  is  obli|;ed  to  submit. 
War  with  Veii  and  Fidence;  treachery  of  the  dictator  of  Alba,  MeUius 
Fuffetius,  who  is  torn  in  pieces.  Destruction  of  Alba  Longa;  the  in- 
habitants are  transferred  to  Rome. 
641-616.    AncuB  Marcius, 

grandson  of  Numa,  at  the  same  time  peaceful  and  warlike  ("  et 
Numie  et  Romuli  memor  ").  Development  of  the  institution  of  the 
Petioles,  Successful  war  with  four  Latin  towns,  the  inhabitants  of 
which  are  settled  on  the  Aventme,  For  this  reason  Ancus  Marcius  is 
represented  in  the  traditional  story  of  the  kings  of  Rome,  as  the 
founder  of  the  class  of  the  plebeians,^  Fortification  of  Janieulum^  oon- 
Btruction  of  a  bridge  of  piles  (pons  subUcius)  over  the  Tiber. 

Foundation  of  the  haroor  oi  0«/fo. 
616^78.    T^quininB  PriBctts, 

who  ¥rith  his  wife  TanaquU  emigrated  from  the  Etruscan  city  of 
Tarqumiij  and  for  whom  Cfrecian  descent  from  the  Bacchiadcs  of  Cor- 
inth was  afterwards  invented.  He  became  guardian  of  Ancus'  son,  and 
was  elected  to  the  throne.  Commencement  of  the  construction  of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  on  the  Capitoline  hill.  Construction  of  the  cloaooB, 
The  Senate  increased  to  300  members;  the  number  of  equites  doubled. 
Circus  Maximus,  Successful  wars  with  the  SaMnes^  Latins,  and  Etrxu- 
cans.  After  the  murder  of  Tarquinius  by  the  sons  of  Ancus, 
578.534.    Serviua  TuUiua 

becomes  king  through  the  cunning  of  TanaquU,  He  was  the  son 
of  the  slave  woman  Ocrisia  and  a  god,  was  educated  like  a  prince  by 
Tanaquil  in  consequence  of  the  utterance  of  an  onude,  ana  became 
the  son-in-law  of  Tarquinius.  Wars  with  Veiu  Rome  joins  the 
Latin  league.  Construction  of  the  wall  of  Rome.  Establiuunent  of 
the  census  and  the  division  of  the  centurieB  (p  92).  Serviua 
TuUius  murdered  by  his  son-in-law, 
534-510.    TarqtdninB  SuperbuB, 

represented  by  tradition  as  a  cruel  despot.  Tarquinius  Superbus 
(i.  e.  the  haughty)  subjugates  the  Latin  league,  conquers  Suessa  Po- 
Tietia,  completes  the  temple  of  Jupiter  CapUolinus,  and  gains  posses- 
lion  of  the  city  of  Gabii  by  the  deceit  and  treachery  of  his  son  Sextus, 
Tradition  ascribes  to  him  the  acquisition  of  the  SibyUine  books. 
Embassy  of  Titus  and  Aruns  Tarquinius,  the  king's  sous,  to  the  oracle 
at  Delphi.  They  are  accompanied  by  their  cousin,  L.  Junius  Brutus, 
who  represents  himself  as  feeble-minded,  in  order  to  protect  his  life 
against  the  cruelty  of  the  king;  a  story  which  was  invented  to  en>lain 
the  name  of  Brutus.  Siege  of  Ard^.  The  rape  of  Lucretia,  wife  of 
L.  Tarquinius  Collatinus  (i.  e.  from  CoHatia),  by  the  king's  son,  Sextus, 
leads  to  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins  and  the  abolition  of  monarchy. 
The  insurrection  is  headed  by  L.  JunioB  BrutoB,  whom  the  legend 
makes  Tribuniu  Cderum,  although  he  was  commonly  considered  an 
imbecile.  Over  the  body  of  Lucretia,  who  died  by  her  own  hand,  he 
1  Peter,  R(h»^  Gesch.,  I.>  Sa    Compare,  on  the  other  hand,  p.  9a 


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90  Jneiemt  BtsUnf.  b.  g. 

called  ihe  people  to  amis,  and  incited  tlie  arm j  agaitet  tlie  ^B;r»  ^"^ 
found  the  city  gates  dosed  npon  bim,  and  went  into  exile  (liTiiis,  L, 
57-60). 

Histoiioal  TactB  of  tlie  Ilpoch  of  the  Kings.' 

There  is  no  doabt  that  the  oonstitation  of  the  oldest  Roman  state 
was  a  patriarchal  monarchy  ;  and  that,  after  the  new  settlement 
had  become  an  independent  community,  the  hiriiest  power  in  Rome 
was  exercised  by  a  line  of  sovereigns  elected  for  life  (rex,  from  the 
same  stem  as  regerty  to  govern). 

Bat  neither  the  number  nor  all  the  names  of  the  traditional  kings, 
nor  yet  the  deeds  ascribed  to  the  reign  of  each,  still  less  the  chro^ 
nclogy  of  their  reigns,  can  be  considered  historically  authentic  The 
artificiality  of  the  first  four  reigns,  which  are  alternately  warlike  and 
peaceable,  is  self-evident.  Doubtless  the  extension  of  the  Roman  teiv 
ritory  and  Rome's  hegemony  over  the  Latin  league  was  not  acquired 
without  severe  contests  and  brilliant  deeds  of  arms;  but  the  story  has 
come  down  to  us  in  a  &bulous  form  and  has  been  arbitrarily  revised. 
The  destmctiim  of  Alba,  the  ancient  metropolis  of  Tjitinm,  is  an  his- 
torical fact ;  the  contest  of  three  Roman  against  three  Alban  broth* 
ers,  their  cousins,  is  probably  only  a  personified  designation  of  a 
war  between  two  closely  related  towns,  with  similar  political  divis- 
ions. 

As  regards  the  last  three  reigns,  it  can  be  considered  historical  that 
the  royu  family  of  the  Tarquins  was  of  Etruscan  origin  ;  that  under 
its  rule  Rome  made  an  important  advance  in  power  and  civilization ; 
that  the  division  of  the  people  into  dosses,  the  erection  of  the  so-called 
Servian  wall,  portions  of  which  are  still  in  existence,  and  the  oonstruo- 
tion  of  the  first  cloac»  date  from  their  reigns. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  actual  history  of  Rome  there  is  found 
to  exist  a  sharp  division  of  the  population  into  Patrioiana,  or  dtixena 
with  fall  political  rights,  and  Plebeians,  or  free  inhabitants 
without  political  rights  (like  the  Liaoediemonian  Perioed  and  the 
Athenian  Metoeci;  see  pp.  50  and  52).  The  traditional  legend  gives  no 
explanation  of  this  important  fact,  but  only  two  hints  at  one,  and  those 
contradictory.'  The  citizens  having  full  rights  are  evidently  the  de- 
scendants of  the  original  settiers,  the  victors  and  later  conquerors. 
Since,  according  to  Roman  usage,  marriages  of  equals  in  rank  con- 
ferred the  rights  of  citizenship  on  the  children,  tiioee  having  such 
rights  called  themselves  Patiioii,  i.  e.  ''Children  of  the  fathers." 
The  people  who  were  not  included  in  these  families,  but  stood  under 
their  protection,  who  were  compelled  to  have  a  protector  (Patronus), 
were  distinguished  by  the  name  Clientes  (from  clnere).  Their  de- 
scendants, increased  by  the  former  citizens  of  Latin  towns  conquered 
in  war,  formed  gradually  a  second  Roman  community,  whose  mem- 
bers were  not  citizens.  These  were  called  the  Plebeians,  the  Plebs  (or 

1  See  Mommsen,  Hist,  of  Rome,  Book  I.  chap.  4.  Peter,  RSm.  Getek, 
I'  64-56)  likewwe  ascribes  Gut  a  limited  historical  value  to  the  traditional 
history  of  the  kings. 

3  See  paj^e  88  the  rei^ni  of  Romulux,  And  p.  89,  that  of  Ancut  Afarcius.  Comjk 
^Momm»ea,  Bitt,  qfRomet  Book  I.  chap.  5. 


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B.  0.  Soman  Utitory.  91 

plebes,  connected  with  pleo,  jolenus) ;  i.  e.  the  maasoB,  the  great  mob. 
As  the  majority  of  the  population  of  conquered  cities  were  compelled 
to  enter  the  plebeian  class,  whether  they  were  settled  in  or  near  Kome 
or  remained  in  their  old  homes,  it  is  incorrect  to  imagine  the  plebs 
composed  of  poor  people  entirely;  there  were  from  the  beginning 
many  wealthy  and  respected  families  among  them. 

Under  the  oldest  constitution  of  Rome,  which  is  commonly  called, 
from  the  legend,  the  Constitution  of  Romulus,  the  Patricians  alone 
formed  the  municipality  and  the  military  force,  the  populiiB  (con- 
nected with  popularly  to  ravage),  since  they  alone  performed  military 
service.  They  were  divided  into  onrlfis,  districts,  at  first  10  in  num- 
ber, after  the  union  of  the  Tities  and  Luc&res  with  the  Ramnes  30 
(p.  88),  each  curia  beine^  divided  into  ten  families  or  gentes.  The 
assembly  (populns)  of  the  citizens  or  pcUricians,  called  bv  the  king 
when  he  had  an  announcement  or  an  inquiry  to  make,  formed  the 
oomitia  curiata.  To  this  body  citizens  under  sentence  had  the 
right  of  appeal  for  pardon  (provocatio)  ;  only,  however,  with  the 
consent  of  ue  king.  The  comitia  elected  the  king,  who,  after  elec- 
tion, exercised  absolute  power,  having  to  consult  the  community  only 
when  changes  of  the  existing  law  or  the  commencement  of  an  offen- 
sive war  were  in  question.  The  Senate  (council  of  the  elders, 
seniores,  senatares)  was  an  advisatory  body,  named  by  the  king,  but 
representing  the  gentes  after  a  manner. 

This  oldest  form  of  the  community  was  essentially  altered  hj  a 
reform  conducted  durins^  the  reign  of  the  last  dynalsty,  and  which 
tradition  has  coupled  with  the  name  of  Servius  Tullius.  Military 
service  and  payment  of  the  tributum  was  thereby  made  obligatory  on 
all  land-oumerSf  whether  they  were  citizeiu  or  merely  inhabitants 
of  the  class  of  metcsci.  £very  freeholder  between  seventeen  and 
sixty  years  of  age  was  now  liable  to  service.  The  cavalry,  composed 
of  citizens,  continued  as  before,  but  there  was  added  to  it  a  force  of 
double  its  strength,  which  consisted  wholly,  or  in  great  part,  of  ple- 
beians. The  weStMest  land-owners  were  drawn  upon  to  furnish  the 
cavalry.  No  regard  at  all  was  paid  to  political  or  class  differences 
in  making  up  the  infantry,  but  the  kind  of  armor  to  be  furnished  by 
the  warriors  was  regulated  in  accordance  with  a  property  classificap- 
tion.    This  is  the 

Servian  classification,^  for  military  service  and  taxation, 
of  Patricians  and  Plebeians  according  to  their  property  (Cen« 
cms). 

A.  Cavalry  (XSquites). 

6  pure  (?)  patrician,  12  plebeian  (and  patrician)  centuries ;  in  aD 
1800  horse,  all  of  the  first  class. 

1  The  censiu  was  not  expressed  in  money  until  the  time  of  Appius  Claudim 
«s.  c.  812).    Lelghton,  But.  of  BoiMf  p.  22,  n.  5.    [Trans.] 


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92 


Ancient  History. 


B.  a 


B.  Voot-Soldleni  (FeditM). 


Nm&bOT  of  GootmiM.     Ptopsriy  in  Amos.^ 


80  C.  with  ao  jogeza 

20  C.  with  I  as  much 

20  C.  with  \  as  moch 
20  C.  with  I  as  much 
28C.  withHl^-^0)as 
,    much 


100,000 

75,000 

50.000 
25,000 
12,000 


galea,   clipeiu,  oo- 

reK,  lorica 
galea,         scatum, 

ocres 
galea,  Kotam 
scutum 


I 

s 

1 

'fund« 


It  appears  from  the  number  of  centuries  (i.  e.  oompames)  in  the 
different  classes,  that  the  division  of  the  laaa  at  that  time  was  such 
that  more  than  half  the  farms  contained  20  jugera  or  moiey  and  a 
farm  of  that  size  was  considered  the  standard. 

In  ^b»  five  classes :  168  centuries  of  f  oot-soidiers,  each  of  100  men  <» 
16,800  men ;  L  e.  4  legions  of  4200  men  each,  2  lenonsytimoref  (first 
levy,  17-46  years  old,  for  service  in  the  field)  and  2  legions  unionM 
(second  levy,  47-60  years  old,  for  garrison  service).  To  be  added  are 
3  centuries  of  fdbri  (pioneers),  hwicmes  and  camucmes  (musicians), 
2  centuries  aecenri  velaU  ^unarmed  substitutes),  2  centuries  proU' 
tarii  and  capUe  censiy  makmg,  with  the  cavalry,  103  centuries.  As 
the  population  increased  the  number  of  centuries  was  not  enlarged, 
but  the  separate  divisions  were  strengthened  by  the  addition  of  new 
recruits,  without  doing  away  entirely  with  the  standard  number. 

This  new  militair  body,  arranged  in  classes  and  centuries,  was 
henoeforwud  consulted  by  the  king  in  regard  to  qffendoe  wars  as  the 
army  had  been  when  divided  into  curiie.  Tlus  was  at  first  the  onZy 
privilege  which  the  new  citizens  shared  ;  all  other  rights  were  reserved 
to  the  comitia  curlata,  which  consisted  exclusively  of  patricians. 
It  was  not  until  later  (at  the  beginning  of  the  Republic)  that  the 
new  arrangement  of  the  commumty  acquired  political  importance, 
and  that  a  new  popular  assembly^  the  comitia  centuriata,  de- 
veloped out  of  the  new  military  organization.  The  reform  ascribed 
to  Servius  had  originally  a  purely  military  character.  It  gave  the 
Plebeians  at  first  scarcely  any  righiSf  but  only  burdens:  it  opened  the 
way,  however,  whereby  they  became  true  citizens.  The  inhabitants 
who  were  not  land-owners,  be  they  clientes  or  f  orei^ni  metceci^  were 
henceforward  distinct  from  the  land-owning  pleba.  The  inhabitants 
who  owned  no  land  were  called,  after  the  money  which  they  had  to 
pay  for  protection,  eeraxlL^ 

For  purposes  of  conscription  the  city  and  township  were  divided 
into  four  wards  (Tribua),  so  that  each  legion  contained  the  same 
number  of  recruits  from  each  ward.  Every  4,  later  every  5  years  a 
new  oensufl  was  taken,  which  closed  with  a  sacrifice  for  purificatios 
(lustrum),  whence  in  later  times  lustrum  denoted  a  space  of  fivs 
years. 


^  Mommaen,  Hist,  of  Rornt^  1V)ok  I.  chap.  6. 
t  Mommsen,  Uiti,  of  Borne,  Book  I.  chap.  6. 


Idvlus,  I.,  42  and  folL 


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a.  c.  Soman  History.  9S 


SECOND  PERIOD. 

BtmgsleB  between  PatrioianB  and  Plebeians,  Subjngatloa 
of  Italy  Proper,  to  the  Beginning  of  the  Panic  Wan 
(610-264). 

510  (?)•    Ezpxilsion  of  the  Tarquins,  Borne  a  Bepublio. 

According  to  Roman  tradition,  the  consuls  for  the  first  year  of  the 
republic  were 

509  (?).  Lucius  Junius  Brutus  and  l*.  Tarquinius  Collatinns. 
The  latter,  it  is  said,  being  related  to  the  exiled  royal  ftunily, 
soon  fell  under  suspicion,  and  was  replaced  by  "L.  Valerins  PopU- 
oola,  the  first  Consul  suffectuSf  to  whom  tradition  ascribes  the 
iex  Valeria  de  provocatione  (Ne  quis  magistratus  ciyem  Romanum 
adyersus  provocationem  (p.  91)  neceret  neye  yerberaret).  On 
the  same  authority,  the  first  dictator  (p.  94)  was  Titos  Lartius 
(501,  against  the  Sabines).  The  Grecian  historian  Polybius  calls  the 
consuls  of  the  first  year 
609  (?^.    Lncius  Junius  Brutus  and  Ifarous  Horatins.^ 

We  know  absolutely  nothing  which  is  historically  authenticated 
about  the  details  of  this  reyolution.  This  alone  is  certain,  that  the 
arbitrary  rule  of  the  last  king  brought  about  his  expulsion  and  the 
banishment  of  the  whole  gensTarquinia,  (The family  sepulchre  has 
been  discoyered  in  Ccare,  in  Etruria).  The  fear  lest  the  common- 
wealth should  be  transformed  into  a  tyranny  seems  to  haye  united 
thepatricians  and  plebeians  for  a  short  time. 

We  are  better  informed  about  the  nature  of  the  constitutional 
change,  since  on  this  point  inferences  can  be  drawn  from  the  institu- 
tions which  we  find  in  existence  in  historic  times.  The  change  in  the 
constitution  was,  as  far  as  this  is  possible  in  a  reyolution,  conseryatiyo 
in  character.  The  soyereign  reigning  during  life  was  replaced  by 
two  rulers  holding  office  for  a  year,  ti^en  froni  the  patricians.  They 
were  called  at  first  Praetores,  Judices,  or  Consules;  later,  the  lattei 
name  only  was  applied  to  them.'  They  exercised,  generally,  regal 
power:  Imperium  (i.  e.  soyerei^ty  in  war  and  peace) ;  auspida  publico 
(i.  e.  supplication  of  the  gods  in  behalf  of  the  state) ;  conyenmg  the 
popular  assembly  and  the  senate;  taking  the  census;  appointment  of 
senators  and  the  two  patrician  ouoestors.  The  latter,  whose  office  was 
established  during  the  time  of  the  kings,  exercised  the  functions  of 
criminal  police,  and  soon  acquired  the  administration  of  the  state 
treasury  under  the  supendsion  of  the  consuls.  The  consuls  were 
assigned  12  lictores  as  a  public  indication  of  their  official  power. 

i  Polybius,  III.  22.  The  fitatement  of  Polybius,  that  the  first  treaty  be- 
tween Rome  and  Carthaj^e  fell  in  the  firitt  year  of  the  Republic,  is  disputed  by 
Mommsen  {R8m.  Chronologie  bis  anf  Cceinr,  2  £d.  p.  320),  but  is  strongly 
defended  by  JSissen  {Jahrbacher  fair  Philoloaie^  1867),  and  others. 

3  The  derivation  of  consul  and  prtxtor  in  dfoubtful.  Consul  denotes  either 
"administrator  of  the  state  "  {quic(msuliirtipublxccB\  or  merely  colleague.  Pn»^ 
tor  denotes  "general  "  (qui  prmt  exercitutj  like  the  German  Herzog)^  or  one 
who  presides  over  the  state  (qaipraeit,  praeest  reipublicae).  See  Marquardk 
Mommsen,  Rim.  AlierthUmerf  II.  p.  71  f . 

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94  Ancient  HiUory.  B.  c* 

According  to  the  fer  Valeria  de  provocaHone^  (509),  all  citizens 
had  riffht  of  appeal  from  senteuoes  of  death  pronounced  by  the  oon- 
suIb,  liniich  were  not  delivered  according  to  nulitar^  law,  to  the  peo- 
ple, even  against  the  will  of  the  consuls;  and  this  appeal  was  not 
to  the  old  "populus,"  composed  of  patricians,  but  to  the  comltia 
centuriata,  the  assembly  of  the  new  military  and  political  com- 
munity founded  by  the  Servian  constitution  (p.  92). 

The  comitia  centuriata  acquired,  moreover,  in  consequence  of  the 
violent  alteration  of  the  constitution,  the  right  to  elect  tiie  oonsnla^ 
or  rather,  according  to  old  Roman  interpretation,  the  right  of  desigw 
nating  them  to  the  consul  who  presided  over  the  election,  who  there* 

rtk  appointed  them  (creare).  The  comitia  centuriata  acquired 
the  right  of  accepting  or  r^ectlng  bills  laid  before  it,  but 
the  six  patrician  centuries  of  equites  retained  the  important  right  of 
voting  nrst  on  any  proposed  measures. 

The  Senate,  formerlv  consisting  of  patricians  exclusively,  waa 
now  enlarged,  or  rather  brought  up  to  its  legal  number,  by  the  ad- 
mission of  plebeians  from  the  equUes,  L  e.  the  wealthy,  Henoe  the 
formula:  PtUre8[et]c(m8cripti. 

The  nature  of  the  changes  which  the  comitia  curlata  (v.  91) 
underwent  in  consequence  of  the  revolution  is  much  disputed;  it  is 
certain  only  that  it  soon  sank  into  complete  insignificance.  According 
to  the  view  which  is  most  conunonly  received,  it  retained  at  fixBt  the 
right  of  approving  the  elections  or  resolves  of  the  comitia  centuriata^ 
a  privilege  expressed  by  the  formula  patres  (L  e.  patrlcU)  aao- 
tores  flunt.^  Others  understand  the  expression  patres  to  apply  to 
the  senatoreSf  and  claim  the  right  of  approval  mentioned  above  for 
the  Senate.* 

At  a  time  of  special  danger  the  consuls  were  replaced  by  an  ex- 
traordinary official,  the  dictator,  or  magister  pojmif  who  was  not 
elected,  but  appointed  by  one  of  the  consuls  ^dictatorem  dicere) 
without  the  participation  of  the  citizens.  (Phictically,  however,  the 
Senate  commonly  played  an  important  part  in  the  selection.)  As 
soon  as  danger  was  over  the  dictator  resigned  his  office  (dictatura 
86  abdicare),  which  he  could  not  hold  longer  than  six  months  in  any 
event.  The  dictator  appointed  his  magister  equltum  (master  of 
the  horse) ;  the  sign  of  his  power,  nirhich  was  thoroughly  royal,  was 
24  (?)  lictors.  Appeal  from  his  decisions  was  allowed  only  in  cases 
where  it  had  been  permitted  against  the  king  (p.  91). 

1  **The  habeas  corpus  set  of  the  Romans.*'  Zielshton,  EiH,  of  Rome, 
p.  &3.    [Trams.] 

^  Beoker,  Bom.  Alth.  II.  8,  p.  183,  n.    SohweRler,  Rdm,  Getch.  11. 100. 

'  According  to  Mommsen  (ffitt,  of  Rome,  I.  264),  all  new  ciiizene,  that  in, 
itll  land^taning  plebeians  were  in  consequence  of  the  revolution  (510)  admitted  to 
the  comitia  curiata,  and  the  old  body  ofcitkene,  or  ti\<i  patricians,  thereby  lost  the 
right  of  debating  and  deciding  (or  j^olitical  pumoses,  in  an  assembly  apart  from 
the  rest  of  the  citizens.  This  opimon  is  opposed  by  other  scholars,  vho  main, 
tain  that  plebeians  were  first  admitted  to  the  comitia  cariata  toward  the  end  of  th« 
Republic.  Mommsen  thinks  that  the  right  of  approval  belonged  to  the  fmaller 
purel V  patrician  senate,  while  the  larger  senate,  increased  ov  the  addition  c4 
plebeian  conscripti,  was,  during  the  first  3'ean  of  the  Repablic,  an  ik^nfory 
wuucil  for  the  consuls. 


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B.  o.  Soman  History.  95 

609.  Aocording  to  the  Roman  legend  a  conspiracy  of  young  pa- 
tricians was  discoyered  in  Rome,  which  purposed  the  restora- 
tion of  the  monarchy.     Execution  of  Brutus'  son. 

606.  Unsuccessful  war  of  the  Romans  against  the  Etruscan  king 
Parsena  of  Clusium.  The  Romans  were  def  eated,  and  com-* 
pelled  to  purchase  peace  by  a  surrender  of  territory  and  com- 
plete disarming.  Roman  story  of  Horatitu  Codes,  the  brave 
defender  of  the  bridge  over  the  Tiber,  of  the  heroic  courage 
of  Mucins  Scoevola  (i.  e.  left-handed  ;  the  well-known  story  is 

frobably  only  an  attempt  to  explain  the  name),  and  CUxUa,  in 
iivius  II.  9-13.    When  the  Etruscans  advanced  further  into 
Latium  they  were  defeated  by  the  Latins  and  their  allies  from 
lower  Italy  before  Aricia,  and  could  not  maintain  themselves 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  l^ber.    In  consequence  of  this  Etrua- 
can  defeat,  Rome  seems  to  have  freed  itself  from  the  dis- 
graceful peace  imposed  upon  it,  and  to  have  gradually  re- 
gained its  former  powerful  position. 
496  (?).    Tradition  of  a  great  victory  of  the  Romans  over  the  Latins 
bv  the  small  lake  lleffilhis,  near  Tuscultmy  won  hj  the  dictator, 
Aldus  PostumiuSy  with  the  aid  of  the  Dioscuri  (Livius  II.  19). 
The  Inner  history  of  the  Roman  community  for  this  period  deals 
with  two  contests,  one  political  and  one  social.     I.  Contest  of  the 
patriciana,  who  gradually  developed  into  an  hereditary  nobility, 
against  the  new  citizens,  or  plebeiana.    The  latter,  who  could,  it  is 
true,  become  senators  (conscr^i),  but  were  excluded  from  the  offices 
of  state  and  from  the  priesthood,  aimed  at  complete  political  equality. 
Since  the  offices  of  state  in  Rome,  as  among  tne  ancients 


were  administered  ¥rithout  pav  (hence,  honores,  officers  of  honor),  it 
was  essentially  the  wealthier  plebeian  families  alone  who  were  inter- 
ested in  tibis  contest.  II.  The  social  contest  between  the  well- 
to-do  property-owners  and  the  owners  or  renters  of  small 
farms,  who  were  growing  poorer,  or  had  been  deprived  of  their  pos- 
sessions. 

The  use  of  the  ager  publicas,  i.  e.  the  pnblio  land,  acquired  by 
conouest.  (comprising  both  cultivated  land  and  pasture),  belonged 
lefffuly  to  the  jratricians  only.  In  fact  the  senate  made  exceptions  in 
favor  of  the  rich  plebeian  houses  which  had  become  members;  the 
small  plebeian  lano-owners  and  renters  were  strictly  excluded  from 
the  privilege.  Very  seldom,  on  occasion  of  new  conquests,  a  dis- 
tribution of  land  was  made  among  the  poor  plebeians,  but  the  greater 
part  of  the  state  domain  was  leased  to  the  patrician  land-owners  for  a 
moderate  rent,  which  was,  probably,  hardly  ever  regularly  collected, 
and  these  estates  were  soon  treated  as  private  property.  Gradually 
the  tillage  of  the  large  farms  was  given  over  to  slaves,  and  the  ple- 
Oeian  tenants  were  thereby  driven  &om  their  holding.  The  plebeian 
owners  of  small  peasant  holdings  sank  into  a  condition  of  the  great- 
est misery,  through  frequent  military  service,  taxation,  excessive  in- 
terest on  loans,  and  the  cruel  Roman  law  of  debt,  which  placed  the 
person  and  property  of  the  debtor  in  the  creditor's  hands.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  there  were  repeated  uprisings  and  refusals  to  perform 
military  service,  which,  in  495,  was  overcome  only  by  the  appointmen** 


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96  Ancient  History,  B,  c. 

of  a  <iictator.  Finally,  when  the  patricians  refused  to  jprant  the  prom* 
ised  alleviations,  and  continued  their  ill  treatment  of  those  who  be- 
came thei^  slaves  through  debt  (nexi),  the  plebeian  soldiers  in  the 
victorious  army,  as  tl\ey  were  returning  home,  turned  aside,  under  the 
leadership  of  plebeian  military  tribunes,  to  a  small  hill  on  the  Anio 
(later  called  Mons  Sacer),  and  threatened  to  found  a  plebeian  city  in 
that  fertile  region  (three  miles  from  Rome).    This  is  the  so-called 

494  (?).^  Secession  of  the  Plebeians  to  the  Sacred 
Mount  (jsecessio  plebis  in  numtem  scuncm),  which  compelled 
the  patricians  {Menenius  Agrippa,  fable  of  the  belly  and  the 
members)  to  make  sincere  concessions.  After  abrogation  of 
the  oppressive  debts, 

494  (?)•  Creation  of  the  tribunate  (tribuni  plebis)  and 
the  plebeian  SBdiles. 

The  tribunes  of  the  people  (at  first  2  (?),  then  5,  finallv  10), 
were  always  chosen  from  the  plebs.^    They  were  inviolable  (iocrth  • 
sancti^.    They  had  the  right  of  protection  (jus  auzilil^  for  every 

Slebeian  a^^ainst  injustice  on  the  part  of  an  official.  This  privilege 
eveloped  mto  an  extensive  right  of  intercession  (jta  tnteroessionts) 
against  every  administrative  or  judicial  act,  with  the  exception  of  the 
trnperium  mUitare,  —  that  is  to  say,  against  the  dictator  and  against  the 
consul  when  he  was  more  than  a  mile  from  the  city.  From  the  first 
the  tribunes  of  the  people  exercised  judicial  functions,  convened  the 
assemblies  of  the  plebeians,  and  proposed  criminal  sentences  for  their 
consideration.  Later  (448),  the  tribunes  were  admitted  to  the  senate, 
where,  by  their  veto,  they  could  deprive  any  resolution  of  the  senate 
(ssnatus  consuUus^  of  its  legislative  force,  and  reduce  it  to  a  mere  ex- 
pression of  opinion  (senaius  auctoritas).  The  two  eediles  of  the 
people  (asdite»  plebis)  assisted  the  tribunes,  and  superintended  the 
business  of  die  markets.  Their  name  was  probably  derived  from 
the  temple  (oBdes)  of  Ceres,  where  they  preserved  the  official  docu- 
ment which  decreed  the  establishment  of  the  plebeian  magistracy. 

During  this  time  (according  to  some  authorities,  not  until  later) 
occurred  the  establishment  of  the  important  comitia  tributa.  In 
this  assembly  the  citizens  voted  according  to  wards  or  tribu8\  not, 
however,  the  four  wards  of  the  Servian  constitution  (p.  92),  but  ac- 
cording to  a  later  (perhaps  495)  division  into  20  tribus^  to  which 
was  added  the  Crustumiman  tribus  (494),  making  21,  and  the  num- 
ber gradually  rose  to  35.  It  is  probable  that,  down  to  the  time 
of  the  legislation  of  the  decemvirs,  plebeians  only,  after  that 
time,  however,  the  whole  body  of  land-owning  inhabitants,  both  patri- 
cians and  plebeians,  voted  in  the  comitia  tributa.^     In  this  comitia 

1  Cf.  Mommsen,  Hist,  of  Rome,  I.  279. 

2  It  is  commonly  assumed  as  probable  thst  np  to  Jie  lex  Publilia  (472)  the 
tribunes  were  elected  in  the  comitia  centuriata,  and  approved  bv  the  comitia 
curiata.  According  to  the  testimony  of  Dionyslus  (IX.  41)  ana  Cicero  (pro 
Com.),  they  were  chosen  by  the  curiata;  according  to  Mommsen's  view  (p.  94^ 
note),  this 'denotes  that  they  were  at  first  elected  by  the  plebeians  assembled  by 
curicB. 

'  See  the  different  opinions  in  Becker,  Rdm.  AltfiBr.,  U.  1,  p.  176  and  999. 


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B.  c.  Soman  History,  97 

each  tribtu  had  one  vote,  which  was  decided  hy  the  majority  of  Toten 
in  the  tribus.    Compared  with  the  comitia  centwriaUi,  therefore,  the 
ascendency  of  the  wealthy  was  done  away  ¥rith,  as  was  also  the  privi- 
lege, enioyed  by  the  nobility,  of  throwing  their  votes  first. 
493.      in  the  consulate  of  Spurius  Cassiua,  renewal  of  the  eternal 
alliance  between  Rome  and  the  Ziatiii  league  on  a  basis  of 
equality.     Only  gradually  did  Rome  acquire  again  the  he- 
gemony over  the  Latins.    Continual  disputes  with  Etruscans^ 
Sabines,  jEqui,  Volscians,     Continuation  of  the  contests  be- 
tween patTiclans  and  plebeians;  the  institution  of  the  tribu- 
nate proving  to  be  the  organization  of  civil  strife  and  anarchy. 
An  attempt  was  soon  nutde  to  abolish  the  tribunate  by  the 
patrician 
491.     Cn.  (C?)  Maroins,  called  Coriolanua  (from  the  storm  of 
Corioli),  who,  during  a  famine,  proposed  to  grant  the  plebeians 
grain  at  the  expense  of  the  state,  only  on  condition  that  they 
eave  up  the  tribunate.    When  summoned  by  the  tribunes  be- 
fore the  comitia  tributa,  Coriolanus  declined  to  appear;  being 
banished  in  his  absence,  he  went  to  the  Yolscians,  and,  accord- 
ing to  the  story,  led  tiieir  troops  against  Rome,  but,  at  the 
rebuke  of  his  mother,  Fiefuria,  and  tiie  entreaties  of  his  wife, 
VolumniOf  gave  up  the  war  against  his  native  city  (Livius, 
II.  40). 
487.     The  Hemid  invaded  the  Roman  territory.    Being  defeated  by 
the  consul  AquUHus,  and,  in  the  next  year,  by  the  consul  jS/m- 
ritis  Camus,  the 
486.    Hemicl  joined  the  Latin  league. 

486.    Spurlus  Casslus  Visoellinua  (Vecellinus  f),  consul  for  the 
tlurd  time,  brought  forward  the  first  agrarian  law.    He  pro- 
posed to  divide  a  part  of  the  public  lands  among  needy  jMeians 
and  Latins  ;  the  rest  to  be  actually  leased  for  the  profit  of  the 
public  treasury.     The  patricians  and  wealthy  plebeians  joined 
forces  against  Spurius  Cassius  ;  the  lower  classes  were  dissat- 
isfied t^  the  Latins  should  also  receive  land  and  abandoned 
him.    After  the  close  of  his  term  of  office  he  was  sentenced 
and  executed. 
479     Withdrawal  of  the  gens  Fabia  and  their 
477.     destruction  by  the  Etruscans  at  the  brook  Cremera. 
473.     Murder  of  the  tribune  of  the  people,  Gnceus  Genucius,  who  had 

ventured  to  call  two  consuls  to  account. 
471.    Law  carried  by  the  tribune  of  the  people,  Volero  Publiliua, 
to  the  effect  that  the  plebeian  magistrates  should,  in  future,  be 
elected  by  the  comitia  tributa  (lez  publilia:  ut  magistraius 
plebei  comitiis  trihutis  creentur,  p.  96). 
463.     Plague  ii^  Rome  and  throughout  Italy. 

462.    Motion  of  the  tribune  of  the  people,  C  TerentUius  Arsa,  for 
the  appointment  of  a  body  of  ten  men  to  reduce  the  laws  to  a 
written  code.    Violent  opposition  of  the  patricians. 
160.    Suiprise  of  the  Capitol  by  Htrdonvus  at  the  head  of  some  polit- 
ical refugees  (Livins  III.  15). 
Renewal  of  civil  discord.   In  order  to  satisfy  the  plebeians,  the  nunft- 
7 


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98  Ancient  HUtory.  B.  c. 

ber  of  trilmiies  of  the  people  was  raised  from  5  to  10  (457)  ;  in  the 
following  year  the  Mans  Aventinus  was  divided  into  Duilding  lots, 
which  were  distribated  among  the  poor  citizens.  Dictatorship  of 
L,  Q^inctiu8  Cindnnatus,  who  rescuea  an  army  which  had  been  sui^ 
roimded  by  the  .£qui  (Livius  III.  26).  A  compromise  was  reached 
in  regard  to  the  codification  of  the  laws,  whereby  three  ambassadors 
were  sent  to  Greece  to  bring  back  copies  of  the  Solonian  laws  and 
others  (464).    After  their  return 

4:51«  Decemvirs,  a  body  of  ten  men,  were  chosen  from  the 
patrioians  (Decenwin  consulari  imperio  legibus  tcnbuindU)^  and 
the  consulate,  tribunate,  and  right  of  appeed  were  for  the  time 
suspended.  The  code  of  laws  drawn  up  by  the  decemvirs  was 
accepted  by  the  people,  engraved  on  copper  tableSf  and  set  up 
in  the  forum.    As  an  appendix  seemed  necessary, 

4M.  Decemvirs  were  appointed  again,  three  being  plebeians,  who 
added  two  more  tables.  Henceforward  the  law  of  the  city  and 
county  of  Rome,  according  to  which  the  consuls  were  to  ex- 
ercise their  judicial  functions,  was  known  as  the  laws  of  the 
twelve  tables  (Leges  duodecim  tabularum).  By  their 
exposure  the  pabrician  administration  was  henceforth  sub- 
jected to  the  control  of  public  juds^ment  Instead  of  giving 
place  to  the  regular  magistrates  aner  the  completion  of  the 
two  supplementary  tables  the  decemvirs  remamed  in  office 
during  the  succeeding  year  (449).  An  attempt  of  the  mod- 
erate aristocracy,  h^ided  by  the  Valerii  and  HoratUf  to 
compel  the  abcucation  of  the  decemvirs,  was  unsuccessful. 
The  latter,  under  Appios  Claudius,  the  head  of  the  extreme 
party  of  the  nobles,  acquired  the  preponderance  in  the  state. 
At  6nt  the  people  submitted  and  acquiesced  in  a  levy  for  the 
war  against  the  Sabines  and  Yolscians.  The  oppression  of  the 
decemvirs,  especially  of  Appius  Claudiue:  murder  of  the  former 
tribune  of  the  people,  Siccius  DerUatue,  and  the  attack  on  the 
liberty  and  honor  of  the  betrothed  of  the  former  tribune  L. 
IciliiUf  Virginia,  whom  her  own  father  Virginius  stabbed 
in  the  forum,  brought  about  an  uprising  (Liv.  III.  44  foil.). 
The  plebeian  soldiers  occupied  the  AverUine  and  the  Sacred 
Mount,  Valerius  and  Horatius  managed  a  compromise,  ac- 
cording to  which  the  decemvirs  abdicate.  Appius  Clandius 
and  Bpurius  Oppius  disembowelled  themselves  in  prison,  the 
others  were  sent  into  exile.  It  is  impossible  to  decide  what 
part  of  this  romantic  story  is  historical.  It  seems  certain  that 
the  consulate  and  tribunate  were  reestablished.  The  power  of 
the  nobility  was  further  weakened  by  the 

448.  Laws  of  the  consuls  Valerius  and  Horatius  (leffes  Horatice): 
1.  The  resolves  (plebiscUa)  of  the  comitia  tributa  were  given 
equal  force  with  those  of  the  comitia  centuriata  (ut  quod  tribt^ 
tim  plebs  jussmet  populum  teneret).  2.  Every  magistrate,  in- 
dudmg  therefore,  the  dictator,  was  obliged,  in  future,  to  allow 
appeals  from  his  decision  (ne  guis  uUum  magistnUum  sineprovo- 
cationecrearet,qui  creasset^eumjw/aegueessetoccuii),  3.  Beoog- 


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B.  o.  Roman  Bittory.  99 

mtioii  of  the  inTiolabflit;^  of  the  tribunes  of  the  peopl^  and  ex* 
tension  of  the  same  privilege  to  the  ediles  {ytt  qui  tribwm 
pldris,  CBdUibus  nocuisaet,  efw  caput  Jovi  sacrum  esset).  About 
the  same  time  (447)  tm>  quaMtora  were  appointed  whose  pe- 
culiar charge  was  the  military  treasury  (matmg  in  all  4  autest- 
ors,  see  p.  ^) ;  they  were  patricians,  but  were  appointed  by  the 
comitia  tributo,  wherein  Doth  patricians  and  plebeians  voted 
henceforward,  if  not  before  (p.  96).  In  421  the  qunstorship 
was  opened  to  the  plebeians.  Moreover,  the  tribunes  of  the 
people  acquired  the  right  of  taking  auspices,  and  were  admitted  ^ 
to  the  senate,  though  at  first  required  to  occupy  a  bench  near 
the  door. 
445.  Law  of  the  tribune  Canulelns  legalizing  marriage  between 
patricians  and  plebeians  (lex  Canuleia  de  conubio :  ut  conubia  jde-^ 
od  cum  patribus  esserU),  The  children  inherit  the  rank  of  the 
father.  The  motion  brought  forward  b^  tins  tribune  that  the 
consuls  might  be  chosen  mm  the  plebeians  (ui  populo  patestas 
essetyHudeplebenu  de  patribus  vellet^  consules/aaendi),  was  vio^ 
lentl^  opposed  by  the  nobility.  A  compromise  was  effected, 
and  it  was  decreed  that  instead  of  cohsuIb 

444.  xxiilitary  tribunes  (6)  with  oonsular  power  (tri 
buxii  milituin  oonsulari  potestate) 
should  be  appointed,  and  that  to  this  office  plebeians  could  b« 
elected.  At  the  same  time  creation  of  a  newpatridan  office, 
that  of  oenaor.  The  two  censors  were  elected  in  the  carniHa 
cerUuriata,  at  first  for  5  (4  ?)  years,  after  434  for  18  months,  but 
every  fifth  year  only,  so  that  the  office  was  vacant  3^  years  out 


of  every  five.    Functions  of  the  oensora :  1.  Ta 


everf  5  ^4  ?)  years  Rafter  every  lustrum),  and  comp 
'     ■'      ot  cf  * 


the  lists  ox  citizens  and  taxes;  appointment  of  senators  {lectio 
senahu)  and  the  equites  (recognitto  equUum).  2.  Preparation 
and  publication  of  the  budget,  management  of  the  state  prop- 
erty, fanning  the  indirect  taxes  (vectigalia),  snperintenaence 
of  the  public  buildings.  3.  Supervision  of  tiie  public  morality 
(regimen  morum).  The  duties  and  privileges  mduded  under 
tiie  latter  head  gave  the  office  great  mortd  and  political  im- 
portance in  the  next  century  (Notatio  censoria). 

439l  Spurius  Madius,  a  rich  plebeian,  who,  during  a  famine,  distrib- 
uted grain  at  a  low  price,  was  accused  of  aiming  at  royal 
power,  and  was  slain  by  C.  ServUius  Ahala^  the  master  of  the 
norse  of  the  octogenarian  dictator,  L,  Quinctius  Cincinnatus. 

405-396.    Siege  of  Veil, 

the  history  of  which,  like  that  of  the  previous  wars  with  the 
Etruscans,  has  been  much  ornamented  by  tradition.  The  long 
continuance  and  obstinacy  of  the  war  with  Yeii  is  proved  by 
the  fact  that  then  for  the  first  time  the  campaigns  were  not 
interrupted  durine  the  winter.  The  result  was,  that  the  citi- 
zens who  served  m  the  army  now  for  the  first  time  received 
pay  from  the  public  treasury  (i.  e.  out  of  the  taxes  on  the 
public  lands). ^    Capture  and  deatructloii  of  Veil  by  the 

1  Iieialiton,  Hitt,  o/Rome,  p.  70,  note  1.  [Trass. 

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100  Ancient  BUtory.  B.  a 


dietetor,  M.  Forins  CamlUns.  The  £dl  €i  Veii  marica  tl» 
begiimiiig  of  the  decline  of  the  Etnuwui  power,  which  was 
hard  pressed  at  the  same  time  hy  the  Latins  in  the  sonth,  Ceitg 
(Gayit)  from  beyond  the  Alps  in  the  north,  and  from  the  sea 
by  the  Sicilian  and  Italian  Greeks,  especially  the  SyracusanSf 
whose  attacks  had  endured  upward  of  a  century. 

391.     Camillus  went  into  exile  in  con8e<{uence  of  a  complaint  of  in- 
justice in  the  division  of  the  booty  from  YeiL 
Latinin  invaded  by  the  Gauls  in  consequence  of  Roman  ambas- 

•adors  having  takenpart,  in  the  war  of  the  Etruscans  of  Clusium. 

against  iScLeUauls.    llie  Crauls  demanded  that  the  ambassadors  (the 

three  FaJbO)  should  be  delivered  to  them,  to  which  the  senate  agreed. 

Hie  proposal  was,  however,  rejected  by  the  citizens. 

390  (July  18).    Battle  of  the  Allia, 

a  brook,  which  falls  into  the  Hber  eleven  miles  north  of 
Rome.  Utter  defeat  and  rout  of  the  Romans  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Tiber,  whereby  the  city  was  left  defenceless. 
Abandoned  by  the  citizena  (Uie  M<m»  Ccqnioiinus  al<nie  contin- 
ued to  be  occupied),  Rome  waa  taken,  plundered,  and  burnt  by 
the  Crauls  under  their  Brennus,  L  e.  military  ruler.  Slaughter 
of  the  senators.  Unsuccessful  attempt  to  surprise  the  CapitoL 
The  eeese  of  Juno.  M,  MarUius  CapUolinus.  After  a  seven 
monws'  siege  of  the  fortress,  the  withdrawal  of  the  Gauls  waa 
purchased  with  gold.  Legend  (a  later  invention)  of  an  expul- 
sion of  the  enemy  by  a  victor]^  of  Camillus,  who  surprised  the 
haughty  Brennus  (  Vce  victis  /)  in  the  forum,  while  th^  gold  was 
being  weighed  (!).  Return  of  the  inhabitants.  The  plan  of 
emigrating  to  Veii  broken  up  by  Camillus.  Hasty,  but  irregu- 
lar, reconstruction  of  the  citv,  which  soon  regained  its  old 
power,  after  the  JEqui,  the  VoUdanSf  and  the  Etnacans,  who 
nad  taJcen  up  arms  again,  had  been  defeated  by  Camillus. 

Sqnalizatioii  of  the  old  orders.  Origin  of  the  new  nobility. 
Recommencement  of  the  civil  contests  against  the  patricians:  1,  by 
the  plebeian  aristocracy  to  get  admission  to  the  corutdate;  2,  by  the 
poor,  indebted  plebeians  to  obtain  a  reform  of  the  laws  of  debtor  and 
creditor,  and  a  share  of  the  public  lands.  The  exertions  of  those 
tribunes  who  were  friendly  to  the  poorer  classes  were  often  neutral- 
ized by  the  opposition  of  their  colleagues  who  represented  the  inter- 
ests of  the  plebeian  aristocracy.  The  patrician  M.  Bffanlias  Capi- 
tolinus,  who  had  released  plebeian  debtors  at  his  own  expense,  was 
accused  of  aiming  at  royal  power,  declared  guilty  of  high  treason, 
and  thrown  from  the  Tarpeian  rock  ^384).  A  compromise  was  finally 
agreed  upon  between  the  plebeian  aristocracy  and  the  plebeian  com- 
mons, whose  results  were  seen  in  the 

376.  Laws  proposed  by  C.  Idoinius  and  Lucius  Bextiusy  trib- 
unes of  the  people  (rogationes  LicinuB),  The  first  two  were 
designed  to  secure  the  poorer  classes  a  material  alleviation; 
the  third  to  give  the  plebeian  aristocracy  the  loug-wished-for 
equality  with  the  patricians. 


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B.  o.  Soman  HxUory.  101 

I.  Relief  of  the  debtora  by  the  deductioii  of  interest  already 
paid  from  the  principal;  the  rest  to  be  paid  within  three  years  in 
three  installments  (ti/,  deducto  eo  de  oapUe  quod  usuris  pemumeratum 
esset,  id  quod  superessei  triennio  asquis  portionibua  penolveretur). 

n.  No  one  should  possess  more  than  500  jti£;era  of  the  publio 
lands  (ne  mUsplus  quam  quingerUa  jugera  agntmblici^  possideret), 

TTT  Abolition  of  the  tribuni  mUihim  consulari  potestate.  One,  at 
least,  of  the  two  consuls  muat  be  chosen  from  the  plebeiane  (ne 
trUnmorum  miliium  comitia  fierent  consulumque  utique  alter  explebe  crea- 
retur). 

After  a  long^  contest,  and  after  the  appointment  of  Camillus  to  the 
dictatorship  had  failed  to  accomplish  anything, 

367.    The  Uotnian  laws  were  passed. 

366.  L.  Sextius  Lateranns,  colleague  of  the  tribune  Licinius,  fixst 
plebeian  oonsnl.  At  the  same  time  one  of  the  three  great 
colleges  of  priests  (decemviri  [formerly  duomrt]  gacria  facitmdis) 
was  opened  to  the  plebeians. 

In  order  to  retain  at  least  the  administration  of  the  judicial  de- 
partment in  the  hands  of  their  order,  the  patricians  procured  the 
establishment  of  a  new  patrician  magistracy,  the  preetorship.  The 
prsBtor  (since  243,  one  pnetor  urbanus,  and  one  prtetor  inter  cives  et 
peregrinos;  since  227.  four;  since  197,  six  prsetors)  had  the  jurisdiction 
(deare  sc  judicium,  dicere,  sc.  sententiam,  addicere,  sc.  rem),  and  was 
the  vicegerent  of  the  consuls  during  their  absence.  At  the  same  time  a 
new  tedile  was  appointed,  called,  to  distinmiish  him  from  the  plebeian 
ofiBcer  of  that  name,  the  curiile  aedile ;  this  office  was,  however,  soon 
(probably  since  364;  certainly  since  304)  made  accessible  to  the  ple- 
beians, and  patrician  and  plebeian  cunile  fediles  were  elected  for 
alternate  years.  The  duties  of  the  two  eediles  onmles  were:  1.  to 
manage  the  ludi  Romani;  2,  to  supervise  the  markets  and  the  street- 
police,  and  to  preside  in  the  police  courts  connected  therewith. 

Although  afier  the  passage  of  the  liciniaii  laws  the  patricians  contin- 
oed  their  oppomtion  to  the  political  equalization  of  the  orders,  and 
even  succeeded  several  times  in  electing  two  patrician  consuls  in  open 
violation  of  the  third  Licinian  law,  all  public  offices  were,  nevertne- 
less,  opened  to  aU  Roman  citizens,  in  rapid  succession:  the  dictatorship 
356  (the  office  of  magister  equitum  before  the  adoption  of  the  Lici- 
nian laws  368),  the  censorship  actiudly  351,  legally  338,  the  praOorship 
337,  the  colleges  of  pontijices  and  augures  (the  number  of  members  in 
each  being  iucreasea  to  nine)  300,  by  the  lex  Ogulnia.  The  patrician 
order  thereupon  ceased  to  exist  as  a  legally  privileged  caste,  and  con- 
tinued only  as  a  social  order  or  rank. 

A  new  nobility  (optimates,  nobiles)  was  gradually  developed  in 
political  life,  composed  of  those  patrician  and  plebeian  families  which 
had  for  the  longest  time  retained  possession  of  the  chief  public  offices 
(sumnU  honares).  These  families  regarded  every  citizen  who  obtained 
office,  but  did  not  belong  to  their  se^  u  ui  upstart  (homo  novus).  The 

1  The  wordpublici  is  lackinfir  in  the  text  of  Livius  (Vr.  35).  But  it  is  clear 
that  the  law  could  have  referred  to  public  land  nn'w.  Cf.  Hiebuhr,  Hitt,  oj 
Borne  111.  U;  and  Mommsen,  Hist,  of  Rome,  I.  804  foil. 


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102  Ancient  Eiitavy.  b.  a 

new  nobility  eonld  not,  howeyer,  separate  itself  so  sharply  from 
the  common  people  as  the  patrician  order  had  done,  bat  mcreased 
its  ranks  constantly  from  the  most  promising  portion  of  the  lower 
classes. 

Through  the  equalization  of  the  plebeian  aristocracy  with  the  pa- 
tricians, the  office  of  tribune,  which  was  generally  in  the  hands  of 
the  most  distinguished  plebeian  families,  uist,  for  a  time  at  least,  its 
revolutionary  and  anaronic  character.  The  tribunes  of  the  people 
soon  obtained  not  only  seats  and  yotes  in  the  senate,  but  auo  the 
ri^ht  to  convene  it.  Growing  importance  of  the  senate,  which  from 
this  time  on  was  the  principal  executive  body  governing  the  state. 
Since  the  establishment  of  the  republic  the  aenaton  had  represented 
both  orders  (p.  94).  They  acquired  their  membership  neither  by 
the  accident  of  birth,  nor  by  the  direct  choice  of  the  people.  The 
censors  (p.  99)  tilled  vacancies  in  the  senate  principally  from  the 
numbers  of  those  citizens  which  had  occupied  the  office  of  qusastor 
(p.  99)  or  a  higher  office.  Their  age  waa  at  least  30  years ;  prob- 
ably a  property  qualification  waa  soon  required.  Being  appomted 
for  life,  but  subjected  every  four  (5)  years  to  a  new  lectio  of  the 
censors,  who  could  expel  unworthy  members,  the  Roman  senators 
were  independent  of  a  fickle  public  opinion.    To  the  wise  and  ener- 

fetio  conduct  ^of  the  senate  ^me  chiefly  owed  the  great  growth  ox 
er  power  which  took  place  in  the  near  future. 
As  formerly,  the  comituE  exerdsed  the  rights  of  sovereignty  proper, 
especially  the  oomitla  centnriata  and  the  oomitla  tributa,  in 
which  au  citizens,  patricians  and  plebeians  alike,  were  included  (p.  96), 
while  the  right  of  approval  vested  in  the  patrician  oomitla  curiata 
(or  the  narrower  patrician  aenate,  p.  94)  became  an  empty  form. 
Here  belong  two  of  the  three  lawa  of  the  plebeian  dictator,  Pub^ 
lilioa  Fhilo  (Uaes  PublilicB),  of  the  year  338 :  1.  A  vote  of  the 
comitia  trUmta  shfdl  have  the  force  of  law  without  having  been  ap- 
proved by  the  comitia  curiata  (ut  pldnscita  omnes  Quiriles  tenerem). 
2.  Laws  presented  to  the  centuries  shall  be  approved  beforehand  (ut 
legum,  qua  comitOs  centuriatis  ferrentur,  patres  ante  initum  suffragium 
audoresferent).  3.  One  censor  muat  be  a  plebeian  (ut  alter  vbique  ex 
plebe  censor  crearetur).  The  same  Publilius  Fhilo  became  the  first 
plebeian  pr»tor  in  337. 

In  the  year  312  the  censor  Appius  Claudius  included  the  inhab- 
itants of  Kome  who  were  not  freeholders  in  the  tribes  which  they  pre- 
ferred, and  in  the  centuries  according  to  their  property.  This  far- 
reaching  and  actually  revolutionary  change  in  the  comitia  centuriata 
and  trihjUa  was  altered  in  a  conservative  sense  by  the  censor  Q.  Fa- 
hius  RuUianus  (Maximm)  in  the  year  304.  As  regards  the  oomitla 
tributa,  those  freemen  who  were  not  freeholders,  and  those  freed- 
men  (libertim)  whose  property  in  land  was  valued  at  less  than  30,000 
sestertes  (about  $1500^,  were  divided  amonp^  the  four  citv  wards 
(tribus  wrbaxuR),  which  now  became  the  last  in  rank  insteaa  of  the 
first.  The  country  wards  (tribus  rusticix),  the  number  of  which  had 
by  the  year  241  risen  from  17  to  31  (making  the  whole  number  of 
the  tribes  35,  p.  96),  were  reserved  for  freemen  who  were  freeholders, 
and  for  freedmen  having  larger  landed  properties.    In  the  oomitia 


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B.  c.  Soman  Hiitory.  108 

oentnriata^  where  the  wealthy  members  had  already  acquired 
many  priyileges,  equality  of  the  freemen  who  were  and  those  who 
were  not  freeholders  was  secured ;  but  the  freedmeriy  with  excep- 
tion of  those  of  the  first  two  classes,  were  entirely  shut  out  from  the 
centuries.^ 

The  Licinian  laws  had  naturally  only  ameliorated,  not  radically 
cured,  the  desperate  condition  of  the  poor  and  indebted  plebeians. 
The  law  of  the  consul  PcBtelins  (lex  P<xtelM\  passed  m  326  or 
313,  secured  to  every  insolvent  debtor  who  should  transfer  his  prop- 
erty to  the  creditor  his  personal  freedom  (ne  quia  cms  alieni  causa 
nectatuTf  uHque  bona  tantummodo  obnoxia  sint).  By  these  and  other 
ameliorations,  and  by  the  ever-increasing  foundation  of  colonies  of 
citizens  and  division  of  public  lands  among  the  poor,  in  consequence 
of  successful  wars,  the  social  question  was  for  a  short  time  forced 
into  the  background. 

At  this  time  occurred  the  alteration  in  the  Servian  constitution  of 
the  army.^    Division  of  the  new  legion  into  30  manipleSf  each  con- 
taining 3  centuries.    Arrangement  in  order  of  battle  in  three  lines 
(kastoH,  principesj  triaru).     The  assignment  of  arms  according  to 
proper<T  classification  was  abolished.    Long  lances  (hasta)  were  re- 
served for  the  third  line,  the  first  and  second  line  receiving  in  their 
stead  the  pilum,  a  short  spear,  adapted  both  for  thrusting  and  hurl- 
ing.    A  short  cut  and  thrust  swora  was  used  by  all. 
367-349.    Four  wars  with  the  Gauls  who  had  permanently  settled 
in  upper  Italy  (henceforward  known  as  Cfallia  Ciaalpina),  and 
thence  made  frequent  inroads  into,  central  Italy.    In  the  Jirst 
war  sinffle  comb^at  between  T,  Manlius  Torquatus  and  a  gi- 
gantic Gaul;  in  the  second^  the  first  triumph  of  a  plebeian 
consul.    The  fourth  war  was  ended  by  a  great  defeat  mflicted 
upon  the  Grauls  in  the  Pomptine  region  by  the  consul  M.  Fu- 
nu8  CamiUus,  the  younger.     Single  combat  of  M,  Valerius 
Corvus  with  a  Graul. 
362.  Story  of  a  chasm  opened  in  the  forum  closed  by  the  sacrifice 

of  M.  Curtius. 
362-358.    War  with  the   Hemic!  and  the   revolted  Latin   cities 
(especially  Tibur),  ending  in  the  renewal  of  the  old  league 
between  name  on  the  one  part  and  the  Latins  and  Hemici  on 
the  other;  whereby  both  people  were  more  strictly  subjected 
to  the  Romans  thsui  before. 
^158-351.    Wars  with  the  Btniacan  cities  Tarquinii,  Caere,  and 
Falerii  (victory  of  C.  Mardus  Rutilius,  the  first  plebeian  dicta- 
tor, 356),  which  led  to  the  reduction  of  the  whole  of  south- 
ern XStniria  under  Roman  supremacy. 
348.     (First  ?)  treaty  of  commerce  between  Rome  and  Carthage,* 

the  text  of  which  has  been  preserved  by  Polybius  (III.  22). 
350-345.    War  with  the  Volscii,  who  were  defeated  in  346  at  Satri- 
cum,  and  the  Aurunci.     The  power  of  both  peoples  was  com- 
pletely broken.     The  Roman  legions  forced  their  way  south- 

1  Mommsen,  Hist,  of  Aome,  Book  II.  chap.  3. 

s  Mommsen,  Hist,  oj  Hotne,  Book  II.  chap.  8,  and  Peter,  I.*.  222  folL 

s  See  p.  93,  note  1. 


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104  Ancient  History.  b.  c. 

ward  without  stay.    This  great  deYelopment  of  Ronie's  power 
brought  about  the 

343-266.    wars  with  the  Saizmites,  the  other  Italians,  and 

the  Qreek  cities  of  Italy. 
Result :  Subjugation  of  all  Italy  to  the  Rubicon  and  Macro,  undez 

the  supremacy  of  Rome. 

343-34L    First  war  with  the  Samnites. 

Cause :  The  Sidici  in  Teaman  and  the  Campanians  in  Capua,  both 
Samnite  tribes  who  had  emigrated  from  their  home,  asked  aid  of  the 
Romaus  against  their  relatives,  the  Samnites  of  the  mountains, 
who  had  formed  a  confederacy  in  Samnium  proper,  whence  they  con- 
tinually ravaged  the  plain  (Campania),  with  new  swarms. 

According  to  the  Roman  tradition,^  their  armies  gained  three  vic- 
tories iu  Campania  over  the  Samnites  :  victory  of  M.  Valerius  Cor- 
vus  on  Mount  Gaurus  (near  Cumse)  ;  victory  of  A.  Cornelius  Cossus, 
after  his  army  had  been  rescued  oy  P.  Decius  Mus,  a  military  trib- 
une ;  finally,  victory  of  both  Roman  armies  at  Suessula.  The  war  wa« 
ended  by  a  treaty,  whereby  Rome  received  Capua,  the  Samnites 
Teanum.  The  Sajnnites  were  induced  to  conclude  this  treaty  by  a 
war  with  Tarentum,  the  Romans  by  the 

340-338.    Great  Latin  War. 

The  Latins  rebelled  against  the  hegemony  of  Rome  and  demanded 
complete  eouality  with  die  Romans.  One  consul  and  half  the  senate 
were  to  be  Latins.  Capua  (in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  optimates) 
and  the  Volscii  were  allied  with  the  Latins. 

Victory  of  the  (^Roman  and  Samnite  f)  armies  over  the  Latins  and 
Campanians  in  the  neighborhood  of  Vesuvius  under  the  consul  T. 
Manlius  Imperiosus.  Execution  of  the  young  son  of  the  consul,  who 
against  his  father's  conmiand  had  fought  with  the  Latin  conmuuider 
and  defeated  him.  P.  Decius  Mus  sacrificed  his  life  for  the  safety  of 
his  army.  Decisive  battle  at  Trifannm  (between  Mintumas  and 
Suessa)  ;  victory  of  the  consul  Manlius  over  the  Latins  and  Campa- 
nians. 

Dissolution  of  the  Latin  League,  which  became  a  mere  relig- 
ious association  for  the  celebration  of  festivals.  Isolation  of  the 
Latin  cities  from  one  another.  Commercium  and  connubium  between 
them  were  prohibited.  Most  of  the  cities  received  Roman  citizen- 
ship without  suffrage,  i.  e.  they  became  subjects.  Several  were 
obliged  to  cede  land,  which  was  divided  among  Roman  citizens  ;  others 
were  converted  into  Roman  colonies  (p.  109),  e.  g.  Antium.  The 
orator's  stand  in  the  forum  Romanum  was  ornamented  with  the  bows 
of  the  old  ships  of  this  city  (hence  rostra).  The  Roman  power  in  the 
territories  of  the  Volscii  and  in  Campania  was  strengthened  by  the 
settlement  of  colonies  of  Roman  citizens.  Capua  and  other  cities 
became  dependent  Roman  communities  (p.  109). 

1  Livius,  Vll.  29  foil.  See  this  tradition  criticised  by  Mommsen,  Hist,  qf 
Rome,  I.  365,  note. 


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B.  c.  Roman  History.  105 

326-304.    Seoond  war  with  the  SazxmiteB  and  the  other 
Italians. 

CauBO  :  Encroachments  of  the  Romans  on  the  Ldris,  especially  the 
transformation  of  FregeUa  into  a  Roman  colony,  and  the  capture 
of  PahxopoLis  (twin  city  of  NeopoUs)^  by  Q.  Publilius  PhUo,  the 
first  pro-consuL 

Alliance  of  the  Romans  with  the  Apulians  and  Lucanians  and,  in 
the  course  of  the  war,  with  the  SabeUian  cities  south  of  the  Yolturnus 
( l^ola,  Nuceria,  Heradaneum^  Pompeii),  who  at  first  sided  with  the 
Sanmites. 

The  Romans  had  the  advantage  in  the  first  years  of  the  war,  and 
crossed  Samnium  to  Apulia,  plundering  as  they  went ;  but  in  321 
the  consuls  Sp,  Postunma  and  T,  Veturius,  hastening  &om  Campania 
to  the  assistance  of  the  Apulian  city  Zucma,  were  surrounded  by  the 
Samnites  under  Gavius  PontluB  in  the  Caudine  Pass  (Jurculas 
Caudince)f  near  the  present  Arpaia,  and  compelled  to  capitulate, 
swear  to  a  treaty  of  peace,  and  give  600  Roman  equites  as  hostages. 
The  whole  Roman  army  was  sent  under  the  yoke.  The  Roman 
senate  refused  to  approve  the  treaty,  and  delivered  the  consuls  to  the 
Samnites,  who  refused  to  receive  them. 

The  Samnites  conquered  Luceria  in  Apulia  and  FregeUcB  on  the 
Liris.  By  desperate  exertions  the  Romans  got  the  upper  hand  again. 
In  319  the  Roman  consul  Z.  Papirius  Cursor  reconquered  Luceria^ 
released  the  Roman  hostages,  and  sent  the  Samnite  garrison  under 
the  yoke.  The  war  went  on  during  the  succeeding  years  with  chang- 
ing fortune  ;  nevertheless,  the  Romans  subdued  uieir  revolted  allies 
and  subjects,  and  punished  the  leaders  in  the  revolt  with  death.  They 
defeated  the  Samnites  at  Capua,  drove  them  out  of  Campania  com- 
pletely, and  reconquered  Freaelke,  Settlement  of  new  colomes  (p.  109). 
Construction  of  a  great  military  road  from  Rome  to  Capua,  through 
the  Pomptine  marshes,  the  Via  Appia,  part  of  which  still  remains. 
(Begun  under  the  censor  Appius  Claudius,  312). 

.Aiter  312,  when  the  40  years' peace  with  the  Etruscans  expired,  the 
Etruscan  cities  took  part  in  the  war  against  Rome.  Soon  the  whole 
of  Etruria,  which  was  still  independent,  was  in  arms  against  the 
destroyer  of  Italian  liberty.  Siege  of  the  Roman  border  fortress, 
Sutrium.  The  victorious  advance  of  the  consul  Q.  Fabius  RuUianus 
through  the  Ciminian  forest,  and  his  victory  at  the  Vadimonian 
lake  ^310)  caused  the  powerful  cities  of  Perusia,  Cortona,  Arretium, 
to  withdraw  from  the  coalition  against  Rome,  and  effected  after 
308  a  provisional  truce  throughout  Etruria.  The  Umbrians,  Pi- 
centiniy  Marsians,  Frentanians,  Pcdignians,  who  had  joined  the  Ital- 
ian cocdition,  continued  the  war,  and  were  ultimately  joined  by  the 
Hemicans,  The  fortune  of  war  for  a  short  time  favored  the  Sam- 
nites and  their  allies,  but  the  Romans  soon  acquired  a  decided  ascen- 
dency. L,  Papirius  Cursor  defeated  the  Samnites  in  a  great  battle 
(309).  Nuceria,  the  last  Campanian  town  in  alliance  witii  the  Sam- 
nites, was  attacked  by  the  Romans  by  land  and  sea,  and  forced  to 
surrender.  First  appearance  of  a  Roman  nvar  fleet.  The  con- 
sal  L.  Postumius  iniraded  Samnium  from  the  Adriatic  Sea ;  another 


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106  Ancient  History.  B.  c. 

Roman  army  advanced  from  Campania.  A  decisive  victory  of  the 
Romans  and  the  capture  of  Bovianum  ^305),  the  capital  of  the 
Sunnite  league,  ended  the  war.  The  Sammtes  Msged  for  peace,  and 
with  their  Sabellian  allies  obtained  a  renewal  of  me  old  treaties  and 
equality  with  Rome. 

Foundation  of  numerous  Roman  colonies  and  several  military  roads  ; 
the  Hemican  league  was  dissolved  ;  the  VoUcians  and  JSquioms  it%t^ 
obliged  to  receive  Roman  citizenship  withtnU  suffiraae.  Construction 
of  two  great  military  roads  from  Rome  :  the  northern  (later  called 
Via  Flaminid)  extended  to  iVIamia  (Nequinum)  ;  the  southern  (later 
Via  Vcderia)  extended  by  way  of  (Jarstoli  to  Alba  Fucentia  (i.  e.  on 
lake  Fucinus),  the  key  to  the  territory  of  the  Marsu 

298-290.    Third  war  against  the  Samnites  and  the  other 
Italiana. 

Cause :  The  Sammtes  succeeded  in  bringing  men  of  their  party  into 
power  throughout  Lucania,  and  concluded  a  league  with  the  Lucamans 
m  order  to  nsk  a  final  struggle  for  the  independence  of  Italy.  New 
rising  among  the  Etruscans, 

The  consul  L,  Cornelius  Sdrno  (whose  sarcophagus,  with  an  old 
Latin  inscription,^  discovered  m  1780,  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the  Vati- 
can Museum)  forced  the  Lucanians  to  abjure  their  alliance  with  Sam- 
nium.  297,  victory  of  RuUianus  at  Tifemum;  victory  of  P.  Decius  Mus 
at  Maluentum.  In  296  the  desperate  exertions  of  the  Samnites  en^ 
abled  them  to  place  three  armies  in  the  field  :  one  to  defend  their 
own  country,  one  for  Campania,  while  the  third  was  conducted  by  its 
commander  GeUius  Egnatius  through  the  Marsian  and  Umbrian  lands 
to  Etruria,  This  prevented  the  Etruscans  from  concluding  the  peace 
which  they  had  negotiated  with  Rome  and  conjured  up  the  old  coali- 
tion of  the  Italians,  which  was  now  joined  by  GralHc  tribes.  Great jprep- 
parations  in  Rome.  The  consuls  Q.  Fabtus  RuUianus  and  P.  Dectus 
Mus  advanced  to  Umbria  with  60,000  men,  where  in  295  the  deoi- 
sive  battle  of  Sentinom  was  fought,  and  by  the  devotion  of  P.  De- 
cius Mus  (Livius,  X.  28)  after  a  long  contest  ended  in  favor  of  the 
Romans.  Dissolution  of  the  army  of  the  coalition,  the  Grauls  scat- 
tered, the  Sammtes  returned  to  Samnium,  the  Umbrians  submitted, 
the  Etruscans  asked  for  peace  in  the  next  year  (294).  The  vrar  lasted 
in  Samnium  four  years  longer  with  varying  fortune.  In  293  the  Sam- 
nites suffered  a  severe  defeat  at  Aquilonia  from  X.  Papirius  Cwrsor 
and  Spurius  Carvilius.  In  292  the  Sanmites  gained  their  last  victory 
under  the  command  of  Gavius  Pontius  the  younger. 

Finally  the  Sanmites  concluded  peace  with  the  consul  M\  Curius 
Dentatus,  as  it  seems,  without  ceding  territory;  but  the  Romans 

1  This  inscription,  which  it  is  conjectured  from  linguistic  reasons,  was  eifr 
P'aved  some  time  after  the  death  of  Scipio,  was  :  — 

Cornelius  Lucius  SdpiS  Barbdtus 

Gnnivddpatre  proffndtusjdrlis  tfir  sapiensque 

quovoMf^rma  virtutei  prnHiuma  ( parissima)  fmi 

c<msdl  censdr  aidilis  queifuU  apud  vos 

Taurdtid  Cisauna  Samnid  cepit 

subigil  omne  Loucdnam  dptidesque  aJbdoudl. 


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B.  a  Bom€m  HUtory.  107 

thereby  gained  a  ohanoe  to  strengthen  their  power  in  the  rest  of 
Italy. 

lliis  was  accomplished  by  the  foundation  of  new  colonies  which 
should  serve  as  checks  on  the  Italians,  especially  MifUuma  and  5if»- 
tieisa  in  the  territory  of  the  Auruncans,  itatria  in  Ficenum,  Venusia 
in  Apulia.  The  Sabines  were  obliged  to  become  subject  to  Rome, 
after  a  short  and  feeble  resistance.  At  this  time,  after  the  Samnite 
wars,  the 

286  (?).  Hortensian  law  ^lex  Hortenaia)  was  passed.  Thereby 
it  was  settled  that  all  decrees  of  the  oomitia  tribata  ahould 
ba  binding  on  all  oitiaena.  This  was  accomplished  hj  the 
dictator  Hortensius  after  a  dangerous  uprising  of  the  plebeians, 
w;ho  had  been  unable  to  come  to  terms  with  the  opposite  party 
in  regard  to  a  reduction  of  debts,  and  had  withaniwn  to  the 
Janieulus  (last  secessio  fiebii).  About  this  time  questions  of 
and  alliance  began  to  be  submitted  to  the  comkia  irt- 


By  the  lax  BCasnia  the  second  Fublilian  law  (that  the  ouri»,  or 
tiie  narrow  patrician  senate,  should  assent  heforehand  to  the  resolves, 
tee  p.  102)  was  extended  to  the  eieotlons  which  took  place  in  the 
oomitia  ceuturiata.  Nevertheless,  the  real  importance  of  the  public 
assemblies  was  declining  ;  they  became  more  and  more  instruments 
in  the  hands  of  the  presiding  officers.  After  a  short  truce  in  Italy,  in 
consequence  of  the  peace  with  the  Samnites,  there  broke  out  a 

285-282.    war  between  Rome  and  a  new  Italian  coalition. 

Canae  :  The  inhabitants  of  Thurii  being  attacked  by  the  Luccmicm$ 
and  BruUianSj  sought  help  from  the  Romans.  Alliance  of  the  Luean* 
ions  and  Bruttkms  with  the  EtruscanSt  Umbriansy  and  Gunds  of  north- 
em  Italy.  The  annihilation  of  a  Roman  army  at  Arretivm  by  Senonian 
mercenaries  of  the  Etrugcam  was  terribly  avenged  by  the  Romans. 
The  Grallic  tribe  of  the  Senonea  was  in  part  slaughtered,  in  part 
driven  from  its  home  in  Umbria.  A  victory  of  the  Komans  over  the 
iiorth  Italians  and  their  Gallic  allies  by  Lake  Vadimonium  (283), 
and  another  at  Populonia  (282),  inclined  the  Grauls  to  peace.  After 
a  victory  of  the  oonsul  C.  Fabricius  over  the  Luoanians  at  Thurii  the 
non-Dorian  Greek  cities  joined  the  Romans.  Locrij  Crotan,  and  Thurii 
received  Roman  garrisons.    This  advance  of  the  Romans^  led  to  the 

282-272.    War  with  Tarentum. 

Special  oanse:  Old  treaties  with  Tarentum  prohibited  Roman 
ih^  of  war  from  passing  the  promontory  of  Lcudnium.  A  Roman 
war  fleet  on  its  way  to  the  Umbrian  coast  anchored  in  the  harbor  of 
Tarentum.  The  people,  incited  by  demagogues  in  the  assembly,  at- 
tacked the  vessels,  and  captured  five,  whose  crews  were  either  put  to 
death  or  sold  into  slavery.  A  Roman  embassy  which  demanded  rep- 
aration in  Tarentum  was  insulted. 

A  Roman  army  advanced  into  the  Tarentine  territory.  The  Taren- 
tines  called  to  their  assistance  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epinia,  a  renowned 
general  and  leader  of  mercenaries,  who  had  long  meditated  the  plan 
of  conquering  for  himself  and  the  Hellenic  nation  a  new  empire  in  the 


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108  AneiefU  BUiory.  b.  g. 

west  Pyrrhiui  at  first  sent  Miton  with  3000  Epizotes  to  Taientom 
(281)  ;  he  himself  Lmded  in  Italy,  the  following  jear,  with  an  army 
of  25,000  men  {Eviroles^  Macedonians,  Greeks,  etc.)  and  twenty  ele- 
phants. The  war  between  Pyrrkus  and  the  Romans  was  a  contest  of 
an  army  of  mercenaries  against  militia,  of  a  military  monarchy  against 
theeovemment  of  a  senate.  Strict  discipline  maintained  by  the  king 
in  l^irentom  ;  the  theatres  were  dosed,  tne  death  penalty  imposed  on 
eTBoion  of  military  service.  Great  preparations  at  Rome  ;  even  the 
proletarii,  generally  free  from  military  sendee,  were  enrolled.  One 
Roman  army  was  sent  to  Etmria,  the  main  axmy  to  lower  Italy.  In 
the 

280.    Battle  of  Heradea,  near  the  Siris^ 

the  Romans  were  defeated,  after  a  straggle  whose  result  was  long 
donbtfol,  by  the  phalanx  and  the  elephants.  Great  losses  of  Pjrrrhns. 
The  BnOtians,  Lucanians,  and  Samnites  joined  the  king.  The  offer 
of  peace  made  by  Pjrrrhus  to  the  Romans  through  Cineaa  was 
haughtily  rejected  by  the  senate.  Speech  of  the  blmd  consular  Ap- 
pius  Claudius.  Pyrrhus  advanced  as  far  as  Anagnia  in  Campania,  but 
there  halted  and  returned  to  lower  Italy,  as  two  Roman  armies  took 
the  field  against  him,  and  the  allies  of  the  Romans  remained  faithfuL 
Roman  embassy  (C.  FabriciuB)  sent  to  Pyrrhus  to  treat  for  an  ex- 
change of  prisoners.  In  the  following  year  the  two  armies,  each 
numbering  with  the  allied  troops  70,000  men,  met  in  the  bloody 
279.    Battle  of  A(u)8ciiliim, 

in  Apulia,  which  lasted  two  days,  and  in  which  Pjrrrhus  was 
victor,  but  again  suffered  enormous  loss. 
The  Syracusans,  who,  since  the  death  of  Agathocles  (289,  p.  20), 
had  been  hard  pressed  by  the  Carthaginians,  called  for  aid  upon 
^rrrhus,  who  gladly  gave  heed  to  the  request,  but  left  a  garrison  in 
larentum.  Offensive  and  defensive  alliance  of  Rome  and  Car- 
thage (279);  a  Carthaginian  fleet  appeared  off  the  couit  of  Italy, 
but  soon  returned  to  Sicily.  The  Roman's  conduct  of  the  war  m 
Italy  was  at  first  feeble,  owing  to  their  great  losses,  but  they  soon 
captured  all  the  cities  on  the  south  coast  excepting  Tarentum  and 
Rhegium.  After  two  years'  absence  (p.  20),  Pyrrhus  again  landed 
in  Italy.  He  started  to  assist  the  Samnites,  who  were  hard  pressed 
by  the  Romans,  but  was  completely  defeated  in  the 
275.    Battle  of  Beneventmn. 

1300  prisoners  and  4  elephants  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
victors.     Despairing  of   success  against  Rome,  I^rrrhus  re- 
turned to  Epirus,  leaving  a  garrison  in  TarentunL    Not  until 
ifter  the  death  of  Pyrrhus,   which   took   place    in   272  at 
\rgos,  did  Milan  surrender  the  city  and  fortress  of  Tarentum 
to  the  Romans,  on  condition  of  free  departure.     The  Taren- 
tinea  were  obliged  to  deliver  up  their  arms  and  ships,  and 
destroy  their  w^ls,  but  retained  their  own  municipal  admin- 
istration. 
After  the  fall  of  Tarentum,  subjugation  of  the  Lucanians^  Sam-' 
nitesy  and  Bruttians.  All  were  compelled  to  cede  portions  of  their  ter- 
ntories  and  to  receive  colonies  (see  below).    In  270  capture  of  Rh6» 


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B.  o.  Soman  History,  lOfr 

gium,  which  had  been  for  ten  yean  in  the  hands  of  Campanian  mnti- 
neers,  who  were  now  punished  with  death.  In  268  the  PicentmiweTe 
defeated  and  a  laree  number  of  them  transferred  to  Campania.  The 
subjugation  of  Italy  to  the  RMcon  and  Macro  was  completed  by  the 
defeat  of  the  Sallentini  in  GaUbria,  266.  As  regards  the  relation  of 
the  conquered  towns  to  Rome  we  must  disting^h: 

I.  Monioipal  cities  (mimtctpta),  i.  e.  communities  having  Roman 
citizenship  withotU  suffrage  and  with  no  claim  to  a  public  office  at 
Rome  (sine  suffragio  a  jure  honorum).  They  had  the  burdens  but  not 
the  priyileges  of  Roman  citizens.  Some  places  were  permitted  to 
keep  the  administration  of  their  mimicipai  affairs  under  officials  of 
their  own  choosing ;  in  others  the  municipal  constitution  was  entirely 
abolished. 

II.  Colonies  (poUmMs)y  i.  e.  Roman  strongholds  and  fortresses. 
Many  conquered  towns  had  to  cede  a  part  of  their  land,  which  was 
then  divided  among  poor  Roman  citizens^  who  retained  aU  their  rights 
of  citizenship,  and  thenceforward  formed  the  ruling  class  in  the  col- 
onies, like  the  pairiciansy  while  the  old  population  was  reduced  to 
inhabitants  having  no  political  rights.  The  Latin  colomes  are  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Aoman  colonies;  the  former  owed  their  establish- 
ment to  the  Latin  League^  but  had  been  further  developed  after  its 
dissolution,  in  that  the  senate  distributed  lands  among  Latin  or 
Roman  citizens,  who  renounced  their  yt»  suJfragHet  honorum.  In  the 
miunicipaiiiieSy  as  in  the  colonies,  the  jurisdiction  was  in  the  hands  of 
a  prelect  (prcefectus  iuri  dicundo)  appointed  by  the  prcetor  urhanus 
(p.  101). 

III.  Allies  (socUf  cioitates  foederata),  whose  relation  to  Rome  was 
reg^ulated  by  treaty,  who  had  for  the  most  part  their  own  administra- 
tion and  jurisdiction,  and  were  freed  from  service  in  the  legion,  but 
were  obliged  to  furnish  auxiliary  troops  or  ships. 

THIRD  PERIOD. 

Pnnio  Wars.    Trom  the  Beginning  of  Rome's  nnivexsal  Xfan- 

plre,  to  the  Destmctlon  of  Carthage  and  Corinth. 

(264-146). 

264-241.     First  Punio  War.    Contest  over  Sicily. 

For  the  earlier  history  of  the  Punic  people  (Carthaginians)  see 
p.  16,  etc. 

Canse  of  the  war:  The  ill-feeling  which  had  long  existed  between 
Rome,  the  first  land  power,  and  Carthage,  the  first  sea  power,  of  the 
west,  and  which  had  only  been  waived  for  a  moment  during  the  at- 
tack of  Pyrrhus,  who  represented  the  Hellenic  states  which  were 
hostile  to  both  powers  (pp.  76  and  108).  Since  311  the  Romans  had 
endeavored  to  form  a  fleet  of  war.  About  this  time  establishment 
at  Rome  of  two  commanders  of  the  fleet  (duumviri  novates),  later  (267) 
of  4  qwzttors  of  the  fleet  (qucBStores  classici). 

Special  cauae :  The  MamertineSy  i.  e.  men  of  Mars,  formerlv 
Campanian  mercenaries  in  the  pay  of  Agathocles  (p.  20),  had  seizea 
the  city  of  Messana  and  put  the  male  population  to  death.  They  were 

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110  Anetemt  Huimry.  b.  a 

besieged  bj  kiog  ZTaero //.  of  Syraciue.  Fut  of  tiieir  number  soiuAt 
aid  nom  the  Carthaginiana,  anotiier  part  from  the  Rwnaiw.  'Dm 
Bammn  senate  hesitated  ;  the  assemblieB  resolTed  to  grant  the  assist- 
anee  asked  (265).  A  Roman  fleet,  ctmsisting  principally  o£  the  ships 
of  the  south  Italian  allies,  and  the  adTance  gnaidal  the  army,  arrived 
in  Rheginm.  Meanwhile  the  Mamertines  had  admitted  Carthagin- 
ian ships  to  the  harbor  and  reeeived  a  Carthaginian  garrison  in  the 
citadeL  The  Roman  advance  guard  crossed  the  strait,  occupied  Mea- 
sana,  and  drove  the  garrison  from  the  citadeL  The  CaTthagininnn 
declared  war. 

264.  A  Carthaginian  fleet  besieged  the  Romans  in  Messana.  The 
consul  AppiuM  Ciaudiu$  Cauda  croased  the  strait  with  the 
main  body  of  the  army  and  relieved  Messana.  Unsuccessful 
attempt  to  take  Syracuse.  The  consul  returned  to  Italy, 
leaving  a  garrison  in  Messana. 
263.  Two  Roman  armies  crossed  to  Sicily.  Victory  of  the  consul 
M.  ValeriuM  Maximusy  called  Menaua^  over  the  Carthaginians 
and  Syracusans.  JTterv,  king  of  Syracuse,  deserted  the  Cartha- 
ginians and  joined  the  Romans,  who  advanced  to  the  south 
coast  of  Sicily. 
202.  Agrigentnm  captured  by  the  Romans,  after  defeat  of  a 
Carthaginian  army  under  Hanno,  advancing  to  its  relief.  The 
Romans  resolved  to  construct  a  large  fleet.  They  built  the 
first  five-decker  ^  (jpefUiri$)  after  the  model  of  a  stranded 
Carthaginian  ship. 
260.  First  naval  expedition  of  the  Romans  acainst  LipdarOy  with 
17  ships,  had  an  unfortunate  end,  the  whole  squadron  with  the 
consul  Cn.  Comdius  Sc^aio  being  captured  by  the  Carthagin- 
ians. Immediately  afterwards,  however, 
260.  Hist  naval  victory  of  the  HomaiMi  under  C.  Dniline  at 
Mylfle,  west  of  Messana.  Boarding  bridges.  Special  hon- 
ors paid  to  Dnilius.  CUumna  roitraita  in  the  r  orum.  Hie  war 
was  continued  in  the  following  years  with  changing  fortune  ; 
the  Carthaginians  under  Hamilcar  maintained  themselves  in 
the  western  portion  of  the  island. 
257.    Drawn  battle  at  sea,  o£F  the  prom<mtory  of  Tyndam. 

The  Roman  senate  decided  to  attempt  a  landing  in  Africa.  A 
fleet  of  330  ships  under  the  consuls  M.  AtUioa  Reguloa  and  L.  Man- 
Utts  VoUo  sailed  for  the  southern  coast  of  Sidly,  \riiere,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  HtmerOy  the  troops  were  taken  on  board.  A  Carthaginian 
fleet  of  350  vessels  attempted  to  stop  the  expedition,  but  in  the  great 
256.    Naval  battle  of  Bcnomus  (south  coast  of  Sicily) 

it  was  completely  defeated.  What  was  left  of  the  Cartlutfin- 
ian  fleet  took  up  position  before  Carthage  to  protect  the  city.  The 
R^wn»-n  consuls  landed  to  the  east  of  the  city  at  Clupea  and  laid  waste 
the  Carthaginian  territory.  Manlius  retomed  to  Italy  with  half  the 
army;  Regulus  remained  with  15,000  men.  The  Cartha^ians  being 
defeated  sued  for  peace.  Regulus  demanded  the  cession  of  Sicily 
and  Sardinia,  surrender  of  prisoners  and  all  vessels  of  war  except  one, 

1  Not  the  first  ship  of  war ;  the  Romans  had  long  had  veuelt  of  war  and 
tkree'dtckertf  tee  pp.  105,  107,  109. 


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B.  c.  Roman  Htttory.  Ill 

and  aeknowledgment  of  Rome's  sapremacy.  Stung  by  these  inso- 
lent demands,  l£e  Carthaginians  resolved  upon  most  energetic  j»repa- 
rations,  and  levied  troops  in  Greece,  whence  nomeroos  bands  ox  mer* 
cenaries,  and  among  them  the  Spartan  Zanthippns,  went  to  Africa. 
The  Carthaginian  army  being  thus  gpreatly  strengthened  (the  ele- 
phants numbered  100), 
255.    Regains  was  defeated  at  Tones 

and  captured.  A  part  of  the  Roman  army  escaped  to  Clupea. 
The  senate  at  once  sent  a  fleet  to  Africa,  which,  after  raining  a  naval 
victory  over  the  Carthaginians  at  the  promontoiy  of  I&rmes,  took  on 
board  the  Roman  army,  which  was  surrounded  at  Clupea ;  but  on  the 
return  voyage  three  fourths  of  the  ships  were  lost  in  a  storm.  The 
Carthaginians  reopened  the  war  in  Sicuy,  landing  in  Lilybssum  under 
Hcudrubal,  son  of  Hanno.  The  Romans  built  a  new  fleet. 
254.  Capture  of  Panormus  by  the  Romans.  In  the  following 
year  (253)  the  Roman  fleet  crossed  to  Africa  and  laid  waste 
the  coast.  On  the  return  voyage  from  Sicily  to  Italy  it  was  almost 
annihilated  by  a  storm.  The  Roman  senate  declined  to  continue  the 
naval  warfare.  On  land  the  Romans  gained  the 
251.    Victory  of  Panormus 

over  Hasdrubal  under  the  consul  Cseoillns  Metellns,  m^o  at 
his  triumph  in  Rome  exhibited  over  100  elephants. 
The  story  of  the  embassy  of  Regulus  to  Rome  falls  in  the  period 
subsequent  to  this  victory.  It  is,  like  the  story  of  the  cruelties 
inflicted  upon  him  by  the  Carthaginians,  probably  an  inverUian  of  a 
later  time.  The  Romans  renewed  the  naval  war.  They  besieged 
LUybcBum  in  vain.  The  consul  P.  Claudius  Pulcher  in  the 
249.    Sea-fight  at  Drepanum 

defeated  by  the  Carthaginians.  Capture  of  a  great  number 
of  Roman  ships.  After  two  more  Roman  fleets  had  been  destroyed 
by  storms  on  the  south  coast  of  Sicily,  the  Romans,  for  the  second 
time,  abandoned  naval  warfare. 

248-242.  Campaign  by  land  on  the  south  side  of  Sicily.  The  Car- 
thaginian general  Hamiloar,  called  Barak  or  Baroas  (i.  e. 
lightning)  not  only  defended  himself  for  6  years  successfully  against 
the  Romans,  first  on  Mt.  Ein^  ^onte  Pellegrino,  near  Pidermo),  then 
on  Bryz,  but  also  annoyed  the  Italian  coasts  by  privateers.  Throueh 
the  contributions  of  rich  patriots  at  Rome,  a  new  fleet  was  finafly 
built  entirely  at  private  cost.  With  this  fleet  the  consul  C.  Lutatlns 
Catnlns  won  the  decisive 
241.    Victory  at  the  JBgatisai  Islands 

(opposite  Lilybeeum),  over  the  Carthaginian  fleet  under  Hanno. 
Peace:  I.  The  Carthaginians  gave  up  aU  claims  to  Sicily.  II. 
They  paid  3200  talents  (5^4,000,000)  war  indemnity  in  ten  years. 
The  lare:er  western  part  of  Sicily  became  the  first  Roman  prov- 
ince ;  the  smaller  eastern  ^  part  continued  under  the  supremacy  of 
Syraonse,  which  was  allied  with  Rome. 

1  The  territory  of  Syracuse,   Acrm,  Leontim,   Megdra.  ffelorwnt  Netum, 
Tauromenium.    Comp.  Marquardt-Mommsen,  Mn.  AUh,,  IV.  91.    , 

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112  Ancient  Hiitory,  B.  C 

24J  (?).    In  this  period,  probably,  occurred  the  demociatie  lefoam 

of  the  oolutltatlon  of  the  oenturiee,  concerning  the  de- 
tails of  which  bat  little  is  known  with  certainty.  Only  this  is  dear  : 
that  the  right  of  first  vote  was  taken  from  the  centuries  of  eqnites 
and  that  henceforward  the  century  which  should  cast  the  first  vote 
(centuria  prcBrogativa)  was  determined  bjr  lot.  It  is  probable  that  the 
centuries  Irom  now  on  formed  a  subdivision  of  the  icards  (tribus).  It 
is  further  probable  that  the  number  of  centuries  was  increased;  per- 
haps an  equal  number  of  centuries  (i.  e.  voting  bodies)  was  estab- 
lished for  each  class  (p.  92),  and  in  this  manner  the  preponderance 
of  the  first  class  was  abolished.^ 
238.     The  Romans  made  use  of  an  insurrection  of  the  mercenaries 

and  Libyan  subjects  against  Carthage  to  extort  from  the  Car- 
thaginians the  cession  of  Sardinia.  This  island  was  at  a  later  time 
nnited  with  the  island  of  Corsica  (formerly  £truscan,  afterwards 
conouered  by  the  Romans)  to  form  one  province.  For  the  present 
the  Romans  were  satisfied  with  the  occupation  of  the  coasts. 
229-228.    War  with  the  XUyrlans  of  Scodra,  brought  about  by  tbe 

piracies  and  acts  of  violence  conmiitted  by  Uiese  tribes,  and 
their  refusal  to  make  the  reparation  demanded  by  the  senate.  A 
Roman  fleet  of  200  ships  soon  brought  the  Illyrian  pirates  to  terms, 
and  compelled  the  queen  TeutOj  the  guardian  of  her  son,  to  aocept 
the  following  conditions  :  release  of  all  Grecian  cities  from  her  sway, 
abandonmeut  of  piracy,  limitation  of  navigation,  and  payment  of  a 
tribute.  The  Greeks  attested  their  gratitude  to  the  senate  by  admit- 
ting all  Romans  to  the  Isthmian  games  and  the  Eleusinian  mysteries 
(p.  44).  The  lasting  result  of  the  war  was  the  firm  establishment  of 
Roman  superiority  in  the  Adriatic  Sea  and  supremacy  over  Corcyra, 
ApoUoniOf  Epidamnus,  and  some  neighboring  tribes.  In  219  the  re- 
newal of  the  war  led  to  the  subjugation  of  a  part  of  Ulyria  by  L, 
jEmuiw  PauUus. 
225-222.    Sabjogatioii  of  Cisalpine  Gaul 

brought  about  by  a  dangerous  invasion  of  the  (rallic  tribes 
inhabiting  the  plains  of  the  Po  (except  the  Cenomant)  joined  by 
numerous  bands  of  transalpine  Gauls.  The  Celts  entered  Etruria 
70,000  strong  and  advanced  upon  Rome.  The  Romans  sent  two 
consular  armies  against  them,  which  were  reinforced  by  a  third. 
Surrounded  by  these  forces  the  Gauls  were  defeated  and  annihilated 
in  the 
225.  Battle  of  Telamon, 

south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Umbro.  The  consul  C  AtUius 
Regulus  fell,  10,000  Gauls  and  one  of  their  military  leaders  were 
captured,  nearly  all  the  rest  fell  or  killed  themselves.  The  Romans 
entered  Gallia  Cispadana,  and  the  inhabitants,  the  Bott,  submitted. 
The  Romans  crossed  the  Po,  with  severe  losses  (223),  and  defeated 
the  Insubres.  After  two  more  victories  in  the  followinff  year  (222) 
the  consul  Cn,  Scipio  captured  Mediolanumy  the  cajoitcu  of  the  In- 
suHes,  and  Comum.  To  strengthen  their  power  the  Romans  f onnded 
th^  fortresses  of  Placentia,  Vremona,  and   Muiina.     The  military 

1  Becker,  Kom,  Allerth,  II.>,  p.  9,  foil. 

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B.  c.  Boman  HiBtory.  113 

road  tc  Spclelium  was  extended  across  the  Apennines  to  the  Adri- 
atic Sea,  and  along  the  coast  to  Anminvm  (ViaFlaxninia).  Further 
measures  for  the  firmer  establishment  of  their  power  in  Cisalpine 
Gaul  were  interrupted  by  the 

218-201.    Second  Punio  ^'ar.^ 

Causes  :  Envy  of  the  Romans,  excited  b^  the  new  prosperity  of 
Carthage,  springing  from  her  recent  acquisitions  in  Spain,  and  the 
efforts  of  the  party  of  the  Ba,rc»  to  take  revenge  on  Rome. 

Special  causes  :  The  conquests  of  Hamilcar  Baroas  in  south- 
ern and  western  Spain  (236-228)  being  successfully  pursued  after 
his  death  \}j  his  son-in-law  HasdnAal,  the  Romans  concluded  a  treaty 
with  the  Grecian  cities  ZacyrUhja  or  Saguntuniy  north  of  Valencia, 
and  EmporuEy  now  Ampurias,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  com- 
pelled uie  Carthaginians  to  promise  to  neither  attack  these  cities  nor 
cross  the  Ehro  with  the  purpose  of  making  further  conquests. 
After  the  murder  of  Hasdrubal  (221)  the  army  chose  the  son  of 
Hamilcar  Barcas,  Hannibal,  then  28  years  old,  for  their  general. 
In  order  to  make  war  unavoidable  even  against  the  will  of  the 
Carthaginian  government,  Hannibal  conquered  and  destroyed  Sagwv- 
turn  (219)  after  a  brave  resistance  of  the  inhabitants  for  eight  months. 
A  refusal  to  deliver  up  Hannibal  as  demanded  by  a  Roman  embassy 
in  Carthage  was  followed  by  a  declaration  of  war  on  the  part  of  the 
Romans. 

The  plan  of  the  Romans  to  land  their  mam  army  in  Africa,  while  a 
second  army  should  engage  the  Carthaginian  troops  in  Spain,  was 
thwarted  by 
218.    Hannibal's  daring  ^zpedltion  to  Italy 

by  land.^  Leaving  a  sufficient  number  of  tropps  in  Spain, 
Hannibal  crossed  the  Pyrt/iees  with  50,000  foot,  9000  horse,  and  37 
elephants,  traversed  Gaul  not  far  from  the  coast  by  way  of  Narbo 
(Karbonne)  and  Nemausus  (Nimes).  The  Roman  consul  P,  Cor- 
ndius  Scipto,  who  had  stoppeid  at  Massilia  on  the  voyage  to  Spain, 
heard  of  Hannibal's  march,  but  his  attempt  to  prevent  the  Cartha- 
ginians from  crossing  the  Rhodanus  (Rhone)  with  a  division  of  Ids 
army  came  too  late  ;  the  Carthaginian  army  had  already  passed  the 
river  above  Avenio  (Avignon).  Cavalry  skirmish.  The  Roman  constd 
sent  his  brother  Cn.  Scipio  with  the  main  part  of  the  army  to  Spain, 
while  he  himself  returned  with  a  small  force  to  northern  Italy 
(Pisce),  Hannibal  marched  up  the  Rhone  to  ViennOf  then  turned 
eastward  through  the  territory  of  the  AUobroges  and  Centrones,  where 
he  forced  a  way  with  great  loss,  crossed  the  Alps,  still  fighting,  by  the 
pass  of  the  Little  St.  Bernard,  and  after  indescrib^le  exertions 
and  severe  losses  reached  the  vaUey  of  the  Dora  Baltea  with  about 
26,000  men  and  a  few  elephants.  In  upper  Italy  a  small  Roman 
army  was  engaged  with  the  revolted  Gauls.  Hannibal  defeated  the 
consul  Scipio,  who  had  gone  on  before  with  the  cavalry  and  light- 
armed  foot  soldiers,  in  the 

^  Also  called  the  Hannibalic  War  (BeUum  ITanmbalieum), 
2  See   Kiepert,   AtUu  Ant.  Tab.   VII.  and    X.    The  topographical  qaea* 
Uom  have  been  settled  by  the  Eoglishmen   Wickham  and  Vramtr. 
8 


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114  Ancient  Hittory:  b.  g. 

218.    Cavalry  engagement  on  the  Tloinns,  a  northern  branch  of 
Sept.    the  Po.    The  wounded  consul  was  rescued  by  his  8eYentee&- 
jears-old  son,  the  future  '*  Af ricanus."     Reinforced  by  the 
Gauls,  Hannibal  defeated  in  the 
218.  Battle  of  the  Trebia,  a  southern  branch  of  the  Po,  the  other 
Dec.     consul,  Tib,  SemprorUus  Langus,  who  had  been  hastily  recalled 
from  Sicily  before  the  commencement  of  Ids  African  expedi- 
tion, and  now  commanded  the  united   Roman   armies ;  the 
renmant  of  the  Roman  force  threw  itself  into  the  fortresses 
PlacenUa  and  Cremona, 
In  northern  Italy  Hannibal  organized  the  national  insurrection  of 
the  Cisalpine  Gauls ;  over  60,000  joined  his  army.    In  Rome  two 
new  consular  armies  were  placed  in  the  field  for  the  next  campaign. 
One  under  Cn,  Servilius  took  the  Via  Flaminia  to  Arimmttm  in  Um- 
bria,  the  other  under  C,  Flaminitu  the  Via  Cassia  to  Arretium  in 
Etruria,  to  meet  a  possible  attack  by  the  Carthaginians.    After  Han- 
nibal had  released  without  ransom  all  prisoners  belonging  to  the 
Roman  allies,  and  by  their  influence  had  incited  all  Italy  to  desert 
Rome,  he  crossed  the  Apennines,  and  marched,  unexpectedly  to  the 
Romans,  through  the  swampy  reeious  about  the  Amo.    Severe  losses. 
Hannibal  himself  lost  an  eye.    By  this  march  he  flanked  the  Roman 
defensive  position.    The  consul  Aaminius  followed  him  in  all  haste, 
and  aUowed  himself  to  be  decoyed  by  Hannibal  into  a  narrow  pass. 
In  the 

217.  Battle  of  Lake  Traaimene,  between  Cartana  and  Penafa, 
the  Roman  army  was  partly  slaughtered,  partly  made  pria- 
oner  (in  all  30,000  men).  Terror  at  Rome.  Preparations  for  the 
defence  of  the  city,  destruction  of  the  bridges  over  the  Tiber.  Ap- 
pointment of  Q.  Fabiua  Mazimua  as  cGctator.  Hannibal,  how- 
ever, did  not  march  upon  Rome,  but  passed  the  fortress  of  SpoUiium 
after  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  surprise  it,  traversed  Umbna  across 
the  Apennines  to  Picemsm  and  the  Adriatic  Sea.  There  he  rested  his 
arm^,  reorganized  it  after  the  Italian  system,  and  established  com- 
munication with  Carthage  by  sea.  Then  he  advanced  southward. 
His  hope  that  the  SaMUian  tribes  would  join  him  was  not  ful- 
filled ;  most  of  the  cities  closed  their  gates  upon  him. 

After  the  dictator  Q,  Fabius  Maximus  had  united  his  2  new  legions 
with  the  army  of  Ariminum,  he  followed,  at  a  discreet  distance,  the 
Carthaginian  army,  which  went  through  Samnium  to  Apulia,  and 
passed  by  Luceria  to  Arpi,  Fabius  avoided  a  pitched  battle  (hence 
his  nickname  Cunctator,  delayer),  but  tried  successfully  to  weaken 
the  Carthaginian  army  by  numerous  skirmishes.  Hannibal  crossed 
the  Apennines  again,  ana  went  through  Sanmium  to  Capua,  which 
he  tried  in  vain  to  seduce  from  Rome.  The  dictator  followed  and 
obstructed  the  Carthaginian  march  on  the  Voltumus,  where  Hannibal 
gained  the  pass  by  a  stratagem  only  (Livius,  XXII.  16).  After  he 
had  severely  harried  the  Sabellian  tribes,  Hannibal  returned  to 
Apulia. 

Meantime  the  military  conduct  of  Fabius  Maximus  had  so  dis- 
pleased the  Roman  populace  that  thev  entrusted  one  half  the  army 
to  the  independent  command  of  M,  AfvuuciuSf  maater  of  the  horae^ 


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B.  o.  Soman  History,  115 

who  had  had  a  fortunate  skimiiBh  with  the  Carthaginians,  as  a  second 
dictaior.^  The  new  dictator  attacked  Hannibal,  but  was  defeated,  and 
only  saved  from  complete  annihilation  by  the  first  dictator,  Fabwu 

The  consuls  for  216  were  the  veteran  general  Z«.  JEhnllins  Paul- 
lua,  elected  by  the  optimates,  and  the  incompetent  C.  Terentlns 
Varro,  elected  by  the  popular  party  for  the  purpose  of  taking  the 
offensive  against  Hannibal  with  an  army  of  86,000  Romans  and  allies. 
On  the  day  when  he  had  the  decisive  vote  in  the  council  of  war,  Varro 
imprudenUy  attacked  the  Carthaginians,  who  held  an  advantageous 
position.    The  Romans  suffered  in  the 

216.  Battle  of  Cannao  (in  Apulia,  on  the  Aufidui),  the  most  terri- 
•  ble  defeat  they  ever  experienced ;  70,000  fell  (among  them 
more  than  eighty  men  of  senatorial  rank  and  the  consul  L,  JEmUita 
Paidlui)  ;  the  rest  were  captured  or  dispersed.  Varro,  with  a  small 
troop,  escaped  to  Canusium. 

In  the  same  jrear  the  legion  which  had  been  sent  to  Cisalpine  Gaul 
was  almost  entirely  destroyed.  The  aeoesaion  of  Capaa,  the  Sam- 
nites,  Lucanians,  and  many  cities  of  lower  Italy  from  the  Roman 
alliance  was  the  immediate  consequence  of  the  battle  of  Cannse. 

Admirable  cmiduct  of  the  Roman  senate.  The  time  of  mouminfl^ 
for  the  families  of  the  fallen  was  limited  to  thirty  days.  Hannibal^ 
ambassadors,  who  offered  to  exchange  prisoners,  were  refused  entrance 
to  the  dty.  A  new  army  was  formea  by  a  levy  of  the  youneest  men 
and  all  who  could  bear  arms,  even  slaves;  they  were  armea  in  part 
out  of  the  ancient  spoils  from  the  temples.  M.  Claadiua  Maroel- 
lua,  who  had  approved  himself  in  the  Gallic  war,  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  new  army,  which  joined  the  remnants  of  the  army  of 
Canute.  A  second  army  was  eonducted  by  the  dictator  M.  Junius. 
The  Romans  successfully  defended  NapU^,  Cumct^  and  Nola. 

Carthage  formed  an  aUiance  with  Philip  F.  (///.)  of  Maoedoniay 
and  HieronymuSf  the  ^^randson  and  successor  of  Hiero,  of  Syracuse. 
Hannibal  went  into  wmter  quarters  at  Capua. 

215.  The  fortune  of  war  turned  in  favor  of  the  Romans.  Q.  Fabius 
Maximus,  Tib.  Sempromus  Grac<^u8t  the  consuls,  and  M.  Ckah- 
dvus  MarceUuSf  pro-consul,  led  three  Roman  armies.    In  the 

215.    Battle  of  Nola, 

MarceUus  defeated  Hannibalj  who  retired  to  Apulia.  Hannibal 
was  obliged  to  assume  the  defensive,  since,  with  the  exception  of  4000 
men,  he  received  no  support  from  Carthage.  The  dispatch  of  rein- 
forcements from  Spain  was  prevented  by  the  successful 

218-211.  War  of  the  Romana  against  the  Carthaginiana  in 
Spain. 

The  Romans,  under  P.  Scipio  and  Cn.  Sdpio,  defeated  Hasdrubal, 
Hannibal's  brother,  on  the  Iherus  (£bro),  crossed  this  river,  and  pene- 
trated the  Carthaginian  territory  as  far  as  the  BceHs  (Guadalauivir). 
There  they  defeated  the  Carthaginians  in  two  encounters  at  lUUurgi 

I  Established  by  an  inscription  found  in  1862.  See  Mommsen,  BSm,  Qtmk^ 
1.0,  p.  600,  note. 


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Ll6  Ancient  History.  b.  g. 

fend  IfUibilii  and  maintained  themselyes  in  southern  Spain,  antil  212; 
in  spite  of  varying  fortune.  At  the  same  time  they  were  pressing  the 
Carthaginians  in  Africa  through  their  ally,  SyphaXf  king  of  western 
Numidia.  The  alliance  with  Fhilip  of  Macedon  likewise  brought  no 
help  to  Hannibal.    The 

214-205.    First  Macedonian  war 

was  successfully  conducted  by  the  Romans  with  scanty  forces. 
The  irresolute  Philip  did  not  dare  to  fulfil  his  promise  to  Hannibal  of 
landing  in  Italy,  in  211  the  Romans  brought  about  a  league  of  Gre- 
cian states  aeainst  Philip,  imder  the  lead  of  the  JBtoUana,  which  was 
joined  by  ifiyrian  and  Thracian  chiefs,  and  even  by  King  AtUdus  of 
rergamus.  The  war  was,  on  the  whole,  unfavorable  to  Philip.  In 
206  peace  was  concluded  between  Philip  and  the  Romans,  against  the 
wishes  of  the  latter;  but  it  was,  nevertheless,  accepted  by  the  senate. 

The  alliance  with  Syracuse  proved  also  of  no  use  to  Hannibal,  as 
the 

214-210.    War  In  Sicily  (Siege  of  Syracuse)  was  decided  by 
Marcellus  in  favor  of  the  Romans.     After  the  destruction  of 
the  Carthaginian  army  of  relief  under  Havulcar,  by  defeat  and 
disease  in  the  swampy  lowlands  of  the  Anapus, 
212.  Syracuse  was  captured  and  plundered,  in  spite  of  a  brave 
resistance  (Archimedes), 
In  Italy  Hannibal  gained  possession  of  TarerUum  through  treachery 
(212^,  and  laid  siege  to  the  citadel  of  that  city  by  land  and  sea.    Death 
of  Tib,  Sempromus  Gracchus  in  Samnium.     Hannibal  advanced  to 
Campania  and  compelled  the  Romans  to  raise  the  siege  of  Capua, 
after  which  he  defeated  two  Roman  armies  in  Lucania  and  Apulia, 
but  retired  to  Tarentum.    The  Romans  again  laid  siege  to  Capua. 

In  Spain  the  war  took  an  unfavorable  turn  for  Rome  in  this  same 
year,  212.  Both  Scipios  were  defeated  and  killed  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians and  their  ally,  MassinissOf  son  of  the  king  of  eastern  Nu- 
midia (king  himself  in  208).  The  Romans  were  dnven  back  over  the 
£bro. 

211.  Hannibal  attacked  the  Roman  army  before  Capua.  He  was 
repulsed,  and  in  order  to  force  the  Romans  to  raise  the  siege 
he  marched  through  Samnium  to  the  territory  of  the  .£qui  on  the 
later  Via  Valeria,  past  Ttbur^  across  the  Anio,  directly  upon  Rome,  and 
encamped  a  mile  &om  the  city  (Hannibal  anteportas  !),  Finding  the 
Romans  prepared  for  defence,  he  retired,  after  ravaging  the  neigh- 
borhood, to  lower  Italy,  without  having  gained  his  end. 
211.    Capua  surrendered  to  the  Romans, 

who  visited  a  terrible  punishment  upon  the  city.  Fifty-three  citi-^ 
zens  were  beheaded,  many  sold  into  slavery  ;  the  community  was  de- 
prived of  the  right  of  self-government.  Hannibal's  attack  on  Rhe- 
gium  and  on  the  citadel  of  Tarentum  having  miscarried,  his  Italian  allies 
abandoned  him,  and  tried  to  make  their  peace  with  the  Romans. 
tU.0.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio,  son  and  nephew  of  the  brothers  who  fell  in 
Spain,  and  now  25  years  old,  was  sent  to  Spain  with  procon* 
sular  powers  (Livius.  XXVL  18). 


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B.  c.  Roman  History,  117 

In  Italy  Hannibal  gained  a  victory  over  the  proconsul  Cn,  Fudvius 
at  Herdonea,    In  Sicily  the  Romans  capturea  Agrigentum,  slaugh- 
tering the  Cajrthaginian  garrison  and  selling  the  populace  as  slaves, 
and  reduced  the  whole  island  under  their  power.     In  Spain  Scipio 
crossed  the  Ehro  (209)  and  conquered  New  Carthage. 
209.  M,  Marcellus,  having  been  defeated  in  an  encounter  with  Han- 
nibal, gained  a  victorv  over  him  in  a  second  battle  on  the  fol- 
lowing day.     Q.  Fabtus  Maximus  captured  Tarentum;  30,000 
Tarentines  were  sold  as  slaves.     Hannibal  retired  to  Meta-' 
pontvem. 
208.  Marcellus  fell  in  a  cavalry  skirmish  at  Venusia,     Great  ex- 
haustion of  Rome  and  its  allies  in  consequence  of  the  vrar  in 
its  own  country,  now  in  its  tenth  year. 
In  Spain  Scipio  (208)  pressed  victoriously  southward,  but  fought 
a  drawn  battle  at  Bcecula  with  Hasdrvbal^  and  was  unable  to  prevent 
him  from  crossing  the  Pyrenees  on  his  way  to  Ids  brother  Hannibal. 

Arrived  in  upper  Italy  (207),  Hasdrubal  was  successful  in  inciting 
the  Cisalpine  Gauls  to  arms.  Great  preparations  in  Rome  (23  legions) 
to  prevent  his  union  with  Hannibal,  who  was  advancing  to  meet  him 
through  Lucania  and  Apulia.  The  consul  M,  Livius  Salinator  was 
sent  against  Hasdrubal,  the  consul  C  Claudius  Nero  against  Hannibal. 
Drawn  battle  at  Grumentum  in  Lucania,  between  Nero  and  Hannibal; 
the  latter  broke  through  the  enemv,  marched  to  Apulia,  and  encamped 
by  Canusitmi.  Nero,  who  had  followed  him,  left  a  part  of  the  army 
to  watch  Hannibal,  while  with  the  rest  he  joined  his  colleague  by 
means  of  forced  marches.  The  two  consuls  defeated  Hasdrubal  in 
the  bloody  < 

207.  Battle  of  Sena  gallica,  not  far  from  the  river  ACetanms. 
Death  of  Hasdrubal.  On  receipt  of  the  news  of  this  defeat 
(the  Romans  threw  tiie  head  of  Hasdrubal  among  the  Cartha- 
ginian pickets),  Hannibal  retired  to  Bruttium.  In  Spain 
victory  of  Scipio  at  Boscula  over  Hasdrubal,  son  of  Gisgo, 
206.  After  completing  the  expulsion  of  the  Carthaginians  from  Spain 
by  the  capture  of  Gades  (Cadiz),  and  after  concluding  a  secret 
alliance  with  Massinissa,  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  retained  to  Rome. 
For  the  following  year 
205.  Scipio  was  elected  consul,  and  made  preparations  in  Sicily 
for  an  African  expedition.  Mago,  the  youngest  brother  of 
Hannibal,  landed  at  Genoa  with  the  remnants  of  the  Spanish 
army  of  the  Carthaginians,  and  called  the  Ligurians  to  arms. 
At  once,  the  Romans  levied  three  armies  against  him. 
204.  Scipio  landed  in  Africa.  Massinissa,  who  had  been  driven 
from  his  throne  by  the  Carthaginians,  and  by  Syphax,  husband 
of  HasdrubaTs  daughter  Sophonisbe,  now  their  ally,  joined 
Scipio. 
fi03.  Scipio  defeated  Hasdrubal,  son  of  Gisgo,  and  Sgphax  by  a  night 
attack,  and  tlireatened  Carthage.  Unsuccessful  negotiations 
for  peace.  The  Carthaspinians  recalled  Hannibal  and  Mago 
from  Italy.  The  latter  died  on  the  passage.  Hannibal  em- 
barked at  Croton,  having  previously  massacred  the  Italian  sol- 
diers who  refused  to  accompany  him.  After  fruitless  personal 
negotiations  between  Scipio  and  Hannibal  the 


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118  Ancient  History.  b.  a 

202.    DeoifliTe  battle  of  Zama 

was  fought,  wherein  the  Carthaginian  army  was  defeated  and 
annihilated.  Hannibal  escaped  to  Hadrumelum, 
201.  Scipio  granted  the  Carthasinians  peace  on  the  following  con- 
ditions :  1.  Surrender  of  meir  Spanish  possessions  and  of  all 
Mediterranean  islands  still  under  their  control.  2.  Transfer  of  the 
kingdom  of  Syphax  to  Massinissa,  3.  Payment  of  9k  yearly  tribute 
of  200  talents  (3260,000)  iovjifly  years.  4.  Surrender  and  destruc- 
tion of  aU  ships  of  war  except  ten.  5.  No  war  to  be  undertaken 
without  the  permission  of  Rome.  P.  Cornelius  Scipio,  who  received, 
the  cognomen  of  Afrioanus,  celebrated  his  triumph  in  Rome  with  a 
splendor  never  before  witnessed  (SypJiax). 

The  Italian  allies  of  Hannibal  were  in  part  sentenced  to  cede  laige 
portions  of  their  territorv,  in  part  reduced  to  subjects  of  Rome,  de- 
prived of  their  independence  and  their  right  to  bear  arms  (peregrvni 
dediticii).    Foundation  of  numerous  Roman  colonies  in  Lower  Italy. 

In  consequence  of  another  general  rising  of  the  Cisalpine  Gauls  and 
the  Ligurians, 

200-191.  Upper  Italy  was  again  subjugated  after  a  severe  stmg- 
^e.  Althou|^h  the  peoples  of  TrannMdane  Gaul  retain^ 
their  tnbal  constitutions  they  soon  became,  with  few  exceptions,  com- 
pletely Latinized.  This  took  place  still  more  quickly  among  the  Cu- 
padane  Gauls  after  the  leading  tribe,  the  Boii,  had  been  almost  exter- 
minated in  war.  Numerous  colonies  were  in  part  founded,  in  part 
reorganized.    Via  JfhnlHa  from  Ariminum  to  Placentia. 

Spain  was  ree^arded  as  a  Roman  province  after  205.  It  was 
divided  into :  1.  Hispania  citerior,  later  Tarraconensis ;  and  2.  Hispa- 
nia  uUerioTf  or  Bcetica  and  Lusitania.  The  country  was,  however,  dur^ 
ing  this  period,  and  a  part  of  the  next^  commonly  in  a  state  of  war. 
In  ld5  the  consul,  M.  Poroiua  Cato,  gained  a  g^eat  victory  over  the 
Spaniards,  and  decreed  a  universal  disarmament.  The  insurrections 
soon  began  again.  A  victory  of  the  prtetor  X.  jEmilius  Paullus  (189)» 
and  another,  still  more  important,  gained  by  the  pnetor,  C  Calpur* 
niuSf  over  the  Lusitanians  (185),  induced  quiet  for  a  time  in  Hispania 
ulterior.  The  victories  of  Q.  Fulvius  Flaccu^  (181)  and  Tiberius  Grac- 
chus (179-178)  partially  subdued  the  Celtiberians  of  Hispania  citerior. 

200-197.    Seoond  Macedoniaa  War. 

Cause:  A  Macedonian  force  of  mercenaries  sent,  as  the  senate 
maintained,  by  king  Philip,  had  fought  at  Zuna  against  the  Romans. 
King  Attains  of  Pergamus,  the  inhabitants  of  Kfwdes  and  Athens  be- 
sought assistance  from  the  Romans  against  King  Philip  V.  (III.) 
of  Macedonia,  who,  in  alliance  with  Antiochus  III.  was  warring  with 
Effvpt  and  also  grievously  troubling  the  supplicants. 

In  the  autumn  of  200  the  Romans  landed  at  ApoUonia,  in  Illyria, 
under  P.  Sulpidus  CkUba.  The  Roman  fleet  guarded  Pineus  and 
threatened  Eubcea.  Philip  was  repulsed  before  Athens,  and  driven 
from  Central  Greece.  The  Romans,  who  were  joined  in  109  by  the 
Italians  and  afterwards  by  the  Achceans,  carried  on  the  war  witk 
varying  fortune,  but  without  result,  until  (198)  the  consul,  T.  Quino- 


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B.  G.  Soman  History.  119 

tins  naminintis,  took  eommand  of  the  army.    He  sabdued  Epwut^ 

eot  into  the  rear  of  Philip's  strong  poeitioni  and  defeated  the  king 

in  the 

197.  Battle  of  CsrnosoephalsB  (Kv^df  Kc^oXai,  in  Thessaly). 
Peace :  Philip  was  obliged  to  give  up  the  heeemony  of 
Greece,  and  in  general  all  possessions  outside  of  Macedonia 
proper,  and  to  pay  1000  talents  (31,250,000)  in  ten  years.  He 
was  to  mft.iiifitin  no  more  than  5000  soldiers  and  five  ships  of 
war,  and  not  to  carry  on  war  beyond  his  own  borders  without 
the  consent  of  Rome.  During  the  Isthmian  games,  T.  Quinc- 
tius  Flamininns  proclaimed,  under  general  rejoicing,  the  de- 
cree of  the  Roman  senate  declaring  the  Greek  states  free 
and  independent.  The  majority  joined  the  Achiean  league. 
The  Romans  limited,  without  destroying,  the  power  of  NabiSf 
tyrant  of  Sparta,  hoping  thus  to  counterbalance  the  Achtean 


196.  At  Carthage  a  democratic  reform  of  the  constitution  was  car- 
ried out  by  the  influence  of  Hannibal.  The  oligarchs  defamed 
Hannibal  before  the  Roman  senate,  which  demanded  that  he  be 
delivered  to  the  Romans.    Hannibal  fled  to  the  East. 

192-189.    War  with  Antioohus  m.,  of  Syria. 

Cause:  Interference  of  the  king  of  S^rria  in  Grecian  affairs,  and 
of  the  Romans  in  Asiatic  politics ;  reception  of  Hannibal  at  the  court 
of  Antiochus. 

Antiochus,  deceived  by  the  ^tolians  who  had  fallen  out  with  Rome, 
and  promised  to  join  him  with  all  the  Greek  cantons  as  allies,  began 
the  war,  without  listening  to  the  advice  of  Hannibal,  by  landing  in 
Thessaly  on  the  Gulf  of  Paffasse,  whence  he  went  to  Eubcsa.  Most  of 
the  Greeks,  especially  the  Achsean  league,  remained  true  to  the  Ro- 
mans, who  were  also  ioined  by  Philip  of  Macedon^  Eumenes  ofPeraor- 
mitf,  and  Rhodes,  Antiochus  occupied  the  pass  of  Thermopylae. 
Landing  of  the  consul,  Manius  Acilvus  Glabrio,  in  Epirus  (191)  and 
march  to  Thessaly.  The  former  consul,  M,  Porcitu  Cato,  conqueror 
of  the  Spaniards,  who  served  as  military  tribune  in  the  Roman  army, 
surprised  the  ^tolians  on  the  mountain  path  of  Ephialtes,  while  the 
consul  captured  the  pass  itself  and  scattered  the  army  of  Antiochus, 
who  escaped  to  Chalcis  with  a  few  soldiers,  and  there  took  ship  for 
Ephenu.  The  Romans  besieged  the  ^tolians  in  Natmactus;  their 
fleet,  under  C  Livius,  defeated  that  of  Antiochus  at  Chios.  In  the 
following  year  (190)  a  fleet  from  Rhodes  defeated  a  fleet  of  the  king, 
under  the  command  of  Hannibal,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Eurymedon, 
and  somewhat  later  the  Roman  fleet,  with  that  of  Rhodes,  won  a 
naval  victory  at  Myonnesus, 

A  Roman  army,  nominally  under  the  command  of  the  consul, 
X.  Cornelius  Scipio,  but  really  under  his  brother,  P.  Cornelius  Soipio 
Afrloanns,  marched  through  Macedonia  and  Thrace,  crossed  the  Hel- 
lespont, and  defeated  Antiochus  in  the 

190.    Battle  of  Magnesia  on  the  Sipylus, 

not  far  from  Smyrna,  whereupon  the  king  concluded  pesos  in 


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120  Ancient  Histm'y,  b.  o. 

the  following  year :  1.  Surrender  of  aU  Eoropean  possesBions,  and  of 
his  Asiatic  possessions  as  far  as  the  Taurus,  2.  Payment  of  15,000 
Eubcean  talents  (319,126,000)  within  twelve  years.  3.  Surrender  of 
Hannibal,  who,  however,  escaped.  This  peace  struck  the  kingdom  of 
the  SeleucidsB  from  the  list  of  great  powers.  The  Roman  senate 
having  resolved,  for  the  present,  not  to  acquire  any  immediate  pos- 
sessions in  Asia,  divided  the  ceded  territorv  among  its  allies,  EuTnenes 
of  Pergamus,  and  Rhodes,  and  proclaimed  itself  the  protector  of  the 
Greek  cities  of  Asia  against  the  Galatians  (189,  Expedition  of  Cn. 
MarUius  Volso),  and  regulator  of  the  politiciui  relations  of  Asia.  In 
Greece  the  JEtolians  were  conquered  and  subjugated,  the  other  can- 
tons retained,  for  the  present,  Uieir  independence.  Internecine  quar- 
rels continued  among  the  Greeks,  and  the  Roman  senate  was  in  all 
cases  appealed  to  as  arbitrator.  Philip  of  Macedonia  received  but 
scanty  remuneration  for  his  services  in  the  war  against  Syria. 
183  (?).    Death  of  Hannibal.    He  poisoned  himself  at  the  court  of 

PrusiaSf  king  of  Bithynia,  by  whom  he  saw  himself  betrayed^ 
Death  of  his  conqueror,  P,  Cornelius  Scipio  Africanus,  at  Lintemum, 
whither  he  had  retired  after  he  and  his  brother,  Lucius,  had  been  ac- 
cused by  M.  Porcius  Cato  of  having  been  bribed  by  Antiochus. 
180.    The  lex  annaliit  of  the  tribune,  L.  ViUius,  established,  besides 

a  military  service  of  ten  years,  a  fixed  age  for  all  the  cumle 
ofBces :  ediles,  37  years ;  pnetor,  40 ;  consul,  43.  Since  the  first 
Punic  war  the  expenses  of  the  great  games  were  no  longer  borne  by 
the  public  treasury,  but  by  the  sediles,  which  at  once  closed  the  ofBce 
to  all  who  were  not  men  of  property.  The  higher  offices  of  state, 
and  the  position  of  senator,  Decame  more  and  more  decidedly  privi- 
leges of  the  nobility  (p.  102). 

171-168.  Third  Macedonian  war.  Destruction  of  the 
Macedonian  monarchy. 

Cause :  The  plan  of  Philip  Y.  (Ill.)y  to  revenge  liimself  on  the 
Romans,  and  to  regain  the  old  borders  of  Macedonia,  was  carried 
forward  by  his  son  and  successor,  Perseus,  the  murderer  of  his 
brother  Demetrius,  who  favored  Rome.  King  Eumenes  of  Pergamus 
informed  the  senate  of  the  preparations  of  Perseus. 

During  the  first  three  campaigns,  weak  and  unsuccessful  conduct  on 
the  part  of  the  Roman  generals,  combined  with  injustice  and  cruelty 
against  the  allied  Achseons  and  Epirotes,  who  were  thereby  forced  to 
actual  desertion.  At  last  L.  2Bmiliu8  Paullus,  son  of  the  consul  who 
fell  at  Cannse  (p.  115),  obtained  the  chief  command.  He  restored  dis- 
cipline in  the  Roman  army,  drove  back  the  Macedonians,  and  defeated 
Perseus  in  the 

168    Battle  of  Pydna. 

Sept.  11,000  Macedonians  were  captured,  20,000  perished.  Perseus 
fell  into  the  power  of  the  Romans  (in  Samothrace).  Splendid  triumph 
of  2imilius  Paullus.  Tlie  spoils  brought  to  Rome  were  so  im* 
mense  that  henceforward  the  citizens  were  relieved  from  the  tributum, 
Dissolution  of  the  kingdom  of  Macedonia,  which  was  transformed 
into  4  confederacies  dependent  upon  Rome,  neither  the  right  of  emi* 


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B.  c«  Roman  Hutory.  121 

gration  nor  of  intermarriage  (eommercvum  et  cmtnvibium)  being  allowed 
them.  GerUhhUt  king  of  lUyria^  who  had  been  an  ally  of  Perseus,  be- 
ing soon  conquered  (168),  that  county  was  divided  into  3  tributary 
districts  with  federal  constitutions.  Epirus  was  cruelly  punished,  70 
towns  being  plundered  and  destroyed,  150,000  Epirotes  sold  as  slaves. 
The  Greek  cantons,  friend  and  foe  alike,  were  reduced  to  the  condi- 
tion of  subject  clients.  1000  Achjeans  of  high  standing,  among  whom 
was  the  historian  Polybius,  were  carried  to  Rome  for  examination 
(167),  and  detained  without  trial  16  years  in  Italian  cities  under  sur- 
veillance. The  old  allies  of  the  Romans,  Eumenes  of  Pergamns  and 
Rhodes,  who  had  attempted  to  hold  the  position  of  mediators  during 
the  war,  were  chastised  and  all  the  possessions  of  the  latter  on  the 
mainland  taken  away.  In  a  war  which  broke  out  between  Syria  and 
Egypt  the  senate  interfered  as  guardian  of  both  powers.  The  Ro- 
man ambassador,  C  PopiUius  Loenas,  arrogantly  and  insultingly  or- 
dered Antiochus  I K.,  king  of  Syria,  to  retire  from  before  Alexandria. 
He  drew  a  line  around  the  king  with  his  staff,  and  bade  him  decide 
before  he  stepped  from  the  circle.     (Polybius,  xxix.  27.) 

149-146.    Third  Punic  'Wax. 

Canjse :  The  Carthaginians,  whose  commerce  and  maritime  power 
had  beg^  to  increase,  having  been  unable  to  procure  from  Rome 
any  reparation  for  several  losses  of  territory  which  they  had  sustained 
at  the  hands  of  Massinissa,  finally  took  up  arms  themselves.  The 
Roman  senate,  on  the  instigation  of  M,  Porous  Cato  (**  Ceterum 
eenseo  Ccuihaginem  esse  delendam ")  declared  this  a  breach  of  the 
peace. 

Two  Roman  armies  landed  at  Utica.    Humble  submission  of  the 
Carthiyinians,  who  at  the  command  of  the  consul  delivered  up  their 
waivships  and  weapons.    But  when  ordered  to  abandon  their  city  and 
make  a  new  settlement  ten  miles  from  the  sea,  the  Carthaginians  re- 
solved on  a  desperate  resistance.    With  the  greatest  sacrifices  on  the 
part  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  Carthage,  without  regard  to  rank,  age 
or  sex,  new  equipments  were  provided.     Weapons  were  manufac- 
tured dav  and  night.    A  new  fleet  was  built  in  the  inner  harbor.    An 
attack  of  the  Romans  was  repulsed.    Siege  of  Carthage. 
147.    P.  Cornelius  Scipio  iEmilianus  Tson  of  iSmilius  Paullus, 
adopted  son  of  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Atricanus  (Major),  assumed 
the  command.    He  shut  off  the  city  completely  on  both  the 
land  and  sea  side. 

146.    Capture  and  deBtruction  of  Carthage. 

Street  fight  lasting  six  days,  and  a  conflagration  which  lasted 

seventeen  days. 
The  remaining  inhabitants  were  sold  into  slavery.  The  coast  land 
from  the  river  Tusca,  opposite  the  island  of  Galatha  (Galita),  to 
Thena,  on  the  Syrtis  minor,  was  made  a  Roman  province  under  the 
name  Africa,  with  the  capital  at  Utica.  The  rest  of  the  countrv  fell 
for  the  present  to  xhe  allied  kingdom  of  Nwnidia.  Splendid  tri' 
omph  of  Scipio,  who  received  the  name  of  A/ricanus  (Minor). 
148-146.    Fourth  Maoedonian  V7ar, 


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122  Ancient  History.  b.  o* 

against  AndriscuSf  who  gave  himaelf  out  as  PhUippuSf  brother  of  Pei^ 
eeua  (Pseudo-PhUippus),  and  incited  the  Macedonians  to  rise  against 
the  Roman  rule.  He  was  defeated  in  two  battles  and  captured  by 
Q.  CcBcUitu  Metelliu,  Macedonia  became  a  Roman  province 
(146). 

146.    AohaBan  War. 

Canae  :  Return  of  300  Achseans  from  Italy,  after  an  imprisonment 
of  16  years  (p.  121).  The  anti-Roman  party  was  thereby  strengthened 
in  all  cities.  Incited  by  Critolaus  and  Diceus,  the  Achiean  league  be» 
gan  war  with  Sparta^  with  whom  the  Romans  took  sides.  The  senate 
pronounced  the  dissolution  of  the  League. 

Victory  of  Metdhu  over  Critolaiu  at  Scarphea  in  Locris.  Diceus 
summoned  all  who  could  bear  arms  together  on  the  Isthmus,  and 
armed  12,000.  slaves.  He  was  defeated  by  the  consul  L.  Mommiiui 
in  the 

146.    Battle  of  Leacoi>etra. 

Corinth,  the  chief  city  of  the  Achtean  league,  was  occupied 
by  Mummius  without  a  blow.  The  art  treasures  were  sent  to  Rome, 
and  the  inhabitants  were  sold  as  slaves.  The  territory  of  the  city 
was  in  part  given  to  Sicyon^  in  part  transformed  into  Roman  public 
land. 

Corinth  destroyed  at  the  command  of  the  aenata 

The  other  Greek  cities  were,  for  the  most  part,  mildly  treated,  and 
allowed  to  retain  their  autonomy  (their  own  administration  and  juris- 
diction), but  in  such  a  way  that  they  were  subordinated  to  the  governor 
of  Macedonia  and  had  to  pay  tribute  to  Rome.  Not  until  utter  (p. 
80),  it  seems,  did  Greece  become  a  Roman  province  with  the  name 
Achaia. 

At  the  close  of  this  epoch  Rome  poaseaaed  eight  provincea 
1.  Sicilia  (241).  2.  Sardinia  (238),  with  Corsica.  3.  Hispania  cite- 
rior  (205).  4.  Hispania  ulterior  (205).  6.  Gallia  Cisalpina  (191?), 
6.  lUyricwn  (168).  7.  AJrica  (140).  8.  Macedonia  (146),  and  Greece 
{Achaid). 

The  nrst  four  provinces  were  at  first  governed  by  prastors,  so 
that,  counting  the  prcetor  urbaniu  and  the  pmtor  inter  cives  et  peregrin 
w)8  (p.  101)  who  always  stayed  in  Rome,  there  were  six  pretors 
elected  every  year.  Later,  however,  it  was  decreed  that  all  six  (after 
SuUa,  8)  pnetors  should  remain  in  Rome  during  their  year  of  office, 
4  (6)  to  preside  over  the  standing  courts  (qucestumes  perpetita).  Of 
these  the  first,  for  cases  of  extortion  (de  repaundis)^  was  established  in 
149  by  the  lex  Calpumia ;  to  this  were  added  down  to  the  time  of 


Sulla  (p.  132)  courts  having  jurisdiction  over  fraud  in  obtaining- 
office  (ae  ambitu),  over  high  treason  (de  maiestate),  over  embezzle- 
ment (de  peculatu).    Sidla  created  courts  for  the  trial  of  cases  of 


murder  and  poisoning  (de  sicarOs  et  veneficUs)  of  forgery  of  wills  and 
of  counterfeiting  (de/also). 

For  the  year  succeeding  their  year  of  office  the  prstors  went  as 
pro-prsstora  to  the  provinces  which  had  fallen  to  them  by  lot 
The  proprietors  received,  as  a  rule,  however,  only  those  provinoea 


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tf.  o.  Roman  Hittory.  128 

wbich  were  considered  quiet,  and  which  could  be  administered  with- 
out any  considerable  military  force.  Those  which  were  still  the 
scene  of  warfare  were  assigned  to  one  of  the  consols  in  office,  or  to  a 
inrooonanl,  the  consnl  of  the  preceding  year  haying  his  term  of 
command  prolonged  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war  {impenum  prcrth 
aare)  or  an  ex-consul  (vir  consularis)  or  an  ex-prsetor  (vir  prcetorius) 
being  appointed  proconsul.  Thus  the  provinces  were  at  a  later 
period  mstingnished  into  proconndar  aadproproBtorial. 

The  organization  of  a  province  was  conmionly  entrusted  to  the  sen^ 
eral  who  had  conquered  it,  and  a  commission  of  ten  senators.  Mbuoj 
cities  in  the  provinces  retained  their  own  jurisdiction  and  municipal 
government  (cwUates  Uberce),  in  consequence  of  a  treaty  conduaed 
with  the  Roman  people  (fcoius,  hence  civUates  foederaia)^  or  of  a  law 
(lex)  or  decree  ox  the  senate  (senatus  coMtdtum),  The  taxes  of  the 
provinces  were  generally  let  to  tax-farmers  (pubUeani),  mostly  Bo- 
man  citizens  of  the  equestrian  order  (ordo  equester)  many  of  whom 
also  did  business  in  the  provinces  as  bankers  (neaotiatores).^ 

In  163  the  term  of  service  for  the  consulate  began  in  January  for 
the  first  time,  and  this  soon  became  the  rule.  Especially  noteworthy 
in  this  epoch  is  the  practical  dlaapi>earanoe  of  the  dictatorahip. 
The  last  dictator  wiUi  military  power  was  appointed  after  the  battle 
of  Canme  (216),  and  the  last  nominated  for  municipal  business  was 
in  202.  After  this,  in  times  of  peculiar  danger,  the  senate  conferred 
dictatorial  power  on  the  consuls,  by  the  formula :  **  The  consuls  shall 
take  measures  for  the  public  good  according  to  their  discretion.'' 
(VidearU  cansuUs  ne  quid  detrimerUi  respublica  capiat) ,  which  some- 
what resembles  a  modem  proclamation  of  martial  law  or  state  of  siege. 

FOURTH  PEBIOD. 

Firm  BatabUflhment  of  the  Univeraal  Power  of  Rome.    Pe- 
riod of  the  Civil  VTan  (146-^1). 

143-133.    Numantine  War. 

Continuance  of  hostilities  in  Spain.  War  in  Lusitania  against 
ViriaduSy  147-139,  ended  only  by  the  latter's  murder.  The  war  in 
northern  Spain  oentred  around  the  fortified  city  of  Kmnantia,* 
which  was  vainly  besieged  by  MeteUus,  and  then  by  several  incapable 
eenerals,  who  utterly  neglected  the  discipline  of  the  army.  Finally 
P.  Cornelius  Scipio  jEmuianus  AJricania  (Minor)  received  the  com- 
mand. He  restored  discipline,  and,  after  an  investment  of  fifteen 
montiis'  duration,  starved  the  city  into  submission.    Desperate  de- 


13a    Surrender  and  destmotion  of  Nnmantia. 

Scipio  iEmilianus  received  the  surname  of  Numanticus,    After  the 
fall  of  Numantia  all  Spain,  excepting  the  mountain  tribes  of  the  north, 
was  reduced  under  Roman  government. 
135-132.    First  servUe  war. 

Insurrection  of  the  slaves  in  Sicily,  who  were  terribly  ill-* 
treated,  under  the  Syrian  Etmus,  who  called  himself  king  Antiochut^ 

1  Xarquardt-Mommsen,  Horn.  AU.  lY.  888  foil,  and  377  foil. 
\    *  The  prenent  Garray,  an  hoar's  walk  north  of  8oria  on  the  Dueta, 


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124  Ancient  HUtory.  b.  c. 

and  fought  a  long  time  successfullj  against  the  Boman  armies,  main- 
taining himself  in  Henna  and  TcMiromenwrn^  but  was  finally  captured 
and  executed,  together  with  a  great  number  of  the  insurgents. 

133-121.    Civil  disturbanoes  tinder  the  Gracchi, 

excited  by  the  political  and  social  reforms  urged  through  reoo- 
luUonary  means  by  the  brothers  Tiberius  Gracchus  and  Caius 
Gracchus, 
Constant  increase  in  the  number  of  great  estates  worked  by  slaTes 
(Latifundia).    The  number  of  slaves  in  Italy  was  inunensely  increased 
Dy  the  successful  wars,  and  by  a  most  extensive  slaw  trader  especially 
with  eastern  Asia.     The  order  of  free  peasants  and  renters  was 
thereby  g^atly  reduced,  while  there  was  formed  in  the  capital  a 
numerous  rabble  without  property  or  occupation,  who  lived  on  bribes 
and  gifts  of  grain.    Bad  government  of  the  optimates  (p.  101).     Fam- 
ily cliques  which  took  exclusive  possession  of  all  public  offices  and 
places  in  the  senate. 

Tib.  Sempronirui  Gracchus  (163-133),  son  of  the  plebeian  con- 
sul of  the  same  name  (through  his  mother,  Comdia,  grandson  of  the 
victor  of  Zama,  p.  118),  when  tribune  of  the  people  proposed  the 
reenactment  of  the  Ucinian  agrarian  law  (p.  101)  which  had 
long  been  forgotten,  with  this  alteration,  that  besides  the  600  jugera, 
250  jugera  of  public  land  shotdd  be  allowed  for  everv  two  sons,  and 
that  damages  should  be  paid  for  all  buildings  erected  on  land  which 
had  to  be  given  up.  Opposition  of  tbe  tribune  M.  Octainus,  who  had 
been  gained  over  oy  the  senate,  and  whom  Tib.  Gracchus  caused  to  be 
deposed  by  an  unconstitutional  popular  decree.  The  agrarian  law 
was  accepted  by  the  people  ;  its  execution  was  entrusted  to  Tib, 
Gracchus,  his  father-in-law  Appius  Claudius,  and  his  brother  C. 
Gracchus. 

133.  Death  of  AUalus  III.,  king  o/Pergamus,  who  left  his  kingdom 
and  his  treasures  to  the  Komans. 
Tib.  Gracchus  proposed  in  the  popular  assembly,  contrary  to  the 
common  usage,  according  to  which  the  senate  had  the  disposal  of  this 
inheritance,  to  divide  the  treasures  of  Pergamus  among  the  new  land- 
owners, in  order  that  they  might  procure  the  necessary  equipment. 

Preparation  of  further  popular  laws  of  political  tendency;  shorten- 
ing of  the  time  of  military  service  ;  extension  of  the  right  of  appeal, 
etc. 

'Hb.  Gracchus  tried,  contrary  to  the  constitution,  to  secure  the  election 
to  the  tribunate  for  the  following  year.  The  election  was  forcibly 
stopped  by  the  senate.  Tib.  Qracohus  and  300  of  his  followers 
were  killed  by  the  optimates,  armed  with  clubs  and  chair^legs,  and 
led  by  the  consul,  P.  Scipio  Nasica. 

129.  After  the  defeat  of  Aristonicus,  a  pretender  to  the  throne  of 
tbe  Attalidie,  by  Perpcma,  Pergamus  became  a  Roman  prov- 
ince under  the  name  of  Aaia. 
133-129.  The  division  of  the  public  lands  was  partially  carried  out 
as  decreed.  The  struggle  between  the  democracy  and  the 
optimates  continued.  The  leader  of  the  latter  party,  P.  Scipis 
JEmUianus,  husband  of  Sempronia,  the  sister  of  the  Gracchi, 


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B.  c.  Roman  History.  125 

who  had  saccessfully  opposed  the  proposalfl  of  the  democratic 
129.  trihnne,  C  Carbo,  found  dead  in  his  bed  (murdered?). 
125.  The  democratic  consul,  M,  Fulvitu  FlaocuSf  who  had  unsuc- 
cessfully proposed  to  gi\e  the  right  of  citizenship  to  all  Ital- 
iansy  was  sent  hy  the  senate,  which  wished  him  out  of  the  way,  to 
assist  the  Massiliotes  against  the  Gauls,  hy  whom  they  were  hard 
pressed.  He  laid  the  foundation  of  Roman  supremacy  in  Transalpine 
Gaul.  The  inunediate  purpose  of  this  occupation  was  the  establish- 
ment of  communication  by  land,  between  Italy  and  Spain.  In  123  the 
proconsul,  Sextius,  founded  the  colony  of  Aquce  Sextice  (Aix).  Gallia 
IfarbonensiB,  so  called  after  the  colony  Narbo  Martitu  founded 
izi  121,  a  Roman  province.  In  123  the  Balearic  Islands  were  sub- 
jected to  Rome. 

123.  Caius  Sempronius  QrarCohus,  for  two  years  quaestor 
in  Sardinia,  returned  to  Rome  against  the  will  of  the 
senate,  and  was  elected  tribune  of  the  people. 

Surpassing  his  brother  in  talent,  force  of  character,  and  passionate 
energy,  C.  Gracchus  not  only  took  up  again  the  latter's  social  reforms, 
but  also  brought  forward,  one  after  another,  a  series  of  proposals 
looking  to  a  revolutionaiy  alteration  of  the  constitution.  Had  they 
been  completely  adopted,  these  innovations  would  perchance  have 
substituted  for  the  existing  aristocratic  republican  government  the 
rule  of  one  man  under  the  form  of  a  democracy.  Whether  C.  Grac- 
chus desired  such  a  power  for  himself  is,  however,  very  doubtful.  By 
the  regular  distribution  of  grain,  at  the  expense  of  the  state,  C.  Grac- 
chus attempted  to  make  the  proletarii  of  the  capital  his  willin|^  tool 
in  coercing  the  comitce.  He  was  able  to  secure  m  122  his  election  to 
the  tribunate  for  the  second  time. 

Th^  lex  judiciarla  transferred  the  jury-duty  from  the  order  of 
Benatoni  to  that  of  the  eqnltea,  and  nuule  the  preexisting  separa- 
tion between  these  two  parts  of  the  Roman  aristocracy  still  more 
abrupt. 

The  designation,  "  ordo  equester^^  which  belonged  originally  to  those 
citizens  onfy  who  actually  did  cavalry  service,  had  been  gradually 
extended  to  all  who,  in  consequence  of  having  property  to  the  amount 
pf  at  least  400,000  sesterces,  were  liable  to  such  service.  Since  129 
the  senators  were  obliged,  accordins^  to  law,  on  entering  the  senate,  to 
leave  the  centuries  of  equites.  H^nce  *'  equites  "  denoted  especially 
the  members  of  the  aristocracy  of  wealth,  who  were  not  members  of 
the  senate  ;  yet  the  young  men  of  senatorial  families  continued  to 
serve  regularly  in  the  eenturies  of  equites. 

Encroachments  of  C.  Gracchus  on  the  administrative  privileges  of 
the  senate  by  means  of  resolves  of  the  popular  assembly.  Tne  lex 
provocatio  reenacted.  Colonies  sent  out  by  decrees  of  the  people  in- 
stead of  by  decrees  of  the  senate.  C.  Gracchus  himself  established 
the  colony  of  Junonia  on  the  site  of  Carthage. 

The  absence  of  the  all-powerful  tribune  from  Rome  was  utilized 
by  the  senate,  to  secure  him  a  dangerous  opponent  in  the  person  of 
the  tribune,  M,  Livius  Drusus,  The  proposals  of  this  tribune,  in  the 
interests  of  the  lower  classes,  were  constantly  approved  by  the  senate, 
nrith  the  view  of  undermining  the  popularity  of  Grracchus.   ^ 

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126  Ancient  SRstory.  B.  a 

122.    The  motion  of  C  Gracchus  and  his  colleague,  M,  FSdvku  FlaO" 
cu$,  to  grant  the  Latins  all  the  rights  of  oiidzenship,  and  the 
other  Italians  Latin  rights,  was  defeated  by  the  united  opposi- 
tion of  the  senate  and  the  lower  classes  of  the  capital.  C.  Grac- 
chus was  not  elected  tribune  for  the  following  (third)  year. 
121.    Ciyil  strife  in  the  city,  occasioned  by  a  murcfer  committed  by 
one  of  the  supporters  of  Gracchus.     The  democratic  party  oc- 
cupied the  AverUinef  which,  being  poorly  defended,  was  stormed  by  the 
optimates.     C.  Gracohus  and  M.  Fulviua  were  slain,  along  with 
several  hundred  of  their  supporters.    Of  the  prisoners  about  3000 
are  said  to  have  been  strangled  in  prison.^    Restoration  of  the  power 
of  the  senate,  and  the  former  condition  of  things.     After  M.  Livius 
Drusua  had  removed  the  p^und  rent,  and  repealed  the  law  prohibit- 
ing the  alienation  of  assignments  of  public  land,  and  thereby  given 
the  optimates  opportunity  to  repurchase  their  confiscated  lands,  a 
decree  of  the  people.  111,  converted  all  public  lands  in  possession  of 
citizens  into  the  private  property  (not  subject  to  taxation)  of  those  who 
had  formerly  enjoyed  the  usufruot. 

111-105.*    Jufirurthine  war. 

Cause:  Micipsa,  Massinissa's  eldest  son,  had  decreed  in  his  will 
that  after  his  death  his  sous,  Hiempsal  and  Adherbaly  should  reign 
over  Numidia  in  common  with  his  nephew  and  adopted  son,  Jngnr- 
tha.  Quarrels  of  the  kinss.  Attempt  to  actually  divide  the  king- 
dom. Jugurtha  murdered  Hiempsal  and  expelled  Adherbal,  who 
sought  protection  in  Rome.  A  commission  of  the  senate,  which  was 
bribed  oy  Jugurtha,  arranged  a  division  of  the  kingdom  entirely  in 
Jugurtha's  favor.  The  latter  attacked  Adherbal  anew,  defeated  him, 
and  besieged  him  in  Cirt<i,  his  capital.  Without  heeding  the  interven- 
tion of  the  Roman  senate,  Jugurtha  captured  Cirta,  and  put  to  death 
Adherbal  and  the  whole  male  population  of  the  city,  including  tnany 
Italians.  Indignation  at  Rome,  and,  finally,  at  the  instance  of  the 
tribune,  C.  MemmiuSf  declaration  of  war  aeainst  Jugurtha. 

Jugurtha  bought  from  the  consul,  X.  CtUpurnius  Bestia,  a  peace, 
which  the  senate,  upon  the  motion  of  Memmius,  refused  to  ratify. 
Invitation  of  the  king  to  Rome.  Jugurtha  appeared  in  the  city  upon 
guarantee  of  safe  conduct,  and  gained  partisans  for  himself  by  his 
money.  When,  however,  he  connived  at  the  murder  of  Massiva,  a 
third  grandson  of  Massinissa,  in  Rome  itself,  he  was  banished  from  the 
city,  and  the  war  was  renewed. 

110--109.  The  war  was  unsuccessfully  conducted  by  the  Romans. 
Jugurtha  defeated  a  Roman  army,  sent  it  under  the  yoke,  and 
dictated  a  peace  which  was  repudiated  by  the  senate. 
109.  Q.  MeteUus,  entrusted  with  the  command,  defeated  Jugurtha 
on  the  river  Muthul.  The  Romans  occupied  Numidia  with 
two  armies,  one  under  Metellus,  the  other  commanded  by  his 
legate  C.  Mariua  (son  of  a  day  laborer  from  the  vicinity  ol 
Arpinum). 

1  Mommsen,  HiH.  of  Rome,  Iff.  101-130. 

*  Cooceming  the  chroaology  of  this  war,  see  Mommsen,  III.  p.  158,  note. 


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B.  c.  Eoman  History.  127 

108.  After  fraitleBS  negotiations,  another  Roman  victorT.  Jngnrtha 
withdrew  to  the  oases  of  the  desert  and  induced  dto  nomads  of 
those  parts  (Ocetuloei)  to  take  up  arms  against  the  Romans. 
Pursued  into  the  desert,  he  joined  forces  with  his  father-in- 
law,  BocchuSf  king  of  Mauritania. 

107.  Marias,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  aristocrats,  received 
the  consulate  and  chief  command.  He  conquered  the  Gtetu- 
lians,  repulsed  a  combined  attack  of  Jngurtha  and  Bocchus 
at  Ctrto,  entered  into  secret  negotiations  with  Bocchus  through 

106-105.  his  quiestor,  L.  Cornelius  Sulla,  and  secured  the  deliv- 
ery of  Jngurtha  into  his  hands.  The  captive  king  was  led 
in  triumph  at  Rome  and  died  of  hunger  in  prison.  Numidia 
was  divioiBd  between  Bacchus  and  Gauda,  the  last  living  grand- 
son of  Massinissa. 

113-101.    War  against  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones. 

The  Germanic^  or,  according  to  others,  Cdtic,  tribe  of   the 
Cimbri  (jChempho,  i.  e.  wamors  ?)  made  their  way  from  the 

113.  north  into  the  Alpine  regions,  defeated  at  Norma,  in  Corinthia, 
the  consul  Cn,  Papirius  CarbOy  turned  afterwards  westward 
towards  the  Rhine,  wUch  they  crossed,  and  defeated  a  Roman 

109.  army  under  M,  Junius  Sikmus,  who  had  hurried  to  the  aid 
of  the  AUobroges.    Helvetian  bands  pressed  into  Gaul,  and 

107.  defeated  the  consul  L,  Cassius  Lonmnus  on  the  Garonne.  The 
Cimbri  traversed  Gaul  in  various  directions,  defeated  and  an- 
nihilated two  large  Roman  armies  under  Q.  Sermlius  Ccqno 
105.  and  Cn,  MaUiw  Maximus  at  Arausia  (Orange)  on  the  Rhdne. 
Terror  at  Rome.  Violent  proceedings  of  the  democratic 
leaders  against  the  incapable  gener^  of  the  optimates. 
CapiOf  Maximus f  and  others  condemned. 
104-100.    Marina  elected  consul  five  times  in  succession. 

The  Cimbri  meantime  had  crossed  the  IVrenees  and  were  wan- 
dering aimlessly  about  among  the  Spanish  tribes.  Defeated  by  the 
Celtiberians,  they  recrossed  the  Pyrenees,  traversed  western  Gaul, 
andeave  Marins  time  to  reorganise  the  Roman  forces  in  the  Provincia 
Nanonensis  (Provence).  Defeated  by  the  Belgians,  the  Cimbri 
united  with  the  Germanic  tribes  of  the  Tentones  and  with  Helve- 
tian tribes  (Tougenes  and  Tigorini),  These  three  peoples  resolved 
to  enter  Italv  in  two  separate  bands.  The  greater  part  of  the 
Cimbri  and  the  Tigorini  were  to  invade  Italy  from  the  north,  while 
the  TeuUmes  with  the  Ambrones,  the  best  among  the  Cimbri,  and  the 
Tougenes  were  to  force  their  way  into  Italy  tmrough  southern  Gaul 
(102).  Marius  attempted  to  intercept  the  latter  bfuid.  By  his  posi- 
tion at  the  junction  of  the  Is^re  and  the  Rhdne,  he  covered  the  two 
military  roads  which  at  that  time  alone  connected  Gaul  and  Italy 
(Pass  of  the  Little  St.  Bernard,  and  the  shore  road).  Futile  attempt 
of  the  barbarians  to  storm  the  Roman  camp.  They  passed  the  camp 
on  their  way  down  the  Rhdne.  Marins,  following  them,  defeated 
and  annihilated  their  army  in  the 

302.  Battle  of  Aquse  Sextlae  (Aix  in  Provence,  see  p.  126). 
The  king  of  the  Teutones,  Teutobod,  was  captured.  Thereupon 


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128  Ancient  History.  B.  c. 

Mariiu  CTOSsed  the  Alps  to  the  aasistaiice  of  his  colleague 
CaiuluSf  whom  the  Cimbri,  having  reached  Italy  by  way  of 
the  Brenner  Pass,  had  discomfited  apon  the  Adige  and  dnven 
behind  the  Po.    The  two  consuls,  having  joined  forces,  ad- 
vanced across  the  Po  and  annihilated  the  Cimbri  in  the 
lOl.    Battle    of   Vercell»    (m  campis  Raudiis).     Triumph   of 
Marius,  who  was  hailed  by  the  multitude,  "  the  third  Romulus," 
"  the  second  Camillus.'* 
At  the  time  of  the  Cimbrian  war  occurred  the  complete  abolition 
of  the  Servian   military  organization,  according  to  which  military 
service  was  principally  a  tax  on  property,  but  which  had  already 
been  several  times  altered.    This  had  also  long  been  the  principle 
upon  which  the  military  service  of  the  Italian  aUies  was  regulated. 
Hereafter  the  system  of  a  citizen  levy  was  supplemented  by  a  re- 
cruiting system,  principally  of  course  from  the  idle  and  lazy  portion 
of  the  population,  and  by  a  system  of  reinforcements,  whereby  cavalry 
and  light-armed  troops  were  drawn  henceforward  from  the  con- 
tingents of  subject  and  vassal  princes.     A  separate  military  order 
was  formed,  which  was  distinct  m>m  the  civil  order  and  opposed  to 
it.    The  organization  of  the  army,  the  strength  and  divisions  of  the 
legions  (henceforward  6000  men  in  10  cohorts),  also  underwent  im- 
portant changes. 

103-99.    Second  servile  inBnrreotion  (in  Sicily)  under  Tryphon 
and  Athenion,  which  was  put  down  by  the   consul.  Mamas 
Aquillius,  Better  a  hard  struggle. 
100.    Marius,  for  the  sixth  time  consul,  aiming  at  the  royal  power, 
joined   the  leaders   of   the  people,  the  prsetor  C   Servilius 
Glaucia  and  L,  Appuleius  SatuminuSf  with  the  purpose  of  overthrow- 
ing the  constitution.     Satuminus,  having  gained  the  tribunate  by 
murder,  procured  by  violent  means  a  division  of  lands  among  the 
veterans  of  Marius.     The  consul   Q.  MeteUus  went  into  voluntary 
banishment.    The  murder  of  C.  MemmiuSf  who  had  been  nominatea 
consul  for  the  year  99,  led  to  an  actual  contest  in  the  forum  between 
the  optimates    and  the  popular  party.      Saturninus   and   Glaucia 
being  betraved  by  their  accomplice,  Marius,  were  killed,  with  many 
of  their  followers. 

99.  Q.  MeteUus  recalled  to  Rome.  Marius,  hated  by  both  parties  on 
98.  account  of  his  equivocal  conduct,  went  for  a  time  to  Asia. 
91.  Three  bills  brought  forward  by  the  tribune  M.  Livius  Dm- 
sus: 
1.  Reform  of  the  judicial  department  (lex  judiciaria),  which  re- 
stored to  the  senate  the  places  on  the  juries  which  had  been  taken 
from  it,  at  the  same  time  enlarging  the  senate  by  the  addition  of  300 
equites.  2.  A  new  division  of  lands  (lex  agraria).  3.  Bestowal  of 
the  right  of  citizenship  on  the  Italians  (de  ciuitate  sociis  danda).  The 
first  two  proposals  were  adopted  by  the  comitise,  but  declared  null 
and  void  by^the  senate  ;  as  he  was  on  the  point  of  bringing  the  third 
before  the  people,  Drusus  was  assassinated. 

The  disappointment  of  the  Italian  allies  who  had  fixed  their  hopes 
upon  Livius  caused  the  revolt  of  nearly  all  the  Italians  excepting  the 
Latins,  most  of  the  Etruscans  and  Umbrians  and  some  southern  citiea^ 
«od  led  to  the  ^ 

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B.  c.  Roman  History.  129 

91-88.     Marsian  or  sooial  war. 

The  Italiaiu!  formed  a  federal  republic  under  the  name  Italioj  gov- 
erned by  a  senate  of  600  senators  from  all  Italian  tribes.  The  capital 
was  Corfinium,    They  appointed  two  consuls  and  twelve  pnetors. 

The  terrible  danger  reconciled  for  the  moment  the  parties  at  Rome, 
and  caused  the  adoption  of  energetic  measures  :  repeated  levies  of 
citizens,  and  enrollment  of  freedmen  in  the  army.    The  best  generals 
of  both  parties  offered  to  serve  under  the  consuls. 
90.      At  the  seat  of  war  in  the  norUty  Marius  fought  against  the 
Manians  and  the  other  Sabellian  tribes,  for  the  most  part, 
successfully.    The  Roman  consul,  Rutilitu,  fell;  Cn.  Pompeius 
Stnibo^  defeated  at  first,  was  afterwards  victorious.    At  the 
southern  seat  of  war  {Companies  Samnitan,  Lucanid),  the  allies 
got  so  decidedly  the  better  of  the  Roman  consul,  L,  Julius 
Coesar,  in  spite  of  the  dashing  forays  of  Sulla,  that  the  Etrus- 
cans and  Umbrians,  in  the  north,  who  had  before  remained 
faithful,  were  encouraged  to  revolt.    In  order  to  prevent  this 
a  law  was  passed 

Onmting  the  right  of  citizenship  to  the  Latins  and  to  all  districts 

among  the  above  peoples  which  had  remained  faithful  (Jex 

Julia), 
89.      Successful  conclusion  of  the  war  in  the  north.      Superiority 

of  the  Roman  arms  in  the  south,  especially  under  Bulla. 
By  the  lex  Plautia-Papiria  Roman  citizenship  was  given  to  all  Ital- 
ians who  applied  for  it ;  thej^  were,  however,  included  in  8  tribes  only 
which  were  especially  desi^^ted.  The  towns  of  Cisalpine  Gaul 
which  had  municipal  organizations  received  Latin  rights  Qex  Pomn 
peia). 
88.      By  this  concession  the  war  in  the  south  was  also  in  the  main 

brought  to  a  close. 

88-84.    First  Mithridatio  war. 

Catwe :  Mithradates  or  BAithridates  VI.,  king  of  Pontus  (120- 
63),  had  extended  his  power  over  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Black 
Sea  (Colchis)  and  along  the  Cimmerian  Bosphorus  (Crimea,  and 
southern  Russia).  Kingdom  of  the  Bosphorus.  He  had  conquered 
Paphkiffonia  and  Cappadocia  and  had  provoked  the  interference  of 
the  senate  by  his  encroachments  on  the  client  cities  of  Rome  in  Asia 
Minor.  Already  had  Sulla,  who  was  then  proconsul  in  Cilicia,  in 
92,  taken  arms  against  him,  and  reinstated  a  Idns  in  Cappadocia. 
A  second  expulsion  of  this  king,  and  quarrels  of  Mithridates  with  the 
king  of  Bithynia,  who  was  supported  oy  the  Roman  consul  M.  Aquil" 
Uus,  led  to  war. 

88.  Mithridates  defeated  Nicomedes,  king  of  Bithynia,  on  the  Amr 
nias,  a  branch  of  the  Halys,  defeated  the  Roman  generals,  Op- 
pius,  Cassius,  and  AquHlius  (the  latter  being  crnelly  put  to  death),  and 
drove  them  out  of  Asia  Minor.  The  Grecian  cities  of  Asia  joined 
him,  and  upon  an  order  issued  from  Ephesus,  put  to  death  in  one 
day  aU  the  Italians  within  their  walls  (80,000^  or  according  to  others 
160,000). 


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130  Ancient  History.  b.  g. 

Bulla,  the  aooaxH  for  88»  was  on  the  point  of  starting  for  Asia  to 
attack  Mithridates,  when  there  broke  out  the 

88-82.  Civil  wax  between  Sulla  (optimates)  and  Ma- 
rius  (democrats). 
Direct  cause  :  the  revolutionary  proposals  of  the  tribone  P.  Syl- 
picius,  which  were  carried  by  the  most  violent  means,  and  particularly 
designed  to  secure  the  division  of  the  new  citizens,  Italians  and  freed- 
men,  among  all  the  35  tribes  (tU  novi  dvea  libertinique  in  amnes  triinu 
distribuerentur). 

88.  The  populace  under  the  control  of  dema^gnes  deprived  Sulla 
of  the  chief  conunand  and  gave  it  to  his  opponent  Marius, 
with  TOoconsular  power.  Sulla  nuurched  with  his  army  from  I^ola 
upon  Rome  and  took  the  city  by  stonn.  Sulpicius  and  eleven  other 
outlaws  were  kiUed  upon  the  flight.  Marius  escaped  by  way  of  Min~ 
turtuB  to  Africa. 

Sulla  restored  the  old  order  of  voting  in  the  centuries  as  it  had 
existed  under  the  Servian  constitution,  but  had  been  given  up  in  241 
(p.  112),  and  decreed  that  in  future  the  popular  assemblies  should 
not  vote  upon  any  measure  which  had  not  previously  passed  the 
senate. 

87.    An  optimate,  Cn,  Octavius,  and  a  democrat,  L,  Comdius  Cinna, 
were  elected  consuls.    Sulla,  as  proconsul,  took  the  command 
in  the  Mithridatic  war. 
During  Sulla's  absence  CSnna  endeavored  to  renew  the  laws  of 
Sulpicius  by  violence.    After  a  bloody  struggle  in  the  forum  he  was 
driven  out  by  the  optimates.     He  formed  an  army  in  Campania 
of  armed  bands  of  dissatisfied  Italians,  liberated  slaves,  etc.,  and 
uniting  with  the  aged  Marius,  who  had  returned  from  Africa,  with 
Q.  Sertorius  and  Cn.  Papirius  Carbo,  advanced  upon  Rome,  whidi  was 
compelled  to  surrender.    Revolutionary  reign  of  terror  in  the 
city.    Five  days'  slaughter  at  Marius'  command  of  all  optimates  who 
had  not  fled  (among  others  L.  and  C  Coesarf  M,  Antomus,  P,  CVt»- 
suSf  Q.  Catulu8)f  confiscation  of  their  property,  plundering  and  out- 
rages of  the  armed  bands. 
86.    Marius  (for  the  7th  time)  and  Cinna,  consuls ;  Sulla  deposed 
in  his  absence.    Death  of  Marius,  over  seventy  years  old. 
L.  V(deHu8  Flaccus  was  made  consul  in  his  stead  and  appointed 
by  the  popular  party  to  the  command  of  the  Mithridatic  war. 
87-84.    Tyrannical  government  of  Cinna  at  Rome,  regardless  of  the 
newly  restored  democratic  constitution. 
Meantime  the  outlawed  Bulla  was  conducting  the  war  against 
Mithridates.    The  latter  had  sent  his  general  Arc&lau$  with  an  army 
and  fleet  to  Greece,  where  most  of  the  cities  joined  him  at  once,  par- 
ticularly Athens  under  the  government  of  Anstion. 
87.    Sulla  Unded  with  30,000  men  in  EpiruSf  advanced  to  Bceotia, 
drove  Archelaus  and  Aristion  out  of  the  coun^  and  besieged 
the  former  in  Puwus,  the  latter  in  Athens.     He  defeided  an 
86.       army  of  relief  from  Pontus,  and  after  a  tedious  siege  captured 
March.     Athens.    Sulla  defeated  Archelaus,  who  had  voluntarily 
evacuated  Pincns,  gone  by  sea  to  Bceotia,  and  joined  the  rein- 
forcements sent  by  Mithridates,  in  the 


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B.  c.  Roman  •Btstory,  181 

86.    Battle  of  Ghauronea  and  in  the  next  year  in  the 
85.    Battle  of  Orohomenns,  after  which  he  went  into  winter  quar- 
ters in  Theasaly.    In  the  following  ^ear  Sulla,  supported  dy  a 
fleet  of  ships,  collected  from  Asia  Mmor  and  Syria  by  LucuutUf 
marched  through  Macedonia  and  Thrace,  crossed  the  Helles- 
pont to  Asia,  and  through  the  mediation  of  Archelaus  concluded 
•  84.    Paaoa  with  Mithridatea  in  Dardanos.    I.  Eyacuation  of  the 
Roman  proyince  of  Asia,  restoration  of  all  conquests  made  by 
Mithridates,  and  reinstatement  of  the  kin^  of  Bithyma  and  Cappor 
docia.    II.  Mithridates  surrendered  80  ships  of  war  and  paid  3000 
talents.    After  the  conclusion  of  peace,  Sulla  turned  his  attention  to 
the  Roman  army  of  the  democratic  party  which  had  gone  to  Asia  in 
86  under  the  consul  FiaocuSf  and,  after  his  murder,  had  f ourht  suo- 
eessfully  under  Fimbria  (yictoiy  oyer  the  younger  Mithridates  at 
Miletopolis).    A  part  of  the  army  haying  gone  oyer  to  Sulla,  Fim- 
bria committed  suicide,  whereupon  the  rest  of  his  army  joined  Sulla. 
After  leaying  these  troops  behind  (miUles  Flaviani,  two  legions)  under 
Licinms  Murena,  and  inflictine  upon  the  Grecian  cities  of  Asia  Minor 
the  immense  fine  of  20,000  talents  (925,000,000),  which  LucuUus  was 
te  collect,  Sulla  sailed  irom  Ephesus  to  Piraeusy  went  by  land  to  PatrcR, 
and  thence  by  sea  to  Italy. 

83.  Balla  landed  with  40,000  men  in  Brundiman,  After  the  death 
of  Cinna  (84),  during  a  mutiny  in  Ancona,  where  he  intended 
to  embark  against  Sulla,  his  colleagues  Carbo,  the  younger  Marius, 
and  Sertorius  were  the  leaders  of  the  democratic  party ;  neyer- 
theless  for  the  year  83  neither  of  them,  but  instead  two  incapable 
men,  L.  Scipio  and  C.  Norbanm,  were  elected  consuls.  Bulla,  who 
upon  landing  was  joined  by  the  23-year  old  Cn.  Pomi>eiiis  with 
an  army  of  yolunteers,  formally  guaranteed  their  rights  to  the  Ital- 
ians and  marched  against  the  consuls.  He  conquered  Norhanus  on 
Mt.  Tifjata  and  opened  negotiations  with  Scipio,  in  the  course  of  which 
the  entire  arm^  of  the  latter  went  oyer  to  SuUa. 
82.  Sulla  rested  for  the  winter  in  Capua,  and  fought  during  the  fol- 
lowing year  against  the  younger  Marius  and  Carbo,  who  had 
been  appointed  constus.  At  Sacriportus  Sulla  defeated  Marias,  who 
retired  to  Preeneste,  where  he  was  surrounded  by  a  division  of  the  army 
mder  Q.  Ofeila.  Sulla  perceiyed  this,  and  passed  rapidly  through 
Rome  to  attack  the  democrats  in  Etruria,  whither  also  a  part  of  ^ 
army  under  Metellus,  Pompems,  and  Cranus  had  already  forced  its 
way  from  Picenum  and  Umbria  and  were  pressing  Carbo  hard.  On 
receipt  of  the  news  that  strong  Samnite  bands  were  adyancing  to  the 
relief  of  Prssneste,  SuUa  went  back  to  Latium,  preyented  the  relief 
of  Prssneste,  and  repulsed  an  attack  of  the  Samnites  upon  Rome 
(Noy.  82).  More  than  3000  prisoners  were  slaughtered  at  Sulla's 
command.  Prssneste  surrendered,  the  younger  Marios  was  put  to 
death  by  his  slayes  at  his  own  command.  The  party  of  Marius  in 
northern  Italy  had  already  been  completely  defeated  at  Favenda. 
Carbo  and  Sertoritu  fled.  Sulla  took  terrible  yengeance  upon  Uie  con- 
ouered  cities  and  towns  of  Italy.  The  party  of  Marius  in  Spain  was 
defeated  at  a  later  time  by  C  Annius  and  Valerius  Flaccus  ;  m  Sicily 
and  Africa  it  was  defeated  by  Pompexus,  whom  Sulla  allowed  to  tri' 
umph,  and  saluted  with  the  surname  of  Magnus. 


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182  Ancient  •BUtaty.  B.  0 

82.    Bulla  bad  himself  appointed  dictator  in  Rome  for  an  im« 
limited  time,  for  the  sake  of  reorganizing  the  commonwealtb 
(dictator  re^pubUcm  canstUuendcBf  a  power  analogous  to  that  of  the  de- 
cern virs). 

Reactionary  Reign  of  Terror.  Proscrwtion  lists  of  the  eoil 
minded  (lex  de  proscnbendis  malis  civibus).  The  number  of  the  out- 
lawed, on  whose  death  a  reward  was  set,  and  whose  property  was  * 
confiscated  amounted  to  4700.  Allotments  of  lands  to  the  veterans 
of  SuUa  and  establishment  of  military  colonies  with  full  right  of 
citizenship  in  the  territories  of  cities  of  the  hostile  party,  whose 
right  of  citizenship  was  abro^ted.  Liberation  of  10,000  slayes  be- 
longing to  the  proscribed  citizens,  and  bestowal  upon  them  of  the 
right  of  citizenship  (the  so-called  Cornelians). 
83-81.    Second  Mithridatic  War, 

conducted  by  the  propraetor  Murena  (p.  131),  who  occupied 
Cappadocia,  which  Mithndates,  in  spite  of  the  peace,  had  not  com- 
pletely eyacuated,  and  inyaded  Pontus,  where  he  was  defeated  by 
Mithndates  and  obliged  to  withdraw.  The  war  ended  in  a  treaty 
which  was  a  renewal  of  the  first  peace. 

Attempt  at  a  consenratiye  aristocratic  reform  of  the  goyemment 
in  Rome,  b^  a  series  of  laws  originated  by  Sulla  (leges  ComeUce). 
Keorganization  of  the  senate  which  had  suffered  seyerely  from  the 
proscriptions  of  the  ciyil  wars.  It  was  now  enlarged  in  an  unprece- 
dented manner  by  the  addition  of  300  members  to  be  chosen  by  the 
comitia  tributa.    Admission  to  the  senate  became  a  prerogative  of  the 

aussstorship.  Henceforward  20  qucestors  were  annually  elected  by 
lie  comitia  tributa.  Abolition  of  the  censors'  privilege  of  revising 
the  roll  of  the  senate  every  five  years,  and  consequently  introduction 
of  the  irremovability  of  the  senators.  Thus  the  senate,  for  a  short 
time,  was  indirectly  chosen  by  the  people,  and  acquired  a  representa- 
tive character,  llie  places  in  the  juries  which  C.  Gracchus  had 
transferred  to  the  equites  (p.  125^  were  restored  to  the  senate. 
The  privUeees  of  the  senate  were  rurther  increased  ;  it  acquired,  in 
particular,  the  right  of  prolonging  the  term  of  office  of  proconsuls 
and  propraetors,  and  of  removing  them.  The  comituE  lost  the  power 
of  electmg  the  priests,  which  nad  been  nven  them  in  104,  the 
priestly  colleges  receiving  again  the  right  of  filling  their  own  vacan- 
cies. On  the  other  hand  SuUa  gave  up  the  Servian  order  of  voting, 
the  restoration  of  which  had  b^  attempted  in  88.  Powers  of  tho 
tribunes  of  the  people  reduced,  misuse  of  the  right  of  interpellation 
punished  with  heavy  fines,  the  right  of  the  tribunes  to  initiate  roga- 
tions subjected  to  the  approval  of  the  senate  ;  it  was  also  decreed  that 
acceptance  of  the  tribunate  conveyed  incapacity  for  accepting  higher 
offices.  Reorganization  of  the  department  of  justice,  increase  of  the 
perpetual  courts  (qucestiones  perpetwe).  Henceforward  8  prators. 
Criminal  legislation  (lex  de  sicari*s,  defalsoy  ete.). 
81.  Sulla  permitted  the  election  of  consuls,  but  continued  to  conduct 

the  goyemment  under  the  title  of  dictator.    For  the  year 
60i  He  caused  himself  and  his  companion  in  arms,  Q.  MeUUnSy  to 

to  be  elected  consuls,  and  so  Inidged  the  way  to  oonstitutionai 

government- 


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B.  a  Roman  Hisiory*  1S8 

79.  SnUa  ▼olQntarlly  abdioatod  the  dlotatonUp  and  xetired  to 

private  life. 
78.  Death  of  Snlla,  probably  in  conseqnence  of  a  hemorrhage.^ 
78-77.    Attempt  of  M,  jEmUius  Lepidus  (consul  with  Q.  ZtUathia 

CahduSf  78)  and  the  Marian  Af.  Jtmku  Brutus^  to  yiolentlj 
overthrow  the  work  of  SuUa.  Lepidus,  on  his  way  from  Etraria  to 
Rome  at  the  head  of  an  army,  was  defeated  on  the  Campus  Martins 
by  Cattdus;  defeated  a  second  time  at  Casa,  he  fled  to  Sardinia, 
where  he  fell  sick  and  died.  Brutus  was  forced  by  Pompeius  to  sur- 
render at  MutinSy  and  was  afterwards  put  to  death. 

80-72.  War  a^gainst  Bertoriiis, 

who  in  83  had  been  allotted  Lusitania  and  Spain  as  Ais  prov- 
ince. He  had  been  driven  out  (82)  by  Sulla's  generals,  and,  after 
leading  a  rovine  life  as  an  adventurer  along  the  coasts  of  Spain  and 
Africa,  returned  to  Lusitania.  Here  this  partv  leader,  alike  distin- 
guished as  statesman  and  general,  had  founded  an  independent  sov- 
ereignty. Q.  Metdlus  and  even  Cn,  Pompeius  waeed  for  a  lone  time 
unsuccessful  war  against  him.  He  formed  an  aluiance  with  mithr^ 
dateSf  but  was  murdered,  in  72,  by  his  subordinate  Perpema.  The 
latter  was  defeated  and  executed  by  Pompeius. 

73-7L  War  of  the  Gladiators  and  (third)  Servile 
War. 

Bands  of  gladiators  who  had  escaped  from  a  gladiatorial  school  at 
Capua  occupied  Vesuvius  under  command  of  two  Gauls  and  the 
Thradan  Spartacus,  and  from  this  vantage-ground  plundered  and 
burned  throughout  the  neighborhood.  Kemforced  by  numerous 
slaves  they  grew  to  an  army,  and  defeated  four  Roman  armies  in 
succession.  Spartacus^  who  wanted  to  leave  Italy,  was  forced  by  his 
companions  to  remain.  He  marched  upon  the  capital.  Terror  in 
Rome.  The  prsBtor  M.  Uoinius  Craesus  received  the  chief  com- 
mand. The  insurgents  refrained  from  attacking  Rome  and  wandered 
about  Italy  ravaging  and  plundering.  Craesus  defeated  them  in  two 
battles,  in  the  seooi^  of  which,  on  Uie  Silarus,  Spartacus  fell,  fight- 
ing valiantly.  The  remnants  of  the  bands  were  annihilated  by  Pomr 
peius,  who  was  returning  from  Spain. 

In  70  the  consuls  M.  Zdoiiiius  Crassns  and  Cn.  Pompeius  Mag- 
nus restored  to  the  tribunate  the  privileges  whiok  it  had  lost  under 
Sulla  (p.  132).  The  Anrelian  law  (lex  Aurelia),  passed  during  their 
consulate,  repealed  the  enactment  of  Sulla  that  the  jurors  should  be 
taken  exclusively  from  the  senators  ;  henceforth  one  third  should  be 
senators,  two  thirds  men  of  the  equestrian  census  (of  these  one  half 
should  be  taken  from  the  so-called  tribuni-aarnrii).  Already,  in  72, 
the  privilege  of  the  censors,  of  revising  the  roll  ot  the  senate,  which 
SuUa  had  abolidied,  had  been  restored  (p.  132),  and  probably  five 
years  became  again  the  length  of  the  censors'  term  of  office.  64 
senators  were  expelled  from  Uie  senate  by  the  censors  Gdlius  and  Ler^ 
fulus. 

1  He  did  not  die  of  the  KM»Iled  Phthiriaais.  Cf.  Mommaen,  ffist.  ofRom%^ 
UI.p.a90. 


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134  Ancient  HUtorff,  B.  OL 

78-67*    War  againBt  the  pirates. 

The  result  of  the  neglect  of  the  Roman  marine  nnee  the  destrao- 
tion  of  Carthage,  and  of  the  oppression  of  the  Roman  eoyemors  in 
Asia  was  a  constant  increase  of  piracy.  There  gradnally  n«w  uip 
an  organized  pirate-eommunity,  whose  principal  seats  were  Crete  and 
CUicia.  The  pirates  controlled  the  entire  Mediterranean  as  far  as 
tile  columns  of  Hercides,  and  captured  the  vessels  which  were  eonrey'- 
ing  grain  to  Rome. 
78.   War  had  been  waged  with  the  pirates  fdnce  78,  at  first  onder  the 

proconsul  of  ii^ia,  P.  ServUius,  who  destroyed  many  pirate 
75.       cities,  and  in  the  year  76  took  possession  of  Isauria^  PamphyUa, 

PiMia,  for  Rome,  under  the  name  of  Cilioia,  and  afterwards 
74.       under  the  prtetor  J/.  Antanius,  who  possessed  most  eztemnye 

powers,  but  accomplished  littie,  and  in  71  died  at  Crete  afteF 

being  defeated  by  the  Cretans. 
68.   Metdlus  after  a  long  contest,  subdued  Crete  (province  sinoe  67^, 

whose  inhabitants  lived  for  the  most  part,  upon  piracy.    As 

piracy  stiU  continued, 
67.  Pompelus  received,  on  the  motion  of  Gabinius  (lex  Galnnid)^  tot 

three  years  unlimited  command  over  the  whole  Mediterra- 
nean and  its  coasts  for  fifty  miles  inland  ;  the  public  treasuries  and 
reetources  of  all  the  provinces  and  client  states  were  placed  uncondi- 
tionally at  his  disposal.  In  three  months  Pompeius,  in  two  short  cam- 
paigns, completedlv  cleared  first  the  western,  then  the  eastern, 
Mediterranean  of  pirates,  captured  3000  vessels,  put  to  death  10,000 
pirates,  destroyed  their  f oi'tresses,  captured  20,000  men,  and  settied 
them  in  the  interior  of  the  country.  (Construction  of  Pampeiopolis  in 
Cilicia.) 

74-64.    Third  Mithridatio  war. 

Cause  :  Strained  relations  between  the  Romans  on  the  one  side,  and 
Mithridates  of  Ponius  and  his  son-in-law,  Tigranes  of  Armenia,  cm 
the  other.  The  latter  took  possession  of  the  Unedoms  of  Cappadocia 
and  S^ria.  When  Nicamedes  III.,  of  BithyniOj  likewise  son-in-law  of 
Mithndates,  bequeathed  his  kingdom  to  Rome,  and  Bithynia  was 
made  a  Roman  province,  Mithridates  declared  war  and  occupied  Bi- 
thynia. 

74.  The  conduct  of  the  war  was  entrusted  to  the  two  consuls  Ii.  lau- 
oullus,  who  was  to  enter  the  kingdom  of  Pontus  through  Phry- 
^a,  and  M.  Aurdius  CoUa,  who  sailed  with  the  fleet  for  the 
Propontis.  Mithridates  defeated  the  latter  by  land  and  sea  at 
Chalcedon  and  laid  siege  to  Cyzicus,  which  was  relieved  by  Lu- 
cullus,  who  hastened  m>m  the  soutii. 
73.  Mithridates  was  forced  to  retreat  with  great  loss.  Lucullns  as 
proconsul  conducted  the  war  successfully  at  sea  ;  then  took  the 
offensive  on  land,  crossed  the  Halys  (Kisil  Irmak),  traversed 
Panttuf,  defeated  Mithridates  at  Cabtrat  and  drove  the  king 
completely  out  of  his  kingdom.  He  took  refuge  with  his  son- 
in-law,  Tigranes,  while  LucuUus,  after  a  tedious  siege,  cap- 
72-70.  tured  the  trading  cities  UeracUa^  Sinepe,  Amisus^  and  occupied 
Armenia  Minor, 


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B.  c.  Ronum  Btitary.  185 

Withoat  waiting  for  authority  from  the  senate,  Lnenllns  opened 
irar  upon  TigraneSf  crossed  the  Euphrates  into  Armenia  proper,  de- 
feated Tigranes  id  the  famous 

69.    Battle  of  Tl^anooerta, 

captured  that  city,  and  then  turned  against  the  two  kings  who 
had  now  joined  forces.  Lucullus  forced  the  passage  of  the  Euphrates 
(68)  by  a  second  successful  encounter  with  the  enemy,  crossed  the 
riyer  here  in  its  upper  course  for  the  second  time,^  marched  through 
the  Armenian  phiteau  toward  Artazata,  the  residence  of  Tigranes, 
but  was  compelled  by  a  mutiny  among  his  soldiers  (P.  Clodius,  brothr 
er-in-law  of  Lucullus)  to  begin  a  retreat  over  the  Tigris  to  Mesopo- 
tamia, long  be/ore  he  had  reached  Artaxata.^ 

Lucullus  took  Nisibis  by  stoim,  but  was  obliged  to  cross  to  the 
rifiht  bank  of  the  Euphrates  acnin  to  rescue  a  £yision  of  tiie  army 
which  had  been  cut  off  (67).  Meantime  Mithridates  returned  to  Pon- 
tos  and  defeated  a  Roman  force  under  Triarim  at  Zela  (Zidd). 
New  mutinies  in  the  army  of  LucuUiu,  who  was  at  the  same  time  in- 
formed that  he  was  slandered  at  Rome,  that  he  had  been  recalled,  and 
the  consul  AT.  AcUuu  Cr^o^rio  appointed  in  his  stead.  Glabrio  went  to 
Asia,  but  in  consideration  of  the  difficult  position  of  affairs,  did  not 
assume  command.  LuecUus  conducted  the  Roman  army  by  a  mas- 
terly retreat  back  to  Asia  Minor. 

Mithridates,  harixig  not  only  reconquered  Ponius,  but  also  com- 
menced to  ravage  Buhynia  and  Cc^madocia,  a  law  was  passed  at  the 
instance  of  the  tribune  of  the  people,  C  Manilhu  (Cicero's  oration, 
pro  imperio  Cn.  Pompeii^  or  pro  lege  Manilla),  entrusting 

66.  Cn.  PompeiuB  with  the  command  in  Asia  with  unlimited 
powers. 
Unfriendly  meeting  of  Lucullus  and  Pompeku  at  Danala  in  Galatia. 
After  concluding  a  treaty  with  the  Parthwrn^  whom  he  guaranteed 
possession  of  Mesopotamta,  Pompeius  opened  the  campaign  partly 
with  new  troops,  drove  Mithridates  out  of  Pontus,  and  defeated  him 
in  the 

66.  Battle  by  night  on  the  Lycos  (Yeshil  Irmak),  near  the  future 
Nicopclis  in  Armenia  minor.  Abandoned  by  Timmes,  Mithri- 
dates fled  to  Colchis.  Pompeius  followed  ajs  far  as  the  Phasis,  return- 
ing then  to  Armenia,  where  his  ally,  the  kinj^  of  the  Parthians,  had 
meantime  made  an  inroad.  At  Artaxata  Tigranes  gave  himself  up 
to  Pompeius,  who  permitted  him  to  keep  Armenia  proper  for  his 
own  kingdom,  but  took  from  him  all  his  conquests,  Syria,  Phcenicia, 
Cappadocia,  and  imposed  upon  him  a  fine  of  6000  talents. 
65.  After  an  expedition  northward,  where  he  fought  successfully 
with  the  Caucasian  tribes,  Pompeius  for  the  second  time  aban- 
doned the  pursuit  of  Mithridates,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  the  Taurie 
Chersonese  (Crimea),  and  went  to  Pontus,  and  thence  to  Syria. 

1  Cf .  Kiepert,  Atlas  Antimiut,  Tab.  III. 

s  The  second  victory  of  Lucullus  was  not  gained  near  Jrtaseata,  CL 
Mommsen,  Hist,  ofAome^  lY.  p.  70. 


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136  Ancient  Hitt&ry.  b.  o. 

64-63.    Orgaaintion  of  the  Roman  poeseaoioiis  in  AbIa^  nnder  Pom- 
peiuB.     New  Frovinoes:  1.  Pontna,  compiiBing  Bithynia 
(already  treated  as  a  province  since  74),  the  ooaat  of  Paphlaconia, 
and  the  western  part  of  Pontus  proper,  along  the  coast    The  rest 
of  the  kingdom  of  Mithridates  was  given  to  vairaal  kings.    2.  Syria, 
comprising  at  first  only  the  coast  from  the  gulf  of  Issns  to  Damascus, 
afterwards  considerably  enlarged.    3.  Cllioia,  reorganized  by  Pom- 
peius,  although  it  had  been  a  province  in  name  since  75.    It  included 
Pamphylia  and  Isauria  (p.  134).    These  Anatic  provinces  were  much 
cut  up,  and  surrounded  by:   (a^  territories  of  autonomous  cities} 
(b)  princely  and  priestlv  sovereignties  under  Roman  supremacy. 
The  most  distinguished  of  the  vassal  kings  of  Rome  in  the  east  were 
the  king  of  CappadociOj  and  Deiotarus^  king  of  Galatia  (p.  78).    In 
Palestine,  after  uie  capture  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Temple,  Pompeius 
restored  Hyrcanus,  who  had  been  driven  out  by  his  broker,  as  high- 
priest  and  civil  governor,  but  made  him  tributary  to  Rome. 
63.    Mithridates,  who  had  busied  himself  with  gigantic  schemes  of 
a  land  expedition  to  Italy,  killed  himself  ti  Panfioapeetim,  in 
the  Taoric  Chersonese,  in  consequence  of  the  revolt  ot  his  son, 
Phamaees.    Upon  receipt  of  tins  news  Pompeius  returned  to 
Pontus.    He  confirmed  Phamaees  in  possession  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  Boephorus. 
61.    Return  of  Pompeius  to  Italy.    He  dismissed  his  army  at  Bnm- 
disium,  and  entered  Rome  as  a  private  citizen.     Magnificent 
triumph,  lasting  two  days. 

66-62.    Conspiracy  of  Catiline. 

Union  of  the  democrats  and  the  anarchists.  Leaders  of  the  demo- 
crats: M.  CrasBus  and  C.  Juliua  Casaar  (bom  102  ?,  son-in-law  of 
Cinna,  ouilawed  bv  Sulla,  afterwards  pardoned,  67  qucestor  in  Spain, 
65  »dile,  63  pontifex  mazimus).  Leader  of  the  anarchists:  L.  Ser- 
giuB  Catilina,  ex-prstor,  one  of  Sulla's  executioners.  The  demo* 
crats  dreaded  Uie  reconciliation  of  Pompeius,  whose  military  dictator- 
ship was  the  work  of  their  own  hands,  with  the  optimates.  Hence 
they  sought  to  overthrow  the  existing  government  before  the  return 
of  Pompeius,  by  a  violent  revolution,  while  the  anarchists,  in  part  pro- 
letarians, in  part  young  men  of  honorable  families  who  were  sunk  in 
debt,  hoped  for  plunder  and  confiscation  of  property. 

The  Jirst  conspiracy,  in  66,  according  to  which  the  consuls  for  65 
were  to  be  murdered,  and  Crassus  made  dictator,  and  Ccssctr,  master 
of  the  horse,  failed  of  execution  through  the  indecision  of  some  partici« 
pants.  At  the  dose  of  the  ^ear  64,  it  was  again  renewed  for  tne  pur- 
pose of  securing  the  election  of  L.  Catilina  and  C  Antonius  (also  a 
former  follower  of  Sulla)  at  the  consular  elections  for  63,  by  the  in- 
fluence of  CcBsar  and  Crasstu,  who  were  to  remain  in  the  background. 
Antonius  alone  was,  however,  actually  elected;  his  colleague  for  63 
was  M.  TulliuB  Cicero,  a  favorite  lawyer  and  orator,  belonging  to 
no  party  unreservedly  (bom  106,  76  quaestor  in  Sicily,  70  prosecutor 
of  verres,  69  ndile,  66  pnetor  urbanus).  The  latter  resigned  before* 
hand  to  Antonius,  who  was  deep  in  debt,  the  lucrative  govemonhip 
of  Macedonia,  thereby  detaching  him  from  the  conspirators. 


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B.  O.  jRoman  History,  137 

Fonnation  of  an  insurgent  anny  in  Etniria,  under  C,  Mofdku,  a 
eomrade  of  Catiline;  at  £>me  organization  of  the  oonroirators,  who, 
at  a  given  nspEuJ,  were  to  fire  the  city,  and  therein  produce  uniYersal 
confusion.  Flan  of  Catiline  to  murder  hiB  competitors  at  the  con- 
sular election  for  62,  and  the  consul,  Cicero,  who  would  preside  over 
the  election.  Cicero,  informed  of  this  by  his  spies,  denounced  the 
conspiracy  in  the  senate,  appeared  on  the  day  of  the  election  sur- 
rounded by  numerous  armed  guards,  and  defeated  the  election  of 
Catiline.  The  letter's  plan  of  £iying  Cicero  surprised  and  murdered 
in  his  own  house  was  also  betrayed  and  failed. 
63.  Not.  &  First  speech  of  Cicero  against  Catiline 
deliyered  in  the  ^nate. 

city,  and  betook  himself  to  the  army  of 

of   Cicero  against  Catiline,  to  the  people, 
of   Catiline,  LerUiduii,   Cetheffus,   OabvMMj 
CoBparinUy  were    taken    into  custody  on  the 
A  of  written  proofs  of  guilt  obtained  by  Cicero. 
[  speech  of  Cicero  against  Catiline,  to  the  people. 
Dec.  5.  Fourth  speech  of  Cicero  against  Catiline,  in  the  senate.    De- 
cree of  the  senate  that  the  traitors  be  strangled  in  prison  with- 
out trial  and  sentence  (CcBsar  opposed  the  resolution  ;  Calo^B 
speech  determined  the  vote),  executed  by  the  consul  Cicero. 
Cicero  greeted  as  pater  patrias. 
The  consul  Antanku  was  entrusted  with  the  conduct  of  the  war 
against  Catiline.    His  lieutenant  defeated  Catiline  at  Pistoria  (62). 
Catiline  and  3000  of  his  followers  fell  on  the  field. 
62.   Caesar  administered  the  prsetorship  in  Rome.    A  part  of  his 
large  indebtedness  haying  been  paid  by  Crasnu,  he  went  for 
61.       the  year  to  Hispania  UUerior,'aA  proprstor,  where  he  laid  the 
foundation  of  lus  military  fame,  and  where  he  found  means 
to  discharge  his  debts.    He  returned  bearing  the  honorary  title  of 
**  imperator,"  but  refused  to  triumph,  in  order  that  he  might  become 
a  candidate  for  the  consulship.    The  refusal  of  the  senate  to  grant 
the  allotment  of   lands  requested  by  Pompeios  for  his  yetorans, 
led  to  a  complete  break  between  Pompeius  and  the  goyemment,  and 
resulted  in  the  so-called 

60.  First  Trimnvirate, 

a  reciprocal  agreement  of  the  three  statesmen  Pompeiiis, 
CsBsar,  and  Crassus.    They  secured  the  election  for  the  next  year 
of 
59.  Cassar  as  consul. 

As  his  colleague,  the  optimate  M.  Bibulm,  and  the  senate  op- 
posed the  proposals  broueht  m  by  Caesar  for  an  f^^rian  law,  espe- 
cially in  the  interests  of  rompeius'  yeterans  {Ux  Julia  de  agro  cam- 
pano :  ut  ager  campanus  pUbi  divideretur},  and  the  ratification  of  the 
organization  of  Asia,  these  measures  were  submitted  to  the  popular 
assemblies  and  passed  by  them,  without  the  approyal  of  the  senate. 
Violence  offer^  Bibidtu  and  M.  Pordus  Cato.  Bibulus  did  not 
dare  leaye  his  house  again  during  his  year  of    office.    Intimate 


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138  Ancient  Bistory.  b.  a 

friendship  and  doee  family  ties  between  Camuur  and  Pompeins. 
CsBar's  daughter,  Julia^  23  yean  old,  given  to  Panmeka  in  marriage. 
On  the  motion  of  P,  Vatinius,  tribune  of  the  people,  Ceesar  received 
by  a  popular  decree  the  government  of  Gkdlia  Ciaalpixia  and  lUyri- 
cum  for  5  yeara,  with  extraordinary  powers.  At  Pompeius'  motion 
the  astounded  senate  added  GhJlia  Narbonenaia  (p.  125)  .to  Cesar's 
province.  A.  Qabinios,  a  friend  and  military  companion  of 
Pompeius,  and  X.  PisOy  fatiier-in-law  of  Csesar,  were  elected  consula 
for  tne  following  year.  The  execution  of  the  agrarian  law  was  en- 
trusted to  Pompeius  and  Crassus,  Before  Csesar  departed  for  his 
province, 
58.  The  absence  of  Cato  and  Cicero  from  Rome  was  procured 

by  P.  ClodiuB,  tribune  of  the  peopj^^^o  had  secured  this 
office  at  the  sacrifice  of  his  patrician  rank^^^^y  adoption  into  a 
plebeian  family.  Cato  was  appointed  by  a  p^P^^vote  to  take  pos- 
session of  the  kingdom  of  Cyprus,  which  had  ^^^^INfL  ^  Rome  by 
will.  Cicero  was  driven  to  flight  by  the  decree, "  m^|B|^^iall  have 
caused  the  execution  of  a  Roman  citizen  without  lega^^^wse  shall 
be  punished  with  outlawry  "  (lex  Clodia :  ut  qui  civem  jR^pnum  tn- 
demnatum  interemisset  ei  aqua  et  igni  interdicerehir),  and  then  banished 
by  a  second  lex  Clodia  to  a  distance  of  400  Roman  miles  from  Rome. 
Clodius  caused  Cicero's  house  on  the  Palatine  to  be  burned,  and  his 
Tusculan  and  Formean  estate  to  be  ravaged. 
58-51.  Conquest  of  Qaul  by  Csesar. 

Results  of  Csesar's  eight  years  of  brilliant  warfare,  and  its 
meaning  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

1.  Annihilation  of  the  Celts,  as  a  nation,  for  whose  lasting  Romani- 
zation  Cfesar  opened  the  way. 

2.  Creation  of  a  dam  which  for  four  centuries  protected  the 
Romano-Hellenic  civilization  against  destruction  by  the  Grerman  bar- 
barians. 

3.  Enlargement  of  the  boundaries  <^  the  old  world,  not  only  by  the 
immediate  conquest,  but  also  through  the  information  obtained  by 
Cffisar's  expeditions  to  Britannia  and  Germania, 

4.  Acquirement  of  the  means  for  accomplishing  the  change,  now 
become  necessary,  of  the  Roman  republic  into  a  monarchy  :  the  vet- 
eran legions  and  troops  of  the  allied  states,  who  had  become  at- 
tached to  their  general  and  expert  in  war. 

58.  Victory  of  Cessar  over  the  Helvetians,  who  had  invaded  Gaul, 
at  Bibracte,^  and  over  the  German  prince  Ariovistus,  N.  E. 
of  Vesontio  (Besan^on)  in  the  vicinity  of  MiUdhausen  in 
Alsace  9  (Csesar,  Bellum  GcUlicuni,  L). 

57.  Subjugation  of  the  Belgll.  Annihilation  of  the  Nervii  in  Hen^ 
negau  bv  a  terrible  battle  on  the  Sombre,  not  far  from  Bawiy 
(B.  Gad,  III.).  In  the  southeast,  occupation  of  Octodurus 
(Martigny),  to  secure  the  Alpine  pass  of  the  Great  St.  Bernard 

56.  Subjugation  of  the  Veneti   in  Armorica  (Bretagrie)  by  Csesar, 

1  On  the  Bite  of  the  modem  Autun,  according  to   v.  Qoler ;  two  miles  W6il 
if  Autun  according  to  Napoleon  HI.  ( Vie  de  Cetar.) 
>  See  Mommsen,  ffist.  of  Borne,  lY.  p.  244,  note. 


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B.  c.  Soman  Bi$tory,  139 

after  hard  fighting  on  land  and  sea,  and  of  the  Aqwiani  by 
his  lieutenant  P.  CrassuSf  son  of  the  triumvir.  In  the  north- 
east, successful  war  with  the  Morini  and  Menapii  (B.  Gall. 

m.). 

B8.    Csesar  drove  the  Grermanic  tribes  of  the  Usipetes  and  Tenchteri 
back  across  the  Rhine.    Passage  of  the  Rhine  on  a  bridge  of 

Siles,  between  Coblence  and  Andemach,    After  a  stay  of  mteen 
ays  on  the  right  bank,  Csesar  recrossed  the  stream.     (B. 
GaU,IV,) 
First  expedition  to  Britain  with  two  legions.    Departure  from  two 
ports,  one  of  which  was  Itius  partus^  E.  and  W.  of  Cape 

Pween  Dover  and  Deal^  probably  at  Waimer 
V.) 
Britain^  with  five  legions.  Casgivelaunug^ 
1  Celts.  CsBsar  crossed  the  Stow  and  the 
ingston  and  Brentford),  while  Cassivelau- 
»man  camp  where  the  ships  lay.  Retreat 
:  Ciesar  after  he  had  received  hostages. 

53.    Insurrection  of  the  Eburones  under  Ambiorix,  and  of  other  tribes. 

Ciesar  crossed  the  Rhine  a  second  time.     (B,  Gall.  YI.) 
52.    Greneral  insurrection  of  the  Gauls  under  the  Arvemian,  Veroin- 
getoiiz.    Siege  and  capture  of  Avaricum  (Bourges)  by  Cse- 
sar, occupation  of  Lutetia  Parigiorum  (Paris)  by  Ldbienus. 
Unsuccessful  siege  of  Gergooia,  near  Clermont  in  the  Auvergne  ; 
CsBsar,  compelled  to  retreat,  united  with  Lahienus*    Siege  of 
Alesia  (Alise  Sainte-Reine  at  Semur  in  the  D^p.  Cdte  a'Or, 
between  Chfltillon  and  Dijon)  by  Csdsar,  while  the  Roman 
army  was  in  turn  surrounded  and  besieged  by  the  insurgent 
army  of  relief ;  after  a  hard  fight,  complete  victory  of  Csesar. 
Veroingetorix  forced  to  surrender  himself.    He  was  exe- 
cuted at  Rome,  five  years  kter  (B.  GdlL  VII.). 
61.     Completion  of  the  subjugation  of  Transalpine  Gaul  (cruel  pun- 
ishment of  the  insurgents).    Ten  legions  located  in  detach- 
ments throughout  the  country  held  it  m  obedience  to  Csesar. 
While  these  magnificent  feats  of  war  were  placing  the  older  mili- 
tary fame  of  Pompeius  in  the  shade,  the  latter  was  trying  unsuccess- 
fully to  master  the  anarchy  at  Rome.    Leader  of  the  ultranlemo- 
crats,  the  former  tribune,  P,  Clodius  (pp.  135, 138).    In  opposition  to 
him  the  recall  of  M,  TuUius  Cicero  was  procured  in  57,  by  the  efforts 
of  the  tribune  T,  Annius  Afilo.    In  the  same  year  M.  Porcitts  Cato 
returned  to  Rome.    The  aristocratic  reaction  opposed  the  armed  bands 
of  Clodius,  which  patrolled  the  streets  and  forum,  with  the  armed 
bands  of  Milo.    The  attempt  of  the  republicans  in  the  senate  to  free 
themselves  from  the  influence  of  the  rulers,  and  the  resolution  to 
revise  the  agrarian  law  passed  during  the  consulate  of  Csesar,  resulted 
in  a  renewal  of  the  alliance  of  the  tl^ee  statesmen. 

1  Compare  Heller,  Ccuar^s  Expedition  nnch  Brittanien^  in  the  Ztittchrijl 
fiir  cMg.  Erdhundey  18A5.  According  to  v.  Cooler,  the  first  expedition  Btart«cl 
irom  WiMtafU  near  Cape  Orimez,  the  second  from  Calais. 


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140  Ancient  IKstary.  b.  o. 

In  56  a  meeting  of  the  triuniTin  Cassar,  PompeiTUi,  and  Czaaaiia, 
and  their  followen  (200  senators)  took  place  in  Luco.  In  conse- 
quence of  agreements  there  concluded,  the  election  of  Pompeiiia 
and  Craaaos  as  consuls  for  55  was  carried  by  the  use  of  force.  A 
decree  of  the  people  (lex  Trebonid)  then  assigned  to  Pompeius  the 
government  of  both  Spains  for  five  years,  and  to  Crassus  that  of 
SyriOf  while  CflBsar's  command  in  Gaul  was  prolonged  for  Jive  yean 
morej  and  the  payment  of  those  troops  which  ne  had  recruited  on  his 
own  authority  was  assumed  by  the  state.  The  Roman  aristocracy 
was  obliged  to  submit  to  these  decrees. 

After  the  close  of  his  year  of  office  as  consul  Craaana  went  to 
Syria  in  54,  where  he  undertook  in  53  an  eiroedition  against  the  Par- 
tkians.  He  suif ered  a  terrible  defeat  at  ^Mh»  in  Mesopotamia, 
and  was  shortly  after  killed  by  the  PartU^^^ring  an  interview 
with  one  of  their  satraps.  Pompeioa  remsIfl^K  ^me,  and  dele- 
gated the  administration  of  his  provinoes  to  his  l^PIt^^^ 

In  52  Cloduu  and  MUo  happening  to  meet  on  fllH^Appia,  a 
fight  sprang  up  between  their  followers,  during  whic^^Bdius  was 
wounded,  and  then,  at  Mile's  command,  put  to  deaSw  Clodius' 
corpse  was  carried  to  the  Curia  HastiUa,  near  the  forum  in  Rome, 
and  there  burnt,  together  with  the  building.  To  put  an  end  to  the 
disturbances  of  the  mob  which  followed  this  event,  Pompeius  was 
appointed  *< consul  without  a  colleague"  by  the  senate,  and  clothed 
with  dictatorial  power.  Trial  of  Milo,  who  was  condemned  by  the 
'  jurors,  in  spite  A  Cicero's  oration  ^  in  his  defence,  to  be  banished. 
Cicero  proconsul  in  Cilicia.  Breach  between  Cesar  and  Pompeius, 
whose  connection  had  been  previously  weakened  by  the  death  of  Julia 
(54).  Pompeius  selected  his  new  father-in-law,  metellus  Scipio,  for  his 
colleague  in  office,  caused  his  governorship  in  Spain  to  be  prolonged 
for  five  years,  and  deprived  CsBsar  of  two  legions,  urging  tiie  impor- 
tance of  the  Parthian  war,  which  a  victory  had  already  ended. 

Pompeiua  openly  reassumed  the  leadership  of  the  repubUcan  aris- 
tocracy (lex  de  viet  ambitu),  Casaar  remained  leader  of  the  democ- 
racy,  which  under  a  constitution  without  representation  led  of  neces- 
sity to  monarchy.  Demand  of  the  senate  that  Ciesar  should  resign 
his  command  before  the  expiration  of  the  term  which  had  formeny 
been  granted  lum.  Refusal  of  the  senate  to  permit  Csesar  to  stand 
for  the  consulship  during  his  proconsulship,  as  had  been  allowed  by 
the  citizens.    This  brought  about  the 

4&-46*    Civil  war  between  (Tsesar  and  Pompeius. 

The  senate  declared  CflBsar  a  public  enemy  (hostis)  should  he 
not  disband  his  army  within  a  given  time.    The  tribunes  of  the  peo- 
ple who  favored  C»sar  fled  to  him  at  Ravenna. 
49.    CsBsar,  with  one  legion,  crossed  the  brook  Rubicon,  the  boundary 

of  his  province,  and  thereby  opened  the  civil  war.  Great  con- 
sternation at  Rome.  Pompeius,  who  had  only  commenced  his  prepa- 
rations, and  the  greater  part  of  the  senate,  fled  to  Brundisium.  Ciesai^ 

1  Not  the  one  which  we  have.  This  was  written  for  the  occasion,  but  the 
tumult  and  fear  prevented  its  delivery. 


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king  of  I^ 
battle  (Ca 


B.  c.  Roman  History.  141 

reinforced  by  a  second  legion  which  had  overtaken  him,  marched 
through  Umbria,  Picemmy  where  DomitiuSf  at  Corfiniuniy  was  obliged 
to  surrender,  and  Apulia  to  Brundisium,  to  which  he  laid  siege,  aner 
a  third  legion  of  veterans  had  joined  him,  and  he  had  levied  three 
new  legions.  Pompeius  succeeded  in  conveying  his  troops,  by  two 
expeditions,  to  Greece,  before  the  capture  of  the  city.  Cesar,  unable 
to  follow  hbn  from  lack  of  vessels,  commenced  the  construction  of  a 
fleet,  and  went  to  Rome.  There  he  quieted  the  apprehensions  of  a 
return  of  the  horrors  of  the  first  civil  war.  Magnanimous  behavior 
toward  his  foes  (Cnsar,  Bell.  Civ,  1-^). 

A9.  Cesar  went  by  land  to  Spain  to  subdue  Pompeius'  leeates, 
Spring,  leaving  Trebonius  to  besiege  MastUia,  The  legates  of  ronif- 
49.  peius,  Afmrms  and  Petreius,  were  compelled  to  surrender  at 

Aug.       Ilerda  (Lerida),  N.  of  the  £bro,  and  their  army  was  dis- 
banded (Cesar,  BeU,  Civ,  1. 34-87). 
Varro,  who  commanded  in  Hispania  uUariora,  threw  himself  into 
Gades  (Cadi^),  but  most  of  the  cities  joining  Cesar,  he  capitulated. 
On  Cesar'^  Anarch  back  to  Italy,  MassUia^  which  was  snif enng  from 
starvation,  surrendered  on  being  threatened  with  a  storm  ^Cesar,  B^ 
Civ.  II.  1-22).    Meantime  Cesar's  le^te  Curio  had  reauced  Sicily 
to  subjection.    He  then  crossed  to  Africa,  where  he  was  at  &st  victo- 
rious at  Utica,  but  was  afterwards  defeated  at  the  Bagradas  by  Juba^ 
"  Numidia,  who  had  declared  for  Pompeius,  and  fell  in  the 
Cesar,  BeU.  Cio.  II.  23-44). 
Ciesar,  during  his  absence,  was  proclaimed  dictator  at  Rome 
by  the  ^retor  Af.  jEmUiug  Lepidus  (on  the  authori^  of  a  new 
lex  de  dictatore  creando\  but  abdicated  the  office  after  eleven 
days,  and  had  himself  appointed  consul,  with  P.  ServiUus,  for 
the  year 
48.    while  that  part  of  the  senate  which  had  participated  in  Pom- 
peius' flififht  to  Greece  prolonged  the  term  of  office  of  Pom- 
peius and  all  the  officials  of  the  previous  year. 
Cesar  landed  in  northern  Epirus,  at  Oricum,  not  far  from  the 
promontoi^'  of  Acroceraunia,  with  a  part  of  'his  army.    The  trans- 
ports which  returned  for  tlie  rest  of  the  troops  were  mostly  captured 
oy  the  fleet  of  Pompeius;  and  the  coasts  of  Italy  beinf  snarply 
watched,  Cesar  was  placed  in  a  situation  of  great  difficuUy,  as  M. 
Antonius  was  able  to  transport  the  second  half  of  the  armpr  only  after 
several  months.    His  army  being  at  last  united,  Cesar  mclosed  the 
army  of  Pompeius  at  Dyrrhachium  by  a  Ion?  chain  of  military  posts- 
Daily  skirmishes,  for  the  most  part  favorable  for  Cesar.    At  last 
however,  Pompeius  broke  through  Cesar's  line.    Caesar,  defeated 
and  compellea  to  retreat,  went  to  Thessalyy  whither  Pompeius  fol- 
lowed him,  leaving  Cato  in  Dyrrhachium.    In  the  Thessalian  plain 
was  fought  the 

48.    Decisive  battle  of  Pharsalus. 

Aug.  9.   Cesar,  with  about  22,000  men,  defeated  and  completely  scat- 
tered the  army  of  Pompeius,  which  had  more  than  twice 
that  strength;  20,000  men  laid  down  their  arms.     Pompeius  fled  to 
the  coast,  and  took  ship  for  Egypt  by  way  of  Lesbos.    At  the  command 


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142  Ancient  Hislary*  B.  0. 

of  tbe  minister  of  the  joung  kingy  Ptolenuens,  be  was  mnrdered  upon 
lunding.  Cesar  followed  rompeius  and  landed  in  Alexandria  with 
4000  men  (Caesar,  BeU.  do,  UL). 

Especial  honors  paid  to  Cssar  in  Rome  (consulate  for  five  years, 
tribunate  for  life,  dictatorship  for  one  year).  Cesar  having  taken  it 
upon  himself,  at  Alexandria,  to  decide  between  the  ten-year  old  PtoLe^ 
moaa  and  his  followers  and  his  sixteen^year  old  sister  Cleopatra^  there 
broke  out  the  so-called 

48-47.     Alexandrine  war, 

an  uprising  of  the  whole  population  of  Alexandria,  sup- 
ported by  the  Roman  army  of  occupation,  which  had  been  in  garrison 
there  since  the  restoration  of  the  king  Ptolemasus  AuUtea  (55).  Cesar, 
besieged  in  the  royal  palace,  was  in  the  greatest  danger,  from  which 
only  his  reckless  darmg  rescued  him.  He  caused  the  Egvptian  fleet 
to  be  set  on  fire,  whereby  the  famous  library  of  Alexandria  (p.  77) 
was  also  burned.  Cesar,  with  the  help  of  an  army  of  relief  which 
arrived  from  Asia,  defeated  the  Egyptian  army  on  the  Nile.  The 
young  king  Ptolemeus  was  drowned  on  the  flight.  The  government 
was  given  to  Cleopatra  and  her  younger  brother,  under  Roman  su- 
premacy,  and  a  Roman  garrison  was  left  in  Alexandria.  Cesar  went 
to  Asia  Minor,  and  in  a  Jive  days*  campaign  (uem,  vidi,  vici)  ended 
the 
47.    War  against  Phamaces, 

son  of  Mithridates  (p.  136),  who  had  occupied  Pontus,  Arme- 
nia Minor,  and  Cappadocia.  Cesar  defeated  him  at  Zela  and  forced 
him  to  fly.  Fharnaces  fell  in  battle  against  a  revolted  governor. 
Arrangement  of  the  Asiatic  rolations.  Deiotasfva,  who  hi^  fought 
against  Cesar  at  Pharsalus,  lost  the  greater  part  of  his  kingdom. 

Return  of  Cesar  to  Rome.  After  he  had  subdued  a  mutiny  of  the 
tenth  legion,  he  undertook  the 

47-46.    War  in  AMoa 

against  the  adheronts  of  Fompeius,  Sextus  Pompevus,  Scipio, 
Cato,  Lahienut,  Petreius,  king  /uto.  *  Cesar  landed  at  Hadrumetum, 
whero  he  was  in  great  danger,  since  the  larger  part  of  his  force  did 
not  arrive  till  later  in  conseauenco  of  a  storm.  After  several  unim- 
portant encounters  Cesar  aefeated  and  annihilated  the  republican 
army,  which  far  outnumbered  his  own,  in  the 

46.    Battle  of  Thapsus, 

during  and  after  which  50,000  of  the  enemy  were  slaughtered 
by  Cesar's  embittered  soldiers.  Scipio  killed  himself  on  the  flight, 
Cato  committed  suicide  in  Utica,  Petreius  and  Juba  amed  to  kill  one 
another,  in  a  personal  contest.  Juba  struck  Petreius  down;  and  being 
himself  but  slightly  wounded,  had  himself  killed  by  one  of  his  slaves. 
Labienus  and  Sextus  Pampeius  escaped  to  the  latter's  brother,  Cn, 
PampeiuSf  in  Spain. 

A  part  of  Numidia  was  united  with  the  province  of  Africa  by 
Cesar;  the  rost  was  ^en  to  Bocchus,  king  of  eastern  Mauritania. 

Return  of  Cesar  to  JElome,  where  he  celebrated  four  triumphs,  for 


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B.  c.  Soman  Htstory.  143 

Gaul,  Effifpt^  Pkamaeei,  Africa,  Entertainments  for  the  peq>le,  splen- 
did games,  distribution  of  gold  and  grain.  Cesar  was  appointed  dic- 
tator for  10  years,  and  censor  without  a  colleague,  under  the  title 
pncfecttu  mortanf  for  3  ^ears.  Correotion  of  the  Calendar,  by  an 
eztraordinaiy  intercalation  of  67  days  in  the  year  46;  thereafter  there 
was  a  solar  year  of  365}  days  (a  leap-year  eyery  four  years  without 
exception), 

46-45.    War  against  the  sons  of  Pompeius, 

Cnceiu  and  Sextus,  and  the  rest  of  the  Pompeian  party.  Al- 
though repulsed  before  Corduba  by  Sextus  Pompeius,  Casar  by  great 
exertions  defeated  both  brothers  in  the 

45.    Battle  of  Mnnda,  north  of  Rondo,  between 

Cordova  and  Gibraltar,  in  which  he  was  obliged  to  lead  the 
legions  against  the  enemy  in  person.  Oyer  30,000  rompeians  were 
slun,  and  among  them  Labientu,  Varus,  Cn,  Pompeius  ;  Sextos  es- 
caped. 

After  Caesar  had  returned  to  Rome  he  caused  the  senate  to  appoint 
him  at  first  (45)  consid  for  10  years,  afterwards  (44)  dictator,  and 
censor /or  life.  Since  48  he  had  borne  the  new  official  title  Impera- 
tor,  which  denotes  the  possessor  of  the  imverium,  the  concept  of  civil 
and  miUtary  official  power.  ^  This  includea  full  control  of  the  finances 
and  the  nulitary  power  of  the  state,  and  also  the  right  of  coining 
money  with  the  portrait  of  the  ruler  of  the  state.  As  prtBfectus  morvm 
(censor)  Casar  had  the  right  of  enlarging  the  senate  ;  as  ponJtifex 
maximuM  he  possessed  the  control  of  religions  affairs  ;  as  possessor 
since  48  of  a  power  resembling  that  of  the  tribunes,  he  had  the  ini- 
tiatiye  in  legislation,  and  was  the  inyiolable  (sacrosanctus)  protector 
and  representatiye  of  the  people.  Accordingly  the  position  and 
powers  of  the  new  democratic  monarch  were  almost  exactly  analo- 
gous to  those  of  the  old  Roman  kings. 

The  people  retained,  neyertheless,  at  least  in  form,  a  share  of  the 
soyereignty,  all  laws  affecting  the  constitution  requiring,  as  under  the 
republic,  to  be  ratified  by  we  comitiie,  which  were,  howeyer,  easily 
controlled.  The  senate  became  again,  what  it  had  been  under  the 
kings,  on  advisatory  council  only.  Ciesar  brought  the  number  of 
members  up  to  900  and  increased  the  number  of  qiuestors  from  20  to 
40.  Election  to  this  office,  it  will  be  remembered  (p.  132),  admitted 
the  holder  to  the  senate.  The  democratic  monarch,  howeyer,  exercised 
to  the  utmost  his  right  of  appointing  senators,  and  tl^reby  grayely 
offended  the  nobility.  Ex-centurions,  Spaniards,  Gauls,  sons  ot  freed' 
men,  etc,  found  tlmmgh  him  admission  to  the  senate.  The  monarch 
had  an  extensiye  right  of  nomination  at  the  elections  of  magistrates. 

Restoration  of  the  old  royal  jurisdiction  exercised  by  decision 
of  the  monarch  alone,  from  whose  sentence  there  was  no  appeal,  —  a 
right  which,  of  course,  was  but  rarely  exercised  (trial  of  Ltgarius  and 
of  Deiotarus).  In  general  the  ordinary  judicial  system  was  retained. 
Prsetors  increased  to  16. 

Reorganization  of  the  military  system.    Creation  of  leyaJx  legionis 

1  Cf.  Mommsen,  Hist,  of  Borne,  lY.  468,  note. 


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144  Ancient  Bistory.  b.  a 

pro  prcetbre^  appoiiited  by  the  imperator.  Reform  of  the^fuifidiai  ad- 
tniniatratian.  The  system  of  tax-farming  was  exchanged  for  the  imp 
position  of  direct  taxes.  Allotment  of  the  Italian  domains^  particu- 
larly among  the  veterans.  Wide-spread  colonization  in  the  provinces 
with  the  view  at  once  of  Latinizing  the  provinces,  and  of  diminishing 
the  number  of  proletarians  in  the  capital.  Commencement  of  mag- 
nificent buildings  in  Rome.  New  system  of  provincial  administration 
for  the  protection  of  the  provinces  acainst  the  extortions  of  the  gov- 
ernors. Sumptuary  laws.  Crimmal  legislation.  Arrangement  of  the 
relations  of  debtor  and  creditor. 

Project  of  a  war  against  th^  Parthians,  to  reven^  the  Roman  de- 
feat under  Crassus  ^.  140)  and  add  to  the  security  of  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  empire.  Conspiracy  of  some  60  republican  aristo- 
crats against  Cassar^  life  {M,  Junius  Brutus,  C  Cassias.  Longinus, 
C.  Tr^oniuSf  Decimus  Brutus,  TiUius  Cvmber,  etc.). 

44.  Assassination  of  Cassax  diuinfir  a  session  of  the 
March  15.    senate, 

which  on  that  day  was  held  by  chance  in  a  hall  in  the  theatre 

of  Pompeius.    Csesar  fell,  pierced  with  23  wounds,  at  the  foot 

of  a  statue  of  Pompeius. 
For  a  moment  the  seni^  took  the  reins  of  government  again,  and 
decreed  that  Cesar's  laws  should  continue  in  force,  and  offered  an 
amnesty  to  his  murderers.  But  the  populace  of  the  capital,  incited 
by  ihBfitneral  oration  of  M.  Antonius,  violently  assaulted  the  conspirap- 
tors.  The  leaders  of  the  conspirators  departed  for  the  provinces  whieh 
the  senate  had  assigned  them  :  M.  Bmtns  to  Macedonia,  Caaaius  to 
Syria,  Declmua  Brutua  to  GaUia  cisalpina. 

In  Rome  M.  Antoniua  (consul  with  DMbella),  having  possession 
of  Ciesar's  papers,  assumed  an  uncontrolled  power  under  pretext  of 
executing  the  will  of  the  dictator,  and  caused  Macedonia,  the  prov- 
ince of  M.  Brutus,  to  be  assigned  to  himself  with  five  of  the  six 
legions  which  Ciesar  had  dispatched  thither  for  the  Parthian  war. 
Dolabella  received  Syria,  the  province  of  Cassius,  while  the  provinces 
of  Crete  and  Cyrene  were  assigned  to  M.  Brutus  and  Cassius.  Anto- 
nius, moreover,  procured  from  the  popular  assembly  the  province  of 
CroUia  cisalpina,  which  the  senate  had  refused  him.  -  In  the  hope  of 
balancing  the  usurped  power  of  Antonius,  the  senate  entered  into 
negotiations  with  the  eighteen-year-old  C.  Octavius,  Cesar's  grand- 
nephew  and  adopted  son,  henceforward  known  as  C.  Julius  Casaar 
OctavlanuB.  The  latter,  who  was  beloved  by  his  soldiers,  took  com- 
mand of  two  legions.  Antonius,  endeavoring  to  eject  Decimus  Bru- 
tus from  his  province  of  Gallia  cisalpina,  there  broke  out  the  so-called 
44-43.    War  of  Mutina. 

As  was  advocated  by  Cicero  in  the  Philippics,  HirHus  and 
Pansa,  consuls  for  43,  and  the  young  Octavianua  as  propnetor,  were 
sent  against  Antonius,  who  was  besieging  Decimus  Brutus  in  Mutina 
(Modeiia).  Pansa  died  at  Bononia  of  a  wound  received  in  the  first 
encounter  ;  Hirtius  fell  as  victor  in  the 
43.    Battle  of  Mutina 

against  Antonius,  who  was  now  declared  an  enemy  of  the  state 


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B.  c*  Roman  History,  145 

{hosUs).  While  Decmus  BruUu  followed  liim  to  Gallia  oisalpina, 
Ootaviantia,  now  sole  oommaiider  of  the  armv  which  was  originallj 
the  army  of  the  senate,  marched  to  Rome/  and  extorted  his  appoint- 
ment to  the  consulship,  the  repeal  of  the  amnesty  extended  to  the 
conspirators,  and  their  sentence  (lex  Pedid),  This  accomplished,  he 
took  the  field,  in  appearance,  against  .AJitoniiis,  with  whom  he 
already  had  had  secret  negotiations.  Meantime  Dedmus  Brutus  was 
ahandoned  by  his  troops,  captured  upon  his  flight,  and  put  to  death 
at  Antonius'  command.    At  a  meeting  near  Bononia, 

43.  The  Second  Triumvirate  was  formed 
Nov.  avowedly  for  the  *' Organization  of  the  State"  (tnummri  reU 
pubUca  constUuendce)  by  Antonins,  OctaTianus,  and  Ziepi- 
diu,  the  former  magister  equUum  of  Cesar.  This  new  assomption  of 
power  WII3  ratified  by  a  decree  of  the  people  for  a  period  of  five  years. 
New  proaorlptloiiB ;  several  hundred  senators  and  2000  equites 
outlawed  and  their  property  confiscated.  Murder  of  Cicero.  The 
triumvirs  began 

43-42.    War  against  the  republioan  party 

and  crossed  to  Greece,  where  thev  were  opposed  by  M.  Bm- 
tns,  who,  despite  the  senate's  decree,  had  taken  possession  of  his 
province,  and  C.  CaaaiuB,  who  had  defeated  Ddabella  in  Syria  and 
drivei^  him  to  conmiit  suicide.    In  the 

42.    Battle  Of  Philippi 

in  Thrace,  Antonius,  who  commanded  the  right  wing,  de- 
feated the  left  win^  of  the  republican  army  under  CaaaluB,  while 
Bratna  with  the  ri^t  wing  of  the  republicans  drove  back  Octavla- 
nus.  Hearing  a  false  report  of  the  defeat  of  Brutus,  CaaaluB 
caused  one  of  his  slaves  to  put  him  to  death.  Brutus,  being  defeated 
by  Antoniua  in  a  second  battle,  kiUed  kimself . 

AntoniuB  ravaged  the  provinces  of  Asia  and  Syria^  and  then  fol- 
lowed Cleopatra  (p.  142),  whom  he  had  ordered  to.  meet  him  at 
Tarsus,  to  Egypt,  Meantime  Ootavianus,  in  Italy,  was  carrying  out 
the  promised  allotments  of  land  among  the  veterans.  Quarrels 
between  himself  and  the  followers  of  Antonius  led  to  the  so-csdled 

41-40.    Civil  war  of  Penisia 

between  Octamanus  and  Lepidus  on  the  one  side  and  Lucius 
Antonius,  the  brother,  and  Fulvia,  the  wife  of  the  triumvir,  on  the 
other.  L.  Antonius  was  compelled  to  surrender  in  Perusia.  Ootaviar 
nus,  now  supreme  ruler  of  Italy,  assumed  the  administration  of  Gaul 
and  Spain,  while  Lepidus  was  put  off  with  the  government  of  Africa, 
Another  civil  war  threatened,  but  was  avoided  by  a  compromise, 
which  the  death  of  Fulvia  facilitated.  Antonius  married  Octavia,  the 
sister  of  Octavianus.  The  administration  of  the  empire  was  divided 
between  the  triumvirs,  so  that 

40.    Octavianus  received  the  ujest,  Antonius  the  east,  and  Lepi- 
dus Africa. 
89.    In  the  Allowing  year,  however,  the  triumvirs  were  obliged  to 
make  terms  with  Seztus  Pompeius,  who  had  created  a  naval 
10 


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146  Ancient  History,  B.  G. 

empiiey  with  SicQy  as  the  base,  and  had  cut  off  the  grain  supplies  from 
Rome.  By  the  treaty  of  Bfiaenom  Seztus  Pompeius  received  SiciLy^ 
Sardinia,  Corsica  (f )  and  Pteloponnesns,  with  the  promise  of  a  reim^ 
bursement  for  the  loss  of  his  paternal  property. 

Antonius  went  to  the  east,  where  he  liyed  for  the  most  part  with 
Cleopatra  in  Egypt.  He  carried  on,  however,  a  war  with  the  Par^ 
thians,  at  first  through  his  legate  Ventidius  (3U9),  and  afterwards  in 
person  (36),  but  without  much  success.    New  quarrels  led  to  the 

38-36.    Sicilian  war 

between  the  triumvirs  and  Sextus  Pompeius.  Octavianus,  aban- 
doned by  both  his  colleagues,  was  obliged  to  conduct  the  war  alone 
at  first,  and  su£Fered  great  loss  at  sea.  A  difference  between  Octar 
vianus  and  Antonius  was  made  up  at  a  meeting  in  Tarentum,  and 
Octavianus  pLve  Antonius  two  Italian  legions  for  the  Parthian  war, 
while  Antomus  placed  100  ships  at  the  service  of  Octavianus  against 
Sextus  Pompeius.  By  means  of  this  reinforcement,  Octavianus  got 
the  upper  hand  of  Sextus,  especially  since  M.  Vipsanius  Agrippa 
commanded  his  fleet  Sextus  Pompeius,  defeated  by  Agrippa  at 
MykBy  fled  to  Asia  and  died  in  MUetus,  In  the  mean  time,  Lepidus, 
who  had  landed  in  Sicily,  demanded  this  island  for  himself.  Aban- 
doned by  his  men,  he  was  forced  to  surrender  to  Octavianus,  who 
permitted  him  to  retain  the  dignity  of  Pontif  ex  Maximus,  and  sent 
tiim  to  CirceU,  The  administnSion  of  Afrioa  was  assumed  by  Octar 
vianus. 

35-33.  Campaigns  of  Octavianus  against  the  Alpine  tribes,  the  Dal- 
matians, and  the  Illyrians.    Antonius    oefeated  ArtavagdeSf 
king  of  Armenia,  captured  him,  and  led  him  in  triumph  at  Alex- 
an£ia. 

New  disputes  between  Octavianus  and  Antonius.  The  latter  pre- 
sented Cleopatra  with  Roman  territory,  and  sent  his  wife  Octavia,  the 
sister  of  Octavianus,  papers  of  separation.  Octavianus  procured  a 
popular  decree  removmg  Antonius  from  his  command  and  declaring 
war  upon  Cleopatra. 

31-30*  War  between  Octavian  and  ^Lntonius, 

also  called  Bellum  A  diacum. 
During  the  long  delay  of  Antonius  and  Cleopatra  in  EphesuSy 
Athens,  and  at  Patroe  in  AchaiOj  Octavianus  completed  his  preparations 
and  transported  his  army  to  Epirus.  His  fleet  of  250  ships,  under 
the  command  of  Agrippa,  defeated  the  fleet  of  Antonius  and  Cleo- 
patra, which  outnumbered  it,  in  the 

31.  Battle  of  Aotiiun, 

Sept.  2  Cleopatra  fled  before  the  battle  was  entirely  decided,  and 
was  followed  by  Antonius.  The  army  of  Antonius  surrendered 
to  Octavianus  without  a  blow. 

30.  Octavianas  went  to  Asia,  where  he  entered  upon  his  fourth  con- 
sulship, returned  for  a  short  time  to  Italy  by  sea  to  repress  a 

revolt,  and  then  returned  to  his  troops  and  marched  through  Syria  to 

Egypt.    Antonius,  abandoned  by  his  troops,  killed  himsefi  on  hear- 


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B.  a  Soman  Buiory.  147 

ing  a  ^abe  report  of  Cleopatra's  death.  The  ktter,  when  conyineed 
that  Oetavian  SDared  her  only  that  she  might  grace  his  trininph  in 
Rome,  poisoned  nerself .  Octavianus  made  Egypt  a  Roman  province. 
OctaTianus  sole  ruler,  after  the  manner  of  Csssar  (p.  143). 
29.  OctaTianus  celebrated  three  triumphs  in  Rome,  and  the  temple 
of  Janns  was  closed  for  the  third  time  in  Roman  history.^ 

FIFTH  PERIOD. 

Reigns  of  the  Roman  Emperors  down  to  the  Fall  of  the 
Western  Zhnpire.' 

31  (30)  B.  C.^76  A.  D. 

B.C.  A.D. 

31-68.  The  five  Julii,  or  the  descendants  of  Caesar's  adopted  son, 
31-14.  CsBsax  OotavianuB  Augustus. 

The  surname  Augustas  (the  lUustriouSt  the  Stiblime\  which  was 
given  Octavianns  hy  the  senate  in  27  b.  c,  is  the  name  oy  which,  as 
sole  mler  of  the  Roman  world,  he  is  most  commonly  known  ;  it  also 
became,  like  PrincepSf*  Ccuar,  Imperator  (p.  143),  the  title  of  the 
Roman  sovereigns.  In  later  times  Ccesar  became  a  peculiar  designa- 
ticm  of  the  appointed  successor  of  a  reigning  Augustus. 

Augustus  reduced  the  senate  to  600  members  and  made  a  high 
census  (one  nullion  sesterces^  the  necessary  condition  of  admission. 
The  consular  office  was  retamed  in  name,  but  was  sometimes  held 
for  a  series  of  years  by  the  imperator ;  sometimes  granted,  as  a 
special  distinction,  to  some  one  else  for  a  short  time  (two  months). 
'Oie  prcefectus  ur6t,  having  police  and  criminal  jurisdiction,  and  the 
prmfectus  prcetorio,  commander  of  the  standing  body-guard  of  nine 
(afterwaras  ten)  prsetorian  cohorts,  became  the  most  miportant  of- 
ficers.   Division  of  Rome  into  14,  of  Italy  into  11,  regianes, 

B.  C.  27,  new  division  of  the  provinces  into  senatoricdy  comprising 
those  quiet  provinces  which  could  be  administered  without  an  army 
(il/nca,  Asia,  Achaia,  lUyricum,  Macedonia,  Sicilia,  Cretan  with  Cjf- 
renaica,  Bithynia,  Sardinia^  Hispania  Boeticd),  and  imperial,  including 
those  where  an  army  was  maintained,  and  which  were  administered 
by  legates  in  the  name  of  Aug^ustus  (Hispania  Tarraconensis,  Lusi- 
Umia ;  Uie  four  provinces  of  Gaul :  Narbonensis,  Lugdunensis,  A  qui' 
tomd,  and  Bdgica  ;  Germania  superior  et  inferior,  Moesia,  Syria,  Cilvcia, 
Cyprus,  JEayptus).  ^  Aerarium  and  Fiscus. 
'  reriod  of  the  highest  development  of  Roman  literatore.  Mcece^ 
nas  (t  B.  c.  8),  friend  of  Augustus,  patron  and  protector  of  the  poets : 
P,  Vergilius  Mara  (70-19  b.  c),  Q.  Horatius  Flaccus  (6&-6  b.  c.)  ; 

1  Once  ander  Numa,  and  once  in  235.    [Trans.] 

3  Peter,  RSm.  Gesch.  III.>,  1871,  and  BOm.  Gesch.  in  hikntrer  Fassung, 
8d  ed.  1878,  p.  475  foil. 

*  Prineeps  was,  it  is  true,  not  an  official  title.  About  the  meaning  of  this  de- 
signation and  its  relation  to  the  cfignity  of  the  Princepi  senaftif  see  Mar- 
qaardt-MommBen,  Bom.  AUh,  II.>,  2,  p.  750  foil. 

*  Later  many  chan^ires  were  made  in  this  division.  AU  provinces  created 
after  27  b.  c.  were  assigned  to  the  emperor. 


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148  Ancient  Hulory.  B.  a 

the  elegiao  poets,  C.  Valerius  CatuUus  (Sl-M  b.  c),  AWius  TQmUus 
(64r-19  B.  c.  ?),  5.  Propertius  (49-16  b.  c.  ?);  P.  Ovidius  Ntuo  (born 
43  B.  C|  9  A.  D.  banished  to  Tomi  on  the  Ponius  Eujonus,  f  17). 
The  historian  T.  Livka  (69  B.  C.-17  A.  d.) 

Family  of  AuguatoB. 

O.  Julius  0»sar  Ootavlanus  Ausostus,  b.  63  b.  c,  f  U  a.  d. 

Married: 

L  Claudia.  S.  Scribonia.  8.  Livia. 

I  Tiberias  and  Dnisos, 

Sons  of  Tiberius  Claudius  Nero 
and  Livia. 
Julia,  t  A.  D.  14. 
Married: 
1.  Marcellus,  2.  M.  Yipsanins  Agrippa.  a.  Tiberius, 

son  of  Octavia.  f   B.  o.  IS. 

t  B.  c.  23. j___ 

CkuusCssar.        Lucius  Ceesar.       Agrippina.       Julia.        Agrippa  Postumus. 

t  A.  D.  4.  t  A.  D.  a.  t  A.  D.  83.     t  A.  D.  28.  f  A.  D.  14. 

Jvlia  (the  elder)  was  banished  to  the  island  of  Pandataria  because 
of  her  excesses.  Qaka  CoBsar  and  Lucius  Ceesar  were  adopted  bj 
Augustus  B.  c.  17,  and  designated  as  his  successors.  Agrippina  (th^ 
elder)  married  GermanicuSf  son  of  Drusus,  and  became  the  mother  of  ^ 
the  younger  Affrippina,  the  mother  of  Nero  (p.  160).  Agrippa' 
Postumus,  almost  an  idiot,  was  adopted,  but  afterward  banishea  to 
the  island  of  Planasia.  Julia  (the  yoimger)  was  also  banished. 
Tiberius,  son  of  Livia  by  her  first  husband,  Tiberius  Claudius  Nero^ 
was  adopted  by  Augustus,  A.  d.  4. 

29.   Mcesia  subjugated  (made  a  proirince  in  16  B.  c.  ?). 

27-26.  Expedition  of  Augustus  against  the  Caivtabri  and  Astures^  the 
operations  against  whom  he  was  obliged,  on  account  of  sick- 
ness, for  the  most  part  to  leave  to  his  legates. 

26.  Expedition  to  Arabua,  without  results,  conducted  by  C.  JSUus 
Gallus,  prefect  of  Egypt.  Subjugation  of  the  Alpine  tribe  of 
the  Salassi.    Foundation  of  Augusta  Prtetoria  (Aosta). 

23.  Augustus  caused  the  senate  to  confer  upon  him  for  life  the  dig- 
nity of  the  tribunate,  and  the  proconsular  imperium  in  general. 

22  and  21.  Successful  war  against  the  Ethiopians,  conducted  by  Pe- 
tronius,  the  successor  of  Grallus  in  Egypt. 

20.  Campaign  of  Augustus  against  the  PartSiians,  whose  king  Phra- 
ates,  upon  hearing  of  the  arrival  of  Augustus  in  Syria  restored 
the  Roman  standards  which  had  been  taken  from  Crassus. 
Tigranes  was  reinstated  in  the  kingdom  of  Armenia  by  Tibe- 
rius. 

19.  Subjugation  of  Spain  completed  by  the  conquest  of  the  Cantabri 
and  Astures. 

15.  After  the  subjugation  of  the  tribes  from  the  northern  boundary 
of  Italy  to  the  Danube,  Rsstia  was  made  a  Roman  province, 
along  with  Vindelicia  (Augusta  Vinddicorum^  n  >w  Augsburg) 
and  Noricnm. 


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B.  c.~A.  D.  Hainan  Histary.  149 

12-9.  Starting  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  (Germama  superior 
and  Germama  inferior,  which  had  been  constituted  provinces  in 
27),  DniSTia  undertook  four  campaigns  in  Germany  proper, 
and  led  the  Roman  armies  to  the  Weser  and  the  £lbe.  Drosus 
died  upon  the  way  back. 

8-7.  Tiberius,  the  brother  of  DrusuB  and  his  successor  in  the  com- 
mand, after  he  had  subjugated  Pannonia  (12-9),  compelled  a 
portion  of  the  Germanic  tribes  on  the  right  bank  of  tiie  Rhine 
to  recognize  the  supremacy  of  Rome. 

Birth  of  Christ  (four  years  before  tiie  commencement  of  our 
era?). 

6-9.  An  attack  made  by  Tiberius  upon  the  Suevian  kingdom  of  Jlfar- 
bod  was  interrupted  by  an  insurrection  of  the  Illyrian  and  Pan- 
nonian  tribes,  which  were  reduced  to  subjection  only  after  a 
severe  contest. 

10.  Pannonia  (the  S.  W.  portion  of  Hungary)  made  a  Roman  prov- 
ince. 

9(?).    Three  Roman  legions  under  QuintiliuB  Varna  annihilated 
in  the  Teutoburg  forest,  bv  Arminius   ^Hermann?),  a 
leader  of  the  Cherusci,  and  husband  of  ThusnMa. 
Lex  Papia  Poppcea  and  Lex  Julia  directed  against  celibacy. 

14.  Augustus  diea  at  Nda,  in  the  seventynuxth  year  of  his  age. 

14-37.    Tiberius  (Claudius  Nero), 

step-son  of  Augustus,  by  whom  he  had  been  adopted,  a  snch 
picious  despot.  The  (f orm^  right  of  ratifying  laws  transierred  from 
the  comiticR  to  the  senate.  Tne  &w  against  hi^  treason  (de  maiestate) 
was  extended  to  include  the  most  trivial  offences  offered  the  sever- 
ely   Rewards  given  to  informers  (ddatores), 

Kevolt  of  the  legions  on  the  Rhine,  quelled  by  Germanicus,  son  of 
the  elder  DrusuSf  and  of  the  legions  m  Pannonia  quelled  by  the 
yonneer  Drusus,  son  of  Tiberius  (Tacitus,*  Annates,  I.  16-49). 
14-lo.  Three  expeditions  under  G^ermanioua  against  the  Germans. 
On  the  tmrd  attempt,  which  was  made  by  sea,  Drusus  landed 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Ems,  and  crossed  the  Weser.     Roman 
victory  in  the  battle  on  the  Campus  Idistaviso  (according  to 
Grimm,  Idisiamso,  "  meadow  of  the  elves ")  over  Arminius, 
between  Minden  and  Hameln.     In  spite  of  tne  success  of  the 
Roman  arms  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine  remained  free  (Tac. 
Ann.  n.  6-26). 
17.  Germanicus  recalled  from  Germany,  through  the  envy  of  Tibe- 
rius, and  sent  to  the  East,  installed  a  king  in  Armenia,  made 
Cappadocia  a  Roman  province,  and  died  (19)  in  Syria  (of  poi- 
son, administered  by  Piso  ?). 
23-31.  Rule   of  the  abandoned   Sejanus,   Tiberius'  favorite.     By 
uniting  the  prfetorian  cohorts  in  one  camp  near  Rome,  Sejanus 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  future  power  of  the  prastorians, 
23.      Sejanus  poisoned  Drusus,  son  of  Tiberius. 
27.   Tiberius  took  up  his  residence  in  Caprecs  (Capri). 
29.  Banishment  of  the  elder  Agrippina  (f  33).  —  Livia  f. 


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150  Ancient  Hittory.  l»  V- 

31.  Trial  of  Sejaniu,  who  was.  ezecated  in  oompanj  with  many  others 
(accomplioes  in  the  conspiracy?).  Bfaoro  saooeeded  Sejanns 
in  the  favor  of  Tiberias. 

SV-^l*  CalifiTuIa  (properly,  Oaivs  C<B8ar  Crernuinicus)^ 
youngest  son  of  Germanicns,  called  by  the  soldiers  Calu^ila 
(bootling),  a  cruel,  half-crazy  tyrant  {pderinl,  dum  meiucmt  /).  Self- 
adoration.  Bridge  over  the  bay  of  PuteolL  Childish  eroedition 
with  an  immense  army  to  the  coast  of  Gaol  (39-40),  which  ended 
with  the  collection  of  mussels  (spolia  oceani).  After  his  murder  the 
pnetorians  proclaimed  as  imperator  his  unde, 

41-54-     Claudius  (Tiberius  Claudius  Nero)j 

son  of  Drusns,  younger  brother   of  Germanicus,  a  weak* 
minded,  vacillatinfi^  prince,  nued  by  miserable  favorites  (the  freed- 
men  Narcmm  nna  Pallas)  and  his  wives:  1,  the  shameless  MesgalmOf 
and,  after  he  had  caused  her  to  be  killed,  2,  the  ambitious  AgrippmOj 
daughter  of  Germanicus  rTacitus,  Annaleif  XI.  and  XII.). 
43.    Commencement  of  tne  conquest  of  Britain  under  the  command 
of  A.  PlaiUius  and  his  legate,  T.  FUwius  Vespasiamu;  the 
southern  part  of  Britain  became  a  Boman  province  (Tacitus, 
il^ricote,  13, 14;  Ann.  XII.  31-40). 
During  Claudius'  reign  the  following^  provinces  were  incorporated : 
in  Africa,  Mauretanioy  TtngitanOj  and  Afauretania  Canariensia  (42); 
in  the  east  Lycia  (43),  Thracia  (46),  JudttOy  which  had  been  a  de- 
pendent kingdom  41-44,  became  m  44  a  province  again. 

Affrippina  persuaded  Claudius  to  adopt  L.  Domitim^  her  son  by  Cn, 
Domititu  (he  took  the  name  of  Nero  at  his  adoption),  and  to  appoint 
him  his  successor  in  place  of  his  own  son  by  AfessaHna,  Britannictts, 
whose  sister  Octavia  was  the  promised  wife  of  Nero.  As  Claudius 
showed  signs  of  repenting  of  the  adoption  of  Nero,  Agrippina  poisoned 
him. 

54-68*  Nero  (Nero  Claudius  Ccesar  Augustus  Germanicus)  ^ 
proclaimed  imperator  by  the  pretorians,  was  for  the  first 
five  years  of  his  reign  under  the  guidance  of  the  prmfectus  praUO" 
rio  Burrus  and  his  teacher  L.  Seneca^  who  prevented  the  influence  of 
his  mother  Agrippina  from  becoming  predominant  Law  agaxnai 
informers. 

With  Nero's  passion  for  the  freedwoman  Acte^  and  afterwards  for 
PoppcBO  Sabinay  the  opposition  between  himself  and  his  mother  grew 
stronger  and  stronger,  and  the  list  of  his  crimes  began.  He  poisoned 
(55)  his  step-brother  Britannicus,  whom  his  mother  had  threwtened  to 
make  imperator,  had  Agrippina  put  to  death  (59),  drove  from  him 
his  wife  Octauia,  whom  he  afterwards  executed  (62),  and  married 
Pappcea  Sabina.  Excesses  and  mad  cruelty  of  Nero.  He  appeared 
in  public  as  chariot-driver  in  the  races,  actor,  and  singer.  Cfrawling 
sei^ity  of  the  senate  (Tac.  Ann.  XIII.-XVI.). 
31.  Revolt  in  Britain,  suppressed  by  Suetonius  Paulinus. 
iS-6S.  War  with  the  Paiituans  and  Armenians.  After  the  capture 
and  destruction  of  Artaxata,  Domitius  Corbulo  forced  King 
Tindates  of  Armenia  to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  Rome. 


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A.  D.  Roman  Hittory.  151 

64.  A  fire  of  six  days'  duration,  followed  by  anoUier  lasting 
three  days,  destroyed  a  large  part  of  Rome  ^set  by  Nero's 
command,  in  order  that  he  might  rebuild  the  city  more  beaa^ 
tifully?).  Nero  accused  the  Jews  and  the  communities  of 
Christians  of  setting  fire  to  the  city. 

64.  First  persecution  of  the  Christians.^ 
Re-building  in  Rome,  on  a  large  scale.    The  palace  of  Nero 
(domus  anrea)  occupied  the  entire  Palatine  and  extended  to 
the  Esquiline. 

65.  Conspiracy  of  Piso  discovered  (Seneca  f). 

68.  Revolt  in  Gaul  (C  Julius  Vindex^  and  in  Hispania  citerior, 
where  the  governor  Sulpicius  Ctowa^  then  73  years  of  ace,  was 
proclaimed  and  acknowledged  imperator.  Nero  fled  and  kiUed 
himself  on  the  estate  of  one  of  his  freedmen  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Rome. 

68-68.     Galba  (Servius  StUpicius  Oalba), 

June-Jan.  whose  avarice  soon  gained  him  the  hatred  of  his  soldiers 
(Tac.  Hist.  I.),  and  who  became  the  victim  of  the  revolt  of 

68.    Otho  (Marcus  Salvvus  Otho  Titianus)^ 

Jan.~Apr.  once  a  favorite  of  Nero's  (Tao.  Hist,  1. 11.)  The  legions 
on  the  Rhine  had  already  proclaimed  as  imperator 

68.    Vitellius  {Aulus  ViteUius), 

Apr.-Dec.  who  defeated  Otho  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cremonaf 
entered  Rome  and  made  the  city  the  scene  of  his  senseless 
gluttony  and  extravagance.     (Tao.  Hist,  II.,  III.) 

68-86*'    The  three  Flavian  emperors. 

68-78.    Vespasianus  (Titus  Flavins  Vespasiamte) 

proclaimed  imperator  through  the  influence  of  Licinius  Mud- 
anus,  governor  of  Svna,  at  first  in  Alexandria,  afterwards  by  his  own 
legions  and  those  of  Syria  in  Palestine,  where  he  was  conductinp^  the 
war  against  the  Jews  who  had  been  in  revolt  since  66.  Yespasumus 
transferred  the  military  command  to  his  son,  Titus,  and  went  to  Rome, 
after  a  long  stay  at  Alexandria,  to  find  that  his  adherents  had  already 
put  Vitellius  to  death.  Restoration  of  discipline  in  the  army  and 
order  in  the  finances.  Reorganization  of  the  senate. 
69-71.    Revolt  of  the  Batavians  under  Jolitui   (Claudius?) 

ClvlUa  (Tac.  Hist,  IV.)» 

one  of  their  leaders  of  royal  descent.  The  insurgents  at  first 
declared  that  they  took  up  arms  not  against  the  Roman  empire, 
but  against  Vitelliua,  and  for  Veapasianus.  Thus  they  gamed 
the  assistance  of  a  large  part  of  the  Roman  soldiers  in  those  parts. 
Claudiua  Civilis  repeatedly  defeated  the  Romans,  and,  reinforced 
by  Germans  from  the  other  side  of  the  Rhine,  thirsting  for  booty, 
he  advanced  far  into  Graul.  A  great  part  of  the  Gallic  tribes  joined 
'  Bat  K6  Overbeok.  Btudie^  z.  GtKh,  d,  aUen  Kirche,  Pt  1,  p.  98  foil. 


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152  Ancient  EUtcry.  Jl.  d. 

bun,  and  for  a  moment  he  dreamed  of  foondingr  an  independent 
Galllo  Umpire.  When  once  Vespasian's  power  in  xtome  was  seoure, 
howeyer,  Cerealla,  favored  by  the  quarrels  which  had  broken  out 
between  the  allied  BcUavians,  Gauls,  and  Germans^  put  an  end  to 
the  rcYolt,  and  again  reduced  all  Granl  under  the  Roman  supremacy. 
70.  Capture  of  Jenisalem  by  Titiia  (p.  12).  Trinm^ial  arch  of 
iStoB  in  Bome.  Erection  of  the  Amphitheainim  Plavium  (Col- 
osseum). 

78.  Agricolat  father-in-law  of  the  historian  Tttdius,  made  prepara- 

tions for  the  complete  subjugation  of  Britain.  Yespasianus 
was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

79-81.     Titus  {Titus  Flavins  Vespasianus)^ 

called,  because  of  his  admirable  qualities,  amor  et  ddieuE  ffeiu 
erig  humanu    Punishment  of  informers. 

79.  Eruption  of  Vesuvius.    Herctdaneum  buried  by  mud,  Pompeii  by 

ashes  and  mud.  Death  of  the  elder  PUmuSy  the  leader  of  the 
Roman  fleet  at  Misenum. 

80.  Fire  and  plague  in  Rome.    Titus  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 

81-96.    Domitianus  (Titus  Flavins  Domitianus)^ 

a  cowardly,  cruel  despot.  He  undertook  a  campaign  against 
the  Chatti  (83),  but  returned  without  having  seen  a  foe,  notwithstand- 
ing which  he  celebrated  a  triumph.  During  his  reign  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Roman  boundary  wall  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube 
was  commenced.  It  was  g^uarded  by  soldiers,  who  were  settled 
upon  public  land  along  its  course  (agri  decumates), 
81-84.     Successful  campaigns  of  Agricola  in  Britain,  whereby  the 

Roman  power  was  extended  as  far  as  Scotland.    Agricola 

recalled  by  Domitian  through  envy. 
86-90.     Unsuccessful  wars  against  the  Dacians*    Domitian  bought 

peace  of  Decehalus  by  a  yearly  tribute. 
93.     Death  of  Agricola  (poisoned  by  order  of  Domitian  ?).    Cruel 

persecution  of  the  Jews,  Christians,  aadpkilosophers. 
96.     Domitianus  murdered  by  the  freedman  Stepkanus,  the  empress, 

who  was  in  fear  of  her  own  life,  and  the  prsefectus  prsBtorio, 

Petramus  Secundus,  being  cognizant  of  the  crime. 

96-192.    Nerva  and  his  adopted  family. 

96-98.     Nerva  {Marcus  Coeceius  Nerva)^ 

a  senator  64  years  of  age,  was  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  muiv 
derers  of  Domitian.  He  repealed  the  law  of  treason,  re- 
called the  exiles,  and  reduced  the  taxes.  He  adopted  and 
appointed  as  his  successor 

98-117.     Trajan  {Marcus  Ulpius  Traianus), 

governor  of  the  province  of  Germania  inferior,  bom  in  the 
Roman  colony  of  Italica  in  Spain,  the  first  occupant  of  the 
throne  of  the  C»sars  who  was  not  an  Italian.  Excellent 
ruler  and  general.  Magnificent  buildings  in  Rome  {Fonm 
Traianum)  and  throughout  the  empire. 


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A.  D.  Soman  Bistary,  155 

101-102.    Pint  war  against  the  Dacians,  in  conseqaenoe  of  Trajan's 
Tefnsal  to  pay  the  trihate  promised  by  Domitian.    Tnjan 
crossed  die  i>anabe,  captured  the  fortress  of  the  king  Dec^Ki- 
lus  and  forced  him  to  make  peace  and  cede  a  portion  of  his 
territory. 
105-107.    In  the  second  war  against  the  Daoiana  Trajan  boilt  a 
stone  bridge  across  the  Danube  (at  Tumu  Severinu),  crossed 
the  stream,  defeated  and  subdued  the  Dacians.    Decebalus 
killed  himself.    Magnificent  games  at  Rome,  wherein  10,000 
gladiators  are  said  to  have  appeared. 
Daoia,  that  is  WaUachia,  Moldau,  Eaxtem  Hvngary,  and  TransyU 
txima  (Siebenbilrgen),  made  a  Roman  province.    SetUement  of  nu- 
merous colonists  in  Dacia,  from  whom  the  present  Roumanians  de- 
riye  their  descent.    It  would  be  more  correct  to  say  their  language 
only,  the  Roumanian  or  Daoo -Romanic,  which  prevails  in  W^- 
lachia,  Moldau  and  a  part  of  Transylvania.    The  column  of  Trajan 
at  Rome  completed  in  113. 

The  governor  of  Syria  took  possession  (105)  of  the  region  E.  and 
S.  of  Ikmuucus  and  of  Judcea  to  the  northern  end  of  the  Red  Sea, 
as  the  Roman  province  of  Arabia.^ 

114-116.  Wars  of  Trajan  with  the  Parthiana.     ChosroSs,  nephew  of 
the  Parthian  kmff,  driven  from  Armenia.     Armenia^  Meso- 
potamia, Assyria,  mcluding  Babylonia,  made  Roman  provinces. 
Trajan,  favored,  as  it  seems,  by  internal  troubles  in  the  Parthian 
monarchy,  conquered  Seleucia  and  Ciesiphon  on  the  Tigris,  and  sailed 
down  the  river  to  the  Persian  Gulf.    Trajan,  having  appointed  a  king 
over  Uie  Parthians,  started  upon  his   return,  but  lued   at  Selinus 
(Trajanopolis)  in  Cilicia, 

117'138.  fiadrian  (Fublius  ^lius  Hadrianus)^ 

adopted  by  Traian  (?).  A  lover  of  peace,  an  excellent  ad- 
ministrator, learned  ana  vain.  Hadrian  abandoned  the  new  provinces 
of  Armenia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Assyria,  so  that  the  Euphrates  formed 
the  eastern  bounaary  of  the  Roman  empire.  He  restored  quiet  in 
Mcesia,  and  strengthened  his  power  by  the  execution  of  those  who 
conspired  against  him. 

121.  Hadrmn  began  his  progress  through  aUQ.  the  provinces  of  the  em- 
pire, with  a  visit  to  Uaul, 
Magnificent  buildings  :  in  Rome  the  Moles  Hadriani,  on  the  site 
of  the  present  Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  and  the  double  temple  of  Venus 
and  the  goddess  Roma,  and  the  Athenasum;  in  Athens*  the  ci^  of 
Hadrian  (the  Olympieum  completed).  Magnificent  villa  at  TUmr 
(Tivoli). 

In  Britain  a  wall  of  defence  was  built  against  the  Picts  and  Scots. 
Collection  of  the  edicts  of  the  praetors  (edictum  perpetuum)  com- 
menced by  the  jurist  Salvius  Julianus, 

132-135.   Revolt  of  the  Jews  on  account  of  the  foundation  of  the 
colony  of  JSlia  CapiioUna  (p.  12). 
Hadrian  liad  adopted,  during  a  fit  of  sickness,  X.  JElius  Verus,  and 

I  That  is,  Arabia  Petraa,  so  called  from  its  capital,  Petra,  not  the  whole 
fenioMila  of  Arabia.    Kiepert,  Atlas,  AmL  Tab.  Xil. 

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154  Ancient  Eisiory,  A.  d. 

appointed  him  Ccesar  (p.  147)  ;  bat  bs  Yeros  died  before  him  be 
adopted  T,  AureUuu  ArUoninus  under  the  condition  that  the  latter 
shoold  adopt  in  place  of  a  son  his  nephew,  the  young  M,  Anniut 
Venu,  under  the  name  of  Marcus  Aurdius,  imd  L.  Comnodiu  Verus, 
the  son  of  the  deceased  Ciesar,  JSlius  Venu, 

138-161-     Antoninus  Pius    {Titua  AureLius   Antoninus 
Fins). 

Peaceable  reicn,  during  which  the  borders  were,  however, 
vigorously  de&nded  against  the  attacks  of  the  barbarians. 
Antoninus  had  his  adopted  son,  M.  AttrdiuSf  educated  by  phil- 
osophers of  the  Stoic  school. 

161-180.  Marous  Aurelius  (Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus)^ 

a  wise  and  active  sovereign,  highly  educated  (pupil  of  Come' 
Iku  FrontoY  a  Stoic  philosopher.  Until  169  he  reigned  in 
common  with  his  brotner  by  adoption,  the  dissipated  Lucius 
Veros. 

162-165.  War  against  the  Parthians  under  the  command  of  X.  Verus^ 
who,  however,  soon  gave  himself  up  to  dissipation  in  Antiochia, 
while  his  legatees  carried  on  the  war  with  success,  conquered 
Artaxat€^  appointed  a  king  in  Armenia,  and  burned  Seieucia 
and  Ctesiphon.  A  part  of  Mesopotamia  was  agam  made  a 
Roman  province. 

166.   Plague  and  famine  in  Italy. 

166-180.  War  with  the  Marcommani  and  Quadi.  Marcus  Aurelius 
fought  with  various  fortune  against  the  barbarians,  who  con* 
stantly  made  new  attacks.  Diuring  a  short  peace  with  the  bar- 
barians, conquest  of  the  rebel  Avidius  Cassius  in  Syria,  175. 
Triumph  in  Rome,  176.  The  senate  erected  an  equestrian 
statue  in  his  honor,  which  still  adorns  the  Capitol.  Before 
he  had  succeeded  in  making  the  boundaries  of  the  empire 
along  the  Danube  secure,  he  died  in  Vindobana  (Vienna).  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  degenerate  son 

180-192.  Commodua, 

who  bought  peace  of  the  Germans  at  the  price  of  a  tribute, 

entrusted  the  government  for  the  most  part  to  the  pnef ectus  pnetorio, 

abandoned  himself  to  his  inclination  for  dissipation  and  cruelty,  and 

was  finally  murdered  by  his  intimates. 

193-284.  ImperatoxB  for  the  most  part  appointed  by  the 
soldiers. 

193.  Pertinax,  strict  and  economical,  murdered  after  three 
months  by  the  prsetorians,  who  placed  on  the  throne  in  his 
stead 

193.  Didius  Julianus,  who,  among  all  competitors,  promised 
them  the  largest  present.     The  Dlyrian  legions  proclaimed 

193-211.    Septimius  Sevenis, 

who  was  recognized  by  the  senate  and  maintained  himself 


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Am  D.  Roman  HUtary,  165 

agauist  the  other  pietenders  (Pescenninu  Niaer  in  the  East,  Clodiut 
Albmus  in  GavI),  Sucoesaful  campaigns  in  Mesopotainia.  Lnpiore- 
xnents  in  the  administration  of  justice  through  the  jurist  <Papmiani». 
In  208  expedition  to  Britain  against  the  S^ts.  Kestoration  of  the 
Boman  wall,  which  had  been  partially  destroyed.  Septimius  Sey- 
ems  died  in  Ebaractim  (York).    His  son, 

211-217.  Caracalla  (Antonimu  JBassianua) 

murdered  his  half-brother  and  co-regent  Gheta  along  with 

thousands  of  his  adherents,  among  whom  was  Papimanus,    By 

the  ConstUutio  Antoniana  Roman  citizenship  was  conferred  upon  aU 

inhabitants  of  the  proyinces,ybr  the  sake  of  the  higher  taxation  which 

could  then  be  imposed. 

Systematic  plunderin^of  the  proyinces,  unsuccessful  wars  against  the 
Ooths  (wrongly  called  Getai)  in  Daoia,  cruel  treatment  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Alesumdria.  Flunaering  expedition  against  the  Parthiaos. 
Murder  of  Caracalla.    His  successor, 

217.    Macrinos, 

purchased  peace  from  the  Parthians.  The  soldiers  proclaimed 
as  imperator  the  fourteen-year-old 

S1&-222.  ElagabaluB  (the  form  Heliogabalus  is  a  corruption),  priest 
of  the  sun  at  Emesa  in  Syria,  who  was  put  forward  as  the  son 
of  Caracalla.  He  gaye  nimself  up  to  the  most  infamous  de- 
bauchery ;  the  soyemment  was  conducted  by  his  mother  and 
grandmother.  He  adopted  his  cousin,  the  young  Bassianut 
Alexianus,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  after  the  murder  of 
Elagabalus  by  the  pnetorians,  under  the  name  of 

ite2-235.    Severus  Alexander. 

Excellent  ruler,  adyised  by  the  jurists  Domitiw  Ulpianus  and 
Julius  PauUus,    His  strictness  with  the  soldiers  led  to  seyeral 
mutinies,  in  one  of  which  Ulpianus  was  murdered. 
216.  In  consequence  of  the  dissolution  of  the  Parthian  monarchy  of 
the  AraaoidaB  and  the  foundation  of  the  ne-w  Feraian  em- 
pire of  the  SassanidflB  by  Artakahatr  (Artaxares,  corrupted  into 
Artazerxea,  new  Persian,  ArdesMr),  a  descendant  of  Sasaan,  a  new 
War  broke  out  in  the  East,  which  Severus  Alexander  carried  on,  ac- 
cording to  the  Roman  historian  LampndiuSy  with  success;  according  to 
the  Grecian  Herodian,  unsuccessfully.    At  all  eyents  there  seems  to 
haye  been  an  armistice  in  233.    After  the  murder  of  Seyerus  Alex- 
ander on  the  Rhine  the  soldiers  raised  to  the  throne 

235-238.    Bffaadmintui  Thraz, 

a  Thracian  of  extraordinary  size  and  strength.  Expedition 
across  the  Rhine  ;  German  townships  laid  waste.  Meanwhile 
the  legions  in  Africa  proclaimed  the  senator, 

£37.    GK>rdianu8 1., 

then  eighty  years  old,  imperator.  He  appointed  his  son,  Gor- 
dianus  IE.,  co-regent.  They  were  both  defeated  by  the  prsfect  of 
Hanretania:  the  son  fell  in  the  battle,  the  father  put  himself  to  death. 


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156  Ancient  History.  A.  d. 

The  senate  at  Rome,  which  had  already  taken  sides  a£(ainst  Maxmi- 
nus  ThraXf  elected  the  senators  Pitpienns  Maxtmiia  ai^  Caelins  Bal- 
bintiBy  Au^sti,  to  whom  was  added,  at  the  people's  demand,  the 
thirteen-year-old  grandson  of  Gardianus  I.  Mcmminus  Thrax  was 
killed  hy  his  own  soldiers  at  the  siege  of  A^Ueia,  The  praetorians 
at  Borne  murdered  the  two  imperators  appomted  hy  the  senate,  Pt^ 
pienus  and  BedbinuSf  so  that  the  young 

238-244.    Gordianus  m. 

was  left  sole  imperator.  A  new  war  with  the  Persians  (241). 
The  young  imperator  married  the  daughter  of  the  yeteran  AfkUheus 
{Timesitheus),  whom  he  made  prsefectus  pnetorio,  and  whose  guidance 
he  followed.  After  the  death  of  his  father-in-law  Gordianus  was 
murdered  by  the  new  pref ectus  pnetorio, 

244-249.    Philippus  Arabs* 

whom  he  had  been  obliged  to  accept  as  co-regent  in  243  at  the 
demand  of  the  soldiers.    Peace  with  Persia.    Philippus  returned  to 
Rome  (became  a  Christian  in  secret  ?). 
248.  Celebration  of  the  thousandth  anniversary  of  the  foundation 

of  Rome. 
Reyolt  of  the  Moosian  and  Pannonian  legions,  which  proclaimed  one 
of  their  officers  imperator. 

249-251.    Deoins, 

whom  Philippus  sent  to  quell  the  mutiny,  was  compelled  by 
the  legions  to  assume  the  title  of  imperator.  He  defeated  and 
killed  PhUippus  in  the  battle  of  Verona. 

25a  General  persecution  of  the  Christians. 

Martyrdom  of  Fabianus,  bishop  of  Rome.  Decius  defeated 
the  Uoths,  who  were  plundering  Thrace^  but  fell  in  battle  after 
he  had  followed  them  across  the  Danube.    The  legions  elected 

261-253.    OaUos, 

who  soon  had  his  co-regent,  HoetUianus,  son  of  Decius,  put  to 
death.  Destructiye  pestilence  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  em- 
pire.   Gallns  was  deposed  by  the  conqueror  of  the  Goths, 

253.    ^milianus, 

who  after  four  months  was  killed  by  the  soldiers.  He  was 
succeeded  by 

253-260.    Valerianos, 

the  general  of  the  legions  in  Gaul  and  Germania.  He  ap- 
pointed his  son,  Oallienus,  co-regent,  and  both  carried  on  the  war  with 
the  German  bands,  who  were  constantly  making  new  inroads,  espe- 
cially the  Franks  in  Gaul,  the  Alamannif  who  inyaded  northern  Italy 
but  were  driyen  back  at  Mediolanum,  and  the  Goths  on  the  Danube. 
Unsuccessful  expedition  of  Valerianos  against  the  Persians  ;  defeated 
at  Edessctf  he  was  captured,  and  at  the  age  of  seyenty  carried  about 
as  the  slaye  of  King  Artazenes.    His  reign  and  that  of  his  san. 


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A.  O.  Rwnan  EiHory.  157 

260^268.    Qallienus, 

was  disturbed  by  the  appearance  of  a  great  nomber  of  pretend- 
ers to  the  throne,  and  by  the  invasions  of  the  barbarians,  particularly 
of  the  Goths,  who  came  in  ships  from  the  Black  Sea.  Confosion 
throughout  the  empire  ;  the  so-called  <'  time  of  the  thirty  tyrants/' 
Two  pretenders  only  maintained  themselves  for  any  length  of  time, 
TetriouB  in  CrauL  and  Spain^  and  Odenathus  (of  Palmyra)  in  Syria. 
The  latter  wrested  Mesopotamia  from  Persia,  and  was  reco^iized  by 
Gallienus  as  co-regent  for  the  East.  After  the  murder  of  Udermthua 
(267)  his  consort,  Zenobia,  ruled  in  Palmyra.  Gallienus  laid  siege 
to  Mediolanum,  which  had  been  occupied  by  the  pretender  Avreolus^ 
and  was  there  murdered  by  contrivance  of  the  latter.  Aureolus  was 
put  to  death  by 

268-270.    Claudius  n., 

whom  the  soldiers  raised  to  the  throne.  He  defeated  the  Ala- 
manni  and  the  Groths,  and  was  succeeded  by 

270-275.    Aurelianus. 

He  concluded  peace  with  the  Groths  by  the  sacrifice  of  the 
province  of  Dacia.  The  Danube  was  henceforward  the  boundary  of 
the  empire  ;  the  greater  part  of  the  Roman  colonists  were  transported 
to  Mcetia,  a  part  of  which  was  now  called  Dada  (Aurdiand),  Aure- 
lian  repulsea  the  Akmumni  and  Marcomannif  who  nad  made  an  inroad 
into  Italy  (victory  on  the  MetaunuX  and  began  the  erection  of  a  new 
wall  around  Rome,  which  included  the  enhirged  imperial  city  (271, 
completed  in  276).  He  defeated  Zenobia  in  two  battles,  at  Antiochia 
and  at  EdessOy  subdued  Syria,  besieged  and  destroyed  Palmyra,  cap- 
tured Zenobia^  and  reconquered  Effypt  (273^.  Having  thus  subdued 
the  East,  he  turned  agamst  Tetricus  in  Graul,  whom  he  defeated 
and  captured  at  Chalons  (274).  Aurelian,  rightly  called  **  Restorer 
of  the  universal  Empire"  (ItestittUor  Orbis),  was  murdered  on  an 
expedition  against  the  Persians.  At  the  request  of  the  army  the 
senate  elected  the  senator 

275.    Tacitus 

imperator.  He  defeated  the  Alani,  who  had  invaded  Asia 
Mmor,  but  died  after  three  months.  His  brother  FlorianuSf 
who  attempted  to  secure  the  succession,  was  defeated  by 

276-282.    Probus, 

who  drove  back  the  Franks,  Burgundians,  Alamanni  and  Van- 
dals, entered  Germany,  and  stren^hened  the  wall  between  the  Rhine 
and  Danube  (p.  152).  He  enrolled  a  large  number  of  Germans  as 
mercenaries  in  the  Roman  army,  and  employed  the  soldiers  in  drain- 
ing swanrps  and  building  canals  and  roads,  for  which  reason  he  was 
murderea  by  them.     The  pnefectus  prsstorio, 

282-283.    Oarus, 

succeeded.  He  appointed  his  sons  Carinus  and  Numerianus 
GsBsars,  and  afterwards  Augusti,  conquered  the  Sarmatians,  and  pep- 


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158  Ancient  Bttiory.  ▲•  du 

ished  (stmck  bj  lightmng  ?)  on  an  expedition  agaiiuit  the  Peimanay 
after  haying  captorod  Ctedplion. 
284.    Nmnertanns, 

who  had  accompanied  his  father  to  the  £aat»  was  mnrdered  by 

his  father^in-hiw. 

284.  Carlnus, 

who  had  remained  in  the  West,  f  onght  at  first  with  sacoess 
against 

284-305.    Diocletiaiiiis^ 

y/rho  had  been  proclaimed  imperator  by  the  soldiers.  Carinns 
was  ultimately  murdered  by  his  own  troops.  Diocletian,  who 
created  an  oriental  court  at  Nicomedia  in  Bithyrda,  and  thence 
ruled  the  E€Ut^  entrusted  the  administration  of  affairs  in  the 

285.  West  to  the  brave  Maximlanna,  as  his  co-reffent  or  Augustus, 
who  took  up  his  residence  for  the  most  part  in  Mediolaman 
(Milan). 

202.  Diocletian  appointed  two  more  Ccesars:  1.  ConatantiiiB 
Chlonia,  who  was  obliged  to  divorce  his  wife  Helena  and  marry 
the  step-daughter  of  MaTimianns,  received  the  government  of 
Gaul,  Britain,  and  Spain,  and  dwelt  conmionfy  in  Augusta 
Tremrarum  (Trier),  while  Maximlanna  was  appointed  to  the 
government  of  Italy  and  Africa.  2.  Oalerina,  who  became 
IHocletian's  son-in-law,  and  received  the  government  of  lUgri" 
cum,  including  Macedonia  and  Greece. 

296.  Diocletian  subdued  the  revolt  of  Egypt.  Conatantiua  sup- 
pressed a  revolt  in  Britain.    Galexlna  fought  aeainst  the 

Persians,  unsuccessfully  in  the  first  year,  but  in  the  second  (297)  he 

gained  an  important  victory,  and  extended  the  frontiers  to  the  Tigris 

again.    Mazimianns  suppressed  an  insurrection  in  Africa.    Con- 

•tantina  defeated  the  Alamanni. 

303.    General  persecution  of  the  ChriatlanB, 

which  Constantius  discouraged  in  his  province. 

805.    Diocletian  abdicated  and  retired  to  SaloncB  in  Dalmatia,  after 
he  had  obliged  Maximlanna  also  to  resign  his  dienitv. 
Conatantiua  and  Oaterina  were  raised  to  Augnsti.    At  the  desire 

of  Galerius,  the  claims  of  Constantinus,  son  of  Constantius,  and  of 

Maxentius,  son  of  Maximianus,  being  passed  over, 

Sevema  and  Maximinna  were  appointed  Ciesars,  the  first  receiv- 
ing Italy  and  Africa,  the  second  Syria  and  Egypt. 

306.  After  the  death  of  Conatantiua  in  Britam,  his  son  (by  Hdena), 
Conatantine,  assumed  the  administration  of  his  father's  prov- 
inces, Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain,  with  the  title  of  Csesar.  He 
fought  successfully  with  the  Franks  and  Bructeri.  Meanwhile 
the  protorians  at  Rome  chose  Maxentiua  imperator,  where- 
upon his  father,  Masdmianua,  reassumed  the  dignity  he  had 
unwillingly  resigned.  The  empire  had  thus  six  rulers,  three 
Augusti  and  three  Ciesars. 

997.  The  Caesar  Bevenia,  having  been  created  Augustus  by  Gale- 
rius, went  to  Italy  to  attack  MaxenHus,  but  was  deserted  by 

his  soldiers  and  put  to  death  at  Ravenna.    Galerius  appointed  Uoin- 


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▲•  i>.  Roman  HUlory,  159 

iris  oo-regent  and  Auffiutiis  in  his  stead,  and  Constantlne  therefore 

assumed  the  same  title,  so  that  tliere  were  now  six  Augusti  in  the 

empire. 

310.  In  the  strnffgle  that  followed,  the  aged  Mudmianus  was  cap- 
tured in  MSHJlia  and  put  to  death  by  command  of  Constantine. 
Gkdeiltui  died  of  disuse  (311). 

War  between  Maxentiua  and  Constandne.  The  latter  issued  edicts 
in  favor  of  the  Christians.    Maxentitui  was  defeated  at  Turin 

312.      and  at  Saxa  rubral  four  miles  from  Rome,  by  Constantine 
{Hoc  gigno  vmces  /),  and  perished  by  drowning  as  he  attempted 
to  cross  the  Tiber. 
Constantine  became  the  protector  of  the  Christians,  but  re- 
mained up  to  his  death  a  catechumen. 
313.    Alliance  between  Constantine  and  Liciniiis,  who  married 
Constantino's  sister.     Constantine  took  the  field  against  the 
Franks,  Licinius  aeainst  Maziminus,  who  was  defeated,  and 
killed  himself  in  iKirsus ;  so  that  now 
313-323.    Constantine  and  Uoinius  were  the  only  rulers  in  the 
empire,  the  former  in  the  West,  the  latter  in  the  East    In  314, 
however,  they  were  embroiled  in  conflict.    Licinius,  defeated 
in  two  encounters,  was  obliged  to  cede  lUyricumy  Macedonia, 
and  Achaia  to  Constantine. 
323.    Second  wva  between  Constantine  and  Licinius.    The  latter,  de- 
feated at  Adrianople  and  Chalcedon,  surrendered  in  Nicomedia^ 
and  was  executed  (324)  by  Constantino's  command. 

323-337.    Constantine  (Uie  Great)  sole  ruler. 

Christianity  raoognized  by  the  State  and  favored  at  the 
expense  of  paganism. 
325.  First  general  (cBcumenic)  Council  of  the  Church  at  Nicasa, 
in  Bithynia.  Arianism,  i.  e.  the  doctrine  of  Arius  (''Aptios), 
formerly  a  presbyter  in  Alexandria,  according  to  which  Christ  was 
not  of  the  same  nature,  but  of  like  nature  only  (6fu>to6aios),  with  God 
the  Father,  was  rejected,  and  the  doctrine  of  Athanasius  of  Alexandria, 
according  to  which  Christ  was  of  the  same  nature  (6/jLoo6<nat,  consub" 
stanUali^  witbGrod  the  Father,  was  dechued  a  dogma  of  the  Church 
by  the  SyniMum  Nicoenum. 

330.  Constantine  selected  Byzantium  (Nova  Roma,  Constantino- 
polls)  for  the  capitaL  The  empire  was  redistricted.  The 
four  great  prefectures,  Oriens,  lUyricum  orieniale,  Italia,  Gallia,  were 
divided  into  13  dioceses,  these  into  116  provinces.^  New  hierarchy 
of  officials,  7  superior  court  offices.  Coun<nl  of  state  (consistoriumprin^ 
cipis).     New  arrangement  of  the  taxes. 

Cruelty  of  Constantine  in  his  family.  His  eldest  son,  Crispus,  and 
one  of  his  nephews  executed  through  the  plots  of  his  wife,  Fausta,  who 
was  herself  put  to  death. 

Constantine,  before  his  death,  divided  the  administration  of  the 
empire  among  his  three  sons  as  Augusti,  and  two  nephews  as  Ccesars, 
After  his  death,  in  Bithynia,  the  two  Csesars  were  put  to  death  by 
Constantius,  The  three  sons  of  Constantine  redivided  the  empire  a4 
Constantinople. 

I  Klepert,  Atlas  Antiquus,  Tab.  XIL 


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160  Ancient  Mstarg.  a.  d. 

337-340.    Ck>nBtantinii8  n.  received  the  Wert  (the  prefee- 
tnreB  of  ItaliOy  ChUiOy  and  a  part  of  Africa). 

837-36L     Gonstantiiis  received  the  East,  the  prefecture 

Oriens. 
337-350.  Gonstans  received  tiie  prefectures  of  lUyricum 
orientale  and  a  part  of  Afinca, 
Constaniiiis  carried  on  a  long  and  indedsive  war  with  the  Persians. 
ConstanUnus  II.  attacked  his  brother  Constans,  and  fell  at  Aqnileia.  In 
360  Constans  also  died,  so  that  ConstanUus,  after  the  oonqoest  of  the 
usurper  Magnentius  (353),  again  united  the  whole  empire.  JuUamUf 
a  cousin  of  the  emperor,  who  was  ap^inted  CsBsar,  fought  success- 
fully with  the  Alamanni  and  Rwuanan  Franks,  and  assigned  the 
Salian  Franks  lands  in  northern  Gaul.  Congkmtius  died  on  an  expe- 
dition against 

361-^363.    Jnlianus, 

who  had  been  proclaimed  Augustus  bj  the  legions.  He  is 
known  as  the  apostate  {(wottatd),  bectuise  he  was  an  adherent  of  the 
heathen  philosophy  and  aoandoned  Christianity,  hoping  to  bring  about 
a  reaction  in  favor  of  the  heathen  cult,  which  he  wished  restorod  in  a 
purified  form.  Jnlianus  defeated  the  Alamanni  and  the  Franks,  re- 
stored the  fortresses  which  had  been  erected  against  them  along  the 
frontier,  and  defeated  the  Persians  at  Ctesiphon^  but  died  of  a  wound 
on  his  return.    The  soldiers  raised  the  Christian 

363-364.    Jovianus, 

to  the  throne.  He  ceded  the  g^reater  part  of  Mesopotamia  to 
the  Persians.  Ghriatianity  reinstate  in  the  privileges  which  Con- 
stantine  had  granted.  After  the  sudden  death  of  Jovianus  the  legions 
raised 

364-375.    Valentinianus  L 

to  the  throne.    He  appointed  as  co-regent  first  his  brother, 

364^78.    Valens, 

an  Arian,  who  governed  the  East  from  Constantinople,  and 
afterwards,  for  me  West,  his  son, 

367-383.    Gratianus, 

who,  upon  his  father's  death,  acknowledged  as  co-regent  for 
the  administration  of  the  West  his  four-year-old  half-brother, 

375-392.    Valentinian  n., 

who  had  been  proclaimed  imperator  by  the  soldiers. 

375.    Beginning  of  the  mifirrations  of  the  Teutonic 

tribes  (p.  170). 
378.    After  the  death  of  Valens  at  Adrianople  in  battle  against  the 

West  Goths,  Gratianus  created  the  heathen 


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A.  Du  Roman  Matary.  161 

379-395.    Theodocdus 

co-rerent,  and  entnuted  him  with  the  admioutnitioii  of  the 
£ast.  Theodosius  became  a  Christian  after  his  recoyezy  from  a  seyere 
illness,  fought  successfully  against  the  West  Goths,  but  was  obliged 
to  accept  them  as  allies  (foederati)  in  their  abodes  in  Mosna  and 
Thrace.  GraHanus  fell  in  battle  against  the  imperator  proclaimed 
by  the  legionis  in  Britain, 

383-388.    aemens  Maximos, 

whom  Theodosius  recognized  as  co-reffent  under  the  condition 
that  he  should  leave  Italy  in  the  hands  of  the  young  VaUntinian  II, 
In  387  Maximus  drove  Valentinian  from  Italy.  He  fled  to  Theodo- 
sius, who,  returning  with  him,  captured  Clemens  Maximus  at  Aqui- 
leia,  and  executed  him. 

390.  Insurrection  in  Thessalonica,  cruelly  punished  by  Theodosius 

(7000  executions).    On  this  account  bishop  AmbrosiuB  of 
Milan,  eight  months  later,  excluded  the  emperor  from  Christian  com- 
munion, until  he  had  done  penance. 
392.     After  the  murder  of  Valentinian  II.  by  ArbogasUs^  and  after 

the  new  imperator,  Ihigenins,  whom  ArbogauBtes  set  up,  had 

391.  fallen  at  Aquileia  in  luittle  with  Theodosius,  and  Arbogastes 
had  put  himself  to  death,  the  whole  empire  was,  for  the  last 
time,  reunited  under 

394-385.    Theodosius. 

After  his  death  the  division  of  administration  into  an  eastern 
and  a  western  section,  which  had  existed  for  a  hundred  years,  became 
a  permanent  division  of  the  empire. 

895-1453.  Arcadius  received  the  Eastern  empire,  also 
called  the  ByEantine  or  Qreoian  empire.  Imperial 
vicar,  Bufinua.  Capital  Byzantium  or  Constantinople. 
The 

895-476.  Western  empire,  caiuital  Bomej  Ba/venna  im- 
perial residence  after  402,  under 

S95-423.    Honorius. 

Guardian  and  chancellor,  the  Vandal  StUichOf  murdered  in  406 
by  cQDunand  of  Honorius  to  whom  he  had  been  de&med.  After 
the  death  of  Honorius  the  usurper 

424.  Joannes  reigned  for  a  short  time,  but  was  finally  over- 
thrown with  the  assistance  of  the  Eastern  empire  and  the  six- 
year-old 

425-455.    Valentinian  III. 

made  imperator,  the  eovemment  being  conducted  at  first  by 
his  mother  Placida,  sister  of  Honorius,  in  his  name.  Valen- 
tinian was  murdered  by 

455.    Petronius  Maximus, 

who  married  Etuloanaf  widow  of  Valentinian,  but  was  killed 
shortly  before  the  capture  of  Rome  by  the  Vandals  (p.  173). 
U 


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162  Ancient  HUtory.  ▲.  Du 

The  throne  was  usiuped  by 
455-666.    Avitos 

who  was  soon  deposed  by  Reoimir,  a  milituy  leader  of  tha^ 
Grerman  mercenaries  in  the  Roman  army.  Becimir  placed  upon 
the  throne 

467-461.    Majoiianos* 

whom  he  afterwards  deposed  in  faror  of 
461-465.    Libius  Sevenis, 

after  whose  deposition  (?) 
466467.    Recimir  conducted  the  goyemment  withont  the  pretence 

of  an  imperial  figure-head  until  467  when  he  placed 

467-472.    Anthemius 

upon  the  throne,  who  was  succeeded  by 

472.  Olybrius. 

Becimir  and  his  sovereign  dying  this  year,  the  Eastern  court 
interposed  and  placed 

473.  aiyceriiis 

on  the  throne  of  the  West,  who  was  succeeded  by 
473^76.    Julius  Nepos, 

also  by  appointment  of  the  emperor  of  the  East.  In  475 
OregteSj  a  leader  among  the  mercenaries,  placed  his  son 

475-476.    Bomulus  Augustulus 

upon  the  throne,  who,  combining  in  his  name  that  of  Bome'a 
first  king  and  flnt  emperor,  be^nime  the  last  of  the  imperial 
line  in  t&  West,  being  deposed  by 

476.    Odovaker    (Odoacer), 

military  leader  of  the  Hendi  and  Rugii,  who  made  himself 
ruler  (not  king}  of  Italy,  and  was  recognized  by  the  Eastern 
emperor  Zeno  as  patrieiua  of  Rome  and  prefect  of  Italy 
(p.  173). 

§  4.    TEUTONS.    Ary<m. 

Qeography:  The  Teutonic  race  has  occupied  three  regions  in 
Europe. 

I.  Qermanj  comprises  Central  Europe,  the  slope  from  the  Alps 
N.  to  the  sea.  It  may  be  rou^^hly  bounded  as  follows  :  N.  German 
Ocearif  Baltic  ;  E.  a  vague  line  mdicated  by  the  Vistula,  and  the  Car- 
pathian  Mts.j  S.  the  -^^y  W.  the  Rhine,  This  region  falls  into  three 
physical  divisions  :  1.  The  broad  and  lofty  chain  of  the  Alps  divided 
mto  the  Swiss  Alps  on  the  W.  and  the  T^p^lese  Alps  on  the  E.,  whose 
deep  valleys  fostered  the  rise  of  small  mdependent  communities  (p. 
245  ).  Mont  Blanc  (14,748  ft.),  Monte  Rosa,  Jungfrau,  etc..  Lake 
Geneva,  Lake  Constance,  Lake  of  Lucerne  (  Vierwaldstdttesee^i  etc.  2. 
A  broad  upland  extending  two  thirds  of  the  way  from  the  Alps  to  the 
sea,  and  embracing  the  present  WUriemberg,  Bavaria,  Bohemia,  jSoa?- 


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B.  C.-A.  D.  Teutons.  163 

ony,  Saxon  duchies,  Hesse,  etc.  3.  A  low  plain  reacliing  to  the  sea, 
and  including  the  present  Holkmd,  Hanover,  Prussia,  etc.  Modem 
Crennany  comprises  2  and  3.  The  peninsula  of  Denmark  has  belonged, 
in  historic  times,  politically  to  Scandinavia  and  Germany. 

Through  the  middle  of  Germany  a  range  of  low  mountains  extends 
from  S.E.  to  N.W.  from  the  Jura  in  France  to  the  Carpathians  in 
Hungary.  This  range,  known  to  the  Romans  as  Hercynia  sUva,  in- 
cludes the  Jura,  Vosges,  Schvjarztoald  ^Black  Forest)  Taunus,  ThUringer 
Wald,  Erz  Gebirge,  Riesen  Oebirge,  Sudetes,  and  forms  an  arc  whose 
conyex  side  is  turned  toward  the  W.  and  N.  The  valley  of  the  Dan- 
ube S.  of  this  range,  and  the  depression  on  its  northern  base  extend- 
ing from  the  Lahn  to  the  middle  Elbe  (the  old  commercial  route  be- 
tween Frankfort  o.  M.  and  Leipsic),  are  the  two  natural  roads  which 
give  the  East  access  to  western  Europe.  Other  mountain  groups  : 
Bohemian  Forest,  forming  the  S.E.  border  of  Bohemia,  Harz,  N.  of 
the  Frankfort  road.  Rivers  :  S.  the  Danube,  flowing  into  the  Black 
Sea;  N.  the  Rhine,  with  its  branches  Neckar,  Main,  etc.,  Ems, 
Weser,  Elbe,  flowing  into  the  German  Ocean  ;  Oder,  Vistula  flowing 
into  the  Baltic. 

The  Roman  provinces  RaOia,  Vindetida,  Noricum,  Pannonia,  occu- 
pied the  Alps  and  the  southern  bank  of  the  Danube.  Germania 
superior  and  inferior  were  GaUic  provinces  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Upper  and  Lower  Rhine.  To  Germany  proper,  which  was  never  a 
province  of  the  empire,  the  Romans  applied  the  name,  Cfermania 
fnagna. 

II.  8oandina\ria,  the  great  peninsula  jutting  W.  and  S.  from  the 
north  of  Europe.  It  fafis  into  two  divisions  :  1.  A  rugged,  moun- 
tainous region  on  the  W.,  with  deeply  indented  coasts  (Norway). 
2.  On  the  E.  a  less  mountainous  region  with  numerous  rivers 
flowing  into  the  Baltic  and  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  (Sweden).  The 
southern  part  of  Scandinavia  was  known  to  the  Romans  under  the 
name  Scandia,  and  was  thought  to  be  an  island. 

m.  The  British  Jalee.    See  pp.  36  and  176. 

fithnology :  I.  According  to  the  theory  of  the  Asiatic  origin  of 
the  Aiyans,  the  Teutonic  migration  followed  the  Celtic  and  preceded 
that  of  the  Slavs.  The  Teutons,  or  Germans,  appear  to  have  taken 
the  northern  route  and  to  have  first  settled  alongthe  coast,  on  the 

C^  *  1,  and  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  plateau.  The  valley  of  the 
ube  and  Bohemia  were  early  occupied  by  Cdtic  tribes,  and  it 
was  only  sradually  that  these  were  dispossessed  by  the  invading  Ger- 
mans. Whether  the  Teutons  entered  Germany  in  two  bands,  is  not 
clear  ;  certain  it  is  that  from  a  very  early  time  a  radical  difference 
has  existed  in  language  and  customs  among  the  Germans,  whereby 
they  are  divided  into  High  Germans,  inhabiting  the  inland  plateau, 
and  Low. Germans,  dwelling  on  the  coast. 

The  Riomans  divided  the  (Tcrmans  (Germani)^  either  into  two  sec- 
tions, the  Sueoi  and  the  non-Suevi  (Usesar),  or  into  three  branches 
which  were  named  after  the  sons  of  ''  Mannus,  the  son  of  the  earth-bom 
god  Tuisco,'*  Istasvones,  Ingceoones,  Herminones,    The  former  division 

1  The  ori^n  of  this  name  is  doubtfal.  See  the  disputed  passage  in  Taoitu^ 
G§rmania,  2. 


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164  Ancient  Hi$tory.  b.  c-a.  d. 

IB  thoaght  to  correspond  to  that  of  High  (Suevi)  and  Low  Germans  ; 
the  latter  answers  territorially  to  the  fusions  of  tribes  which  later 
formed  the  FrankSy  SaxonSy  and  Thurmgians,  Of  the  separate  tribes 
may  be  mentioned:  I.  Non-Suevi:  Ist»yones,  UhU^  UsipH,  TencterUj 
SugawJbrij  Manij  on  the  ri^ht  bank  of  the  Rhine  where  we  find  later 
tiie  Alamanni  and  Ripuanan  Frankt ;  Ingnvonee,  BcUaoian»y  Fri- 
sians,  Saxongy  Chauciy  Cimbrit  along  the  coast  from  the  Rhine  to  the 
right  bank  of  the  Elbe.  II.  Suevi,  ChaXtiy  in  Hessen,  Cherusci  on 
the  Upper  Weser,  Hermunduri  in  Thorinfia,  extending  as  far  as  the 
Danube  (these  three  were  included  under  the  Herminanes),  Marc-  i 
omanni  in  Bohemia  (see  below^,  Quadi  on  the  Danube,  SemnoMS,  the 
centre  of  what  seems  to  have  oeen  a  very  loose  political  organization 
of  the  Sueoi,  between  the  Elbe  and  Oder,  Langobardi,  Rugii  in  the 
northeast  towurd  the  Vistula,  Btir^uruf tones  on  the  Oder,  GuUone$ 
(later  Goths)  extending  beyond  the  Vistula,  Vandali,  Alani  (?). 

In  Denmark  dwelt  the  Saxons^  Angles,  and  Jutes,  until  the  fifth 
century  A.  D.,  when  a  large  part  of  these  tribes  migrated  to  England, 
and  their  place  was  taken  by  Danes  from  the  islands  on  the  £. 

n.  Soandinavia  was  occupied  by  Finnish  tribes  (^SiUmes),  from 
the  N.,  and  by  invading  Germans  from  the  S.  at  an  unknown  time  : 
GautcB  (Goths),  Sueones  (Swedes)  in  Sweden  ;  Northmen  in  Norway. 

III.  Brltiah  lales.    See  pp.  36  and  176. 

Religion :  The  religion  of  the  Teutonic  race  was  a  pantheistic 
nature  worship.  I.  Qermans :  Beyond  the  unsatisfactory  passages 
in  Cesar  (Bell.  Gall.  YL  21)  and  Tacitus  (Germania  9, 10,  etc.),  all 
our  knowledge  of  the  ancient  religion  of  the  (Tcrmans  before  the 
introduction  of  Roman  civilization  and  of  Christianity  is  derived 
by  inference  from  later  sources,  or  from  the  younger  but  much  fuller 
mythology  of  Scandinavia.  Among  the  great  gods  (Ases)  of  the 
Grermans  wero :  "Woden  (Odin  in  the  north),  the  '*  all-nither " ; 
Donar  (Thor),  his  son,  at  once  the  storm-god,  and  the  god  of  agri- 
culture ;  Zio  or  Thin  (Tyr)  also  a  son  of  Woden,  god  of  war  ;  Fro 
(Freyr),  god  of  love ;  Paltar  (Baldur),  god  of  justice  ;  Nertfans 
or  Hertha  (Frau  Bertha),  the  earth  ;  Fran-wa  (FreycL)^  sister  of 
Fro  ;  Friga  (Frio),  wife  of  Woden  ;  Helia  (HeJ)  goddess  of  the 
lower  regions.  Below  the  Ases  were  the  Giants,  the  Names  or  fates, 
the  WaUcyres  or  messengers  of  the  gods.  In  the  realm  of  lower 
mythology  the  (Tcrman  imagination  was  remarkably  fertile.  Fairies, 
ceroids,  eloes,  nixes,  abounded,  add  still  live  in  childrens'  tales,  and  the 
many  popular  fancies  which  the  modem  study  of  folk  loro  has  revealed. 

The  Germans  had  no  corporation  of  priests  like  that  of  the  Druids, 
though  the  priests  and  priestesses  of  certain  divinities  stood  in  high 
honor.  Their  worship  consisted  in  the  repetition  of  formal  invocations, 
and  in  the  offering  of  sacrifices,  prisoners  being  often  immolated  to 
2he  gods.  Woods  and  trees  wero  held  in  special  reveronce  and  often 
devoted  to  the  performance  of  worship  beneath  their  branches.  Cer- 
tain days  wero  set  apart  for  the  worship  of  certain  deities,  whose 
names  have  come  down  to  us  in  the  names  of  the  days  of  the  week. 
Tuesday  (Thiu'sdag),  Wednesday  (Woden'sdag),  Thursday  (Thor's- 
dag,  Donnerstag),  Friday  (Froya'sdag).    Some  of  the  customs  ol 

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B.  C.-A.  D.  Teutons.  165 

these  lecnrring  f estiYities  were  afterwards  impressed  into  the  senrioe 
of  Christiaiiitj.  Such  was  the  decoration  of  trees  with  flower^ 
wreaths  and  candles,  now  a  part  of  Christmas  rites,^  and  such  the 
colored  eggs  in  a  <<  hare's  nest,"  now  an  Easter  custom,  but  originallj 
an  offering  to  some  heathen  divinity.  Divinations  by  flight  of  birds, 
neighing  of  horses,  throwing  sticks,  etc. 

n.  Scandinavia  :  The  faith  of  the  northern  Teutons  was  one  of  ' 
the  most  remarkable  of  the  heathen  religions,  and  one  of  the  last  in 
Europe  to  yield  to  Christianity.  After  being  long  transmitted  by 
hearsay  the  northern  mvthology  was  first  committed  to  writing  in 
the  poem  of  the  Elder  JBdda  in  the  twelfth,  or  as  some  schokrs  hold, 
in  the  thirteenth  century.  The  poem  is  supplemented  by  the  com- 
mentary known  as  the  Younger  Edda^  written  by  Snorri  Sturluson 
(117a-1241). 

In  the  beginning  existed  the  All-Eather. ,  In  chaos  (Ginungagap) 
he  created  two  worlds,  Niflkeim,  the  ice-world,  in  the  north,  and 
Mutpelheimf  ike  fire-world,  where  sat  Surt  with  the  flaming  sword, 
in  the  south.  Midway  of  the  two  their  opposing  influences  produced 
the  giant  Ymer,  who  oeoame  the  progenitor  of  the  evil  race  of  {tos^ 
giants  (HrynUhurses).  Ymer  was  f^  by  the  milk  of  the  cow  Aud'' 
hionbra,  who  Ucked  the  ice-blocks  and  set  free  the  eod  Bure,  te  whom 
a  giant's  daughter  bore  three  sons,  Odin,  Vile,  and  Ve.  These  three 
slew  YmeTf  in  the  deluge  of  whose  blood  perished  all  the  frost-giants, 
save  two,  who  became  we  ancestors  of  a  new  race  of  frost-giants.  Of 
the  body  of  Ymer  the  gods  formed  the  universe,  the  earth,  the  sky  and 
the  stars.  Dwarfs  were  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  earth.  After^ 
wards  the  first  man  and  woman  were  created  from  two  trees. 

The  universe  thus  formed  comprised  nine  worlds.  Of  these  the 
highest  was  Mvapeikemy  in  whose  highest  part  was  GimUf  the  abode 
of  the  blest.  Below  Muspelheim  was  Asdheim,  or  Godheimy  where 
dwelt  the  great  gods  (Asa)  in  their  capital,  Asgard^  with  its  lofty 
halls,  the  Surest  of  which  was  Valhal,  the  hall  of  Odin.  Below 
Godheim  was  Marmaheim,  or  Midgardy  the  earth,  a  disk  of  land  sur- 
rounded by  the  ocean  and  held  together  by  the  Midgard^erpeni 
which  lay  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  its  tail  between  its  jaws. 
Across  the  ocean  was  Jotunheimy  the  world  of  the  giants,  whose  one 
purpose  was  the  annoyance  of  mankind,  on  which  account  they  were 
perpetually  at  war  with  man's  defenders,  the  gods  of  Godheim.  Be- 
low the  earth  was  Hethewiy  the  world  of  the  dead,  and,  lowest  of  all, 
Niftheim,  with  the  fountain  Hvergelmer.  Bifrousty  the  bridge  between 
Godheim  and  Mcmnaheim.  GjaUar-bridge  between  Helhem^  Jotun- 
ieim  and  the  worlds  above. 

These  worlds  were,  in  the  fancy  of  the  north,  surrounded  and 
united  by  a  mighty  ash-tree,  Yggdrasily  with  three  roots  reaching  to 
Godheiniy  Jotunkeimy  and  NWiam. 

The  great  gods  were  Odin  and  his  sons :  ThoTy  Valiy  HaimdaUy 
VidoTy  BalduTy  BragOy  Tyvy  HdduTy  besides  AUer,  Forseley  and  NjOrdy 

1  In  Germtmy  the  tree  is  Bimply  decorf^fied,  the  presents  to  be  exchanged  are 
piled  arotmd  the  support  of  the  tree  or  placed  on  an  adjacent  table.  The  ez- 
thange  of  gifts  was  not  a  part  of  the  old  Grerroan  custom,  but  is  perhaps  a  sur- 
vival of  a  practice  observed  by  the  Romans  dorifig  the  ScUumalta  (p.  85). 

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166  Ancient  History.  b.  c.-a.  d. 

FreyTf  aea  gods,  and  L<^,  Of  the  eoddesses  the  chief  were  Frigga^ 
wife  of  Odin,  FreyjcLj  goddess  of  love,  Saga^  goddess  of  history. 
Ahove  all  the  ^[ods  were  the  Nomes,  or  fates.  E^low  the  eods  were 
elves,  trolls,  witches,  etc.  Exploits  of  the  gods.  Especially  famous 
were  the  dealings  of  Thor  with  the  eiants.  After  the  creation  fol- 
,  lowed  a  golden  age  when  all  was  weU  in  Grodheim,  hut  after  a  time 
evil  crept  in  personified  as  Loke.  Death  of  Bcddur^  killed  through 
the  contrivance  of  Loke  hy  his  brother  Hodur  with  a  sprig  of  mistle- 
toe, Friffea  having  bound  all  other  created  things  not  to  hurt  Baldur. 
Loke^s  children  were  the  Fmri$~wol/,  chained  until  the  coming  of 
Ragnaroky  the  MidgardTserpent,  and  Hel.  Binding  of  Loke.  Finally 
comes  the  end  of  the  world,  Ragnarok,  the  T¥might  of  the  Grods. 
Battle  of  the  Asa^gods  with  the  Midgard-serpent,  Loke,  and  the 
Fenrifl-wolf ,  who  have  broken  their  chains.  The  good  and  the  bad 
alike  perish  in  the  combat  Surt  consumes  YggdrtuU  and  the  whole 
world  in  flames.  Vidar,  Vale,  Hddur,  Baldur,  and  the  sons  of  Thor 
survive.    A  new  earth  and  a  new  heaven  are  created. 

According  to  the  belief  of  the  Northmen,  all  good  men  and  all  who 
died  in  bafile  crossed  over  the  bridge  Bifroust  (the  rainbow)  to 
Yalhal,  where  they  spent  their  days  feasting  and  fighting,  until 
Ragnarok  when  they  passed  to  Ginde.  Cowards  and  evu-doers  were 
punished  in  Hdheinit  and  after  Ragnarok  in  Naostrand.^ 

CiTillxation  :  It  is  probable  that  the  Germans  had  not  completed 
the  transition  from  a  pastorat  to  an  agricultural  people,  when  they 
arrived  in  central  Europe.  They  were  certainly  m  a  low  stage  of 
civilization  when  they  became  known  to  the  Romans,  a  stage  not  un- 
like that  reached  by  the  most  advanced  of  the  American  Indians,  the 
Iroquois.  Cities  were  unknown  to  them  ;  they  seem  to  have  settled 
for  the  most  part  each  individual  apart,  each  tribe  separated  from 
the  other  by  a  broad  strip  of  mark-land.*  Orders  :  1.  Nobles^  who 
derived  their  descent  from  the  ^^ods,  but  were  entitled  to  no  political 
privileges  because  of  their  nobihty.  2.  Freemen,  that  is,  land-owners, 
men  bom  to  arms,  the  work  upon  whose  land  was  done  by  their 
bondmen;  out  of  this  class  developed  later  the  lower  ndbuity.  3. 
Freedmen  (Hti,  l<u8en\  or  half-freemen,  renters  bound  to  military 
service,  but  excluded  from  ^be  ownership  of  land,  from  the  popular 
assembly,  and  from  the  courts.  4.  Servants  or  bondmen,  m  ^brt 
serfs  bound  to  the  soil  (gleba  adscriptt),  in  part  actual  slaves.  The 
latter  two  classes  formed  the  majority  of  the  population. 

Custom  of  oomradeship  (gasindi  leudes),  out  of  which  the  feudal 
syatem  developed  after  the  occupation  of  the  Roman  provinces  and 
the  division  of  land  among  the  faithful  (fdeles^t  and  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Christian  reuffion.  Feudal  superior  (suzerain).  Vas- 
sen,  vassals,  or  men ;  fief  (^feudum  or  heneficiwn^y  held  on  tenure  of 
service,  distinct  from  allodwm,  property  in  fee  simple. 

1  The  relation  of  these  myths  to  Christianity,  the  extent  to  which  thev  have 
been  influenced  by  acquaintance  with  the  Scnptnres,  is  a  subject  of  active  in- 

Iuiry,  but  nothing  can  as  yet  be  said  to  be  definitely  determined.    See  fiusge, 
^ntitehung  der  Ndrdiichen  GdtUr, 

s  Whoever  desires  to  become  involved  in  that  most  hopeless  of  all  historical 
Questions,  the  social  and  political  organization  of  the  ancient  Germans,  is  r» 
4rred  ta  Waita,  VtrfoitungigtachichU^  where  references  will  be  found. 


uigitized  Dy  >^JV7' 


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jft.  C.-A.  D.  Teutons.  167 

History :  L  The  date  of  the  first  arrival  of  Teutons  in  Europe  is 
wholly  unknown.  Pytheas  of  MimsAlia,  who  visited  the  amber  coasts 
of  the  Baltic  about  350  b.  c,  met  with  German  tribes.  From  that 
tune  on  only  the  bare  introduction  of  the  word  Grermani  in  the  Roman 
ftnnals  for  225  B.  o.  hints  at  any  knowledge  of  the  Teutons  until  the 
close  of  the  second  century  b.  c,  when  the  tribes  of  the  Cimbri  and 
T'euUmes  left  their  homes  at  the  base  of  the  Danish  peninsula  (driven 
from  them  by  a  flood?)  and,  after  humiliating  the  Roman  arms  in 
Gaul,  foimd  Uieir  death  on  the  fields  of  Aquie  Sextise  and  VercelliB 
(102,  101,  B.  c.f  p.  127).  The  terrors  of  the  invasion  died  away, 
but  the  Romans  did  not  come  again  into  contact  with  the  Grermans 
imtil  CiBsar's  invasion  of  Gaul  brought  on  a  contest  with  the  Suevian 
prince  Ariomstus  which  ended  in  the  latter's  defeat  (58  b.  c).  Sub- 
jugation of  the  Germans  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  Csssar's  two 
expeditions  across  the  Rhine  (58,  55,  p.  139). 

tinder  Augustus,  systematic  attempt  to  subjugate  Germania  magna. 
Conquest  of  itoia  and  Noricum  by  Dnuus  (15),  of  Pannonia  and 
VmaeUeia.  Expeditions  of  Dmsus  from  the  Rhine  :  1.  With  the 
fleet  on  tiie  Enu  (12)  ;  2.  Against  the  Cherusci  on  the  Weser^  foun- 
dation of  the  citadel  Aliao  (11) ;  3.  Along  the  Main  to  the  Werra 
and  Elbe  (9).  Le^nd  of  the  **  white  woman."  Death  of  Drusus. 
His  successor  Tibenus,  reduced  all  the  tribes  between  the  Rhine  and 
the  Elbe  to  submission  and  began  the  active  construction  of  fortresses 
and  colonies.  The  folly  of  l^berius'  successor,  Vartu,  alienated  the 
Germans  and  led  to  revolt.  Under  Amdniusj  one  of  the  nobles  of  the 
Cherusci,  three  Roman  leeions  were  annihilated  in  the  three  days' 
battle  in  the  Teutoburg  Firest  ^  (9  a.  d.  ?).  Augustus  gave  up  &e 
hope  of  subjugating  the  (Tcrmans,  and  later  emperors  did  not  revive  it. 
E^qpeditions  of  Germanicus  in  revenge  for  the  Teutoburg  massacre,  14, 
15,  16.  Thenceforward  the  Romans  were  contented  with  maintain- 
ing their  borders  against  the  free  tribes,  and  with  colonizing  the 
land  south  of  the  Main  and  the  Danube.  line  of  fortifications  from 
Aschafftenburfft  on  the  Main,  to  Reaensburgy  on  the  Danube  (Pfahln 
araben,  Teufelsmauer\  Along  this  Ime  Roman  soldiers  were  settled  on 
land  for  t£e  rent  ot  which  thev  paid  a  tenth  of  the  produce,  hence 
agri  decumatee.  Foundation  of  colonies  :  Curia  Roetonan  (Chur)  in 
Rcetia ;  Juvenum  (Salsburg^  in  Noricum  ;  Vindobonum  (Vienna^  in 
Pannonia;  Au^ta  VindeUcorum  (Augsburg),  Castra  regina  (R&- 
gensburg)  in  Vmdelicia.  Active  intercourse  between  Rome  and  Ger- 
many. Germans  served  both  as  privates  and  as  officers  in  the  Roman 
army  (so  Arminius),    Traffic  in  amber. 

Of  the  internal  affairs  of  the  free  Germans  we  are  but  scantily 
informed.  In  the  first  century  B.  c.  a  portion  of  the  Hermunduri,  the 
Marcamanni,  had  invaded  Bohemia,  driven  out  the  Celtic  Boii  (who 
took  refuge  in  Pannonia,  where  they  were  gradiiallv  exterminated  by 
the  Roman  arms)  and  established  a  state  which,  under  Marboi^ 
(Marobodtius),  grew  to  formidable  proportions.  Intended  expedi- 
tion of  Hberius  against  Marbod  frustrated  by  the  Pannonian  revolt 
(8).  Feuds  between  the  Grerman  tribes  fostered  by  the  Romans. 
Arminius  expelled  Marbod  from  his  kingdom,  but  was  himself  miuy 
1  The  locality  has  not  been  satisfactorily  made  oat 


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168  Ancieni  Hxttory.  b.  c.-a.  d. 

• 
dered  under  snspicion  of  aiming  at  supreme  power.    The  Ckerufd^ 
Hermunduri  and  Bructeri  were  nearly  exterminated  in  internecine 
strife.    Beyolt  of  the  Batavians  under  CwUis  (p.  151).    War  of 
Marcus  Aurelius  with  the  Marcomanni  (p.  154). 

In  process  of  time  a  change  came  over  the  political  organization  of 
the  Germans.  The  multitude  of  small  tribes  disappeared  and  we 
find  in  their  stead  a  smaller  number  of  more  extensive  tribes.  At  the 
same  time  the  Slavs  began  to  press  upon  the  eastern  Grermans  and 
urge  them  westward.  The  Germans  increased  in  power  and  popula- 
tion, and  became  better  and  better  trained  in  the  arts  of  war  and 
political  intrigue  as  they  came  more  and  more  into  intimate  connec- 
tion with  Rome.  The  provincial  armies  were  largely  German  ;  Ger- 
man officers  rose  to  high  distinction  and  great  mfluenoe  in  Rome. 
So  Rome  grew  weaker  and  her  foes  stronger  until  at  last  the  im- 
pulse of  the  invading  Huns  in  the  east  set  afi  the  tribes  in  motion. 

II.  Scandinavia:  Northern  annalists  present  an  historical  Odin, 
probably  no  less  mythical  than  Odin  the  god.  According  to  these 
tales  (which,  like  some  other  mythical  history,  may  have  greater  his- 
torical value  than  the  present  credits  them  wiUi),  0dm  was  the 
leader  of  the  Asas  who  dwelt  in  Aria  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Caspian.  Attracted  to  the  falling  fortunes  of  Mithridates,  he  was 
driven  from  his  kingdom  by  Fompeius.  He  conducted  the  Asas 
westward  to  Scandinavia  where  he  subdued  Denmark,  Sweden  and 
Norway,  and  c^ve  these  countries  to  his  sons  ;  Denmark  to  Shjold, 
Sweden  to  Yngijme^  Norway  to  Seeming,  Odin  ended  his  days  in 
Sweden. 

The  history  of  Scandinavia  as  far  as  ascertained  belongs  to  the 
next  period,  and  will  be  found  on  page  207. 

III.  British  lalea.  For  the  history  of  the  Teutonic  invasion  of 
England  see  p.  176. 

§  5.    SLAVS  AKD  LITHUANIANS.    Aryan. 

These  closely  related  peoples  belong  to  the  northern  branch  of  the 
European  Aryans,  and  tneir  westward  migration  followed  that  of  the 
Teutons. 

The  Slavs  were  known  to  the  late  Roman  geographers  under  the 
name  Veneda  (hence  Wends)  as  inhabiting  die  region  beyond  the 
Vistula,  which  bore  the  general  name  of  SarmcUia,  from  the  nomadic 
Sarmatians  who  inhabited  it,  interspersed  with  the  Slavs,  from  whom 
they  differed  in  language  and  descent. 

Li  the  fifth  centiuy  A.  d.  the  Slavs  occupied  the  country  between 
the  Baltic  and  the  Black  Sea,  between  the  Carpathians  and  the  Don. 
They  dwelt  in  the  steppes  of  Russia  as  far  north  as  Novgorod  on  the 
Volga,  and  their  westernmost  limit  lay  between  the  Vistula  and 
the  Oder.  In  the  sixth  century  the  Slavs  began  to  extend  them- 
selves south  and  west,  a  movement  which  resulted  in  the  permanent 
occupation  of  Bohemia  and  of  the  Balkan  peninsula,  while  their 
settlement  extended  east  to  Tyrol.  In  623  A.  d.  temporary  formation 
of  a  Slavic  monarchy  of  great  extent  under  Samo  in  Bohemia,  which 
endured  thirty-five  years.  The  conquests  of  the  Slavs  came  to  an 
end  with  the  seventh  century,  and  the  separate  kingdoms  of  Foland^ 
Bohemia,  Russia,  were  gradually  formed. 


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.^»  D.  Slavs  and  Lithuanians.  169 

Of  the  religion  of  the  Slavs  little  is  known  with  certainty,  owing 

'fco  the  diversity  of  nomenclature  among  the  various  divisions  of  this 

"viride-spread  people,  and  to  the  lack  of  trustworthy  authorities.    Among 

t^lie  Slavs  of  the  Baltic,  who  had  a  class  of  priests  and  built  temples, 

occur  the  names  Svatovit  or  SvantovU^  god  of  light  or  of  the  air,  with 

&   temple  at  Arkona ;  TriglcUh,  the  throe-headed  god,  worshipped  in 

Pomerania  (Stettin)  ;    Radigosty  Rugevit  or  Ranomt   (in    Kiigen), 

mTaraintf  all  gods  of  war  ;  Zcemehoh,  *'  the  black  god,"  an  evil  deity. 

Tbe  Russians  worshipped  Khors,  Volos,  or  VeleSf  god  of  the  herds 

rSt.  Blaise)  ;  Koupcdo,  god  of  the  harvest ;  Jarylo,  ^>d  of  generation ; 

Stribogj  god  of  the  winds ;  Lada^  goddess  of  love  and  passion.    The 

pods  were  worshipped  by  offerings  of  fruit  and  animals,  seldom  by 

Buman  sacrifices. 

The  Slavs  were  a  p^toral  and  agricultural  people.  All  inhab- 
itants of  the  same  district  were  kinsmen,  bearin£p  a  common  name,  liv- 
ing under  the  rule  of  an  elected  elder,  and  holding  property  in  con^ 
mon.  A  union  of  such  districts  formed  a  tribe ;  a  union  of  tribes 
formed  a  people. 

The  Idthuanians  play  no  part  in  history  before  the  thirteenth 
eentury.  In  the  wider  sense  the  name  includes  the  Letts  and  the 
ancient  Prussians,  who  were  known  to  the  Komans  as  ^sttd.  In  the 
narrower  sense  it  is  limited  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  region  between 
the  Memel  and  the  Finnish  Esthonians. 


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IL   MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY. 


FIRST  PERIOD. 

FROM  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  MIGRATIONS  OF  THE  NORTHERN 
TRIBES  TO  THE  TREATY  OF  VERDUN »  (375-843). 

{ 1.    mGRATIONS  OF  THE  NORTHERN  PEOPLES. 
Habitatioiui  of  the  Oemianio  tribes  In  tbe  fourth  oentnry  a.  d. 

Alanif  whose  Gremum  descent  is,  however,  not  certain,  on  the  lower 
Volga ;  Eiut  Goths  in  Bouthem  Russia ;  West  Goths  in  Dacia  (eastern 
Han^;ary,  Ronmania);  Vandals  in  Pannonia  (sotUhioestem  Hunsary); 
Suem  in  Moravia,  Bohemia,  and  Bavaria;  Burgundians  on  the  Neckar 
and  the  Rhine,  with  Worms  as  their  capital  ?compure  p.  164);  AlO" 
manni  (or  Alemanni)  on  the  Rhine,  between  tne  Main  and  the  Alps, 
^irtly  alonf  the  Roman  boondary  wall  (affri  decumates);  Ripuanan 
Franks  on  both  sides  of  the  lower  Rhine  fcapital  at  Coionia  Affrip- 
pina);  Salic  Franks  on  the  mouths  of  the  Rhine  (in  Meergau,  "dis- 
trict on  the  sea,"  the  Meruwe,  hence  Merowinaians  ;)  *  Saxons  from 
the  Elbe  almost  to  the  Rhine  ;  Thuringians  sou&  of  the  Saxons ;  Zan- 
gcbards  on  the  lower  Elbe. 

The  peoples  which  appear  in  the  so-called  migrations  of  the  peoples 
were  generally  heterogeneous  armed  bands  under  the  command  of  a 
leader  or  king  chosen  for  his  military  prowess  (HeerkSnig). 

375.    Beffizminff  of  the  migratioxi  of  the  Teutonic 
tribes. 

Period  of  migratioiiB  and  invasionB. 

The  Huns,  a  Monsrolian  race,  crossed  the  Volga. 

Hie  Huns,  joined  by  the  Alani,  whom  they  had  defeated,  fell  up^on 
the  East  Goths  (kine  Ermanaric  or  Hermanric,  of  the  family 
of  the  Amali),  and,  m  union  with  these,  upon  the  West  Goths. 

That  part  of  the  West  Gothic  race  which  had  remained  heathen 
tooK  refuge  in  the  Carpathians ;  the  Christians,*  and  those  who 

1  Asamann,  Getchichte  dt$  MiUelaltert,  2d  edition,  by  B.  Meyer. 

s  According  to  other  Bcholars  the  name  was  a  patronymic. 

s  A  Gothic  bishop  (Theophilos)  took  part  in  the  council  of  Nic»a  (825). 
Wulflla  (Ulfilan),  bishop  of  the  West  Goths  (34&-381),  translator  of  the  Bibla; 
cf .  Dahn,  Die  KOnigt  der  (#ennanen,  Yl.  41. 


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A.  D.  Migratiam  of  the  Northern  Peoples.  171 

weie  JQBt  on  the  point  of  neeepixaf  Cbristiamtj  (in  the  form 
of  Arianiain),  were  allotted  habitataons  in  MoeHa  by  the  em- 
peror Valens,  Disputes  wifh  the  Roman  officials  at  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Danabe  (Fridigem,  leader  of  the  West  Goths)  led 
to  war,  and  the  Goths  advanced,  ravaging  as  they  went. 

878.    Battle  of  Adrianople.  Valens  defeated  and  slain.  His 
successor,  Theodosius,  made  peace  with  the  West  Goths,  who, 
for  pay  and  the  gift  of  a  dwelling-place,  were  to  protect  the 
frontiers  of  the  Roman  Empire  SAjcederati, 
Alaxlo,  leader  of  the  West  Gotns,  belonging  to  the  family  of  the 
Balthi  (i.  e.  **bold  **)  enraged  at  not  receiving  pay  from  ArcadiuSf  laid 
waste  Macedonia,  Illyria,  and  Greece  (395]),  and  advanced  into  Pelo- 
ponnesus.   BtUlcho,  mazier  tUriusoue  milttioB  of  the  Western  Empire 
(p.  161),  came  to  the  assistance  of  the  Eastern  court    Landing  with 
an  army  at  Corinth  he  surrounded  the  West  Goths,  but  allowed  them 
to  escape.    Alaric  went  to  Bl^rria,  and  compelled  the  court  at  Byzan- 
tium to  reeognize  him  as  dux  m  lllyricum  orieatale. 
40L    Alarlo's  first  invasion  of  Italy.    After  a  victory  at  Aquileia 
he  crossed  the  Pa    StUicho  hastened  from  Baetia  to  meet 


402.  Drawn  battle  at  Pollentta.  Alaric  made  another  attempt  to 
advance  southward,  but  was  compelled  to  return  to  Ulyna  by 
disease,  hunger,  and  desertion. 

404-406.  German  bfunds  under  Radagaie  invaded  Italy,  but  were 
defeated  by  StUi4^  at  Fcesuke,  and  annihilated  by  continued 
fighting  and  by  hunger. 

406-409.  Bands  of  Vandals,  Snavl,  and  Alanl  left  the  regions 
along  the  Danube,  crossed  the  Rhine,  sustained  great  loss  in 
contests  with  the  Franks,  and  finally  (409)  invad^  Spain. 

Foandation  of  Tentonio  monarchies  In  Roman  territory. 

The  Salian  Franks  gradually  occupied  northern  Gaul.    The 

Bnrgnndians  settled  (406-413)  on  the  middle  Rhine  (Wonm). 

408.    Stilicho  murdered  by  the  command  of  the  emperor  Honorius 

(p.  161). 

Alario's  second  invasion  of  Italy.    He  besieged  Rome,  but  retired 

on  receipt  of  a  ransom.    The  court  at  Ravenna  refusing  to  grant 

Alaric's  request  that  the  Goths  should  be  assigned  lands  for  a  ]>er- 

manent  settlement  in  northern  Italy,  Alario  again  advanced  upon 

Rome,  and  forced  the  senate  to  appoint  AttaluSf  prefect  of  the  city, 

emperor.     Alario  besieged  Hononue  in  Ravenna  without  success, 

quarrelled  with  Attains,  whom  he  deposed,  and  advanced  for  the  third 

tmie  upon  Rome. 

410*  Capture  and  sack  of  Borne  by  Alaric.  Alaric  went 
to  Lower  Italy  with  the  intention  of  crossing  to  Sicily,  and 
thence  to  Africa,  but  died  at  the  close  of  410,  at  CosenzOt  and 
was  buried  beneath  the  Busento. 

410-416.  Athaulf,  brother  of  Alaric's  wife,  led  the  West  Goths  to 
Graul,  though  whether  in  fulfilment  of  a  treaty  with  Honorios 


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172  Mediaval  History.  ▲.  d. 

to  legist  the  Bomans,  who  had  forced  their  way  into  the  proTinoe,  or 
of  his  own  acoord«  is  uncertain.  He  carried  with  him  the  sister  of 
Honorios,  who  was  detained  as  a  hostage  in  the  Gothic  camp,  and  ma^ 
zied  her  in  Narbonne  (414).  The  proposed  treaty  with  the  imperial 
court  was  not,  however,  concluded.  Athaulf ,  hard  pressed  by  the  im- 
perial general  ConstanduSf  went  to  Spain,  conquered  BarceUma,  and 
was  murdered  (416).     After  the  murder  of  his  successor,  Sigricy 

415-419.  "Wa^a  became  king  of  the  West  Goths.  He  concluded  a 
treaty  with  Honorius,  and  fought  for  Rome  against  Vandals, 
Alani,  and  Suevi.  He  received  a  erant  of  southern  Gaul  under 
Roman  supremacy.     Walja  was  the  founder  of  the 

415-507,  West  Gothic  (Visigothio)  kingdom  of  To- 
losa,  with  its  capital  at  Tolosa  (Toulouse),  which  soon  became 
independent.^ 

429.  King  Qenaerio  {GeiMric)  conducted  the  Vandals  and  a  portion 
of  the  Alani  to  Africa,  at  the  invitation,  as  the  story  goes,*  of  the 
Roman  governor  Bonifacius,  The  latter  was  slandered  at  court 
hy  AetiuSy  and  accused  of  treason,  but,  making^  his  peace  with 
Pkundia,  the  mother  and  guardian  of  the  Emperor  VaUn- 
tmian  ///.,  he  fought  unsuccessfully  against  Genseric,  who, 
after  a  short  peace  with  the  Romans  (435),  conquered  Car- 
thage (439). 

429-534,  Kingdom  of  the  Vandals  in  Africa.  Capital, 
Carthage  (S.  Augvstvnus,  bishop  of  Hippo  Begius  t430). 

440.  The  Vandals,  having  created  a  great  naval  power,  plundered 
the  coasts  of  Sicily  and  lower  Italy,  by  their  fleets. 

443.  The  Burgtindiana  settled  on  the  upper  Rhdne  and  on  the 
Sadne  ;  tiie  Alamannl  extended  themselves  over  the  Roman 
province  of  Germania  superior  (hence  called  Alsace),  and 
also  occupied  a  part  of  Switzerland,  east  of  the  Bnrgnndian 
territory. 

449.  The  Angles  and  Sazona,  long  known  as  pirates  along  the 
coasts  of  the  (rerman  Ooean,  and  having  settlements  on  the 
coast  of  Flanders  (lUus  Saxonicvm^,  were  called  in  by  the  Brit- 
onSf  after  the  wiuidrawal  of  the  Roman  legions  from  Britain, 
to  assist  them  in  repelling  the  robber  tribes  of  the  north- 
em  mountains,  the  Picts  and  Scots.  The  Saxons  and  Angles 
crossed  to  Britain  (according  to  tradition,  the  first  bands  were 
led  by  Hengist  and  HorsaU  and  founded  in  the  course  of  time 
8  states:  AenT,  Sussex,  tVessex,  Essex,  East  AngUa,  Mercia, 
Deim,  Bemicia,  The  last  two  were  later  united  to  form 
Northumbria  (north  of  the  Humber);  hence  the  number  of 
states  was  then  7  (heptarchy). 
The  Britons   for  the  most  part  migrated  to  Wales,  and  to  Ar* 

fnorioa  in  Gaul,  which  was  hence  called  Breiagne  (Brittany). 
For  the  details  of  the  settlements,  see  p.  176. 

1  Cf.  Dahn,  Die  Kdnige  der  Germmen,  Pt.  V. 
s  Thu  is  denied  by  the  more  recent  authorities. 
*  See,  however,  p.  38. 


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A.  D.  Miffrationg  of  the  Northern  Peoples.  178 

451.  AttUa  (Etzely  « Scourge  of  God"),  king  of  the  Hnna  (in  his 

train  armed  bands  of  Germanic  peoples,  whom  he  had  sub- 
jected, East  Goths,  GepidcB^  etc.),  mvaded  and  ravaged  QaoL 
He  besieged  Orlddns  in  vain. 
Battle  on  the  Catalannian  fields  (near  Chahns-sur-Mame;  the 
battle-field  itself  was  at  Troyes),  Attila  defeated  by  Aetitis, 
the  Roman  governor  of  the  small  district  around  Lutetia,  which 
alone  remained  in  possession  of  the  Romans,  and  the  West 
Goths  (with  the  aid  of  auxiliaries  from  the  Franks,  Burgundians^ 
etc.).     Tkeodoric  /.,  king  of  the  West  Goths,  fell  in  the  battle. 

452.  Attila  went  to  Italy,  destroyed  Aquileia.    Venice  founded 

by  Italian  fugitives.  Rome  saved  by  Bishop  Leo  (?). 
After  the  death  of  Attila  (453)  the  monarchy  of  the 
Huns  fell  asunder. 

Not  only  the  German  tribes  which  had  been  subjugated  by  the 
Huns  became  free  (the  Gtpidcs  were  the  first  to  shake  off  the  yoke); 
the  Slavlo  peoplea  also  regained  their  Ubertv.  During  the  following 
centuries  these  latter  tribes  extended  themselves  throughout  the  east- 
em  parts  of  Germany. 
455.  Rome,  after  the  murder  of  Valentlnian  m.,  by  Maximus, 

plundered  for  14  days  by  the  Vandals,  who  had  been  called  in 

by  Endozia,  widow  of  V alentinian. 
The  Vandals  controlled  the  entire  northern  coast  of  Africa  as  &r 

as  Gyrene,  and  the  islands  of  the  western  Mediterranean. 

476.  Odovakar  (Odoacer),  leader  of  Herulian  and  other 
Grerman  bands  in  the  pay  of  Rome,  became  ruler  in 
Italy,  after  the  deposition  of  the  last  emperor  of  the 
West  (p.  162). 

There  was  no  conquest  of  the  western  empire  by  Odovakar,  but 
the  line  of  Emperors  in  the  "West  came  to  an  end  in  consequence 
of  domestic  revolution,  and  thereby  the  last  bond  was  broken  which  had 
united  the  provinces,  long  since  occupied  by  the  barbarians,  who, 
however,  had  usually  nominally  recognized  the  supremacy  of  the 
Imperator  or  Augustus  in  Ravenna, 

486.  Battle  of  Soissons.  The  Merowingian  Chlodwig 
(Chlodowech,  Clovis,  481-511),  leader  of  the  Salic 
Franks,  defeated  the  Roman  governor  Syagrius,  the 
sujccessor  of  Aetius. 

Kingdom  of  the  Franks  in  northern  Graul.  Chlodwig 
by  cruelty  and  deceit  made  himself  sole  ruler  of  all 
the  Franks. 

496.  Victory  of  Chlodwig  over  the  Alnmannl  (not  at  Tolbiacnm 
or  Ziilpich).^  Conversion  of  Chlodwig  and  the  Franks  to 
Catholic    Christianity.    Chlodwig   Mptized  by  RemigiuSf 

1  Assmann,  I.  53. 


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174  Mediaval  Hiitory.  ▲.  d. 

bishop  of  Rheims  (MiHs  depone  coUa  Stgamber^  adora  quod 
incendistif  incende  quod  adorasti). 

49i3.  Theodorio  the  Qreat  (493-^26),  after  having  de- 
feated Odovakar,  with  whom  he  had  been  at  war  since 
489,  founded  the 

493-555.  Kingdom  of  the  East  Qoths  (Ostrogoths)  in 
Italy. 

Residence  Ravenna,  at  times  Verona,  hence  in  the  hero  romances : 
Dietrich  von  Bern.    Casaiodorus,  historian.    Boethins  {de  con 
soiatione  philo8ophia)j  and  Symmaobas,  executed  (525). 
500.  Chlodwigy  king  of  the  Franks,  attacked  the  Bur^ondians,  to 
reyenge  himself  on  Cfundobad,  the  ancle  of  his  wife  CUotUde, 
for  i£e  murder  of  her  father,  defeated  them  at  Dyon,  and 
made  them  tributary  to  the  Franks. 
507.  Chlodwig  defeated  the  West  Goths  at  Vouill^,  or  Vonlon,^ 
on  the   Ciatn,  a  branch  of  the  Vienne,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Poitiers. 

The  West  Goths,  assisted  by  the  East  Goths,  defeated  the  Franks 
at  Aries,  and  maintained  their  control  of  Sepdmania  (the  coast  be- 
tween the  Rhdne  and  Pyrenees). 

Theodoric  the  Great  united  a  part  of  southern  €raul  to  the  king- 
dom of  the  East  Goths,  and  undertook  the  eovemment  of  that  pairt 
which  the  West  Goths  retained,  as  well  as  of  the  Spanish  possessions 
of  that  people,  as  the  giuurdian  of  their  king,  his  grandson  Ama- 
laric,  a  minor  (son  of  Ataric  II,),  and  retained  it  till  ms  death  (526), 
which  first  severed  the  connection  of  the  two  Gothic  kingdoms. 

507  (526)-711.  West  Oothio  (Visigothic)  Kingdom  in 
Spain,  with  its  capital  at  Toledo. 

526.  After  the  death  of  Theodoric,  his  daughter- ilmatotmMa  be- 
came regent  in  the  East  Gothic  kingdom  for  her  son  AthaJLaric. 
The  latter  died  young  (^4),  and  his  mother  associated  with 
herself  as  co-regent  her  cousin  Theodahad  (^Theodat),  who 
murdered  her,  thereby  causing 

535-^155.   War  between  the  East  Goths  and  the  Eastern  Empire. 

533-534.  Beliseurius,  general  of  Justinian,  Emperor  of  the 
East  (627-665),  destroyed  the  Vandal  power  in  Africa. 

Decay  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Vandals  after  the  death  of 

Genseric  (477).     Hilderic  deposed  by  Gelimer,  whom  Beli- 
*   sarius  captured. 

Brilliant  campaign  of  Bdisarius  against  Vitiges,  king  of  the 
540.    East  G^ths,  whom  he  carried  captive  to  Constantinople. 

Belisarius,  after  he  had  declined  the  Italian  crown,  offered 

him  by  the  East  Goths,  was  dispatched  by  Justinian  against 

the  Persians. 
During  his  absence  the   East  Groths,  under  their  new  king 

TotiSif  reconquered  the  greater  part  of  Italy. 

1  Dahn,  Die  Kdnige  d.  Germ,  V.  109. 

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▲.  D.  Migratiom  of  ike  Northern  Peaplei.  175 

644-549.  Belisorius,  sent  afsdn  to  Italy,  foujrht  with  yaiying  buo- 
cess,  bat  with  increasmg  fame,  against  Totila.  He  recaptured 
Rome.  After  Belisarius  had  been  again  recalled,  Rome  was  a 
second  time  taken  hy  Totila. 

£52.  Naraes,  the  successor  of  Belisarius,  defeated  TotUa  at  Taginas 
or  Busta  GaUorum.    Totila  fell  on  the  field. 

553.  The  last  kin^^  of  the  East  Goths,  Tefoy  fell  in  the  battle  of 
Mons  ladanus  (near  Vesuvius). 

555.  Narsea  destroyed  the  kingdom  of  the  East  Goths.  Ex- 
archate. 

568'774,  Kingdom  of  the  Langobards  (Lombards)  in 
Italy.  Alboin. 

Alboin,  with  the  help  of  the  Avars  (on  the  lower  Danube),  de- 
stroyed the  kingdom  of  the  Gepidcs  and  married  Rosamunda,  the 
daughter  of  the  long  of  the  Grepidse.  At  the  head  of  his  Lanffo- 
bards,  with  the  aid  of  Saxons  and  Slavs,  he  conquered  Italy  as  far 
south  ajs  the  Tiber.  Capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Lan^bards, 
Pavia  (Fapia).  The  Langobards  conquered  almost  the  entire  Ex- 
archate of  the  Byzantines,  who  retained  only  Venice,  Ravenna,  Naples, 
and  Calabria.  Rome  (duccOtts  Ramce)  became  gradually  indepen- 
dent under  its  bishops.  {Patrimonium  Petri.) 

After  Alboin  had  been  murdered  by  Rosamund,  because,  as  the 
story  goes,  he  attempted,  during  a  carouse,  to  force  her  to  drink 
from  her  father's  sknU,  his  successor  Cleph  pushed  his  conquests  to 
lower  Italy,  where  independent  Langobardian  duchies,  like  Bene- 
ventum,  were  established.  After  an  interregnum  of  ten  years  his 
son  Anthari  was  recognized  as  king.  Through  the  influence  of  his 
wife,  Theodelinde,  a  Bavarian  princess,  the  conversion  of  the  Lango- 
bards to  Christianity  was  begfun. 

Among  the  successors  of  Authari  the  following  deserve  mention : 
Rotharl,  in  whose  reign  the  famous  code  of  laws  of  the  Langobards 
appeared  (644)  ;  QrSnoald,  duke  of  Beneventum,  who  violently 
usurped  the  throne  and  completed  the  conversion  of  the  Langobards  ; 
Llntprand  (717-744),  who  made  further  additions  to  the  code  of 
the  Langobards;  and  Alatulf  (750-756),  whose  attempt  to  conquer 
Rome  was  frustrated  by  Pipiii,  king  of  the  Franks  (p.  184). 
585.  Kingdom  of  the  Sueui  in  Spain  united  with  that  of  the  West 
Groths,  who,  like  all  the  barbarians  that  had  adopted  A  nanism, 
were  converted  to  the  Roman  Catholic  church  (587). 
590-604.    Gregory  L  (the  Great),  bishop  of  Rome.    Beginning  of 
the  Papacy  (P^pa,  Udinras,  i.  e.  father,  formerly  the  title  of 
every  Uhristian  bishop,  soon  applied  exclusively  to  the  succes- 
sor of  St.  Peter). 


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176  Mediavcd  JBislory,  A.  d. 


§  2.    TEUTONIC  KINGDOMS  IN  BRITAIN. 

From  the  first  invasions  to  the  supremacy  of  Ecgberht 
449  (?)-828. 

Roman  Britain. 

Politioal  dlTiaiona:  1.  Britannia  primal  S.  of  the  Thames  and 
the  Severn  (Cantii,  Regni,  Beige,  Atrehates,  Durotriges,  Doninonii). 
2.  Britannia  secunda,  Wales  (Silures,  Demote,  Ordoidce^  3.  Flama 
CcBMrienM,  between  the  Thames,  Severn,  and  Homber  ^TrinobanteSy 
Caytieuchlani,  Iceni,  Dobuni,  Coritavi,  Comavii).  4.  Maxima  Ccesa- 
riensiSf  between  the  Humber  and  the  Tyne  (Farisii,  Brigantes).  5. 
Valentia,  between  the  Tyne  and  the  Forth  (Otadeni,  Gadeni,  Selgovn, 
Novante). 

FortlfioatlonB  :  In  the  N.  wall  of  Agricda  (81)  or  LoUins  Urbi- 
cns,  between  the  Friths  of  Forth  and  Clyde  ;  wall  of  Hadrian  (122) 
between  the  Solway  Frith  and  a  point  on  the  opposite  coast  near  New- 
castle-on-Tyne  (replaced  in  the  third  century  oy  the  wall  of  Severus). 
In  the  S.  the  strongholds  Burgh  Castle,  Reculver,  Richborough,  Lym- 
ne,  Pevensey,  along  the  Saxon  shore.     (Compare  the  Cinque  Ports,) 

To'wns  :  Camulodunum  (Colchester),  Ulevum  (Gloucester),  £m- 
dum  (Lincoln),  Deva  (Chester),  Eburaomn  (York),  Londiuiiun 
(London). 

Roads  :  Wading  Street  from  Kent  to  the  Forth,  Hermin  Street  from 
Sussex  coast  to  Humber,  Pass  Wav  from  Cornwall  to  Lincoln,  Ikenild 
Street  from  Caistor  to  Dorchester.^ 

The  Teutonic  InTadera. 

After  the  withdrawal  of  the  Roman  lenons  (about  410)  the  Brit- 
ons suffered  severely  from  the  ravages  of  the  Scots  (Irish)  on  the 
W.  and  the  Picts  (Gaels)  on  the  N.,  which  they  resisted  unaided  for 
several  decades.  About  the  middle  of  the  fifth  centuir  the  Britons 
were  overwhelmed  from  another  quarter.  Bands  of  Low  Germans 
from  the  coast  of  Europe,  west  of  the  Baltic,  whose  piratical  expedi- 
tions had  long  been  the  terror  of  southeastern  Britam,  began  to  set- 
tle in  the  island  and  conquer  themselves  homes  and  kii^^oms.  That 
they  came  at  first  to  aid  the  Britons  against  their  other  foes  is  not 
impossible  ;  but  little  faith,  however,  can  be  placed  in  the  story  of 
Vortigem  and  Rowena, 

The  invaders  came  principally  from  three  Teutonic  tribes  :  Jntes^ 
inhabiting  the  northern  part  of  Denmark  (Jutland)  ;  Angles  or  En- 
gle  from  modem  Schleswig,  south  of  the  Jutes;  Saxons,  a  more  nu- 
merous people,  living  south  of  Schleswig  along  the  Elbe  and  westward 
on  the  coast  Of  the  Jutes  and  Saxons  only  a  portion  emigrated;  the 
Angles  seem  to  have  gone  en  masse. 

Religion  :  The  new  settlers  were  pagans,  sharing  the  faith  of  the 

^  Oreen.  The  more  usual  but  incorrect  routes  assigned  these  roads  are: 
Watling,  Kent  to  Cardifi^an  Bay;  Hertnin,  St.  Davids  to  Southampton;  Fo», 
Cornwall  to  Lincoln;  IktnUd^  St.  Davids  to  Tynemouth.  See  Boarth,  Roman 
Britain,  p.  116. 


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A.  J>.  Teutonic  Kingdoms  in  Britain.  177 

continental  Grennans  (p.  164).  Each  man  was  priest  in  his  household, 
and  political  rulers  exercised  also  priestly  functions  for  the  regions 
under  their  control. 

Civilization  :  The  invaders  were  rude  vrarriorsy  cultivators  of  the 
soil,  but  fond  of  the  hunt  and  still  more  fond  of  war.  They  settled 
in  villages,  the  dwellers  in  each  village  being  kinsmen,  who  often  gave 
their  family  name  to  the  place  of  their  fu[>ode.  In  each  village  all 
were  united  by  a  bond  of  mutual  protection  and  responsibility.  Around 
the  house-lots  and  garden-plots,  which  were  for  the  most  part  practi- 
cally private  property,  extended  the  common  land,  the  **  mark,"  com- 
•  prisine  tilled  land,  pasture  and  woodland,  which  also  served  to  isolate 
f  one  village  from  another.  The  people  were  divided  into  four  orders: 
athel,  nobles  ;  ceorl,  free  landowners  ;  laeta,  tenants  owins^  service 
to  their  landlords  ;  slaves,  generally  captives  taken  in  war.  Whether 
either  of  the  invading  tribes  were  under  kines  at  home  is  unknown  ; 
their  leaders  during  the  invasion  were  war^niefs,  ealdormen,  whose 
power  was  frequency  prolonged  and  concentrated  by  the  military  ne- 
cessities of  their  new  conditions,  until  it  became  royal  and  they  took 
the  title  of  kin^.  Each  village  had  its  governor  and  its  council,  the 
latter  composed  of  all  freemen  in  the  village  ;  each  aggregate  of  vil- 
lages (the  hundred)  had  its  governor  and  council ;  the  aggregate  of 
hundreds  which  made  up  the  tribe  had  its  king  and  its  great  council 
(wiian)f  which  elected  the  kmg,  generally  out  of  some  one  noble  fam« 
ilv,  and  was  consulted  by  him.  The  witan  was  in  theory  composed  of 
ail  freemen  in  the  tribe,  but  it  soon  became  practically  limited  to  the 
more  wealthv  and  powerful  among  them.  Each  ealdorman,  perhaps 
every  man  of  note,  had  a  personal  following  of  companions  (thegns), 
who  had  devoted  themselves  to  his  service  and  were  supported  by 
him.  The  development  of  monarchy  caused  a  corresponding  develop- 
ment of  this  institution.  Powerful  men  were  proud  to  be  thegns  of 
the  king,  and  thus  the  number  and  power  of  the  long's  military  house- 
hold constantly  increased. 

Jutes  (Kent). 

449  (?).^  Landing  of  the  chiefs  Hengist  and  Horsa  in  Thanet 
(then  an  isknd).  Gradual  conquest  of  the  country  between 
the  Thames  and  the  AndredswecUd  (p.  36).  East  and  West 
Kent. 

South  Sazons  {Sussex), 

477.  ^Usj  a  Saxon  ealderman,  with  his  sons  Cymen,  Wlendng,  and 
CtMO,  landed  at  Cissanceaster  and  conquered  the  region  S.  of 
the  Andredsweald. 

491.  Storm  of  Anderida.    Massacre  of  the  inhabitants. 

1  The  date  is  variously  given,  but  449  is  the  year  most  commonly  accepted. 
I  have  followed  throoghont  the  conservative  scholars.  The  ultra-skepticism 
which  would  limit  our  knowledge  of  the  5th  and  6th  centuries  in  Britain  to 
what  can  be  guessed  frpm  the  condition  of  thin^  there  in  the  7th,  8th,  and  9th 
centuries  seems  to  me  to  be  based  on  hypercriticism. 
12 


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17S  Mediatfol  Ottary.  A.  Tk 


(Weaaez). 

A  more  important  settlement  was  that  begun  by  the  Sazom^ 

nnder  the  ealdormen 
495.  Cerdio  and  Cynrio»  on  the  sonthem  coast,  W.  of  the  Andieds- 

weald.    The  formation  of  the  eoontry  directed  their  line  of 

extension  W.  and  N.,  thns  bringing  them  into  contact  with  the 

great  body  of  western  Cymry. 
517.  Cerdic  and  Cynric  assumed  the  royal  title. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  second  decade  of  the  sixth  century  the 
Saxon  advance  was  so  sternly  checked  that  fifty  years  elapsed  before 
it  was  again  resumed.  Battle  of  Mens  Badonicus  (520).  The  Cym- 
ric traditions  of  Arthur »^  king  of  the  SUureSf  to  whom  this  repulse 
of  the  pagan  inyaders  is  attributed,  are  probably  founded  in  truth. 

Tynrie  (534-^56)  conquered  modem  Berkshire.  Ceawlin  (566- 
691  [3])  raised  Wessex  to  such  power  that  later  years  entitled  him 
the  second  Bretwalda  of  Britain  (the  first  being  jElle).  The  meaning 
of  this  title  is  not  clear.    By  the 

577.  Battle  of  Deorham  CeatoUn  extended  his  power  to  the  Seyem 
and  separated  the  Cymxy  of  ComwaU  (^Deoraini)  from  those 
of  West  Wales. 

Saat  Bazona  {Essex). 

During  the  latter  half  of  the  fifth  century  Saxons  settled  north  of 
the  Thjunes.  Sack  of  Camulodtmum,  Establishment  of  a  small 
kingdom  under  the  shadow  of  the  great  forest  which  then  reached  to 
^eWash  (Ercenwin,  627  ?). 

Middle  Bazona  (Middlesex). 

A  small  diyjsion  of  the  East  Saxons,  dwelling  about  London. 

Bast  Anglea  (East  Anglia). 

While  the  East  Saxons  were  making  their  settlements,  An^  were 
ooonpying  the  region  to  the  N.,  between  the  sea,  tiie  great  fens  about 
the  WaBh  (UfEa,  575  ?),  and  the  forest.    Norfolk,  St^olk. 

North  Angles  {Northumbria). 

Deira.  Early  in  the  sixth  century  settlements  of  Angles  north  of 
the  Humber.     Conquest  of  central  Yorkshire. 

Bemicia.  At  the  same  time  other  Angles  were  settling  along  the  Frith 
of  Forth,  where  they  may  haye  found  a  Jutish  colony  already 

647.  established.  Under  Ida,  "  the  flame  bearer,"  as  the  Cymiy 
called  him,  the  Angles  pushed  their  conquests  to  the  E^.* 
Bemicia  thus  comprised  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland,  a  region 
which  still  contains  the  purest  type  of  the  Teutonic  con- 
querors of  Britain.    Saxon  and  Gad. 

1  The  northern  Cymiy  seem  also  to  have  had  traditions  of  an  Arthur.  Later 
fagitiyes  to  Bretagne  carried  the  memory  of  Arthor  with  them;  there  his 
name  was  connected  with  the  French  I^nd  of  the  Holy  Grail,  and  woven 
into  the  romances  which  make  up  the  Arthurian  cycle. 

s  The  stubborn  resistance  of  tne  Cymry  here  as' well  as  in  the  louth  has  beea 
attributed  to  Arikur. 


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A*  D.  Teutonic  Kingdoms  in  Britain*  179 


Middle  Angles  (Mercia). 

Early  in  the  sixth  century  scattered  bands  of  Angles  occupied  the 
present  counties  of  Lincoln,  Nottingham^  Leicester,  Wartotck,  and 
liorthampton.  The  small  kingdoms  and  lordships  thus  founded 
(^Lindesfiras,  Gainas,  MagesaUas,  Hwiccas)  were  at  a  later  time 
united  in  the  great  kingdom  of  Mercia  (Cridda,  582  ?). 

Thus  Britain  south  of  the  Firth  at  the  close  of  the  third  quarter  of 
the  sixth  century  was  divided  between  Cymry  and  Teutons  by  a  line 
drawn  nearly  N,  and  S.  midway  of  the  breadth  of  the  land.  Teuton  ^ 
and  Celt,  pagan  and  Christian,  faced  one  another  throughout  the  ' 
length  of  the  island.  As  far  as  it  went,  the  conquest  was  thorough. 
Not  that  the  Cymry  were  exterminated  ;  many  remained  within  the 
Saxon  lines,  and  traces  of  Celtic,  and  of  still  older  blood,  are  not  in- 
frequent in  the  most  Teutonic  parts  of  England  to-day.  Thouefa 
the  subjugated  Cymry,  however,  might  retam  their  Celtic  blood,  in 
all  else  they  were  soon  assimilated  with  the  conquerors.  Temporary 
halt  in  the  work  of  conquest 

Wars  of  the  invadera  among  themselves. 
588.  Formation  of  the  kingdom  of  Northumbria  by  the  enforced  union 

of  Bemicia  and  Deira  under  2Sthelrlc,  king  of  Bemida. 
590-616.  Supremacy  of  iBthelbert,  kins^  of  Kent,  afterwards  called 

the  third  Bretuxdda,  over  Essex,  Last  Anglia,  Middle  Britain. 

His  wife  was  the  Catholic  Christian  princess  Bertha,  daughter 

of  Chanbert,  king  of  the  Franks. 
597.  Arrival  of  Augustine,  legate  of  Pope  Gregory  the  Great. 

Conversion  of  Kent.     Quarrel  between  the  British  church  and 
Augustine  (date  of  Easter,  form  of  the  tonsure).    Conversion  of 
the  East  Saxons.    Laws  of  ^thelbert    An  attempt  to  convert  the 
East  Angles  led  to  the  revolt  and 
About  610-617.    Supremacy  of  Raedwald,  of  East  Anglia,  over 

Middle  Britain.    He  was  afterwards  called  the  fourth  Bret' 
walda.    In  the  N.  jEthdJrith  of  Northumbria  defeated  the  Cymry  of 
Strathclyde  in  the  great 
607.  Battle  of  Chester,  and  extended  his  realm  to  the  sea,  cutting 

off  Strathclyde  from  Wales,  as  Wales  had  been  severed  from 
Cornwall  by  the  battle  of  Deorham  (p.  178).    JEthelfrith  defeated 
and  slain  in  the  battle  of  the  Idle  by  Rcedwald,  who  had  taken  up  the 
claims  of  Eadwine,  sou  of  jEUa,  formerly  king  of  Deira. 
617-633.  Supremacy  of   Badwine '  of   Northumbria,  called    the 

fifth  nretwalda.  His  overlordship  was  more  comprehensive 
than  that  of  any  of  his  predecessors,  since,  after  the  conquest  of 
Wessex  (526),  it  included  all  Teutonic  Britain  except  Kent.  Conver- 
sion of  Northumbria  (627\  Revolt  of  the  Mercians  under 
Penda  (627-655),  who,  in  alliance  with  Cadwallon  of  Wales,  de- 
feated Eadwine  in  the  battle  of  Heathfield  (633).  Death  of  Ead- 
wine, 
633-655.    Supremacy  of  Penda  of  Meroia  over  Middle  Britain, 

Essex,  and  East  Anglia. 


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180  MediiBval  History.  a.  d. 

635.  Defeat  of  CadiodUon  by  Oswald  of  Berniciay  in  the  batde  of 

the  Hevenfdd.    Conquest  of  Deira. 
635-6tt.  Supremacy  of   Oswald  of   Northnmbria,  afterwards 

called  the  sixth  Bretwalda,  over  Wessex^  Sussex,  Essex,  Kent 
Conversion  of  Northumbria  (where  many  people  had  relapsed  into 
paganism)  by  Irish  (not  Roman)  missionaries.  Con'^rsion  of  Wes^ 
sex.  In  the  contest  over  East  Anglia  Oswald  was  defeated  by  Penda^ 
and  slain  in  the 
642.  Battle  of  the  Itfaserfeld.     Penda's  sovereignty  extended  over 

Wessex,  East  Anglia,  Deira, 
666.  Battle  of  the  "Wlnwasd.    Penda  defeated  by  Oswiu,  brother  of 

Oswald,  and  his  successor  in  Bemida,  and  slain. 
655-^9.  Supremacy  of  Oswia  of  Northnmbria,  called  the  sev- 
enth Bretwalda,  over  all  Teatonio  Britain  except  Wessex, 

Kent,  and  Sussex. 
669.  Revolt  of  Mercia  under  Wtd/here,    Henceforward  the  kings  of 

Northumbria  were  sovereigns  of  merely  local  power. 
Rivalry  between  the  Irish  missionaries  and  Rome.    A  council  oOds 
vened  by  Oswiu,  decided  in  favor  of  Rome.    Theodore  of  Tarsus, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  (609),  undertook  the  organization  of  tiie 
English  church. 

688-726.  Ine,  king  of  'Wesaez.     Conquest  of  Kent  (694).    Wars 
with  the  Cymry  of  Cornwall  (710).    Laws  of  Ine,  the  oldest 
West  Saxon  code.    Abdication  of  Ine  (726).    . 
Willibrod,  missionary  to  the  Frisians.     Bonifaoe  (Winfrith), 

apostle  of  the  Germans.     "Wilfrith,  bishop  of   York.    Cnthbert, 

of  Lindisfame.     Benedict  Bisoop,  abbot  of  Wearmouth.     Casd- 

moa.    B»da  (672-735) ;  Historia  eccUsiastica  gentis  Anglorum. 

733-762.  Supremacy  of  iBthelbald  of  Meroia  over  all  England 
S.  of  the  Humber. 

762.  Battle  of  Boiford  (Oxfordshire).    Defeat  of  iEthelbald  of 
Mercia  by  the  West  Saxon,  Cuthred, 
Henceforward  Teutonic  Britain   remained  divided   between 

the  three  great  kingdoms,  Northumbrian  Wessex,  Meroia. 

756.  Btratholyde  subjected  to  Northumbria  by  Badberht. 

755-794.  Offa,  king  of  Meroicu 

Conquest  of  Oxfordshire  from  Wessex  (777  ?).    Conquest  of  the 

Welsh  kmgdom  of  Pawys,  W.  of  the  Severn.     Offa's  Dyke  from  the 

mouth  of  tiie  Wye  to  that  of  the  Dee.    Friendship  between  Offa  and 

Charles  the  Great,    Laws  of  Offa. 

789.  First  recorded  landing  of  Northmen  in  Britain  on  the  coast  of 
Devonshire. 

802-837.  Ecgberht,  king  of  Wessex,  being  elected  to  suc- 
ceed Bearhtric  after  thirteen  years'  exile  spent  in  the  kingdom 
of  the  West  Franks.  Cornwall  made  tributary.  Defeat  of 
Beamwulf  of  Mercia,  at  the  battle  of  EUandune  (826).  Sub- 
mission of  all  England  S.  of  the  Thames,  and  of  Essex. 
Ecgberht  overlord  of  Mercia  and  Northumbria  (828).  Submis- 
sion of  Wales  (828). 


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A*  D.    Kingdom  of  the  Franks  under  the  Merotoingxans.    181 

All  England  soaUi  of  the  Forth,  with  the  possible  exception 
of  Strathclyde,  united  under  Ecgberht. 
834.  The  Northmen  ravaged  Sheppey.    Ecgberht  defeated  by  the 

Danes. 
836.  Battle  of  Hengestesdnn.    Yictoiy  of  Ecgberht  over  Welsh 
and  Danes.    Death  of  Ecgberht  (837).  {Seep.  Xm,) 

f  8.    THE   KINGDOM   OF  THE  FRANKS   UNDER  THE   BIEROl^- 

GIANS.  (See  pi  173.) 

511.    After  the  death  of  Chlodwig  the  Jirst  division  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  Franks.    According  to  this  division,  which  was  not 
strictly  territorial,  the  four  sons  of  Chlodwig,    Theoderic  I. 
(Thierry,    511-533).    CModamer  (Chlodomir,  511^24),  ChO- 
debert  L  (511-558),  Chlotar  I.  (Clotaire,  511-561 J  mfed  the 
kingdom  irom  the  four  oourt-camps  of  Metz^  OrUane,  Paris 
and  Soissons. 
530-^2.    The  kingdom  of  the  Thurlngians'  conquered  by  the  eldest 
of  the  brothers  (Theoderic).     Ae  two  younger  brothers  sub- 
jugated the  Burgondlana. 
The  northern  part  of  Thurin|ria,  as  far  south  as  the  Unstruty  fell  to 
the  Saxons,  the  allies  of  the  franks  in  the  war.    The  southern  part 
(to  the  Danube)  became  Prankish  territory,  but  the  name  of  FranoO' 
nia  was  given  to  the  region  south  of  the  Iliuringian  forest;  the  dis- 
trict between  the  Unstrut,  the  Thuringian  forest,  and  the  Saale  con- 
tinued to  be  called  Thuringia. 

Acf^uisition  of  Provence  (536)  and  the  supremacy  over  Swabia  and 
Bavana  on  the  fall  of  the  kmgdom  of  the  £ast  Groths. 
558-561.    The  whole  Prankish  kingdom  again  united  under  Chlo- 
tar L,  who  outlived  his  three  brothers.    After  his  death 
561.  A  second  division  of  the  kingdom  among  the  grandsons  of 
Chlodwig,  Gtmtram  (561^93%  Chanberi  I.  (561-567),  Sigi- 
bert  I.  (561-675),  and  ChUperic  I.  (561-^584),  into  four,  later 
(567)  into  three  parts  :  Austraaia,  with  the  capital  at  RKevms, 
and  a  population  chiefly  Grerman  ;  Neuatria,  with  the  capital 
at  Soissons  ;  Burgandy,  with  Orleans  as  capital ;  in  both  of 
which  later  divisions  the  mass  of  the  population  was  Romano- 
Celtic  or  Romance.^ 
Family  divisions  and  wars  full  of  horrors.    Peud  of  BrunhUde 
(BrunichUdis)  of  Austrasia,  a  daughter  of  Athanagild,  kmg  of  the 
Visigoths,  and  Fredegunde  (Fredegundis)  of  Neustria  (f  597),  slave, 
and  afterwards  wife,  of  Chilperic  I. 

613.  Second  union  of  the  entire  kingdom  of  the  Franks  under 
Chlotar  II.  of  Neustria,  great-grandson  of  Chlodwig. 
Brunhilde  captured,  tortured,  and  dragged  to  death  by  a 
wild  horse. 

Origin  of  the  power  of  the  majorea  domua  (Hausmeier,  mayors  of 

1  Cbaribert  received  the  territory  aronnd  Paru,  but  after  his  early  death  this 
was  equally  divided  among  his  brothers,  and  the  triple  division  alone  was  hence- 
forth of  importance.    [Tbans.] 


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182  MeditBval  History.  ▲•  D. 

thepalaee\  vho  were  at  first  superintendents  of  the  rejal  household, 
afterwaros  leaders  of  the  feudal  retainers  (leudes).    The  race  of  the . 
Plpina  (afterwards  called  Carolingians),  of  pure  German  blood,^  ao- 
auired  an  hereditary  olaim  to  the  office  of  major  domus,  in  Austrasia 
nrst,  and  afterwards  in  Neustria. 

622-678.     Third  division  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks  (interrupted, 
however,  by  several  temporary  unions)  into  the  two  parts  into 
which  it  had  meanwhile  separated : 

1.  Austrasia  (principally  German),  separated  ^7  the  Schelde 
from  2.  Neustria  TRomanVse,  northern  France  to  the  lioire,  not  reck- 
oning Bretagne  whicn  was  independent)  and  Burg^ondy.  Tlie  duchies 
of  Ax;[ultania  and  Vasconia  TGuyenne  and  Gascogne),  between  the 
Loire  and  the  Fences,  were  fldmost  independent.  (Seep.  183.) 

S  4.    MOHAMMED   (MAHOMET)  AND  THE  CALIPHATE. 
622*     Mohammed's  flight  (Hegira)  from  Mecca  to  Medina. 

16  July.  Mohammed  (i.  e.  he^who  is  greatly  praised),  bom  at  Mecca, 
571,  of  the  family  of  Hashem,  a  merchant,  husband  of  the 
wealthy  Chadija,  acquainted  from  his  journeys  with  die  Jewish  and  the 
Christian  religions,  proclaimed  himself  a  prophet  among  the  tribe  of 
the  Koreishites.    Islam  (i.  e.  a  submission  to  the  will  of  God  conse- 

Suent  on  belief).     One  God  (Allah)  and  Mohammed  his  prophet. 
fosUms  (the  believers).    Victories  of  Mohammed  in  Arabia  (629)  ; 

preparation  for  conquests  in  Syria.    Mohammed  died  6d2. 
Caliphs  (i.  e.  successors)  : 

632-634.  Ahu-behr,  father-in-law  of  the  prophet.  Collection  of  the 
Koran  (Qiiian),  later  enlarged  by  the  transcription  of  an  oral 
tradition,  the  Soona.  Separation  of  the  believers  into  Soonees, 
who  recognized  thU  addition,  and  Sheeah,  who  rejected  it,  and 
regarded  ah^  the  son-in-law  of  Mohammed,  as  his  only  right' 
fnl  successor.    Wars  with  the  Eastern  Empire  and  the  Persians. 

634-644.  Omar,  founder  of  the  Arabian  supremacy  in  the  East 
He  assumed  the  title  of  Emir-al-Mumenin  ("  Prince  of  the 
faithful"),  which  was  afterwards  borne  by  all  the  caliphs. 
Conquest  of  Syria  (Damascus  635),  Palestine,  Phoenicia.  De- 
struction of  the  empire  of  the  Sasmnidas  (the  New  Persians) 
by  the  battle  of  Nehavend  (641).  Conquest  of  Egypt  by 
Omar's  general  Amroo.    Capture  of  Alexandria. 

644r-656.  Othmann  (Osman).  Conquest  of  northern  Africa.  Cap- 
ture of  Rhodes.    Murder  of  Othman  during  an  insurrection. 

656-661.  All,  husband  of  Fatima,  Mohammed's  daughter,  not  uni- 
versally recognized.  Muawwiyah  proclaims  himself  caliph  in 
Syria.  After  bloody  civil  wars  and  after  the  murder  of  Ali, 
the  Sooneite 

661-750.     Ommiads  obtained  the  caliphate. 

661-680.  Muaiowiyah  /.,  great-grandson  of  Omeyyah.  He  trans- 
ferred the  residence  of  the  caliphs  from  Medma  to  Damascua 

1  BonneU,  Die  AnfSnge  da  Karolmgitchtn  ffauses,  1866* 


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A.  D.    Kingdom  of  the  Franks  under  the  CoTolingicau.      183 

The  caliphate  was  made  hereditanr. 
Aboat  700  the  governor  Muaa  completed  the  conquest  of  Byzantine 
Africa  as  far  as  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  Berbers,  who  ac- 
cepted Islam,  together  with  the  inhabitants  of  Panic,  Greek, 
and  Boman  descent,  became  amalgamated  with  the  Arabians 
mider  the  name  of  Moora.  TarScy^  one  of  Musa^s  generals, 
crossed  from  northern  Africa  to  Spain,  and  in  the 

71L  Battle  of  Xeree  de  la  Frontera  (plains  of  the  Guadal- 
quivir) destroyed  the  kinfirdom  of  the  Visigoths. 

From  this  time  on  there  coexisted  in  Spain:  1.  the  province  of  the 
caliphate,  which  became,  at  a  later  date  (756),  the  separate  caliphate 
of  Cordova;  2.  the  Christian  kingdom  of  Asturia,  founded  by  PeUtgiuSf 
afterwards  the  kingdom  of  Leon. 

The  Arabians  penetrated  the  passes  in  the  country  of  the  Basques 
and  invaded  Gaul     Here  a  limit  was  set  to  their  conquests  by  the 

732.  Battle  between  Toum  and  Poitten,  where  they  were  defeated 
by  Charles  Martel. 

Under  the  last  of  the  Ommiads  the  caliphate  reached  its  greatest 
extent,  embracing  southwestern  Asia  from  the  Oulf  of  Arabia  and 
the  Indus  to  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Caucasus,  the  entire  northern 
coast  of  Africay  a  great  part  of  the  Spanish  pmvnsvlay  and  in  southern 
France  the  coun^  of  i^arhma,  besides  Sardinia,  Corsica,  and  the 
Balearic  Isles, 

In  the  caliphate  declining  vigor;  constant  wars  with  the  followers 
of  Ali.  Ahm  Abbas,  great-grandson  of  an  uncle  of  the  prophet,  over- 
threw the  last  Ommiad  cahph,  Merwan  II, 

750-1258.    Hule  of  the  Abbasides.    Residence  at  Bagdad. 

Treacherous  murder  of  all  the  Ommiad  princes  (90). 

One  only, 
Abd-er-Rahman,  escaped  to  Spain,  and  founded  there  the 
756.      caliphate  of  Cordova.  {See  p,  W9,) 

§5.    KINGDOM  OF  THE  FRANKS  UNDER  THE  CAROLINGIANS. 

(Seep,  182.) 
687.  Fipin  of  Heiistal,  major  domus  (mayor  of  the  palace) 
of  Austrasia,  became  by  the  victory  of  Teatri  (not  far  from 
St  Quentin)  over  the  major  domus  of  Soissons  (Neustria)  sole 
major  domus  of  the  whole  kingdom  of  the  Franks,  and  called 
himself  in  future  diac  etprvnceps  Francorum, 
Eudes,  duke  of  Aquitaine,  defeated  by  the  Arabian  invaders, 
sought  help  from  Charlea,  the  son  and  successor  of  the  major 
domus  Fipm  of  Heristal. 

732.     Battle  between  Tours  and  Poitiers.     Victory  of 

^  From  him  comes  the  name  Gibel  or  Jebet-al-Tarik  ( GibraUar)^  i.  e.  moan- 
fain  of  Tank,  near  which  he  landed.  It  would  appear  that  the  story  of  Tank's 
having  been  summoned  by  the  Yisigothic  coont  Julian,  ia  m3'thical.  Cf .  Dalm. 
-ST&i.  3.  Gtrm,  V.  227. 

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184  Mediaval  HUtary.  ▲.  d. 

^>  Charles  Martel   (major  domus  714-741)   over  the 
Arabs. 

751.'    With  Pipin  the   Short  (741-768),  Charles  Martd'g 
son,  the  Carolingians  became  kings  of  the  Franks. 

The  last  king  of  the  Merowingian  line  (les  rois  faineants),  ChUde' 
ric  III,,  was  deposed  with  the  consent  of  Pope  Zacharias  and  placed 
in  a  monastery.  Pipin  was  raised  npon  the  shield  on  the  field  of 
Mars  at  Soissons,  as  king  of  the  Franks,  In  754  Pope  Stephen  III., 
who  had  come  to  France  to  seek  helo,  anointed  Pipin  and  his  sons 
Charles  and  Karimann  as  kings  of  the  Franks.  For  the  future  Pipin  J!,\ 
stjled  himself  **  king  by  the  grace  of  God.'* 

In  requital  of  tms  service  Piptn  drove  back  Aistud,  king  of  the 
Langobards,  who  was  threatening  the  Pope  (p.  175).  Gin  of  the 
Exarchate  of  Raoenna  and  the  PentapoUs  {Ancana,  Svdgaglia,  FavtOy 
PesarOf  Rimini),  the  territorjr  of  Bologna  and  Ferrara,  to  the  Po^.^     - 

and  thereby  the  first  foundation  of  the  Papal  States.    Pipin  patriaus        I . 

of  Rome,-  that  city  not  being  included  in  t^e  gift  to  the  Pope.^ 

Boniiiaoiiu  (the  Anglo-Saxon  Benedictine  monk  Winfiied,  named  ^  ■-' 
Bonifacius  by  Pope  Gregory  II.),  the  apostle  of  the  Germans  (about  ^^  ^ 
680-754).  He  preached  Christianity  in  the  country  of  the  East  Franks,  \>>  / 
in  Thuringia,  Hesse,  and  Friesland.  Bishop  since  722,  archbishop  ^  '?)  ^ 
since  732  without  a  settled  bishopric,  he  broiu^ht  all  newly  founded  *^  A 
bishoprics  and  monasteries  into  strict  depenoknce  npon  the  Papal  /. 

chair.    In  742  Concilium  Grermanicum,  recognition  of  the  Pope  as  head  ^ 

of  the  Church.     In  748  Bonifacius  became  the  first  archbishop  of  ^ 

Maim;  in  754  he  was  killed  by  the  heathen  Friesians. 

768^14.    Charles  the  Qreat  (Charlemagne), 

since  the  death  of  his  brother  Karimann  (771),  sole  ruler.  Kari« 
mann's  sons  took  refuge  with  Desiderius,  king  of  the  Lango- 
bards,  whose  daughter  Charles  had  married,  but  afterwwis 
rejected. 

773-774.  Destraction  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Langobards. 
The  Pope  having  refused  to  crown  the  sons  of  Earhnann,  Desi- 
derius occupied  the  Pentapolis  and  threatened  Rome.  Charles  came 
to  the  assistance  of  the  Pope,  ex  officio,  as  patricius  of  Rome.  Capture 
of  Pavia  after  a  six  months'  siege,  duri^  which  Charles  had  Tisited 
Rome  and  renewed  his  alliance  with  the  Pope.  Desiderius  placed  in 
a  monastery.  Charles,  king  of  Italy,  by  which  is  meant  the  kingdom 
of  the  Langobards,  northern  and  central  Italy.  The  lamr  peurt  of 
southern  Itely  remained  in  the  possession  of  the  Eastern  Empire. 

772-«04.    War  with  the  Saxons. 

The  country  of  the  Saxons  was  divided  as  follows.    West- 
phalia, on  the  Sieg,  Ruhr,  and  Lippe,  and  on  both  sides  of  the  Ems  ; 

1  See  the  proof  in  O.  Blohter,  Annalen  d,  deuUchen  GeichichU  im  MitUkU' 
Ur,  I.  p.  216. 

s  See,  however,  Oelsner,  Jabrb.  d.  frank.  Beichs  onter  Eonig  Pippin,  Chap. 
DC.  p.  129  foil. 


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A.  D.    Kingdom  of  the  Franh  under  the  OaroUngiam.      185 


BDgem,  on  both  sides  of  the  Weser  as  far  as  the  Leine;  BBatphaliSf 
as  far  as  the  Elbe;  Northalbingia,  N.  of  the  lower  Elbe  to  the 
Eider. 

The  Saxon  war  was  resolved  upon  in  the  assembly  (May-field)  at 
Worms  r772). 

772.  Capture  of  the  Eresburg,  destmction  of  the  Irmxnsul.  775. 
Capture  of  SigUmrg.  Subjugation  of  the  Saxons  W.  of  the  Elbe. 
The  Saxons  destroyed  the  Eresburg,  but  were  subjugated  anew, 
776-777.  First  May-field  in  the  land  of  the  Saxons,  at  Paderbom. 
New  insurrection  of  the  Saxons  upon  receipt  of  the  news  of  Charles's 
defeat  in  the  Pyrenees,  778;  subdued  by  the  army  of  the  east  Franks 
and  A1ft.mmini.  779,  Charles  gained  a  victory  at  BochoU  on  the  Aa. 
780,  Submission  of  the  Saxons  ;  acceptance  of  Christianity. 

After  a  new  and  general  revolt  headed  by  "Widukliid  or  "Witte- 
klnd,  and  a  defeat  of  the  Frankish  army,  Charles  took  the  field  in 
person  with  sncoess.  782,  SUughter  of  4500  Saxons  on  the  Aller. 
783,  A  new  and  terrible  uprising,  the  result  of  this  massacre.  Charles 
▼iotorious  first  at  DetmM,  then  on  the  Hose.  785,  After  a  two  years' 
resistanoe  Wittekind  submitted  and  became  a  Christian. 

778.  Wars  of  Charles  in  Spain. 

Conquest  of  Saragossa.  Return  by  Roncevaux,  and  defeat  of 
the  Frankish  rearg^uard.  Death  of  the  hero  Roland,  margrave 
of  the  Breton  coast,  a  pretended  nephew  of  Charles,  whose 
deeds  are  celebrated  in  a  series  of  romances.  The  Spanish 
mark  ^  was  of  later  foundation,  and  was  strengthened  by  Lud- 
wig,  son  of  Charles  (801). 

788.  Abolition  of  the  dnohy  of  the  Bajnvarlas  (Bavarians),  after 
the  second  revolt  of  duke  Tassilo, 

Wars  with  the  Northmen  (the  common  name  of  the  Germans 
of  the  Scandtnavian  north),  and  with  the  Slavs.  Charles  de- 
feated the  Wiltzi  and  advanced  to  the  Peene  (789). 

791-7d9.  War  with  the  Avars  (who  had  aided  TassUo,  duke  of  Ba- 
varia) conducted  principally  by  Charles'  son  Ptpm.  796. 
Storm  of  the  King's  Ring  (the  chief  camp  of  Uie  Avars) 
between  the  Danube  and  the  Theiss.  The  country  between 
the  Ems  and  the  Raab  was  annexed  to  the  Frankish  empire 
and  occupied  by  German  colonists,  especially  by  Bavarians. 
(Soon  after,  complete  ruin  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Avars,) 

800.  Charles  revived  the  office  of  Emperor  of  the  West. 
Pope  Leo  III.,  ill-treated  by  the  relatives  of  his  predecessor 
in  an  insurrection,  and  expelled  from  the  city  (799),  sought 
Charles'  camp  at  Paderbom.  Restored  by  Charles  to  Rome, 
he  crowned  lum  emperor  on  Christmas-day,  800.      ^ V 

793-804.  New  revolts  among  the  Saxons  particularly  in  the  N.,  led 
to  a  war  with  the  Danes,  with  whom  the  Saxons  had  taken  ref- 
u^.  Gottfried,  king  of  Denmark,  invaded  the  Frankish  mark; 
his  ships  harassed  the  coasts  of  the  German  Ocean. 

1  Mark  :  a  strip  of  land  on  the  border  of  a  country,  where  the  military 
power  was  e«pecially  well  kept  up,  under  a  Markgraf  (border-count),  who  was 
TBspoosible  for  the  safety  of  the  border.  —  Taavs. 


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186  Medieval  Bittory.  ▲.  d. 

808.  The  Danes,  defeated  hv  Charles,  the  eldest  son  of  the  emperor, 

retired  beyond  the  Eider. 
810.  The  emperor  was  obliged  to  take  the  field  against  Gottfried  in 

person.  The  Danish  king  was  murdered  by  his  own  servants. 
Peaoe  with  his  successors.  Saxony  north  of  the  Elbe  remained  a  part 
of  the  Frankish  kingdom.  Boundaries  of  the  kingdom  :  EhrOy  Raab, 
Eidett  Garigliano.    The  Wends  were  again  subjugated. 

Charles  resided  in  Aachen  in  Austrasia  (Aix-la-Chapelle)  prin- 
cipally on  account  of  its  warm  springs,  or  in  the  County  Palatme  on 
the  Rhine,  at  Inffelheim,  or  in  Nymwegm,  CapUulariij  imperial  re- 
scripts. Assemb&es  composed  of  all  men  of  rank,  both  cnurchmen 
and  laymen  ("  in  quo  placUo  generalitas  universorum  maiomm,  tam 
dericorum  quam  laicorum  conveniebat ").  Levy  of  troops  (Heer- 
ban).  Groyemors  of  counties  (Graugrafen),  counts  of  the  border  dis- 
tricts (comitesmarchia,  Markf;rafen),  imperial  messengers  (miui  regis^ 
Sendgrafen),  who  made  periodical  circuits  in  different  parts  of  the 
empire,  heard  comphunts  and  reported  the  same  with  other  observa- 
tions and  suggestions  to  the  emperor.  The  An^lo-Sazon  scholar 
Alcuin,  the  I^gobard  Paul,  son  of  Wamefrid  (Patdus  Diaconus), 
called  to  the  imperial  court,  where  intellectual  pursuits  were  favored 
and  shared  bv  the  emneror.  Schools  for  the  education  of  the  clergy ,  at 
Tours  and  Paris.  iSnhard  (Eginhard),  the  favorite  secretary  of 
Charles  (author  of  the  Vita  Canfli  Itnperatoris),  Charles  the  Great 
became  the  centre  of  the  most  important  series  of  romances  of  the 
Middle  Age. 
786-809.    In  the  East  Charles  found  a  friend  and  admirer  in  Har- 

oun-al-Raahld,  Caliph  of  Bagdad.     His  reign  and  that  of 

his  son  Mamun  cover  the  most  fruitful  period  of  science,  art, 

and  manufactures  among  the  Arabs. 

The  elder  sons  of  Charles  the  Great,  Charles  and  Pipin,  dying 

before  their  father,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  youngest  son, 

814-840.  Ludwig  the  Pious.  (Louis  le  Debonnaire).  -  J  '^ 
Ludwig's  nephew,  Bemhard,  Pipin's  son,  according  to  Charles' 
decree,  king  of  Italy  under  the  supremacy  of  his  uncle,  re- 
belled against  the  latter,  was  defeated,  captured,  and  killed. 
Ludwig  had  4  sons :  Lothar,  Pipiny  Ludwig,  Charles  the  Bald  (the 
latter  by  Judith,  his  second  wife,  of  the  noble  Alamannian  familjr  of 
the  Wel/s).  In  829  Ludwif  substituted  a  new  division  of  the  empire, 
whereby  ms  youngest  son,  Karl,'  received  Alamannia  and  the  royal  .^  '  , 
title  for  the  division  made  in  817,  under  which  Lothar  held  the  larger 
part  of  the  empire  and  the  imperial  crown,  Pipin  had  Aquitania,  and 
Ludwig,  Bavana.  The  three  elder  sons  at  once  revolted,  and  civil  war 
broke  out.  On  the  Field  of  Lies,  near  Colmar  in  Alsace,  Ludwig,  the 
father,  was  deserted  by  his  troops  (833).  He  was  taken  prisoner 
(public  penance  in  the  church  at  Soissons),  but  soon  released  by  his 
repentant  son  Ludwig,  and  replaced  upon  the  throne  ($34).  ripin 
died  in  838,  and  his  share  of  the  empire  was  divided  between  Lothar 
and  Charles,  which  caused  a  new  rebellion  on  the  part  of  Ludwig.  In 
840  Ludwig  the  Pious  died  on  an  island  in  the  Rhine,  near  IngeBieim* 
Ludwig  ana  Charles  in  alliance  defeated  Lothar  at  Fontanetum  (Forh 
tenaiUe  or  Fontenay  f)  in  841.    Bi-lingual  oath  of  Strassburg  (842). 

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A.  D.  New  Persian  Empire  of  the  Scusanidm.  187 

843.    Treaty  of  Verdun.     Division  of  the  empire  among 
Aug.      the  hrothers  as  follows : 

1.  Lothar  ;  Centre  of  the  Frankish  lands,  i.  e.  Axutrasia,  Fries^  y^, 

landy  the  Alamarmian  lands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhme,  the  a^  ^ 

greater  part  of  Burgundy,  Provence,  a  part  of  Lanauedoc;  in  Q  '■ 
^neral,  a  resion  bounded  by  the  Schelde,  Meuse,  Saone,  Rhonef     e  ^  ^ , ..  <  £^ 
m  the  west,  by  the  Rhine  and  Alps  in  the  east^  and  Frahldsh 
Italy.  y' 

2.  Lndwig  the  German  :  The  eastern  part  of  the  Frankish  lands,  ^'         ' '    ' 
i.  e.  all  those  parts  of  the  empire  lying  on  the  right  bank  of  the 

Rhine,  except  Friesland ;  the  diocese  of  Maim,  Worms,  and  f 
Speier  on  the  left  bank  (in  general  a  region  lying  between  the  / 
Rhine  aad  the  Elbe). 

3.  Charles  the  Bald :  The  western  part  of  the  Frankish  lands,  ^^^-^ ' ' ' 
L  e.  Neustria,  A^itania,  the  northern  part  of  Burgundy,  Sq^U-   f  ^ 
mania,  the  Spamsh  Mark.  ^ — 

Lothar  retained  the  imperial  dignity  which  his  father  had  given 
him.  His  kingdom,  which  lacked  natural  boundaries  and  comprised 
various  nationalities,  contained  within  itself  the  germ  of  rapid  disso- 
lution. 

The  Treaty  of  Yerdun  was  originally  merelv  a  family  contract,  made 
without  regard  to  national  differences.  In  Ludwig's  kinmiom,  how- 
ever, the  German  element. was  in  the  majority  ;  in  that  of  Charles  the 
Romance  element  prevailed.  Thus  there  developed,  in  the  course  of 
the  following  centuries,  from  the  East  Frankish  element  the  German, 
from  the  West  Frankish  the  French  nationality.  The  East  Franks 
called  their  language,  in  contrast  to  the  Latin  used  by  the  educated 
clergy,  the  deutsche,  i.  e.  the  language  of  the  p«^,  and  gradually 
(since  Henry  I.?)  those  who  spoke  Deutsche  came  to  be  called 
Veuische.^  (See  pp.  IBS,  201.) 

f  6.     NEW    PERSIAN   EMPIRE   OF   THE   SASSANIDiE.«    Aryan. 
22S-641.  {Seep.l5S.) 

226-240.    Artazerxes  L  (Artahshatr), 

son,  not  of  Sasan,  bat  of  Papak,  probably  king  of  Persia 
proper,  revolted  against  Artabanus,  the  last  king  of  Par- 
thia  (p.  30),  whom  he  defeated  and  slew  in  the  battle  of 
Hormuz. 
Contest  of  Artazerxes  with  the  Arsacid  kings  of  Bactria  and  Arme- 
nia.   The  claim  preferred  by  Artazerxes  to  all  Asia  as  far  as  the 
^gean  involved  nim  in  a  war  with  Rome.     Defeat  of  Alexander 
Severus,  followed  by  peace.     Subjugation  of  Armenia.    Restoration 
of  the  religion  of  Zoroaster.    Collection  of  the  text  of  the  Zend  Avesta. 
Artaxerxes  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

240-271.    Sapor  I.  (Shahpuhri). 

Warn  with  Rome.     I.  (241-244.)  The  Romans  were  sa» 

1  V.  Glesebreoht,  Gesch.  d.  deultchen  Kaiterztit,  I.  4th  ed.  p.  149« 
*  Bawltaieon,  Stvtnth  Great  Oriental  Monarchy. 


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188  Medimval  History.  A.  ix 

oessful  under  Chrdianus,  but  his  successor,  PhiUppus,  concluded  peace 
with  SiUK>r,  leaving  Armenia  in  his  hands,  but  retaininf^Mesopotamia. 
II.  (25^260.)  A  glorious  war  for  Persia.  Nisibis,  Bdessa,  ArUioch 
fell  into  their  handS,  and  the  Roman  emperor  Valerianus  was  cap- 
tured and  remained  a  prisoner  until  his  aeath  (265  or  266).  Defeat 
of  Persians  by  Odenauius  of  Palmj^ra  (p.  157).  £rection  of  many 
buildings  and  engineering  works  m  Persia.  Maul,  or  Manes,  a 
teacher  of  a  new  form  of  religion  compounded  of  Christianity  and 
Zoroasterianism  (Manicheism),  expelled  from  Persia. 

Sapor  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Hormisdaa  I.  (^AuhrmazdtS,  who 
reigned  one  year  and  ten  days  (271-272)  and  was  followed  oy  his 
broUier,  Varahran  I.  (272-275).  Execution  of  Mani.  Aid  sent  to 
Zenobia  Q>.  157).  The  murder  of  Attrdianus  (275)  put  an  end  to  his 
expedition  against  Varahran^  who  was  succeeded  in  tne  same  year  by 
his  son  Varahran  XL  (275-292?).  His  reign  is  marked  chiefly  by  the 
war  with  Rome  (283),  which  was  closed  by  the  mysterious  death  of 
Cants  (283-284).  B^volt  of  Tiridates  of  Armenia,  aided  by  Rome. 
Varahran  m.,  son  of  Varahran  11.^  reigned  four  months,  and  was 
followed  by  his  brother, 

292-301.    Narses, 

who  after  defeating  his  brother  and  rival,  Harmisdast  drove 
Tiridates  from  Armenia  (296).  War  with  Rome.  Gaierius,  at  first 
unsuccessful  in  Mesopotiunia,  finally  defeated  Narses.  Peace  (297): 
1.  Persia  ceded  five  provinces  beyond  the  Tigris  to  Rome.  2.  The 
Tigris  recognized  as  the  general  boimdary  between  Persia  and  Rome.* 
3.  Cession  of  a  large  part  of  Media  to  Armenia,  4.  Persia  surrendered 
to  Rome  her  supi'emacy  over  Iheria  (Georgia^. 

Abdication  of  Narses  and  accession  of  his  son,  Hormisdaa  IZ. 
(301-309),  whose  reign  covers  little  of  importance.  At  his  death  the 
nobles  set  aside  his  son  Hormisdasj  and  conferred  the  crown  upon  his 
unborn  child.    A  boy  was  bom,  who  received  the  name 

309-379  (?).    Sapor  TL 

During  his  minority  the  country  suif ered  from  invasions  of  the 
Arabs,  but  on  arriving  at  his  seventeenth  year  Sapor  assumed  the 
government,  and  inflicted  a  terrible  punishment  on  Arabia.  Persecu- 
tion of  Christians  (about  325).  First  war  with  Rome  (337-350). 
Defeat  of  Canstantius  at  Singara  (348).  Nisibis  in  Mesopotamia  thrice 
besieged  bv  Sapor  in  vain  (338, 340, 350).  War  of  Sapor  with  Tatar 
tribes  in  the  £.  (351-359)  and  extension  of  Persian  power  in  this 
direction.  Armenia  went  over  to  Rome.  Seoond  w^ar  with  Rome 
(359-363).  Invasion  of  Syria.  Capture  of  Amida  after  a  desperate 
resistance.  Julianus,  emperor  of  Rome,  invaded  Persia,  and  defeated 
the  Persians  before  Ctesiphon  (362),  but  immediately  began  a  retreat, 
in  the  course  of  which  he  died.  His  successor,  Jovian,  concluded 
peace  with  Sapor  for  thirty  years  (363)  :   1.  Restoration  of  the  five 

Provinces  ceded  by  Narses.  2.  Surrender  of  Nisibis  and  Singara  to 
'ersia.  3.  Rome  to  give  up  all  connection  with  Armenia.  Conquest 
of  Armenia  by  Sapor.  Third  war  with  Rome  (371^76),  carried 
on  wiUiout  energy  and  concluded  by  an  obscure  peace. 

1  BawUnson,  Seventh  Monarchy,  128  foil.,  discusses  the  conditions. 


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4L.  D.  New  Persian  Empire  of  the  Sas$anida.  189 

The  brilliant  reign  of  Sapor  was  followed  by  a  tiiiie  of  quiet:. 
ArtazerzM  IL  (379-383.)  Sapor  IIL  (383^388.^1  Division  of 
Armenia  between  Fersia  and  Rome,  —  Persia  receiving  the  larger 
part.  Varahran  IV.  (388-399)  deposed  ChosroSs,  king  of  Persian 
Armenia,  and  placed  his  own  brother  on  the  throne  (391).  Varahran 
was  murdered  during  a  mutiny,  and  succeeded  by  his  son  Isdigerd  I. 
(JzdUcerti)  (399-419  [420]),  whose  peaceful  reign  is  remarkable  for 
uttle,  except  a  persecution  of  the  Cnristians  in  Persia  and  Armenia. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

419  (420)-440.    Varahran  V., 

who,  lutving  pnt  down  ChoeroBs,  a  pretender  to  the  throne,  re- 
newed the  persecution  of  the  ChristiiuiSy  and  began  war  with  Rome. 
Meeting  wiUi  no  success,  he  concluded  peace  (422),  and  aereed  to  stop 
the  persecution.  rCharity  of  AcaciuSf  bishop  of  Ainida,  who  ransomea 
7000  Persian  captives.)  Beginning  of  Persia's  wars  with  Uie  Bphthl- 
alites  (Pers.  Ilaithal\  a  people  dwellinf  beyond  the  Oxus,  and  prob- 
ably of  "  Thibetic  or  Turkish  stock  "  (not  Uuns).  Surprise,  defeat,  and 
death  of  the  invading  Khan,  The  Persians  crossed  the  Oxus  and 
chastised  the  Tatars  in  their  own  territory.  Varahran  was  succeeded 
by  his  son, 
440^57.    Isdlgerdn., 

who  at  once  declared  war  upon  Rome,  but  as  hastily  concluded 
peace.  Nine  years'  war  with  the  EpthiaUtes,  ending  with  their  defeat 
m  their  own  country.  The  attempt  of  Isdigerd  to  convert  Armenia 
to  Zoroastriamsm  brought  on  a  religious  war,  wherein  the  ChristiaDS 
were  defeated  (455  or  456).  Forcime  conversion  of  Armenia.  To- 
ward the  dose  of  his  reign  Isdigerd  was  defeated  by  the  EphthiaUtes. 
After  his  death  civil  war  between  his  sons  Peroxes  and  nonmsdas^ 
ending  in  the  victory  of 
459-483  (?).    Perozea. 

Great  famine  in  the  seventh  year  of  his  reign  (?).  Unsuccess- 
ful war  and  disgraceful  peace  with  the  EphthiaUtes  r464-466).  Re- 
volt of  Armenia  under  VcJum,  which  was  still  unsubaned  when  PerO' 
zes  again  attacked  the  Ephthialites,  at  whose  hands  he  suffered 
a  severe  defeat,  falling  in  the  battle.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  (?) 
483(?)-487.    Balaa  (Pers.  Valakhesh  or  Volffoses), 

under  whom  Persia  probably  paid  tribute  to  Khush^ieuxUj  the 
Ephthialite  Khan.    Pacification  of  Armenia.    Edict  of  toleration. 
Destruction  of  fire-altars.    Balas  was  succeeded  by 
487(?)^ft98.    Kobad,  (first  reign) 

son  of  PerozeSy  who  had  been  in  hiding  among  the  Ephthi- 
alites.  Successful  war  with  the  Khasara,  a  people  of  uncertain  race 
(Turkish  or  Caucasian?),  dwelling  between  tiiie  Volga  and  the  Don, 
Communistic  and  ascetic  doctrines  of  Mazdak^  a  high  priest  of  Zoro- 
aster, to  which  many  converts  were  made,  the  king  being  of  the 
number.  Consequent  disturbances  in  Persia  and  Armenia  resulting 
in  the  deposition  of  Kobad  and  the  accession  of  his  brother, 
498--501.    Zamaap. 

Kobad,  however,  soon  escaped  to  the  Ephthialites  and  returned 


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190  Mediaval  Bistory,  A.  d. 

at  the  head  of  an  army,  whereupon  Zamasp  yolnntarily  resigned  the 

crown. 

601-531.    Kobad  (second  reign^. 

Withdrawal  of  support  from  Masdak,  The  refusal  of  the 
Eastern  Empire  to  fulfil  its  agreement  to  contrihute  to  the  defence  of 
the  pass  of  Derbend  in  the  Caucasus,  which  was  the  usual  route  of 
the  nomadic  tribes  in  their  inyasions  of  Persia  or  the  Eastern  Empire, 
caused  Koibad  to  declare  war.  Sack  of  Amida  (502).  An  Ephthi- 
:4ite  invasion  induced  peace  in  507.  Erection  of  the  fortress  of 
Doras,  twelve  miles  from  Nisibis  by  AruutasiuSf  emperor  of  the  East. 
Second  war  with  the  Eastern  Empire  (524-531),  wherein  the  Per- 
sians, at  first  successful,  were  defeated  by  Beliaariiia  in  the  battle  of 
Daraa  (528).     Kobad  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

531-579.     Chosrote  I.    Amiahirwan   ('<  The  Just  ")  per- 
hape  the  greatest  of  the  Sassanid  kings. 

Peace  with  Rome  (533)  :  1.  Rome  paid  11,000  lbs.  of  gold  toward 
the  fortification  of  the,  Caucasus.  2.  Doras  retained  its  fortificar- 
tions,  but  was  not  to  be  the  Roman  headquarters.  3.  Reciprocal  sur- 
render of  recent  conquests.  4.  Eternal  friendship  and  alliance,  whence 
this  peace  is  knovm  as  the  "  endless  peace."  it  endured  for  seven 
years,  at  the  end  of  which  time  Chaaroes,  jealous  of  the  great  victo- 
ries of  Justiiilaxi  in  the  West,  listened  to  the  prayers  of  the  East 
Croths  and  declared  war. 
540.    Capture  of  Antioch. 

Chosroes  extorted  ransom  from  the  principal  cities  of  west- 
em  Asia  Minor ;  returned  home.     A  truce,  concluded  in  545,  was 
broken  in  549  by  Rome,  who  sent  assistance  to  the  £021  (inhabitants 
of  ancient  Colchis)  in  their  war  with  Persia. 
651.  Capture  of  Petra  by  the  Romans  and  Lazi. 
603.  Deflnile  peace  between  Penla  and  Rome. 

1.  Lozioa  ceded  to  Rome.  2.  Rome  to  make  a  yearly  pay- 
ment to  Persia.  3.  Exercise  of  their  faith  secured  to  the  Chnstians 
in  Persia.  4.  Commercial  intercourse  between  the  empires  restricted 
to  certain  roads  and  marts.  5.  Free  diplomatic  intercourse.  '  6. 
Doras  to  retain  its  fortifications.  7.  Disputes  to  be  settled  by  arbi- 
tration. 8.  Allies  of  either  party  included  in  the  peace.  9.  Persia 
undertook  the  maintenance  of  the  Caspian  Qates  alone.  10.  The 
peace  was  concluded  for  fifty  years. 

Successful  wars  with  the  EphtMalites  and  Khazars. 
662.  Expedition  of  Choaro^  to  Arabia,  against  tiie  Christian  kingu 
dom  founded  there  by  Abyssinians  early  in  the  sixth  century. 
'Chosroes  expelled  the  Abyssinians  and  left  uie  country  under  the 
control  of  Solf,  leader  of  the  native  Homerites;  after  his  murder 
Arabia  was  made  a  Persian  province. 

The  expedition  to  India  ascribed  to  Chosroes  is  doubtful.  Dezobtd^ 
Khan  of  the  Turks,  who  had  recently  subjugated  the  Ephthialites 
and  entered  into  alliance  with  the  Eastern  Empire,  invaded  Persia, 
but  met  with  no  success. 

672.    Justin,  Emperor  of  the  East,  declared  war  on  Persia.    Choa- 
roes  ravaged  Syria.    Fall  of  Doras  (573). 


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k»  D.  New  Persi&n  Empire  of  the  Sassamda.  191 

ChosroSs  died,  579,  in  Mesopotamia. 

Improved  administration  in  Persia  under  Chosroas*  Empire  di» 
Tided  into  four  governments  :  Bast,  Khorassanf  Seistan^  Kirman ; 
North,  Armenia^  Azerhizan^  GhUan,  Kown,  Isfahan;  Sonth,  Fars^ 
Ahwaz  ;  "West,  Irak,  or  BahyUmva,  Assyria,  Mesopotamia.  Frequent 
progresses  of  the  king.  Substitution  of  a  fixed  land  tax  for  the  for- 
mer variable  tax  on  produce.  Tax  coPeetors  placed  under  the  supers 
vision  of  the  priests.  Reform  in  the  army.  Improved  irrigation. 
Protection  of  foreigners.  Encouragement  of  learning  Laws  of 
Artaxerxes  revised.  Collection  of  the  ShahF^ui-mek,  or  Book  of  the 
Kings,  the  basis  of  Firdusi's  epic.  Introduction  of  the  Fables  of 
PUpay,  and  of  the  game  of  chess  from  India.  Toleration  extended  to 
Christians.  Choerofis  was  suooeeded  by  his  son, 
57d-^589.    Hormiadas  IV.  (Hormazd). 

At  first  a  wise  ruler,  afterwards  the  worst  of  Persian  kings. 
579.  Invasion  of  Persia  by  the  Eastern  Emperor  Bflaurioe. 
581.  Defeat  of  the  Persians  at  Constantia.    The  war  continued  with 

alternate  defeat  and  victory  until  in 
589.    Persia  was  invaded  by  Arabs,  Khazars,  and  above  all  by  the 

great  ElIuui  of  the  Turks.  He  was  defeated  by  the  Persian 
general  Baliram  and  fell  in  the  battle.  In  the  same  year  Hormisdas 
provoked  a  war  with  Rome  by  invading  Laadca.  ^Bahram  was  de- 
feated on  the  Araxes.  An  insult  offeredhim  by  the  long  caused  his 
revolt  and  the  deposition  and  murder  of  Hormisdas,  who  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son, 

589-€28.    Chosrote  II.,  Eberwiz, 

who  was  at  once  involved  in  war  with  Bahram,  who  drove  him 
from  the  kingdom  and  assumed  the  crown.  The  reien  of  Bahram 
(Varahran  VI.^  was  short  (590-^91).  Chosroes  had  taken  refuge 
at  Constantinople,  and  a  Roman  force  restored  him  to  his  throne. 
Bahram,  defeated,  fled  to  the  Turks. 

The  second  reign  of  ChoaroAs  II.  was  marked  by  a  wonderful  in- 
crease of  Persia's  power,  and  by  its  sudden  fall. 
603-610.  War  with  Phocas,  murderer  of    Maurice.     Capture  of 

Daras,    Syria,  Armenia,  Galatia,  Phrygia,  ravaged.    Sack  of 
Antioch.    The  accession  of  Heraollus  to  the  throne  of  the  Eastern 
Empire  did  not  end  the  war. 
612.  Invasion  of  Cappadocia. 

614.  Capture  of  Damascus. 

615.  Sack  of  Jerusalem. 

616.  Capture  of  Peiusium  and  Alexandria  by  the  Persian  general 

Shahr^Barz.    Submission  of  Egypt. 

617.  Fall  of  Chalcedon,    The  Persians  encamped  within  a  nule  of 

Constantinople. 
620.  Capture  of  Ancyra  and  of  Rhodes.    PexBia  restored  to  tha 

limits  which  it  attained  under  Darius  I. 
So  nearly  had  Chosroes  driven  Heraclius  to  despair  that  he  pre- 
pared to  take  refuge  in  Carthage,  but  his  design  was  prevented  by 
the  citizens  of  Constantinople.  Thus  driven  to  bay,  the  emperor 
formed  the  desperate  resolve  of  attacking  his  enemy  in  his  own 
country. 


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192  Medx€Bval  HUtory.  a.  d. 

622.  T4Mi<1ing  of   the  Romaiu  in  the  Gulf  of  Isim,    Defeat  of 

Shakr-Barz. 

623.  Heraclins  sailed  to  Lazica,  and  invaded  Armenia.     Chosrote  re- 

treated, and  the  Romans  wintered  in  Albania. 

626.  Battle  of  the  Barns.    Defeat  of  Shahr-barz.     Choeroes  al- 

lied himself  with  the  Avars^  and  placed  two  armies  in  the  field: 
one  against  Heraclius  in  Asia  Minor,  one  destined  for  a  direct 
attack  on  Constantinople.  The  latter  attempt  failed,  Constantinople 
held  out,  although  attacked  also  by  hosts  of  Bulgarians  and  other 
barbarians  from  the  west. 

Winter  campaign  of  Heraclius. 

627.  Dec.  12.  Batde  of  Nineveh.     Defeat  of  the  Persians.    Flight 

of  ChosroSs.    Heraclius  advanced  to  Ctesiphon,  but  returned 

without  assanlting  the  city. 
Mutiny  of  the  Persian  troops  at  Ctesiphon  under  two  of  the 
kind's  sons.    Seizure  and  murder  of  Ckoavig.    He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son, 
628-629  (?).  Kobad  IL  (^SiroA\ 

who  concluded  peace  witn  Rome  on  a  basis  of  exchange  of 
conquests  and  captives.  Death  of  Kobad  (of  the  plague  ?).  Usur- 
pation of  Shahr-barm,  who  before  two  months  were  over  was  mur- 
dered by  his  own  troops.  Rekms  of  Purandooht  and  Axermi- 
dooht,  daughters  of  Chosro^s  II.,  followed  by  a  period  of  anarchy, 
during  whi^  nine  or  ten  nobles  held  the  throne  successively. 

632-641  (651).    ladifirerd,  grandson  of   Chosroes  IL,  last 
Sassanid  king  of  Persia. 

His  whole  reign  was  a  struggle  against  the  growing  power  of  the 
Caliphs  Ahu-Bekr  and  Omar  (p.  182). 

633.  Expedition  of  Kaled  (the  '<  sword  of  God  *^  to  Hira.  Defeat 
of  the  Persians.  The  whole  region  west  of  the  Euphrates 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Arabs,  who,  however,  suffered  a  temporary 
check  by  the  loss  of  the  **  Battle  of  the  Bridee."  Their  ravages 
were  soon  renewed,  and  extended  throughout  Mesopotamia.  Great 
exertions  of  the  Persians.  Levy  of  an  army  of  120,000  men,  which 
was  defeated  in  the  four  days* 

636.  Battle  of  Cadeaia, 

by  Sa'ad  Ibn  Abi  Wakaa.     Loss  of  the  DurufiMcawanif  or 
royal  standard  of  Persia. 

637.  Invasion  of  Mesopotamia  by  Sa^ad,    Capture  of  Ctesiphon. 

Defeat  of  the  Persians  in  the  battle  of  Jalnla. 
639.  Invasion  of  Susiana  and  Persia  proper  bv  the  Arabs.    Capture 

of  Hormuzan,  a  Persian  general,  who,  being  brought  fefore 
Omar^  asked  for  a  cup  of  water,  which  he  hesitated  to  taste  until  as- 
sured by  the  Caliph  that  he  should  not  be  harmed  until  he  had  drunk 
the  water,  whereupon  he  dashed  the  water  on  the  ground  before  the 
astonished  Caliph,  who  respected  his  promise  and  spared  the  Persian's 
life. 

The  recall  of  Sa^ad  emboldened  Isdigerd  to  make  a  final  effort 
Collection  of  an  army  of  150,000  men,  which  was  totally  defeated  in 
the 


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A.  D.  Italy  and  Germany.  193 

64L  Battle  of  NehaVend  ("victory  of  victories").  FaU 
of  the  Sassanid  power.  Persia  henceforward  governed 
by  the  caliphs.  Isdigerd  III.  lived  for  ten  years  a 
fugitive,  and  was  at  last  murdered  (651). 

SECOND  PERIOD. 

FROM  THE  TREATY  OF  VERDUN  TO  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE 
CRUSADES  (843-1096). 

f  1.    ITALY  AND  GERMANY.  {Seep.  187.) 

843-875.  C&roIinfi;iaii8  in  Italy. 

After  the  death  of  two  sons  of  Lothar  I.,  Ludwig  the  Gferman 
and  Charles  the  Bald  divided  Lothar's  inheritance  by  the  treaty  of 
Mersen  on  the  Meuse  (870).  The  German  portion  (Friegland,  Lotha- 
rmgia  or  Lothringen  (Lorraine),  so  called  after  Lothar  IL)  was  an- 
nexed to  the  kingdom  of  the  East  Franks,  the  Romance  portion 
(Burgwidy,  Provence)  to  the  kingdom  of  the  West  Franks.  Boun- 
dary, the  Mense.'^^^  v^  '  *;  .  ^K..  ,,-— ^  /  •  /  .  -  T 

After  the  death  ofJjadwig  H^^^AaS  was  the  eldest  son  of  Lothar  L 
, (875),  GhmUHus'BM became  Eflipei^or  (f  877). 

843-911.  Carolingians  in  GOTmany^^\^  ^  ^    . 
/::;,. §43-876.  Ludwig  the  Qerman.  '    ;  .   .  ,^ 

J^  Wars  with  the  Slavs,  with  Charles  the  Bald,  and  especially 
with  the  Northmen,  i.  e.  the  Scandinavian  sea  warriors  (Yikings^, 
by  whose  ferocious  energy  the  west  of  Europe  was  during  this 

./^poch  harassed  almost  beyond  belief.  In  845  simultaneous  attack  by 
the  Northmen  upon  all  tliree  of  the  Frankish  kingdoms.  Ludwig  the 
German's  son, 

876-887.  Charles  the  Fat, 

at  first  in  conjunction  with  his  brothers,  Karlmann  (f  880)  and 
Ludwig  (f  S82).  Successful  resistance  to  the  claims  of  Charles  the 
Bald  on  the  Rhine  (battie  of  Andemach,  876)  and  Italv.  Charles 
the  Fat  became  Emperor  in  881,  and  in  884  was  elected  king  of  the 
West  Franks.  He  united  once  more  under  one  sceptre  the  Mon- 
archy of  Charles  the  Qreat,  with  the  exception  of  cisjurane 
Burgundy  (Dauphin^  Provence,  part  of  Languedoc),  which  became 
a  separate  kingdom  under  Boso.  Charles  the  Fat  was  deposed  by 
£ast  and  West  Franks  on  account  of  his  cowardice  (siege  of  Paris 
by  the  Northmen),  abdicated  the  throne  at  Tnbur  (887),  and  died 
almost  immediately  thereafter.    The  Fast  Franks  electea 

887-899.  Amulf  of  Carinthia^  grandson  of  Lndwig  the 
German,  illegitimate  son  of  Karlmann.  He  defeated  the 
Northmen  upon  the  DyU  (at  Ukoen,  891),  and  in  alliance  with  the 
Magyars,  a  nomadic  Finnish  tribe,  which  had  gradually  made  its 
way  from  the  Ural  region  towards  Europe,  and  under  guidance  of 


S 


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/ 


194  Medumd  Bidm^.  a.  d. 

ArTpad  had  iimul«d  Hongiiy,  oowpiered  Statafimk  IL  (893),  the 
founder  of  the  kmgdom  of  Momma.  Aznnlf  went  twiee  to  Italy, 
and  was  crowned  Emperor  (896).    Hia  aoo, 

899-911.  LudwifiT  the  GhUd  (six  yean  old), 

was  completely  under  the  inflnenoe  of  JTotto,  archbishop  of 
Mainz.  Terrible  deTastation  of  Germany  by  the  Magyart.  In  908 
they  trayeraed  BaTaria,  Franoonia,  and  penetnted  into  Thuringia 
and  Saxony.  Lewis,  defeated  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Zeoil  (910), 
was  obliged  to  pay  them  tribute.  Internecine  feuds  in  Frano(Mua  : 
Adalbert  of  Babaierg  against  Rudolf  bishop  of  Wiirzburg,  of  the 
family  of  Conrad  of  Ha$e.  Yietaej  of  the  Cornndmet.  Adalbert 
executed  in  front  of  his  castle.  Wemkness  of  the  young  king.  Hie 
monarchy  seemed  about  to  break  up  into  duehies :  Saxony,  Rbii- 
oonla,  BaTaria,  SwablB,  Lotharlngla  After  Lndwig's  death  the 
aged  Otto  the  Ilhutriout,  duke  of  Saxony,  refused  the  crown,  and  se- 
cured the  election  of 

911-918.   Conrad  L  of  Franconia, 

by  the  nobles.  luTssioos  of  Danes,  SUtb,  and  Magyan. 
Conrad  was  constantly  at  war  with  the  West  Franks  and  with  his 
own  subjects  in  a  Tain  endeavor  to  obtain  recognition  of  his  sover- 
ejmty,  especially  from  Henry,  son  of  Otto  the  Dlustrious  and  duke 
of  Saxony,  since  912.  Lotharmgia,  with  the  exception  of  Alsace, 
became  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  West  Franks. 

919-1024.  Khiga  and  Emperors  of  the  Saxon  house. 
In  obedience  to  the  wish  of  Conrad,  expressed  On  his  death- 
bed, and  seconded  by  his  brother,  Eberkardj  the  Saxons  and  Fhmks 
elected  at  Fritziar  on  the  Eder 

919-936.    Henry.  L  the  Fowler,  founder  of  the  German 
monarchy. 

Henry  compelled  Burhhardj  duke  of  Alamannia  (Swabia), 
*nd  Amulff  duke  of  Bayaria,  to  acknowledge  his  sroremacy. 

924.  The  Magyars  (Hungarians)  made  a  new  inroad.     Henry  con- 

cluded a  nine  years'  truce  with  them,  and  secured  immunity 
^OT  tSaxony  and  Thuringia  by  payment  of  tribute. 

925.  Heniy  regained  Lotharingia. 

Enlargement  and  better  fortification  of  old  fortresses  (Merse- 
burg)  and  construction  of  new  ones  (Quedlinburg,  Goslar),  which  at  a 
later  period  became  cities.  There  was  no  wide-spread  founding  of 
cities  by  Henry  himself,  but  in  his  reign  the  Saxons  were  gradually 
a45customed  to  city  life  and  to  cavalry  service  in  war. 

Successful  wars  with  the  Wends,  against  whom  a  great  mark  was 
established  along  the  middle  Elbe,  out  of  which  at  a  later  time  (after 
the  retttement  of  margrave  (Markgraf)  Gero,  963)  were  formed  the 
Altmark  or  Nortkmark,  Meissen,  and  the  Ostmark  Oater  Mark  Lav^ 
«&),lymg  between  the  two.  Victory  at  I^enzen  (929).  Wars  with 
the  Bohemums  (recognition  of  the  duty  of  feudal  service),  and  with 
the  Danes  (Gorm  the  Old).  Creation  of  a  mark  between  the  Eider 
and  Sley  (934),  afterwards  caUed  Mark  Schleswig. 

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▲•  D.  Balff  and  Germany.  195 

Henry  refofled.to  pay  the  promised  tribate  to  the  Magyars,  who 
thereupon  made  a  new  inroad. 

d33.  Victory  of  Henry  over  the  Hrmffarians  (on  the  Un- 
stmt?).^  Henry  died  in  936,  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
eldest  son  by  McHhUde^ 

936-973.  Otto  L,  the  Great, 

who  was  elected  by  Saxons  and  Franks,  and  crowned  at 
Acuken  by  the  archbishop  of  Mainz.  Homage  of  the  princes  of  aU 
the  German  races  {StUmme).  First  appearance  of  the  four  court 
offices :  duke  of  Lotharingia,  Clumberlain  ;  duke  of  Franconia,  Stew" 
ard ;  duke  of  Swabia,  Cup-bearer  ;  duke  of  Bavaria,  Manhal. 

Countless  swarms  of  Hungarians  crossed  Franconia  (937),  to  in- 
vade Saxony.  Defeated  and  pursued  by  Otto,  they  took  a  western 
direction,  and  ravaged  France  as  far  as  the  Loire. 

Otto  defeated  the  rebellious  duke  of  Bavaria,  and  drove  him  from 
his  duchy,  and  subdued  a  revolt  of  Eberhard,  duke  of  Franconia,  and 
his  own  half-brother,  Thankmary  who  fell  in  the  battle  on  the  Eres- 
burg  (938).  Henry,  Otto's  younger  brother,  rebelled,  and  was  de- 
feated by  Otto  along  with  his  ally  Gisdberty  duke  of  Lotharingia,  at 
Bvrthen^  on  the  Rhine  ;  the  rebels,  with  whom  Eberhard  made  ccnn- 
mon  cause,  called  in  the  assistance  of  the  French.  Eberhard  fell  at 
Andemachy  Giselbert  was  drowned  on  his  flight,  Henry  fled  to 
France  (939).  A  murderous  assault  which  Henrv  made  upon  his 
brother  after  he  had  received  forgiveness  failed  ;  Henry  threw  him- 
self upon  the  king's  mercy,  received  forgiveness  a  second  time  (941), 
and  became  henceforward,  with  his  brother  Bruno,  archbishop  of 
Cologne  (since  953),  the  kind's  chief  reliance.  Otto  gave  Lothar 
ringia  in  944  to  Conrad  the  lied,  the  ancestor  of  the  Franco-Salio 
royal  house,  who  four  years  afterwards  became  his  son-in-law.  Otto 
made  his  brother  Henry  duke  of  Bavaria  (947). 

Wars  with  the  Wends,  conducted  bv  marmve  Gero;  with  the 
Daneif  under  Otto  himself,  who  advanced  to  JuUand  (Mark  Schleswig 
given  to  Hermann  BiUung)  ;  with  Boleslav,  duke  of  Bohemia  (950), 
who  became  a  vassal  of  the  empire ;  and  with  the  Hungarians,  princi- 
pally under  the  command  of  Henrv. 

948.  Otto  appointed  his  son  Liudolf  (by  EdUha)  duke  of  Swabia, 
946-950.    Otto  interfered  in  the  French  wars.    He  protected  King 
Louis  IV.  against  Hugo,  count  of  France,  both  of  whom  were 
his  brothers-in-law. 
951.  First  expedition  of  Otto's  to  Italy  against  Berengar  IL  of  Ivrea. 
Otto  released  and  married  Adelbeid,  the  widow  of  King 
Lothar  (of  the  house  of  Burgundy),  and  then  nineteen  vears 
of  age.    Berengar  submitted  to  Otto  as  his  suzerain  (952). 
953.  Liuddf,  Otto's  son,  and  Conrad,  duke  of  Lotharingia,  Otto's  son- 
in-law,  rebelled  against  the  king. 
964.  New  inroad  of  the  Hungarians,  who  swept  through  Germany, 
ravaging  as  they  went,  to  France  ;  the  rebels  were  in  alliance 

1  Probablv  not  at  Merseborg.  See  V.  Qiesebreoht,  Guch.  der  IMuttchen 
KaiierteU,  h\  239. 

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196  MedicBvcd  History,  »       A.  d. 

with  them.  After  a  seyere  straggle  and  several  fruitless  at- 
tempts at  reoonoUiatioii,  Liudolf  and  Conrad  suhmitted.  They 
were  forgiven,  but  deprived  of  their  duchies.  Archbishop 
Bruno  received  Lotharingia;  duke  Burkhard,  Swabia,  Bavaria^ 
still  in  revolt,  was  subjugated  by  Otto  and  his  brother  Henry. 
New  inroad  of  the  Hungarians. 

955.    Victory  over  the  Hungarians  on  the  Leohfeld 

Aug.  10.  (Augsburp;).  Conrad  fell  in  the  battle.  The  Bavarian 
Ostmark,  which  was  afterwards  transformed  into  the  duchy  of 
Austria  (Oesterreich),  reestablished.  Victorious  expedition 
against  the  Wends,  whom  Otto  defeated  on  the  Rekemtz, 

957.  Liudolf  died  in  arms  against  Berengar,  who  was  in  rebellion. 

981.  Second  expedition  of  Otto's  to  Italy,  Pope  John  XII.  having  im- 
plored his  assistance  against  Berengar.  Otto  hastened  to  lunne, 
where  he 

962.  Renewed  the  imperial  office.    Holy  Roman  Em- 
Feb.  pire  of  the  (German  Nation. 

While  Otto  was  engaged  in  the  war  with  Berengar  in  Lom- 
bardy,  John  XII.  endeavored  to  free  himself  from  the  impe- 

963.  rial  protection  and  allied  himself  with  Otto's  foes.    The  em- 
Nov.    peror  advanced  upon  Rome  and  captured  the  city ;  John  fled. 

The  Romans  were  obliged  to  promise  never  to  elect  another 
Pope  without  the  consent  of  the  emperor.  John  was  deposed 
by  a  synod  in  Rome,  and  Leo  VIII.  elected  Pope. 

964.  A  revolt  of  the   Romans   quickly  suppressed.      WhUe  Otto 
Jan.    was  a^^ain  absent  in  northern  Italy,  where  Berengar  had* 

meantime,  been  obliged  to  surrender  (he  died  as  prisoner  in 
Bamberg),  Leo  was  expelled  by  the  Romans,  and  John  returned, 
but  soon  died  in  consequence  of  his  dissipation.  The  Ro- 
mans choose  Benedict  Pope.  Otto  captured  Kome  the  second 
time,  deposed  Benedict,  and  reinstated  Leo. 
966-967.  Third  expedition  to  Italy.  Otto's  son.  Otto  11.,  already 
crowned  as  German  king,  received  the  imperial  crown  at  Rome. 
Otto  I.  died  at  Memleben,  near  Merseburg.  His  sepulchre  is 
in  the  cathedral  of  the  bishopric  of  Magdeburg,  which  he  had 
created. 

973-983.  Otto  11.,  highly  gifted,  bat  passionate,  husband  of 
the  Grecian  princess  T?ieophano. 

976.  Otto's  cousin,  Henry  the  Quarrelsome,  duke  of  Bavaria,  insti- 
gated a  conspiracy  against  the  emperor,  was  conquered  and 
deposed.  Bavaria  given  to  Otto  of  Swahia,  son  of  Liudolf. 
CarirUhia  separated  from  Bavaria  and  made  a  duchy.  Luil- 
pold  ofBabenberg  received  the  (Bavarian)  £astmark. 

978.  Otto  surprised  by  Lothar,  king  of  France,  escaped  with  diffi- 
culty, reconquered  Lotharingia,  invaded  France,  and  besieged 
Pans,  but  without  success. 

980-983.    Wars  in  Italy.    The  emperor  crossed  the  Vlps,  to  Rome^ 

981.     advanced  into  southern  Italy,  defeated  the  Greeks  and  Sara- 


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A.  D.  Jtafy  and  Germany.  197 

982.     ceDB  at  CoUmne^  sonth  of  Cotrone^  but  was  afterwards  defeated 

by  them  furtkar  south  on  the  Calabrian  coast  ^  where  his  army 

was  annihilated. 
963.  Victorious  advance  of  the  Danes  and  Wends ;  destmction  of  the 

bishoprics  of  Havelberg  and  Brandenburg.    Otto  U.  died  in 

Rome. 

983-1002.     Otto  m.,  three  years  old. 

Henry  the  Qnarrelsome's  cbiim  to  the  goardianship,  and  to 
the  crown  itself,  was  denied,  but  Bavaria,  without  uarinthia, 
was  returned  to  him.  Otto's  mother,  the  Grecian  Theophano, 
conducted  the  regency  in  Germany,  hiis  grandmother,  Adelheidf 
in  Italy ;  after  &e  death  of  Theophano  (991),  Addheid  and 
WilUgiSf  archbishop  of  Mainz,  conducted  the  government  until 
the  young  prince  took  the  reins  in  995.  From  his  great  intel- 
lectual endowments  known  as  the  ^  Wonder  of  the  World," 
he  was  dreamy  and  unpractical.    Three  Roman  expeditions. 

996.    On  the  first  expedition  Otto  was  crowned  by  Gregory  V. 

996-999.  On  the  second  his  teacher  Gerbert  was  elected  pope  as 
Sylvester  II.  Attempt  of  Crescentius  to  throw  off  the  German 
yoke  and  restore  the  ancient  republic.  He  was  defeated  and 
executed.  It  was  Otto's  design  to  make  "  golden  Rome  "  the 
imperial  residence  and  centre  of  a  new  universal  empire. 

1000.  Journey  throuflrh  Germany,  pilgrimage  to  the  grave  of  St. 
Adalbert,  foundation  of  the  archbishopric  of  Gnesen.  A  wide- 
spread belief  that  this  year  would  bnn^  the  end  of  the  world 
and  the  coming  of  the  Kingdom  of  ELeaven  led  thousands  of 
people  to  undertake  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome. 

1001.  During  his  third  visit  to  Italy,  revolt  of  the  Romans.  Otto 
died  in  the  castle  of  Patemo  at  the  foot  of  Soracte. 

1002-1024.    Henry  II.  (the  Saint), 

son  of  Henry  the  Quarrelsome  of  Bavaria,  great-grandson  of 
Henry  I.,  was  elected  king  at  Mainz,  after  his  rival,  Eckardy  margrave 
of  li^issen,  had  been  murdered.  Henry  II.  enforced  the  aclmowl- 
edgment  of  his  sovereignty,  particularly  from  Hermann,  duke  of 
Swabia. 
1004.    First  expedition  to  Italy  against  Ardoin  of  Ivrea ;  Henry 

crowned  king  of  Italy  in  Pavia. 
1004-1018.    Wars  with  Boleslav,  king  of  Poland,  who  was  compelled 

to  give  up  Bohemia,  but  retained  Lnsatia. 
Foundation  of  the  bishopric  of  Bamberg  (1007).    Increase  in  the 
power  of  the  church.    Reform  of  the  monasteries.     Energetic  en- 
forcement of  the  public  peace. 
1014.    Second    expedition  to  Italy.     Henry  crowned   emperor  in 

Rome.    Ardoin  gives  up  his  resistance  (died  in  a  monastery, 

1016). 
1016-1018.     Henry  went  to  war  to  secure  his  inheritance  in  BuT" 

1  The  battlefield  w  unknown;  it  wan  not  at  Basentello.  SeeV.aiesdbreoht, 
Guch,  d,  deuttchtn  KaUerztit,  !.<  597. 


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198  JIfediiBval  History.  A.  D. 

gundy,  which  had  been  resigned  in  his  fayor  by  the  laat  kine 
of  Burgundy,!  Rudolf  III,  Q016). 
1022.    On  the  third  expedition  to  Italy,  Henry  fought  with  the  Gre- 
cians in  lower  Italy,  with  the  assistance  of  the  NormoM  who 
had  settled  there  in  1015.     Henry  died  July  15, 1024. 

1024-1125.    Franoonian  or  Salian  Emperors. 

Election  held  at  Oppenheim  between  Mainz  and  Worms, — 
the  first  election  in  which  princes  of  all  the  tribes  had  partici- 
pated. 
After  hesitating  a  short  time  between  the  two  Conrads,  coudns, 

the  princes  chose  the  elder,  the  son  of  the  Prankish  count  Henry, 

eldest  son  of  Otto  of  Carinthia,  over  the  younger,  the  son  of  Conrad, 

younger  son  of  Otto  of  Carinthia. 

1024-1039.    Conrad  II.  (the  Salian). 

1025-1030.    Revolt  of  the  Babenberger,  Ernst,  duke  of  Swabia,  step- 
son  of  Conrad,  son  of  his  wife  Gisela,  resulting  from  the  con- 
flictin^p  claims  of  the  emperor  and  of  Ernst  as  the  personal 
heir  of  Henry  II.,  upon  Burgundy  (Aries).    Ernst  fell  in  bat- 
tle in  1030. 
1026.    Expedition  to  Italy.    Conrad  crowned  king  of  Italy  in  Milan, 
but  obliged  to  bring  Pavia  and  Ravenna  to  submission  by  force 
of  arms.    Crowned  emperor,  1027,  in  the  presence  of  Cnut  the  Great, 
king  of  England  and  Denmark,  and  Rudclj  III,  of  Burgundy  (Aries). 
The  Eider  made  the  boundary  between  Grermany  and  DenmarK, 
Schleswif,  therefore,  was  abandoned  to  the  Danes. 

Invasion  of  Germany  by  the  Poles  under  Mieczedav  II,,  where  they 
ravaged  the  country  to  the  Saale,  and  carried  10,000  prisoners  to 
Poland.  Conrad  hastened  from  the  Rhine,  and  provided  defences 
against  a  new  inroad,  but  attacked  the  Hungarians,  though  without 
success  (1030).  In  1031  Conrad  attacked  the  Poles,  forced  them  to 
surrender  their  prisoners,  and  restored  Lusatia  to  the  empire.  Mieo- 
zeslav  became  the  Emperor's  vassal  (1032). 

After  the  death  of  Rudolf  III.  (1032),  Burgundy,  that  is,  the 
kingdom  of  Aries,  which  was  formed  in  933,  by  ^e  union  of  cisjur- 
ane  and  transjurane  Burgundy  (p.  103),  was,  in  three  campaigns, 
wrested  from  the  hands  of  Odo,  Count  of  Champagne,  who  clauned  it 
as* heir  of  Henry  11.  and  united  with  the  empire.  At  a  later  time, 
however,  the  Romance  portions  of  Bummdy,  the  lands  along  the 
Rhone,  Saone,  Ishre,  and  Durance,  fell  to  Imuice  ;  the  Alamannian  por- 
tions (Franche  Comti,  Switzerland)  remained  a  part  of  the  empire.  In 
Italy  the  small  fiefs  were  made  legally  hereditary,  and  this  became 
the  common  custom  in  Germany.  To  counterbalance  this  tendency 
Comrad  seems  to  have  designed  doing  away  with  ducal  offices,  and 
making  the  royal  supremacy  immediate  and  hereditary  throughout  all 
German  lands. 

1036.    On  his  return  from  a  second  expedition  to  Italv,  Conrad 
1039.    died  at  Utrecht.    His  son  had  been  crowned  at  Aachen  in 
June  4th       his  boyhood,  and  now  succeeded  to  the  throne  as 
1  Otherwise  known  as  the  kingdom  of  Aries. — Trans, 


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k.  IK  £aly  and  Germany.  199 

1039-1056.    Henry  HI.  (called  <'  the  Black  ").    The  imperial 

power  at  its  highest  point. 
King  Hen^  was  for  a  time,  also,  duke  of  Baoana,  Stoabia,  and 
Franconia,    The  ducal  throne  in  Carinthia  was  long  vacant. 
1042-1044.     In  Hungary  the  king,  Peter^  whom  Henry  had  rein^ 

stated  at  the  eiroense  of  three  campaigns,  became  a  vassal  of 

the  empire.     Extension  of  the  Bavarian  Eastmark  to  the 

Leitha. 
Tedious  wars  with  the  unruly  Godfrey  the  Bearded,  duke  of  upper 
Lotharingia,  which  was  at  last  (1049)  riven  to  the  Alsacian  count 
Gerhard,  the  ancestor  of  the  house  of  Lorraine.^  Godfrey  went  to 
Italy  (1054),  where  he  married  Beatrix  of  Tuscany.  Henry  favored 
the  attempt  to  intooduce  the  Treuga  Dei  (p.  203).  Proclamation  of 
a  general  king's  peace  in  tiie  empire. 
1046-1047.    First  expedition  to  Rome.     Heniy  caused  a  synod  to 

depose  the  three  rival  Popes  (Sylvester  III.,  Benedict  IX., 
Gregory  VL),  each  of  whom  was  accused  of  simony,  and  appointed 
a  tierman,  Suidger,  bishop  of  Bamberg,  Pope,  as  Clement  TL,  who 
crowned  him  emperor  (Christmas,  lOliS).  After  Clement,  Henry 
appointed  three  German  ropes  in  succession.  He  invested  Drogo,  son 
of  the  Norman  Tancred  of  Hauteville,  with  ApuUa. 
1055.    Second  Roman  expedition.     Henry  died  at  Gozlar,  Oct.  28, 

1056.    He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

1056-1106.     Henry  IV.,  six  years  old, 

who  had  been  crowned  king  at  the  age  of  four.  Spoiled  in  his 
youth,  he  grew  to  manhood  passionate  but  weak.  His  mother,  Agnee 
of  Poitou,  the  regent,  gave  navaria  to  the  Saxon  count  Otto  of  Nord^ 
hem,  Carinthia  to  BerthM  of  Z&hringen,  Swalna  to  her  son-in-law, 
Rudolf  of  Rheinfeld,  Abduction  of  the  young  king  from  Kaiserstnert 
to  Cdogne  (1062)  by  Archbishop  Anno,  who  was  soon  obliged  to  share 
the  administration  of  the  empire  with  Adalbert,  the  ambitious  arch- 
bishop of  Bremen  (1065).  Conspiracy  of  the  princes  i^;ainst  Adal- 
bert of  Bremen.  Imperial  Diet  at  Trimr  (1066).  Adalbert  banished 
from  court  for  three  years  (f  1072). 

Otto  of  Nordheim  deposed  from  the  dukedom  of  Bavaria,  which 
was  given  to  his  son-in-law,  Welf,  son  of  the  margrave  Azzo  of  Este, 

Sie  house  of  Welf  was  extinct  in  the  male  line.)  Magnus,  duke  of 
ony,  kept  in  confinement.  Revolt  of  the  Saxons,  whom  Henry  had 
displeased  by  the  erection  of  numerous  fortresses  in  their  land. 
Flight  of  Henry  from  the  Harzburg  (1073),  humiliating  peace,  de- 
struction of  the  Harzburg.  Henry  defeated  the  Saxons  on  the  Unstrut 
(1075).    Contest  with  Pope 

1073-1085.    Gregory  VII.  (Hildebrand), 

descended  from  a  family  having  a  small  estate  in  southern 
Tuscany.     He  was  educated  at  the  monastery  of  Cluny,    He  had,  as 

1  In  poMcssion  of  Lorraine  down  to  1737.    See  Modem  History,  Second 
Period,  §  3. 


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200  MseUiBval  History*  A.  du 

flftrdinal-sabdeacon,  afterwards  as  archdeaocm  and  chancellor,  con- 
ducted the  temporal  albdrs  of  the  papacy  under  ^oe  Popes. 

Strict  enforcement  of  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  war  against  simony 
(Acts  viii.  18),  and  lay  investitures^  whereby  is  meant  the  investi- 
ture of  clergy  with  the  secular  estiites  and  rights  of  their  spiritual 
benefices  by  the  temporal  power,  by  means  of  &e  ring  and  staff. 

Gre^ry  in  alliance  with  Robert  Guiscard,  duke  of  the  Normans, 
and  with  the  dissatisfied  princes  in  Germany.  Henry  ezoommuni- 
cated  (1076) ;  suspended  from  his  royal  office  by  the  Diet  at  Tribur 
rOct.  1076),  and  the  ultimate  decision  referred  to  a  Diet  to  be  held  at 
Augsburg  in  February,  1077.  A  few  days  before  Christmas  Heniy 
left  Speier  in  secret  with  his  wife,  son,  and  one  attendant;  crossing 
the  Alps  under  great  hardship, 

1077.  Henry  humbled  himself  before  the  Pope  at  Ca- 
Jan.  25-28.     noBsa, 

a  castle  belonging  to  the  Pope's  firm  friend,  the  powerful 
Matilda,  marchioness  of  Tuscany.  After  three  days'  delay,  passed 
by  Henry  in  the  asxh  of  a  penitent  in  the  snow-covered  castle  court, 
Gregory  admitted  him  to  his  presence,  and  gave  him  a  oonditional 
absolution. 

Fortune  turned  in  Henry's  favor.  Rudolf  of  Swabia,  whom  the 
malcontents  in  Grermany  had  elected  kin^  (March,  1077)  at  Forch' 
heimj  was  defeated  and  mortally  woimded  m  the  battle  on  the  Elster 
(1080).  Swabia  given  to  Frederic  of  Hohenstaufen,  Henry's  son-in- 
law  (1079). 

Henry,  a  second  time  excommunicated  (1080),  went  to  Italy,  cap- 
tured Rome,  and  was  crowned  by  Clement  III.,  a  Pope  of  his  own 
creation.  Greaory  VII,,  besieged  in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo,  was  re- 
leased by  the  rforman,  Rchert  Guiscard,  and  died  (1086J  at  Salerno. 
(Dilexi  jitstitiam  et  odi  iniquitatem,  propterea  morior  in  exHto). 

llie  influence  of  Gregory  VII.  had  been  felt  in  all  parts  of  the 
Christian  world.  It  was  under  his  auspices,  some  have  claimed  at 
his  suggestion,  that  WHliam  of  Normandy  undertook  the  conquest  of 
£ngland. 

Henry  was  involved  in  a  contest  with  a  new  king  set  up  by  the  Sax- 
ons, Hermann  of  Salm,  son  of  the  count  of  Luxemburg.  Hermann, 
however,  abdicated  in  1088,  and  died  the  same  year.  Submission  of 
the  Saxons  upon  receiving  assurance  that  their  ancient  privileges 
should  be  respected. 

The  church  was  still  hostile.  Marriage  of  Matilda  of  Tuscany 
with  Welf  v.,  son  of  duke  Welf  of  Bavaria. 

1090-1097.  Third  expedition  to  Italy.  Hexiry  captured  Mantua 
after  a  siege  of  eleven  months,  but  was  in  eeneial  unsuccess- 
ful. Revolt  of  his  son  Conrad  (1092).  Henry  returned,  to 
Germany  in  1097,  in  which  year  the  bands  of  the  first  cru- 
saders, under  Walter  of  Perejo  and  Peter  the  Hermit,  crossed 
Germany.  War  with  Conrad  (died  1101),  and  afterwards  with 
Henry's  other  son,  Henry,  who  imprisoned  his  father.  Flight 
of  the  emperor  to  Luttich,  where  he  died  Aug.  7, 1106.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  younger  son. 


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A.  D.  France.  201 

1106-1125.  Henry  V. 

The  king  went  to  Rome,  took  Pope  PajBchal  II.  prisoner,  and 
forced  him  to  perform  the  coronation  and  acknowledge  the  imperial 
right  of  investitare  (1111).  As  soon  as  the  emperor  had  left  Italy 
the  Lateran  Council  declared  the  concessions  in^lid  as  having  been 
extorted  by  force,  and  a  second  council  at  Vienna  excommunicated 
Henry. 

Wars  with  Grerman  princes  who  were  in  revolt,  especially  with 
Lothar  of  Saxony,  and  the  archbishops  of  Mainz  and  Cologne.  Vic- 
tory of  the  Saxons  at  WeLfeshobsey  near  Mansfeld  (1115).  The  war 
of  the  inveatitare  was  ended,  after  a  long  contest  with  CaUxtus  IL, 
by  the 

1122.    Concordat  of  Worms. 

Election  of  bishops  and  abbots  in  Germany  to  take  place  in 
the  presence  of  the  emperor  or  his  representatives;  investiture  by  the 
emperor  must  precede  consecration,  but  was  to  be  conferred  not  with 
the  ring  and  staff,  but  with  the  sceptre.  In  Italy  and  Burgundy  in- 
vestiture was  to  follaw  canonical  election  and  consecration.  Ecclesi- 
astics holding  secuiar  benefices  were  bound  to  perform  the  feudal 
duties.  (See  p.  218,) 

§2.    FRANCE.  {Seep.  187,) 

843-987.     Carolingian  kings  of  the  Franks, 
84a<877.    Charles  the  Bald. 

His  rule  was  limited  to  the  neighborhood  of  Lacn;  Brittany  and 
Septhnania  were  independent ;  his  supremacy  in  Aquitania  was  but 
nominal.  Ravages  of  the  Northmen  incessant,  daring,  terrible.  Sack 
of  Saintes,  Limoges,  Bordeaux,  Tours,  Rouen,  Orleans,  Toulouse,  Bo- 
yeux,  Evreux,  Nantes.  Some  Quarters  of  Paris,  even,  were  ravaged. 
Lotharingia  divided  between  l!  ranee  and  Germany  by  the  treaty  of 
Meersen  (870).  OurthSf  Meuse,  Jura,  the  boundary  between  Germany 
and  France.  Charles  wasted  his  energy  striving  for  the  imperial 
crown. 

Fiefs  proclaimed  hereditary  at  the  diet  of  Chiersi  (877).    Charles 
died  on  Mont  Cenis,  returning  from  an  unsuccessful  expedition  to 
Italy.     Rise  of  scholasticism.    Joannes  Scotus  Eriffena.    aincmar  of 
Hh^jM,    Charles  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
877-^79.  Iiudwig  the  Stammerer  (Louis  II„  le  Begue). 
879^882.  liUdwlg  m.  (Louis  III.)  in  the  north  of  France.     ^  ^ 

879-884.  Karlmann  in  Aquitaine,  and  over  the  whole  kingdom  after  . 
'  882.  The  ravages  of  the  Northmen  increased  in  frequency  and  dura- 
tion in  spite  of  Ludwig's  victory  at  Saucovrt  in  881  (Ludwia- 
slied).  Revolt  of  Boso,  duke  of  cisjurane  Burgundy  (879).  The 
heir  of  Ludmg  II.,  Charles,  being  but  five  years  dd,  the  nobles  chose 
884-^7.  Charles  the  Fat  of  Germany, 

king;  thus  uniting  the  whole  empire  once  more  in  one  hand. 
Siege  of  Paris  by  the  Northmen  under  RoUo  (Hrolf)  in  885. 
Heroic  defence  by  Endes  (Odo),  count  of  Paris.  Charles,  consent- 
ing to  buy  the  retreat  of  the  Northmen,  was  deposed  in  887.  (Died 
in  888  in  Germany.) 


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202  Mediaval  History,  ▲.  n. 

The  empire  of  Charles  reduced  to  six  dearly  distinct  states  :  Italy, 
Grermaay,  Lorraine,  Provence,  Transiurane  Burgundy  (formed  by 
the  union  of  western  Switzerland  and  Franche  Comt^,  under  Rudolf 
/.,  nephew  of  Eudes),  France.  In  France  the  nobles  passed  over 
the  infant  Chariea,  and  elected 
888^d8.    Eudea,  count  of  Paris,  son  of  Robert  the  Strong.    The 

opposition  party  among  the  nobles  advocated  the  claims  of 
893-923.    Charles  III.,  the  Simple,  who  was  not  generally  acknowU 

edged  until  after  the  death  of  Eudes.    In  Us  reign  the 

911  (?)•  Northmen  gained  a  permanent  foothold  on  the 
Seine  ^Normandy),  under  Rdf  (Rollo),  the  first  duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, with  feudal  sovereignty  over  Brittany,  Treaty  of  Su  Claire 
ntr  Epte,  near  Ghisors.  Baptism  of  EoUo  under  the  name  of  Robert. 
Revolts  i^ainst  Charles.  Roberty  duke  of  France,  brother  of  EudeSf 
proclaimed  kinj^,  but  slain  in  the  battie  of  Soissons  (923).  His  place 
was  filled  by  hu  son-in-law,  Rudolf  oi  Burgundy.  Charles  treacher*- 
ously  seized  by  Herbert  of  Vermandois  and  imprisoned  (died  in  929). 
His  wife,  Eadgyfa  (Edwina),  fled  to  her  brother  JEthdstane^  king  of 
England,  with  her  three-year-old  son  Ludwig  IV.,  hence  called  d*  Outre 
Mer  (Beyond  Seas).  Rudolf  dying  in  936  without  issue,  the  nobles, 
Hugh  the  White,  duke  of  France  (f  956),  Herbert  of  Vermandois^  and 
William  Longsword  of  Normandy,  recalled 

936-954.    Iiudwig  from  Beyond  Seaa  (Louis  IV.,  d^Outremer), 

in  whose  reien  the  country  was  torn  with  civil  war  between 
the  king,  Hugh  the  White,  or  Great,  and  Otto,  king  of  Grermany  (east 
FranksJ.    Ludwig  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

954-986.    Lothar, 

who  was  under  the  influence  of  Hugh  Capet,  son  of  Hugh  the 

Great.    An  unsuccessful  actempt  to  acquire  Lorraine  brought  on  an 

invasion  of  France  by  Otto  II,  of  Germany.    Lothar  was  succeeded 

by  his  son, 

986-987.  Ludwig  V.  (le  Faineant),  who,  after  a  short  and  stormy 
reign,  died  suddenly  (987),  without  issue.  The  direct  line  of 
Charles  the  Great  was  extinct.  The  only  man  who  had  a 
claim  to  the  succession  wan  the  uncle  of  Ludwig,  Charles,  duke 
of  Lorraine,  a  vassal  of  the  emperor. 

987-1328.    Capetian  dynasty,  direot  line. 
987-996.    Hugh  Capet 

was  chosen  king,  but  was  powerless  to  resist  the  great  feudal 
nobles,  each  of  whom  surpassed  the  king  in  militaiy  power  and  ex- 
tent of  territory  (dukes  of  Normandy,  Brtttany,  Bwroundy,  Aquttame; 
counts  of  Flanders,  Champagne,  Vermandois).  The  royal  domain 
reached  from  the  Somme  to  the  Lmre,  with  Normandy  and  Anjou  on 
the  west  and  Champagne  on  the  east.  Paris  in  the  centre  was  the 
coital  of  the  new  French  monarchy,  as  Laon  had  been  the  capital 
of  the  old  Gtonnan  kingdom.  Capture  of  Charles  the  Carolingian. 
Gtobert,  archbishop  of  Kheims,  afterwards  Pope  Sylvester  II.  Un- 
der Hugh's  son. 


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▲.  D.  EHgland.  203 

996-1031.  Robert,  the  roval  power  wm  wasted  to  a  shadow.  The 
king,  pious,  weak,  and  absurd,  was  inyoWed  in  domestio  trouble 
and  in  constant  wars  with  the  nobles.  Rising  of  the  seiriFs  (997). 
Famine  (1030-1032).  The  Vexin  on  the  Seine  given  to  Normandy. 
Robert's  son, 
1031-1060.    Henry  I., 

retained  scarcely  a  trace  of  power,  beyond  the  nomination  of 
the  bishops. 

Introduction  of  the  ^'Trnoe  of  Gtod"  (JTreu^  Dei)  by  the  clergy 
(at  first  [1041]  in  6uienne\  whereby  a  cessation  of  all  feuds  was  en- 
joined by  the  church  during  church  festivals  and  from  Wednesday 
evening  to  Monday  morning  in  eoery  toeek  (only  80  days  in  a  year  avail- 
able for  warfare).  The  crown  having  now  become  hereditary,  Henry 
was  succeeded  quietiy  by  his  son, 
1060-1108.    Philip  I., 

whose  long  reign,  distinguished  by  no  deeds  of  his  own,  is  re- 
markable for  two  important  events  :  the  conquest  of  England  by  the 
Normans  (1066),  and  the  first  crusade  (1096).  (See  p,  ^6,) 

§3.    ENGLAND.  (Seep,  181.) 

828-1066.    England  tinder  the  West  Saxon  kings. 
826-837.    Ecgberht,  king  of  Wessez  (p.  180),  ruler  of  Svasex,  Kent^ 
Essex,  overlord  of  Merda,  East  AngUa,  Northumbrian  Wales, 
and  Straikdyde, 

Ravages  of  the  r^orthmen.  Pouring  in  swarms  from  the  northern 
kingdoms  of  Denmark  and  Scandinavia,  these  pirates,  the  vikings, 
harassed  England  and  the  continent  almost  beyond  belief.  The  Eng^ 
lish  called  the  Northmen  ''  Danes,"  although  not  all  their  assailants 
oame  from  that  kingdom.  The  Northmen  were  still  heathens.  The 
epoch  of  their  invasions  falls  into  three  divisions  :  I.  (789-866^ 
Period  of  invasion  and  ravage  without  settiement.  II.  (866-1003) 
Period  of  settlement  and  conquest  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 
III.  (1003-1066)  Period  of  political  conquest.  The  first  recorded 
attack  was  in  789  (p.  180).  In  834  Sheppey  was  ravaged.  Defeat 
of  the  Danes  at  Hengestesdun  (836). 

Ecgberht  was  succeeded  by  his  son  iBthelwulf  (837-858).  In  851 
the  Danes  took  London  and  Canterbury;  in  855  they  wintered  for  the 
first  time  in  Sheppey.  ^thelwulf  msaried  Judith,  daughter  of  Charles 
the  Bald,  king  of  the  West  Franks.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
.Sthelbald  (858-860),  who  married  his  father's  widow.  On  his 
dea^  Judith  returned  to  the  continent  and  married  Baldwin,  after- 
wards count  of  Flanders.  -From  this  union  descended  Matilda,  wife 
of  William  the  Conqueror,  ^thelbald  was  succeede4  by  his  brother 
JQtaelberht  (860-866),  who  was  followed  by  his  brother, 

866-871.    21thelred  I. 

Settiement  of  the  Danes  in  Northumbria  (romance  of  Bagnar 
Lodbrog).    The  Danes  in  East  Anglia  (866)^  in  Mercia  (868). 

^70.  East  Anglia  conquered  and  settied  by  the  Danes.    Martyrdom 
of  St,  Edmmd,kmg  of  the  East  Angles. 


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304  Mediteval  History.  ▲.  d. 

Sack  of  Peterborough  and  Croyhmd,  Danes  in  Wessex  (871).  Nine 
battles  were  fought  with  the  invaders  this  year.  At  ^soesdun  the 
Danes  were  defeated  by  JEthdred  and  JElfrid  his  brother. 

871-901.    Alfred  the  Great. 

In  the  earlier  years  of  his  reie^  Wessex  was  at  peace,  bat  the 
other  parts  of  England  still  suffered  from  Danish  inroads.    In  876 
Danes  settled  in  Northumbria,  and  GiUhorm,  Danish  king  in  East 
Anglia,  entered  Wessex.  In  877  lands  in  Mercia  were  divided  among  , 
the  Danes. 
878.    The  Danes  ravaged  'Wessex. 

iElfred  took  re&ge  in  the  forest.  Erection  of  the  fortress  of 
Athdney.  Defeat  of  the  Danes  at  Ethcmdtm.  Treabr  of  'Wedmore, 
between  JElfred  and  Guthorm.  The  Danes  left  Wessex,  but  East 
Anglia  and  a  part  of  Mercia  were  given  up  to  them.  London,  how- 
ever, was  retamed  by  -Alfred.  The  country  of  the  Danes,  Danelagh^ 
as  it  came  to  be  called,  now  embraced  the  larger  part  of  England. 

880-893.     Peace  in  Wessex. 

Alfred  was  a  skilful  warrior  but  no  lover  of  war.  His  genius 
was  for  civil  government.  Revision  of  the  laws;  separation  of  the 
judicial  from  the  executive  department.  Trial  by  juir  was  not  intro- 
duced by  iElfred;  that  institution  was  of  Norman  origin,  a  develop- 
ment of  principles  of  old  Prankish  law.  Creation  of  a  fleet  (882). 
Submission  of  several  Welsh  provinces.  Encoura^ment  of  learning. 
Beeda*s  Ecclesiastical  History,  Orosius'  History,  and  Boethius'  Consola- 
tion of  Philosophy,  translated  into  Anglo-Saxon  by  Alfred.  Voyages 
of  OMere  and  iVulfhere  along  the  northern  shores  of  Europe  under- 
taken at  iElfred's  request.  Asser,  The  Anglo-Sazon  Chf onicle 
probablr  put  into  shape  in  this  reign. 

The  Danish  war  broke  out  again  in  893  with  an  invasion  of  Kent 
Defeat  of  the  Danes  at  Buttin|;ton.  In  901  Alfred  died.  He 
left  five  children :  two  sons,  Ead'ward  and  jEthelioeard,  and  three 
daughters,  JElthelflaBd  the  "  Lady  of  the  Mercians,"  wife  of  JEthdred, 
ealcforman  of  West  Saxon  Mercia,  ^thdmfu,  abbess  of  Shaftesbuijy, 
JElfihryih,  wife  of  Baldwin  II,,  count  of  fianders,  son  of  Baldum  and 
Judith  (p.  203).  From  this  union  descended  Matilda,  wife  of  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror. 

901-925.    Badward  the  Elder. 

Erection  of  fortresses  along  the  Mercian  frontier  by  Eadward 
and  ^thdflced.  Conquest  of  the  five  Boroughs  (Derby,  Lincoln,  Letces- 
ter,  Stamford,  Nottingham)  by  ^thelfled.  Annexation  of  Mercia  to 
Wessex.  Conquest  of  East  Anglia  and  Essex.  Submission  of  Strathr 
dyde  and  all  the  Scots  ^924).  Eadward  lord  of  all  Britain.  W^ 
sex,  Kent,  Sussex,  he  ruled  by  inheritance;  Mercia,  Essex,  East  Anglia^ 
by  conquest  f^om  the  Danes;  Northumberland,  Wales,  Scotland,  Strath- 
dyde,  as  overlord.  Eadward  died  in  925,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son 

925>940.    Athelstan. 

League  of  Scots,  Welsh,  and  Danes  crushed  in  926.    Again 


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Jl.  Tk  England.  205 

renewed,  it  was  again  broken  up  by  ihe  defeat  of  the  allies  in 

937.    Battle  of  Bnmanburh. 

^thelstan  was  sncoeeded  by  his  brother  Badmund  (940- 
946).  ReYolt  of  Danes  and  Scots.  Reoonqnest  of  the  Five  Boroughs 
and  the  Danelagh,  Cumberland  given  as  s  fief  to  Malcolm,  Ising  of 
Scots.  Dunstan  appointed  abbot  of  Glastonbury.  Murder  of  £ad- 
mundy  who  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Eadred  (946-955).  A 
revolt  of  the  Danes  was  crushed  in  954;  final  submission  of  the 
Danelagh.  Badwig  (955-959),  nephew  of  Eadred,  quarrelled  with 
Dunstan,  and  drove  him  from  the  country.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother, 

959-975.    Badgar, 

the  under  king  of  Mercia.  Dunstan,  recalled  in  958,  arcb- 
bishop  of  Canterbury  959,  was  the  true  ruler.  The  royal  power  stood 
high.  Revision  of  the  laws.  Secular  priests  were  out  oi  favor,  and 
monks  were  installed  in  many  of  the  wealthiest  churches.  Miunte- 
nance  of  a  large  fleet.  Eadgar  was  followed  by  his  son  Badward 
(the  martyr),  murdered  978. 
978-1016.    iBthelred  IL,  the  Unready,^  son  of  Eadgar, 

in  whose  reign  the  political  conquee^«  of  England  was  under- 
taken by  the  Danish  sovereigns  (p.  203).  Danish  invasions  began, 
after  a  long  interval,  in  980.  Death  of  Dunstan,  988.  Battle  of 
Maldon  against  the  Danes  (991),  when  Brihtnoth,  ealdorman  of  the 
East  Saxons,  fell.  (Soug  of  Brihtnoth's  Death.)  In  this  year  (991) 
the  plan  of  buying  oS  the  Danes  was  adopted,  10,000  pounds  being 
paid,  which  were  raised  by  a  special  tax  {Danegeld).  In  994  Ard^ 
{Olaf  Tryggvesson)  and  Swegen  (Svend  with  the  Forked  Beard)  rav- 
aged Kent,  and  were  paid  16,000  pounds.  Ravages  of  the  Northmen 
in  997,  998,  999, 1001, 1002, 1003, 10(Mt,  1006, 1009, 1010,  1011, 1013, 
1015. 

1002.  24^000  pounds  paid  to  the  Northmen.  Maaaaore  of  all  (?^ 
Danas  in  England,  upon  one  day  (Nov.  13,  Danish  Vespers) 
by  order  of  JEthelred.  Swegen  reaoWes  on  the  oonqueat  of  Eng- 
land. Marriage  of  JEthelred  and  Emma,  daughter  of  Richard  I., 
duke  of  Normandy.  In  1007, 36,000  pounds,  in  1012,  48,000  pounds, 
were  paid  to  the  Northmen.  Death  of  Swegen  (1014).  Election  of 
his  son  Cnut  (Canute)  to  succeed  him.  l%e  Danes  had  now  recov- 
ered all  that  part  of  England  which  they  had  acquired  by  the  treaty 
of  Wedmore  (p.  204)  in  878.  Upon  the  death  of  ^thelred  the  Danish 
party  in  England  chose  Cnut  king,  but  the  English  party,  which 
centred  in  London,  chose  Eadmund  Ironside  (1016),  son  of  ^thel^ 
red.  He  made  a  brave  stand,  and  many  battles  were  fought  this 
year.  After  the  defeat  of  Eadmund  at  Assandan  peace  was  con- 
cluded. Eadmund  received  Wessex,  Essex j  East  Anglia,  and  Lon- 
don ;  Cnut  received  Northumberland  and  Mercia.  The  nominal  over- 
lordship  of  England  remained  with  Eadmund.  After  the  death  of 
Eadmund  (1016)  Cnut  became  king  of  England. 

1  Sach  is  his  conventional  title;  probably  ^'Despisor  of  Counsel'*  vrould  bet- 
ter convej  the  meaning  of  *'  Heddtu:*  ^  t 

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206  Meduetxd  Higtary.  ▲.  0. 

1016-1042.    Danish  Bupremaoy  over  England. 
1016-1035.    Cnut. 

England  diyided  into  four  govenmientg :  'Wessex,  under 
Cnvi;  Meroia,  Bast  Anglia,  Northumberland,  under  JarU  or  Earls. 
Huscarls,  Cnut's  personal  following.  Cnut  in  Rome  (1027).  Laws 
of  Cnut  (1028^.  8ubjugationofAfaZco/m,kinff  of  Scots  (1031).  CmU 
was  Bucceedea  by  his  sons  Harold  (1035-1040)  and  Eburtiiaoiiiit 
(1040-1042).  Oodwine,  earl  of  Wessex  ;  laeofrio,  earl  of  Mercia ; 
Siward,  earl  of  Northumberland.  On  Harthacnu^s  death  the  son  of 
^thelred, 

1042-1066.    Eadward,  the  Confessor, 

was  elected  king.  He  had  been  educated  at  the  Norman  court, 
and  during  his  reign  Norman  influence  was  supreme  at  the  court  of 
England.  The  country  was  in  the  hands  of  the  great  earls  Godunne^ 
Leofric,.  Siward,  In  1051,  Godwine,  father-in-law  of  the  king,  was  ex- 
iled. Recalled  in  1052  he  brought  about  a  general  banishment  of  the 
French.  Upon  the  death  of  Grodwine  his  power  passed  to  his  son 
Harold  (1053).  In  1055  Harold's  brother  Tostig  succeeded  Siward 
as  earl  of  Northumberland.  In  1057  Harold's  brother  Gyrth  was 
made  earl  in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  and  another  brother  of  Harold, 
Leqfioinet  earl  of  Kent  and  Essex.  Subjugation  of  Wales  by  Harold 
(1003).  Revolt  of  Northumberland  (1005).  Deposition  of  rosH^  and 
election  of  Morkere,  erandson  of  Leofric  of  Mercia,  and  brother  of 
Edioin,  then  earl  of  Mercia.    On  the  death  of  Eadujord, 

lOee.    Harold, 

earl  of  Wessex,  was  elected  king. 

A  claim  to  the  succession  was  immediately  advanced  by  'Wil- 
liam, duke  of  Normandy,  upon  three  grounds.  1.  The  alleged  be- 
quest of  Eadward  the  Confessor.  2.  An  oath  taken  by  Harold  upon 
occasion  of  his  having  been  shipwrecked  on  the  coast  of  Normandv 
about  1064,  in  virtue  of  which  he  had  become  William's  vassal,  ana 
had  promised  to  marry  his  daughter  and  secure  him  the  succession 
after  the  death  of  Eadward.  3.  The  right  of  his  wife,  Matilda  (p. 
204).  The  claim  being  rejected,  William  at  once  prepared  to  assert 
it  by  arms. 

Invasion  of  Yorkshire  by  Harold  Hardrada,  king  of  Norway,  and 
Tostig,  brother  of  Harold  of  England. 

Sept.  25.    BatUe  of  Stamfordbridge. 

Defeat  and  death  of  the  invaders.  'William  had  meantime 
landed  at  Pevensey.  Harold  hastened  south,  but  was  defeated 
in  the 

Oct.  14.     Battle  of  Hafitingrs  or  Senlao, 

apd  fell  on  the  field.  Eadgar  ^theLing,  grandson  of 
Eadmund  Ironsides^  was  chosen  king,  but  soon  submitted, 
with  all  the  chief  men,  to  the  victor.  Election  of  Wil* 
Uam.  {Seep.2M9,) 


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A.  D.  The  NoHh.  207 


§  4.    THE  NORTH.  {Seep.  168.) 

Dexunarlc 

Northero  historians  of  the  Middle  Age  refer  the  conquest  of  the 
North  to  the  Ascu  under  Odin  (p.  168),  who  gave  Denmark  to  his 
son. 

After  him  came  Dan  the  FamauSy  who  gave  a  name  to  the  king- 
dom. Under  Frode  the  Peaceful,  who  reigned  at  the  beginning  of 
our  era,  Denmark  enjoyed  a  Golden  Age.  In  the  eighth  century  the 
famous  battle  of  Bravalla  was  fought  between  Harold  Hildetand, 
king  of  Denmark,  and  Sigurd  Ring^  king  of  Sweden,  and  ended  in 
favor  of  the  Swedes. 

Thus  far  all  is  mythical.  The  true  history  of  Denmark  begins  with 
Garm  the  Old,  It  is  clear,  however,  that  the  Danes  had  settl^  in  two 
bands  :  one  occupying  the  peninsula,  Jutland^  ScMetwig^  and  Hohtein: 
the  other  occupying  the  eastern  islands  Zealand,  FlHien,  etc.  Botn 
divisions,  between  which  there  was  scanty  intercourse,  were  ruled  by 
numerous  petty  chiefs  (smaa^kangar),  among  the  most  famous  of  whom 
was  the  king  and  high-priest  of  Lefre  in  Zealand,  who  was  at  the  head 
of  a  loose  confederacy  of  the  islands.  When  JtOea  and  Angles  in  the 
fifth  century  migrated  to  Britain  (p.  176),  Danes  from  the  islands 
seem  to  have  taken  their  place  in  the  peninsula. 

Godfrey,  kin^  of  Jutland,  was  embroiled  with  Charles  the  Great,  and 
built  a  Ikmnevtrk  or  line  of  fortresses  across  the  peninsula.  Under 
his  successor,  Hemming,  the  Eyder  vms  made  the  boundaiy  between 
Denmark  and  the  Prankish  empire. 

In  822  Christianity  preached  in  Denmark  by  Ebbo,  archbishop  of 
Rheims.  In  826  Anagariua,  <^  the  Apostle  of  the  North,"  labored  in 
Denmark,  but  without  lasting  results. 

Gwm  the  Old  (about  860-935),  the  finit  king  of  all  Denmark,  was 
a  devout  heathen,  who  persecuted  the  new  faith  until  forced  to  refrain 
by  Henry  L  of  Germany.  Erection  of  the  great  Dannevirke  between 
the  Sley  and  the  Eyder,  Gorm  ruled  the  peninsula,  the  islands,  and 
Shaania  and  Bleking,  the  southern  provinces  of  Sweden.  Harold 
Blue4ooth  (Blaatand),  935-985.  War  with  Norway.  Otto  II.  of  Ger- 
many, in  975,  forced  Harold  to  consent  to  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity in  his  kingdom.  Svend  Forked  Beard  (Tveskfoed),  985-1014. 
Successful  revolt  of  the  tributary  Wends,  Svend  in  England  (p.  205). 
Knut  the  Great  (1014-1035),  kins  of  Denmark  and  of  England.  He 
passed  most  of  his  time  in  England,  which  led  to  an  attempt  on  the  part 
of  Ulf-Jarl  to  make  Hardeknut  king  in  Denmark.  It  failed,  and  Knut 
later  had  Ulf  kiUed.  In  1028  Knut  was  proclaimed  king  of  Norway. 
Hardeknut  (Hathaonut)  (1035-1042)  succeeded  his  father  in  Den- 
mark. His  war  with  Magnus  of  Norway  ended  in  an  agreement 
whereby  whoever  should  outlive  the  other  should  inherit  his  kingdom. 
Under  this  treaty  Magn.ua  ruled  Denmark,  1042-1047.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Svend  Estridsen,  son  of  Ulf-Jarl  and  Estride,  sister  of 
Knvt  (1047-1076).  War  for  seventeen  years  with  Harold  Hardrada 
of  Norway  was  brought  to  a  close  in  1064.  War  with  the  Wends, 
Svend  raised  Denmaric  to  a  position 'of  power,  which  was  lost  under 


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208  MediiBval  Biitoiy.  X.  D» 

his  five  sons  who  followed  him:  Harold  Heyn  (1076-1080),  Bt. 
Knut  (1080-1086),  Olaf  Hunger  (1086-1095),  Erik  Ejegod  (1005- 
1103),  Niels  (1105-1136).  (See  p.  SS5.) 

Sweden.  (See  p.  209.) 

Sweden  was  the  first  of  the  Scandinayian  kui^oms  to  attain  power. 
According  to  tradition  there  were  two  races  in  the  coontiy  besides 
the  Finns,  the  Gota  or  GaxOa  (GoUis)  and  the  Svea.  The  Svea  traced 
their  origin  to  the  followers  of  Odin.  Njord,  son  of  Odin,  was  the 
first  king  of  Sweden.  Ilis  son,  Frey  Tngve,  built  the  temple  of 
Uppsala,  and  founded  the  line  of  the  Ynglingar,  which  ruled  the  Svea 
until  Inejald  IW^raada  so  angered  the  petty  kings  by  his  cruelty  that 
they  revolted.  The  king  burned  himself  and  his  family,  and  his  son 
Olaf  fled  to  Norway.  Ivar  Vidfadmey  king  of  Skaania,  which  was 
independent  before  its  conquest  by  Gorm  of  Denmark,  succeeded  Ing- 
jald.    This  was  in  the  seventh  century. 

In  the  eighth  (?)  century  falls  the  mythical  battle  of  BravaUa,  where 
Bignrd  Ring,  king  of  Sweden,  defeated  Harold  HUdeiand  of  Den- 
mark. Sigurd*s  son,  Hagnar  Lodbrog,  is  even  more  famous  in  story 
than  his  father.  (Tale  of  his  capture  by  iBlla  of  Northumberland,  and 
of  his  death  in  a  pit  of  serpents,  which  his  sons  avenffed  by  the 
slaughter  of  MUa.  See  p.  203,  where  the  discrepancy  in  date  is  to  be 
noted.^ 

In  the  ninth  century  authentic  history  begins.  Mission  of  Ansga- 
rius  (829-865)  to  Sweden,  where  his  preaching  met  with  great  suc- 
cess. Erik  Emundsson,  king  of  Sweden  (died  in  885  ?),  made  im- 
portant conquests  in  the  East.  At  the  same  time  bands  of  Swedes 
settled  around  Novgorod,  subjugated  the  Slavs,  and  laid  the  foundation 
of  the  future  empire  of  Russia  (Varinjar,  RussX 

Olaf  the  Lap-king  (993-1024)  was  the  first  (Christian  king  of  Swe- 
den. War  with  St.  Olafoi  Norway.  The  last  king  of  the  Upsaia 
line  was  Bmund  Gamnde  (the  Old),  who  died  about  1056.  Btenldl 
(1056-1066).  (See  p.  2S7.) 

Norway.  (See  p.  209.) 

According  to  tradition  Norway  was  first  settled  by  Olaf  Trcetelje 
of  the  Yngltngar  line,  who  fled  from  Sweden  after  the  death  of  lus 
father  Inlaid.  The  country  was  governed  by  numerous  petty  kings, 
and  remamed  weak  and  distracted,  like  Sweden  and  Denmark,  until, 
as  in  those  countries,  a  process  of  consolidation  set  in  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury. Half  dan  the  Black  (841-863)  reduced  many  of  the  petty  kings 
to  subjection,  and  his  son,  Harald  Haarfager  (863-930),  completed  the 
work  of  conquest  and  introduced  the  feudal  system.  Defeat  of  the 
Jarls  at  Hafarstjjord,  872.  These  changes,  and  the  repression  of  free- 
booting  which  followed  them,  induced  a  great  migration  of  the  Jarls, 
the  most  famous  of  the  vikings.  Establishment  of  Northmen  under 
Rolf  Ganger  (Rollo)  in  Normandy.  Conquest  of  Dublin  by  Olauf  in 
852.  Discovery  and  settlement  of  Iceland,  860-875,  etc.  Erik 
Elodllxe  (930-934),  Hakon  (934r-961),  Harald  GraafeU,  Hakon  Jar\ 
(988-995).    Olaf  Tryggvaason  (996-1000).    He  disappeared  at  tho 


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▲.  D.  Spanish  Peninsula,  209 

battle  of  Svoldf  where  be  was  defeated  hj  Olaf  the  Lap4dng  of 
Sweden,  Svend  TveskcBg  of  Denmark,  and  Erik  and  Svend,  sons  of 
Hahon  Jarl.  The  victors  divided  Norway  between  them. 

Discovery  and  settlement  of  Greenland  by  Eiik  the  Red  (985). 
Vinland  (America)  seen  by  Bjame^  and  yisited  by  Leif  and  others, 
986-1011.  See  p.  281. 

Norway  was  again  united  onder  St.  Olaf  (II.)  1015-1030,  in  whose 
reign  Christianity  was  introduced.  Macpms  Ute  Goody  son  of  Olaf 
(1035-1017),  king  of  Denmark  from  1042  to  1047.  The  Graagaas, 
or  book  of  the  law.  Harald  III.,  Uardroda^  founded  Opdo  (Chris- 
tiania),  and  fell  at  Stamford  Bridge  1066  (p.  206).  Magnus  II.  (1066- 
1069),  Olaf  (1069>1093),  Bffagnus  Uir^rfod  (1095-1103).  Con- 
quest of  the  Orkneys  and  Hebrtdee  ;  of  Dublin,  Death  of  Magnus  in 
^eland.  {Seep.SSS,) 

%  5.    SPANISH  PENINSULA  (See  p.  18S.) 

765-1031.     Caliphate  of  Cordoya, 

founded  by  the  last  Onmuad,  Ahd-er-Rahman  (p.  183).    Moat 
brilliant  period  of  the  Moorish  civilization,  in  the  mnth  and  tenth 
centuries.    Abd-er-Rahman  III.,  Hakem  II.,  AlmanzoTy  his  generaL 
The  populous  city  of  Cordova^  the  seat  of  science  and  arts. 
1031.    Dissolution  of  the  caliphate  of  Cordova  into  a  number  of 

small  states.  The  Morabethes  or  Almoramdes  (Yussuf),  sum- 
moned from  Mauretania,  successfully  opposed  the  Christians  (1086), 
but  made  themselves  masters  of  Mohammedan  Spain. 

Chrlfftlan  KingdoniB. 

Aatnria  (Oviedo),  since  the  conquest  of  the  country  as  far  as  the 
Duero  by  Alfonso  III.  in  the  tenth  century,  called  the  king- 
dom of  Leon,  after  the  new  residence,  Leon, 

Caatile,  so  called  from  the  castles  erected  against  the  Arabs,  origi- 
nally a  county  of  Asturia. 

Navarre,  a  border  state  in  the  Pyrenees :  first  a  county  under 
French  supremacy,  then  independent  Sancho  1,  assumed  the 
title  King  of  Navarre  (905),  and  subjugated 

Aragon,  originally  a  Frankish  county  north  of  Navarre. 

1000-10%.  Sanoho  HI.  the  Great,  king  of  Navarre,  and, 
by  inheritance,  king  of  Castile,  divided  at  his  death  his  king- 
dom among  his  tlu^e  sons.  As  Leon  and  Castile  were  soon 
united,  there  existed  henceforward  three  Christian  kingdoms 
in  Spain  :  1,  CaatUe-Leon  ;  2,  Navarre ;  3,  Aragon.  We 
must  also  reckon  the  county  of  Barcelona,  which  grew  out  of 
the  Spanish  mark  of  Charles  the  Great,  and  was  independent 
after  the  time  of  Charles  the  Bald. 
Wars  of  Rny  IHax,  called  by  the  Arabs  Old,  L  e.  Lord  (died 
1099).  (See  p.  S40,) 


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210  Mediaval  History.  ▲.  ix 

S  6.    THE  EAST. 
Eastern  Smplre. 

527-566.    Jiistiniaii  I.,  emperor  of  the  East    Belisarins. 
Narses  (p.  176). 

Codificatioii  of  ihe  law  in  the  form  known  aa  the  oorpus 
Juxia  civilia  (7Vi&<mianti«),  comprising :  1.  InslxtuJtiones.  2.  Pandecta 
or  Digeata,    3.  Codex.    4.  NaveUa^  later  additions. 

Parties  of  the  circus:  Greens,  Blues,  Reds,  and  Whites,  Bloody 
contests  Q'Nika,"  532).  The  church  of  Sl  Sophia,  built  by  Con- 
stantine  (Hagia  Sophia),  burnt  and  rebuilt  with  great  splendor. 

Decline  of  the  empire  under  Justinian's  successors  (cruelty,  mutila- 
tions).   A  part  of  the  Asiatic  and  African  provinces  conquered  by 
the  Persians  and  afterwards  by  the  Arabs. 
726-842.    Contest  over  images.    Image-bre<dcers  (tUwoKjJffrtu,  ioon- 

oolasts)  and  image  worshippers  (fiJcoyodoOxot). 
717-741.    Leo  the  Xaaurlan.    Imafie  worship  prohibited. 
780-802.    Irene,  who  out  of  love  of  power  had  her  own  son  blinded, 
restored  image  worship.    The  accession  of  a  woman  to  the 
imperial  throne  served  as  a  ^text  to  legalize  the  transfer  of 
the  imperial  crown  from  the  fkst  to  the  West. 
842.    Theodora  fully  restored  image  worship. 

'£67-1067.     Eastern  emperors  of  the  Maoedoniau  line. 

The  empire,  hard  pressed  by  Arabs,  Bulgarians,  and  Magyars. 
The  emperors  NicephorxAS  PKoeas  and  John  Zvmisces,  whom  Theophano, 
widow  of  Romanus  II.  (died  962),  placed  on  tiie  throne,  partially 
reconquered  the  provinces  which  the  Arabs  and  Bulgarians  had  torn 
from  the  empire.  {See  p.  f^O.) 

Caliphate  of  Bagdad  under  the  Abbaaides  (760-1268). 

Immediately  after  the  reigns  of  Haroun-al-Raaohid  and  Mamvn 

(p.  186),  the  power  of  the  caliphs  began  to  decline. 

935.    The  Emir  al  Omra  (i.  e.  prince  of  princes)  received  all  the 

secular  power;  the  caliph  remained  only  spiritual  head  of  the 

faithful.    969,  Egypt  independent  under  Fatmites. 

1058.    Beljnk  Turks  {Togrul  Bey,  Alp  Arslan,  Malek  Shah)  at- 

tained  the  dignity  of  Emir  al  Omra.    Seljuk  supremacy. 
1092.    The  empire  of  me  Seljuks  separated  into  a  number  of  small 
sultanates  (Iran,  Kerman,Alej^,  Damascus,  Iconxum  ot  Roum). 

India. 

The  early  history  is  exceedingly  uncertain,  and  the  most  impor- 
tant events  are  assigned  dates  differing  from  one  another  by  over 
four  centuries.  The  Guptas,  who  succeeded  in  power  the  Sahs  of 
Surdshha  (60  B.  C.-235  A.  D.),  occupied  Kanauj  from  319  to  about 
470,  when  they  were  overthrown  by  Tatar  ini^ers  (Huns  ?),  and 
the  Valabhis,  who  dwelt  in  Cutch  and  the  northern  part  of  Bombay, 
were  the  principal  power  in  India,  480-722* 


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A.  D.  The  East.  211 

Actual  aathentic  histoTy  begixw  with  the  Arabic  inTSSioiis.  Sind 
was  the  first  province  to  feel  the  Mohammedan  attack.  It  was  con- 
qnered  in  711,  but  in  750  a  general  uprising  expelled  the  victors. 
About  1000-1186.    Supremacy  of  the  Bultans  of  Ghaxni. 

The  next  ffreat  attack  was  made  by  a  Turk,  Sultan  Mahmud 
of  Ghazniy  (in  Kabur)y  who  invaded  India  seventeen  times,  and  con- 
quered the  03untry  to  the  Ganges,  The  decisive  struggle  took  place 
at  Peshawar,  where  Mahmud  was  victorious.  In  1024  famous  expe- 
dition to  Gvzerat.  Destruction  of  the  idol  pillar  filled  with  jewels.  (?) 
Mahmud  was  succeeded  by  fourteen  rulers  of  his  house,  the  last  of 
whom,  Bahranif  was  conquered  by  AUah'Ud-din  of  Ghar,  Bahram's 
son,  KhusrUf  founded  at  Lahore  the  first  Mohammedan  dynasty  in 
In^  proper. 
1186-1206.    Bapremaoy  of  the  Afighans  of  Ohor. 

In  1186,  Khu8ru*8  son  was  made  captive  by  Muhaznmed  Ghari^ 
after  which  the  predominance  exercisea  by  tbe  Turks  of  Ghazni 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Afghans  of  Uhor.  Muhammed  Ghori 
was  killed  in  1206.  (See  p.  HI.) 

China.  (See  p,  S2.) 

590-618.  Dynasty  of  Buy,  under  whose  energetic  sway  China  was 
partially  rescued  from  the  confusion  of  the  Three  Kingdoms 
(p.  32). 

618-907.    Dynaaty  of  Tang, 

founded  by  the  usurper,  Le  Yuen,  who,  as  emperor,  took  the 
name  of  BULU-tau.  The  first  part  of  this  period  down  to  718  was  a 
brilliant  time  for  China,  and  the  Grolden  Age  of  literature.  The 
earlier  rulers  (Tairtsung,  627-650  ;  Kaour4sung,  650-683;  Woo  How, 
683-705,  the  wife  of  Kaou-tsung,  who  usurped  the  throne  on  her  hus- 
band's death)  were  valiant  warriors  and  wise  rulers,  who  held  the 
Tatars  in  check,  recovered  much  of  the  former  possessions  of  China 
in  Central  Asia,  and  raised  the  empire  to  a  conmianding  position 
amon^  other  nations ;  643,  embassies  from  Persia  and  Constantinople 
in  Chma. 

From  718  the  attacks  of  the  Tatars  increased  in  vehemence.  From 
763  to  780  their  inroads  were  incessant. 

Under  Woo-tsung  (841-847)  temples  were  destroyed,  monasteries 
and  nunneries  closed,  and  all  foreign  priests  (Christian,  Persian,  Bud- 
dhist) banished.  The  reaction  was,  however,  short-lived.  Inven- 
tion of  printing. 

907-960.    Five  dynasties  (Later  Leang,  Liater  Tang,  Later  TMn, 
Later  Han,  Later  Chow)  occupied  the  throne  within  this 
period,  but  the  power  of  each  was  very  limited.   In  Ho-^ion,  Sze-<huen^ 
and  other  provinces  independent  states  arose. 

960-976.  Chaon-kwang-3rin,  as  emperor,  Tai-taoo,  the  founder 
of  the  dynasty  of  the  Later  Bong,  fought  with  success  against 
the  Khitan  Tatars,  who  had  occupied  the  whole  of  Manchuria,  estab- 
lishing there  the  empire  of  Hia.  Succeeding  emperors  were  less  for- 
tunate, and  paid  tribute  to  the  Tatars-  (976-1101).  (Seep.  241,) 


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212  MeditBval  History. 


Japan.^ 

From  the  reign  of  Ojin  (270-310,  p.  33)  to  the  close  of  the  sixth 
century,  the  history  of  Japan  is  a  record  of  quiet  progress  in  civiliza- 
tion, under  the  influence  of  continental  intercourse  and  of  increasing 
wealth.  Throughout  this  period,  as  hef  ore,  the  Mikados  were  actu^ 
sovereigns  and  personal  commanders.  The  close  of ,  this  epoch  saw 
the  introduction  of  Buddhism  into  Japan  and  its  rapid  sp]:eaa  (p.  33). 

The  soTenth  century  is  of  surpassing  interest  in  the  history  of 
Japan,  for  thpn  it  was  that  causes  long  working  in  silence  and  un- 
seen resulted  in  changes  subversive  of  the  entire  soci^  and  political 
life  of  the  Japanese,  —  changes  which  led  to  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Mikado  from  personal  intercourse  with  his  subjects  behind  a  veil  of 
formal  etiquette  and  heightened  reverence,  and  to  the  predominance 
of  the  military  over  the  civil  power,  until  the  actual  TOvemment  of 
the  country  passed  from  its  legal  sovereign,  the  Mikado,  into  the 
hands  of  an  usurping  military  chieftain,  thus  creating  a  long-enduring, 
much  misunderstood  system  of  dual  government,  —  chsmges  whose 
final  outcome  was  a  feudal  system  corresponding  to  that  known  to 
medieval  Europe,  which,  with  its  legitimate  offspring,  oppression, 
weakness,  anarchy,  lasted  until  1868. 

These  changes  were  the  following :  I.  The  growth  of  a  numerous 
court  nobility  of  imperial,  and  hence  of  divme,  descent.  II.  The 
creation  of  numerous  offices  of  state  which  became  the  property  of 
the  court  nobility.  III.  The  division  of  the  male  population  into  an 
agricultural  and  a  military  class.  IV.  The  separation  of  state  offices 
into  two  sections,  the  civU  and  the  militaryy  and  the  continuance  of 
each  in  the  hands  of  one  group  of  noble  families. 

I.  The  kuge'f  or  court  nobility,  owed  their  numbers  to  the  practice 
of  pol^^amy,  which  the  necessity  of  providing  against  the  extinction 
of  a  divine  dynastic  line  imposed  on  the  Mikados.  They  comprise  at 
present  one  hundred  and  fifty-five  families,  which  form  among  them- 
selves larger  groups,  or  clans.  Such  clans  are  :  the  Fujiwara,  the 
most  famous  of  all  the  kug^;  the  Sugawara  ;  the  Taira  (Heike  in 
Chinese  characters) ;  the  Minamoto  (Qenji  in  Chinese  charac- 
ters). 

II.  In  603  the  requirements  of  a  more  extensive  empire  caused 
the  establishment  of  eight  great  administrative  departments,  and  of  a 
host  of  smaller  offices,  whidi  were  filled  by  members  of  the  huge,  and 
gradually  became  vested  in  certain  families. 

III.  The  demand  of  the  growing  empire  for  increased  military 
efficiency  led  to  the  division  of  the  whole  male  population  into  two 
classes :  1.  the  class  of  a^cultnral  laborers,  comprisine^  aJl  who 
were  unfit  fer  military  service;  they  were  relegated  to  a  Itfe  of  un- 
broken toil,  and  were  burdened  with  the  annual  payment  of  a  quan* 
tity  of  rice  sufficient  for  the  support  of  the  2.  military  class,  the 
Samurai,  which  included  all  the  bravest  and  most  intellectual  men  in 
Japan.  Relieved  from  the  necessity  of  working  by  the  tax  received 
from  the  first  class,  and  not  overburdened  with  military  duties,  these 

I  Qriffls,  The  Mikado' i  Empire,   Beed,  Japan,   Adams,  Hittory  qf  Japan. 


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▲.  D.  Orusadei.  218 

men  were  free  to  deyote  themselves  to  the  pursuit  of  literature  and 
learning,  forming  the  best  element  in  the  nation. 

IV.  The  Fujtwara,  increasing  in  power,  gradually  absorbed  all 
civU  offices,  while  the  military  offices  were  filled  from  the  two  families 
of  Taira  and  MincanotOy  better  known  as  Hei  and  Gen,  Thus  did  the 
Fujitvara  become  enervated  by  the  luxury  of  palace  life;  thus  did  the 
Mikado,  while  his  office  gained  in  respect  and  reverence  by  its  envi- 
ronment of  titled  officials,  lose  all  real  power,  and  sink  to  a  mere  pup- 
pet in  the  hands  of  intriguing  nobles,  to  be  installed  and  deposed  at 
will ;  thus  did  both  emperor  and  court  constantly  lose  ground  before 
the  growing  influence  of  those  energetic  families  to  whom  were  given 
the  active  duties  of  military  command.  The  generals,  or  Shoguns, 
became  the  "Mayors  of  the  Palace''  of  Japan.  So  originated  the 
dual  government,  which  was  not,  as  foreigners  long  thought,  a  con- 
stitutional institution,  wherel^  the  civil  and  military  functions  of  gov- 
ernment were  vested  in  the  Shdgun  or  temporal  emperor  (Tycoon),  and 
the  religious  functions  in  the  Mikado  or  spiritual  emperor,  but  an  un- 
constitutional innovation,  wherein  a  subordinate  officer  had  usurped 
that  authority  which  belonged  of  right  to  the  only  emperor,  the  Mi- 
kado, and  whose  position  that  emperor  had  never  recognized. 

The  natural  result  of  this  state  of  affairs  was  the  evolution  of  mili- 
tary feudalism,  whose  rise  is  considered  in  the  next  period. 
794.    The  capital  of  the  empire,  the  home  of  the  Mikado  and  tho 

kuge,  permanently  fixea  at  Kioto,  near  Lake  Bitoa. 
1156.     Outbreak  of  war  between  the  families  of  Gen  and  Hei  (Mina^ 
moto  and  Taira),  which  had  previously  shared  the  military 
offices  in  peace.  {Seep»2JiS.) 

THIRD  PERIOD. 

EPOCH  OF  TKE  CRUSADES  (1096-1270). 

5  1.    CRUSADES. 

Canse  :  The  pOgrimages  of  the  Christians  to  the  Holv  Sepulchre, 
where  St,  Helena,  mother  of  Constantino  the  Great,  had  built  a  vault 
for  the  Sepulchre  and  the  Church  of  the  Holv  Sepulchre,  were  inter- 
rupted after  the  Fatimites,  and  yet  more  after  the  Seljyks  came  to 
power  ;  ill-treatment  of  the  pilgrims.  . 

The  hermit  Peter  of  Amiens  demanded  of  the  Pope  Urban  II. 
(1088-1099)  assistance  in  freeing  the  holy  places,  and  preached  the 
Crusade  in  Italy  (?)  and  France.^  Councils  of  the  church  at  Pior 
cema  and  Clermont  in  Anvergne  (1095).  Address  by  the  Pope  ;  uni- 
versal enthusiasm.    (It  is  the  toiU  of  God  /) 

The  undisciplined  bands  led  by  Peter,  by  the  French  knight  Walter 
ofPacy,  and  lus  nephew  Walter  Senzaveir  (the  Penniless),  and  others, 
were  for  the  most  part,  annihilated  in  Hungary  and  Bulgaria. 

1  V.  Bybel  Getch,  des  ertten  Krtuzxuga^  1841,  has  shown  on  conclasive 
grounds  that  the  idea  of  the  Crusades  orij^oated  principally  with  Pope  Urban 
ll.  It  has  recently  been  made  doubtful  whether  Peter  of  Amiens  haa  been  in 
the  Holy  Laad  at  all  brfw^  the  first  Crusade. 


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214  Medioval  HlHory.  A.  I>. 

1096-1099.  First  Crusade.    Kingdom  of  Jerusalem. 

Leaders  of  the  first  Crusade :  Godfrey  of  BotdUon,  diike  of 
lower  Lotharingia  ;  his  brothers,  Baldmn  uid  Eustack  ;  Rcbert^  duke 
of  Normandy,  son  of  William  the  .Conqueror  ;  Robert  of  Flanders  ; 
Stephen  of  Blois  ;  Raymond  J  V,,  count  of  Toulouse  ;  Hugo  of  Ver^ 
mandoiSf  brother  of  Philip  I.,  lang  of  France ;  Bohemond  of  Taren- 
tum,  son  of  Robert  Gui8<»rd  ;  his  nephew  Tancred.  They  led  200,- 
000  or  300,000  warriors  to  the  East.  Bishop  Adhemar  of  Puy,  who 
was  the  first  to  take  the  Cross  at  Clermont,  went  with  the  expedition 
as  papal  legate  (died  1098).  No  king  took  part  personally  in  this 
Crusade. 

The  princes  went  to  Constantinople,  where  all  except  Raymond 
did  feudal  homage  to  the  emperor,  Alexius  Comnenus.  Attack  upon 
the  territory  of  Kilij  Arslanj  Sultan  of  Iconium  (or  Roum). 

1097.  Niccea  surrendered  to  the  Grecian  emperor  after  a  siege  of 
June,  several  weeks'  duration.  Victoiy  of  the  Crusaders  at  2>ory- 
July  1.  keum  over  the  Sultan  KUij   Arslan*     Bcddtmn,  separated 

^m  the  main  army,  crossed  the  Euphrates,  and  conquered 
a  principality  for  himself  in  Edessa. 
1097-1098.  The  main  army  besieged  Antiochia  on  the  Orontes  fof 
nine  months    in  vain^  but  finally  the  city  was  betrayed  to 
Bohemond  of   Tarentum  by  the  Armenian  renegade,   Firux 

1098.  (Pyrrhus).  Kerboga,  the  powerful  Emir  of  Mossul,  besieged 
the  Crusaders,  exhausted  through  sickness  and  want,  in  An« 
tioch,  with  an  immense  army.  Victorious  sally  of  the  Chris- 
tians  (the  holy  lance  !)  ;  the  Seljuk  army  defeated  and  scat* 
tered.  Long  rest  of  the  Crusaders  in  Antioch  and  quarrels 
among  them. 

1099.  Expedition  along  the  coast  toward  Jerusalem.  Unsuccessful 
siege  of  the  fortress  of  Areas.  In  May  they  advanced  be- 
yond Ccesarea.  On  the  7th  of  June  th6  Crusaders,  now  numbering 
but  21,500  effective  men,  beheld  the  Holy  City,  which  the  FatimUes 
had  reconquered  from  the  Seljuks  in  1098.    Aiter  a  five  weeks'  siege, 

1099*  Storm  of  Jerusalem. 

July  15.  Terrible  massacre ;  pilgrimage  to  the  Church  of  the 
Resurrection. 

Establishment  of  a  feudal  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  chiefly  French, 
with  vassal  counties  :  Edessa,  Antiochia,  and  afterwards  TripoUs 
(Assises  du  royaume  de  Jerusalem).  Three  chief  officers  :  Senechal, 
Conn^table,  Marshall.   Two  patriarchs,  at  Jerusalem  and  at  Aniiochia, 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  Protector  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  defeated  the 
Sultan  of  Egypt  at  Ascalon  or  Gaxa.  Giodfrey  died  1100.  His 
brother,  Baldwin  I.,  kino  of  Jerusalem.  Acre,  Trioplis,  Berytus 
(Beiru^,  Sidon,  conquered  with  the  aid  of  Hsa  and  Genoa.  Baldwin 
I.  (died  1118)  was  succeeded  by  Baldfoin  IL  (died  1131),  Fulco  of 
Anjou  (died  1143),  under  whom  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  reached 
its  greatest  extent,  Baldwin  IIL  (died  1162),  Amalric  (died  1173), 
Baldwin  IV,  (died  1184),  Baldwin  K.  (not  of  age,  died  1186),  VeU 
(Guy)  of  Lusiguan. 


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A.  D.  Crusades,  215 

1147-1149.  Seoond  Crusade.    Wiihont  result 

Caiue :  Conquest  of  Edessa  by  Emadeddin  ('Ixnad-ed-Deen) 
Zenkiy  Emir  of  Mossul  (1144).  Second  conquest  and  destruction  of 
the  city  by  his  son  Noweddin  (Koor-ed-Deeu)  (1146).  Bernard^  ab- 
bot of  Clairvauz,  preached  the  CrOsade. 

Conrad  III*  of  Germany  and  Louis  VIL  of  France  started  for 
Palestine  ;  the  former  from  Regensburg  (Ratisbon),  the  latter  from 
MetZf  somewhat  later.  Both  armies  passed  through  Hungary  to  Asia 
Minor  ^  the  German  army,  being  far  in  advance,  entered  Fhrygia, 
where  it  was  almost  annihilated  by  want  and  by  the  opposition  of  the 
Sultan  of  Iconium,  but  few  regaining  Niccea.  With  this  scanty  fol- 
lowing Conrad  joined  the  expedition  of  the  French  army  cdong  the 
coast,  out  returned  from  Ephesus  to  Constantinople,  on  account  of 
ill  health.  Louis  and  the  French  nobility  took  ship  from  Painphylia 
for  Antiochia.  The  conmion  soldiery  continued  oy  land  to  Cilicia, 
and  were  completely  annihilated  by  hunger  and  the  enemy.  Conmd 
went  from  Constantinople  to  the  Holy  Land  by  sea  (1148),  and  in 
conjunction  with  the  French  made  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Dar 
maseus. 

I189-1192.   Third  Crusade.    Conquest  of  Aore  (St  Jean 
d'Acre)y  or  Ptolemais. 

CatiBe  :  Capture  of  Veit  (Guy)  of  Lusignan,  iang  of  Jemsaleniy 
at  Tiberias  on  the  sea  of  Genezareth.  Conquest  of  Acre  and  Jerusa" 
leni  by  Baladin  (Salah-«d-Deen)  (1187),  the  founder  of  the  dynasty 
of  the  Ayoubites  in  Egypt.  He  treated  the  Christians  magnani- 
mously. 

The  emperor  Frederlo  I.,  who  in  his  youth  had  taken  part  in  the 
second  Crusade,  undertook  in  his  old  age  an  expedition  from  Regens- 
burg (Ratisbon)  in  the  spring  of  1189,  passed  through  Hungary^ 
spent  the  winter  in  Adrianople,  crossed  (1190)  to  Asia  Minor,  con- 

?uered  Icouium,  and  went  to  Cilicia,  where  he  was  drowned  in  the 
lalycadnus  (Seleph).  His  son,  Frederic  of  Swabia,  led  a  part  of 
the  pilgrims,  many  having  turned  back,  by  way  of  Tarsus,  Antiochia, 
and  Tyrus  to  Accon  ^Ptolemais,  St.  Jean  d'Acre).  He  died  (1191) 
during  the  siege  of  this  city,  which  was  conducted  by  the  king  Guy 
of  Lusignan,  who  had  gained  his  freedom. 

Richard  the  Lion-Hearted  (Cceur^-Lion),  king  of  England, 
but  French  in  nationality  and  language,  and  Philip  II.,  Augustus 
(French  Auguste,  a  title  of  respect  which  was  given  liim  later),  kinff  of 
France,  went  by  sea  to  the  Holy  Land  (1190),  —  Richard  from  Mar- 
seilles, Philip  from  Genoa  ;  participation  of  Genoa,  Pisa,  and  Venice. 
After  a  long  stay  in  Sicily  and  many  quarrels  the  two  kings  reached 
Acre,  which  Lusignan  had  already  besieged  for  nearly  two  years. 
The  city  was  now  soon  forced  to  surrender  (July,  1191). 

Flulip  having  quarrelled  with  Richard,  returned  to  France  (1191). 
Heroic  deeds  (and  cruelty)  of  Richard,  who,  however,  was  twice 
obliged  to  turn  oack  from  before  Jerusalem.  Armistice  with  Saladin. 
The  strip  of  coast  from  Joppa  to  Acre  given  to  the  Christians  ;  pil- 
irrimages  to  the  holy  places  permitted.    Richard  gave  Cyprus,  which 


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216  Jdisdiaval  Bistory.  ▲.  d. 

had  oonqnered  in  1191,  as  a  fief  to  Veit  (Gyy)  of  Loaignan  (an- 
mii  of  1192),  who  transferred  his  title  of  ''King  of  Jerosalem  ^  to 
Henry  of  Champagne, 

Richard  on  ms  return  suffered  a  shipwreck  at  Aquileia,  was  recog- 
nized in  Vienna,  detained  by  Leopold^  duke  of  Austria,  at  Uie  com- 
mand of  the  emperor  Henry  VL,  kept  a  prisoner  by  the  emperor 
thirteen  months  m  Trifeia  (near  Annweiler  in  the  county  Palirane) 
and  in  PVomu,  and  released  only  upon  payment  of  a  ransom  and  ren- 
dering homage.^ 

1202-1204.  Fourth  Crusade.  Latin  empire  (1204-1261). 
At  the  instance  of  Pope  Innocent  III.  (preaching  by  Futco  of 
Neuilly)  a  Crusade  directed  originally  against  Egypt  was  undertaken 
by  powerful  French  barons,  assisted  by  Bcddwm,  count  of  Flanders,  and 
Boniface^  marquis  of  Montf  errat.  The  Crusaders  undertook  the  siege 
of  Zara  in  Dalmatia,  which  the  king  of  Hungary  had  seized,  for  the 
Venetians  (Doge  Henry  Dandol6)y  partly  in  payment  for  transport. 
At  the  urgent  request  of  AlexiuSy  son  of  the  Eaustem  emperor  leaae 
Anffelus,  who  had  been  dethroned  by  his  brother,  a  request  strongly 
supported  by  Philip  of  Stvabiaf  the  Crusaders  went  to  Constantinople 
with  the  Venetian  fleet  of  480  sail,  captured  the  city,  and  replaced 
Alexius  and  his  father  on  the  throne  (1203).  The  emperor  was  un- 
able to  fulflU  his  compact  with  the  Crusaders.  (Union  of  the  Greek 
Church  with  that  of  Kome  ;  htrse  payments  in  money.)  Contention, 
during  which  the  city  caught  fire,  llevolt  of  the  Greek  populace. 
(Isaac  died.)  After  the  murder  of  Alexius  by  the  GrecKS,  second 
capture  of  the  city,  pillage,  new  conflagration,  which  consumed  many 
works  of  ancient  literature. 

Establishment  of  the  Latin  empire  (Baldwin^  emperor)  ;  many 
coast  districts  and  islands  fell  to  the  Venetians;  the  marquis  of  Mont- 
f errat  became  king  of  Thessalanica;  French  dukes  in  Athens,  Aduxia, 
etc.     Villehardauin,  historian  of  the  expedition. 

Establishment  of  a  Gredc  empire  at  Niccea  by  Theodore  Lascaris, 
and  a  second,  the  empire  of  Trebizond  on  the  coast  of  the  Ponlus  Eu- 
xinusy  by  a  descendant  of  the  Conmenes.  Michael  PaJUeologuSy  of  the 
Nicsean  empire,  put  an  end  to  the  Latin  empire  in  1261. 

1212.  The  children's  Crusade.     Thousands  of  German  and  French 
boys  started  for  the  Holy  Land.    Many  died  on  the  way,  many 
were  sold  into  slayeiy. 
1217.  Crusade  of  Andrew  II.^  king  of  Hungary,  without  result. 
1218-1221.    Unsuccessful  attack  upon  Egypt  under  John  of  Brienne, 
"  king  of  Jerusalem." 

1228-1229.     Fifth  Crusade.     Jerusalem  regained  for  a 
.   short  time. 
Frederic  II.,  emperor  of  the  West,  who  was  under  the  papal  ban 

^  It  is  probable  that  the  story  of  the  Aastrian  banner  having  been  trodden  In 
the  filth  at  Acre  by  Richard^s  command  is  not  a  fable  (of.  Tosohe,  Kaiur 
ffetnrich^  YI.  pp.  256,  558),  but  the  imprisonment  of  Richard  bad  doubtless 
higher  political  motives,  and  is  sufficiently  explained  by  the  alliance  of  Richard 
with  the  Welfic  party  in  Gennanv,  see  p.'S23. 


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A.  D.  Crusades*  217 

for  not  haTUig  fulfilled  his  promise  of  undertaking  a  Crusade,  went  to 
Acre  by  sea,  and  received  Jerusalem  (where  he  crowned  himself), 
Nazareth,  and  a  strip  of  land  reaching  to  the  coast,  together  with 
Sidon,  from  Sultan  Kamed  (El  Kdmil),  on  condition  of  a  ten  years' 
armistice.    Jerusalem  was  lost  again,  and  finally,  1244. 

124&-1254.     Sixth  Crusade.    Without  result 

Louis  IX.,  king  of  France  (St.  Louis),  went  to  Cyprus  and 
passed  the  winter  there.  In  order  to  destroy  the  Salracen'  power  in 
Its  stronghold  of  Egypt,. he  went  in  the  spring  of  1249  UTDamietia 
and  captured  the  city.  On  the  expedition  which  he  undertook  in 
KoTemoer  against  Cairo,  Louis  was  aefeated  by  the  Ayoubite  Sultan 
Toordn^hdh  (Almoadan),  cut  off  from  Damietta,  and  <}aptured  with 
the  entire  French  army  (April,  1250).  The  execution  of  the  treaty 
of  peace,  whereby  the  king  was  to  be  liberated  on  condition  of  evacu- 
ating IHurmietta  and  paying  a  heavy  ransom,  was  delayed  by  the  over^ 
throw  of  the  Ayoubites  by  the  Mameiukes,  Louis  coasted  along 
Palestine,  fortified  Acre  and  other  cities  of  the  coast,  in  the  course 
of  a  residence  of  almost  four  years,  and  returned  to  France  in  1254. 
1268.    Antiochia  lost  to  the  Mohammedans. 

1270.    Seventh  Chrusade.    Without  result 

Louis  IX.  went  to  Tunis,  where  he  and  the  greater  part  of  tho 

army  were  carried  off  by  sickness. 
1291.  Acre  (PtolemaSs)  stormed  by  the  Mamelukes ;  the  Christians 

abandoned  their  last  possessions  in  Palestine  {Tyre,  Berytus^ 

Sidon). 
The  Cruaades  were  the  greatest  events  of  the  Middle  Age.    In 
spite  of  the  excesses  and  cruelties  of  many  of  the  Crusaders  they  lend 
to  the  time  to  which  they  belong  an  ideal,  a  religious  character. 

Results  of  the  Crusades :  1.  Sicreased  power  and  authority  of  the 
Church  and  the  Papacy.  2.  Increase  of  the  personal  power  of  princes, 
owin^  to  the  reversion  of  many  feudal  holdings  which  became  vacant. 
3.  Rise  of  independent  communities,  who  bought  their  freedom  from 
their  overlords  who  needed  funds  for  the  pilgrimasfe.  4.  Devel- 
opment of  conmierce.  The  Italian  republics  at  the  height  of  their 
power.  5.  Intellectual  growth  resulting  from  the  new  ideas  brought 
back  from  the  East ;  especial  advance  in  the  knowledge  of  geography 
and  natural  history.  6.  Perfection  of  the  institution  of  knighUiood 
(chivalry)  ;  the  three 

ReligiouB  Orders  of  Knighthood. 

1.  Knigbts  of  8t  John,  or  Hospitalers;  i.  e.  knights  of  the  hospital 

of  St.  John  in  Jerusalem,  founded  by  merchants  from  Amalfiy 
1070.  The  brotherhood  was  enlarged  after  the  first  Crusade 
(^Gerhard),  and  converted  into  an  order  of  knighthood  after  the 
manner  of  the  Templars  (RaiTimnd  Dupuis).  Black  mantle, 
tohite  cross.  The  order  was  transferred  to  Cyprus  (1291),  to 
Rhodes  (1310),  whence  they  were  called  Knights  of  Rhodes. 
Rhodes  lost,  1522  ;  in  1526  the  order  received  a  gift  of  Malta 
from  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  thence  called  Knights  of  Malta. 

2.  Knights  of  the  Temple  or  Templars  (from  the  temple  of  Solomon, 


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218  Medieval  Hiitory.  A.  D. 

on  whose  site  stood  the  house  of  the  order  in  Jemsalem)>  orig« 
inating  in  a  union  of  nine  French  knights  in  1118  (fiugo  de 
Payeng),  While  mantle,  red  cross.  In  1291  the  order  was 
transferred  to  Cyprus;  in  1312  dissolved  by  Pope  Clement  V. 
at  the  Council  of  Vienne. 
8.  The  Order  of  Tentonio  Knights,  originally  brotherhood  of  the 
German  hospital  founded  in  1190,  was  in  1198  raised  to  an 
order  of  knighthood  by  Frederic  of  Swabia  before  Acre,  dnr- 
iug  the  third  Crusade.  White  mantle,  black  cross.  Seat  of  the 
order  at  Acre,  Under  the  grand  niiairter  Hermann  of  SaUa 
a  band  of  knights  went  to  Prussia,  then  occupied  b^  the  heathen 
Wends,  in  1226.  Hermann  of  Balk,  first  Landmeister  in  Prus- 
sia, which  was  subjugated  by  bloody  wars  (1226-1283).  In 
1291  the  seat  of  the  gi*and  master  was  tranferred  to  Venice, 
1309  to  Marienbttrg,  1457  to  Kimigsbera,  The  land  of  the  order 
was  secularized  in  1525.  Those  knights  who  remained  Catho- 
lic maintained  possession  of  the  German  estates.  Residence 
of  the  grand  master  at  Mergentkeim  at  Franconia.  The  or- 
der was  dissolved  in  1809.  In  all  three  orders,  knights,  priests^ 
brothers  in  service. 


§2.    GERMANY  AND  ITALY.  (See  p.  SOL) 

1125-1137.    Lothar  of  Saxony, 

supported  by  his  son-in-law  Henry  the  Proud,  duke  of  Bavaria, 


of  the  house  of  Welf ,  whom  he  later  appointed  duke  of  Saxony  as 
well,  and  Berthold,  duke  of  Z&hringen,  Lothar  fought  (until  1135) 
against  the  two  powerful  Hohenstaufens,  Frederic,  duke  of  Swabia, 
and  Conrad,  nephew  of  the  last  emperor,  Henry  V.  Their  father  was 
Frederic  of  Biiren  and  Stauf en,  son-in-law  of  the  emperor  Henry  lY 
(p.  200). 
1132-1133.    On  his  first  Roman  expedition  Lothar  was  crowned  by 

Pope  Innocent  II.,  and  accepted  the  allodial   possessions  of 

Matilda  of  Tuscany  as  a  fief  from  the  Pope. 
1136-1137.     On  his  second  Roman  expedition  Lothar  attacked  the 

Norman  Roger  II.,  who  had  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  the 
ftoo  Sicilies,  and  drove  him  for  a  short  time  to  Sicily.  On  his  return 
Lothar  died  at  Breitenwang  in  upper  Bavaria  (Dec.  3-4, 1137). 

Under  Lothar's  reievL  German  influence  xnade  great  advances  in 
the  North  and  East.  The  Danish  king  Magnus  recognized  anew  the 
overlordship  of  the  Emperor  ;  Bohemia  did  feudal  homage.  The  Wends 
were  driven  back,  and  m  increasing  numbers  converted  to  Christianity. 
Holstein  given  to  Adolf,  count  of  Schaumburg,  the  margravate  of  Meis^ 
sen  to  Conrad  of  Wettin,  the  Nordmark  or  AUmark,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Havel  and  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe,  to  Albert  the  Bear,  of  the 
house  of  BaUenstddt  or  Askania  (1134),  who  had  done  Lothar  im- 
portant service  on  the  first  Roman  expedition.  Albert  crossed  the 
Elbe  and  conquered  almost  the  entire  Mittelmark,  which  then  received 
the  name  of  Brandenburg,  from  its  chief  city. 


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k.  D.  Germanjf  and  luJ^.  219 

I188-1254*  House  of  Hohenstaufen  (Staufer),^  so  called 
from  the  castle  of  Staufen  in  Swabia. 

1138-1152.    Conrad  HI., 

elected  by  the  party  opposed  to  the  Saxon  house,  without  par- 
ticipatiou  of  the  Saxons  and  Bavarians. 
War  of  the  Ghibellines  (Italian  corruption  of  WatbUngen^  th» 
name  of  a  castle  of  the  Hohenstaufens)  and  the  Welfs,  or  Gueliii 
(cf.  the  eenealogical  table). 

Conrad  put  Benrv  the  Proud  under  the  ban,  and  gave  Saxony  to 
Albert  the  Bear^  and  Bavaria  to  Leopold  /F.,  margrave  of  Austria. 

1139.  During  the  changing  fortunes  of  the  war  Henry  the  Proud 
died.  The  claims  of  his  ten-year-old  son  Henry  (afterwards 
called  the  Lion)  to  Saxony  were  maintained  by  the  latter's 
mother  and  grandmother  and  their  connection.  Bavaria  was 
claimed  by  Welf  VL,  brother  of  Henry  the  Proud.  Welf  ad- 
vanced to  the  relief  of  the  city  of  IVeinsberg,  which  Conrad 
besieged.    In  the 

1140.  Batde  *  of  Weinsherg  Conrad  conquered,  and  the  cite  was  com- 
peUed  to  surrender.  ("The  Faithful  Wives  of  Weinsberg," 
poem  by  Biirger.) 

After  the  death  of  Leopold  of  Austria  (Oct.  18,  1141),  Bavaria 
fell  to  his  brother,  Henry  Jasomirgottf^  who  married  Gertrude^  Henry 
the  Proud's  widow  (1142).  Her  son,  Henry  the  Lion,  received  Saxony. 
Albert  the  Bear  gave  up  his  claim  to  Saxony  ;  the  mark  of  Bran- 
denburg, which  was  a  fief  held  directly  from  the  emperor  (reicheun- 
mitteibar),  and  his  other  possessions,  which  his  euenues  had  occupied, 
were  restored  to  him. 

Conrad's  Crusade  (p.  215).  Conrad,  whose  eldest  son,  Henry,  who 
had  alreadv  been  elected  king,  died  before  him,  appointed  as  his  sue* 
cesser  not  his  second  son,  a  minor,  but  his  nephew,  Frederic  of  Swabia^ 
who  was  unanimously  elected  by  the  princes.  Conrad  died  Feb.  11, 
1152,  at  Bamberg. 

1152-1190.    Frederio  L,  Barbarossa, 

one  of  the  most  heroic  figures  of  the  Middle  Age* 

Diet  at  Merseburg.  Frederic  settled  the  disputed  succession  to  the 
Danish  crown.  Sven  became  king  of  Denmark  as  a  vassal  of  the 
emnire  (1152). 

Frederic's  main  object  was  to  make  good  the  imperial  authority, 
and  in  particular  to  restore  the  imperial  rights  in  northern  Italy, 
which  had  become  narrowed  by  neglect.  Hence  war  with  the  power- 
ful republican  oitles  of  Lombardy.  Six  expeditions  to  Italy. 
1154r-1155.  First  expedition,  Frederic  destroyed  some  small  places 
which  opposed  him,  and  was  crowned  king  of  Italy  in  ravia, 

1  V.  Baumer,  Getch,  der  Hohenstaufen  «.  ihrsr  Zeit;  Jaff^,  Gesch.  dtsd,  K 
wmUr  Konrad  I/L ;  Pruts,  Gesehichte  Friedrichi  /. 

*  Becent  inyMtifrators  deny  that  the  cry  of  His  We\f!  His  Waiblingsn  !  was 
heard  here  for  the  first  time. 

*  So  called  from  bis  favorite  oath. 


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220 


Mediaval  Hutory. 


▲.Sl 


1 

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N„^ 

is   Im 

s 

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1 

'sl- 

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A»  D.  Germany  and  Italy,  221 

and  emperor  at  Rome  by  Hadrian  IV,,  who  had  appealed  to  him  for 
aid  against  the  Romans.  Arnold  of  Brescia^  scholar  of  the  schoolman 
Abdard,  a  popular  preacher,  who  inveighed  against  the  secular  power 
of  the  clergy  and  possession  of  estates  oy  the  church,  was  condemned 
and  burnt. 
1153.  Convention  of  Constance  between  Frederic  and  the  Papal  See. 

1156.  Henry  the  Lion  received  Bavaria  again.  Austria  was  sep- 
arated from  Bavaria,  and  raised  to  a  duchy,  hereditary  in  the 
female  as  well  as  the  male  line. 

1157.  Diet  at  Wiirzburg.  Nearly  all  the  states  of  the  West  did 
homage  to  the  imperial  power  (Holy  Roman  Empire).  In 
Besan9on  the  Burgundian  nobles  submitted  again  to  the  em- 
pire. The  Bohemian  duke  Vladislay  received  from  Fred- 
eric the  royal  crown, 

1158-1162.  Second  expedition  to  Italy.  The  Lombard  cities, 
including  MUan  itself,  submitted.  At  the  diet  on  the  Ron- 
calian  Fields  the  rights  of  the  emperor  were  defined  as  against  the 
cities.  Jurisdiction  in  the  cities  transferred  from  the  consuls  to  an 
officer  of  the  empire,  the  Podesta,  Prohibition  of  the  right  of  pri- 
vate war  between  the  cities.  The  Milanese  revolted.  Quarrel  be- 
tween the  Pope  and  the  emperor.  Tedious  war  with  Milan,  which 
surrendered  after  a  two  years'  siege.     At  the  emperor's  command 

1162.  Milan  was  destroyed  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighboring 

cities. 
1159-1177.  Schism  in  the  Church.  Alexander  m.  elected  by 
the  majority  of  the  cardinals,  Victor  IV.  by  the  minority 
(who  favored  the  emperor),  and  recoe^nized  by  the  council 
which  Frederic  convened  at  Pavia.  Auiance  between  Alex- 
ander III.  and  the  Lombard  cities. 

1163.  Third  Expedition  without  an  army.  After  the  death  of  Victor 
IV.  (Apnl,  1164),  a  new  anti-pope,  Paschal  ///.,  was  elected 
by  the  imperial  party.  New  disturbances  in  Italy  soon 
broke  out. 

1166-1168.  Fourth  Expedition,  Paschal  III.  conducted  to  Rome  by 
Frederic. 

1167.  Ziombard  Leaf^e  between  the  cities  of  Lombardy  (Cremona^ 
Bergamo,  Brescia,  Mantua,  and  Ferrara)  and  the  cities  of  the 
Veronese  March  (  Verona,  Vicenz^,  PaduOy  Treviso),  which  had 
nnited  in  1164.     Union  of  Guelfs  with  Ghibellines:     They 

/  rebuilt  Milan,  built  Alessandria  (so  called  after  their  ally, 
Pope  Alexander  III.),  and  occupied  the  passes  of  the  Alps. 
The  emperor,  whose  army  was  almost  annihilated  bv  a 
plague  which  broke  out  in  Rome,  with  difficulty  escaped  to 
Uermany. 
In  Grermany  a  great  feud  had  been  raging  since  1166  between 

Henry  the  Lion  and  his  enemies,  the  archbishops  of  Magdeburg  and 

Bremen,    Albert   the  Bear,  Otto  of  Meissen,  etc.    The  emperor  put 

an  end  to  the  strife  at  the  Diet  of  Bamberg  (1168).    Henry  the  Lion 

nndertook  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  (1172). 

1174-1177.  Fifth  Zbcpedition.  The  emperor  entered  Lombardy 
over  Mont  Cenis.    He  besieged  Alessandria  in  vain.    Henry 


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222  Medi€Bval  lEitary.  a.  d. 

the  lAon  deserted  him  and  returned  to  Germany.  The  em- 
peror attacked  the  Lombardsy  but  in  spite  of  his  heroic  cour- 
age, at  the 

1176.  Battle  of  Legnano,  was  completely  defeated.  Negotiations 
and  armistice  with  Alexander  III.  and  the  Lombard  cities. 

1177.  Reconciliation  between  the  emperor  and  the  Pope  at  Venice. 

1183.  The  definitive  peace  with  the  Lombard  cities  was  concluded 
at  Constance,  The  emperor  renounced  all  regal  privileges 
which  he  had  hitherto  claimed  in  the  towns  ;  acknowledged 
the  right  of  the  confederated  cities  to  levy  armies,  to  fortify 
themselves,  and  to  exercise  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction. 
By  the  popular  nomination  the  consuls  acquired  uie  rights  of 
imperial  vicars.  The  extension  of  the  confederacy  tot  the 
purpose  of  maintaining  these  rights  was  authorized.  The 
oitiea  agreed  to  maintain  all  just  rights  of  the  emperor,  a 
recognition  of  the  overlordshin  of  the  emperor,  whicn,  how- 
ever, they  were  allowed  to  redeem  by  an  annuaJ  payment. 

Henry  (he  Lion  humbled  in  Germany.  After  his  neglect  to  appear 
at  four  diets,  he  was  put  under  the  ban  of  the  empire  and  his  fiefs 
declared  forfeited  (1180).  He  defended  himself  bravely  and  de- 
feated the  archbishop  of  Cologne.  Upon  the  approach  of  the  em- 
peror Henry's  vassals  gradually  deserted  him.  Henry  threw  himself 
at  the  emperor's  feet  in  £rfurt  (1181),  but  was  allowed  to  retain  his 
allodial  estates  only,  Braunschtoeig  (Bntnswick)faid  Liinehwg.  Divis- 
ion of  the  old  duchy  of  Bazony.  Part  of  Westphalia  was  given  to 
the  archbishopric  of  Cologne.  Lilbeck,  Hamburg,  and  JSremen  oecame 
in  the  course  of  time  free  cities,  owing  allegiance  to  the  empire  only. 
The  archbishop  of  Magdeburg  and  Bremen^  the  bishops  of  Halber' 
stadt,  HUdesheim,  Liibeckt  etc.,  the  counts  of  Hdstein  and  Oldenburg, 
etc.,  became  immediate  vassals  of  the  empire. 

Eastern  Saxony  and  the  ducal  title  were  given  to  Bernard  of  As" 
hania,  son  of  AJberi  ^  Bear.  Otto  of  Wittdshachreceiyed  Bavaria. 
Henry  the  Lion  was  obliged  to  leave  the  country  for  three  years. 
He  went  to  the  court  of  Henry  II.  of  England,  his  fatheivin-law. 

1184.  Brilliant  court  festival  at  Mainz. 

1184r-1186.  Sixth  expedition  to  Italy  (peaceful).  The  emperor 
gave  his  son  Henry,  who  was  now  twenty-one,  but  had  long 

1186.  been  king  elect  of  Germany,  in  marriage  to  Constance, 
daughter  of  Roger  IL,  aunt  and  heiress  of  William  II,,  the 
last  Norman  king  of  Naples  and  Sicily. 

1190.  Frederic's  crusade  and  death  (p.  215).  His  son,  King  Henry, 
whom  he  left  behind  as  vicegerent,  was  obliged  to  take  the 

field  against  Henry  the  Lion,  who,  upon  the  emperor's  departure,  had 
been  sent  out  of  the  emp^  ^or  another  three  years,  but  had  since  re- 
turned from  England.  The  death  of  WiUiam  IL  of  Sicily  in  Nov- 
ember, 1189,  led  Henry  to  come  to  an  understanding  with  Henry  the 
Lion.     In  the  mean  time  came  the  news  of  the  emperor's  death. 

1190-1197.  Henry  VI.,  a  hig:hly  educated  statesman,  but 
stem  aiid  relentless. 

1191.  First  expedition  to  Italy.    Henry  received  the  imperial  orown  at 


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A.  D.  Germany  and  Jtalt/.  223 

Rome,  after  he  had  abandoned  Tascnlnm,  which  had  eyer  been 
true  to  his  father,  to  the  Romans.  The  city  was  destroyed  ;  Frascati 
iprew  up  near  its  site.  Henry  went  to  Naples  to  rescue  the  inher- 
itance of  his  wife,  Constance^  from  Tancred  of  Leoce,  whom  the  natiye 
party  in  Palermo  had  elected  king.  Unsuccessful  siege  of  Naples 
for  three  months.  Sickness  in  the  army  compelled  the  emperor  to 
return  to  Germany. 

1192-1194.  New  war  with  Henry  the  Lion,  who  had  not  kept  the  first 
treaty.    The  war  ended  in  a  compromise,  the  conclusion  of 
which  was  assisted  by  the  liberation  of  the  brother-in-law  of  Henry 
the  Lion,  Richard  Ccewr^e-Lian  of  £ngland  (p.  216),  and  by  a 
marriage  between  Agnes,  daughter  of  the  emperor's  uncle,  Conrad, 
count  i^datine  of  the  Rhine,  with  Henry,  son  of  Henry  the  Lion. 
1194.  Second  expedition  to  Italy,  where  Tancred  had  died.    War 
with   his  widow  and  his  son  William.    The  emperor  subju- 
gated  the  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies,  and  punished  with 
seyerity  the  pa^cipants  in  a  conspiracy  against  himself. 
1191.  Henry  threatened  with  excommumcation  for  withholding  the 

estates  of  Matilda  (p.  200)  from  the  Pope. 
1196.  Diet  at  Wiirzhur?.  Henry's  plan  of  making  Grermany  (united 
with  the  Sicilies)  an  hereditary  monarchy,  on  condition  that 
all  fiefs  should  become  hereditary,  eyen  in  the  female  line, 
fiuled  in  consequence  of  the  resistiEUice  of  the  princes  and  the 
lesser  nobility. 
il97.'  Third  expedition  to  Italy.  Hemy  suppressed  a  second  con- 
spiracy with  cruel  seyerity.  In  the  midst  of  his  great  plans 
(^onauest  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  Crusade),  he  died  sudaenly 
in  Messina,  thirty-two  years  old  (28  Sept.  1197).  Double 
election  in  Grermany. 

1198-1208.     Philip  of  Bwabia,  youngest  son  of  Frederic 

Barbarossa. 
1198-1216  (1218).     Otto  IV.  of  Brunswick,  son  of  Henry 

the  Lion. 
1198-1215.    War  for  the  crown  between  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen 

and  of  Welf.  Otto  IV.,  recognized  by  Pope  Innocent  m., 
was  defeated  by  Philip  and  his  power  reduced  almost  to  the  limits  of 
Brunswick.  In  the  midst  of  preparations  for  a  last  and  decisiye 
combat  Philip  was  assassinated  at  Bamberg  by  the  count  palatine 
Otto  of  Wittdsbach,  Otto  IV.  was  uniyersally  recognized  and  crowned 
at  Rome  by  Innocent  III.  (1209),  after  haymg  alMuidoned  tiie  estates 
of  Matilda  to  the  papal  chair  and  made  other  concessions.  He  was 
soon  inyolyed  in  a  quarrel  with  the  Pope,  howeyer,  and  the  latter  put 
forward  his  ward  Frederic,  son  of  Henry  YI.,  as  anti-emperor  (1212). 
Otto  lY.,  in  alliance  with  England,  was  defeated  at  Bouvines  (near 
Lille)  by  Philip  II.  Augustus  (1214),  and  returned  to  his  own  do- 
mains. Died  at  the  Harzburg  (May  10, 1218). 
1212-1250.     Frederic  IL  also  king  of  the  tuH)  Sicilies, 

a  prince  of  remarkable  gifts,  but  passionate,  more  Italian 
than  German,  haying  been  bom  in  Sicily  ana  educated  by  his  Italian 


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224  MediiBval  History.  A.  p. 

mother.  He  was  an  ener^tio  opponent  of  the  spiritnal  supremacy, 
haying  indeed  but  little  likmg  for  the  chnrch  ;  in  his  hereditary  estates 
he  favored  the  Saracens. 

1216.  Frederic  went  to  Germany,  was  crowned  German  king  in 
Aachen,  where  he  promised  to  undertake  a  crusade,  and 

1217.  save  Swabia  to  his  young  son  Henry,  and 

1220.  nad  him  elected  king  of  Rome  (the  title  given  to  the  Ger- 
man king  elect).  Frederic  left  Germany  for  fifteen  years.  Expe- 
dition to  Rome.  After  renewing  the  promises  which  he  had  for- 
merly made  to  Pope  Innocent  III.  (feudal  supremacy  of  the 
papal  chair  oyer  his  hereditary  domain^  which  shoula  never  be  united 
with  Germany,  crusade),  he  was  crowned  by  Honorius  TIT,  at  Rome. 
1222.    The  emperor's  son  Henry ^  solemnly  crowned  king  at  Aachen. 

His  chiei  adviser  and  chancellor  was  EnyeUfert,  archbishop  of 

Coloene  (murdered  1226). 
1226.    Frederic  took  as  his  second  wife,  lolanthe,  daughter  of  John 

of  Brienne,  titulary  king  of  Jerusalem.    Promise  of  a  crusade 

renewed. 

1226.  Diet  at  Cremona  ;  quarrels  with  the  Lombard  cities. 

1227.  The  Crusade  which  nad  been  commenced  was  broken  up  by  a 
contagious  disease.  The  successor  of  Pope  Honorius  III.,  the 
octogenarian  Gregory  IX,,  placed  the  emperor  under  the  ban. 

1227.  Battle  of  Bomhbvede.  The  Danes,  who  under  Waldemar 
II.  had  extended  their  power  over  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic, 
were  decisively  defeated. 

1228-1229.    Crusade  of  Frederic  II.  (p.  216). 

1229.  Frederic  drove  from  his  dominions  the  papal  (key)  troops, 
who  had  invaded  them. 

1230.  Peace  with  the  Pope  at  S.  Germano.    Removal  of  the  ban. 
1230~124<).    Legislation  of  Frederic  in  his  Sicilian  kingdom. 

Regulation  of  feudal  relations.    Representation  of  the  cities. 
1234.     Revolt  of  the  young  king  Henry,  m  alliance  with  the  lower 

German  nobility  and  the  Lombard  cities,  against  his  father,  sup- 
pressed by  Frederic  with  the  aid  of  the  princes  of  the  empire  and  the 
miperial  cities.  Henry  submitted,  was  kept  in  strict  confinement, 
then  sent  to  Italy,  where  he  died,  1242.  Reconciliation  with  the 
Welfs.  Erection  of  a  new  duchy,  Brunstmck-Liineburg,  for  Otto  the 
Child.  Third  marriage  of  the  emperor  at  Worms  with  Isabella, 
sister  of  Henry  III.  of  England.  Diet  at  Mainz.  Enactment  of  a 
public  peace  (^first  publication  of  a  law  in  Grerman  as  well  as  in 
Latin). 

1236.  Victorious  campiugn  against  the  Lombards.  In  Germany 
Frederic  the  Warlike  of  Austria,  a  follower  of  the  rebel  Henry, 
deposed  and  put  under  the  ban. 

1237.  Frederic  II.  in  Vienna,  which  was  proclaimed  an  imperial 
city.  Afterwards  Frederic  the  Warlike  received  Austria  and 
Styria  again. 

1237.     Diet  at  Speier.     Election  and  coronation  of  Conrad,  the  sec- 
ond son  of  the  emperor  as  German  king. 
1237.    Brilliant  victory  of  Frederic  over  the  Lombards  at  Corte- 
Nov.    nnova.     Frederic's  obstinacy  in  pressing  his  demands  too 


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A*  D.  Get  many  and  Jiafy.  225 

far,preTeiitedili6  eomplete  snbjagation  of  Lombardj.    Interference 

of  tne  Pope,  who  had  cUunui  on  Sardinia,  and  was  offended  at  the 

aasomption  by  Frederic's  natural  son  Enzio  (an  Italian  corruption 

of  Hemz),  the  husband  of  AdelisOj  heiress  of  a  part  of  the  island,  of 

the  title  of  king  of  Sardinia. 

123&-1250.  War  of  Frederic  U.  with  the  Popes  Gregory  IX.  and 
Innocent  lY. 

1239.  Frederic  accused  of  heresy  by  Gregory  and  excommunicated 
anew.    Ancona  conquered  by  £nzio. 

1211.  Naval  victory  of  Ezizio  at  I^ba  over  the  Grenoese  fleet  which 
was  conveying  some  ecclesiastics  to  the  counoQ  at  Rome.  Death 
of  Gregory.  His  successor,  Innocent  IV.  (1243-1264),  fled  to 
Lyons. 

Giermany  threatened  with  a  Mongol  invasion  (p.  240). 
Innocent  lY.  called  a  council  at 

1245.  Lyons,  renewed  the  ban  against  the  emperor,  formally  de- 
posed him,  summoned  the  German  princes  to  a  new  election, 
and  urged  all  subjects  of  the  emperor  to  revolt.  In  Ger- 
many the  spiritual  princes  elected 

1246-1247.  Helnrioh  Raape,  landgrave  of  Thuiingia,  who,  though 
at  first  victorious,  was  defeated  by  Conrad^  Frederic's  son, 
at  Ulm,  and  died  (1247)  at  the  Wartburg.  The  house  of 
the  landgraves  of  Thuringia  ending  with  Heinrich  Raspe^  the 
eastern  part  of  that  staSe  was  jomed  to  the  maigravate  of 
Meissen,  while  the  western  part  became  the  luidgravate 
Hessen. 

1247-1256.  "William  of  Holland,  second  anti-king,  attained  no 
authority  in  Germany. 

1248.  Frederic,  at  first  successful  in  Italv,  was  repulsed  before 
Padua.    His  son  Enzio  was  captured  by  the  Bolognese  in  the 

1249.  Battle  of  FossdUa  (died  after  an  imprisonment  of  twenty-two 
years  in  a  dungeon). 

Treason  (?)  ot  Peter  of  Vinea  (Yineis),  Frederic's  chancellor. 
1260.    Frederic  oLed  in  Fiorentino  in  the  arms  of  his  son  Manfred 
(Dec.  19).    He  was  succeeded  by  his  son. 

1260-1254.  CJonrad  IV.  (anti-king:  William  of  Holland) 
fought  since  1252  for  his  hereditary  realm  only,  in  Italy. 

1256.  Wmiam  of  HoOand  fell  in  battle  with  the  i^fisians  (twenty- 
seven  years  old). 

1266-1273.  Interrefirnum  in  Qermany.  Club-law,  Fau^- 
treekt. 

Richard^  Earl  of  ComwaUf  younger  son  of  King  John  (Lack- 
land) of  England,  elected  by  a  part  of  the  princes,  and  crowned  at 
Aachen,  was  recognized  along  the  Rhine  only  (died  1272).  Alpkonso 
X.  of  Cctstiie,  g^randson  of  Aiilip  of  Hohenstaufen,  son  of  Frederic 
fiarbarossa,  elected  by  the  other  princes,  never  came  to  Germany. 

In  the  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies  the  brave  Manfred,  son  of 
Frederic  11.,  was  at  first  chancellor  for  the  minor  king  Conradin, 
son  ol  Conrad  lY.,  afterwards  (1258)  king.    Charles  ofAnjou^  brother 
15 


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226  MeduBwd  HUtory.  A.  ix 

of  LouiB  DL  of  Franee,  to  whom  the  Pope  gaye  the  crown,  defeated 
Mcaifredj  who  was  hetrayed  by  his  barons,  at  Beneoentum  (1266),  and 
made  liiwigAlf  king  of  Ki^les  and  Sicily.    Manfred  fell  on  the  field. 

Cronradin  went  to  Italy  with  Fndene  of  Baden^  also  called  FM- 
eric  of  Austria  (being  the  son  of  the  Babenberg  heiress  of  Anstria). 
He  was  defeated  between  Scnroola  and  Tagliaoosso  on  Lago  di 
Cdano  (1268),  and  executed  at  Naples. 

1282.    Sicilian  vespera,  so  called  because  the  conspiracy  Inoke 
out  on  Easter  Monday  at  yesper  time.    Slaughter  of  all  the 
French  in  Sicily.    John  ofProcida,    Peter  o/Aragon^  king  of  Sidly, 
CharUi  o/Anjou  limited  to  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

(See  pp.  suites,) 

$  3.    FBANCE.1  (Seep.  «».) 

The  royal  domain  of  the  Capetians  was  at  first  limited  to  the  duchy 
of  France  (Isle  de  France  and  Orleanais).    The  great  yassals,  who 
were,  in  the  beginning,  almost  independent,  were  gradually  reduced 
to  submission  in  this  and  the  following  period. 
1060-1108.    PhiUp  L    Quarrel  with  Gregory  VII.    First  Craaade. 

A  long  reign,  in  which  the  king  accomplished  nothing. 
1108-1137.    Lonla  VI.,  the  Fat,  an  able  and  good  king,  who  had, 

moreoyer,  the  good  sense  to  ayail  himself  of  the  talents  of 
Snger,  abbot  of  St.  I)enis,  whom  he  made  minister.  Perceptible 
growth  of  the  royal  power.  Marriage  of  the  king's  son,  Loids  (  VII »% 
with  Eleanor f  daughter  of  WHlioM  ofAquitaine,  heiress  of  Polton, 
Ghiyenne,  and  Oaaoony. 
1137-1180.    Louis  VII.    Second  Crusade  (p.  215).    Louis  was  a 

weak  king,  a  fayorite  with  the  clergy,  whose  reign  was  less 
disastrous  than  mi^ht  haye  been  expected,  ^cause  of  the  influence  of 
Bnger,  who  administered  the  kingdom  during  Louis'  absence  in  the 
East.  After  his  return  Louis  obteined  a  diyorce  from  Eleanor,  who 
married  Henry  of  Anjou,  cony  eying  to  this  prince,  who  soon  became 
king  of  England,  Poitou,  Otiyenne  and  Qasoony,  for  which 
Henry  did  homage  to  Louis.  In  this  transfer  lay  one  germ  of  the 
hundred  years'  war. 

1180-1223.  PhUip  U,  Angostua, 

one  of  the  ablest  of  the  kings  of  France  ;  unscrupulous,  cold, 
but  of  great  political  sagacity.  (Third)  Crusade  with  Rtchard  CoBuar^ 
de-Lion,  After  Philip's  return  in  1190  he  attacked  Normandy,  but 
made  little  headway  during  the  lifetime  of  Richard.  (Erection  of  the 
ChBleau  GaiUard  by  Richiml,  on  the  Seine,  aboye  Rouen.) 

After  Richard's  death  (1199)  Philip  took  up  the  claims  of  Arthur, 
son  of  Richard's  brother  Geoffrey,  who  had  been  passed  oyer  in  Nor- 
mandy in  fayor  of  Richard's  younc^r  brother  John,  but  he  was  hin* 
dered  from  prosecuting  them  by  nis  quarrel  with  Innocent  III.  in 
relation  to  the  diyorce  which  Philip  nad  secured  from  his  wife^ 
Ingeborg  of  Denmark,  in  order  that  he  might  marry  Agnes  ofMerofk 
Bubmission  of  Philip  (1200). 

After  the  death  of  Arthur  (1203)  Philip  moyed  upon  Normandrf 

1  yitcliln,  ffittoty  qfFraMe, 


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▲.  0.  France.  227 

anew.  Rejection  of  the  Pope's  claim  to  arbitrate  between  the  kings. 
The  fall  of  tiie  Chateau  GaUlard  was  followed  by  the  sabmiasion  of 
Normandy  (1204).  John  haying  refused  to  obey  the  summons  of 
FhUip  to  appear  for  trial  on  account  of  the  murder  of  Arthur,  Philip 
dechured  his  fiefs  forfeited. 

Crusade  against  the  AUngenses^  Waldenses  and  Cathariy  rationalist 
sects  protected  by  Raymond^  count  of  Toulouse,  and  the  viscount  of 
.BesMiTY  and  CarcoMonntf  (1207-1244).  Storm  of  Bea^rs  (1207.  <<Sky 
all,  Grod  will  know  his  own.").  Conquest  of  the  county  of  Toulouse 
by  Simrn  of  Montfart  (1211-1215).  JDeath  of  Smon  at  the  siege  of 
revolted  Toulouse  (1218). 

War  in  Flanders  with  the  feudal  lords,  supported  by  John  of  Eng- 
land and  Otto  of  Grermany.  Philip,  (united  by  the  dJAes^  yictorious  m 
the 

1214.    Battle  of  Bonvlnea  : 
Aug.  29.    Unsuccessful  expedition  of  Philip's  son  Louis  to  England 

(1216). 
1223-1226.    Iiouls  Vm.    New  crusade  against  the  count  of  Ton- 
louse,  whose  lands  had  been  declared  forfeit 
1229.  Establishment  of  the  ItiqiMtion  as  a  regular  tribunal  br  Pope 
Gregory  IX.,  inquigiton  having  existed  since  1203  under  In- 
nocent m. 
122&-1270.    LotdB  IX.,  St.  Louis. 

During  the  king's  minority  regency  of  his  mother  Blanche^  who 
repressed  a  revolt  of  the  barons.  The  war  with  the  Albigenses  ended 
by  the  extermination  of  the  sect  (1244).  (Sixth)  Crusade  of  St.  Louis 
(p.  217).  Blanche  regent  during  his  absence.  After  the  king's  re- 
turn, 1254,  wise  government.  Surrender  of  Perigord^  the  Limousin 
and  southern  Saintonge  to  Henry  of  England,  whereupon  Henry  re- 
nounced his  claim  to  Normandy ,  Anjou,  Maine,  Touraine,  PoUou, 
nortiiem  Saintonge,  Prohibition  of  wager  of  battle.  Limitation  of 
feudal  jurisdiction.  Establishment  of  right  of  appeal  to  the  king 
from  the  feudal  courts  in  all  cases.  The  Pragmatic  Sanction  attrib- 
ated  to  St  Louis  is  probablv  a  forgery,  but  Louis'  attitude  toward 
Rome  was  one  of  assertion  of  all  re^  rights. 

During  this  reign  the  domain  of  the  crown  received  the  following 
additions  :  The  ]mrt  of  the  ooimty  of  Toulonse  between  the  Rhdne, 
the  sea  and  the  Pyrenees  (1229),  Chartres,  BloiSf  Sancerre,  ceded  by 
Tlieobald  of  Champagne  and  Navarre  (1234)  ;  Macon,  by  purchase 
'^""9)  ;  Perche  (126'0;  Aries,  Forcalquier,  Foix  and  Cahors  (1262). 
^  (seventh)  Crusade  and  death  of  St  Louis  (1270). 

(Seep,  S5l) 


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228  Mediisval  HUtary.  A.  dl 

ENGLISH  SOVEREIGNS  FROM  ECGBERHT  TO  HENRY  IIL 


AB^QIiO-8AXO]7. 

Sosberht. 
802-837. 


Charles  the  Bald. 
Emperor. 


..I. 


FIiANDlDBBi 


^tholwulf =»  (1)  Judith,  who 
837-868.      I    afterwards  m. 
I  (2)  iEthelbald.  (3)= 

JSKhttlbald.  iBtbelberht.  .Althelred.  JEBlfred. 
858-860.  860-866.        866-871.     871-901. 


:  Baldwin  I 


IBadward        1  son,  2  dau. 
the  Elder.  901-925. 

^thelBtftii.  Xadmiind.  fiadred. 
925-940.        940-946.       946-955. 


.£lfthi7ths 


370B1CANDT. 


I    t879. 
:  Baldwin  IL 
t918. 


Bollo. 

William 
Longsword. 


Amalfl. 

t965. 

I 

Baldwin  (in.) 

t  962. 


Sadwiff.  955-959. 


Xadcar.  959-975. 


Badward  the  Martyr. 
975-978. 

1 

"  God  wine 


iBthalred  11.= 

978-1016. 


Richard 
the  Fearless. 


Richard 
the  Good. 


Amulf  n. 
t  988. 

Baldwin  IV. 
tlOSd. 


Earl  of  Merda. 
I 


Xadmund        i  |  Badward         Robert  BaldwhiV. 

Ironsides.      Harold.  Eadgvth  » the  Confessor,  the  Magnificent  f  1067. 
1016.  1066.  1042-1066.         or  the  Devil.  I 

Eadward  William  the  Conqueror  a  Matilda. 

J 1066-1087. 

Eadgar  ^theling.  Mai^garet  =  Malcolm 

king  of  Soots. 


Uag  of  SootB. 


Robert 
Matildarzzzz 


i f 1 

William  Rof  as.  Heniy  I.     AdeU 

1067-1100.       1100-1135.  m.Stephe« 

^===z  :     c.  of  Bloia 


Matilda « 


Henry 


Geoffrey  of  Anjoa, 
Plantagenet. 

1154-1189. 


pnen 


Btopl] 
1185-1154. 


BflDiT'*     Biohard      Geoffrey. 
CoBur-de-Lion.        I 
1189-1199.        Arthur, 
t  1208. 


John  Lackland. 
1199-1216 

Hanry  m.  1216-1278. 


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A.  D.  England.  229 

$4.    ENGLAND,  (See  p.  $06,) 

1066-1154.    Norman  kings.^ 
1066-1087.    William  I.,  t?ie  Conqueror, 

completed  the  subjeetion  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  who  were  robbed 
of  their  estates  and  terribly  ill-treated.  Two  nadonalUies  and  two 
languages  existed  for  a  long  time  side  by  side  in  England,  English,  or 
AngUhSaxonj  and  French.  The  king  and  the  nobdUy  were  Frent^ 
Normans  or  Frenchmen. 

The  submission  of  1066  was  partial,  Mercia  and  Northnmbria  ra- 
inaining  aloof. 

1068.  Revolt  in  the  north,  incited  and  aided  by  a  Danish  fleet  under 
Stoegen,     Returning  from  Normandy  William  bought  off  the 
Danes,  and  crushed  the  msureents  by  a  masterly  winter  campaign. 
Northumberland  ravaged  with  ore  and  sword. 

1071.  Revolt  of  the  English  under  Eadttm  and  Morhere,  which  ended 
with  the  defeat  and  death  of  Eadwin,  and  the  capture  of  Elg 
in  the  fens  where  Morkere  had  taken  refuge  with  the  outlaw  Here- 
ward, 

1075-76.  Rebellion  of  the  Norman  barons  in  England  easily  crushed. 
Revolt  of  the  conqueror's  son  Robert  in  Normandy  (1077-1080). 
Imprisonment  of  William's  brother,  Odo,  bishop  of  Bayeux,  for  trouble- 
some and  intriguing  conduct.  A  threatened  invasion  from  Norway 
and  Denmark  averted,  1085.  William  met  his  death  by  accident 
while  engird  in  a  struggle  with  Philip  of  France  about  the  Vexin 
(Sept.  9, 1%7).    After  the  revolt  of 

1071.  the  four  large  earldoms  were  abolished,  and  the  shire  became 
the  largest  political  division.  Sheriffs  appointed  by  the  king 
in  each  shire.  William  introduced  feudalism  in  its  continents 
form,  placing  Norman  barons  over  the  lands  of  the  English  nobility, 
who  gradually  sank  to  the  position  of  a  middle  class.  Li  1086  the 
power  of  the  barons  was  weakened  by  the  exaction  of  an  oath  of 
fealty  from  all  under  tenants  to  the  Idng  direct.  The  same  year 
saw  the  completion  of  the  great  survey  whose  results  were  inscribed 
in  the  Domesday  Book,  an  inventory  of  all  lands  "burthened 
with  special  dues  to  the  crown."  The  lower  local  courts  were  pre- 
served, but  their  subordination  to  the  king's  court  was  strongly  ii^' 
sisted  on. 

William  reformed  and  reorganized  the  English  Church,  assisted  hy 
Lanfranc,  abbot  of  St.  I^tephen  at  Caen,  whom  he  appointed  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  Homage  to  the  Pope,  however,  William  ex- 
pressly refused  to  render.  He  kept  the  appointment  of  bishops  in 
his  own  hands.  No  papal  letter  could  be  received,  no  papal  synod 
held  in  England,  no  English  bishop  appeal  to  Rome  without  the  long's 
consent. 

1  AufcusMn  Thierry,  Biatoire  de  la  congrUU  de  VAngUterrt.  Oreen,  Bit' 
tory  oftU  English  People. 

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280  Medieval  Bistory.  A.  d. 

1087-1100.    William  II.,  tJie  Bed, 

second  son  of  William  I.  obtained  the  English  crown,  while 
Robert^  the  eldest  son,  succeeded  in  Normandy.  A  revolt  of  the  Nor- 
man barons  in  favor  of  Robert  was  suppressed  by  help  of  the  English 
in  1090.  Death  of  Lanfrancy  1089.  Ascendency  of  Ranulf  Flambard. 
Extortions  of  William.  Formation  of  the  New  Forest 
1093.  Anaelm,  abbot  of  Bee,  appointed  archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
He  was  soon  involved  in  a  quarrel  with  the  king  on  the  ques- 
tion of  investitures  and  on  other  matters.  In  1097  Anselm  appeialed 
to  Rome  and  left  England. 

1097.    Edgar,  son  of  Margaret  (sister  of  Eadgar  Aetheling),  ob- 
tained the  Scottish  crown,  thus  closing  the  civil  war  in  Scotland 
between  the  Celtic  and  English  parties.     William  was  found  dead  in 
the  New  Forest,  Aug.  2, 1100  (murdered  ?). 

1100-1135.    Henry  L,  Beaudero, 

on  learning  of  the  death  of  William  II.,  hastened  to  England 
and  secured  the  crown  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  those  barons  who 
pressed  the  claim  of  Robert  of  Normandy,  then  returning  from  the 
Crusade.  Issue  of  a  charter,  wherein  tiie  exactions  and  abuses  of 
William  the  Red  were  prohibited  and  the  **  Law  of  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor "  restored. 

Henry  married  Matilda,  daughter  of  Malcolm  of  Scotland,  and 
Margaret,  sister  of  Eadgar  Aethding.    Recall  of  Anselm. 
1101.    Invasion  of  Robert  of  Normandy,  with  the  connivance  of  many 

of  the  Norman  barons  on  both  sides  of  the  Channel,  ended  by 
treaty  without  a  battle.    Punishment  of  the  rebel  barons.    Robert  of 
Bdeme,  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  driven  from  England.    In  1104  Henry 
invaded  Normandy.    Robert  was  defeated  at  the 
1106.    Battle  of  Tinchebrai  and  kept  in  captivity  until  his  death 

(1134^.  Henry  took  poesrssion  of  Normandy. 
Quarrel  with  Anselm  in  regard  to  investitures,  endins^,  after  the 
exile  and  return  of  Anselm,  in  a  compromise  (1106).  fatroduction 
of  the  Cistercians  in  England.  Suppression  of  the  great  feudatories 
and  substitution  of  a  clius  of  lesser  nobles.  Death  of  Heniy's  son 
William  by  the  sinking  of  the  «  White  Ship  "  in  the  Channel  (1120). 
Marriage  of  Henry's  daughter  Matilda  to  Oeojffrey,  son  of  Fidk  the 
Black,  count  of  Anion  (1128^  Normandy  and  Maine  definitely  se- 
cured by  Henry.    Henry  diea  1135. 

1135-1164.    Stephen  of  Blois, 

son  of  Adela,  daughter  of  William  I.,  and  the  count  of  Blois, 
seized  the  crown  in  defiance  of  the  rights  of  Matilda  and  her  son 
Henry,  and  was  elected  at  London  principally  by  the  citizens.  Char- 
ter of  Oxford  (1136).  (Second)  mvasion  of  the  Scots  repulsed  in 
the 

1138.    Battle  of  the  Standard, 

at  Cowton  Moor  in  Yorkshire.  Arrest  of  Roger  of  ScUisburtt 
and  the  bishop  of  Lincoln  (1139).     In  the  same  year  Matilda  landed 


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jU  D.  England.  281 

in  England.  Stephen  defeated  and  eaptoied  at  the  latde  of  Lincoln 
(1141).  Matilda  was  elected  Lady  of  England  by  the  clergy.  Her 
Beyere  and  impolitio  ffoyemment  soon  alienated  her  followers.  Fin- 
ally Stephen^  having  been  exchanged,  took  up  the  war  again,  which 
went  on  with  varying  success  until  1147  when  Robert  of  Glwtcester  died 
and  Matilda  left  Eln^land.  In  1153  Henry  of  Anjon  landed  in  Eng^ 
land  to  make  eood  his  claim.  Without  a  battle  an  understanding  was 
reached  and  Henry  was  recognized  as  the  heir  of  the  crown  (Treaty 
of  Wallingford  1163). 

The  reim  of  Stephen  was  one  of  the  darkest  periods  in  English 
history.  Mis  wealmess,  and  the  confusion  of  civil  war  had  given 
the  feudal  nobles  full  liberty.  Castles  were  erected  in  great  num- 
bers throughout  Enc^land,  and  each  was  the  home  of  oppression  and 
cruelty,    btephen  died  1154. 

1154-1389.    House  of  Anjou  (Plantagenet)^  in  the  di- 
rect line. 

1154-1189.    Henry  n. 

Outside  of  England  Henry  possessed :  1.  Normandy  and  the 
suzerainty  over  Brittany,  as  the  heir  of  the  Norman  kings.  2. 
AnJon  and  Maine,  inherited  from  his  father.  .3.  Poiton,  Ghiyenne 
and  G-asoony,  acquired  by  marriage  with  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine 
(1152)  ;  in  all  more  than  hau  of  France. 

The  reign  of  Henry  is  the  period  of  full  amalgamation  of  the  Eng- 
lish and  the  Normans. 

The  accession  of  Henry  (at  21  years  of  aee)  was  welcomed  as  the 
beginning  of  a  better  time.  Bamshment  of  the  mercenaries  main- 
tamed  by  Stephen,  Demolition  of  the  castles.  Resumption  and  res- 
toration of  estates,  which  was  attended  with  difficulty,  some  of  the 
new  nobles  requiring  to  be  dislodged  by  force. 
1158.    First  Welsh  war  not  successful 

1162.  Thomas  Beoket,  the  chancellor,  made  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury.  Reestablislunent  of  the  excA^^uer,  a  bureau  for  assessing 

and  collecting  the  taxes.  Introduction  of  eculage^  a  commutation  in 
money  for  personal  service  in  the  army  permitted  to  the  lower  ten- 
ants. 

1163.  Second  Welsh  war. 

As  chancellor,  Becket  had  been  the  king's  servant  and  friend  ;  as 
archbishop,  he  became  at  once  his  opponent,  resisting  his  wishes  even 
in  financial  matters ;  an  opposition  which  seems  to  have  led  to  the 
abolition  of  danegeld  (p.  1^5).  Becket  bitterly  opposed  the  kind's 
reform  of  the  ecclesiastical  law  relating  to  the  punishment  of  eccle- 
siastics for  criminal  offenses.  Henry  <&manded  that  after  ecclesiaa- 
tical  punishment  had  been  administered  the  offender  should  be  handed 
over  to  receive  the  punishment  of  the  civil  law.  The  wishes  of  the 
king  in  this  respect  and  on  other  points  involving  church  and  state 
were  formulatea  in  the 

1  So  called  from  the  bit  of  broom  {genSt)  which  Geoffrey  of  Anjon,  son  of  king 
Folk  of  Jerusalem  (p.  330),  was  wont  to  wear  in  hk  helm.. 


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232  Medxaval  JROory.  a.  n. 

1164.  CoDBtltatloiui  of  darendon. 

The  jttiisdictioxi  of  secular  courts  oyer  clerical  offenders  was 
affirmed,  appeal  to  Borne  in  such  cases  was  proliibited,  the  election 
of  bishops  in  the  presence  of  royal  officers,  and  with  the  king's  con- 
sent, was  insisted  on,  as  was  the  investiture  of  the  bishop  or  abbot 
elect  with  his  secular  lands  by  the  king.  At  first  Becket  accepted 
the  constitutions ;  but  afterwards  he  withdrew  his  acceptance  and 
appealed  to  Rome.  Brought  to  trial  and  condemned  on  some  mat* 
ters  connected  with  his  chfmcellorship,  Becket  fled  to  France. 

1165.  Third  Welsh  war. 

1166.  Aaaise    of   Clarendon.     Reestablishment  of  Frank^pledge, 
or  mutual  responsibility  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  village,    in 

each  shire  criminals  were  to  be  presented  by  twelve  men  from  the 
shLre  and  four  from  each  town  (grand  Jury) ;  abolition  of  compurgation 
(proof  of  innocence  by  oath  of  neighbors)  for  which  the  ordeal  or 
judgment  of  God  was  substituted. 

1170.  Henry  under  threat  of  interdict  was  reconciled  with  Becketf 
who  returned  to  England.     He  soon  became  embroiled  with 

the  king,  and  was  murdered  by  four  kniffhts  of  Henry's  court,  in 
consequence  of  Henry's  passionate  outbroi^  against  him  (December 
29, 1170). 

Establishment  of  itinerant  or  circuit  judges.     Court  of  appeal, 
afterwards  the  great  and  privy  council 

1171.  Expedition  of  Henry  to  Ireland.     A  bull  of  Adrian  IV.  in 
1157  had  given  this  country  to  Henry,  but  no  use  had  been 

made  of  the  authority  until  Dermodf  king  of  Leinster,  fled  to  Henry, 
did  him  homage,  and  sought  aid  in  his  wars.  Aid  was  sent  in  1169, 
and  in  1171  JBenry  went  in  person.  Richard  of  Clare  (Strongbow), 
son-in-law  of  Dermody  made  earl  of  Leinster.  The  southeastern  part 
of  Ireland  submitted  to  Henry. 

1172.  Absolution  of  Henry.    Penanoe  at  Becket's  tomb,  1174. 

1173.  Rebellion  of  Henry's  eldest  son  HenrVf  and  general  league  of 
French  and  English  lords,  Louis  VII,  and  WUliam  the  Lien 

of  Scotland  against  the  king.     Defeat  of  Louis,    Capture  of   WiUiam 
who  was  released  only  after  acknowledging  Henry  as  his  suzerain 
(1175).    Death  of  Henry  the  younger,  1183. 
1181.  Assize  of  arms.    Restoration  of  militia  service. 
1189.  Conspiracy  of  Henry's  sous,  Richard  and  John,  with  Philip  of 
France.    Humiliation  and  death  of  Henry  II. 

1189-1199.    Richard  I.,  Cceur-de-Lum. 

His  reign  was  passed  almost  entirely  away  from  England. 
Crusade  (p.  215).  On  his  return  Richard  was  captured  by  Leopold 
of  Austria,  delivered  to  the  emperor,  and  detained  thirteen  months  in 
captivity,  being  released  at  last  for  a  heavy  ransom.  During  his 
absence  Eleanor^  his  mother,  was  regent.  Persecution  of  the  Jews. 
The  intrigues  of  Philip  of  France  and  the  king's  brother  John 
resulted  in  war  in  England,  which  was  quickly  suppressed  after  the 
return  of  Richard  (1191).  For  the  rest  of  his  reign  Richard  was  in 
France  at  war  with  Philip.  Erection  of  the  Chdieau  GaiUard  on  the 
Seine.    Death  of  Richard  before  the  casUe  of  ChahiS-Chabrol  (1199> 


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jL  D.  England.  288 

Darinff  his  absence  England  was  goTerned  by  HiAeH  WaUer^  and 
after  Lis  resignation  in  oonseoaence  of  a  refusal  of  money  by  the 
great  conncil,  by  Geoffrey  FUz  Peter. 

1199-1216.    John  Lackland. 

John  was  recognized  in  England  without  opposition  and  secured 
Normandy,  but  Anjau,  Maine  ana  Touraine  acknowledged  the  claim 
of  Arthur  son  of  Geoffrey. 
1203.   Death  of  Arthur  while  in  John's  power.    Philip  at  once  secured 

the  sentence  of  John  and  the  forfeiture  of  his  fiefs.  Nor^ 
mandy,  Anjou,  Mainey  Touraine  and  a  part  of  Aquitaine  were  at  onct 
lost  to  John.  Henceforward  John  was  restricted  to  his  English  kingu 
dom.  The  death  of  Hubert  Walter^  archbishop  of  Canterbury  (1206) 
was  followed  by  a  disputed  election.  A  reference  to  Rome  resulted 
in  the  election  of  Stephen  Langton  by  command  of  lonoeent  III, 
(1207).  John  refused  to  receive  him  and  the  kingdom  was  visited 
with  an  interdict  (1208).  Moved  by  fear  of  deposition,  John  finally 
yielded,  received  Langton,  and  accepted  bis  kingdom  as  a  fief  of 
the  papacy  (1213). 

John's  exactions  and  misffovemment  had  embroiled  him  with  the 
barons  since  1199.    Refusal  of  the  barons  to  follow  John  to  France 


214.    Defeat  of  John  at  Bonvlnes  in  Flanders  (p.  227).    On  John's 
.   return  negotiations  were  opened  with  the  barons,  but  failed, 
and  the  confederated  lords  occupied  London. 

1215*  Magna  Charta  granted  by  John  at  Riinnymede. 
June  The  provisions  of  this  charter  applied  to  the  commons 
15-23.  as  well  as  to  the  nobles  and  clergy,  and  directed  that 
its  benefits  should  reach  the  lower  tenants.^  Principal 
provisions :  1.  Ratification  of  Henry's  charter.  2.  Security 
for  personal  freedom ;  no  freeman  should  *'  be  taken, 
imprisoned  or  damaged  in  person  or  estate,  but  by 
the  Judgment  of  his  peers*'  or  ^'by  the  law  of  the 
land  "  (Art.  39).*  3.  Regulation  of  feudal  dues  and  obligations. 
4.  Regulation  of  national  taxation ;  limitation  of  the  aid  (atia> 
ilium)  which  could  be  collected  without  the  consent  of  the  great 
council  to  the  three  ancient  and  well  known  cases  (ransom  of 
the  lord ;  knighting  of  his  eldest  son  ;  marriage  of  his  eldest 
daughter).  5.  Specification  of  members  of  the  great  cooncil, 
and  of  the  cases  for  which,  and  manner  in  which  it  should  be 
convened. 

The  charter  declared  null  and  void  by  the  Pope.  Suspensioii  of 
Langton,  War  soon  broke  out ;  the  French  party  among  we  barons, 
declaring  the  crown  forfeited,  bestowed  it  upon  iouis,  son  of  Philip 

1  Btobbs,  Early  Plantageneit,  149. 

2  Nallos  liber  homo  cspiator  vel  imprisonetar  ant  dissaisiatur  ant  uthighetor 
aut  exuletor  aut  aliqao  modo  destmatar,  nee  snper  eum  ibimiu,  nee  super  earn 
Biittemiu,  niii  per  legale  judicium  pariom  Buonim  vel  per  legem  ten*. 


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284  JIfeduBval  Ail&ry.  A.  ix 

of  Franoe,  wlio  in  1216  oame  to  EnglaiuL    Death  of  John  (October 
19, 1216). 

1216-1272.  Henry  m.,  of  Winehestety  son  of  John. 

The  death  of  John  was  fatal  to  the  hopes  of  Louis,  The 
English  party  which  secured  the  coronation  of  the  nine-year  old 
Henry,  though  small  at  first  soon  outnumbered  the  French.  Hie  de- 
feat of  the  French  fleet  off  Thanet  determined  Louis  to  give  up  the 
contest  and  return  to  France.  Regency  of  William  ManhaU  (1216- 
1219).  The  Magna  Charta  was  twice  reissued  in  a  modified  form. 
After  the  death  of  William  Marshall,  England  was  goyemed  by 
Peter  des  Roches,  Pandulf,  the  papal  leeate,  Hubert  de  Burghs  the 
justiciary,  and  archbishop  Langton^  who  had  returned  and  soon  super- 
seded Pandulf  as  legate  (1221).  Second  coronation  (1220).  Third 
reissue  of  the  charter  (1223).  Henry's  personal  goyemment  began 
in  1227,  and  soon  inyolved  the  country  m  difficulties.  Heavy  ttuu- 
tion  necessitated  by  the  demands  of  the  Pope  and  by  the  foreign 
policy  of  the  king.  Fall  of  Hiibert  de  Bwrgh  (1232)  ;  of  Peter  des 
Roches  (1234).    Slarriage  of  Heniy  to  Eleanor  of  Proyenoe  (1236). 

Struggle  over  the  money  grants  in  the  great  council,  which  hence- 
forward was  called  Parliament.  Papal  exactions  of  enormous  sums 
of  money. 

Of  the  French  possessions  of  the  Angeyines  Henry  had  retained 
only  Aquitaine  and  Gascony. 

1253.  ttetum  of  Simon  of  Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester  (son  of 
Simon  o/Montforty  who  had  led  the  crusade  against  the  Albi- 
genses),  to  England  from  the  goyemment  of  Gascony.  Simon  soon 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  parliamentary  struggle  which  now  as- 
sumed lormidable  proportions. 

1258.  Parliament  of  Oxford.  The  barons  presented  a  list  of  griey- 
ances,  the  Provisiona  of  Oxford,  tne  reforms  demanded  in 
which  were  to  be  carried  out  under  a  commission  of  twenty-four 
barons.  Permanent  council  of  fifteen  barons  to  meet  three  times  a 
year. 

1263.  Outbreak  of  war  between  the  king  and  the  barons.    Arbitrar 
tion  of  Louis  IX.  of  France  (12ol).    Provisions  of  Oxford 

annulled.    This  decision  resulted  in  a  renewal  of  the  war.    The  king 
and  his  son  Edward  were  defeated  in  the 

1264.  BatUe  of  Lewea. 

May  14.  Treaty  (Mise  of  Lewes)  between  the  parties.    Native  conn* 
selors  presented  and  a  new  council  arranged  by  a  parlia- 
ment in  which  four  knights  from  each  ahlre  were  added  to  the 
clergy  and  nobility.    Council  of  Nine. 

1265.  Parliament  of  Simon  of  Montfort,  the  first  Parliameni 
Jan.  20.   to  which  representatives  of  the  boroughs  were  called  (yei 

this  did  not  become  a  legal  custom  until  in  the  next  reign). 
Edward  released.    Arms  were  again  taken  up.    In  the 
1265.    Battle  of  Breaham, 

Aug.  4.  Earl  5tmon  was  defeated  and  fell  on  the  field.    Death  of 
Henry  (Nov.  16, 1272). 
In  this  reign  the  begging  friars  came  to  England.    Revival  of 


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A.  D.  The  North.  285 

Boholasticism.  Fame  of  Oxford.  Roger  Baoon,  author  of  Ojom 
Magrnumf  **ihB  encyclopiBdia  of  the  thirteenth  oentury."  Mathew 
Paris,  Reviyal  of  Welsh  literature.  Mabinogion.  Geoffrey  o/Mon' 
mouth.    Romances  of  Arthur,  (Seep,  f^S.) 

§  6.    THE  NORTH. 

Denmark.  {Seep.  SOS.) 

1194r-1397. 

The  extinction  of  the  direct  line  of  Estridsen  (p.  208)  was  followed 
by  a  period  of  oonfnsion  and  wars  oyer  the  suoeeasion  {Erik  Emun^ 
1134r-1137,  Erik  Lamb,  1137-1147)  nntil, 
1157-1182.  "Waldemar  I.,  t^  GV-^ar, 

was  elected  to  the  throne.    Subjoffation  of  the  WendSf  who 
had  long  harassed  Denmark.    Capture  of  Ancona  on  the  island  of 
RUgen,    Suppression  of  a  revolt  in  Skaaniaf  caused  by  the  seyerity  of 
bishop  Ahsawn.    Waldemar's  son 
1182-1202.  KnntVI. 

was  even  more  successful  than  his  father,  and  refused  to 
acknowledge  the  suzerainty  of  the  emperor,  Frederic  BarbarossOy  as 
Waldemar  had  done.  Defeat  of  a  naval  expedition  of  the  Wends, 
who  received  aid  from  the  emperor,  by  bishop  Absalon  (1184)  ; 
Hither  Pommerania  submitted,  as  did  a  part  of  Mecklenburg.  Knut, 
"  King  of  the  Slavs."  Expedition  to  Esthonia,  War  with  the  count 
of  HoUtem  and  other  German  princes.  Conquest  of  Liibeck  and  Hamr 
burg.  Capture  of  Adolf  of  nolsiein.  Quarrel  with  Philip  Augustus 
of  France  over  his  treatment  of  Ingebord  (p.  226)*  Knut  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother, 
1202-1241.    "Waldemar  U,  the  Conqueror, 

the  first  portion  of  whose  reipn  forms  one  of  the  most  bril-> 
liant  epochs  of  IHmish  history.  Adolf  of  Holstein  released  on  condi** 
tion  of  ceding  all  Hobtein  to  Waldemar,  who  granted  it  as  a  fief  to 
his  nephew,  Albert  of  Orlamund,  Unsuccessful  interference  in  Nor- 
way and  Sweden.  Conquest  of  Oesel  and  of  a  large  part  of  Prussia. 
In  return  for  his  reception  of  Frederic  II.  over  his  rivals  as  em- 
peror, Waldemar  obtamed  a  cession  of  all  conquests  in  Grermany, 
north  of  the  Elbe  and  the  Elde  {Holstein,  Laueriburg,  part  of  Meac- 
lenburg).  Expedition  to  Esthonia.  The  Danneborg,  or  national 
standard  (1219).  Waldemar's  power  fell  more  rapi(Uy  than  it  was 
acquired.  In  1223  the  kinr  and  his  son  were  treacherously  captured 
by  Henry,  count  of  Schwenn,  and  imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  Donne' 
borg,  in  Hanover,  for  three  years.  Waldemar  obtained  his  release  by 
the  payment  of  a  heaTT  ransom,  and  the  renunciation  of  all  his  con- 
quests south  of  the  Elbe,  and  in  the  Slavic  countries.  Hobtein 
ceded  to  Adolf  the  Young  (1225).  This  renunciation  was  annulled  by 
the  Pope,  and  Waldemar  tried  to  regain  Hobtein,  but  was  defeated 
in  the  battle  of  Bomhoered  (1227).  The  rest  of  his  reign  was 
passed  for  the  most  part  in  peace.     He  died  in  1241.    Of  all  his  con- 


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236  MadiiBval  History,  A.  D. 

quests  onlj^  Riigen,  some  places  in  Mecklenburg,  PruBBia,  Bstho- 
nia,  remained  to  Denmark.  Waldemar's  code  of  laws.  Waldemar 
was  twice  married  :  1.  Margrete  of  Bohemia,  a  well-beloved  princess 
(Dagmar),  2.  Berengaria  of  Portugal,  by  whom  he  had  three  sons 
who  mounted  the  throne  in  succession.  Waldemar  committed  the 
t  political  blunder  of  dividing  the  kingdom  among  his  sons  so  that  the 
nominal  king  possessed  only  a  small  part  of  the  monarchy  ;  Schleswig 
was  conferred  on  Abel,  This  led  to  disputes,  so  that  the  following 
period  was  one  of  civil  strife,  wars  of  succession,  murder,  and  exile 
of  kings.  ^rO;  (1241-1250).  it ^/ (1260-1252).  In  this  reign  the 
towns  began  to  send  representatives  to  the  council  (Danehqf). 
Christopher  (1252-1259V  War  about  Schleswig,  the  king  claiming 
that  it  had  been  granted  to  Abel  as  a  personal  fief,  while  the  descen- 
dants of  Abel  declared  that  it  was  an  hereditary  fief.  Conflict  with 
the  archbishop  Jacob  Erlandsm.  Erik  GUpping  (1259-1286).  Oc- 
cupation of  Schleswig.  Erik  Menved  ri286-1319).  Regency  of  the 
queen  mother.  Miserable  condition  oi  Denmark.  The  larger  part 
of  the  kingdom  granted  out  to  Danish  and  German  nobles.  Chris- 
topher  II.  (1320-1334).  The  nobles  and  clergy  extorted  from  the 
kmg  certain  capitulations,  which  materially  we^ened  the  power  of 
the  crown  for  340  years.  Confirmation  of  privileges  of  the  clergy. 
No  ecclesiastic  could  be  tried  in  a  secular  court,  neither  could  the 
tenants  of  ecclesiastical  foundations.  No  bishop  could  be  imprisoned 
without  the  consent  of  the  Pope.  The  property  and  oersons  of  the 
clergy  were  free  from  all  taxation.  The  nobles  could  not  be  com- 
pelled to  follow  the  king  beyond  the  limits  of  the  kingdom  ;  if  they 
were  captured  in  war  the  crown  was  obliged  to  ransom  them  within  a 
year,  or  lose  the  right  of  holding  them  to  military  service.  The  king 
could  declare  war  only  with  the  consent  of  the  nobles  and  clergy. 
No  person  could  be  imprisoned  without  having  been  tried  and  con- 
demned in  a  local  court  and  in  the  king's  court,  whence  an  appeal 
lay  to  the  national  Diet.  Laws  could  be  mi^e,  repealed,  and  amended, 
omy  upon  the  motion  of  the  nobles  in  the  annual  Diet,  and  with  the 
consent  of  the  whole  nation.  Peasants  must  not  be  unjustly  treated 
by  the  king's  agents,  nor  compelled  to  carry  the  king's  baggage  be- 
yond their  own  township.  Commerce  should  be  free  ana  not  buiv 
dened  with  extraordinary  dues.  War  with  Geert,  count  of  Holstein, 
who  invaded  the  kingdom,  and  with  the  aid  of  discontented  nobles 
drove  Christopher  from  the  kingdom.  Election  of  Wcddemar,  duke  of 
Schleswig;  soon  after,  Christopher,  by  great  concessions,  acquired  the 
crown  again.  Eight  years  of  anarchy  (1332-1340).  Skasmia,  Hal- 
land,  Bleking  attached  themselves  to  Sweden.  After  the  death  of 
Geert,  the  youngest  son  of  Christopher, 

1340-1375.  'Waldemar  m.,  ^tto^a^, 

was  made  king,  and  devoted  himself  to  acquiring,  by  pur- 
chase or  by  force,  the  alienated  crown  lands,  in  which  he  met  with 
success.  In  1359  Waldemar  regained  Skaanla,  Halland,  and 
Bleking  from  the  Swedish  king,  Magnus  Smek,  and  affianced  his 
daughter  Margaret  to  Hakon,  son  of  Uie  Swedish  kin^.  Denmark 
restored  to  her  boundaries  as  they  had  been  under  Waldemar  L 


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A.  D.  ne  North.  tZ7 

This  success  was  followed  by  a  eeneral  war  with  Sweden^  Meddrnk* 
hurg,  the  Hanseatic  League,  etc.,  n^ch  in  spite  of  the  sack  of  CopeiH 
hagen  ended  disadvantageously  for  the  Hanse  towns,  1363.  In  1368, 
however,  the  Hanaa,  in  alliance  with  Holstein,  Mecklenborg,  and 
Sweden,  began  war  again,  and  in  1370  obtained  from  the  Danish  es- 
tates a  treaty  which  secnrod  for  them  the  most  extensiye  commercial 
privileffcs.  In  1372  Waldemar  accepted  this  peace  of  StraUund.  In 
1375  Waldemar  died.  Fassine  over  the  claim  of  Albert,  doke  of 
Mecklenburg,  the  son  of  WaMemar's  eldest  daiu^hter,  the  estates 
elected  the  son  of  his  youngest  daughter  Ola/f  (13^-1387),  then  six 
years  of  age.  In  1380  OZo/"  succeeded  his  father  Hakon  as  king  of 
Norway,  and  both  lands  were  well  goyemed  by  his  moUier  Margaret^ 
the  re^nty  who^  after  CHa/^s  death,  1387,  was  elected  queen  in  both 
countries.  In  1388,  Sweden  reyolted  against  the  king,  Albert,  and 
Margaret  accepted  an  offer  of  the  crown.  In  the  battle  of  Falkcs- 
ping  (1389),  Albert  was  defeated  and  captured.  In  1397,  the 
three  kmgdoms  were  united  by  the  XTnion  of  Calmar.  {Seep,  S76.) 

Sweden.  {See  p,  208,) 

1066-1397. 

After  the  death  of  StenkxL  (p.  208),  the  country  was  distracted  by 
wars  between  the  Svea  and  the  Gauta,  which  lasted,  with  slight  inter- 
ruptions, for  two  hundred  years ;  whereby  the  people  suffered 
greatly,  the  fiee  peasants  disappeared,  and  a  nobiUir  of  warriors 
arose  which  was  exempt  from  taxation  and  possessed  its  own  juris- 
diction. These  nobles  acquired  supremacy  in  the  Diet,  and  re- 
duced the  power  of  the  kmg  to  a  shadow.  Under  Erik  IX.,  the 
Saint  (1150^1162),  Christianity  was  introduced  throughout  the  king- 
dom. Establishment  of  the  archbishonrio  of  Upsala  (1163).  The 
family  of  the  Bonder,  which  began  with  Erik  the  Saint,  became  ex- 
tinct with  Erik  Eriksson  Laspe  (1223-1250).  Under  this  family  the 
power  of  the  clergy  had  so  increased  that  in  1248  they  were  forbid- 
den to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  king.  At  the  same  time 
celibacy  was  introduced.  The  Bonder  dynasty  was  succeeded  by  that 
of  the  FoUcunwT,  which  came  to  the  throne  with  Waldemar  (1250- 
1275),  son  of  Birger  Jarl,  who  continued  until  his  death  (1266)  the 
actual  ruler  of  Sweden,  as  he  had  been  under  Erik  Loupe,  Founda- 
tion of  Stockholm  (1255).  Birger  assigned  his  other  sons  larse 
duchies  in  Sweden,  thereby  planting  the  seeds  of  future  discord.  In 
1275^  Waldemar  was  imprisoned  by  his  brother  Magnus,  duke  of 
SSdermanland,  and  remained  a  captiye  untQ  his  death  (1302).  Mag- 
nus (1279-1290)  proyed  a  good  ruler  and  left  a  prosperous  kingdom 
to  his  son  Birder  (1290-1319).  The  regent  Tarkel  goyemed  wisely 
until  his  fall  m  1306,  when  war  broke  out  between  Birger  and  his 
brothers  Erik  and  Waldemar.  In  1317  Birger  made  his  brothers  pris- 
oners and  staryed  them  to  death.  This  caused  a  popular  reyolt 
which  expelled  Birger  and  placed  on  the  throne  the  son  of  Erik, 
Magnus  Smek  (1320-1363).  During  the  regency  Norway  fell  to 
Magnup,  through  his  maternal  grandfather  Hakon,  and  BkaanlSy 


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238  Medx€eval  Htstory.  a.  d, 

HaUand,  and  Bleklng,  which  belonged  to  Denmark,  but  had  been 
pawned  to  Holstem,  submitted  to  Magnus,  who  paid  the  mortgage. 
Maenus,  after  he  became  of  age  (1333)  made  a  poor  rulep.  In 
1360,  he  suprendered  Skaania,  Halland,  Bleking  U>Waldemar 
Attadag  of  Denmark,  and  betrothed  his  son  Hakon  to  Waldemar  s 
daughter  Margaret,  In  1365  Albert  of  Mecklenburg  was  proclamied 
king,  and  in  the  battle  of  Enka^g  (1365)  captured  Magnus  who  was 
released  in  1371  upon  making  renunciation  of  the  crown  of  Sweden. 
Albert  (1365-1388)  was  king  in  name  only,  the  power  beine  m  the 
hands  of  the  nobles.  In  1388  the  nobles  deposed  the  kmg  and  offered 
the  crown  to  Margaret  of  Norway  and  Denmark,  by  whom  it  waa  ac- 
cepted. At  the  battle  of  Falkasping  Albert  waa  made  pnsoneri^ 
after  an  imprisonment  of  six  years,  renounced  the  crown.  In  ldW7 
Sweden  joined  Norway  and  Denmark  in  the  Union  of  Calmar. 

(Seep.fB76.) 
Norway.  (See  p.  909,) 

1103-1397. 

After  the  death  of  Magnva  Barfod  m  Ireland  (p.  209"),  his  three 
sons  Ejsten,  Sigurd^  and  Olafy  reigned  in  conjunction  until  the  death 
of  Ejeten  and  Olaf  left  Sigard  sole  ruler.  Sigurd  made  a  pilgrim- 
age to  Jerusalem.  He  was  followed  bv  his  son  Magnus  the  BUndf 
who  in  1134  was  obliged  to  cede  half  the  kingdom  to  Harald  GUUf 
who  came  from  Irelsuid  and  claimed  to  be  a  son  of  Maanus  Bar/od. 
There  followed  a  wretched  period  of  cdvil  war  ;  strife  between  the 
Birkebenerrhey  or  national  party,  and  the 
which  the  former  finally  got  the  upp 
1184),  Sverre  (1177-1202),  Hahm  1 
child  (1204),  Inge  Baardsen  (1204^1217). 
1217  (1223)-1262.  Hakon  IV. 

son  of  Hakon  III,,  grandson  of  Sverre,  He  crushed  his  rivals, 
weakened  the  power  of  the  clergy,  restored  quiet  to  the  country,  and 
raised  Norway  once  more  to  an  influential  position  among  European 
nations.  Conquest  of  loeland  (1260)  and  submission  of  Greenland. 
Hakon  died  in  1262,  after  suffering  a  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  Scots 
in  an  expedition  which  he  had  undertaken  against  Scotland.  He  was 
followed  by  his  son  Magnus  Lagab<xter  (1262-1280)  who  ceded  the 
I^  of  Man  and  the  Hebrides  to  Scotland.  Collection  and  publication 
of  &  new  code  of  laws  (1264r-1279).  Erik  Priest-4uUer  (1280-1299). 
War  with  Denmark  over  the  dowry  of  his  mother,  Ingeborg,^  War 
with  the  Hanse  towns,  wherein  the  king  was  worsted  and  obliged  to 
mnt  the  towns  full  privileges  in  Norway,  and  to  join  the  league. 
Death  of  Margaret  ("  The  Maid  of  Norway  "),  daughter  of  Erik, 
and  granddaughter  on  her  mother's  side  of  Alexander  III,  of  Scot- 
land, while  on  her  way  to  claim  that  crown  after  the  latter's  death. 
Hakon  V.  (1299-1319).  War  with  Sweden  and  Denmark.  Dying 
without  male  issue,  he  left  the  crown  to  his  daughter's  son,  Magnw, 
king  of  Sweden,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1320.  In  1350  Magnus 
bestowed  the  crown  of  Norway  on  his  son  Hakon  VL  (1350-1380), 
who  in  1362  became  co-regent  for  Sweden.    In  1363  Hakon  married 

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240  Mediisval  History,    ,  a.  d. 

Margaret  the  heiress  of  Denmark.  Hakon  was  succeeded  by  his 
minor  son  Olaf  (1380-1387),  whose  mother  Margaret  administered 
the  kingdom  of  Norway  as  she  had  done  that  of  Denmark,  which  Olaf 
had  inherited  in  1376.  After  Olaf's  death  in  1387  Margaret  (1387- 
1412)  was  recogni2ed  as  (jueen  of  both  Norway  and  Denmark,  The 
union  of  the  two  monarchies  was  completed  by  the  Union  of  Calmar 
and  endured  until  1814.  At  the  Union  of  Calmar  (1397)  Sweden 
was  united  with  the  two  kingdoms.  (^See  p.  276.) 

§  6.    SPANISH  PENINSULA.  (See.p.  £09.) 

Arabic  Spain  was  conquered  from  the  Morabethes  or  Almoramdes 
(p.  209)  by  the  Almohades  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century. 
Since  the  defeat  at  ToIom  (1212)  steadpr  decline  of  the  power  of  the 
Arabians,  who  since  the  reign  of  Aljimso  X.  of  Castile  were  con- 
iined  to  the  kingdom  of  Graiuida. 

1095.  Counly   of  Portogal,  between  the  Duero  and  MitihOy  granted 
as  a  Castilian  fief  to  the  Burgundian  count  Henry,  whose  son 
liberated  himself  from  the  overlordship  of  Castile,  and  called  him- 
self King  of  Portugal  (1140). 

Aragon  and  Catalonia  (county  of  Barcelona)  nnited  (1137). 
Leon  and   Castile  separated   again    (1157) ;  finally  definitely 

united  (1230). 
About  1150.     Origin  of  the  three  orders  of  knighthood  which  took 

their  names  from  the  cities  guarded  by  them  :  1.  San  J  ago  di 
ComposteUa  (Gralicia),  2.  Alcantara  (on  the  Tajo),  3.  Calatrava  (on 
the  Guadiana.  (Seep,  275,) 

§  7.    THE  EAST. 

Eaatem  Empire.  (See  p,  210,) 

1057-1185.  Eastern  emperors  of  the  houses  of  the  Dnoas  and  the 

Comnenes. 
1185-1204.  Dynasty  of  Angelas. 
1204-1261.  Latin  empire  (p.  216).  (See  p.  278.) 

The  Mongols. 

1206.  The  Mongols  elected  on  the  Amur,  Temuchin,  their  chief.  He 
took  the  honorary  title  Jenghiz  Khan,  under  which,  rather 
than  under  his  true  name,  he  is  known  in  history.  The  Mongols  con- 
quered a  part  of  China,  destroyed  the  empire  of  the  Chotoaresmians, 
which  reached  from  India  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  subjugated  south- 
em  Russia. 

Temuchin's  grandson  Batu  made  plundering  expeditions  through 
Russia,  defeated  the  Poles  and  fought  the 

1241.     Battle  of  WaMstatt,  against  the  Germans  under 

Henry  the  Pious,  duke  of  Liegnitz.  The  Mongols,  although 
victorious,  retired  to  the  East,  and  ravaged  Hungary.  A  Christian 
army  under  Wenzel,  king  of  Bohemia,  cut  them  off  froia  Austriiu 


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A.D.  The  Bast.  241 

The  greater  part  of  the  Mongols  went  baek  to  Asia,  but  Russia  was 
under  their  sway  till  1480. 

1258.  The  Mongols  conquered  Bagdad  and  destroyed  the  Ccdiphate. 
Their  immense  empire  separated  into  Khanates,  (China,  Khan- 
ate of  Kaptchdk  on  the  Volga,  Jagatai  in  Turkestan,  Iran^ 
etc.)  (See  p.  £78,) 

India.  (See  p.  211.) 

1206-1500. 

The  Afghan  empire  broke  up  after  the  death  of  Muhammad  Ghori 
(p.  211),  and  the  vicegerency  of  the  Punjab  and  Hindustan  became 
an  independent  sultanate  under  Rvtab-itd-din,  sultan  of  Delhi  (1206- 
1210),  who  was  originallv  a  slave,  and  founded  the  slave  dynasty 
(1206-1288).  He  extended  the  Mohammedan  rule  as  far  as  the 
Brahmorputran  Under  his  successors  the  sultanate  suffered  from  Mon- 
gol invasions.  AUah^ud^in,  yie^xoy  oi  Oude,  who  had  made  daring 
expeditions  into  the  Deocan,  murdered  the  sultan  JMl-ud^tn,  hu 
uncle,  and  made  himself  sultan.  Conquest  of  Gttzerat.  Capture  of 
Chitar  in  RajptUana  (1300).  Conquest  of  portions  of  the  Deccan. 
After  the  death  of  iliiaA-tM^-^m  (1316)  revolts  occurred  which  were 
suppressed  by  the  Turkish  governor  of  the  Punjab,  Tughlak,  who 
mounted  the  throne  of  Delhi,  and  founded  a  new  Une  of  sultans,  who 
transferred  their  residence  to  Tughlakabad.  TugkUh  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Muhammad  TugMaJc  (1325-1351),  who  was  obliged  to  pur- 
chase the  retreat  of  the  Mongols  from  the  Pwijfib.  A  terrible  famine 
induced  him  to  remove  the  population  of  Delhi  to  Deoghw,  and  the 
misery  of  those  who  survived  the  journey  of  700  miles  induced  him 
to  send  them  back  ^ain.  Large  issue  of  copper  coinage,  followed 
by  financial  panic.  Rebellions  broke  out  everywhere,  and  the  Mo- 
banunedan  empire  separated  into  numerous  small  states.  Firuz-Shah 
(1350-1388). 

13d8.  Invasion  of  Hindustan  by  Tuniir  Shah.  AUahnud^in  had  ex- 
tended his  power  over  a  large  part  of  the  south,  but  the  Hindu 
revolt  of  1316  haa  shattered  it.  The  southern  part  of  the  peninsula 
was  comprised  in  the  Hindu  empire  of  Vijayanagar  (Narsinga),  about 
1300.  In  1350,  on  the  death  of  Muhammad  Tughlak,  the  Moham- 
medan army  in  the  Deccan  had  set  up  a  sultan  of  its  own,  whose 
capital  was  at  Kulbarga.  These  Bahmani  sultans  were  soon  in- 
volved in  a  series  of  horrible  wars  with  the  empire  of  Vijayanagar. 
The  Bahmani  empire  endured  until  1500,  when  it  was  broken  up  into 
five  kingdoms.  (See  p.  368. ) 

Oilna.  {Seep.  211.) 

1101-1398. 

The  Khitan  Tatars  having  established  themselves  firmly  in  Leaou^ 
tsung,  Hwy-tsting  (1101-1126)  conceived  the  idea  of  inviting  the 
NeuHihe  Tatars  to  take  the  field  against  them ;  they  did  so  and  ex- 
pelled the  Khitan,  but  occupied  the  province  themselves,  and  thence 
spread  over  ChtUrli,  Shennse,  Shunse,  and  Ho-nan.  Under  Kaou- 
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242  Mediaval  Hittory.  A.  D. 

tsung  (1127-1163)  the  Neurche  Tatart,  or  as  they  now  called  them- 
selves, the  Kins,  reached  to  the  Yana-tse^Keang, 

The  new  empire  of  the  Kins  inTitea  attack  from  the  Mongol  Tatars, 
who  experienced  at  this  period  a  wonderful  development  of  power.  In 
1213  Jengliis  Khan  invaded  the  Kin  province  of  Leaot^-tsung;  ninety 
cities  were  razed  to  the  ground.  After  the  death  of  Jenghiz  (1227) 
his  son  Ogdai  (1227-1241)  continued  the  work  of  conquest. 
1232.  Fall  of  the  Kin  dynasty,  brought  about  by  an  alliance  of  the 
Mongols  with  the  independent  kingdom  of  Sung,  in  the  south. 
Mangn  (1248-1259),  son  of  the  warrior  Too4e,  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother, 

1259-1294.    Kublai  Khan, 

Mongol  emperor.  The  complete  fall  of  Sung  in  1280  left 
Kublai  lord  over  all  China,  as  well  as  ruler  of  almost  all  the  rest  of 
Asia,  excepting  Hindustan  and  Arabia.  China  was  never  more  illus- 
trious or  powerful  Visit  of  Marco  Polo,  the  Venetian,  to  the  court 
of  Kublai.    Unsuccessful  attack  upon  Japan  (1281,  p.  243). 

The  immediate  successors  of  Kublai  were  men  of  little  note:  Yuen" 
chmg  (1294r-1307),  Woo-4mg  (1307-1311).  Jin-taung  (1311-1320) 
endeavored  to  blend  the  two  races,  and  admitted  many  Chinese  to 
official  positions.  After  his  death  matters  went  from  bad  to  worse, 
until  Shtin-te  (1333-1368)  was  driven  from  the  empire  by  Choo- 
yuenrchangt  the  son  of  a  Chinese  laborer,  who,  in  1368,  proclaimed 
himself  emperor  under  the  name  of 

1368-1398.    Hung-woo, 

the  founder  of  the  Ming  dynasty.    Subjugation  of  Tatary. 

{See  p.  278,) 
Japan.  {See  p,  SIS.) 

1156-1392. 

1156.  The  wars  of  Oen  and  Hei,  which  began  in  this  year,  are  very 
famous  in  Japanese  annals.  In  the  first  battle  (1156)  the 
Taira  (Heishe)  were  victorious,  under  Kigomori,  and  obtained  control 
of  the  royal  jpalace.  Exiled  from  Kioto,  the  Minamoto  (Grenji),  under 
the  enterprismg  brothers,  Yoritomo  and  Yoshitsuni,  founded  a  power 
in  the  plain  of  the  Koanto,  with  Kamakura  as  their  capital.  The  death 
of  Kiyomori  (1181)  was  the  signal  for  the  downfall  of  the  house  of 
Hei.  Kioto  was  captured  by  the  Minamoto.  The  final  struggle 
occurred  in  the 

1185.  Naval  battle  of  Dan  no  ura, 

near  Shimonosiki.  The  Taira  were  utterly  defeated,  many 
perished  in  the  fight,  and  the  family  was  extenmnated  throughout 
the  islands,  save  a  few  who,  escaping  to  Kiushvu,  transmitted  their 
name  to  the  present  day. 

Secure  in  victory,  Yoritomo  left  the  Mikado  and  the  huge  in  Kioto 
undisturbed,  while  he  strengthened  his  power  at  Kamahira.  Five 
men  of  his  family  were  appointed  governors  of  provinces,  an  office 
previously  filled  only  by  civilians.  A  special  tax  was  levied  through- 
out the  empire  for  the  support  of  standing  garrisons  in  all  the  prov- 


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A.i>.  The  EasL  243 

inces,  and  these  troope  were  under  military  rulers  of  his  own  raee, 
who  shared  the  goyemment  of  the  province  with  the  civil  governor, 
and  were  snborainate  to  Yaritomo  tiimself .  In  1192  YcrUomo  was 
appointed  Seiri  Tai  Shogun,  or  eeneralissimo.  He  was  henceforward 
known  as  the  Shogun.  With  &e  death  of  YarUamo  (1199)  fell  the 
power  of  the  Minamoto. 

1200-1333.  Supremacy  of  the  family  of  Hojo.  The  founder  of  the 
Hoio  ascendency  was  TokmaeOy  fatheivin-law  of  Yaritomo, 
who  exercised  ahsolate  oontrol  over  the  degenerate  descendants  of 
that  able  Shorai.  None  of  the  Hojo  ever  held  the  office  of  Shogtm, 
but,  vassals  of  a  vassal,  they  ruled  the  Shoeun  and  the  Mikado  as 
Yoritomo  had  ruled  tiie  Milcado  alone.  The  line  of  Yoritomo  ended 
in  1219,  when  the  Shogunate  was  transferred  to  the  Fujitoara,  who 
held  it  until  1251,  when  their  vassal-masters  handed  it  over  to  one  of 
the  sons  of  the  reigning  Mikado,  in  whose  &mily  it  remained  until 
1333. 

Since  the  conquest  of  China  by  the  Mongol-Tatars,  the  victors  had 
kept  the  subjugation  of  Japan  steadily  in  view.  Embassy  after  em- 
bassy had  demanded  submission  and  been  repulsed ;  the  last,  in  1279, 
was  Deheaded. 

1281.  Invasion  of  Japan  by  the  Mongol  Tatan. 

Destruction  of  the  armada  by  a  typhoon;  defeat  and  massacre 

of  the  survivors  npon  the  island  of  Taka, 
By  this  repulse  Hojo  Tokxawtni  won  great  praise;  he  was,  indeed,  a 
man  of  great  capacity  and  good  sense.  After  him,  however,  the  Hojo 
grew  more  and  more  outr^^us  in  their  treatment  of  the  Mikado 
until  a  revolt  broke  out,  headed  by  Kueunoki-MasMhig^  and  Nitta 
Yoshisadaf  which  ended  in  the 

1333.  Capture  and  deatmotlon  of  Kamaknra,  and  the  exter- 
mination of  the  Hojo  family. 

For  a  time  (1333-1336)  the  Mikado  Go-Daigo  (1319-1338)  was 
monarch  in  fact  as  in  name,  but  Mb  weakness  cost  him  his  newly 
found  authority. 

Ashikaga  Tahawh  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  revolt  against  the  HqfOf 
revolted  against  his  new  master,  seized  Kioto,  and  set  up  a  rival 
Mikado  whor  appointed  hun  Sei^i  Ttti  Shogun. 

1336-1392.    'Wax  of  the  Chr3raanthemnnia, 

between  the  false  Mikado  at  Kioto  and  the  true  Mikado  at 
Yoahino,  each  displaying  the  imperial  emblem,  the  chrysanthemum, 
peace  was  concluded  in  1392  under  the  condition  that  the  imperial 
throne  should  be  occupied  by  mikados  taken  alternately  from  the 
rival  houses.  The  northern  branch  died  out  after  a  few  generations. 
During  this  period  (since  the  establishment  of  the  Shogun  at 
Kioto)  feudalism  reached  its  full  development.  The  country  was 
divided  among  the  soldiers  of  the  Shogun,  who  held  their  esti^s  as 
fiefs  from  the  Sho?un,  to  whom  they  owed  service.  Gradually  the 
a^cultural  and  ouier  classes  became  attached  to  certain  of  these 
military  lords,  damioa,  and  received  their  lands  from  them  as  fiefs. 
The  taxes  which  supported  the  Mikado  and  the  court  were  absorbed 
by  the  daimUu,  and  the  huge' was  left  to  abject  poverty.  (^Seep,  S78.) 


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244  Mediaeval  History,  A.  m 


FOURTH  PERIOD. 

FROM  THE  CONCLUSION   OF  THE  CRUSADES  To'  THE  DIS- 
COVERY OF  AMERICA. 
1270-1492. 

§  1.    GERMANY.  (See  p.  2iS6.) 

1273-1347.    Kingrs  and  Emperors  of  various  houses. 
1273-1291.     Budolf  I.,  count  of  Hapsburgr  and  Kyburgr, 

landmve  in  Alsace,  the  most  powerful  prince  in  Helvetia,  was 
elected  by  tne  three  archbishops  of  Mainz,  Cologne  and  Trier  and  the 
count  Paiatine  of  the  Rhine,  through  the  influence  of  his  cousin,  the 
burggrave  Frederic  ofHohemoUem, 

Strict  enforcement  of  the  public  peace.  War  with  Ottooar,  king 
of  Bohemia,  who  had  taken  possession  of  Austria,  after  the  extinction 
of  the  Babenberg  line  (1246),  had  reconquered  Styria  from  the  Hun- 
garians, and  had  inherited  Carintkia  and  Camiola,  Ottocar  was  put 
under  the  ban  and  his  flefs  proclaimed  forfeited.  Rudolf  took 
Vienna,  and  was  on  the  point  of  crossing  the  Danube  when  Ottocar 
agreed  to  a  treaty  (Nov.,  1276),  whereby  he  abandoned  Austria^ 
Styrioj  Carinthia  and  Camiola,  but  received  Bohemia  and  Moravia 
again  as  fiefs  of  the  empire.  Ottocar  however  soon  renewed  the 
war. 

1278.  Victory  of  Rudolf  on  the  Marchfeld  (near 
Vienna V  Death  of  Ottocar.  Peaca  with  the  guardian  of  his 
son  Wenzel  wno  received  Bohemia  and,  later,  Moravia.  Development 
of  the  family  power  of  the  Hapsburgs.  Austria,  Styria,  CarvrMa^ 
given  as  imperial  fiefs  to  Rudolf's  sons,  Albert  and  Rudolf.  Carin- 
thia was  ^ven  to  Meinhard,  count  of  Tyrol,  Rudolf's  brother-in-law. 
Campaigns  of  Rudolf  in  Burgundy  and  Swabia,  particularly  against 
Eherhard  of  WUrtemberg,  In  Swabia  since  the  lall  of  the  Hohen- 
staufens  the  most  powerful  princes  were  the  counts  of  Wiirtem- 
berg,  and  the  marsraves  of  Baden.  The  ducal  title  in  Swabia  de- 
scended to  Rudolrs  son  Rudolf,  and  from  him  to  his  son  John 
(Parricida),  but  this  title  designated  only  authority  over  the  Hapa- 
burg  estates  in  Swabia.  Formation  of  ftgreat  number  of  fiefs  held 
immediately  of  the  empire  in  Swabia.  Through  the  exertions  of  the 
archbishop  of  Mainz,  Rudolf's  son  Albert  was  not  elected  his  succes- 
sor, but  the  choice  fell  on  a  relative  of  the  archbishop, 

1292-1298.  Adolf  of  Nassau,  whose  reini  was  devoted  to 
the  attempt  to  establish  a  dynastic  power  by  the  acquisition  of 
Thuringia  and  Meissen  fin  opposition  to  the  brothers  Frederic'^ 
and  Diezmann).  Adolf  was  aeposed  at  the  Diet  of  Mainz,  by 
the  influence  of  his  former  pa^n,  the  archbishop  of  Mainz, 

1  The  title  "  with  the  bitten  cheek  *'  appeare  to  have  been  a  later  invention  ; 
his  contemporariee  called  thin  Frederic,  son  of  Margaret,  daughter  of  Frederic 
II.,  by  the  surname  **  the  Cheerful.''    See  Wecele,  Fried,  der  Frtidige,  1868. 


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A.  D.  Germany.  245 

withont  the  approyal  of  the  archbishopt  of  Cologne  and  Trier 
and  the  count  T^datine.  He  fell  at  GdUhem  in  personal  con- 
flict with 

1298-1308.  Albert  L,  of  Austria,  son  of  Rudolf  I.  who 
had  been  elected  king  by  the  opposing  party.  Alliance  with 
Philip  the  Fair,  king  of  France,  against  the  Pope.  Albert  tried  in 
vain  to  recover  Holland  as  a  vacant  fief  of  the  empire.  Alliance  of 
the  three  ecclesiastical  electors  and  the  count  Pahttine  against  the 
king,  who  was  victorious  (1301),  and  reduced  the  princes  to  obedience 
(siege  ol  the  castle  of  Bingen),  Unsuccessful  wars  vdth  Bohemia, 
and  with  Frederic  and  Diezmann  of  Meissen,  who  defeated  the  im- 
perial army  under  the  burggrave  of  Nuremberg  at  LuckOj  not  far  from 
Altenburg  (1307). 

Albert  was  murdered  by  his  nephew  John  (Parricida)  between  the 
Aar  and  Reuss,  near  the  Hapshurg,  His  widow  Elizabeth  and  his 
daughter  Agnes  took  terrible  venfl;eance  for  this  murder.  Through 
the  mfluence  of  Uie  archbishop  of  Trier  the  princes  elected  as  king 
his  brother 

1308-1313.    Henry  VII.,  oount  of  LtLtzelnburg  op  Lux- 
emburg, a  half-Frenchman. 

1809.     The  SwifiS  Cantons  received  from  Henry  VII.  doc- 
June  3.  umentary  confirmation  of  their  immediate  feudal  re- 
lation to  the  empire. 

Origin  of  the  Swiss  Confederacy. 

Of  the  inhabitants  of  the  cantons,  those  dwelling  in  Schwyz  seem  to 
have  been,  for  the  most  part,/r«0  peasants  ;  while  in  Uri  and  UrUer' 
wdlden  the  majority  were  in  a  condition  of  servitude,  as  regarded 
either  their  persons  or  their  estates.  The  most  extensive  landowners 
were  monasteries  (e.  g.  the  Frauenmiinster  in  Zurich),  and  nobles  re- 
siding out  of  the  country,  like  the  counts  of  Lemburg  and  those  of 
Hapsburg.  After  the  extinction  of  the  former  (1172),  at  any  rate 
since  the  thirteenth  century,  the  counts  of  ELapsbure  exercised,  under 
various  legal  titles  as  landgraves  or  advocat^  full  jurisdiction  and 
presided  in  the  assemblies.  Under  the  imperfectly  developed  admin- 
istration of  that  time,  the  holder  of  these  privileges  was  considered 
the  actual  ruler  of  the  countrv. 

As  early  as  the  first  half  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  cantons  had 
resisted  the  efforts  of  the  Hapsburgers  to  develop  their  stewardship 
into  an  actual  sovereignty  over  them ;  indeed  they  had  even  attempted 
in  part  to  withdraw  themselves  from  the  stewardship  of  the  Haps- 
burgers. In  1231  Henry^  regent  for  his  father  Frederic  II.  in  Ger- 
many fp.  224),  granted  the  people  of  Uri  a  charter  which  removed 
them  iroTa  under  the  protection  of  the  Hapsburgers  and  replaced 
them  under  that  of  the  empire.  In  1240  Frederic  11.  gave  the  peo- 
ple of  Schwyz  a  charter  which  promised  them  an  immediate  tenure 
from  the  empire.  After  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
the  Hapsburgers  were  nevertheless  still  in  possession  of  their  office 


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246  MeditBval  HUtory.  ▲.  d. 

of  steward  or  advocate  (Vogt)  for  the  cantons.  Bndolf  I.  seems  to 
have  recognized  the  charter  of  Uriy  but  not  that  of  Schwyz.  Imme- 
diately upon  his  death,  on  Aug.  1, 1291,  the  cantons  Ur%  Schwyz,  and 
Nidwalden  (which  was  afterwards  united  with  the  towns  of  Obiocdden 
under  the  name  UnterwcUden)  concluded  a  perpetual  league.  Al- 
though intended  only  to  insure  the  maintenance  of  existing  oondi- 
tionsy  this  leaeue  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  beginning  of  the  Con- 
federacy. By  making  shrewd  use  of  the  conrasion  that  followed  in 
Germany,  but  not  without  many  changes  of  fortune  (after  the  battle 
of  GiiUheim  (p.  245)  the  cantons  were  obliged  to  recognize  the  su- 
premacy of  tne  Hai>sburger8),  the  confederates  in  1309  attained  the 
object  for  which  their  ancestors  had  striven. 

The  Swiss  narrative,  to  which  the  popular  poetry  has  added  many 
ornaments,  and  which  condenses  the  facts  of  the  gradual  acquirement 
of  an  immediate  relation  to  the  empire  into  a  short  space  of  time, 
and  exaggerates  their  effects,  can  no  longer  be  regarded  as  historical 
in  view  of  the  results  of  modem  investigation.^  It  is  first  found  in 
chronicles  which  were  written  between  two  and  three  hundred  years 
after  the  events,  and  is  often  contradicted  by  the  documents.'  Neither 
the  Oath  on  the  RiJUli  (1307,  Werner  Stauffacher,  WdUher  FOrst,  Ar- 
nM  Melchthal)^  nor  the  expulsion  of  the  bailiffs  on  the  Ist  of  January 
1308,  is  historically  autheimcated. 

The  Swiss  confederacy  was  not  formed  by  the  exertions  of  three  or  of 
thirty  individuals,  but  was  the  result  of  many  historical  events  which 
united  in  powerfully  assisting  the  energetic  and  enduring  efforts  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  cantons  to  free  themselves  from  ful  foreign  su- 
premacy. 

As  regards  the  story  of  Tell,  it  is  now  established  that  neither  the 
shooting  of  the  apple  from  the  head  of  his  son,  nor  the  murder  of  the 
bailiff  Gessler  in  tne  hollow  way  at  Kiissnacht  can  be  in  any  way  re- 
garded as  an  historical  event.  It  has  been  proved  that  among  the 
Kiissnacht  bailiffs  of  that  time  there  was  no  Gessler,  The  legend  of 
the  shooting  of  the  apple  occurs  five  times  outside  of  the  cantons, 
agreeing  almost  to  the  wording  of  the  answer  which  the  archer  gives 
the  tyrant :  in  Norway,  in  Iceland,  in  Denmark,  in  Holstein,  and  on 
the  middle  Rhine,  and,  with  an  altered  motive,  a  sixth  time  in  Eng- 
land, Hence  it  is  tolerably  certain  that  we  have  here  to  do  with  a 
common  Germanic  tradition.  Moreover,  the  resemblance  of  the 
Swiss  version  to  the  elder  narrative  of  Saxo  Grammaticns  ^twelfth 
century)  of  the  shot  of  Toko,  tho  Dane,  who  is  said  to  have  lived  in 
the  tenth  century,  is  so  striking  as  to  render  it  probable  that  the  Swiss 
chroniclers  had  that  historian  before  them. 

Whether  a  man  of  the  name  of  Tell  ever  lived  in  Uri  is  a  question 
which  cannot  be  answered  with  certainty  either  in  the  affirmative  or 
tho  negative.*    It  is  one,  moreover,  which  has  but  little  interest  when 

.  1  A.  Huber:  die  WaldstaUe  Uri,  Scktoyz,  {7n<ervaMeii,  1861 ;  and  Booh- 
h6l%.Tell  und  Gettler  in  Snge  und  Geschichte,  1877. 

s  The  honor  of  having  first  used  this  fact  after  a  true  scientific  fashion  to  dis- 
prove  the  tradition  belongs  to  the  Swiss  historian  Kopp  ( Urkunden  ear  Ge- 
schickU  der  eidgenSssuchen  BSmde,  1835  and  1857;  Reich»geachichU^  1845-1858). 

*  According  to  the  investigations  of  Kopp,  who  examined  all  the  archives  in 
Uri,  and  BochliolB  (p.  257.  note),  the  Utter  is  almost  certainly  the  case. 


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▲•  D.  Germany.  247 

it  is  admitted  that  tlie  main  featores  of  the  legend  are  onhiBtorical. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  Tell,  even  in  the  legend*  plays  no  part  at  all  in 
the  common  insurrection,  after  the  murder  of  the  bailiff.  It  was  not 
until  later,  when  the  Swiss  had  actually  worked  out  their  freedom, 
that  his  deed  was  invented,  and  surrounded  by  the  halo  of  popular 
belief,  his  name  made  a  symbol  of  Swiss  energy  and  love  of  freedonv 
The  TeU  chapels  and  the  memorial  festivals  are  no  proof  that  Tell  was 
an  historical  personage,  since  the  erection  of  the  former  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  latter  can  be  shown  to  date  from  a  time  when  the  tradi* 
tion  was  already  fully  developed.  The  document  concerning  a  piiblio 
meeting  of  1388,  when  more  than  a  hundred  people  are  said  to  have 
declared  that  they  knew  TeU,  is  evidently  a  later  mterpolation. 
1310.  Henry's  son,  John,  was  placed  on  the  throne  of  Bohemia  by 
the  national  assembly,  in  spite  of  the  claims  of  the  Hapsburg- 
ers,  whereby  the  Lutzelnburgers  acquired  a  family  power. 
1310-1313.  Henry's  Roman  expedition.  He  was  crowned  king  of 
Italy  in  Pavia,  and  emperor  in  Rome  (1312). 

1314-1347.    Ludwig  of  Upper  Bavaria  at  war  with 

1314-1330.    Frederic  of  Austria,  son  of  Albert 

1315.  Victory  of  the  Swiss  confederates  in  the  pass  between  lake 
Nov.  15.    Ageri  and  the  mountain  Morgarten  over  Leopold  o/AuS' 

tria,  Frederic's  brother.    The  flower  of  the  Austrian  chivalry 
(1500  in  number)  slaughtered. 
Dec.  9.    Renewal  of  the  league  between  Uri,  Schwyz  and  Unterwcdden 
at  Brunnen, 

1316.  Recognition  of  the  immediate  dependence  of  the  cantons 
upon  the  empire,  by  kin^  Ludwig.     During  the  fourteenth 

and  fifteenth  centuries  the  peoj^e  generally  bou^t  off  the  ever 
diminishing  rights  of  the  landed  monasteries.  Rapid  growth  of  the 
league  of  the  confederates,  which  was  joined  by  one  after  another  of 
the  remaining  districts,  who  thus  withdrew  themselves  from  the  control 
of  the  territorial  lords.  At  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  Austria 
had  been  entirely  driven  out  of  the  lands  south  of  the  Rhine.  After 
1340  no  imperial  bcdliff  is  mentioned  in  the  cantons,  which  in  conse- 
quence of  the  weakness  of  the  imperial  power  soon  became  republics, 
so  that  the  proclamation  of  the  mdependence  of  Switzerland  in  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia  (1648)  was  only  the  legal  recognition  of  a  state 
of  things  which  had  long  existed  in  fact. 

1322.  Battle  at  Ampfing  near  Miihldorf.  Frederic  of  Austria  de- 
feated and  captured  {Schioeppermann ;  the  story  is  probably 
unhistoric). 

1324.  Ludwig  gave  the  mark  Brandenburg^  which  had  reverted  by 
the  extmction  of  the  Askanianline,  to  his  son  Ludwig,  whom  he 
afterwards  married  vdth  Margaret  Maultasch,  the  heiress  of 
Tyrol  and  Carinthia. 

1325.  Frederic  set  at  liberty  upon  renouncing  his  claim  to  the  throne. 
He  surrendered  himself  again  as  prisoner,  was  made  co-regent 
by  Ludwig,  died  1330. 

1327-1330.  Ludvdfir's  Roman  expedition.  Crowned  emperor  in  Romet 
(.Anti-pope  JSichoHas  F.) 


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/ 


248  Afedimvat  History,  A.  t>. 

TIm  XOeotoral  meeting  at  Renee  (1338)  deelaxed  every  legally 
elected  German  king  to  be  thereby  conatitated  Roman  emperor, 
even  without  papal  coronation. 

The  violent  means  adopted  by  Ladvdg  to  increase  his  domestic 

Sower  led,  a  year  before  nis  death,  to  the  election  of  Charles,  son  of 
ohn,  king  of  Bohemia  (f  1346  in  the  battle  of  Crecy).    Charles  was 
not  universally  recognized  until  after  Ludwig's  death. 

1347-1437.     Emperors  of  the  Luxemburg  —  Bohe* 
miauline. 

1347-1378.    Gharles  IV. 

A  prince  with  nothing  knightly  in  his  character,  but  wise  in 
statecraft,  and  shrewd  in  calculation  ;  a  scholar  (he  studied  at  Paris 
and  Bologna,  spoke  and  wrote  Bohemian,  German,  Latin,  French, 
Italian).  War  with  the  Bavarian  party.  In  opposition  to  Ludwig 
there  appeared  in  Brandenburg  ^e  false  Waldemar  (1348-1350),  who 
was  assisted  by  Charles. 

The  emperor's  first  care  was  his  hereditaiv  kingdom,  BohemiA 
(whence  he  was  styled  by  Maximilian  I.,  <*  Bohemia's  father,  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire's  arch-step-father").  The  emperor  in  1348 
founded  a  university,  after  the  pattern  of  that  in  Paris,  at  PMigue, 
the  first  in  Germany.    The  Bavarian  party  elected  in  opposition 

1349.  Oflnther  of  Schwarzbiirg,  king  of  Gennany,  but  he  died  in 
Jan.    June  of  the  same  year  (poisoned  7). 

Flagae  (Black  Death)  in  Germany,  and  throughout  nearly  all 
Europe.    Persecutions  of  the  Jews.    Flagellants. 
1353.  Berne  joined  the  Swiss  confederacy  which  now  included  Uri^ 
Schwyzy  Unterwaldeih  Lticeme^  Zurich^  Glarus,  Zug,  and  Berne, 
the  so-called  eight  old  cantons. 
1354-1355.    Charles's  first  expedition  to  Borne.     He  was  crowned 
emperor  at  Rome  with  a  humiliating  ceremony. 
Silesia  and  Lower  Lusatia  (Niedeiiausitii)  united  with  Bohemia. 

1356.   Golden  Bull.^    Fundamental  law  of  the  empire. 

The  election  of  the  emperor  was  definitively  intrusted  to  the 
seven  electors,  who  had  practically  exercised  this  right  for  a  long 
time ;  *  three  ecclesiastics :  1.  Archbishop  of  Mains  (arch-chancellor 
of  Grermany)  ;  2.  Archbishop  of  Trier  (arch-chancellor  of  Burgundy); 
3.  Arohbisnop  of  Cologne  (arch-chancellor  of  Italy)  ;  fow  secu- 
lar:  4  King  of  Bohemia  (arch-seneschal);  5.  Count  Palatine  of  the 
Rhine  (arch-steward) ;  6.  Duke  of  Sazon-'Wittenberg  (arch-nuup- 
shall);  7.  Margrave  of  Brandenburg  (arch-chamberlain).  Estab- 
lishment of  the  indivisibility  and  inalienableness  of  the  electoral 
states,  which  were  made  hereditary  in  the  male  line  and  received  cer- 
tain regalia  (privHegium  de  non  appellando,  etc.).  The  electoral  vote 
went  with  the  land. 

1  So  called  from  the  gold  case  which  contained  the  seal. 
3  The  electoral  vote  had  be^'n  di!<piited  between  the  two  Saxon  lines  and 
.  the  two  lines  of  Wittelsbach.    It  was  now  assi^ed  to  Saxon-  Wittenberg  and 
the  County  PalaHntf  bat  refused  to  Saxon- La uenh»irfj  and  Bavaria. 


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A.  D«  Germany,  249 

1363.    Austria  acquired   Tyrcl,     The  heiress  of  Tyrol,  Maraarei 

Maidtcuchf  who  outlived  her  husband,  the  Bayarian  Ludwig^, 
elector  of  Brandenburg  (p.  247\  and  her  only  son,  Meinhard,  gaye 
her  county  after  the  latter  s  deatn  to  duke  Rudolf  of  Austria, 
1368.  Second  expedition  of  Charles  to  Italy  in  alliance  with  the  Pope 

against  the  Visconti. 
1373.  By  the  treaty  of  FUntenwalde^  Otto  the  Finne  (lazy),  the  last 

Bavarian  margrave  of  Brandenburg,  transferred  the  mark  to 

Charles  IV.,  in  return  for  an  annuity. 

Iieagues  of  the  Cities. 

The  HanBeatio  League.  The  onion  of  several  seaports  and  trad- 
ing cities,  between  the  Baltic  and  the  Elbe,  formed  in  Uie  thirteenth 
century  (between  1255  and  1262  ?),  was  the  beginning  of  this  league.^ 
Separate  alliance  between  LUbeck  and  Hambtwg, 

In  the  fourteenth  century  the  league  attained  wide  extent  and 
great  power.  After  this  time  the  name  Hansa  (i.  e.  trade  guild)  was 
commonly  applied  to  the  league.  Since  1350  over  ninety  cities  ex- 
tending from  the  mouth  of  the  Schelde  to  Esthonia,  besides  many 
inland  cities  (e.  e.  Magdeburg,  BerUn,  Thorn),  belonged  to  the  Hansa, 
Object  of  the  culiance :  common  d^ense,  security  of  sea  and  land 
routes,  settlement  of  disputes  between  members  by  arbitration,  ao- 

2uirement  and  maintenance  of  trading  privileges  in  foreign  countries, 
iapital  of  the  league  :  Lftbeok.  Division  of  the  league  into  three, 
afterwards  four,  quarters :  1.  Prussian  and  Lvoordanj  principal  town, 
Dantzig;  2.  Wenaic,  including  also  the  cities  of  MeAlenburg,  Pom- 
merania,  and  the  Marches;  chief  town,  Liibeck;  3.  Saxon;  chief  town, 
Brunswick:  4.  Wes^halian;  chief  town,  Colo^,  Principal  trading 
CToundy  all  northern  Europe.  Principal  tradmg  stations  :  Novgorod, 
Stockholm,  Wishy  (in  Gothland),  Bergen,  Bruges,  London,  Ships  of 
war  (Orlogschiffe). 

1361.  War  with  Waldemar  IV.,  kins  of  Denmark,  under  the  conduct 
of  the  burghermaster  of  Liibeck,  John  Wittenborg,  who  captured 
and  plundered  Copenhagen,  but  was  afterwards  defeated  before  Heln 
singborg,  and,  in  consequence,  beheaded  at  Liibeck. 
1367-1370.  Second  war  with  Waldemar  IV.  The  king  compelled  to 
fly.  Copenhagen,  Helsingdr,  and  other  cities  conquered.  A 
glorious  and  advant^^ous  peace  for  the  Hansa,  oondnded  at  Stral' 
sund,  ended  the  war. 

The  League  of  Rhine  oitiea,  founded  about  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century  (league  of  Worms  and  Mainz),  to  insure  stricter 
enforcement  of  the  public  peace,  comprised  at  various  times  more 
than  seventy  cities,  not  all  upon  the  Rhine  (e.  g.  Bremen,  Regensburg, 
Nuremberg) ;  both  temporal  and  spiritual  pnnces  joined  the  league. 

The  Swabian  city  league  concluded  in  1376,  particularly  as  a  de- 
fense against  the  counts  of  Wurtemberg.  Eberhard  the  Grexner  (t.  e. 
Quarreler),  also  called  Rauschebart,    (Uhland'a  ballads.) 

^  Unions  of  German  merchants  in  foreign  countries  under  this  name  had  long 
existed,  the  oldest  being  in  London. 


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250  .  MeduBval  Biitmy.  ▲.  D. 

AsBOciatlonB  of  Nobles  founded  hy  memben  of  the  middle 
nobility,  the  imperial  knights,  particolarly  in  Swabia,  Franconia,  and 
on  the  Bhine,  to  maintain  their  independence  against  the  cities  on  the 
one  hand  and  against  the  higher  nobiuty ,  the  princes  of  the  empire,  who 
were  everywhere  trying  to  acquire  territorial  sovereign^  on  tne  other. 
The  princes  of  the  empire  were  either  spiritual  (archbishops^  three  of 
whom  were  electors  (p.  248),  bishoWy  abbots),  or  secular  (duheSf  counts- 
palatine,  margraves,  burggraves).  The  following  aAsociations  of  nobles 
deserve  mention:  the  Martinsvdgel  (named  fSter  the  day  of  their 
union),  the  Schlegler,  the  Ldwenbund, 

1377.  Beginning  of  the  wars  between  the  cities  and  the  nobles. 
Battle  of  Reutlingen.    Brilliant  victory  of  the  Swabian  league 

(Ubn,  the  capital)  over  Ulrich,  son  of  £berhajrd.  The  Swabian  league 
recognized  by  the  emperor. 

1378.  Death  of  Charles  IV.,  after  he  had  so  divided  hiB  hmds  among 
his  three  sons  that  Wemel  received  Bohemia  and  Silesia  (Ztix- 

emhurg  fell  to  him  afterwards  also),  Sigismund,  the  mark  of  Branden- 
burg, John,  Lusatia.  In  Moravia  two  nephews  of  Charles,  Prokop 
and  Jobst,  were  margraves.  The  election  to  the  German  throne  had 
already  fallen  upon 

1378-1400.    Wenzel,  Charles  IV/s  oldest  son. 

1381.  The  Swabian  league  united  with  that  of  the  Rhine,  and  after- 
wards entered  into  alliance  with  a  part  of  the  Swiss  confed- 
eracy. 

1384.  Wenzel  proclaimed  a  new  public  peace,  the  so-called  Heidd- 
berper  StaUung  (Stallung= preserve  of  game,  etc.),  for  four 

years,  which,  however,  was  broken  after  the  fing  had  returned  to 

Bohemia. 
Leopold  of  Austria,  who,  in  the  division  of  Hapsburg  estates  had  re- 

oeivea  the  western  lands,  attacked  the  Swiss  oonfederacy  in  alliance 

with  the  south  German  nobility.    In  the 

1386.  Battle  of  Sempaoh  {Arnold  von  Winkelried?),^  he 
was  defeated  and  lost  his  life.  His  second  son,  LeopMy 
renewed  the  war  and  was  defeated  in  the 

1388.  Battle  of  Ndfds,  by  the  men  of  Olarus  and  Schwyz.  The 
war  with  the  cities  broke  out  anew.  Eberhard  the  Greiner 
defeated  the  Swabian  cities  at  Ddffingen,  where  his  son  Ulrich 
felL  Rupert,  count  Palatine,  defeated  the  Rhine  towns  at 
Worms.  These  victories  restored  the  superiority  of  the 
princes  over  the  cities. 

1389.  fTew  public  peace  for  eight  years  proclaimed  by  Wenzel  at 
the  council  of  the  princes  at  Mger, 

Wenzel,  who  was  hated  in  Bohemia  for  his  cruelty  and  indolence, 
and  had  been  several  times  made  a  prisoner  in  civil  quarrels,  was  de- 
posed by  a  section  of  the  princes  of  the  empire  (1400).  He  died 
1419  as  king  of  Bohemia. 

^  See  O.  XlelMner,  die  QueUtn  mr  Sempacher  Sehlackt  und  die  WitdMried- 
sage^  1873. 


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A.  D.  Germany.  261 

1400-1410.  Rupert,  Count  Palatine, 

who  was  barely  able  to  make  the  royal  anthority  respected 
within  hijB  own  part^. 

1401.  Unsuccessful  expedition  to  Italy.  The  German  army  was  de« 
feated  at  Brescia  by  John  Galeazzo  Visconti,  whom  Wenzelhad 
appointed  hereditary  duke  of  Milan  (1395). 

1409.  In  consequence  of  the  Hussite  troubles  (p.  262)  in  Praciie 
and  a  chanre  in  the  university  statutes,  all  Germans,  profes- 
sors and  students  alike  (5000  in  number),  left  th^  university 
of  Prague  and  went  to  Leipzig^  where  FYederic  the  Warlike  of 
Meissen  founded  a  university. 
The  council  of  Pisa,  convened  to  restore  papal  unity  (Pope  Grea 

XILf  against  Pope  Benedict  XIIL),  elected  Alexander  F.  as  a  th 

Pope,  not  having  been  able  to  induce  the  former  two  to  abdicate. 

1410-1437.   Sigismund,  brother  of  Wenzel, 

in  right  of  his  wife,  daughter  of  Ludwig  the  Great,  king  of 
Hungary,  margrave  of  Brandenburg  since  the  death  of  Charles  IV. 
Sigismund  was  at  first  elected  by  the  votes  of  Trier,  the  County 
Palatine^  and  Brandenburg,  whose  vote  he  himself  cast  through  his 
plenipotentiary  Frederic,  burggrave  of  Nuremberg.  The  other  princes 
elected  Jobst  of  Moravia  (f  1411^.  By  the  skillfid  management  of  his 

Slenipotentiary,  and  the  recognition  of  the  successor  of  Alexander  V., 
okn  XXIII.,  Sigismund  gained  the  votes  of  the  opposition  at  a 
second  election,  went  to  Itafy,  fought  unsuccessfully  with  Venice  and 
Milan,  but  induced  Pope  cfohn  AXIII.,  who  was  hard  pressed  by 
Naples,  to  summon  an  oecumenical  council  in  German  territory. 

1414-1418.    Council  of  Constcmce  (Kostnitz). 

At  once  a  council  of  the  empire  and,  in  a  certain  way,  a  Euro- 
pean congress,  visited  by  Italian,  German,  French,  English,  and  after^ 
wards  by  Spanish  prelates  (6  patriarchs,  33  cardinals,  200  arch- 
bishops and  bishops),  and  by  numerous  princes  with  imposing  trains, 
BO  that  at  times  there  were  as  many  as  80,000  strangers  in  the  city. 

The  councO  had  three  objects  :  1.  Suppression  of  heresy  {ca^aa 
fidei).  2.  Healing  of  the  schism  (jixiusa  unumis),  3.  Reformation  of 
the  church  (causa  reformationia).^ 

The  party  of  reform  secured  the  adoption  of  the  plan  of  voting 
by  nations,  Germans,  French,  English,  Italian,  having  each  one  common 
vote.  Pope  John  XXIII.,  who  appeared  in  person,  was  first  induced 
to  public  abdication,  but  afterwards  escaped  to  Schaffhausen  with  the 
help  of  Frederic,  duke  of  Austria,  who  oeing  put  under  the  ban  was 
forced  to  submit.  Upon  the  motion  of  Oerson,  chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Paris,  the  council  proclaimed  its  superiority  over  the 
Pope,  but  proceeded  to  take  up  the  causa  fdei  next.  Condemnation 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  Englishman  Wiclif  (1327-1384^  (opposition 
to  confession,  transubstantiation,  and  absolution),  and  tne  cnief  mis- 
sionarv  and  developer  of  this  doctrine,  John  Hus  (a  Bohemian  of 
Czechish  descent,  bom  at  Hussinec,  1369  ;  1396,  professor ;  1409,  rec 

1  Cf.  HaUer,  die  Konttanzer  Reformation,  1867. 


^ 


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252  MediiBval  SHOary.  a.  d. 

tor  of  the  UniYeiaity  of  Prague  ;  sinoe  1412  ondet  the  ban),  who,  re- 
lying upon  a  safe  conduct  &om  the  emperor,  had  appeared  in  Con- 
stance. Hub  burnt  (July,  1415,  his  friend  Hieronymus  of  P^gue, 
1416).  After  the  execution  of  Hus,  the  causa  unionis  was  again  tucen 
up.  John  XXIII.  was  deposed ;  Gregory  XII.  abdicated  voluntarily. 
Sigisiuund  went  to  Spain  to  secure  the  abdication  of  Benedict  XIiI, 
Daring  the  long  absence  of  the  emperor,  discussion  of  the  cavsa  ref- 
omuUioms.  After  Sigismund's  return  (1417)  Benedict  XIII,  was 
deposed  by  the  council. 

It  was  now  demanded  by  the  party  of  reform  that  a  thorough  re- 
form of  the  church  in  all  its  parts  should  precede  the  election  of  a 
new  Pope  ;  the  Ultramontanes  (t.  e.  the  Italians)^  reinforced  by  the 
Spaniards  as  Vkjifih  nation,  succeeded  in  bringing  about  an  immediate 
election,  so  thii^  the  reform  fell  through  Martin  V,  elected  Pope, 
Nov.  1417  (although  with  the  condition  :  de  fienda  refonnatione  post 
eUctUmeni),  dissolved  the  council  1418,  as  an  agreement  could  not  be 
reached.  The  three  concordats  which  were  concluded  with  the  Crer- 
mans,  the  English,  and  the  Romans,  brought  about  no  real  abolition 
of  abuses. 

At  Constance  in  1415  Sigismund  invested  Frederic  burggrave  of 
Nuremberg  with  the  mark  Brandenburg,  the  electoral  vote,  and  the 
ofiBce  of  archchamberlain,  as  a  reward  lor  the  important  services  he 
had  done  him  (especially  at  his  election),  and  the  empire.  The  cere- 
mony of  investiture  took  place  in  1417.^ 

1423.  After  the  extinction  of  the  Askanian  house,  Sigismund  in- 
vested Frederic  the  Warlike,  of  the  house  of  Wetttn,  margrave 
of  Meissen,  with  the  electoral  dnchy  of  Saxony  CWitten- 
berg). 

1419^1436.  Hussite  Wax. 

Terrible  indignation  of  the  Bohemians  at  the  execution  of 
Hus.  His  followers,  the  Hussites,  also  called  Utraquists,  because 
they  demanded  commimion  in  both  kinds,  bread  and  wine  (sub 
utraque  specie),  for  the  laity  as  well  as  for  the  clergy,  attempted  to 
spread  their  doctrine,  which  the  council  had  reiected,  by  force.  Re- 
volt in  Prague.  Ziska  leader  of  the  Hussites.  After  tiie  death  of  king 
Wemel  (1419),  Sigismund  was  heir  to  the  Bohemian  throne.  He 
was  crowned  m  Prague,  but  was  soon  obliged  to  leave  the  country. 
The  imperial  troops  were  driven  back  as  they  entered  Bohemia 
(1421).  Sigismund  was  disgracefully  defeated  (1422)  htDeutsch-Brod. 
The  Hussites  ravaged  the  neighboring  countries  (skillful  use  of  gun- 
powder and  clumsy  cannon  ;  ramparts  of  wagons).  The  coun- 
cil of  Basel  (1431-1449)  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  moderate  Hus- 
sites (Calixtinians),  (compact  of  Prague  1433)  ;  the  TaborUes,  whose 
leaders  (the  two  Prokops)  fell  in  battle,  were  defeated  and  annihilated 
at  Bohnmch'Brod  (1434). 
1420-1460.  Epoch  of  the  greatest  power  of  the  secret  tribunals  of 

Westphalia  (yehmgerichte). 

1  The  mortgagiDg  the  mark  for  a  sum  of  money  was  onlv  a  form.  There 
was  DO  sale,  only  a  '*  remunerative  preaenf  Of.  jSiedel,  (reMch,  det  Preutt. 
KSmgshauiet,  IL.  269. 

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A.  D.  Germany.  263 

1438-1740.  Emperors  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg. 

1438-1439.  Albert  n.,  son-iu-law  of  Supsmnnd,  whom  he  saeoeded 
in  Bohemia  and  Hungary  as  well,  <ued  after  retoming  from  an 
expedition  against  the  Turks.  ^ 

1440-1493.  Prederio  m.  (IV.),^  cousin  of  Albert, 

the  last  emperor  who  was  crowned  in  Rome  (1452^.  He  was 
powerless  both  in  Germany  and  in  his  own  lands,  and  inyoiTed  in  war 
with  his  brothers. 

jEneas  SUvhu  Piccolommi  (when  Pope,  Pirn  11,),  his  adviser. 
Civil  war  in  Switzerland ;  Zikich  allied  with  Austria  (1440-1446). 
The  troops  of  Zurich  defeated  bj  the  confederates.  Zurich  besieged. 
At  the  request  of  Frederic,  Charles  VII.  of  France  sent  the  Dauphin 
(afterwards  Louis  XI.),  with  the  unbridled  bands  of  the  Armagnacs, 
against  Basel,  to  raise  the  siege  of  Zurich.  Heroic  death  of  1600 
Ck>iifedorates  at  St.  Jaoob  (1444).  Peace  with  France.  Since 
their  victory  at  Raaaz  (1446)  over  the  Grerman  troops,  the  Swiss  con- 
federacy was  practically  independent.  Native  kings  elected  in  Hun- 
gary and  Bohemia  (1457)  whom  Frederic  was  obliged  to  recognize. 

The  reforms  resolved  upon  in  the  Council  of  Basel  (1431-1449) 
were  abandoned  by  the  Concordat  of  Vienna  concluded  with  Pope 
Eugenim  IV.  (1446). 

About  1450  John  Qtitenberfir '  practised  (at  Mainz)  the  art  of 
printing.     {Johann  Fust,  Feter  Schoffer). 

Frederic,  obliged  to  give  up  parts  of  the  duchy  of  Austria  to  his 
brother  and  his  cousin,  besieged  by  them  in  Vienna,  and  released  by 
George  Podiebrad,  king  of  B<memia  (1462). 

The  marriage  of  Frederic's  son,  archduke  Maximilian,  with  Mary, 
daughter  and  heiress  of  Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy  (f  1477), 
caused  several  wars  with  France,  and,  after  the  death  of  Mary  (1482), 
with  the  revolted  Netherlands.  Maximilian,  however,  succeeded  m 
keeping  the  Burgundian  inheritance  for  his  son  by  Mary,  the  arch- 
duke Philip,  Only  the  duchy  of  Burgundy  (la  Bourgogne,  capital 
Dijon),  fell  to  France. 

Frederic  III.,  involved  in  a  war  with  Matthias  Cormnus,  king  of 
Hungary,  wa^  driven  out  of  Austria  and  restored  by  MariTnilmn  (only 
after  the  death  of  Corvinus,  1490).  MaTimiliaji,  after  the  extinction 
of  a  branch  line,  received  Tyrol,  which  the  house  of  Hapsburg  had 
acquired  in  1363  (p.  249),  and  at  Frederic's  death  was  in  possession 
of  all  the  Austrian  lands.  (Seep,  SOO.) 

i  If  Frederic  of  Atutria,  opponent  and  co-regent  of  Iiudwiff  of  Bavaria,  be 
counted,  he  was  Frederic  lY. 

^  His  family  name  was  Gensjleitck ;  the  name  Gutenberg  was  that  of  his 
mother's  patrician  family.  The  claim  brought  forward  in  the  Netherlands  that 
Lorem  Jantton  ( Cotter)  \i\  Haarlem  was  the  true  inventor  of  printing  (1423)  has 
been  proved  by  Van  der  Linde  to  rest  upon  a  forgery.  His  investigations 
assign  Fust  and  especially  Schdffer  a  much  teas  important  position  tfaSin  has 
been  commonly  attributed  to  them. 


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254  MeduBval  History*  ▲•  d. 

f  8.    FRANCE.  {Set  p.  227.) 

1270-1285.  PbiUp  m^  le  Hardi,  the  Rash.    A  qmet  reign  wlioso 
ironbles  were  mostij  from  oatside.     Sicilian  Vespen  (p.  226). 
Fbilip  married  his  son, 
1285-1314.  Philip  IV.,  U  Bel,  the  Fair,  with  Johanna,  heiress  of 
Navarre. 
Systematic  introduction  and  development  of  the  Civil  (Roman) 
Law.    Increased  importance  of  parliament,  from  which  ecclesiastics 
were  removed  in  1287  ;  in  1302  it  was  fixed  at  Paris.     (The  French 
parliament  was  a  oonrt,  not  a  legialatore). 

Agreement  between  Philip  and  Edward  /.,  of  England,  Edward 
renouncing  his  claims  upon  Normandy  and  receiving  from  Philip 
10,000  livres  and  a  guarantee  of  non-forfeiture  for  &e  rest  of  his 
French  fiefs. 

1292-1293.  Conflicts  between  English  and  Norman  sailors  ;  sack  of 
La  Rochelle.  Edward  /.  of  England,  summoned  before  the 
court  of  his  suzerain,  sent  instead  his  brother,  earl  of  Lancas- 
ter, who  surrendered  Guienne  to  Philip  as  security  for  a  satis- 
factory arrangement.  Pnilip,  hereupon,  declared  Edward's 
fiefs  forfeited,  by  reason  of  his  non-appearance. 
1294-1207.     War  between  France  and  England,  carried  on  in  Ga»- 

cony  and  in  Flanders,  Philip  being  successful  in  both  fields. 
1299f  June  19.     Peace  was  concluded  between  France  and  England 
at  AfantreuUsur-MeTf  on  the  basis  of  nresent  possession  as  re- 
garded territory.    Marriage  of  Edward  I.  and  Margaret,  sister 
of  Philip  1 V.  (see  below). 
1296-1304.  Quarrel  with  Pope  Boniface  Vin.    The  strife  originated 
in  the  king's  need  of  money,  owing  to  the  growing  central- 
ization of  government,  which  led  him  to  tax  ecclesiastical  property. 
BuU,  **  Clencis  laicos"  forbidding  the  clergy  to  pay  taxes  to  the  secular 
government  witibout  consent  of  the  Pope  (1296).    Philip  replied  by 
an  ordinance  prohibiting  the  exportation  of  money  or  valuables  from 
the  kingdom  without  the  king's  permission.     From  these  extreme 
positions  the  princes  graduaUy  retreated  until  a  reconciliation  was 
patched  up.    Ab  a  private  man  the  Pope  became  arbitrator  between 
PhUip  and  Edward,  and  secured  two  thirds  of  Aquitaine  to  France, 
which  was,  however,  again  transferred  to  England  by  a  marriage 
treaty,  wherein  Edward  was  betrothed  to  Philip^  sister  Margaret,  and 
his  son,  Edward  (II.)  to  Philip's  daughter  Uabelle.    Flanders  an- 
nexed to  France. 

The  onarrel  between  the  king  and  the  Pope  broke  out  afresh  in 

1301.  The  bull  "  Atuculta  Jili,'*  wherein  the  Pope  asserted  his  su- 
premacy over  all  kings,  was  burned  by  Philip's  order.  Remonstrance 
of  the  estates  of  France  with  the  Pope  (1302). 

Revolt  of  Flanders.  The  French  army  of  feudal  barons  was  totally 
defeated  by  Flemish  citizens  in  the 

1302.  July  1.  Battle  of  Courtrai  (Day  of  the  Spurs). 

Four  thousand  gilt  spurs  were  captured  by  the  victors.  So 
many  fiefs  were  vacated  tliat  Philip  saw  the  royal  power  considera* 
bly  strengthened. 


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A«lK^  Uranee.  265 

Pablioation  of  the  decretal  **Unam  Sanctam**  (Sty.  18,  1902) 
claiming  the  supremacy  of  the  spiritual  power  oyer  the  temporal ; 
this  was  followed  by  a  threat  of  excommunication.  In  France  the 
last  bull  was  seized,  and  violent  measures  taken  against  the  Pope.  On 
Sept.  7,  1303,  Boniface  VIII.  was  seized  at  Anagni  by  the  king's 
adviser,  Nogeret^  and  Sdarra  CoUmna,  and  treated  wiUi  indig^^. 
He  was  shortly  released  by  a  popular  uprising,  but  finding  Rome  on 
his  return  in  French  hands,  fell  ul  and  died. 

Philip  recognized  the  independence  of  Handera  (1305,  June  5). 

Benedict  Xl.  dying,  after  mne  months  Philip  secured  the  election  of 
a  Frenchman  as  Clement  V.  Beconciliation  of  the  church  with  the 
king. 

1309.  Removal  of  the  papal  residence  to  Avignon  (1309-1376). 
1307.  Arrest  of  all  Knights  Templars  in  France.  Trial  of  the  knights 
on  various  charges  of  immorality  and  heretical  doctrines  and 
practices.  By  the  free  use  of  hearsir^  evidence  and  of  torture,  their 
condemnation  was  secured,  and  fifty-four  were  burned.  Abolition  of 
the  order  (1312)  by  the  Pope.  Execution  of  the  grand  master, 
Jacques  de  Afolaiy  confiscation  of  the  lands  of  the  templars.  Annexa- 
tion of  Lyons,  hitherto  independent  through  the  veiy  number  of  her 
cUumants,  to  France  (1312).  Death  of  Philip,  Nov.  29, 1314. 
1314-1316.  Louis  X.  le  Hutin,  the  QuarreUome^  throagh  his 
mother  heir  of  Navarre.  His  uncle,  Charles  of  Valois,  was  the 
true  ruler.  Execution  of  Philip's  minister,  De  Marigni.  Serfs  per- 
mitted to  purchase  their  freedom.  {Comme  selon  le  droit  de  nature 
chacun  doit  naistre  franc).    Louis  died  June  5, 1316.    His  brother 

1316-1322.    Philip  V.  le  Lang,  the  TaU, 

was  appointed  regent  for  the  queen,  who  was  with  child.  On 
the  death  of  tne  queen's  son,  soon  after  birth,  Philip  proclaimed  him- 
self king,  and  to  put  aside  the  claims  of  Jeanne,  daughter  of  Louis  X., 
he  decreed  that  on  the  basis  of  ancient  Prankish  law,^  no  female  could 
succeed  to  the  throne  of  France  (the  Salio  law\ 

Excesses  of  the  Pastoureaux  suppressed  by  force.  Attacks  upon 
the  lepers  and  the  Jetos. 

Acquisition  of  Douay,  Orchies,  Ryssel  from  Flanders.  Philip  died 
Jan.  3, 1322,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 

1322-1328.    Charles  IV..  the  Fair, 

Died  January  31, 1328,  without  male  issue.  Jeanne,  daughtez 
of  Louis  X.,  received  Navarre.  In  France,  according  to  the  Salic  law, 
the 


1  Lesi  SiUiea,  tit.  42, 6.  De  terra  rero  talica  in  mnUerem  nulla  partio  transit, 
ted  hoc  virilis  sexut  acquirit.  This  pplies  strictly  to  allodial  possessions,  and 
not  to  fiefs  or  to  the  crown. 


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256 


Mediigwd  BUtary. 


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▲.  D.  Ihinee.  257 

1328-1498  (1589).    House  of  Valois,  a  younger  Hue  of 
the  Capets,  succeeded. 

IiOolJi  VUL,  1923-1896. 


Ikmis  IX.,  St.  Louis,  Gharles,  count  of  Anjon  and  Provcnot, 

1396-1970.  ancestor  of  the  Unas  of  Vi^as. 


I 


Philip  m.,  le  Hard],              Bobert  (6th  son),  count  of  Clermont, 
1270-1286.                                 ancestor  of  the  Boortxma. 
I 

Philip  IV.,  le  Bel,        Charles,  count  of  Valois,     Louis,  count  of  Er- 
1986-1814.              ancestor  of  the  house  of 
\ ValolA. 

IiOnisX.,   Philip  v.,    OharlMlV.,    Isabelle     I 
leHutin.     le  Long.        le  Bel.  m.  Sd-    Philip  VI., 

1814-1816.  1816-1892.    1899-1898.        wardll.  1898-1880. 
I  I  I  of  England.  I 

daughters,     daughter.  |  | 

Bdward  HL,    John  H., 


I  I  of  England.         le  Bon, 

Jeanne.  John,  1880-1864. 

queen  of  1816. 

Navarre.  lived  seven  days. 

1328-1350.    Philip  VI.,  nephew  of  Philip  IV. 

Philip  was  the  choiee  of  the  feudal  barons,  who  had  lesained 
somewhat  of  their  old  power  since  the  death  of  PhiUp  the  Fair,  bnt 
his  tyrannr  alienated  Ub  vassals,  while  his  oppressive  exactions  ham- 
pered trade  and  deprived  him  of  the  hearty  support  of  the  eities. 
Quarrel  with  Edward  m.  of  England,  springing  out  of  the  claim  of 
the  English  sovereiflna  to  the  French  crown  through  his  mother,  Isa- 
hdUi  daughter  of  rhilip  lY.  (see  the  genealogy).  Alliance  with 
ScoUand.     Outbreak  of  the 

1339-1453.  Hundred  years  War  between  France  and 
England.  (FmssaH  1337-1410  (?),  chronicler  of  the  war.) 

Naval  victory  of  the  English  and  their  allies,  the  Flemish  (Jacob 
van  ArtevMe),  at  Sluys  (1340). 

Contested  succession  in  BrUtany  ;  John  de  Mwdfwi,  one  claimant, 
obtained  the  aid  of  Edward,  and  recognized  him  as  king  of  France. 
(Heroism  of  MarffueriUf  countess  of  ]m)ntfort.)  I4inding  of  Edward 
in  Normandy  (1346). 

1346.  Battle  of  Cr^oy,  in  Picardy. 

August  26.  Victory  of  the  English.  Use  of  cannon  (?).  Death  of 
the  blind  king,  John  of  Sohemiaj  the  father  of  Charles  lY.^ 

1347.  Capture  of  Gaiais  (%U}tj  of  the  intercession  of  Queen  PhiUppa), 

1  Recent  investigators  reject  the  story  that  the  fifteen-year-old  Prince  of  Wales 
(the  Black  Prince),  took  from  the  helmet  of  the  fallen  king  John,  the  devise 

MTrJiHiAn** 


<Ickdien.*' 

17 


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258  Mediitvd  BUtary.  A.  D. 

1347-1349.    BUok  Death  in  France. 

Acquisition  of  MontpeUier  from  James  of  Amgon,  and  of  the 
DauphMof  Vierme  from  the  last  Dauphin,  Humbert  IL  (who  went 
into  a  monastery^  by  purchase.  Vienne  was  g^ven  to  Charles^  son  of 
John  of  Normanmr,  grandson  of  Fhilip.  He  took  the  title  of  Dauphin, 
and  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  decreed  that  the  DaujMnd  should 
ncTer  be  united  with  the  crown.  Hence  Dauphin  became  the  title 
of  the  heir  of  the  French  crown. 

Origin  of  the  practice  of  selling  offices  and  titles.  First  imposition 
of  the  gabelle,  a  tax  in  the  form  of  control  of  all  salt  works  by  tne  goT- 
emment    Death  of  Philip,  Aug.  22, 1350 ;  he  was  followed  by  his  son, 

1350-1364.    John  n.,  le  Ban. 

Fend  with  ChaHe$  the  Bad,  king  of  Navarre ;  arrest  and  im- 
prisonment of  Charles  (1356). 

1356.    Battle  of  PoitierB  (properly  Maupertuia), 

Sept  19.  Victory  of  the  Bhiok  Pnnce  with  10,000  men,  oyer  John 
with  50,000.  Capture  of  John  (a  prisoner  for  four  years). 
Meanwhile  confusion  reiened  in  France  where  the  younff  Dau- 
phin, as  regent,  was  unable  to  suppress  the  terrible  civil  oon- 

1357-1358.  Insurrection  of  the  bourgeoisie  of  Paris,  led  by  Etieime 
Bffaroel,  the  provost  of  the  traders  (^prevot  de»  marchands), 
who  entered  into  treasonable  connection  with  Charles  the  Badj 
king  of  Navarre.  Meeting  of  the  estates;  abolition  of  abuses. 
Truce  with  England  for  two  years.  Murder  of  the  marahalls 
of  Champagne  and  Normandy  in  the  regent's  presence,  by  order, 
of  MaroeL  The  government  in  the  hands  of  Marcel  and  a  com- 
mittee of  thirty-aiz.  » 

1358.    Feasant  war,  accompanied  by  horrible  cruelties,  known  as  the 

'  Jacquerie,  under  the  lead  of  GuiUaume  CaiilO,  called  Jacques 

Bonhamme,  which  afterwards  became  the  nickname  for  the 

lower  class  in  general,  in  France.    Murder  of  Marcel  in  Paris. 

1360.   Peaoe  of  Bretigny  (near  Chartres), 

Edward  received  Poitau,  Guienne,  and  Oascony,  in  full  sover- 
eignty, but  renounced  his  claim  to  the  French  crown,  and  re- 
noimced  also  all  other  fie&  in  France.  Release  of  John,  for  a 
ransom. 

1363.  Burgundy  occupied  by  John  on  the  death  of  the  queen  and  her 
son  by  her  former  marriage,  Philip,  duke  of  Burgundy,  pass- 
ing over  the  claim  of  Clwrles  of  Navarre.  The  duchy  was 
given  to  the  king's  son,  PhiUpthe  Bold,  founder  of  the  Buraun^ 
dian  branch  line  of  Valois.  ^y  his  marriage  with  the  heiress 
of  Flanders,  the  new  duke  laid  the  foundation  of  the  power  of 
the  house  of  Burgundy  in  the  Netherlands.  Return  of  John 
to  captivity.  He  died  April  8, 1364,  and  was  followed  by  his 
son, 

1364-1380.    Charles  V.,  le  Sage,  the  Wise. 

In  the  war  between  Peter  the  Cruel,  of  Castile,  and  his  brother, 
Henry  qf  Trastamara,  Charles  favored  the  latter,  while  the  for- 


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A>  Di  France.  259 

mer  was  allied  with  the  Black  Prince.  Expelled  hy  Bertrand 
du  Guesdin,  Pedro  was  restored  by  the  Black  Prince  (Battle 
of  Najara^  1367).  In  1969  Pedro  was  killed  in  personal  oon^ 
bat  with  his  brother.  Reform  of  the  coinage  in  Trance. 
1369.  Charles  dechired  war  on  £dward.  Dn  Ouesolin  (1313-1380), 
constable  of  France  (1370).  Most  of  the  English  possessions 
in  France  were  again  united  with  the  crown  of  France.  Death 
of  the  Bkck  Prince  ri376).  Death  of  Charles,  Sept  16, 1380. 
He  was  followed  by  fiis  son, 

1380-1422.    Charles  VL,  then  eleven  yean  old. 

Quarrels  of  his  uncles,  the  dukes  of  Anjon,  of  Burgundy,  of 
Bourbon,  and  of  Berry. 
1386.  Threatened  invasion  of  England  comes  to  nauffht.    Revolt  in 
Ghent  under  Philip  van  Artevelde.    Crushed  i^  Charles  {De 
Clissonj  constable)  at  the  battle  of  Roosebec  (13&);  ahiughter 
of  the  Flemings.    Death  of  Van  Artevelde. 
1392.  Charles  being  seized  with  madness,  the  re^fency  was  assumed  by 
the  dukes  of  Buraundy  and  Berry,  settmg  aside  the  duke  <n 
Orleans,  the  brother  of  the  king.     Civil  strife  between  the 
^rties  of  Buraundy  and  Orleans  (^Armagnacs  ^). 
1407.   The  duke  of  Orleans  murdered  by  order  of  John,  duke  of  Bur- 
gundv.     Cahochians  Tfrom  one  Caboche,  a  butcher)  in  Paris, 
overthrown  by  the  Orleanists  under  the  Dauphin. 
1415.  Henry  V.  of  England,  landing  at  Harfleur,  captured  that  city 
Oct.  15.    (Sept.  22),  and  in  the  Battle  of  Asincourt  (Agincourt),  he 
totally  defeated  a  vastlv  superior  French  army.    Capture 
of  the  dukes  of  Orleans  and  Bourbon.    Death  of  the  Dauphin,  of  the 
king's  second  son,  John,  and  of  the  duke  of  Berry.    The  queen,  Isa- 
beau,  of  Bavaria,  took  refuge  with  the  duke  of  Burgundy.    Massacre 
of  the  Armaanacs  at  Paris,  1418.    Rouen  captured  by  the  Eng^lish. 

John  the  Fearless,  duke  of  Burgundy,  murdered  at  the  bridge  of 
Montereau  by  the  followers  of  we  Dauphin  {Tanneguy  Duchdtel), 
John's  son,  Philip,  hereupon  concluded,  with  the  consent  of  the  queen, 
the  Treaty  of  Troyea  with  the  English  (1420).  Henry  V.  married 
Catharine,  daughter  of  Charles  VI.,  and  became  regent  and  heir  of 
France. 

Under  John  the  Fearless  (1371-1419)  and  his  son,  Philip  the  Good 
rl39&-1467),  the  house  of  Burgundv  reached  the  summit  oi  its  power. 
Philip  made  himself  master  of  the  mheritance  of  Jacqueline,  daughter 
of  TvUliam,  count  of  Holland,  although  the  emperor,  Sigismund,  had 
declared  her  lands  to  be  vacant  &f8  of  the  empire.  Death  of 
Henry  V.  of  Eneland  (at  Vincennes,  Aug.  31, 1422),  and  of  Charles 
VI.  of  France  (Oct.  21,  1422).  The  latter  was  succeeded  by  his 
son, 

1422-1461.    Charles  VII., 

who,  for  the  present,  was  recognized  south  of  the  Loire  only ; 
in  the  north  Henry  VI.,  infant  king  of  England,  was  acknowledged 

1  From  Bernard,  coant  of  Armagnac,  father-in-law  of  the  duke  of  Orletn^ 
who  became  head  of  the  Orleanists  about  1410. 


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260  Meditsval  ERitory.  a.  d. 

lord.  Buke  of  Bedford^  regent  in  France,  allied  with  the  duke  of 
Burgundy.    Siege  of  Orleans  (1428). 

1429.  Jeanne  d'Arc  (more  properly,  Daro),  bom  in  Domremy,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Meuse^  convinced  that  she  waa  chosen  by 
Heayen  to  be  the  deliverer  of  France,  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  the 
king  permission  to  relieve  Orleans,  the  accomplishment  of  which  feat 
(AprQ  29-May  8)  earned  for  her  the  name  Maid  of  Orleans  (La 
Pucelie).  The  English  driven  back.  Charles  VII.  crowned  at  Rheims. 
Intrigues  agamst  Jeanne  at  the  French  court.  Captured  by  the  Bur- 
gnndians  at  Compikgne  (1430),  she  was  delivered  to  the  English, 
and,  after  a  mock  tnal,  condemned  for  sorcery,  and  burnt  in  &uen 
(1431). 

1435.   The  duke  of  Burgundy  recognized  Charles  VII.,  on  condition 
of  receiving  Auxerre,  Macon^  Peronne,  Montdidier,  and  the 
towns  on  the  Somme,  and  being  released  from  feudal  homage.    Death 
of  the  duke  of  Bedford. 

1436-1449.    Period  of  inaction,  utilized  by  Charles  VII.,  for  the  in- 
troduction of  reforms :  establishment  of  a  permanent  tax  to 
be  levied  by  the  king  without  the  cooperation  of  the  estates ;  aboli- 
tion of  the  *'  free  companies,"  and  institution  of  regular  companies, 
the  beginning  of  standing  armies  (ordinance  of  Orleans,  1439). 
1449-1461.  Renewal  of  the  war.    After  some  fluctuations  of  fortune 
(TaJhot  inGuyenne ;  his  death,  1453)  the  English  lost  all 
their  possessions  in  France  except  Calais. 

1463.  Fall  of  Ck>nBtantinople.  End  of  the  Eastern  Empire. 
Introduction  of  Grecian  scholars  and  Grecian  writers  into  Eu- 
rope (p.  278).  Death  of  Charles  Vn.,  July  22, 1461;  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son, 

1461-1483.  Louis  XL, 

who  by  his  shrewdness  and  perfldv  annihilated  the  power  of 
the  great  barons  and  laid  the  foundation  ol  absolute  monarchy. 

Revocation  of  the  Pragmatio  Sanction  of  Charles  VII.  (issued 
in  1438  by  the  council  of  Bourges  :  declaration  of  the  ri^^hts  of  the 
Grallican  church  ;  limitation  of  the  power  of  the  papacy  m  France  ; 
appeab  to  Rome  forbidden). 

1462.  Acquisition  of  RoussiUan  and  Cerdagne  by  mortgage.    Re- 
demption of  AmienSf  Abbeville   and  St.  QuenHn  from  Bur- 
gundy. 

1464.  League  of  the  Public  Weal  (Ligue  du  bien  pvblique),  a  conspiracy 
of  uie  dukes  of  Brittany^  Bourbon,  Lorraw,  Alenfon,  Berry, 

and  the  count  of  Charolois.  Battle  of  AfontThiry.  Louis  broke  up 
the  league  by  the  concessions  of  the  treaty  of  Conflans  (restoration 
of  the  towns  on  the  Somme,  Normandy  granted  to  the  duke  of 
Berry),  the  execution  pf  which  he  evadea.  Death  of  Philip  of  Bur- 
l^indy  ;  accession  of  his  son  Charles  the  Bold  (U  Tem4raire)»  Con- 
flict between  the  duke  and  the  king.  Meeting  at  Peronne  (Oct.  1468). 
Storm  of  Li^ge. 

1475.  Invasion  of  France  by  Edward  IV.  of  England  in  alliance 
with  Burgundy.    Meeting  at  Pequigny  (near  Amiens)  between 


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262  Medimval  Biitory.  ▲.  d. 

Louis  and  Edward.    Betrothal  of  the  Danphin  Charles  to  Edward's 
eldest  daughter.    Peace  between  France  and  Burgundy. 

War  of  Charles  the  Bold  with  the  Swiss  cantons.    Defeat  of  the 
duke  in  the 

1476.  Battle  of  Granson,  in  the 
March  1. 

June  22.  Battle  of  Mnrten,  (Morat)  and  in  the 

1477.  Battle  of  Nancy,  where  Charles  was  slain. 

Jan.  5.  The  duchy  of  Burg^dy  united  with  the  crown  of  France,  as 
was  likewise  Anjouy  Provence^  and  Maine  through  the  extinction 
of  the  house  of  Anjon  (l^^)*  Annexation  of  Alen^on^  Perche,  Quymne^ 
during  this  reign.  The  kinef  s  servants :  Olivier  le  Dain^  Tristan 
VHermile.  Death  of  Louis  '&,,  Aug.  30, 1483.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son, 

148a-1498.  Charles  Vm. 

Death  of  the  duke  of  Brittany  (1488).  The  coalition  of  the 
emperor,  Spain,  and  England  to  preserve  the  independence  of  the 
duchy  bore  no  fruit  In  1491  Charles  married  Anne,  daughter  of 
the  duke  of  Brittanv.  Peace  of  Senlis  with  the  emperor  (1493)  ; 
peace  of  Etaples  with  England.  Cession  of  RousgUlm  and  Cerdagne 
to  Spain. 
1495.  Rapid  conquest  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples  which  Charles 

olamied  by  inheritance  through  his  father  from  Charles,  count 
of  Maine  and  Provence  (see  the  genealogy),  which,  however,  he  was 
soon  forced  to  abandon  in  consequence  of  a  league  between  the  PcpCf 
the  en^peroTt  the  duke  of  Milan,  Venice,  and  Spain.         (Seep,  318.) 

f  3.    ITALY.  {Seep.  SiS.) 

MUan:  since  the  time  of  the  emperor  Henry  VII.  (1308-1313) 
under  the  ViecofUi  as  imperial  viceroys;  since  1395  as  dukes. 
After  the  extinction  of  the  line  of  the  Visconti  (1447)  Milan  became 
for  a  short  time  a  republic.  The  condottieri  Francesco  Sforza,  hus- 
band of  a  daughter  of  the  last  Visconti,  who  served  in  the  pay  of 
Milan,  soon  seiMd  the  power  and  became  duke  of  Milan  (1450). 
Venioe  :  since  697  one  state  under  a  doge  (dux)  ;  from  about  1000 
A.  D.,  ruler  of  the  Adriatic,  increased  in  power  and  influence 
throughout  the  period  of  the  crusades.  Participation  in  the  so-called 
fourth  crusade  (p.  216),  under  the  doge  Henry  Dandolo,  then  ninety- 
four  years  of  age.  After  the  crusades  and  the  war  with  Omoa,  which 
lasted  125  years,  Venice  was  mistress  of  the  Mediterranean  and  tho 
trade  with  the  East,  during  the  tliirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries. 
Acquisition  of  Corju  1387,  of  Cyprus  by  gift  of  Catharine  Comaro, 
148^.  The  repubuc  at  the  height  of  its  power  in  the  first  half  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  Constitution  strictly  oligarchicaL  1172.  Elstablish- 
ment  of  the  Great  Council,  with  450-^500  members,  followed  by  that 
of  the  SmaU  Council  (Sie^oria),  which  limited  the  power  of  the  doges 
still  more.  1298.  Ciosmg  of  the  Great  Council.  Golden  book  of  the 
nobility  (1315).  Conspiracies  —  among  others  that  of  the  doge 
Marino  Faliero  (ezecutoa  in  1355)  — led  to  the  creation  of  the  power- 
ful Counoil  of  Ten.    Since  1439  the  three  terrible  state  inquisitors. 

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k.  D.  England,  268 

Genoa,  sinee  tiie  feestablishment  of  the  Graek  empire  in  the  East 
a  powerfal  state,  especially  since  the  final  victory  over  Pisa  in  Italy 
(Sardinia  and  Corsica)  ;  weakened  by  the  war  with  Venice  and  by 
civil  disturbances  in  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century ;  sub- 
jected now  to  MUan,  now  to  France, 

In  Florence,  after  long  civil  contests,  democracy  and  tyranny 
having  ruled  the  city  in  turn  sinee  1282,  the  f amilv  of  MecUci  ac- 
quired princely  rank,  about  1400,  and  brought  the  city  to  its  highest 
point  of  power.  Giovanni  de*  Medid,  a  rich  banker,  founder  of  the 
power  of  his  family.  His  son,  Cosinio  (Cosmus),  the  father  of  his 
country  (died  1464).  Under  his  grandson,  Lorenso  (died  1492),  de- 
velopment of  the  arts  in  Florence.  Renovation  of  the  sciences, 
advanced  by  Grecian  scholars,  who  had  fled  from  the  Eastern  Empire 
before  the  Turks.  Dante  Alighieri,  author  of  the  **  Divine  Comedy,*' 
bom  1265,  at  Florence,  where  he  played  an  important  part  in  the 
politioal  complications,  banished  1302,  died  at  Ravenna,  September  14, 
1321.  Franoesoo  Petrarca,  the  *<  father  of  the  revival  x>t  learning  " 
(1304r-1374).  Giovanni  Boccaccio  (1313-1375),  author  of  the  "De- 
camerone." 

The  Papal  States,  founded  bv  the  presents  of  Fipin  and  Charles 
the  Great  (p.  184)  ;  in  the  twelfth  century  increased  by  the  bequest 
of  the  countess  Matilda  of  Tuscanv  (p.  200)  and  other  acquisitions  ; 
since  Innocent  III,  completely  independent  of  the  empire.  Pope 
Boniface  VIIL  (1294-1303)  at  variance  with  Philip  IV.  of  France 
(p.  254).  His  successor,  Clement  V.  (a  Frenchnum),  transferred 
the  papal  residence  to  Avignon.    Residence  of  the  Popes  at 

1309-1376.     Avignon.     ("  Babylonish  captivity.") 

At  Rome  the  visionary  tribune  Cola  di  Rienzi  (1347,  papal 
senator  1354).  Comtat  Venaissin  in  the  thirteenth  century,  Avignon 
in  the  fourteenth  century,  became  the  property  of  the  papacy. 

From  1378  on  there  was  one  Pope  at  Rome,  elected  by  the  Italian 
cardinals,  and  one  at  Avignon,  elected  by  the  French  cardinals,  to 
which  number  the  Council  of  Fisa  (1409)  added  a  third,  until  the 
Council  of  Constance  restored  the  unity  of  the  church  (p.  251). 
(Great  Schism,  1378-1417). 

At  Naples,  the  house  of  Anion  :  the  elder  line  until  1382  (death  of 
Queen  Joan  I.);  the  younger  {Durazzo)  imtil  1435  (death  of  cfoan  II.). 
(See  the  geneiUogy,  p.  261.) 

SloUy,  1282-1295  united  with  Aragon;  1295-1409  under  a  branch 
of  the  house  of  Aragon  ;  after  1409  again  united  with  Aragon, 
whose  kin^,  Alphonso  V.  (1416-1458),  conquered  Naples  in  1435. 
After  his  death  (1458),  Naples,  but  not  Sicily,  descended  to  his  natural 
son  (Ferdinand  I.)  and  his  successors  (~1501).  {Seep.  S26.) 

§  4.    ENGLAND.  {Sup,  SS5) 

1272-1307.     Edward  I.,  Longshanks, 

The  great  events  of  this  reign  were  the  annexation  of  "Wales 
to  England  and  the  introduction  of  financial,  legal,  and  legislative 
reforms. 


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264  Medieval  Bittory.  a.  d. 

Edward  was  Tetiiniiiig.from  the  (seyenth)  Crusade,  when  he  heard 
of  his  acoession  at  Capua.  Devoting  a  year  to  Gasconj,  he  reached 
England  and  was  crowned  in  1274. 

Curing  the  harons'  wars  "Wales  had  hecome  practically  independ- 
ent, and  Idewelyn,  prince  of  North  Wales,  refused  even  nominal 
submission  to  Edwurd  until 
1276-1284.    Ck>nqiiest  of  Wales. 

1277.  Edward  led  an  army  into  Wales,  and  forced  the  prince  to 
cede  the  coast  district  as  fiir  as  Conway,  and  do  homage  for 
the  rest 
1282.  Insurrection  of  Xdewely^i  and  his  brother  David.  After 
hard  fighting,  the  death  of  Llewdyn  (Dec,  1282)  and  the  cap- 
ture of  David  (hanged,  drawn,  and  quartered,  ^pt.  1283)  led 
to  the  complete  submission  of  the  country.  (No  ''Massacre 
of  the  Bards.") 
1281.  Annexation  of  Wales  to  England.  After  this  the  title 
''Prince  of  Wales"  was  generally  given  to  the  heir  of  the 
crown. 

1289.  Return  of  the  king  from  a  three  years'  absence  in  Grascony  ; 
punishment  of  the  oppressiye  judges. 

1290.  Expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  England  (over  16,000). 

1291.  Death  of  the  queen,  Eleanor  (daughter  of  Ferdinand  III.  of 
Castile).  Erection  of  crosses  alons^  the  route  by  which  the  body 
was  carried  from  Lincolnshire  to  London  ;  those  at  Northamp-' 
ton  and  WdUham  still  exist 

1292.  Baliol,  whom  Edward  had  decided  to  be  the  rightful  heir  to 
the  Scottish  throne,  did  homage  for  the  fief  and  became  king 
of  Scotland. 

After  the  death  of  Alexander  III,  of  Scotland  the  crown  passed  to 
his  granddaughter  Margaret,  the  Maid  of  Norway,  to  whom  Edward 
had  betrothed  his  son;  but  she  died  on  the  voyage  from  Norway 
(1290),  and  thirteen  claunants  for  the  crown  appeared.  The  Scottish 
estates  being  unable  to  decide  between  the  two  strongest  claimants, 
Baliol  and  Bruce,  referred  the  case  to  Edward.  (See  the  gene- 
alogy.) 

1293.  Hostilities  between  English  sailors  from  the  Cinqne  Ports 
(Dover,  Sandwich,  Hastings,  Hythe,  Romney)  ^  and  French 

mariners  resulted  in  a  naval  battle.  Ffailip  IV.  of  F^oe  summoned 
Edward  to  Paris  to  answer  for  the  occurrence.  As  a  sten  in  the 
ne^tiations  the  fortresses  of  Guyenne  were  temporarily  placed  in 
Philip's  hands,  whereupon  he  declared  Edward  contumacious  and  his 
fiefs  forfeited. 

1294.  Rebellion  of  Modoc  in  Wales  suppressed. 

1294.    War  with  France  followed  by  war  with  Scotland,  which 

joined  France. 
1296.    Capture  of  Berwick  ;  massacre  of  the  inhabitants.    Defeat 

1  These  towns,  to  which  WincheUea,  i?ye,  and  Sea/ord  were  afterwards  added, 
poesessed  peculiar  privileges.  They  were  under  the  care  of  the  Warden  of  the 
Cinque  Ports ;  their  representatives  in  Parliament  were  known  as  barons.  Hm 
towns  were  fortified  under  William  I. 


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A.  IX 


England. 


265 


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266  Mediaval  Mitary,  ▲.  d. 

of  the  Soots  at  Dunbar,  Baliol  resigned  the  crown  and  was 
imprisoned.  Scotch  coronation  stone  carried  to  Lipndon.  Scot- 
land under  an  English  regent. 

1297.    Revolt  of  the  Scots  under  Sir  "William  "Wallace.     Defeat 
of  the  regent. 
Edward's  demands  for  money  from  the  clergy  being  refused  (bull 

Clericis  laicos,  1296),  the  recalcitrant  clergy  were  placed  under  the 


In  1297  the  king  summoned  the  barons  to  follow  him  to  Flanders. 
The  resistance  of  the  lords  ended  with  the  acquiescence  of  the  king 
in  the 

1297.  Re-issue  of  the  Great  Charter  and  the  forest  charter  (Confirm 
matio  chartanan)  with  additional  articles,  by  which  the  right 
of  taxation  without  the  consent  of  Parliament  was  renounced 
0-301). 

1298.  Truce  with  France  enabled  Edward  to  invade  Scotland.  At 
the 

July  22.    Battle  of  Falkirk, 

the  Scots  under  Wallace  were  completely  defeated.  Appeal 
to  the  Pope,  who  laid  claim  to  the  suzerainty  over  Scotland,  — 
a  claim  which  yraa  rejected  by  the  English  lords  in  1301. 

1303.  Peace  of  Amiens  wiUi  France.  Ed^rard  had  previously  mar- 
ried Margaret,  sister  of  Philip  IV.,  and  betrothed  his  son  Ed- 
ward to  Philip's  daughter  Isabella.  Invasion  of  Soodaod. 
Submission  of  Bruce  and  Comyn. 

1305.  Execution  of  Wallace,  who  had  been  betrayed  to  the  English. 

1306.  Opposing  claims  of  Bruce  and  Comyn ;  murder  of  Comynr 
coronation  of  Robert  Bruce  (March  27). 

1307.  July  7.     Death  of  Edward  I.,  on  his  way  to  Scotland. 

Ziegal  and  IiegiBlatiTe  reforms  under  Edward. 

1275.  First  statute  of  Westminster :  a  codification  of  previous  stat- 
utes. Grant  of  a  regular  tax  on  exported  wool,  and  of  a  fif- 
teenth of  movable  property.  These  forms  of  taxation,  the  in- 
direct customs  duties,  and  the  taxation  of  personal  estate  were 
intended  to  supplement  the  older  land  tax,  which  they  grad- 
ually surpassed  m  importance. 
Separation  of  the  old  king's  court  into  three  tribunals  :  Ck>urt 
of  Exchequer,  for  cases  where  the  royal  revenue  was  in- 
volved ;  Court  of  King's  Bench,  with  jurisdiction  in  all 
matters  concerning  the  sovereign,  and  in  criminal  cases  espe- 
cially reserved  for  his  decision  (^'  pleas  of  the  crown  ") ;  Court 
of  Common  Pleas,  for  cases  between  private  individuals. 
Development  of  the  jurisdiction  of:  1.  the  royal  council  (later  the 
*'  Star  Chamber  ") ;  2.  of  the  Chancellor,  in  cases  where  relief 
could  not  be  obtained  by  the  ordinary  or  "common"  law. 
This  higher  jurisdiction  emanating  directly  from  the  sovereign 
was  known  as  equity. 

1279.  Statute  of  Mortmain  (de  religiosis),  forbidding  the  aliena- 
tion of  land  to  religious  bodies  (wherebv  it  became  free  from 
feudal  dues)  without  the  permission  of  the  king. 

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A.  D.  England.  267 

1285.  Statute  of  Winohester,  reflating  tlie  militia  and  the  pre- 
■ervation  of  pabHo  order.  CcaiBervatoTs  of  the  Peace  (later 
called  Justices  of  the  Peace)  appointed  in  every  shire  to  execute 
the  provisions  of  the  statute.  Second  Statute  of  Westminster, 
amending  the  Statute  of  Mortmain. 

1290.  Third  Statute  of  Westminster  {Quia  emptores},  providing  that 
when  land  was  alienated  the  sub-tenant  should  hold  directly  of 
the  overlord,  and  not  of  the  tenant. 

1296.  Summons  of  the  first  perf eot  Parliament ;  olergy, 
barons  summoned  severally  by  special  writ ;  commons  sum- 
moned bv  writ  to  the  sheriffs  curecting  the  election  of  two 
knights  from  each  shire»  two  citizens  from  each  city,  two 
burghers  from  each  borough. 

1297.  De  Tallagio  non  Conoedendo,  prohibiting  the  imposition  of 
taxation  without  the  consent  of  Parliament. 

1307-1327.    Edward  IL, 

fourth  son  of  Edward  I.  Peace  with  Scotland ;  Aymer  de 
Valence,  governor.  Recall  of  the  kinjr's  favorite,  Piers  Gaveston,  a 
(jascon,  who  had  been  banished  by  &ward  I.  Marriage  of  Ed- 
ward II.  with  Isabella  of  France.  Gaveston  soon  incurred  the  hatred 
of  the  barons,  and  he  was  banished  (1308),  soon,  however,  to  be  re- 
called. 

1310.  Grovemment  entrusted  to  twenty-one  ordainers. 

1311.  Ordinances  of  the  Parliament  of  1311  presented  by  the 
ordainers.  Reform  of  abuses  ;  punishment  of  favorites  ;  ap- 
pointment of  great  officers  by  and  with  the  consent  and  approval 
of  the  barons  ;  consent  of  the  barons  necessary  for  decLmtion 
of  war  ;  parliaments  to  be  called  every  year.  Execution  of 
Gaveston  (1312). 

The  successes  of  Bruce  in  Scotland  (capture  of  Linlithgow,  1311; 
Perth,  1312 ;  Edinburgh,  1313 ;  siege  of  Stirling,  1314)  produced  a 
temporary  reconciliation  between  the  king  and  the  barons.  Edward 
marched  to  Scotland  with  100,000  men,  and  in  the 

1314.    Battle  of  Bannookbnm, 

June  24.    was  totally  defeated  by  30,000  f ootrsoldiers  under  Robert 

Bruce. 
The  kind's  new  favorites,  the  two  Despensers,  father  and  son,  were 
as  displeasme  to  the  nobili^  as  Gaveston  had  been ;  in  1321  Parlisr 
ment  decreed  the  exile  of  the  favorites.  Edward  showed  unexpected 
energy ;  at  the  battle  of  Boroughhridge,  the  earl  of  Lancaster,  the 
leader  of  the  barons,  was  defeated  and  captured  (executed  March, 
1322).  Repeal  of  the  ordinances  of  1311.  After  an  unsuccessful 
invasion  of  Scotland, 
1323.   Edward  concluded  peace  for  thirteen  years  with  Bruce,  whose 

assumption  of  the  royal  title  was  passed  over  in  silence. 
Isabella,  sent  to  France  in  1325  to  treat  with  Charles  IV.,  concern- 
ing the  English  fiefs  in  France,  intrigued  with  Roger  Mortimer  and 
other  hostile  barons,  and  in  1326  llmded  in  England.    Capture  of 
Bristol;  execution  of  the  Despensers  ;  imprisonmcEt  of  the  long. 


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268  MeduBval  Hiitory.  a»  tk 

1327.  Deposition  of  Edward  II.,  in  parliament;  aeoearion  of  hia  aon, 
EdwuHl.  Edward,  impriaoned  in  Berkeley  Caatle,  was  there 
murdered,  Sept.  21, 1327. 

1327-1377.    Edward  HI. 

Connoil  of  regency  (earl  of  Lanoaster),  Edward  being  bat 
fifteen  years  of  ace.    The  queen  and  Mortimer  the  true  rulers. 

1328.  Unsuccessful  war  with  Scotland.  Jomes^  earl  of  Douglas. 
Treaty  of  Northampton.  Bruce  recognized  as  king,  and  feu- 
dal superiority  of  the  English  crown  renounced. 

1330.    Edward  took  the  government  into  his  own  hands.     Execution 
of  Mortimer.    Imprisonment  of  the  queen-mother. 
The  death  of  Robert  Bruce  (1329)  was  followed  by  civil  war  in 
Scotland,  during  which  Edward  Baliol  seized  the  crown  ;  Bruce's 
infant  son,  David,  fled  to  France.     Baliol  did  homaee  to  Edward, 
which  induced  a  revolt  of  the  Scottbh  nobles:  Baliol  oriven  over  the 
border.    Edward  hastened  north;  defeat  of  the  Scots  in  the 
1333.   Battle  of  Halidon  Hill,  near  Berwick  (henceforward  this  town 
belonged  to  England).    Baliol  restored  to  the  Scottish  throne. 
Scotl^d  south  of  the  Forth  ceded  to  England,  and  homage 
rendered  for  the  remainder.    Alliance  between  the  patriotic 
party  in  Scotland  and  France. 
1337.    War  with   France    (the   Hundred  Years'  War).      Edward 
claimed  the  French  crown  in  right  of  his  mother  (see  p.  257). 

1341.  Completion  of  the  separation  of  parliament  into  an  Upper 
House  (Lords),  composed  of  the  nobility,  and  a  Lower  House 
(Commons),  composed  of  the  representatives  of  boroughs  and 
the  knights  of  shires.  The  process  of  separation  had  begun 
as  far  bock.as  the  reign  of  Edward  I. 

The  responsibility  of  mmisters  established  by  act  of  parliament 
^voked  by  the  king  in  the  same  year). 

1342.  David  Bruce  returned  to  Scotland  and  recovered  the  throne. 
Scotland  henceforward  independent. 

1346.  Battle  of  Neville's  Cross,  near  Durham ;  defeat  of  the 
Scots ;  capture  of  David  11^  who  was  retained  in  captivity 
until  1357.    Battle  of  Cr^oy,  p.  257. 

1348-^.  Black  Death  in  England;  more  than  a  half  of  the  popula- 
tion perished.  As  the  visitations  of  the  plague  were  especially 
heavy  among  the  lower  classes,  a  scarcity  of  labor  and  rise  of 
wages  followed,  which  led  to  the  passing  of  the  Statute  of 
Lciorersy  res^ulating  wages.  In  the  next  year  (1350)  laborers 
were  forbidden  to  leave  their  own  parish. 

1356.  Edward  invaded  and  ravaged  Scotland,  but  won  no  lasting  suc- 
cess. Battle  of  Poitiers,  p.  258.  In  1357  David  II.  was  ransomed. 

1360.  Peace  of  Bretigny  (p.  258).  Renunciation  of  the  French 
crown  and  of  Normandy,  Anjou,  Maine,  Tooraine.  Cession 
in  full  sovereignty  to  Ene^land  of  Aquitaine  (^Gascony,  Guyerme 
PoitaUf  SairUongej  the  Limouttin,  the  Angoumois^  Perigord,  Bi- 
gorre,  Roueraue),  Ponthieu,  Guisnes,  Calais. 

1361.  Return  of  the  Black  Death.  Popular  discontent.  Preaching 
of  John  BaU,     William  Longland,  author  of  Piers  Plow- 


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A.D.  England.  269 

1369.  Final  visitation  of  the  Black  Death. 

1370.  Capture  of  Limoges  by  the  Black  Prince  ;  massacre  of  the  in- 
habitants (death  of  the  Black  Prince,  June  8, 1376). 

1371.  John  of  Oauat,  fourth  son  of  Edward  III.,  married  the 
daughter  of  Pedro  the  Cruel  of  Castile,  and  assumed  the  title 
of  kinff  of  Castile. 

Loss  of  all  the  English  possessions  in  France,  except  Bordeamc, 
Calais,  and  Bayonne.    Peace  for  three  years  (1374). 

1376.  The  Good  Parliament.  Opposition  of  WUliam  of  Wykeham 
and  Peter  de  la  Mare  (Speaker  of  the  Commons)  to  c/ohn  of 
Graunt.  Punishment  of  favorites,  reformation  of  the  arbitrary 
royal  council  (^Concilium  Ordinarium).  After  the  dissolution  of 
the  parliament  John  of  Gaunt  disregarded  its  enactments  ;  to 
William  of  Wykeham  he  opposed  John  'Wiclif  (1327-1384), 
who  taught  that  the  property  of  the  clergy  was  at  the  disposal 
of  the  crown. 

1377,  June  20.    Death  of  Edward  III. 

During  this  reign  the  crime  of  treason  was  defined  by  the 
Statute  of  Treason  (1351) ;  transfer  of  a  suit  to  foreign  courts  was  pro- 
hibited (1353,  future  Statute  of  Praammire);  Parliament  acquired  the 
power  of  impeachment;  trial  by  jury  assumed  a  more  modem  form 
(separation  of  the  old  jury  into  a  jury  proper,  and  witnesses) ;  a  poll- 
tax  was  introduced  (1377);  English  was  directed  to  be  used  in  courts 
of  kw  (1361).  In  Ireland,  the  StatuU  of  Kilkenny  (1367)  prohibited 
intermarriage  of  the  English  and  Irish,  and  supplanted  the  native  lan- 
guage and  customs  by  English. 

1377-1399.  Richard  H., 

son  of  the  Black  Prince,  twelve  years  old.  The  kine  was  in 
the  hands  of  Parliament,  and  his  uncles,  the  dukes  of  Lancaster 
(John  of  Graunt),  Yorky  and  Gloucester,  were  excluded  from  the  re- 
gency. The  war  with  France  and  Scotland  requiring  money,  a  poll- 
tax  was  assessed  in  1379,  and  again  in  1380. 
1381.  Bevolt  of  the  peasants  under  John  Ball  and  "Wat  Tyler; 

capture  of  London  ;  burning  of  the  duke  of  Lancaster's  palace, 

the  Savoy,    Wat  Tyler  killed  by  Walujorthj  mayor  of  London. 

Suppression  of  the  revolt.    Disregard  of  the  charter  abolishing 

sendom,  which  Richard  had  at  first  granted.    Yillanage  was, 

however,  doomed. 
Wyclif  s  doctrines  spread  by  his  "  poor  preachers.*'    Denial  of 

Tranaubstantiation  (1381).      Wielirs  adherents  nicknamed 

IioUarda  by  their  opponents.      WicliFs  translation  of  the 
•       Bible. 
1388.  Battle  of  Chevy  Chase  (Otterbume),  between  Lord  Henry  Percy 

and  the  earl  of  Douglas ;  defeat  of  the  English.     (Ballad  of 

Chevy  Chase), 
Quarrel  between  Richard  and  his  favorites,  (Robert  de  Vere,  Michael 
de  la  Pole),  and  the  parliament.  In  1386,  Continual  Coimcil  under 
the  dxike  of  Gloucester,  for  one  year.  Defeat  of  the  king  ;  impeach- 
ment of  Vere  and  others,  before  the  "  Wonderful "  Parliament  (1388}. 
In  1389  Richard  took  the  government  into  his  own  hands. 


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S70  MeduBval  Hittory.  A.  i>. 

1393.  StBtnte  of  Prmnimire,  prohibiting  the  introduction  of  papal 
bulls. 

1396.  Richard  married  Isabella,  daughter  of  Charles  YI.  of  France^ 
and  concluded  peace  for  26  years. 

1397.  Imprisonment  (and  death)  of  the  duke  of  Gloucester.  Im- 
peachment of  the  earls  of  Anmddf  Warwick^  NoUinghamj 
7)erby,  Arundel  was  executed  ;  Warwick  imprisoned  for  life  ; 
Kottmgham  was  made  duke  of  Norfolk ;  Derby  (Heniy  Bo- 
lingbn^ce,  son  of  John  of  Graunt),  duke  of  Hereford. 

1398.  Quarrel  between  Hereford  and  Norfolk.  Hie  king  forbade 
their  combat,  and  banished  Norfolk  for  life,  Hereford  for  six 
years. 

Richard  made  an  expedition  to  Ireland,  where  the  isolation 
of  the  English  who  were  settled  within  the  conquered  district, 
the  so-called  Engliah  Pale  (Drogheda,  Dublin,  Wexfordy  Water- 
fordy  Cork)  had  rendered  them  almost  independent  of  England. 
During  his  absence 

1399.  Henry  Bolingbroke,  since  the  death  of  his  father,  duke  of 
Lancaster,  landed  in  England.  Richard  returned  from  Ire- 
land, only  to  be  captured,  deposed,  and  imprisoned  in  the 
castle  of  Ponte/ract  (murdered?). 

Qeottrey  Chaucer  (died  1400),  Canterbury  Tales, 

1399-1461.    House  of  Lancaster,  a  branch  of  the  house 

of  Plantagenet. 
1399-1413.    Henry  IV., 

under  which  name  the  duke  of  Lancaster  ascended  the  throne, 
the  claims  of  Edmund  Mortimer,  earl  of  March,  the  true  heir,  being 
passed  over. 

1400.  Conspiracy  of  the  earls  of  Rutland,  Huntingdon,  Salisbury, 
Kent,  and  Spencer  suppressed.  Revolt  of  Wales  under  CXwen 
Olendower  ;  defeat  of  Sir  Edmund  Mortimer  O-^^)- 

1402.  A  Scottish  inroad  under  the  earl  of  Douglas  deieatea  at  Horn- 
ildon  HiU.    Capture  of  Douglas. 

As  Henry  refused  to  allow  the  ransom  of  Edmund  Mortimer  (he 
being  the  uncle  of  the  young  earl  of  March,  the  true  heir  to  the 
crown),  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against  him  by  Harrt/  Percy  (Hot- 
spur), brother-m-law  of  Mortimer,  to  whose  family  the  kmg  was  largely 
indebted  for  his  throne,  who  induced  his  father,  the  earl  of  Northum-^ 
berland,  and  his  uncle,  the  earl  of  Worcester,  to  join  with  himself,  Glen- 
dower,  and  Douglas,  and  take  up  arms.    In  the 

1403.  Battle  of  Shrewsbury, 

July  21.     the  conspirators  were  defeated.    Harry  Percy  was  killed  and 
Douglas  taken.    Conspiracy  of  Mowbray  and  Scroop,  archbishop 
of  1  ork  ;  execution  of  the  conspirators. 
1405.    Capture  of  James,  heir  of  the  Scottish  throne,  while  on  his  way 
to  the  court  of  France  (James  was  the  second  son  oi ,  Robert 
TIL  of  Scotland ;  the  eldest,  duke  of  Rothsay,  had  been  starved  to 
death  by  the  king's  brother,  duke  of  Albany)^  and  detained  in  Eng- 
land until  1423. 


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▲.  D.  England.  271 

1406.    Defeat  of  the  earl  of  Northumberland  snd  Lord  Bardolj^  at 

Bramham  Moor;  death  of  the  fonner. 
1413.  March  20.    Death  of  Henry  IV. 

1413-1422.  Uenry  v.,  Monmouth. 

While  prince,  companion  of  wild  rakes  ;  as  king,  energetic  and 
brave. 

Trial  and  condemnation  for  heresy  of  Sir  John  Oldcastle  (Lord 
Cobham),  a  friend  of  the  king.    Oldcastle  escaped  from  prison,  and 
a  rising  of  the  Lollards  assumed  formidable  proportions  ;  it  was,  how- 
ever, easily  suppressed.     (Oldoastle  captured  and  burned,  1417). 
1415.    Conspiracy  of  the  earl  of  Cambridge,  Lord  Scrope  and  Sir 

Thomas  Grey  detected.    Execution  of  the  conspirators. 
1415-1420.    War  with  Fjranoe  (p.  259). 
1415.  Oct.  25.    Battle  of  Aginooiirt. 
1417.    Second  invasion  of  France.    In  England,  unsuccessful  Scottish 

inroad  ("The  Foul  Raid"). 

1420.  May  21.    Peace  of  Troyea. 

Henry  married  Catharine,  daughter  of  Charles  TIL  of  J^YanoCy 
and  was  accepted  as  regent  and  heir  of  the  crown. 

1421.  Third  mvasion  of  France. 

Death  of  Henry  at  Vincennes,  August  31, 1422. 
Use  of  English  in  the  House  of  Commons.    Sir  Ridutrd  Whiting^ 
ton,  thrice  loi3  mayor  of  London. 

1422-1461.    Henry  VI.,   Windsor. 

Not  quite  nine  months  old  at  his  father's  death.     Parliament 
refused  to  appoint  a  regency,  and  named  the  king's  uncle,  duke  of 
Gloucester^  protector,  in  the  absence  of  his  brother,  the  duke  of  Bed- 
ford, who  was  regent  in  France. 
1423.    Liberation  of  James  I.  of  Scothind,  after  the  conclusion  of  an 

agreement  with  the  English  not  to  assist  one  another's  enemies. 
1422-1453.  War  in  France.     Bzpnlaion  of  the  Engliiih.     {Joan 

of  Arc,)    See  p.  260. 
1437.    James  I.  of  Scotland  murdered  by  the  earl  of  Athol  and 

Robert  Grahame. 
1445.    Marriage  of  Henry  VI.  with  BCargaret,  daughter  of  Bend, 

titular  long  of  Naples  and  Jerusalem.  Hen^  promised*  to  re- 
store to  Rend  his  hereditary  lands  of  Anjou  and  Mfiine.  This  mar- 
riage was  the  work  of  William  de  la  Pole,  earl  of  Suffolk  (soon  made 
a  duke),  whose  influence  at  court  surpassed  that  of  the  earlier  adviser. 
Cardinal  Beaufort  (died  1447).  Arrest  and  suspicious  death  of  the 
duke  of  Gloucester.  The  loss  of  Normandy  was  followed  by  the  im- 
peachment of  Suffolk,  who  was  banished  by  Henry,  but  seized  at  sea 
and  put  to  death  (1450). 
1450.    Bebellion  of  Jack  Cade  («  Mortimer ''). 

The  insurgents  occupied  London  and  murdered  Lord  Say,  one 
of  the  ministers.  The  rebellion  was  soon  suppressed,  and  Cade^  while 
in  hiding,  was  killed  by  Alexander  Iden. 

The  government  now  passed  into  the  hands  of  Richard,  duke  of 
York,  grandson  of  the  ffJi  son  of  Edward  IIL,  son  of  Anna  Morti* 


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272  Medi€sval  Htitory.  A.  ix 

mer^  heuess  of  "the  ebumB  of  the  third  Une^  wbo  retomed  to  England 
from  Ireland  ;  his  power,  however,  was  not  enough  to  onat  his  riral, 
the  duke  of  Somerset,  erandson  of  John  of  Gaunt,  and  in  1452  he 
was  indaoed  to  dismiss  his  army,  and  then  forced  to  swear  aUegianoOi 

1452.  James  n.  of  Scotland  moidered  William,  earl  of  Douglas  ; 
defection  of  the  Douglases  to  England. 

1453.  Battle  of  CastiUon  in  France.  Death  of  Talbot,  earl  of 
Shrewsbury.  Surrender  of  Bordeanz.  Of  all  the  Bngliah 
posaessions  In  lYance  Calais  alone  was  left  in  their 


1453.  Birth  of  Prince  Edward,  son  of  Henry  VL  Insanity  of 
Henry.  The  duke  of  York  protector.  Imprisonment  of 
Somerset.  The  recovery  of  the  king  in  1454  was  followed  by 
the  restoration  of  Somerset  to  power. 

^e  dnke  of  York,  the  earls  of  Salisbury  and  ^7arwick, 
now  took  up  arms  a^psinst  Henry  and  his  adyisers. 

1465-1485.  Wars  of  the  Bed  Rose  of  Lanoaster  and 
the  White  Rose  of  York  (see  the  genealogical  table). 

1455.  Battle  of  St  Albans.    York  victorious.    Death  of  Somer- 
May22.  set;  capture  of  Henry.     A  hollow  reconciliation  (1458) 

was  followed  by  a  new  resort  to  arms.  At  the  battle  oi 
Bloreheath  (Sept.  23, 1459),  the  Lancastrians  were  defeated.  The 
victory  was  a  Darren  one  for  York ;  defection  in  his  army  caused  him 
to  abandon  the  contest  and  retire  to  Ireland.  Flight  of  Yorkist 
leaders.  York  and  his  party  attainted  of  treason  by  uie  Parliament 
of  Coventnr. 
1460.  Landing  of  the  earls  of  Ballsbmy,  Bffarch  (afterwards  Ed- 

ward  iV.)t  and  'WarvTiok,  in  England.    In  the 
1460.  Battle  of  Northampton, 
July  10.  the  Lancastrians  were  defeated  ;  capture  of  Eteniy  ;  flight 

of  Margaret  and  her  son  to  Scotlana.  The  duke  of  7ork 
entered  London  and  preferred  his  claim  to  the  crown.  Parliament 
decided  that  he  should  succeed  Henry. 

1460.  Battle  of  Wakefield. 

Dec.  30.  Defeat  of  York  by  the  queen  and  Prince  Edward.  7ork 
fell  on  Uie  field,  the  earl  of   Salisbury  and    the   earl    of 
.    Ruthmd,  son  of  York,  were  killed. 

1461.  Battle  of  Mortlmer'a  Croea,  near  Hereford.    Defeat  of  the 
Feb.  2.  Lancastrians  by  the  son  of  the  duke  of  York»  Edward,  earl 

of  March  (now  duke  of  York). 
Feb.  17.  Second  Battle  of  8t.  Albana. 

Defeat  of  the  Yorkists  under  Warwick.    Release  of  Henry. 
The  earl  of  March,  however,  came  to  the  rescue,  joined  the  remnante 
of  Warwick's  army  with  his  own,  and  entered  London,  where  he  was ' 
proclaimed  king  by  acclamation,  March  3, 1461. 

1461-1485.  House  of   York  (branch  line  of  the  hoase 

of  Plantagenet). 
1461-1483.  Edward  IV. 

The  early  part  of  his  reign  was  disturbed  by  constant  attempts 
of  the  Lancastrians  to  overthrow  the  new  dynasty. 


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274  Medimval  History.  A.  d. 

1461,  March  27.    BatUe  of  Ferry  Bridge.    Defeat  of  the  Laaca»- 

tiians. 
March  29.  BatUe  of  Towton.    After  a  most  obstiiiate  fight  Ed- 
ward and  Warwick  prevailed,  and  the  Lancastrians  were  totally 
defeated  (said  to  have  lost  28,000  men). 
Edward  was  crowned  (June  28),  and  his  brothers,  George  and 
Richard,  were  created  dukes  (Clarenoe  and  Oloaoester).    Li  1462 
Margaret  obtained  assistance  from  France,  and  made  two'  attempts  to 
retrieve  the  Lancastrian  cause,  but  both  were  unsuccessful.    Henry 
retired  to  Wales ;  Margaret  to  Lorraine.    A  final  uprising  of  the 
Lancastrians  was  crushed  at  ^Tecf^^Afoor  and  at  Hexham  (1464). 
1464.  Secret  marriage  of  Bdward  with  Elizabeth  Grey,  daughter  of 
Richard  Woodville,  baron  Rivers,  and  widow  of  Sir  John 
Grev,  a  Lancastrian.    This  marriage  and  the  advancement  conferred 
on  the  family  of  the  new  queen  much  exasperated  the  earl  of  War- 
wick  and  the  other  Yorkists.    The  dissatisfaction  of  Warwick  was 
increased  by  the  marriage  of  Edward's  sister  Margaret  with  the 
duke  of   Burgundy,  and  he  intrigued  with  the  duke  of  Clarence, 

Ohim  his  daughter  in  marriage  and  promising  him  the  crown. 
i  of  William  of  Rydesdale  in  1469.  Execution  of  the 
qneen's  father.  Earl  Rivers,  Edward  became  reconciled  with  War- 
wick, but  a  victory  over  the  insurgents  at  Stamford  ('*  Loose-coat 
Field ")  (1470)  so  strengthened  the  king  that  he  proclaimed  War- 
wick and  Clarence  traitors,  and  they  fled  to  France.  Reconciliation 
of  Warwick  and  Margaret, 

1470.  Warwick  landed  in  England,  occupied  London,  and  pro- 
claimed Henry  (who  had  been  imprisoned  since  1465)*  king. 
Edward  fled  to  Burgundv,  but  returning  with  assistance  was 
well  received,  and  joined  by  Clarence.  Re-imprisonment  of 
Henry. 

1471,  April  4.  Battle  of  Bamet. 

The  Lancastrians  under  Warwick  (the  king-maker)  totally 
defeated. 
May  4.  Battle  of  Tewkabnry. 

Defeat  of  Margaret,  who  was  captured  ;  murder  of  her  son 
Edward,    Henry  VX  died  in  the  Tower  May  22,  the  day 
when  Edward  IV.  reentered  London.  • 
1475.  Invasion  of  France  by  Edward,  who,  in  connivance  with  the  duke 
of  Burgundy,  claimed  the  French  crown.     Subscriptions  sup- 
posed to  be  voluntary  (benevolences),  without  consent  of  Parlia- 
ment, now  first  introduced  to  raise  money  for  this  invasion.    The  war 
was  ended  without  a  battle  by  the  Peace  of  Peqnigny  (1475). 
Truce  for  seven  years  ;  payment  of  a  large  annual  sum  to  EngUuid  ; 
ransom  of  Maroaret ;  betrothal  of  the  dauphin  to  Edward's  eldest 
daughter,  Elizabeth. 

1478.  Trial  and  condemnation  of  Clarence  for  treason.    He  was  exe- 
cuted in  the  Tower.      (Popular  report  that  he  was  drowned 
in  a  butt  of  malmsey.) 
1480.  War  with  Scotland,  which  was  ended  by  the  Treaty  of  Pother- 
ingay,  wherein  Berwick  was  surrendered  to  the  English. 
As  Louis  XI.  now  refused  to  consent  to  the  marriage  of  the  dauphin 


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A.  D.  Spanish  Peninwia.  275 

with  Edward's  dangliter,  as  arranged  at  the  treatj  of  Peqnigny, 
Edward  resolved  on  war,  but  died  suddenly,  April  9, 1483. 

1483.  April-June.   Edward  V. 

Richard,  duke  of  Gloucester,  re£;ent  for  the  thirfceen-Tear-old 
king.  The  kme  and  his  brother,  duke  of  York,  confined  in  the 
Tower.  Richard  created  protector.  Execution  of  Lord  Hastings. 
Gloucester  advanced  a  claim  to  the  crown,  based  on  the  asserted  in- 
validitv  of  Edward  III.'s  marriage  with  Elizabeth  Woodville.  The 
chum  being  admitted  by  Parliament,  Richard  accepted  the  crown 
(June  26). 

1483-1485.  Riohard  III. 

The  new  king  began  his  reign  by  a  progress  in  the  north. 
Murder  of  the  two  princes  in  the  Tower  (T^ll  and  Dighton). 
The  Duke  of  Buckingham  (to  whose  services  Richard  largely  owed 
the  crown),  headed  an  insurrection  in  favor  of  Henry,  earl  of 
Biohmond  (great-great-grandson  of  John  of  Gaunt).  Execution  of 
Buckingham.     Return  of  Richmond  to  France  without  landing. 

1484.  (Jonflrmation  of  Richard's  title  by  Parliament. 

The  foUowing  table  shows  the  derivation  of  Buckingham  from  Ed- 
ward in.:— 

Edwai^  m. 


John  of  GrAQiit,  Thomas,  Duke  of  Gloacester. 

by  his  8d  wife.  | 

I  Anne  =  Edmand,  Esrl  of  Stafford. 

John,  Earl  of  Somerset.  I 

Edmund, 
Duke  of  Somerset  Humphrev,  Duke  of  Buckingham. 

I 1      •  I 

John  Margaret  ==.  Humphrey,  Lord  Stafford. 


Hari 


rHenrVj  Duke  of 
Buckmgham. 


Henry  VH. 

In  1485  Richmond  made  another  attempt,  landed  at  Milford  Haven^ 
and  completely  defeated  Richard  in  the 
1485.    Battle  of  Bosworth  Field, 
Aug.  22.    where  Richard  was  slain. 

&  1471  'WiUlam  Caxton,  printer,  established  a  press  at  West- 
minster ;  in  1474,  he  published  •"  The  Game  and  Playe  of  Chesse," 
the  first  book  printed  in  England.  {See  p.  SS3.) 

§6.    SPANISH  PENINSULA.  "  (Seep.g40.) 

Spain. 

The  Moors  in  Spain  were,  since  1238,  confined  to  the  kingdom  of 
Onmada,  where  agriculture,  oommeroe,  and  uridustiy  flourished. 


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276  MedtdBval  Hittory.  A.  D. 

Wan  with  the  Christian  kingdomsy  ooeaaioiiallj  in  alliance  with 
Morocco* 

1492.  Conqaest  of  Qranada  and  union  of  the  kingdom  with 
Castile. 

The  kingdoms  of  Castile  and  Aragon  dniing  this  period  were  in- 
Yolved  in  constant  wars,  ever  renewed  and  of  varying  fortune,  with 
the  Moors  and  with  one  another.  In  hoth  kingdoms  bloody  wars  of 
succession  and  civil  wars. 

Of  the  kings  of  Castile  may  be  mentioned,  m.  the  thirteenth  century 
Sancho  1  v.,  in  the  fourteenth  Peter  the  Cruel  and  Henry  the  Battardp 
the  first  of  whom  was  aided,  in  his  war  with  Henry  for  the  throne,  by 
England  (victory  of  the  Black  Prince  at  Najaroy  1367),  the  latter 
by  France.  Mercenary  bands  or  free  companies,  under  Bertrand  du 
Guegdm.     Peter  defeated  and  killed  at  Montiel  in  1369. 

Peter  IIL  (1276-1286)  of  Aragon  acquired  the  crown  of  Sicily, 
which  he  bequeathed  to  his  second  son,  JcsmeSj  while  his  eldest  son, 
Alphonsp  III,,  succeeded  him  in  Aragon.  His  successor,  Peter  /F., 
curbed  *the  excessive  power  of  the  nobuity  of  Aragon.  In  1410,  after 
the  extinction  of  the  royal  family  of  Cataloma,  a  Castilian  prince,  Fer^ 
dinand,  ascended  the  uirone  of  Aragon.  His  erandson,  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic  (1479-1516),  by  the  marriage  w&ch  he  had  made  be- 
fore his  elevation  to  the  throne  with  Isabella,  lieiress  of  Castile,  laid 
the  foundation  for  the  final  union  of  the  two  kingdoms. 

PortugaL 
The  legitimate  line  of  Burpundy  became  extinct  ^1383),  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  illegitimate  Burgundian  line.  Heroic  age  of  Portu- 
gal, which  now  reached  its  greatest  power.  Conquests,  Ceutaf  Tan-- 
giers ;  formation  of  a  Christian  kingdom  of  Algarhe  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Africa.  Voyages  and  discoveries  (p.  279),  under  the  patron- 
age of  the  Infant,  Henry  the  Navigator  (1394-1460  ;  discovery  of 
Porto  Santo  and  Madeira,  1418-19  ;  Cape  Verde,  1445 ;  Azores,  1447; 
Cape  Verde  Islands,  1455).  (See  p.  SS8,) 

i  6.    THE  NORTH  AND  EAST. 

Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden.         {Seep,  240.) 

Each  a  imited  kingdom  from  about  850  on,  converted  to  Christian- 
ity about  1000,  these  three  kingdoms  were  united  by  the  Union  of 
Calmar  (1397).  Margaret,  qjieen  of  Denmark,  daughter  of  Walde- 
mar  IV.,  married  Hakon  VI.  of  Norway,  and  after  the  death  of  Uakon 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  at  first  for  her  minor  son  (f  1387).  The 
crown  of  Sweden  was  transferred  to  her  by  the  estates  of  that  king- 
dom.   The  union  lasted  (interrupted  by  Sweden)  to  1524. 

{See  p.  851,) 
Rnaaia. 

From  862  to  1598,  under  the  house  of  Rurik,  converted  by  Vladimir 
ihe  Great  988,  soon  divided  into  many  principalities,  which  were  ir 
theory  saboxdinaAe  to  the  Grand  Prinoe  of  Kiev,  but  practioally  were 


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A.  D.  The  North  and  East.  277 

tolerably  iuaepeiident.  During  the  supremacy  of  the  Mongolfl  in  Rus- 
sia, which  endured  250  years,  there  grew  up  a  new  grand  principal- 
ity, that  of  Mofloo^v,  which  after  uie  devastation  of  Kiev  by  the 
Mongols  (1239),  and  its  conquest  by  the  Lithuanians  (1320,  p.  169), 
became  the  national  centre  of  Ruasia.  After  a  long  contest  the 
Mongol  supremacy  in  Russia  was  overthrown  (1480)  by  Ivan  m., 
the  Ghreat,  the  founder  of  the  united  monarchy.  Mpublic  of  Noo^ 
gorod  subjugated  (1478).  {See  p.  S52,) 

Poland. 

Under  the  Plasts  (840-1370,  Ghnstian  about  1000)  involved  in 
war  with  Germany,  with  the  heathen  Prussians  (later  with  the  Teu- 
tonic knights),  and  with  Russia.  The  last  king  of  this  house  waa 
Casmxr  the  Ghreat,    Short  union  with  Huneaiy  under  Louis  the  Great 

S1370-1382\  Louis*  younger  daughter,  Hedwig,  married  the  grand 
uke  of  Lithuania,  Vladislav  II.  Jagdlo,  whereby  Poland  and  Iiitha- 
ania  were  united  under  the  honae  of  Jagello  from  1386  to  1572. 
Conversion  of  Lithuania.  (JSeep*S62,) 

Pnisaia. 

Conquered  in  the  thirteenth  century  by  the  Teutonic  order  (p. 
218),  smce  1309  residence  of  the  grand  master  at  Marienbnrg.  llie 
order  attained  its  greatest  power  under  Winrich  oon  Kniprode  (1351- 
1382) ;  beginning  of  a  gradual  decline.  Defeat  of  the  order  by  the 
Poles  at  Tannenberg  (1410V 

The  energy  and  daring  ot  Henry  of  Plauen  brought  about  the  ad* 
vantageous  jirst  peace  of  Thorn  (1411).  The  revolt  of  the  Prussian 
nobles  in  the  coimtry  and  the  cities  and  their  alliance  with  Poland  led 
to  the  second  peace  of  Thorn  (1466)  :  West  Prussia  and  Ermeland 
ceded  to  Poland  ;  the  order  retamed  East  Prussia  as  a  Polish  ^fi 

Hungary. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  ninth  century  Hungary  was  occupied  by 
the  Finnish  ^  tribe  of  Magyars  (p.  193)  ;  until  1301  under  the  reign- 
ing house  of  the  Arpads.  Introduction  of  Christianity  by  the  duke 
Geisa  and  his  son  St.  Stephan,  the  first  king  of  Hungary  (crowned 
lOOb).  Extensive  immigration  of  Germans.  Ecclesiastical  division 
of  the  country  into  ten  bishoprics  ;  political  division  into  seventy-two 
counties  (Gemanschafien).  Formation  of  a  powerful  aristocracy 
(Magnate).  The  Golden  Bull  extorted  from  King  Andrew  II.  (con- 
temporary of  the  emperor  Frederic  11.),  after  his  return  from  a  cru- 
sade (p.  216),  is  the  foimdation  of  the  privileges  of  the  Hungarian 
nobility. 

After  the  extinction  of  the  Arpads,  Hungary  came  under  the  house 

of  Anjou  (1308-1382).     Period  of  greatest  power  under  Lonla  the 

Oreat  (1342-1382),  who  in  1370,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Poland 

also.  * 

•       Under  Sigismund  of  the  honae  of  Luxemburg  (1387-1437),  be- 

1  Vambery,  Urtprtmg  d.  Magyar en^  endeavors  to  prove  the  Turkish  or\gis 
of  this  people ;  they  were,  at  ail  events,  Turanian.  —  Tkaks. 


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1^78  AfeditBval  History,  a*  d. 

giiming  of  the  decline  of  the  kmedom.  Albert  of  Austria  (143d- 
1439),  and  afterwards,  Vladislav  III.  of  Poland^  elected  Inng  •  the 
latter  fell  at  Varna  (1444^  in  battle  against  the  Turks,  whereupon 
Albert's  minor  son,  Ladisfatts  Postumus,  succeeded.  The  chanceUor 
of  the  kingdom,  John  Hunyadiy  defeated  the  Turks  at  Belgrade  (1466). 
After  his  death  and  that  of  LadislauSy  Hunyadi's  son,  Matthias  Cor» 
vmusy  became  king  (1458-1490).  After  his  brilliant  reign  Hungary 
was  united  with  Bohemia  under  Ladislaus  IL,  of  the  house  of  Jagello, 
and  the  succession  was  secured  to  the  archduke  Maximilian  of  Aus- 
tria. \!Seep.  SOO.) 

Torkii,  Mongols,  and  the  Eastern  Empire.  (Seep.  S^O.) 

Supremacy  of  the  Osman  {Ottoman)  Turks^  Turcoman  nomada^ 
founded  in  Asia  Minor  by  Osman  /.,  about  1300.  His  successors, 
(Irchan,  Murad  /.,  and  Bajazet  /.,  extended  Turkish  power  during  the 
fourteenth  century  to  the  confines  of  Europe  (Adrianople,  residence 
of  the  sovereigns  in  1365). 

The  development  of  the  Osmanic  power  was  temporarily  checked 
by  the  Mongols  under  Timor  Lenk  (i.  e.  the  Liame),  commonly  caUed 
Tamerlane  or  Timor  the  Tatar,  Bajazet  being  defeated  and  cap- 
tured in  1402  at  Angora,  One  of  Ba^jazet's  successors,  Muhammed  II.y 
destroyed  the  Eastern  Empire,  which  had  been  under  the  rule  of  the 
'  Paksdogi  since  1261,  by  the 

1453.    Conquest  of  (Honstantmople. 

Flight  of  Grecian  scholars  to  Italy,  where  they  taught  in 
the  universities,  and  gave  the  impulse  to  a  new  study  of  Grecian 
literature.  (See  p.  353.) 

China.  (Seep.  2^2.) 

In  1403  the  rebellious  prince,  Yen,  succeeded  to  the  thnme  under 
the  name  7ang-lo  (140^1425),  and  proved  an  efficient  ruler,  carry- 
ing his  arms  into  Taiary,  and  annexmg  Cochin-china  and  Tonquin 
to  China.  Under  8eoen-tih  (1426-1436)  Cochin-China  revolted. 
Chingtong  a436-1465)  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Tatars  in  1450, 
and  remained  a  prisoner  until  released  bv  a  Chinese  victory  in  1457. 
The  quiet  reigus  of  Ching-hwa  (1465-1488)  and  Hong-die  (1488- 
1506)  were  unmarked  by  important  events.  (Seep.  35^.) 

Japan.  (See  p.  243.} 

Under  the  domination  of  the  Ashikaga  Shoguns  (1336-1573), 
whose  founder,  Ashikaga-Taka^Uji,  set  up  a  rival  emperor,  Japan 
was  under  two  dynasties, — the  southern  (le^timate)  at  Yoshino,  the 
northern  (usurpers)  at  Kioto;  the  true  sovereigns,  meantime,  were  the 
Shoguns  at  Kioto.  The  period  is  a  dark  one,  filled  with  constant  wars 
between  the  dynasties,  and  civil  wars  in  Kioto. 

It  is  curious  to  reflect  that  in  the  midst  of  these  wretched  wars . 
Colombos  vras  sending  messengers  into  the  interior  of  Cuba  charged 
with  letters  to  the  sovereign  of  Japan,  whereby  he  hoped  to  open 
communication  for  Spain  with  a  monarch  whose  power  was  as  limit* 
less  as  his  wealth.  (Seep.  365.) 


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m.   MODERN  HISTORY. 


FIRST  PERIOD. 

FROM  THE  DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA  TO  THE  PEACE  OF  WEST 
PHALIA  (149M648). 

§1.    INVENTIONS,  DISCOVERIES,  AND  COLONIES. 

Thzee  inyentions,  whose  discoveTy  belongs  to  the  Middle  Age,  but 
which  came  into  more  common  use  at  the  beginning  of  the  modem 
period,  have  played  a  very  important  part  in  the  total  change  in 
society  which  fouowed.  1.  The  magnetio  needle,  probably  early 
discovered  by  the  Chinese,  applied  in  navigation  (compass)  in  the 
east  in  the  thirteenth  century;  in  the  west  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  (by  Flavio  Gioja  ?).  This  invention  materially  f^vanced 
the  discoveries  of  the  new  era.  2.  GKinpowder,  probably  introduced 
into  Europe  from  Asia  (China,  India,  Arabia).  According  to  a  tradi- 
tion whose  truth  can  no  longer  be  maintained,  invented  by  the  monk, 
Berthdd  Schwarz,  at  Freiburg  in  the  Breisgan,  1364  (?).  It  was  first 
used  in  Europe  about  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century.  The  new 
class  of  weapons  thus  introduced  were  at  first  in  the  highest  degree 
imperfect,  and  of  but  little  value  ;  but  their  improvement  gradually 
brought  about  a  complete  revolution  in  military  science  ana  art,  and 
thereby  led  to  the  destruction  of  chivalry.     Standing  armies  took  the 

1>lace  of  the  feudal  levies,  and  aided  the  princes  to  triumph  over  the 
ower  order  of  feudal  nobility.  3.  Printing  (p.  253),  which  was  more 
widely  spread  after  the  conquest  of  Mainz  (1462),  had  scattered  the 
assistants  of  Fust  to  various  lands.  This  invention  would,  however, 
have  very  largely  failed  of  its  effect,  but  for  the  improvement  made 
at  about  the  same  time  in  the  manufacture  of  Paper. 

1492,    Discovery  of  America  by  Columbus  (Colon), 
For  details  and  the  further  course  of  discovery  see  page 
282,  etc. 
1498.    Ocean  route  to  the  East  Indies  discovered  by 
Vasco  da  Cama. 
After  the  Canary  Islands,  Madeira,  and  the  Azores  had  been  discov- 
ered by  daring  siJlors  (especially  Italians)  in  the  first  half  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  but  had  since  been  partially  forgotten,  the  Portu- 
guese at  the  instance  of  the  Infant,  Henry  the  Navigaior  Q>.  276),  be- 


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280  Modem  SRHory.  A.  D. 

ean  in  1416  to  push  soathwaid  alo^  the  coast  of  Africa  in  order  to 
find  the  way  to  Ijidia.  The  death  of  I^nrj  (1460)  interrupted  the  prog^ 
ress  of  discovery  for  a  considerable  time,  but  in  1486  Bartholomaeiis 
Diaz  reached  Caho  tormentoso,  called  by  John  II.,  Cabo  da  buena 
esperanza  (Cape  of  Grood  Hope),  and  in  1498  Vasco  da  Gama  landed 
on  the  coast  of  Malabar  (Calicut,  p.  353).  (MarHn  Behaim  of  Ni^ 
rembergy  author  of  the  celebrated  globe  still  preserved  in  that  city, 
which  shows  the  state  of  geographical  knowledge  just  before  the  dis- 
covery of  America  (1492),  was  in  the  service  of  the  king  of  Portu- 


Eastem  trade  (in  silk,  cotton,  pearls,  spices  and  other  luxuries). 


llie 
had  been  carried  on  partly  by  land  through  central  Asia,  and  partfy 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  and  the  Red  Sea,  and  across  Arabia  and 
through  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  conquests  of  Islam,  and  especially  the 
capture  of  Constantinople,  had  greatly  diminished  Uie  number  of  prof- 
itable routes,  so  that  tne  discovery  of  a  new  route  became  of  great 
importance,  especially  to  the  maritime  nations  of  western  Europe  who 
haa  been  excluded  from  trade  with  the  East,  wherein  the  merchant 
republics  of  Italy,  Pisa,  Genoa,  Venice,  had  grown  rich  and  powerful. 
The  Portuguese  attempted  the  eastern  route  around  Africa.  Columbus 
found  at  the  court  of  Spain  patrons  willing  to  try  the  experiment  of 
a  toegtem  route,  at  once  (according  to  the  data  with  whicn  he  reck- 
oned) shorter  and  simpler. 

The  success  of  the  Portuguese  struck  a  mortal  blow  at  the  pros- 
perity of  Alexandria  and  the  great  cities  of  Italy,  and  securod  a 
monopoly  of  the  Eastern  trade  to  Portugal  for  one  hundred  years, 
after  which  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Dutch  and  English. 

The  failure  of  Columbus  had  a  still  greater  importance  in  history, 
disclosing  a  new  world,  where  immigrants  from  the  old  should  develop 
new  political  constitutions  and  new  social  conditions. 

The  Portuguese  power  in  the  East  Indies  was  founded  by  the  vice- 
roy Almeida  (1504-1509),  and  especially  by  Albuquerque  (1509-1515 ; 
see  p.  353). 

1519-1522-    First  Yoyage  around  the  world  under  Fer- 
dinand Magalfa&es  (Magellan), 
a  Portuguese  who  had  entered  the  Spanish  service.    Passage  to  the 
Pacific  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  MagaUiaeswas  killed  in  1521 
on  one  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 

§2.    AMERICA. 

It  is  probable  that  as  early  as  1000  the  Northmen,  who  had  occu- 
pied Iceland  since  874  and  had  thence  made  settlements  in  Greenland 
(985),  had  not  only  discovered  but  had  tried  to  colonize  the  conti- 
nent of  America  (Vinland).* 

1  More  than  a  dozen  claims  to  the  discovery  or  attempts  at  the  discovery  of 
America  before  Columbus  have  been  preferred  by  various  nationalities,  a  brief 
list  of  which  is  here  appended :  1.  Dt  Brandan  (565)  and  St.  Maolovlus 
*Afalo)  in  the  sixth  century.  2.  Seven  Spanish  bishops  (714  or  784) ;  Isl- 
and of  Seven  Cities,  also  called  Antillia^  a  name  afterwards  transferred  to  the 
Antilles.    3.  Buddhist  priesU  from  China  (458),  followed  by  HoeinShin  (499)^ 


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A.  D.  America.  S81 

086.  BJami  Herftdfion  saw  the  ooast  of  Vmlaiid,  bafc  did  not  land. 

1001.  Le\f  ErUaon  discovered  HeUuland,  Maridand,  Vinland,  where 
he  built  some  booths. 

1002.  Thorwald  Erikson  coasted  along  Kjalames  and  died  at  Kro9» 
sanneas. 

1007-1009.    Tharfinn  KarUe/he,  under  whom  a  colony  was  established 
which  remained  several  years  in  Vinland.    Birth  of  the  child 
Snom. 
1011.  Helge  and  Finnbcrge  with  Freydis,  wife  of  Thorwald.     The 
tragical  ending  <^  this  settlement  seems  to  have  discouraged 
colonization  ;  yet  traces  of  intercourse  are  observable  for  a 
long  time,  (1121,  Bishop  Erik  of  Greenland  ;  1266,  voyage  of 
clereymen  of  Greenland  to  the  Arctic  regions ;  1255,  Ademard 
and  Thorwald  Helgason  ;  1347,  voyage  of  seventeen  men  from 
Greenland). 
The  identification  of  the  places  visited  and  named  by  the  Northmen 
is  attended  with  great,  perhaps  insurmountable  difficulties.    The 
detailed  exposition  of  Rafn  (Helluland  =»  Newfoundland  or  Labra- 
dor ;  Markland  «»  Nova  Scotia ;  Vinland  »»  Mt.  Hope  Bay  ;  Kjal- 
amess  =s  Cape  Cod  ;  Krossanness :»  Boston  Harbor)  is  hardly  to  be 
accepted  ;  some  writers  place  the  southern  limit  of  discovery  at  the 
Bontnem  point  of  Newfoundland.^ 

Wherever  they  were  made,  the  settlements  of  the  Northmen  in 
America  were  not  lasting,  and  the  remembrance  of  them  had  almost 
passed  away  by  the  fourteenth  century.    Although  Columbus  had 

discovered  Fou-mng.  (See  Iieland,  Fou-tana,  for  argaments  in  favor  of  this 
discovery.)  4.  Basques;  Jvan  de  CEstraiae  (about  1000).  6.  Northmen 
(986).  0.  Ari  Marson,  from  Limerick  in  Ireland  (982)  discovered  HuUramann 
land  (White  Man's  Land)  or  Irland  it  Mikla  (Great  Ireland).  South  Carolina  ? 
Florida?  He  was  succeeded  by  Biarm  Atbrandscm  (999),  and  Gudleif  Gvd- 
langson  (1029).  7.  Arabians;  Aimaghruins  (in  the  eleventh  century).  8. 
Madoc  ap  Ghvynedd,  a  Welsh  prince  (1170).  9.  Vadlno  and  Ouido  Vi- 
▼alda  (1281),  Theodoro  Doria  and  Ugolino  Vivalda  (1292),  Venetians.  10. 
Nioolo  and  Antonio  Zeno  (1380-90).  This  **  discovery  '*  involves  an  older 
one  made  by  a  fisherman  of  *'  Frislanda  *'  about  1360.  11.  Gortereal,  1403. 
12.  Sakolny,  a  Polish  pilot  (1476).  13.  Alonso  BaaohM  de  Helva  (1484). 
the  pilot  who  as  some  claim  died  in  the  house  of  Columbus,  leaving  his  journal 
in  the  latter's  hands.  14.  Martin  Behaim  (1484).  15.  Ooosin  and  Flnaon 
from  Dieppe  (1487). 

This  discovery  of  America  has  been  assigned  to  still  other  races  by  disputants 
over  the  oriffin  of  tlie  American  Indians,  among  which  may  be  mentioned : 
Egyptians,  Tyrians,  PAamtaaiM,  Canaanites,  Nonoegiantf  Chinese,  Jberiana, 
BcythianSf  Tatars,  Jews  (the  Lost  Tribes),  liamanSf  Malays ;  there  is  also  the 
theory  of  settlement  bv  the  inhabitants  of  Atlantis,  and  of  a  new  creation.  It 
is  pleasant,  from  a  patriotic  standpoint,  to  state  that  it  has  been  recently  asserted 
that  Europe  was  originally  populated  from  America. 

1  Three  "relics"  of  the  Northmen  have  been  famous  in  their  time.  1.  The 
Writing  Rock  on  the  Taunton  River  near  Dighton,  Ma^s.  It  was  claimed  that 
the  inscription  was  in  runes,  and  it  has  been  interpreted  by  northern  scholars  to 
contain  an  account  of  the  vovnge  of  Thorjinn.  but  it  seemfl  nt  present  that 
Washington's  opinion  of  the  Indian  origin  of  tne  picture  writing  is  to  be  ac- 
cepted as  correct.  2.  The  Old  Stone  Mill  at  Newport,  R.  I.  The  northern 
origin  of  this  structure  can  hardly  be  maintained  against  the  more  probable 
theory  of  its  construction  by  G^v.  Benedict  Arnold  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century.  8.  The  '*  Skeleton  in  Armor,"  discovered  in  the  early  part 
of  the  present  century  at  Fall  River,  ICass.,  is  now  admitted  to  have  been  that  of 
an  Indian. 


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282  Modem  JitOory,  A.  d. 

visited  Iceland  in  1477,  it  is  not  probable  that  he  had  heard  of  them  ; 
it  is  evident,  from  his  own  writings,  that  he  had  no  snspioions  of  the 
existence  of  a  continent  southwest  of  Iceland.^ 

Chzlitoforo  Colombo  (he  called  himself  and  signed  himself, 
after  he  became  a  Spaniard,  reg^ilarly  Cristobal  Colony,  bom 
(1435  ?,  1446  ?)  at  Genoa,  of  plebeian  origin,  a  sailor  from  his  earli- 
est youth,  wished  to  tiy  a  western  route  oy  sea  to  India  (hj  which 
name  in  Ids  day,  the  whole  East  was  meant),  and  especially  to  Zipangu, 
(Japan)  the  magic  island,  which  the  Venetian  Marco  Polo  (travels 
1271-1295)  had  described  in  the  book  Mtrabilia  Mundi.  Starting 
from  the  erroneous  calculations  of  Ptolemy  and  Marinus  concerning 
the  size  of  the  earth  and  the  length  of  the  habitable  region  (the  Eas- 
tern Continent),  Columbus  made  the  circumference  of  the  earth  too 
short  by  a  sixth,  thus  locating  Zipangu  in  about  the  position  of  the 
Sandwich  Islands.  His  pLms  having  been  rejected  by  Portugal 
(after  the  failure  of  an  expedition  secretly  despatched  westward  to 
aiscover  land),  Columbus  in  1486  accepted  the  service  of  the  crown* 
of  Castile  (Isabella).  Delayed  in  the  execution  of  his  project  by  the 
Arabian  war  and  Uie  lack  of  money  at  the  court,  he  was  about  to 
offer  his  services  at  the  court  of  France  or  England,  when  the  ci^ 
ture  of  Grenada  promised  the  necessary  means  for  the  expedition.' 
Contract  with  Columbus,  who  received  nobility,  the  heredita^  dignity 
of  admiral  and  viceroy,  and  one  tenth  of  the  income  from  the  newly 
discovered  lands. 

14d2,  Aufi^.  3-1493,  March  15.  First  Voyage.  Departure  from 
Pcios  with  three  small  vessels  on  the  3d  of  August,  from  the 
Canaries  on  Sept.  6.  On  Oct.  12,  landing  on  Guanahani,* 
one  of  the  Bahama  islands.  Discovery  of  Cuba  (called  by 
Columbus  Juanna)  and  Hayti  (Espanola,  St.  Domingo).  Ship- 
wreck off  Hayti,  foundation  of  the  first  colony  {Navidad)  on 
that  island. 
1498,  May  3.  Bull  of  Alexander  YI.  establishing  the  line  of  parti- 
tion, which  divided  that  part  of  the  world  not  possessed  by  any 
Christian  prince  between  Spain  and  Portugal  by  a  meridian 
Hne  one  hundred  leagues  west  of  the  Azores.  All  W.  of  that 
line  to  fall  to  Spain,  all  E.  of  it,  to  Portugal.  This  compromise 
between  the  claims  of  the  Spaniards  based  on  the  discoveries 
of  Columbus,  and  those  of  the  Portuguese  based  on  their  dis- 
coveries in  the  Atlantic,  was  afterwards  revised  so  that  the  line 
was  extended  270  leagues  further  west  (1494). 
1493,  Sept  25-1496,  June  11.  Second  voyage  of  Columbtis  from 
Cadiz,  with  seventeen  vessels  and  1500  persons. 
Discovery  of  the  Lesser  AntiUes  (inhabited  by  Caribs,  which  Colum- 

1  See  Fesohel :  Gesch.  d.  Zeitaltert  d,  Entdtchungtny  2d  ed.,  p.  84. 

3  That  Columbus  laid  his  plans  before  Genoa  is  unhistorical  (Fesohel,  9d 
ed.  p.  120). 

'  The  chief  clidmants  for  the  honor  of  having  been  the  first  landing  place  of 
Columbu9  are  Cat  Island^  Turk*»  lilandy  Watling^a  Jtland,  Samana.  The  latter 
claim  wak  first  advanced,  and  ablv  advocated  by  Oapt.  Q.  V.  Fox  in  his 
<*  Attempt  to  solve  the  Problem  of  the  First  Landinfc  Place  of  Columbus  In  tbt 
NewWorid."    Wasb.1882.    (U.  S.  Coast  and  Qeodetic  Survey.) 


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X.  D.  Anierten.  28S 

bos  misandeTstood,  Canibaf  whence  Cannibali)  and  the  island  of  Jam^ 
aica.  Vojage  along  the  Bouthem  coast  of  Cuba  to  mt^dn  a  short  dis- 
tance of  the  western  end.  Foundation  of  lidbdla  in  Hayti  (Dec. 
1493),  of  San  Domingo  on  the  same  island  by  Bartholomew  Columbus. 
1497,  May-Aug.  Voyage  of  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot  from 
Bristol  with  two  vessels.  Discovery  of  land  (Prima  Vistay 
Cape  Breton  Island  (?),  Newfoundland  (?)  June  24,  1497  (not 
1494).  They  explored  the  coast  N.  to  67P  N.  and  S.  for  aii  uncer- 
tain distance,  probably  not  so  far  as  Fiorina,  as  has  been  claimed.    ' 

1497.  First  (alleged)  voyage  of  Amerigo  Veepacci.  Discovery 
of  the  continent  of  South  America.  This  voyage  is  doubtful, 
though  many  give  it  credence. 

1498,  May-July  (?).    Voyage  of  Sebastian  Cabot ;  doubtful  re- 

sults (68<»  N.  to  35<^  N.  ?). 

1498,  May  30-1500,  Nov.  25.    Third  voyage  of  Columbus.    Dis- 

covery of  Trinidad  (July  31),  the  continent  of  South  America 
(Aug.  1)  ;  discovery  of  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  Exploration  of  the 
(pearl)  coast  as  far  as  Margarita  Island.  Beturn  of  Columbus  to  His- 
paniola.  Dangerous  revolt  of  Roldan,  with  whom  the  admiral  was 
obliged  to  conclude  a  treaty.  Columbus,  who  was  disliked  by  the  set- 
tlers on  account  of  !us  foreign  birth,  and  his  avarice,  —  a  vice  from 
which  he  cannot  be  absolved,^ —  was  accused  at  court.  BohadiUa,  sent 
out  as  judge  with  especial  powers,  sent  Columbus  and  his  brother  in 
chains  to  Spain  (1500).  Columbus  was  at  once  released  upon  his  arri- 
val and  treated  with  distinction  ;  he  retained  the  dignity  of  admiral, 
but  as  viceroy  was  superseded  by  Ovando. 

1499,  May-1500,  June.   Voyage  of  Alonso  de  Hojeda  and  Ame- 

rigo Vespucci. 

Discovery  of  Surinam,  Paria,  Venezuela,  and  the  coast  of  South 
America  from  3^  N.  (Brazil  f)  to  Cape  Vela.    This  is  often 
called  the  second  voyage  of  Vespucci,  but  the  first  voyage, 
which  he  is  said  to  have  made  in  1497,  when  he  reached  uxe 
continent  of  South  America,  is  doubtful. 
Vespucci  was  a  learned  Florentine  (1451*1512)  who  participated 
in  two  Portuguese  voyages  to  South  America,  entered  the  service  of 
Castile  in  1505,  and  filled  the  position  of  Boyal  Pilot  from  1508  until 
his  death,  a  post  in  which  he  rendered  important  services  to  science, 
particularly  in  the  construction  of  maps.    The  new  world  was  called 
after  him,  not  by  him,  America.    The  oim^ator  of  this  name  was 
Martin  WaUzemiUer  (Hylacomylus)  from  i^iburg  in  the  Breisgau, 
professor  at  St.  Die  in  Ix>rraine(1507^.    The  name  of  America  spread 
at  first  only  in  Grermany  and  Switzerland,  and  did  not  come  into  gen- 
eral use  until  the  dose  of  the  sixteenth  century.^ 

1  Fesohel,  3d  ed.,  p.  273.  ' 

9  Humboldt,  Eseamtn  critique  de  Vhisfoire  et  de  la  geographie  du  nouveau 
eofUinent ;  Feschel,  Getch.  d.  Zeitalter  d.  Entdeckungen^  cap.  XIII.,  Abhand- 
lunaen  zur  Erd-und  Vdlkerkunde,  1877.  Two  attempt*  have  been  jeccntly 
maae  to  derive  America  from  a  native  word  :  Jules  Marcou,  m  the  AtlaiUte 
Monthly  (1875,  March),  and  T.  H.  Lambert,  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  American 
Geo^phicai  Soc.  for  1883,  p.  45.  According  to  the  former,  America  is  a  cor- 
ruption of  the  Indian  name  of  a  range  of  mountains  in  Nicaragua ;  the  latter 
derives  it  from  a  native  name  of  the  empire  of  the  Incas  in  Pern.  The  first 
dated  map  to  bear  the  name  **  America  '*  was  that  in  the  edition  of  Soliuui  oi 
152©  by  Aoiaaus.  ^n]r> 

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284  Modem  History,  A.  D. 

1499,  Dec.-1560,  Sept.    Voyage  of  Vinoent  Tafias  Pinaon  from 

Palos. 

DiscoveiT  of  CapeS.  Augmtin  (Feb.  28),  of  the  Amazon,  Pas- 
sage of  the  equator.  Thu  voyage  traced  the  South  American 
coaat  to  8°  2(y  S. 

1500,  April.    Pedro  Alvarez  Cabral,  bound  for  the  East  Indies,  was 

accidentally(?)  carried  westward  until  he  reached  the  coast  of 
Brazil,  in  about  10®  S.  He  called  the  country  Terra  Sanctce 
CruciSf  and  took  possession  of  it  for  Portugal. 
150a  Oaapar  de  Cortereal,  a  Portuguese,  discovered  Newfoundland 
(Conception  Bay),  the  month  of  the  St.  Laiorence,  and  the 
ooast  of  Labrador. 

1501,  Cortereal  sailed  again  in  the  hope  of  finding  the  passage  to 
the  East  Indies,  a  hope  which  inspired  the  continuous  efforts  of 
nearly  all  the  early  explorers.    He  was  lost  upon  the  voyage. 

1501.  Second  voyage  of  Vespucoi  under  a  Portuguese  commander. 

1502,  May  11-1504,  Nov.  7.    Fourth  (and  laat)  voyage  of  Ck>- 

Inmbns.  Discovery  of  the  Bay  of  Honduras,  Veragua,  Porto 
BeUo,  Shipwreck  at  Jamaica. 
Columbus  died  m  Valladolid  (1506)  without  a  suspicion  that  he  had 
discovered  a  new  continent,  and  in  the  firm  belief  that  his  discoveries 
were  parts  of  Asia.  His  son,  Don  Diego  Columbus,  vice'roy  and  admi- 
ral. A  grandson  and  pesA  grandson  of  the  discoverer  retained  the 
herediti^  title  of  admiral. 

De  Baatidas  traced  in  1500-1502  the  coast  of  Panama  to  Pt. 
Manzanilla.  Hojeda  (1502),  Vespucci  (3d  voyage,  1503),  Juan  de  la 
Coia  (1505),  etc.,  examined  more  minutely  the  coasts  already  dis- 
covered, while  in  the  Spanish  possessions  the  work  of  settlement  and 
conquest  was  being  pushed  forward.  Cruelties  inflicted  on  the  Indi- 
ans of  the  West  Indies,  whose  race  disappeared  with  frightful  rapid- 
ity. It  is  probable  that  more  was  learned  of  the  coasts  of  both  Amer- 
icas in  this  period  than  has  been  divulged  ;  the  rivalry  of  Spain  and 
Portugal  leading  to  a  careful  secrecy  regarding  all  discoveries.  The 
exact  historical  value  of  the  D*Este  map,  just  made  public  by  M.  Har- 
risse,  cannot  be  known  as  yet,  but  seems  to  have  clearly  established 
tlie  fact  that  the  coast  of  North  America  from  Florida  to  beyond  Cape 
Cod  was  well  known  to  the  Portuguese  in  1502. 
1504.  French  fishermen  at  the  banks  of  Newfoimdland. 
1506.  Jean  Denys  of  Honjieur,  and  Camart  of  Rouen,  examined  (and 

sketched)  the  Qulfof  St,  Lawrence. 
1506.  Juan  Diaz  de  Solis  and  Vincent  Yafiez  Pinzon  discovered  Yuca^ 

tan.    In  1508  they  coasted  South  America  to  40^  S. 
1508.  Circumnavigation  of  Cuba,  by  Ocampo.    Aubert  in  the  St.  Law- 
rence. 

Importation  of  negroes  from  Africa  to  the  Spanish  possessions 
in  tiie  West  Indies,  where  they  were  employed  in  the  mines. 

1511.  Conquest  of  Cuba  by  Diego  Velasquez. 

1512.  ^isoovery  of  Florida  by  Juan  Ponoe  de  Leon,  govemoi 

(since  1510)  of  Porto  Rico. 

1513.  Discovery  of  the  Paclfio  Ocean  by  Vasco  Nones  de  Bal« 
boa,  who  crossed  the  isthmus  from  Antigua  on  the  Gulf  of  Ura* 


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A*  D*  America.  285 

ba    (Reato'  sonnet).     Balboa  was  put  to  death  in  1514  by 

Davila,  governor  of  Darieu,  Cartbaeena,  and  Uraba  (Castila 

del  Oro). 
1515.  Voyage  of  Jnan  Diaz  de  SoUa  in  search  of  a  passage  to 

the  East  Indies.    Discovery  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plataj  on  the 

banks  of  which  river  Solis  was  killed  by  the  natives. 
1517.  Alleged  voyaee  of  Sebastiaii  Cabot  and  Sir  Thomas  Pert. 

It  is  very  doubtful  if  this  voyage  was  made,  or  if  made, 

what  part  of  America  was  reached. 
Barikolome  de  Las  Casas  (1474-1566)  went  to  the  Indies  in  1502 
with  Columbus,  bishop  of  CMapa    (in  Mexico),  advocate  and  pro- 
tector of  the  Indians. 

1517.  Francis  Hernandez  CordoiNi  rediscovered  Tacatan  (Cape  Ca- 
toche)  ;  advanced  civilization  of  the  inhabitants  (Jaayas\ 
who  were  under  the  supremacy  of  the  Aztec  empire  m 
Mexico. 

1518.  Juan  de  Grijalva  coasted  from  Yucatan  to  Panuco,  and  brought 

back  tidings  of  the  Mexican  empire  of  Montesoma. 
Name  of  *'New  Spain''  given  to  the  region  which  he  ex- 
plored. 

1519.  Alvarez  PinedOf  by  order  of  the  governor  of  Jamaica,  Croray^ 

coasted  from  Cape  Florida  to  the  river  of  Panuoo, 

1519-152L  Conquest  of   Mexico  by  Hernando  Cortes 

(1485-1547), 

whom  Vdasquez^  the  governor  of  Cuba,  had  appointed  to  the 
command  of  a  small  force  of  600  foot,  sixteen  cavalry,  tlurteen 
cross-bowmen,  fourteen  cannon,  bat  immediately  removed.  Cortez 
sailed  against  the  will  of  tlie  governor.  Cantore  of  Taibasco  (March). 
Landing  at  St.  Juan  de  Uloa  T  April  21^.  ^Negotiations  with  Monte- 
zuma, who  ordered  the  invaaers  to  leave  tiie  kingdouL  Cortez, 
elected  general  by  the  troops,  dispatched  one  ship  to  carry  a  report 
to  king  Uharles  of  Spain,  and  beached  (not  burned)  the  rest.  Foun- 
dation of  Villa  Rica  de  la  Vera  Cruz.  In  alliance  with  the  Tbiscalans 
Cortez  marched  upon  Mexico,  the  capital  of  Montezuma  (Montecnh- 
cuma),  who  admitted  him  to  the  city  (Nov.  8).  Daring  seizure  of  the 
king  m  his  own  house.  Cortez  was  obliged  to  march  asainst  Narvaez 
whom  Velasquez  had  sent  to  chastise  him.  He  defeated  Narvaez,  and 
strengthening  his  army  with  the  soldiers  of  his  opponent,  returned 
to  Mexico  (1520,  June).  Revolt  of  the  Mexicans,  storm  of  the 
temple,  death  of  Montezuma  of  wounds  inflicted  by  his  subjects,  who 
were  indignant  at  his  submission  to  the  Spaniards.  The  Spaniards, 
leaving  the  city  (July  1),  were  furiously  attacked  on  one  of  the 
causeways  through  the  lake  and  suffered  terrible  loss  (Noche  triste). 
Reinforced,  Cortez  defeated  the  Mexicans  in  a  pitched  battle  near 
Otompan  (July  8).  Occupation  of  Tescuco  (Dec.  31).  Conquest 
of  Iztapalapan  (1521).  After  having  built  a  fleet  of  thirteen  vessels 
which  were  transported  by  land  and  htunched  in  the  lake  of  Mexico, 
Cortez  laid  siege  to  the  capital  After  a  long  investment,  accom- 
panied with  an  almost  daily  storm  (May-Ang.  13,  1521)  the  city 
was  taken.    Capture  of  the  king  Chaiemozin,  who  was  tortured  and 


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286  Modem  Hutory.  A.  d. 

finally  ezeonted.  SubnuBsion  of  the  country.  Cortez,  at  first  gov- 
ernor of  New  Spain  with  unlimited  power,  was  afterwards  restricted 
to  the  chief  command  of  the  military  forces.  Prosecuting  the  search 
for  a  western  passage  he  discovered  California  (1626).  Cortez  re- 
turned to  Spain  in  1540,  and  died  at  Seville  in  1547. 
1520.  Nov.  7-Nov.  28.    Passage  of  the  Straits  of  MageUan  by 

Magalhies,  see  p.  280. 
1520.  Voyage  undertaken  for  slaves  at  the  suggestion  of  Lucca 
Vasquez    d*AyUon,  exploration  of    the  east  coast  of    North 
America  to  32°  or  34°  N.     Cabo  de  Sta  Hdenay  *'Chicora.'' 
1522.  Discovery  of  the  Bermudas. 

1524.  Alleged  voyage  of  GMovannl  de  Verraxsano  in  the  service 
of  the  king  of  France.  The  letter  of  Verrazzano  which  gives 
the  only  existing  account  of  the  vovage  ascribes  to  the  writer 
the  discovery  of  the  east  coast  of  North  America  from  34<=* 
(d&^)  N.  to  SO""  N.  It  has  been  thought  that  many  pUces 
mentioned  can  be  identified.  The  truth  of  the  whole  story  has 
been  disputed,  but  present  opinion  seems  to  be  in  favor  of  its 
acceptance  (?). 

1524.  Geographical  congress  of  Badajos,  to  settle  the  boundary  be- 

tween Spain  and  Portugal  in  the  eastern  hemisphere,  which 
should  correspond  to  the  Tine  of  Alexander  VI.  in  the  western  ; 
after  a  stormy  session  the  council  separated  without  reaching 
an  agreement. 
1525-1527.  Exploration  of  the  coast  of  Pern  by  Francisco  Pixarro 

il478  (?)-1541),  as  a  preKminary  to  the  conquest  of  that  king- 
om,  of  which  he  had  heard  on  Balboa's  expedition  (p.  284), 
in  accordance  with  an  agreement  made  bv  Pizarroy  .DieffO  de 
Almagro,  and  Hernando  de  Luque,  Bepulise  of  Pizarro  and 
Almagro. 

1525.  Voyage  of  Esteoan  Gomez,  a  Spaniard,  along  the  east  coast  of 

North  America,  34o  N.  to  44''  N. 

1526.  Voyage  of  Sebastian  Cabot  in  the  service  of  Spain.     Ex- 

ploration of  the  Riodela  Platan  Paramh  Paraguay,  Uruguay. 
The  English  had  taken  but  little  part  in  the  cuscoveries  since 
the  time  of  Cabot,  although  traces  enough  of  intercourse  re- 
main to  show  that  the  New  World  was  not  entirely  neglected. 

1527.  Voysge  of  John  Rut,  who  coasted  north  to  53^  N.  and  returned 
by  way  of  Newfoundland,  Cape  Breton,  and  the  coast  of  Maine 
(Norumbeaa). 

1528.  Unsuccessful  expedition  of  Pamphilo  de  Narvaez  to  Florida, 
under  a  grant  of  all  the  coun^  between  Cape  Florida  and 
the  River  of  Palms.  After  visiting  Apalache  (June  5)  Nar- 
vaez sailed  westward  and  was  lost  in  a  storm  (Nov.).  Of  the 
survivors,  four,  one  of  whom  was  Cabe^  de  Vaca,  made  their 
way  by  land  to  the  Spanish  possessions  in  Mexico  (1536). 

1528.  Settlement  of  Germans  at  Uaro,  between  St.  Martha  and 
Maracapana ;  presented  to  the  family  of  WeUer  by  Charles  V. 

1531-1532.  Conquest  of  Peru  by  Pizaixo. 

The  undertaking  was  favored  by  a  civil  war  which  was  raging 


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A.  0.  America.  287 

at  the  time  in  the  empire  of  the  Incaa.  Foondatilon  of  St.  Ifflohael 
on  the  Piuro  in  Peru.  Captore  of  the  Inca,  AtahuallpOy  before  his 
army  (Sov,  10),  who,  after  the  extortion  of  an  immense  ransom,  was 
put  to  death  (1533).  March  of  Alvarado  from  Puerto  Viego  to  QitUo. 
Oconpation  of  Xtma,  the  capital  of  the  Incas  (1534).  Feuds  between 
the  Spanish  leaders.  Almagro  defeated  (1538)  and  executed  by 
Pizxaro.  The  latter  was  afterwards  killed,  with  his  brother.  The 
Spanish  crown  assumed  the  administration  of  the  country  (1548). 

1534.  First  voyage  of  Jacques  Cartier,  a  French  sailor,  from  St. 
Malo.  Discovery  of  the  west  coast  of  Newfoundland  (May 
10),  Prince  EdtoarcTs  Island^  Miramichi  Bay,  AnticoetL  coast 
toSO^N. 

1535.  May-1536.  July.  Second  voyage  of  Cartier;  discovery  of 
the  Bay  of  St.  Lawrence,  River  of  SL  Lawrence  (JSochdaga)^ 
as  far  as  the  site  of  MontreaL  Information  received  about 
the  great  lakes. 

Foundation  of  the  modem  city  of  Lima.    Unsuccessful  invasion 
of  ChUi  by  Ahnagro. 

1537.  Discovery  of  Lower  California  by  Cortez. 

1538.  The  west  coast  of   South   America  explored  to  40^  S.  by 

Valdivia, 
1530,  May-1543,  Sept  Expedition  of  Ferdinando  de  Soto,  tovcf- 
nor  of  Cuba,  for  the  conqtiest  of  Florida,  with  nine  vessels  and 
over  900  men.  After  toilsome  marches  in  Florida,  with  no  result  but 
disappointment,  De  Soto  led  his  men  westward  to  the  Mississippi, 
where  he  died  (at  the  juncture  of  this  stream  and  the  Guacoya)  and 
was  buried  in  the  stream.  The  remains  of  the  expedition  (311  men) 
reached  Panuco  Sept.  10,  1543.  According  to  Dr.  Kohl,  De  Soto 
reached  30*^  40^  N.  m  Georgia,  and  explored  the  Mississippi  to  the 
Ohio(38«N.) 

1539-1540.  Alanzo  de  Camargo  coasted  from  the  Straits  of  Magellan 
to  Peru,  completing  the  exploration  of  the  coast  of  South 
America. 
1510.  Expedition  of  Alarcon  in  search  of  the  passage  to  the  Indies 
(^Straits  of  Anion).  Exploration  of  the  coast  of  California  to 
36^  N.  Voyage  up  the  Rio  Colorado.  Lower  Califomia,  pre- 
viously held  to  be  an  island,  was  thus  shown  to  be  a  peninsula. 
£)arly  maps  so  represent  it ;  afterwards  the  conviction  that  it 
was  an  island  spread  anew  and  late  into  the  next  century  the 
best  maps  of  America  contained  this  error. 
1540-1542.  !E^)edition  of  Francisco  Vcisquez  Coronado,  sent  out  by 
the  Spanish  viceroy,  Mendoza,  in  search  of  the  seven  cities  of 
Cibola,  concerning  whose  wealth  the  Spaniards  had  derived 
extravagant  ideas  from  the  reports  of  the  Indians.  Coronado 
reached  ZufU  May  11.  Discovery  of  the  Moqui  cafion  of  the 
Colorado.  Reports  of  a  city,  Quivira.  Coronado  wintered  at 
Zufii  amone  the  Pueblo  Indians.  In  1541  he  marched  north- 
east to  40°  N.  and  returned  to  Mexico  (bisons). 
1540.  Expedition  of  Cartier  to  the  St.  Lawrence,  with  five  ships. 
Boberval  (Jean  Francois  de  la  Roche,  lord  of  RobervaT),  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Canada  and  Hochelaga  and  all  conntriec 


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288  Modem  History,  A.  D. 

north  of  40^  N.  (New  France),  failed  to  take  part  in  thiB  yoyage. 
Cartier  fonnded  the  fortress  of  Charlesburg  and  explored  the 
St.  Lawrence. 

1541.  Gomalo  Pizarro,  eovemor  of  Quito,  crossed  the  Andes  and  ex- 
plored the  river  liapo  for  200  leagues  :  his  subordinate,  Fran- 
cisco Orellana  saded  down  the  Napo  to  the  Amason,  and 
down  that  river  to  the  sea  (Aug.  6).  Orellana  returned  in 
1643  to  conquer  the  country,  but  died  in  the  search  for  the 
Kapo. 

1542.  Roberval  reached  Newfoundland,  where  he  met  Cctrtier,  who, 
against  the  will  of  the  governor,  returned  to  France.  Rober- 
val built  a  fort  not  far  above  the  island  of  Orleans,  but  the  en- 
terprise was  soon  abandoned. 

Rodriguez  de  Cabrillo,  sent  in  search  of  the  passage  to  the  In- 
dies, discovered  Cape  Mendocino  in  42^  N.  on  the  west  of 
North  America,  and  explored  as  far  as  44^  N. 

1545.  Mines  of  Poton  claimed  for  Spain. 

1547.  Pedro  de  GascOy  president  of  x^eru.  Organization  and  pacifica- 
tion of  the  country. 

1547.  Bishopric  of  Parac^uay  established. 

1548.  First  act  of  the  English  Parliament  relating  to  America  (2 
£dw.  VI. :  regulation  of  the  fisheries  at  Newfoundland). 

1655-1660.  First  attempt  of  the* admiral  de  Coligny  to  found  a 
Protestant  settlement  in  America.  The  chevalier  Nicolaus 
Durand  de  Villegagnon  led  two  ships  to  Brazil,  and  founded  a 
colony  at  the  Bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Geneva  sent  fourteen 
missionaries  to  the  colony.  Ville^^agnon  now  joined  the  Cath- 
olic church,  and  his  defection  rumed  the  colony  ;  many  set- 
tlers returned  to  France  (1557),  some  of  the  rest  were  mur- 
dered by  the  Portuguese  (1558),  and  in  1560  the  colony  was 
entirely  broken  up  b^  the  Portuguese  government.  AndrS 
Thevetf  who  accompanied  Villefagnon,  on  his  return  to  France 
coasted  along  the  east  coast  of  North  America  to  the  Bacallao» 
(Newfoundland),  and  on  his  return  described  his  voyage  in  a 
^ssipy,  untrustworthy  book. 

1558.    Last  Spanish  expedition  to  Carolanaj  no  settlement  made. 

1560-1561.  Expedition  of  Pedro  de  Urana  in  search  of  the  empire  of 
the  Ormaguas,  and  of  the  scoundrel  Lope  de  Aguirre  in  search 
of  El  Dorado  in  South  America. 

1662.  Second  attempt  of  admiral  de  Coligny  to  establish  a 
Huguenot  colony  in  America.  Expedition  of  Jean  RibavU. 
Erection  of  Charles  Fort  near  Port  Royal  in  South  Carolina. 
The  settlement  was  soon  abandoned. 

1663.  First  slave  voyage  made  by  the  English  to  America.  John 
Hawkins  with  three  ships  brought  SKX)  negroes  to  the  West 
Indies. 

1664.  Third  attempt  of  Coligny  to  establish  a  Huguenot  Colony 

in  America.  Rene  Laudonniere,  sent  to  carry  aid  to  Ribault's 
colony,  finding  the  settlers  gone  built  Fort  Carolina  on  the  Sl 
John's  river  in  Florida  (June).  Arrival  of  RibauU  (1566,  Aug. 
28). 


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A.  IX  America.  289 

1565,  Sept.  20.     Storm  of  Fort  Carolina  by  the  Spaniards  under 
Menendez  de  Aviles ;  massacre  of  the  garrison  (*'  I  do  this 
not  as  to  Frenchmen,  but  as  to  Lutherans  ").    RibatUtf  having 
put  to  sea,  was  wrecked,  captured,  and  slain  with  many  of  his 
company.    Construction  of  three  Spanish  forts  (Castle  of  St. 
Augustine). 
1568.  Expedition  of  Dominique  de  Oourges  to  avenge  the  mas- 
April,    sacre  of  the  French. at  Fort  Carolina.     Capture  and  destruc- 
tion of  the  Spanish  forts,  massacre  of  the  garrison  (**  I  do  this 
not  as  to  Spaniards,  nor  as  to  mariners,  but  as  to  traitors,  rob- 
bers and  murderers"). 
1572.  First  voyage  of  Franoia  Drake  to  South  America.    Attack 
upon  if  ombre  de  Dios^  Carthaffena,  etc. 

1576,  First  voyage  of  Martin  Frobiaher  in  search  of  a  northwest 
June~Aug.    passage.    Discovery  of  Frobisher^s  Strait  and  Meta  Ir^ 

cognita  on  the  north  coast  of  North  America  (60o).    Supposed 
discovery  of  gold. 

1577,  May-Sept.    &cond  voyage  of  Frobiaher. 

1578,  May-Sept.    Third  voyage  of  Frobiaher. 

1577,  Dec.  13-1580,  Nov.  3.     Voyage  of  Francia  Drake  around  the 

world.  Touching  the  west  coast  of  North  America  he  dis- 
covered "  Drake's  Port,"  and  claimed  the  country  between  38*^  N.  and 
42^  N.  for  England  under  the  name  of  New  Albion. 

1578.  Unsuccessful  voyage  of  discovery  of  Sir  Humphrey  GUbertj  un- 
der a  patent  from  queen  Elizabeth. 

1583.  Second  voyage  of  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert.  Landing  at  Neto- 
foundland  he  took  formal  possession  of  the  island  for  England 
in  right  of  the  discovery  of  the  Cabots.  On  the  return  voyage 
Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  was  lost  in  a  storm. 

1584.  Sir  "Walter  Raleigh  having  secured  a  transfer  to  himself  of  the 

patent  granted  to  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  his  half-brother,  dis- 
patched Amidas  and  Barlow  to  explore  the  coast  of  North 
America  north  of  the  Spanish  settlements.  They  landed  on 
July  13.  the  island  of  Wocokon  and  took  possession  of  the  country 
for  the  queen.  Exploration  of  Roanoke,  On  their  return  the 
explorers  g^ve  glowing  accounts  of  the  country,  which  received 
the  name  of  Virginia. 

1585.  Colony  of  180  persons  under  Sir  Richard  Grenville 
sent  to  Roanoke  Island  ;  suffering  fi>om  destitution  they  were  re- 
moved in  1586  by  Drake.  Grenville  arriving  with  supplies  immedi- 
ately after  their  aeparture  left  fifteen  sailors  to  hold  possession  ;  they 
had,  however,  all  ^sappeared  before  the  arrival  (1587)  of  117  new 
colonists.  "  Borough  of  Raleigh  in  Virginia,"  governor,  John  White. 
Virginia  Dare,  first  Encflish  child  bom  in  America.  This  colony 
met  an  unknown  fate.  White  returned  to  Virginia  in  1590,  but  could 
not  find  the  colony.     In  1589  Raleigh  sold  his  patent. 

1585.  First  voyage   of  John  Davis  to  the   north.     Exploration  of 
Davis  Straits  to  68*  40^.     Discovery  of    Gilbert  Sound  and 
Cumberland  Straits. 
19 


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290  Modem  HUiaiy.  a.  d. 

1586.  Naval  expedition  of  Sir  Francii  Drake  to  the  Spanish  West 
Indies.  Sack  of  St.  Domingo  and  Carthagena.  Rescue  of  tlie 
colony  of  Virginia. 

1587.  Third  voyage  of  John  Davis  (the  second  was  to  Labrador  in 

1586).  He  reached  72<^  12^  N.  and  discovered  the  Cumber- 
land Islands,  London  Coast,  Lumley^s  Inlet  (Frobisher's  Strait  ^). 

1592.  Alleged  discovery  of  the  strait  of  Juan  de  la  Fuca  on  the  west 
coast  of  North  America  in  48°  N.  bv  Apostdos  Valerianae,  a 
Greek,  who  had  been  in  the  service  of  Spain  under  the  name 
of  Juan  de  la  Fuca,  Peschel  (Gesch.  d,  EreOcunde,  I.  273) 
regards  the  story  as  apocryphal. 

1595.  Expedition  of  Sir  "Walter  Raleigh  to  Gxdana.  Capture  of 
the  cit^  of  St.  James.  Search  for  £1  Dorado.  Voyage  up 
the  Orinoco  for  400  miles. 

1595.  Expedition  of  Drake  and  Hawkins  to  the  West  Indies.  Death 
of  Hawkins.    Drake  died  1596. 

1598.  The  Marquis  de  la  Roche  obtained  from  Henry  IV.  of  France 
a  commission  to  conquer  Canada.  He  left  forty  convicts  on 
the  Isle  of  SabU,  made  some  explorations  in  Acadia,  and  re- 
turned to  France.  After  his  death  his  patent  was  granted  to 
Chauvin,  who  made  two  successful  voyages  to  Tadoussac,  and 
left  some  people  there  (1600). 

1602.  Voyage  of  Bartholemew  Gosnold  from  Falmouth.  Taking  due 
westerly  course  he  first  saw  land  in  42°  N.  Discovery  of  a 
cape  which  Grosnold  named  Cape  Cod  (May  15).  Discovery 
of  Buzzard^ s  Bay  (called  GosnouTs  Hope).  iBrection  of  a  fort 
and  storehouse  on  Cuttyhunk  (called  by  Gosnold  Elizabeth 
Island,  a  name  now  applied  to  the  whole  chain  of  islands  of 
which  this  is  the  most  westerly).  Return  of  the  whole  party 
to  England. 

1603.  Voyage  of  Martin  Pring  from  Bristol  along  the  coast  of  Maine 
from  the  Penobscot  River  to  the  Bay  of  Massachusetts. 

1603.  Voyage  of  Samuel  Champlain,  a  Frenchman,  from  Brouage,  up 
the  St.  Lawrence. 

1604.  Foundation  of  Port  Boyal  (the  present  Annapolis) 
in  Nova  Scotia  by  the  Frenoh. 

In  1603  Pierre  du  Gast,  Sieur  de  Monts,  obtained  from  Henry 
rV.  of  France  a  grant  of  all  lands  in  North  America  from  40°  N.  to 
46®  N.  (from  Pennsylvania  to  New  Brunswick),  under  the  name  of 
Aoadia.  (This  name  was  afterwards  restricted  to  the  present  New 
Brunswick,  and  the  French  possessions  in  N.  America  were  designated 
generally  as  New  France.)  In  1604  De  Monts  associated  himself 
with  M.  Poutrincourt  and  sailed  for  America  with  two  vesseb. 
Foundation  of  Port  Royal  by  Poutrincourt.  Discovery  of  the 
St.  John  River  by  Champlain,  De  Monts'  pilot.  De  Monts  built  a  fort 
at  St.  Creix,  but  in  the  following  year  joined  Poutrincourt  at  Port 
Royal. 

1  See  Fesohel,  Oesch.  d.  Erdhunde,  1.  299,  for  a  discussion  of  the  errors  ol 
lie  early  Arctic  navigaton. 


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A.  ]>•  America.  291 

160Ek  Voyage  of  Oeorge  Weipnauih  (who  had  made  a  trip  to  Labrador  in 
1602)  to  the  coast  of  Maine.  Santa  F^  in  New  Mezioo  founded. 
Over  a  hundred  years  had  eUipsed  since  the  discovery  of  America, 
and  thus  far  South  America  and  Central  America  had  alone  been  the 
scene  of  active  and  successful  colonization.  In  North  America,  a 
few  scattered  Spanish  settlements  in  the  south  and  one  French 
colony  in  the  north  were  the  only  representatives  of  European  civiliza- 
tion. The  next  few  years  witnessed  a  mighty  change.  England, 
which  for  all  her  voyages  had  not  a  foot  of  land  m  America,  entered  on 
a  course  of  settlement  and  conquest  which  ultimately  gave  her  the 
fairest  portion  of  the  New  World. 

"Rngllwh,    Dutch,   and    Swedish    Colonies    in    North 
America  (1606-1638). 

A.    BngTIah  Colonies. 

1606.  April  10.  The  patent  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  becoming  void  by 
his  attainder  for  treason,  James  I.  issued  a  patent  dividing 
Virginia  into  two  parts  :  1.  The  First  Colony,  embracing  the 
oountry  from  34^  N.  to  38°  N.with  the  right  to  settle  as  faras41<^  N. 
if  they  were  the  first  to  found  their  colonv  :  this  southern  colony  was 
granted  to  a  number  of  gentlemen,  residing  principally  in  London 
{Richard  Hakiuyt),  and  known  as  the  IfOndon  Company.  2.  The 
Second  Colony,  embracing  tiie  country  between  41°  N.  and  45°  N. 
with  the  right  of  settling  as  far  as  38°  N.  if  they  were  the  first  to 
establish  their  colony  ;  this  northern  colony  was  granted  to  gentle- 
men residing  chiefly  in  Bristol,  Plymouth,  etc.,  and  hence  known  as  the 
Plymontfa  Company.  Each  company  was  to  become  owner  of  the 
land  for  fifty  miles  on  each  side  of  the  first  settlement,  and  one  hun- 
dred miles  inland.  The  nearest  settlements  Si  the  two  colonies 
should  be  one  hundred  miles  apart.  The  government  of  each  colony 
was  vested  in  a  council  resident  in  England  and  nominated  by  the 
king ;  the  local  government  was  intrusted  to  a  council  resident 
in  America  also  nominated  by  the  king,  and  to  conform  to  his 
regulations.  Imports  from  England  free  of  duty  for  seven  years  ; 
freedom  of  trade  with  other  nations,  the  duties  for  twenfr-seven 
years  to  go  to  the  colonies.  Rifi^ht  of  coinage  and  of  self-defense. 
EstabUsmnent  of  a  Council  of  \^ginia  in  England  for  the  superin- 
tendence of  both  colonies. 

Colony  of  South  Virginia. 

1607f  May  13.  Foundation  of  Jamestown  in  the  southern 
colony  by  a  band  of  one  hundred  colonists  sent  out  under 
Christcpher  Newport.  It  included  Bartholomew  Gosnold  and 
John  Smith.  Dissension  in  the  council.  Explorations  by  John 
Smith  who  was  captured  by  the  Indians,  and  presented  to  the 
chief,  Powhatan,  but  in  the  end  released  (story  of  the  rescue 
of  Smith  by  Pocahontas,  daughter  of  Powhatan^).    In  1607 

1  This  8tory  ban  been  relented  to  the  realm  of  fable,  on  the  insnflScient 
Croond  that  uo  mention  of  if  Apnears  in  Smith's  first  account  of  his  captivity. 


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292  Modem  IRttory.  A.  o. 

Smith  explored  the  Chesapeake.  Daring  the  first  years  the 
colony  suffered  severely  from  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  as 
well  as  from  dissensions  and  bad  provision  by  the  company. 
Laborers  were  scarce,  the  colonists  being  either  gentlemen  or 
criminals. 

1609.  Second  charter  of  the  company  of  South  Virginia,  increase  of 
privileges  and  of  members.  Lord  Delatoare  (Thomas  West) 
appointed  governor  for  life.    Smith  retumea   to  Endand. 

1610.  The  distross  in  the  colony  was  so  gresii  (The  Starving  Time) 
that  it  was  on  the  point  of  abandonment  when  Lord  DeUir 
ware  arrived  with  supplies. 

1611.  Delaware  returning  to  England,  Sir  Thomas  Crates  was  sent  out 
as  deputy  governor. 

1612.  Third  charter  of  the  company  of  South  Virginia.  Inclusion 
of  the  Bermudas  within  their  possessions. 

1613.  The  French  having  established  the  colony  of  St  Samowr  at 
Mount  Desert  on  the  coast  of  Maine,  the  governor  of  South 
Virginia  sent  Samuel  Argal  to  dispossess  them.  Argal  de- 
stroyed St,  Saviour  and  razed  Port  Royal,  On  his  rotum  he 
received  the  submission  of  the  Dutch  settlement  at  Hudson's 
River  (?). 

1614.  Sir  Thomas  Dale  deputy  governor  of  South  Virginia. 

1615.  Land,  which  had  hitiierto  been  held  of  the  company  bv  farmers 
as  tenants-at-will,  was  now  made  private  property  ;  fifty  acres 
being  now  granted  to  every  colonist  and  his  heirs. 

1617.  Samuel  Ar^  succeeded  Sir  George  Yeardley  as  deputy  gover- 

nor of  South  Virginia ;  reduced  state  of  the  colony.     In  the 

1618.  following  year  Lord  Delaware  sailed  with  supplies  and  colonists 
for  Virginia,  but  died  on  the  voyage.  Rigorous  government 
of  Argal.  |A.t  this  time  there  wero  600  persons  and  300 
cattle  in  the  colonv  ;  the  only  exports  were  tobacco  and  sassa- 
fras, and  the  London  company  was  indebted  £5,000. 

1619.  First  General  Assembly  in  South  Virgiiiia  convoked 
(June  19)  by  Sir  George  Yeardley^  governor  general,  con- 
sisting of  the  burgesses  of  the  colony,  representing  eleven  **  bo- 
roughs "  or  plantations.  The  burgesses  sat  with  the  council 
and  governor. 

Introduction  of  negro  slaves  (20)  into  Virginia  by  a  Dutch 
vessel. 

1620.  The  colony,  numbering  1000  persons,  received  an  accession 
of  1200  new  settlers.  Introduction  of  women  who  were  sold 
as  wives  to  the  colonists  for  from  100  to  150  pounds  of  tobacco. 
Free  trade  with  the  colony  established. 

1621.  Sir  Francis  Wyatt,  governor,  brought  over  a  new  constitution  for 
the  colony,  whereby  its  government  was  vested  in  a  governor, 
a  council,  of  state,  and  a  general  assembly,  to  which  two  bur- 
gesses were  to  be  chosen  by  every  town,  hundred,  and  planta- 
tion. The  governor  had  the  veto  power,  and  every  enact- 
ment of  the  colonial  legislature  roquired  the  ratification  of 
the  company  in  England  to  become  binding.  All  ordinances 
of  the  company  wero  without  effect  unless  accepted  by  ths 
assembly. 


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A.  D.  America,  293 

1622.  March  22.  Massacre  of  347  colonists  by  the  Indians. 

1624.  Commission  of  inquiry  into  the  affairs  of  Virginia  appointed 
by  the  crown.  In  spite  of  the  answer  of  the  general  assembly 
wherein  the  rights  of  the  people  were  defined,  the  court  of 
king's  bench  in  £ngland,  before  which  the  cause  was  tried,  de- 
cide against  the  company.  The  charter  was  annulled.  The 
company  had  sent  out  more  than  9000  persons  to  the  colony, 
of  whom  not  more  than  2000  now  remained.  Sir  Francis 
Wyatt  was  appointed  governor,  with  a  council  of  eleven  mem- 
bers appointed  by  the  king.  This  plan  of  government  was 
continued  by  Charles  /.,  who  announced  that  the  colony  should 
immediately  depend  upon  the  crown,  which  should  appoint  the 
governor  and  council  and  issue  patents  and  legal  processes.. 
Commercial  restrictions. 

1030.  Grant  of  CaroLana  (the  region  south  of  the  Virginia  colony  be- 
tween 31°  N.  and  30""  N.)  to  Sir  Robert  Heath,  being  the  first 
instance  of  a  proprietary  grant  by  the  crown.  No  settlement 
seems  to  have  b^en  made,  on  which  account  the  grant  was 
subsequently  declared  void,  and  a  part  of  the  territory  granted 
out  imder  the  name  of  Carolirm,  a  proceeding  which  resulted 
in  much  ill-feeling. 

1632*  Grant  of  Maryland  (the  region  between  the  Potorruvc 
and  4P  N.)  to  Cecil  CaLuert^  the  second  lord  Baltimore,  son 
of  Sir  George  Calvert,  to  whom  the  grant  was  origiually 
made,  but  who  died  before  putting  it  to  use.  The  grant  was 
met  by  a  protest  from  Virginia  which  was  of  no  avail.    In 

1634,  the  first  colony  reached  Maryland  ;  being  about  two  hundred 
persons.  Gift  of  fifty  acres  of  land  to  each  emigrant  as  pri- 
vate property.  The  Calverts  being  Roman  Catholics,  no  men- 
tion of  religious  establishment  appeared  in  the  charter  beyond 
the  re<$ognition  of  Christianity  as  established  by  English  com- 
mon law. 

The  proprietary,  or  grantee  holding  directly  of  the  crown, 
was  subject  to  no  corporation  or  company,  appointed  the  dep- 
uty governor  and  the  executive  officers,  regulated  the  legisla- 
tion, and  received  the  taxes.  Tlie  (general  assembly  of  the 
colonists  possessed  an  advisory  power,  and  the  right  of  express- 
ing non-approval. 

1636.  Grant  of  New  Albion  (including  New  Jersey)  from  the  vice- 
roy of  Ireland  to  Sir  Edward  Plotoden,  liiis  New  Albion, 
which  was  not  settled,  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  tract 
of  like  name  discovered  by  Drake  on  the  western  coast  of 
America  (p.  289). 

The  Plymouth  Company. 

Immediately  upon  the  receipt  of  the  charter  the  company  had  dis- 
patched two  explorers  to  the  region  of  their  grant  (ChaUonSj  Hancm)^ 
and  in 

1607,  George  Popham  and  Raleigh  Gilbert  led  120  colonists  to  the 

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294  Modem  Higtory.  A.  Dw 

northern  (M^onv.    They  built  Fort  SU  Oeorqe  on  Parher^i  "  Isl* 
and'^  (peninsula),  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec  Riyer  in 
Maine  (Aug.  11).    The  death  of  Georse  Popham  and  of  Sir 
John  Pophfun  in  England  (1608)  so  disheartened  the  colonists 
that  they  returned  to  England.    No  further  attempts  at  settle^ 
ment  being  made  for  some  time,  the  French  (who  had  also  a 
claim  to  these  renons  (see  1604^  planted  several  colonies  withiu 
the  territory  of  tne  Plymouth  Company. 
1614.  Exploration  of  the  coast  of  the  northern  colony  by  John  Smith 
from  Penobscot  to  Cape  Cod*    On  his  return  he  wrote  an  ac« 
count  of  his  voyage  and  published  a  map  of  the  district  explored, 
to  which  the  name  of  New  England  was  given.    iVoublo 
with  the  Indians,  springing  from  the  action  of  Thomas  Hunt, 
who  carried  oft'  twenty-seven  natives  to  the  West  Indies  for 
slaves,  discouraged  settlement. 
After  the  frustration  of  an  attempt  at  colonization  by  Smith  in 
1615  through  adverse  circumstances,  the  company  itself  made  no  more 
attempts  at  settlements,  and  the  colonies  that  grew  up  in  its  territories 
were  founded  by  companies  or  individuals  under  its  charter  but  in- 
dependent of  its  action.     One  of  the  most  important  settlements,  in- 
deed, was  made  without  any  authority  from  tne  company.    In  1620 
the  company  was  reorganized  as  the  Council  at  Plymouth  for  New 
England  with  territory  from  Philadelphia  to  Chaleur  Bay  (40^  N.  to 
48°  N.  across  tue  continent). 

1620.  Settlement  of  Plymouth  in  New  England  by 
English  separatists  from  Holland. 
This  religious  sect,  a  sort  of  left  wing  of  the  larger  body  of 
Puritans,  hiui  left  England  in  1607-8  on  account  of  the  intolerance 
with  which  they  were  treated,  and  settled  at  Leyden  in  Holland 
(1609)  to  the  number  of  1000  or  more,  under  their  minister,  John  Rob' 
inson.  After  several  attempts  to  secure  a  patent  from  the  London 
company  (South  Virp^ia),  and  a  promise  of  toleration  from  the 
king,  they  succeeded  m  the  former  endeavor  in  1619,  but  not  in  the 
latter.  Procuring  two  ships  (Speedioell,  Mayflower) ,  a  part  of  the  con- 
gregation, and  some  others,  set  sail  Aug.  5,  from  Southampton  (hav- 
ing left  Leyden  in  July)  for  the  vicinity  of  Hudson^s  River,  Twice 
driven  back  by  stress  of  weather  the  Pilgrims  (a  name  applied  much 
earlier  to  the  whole  body  in  Holland)  finally  left  Plymouth  in  the 
Mayflower,  Sept.  6.  On  r^ov.  9  they  sighted  Cape  Cod,  but  instead 
of  running  southward  they  were  induced  bv  fear  of  shoal  water,  by  the 
late  season,  and  perhaps  by  the  cunning  of  the  shipmaster,  to  anchor 
at  the  Cape.  On  Nov.  11,  the  company  signed  a  compact  of  govern- 
ment (they  being  beyond  the  limits  of  the  London  Company),  and 
elected  John  Carver  governor.  For  some  weeks  they  explored  the 
coast,  landing  at  various  places.  (Birth  of  Peregrine  White,  the  first 
European  cMld  bom  in  New  England).  Toward  the  close  of  De- 
cember they  fixed  on  the  site  of  Plymouth,  and  landing,  began  the 
erection  of  a  house  and  portioned  out  land  among  the  settlers  (nine- 
teen fomilies,  102  individuals).^ 

A  The  date  is  disputed  ;  that  of  the  landing  of  the  whole  body  can  hardly  fas 

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A.  D.  America.  295 

1621.  Intercourse  of  the  colonists  (Capt.  Miles  Standish)  with  the  Ii>- 
dians  (Samoset,  MaBsasoit,  chief  of  the  Indians  in  that  vicin- 
ity).    Upon  the  death  of  Carver,  'William  Bradford  was 
elected  governor.    Arrival  of  a  new  patent  from  the  Plymouth 
Company,  also  made  out  in  the  name  of  the  London  merchants, 
with  whom  the  Pilgrrims  had  formed  a  partnership  before  sail- 
ing.     Over  fifty  of    the  original  settlers  diea  this    year. 
Trouble  with  the  Indians  1621*23. 
Meantime  the  territory  of  the  Plymouth  Company  was  being  par- 
celed out  among  various  adventurers  by  often  conflicting  grants.    In 
1621  Sir  William  Alexander  obtained  a  patent  for  the  whole  of  Aca- 
dia, under  the  name  of  Nova  Scotia,  from  the  crown  of  Scotland 
(confirmed,  1625).    The  region  from  Salem  Rvoer  to  the  Merrimac  was 
granted  to  John  Mason  and  called  Mariana.     In  1622  Sir  Fernando 
Gorges  and  JoAn  Mason  obtained  a  grant  of  all  lands  between  the 
Merrimac  and  the  Kennebec,  which  region  was  called  at  first  Laconia, 
afterwards,  Bffaine.    In  1622  settlements  were  made  on  the  site  of 
the  present  Dover  (Cochecho)  and  Portsmouth,     In  1624  a  few  Puri- 
tans from  England  settled  at  Cape  Ann  ;  the  colony  afterwards  re- 
moved to  Nawnkeag  (Roger  Conant,  1626).    In  1626  Captain  Wollas- 
ton  settled  at  Mount  iVoUastony  near  Boston. 

1623.  The  Plymouth  Company  sent  out  Francis  West  as  **  Admiral  of 
•  New  Eneland,'*  Robert  Gorges  as  "Governor-General,"  and 
William  Morrell  as  "  Superintendent  of  Churches  "  but  nothing 
came  of  this  assertion  of  authority. 

1627.  The  colony  at  Plymouth  succeeded  in  buying  off  the  London 
merchants  in  whose  name  their  charter  had  been  issued. 
Growth  of  the  colony  ;  friendly  intercourse  with  the  Dutch. 

1628.  The  Plymouth  Company  issued  a  grant  of  the  land  between 
three  miles  south  of  the  Charles  Kiver,  and  three  miles  north 
of  the  Merrimiac,  reaching  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  to 
a  company  which  sent  Jmn  Endicott  as  governor  and  colonists 
who  joined  the  others  at  Navmkeag.  In  1629  the  name  of  the 
colony  was  changed  to  Salem. 

The  colony  at  Plymouth  obtained  a  grant  on  the  Kennebec 
Suppression  of  the  settlement  at  Wollaston  ("  Merry  Mount  'O 
by  £ndicott    Morton,  who  after  WoUaston's  departure  had 
ruled  the  colony  and  sold  firearms  (?)  to  the  Indians,  was  ' 
seized  by  Standish  from  Plymouth  and  sent  to  England. 

1629.  Establishment  of  the  company  of  Massachu- 
setts Bay  (*'  The  Governor  and  Company  of  Massachusetts  Bay 

th  New  England  ")  by  a  charter  issued  directly  by  the  crown  to  the 
company,  enlarged  by  new  associates,  which  had  settled  Salem.  The 
eompany  was  permitted  to  elect  a  governor,  deputy  governor,  and 
eighteen  assistants  yearly,  and  to  make  laws  not  repugnant  to  those  of 
England.    The  first  governor  of  the  company  was  Matthew  Cradock, 

ucertained ;  the  landing  of  the  first  exploring  partv  seems  to  have  taken  place 
•n  Dec.  11,  O.S.,  or  Dee.  21  (22),  K  S.  (confusion  here  also).  See  Oay^  *'  Wbea 
lid  the  Pilgrioi  Fathers  land  at  Flymouth? '' —  AttatUic  Jfonthly,  Novembe:& 
1881,  p.  612. 


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296  Modem  Hiitory.  ▲.  d. 

A  namber  of  influential  men  soon  becoming  interested  in  the  enter- 
prise, the  governing  council  or  court  of  Uie  company  in  England 
(that  is  to  say,  "  The  Governor  and  Company  of  Massachusetts  Bay 
in  New  England")  consented  that  the  charter  and  eovemment 
should  be  transferred  to  the  colony  (Aug.  29),  under  which  agree- 
ment John  "Winthrop  was  chosen  governor,  and  in  1630  Miiled 
for  New  England  with  a  large  number  of  settlers,  who  landed  at 
Charlestaum,  where  an  offshoot  from  the  Salem  colony  was  already 
established.  Here  a  church  was  founded  and  two  courts  of  assistants 
held. 

1629.  Mason  and  Gorges  dissolving  their  connection,  a  new  grant  was 
made  to  each,  Mason  receiving  the  territoiy  between  the 
Menimac  and  the  PiscaiaquOy  a  region  afterwards  called  New 
Hampshire.^  (Gorges  received  the  region  between  the  Pis- 
cataqua  and  the  Kennebec,  under  the  naAie  of  New  Somerset" 
shire. 

1630.  Third  and  last  patent  of  the  Plymouth  colony,  whereby  it  was 
assigned  the  district  between  the  Cohasset  River  and  the  Nar- 
raganset^  extending  westward  to  the  limits  of  PokenahU  or 
Sowamset.  **  The  colonists  were  allowed  to  make  orders,  or- 
dinances, and  constitutions,  for  the  ordering,  disposing,  and 
governing  their  persons,  and  distributing  the  lands  withm  the 
Emits  of  the  patent." 

1630.  Settlement  of  Boston,  on  the  peninsula  called  Shatomut  by 
the  Indians,  but  Trimountain  by  the  English,  and  then  inhab- 
ited by  an  episcopal  minister,  William  BlacksUme.  On  Sept. 
7,  the  court  at  Charlestown  changed  the  name  of  Trimountain 
to  Boston.  First  general  court  of  Massachusetts  held  at 
Boston,  Oct.  19.  It  was  enacted  that  the  freemen  should 
elect  the  assistants,  who  were  to  choose  out  of  their  own  num- 
ber the  governor,  but  the  next  court  decreed  that  the  governor, 
deputy  governor,  and  assistants  should  be  elected  directly  by 
the  freemen.  Only  church-members  were  freemen,  so  that  the 
freemen  formed  a  minority  of  the  population.  In  1631  a 
fortified  town  was  begun  on  the  Charles  and  called  Newtown 
(afterwards  Cambridge). 

Colony  of  Connectiout. 

The  Dutch  (Adrian  Block,  1614)  were  the  first  to  explore  the 
coast  of  Connecticut  and  the  river  of  that  name,  when  they  built  a 
fort  near  Hartford.  In  1630  the  council  of  Hymouth  granted  to  the 
earl  of  Warunck  the  land  120  miles  S.  E.  from  the  Narraganset  River, 
and  extending  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  In  1631  Warwick 
transferred  this  grant  to  the  viscount  Say  and  Se<d,  lord  Brook,  and 
others.  In  1633  the  colonies  of  Plymouth  and  Boston  conferred  on 
the  question  of  settling  the  Connecticut  valley  ;  as  the  Massachu- 
setts colony  declined  the  enterprise  a  company  was  sent  out  from 

1  The  **  Deed  from  four  Indian  sagamorefl  to  John  "W]ieelwright  and  othen, 
1629,*'  long  accepted  as  the  foundation  of  the  history  of  New  Hampshire,  it 
now  generally  accounted  a  forgery.  Holmes,  Annah,  1. 199,  note  2.  Win* 
tbrop,  Journal,  ed.  by  Savase.    Fogg,  Gazeteer  o/N.  H. 


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Am  d.  America.  297 

Flymoaih,  which  disregarded  theprohibition  of  the  Datch  and  set  up 
a  noose  on  the  Connecticut.    The  rival  chums  of  the  Dutch  and 
English  were  discussed  without  effect  hy  the  colonies. 
1034.  The  growth  of  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay  preventing 
the  attendance  of  all  freemen  at  the  general  court,  it  was  en- 
acted that  whereas  four  courts  should  be  held  in  a  year,  the 
whole  body  of  freemen  should  be  present  at  that  court  only  in 
which  the  elections  were  held  ;  at  tne  other  courts  the  freemen 
in  the  towns  should  send  deputies. 
1635.  Surrender  of  the  Charter  of  the  Coimoil  of  Plymouth 
to  the  ororwa  in  consequence  of  the  hostility  of  the  goyem- 
ment  and  church. 

1635.  Foundation  of  the  Connecticut  colony  by  emigrants  from  Mas- 

sachusetts (Windsor,  Wethersfield,  Hartford),  and  by  John 
Wmthrop,  son  of  Grovemor  Winthrop  of  Massachusetts,  who 
built  a  fort  at  Saybrook,  under  commission  from  the  proprie- 
tors. In  1636  a  large  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  Newtown 
^Cambridge)  migrated  to  Connecticut  iwd  settled  at  Hart- 

1636.  A  code  of  laws   (the  General  Fundamentals)  established  at 

Plymouth. 

1636.  Foundation  of  ProYidence  by  Roger  'WlUiame,  who  had 
been  expelled  from  SaUm  in  1634  for  holding  heretical  doc- 
trines subversive  of  church  and  state. 

1637.  War  of  Connecticut  (first  general  court  at  Hartford)  and  Mas^ 
sachuseits  against  the  unruly  tribe  of  Pequnts  in  Connecticut. 
Extermination  of  the  Indians  (Capt.  John  Mason}, 

1638.  Foundation  of  the  colony  of  Rhode  Island  by  John  Clark 
and  others,  who  left  Massachusetts  on  account  of  religions 
differences.  Purchase  of  the  island  of  Aquednech  (afterwards 
Isle  of  Rhodes)  from  the  Indians. 

Foun^tion  of  the  colony  of  New  Haven  in  Connecticut  under 
Davenport  and  Eaton, 

In  this  year  another  attempt  was  made  by  quo  warranto  pro- 
cess to  rescind  the  charter  of  Massachusetts,  but  it  failea  of 
success. 

In  consequence  of  a  beauest  of  £779  178.  2d.  from  John  Har- 
vardf  of  Charlestown,  the  public  school  which  the  colony  had 
enacted  in  the  previous  year  should  be  established  at  Newtown 
received  the  name  of  Harvard  College,  while  the  name  of 
the  town  was  changed  to  Cambridge. 

1639.  WindscTy  Hartford,  Wethersjield,  on  the  Connecticut,  united  to 
form  a  separate  government.  The  constitution  (Jan.  14) 
placed  the  executive,  leg^lative,  and  judicial  powers  in  the 
general  assembly,  composed  of  the  deputies  of  the  towns  in 
the  ratio  of  mmibers  of  freemen,  meeting  twice  a  year.  All 
could  vote  who  had  taken  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  con- 
stitution. 

The  grant  of  Sir  Fernando  Gorges  was  confirmed  to  him  by 
the  crown  under  the  title  of  the  Provinoe  of  Maine. 

A  general  aaaembly  of  the  deputies  of  the  towns  in  Ply 
mouth  colony  met  for  the  first  time  (June  4). 

Digitized  Dy  VjOOQ IC 


298  Modem  Hutory.  A.  ix 

1641.  The  Body  of  Liberties,  a  code  of  100  laws  established  by 
the  general  court  of  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay. 

1643.  Creation  of  the  United  Colonies  of  New  Bngland  by  the 
alliance  of  Conneotioat,  New  Haven,  Plymouth  and  Maa- 
saohusetta  Bay  (May  19)  for  mutual  defense. 

B.  Dutoh  Settlements. 

1609.  Henry  Hudson,  an  Englishman  in  Dutch  service,  coasted 
from  NewfoundUmd  to  the  Chesapeake,  and  entered  Hudson*8 
River,    Trading  vowes  of  the  Dutch  (1610-1613). 

1613.  Establishment  of  a  Dutch  trading  post  on  the  island  of  Man- 
hattan at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson^  or  North  River  (so  called 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  South  River,  or  Detaware)*  Alleged 
submission  of  the  Dutch  to  Argal  (p.  292). 

1614.  Establishment  of  the  United  New  Netherland  Company 
in  Holland  with  a  grant  in  America  of  territory  from  40^-  N. 
to  45^  N.  Fort  built  at  ManhaUan,  another,  Fort  Orange,  near 
the  present  Albany  a615V  Voyage  of  Adrian  Block  through 
Long  Island  sound  {Block  Island). 

1621.  Creation  of  the  Dutch  West  India  Conq>any  to  take  the  place 
of  the  New  Netherland  Company  whose  charter  had  expired. 

1626.  Feter  Minuit^  having  purchased  Manhattan  Island  for 
twenty-four  dollars,  founded  the  settlement  of  New 
Amsterdam. 

Settlements  were  made  under  the  charter  of  the  company  in  Con- 
necticut, New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Pennsylvania,  as  well  as  in  New 
York.  Many  of  these  were  founded  under  an  enactment  of  the  com- 
pany which  gave  the  title  of  patroon  to  any  person  who  should  bring 
over  a  certain  number  of  colonists  under  certain  conditions  ;  the  title 
represented  a  certain  relation  of  suzerainty  between  the  founder  and 
the  colonists. 

The  council  for  New  England  had  opposed  what  it  regarded  as  the 
Dutch  invasion  in  1620-21,  and  the  remonstrances  of  the  English 
grew  stronger  after  the  foundation  of  New  Amsterdam  (1627, 1&2). 
The  settlement  of  Connecticut  from  New  En^hmd  (1632-1638)  was 
opposed  by  the  Dutch  in  vain,  and  the  entire  region  was  wrested 
from  them.  (Protest  of  Kieft,  governor  of  New  Netherlands  against 
the  foundation  of  New  Haven.)  The  Dutch  drove  a  flourishing  trade 
with  the  Five  Nations  of  the  Iroquois  in  central  New  York,  whom  they 
supplied  with  firearms. 

C.  Swedish  Settlements. 

1638.  Foundation  of  Fort  Christina  on  the  Delaware  by  a  colony  of 
Swedes  and  Finns.  The  colony  was  called  New  Sweden, 
and  was  followed  by  other  settlements.  The  Dutch  considered 
this  an  invasion  of  their  rights,  but  the  disputes  that  followed 
led  to  no  result  until  1655,  when  New  Stoeafn  was  annexed  to 
New  Netherlands* 


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A*  D.  America.  299 


D.  New  France  and  the  Arctic  Region. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  France  claimed,  by  right  of  the  di»- 
eoveries  of  Verrazano,  the  whole  of  North  America  north  of  Spanish 
Florida  and  Mexico,  although  settlements  had  been  made  only  in 
Noya  Scotia  and  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  nothing  having  come  of  the 

»rojected  settlement  between  Spanish  Florida  and  English  Virginia. 

t  was  with  the  French  in  the  north  that  the  English  settlers  had  to 
deal ;  it  was  to  Canada  that  they  applied  the  name  of  New  France,  as 
that  of  Acadia  was  restricted  to  Nova  Scotia.  From  the  north 
the  French  afterwards  made  the  great  discoveries  in  the  west  which 
gave  them  new  claims  to  the  larger  part  of  America. 
1606.  An  attempted  settlement  on  Cape  Cod  repulsed  by  the  Indians. 


!i 


1608.  Foundation  of  Quebec  (July  3)  by  a  colony  sent  oat 
by  De  Monts,  under  Champlaiii. 

1609.  Champlaitiy  joining  a  war  party  of  the  Algonquins  against  the 
Iroquois,  discovered  Lake  Champlain. 

1610.  Discovery  of  Hudson's  Bay  by  Henry  Hudson^  who  was 
searching  for  the  northwest  passage,  in  the  service  of  an 
English  company.  On  the  return  the  crew  mutinied  and 
Hudson  was  put  to  sea  in  a  small  boat,  and  not  heard  of 
again. 

1610.  English  colony  sent  to  Newfoundland  46^  N.  to  52°  N.  (Con- 
ception Bay)' 

1612.  Voyage  of  Hiomas  Button  in  search  of  the  Northwest  Passage. 

Discovery  of  New  South  Wales  and  New  North  Wales,  Button* s 
Bay, 

1613.  Madame  de  ChAercheoUley  having  secured  the  surrender  of  De 

Monts^  patent,  and  the  issue  of  a  new  patent  from  the  crown 
for  all  New  France  between  Florida  and  the  jS^^  Lawrence 
(except  Port  Royal)  y  sent  Saussage  with  two  Jesuits,  who  took 
possession  of  Nova  Scotia  and  founded  a  colony  (St,  Saviour) 
on  Mt,  Desert,  which  was  immediately  broken  up  by  ArgaVs 
expedition  from  Virginia.  AU  the  French  settlements  in 
Acadia  were  also  destroyed. 

1615.  Expedition  of  Champlain  to  I^e  Huron. 

1616.  Voyage  of  Bylat  and  Baffin  in  search  of  the  Northwest  Pas- 
sage. Discovery  of  Wolstenholme^s  Sound,  Lancaster  Sound, 
Baffin^s  Bay  (78°  N.). 

1621.  Grant  of  Acadia  under  the  name  of  Nova  Scotia,  to  Sir 
William  Alexander  by  the  crowu  of  Scotland.  An  attempt  at 
settlement  was  unsuccessful  and  the  French  continued  in  pos- 
session. Grant  of  a  part  of  Newfoundland  to  Sir  George  Cal- 
vert (Lord  Baltimore)  who  resided  there  until  1631. 

1627.  Transfer  of  the  colony  of  Quebec  to  the  company  of  a  hun- 
dred associates  under  Cardinal  Richelieu. 

1629.  Conquest  of  Quebeo  by  Louis  and  Thomeu  Kertlc,  under  a 
commission  from  Charles  I.  for  the  conquest  of  New  France. 
An  attack  of  David  Kertk  in  1628  had  been  repulsed  by 
Champlam, 


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300  Modem  JRstory.  ▲.  d. 

1630.  St.  Egtienne  of  La  Tour,  a  Hugaenot,  bought  from  Sir  William 
Alexander  his  patent  for  Nova  Sootia,  on  condition  that  the 
colony  should  remain  subject  to  Scotland. 

1631.  Voyages  of  Fox  and  Jameg  in  search  of  a  Northwest  Passage. 
Fox  explored  the  west  coast  of  Hudson  Bay  from  65^  30Mto 
55^  lO'  m  Tain,  but  discovered  Fox's  Channel  and  reached  Cape 
Peregrine.  James  discovered  James  Bay,  where  he  passed  a 
terrible  winter. 

1632.  Treaty  of  St.  G^ermain  between  France  and  England.  Ces- 
sion of  New  France,  Acadia^  and  Canada  to  France. 

1635.  Seizure  of  the  trading  post  established  •  at  Penobscot  by  the 
Plymouth  colonists  by  the  French.  Plymouth  sent  a  vessel 
against  the  French,  but  failed  to  recover  the  place.  Death 
of  Champlain. 

1641.  Maisonneuve  appointed  governor  of  Montreal ;  in  1642  he 
brought  over  several  families  and  took  possession  of  the 
island.  (See  p.  $57.) 

§  a.    GERMANY  TO  THE  THIBTT  TEABS'  WAR.     THE  REFORMA- 
TION. (See  p.  tSS.) 

1493-1519.   MazimUian  L, 

who  first  took  the  title  of  "  Roman  Emperor  elect.** 
1495.  Diet  at  Worms.  Perpetaal  pablio  peace.  Imperial  Cham- 
ber (Reichskammergericht\  first  at  Frankfort,  then  at  Speier, 
after  1689  at  Wetzlar.  At  the  diet  of  Cologne  (1612),  establishment 
of  ten  circles  for  the  better  maintenance  of  the  public  peace  (Land" 
friedenskreise):  Circle  of  :  1.  Austria  ;  2.  Bavaria  ;  3.  Stocina;  4.  Fran- 
conia ;  5.  tiie  Upper  Rhine  H^jorraine,  Hesse,  etc.)  ;  6.  the  Lower 
Rhine,  or  the  Electorates  (Mainz,  Trier,  Cologne)  ;  7.  Burgundy 
(1556,  ceded  to  the  Spanish  line  of  Hapsburg)  ;  8.  Westphalui ;  9. 
jLower  Saxony  (Brunswick,  Liineburg,  Lauenburg,  Holstem,  Meck- 
lenburg, etc.)  ;  10.  Upper  Saxony  (Saxony,  Brandenburg,  Pomer- 
ania,  etc.).  In  all  comprising  240  estates  of  the  empire,  exclusive 
of  the  imperial  kniehts.  Bohemia  and  the  neighboring  states,  Moravia^ 
Silesia,  Lusatia,  with  Prussia  and  Suntzeruind,  which  was  already 
completely  independent,  in  fact,  were  not  included  in  the  circles. 

Establishment  of  the  Aulic  Council,  a  court  more  under  the  contrdi 
of  the  emperor  than  the  Imperial  Chamber,  and  to  which  a  large  port 
of  the  work  belonging  to  the  latter  waa  padually  diverted. 

Maximilian  was  obliged  to  invest  Loms  XII.  of  France  with  Milan. 
1508.  League  of  Cambray  between  Maximilian,  Louis  XII.,  Pope 
'  Julius  II.,  and  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  against  Venice.    Maxi- 

milian took  possession  of  a  part  of  the  territory  of  the  republic,  but 
besieged  PiBidua  in  vain  (1509).  The  Pope  withdrew  from  the 
league,  and  concluded  with  Vemce  and  Ferainand  the  Holy  League 
(1511)  against  France,  in  which  they  were  finally  (1513)  joined  by 
Maximilian  (p.  319). 

Tlie  following  genealogical  table  shows  the  claim  of  the  house  cf 
Hapsburg  to  Spam,  and  its  division  into  a  Spamsh  and  German  line. 


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A.  I9i 


Germany.  —  JReformatiaru 


801 


MaximUiam  I..Z 
Msperor,  1 16^* 


■Ji«ry^ 


of 

d.  of  Charles 
the  Bold, 
duke  of  Banrundy. 
Philip  the  Fair,  === 
archduke  of  Austria, 
tlM6. 

SPANISH. 


Ferdinand,  = 
king  of  Aragon, 
t  1516. 


=  l8ahena, 
queen  of  Castilcb 
♦  1604. 


=  Joanna  the  Insane, 
queen  of  Aragon  and  Castile^ 

GSBMAir. 


Oiariesr.  (V.),  t  1668. 
m.  Isabella  of  Portugal. 

Philip  n.,  kinj^  of  Spain, 


Ferdinand  I.,  1 1664. 
m.  Anna  of  Hungary. 


Maximilian  11., 
emperor,  1 1676. 


Mazimiliau's  son  Philip  married  Joanna,  daughter  of  Ferdinand 
(king  of  Aragon  and  Naples)  and  Isabella  (queen  of  Castile\  hence 
heiress  of  the  three  kingdoms  and  the  American  Colonies,  Philip  him- 
self inherited  from  his  mother,  Manr,  the  heiress  of  Burgundy,  the  Bur^ 
ffundian  Lands  j  from  his  father,  Maximilian^  all  the  possessions  of  the 
Hapsburgs  ( Jvestem  Austria  on  the  ^pper  Rhine,  Austria^  Carinthia, 
Camioloj  Tyrol,  eicX  All  these  lands  descended  to  Charles,  the  eldest 
son  of  Phihp  and  Joanna,  the  ancestor  of  the  elder,  Spanish,  line  of 
the  Hapsburg  house.  His  younger  brother,  Ferdinand,  ancestor  of 
the  youneer,  German,  line  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  married  Anna, 
sister  of  Louis  II.,  last  king  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary  (whose  wife 
was  Mary,  Ferdinand's  sister).! 

1517.  Beginning  of  the  Reformation.    Luther. 

Martin  Luther  was  bom  1483  at  Eisleben,  son  of  a  miner, 
became  master  of  arts  and  instructor  1505  ;  monk  in  the  Augustine 
monastery  at  Er/urt;  1507  priest;  1508  professor  at  Wittenberg;  1511 
sent  to  Rome  on  business  connected  with  his  order;  1512  doctor  of 
theology.  On  Oct.  31, 1517,  he  nailed  upon  the  door  of  the  court 
church  at  Wittenberg  his  ninety-five  theses  against  the  misuse  of 
absolution  or  indulgences  (especially  by  the  Dominican  monk  Tetzd), 

1518.  Beginning  of  the  reformation  in  Switzerland  by  Zwingli  at 
ZOrich.    Zwin^li  fell  in  battle  at  Kappel  1531. 

Summoned  to  Augsburg  by  Cardinal  de  Pto  of  Gaeta*  (Cajetanus), 
Lather  could  not  be  induced  to  abjure  (1518),  but  appealed  to  the 
Pope.* 

Mediation  of  the  papal  chamberlain  v.  MiUitz,  After  the  discussion 
at  Leipzig  1519  {Bodenstein,  called  Carlstadt,  against  Eck),  the  latter 
secured  a  papal  bull  against  forty-one  articles  in  Luther's  writings. 

1  These  fortunate  marriages  of  the  house  of  Austria  were  celebrated  in  ths 
A>lIowing  couplet : 

Bella  gerant  aUittu/eUx  Austria,  nvbe! 
Qam  dot  Mars  aliiSf  dot  tibi  rtgma  Venus. 
s  Ds  Papa  male  i^formato  ad  Papam  melius  i^formandum^ 


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302  Modem  History,  ▲.  d. 

Luther  burnt  (1520)  the  papal  bull  and  the  canon  law  ;  whereupon 
he  was  excommnnu»ted.  In  the  mean  time  the  German  electors,  in 
spite  of  the  claims  of  Francis  I.  of  France,  had  chosen  the  grandson 
of  Maximilian  I.  in  Spain,  Charles  I.,  as  emperor. 

1519-1556.    Charles  V. 

He  came  to  Grermany  for  the  first  time  in  1520,  for  the  puiw 
pose  of  holding  a  grand  diet  at  Worms  (1521).  There  Luther 
defended  his  doctrines  before  the  emperor,  under  a  safe-conduct.  The 
ban  of  the  empire  being  pronounced  against  him,  he  was  carried  to 
the  Wartburg  oy  Frederic  the  Wise,  of  Saxony,  and  there  protected. 
The  edict  of  Worms  prohibited  all  new  doctrines.  Luther's  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible.  Hearing  of  Carlstadt's  misdoings  he  returned  to 
Wittenberg,  and  introduced  public  worship,  with  the  liturey  in  Grer- 
man  and  communion  in  both  kinds,  in  electoral  Saxony  and  in  Hesse 

il522).    The  spread  of  the  Reformation  iu  Grermany  was  favored  by 
lie  fact  that  the  emperor,  after  the  diet  of  Worms,  had  left  Grermany 
and  was  occupied  with  the  war  with  Francis  I. 

Franz  von  6ickingen  and  Ulrich  van  HuUen  advocated  the  Reforma- 
tion. Sickingen  stood  at  the  head  of  an  association  of  nobles  directed 
against  the  spiritual  principalities.  He  laid  siege  to  Trier  (1522)  in 
vain,  was  besieged  in  Landstuhl,  and  fell  in  battle.  HuUen  fled  the 
country  and  di^  on  the  island  of  Ufnau  in  the  Lake  of  Zurich  (1523). 

1524-1525.  The  Peasants'  War,  in  Swabia  and  Franconia,  ac- 
companied with  terrible  outrages.  The  Twelve  Articles.  The 
peasants  defeated  at  Konigshofen  on  the  Tauberand  cruelly  punished. 
Anabaptists  in  Thuringia.  Thomaa  MUmer  captured  at  Franken- 
hausen  and  executed. 

Reformation  in  Prussia.  Grandmaster  Albert  of  Brandenburg 
duke  of  Prussia  under  Polish  overlordsbip. 

Luther's  marriaee  with  Catharine  of  Bora,  formerly  a  nun.  Cate» 
chism.  Ferdinand  of  Austria,  the  emperor's  yowiger  brother,  edu- 
cated in  Spain,  to  whom  Charles  had  intrusted  since  1522  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Hapsburg  lands  in  Germany,  formed  an  alliance  in 
1524,  at  the  instigation  of  the  papal  legate  Campeggioy  with  the  two 
dukes  of  Bavaria  and  the  bishop  of  Anthem  Germany,  in  order  to 
oppose  the  religious  changes.  To. counteract  this  moye  the  league  of 
Torgau  was  formed  (1526)  among  the  Protestants  (John  of  Saxony, 
Philip  of  Hesse,  LUneburg,  Ma^eburg,  Prussia,  etc.).  They  pro- 
curea  an  enactment  at  the  diet  of  Speier,  favorable  to  the  new  doctrine 
(1626). 

1521-1526.    First  war  of  Charles  V.  with  Francis  I. 

Charles  advanced  claims  to  Milan  and  the  duchy  of  Burgundy. 
Francis  claimed  Spanish  Navarre  and  Naples.  The  French  (under 
^Lautrec)  were  driven  from  Milan,  which  was  given  to  Francesco  Sforza 
(1522).  The  French  Connetable,  Charles  of  Bourbon,  transferred  his 
allegiance  to  Cluirles  V.  Unfortunate  invasion  of  Italy  by  the  French 
1523-24,  under  Bonnivert,  The  chevalier  Bayard  ('*  suns  peur  et  sans 
reproche  ")  fell  during  the  retreat.  Imperial  forces  invaded  southern 
France.    Francis  I.  crossed  Mt.  Cenis,  and  recaptured  Milan. 


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A' D.  Germany,  —  Hefarmatian.  503 

1525.  Battle  of  Pavla.    Fnmeis  defeated  and  captured. 

1526.  Peace  of  Madrid.     Francis  renounced  all  claim  to  Milan, 
Genoa,  and  Naples,  as  well  as  the  overlordship  of  Flanders 

and  Artois,  assented  to  the  cession  of  the  duchy  of  Burgundy,  and 

gave  his  sons  as  hostages  * 

1527-1529.    Second  war  between  Charles  Y.  and  Francis  I.,  who 

had  declared  that  the  conditions  of  the  peace  of  Madrid  were 
extorted  by  force,  and  hence  void.  Alliance  at  Cognac  between  Fran- 
ci»,  the  Pope^  Venice  and  Francesco  Sforza  against  the  emperor.  The 
imperial  army,  unpaid  and  mutinous,  took  Kome  by  storm  under  tho 
constable  of  Bourlwn,  who  fell  in  the  assault  (by  the  hand  of  Ben- 
venuto  Cellini  f);  the  Pope  besieged  in  the  Castle  of  St.  Aneelo  (1527). 
The  French  general,  LatUrec^  invaded  Naples,  but  the  rev<3t  of  Genoa 
(Doria)y  whose  independence  Charles  V.  promised  to  recognize,  and 
the  plague,  of  which  Lautreo  himself  died,  compelled  the  French  to 
raise  the  siege  of  the  capital  and  to  retire  to  France. 
1529.    Peace  of  Cambxay  (Paix  dea  Dames).    So  called  from  the 

fact  that  it  was  nesotiated  by  Margaret  of  Austria,  Charles's 
aunt,  and  Louise  of  Savoy,  duchess  of  Angouldme,  mother  of  Francis. 
Francis  paid  two  million  crowns  and  renounced  his  claims  upon  /ta/y, 
Flanders  and  Artois  ;  Charles  promised  not  to  press  his  claims  upon 
3uTgimdy  for  the  present,  and  released  the  French  princes. 

1529.  Second  diet  at  Speier,  where,  in  consequence  of  the  victorious 
position  of  the  emperor,  Ferdinand  and  the  Catholic  partv  took 

a  more  decided  position.  The  strict  execution  of  the  decree  of  Worms 
(p.  302)  was  resolved  upon.  The  evangelical  estates  protested  against 
this  resolution,  whence  they  were  called  Proteatants. 
1526-1532.  War  with  the  Tnrka.  Louis  II.,  king  of  Hungary, 
having  fallen  in  the  battle  of  Mohacs  (1526),  one  party  chose 
Ferdinand,  Charles's  brother,  the  other  John  Zapdya.  The  latter 
was  assisted  by  the  Sultan  Soliman  {Suleiman),  who  besieged  Vienna 
in  vain  (1529). 

1530.  Charles  crowned  emperor  in  Bologna  by  the  Pope.    This  was 
the  last  coronation  of  a  German  emperor  by  the  Pope. 

1530.  Brilliant  Diet  at  Augabiirg,  the  emperor  presidmg  in  per- 
son.   Presentation  of  &e  Confeaaion  of  Angabnrg  (Conies- 

sio  Augustana)  by  Melanchthan  (true  name  Schwarzerd,  1497-1560), 
the  learned  friend  of  Luther.  The  enactment  of  the  diet  commanded 
the  abolition  of  all  innovations. 

1531.  Schmalkaldic  league,  agreed  upon  in  1530,  between  the  ma- 
Feb.  6.    jority  of  Protestant  princes  and  imperial  cities. 

Charles  caused  his  brother,  Ferdinand,  to  be  elected  king  of  Rome, 
and  crowned  at  Aachen.  The  elector  of  Saxony  protested  against 
this  proceeding  in  the  name  of  the  Evangelicals.  In  consequence  of 
the  new  danger  which  threatened  from  the  Turks, 

1532.  Religiooa  Peace  of  Nuremberg.    The  Augsburg  edict  was 
revoked,  and  free  exercise  of  their  religion  permitted  the 

Protestants  until  the  meeting  of  a  new  council  to  be  odled  within  a 
year. 


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804  Modem  JSittary.  A.  n. 

Soliman  invaded  and  ravaged  Hnneary.  Heroic  defence  of  Glins. 
A  ^at  imperial  army  was  sent  to  tne  aid  of  Hungary,  and  Soliman 
retired. 

1534-1535.  Anabaptiats  in.Miinster  (Johann  Bockelsohn,  from  Ley- 
den^. 

1534.  Philip,  landgnkve  of  Hessen,  restored  the  Lutheran  duke, 
Ulrich  of  Jyhrtemberg,  who  had  been  driven  out  (1619)  by 
the  Swaoian  league  of  cities.  The  emperor  had  invested  Fer- 
dinand with  the  duchy,  but  the  latter  was  obliged  to  agree  to 
a  compact,  whereby  he  was  to  renounce  Wiirtemberg,  but 
should  be  recognized  as  king  of  Rome  by  the  evangelical 
party. 

1535.  Charles's  expedition  against  Tttnis  (Chmreddin  Barbaroisa^  the 
pirate).    Tunis  conquered  ;  liberation  of  all  Christian  slaves. 

153&-1538.  T&ird  war,  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  L,  about 
Milan  ;  Francis  I.  bavins  renewed  his  claims  upon  that  duchy 
after  the  death  of  Francesco  Sforza  II.,  without  issue.  Charles  in- 
vaded Provence  anew,  but  fruitlessly.  Francis  made  an  inroad  into 
Savoy  and  Piedmont,  and  accepted  the  alliance  of  Soliman^  who 
pressed  Hungary  hard,  and  sent  his  fleet  to  ravage  the  coast  of  Italy. 
The  war  was  ended  by  the 

1538.  Tmoe  of  Nice,  which  was  concluded  on  the  basis  of  posses- 
June  18.    sion,  at  the  time  of  its  formation,  for  ten  years. 

July.    Meeting  between  Charles  and  Francis  at  Aigues  Maries. 

1539-1540.  Charles  Y.  crossed  France,  for  the  purpose  of  suppress- 
ing a  disturbance  in  Ghent,  and  was  received  by  Francis  with 
special  distinction.  Ghent  punished  by  deprivation  of  its  privi- 
leges. 

1540.  The  Order  of  Jeaoita,  founded  by  JgnaHus  Loyola  (1534), 
approved  by  Poj>e  Paul  lU.,  successfully  opposed  the  spread 
of  the  Reformation. 

1541.  Reformation  introduced  into  Geneva  by  Calvin  (Jean  Catp- 
vm,  from  Noyon  in  Picardy;  bom  1509;  Catholic  nastor  in  his 

eighteenth  year,  resigned  his  office ;  studied  law  at  Orleans  and 
Bonrges  ;  came  f orwiu^d  as  a  reformer  at  Paris  in  1532,  finding  pro- 
tection from  Margaret  of  Navarre,  sister  of  Francis  I.  Fziled  nom 
France,  Calvin  went  to  Basel,  published  the  InstihUio  christkmce  rdig- 
umis  1535 ;  1536-1538  in  Geneva ;  1538-1541  in  Strasburg,  after- 
wards head  of  the  state  in  Geneva,  f  1564).  From  Geneva  the 
Reformation  spread  to  France  and  Scotland  (John  Knox). 

1541.  Charles's  unsuccessful  expedition  against  Algiers, 

1542.  Henry,  duke  of  Brunswick- Wolfenbtittel,  driven  from  tbe 
country  by  the  Schmalkaldic  League. 

1642-1544.  Fonrth  war  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.,  occa- 
sioned by  the  investiture  of  Charles's  son,  Philip,  with  Milan, 
The  fact  that  two  secret  agents,  whom  Francis  had  sent  to  Soliman« 
were  captured  in  Milan,  and  when  they  resisted,  put  to  death,  served 
as  a  pretext 


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A.  IK  Germany. — Reformation,  905 

Fianois  in  alliance  with  Sclman  and  the  duke  of  Cleoe,  The  allied 
Turldak  and  French  fleets  bombarded  and  plundered  Nice.  Charles, 
in  alliance  with  Henry  VIII,  of  £nglana,  conqnered  the  doke  of 
Cleve,  and  advanced  as  far  as  Soissons.  SoUmau  invaded  Hongaiy 
and  Austria. 

1544.    Peace  of  Creapy  ;  Francis'  second  son,  the  duke  of  Orleans, 
Sept.  18.    was  to  marry  a  princess  of  the  imperial  family  and  receive 
Milan.    He  died  in  1545,  however  ;  Milan  continued  in  the 
possession  of  the  emperor,  who  gpave  it,  nominally,  to  his  son  Philip, 
as  a  fief.    Francis  gave  up  his  clauns  to  Naples,  and  the  overlordship 
of  Flanders  and  A^is;  Charles  renounced  his  claims  to  Burgundy. 
1545-1563.    Coiincil  of  Trent,  not  attended  by  the  Protestants. 
Reforms  in  the  church.     Establishment  of  a  number  of  dog- 
mas of  the  Catholic  church. 

1546,  Feb.  18.    Death  of  Luther  at  Eisleben. 

Charles  V.,  who,  since  the  peace  of  Crespy,  was  unhindered 
by  foreign  complications,  sought  to  crush  the  independence  oi 
the  estates  of  the  empire  in  Germany,  and  to  restore  the  unity  of  the 
church,  to  which  he  was  urged  by  the  Pope,  who  concluded  an  alli- 
ance with  him,  and  promised  money  and  troops. 

1646-1547.    Sohmalkaldio  War. 

The  leaders  of  the  lea|^e  of  Schmalkalden,  John  Frederic^ 
elector  of  Saxony,  and  PhiUp,  hmdgrave  of  Hesse,  placed  under  tl» 
ban.  Duke  Maurice  of  Saxony  concluded  a  secret  alliance  with  the 
emperor.  Irresolute  conduct  of  the  war  by  the  allies  in  upper  Crer- 
many.  The  elector  and  the  landgrave  could  not  be  induced  by  gen- 
eral Schdrtlin  of  Augsburg  to  make  a  decisive  attack,  and  finally  re- 
tired, each  to  lus  own  land.  John  Frederic  of  Saxony  reconquered 
his  electorate,  which  Maurice  had  occupied.  Charles  V.  first  reduced 
the  members  of  the  league  in  southern  Grermany  (Augsburg,  Nurem- 
berg, Ulm,  duke  of  Wiirtemberg,  etc.)  to  subjection,  then  went  to 
Saxony,  forced  the  passage  of  the  Elbe,  and  defeated  in  the 

1547.  Battle  of  Mtthlberg,  on  the  Lochau  Heath,  near  Torgau  the 
24  April,    elector  of  Saxony,  captured  him,  and  besieged  his  capital, 

Witteribera.    Treaty  mediated  by  Joachim  II.  of  Branden- 
burg.   The  electoral  dignity    and  lands  given  to  the  Albertine 
line  (duke  Maurice).     The  Ernestine  line  retained  Weimar,  Jena, 
Euenach,  Gotha,  etc.    The  elector  was  kept  in  captivity.    Philip  of 
Hesse  surrendered,  and  was  detained  in  captivity,  although  Maurice 
and  Joachim  II.  of  Brandenburg  had  pledged  themselves  for  his 
liberation.    Interim  of  Augsburg  (1548),  not  generally  accepted  by 
the  Protestants.   The  city  of  Magdeburg,  the  centre  of  the  opposition, 
placed  under  the  ban.    Maurice  of  Sazony,  intrusted  with  the  exe- 
cution of  the  decree,  armed  himself  in  secret  against  Chai'les  V.,  and 
1552.  Surprised  the  emperor,  after  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  of. 
Fnedewalde  (1551)  with  Henry  II,  of  France,  and  forced  him 
to  liberate  his  father-in-law,  Philip  of  Hesse,  and  to  conclude 
the 
|iK52.  Convention  of  PasMu.    Free  exereiM  of  religion  for  ih» 


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806  Modem  JKHory*  ▲.  dl 

Aug.  2.    adherents  of  the  oonfession  of  Aanhnrg  until  the  next  diet 
Manrioe  defeated  Albert^  margrave  (»  Brandenboig-Ciilmbaoh 
at  Sieoenkausm  (1553),  bat  was  mortally  wounded. 

1555.  Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg. 
Sept.  25. 

The  ierrUorial  princes  and  the  free  citiea,  who,  at  this  date, 
acknowled^[ed  the  confession  of  Aa|;sburg,  received  freedom  of  wor- 
s^p,  the  right  to  introduce  the  rerormation  within  their  territories 
(^ttf  refonmndi)^  and  equal  rights  with  the  Catholic  estates.  No 
agreement  reached  as  regarded  the  E^lesiastioal  Reservation  that 
bishops  and  abbots  who  became  Protestant  should  lose  their  offices 
and  incomes ;  but  this  provision  was  inserted  by  imperial  decree. 
This  peace  secured  no  privileges  for  the  reformed  rtUgion  (Grenevan). 
1552-1556.  War  between  Charles  V.  and  Henry  XL,  who,  as  the 
ally  of  Maurice,  had  seized  Afste,  Tout,  and  Verdxnn,  Charles 
besieged  Metz,  which  was  successfully  defended  by  Francis  of 
Guise. 

The  truce  of  VawxUee  left  France,  provisionally,  in  possession  of 
the  cities  which  had  been  occupied. 

1566*   Abdioation  of  Charles  V.  in  Bmsseb  (Oct  25, 

1555,  and  Jan.  15, 1556). 

The  crown  of  Spain  with  the  colonies,  Naples^  MUan^  Franche" 
CmnUy  and  the  Netherlands,  went  to  his  son  Philtp;  the  imperial  office 
and  the  Hapsburff  binds  to  his  brother  Ferdinand  L  (p.  3^  303). 
Charles  lived  in  Uie  monastery  of  St.  Just  as  a  private  individual^ 
but  not  as  a  monk,  and  died  there  in  1558. 

1556-1564.  Ferdinand  L. 

husband  of  Anna,  sister  of  Louis  II.,  king  of  Bohemia  and 
Hungary,  after  whose  death  he  was  elected  king  of  these  countries 
by  their  estates.  Constant  warfare  over  the  latter  country,  which  he 
was  obliged  to  abandon,  in  great  part,  to  the  Turks.    His  son, 

1564-1576.  Maximilian  n., 

was  of  a  mild  disposition  and  favorably  inclined  to  the  Protes- 
tants, whom  he  left  undisturbed  in  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion. 
War  with  Za^ya,  prince  of  Transylvania,  and  the  Turks.  Sultan 
Solvman  II.  died  in  camp  before  Sigeth,  which  was  defended  by  the 
heroic  Zriny,  By  the  truce  with  Selim  II,  (1566)  each  party  retained 
its  possessions.  The  imperial  knight,  Grwnhach,  who  had  broken  the 
puUic  peace  by  a  feud  with  the  bishop  of  Wiirzburg,  had  plundered 
the  city  of  Wiirzburg  (1563),  and  had  been  protected  by  John  Fred- 
eric, duke  of  Saxony,  was  placed  under  the  ban,  and  after  the  cap- 
ture of  Gotha,  cruelly  executed  (1567).  The  duke  was  kept  in  strict 
confinement  in  Austria  until  his  aeath. 

Reaction  against  Protestantiam.    Anti-Reformation. 

1676-1612.   Rudolf  II.,  son  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian  II., 
a  learned  man,  an  astrologer  and  astronomer  {JKepler^  f  1630^ 


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iL,J>* 


Gemutny. 


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808  Modem  Hutarg.  ▲•  D* 

mc  appontod  lutpgiuu  matheuyitipwm  bj^  liiiii^y  bat  iogipalilg  of  yoy- 
endng.  New  qamneb  orer  tlie  eeelesiartieadreserTaftioo  (p.  306).  The 
iiupeiial  eitj  of  Z^onaiacorfA,  placed  under  the  baa  bj  the  emperor, 
mob  had  disturbed  a  Catholic  prooessioii,  was,  in  spite  of 


the  prcrfiibition  of  the  emperor,  retained  by  Mtmrnilian  of  Bavaria, 
who  had  ezeented  the  ban  (1607).    These  troubles  led  to  the  form»- 
tioo  of  a 
.  1006.  Protestant  Union  (leader,  Frederie  lY.,  elector  Fklatine), 

wfaieh  was  opposed  by  the 
1009.  CatiioHo  Leagna   (leader,  MaTimilian,  duke  of   Baiaria). 
5  of    ■     " 


Both  princes  were  of  the  bouse  of  Wittelshaeh. 
Rudolf  from  whom  his  brother,  Matthias,  had  forced  the  eeasioD 
of  Hongary,  MoraTia,  and  Austria,  hoping  to  conciliate  the  Bohe- 
mians gare  them  the 

1609.  Royal  Charter  (Mt^egtattbnef),  which  permitted  a  free  exer- 
cise of  religion  to  the  three   estates  of  lords^  bii^Als,  and 
rmfolcUies. 
1609.  Beginning  of  the  quarrel  about  the  succession  of  JiSkk-Cleoe 
on  the  death  of  John  William,  duke  of  Cleve.      The  dedor 
of  Brandenburg  and  the  prinoe  of  Neuburg  were  the  principal 
claimants. 
Rudolf,  toward  the  close  of  his  life,  was  forced  by  Matthias  to  ab- 
dicate the  goremment  of  Bohemia. 

1612-1619.  Matthias, 

being  childless,  and  having  obtained  the  renunciation  of  his 
brothers,  secured  for  his  cousin  Ferdinand,  duke  of  Stjria,  Carin- 
thia,  and  Camiola,  who  bad  been  educated  by  the  Jesmts  in  strict 
Catholicfism,  the  succession  in  Bohemia  and  Hungary,  in  spite  of  the 
objections  of  the  Protestant  estates. 

S   i.   THE  THIRTr  TEABS*  WAR. 

1618-1648. 

The  Thirty  Years'  War  is  generally  divided  into  four  periods, 
which  were  properly  as  many  different  wars.  The  first  two»  the  Bo^ 
hendan  and  the  Danish^  had  a  predominant  religious  character ;  they 
developed  from  the  revolt  in  Bohemia  to  a  general  attack  by  Catholic 
Europe  upon  Protestant  Europe.  The  latter  two,  the  Swedish  and 
Sweduh'Inrench,  were  political  wars  ;  wars  against  the  jpower  of  the 
house  of  Hapsbnrg,  and  wars  of  conquest  on  the  part  of  Sweden  and 
JFhmce  upon  Oerman  soiL 

1.  Period  of  war  In  Bohemia  and  the  Conntj  Palatine. 
(16ia-1623.) 

Occaalon  :  Closing  of  a  Utraqnist  ^  church  in  the  territory  of  the 
abbot  of  Braunauy  and  destruction  of  another  in  a  city  of  the  orpA- 
U$h€p  of  Prague,  that  is,  in  the  territory  of  ecclesiastical  estates,  which 

I  Utragmtt,  that  is,  favoring  communion  ia  both  kinds. 

Digitized  Dy  VjOOQ IC 


A.  w  thrmany,  —  Thirty  Ttar^  War.  809 

aocoiding  to  the  Tiew  of  the  Protestants  ought  to  he  regarded  as 
royal  estates,  in  accordance  with  the  Bohemian  constitution.^  •  The  irri- 
tation of  the  Bohemian  Protestants  (Utraqnists)  was  increased  by  the 
transference  of  the  administration  of  the  country  to  ten  governors, 
seven  of  whom  were  Catholics.  Meeting  of  the  defensors,  and  revolt 
in  Prague,  headed  by  count  Matthias  of  Thum.  The  governors,  Mar- 
tinitz  and  Slawala,  and  the  secretary,  FaJbricius,  thrown  from  a  win- 
dow in  the  palace  of  Prague,  seventy  feet  into  the  dit^h,  but  escaped 
with  their  lives  (May  23, 1618).  Thirty  directors  appointed  by  the 
rebels.  The  Protestant  Union  sent  count  Mansfeld  to  the  aid  of 
the  Bohemians.  From  Silesia  and  Lusatia  came  troops  under  mar- 
erave  John  George  o/Jdgemdorf.  The  imperial  forces  were  defeated 
by  Mansfeld  and  count  Thum.    The  emperor  Matthias  died  1G19. 

Count  Thum  marched  upon  Vienna.  The  Austrian  estates,  for  the 
most  part  Protestants,  threatened  to  join  the  Bohemians,  and  made 
rough  demands  upon  Ferdinand,  who,  bv  his  ooura^  and  the  arrival 
of  a  few  troops,  was  rescued  from  a  dangerous  situation.  Thum, 
who  arrived  before  Vienna  shortly  afterwurds,  was  soon  obliged  to 
retire  by  an  unfavorable  turn  of  the  war  in  Bohemia.^  Ferdinand 
went  to  Frankfort,  where  he  was  elected  emperor  by  the  other  six 
electors. 

1619-1637.    Ferdinand  II. 

Meantime  the  Bohemians  had  deposed  him  from  the  throne  of 
Bohemia  and  elected  the  young  Frederic  V,,  elector  palatine,  the  head 
of  the  Union  and  of  the  German  Calvinists,  son-in-law  of  James  I.» 
king  of  England.     ("The  Winter  King"). 

Count  Thum,  for  the  second  time  before  Vienna,  allied  with  Beth" 
Un  Gabor,  prince  of  Transylvania  (Nov.  1619).  Cold,  want,  and  an 
inroad  of  an  imperial  partisan  in  Hungary,  caused  a  retreat. 

Ferdinand  leagued  himself  with  Maximilian,  duke  of  Bavaria,  head 
of  the  Catholic  League,  the  friend  of  his  youth,  who  helped  him  sub- 
due the  Austrian  estates,  with  Spain  (Spinola  invaded  the  county 
palatine;  treaty  of  Ulm,  July  3, 1620;  neutrality  of  the  Union  se- 
cured), and  with  the  Lutheran  elector  of  Saxony,  who  re-subjugated 
Lusatia  and  Silesia.  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  with  the  ami^  of  the 
League  commanded  by  TiUUf  marched  to  Bohemia  and  joined  the 
imperial  general  Buquoy,    They  were  victorious  in  the 

1620>  Nov.  8.    Battle  on  the  White  Hill 

over  the  troops  of  Frederic  V.,  under  the  command  of  ChriS" 
Han  ofAnhaU.  Frederic  was  put  under  the  ban,  and  his  lands  confis- 
cated ;  he  himself  fled  to  Holland.  Christian  of  Anhalt  and  John 
Greor^  of  Brandenburg-Jiigemdorf,  abo  put  under  the  ban.  Sub- 
jugation of  the  Bohemians,  destruction  of  the  Royal  Charter,  ex- 
ecution of  the  leading  rebels,  extirpation  of  Protestantism  in  Bohemia. 
Afterwards,  violent  anti-reformation  in  Austria,  and,  with  less  vio- 
lence, in  Silesia. 

Dissolution  of  the  Protestant  Union  and  transfer  of  the  seat  of  war 

1  Cf.  Glndely,  Gesch.  d.  drtimojShr,  KrUgi.  vol.  i.  (1869),  chap.  2. 
fl  GHndely,  ii.  (1878),  chap.  S. 


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310  Modem  Biitary.  A*  IX 

to  the  palatinate,  which  was  conquered  in  execution  of  the  ban  by 
Maximilian's  general,  Tilly  (Jan  Tzerkku,  baron  of  Tilly,  bom  1559, 
in  the  Walloon  Brabant),  with  the  help  of  Spanish  troops  under 
Spmola.  Tilly,  defeated  at  Wieshch  by  Mans/eld  (April,  1622),  de- 
fcated  the  margrave  of  Baden-Durlach  at  Wimpfen  (May),  and 
Christian  of  Brunswick,  brother  of  the  reigning  duke  and  adrnmistro' 
tor  of  the  bishopric  of  Halberstadt,  at  H6chst  {Jvaae,  1622),  and  again 
at  Stadtlohn  in  Westphalia  (1623). 

X623.  Maximilian  received  the  electoral  vote  belonfi;ing  to  Frederic 
V.  and  the  Upper  Palatinate  ;  Saxony  obtained  Lusatia  for  the 
present  in  pledge. 

2.    Daniah  Period.    Beat  of  War  in  Zaower  Saxony. 
1625-1629. 

Chriatian  IV.,  king  of  Denmark  and  duke  of  Holstein,  was  the  head 
of  the  Lower  Saxon  Circle,  and  the  leader  of  the  Protestants. 

Albert  of  Wallenatein  (Waldstein,  bom  1583,  in  Bohemia,  of  an 
ntraquist  family,  but  educated  in  the  Catholic  faith,  1617  count,  1623 
prince  of  the  empire,  1624  duke  of  Friedland)  became  the  Imperial 
commander  of  an  army,  recruited  by  himself,  which  was  to  be  provi« 
sioned  by  a  system  of  robbery. 

WaUenstein  defeated  Mansfeld  at  the  Bridge  of  Deaaau  (1626) 
pursued  him  through  Silesia  to  Hungary,  where  Mansfeld  joined 
Bethlen  Gdbar,  Mansfeld  died  in  Dalmatia  (Nov.,  1626).  Christian 
of  Brunswick  had  died  in  June  of  the  same  year. 

TiUy  defeated  Christian  IV.  at  Luther  am  Barenberge,  in  Bruns- 
wick (Au^.,  1626).  Tilly  and  WaUenstein  conquered  Holstein  (1627). 
Wallenstem  alone  conquered  Schleeung  and  Jutland,  drove  the  dukes 
of  Mecklenburg  from  the  country,  forced  the  duke  of  Pommerama  to 
submission,  but  besieged  Btralaiind  (1628)  in  vain,  the  citizens  de- 
fending themselves  heroically  for  ten  weeks. 

1629.    Peace  of  Ltlbeck 

May  22.    between  the  emperor  and  Christian  IV.    Tlie  latter  re- 
ceived his  lands  back,  but  promised  not  to  interfere  in  (rerman 
affairs,  and  abandoned  his  allies.    Hie  dukes  of  Mecklenburg  put  un- 
der the  ban.    WaUenstein  invested  with  their  lands. 

1629,  March  29.  Edict  of  Reatitation:  1.  Agreeably  to  i^ecdenoi- 
tical  reservation  (p.  306),  all  ecclesiastical  estates  which  had 
been  confiscated  since  the  convention  of  Passan  should  be  restored. 
This  affected  two  archbishoprics:  Magdebura  and  Bremen;  twelve  bis- 
hoprics: Minden,  Verden,  Halberstadt,  Lubeck,  Ratzeburg,  Meissen, 
Mersebura,  Naumburg  (the  latter  three  were,  however,  left  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  elector  of  Saxony),  Brandenburg,  Havelberg,  Lebus  and 
Camin,  besides  very  many  (about  120)  monasteries  and  foundations. 
2.  Only  the  adherents  of  the  Augsburg  confession  were  to  have  free 
exercise  of  religion  ;  aU  other  **  sects  "  were  to  be  broken  up.  Be« 
ginning  of  a  merciless  execution  of  the  edict  by  WaUenstein's  troops 
and  those  of  the  League. 


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A.  D.  Germany*  —  Thirty  Tean*  War.  811 

1690.    X&eotoral  Assembly  at  Regensburg  (Ratisbon). 

The  party  of  Bavaria  and  the  League  was  hostile  to  Wallen* 
stein  and  took  up  a  position  of  determined  opposition  to  the  too  pow- 
erful general.  An  excuse  was  found  in  the  loud  and  well  founded 
complaints  of  all  estates  of  the  empire,  particularly  the  Catholics,  over 
the  terrible  extortion  and  cruelty  practiced  by  Wallenstein's  army. 
The  emperor  consented  to  decree  the  dismissid  of  the  general  and  a 
large  part  of  the  army. 
1627-1631.    War  of  succession  over  Mantua  by  the  houses  of  Nevera 

and  GuasiaUa,  The  former,  supported  by  France  {Richelieu 
himself  took  the  field)  obtained  the  duchy  in  the  peace  of  Cherasco 
(April  6)  although  the  imperial  forces  had  been  viotoriotts  and  cap- 
tured Mantua. 

3.  Swedish  Period  (1630-1635). 

1630.  Gnstavus  n.,  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden,  landed  on 
July,    the  coast  of  Pomerania. 

Object  and  grounds  of  his  interference :  protection  of  the  oppressed 
Protestants  ;  restoration  of  the  dukes  of  Mecklenburg,  his  relatives ; 
the  rejection  of  his  mediation  at  the  peace  of  LUbeck ;  anxiety  in 
regwrd  to  the  maritime  plans  of  the  emperor. 

Political  position  of  Sweden :  Finland,  Ingermannland,  Esthonia, 
Livonia,  belonged  to  the  kingdom  of  Gostavus  ;  Curland  was  under 
Swedish  influence.  An  ambitious  monarch  might  easily  dream  of 
the  acquisition  of  Prussia  and  Pomerania,  which  would  have  almost 
made  tne  Baltic  a  Swedish  sea. 

Gustavus  concluded  a  subsidy  treaty  with  France  (Richelieu). 

Gustavus  Adolphus  drove  the  imperial  forces  from  Pomerania 
and  marched  up  the  Oder,  where  Tilly  came  against  him  (1631).  The 
kine  went  to  Mecklenburg.  Tilly  retired  to  the  Elbe,  and  laid  siege 
to  Magdeburg.  Gustavus  Adolphus  captured  Frankfort  on  the  Oder, 
Negotiations  with  his  brother-in-law,  Ueorge  William,  elector  of  Bran- 
dem)urg  (161^1640),  who  was  under  the  influence  of  Schioarzenberg 
Spandau  was  at  last  surrendered  to  him.  Negotiations  in  regard  to 
the  surrender  of  Wittenberg,  with  Saxony,  which  endeavored  to  main- 
tain the  position  of  a  third,  mediatory,  party  in  the  empire,  a  sort  of 
armed  neutrality  (diet  of  princes  at  Leipzig,  1631),  and  was  with 
difBculty  brought  to  form  an  alliance  with  an  enemy  of  the  empire. 
Meanwhile 

1631.  Capture  of  Magdeburg  by  Tilly.    The  storm  was  conducted 
May  20.    by  Pappenheim.    Terrible  massacre  and  sack  of  the  city  by 

the  unbrialed  soldiery  of  Tilly,  who  did  what  he  could  to  check 
the  outrages.  Fire  broke  out  suddenly  in  many  places  far  removed 
from  one  another,  and  the  whole  city  with  the  exception  of  the  cathe* 
dral  was  consumed  (Not  by  Tilly's  command).^ 

Tilly  took  possession  of  Halle,  Eisleben,  Merseburg,  and  other  cities 

*  Probably  the  fire  wm  net  hx  previous  ap-eement  of  the  more  determined 
portion  of  tlie  defenders  ( FatkenStrg),  CL  Wltttoli,  Magdehurg,  Guitav  Adolf 
•Tray,  vol.  iL  1874.  •       yw«,    ar, 


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812  Mkiem  BUtory.  a.  iw 

and  bomed  Aem.  John  George,  elector  of  Sudoi^,  fonned  an  aHi* 
anee  with  Gastavns  Adolphiis,  who  eroesed  the  Elbe  at  Wittenberg. 
Leipzig  oecopied  by  Tilly.  The  imperial  army  and  that  of  the 
Swedes  and  oazons,  each  aboat  40,000  strong,  were  face  to  face. 

163L    Battle  of  Leipeis  or  Breitenf eld. 
Sept  17.    The  Saxons  were  at  first  put  to  rout  by  Tilly,  but  after  a 
bhwdy  fight  Gostayns  Adolphns  won  a  brUliant  Tictory. 

The  Saxons  entered  Bohemia.  Gostavus  crossed  Thnringia  and 
Franeonia  to  the  Rhine  by  way  of  Erfvatl,  WOrdntrg,  Hanauj  Frank" 
fnU  Darmsiadty  crossed  the  Mine  at  Oppenkeimt  ana  oocnpied  Mainz. 
Winter  (quarters. 

Meantime  Pragne  was  captured  by  the  Saxons  nnder  Amim  (Boyf- 
zenhurg),  a  former  subordinate  of  Wallenstein.  The  emperor  hekd 
fruitless  negotiations  with  the  Saxons. 

At  the  urgent  request  of  Ferdinand,  Wallenstein  collected  an  army, 
oyer  which  he  reoeiyed  unconiroiled  command.  He  recaptured  Prague, 
and  droye  the  Saxons  from  Bohemia.  Their  eagerness  for  the  war 
and  the  Swedish  alliance  was  already  chilled. 

1632.    Gustayus  adyanced  to  the  Danube  by  way  of  Nurembei^g  to 
meet  lllly.    Conflict  at  Rauij  near  the  confluence  of  the  Cenz 
and  the  Danube.    Tilly,  mortally  wounded,  died  at  Ingolstadt.    He 
was  seyenty-three  years  old. 

Gustayus  went  to  Augsburg,  yainly  besieeed  Maximilian  in  InEol- 
stadt,  but  forced  Munich  to  surrender.     Wallenstein  summoned  to 
the  assistance  of  Ma-Timilifiii- 
1632.    Fortified  camp  near  Nuremberg. 

July-Sept.  (BwrggUUT).  Gustayus  and  Wallenstein  face  to  face  for 
eleyen  we^.  Wallenstein  declined  battle.  Reinforced  by 
Bemhard  of  Saxe-Weimar,  the  Swedes  attacked  Wallenstein's  in- 
trenchments,  but  were  repulsed  with  heayy  loss.  Gustayus  adyanced 
to  the  Danube.  Wallenstein  turned  upon  Saxony,  now  defenseless, 
^Vjiiim  haying  marched  through  Lusatia  to  Silesia  with  the  Saxou 
and  Brandenburg  troops.  Terrible  ravages  committed  by  the  bands 
of  Wallenstein.  At  the  call  of  the  elector  of  Saxony,  Gustayus 
hastened  back  by  way  of  Kitzineen  and  Schweinfurt,  joined  Bern- 
hard  of  Saxe-Weimar  in  Amstadt,  marched  upon  Naumburg,  and 
hearing  that  Wallenstein  had  dispatched  Pappenheim  from  Leipzig 
to  the  Rhine,  attacked  the  imperial  forces  (18,000  against  20,000 
Swedes). 

1632.    Battle  of  Liitzen.    Death  of  Qustavus  Adol- 

phus.^ 
Noy.  16.    Pappenheim,  recalled  in  haste,  took  part  in  the  battle 
with  his  cayalry,  after  three  o'clock  ;  he  was  mortally  wounded* 
The  Tictory  of  the  Swedes  was  completed  by  Bemhard  of  Saxe- 
Weimar. 

Bernhardt  Gustavus  Horn,  and  Ban^  took  command  of  the  Swedish 
forces.    The  conduct  of  foreign  affairs  was  assumed  by  the  Swedish 

^  The  siupicion  that  the  king  was  murdered  by  Frands  Albert,  duke  of  Lan- 
•nburg,  is  totally  unfounded. 


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A.  D.  Germany.  —  Thirty  Ttari  War.  813 

ohanoellor,  Axel  Ozonstiema  (bom  1583»  coanoillor  mnoe  1600). 
League  of  Heilbronn  between  the  oircles  of  Swabia,  Franconiay  Upper 
and  Lower  Rhine,  on  the  one  part,  and  Sweden  on  the  other. 

1633.  Expedition  of  Bemhard  of  Saxe-Weimar  to  Franconia.  He 
took  Bamberg  and  Hochstiidt,  drove  back  the  BavarianB  under 

Aldringer,  and  joined  fieldmarshal  Horn,    Bemhard  received  from 
the  chancellor  the  investiture,  with  the  bishoprics  of  Wurzburg  and 
Bamberg,  under  the  name  of  the  Duchy  of  Pranconia^  and  occupied 
the  upper  Palatinate. 
Feb,    After  Wallenatein  had  tried  and  punished  with  death  many 

of  his  officers  in  Prague,  and  had  nlled  their  places  with  new 
recruits,  he  marched  to  Silesia,  fought  with  the  Saxon,  Brandenburg, 
and  Swedish  troops,  and  negotiated  frequently  with  Amim.    Nego- 
tiations with  Oxenstiema. 
Oct.    Capture  of  a  Swedish  corps  at  StemavH)n4he'0der.  Wallenstein 

invaded  Brandenburg,  sending  raiders  as  far  as  Berlin,  and 

then  plundered  Lusatia. 
Nov,    Regensburg  (Ratisbon)  captured  by  Bemhard  of  Saxe-Weimar. 

Wallenstein  found  himself  unable  to  go  to  the  assistance  of  the 

elector  of  Bavaria,  as  the  emperor  urged,  and  went  into  winter 

quarters  in  Bohemia. 
Growing  estrangement  between  Wallenstein  and  the  imperial  court. 
The  Spanish  party  and  the  league  wished  him  removed  from  his  com- 
nuind.  Wallenstein  conducted  secret  negotiations  with  the  Saxons, 
the  Swedes,  the  French.  He  intended  to  create,  with  the  help  of  the 
army  (declaration  of  the  generals  PiocoUmUm,  G alias,  and  Aldrvnger, 
at  Pilsen)f  an  independent  position  for  himself,  whence  he  could,  with 
the  aid  of  the  two  north  German  electors,  liberate  the  emperor  from 
the  control  of  the  Spanish  party,  and,  if  necessary,  compel  him  to 
make  peace  and  reorganize  the  internal  affairs  of  the  empire  (on  the 
basis  of  a  religious  peace?  ).  He  had  resolved  upon  open  revolt  if  the 
hostile  party  continued  in  power.  Whether  he  harbored  a  wish  for 
the  crown  of  Bohemia,  along  with  other  fantastic  plans,  it  is  hard  to 
decide.  The  court  of  Vienna  succeeded  in  detaching  the  principal 
fenerals  (JPiocoUmim,  GaUas,  Aldrin^er,  Marradas,  CoUoredo)  from 
his  cause.     Ilow,  Trzka,  KinsH,  remained  faithful. 

1634.  Imperial  proclamation  :  <*  Friedland  was  concerned  in  a  con- 
Jan.  24.    spiracv  to  rob  the  emperor  of  his  crown."     The  chief 

officers  of  the  army  commanded  to  no  longer  obey  him. 

Feb.  18.  Second  proclamation,  formally  deposing  Wallenstein.  On 
the  24th  Wallenstein  went  to  Eger,  where  he  was  to  be  met  by 
Bemhard  of  Saxe-Weimar,  and  Amim.    There  occurred  the 

Feb.  25.  Aflsassinatioii  of  WaUensteiii  by  captain  Devereux,  at 
the  instie^ation  of  the  Irish  general,  Butler,  after  his  intimate 
friends  had  been  treacherouSy  massacred.  The  emperor  had 
not  commanded  the  murder,  nor  had  he  definitely  desired  it  ^ 
but  he  had  given  rein  to  the  party  which  he  knew  wished  "  to 
bring  in  WaSenstein,  aUve  or  dead,"  and,  after  the  deed  was 
done,  he  rev/arded  the  murderers  with  honor  and  riches. 

1634.  Victory  of  the  imperialists  under  Ferdinand,  the  emperor's  son, 
and  Gridlas  and  the  Bavarians  (John  of  Werth),  over  the  Swedes 
at  XVdrdlinsen. 


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81  i  Modem  History.  A.  IV 

1636.    Pecuse  of  Pcaffue, 

May  30.  between  the  emperor  and  the  elector  of  Sazonj.  1.  The 
elector  received  Lusatia  pemianently>  and  the  archbishopric  of 
Magdeburg  for  his  second  son,  August,  for  life.  2.  Those  ecdesuutical 
estates,  not  held  immediately  of  the  emperor,  which  had  been  confis- 
cated before  the  convention  of  Passau  (p.  305),  should  remain  to  the 
possessor  forever;  dU  others  should  remain  for  forty  years  (from 
1627),  and  in  case  no  further  understanding  was  reached  before  the 
expiration  of  that  period,  forever,  in  the  condition  in  which  they  were 
on  Nov.  12, 1627.  3.  Amnes^,  except  for  participants  in  the  dis- 
turbances in  Bohemia  and  the  Palatinate  ;  common  cause  to  be  made 
against  Sweden.  The  Lutherans  alone  to  be  allowed  freedom  of  wor- 
ship. Brandenburg  and  the  majority  of  the  other  Protestant  estates 
accepted  the  peace. 

4.  Swedlah-Frenoh  period  (163&-1648). 

The  policy  of  Sweden  was  determined  by  OxensttemOf  that  of 
France  oy  KicheUeu  (f  1642),  and  afterwards  by  Mazarin.  France 
fought  at  first  in  the  person  of  Bemhard  of  Saxe- Weimar  only,  with 
whom  subsidy-treaties  had  been  concluded,  and  who  was  trying  to 
conquer  himself  a  new  state  in  Alsace,  in  place  of  the  duchy  of 
Franconia,  which  he  had  lost  by  the  battle  of  Ndrdlingen.  Capture 
of  Breisachy  1638.  After  his  death  (1639)  France  took  control  of  his 
army. 

1636.  Victory  of  the  Swedes  under  Ban^  at  WittBtook  over  the 
imperialists  and  the  Saxons.  Death  of  Ferdinand  II.  His 
son, 

1637-1657.     Ferdinand  IIL,  was  desirous  of  peace. 
The  dnoal  house  of  Pomerania  became  extinct  (1637). 
After  the  death  of  Baner  (1641)  Tormtenson  became  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Swedes. 

1640.  Death  of  Georee  William.  Frederlo  William,  elector  of 
Brandenburg.     (The  great  elector,  1640-1688). 

1641.  Discussion  of  the  preHminaries  of  peace  in  Hamburg.  A  con- 
gress agreed  upon. 

1642.  Second  Battle  of  Leipzig  (Breitenfeld).  Torstenson  defeated 
the  imperialists  under  Piccolomini. 

Torstenson  threatened  the  hereditary  estates  of  the  emperor.  These 
Swedish  successes  aroused  the  envy  of  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark. 
Hence 

1643-1645.    War  between  Denmark  and  Sweden. 

1643.  Torstenson  hastened  by  forced  marches  through  Silesia,  Sax- 
Sept,    ony,  Brunswick,  to  the  north,  conquered  Holstein  and  Schles- 

wiff,  and  invaded  Jutland. 
Meanwhile  the  French  in  South  Grermany,  under  Marshall  GuebrianL 
bad  penetrated  to  Rottweil  (WiirtembergY  Gu^riant  fell  in  battla 
Shortly  afterwards  the  French,  under  KarUxau,  were  surprised  at 
Dutdingen  by  an  Anstro-Bavarian  army  under  Mercy  and  Werthf  and 
totally  defeated. 


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A.  D.  Germany.—  Thirty  Tears'  War.  815 

1643w     Opening  of  the  negotiations  for  peace  in  OmcMkk  with  the 
Swedes;  1044  in  MUnster  with  the  French. 
Marshal  Turenne  and  the  twent7-^ne-7ea]M)ld  prince  of  Bourhon, 
doke  of  Enghien,  afterwards  Prince  of  Condtf,  appointed  oomnumders- 
in-chief  of  the  French  troops.    They  forced  ike 

1644.  Bavarians  under  Mercy  to  retreat.  Condd  captored  Mann- 
heim, Speier,  and  Philippshurg.  Tvrenne  took  Worms,  Oppen- 
heim,  Mainz,  and  Landau. 

Meanwhile  an  imperial  army,  under  Gallas,  had  heen  sent  to 
the  aid  of  the  Danes,  who  were  hard  pressed,  both  by  land  and 
by  sea  (by  the  Swedish  admiral,  Gmtaxme  WrangeT).    The  int- 

1645.  perial  force  was  repulsed  by  Tontenson  and  KSnigsmark,  pur- 
Jan,     sued  into  Germany,  and  almost  annihilated  at  Magdeburg. 
March.    Brilliant  victory  of  Tontenson  over  the  imperialists  at  Jan- 

kati,  not  far  from  TVi&or,  in  Bohemia,  whereupon,  in  union 
with  the  prince  of  Transylvania,  Rakoczy,  he  conquered  the 
whole  of  Moravia,  and  advanced  hard  upon  Vienna. 

May.  Turenne  defeated  by  John  of  Werth  at  Mergenthem,  in  Fran- 
conia. 

Aug.     Turenne^  at  the  head  of  the  French  and  Hessians,  defeated  the 
Bavarians  at  AUersheim. 
Peace  between  Sweden  and  Denmark  at  Broin8ebro.(p.  362). 
After  a  futile  siege  of  Briinn,  the  plague  having  broken  out  in  his 

army,  Torsteyuon  returned  to  Bohemia.    He  resigned  his  command 

on  aocoimt  of  illness,  and  was  succeeded  by  Wrangd. 

1646.  Wrangel  left  Bohemia,  united  to  ms  own  force  the  Swedish 
troops  under  KiSfdgemarh  in  Westphalia,  and  joined  Turenne  at 
Giessen.  Swedes  and  French  invaded  Bavaria  and  forced  the 
elector  Maximilian  to  conclude  the 

1647.  Truce  of  Ulnij  and  to  renounce  his  alliance  with  the  emperor, 
after  Turenne  had  been  recalled,  from  env^  at  the  Swedish 

successes,  and  Wrangjd  had  gone  to  Bohemia,  Maximilian  broke  the 
truce  and  joined  the  imperiausts  again. 

1648.  Second  invasion  of  Bavaria  by  the  French  and  Swedes ;  terrible 
ravages.    A  flood  in  the  Inn  prevented  the  further  advance 

of  the  allies,  who  returned  to  the  upper  Palatinate.  The  Swedish 
eeneral  Eonifsmark  captured  that  part  of  Prague  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Moldau  {Kleinseite). 

Terrible  condition  of  Grermany.  Irreparable  losses  of  men  and 
wealth.  Reduction  of  population  ;  increase  of  poverty  ;  retrograda- 
tion  in  all  ranks. 

1648.  Peace  of  Westphalia. 
Oct  24. 

Negotiations  from  1645-1648.  Imperial  ambassadors,  count 
TrautmanrSdorf  eoid  Dr,  Volmar,  French,  count  d'Avaux  and  count 
Servien.  Swedish,  count  OxenstiemOf  son  of  the  chancellor,  and 
baron  ScUvius,  France  and  Sweden,  against  the  will  of  the  emperor, 
secured  the  participation  of  the  estates  cf  the  empire  in  the  negotiai 
tions. 


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816  Modem  Eistory,  A.  jk 

CondltioiiB  of  the  Peaoe.^ 

A,  Indenmificatians, 

1.  Sweden  received  as  a  fief  of  the  empire  the  whole  of  hUher 
Pomerania  and  RUffen  with  a  part  of  farmer  Pomerania  (Stettm, 
Grarz,  Damm,  Gollnow,  Wollin,  and  Usedom),  the  city  of  Wismar, 
formerly  belonging  to  Mecklenburg,  and  the  bishoprics  Bremen  (not 
the  city)  and  verden  as  secular  duchies,  and  five  million  rix  dollars. 
Sweden  became  a  member  of  the  diet  with  three  votes. 

2.  ZYance  received  without  reservation  of  the  feudal  overlordship 
of  the  empire,  hence  with  absolute  sovereignty  :  the  bishoprics 
and  cities  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun,  which  had  been  in  French 
hands  since  1552  ;  Pignerolf  the  city  of  Breisach,  the  landgmvate  of 
upper  and  lower  Alsace,  which  belonged  to  a  branch  of  the  Austrian 
house,  and  the  government  of  ten  imperial  cities  in  Alsace  (preefeo- 
tura  provincialis  decem  civitatum  imperialium),  with  express  acknowl- 
edgment of  their  previous  freedom.  The  other  imperial  estates  in 
Alsace  (particularly  Stzasbnrg)  retained  their  inuneaiate  relation  to 
the  empire  and  their  freedom.  France  also  received  the  right  of  gar- 
risoning Philippsburg. 

3.  Hesse-Caasel :  abbey  of  Hersfddy  Schaumburg,  the  fle&  of 
the  foundation  of  Minden,  and  600,000  riz  dollars. 

4.  Brandenburg  :  as  indemnification  for  Pomerania  which  be- 
longed to  Brandenburg  by  the  law  of  inheritance,  but  of  which  it  re- 
ceived the  larger  part  of  farther  Pomerania  only,  the  bishoprics  of 
Halberstadtj  Minden,  and  Camin  as  secular  principalities,  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Magdeburg  as  a  duchy,  with  the  reservation  that  it  should 
remain  in  possession  of  the  administrator  Atigust  of  Saxony,  during 
his  life  (t  1680). 

5.  Mecklenburg :  the  bishoprics  of  Sdiwenn  and  Ratzeburg  as 
principalities. 

6.  Brunswick  :  alternate  presentation  to  the  bishopric  of  (kna» 
brUckf  where  a  Catholic  and  evangelical  bishop  were  to  alternate. 

B.    Secular  Affairs  of  the  Empire. 

1.  General  amnesty  and  return  to  the  condition  of  things  in  1618. 

2.  The  electoral  dignity  and  the  upper  Palatinate  were  left  in 
the  hands  of  the  Wilhelmian  line  (Bavaria)  of  the  house  of  Wittels- 
bach,  while  a  new  electorate  (the  eighth)  was  created  for  the  Rur- 
dolfian  line  (Palatinate). 

3.  The  territorial  superiority  (Landeshoheit)  of  the  whole  body  of 
estates,  as  regarded  their  relation  to  the  emperor,  was  recognized, 
which  involved  the  right  of  concluding  alliances  with  one  another 
and  with  foreign  powers,  if  they  were  not  directed  against  empire  or 
emperor.  (Afterwards,  since  1663,  the  standing  diet  at  Regensburg 
developed  the  Grerman  constitution  more  in  detaD.) 

4.  The  republics  of  the  United  Netherlands  and  of  Switzerland 
were  recognized  as  independent  of  the  empire  (p.  247). 

1  K.  V.  Blohhom,  Deutsche  8taais-  u.  RechtsgtsdiicKu,  iv.  §  522  foU. 


Digitized  Dy  ^ 


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A.  D.  Oermany,  —  Thirty  Years'  War.  317 


C  Ecdesiastical  Affairs  (Oraomniina  eodesiastica). 

1.  The  Conoeniion  of  Passau  and  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  (p.  305) 
were  approved  and  extended  so  as  to  include  the  Calvinists, 

2.  Catholic  and  Protestant  estates  were  to  be  on  an  entire  equality 
in  all  flairs  of  the  empire. 

3.  January  1, 1624,  was  adopted  as  the  norm  (annus  narmaUs)  by 
which  questions  of  ownership  of  ecclesiastical  estates  and  exercise  of 
religion  should  be  settled.  As  things  were  upon  that  date,  so  they 
were  to  remain  forever  ;  that  is,  the  ecclesiasticcd  reservation  (p.  306) 
was  acknowledged  to  be  binding  for  the  future.  The  subjugated  Pro- 
testants in  Austria  and  Bohemia  obtained  no  rights  by  the  peace,  but 
those  evangelical  states  which  had  been  sained  by  the  anti-reformation 
during  the  war  (the  Lower  Palatinate,  nUrtenibergy  Baden,  etc.)  were 
allowed  to  resume  the  exercise  of  that  religion  wlach  had  been  theirs 
in  1618.  The  JUS  reformandi,  the  privilege  of  deciding  by  fiat  the  re- 
ligion of  those  subjects  to  whom  the  year  1628  did  not  secure  free  ex- 
ercise of  religion,  was  retained  for  the  future  by  the  territorial  lords. 
The  right  of  emigration  was,  however,  reserved  to  the  subjects  in  such 
cases.  The  imperial  court  (Reichskammeraericht)  was  restored,  and 
its  members  were  to  be  equally  divided  between  Protestants  and 
Catholics. 

France  and  Sweden  guaranteed  the  peace.  {See  p.  STL) 


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318 


Modem  Higtary. 


▲•Dw 


f».    FRANCE.  {8€€p,&ti2.) 

1498-1689.  Houses  of  Orleans  and  Anffoulime. 

Branch  line  of  the  house  of  Valois  (since  1328,  p.  257^  whoee 
relation  to  the  main  line  is  shown  in  the  following  genealogical  table  ; 

Charles  V.  (third  king  of  the  house  of  Yalois).    1364-1380. 


Charles  VX 

1380-1422. 


Charles  vn. 

1422-1461. 


IiOuisXI. 

1461-1483. 


Charles,  dnlEe  of  Orleans, 
t  1467. 


Xionis  Xn. 

1498-161S. 

m.  (>)  Anna 


I 
Louis,  duke  of  Orl^ann,  f  1407. 

m.  Valentine  Visconti. 
I 


of  Brittany, 

died  withott 

male  issne. 


Charles  VUL 

xh.  Anna  of  Brit- 
tany. 1483-1498. 
died  without 
male  issue. 


John,  count  of 

AngoulSme. 

f  1487. 


Charles,  count 

of  AngonlSme. 

t  1496. 

m.  Louise 

of  Savoy- 


Claudia - 


Henrjn. 

1647-1559. 
m.  Catharine  of  Medici. 


(S)  Franoia  L 
1616-1547. 


Franoia  n. 
1559-1660  m. 
Mary  Stuart 


Elizabeth 

PhiUpIL 
king  of 
Spain. 


1_ 


Charles  IZ. 
1660-1674. 


Henrjm, 

1674-1589. 
duke  of 
Anjou; 
king  of 
Poland. 


Fra[ncis,      Maigaret 
duke  of  m. 

Alen^on    Henry  IV. 
and        see  p.  323. 

Anjou, 
tl584. 


1498-1515.    Louis  XII. 

obtained  a  divorce  from  Joanna^  daughter  of  Lonis  XI.,  and 
married  Anna  of  Brittany,  widow  of  Charles  VIII.,  in  order  to  keep 
this  duchy  for  the  crown  ;  as  grandson  of  VcUentina  Visconti  he  laia 
claim  to  Milan,  drove  out  Ludovico  Maro,  who  was  imprisoned  when 
he  ventured  to  return  to  Milan  (1500). 
1501.  Louis  XII,  in  alliance  with  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  king  of  Aiv 

agon,  conquered  the  kingdom  of  Naples.    The  Spaniards  and 
French  soon  falling  out,  the  latter  were  defeated  by  the  Spanish  general 
Gonzalvo  de  Cordova  on  the  GarigUano  (1504).    Louis  XII.  gave  up 
his  claims  to  Naples. 
1508.  Lfouis  a  party  in  the  League  of  Cambray^  p.  900.    In  1511  the 

Pope,  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  and  Venice,  concluded  the  Holy 
League,  with  the  object  of  driving  the  French  out  of  Italy.    The  lat- 


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k*  D.  France.  819 

ter,  under  the  young  Gaston  de  Foix^  duke  of  Nemours,  nephew  of 
Louis  XII.,  were  at  first  successful  in  the  war,  taking  Brescia  (1512) 
by  storm  (Bayard,  "without  reproach  or  fear"),  and  defeating 
the  united  Spanish  and  Papal  armies  at  Ravenna,  with  the  aid  (9 
6000  German  mercenaries,  in  the  same  year  ;  they  were,  however, 
compelled  by  the  Swiss  to  evacuate  Milan.  In  1513  the  French 
formed  a  new  alliance  with  Venice,  but  were  defeated  by  the  Swiss 
at  Novara  and  withdrew  from  Italy.  Henry  YIII.  of  England,  who 
had  joined  the  Holy  League  in  1512,  and  the  emperor  MaTimilian 
who  had  joined  in  1513^  invaded  France,  and  defeated  the  French  at 
1513.  Guinegate^  called  the  "  Battle  of  the  Spurs  "  from  the  hasty 
Aug.  17.    flight  of  the  French. 

France  concluded  peace  with  the  Pope,  with  Spain  (1513), 
with  the  emperor,  and  with  Henry  YIII.  (1514).  Anna  of  Brittany 
having  died,  Louis  took,  as  his  third  wife,  Mary  the  sister  of  Henry 
YIII.  He  died  soon  after  the  marriage  (Jan.  1,  1515).  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  cousin,  the  Count  of  Angoulime,  who  had  married 
Claudia,  daughter  of  Louis  XII.  and  Anna,  hence  heiress  of  Brittany, 
which,  however,  was  not  actually  incorporated  with  France  until  15d8. 
As  king  the  count  of  Angouldme  is  known  as 

1515-1547.     Franois  I.     Courageous,  fond  of  display,  dis- 
solute. 

1515.  He  reconquered  Milan  by  the  brilliant  victory  of  Marlgnano 
Sept.  13-14.    over  the  Swiss,  who  fought  most  bravely.    Peace  and 

alliance  between  France  and  Switzerland.  Treaty  of  Greneva 
(Nov.  7, 1515);  treaty  of  Friboorg  (Nov.  29, 1616),  The  lat- 
ter (la  paix  perpetueue)  endured  till  the  French  Bievolution. 

1516.  Increase  of  the  royal  power  by  a  Concordat  with  the  Pope 
which  rescinded  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  1438  and  placed  the 

choice  of  bishops  and  abbots  m  the  hands  of  the  king  ;  the  Pope  on 
the  other  hand  received  the  annates,  or  the  first  year's  revenue  of 
every  ecclesiastical  domain  where  the  king's  ri^^ht  of  presentation  was 
exercised.  Francb  also  abandoned  the  principle  of  the  Council  of 
Basle,  that  the  Pope  was  subordinate  to  an  oecumenical  council. 
1520.  Meeting  of  Francis  and  Henry  YIII.  of  England  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Calais.  «<  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold."  The  wars 
of  Francis  with  Charles  V.  (p.  302,  etc.)  occupied  the  rest  of  Francis' 
reini.  Restrictions  upon  the  political  rights  of  the  Parliaments. 
Cultivation  of  literature  and  the  arts.  Rabelais  (1483-1553).  Perse- 
cutions of  the  Protestants.  Francis  died  March  31, 1547.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son 

1647-1669.    Henry  XL 

Growing  power  of  the  house  of  Q-ulse  (Francis,  duke  of  Guise^ 
and  Charles,  **  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  "). 


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no  Modem  MMofj.  A.  Db 


HOUSE  OF  LORBAIHS  AND  GUISB. 

BcD^  k  Bon,  d.  of  Anjoa 
and  dtalar  kins  of  Naples 


and  Sicily,  m.  habelJa,  d. 
of  XorrvMe. 

]laigBTCt,m.    Jolmn.,       Tolande, 

Henrf  VI.,  k.    d.  of  Lor-  d.  of  Lorrainei 

of  England.      raime  and  m.  Ferri  II.,  c  of 

Bar.  YandonoDt,  Gmm,  etc 

Nkolaa,  Ben^  11., 

d.  of  Lorraine  and  Bar.   d.  of  Lorraime  and  Bar, 

1 1473.                c  of  Vandemoot,  (tmm,  eCe. 
no  male  iasoe.                            t  IMS. 
I 

Antoine,  d.  of  Clande  I.,  c  oi 

Lorraime  and  Aomale,  d.  <d 

Bar.    flMi.  Gaue  (1527). 

Franctt  I.,       Fianda,  d.  of    Charies,     Claude,  d.     Lotus,     Marj,  aw 
d.  of  Lorrame      Gwe,  mnr-     Card,  of     of  Anmile.  Card,  of  James  T. 
and  Bar.  dered  1563.      Lorraine.  Guiae.     of  Scot- 

land. 

Mary,  qoocn 
of  Scots. 


1 1 

Charles  II.,  d.  of    Henrr,  d.         Charles,  d.  of  Loois,  Cardinal 

Lorraine  and  Bar.     of  Gtuee.  Mayenne.  of  (7ink. 

t  1606.  t  1586.  t  1586. 

Henry's  mistress,  Diana  of  PoitierSt  dachess  of  Valentinois,  mled 
bim  almost  absolutely.     Montmorenqf,  constable.    Persecation  of  the 
Protestants  in  France  ;  assistance  to  Gtrman  Protestants. 
1M7.    Final  union  of  Brittany  with  the  French  crown. 

DESCENT  OF  BRITTANT. 

Frsncis  11.,  d.  of  Brittany. 
t  1466. 

Gbarlea  Vm.  »  {})  Anne  (>)  ==  Iioaia  ZH.,  k.  of  YtUMot, 
k.  of  Fnmce.  | 

Clande  »  Francis  I. 

I 

Francis  the  Honry  H., 

dauphin.  k.  of  FraniDa 

t  1636, 
without  male 


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A.  D.  France.  821 

1552.  War  with  Charles  V.  (p.  306.)  Seizure  of  the  three  bishop- 
rics, TouLy  Metz,  Verdun. 

1556-1559.  War  with  PhUip  11.  of  Spain.  The  French  defeated  by 
the  Spaniards  with  the  aid  of  the  English  at 

1557.  St.  (iuerUin  (on  the  Somme),  and  by  count  Egmont  at  Qrao^ 
lines  (1558). 

1558.  Calais  and  GuineSf  the  last  English  possessions  in  France, 
Jan.    captured  by  Francis,  duke  of  Ouise. 

1559.  Peace  of  Cateau-Cambr^ :  the  French  restored  all  their  con- 
April,    quests  except  Calais  and  the  three  bishoprics  (Met^  Toul 

and  Verdun).    Henry  II.,  who  died  of  a  wound  received  in  a 
tourney,  was  succeeded  by  his  three  weak  sons. 

1659-1660.    Francis  n.  (sixteen  years  old), 

the  first  husband  of  Mary  Stuart  of  Scotland,  a  niece  of  the 
Guises.  Persecution  of  the  Protestants  (chamhres  ardentes).  Cni^ 
executions.  The  king's  mother,  Catharine  de'  Medici,  struggled  for 
power  and  influence  against  the  Bourbon  princes,  Anton  Op^  of  Na- 
Tarre)  and  Louis  of  Condi,  desciBnded  from  Louis  IX.  The  Quises, 
at  first  rivals  of  the  queen  and  then  in  alliance  with  her,  conducted  all 
affairs  of  state  and  surpassed  in  influence  their  opponents,  the  CathoUo 
constable  Montmorency,  and  his  nephews,  the  throe  brothers  Ch6tiUon : 
Gaspard,  admiral  de  Coligny  (1517-1572),  Francois  d'Andelot,  Cardi- 
nal ChcUillon,  afterwards  leaders  of  the  Huguenots.  De  VHopitaly 
chancellor.  Conspiracy  of  Amboise  (La  Renaudie)  against  the  Ginises 
defeated  (1560).    Death  of  Frauds  II. 

1660-1574.    CaiarleBlX., 

ten  years  old,  under  the  influence  of  his  mother,  Catha- 
rine de*  Medioi. 

1562-1598.    Wars  of  the  Huguenots.^ 

Cruel  persecutions  compelled  the  Huguenots  to  take  up  arms. 
At  the  same  tmie  they  became  tk  political  party  opposed  to  the  Catho- 
lic narfy.  The  wars  of  the  Huguenots  were  tnerefore  not  simply 
rebgiotts  wars,  but  also  political  civil  wars,  in  which  the  leaders  of 
both  parties  were  endeavoring  to  take  advantage  of  the  weakness  of  the 
king  and  get  control  of  the  government.  The  firat  three  "WBim  form 
properly  one  war,  interrupted  by  truces  called  peaces  (Amboise,  1563, 
Longfumeau,  1568,  St.  Germain,  1570),  which  were  without  result. 
The  conditional  freedom  of  religious  worship  permitted  the  Hugue- 
nots was  to  be  guaranteed  by  the  surrender  to  them  for  two  years,  of 
the  four  strong  towns  La  Roohelle,  Cognac,  Montauban,  La  Charitd. 
1572.    Night  of  St.  Bartholomew. 

Aug.  23-24.  Murder  of  admiral  CoUany  and  general  massacre  of  Hu- 
guenots, under  the  conduct  of  Henry  of  Guise  and  Tavannes, 
on  the  occasion  of  the  marriage  of  Henry  of    Bourbon,   king   of 

1  Huguenots  is  said  to  be  a  nickname  derived  from  King  ffugo^  a  spectra 
which,  in  the  belief  of  the  people,  nightly  haunted  the  streets  of  Parts;  wnence 
the  notestants,  from  their  noctnmaljsatherings,  wera  called  Huguenots.  Othtn 
derive  the  name  from  a  corruption  ofEidgtnotsen,  confederate!. 
21 


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822  Modem  BUtary.  A.  D. 

Kavarre  (son  of  Anton^  king  of  Navarre)  with  the  sister  of  Charles 
IX.,  Margaret  of  Valois.  Henry  of  Navarre  saved  his  life  by  a  pre- 
tended conversion  to  Catholicism.  Over  3,000  Hu^enots  were  slain 
in  the  capital,  in  the  whole  of  France  about  30,000.  This  bloody  deed 
W  to  the 

1572-1673.  Fourth  Civil  "War.  La  Rochelle,  besieged  by  Henry, 
duke  of  AnjoUf  brother  of  Charles  IX.,  made  a  brave  defense. 
The  election  of  the  duke  of  Anion  to  the  crown  of  Poland 
brought  about  a  compromise.  Edict  of  Boulogne  (July  8, 
1573)  ended  the  war  favorably  to  the  Huguenots. 
Charles  IX.  died  May  30, 1574.  His  brother,  who  fled  from  Po- 
land, became  king. 

1574-1589.     Henry  m.,  a  debauched  weakling. 

The  fifth  civil  war,  during  which  Henry  of  Navarre  re^aa- 
Bumed  the  Protestant  faith,  was  concluded  (1576)  by  conditions  more 
favorable  to  the  Huguenots  than  those  of  any  previous*  peace.  Peace 
of  Chastenoy  (  Paix  de  Monsieur,  after  the  duJce  of  Alen^n)  May  6, 
1576.  Hence  dissatisfaction  among  the  Catholics.  Origin  of  the 
Holy  League  (1576)  which  in  aUiance  with  Philip  II.  of  Spain 
purposed  the  annihilation  of  the  reformed  party,  and  the  elevation  of 
the  Guises  to  the  throne.  The  king,  out  of  fear  of  the  League  pro- 
claimed himself  its  head  and  forbade  the  exercise  of  the  Protestant 
religion  throughout  France.  The  Protestants  and  moderate  Catho- 
lics had  joined  forces  in  1575  by  the  confederation  of  Milhaud  (po- 
litique-Huguenot) . 

Sixth  Civil  War,  wherein  the  Huguenots  were  defeated,  but  ob- 
tained favorable  terms  at  the  peace  of  Bergerac  (or  Poitiers, 
Sept.  17, 1577),  as  the  kins  was  unwilling  to  let  the  League  become 
too  powerful.  In  spite  of  uie  renewal  of  the  treaty  of  peace,  not  one 
of  its  articles  was  executed.    This  caused  the 

Seventh  Civil  "War  {La  guerre  des  amoureux)  (1580),  which  was 
ended  in  the  same  year  by  the  treaty  of  Fl^  (near  Su  Foy), 
Nov.  26,  in  which  the  conditions  granted  the  Huguenots  in  former 
treaties  were  confirmed.  The  death  of  Francis,  duke  of  Alen^on 
(since  the  accession  of  Henry  III.,  duke  of  Anj'ou),  the  younger 
brother  of  the  king,  in  1584  rendered  the  extinction  of  the  house  of 
Valois  certain.  As  it  was  the  intention  of  the  League  to  exclude 
from  the  throne  Henry  of  Navarre,  who  belonged  to  the  reformed 
religion,  and  to  give  the  crown  to  the  latter's  uncle,  the  Cardinal  of 
Bourbon,  and  as  the  League  meantime  induced  the  king  to  revoke  the 
concessions  granted  to  the  Huguenots,  there  broke  out  the 
1585-1589.  Eighth  avil  "War  called  the  War  of  the  Three 
Henrys  {Henry  III.  of  Valois,  Henry  of  Navarre,  Henry  of 
Guise).  The  Catholit^  party  triumphed  in  spite  of  the  victory  of 
Coutras  (Oct.  20,  1587),  gained  by  Henry  of  Navarre.  Formation 
of  the  League  of  Sixteen  at  Paris,  which  purposed  the  deposition 
of  the  weak  king.  Guise  entered  Paris,  was  received  with  ac- 
clamation {**  King  of  Paris  ")  ;  the  timid  resistance  of  the  king  was 
broken  by  a  popular  insurrection  (day  of  the  Barricades,  May  12| 


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S24  Modem  Sistary.  A»  d. 

1588).  Henry  III.  fled  to  BloiM,  wlieie  lie  Bommoiied  the  esUtes 
of  the  kingdom  {6tal9-Genataaf  States  Genenl).  Finding  no  rap- 
port among  them  against  the  Leagoe,  he  cansed  Heniy,  duke  of  Goiae^ 
and  his  brother,  Louis  the  Cardinal,  to  be  mnrdered  (Dec.  23, 1588). 
At  this  news,  a  revolt  of  the  Catholic  party  broke  oat,  headed  hj 
the  brother  of  the  murdered  men,  the  duke  of  Mwftume,  Henry  III 
fled  to  Henry  of  Navarre  in  the  Hngnenot  camp,  where  he  was  mur- 
dered beforo  Paris,  at  St.  Cloud,  by  the  monk  Joafoua  Clemeni 
(July  31,  t  Aug.  2).  Death  of  Caikarmed^  Media  (Jan.  5,  1589). 
Michael  Montaisne,  1533-1592. 

1589-1792.    (1830.)    House  of  Bourbon 

descended  from  St.  Louis  IX.'s  younger  son  RoberU  ooont  of 
Clermont,  husband  of  Beatrice  of  Bonrbon. 

1589-1610.    Henry  IV. 

The  Catholic  IMuty  refused  to  recognise  Henry  and  made  the 
<dd  cardinal  of  Bourbon  Idng  under  the  name  of  ChaAes  X.  (f  1590). 
Some  wished  the  duke  of  Mayerme  to  be  his  successor,  while  others 
joined  themselVto  to  Philip  11.  of  Spain,  who  laid  claim  to  the  throne 
of  France  on  behalf  of  his  daughter  by  bis  third  marriagewith  Eliz^ 
abeth  of  VcdoUf  sister  of  Henry  III.  Victory  of  Henry  TV.  over  the 
duke  of  Mayenne  at  Arques  (1589)  and  at  the 

1590.    Battle  of  Ivry. 
March  14. 

Henry  besieged  Paris,  which  was  relieved  by  Mayenne  and 
the  duke  of  Parma.  Henry  abjured  the  reformed  religion  at  St. 
Denis  (1593)  and  was  crowned  at  Chartres  (1591).  Brissac  having 
thereupon  surrendered  Paris  to  him,  the  power  of  the  League  was 
broken.  Not,  however,  until  Henry,  after  public  penance,  by  his 
ambassadors  at  Rome,  had  been  freed  from  the  papal  ban,  was  he 
generaUy  recognized  (by  Mayenne  too).  The  civil  wars  of  religion 
were  ended  by  the 

1598.  Edict  of  Nantes, 
April  15. 

which  gave  the  Huguenots  equal  political  rights  witb  the 
Catholics,  but  by  no  means  secured  them  entire  freedom  of  religious 
worship.  The  edict  granted  the  exercise  of  the  reformed  religion  to 
nobles  naving  the  ri^ht  of  criminal  jurisdiction  (seigneurs  kavit  juS" 
ticien),  and  to  the  citizens  of  a  certam  number  of  cities  and  towns, 
but  prohibited  it  in  all  episcopal  and  archiepiscopal  cities,  at  the 
court  of  the  king,  and  in  Paris,  as  well  as  within  a  circle  of  twenty 
miles  around  the  capital.  Public  offices  were  opened  to  the  Hugfuenots 
and  mixed  chambers  were  established  in  four  Parliaments  {Paris, 
Toulouse,  Grenoble^  Bordeaux).  The  Huguenots  obtained  some  forti- 
fied towns,  and  were  recognized,  to  a  certain  extent,  as  an  armed  po- 
litical par^.  The  Edict  of  Nantes  was  registered  by  the  Parliament 
only  after  a  long  delay.  Treaty  of  Vervins  (May  2,  1598)  with 
Spain  ;  restoration  of  all  conquests  to  France. 
Adoption  of  measures  looking  to  the  improvement  of  the  finances 


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A.  D.  France,  825 

and  the  general  prosperity,  which  had  ffone  to  decay,  especially  by 
Romy,  afterwards  duke  of  Sally  a560-1641).  Fantastic  plan  of 
the  long's  (?)  to  establish  a  universal  Christian  republic  in  Europe, 
comprising  six  hereditary  monarchies  ^France,  England,  Spain,  Den^ 
mark,  Sweden,  Lombarcly),  five  elective  monarches  ([the  Empire, 
Papacy,  Hungary,  Poland,  Bohemia^,  and  four  repubhcs  (Switzer- 
land, Italy,  Venice,  Belgium),  whicn  probably  would  have  turned 
out  to  be  a  league  against  the  too  great  power  of  the  house  of  Haps- 
burg.  Question  of  Cleves-Julich  succession.  Henry  IV.  supported 
the  claims  of  Brandenburg.  In  the  midst  of  mat  preparations  for 
war,  Henry  was  assassinated  at  Paris,  1610  (^y  14),  by  the  fanatic 
(Francois)  RavaiUac.    He  was  succeeded  by  his  minor  son, 

1610-1643.  Louis  Xin., 

nine  years  old.    Regency  of  his  mother,  Mary  de*  Medici 
(1610-1617).      Sully  removed  from  office  ;    the    Italian    Concini 

iMarechal  d^Ancre)  was  placed  in  control  of  affairs.  Louis  XIII., 
eclared  of  age  in  1614,  was  in  fact  all  his  life  under  the  guidance 
of  others.  Summons  of  the  Statea-General,  1614,  being  the  last 
before  the  Revolution  of  1789.  Arrest  and  murder  of  Concini ; 
the  queen  mother  banished  to  Blois  (1617).  The  king  under  the  in- 
fluence of  his  favorite,  the  duke  of  Luynes,  By  the  mediation  of 
Armand-Jean  du  Plessis  (bom  1585,  in  Poitou,  1607  bishop  of  Luoon, 
1622  cardinal),  duke  of  Richelieu,  a  treaty  was  concluded  between 
Luynes  and  tne  queen  mother  (1619).  New  civil  war.  Contest  of 
the  crown  with  the  nobility  and  the  Huguenots.  After  the  death  of 
Luynes  (1621)  Mary  de*  Medici  and  her  favorite,  Richelieu,  obtained 
control  of  affairs.  The  influence  of  the  latter  soon  became  supreme, 
and  the  queen-dowager  quarreled  with  him. 

1624-1642.     Administration  of    Riohelieu,  whose  influence 
over  the  king  was  henceforward  unbroken.     Numerous  con- 
spiracies against  Richelieu  instigated  by  Gaston  of  Orleans,  the  kingf  s 
brother. 
1625.  Revolt  of  the  Huguenots  under  the  dukes  of  Rohan  and  Sou- 

bise. 
1627-1628.  Siege  of  La  Rochelle,  under  the  personal  supervision 
of  Richelieu.  In  spite  of  the  dispatch  of  three  fleets  from 
England  to  the  aid  of  the  Huguenots,  the  city  surrendered  Oct.  28, 
1628,  after  a  heroic  resistance  of  fourteen  months.  Defeat  of  the 
duke  of  Rohan,  and  complete  subjugation  of  the  Huguenots,  who 
hereafter  were  no  longer  an  armed  political  party,  but  only  a  toler- 
ated sect.  War  in  Italy  with  Spain  ;  subjugation  of  Savoy,  Riche- 
lieu at  the  head  of  the  army.  Ireaty  of  Cherasco  (April  6,  1631). 
France  renounced  all  conquests  in  Italy,  but  by  a  secret  treaty  with 
Victor  Amadeus,  duke  of  Savoy,  Pignerol  was  surrendered  to  France 
(negotiators  of  these  treaties,  Richelieu*s  confidant.  Father  Joseph 
and  the  Pope's  agent,  Mazarin\ 

A  final  attempt  of  Mary  Medici  to  overthrow  the  cardinal  inio- 
miniously  failed  (Nov.  11, 1630,  the  «<  Day  of  Dupes  ").  Mary  died 
at  Cologne,  1642. 


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826  Modem  Htstory,  a.  jk 

Conroiracy  of  Gaston  and  the  duke  of  Montmoren<nr. 
1632,  Oct.  30.    Defeat  of  the  allies  and  execation  of  Montmorencjf, 

Foundation  of  the  French  Academy  (1935), 
1631-48.  Participation  of  France  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War.    See 

p.  314. 

1641.  Conspiracy  of  Henri  d*Effiat,  marquis  of  Cinq-Man  (**  Mon- 
sieur  le  Grand  ").  Secret  treaty  ¥dth  Spain.  The  plot  was 
exposed  by  Richelieu. 

1642.  Dec.  4.  Death  of  Richelieu. 

The  effect  of  Richelieu's  administration  had  been  to  break  the 
power  of  the  nobles  and  make  the  crown  independent  of  the  parlisr 
ments.  He  restored  French  influence  in  Italy,  in  the  Netherlands,  in 
Germanj  (311),  and  established  it  in  Sweaen.  Richelieu  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  power  of  Louis  XIV. 
Louis  XUL  died  May  14, 1643.  (See  p,  S66,) 

i  e.    ITALY.  {Seep.  t63.) 

The  duchy  of  Milan,  since  1556  (p.  306)  an  appanage  of  the 
Spanish  crown,  was  held,  nominally,  as  a  fief  of  the  empire. 

Venice. 

The  discoyery  of  the  new  route  to  the  Indies  struck  at  the  root  of 
the  commercial  prosperity  of  Venice,  and  her  power  was  steadily  de- 
clining during  this  period.  The  danger  which  threatened  the  repub- 
lic from  the  League  of  Cambray  (1608\  between  the  Pope,  the 
emperor  Maximilian,  Louis  XII.,  and  Feroinand  the  Catholic,  passed 
away  as  the  Pope,  Julius  II.  withdrew  from  the  League  in  1510,  made 
his  peace  with  uie  Venetians  and  induced  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  to 
join  the  Holy  League,  which  had  for  its  object  the  expulsion  of  the 
French  from  Italy.  On  the  other  hand  the  Turkish  power  confined 
Venice  to  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean.  In  1570  the  Turks  at- 
tacked Cyprus,  of  which  Venice  had  acauired  possession  in  1489 
p.  262).  The  yictory  of  Lepanto,  gained  by  Don  John  qf  Austria 
,   -    .  of  toe  T  *       *'   '       ^     


^ 


^    330),  rotarded  the  progross  of  the  Turks  but  little.    In  1573 
enice  was  forced  to  deliyer  Cyprus  to  them,  and  at  the  close  of 

this  period  retained  of  all  her  possessions  in  Grecian  waters,  CandiUf 

Paros,  and  the  Ionian  Islands  only. 

Genoa. 

Genoa  freed  herself  in  1529  from  French  supremacy,  under  the 
doge,  Andrea  Doria,  who  gave  the  republic  a  new  constitution. 
Unsuccessful  conspiracy  of  Fiesco  (Jan.  2, 1547).  Gianettino  Doria, 
the  nephew  of  the  doge,  was  murdered,  and  Andrea  Doria  was  com- 
pelled to  fly.  The  conspirators  had  got  possession  of  nearly  the  whole 
city,  when  Fiesco  was  accidentally  drowned.  Return  of  the  doge^ 
restoration  of  the  constitution. 


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Savoy. 

The  dukes  of  SaToy,  who  also  posseBsed  Piedmont,  were  the  most 

Sowerfiil  of  the  native  dynasties  of  northern  Italy.  Nevertheless, 
oring  this  period,  Bern  deprived  them  of  the  Wtiaddand,  and  they 
got  into  straits  during  the  war  between  France  and  the  empire. 
After  the  peace  of  Cateau-Cambresis  (1559),  Emmanuel  PhUibert  was 
reinstated  m  his  duchy. 

Florence. 

In  the  year  in  which  Charles  VIII.  of  France  invaded  Italy  (1494), 
Peter  de' Medici,  son  of  Lorenzo,  who  had  concluded  a  treaty  with  the 
king,  was  driven  from  the  city.  The  Dominican  monk  Savonarola 
(bom  1452,  prior  of  San  Marco,  1490[)  was  leader  of  the  democratic 
party  in  Florence ;  asceticism  for  a  snort  time  fashionable  in  Flor- 
ence. Savonarola  excommunicated,  and  executed  (May  23,  1498). 
In  1512  the  Medici  were  restored  in  consequence  of  uie  victory  of  the 
Holy  Lea^e  (pp.  300  and  318).  In  1527  the  Medici  were  a  second 
time  expelled,  and  the  republic  for  a  while  restored.  In  1530,  how- 
ever, Charles  V.  appointed  Alexander  dt?  Medici  hereditary  ruler  in 
Florence,  and  he  soon  assumed  the  ducal  title.  After  his  murder  by 
his  cousin,  Lorenzino,  Casimo  (CosnM8)de' Medici  hecsLxne  duke  (1537). 
He  incorporated  the  republic  of  Siena  with  his  territory,  and  in  1569 
was  created  grand  duke  of  Tuscany  by  Pope  Pius  V.  Under  Cosi- 
mo  II.,  GalUeo  Galilei  (1564^-1642)  tauj?ht  in  Florence,  who,  in 
1633,  was  forced  to  abjure  the  Copemican  System  by  the  Inquisition 
at  Rome  ("  It  does  move  though  ^^). 

The  Papacy. 

The  following  popes  of  this  period  deserve  mention :  the  debauched 
and  criminal  Alexander  VI.  (1492-1503),  of  the  famUy  of  Borgia. 
His  daughter  was  Lucrezia  Borgia:  his  second  son  dasar  Borgia, 
ruler  of  the  Romagna;  the  warlike  Julius  II,  Q503-1513) ;  the  schol- 
arly Leo  X.  (1513-1521)  of  the  family  of  Medici,  a  patron  of  art ; 
the  fanatical  Paul  IV.  (Caraffa,  1555-1559),  upon  whose  advice 
Paul  III.  had  establishea  the  Inquisition  in  1542 ;  Gregory  XIII, 
(1572-1585),  who  revised  the  calendar  by  striking  out  leap  year  at 
the  close  of  each  century,  excepting  every  fourth  centuxy ;  the  wise 
and  severe  Sixtus  V.  (1585-1590),  who  suppressed  the  banditti  in  the 
Papal  States  and  adorned  Rome.  (Reerection  of  obelisks,  completion 
of  the  dome  of  St.  Peter's  ^. 

Naples. 

Naples  throuehout  this  period  was  an  appanage  of  Spain  (since 
1504,  see  p.  318).  Insurrection  of  the  fisherman,  Tommaso  AnieUo, 
called  Masaniello  (1647),  soon  suppressed  (f  July  16). 

Most  flourishing  period  of  Itidian  art.  Painters:  Leonardo  da 
Vinci  (1452-1519) ;  Rap?M^  Santi  (erroneously  called  Sanzio,  1483- 

1  This  saying,  it  is  now  claimed,  is  unanthenticated.  •—  [Traxs.] 
*  Banke,  dps  rShniteAm  PdptU,  6th  ed.,  1878. 

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828  Modem  Hutory.  A.  Dw 

1620) ;  AfUonio  AUegri,  called  Carreggio  (14»4-1534) ;  Michad  Angdo 
BuonaroUi  (1475-1564),  also  scalptop  and  architect ;  Titian  (1477- 
1676);  Paul  Veronese  (about  1635-1688).  Poets:  Ariosio  (1474- 
1533);  Torquato  Tasso  (1644-1595).  Politician:  AJacchiavdli (1461^ 
1627).  (Seep.  415.) 

$  7.    SPANISH  PENINSULA  AND  THE  NETHERLANDS. 
{Seep.  X76.) 
By  the  marriage  of 

1479-1516.  Ferdinand  the  CathoUo  of  Aragon  and  Isabella 
1474-1504.    of  Caatile  (p.  276),  which  was  consummated  before  the 

accession  of  either  to  the  throne,  the  way  was  prepared  for  the 

future  union  of  the  two  kingdoms. 
1492.    Conquest  of  Grenada,  capital  of  the  last  Moorish  kingdom 
Jan.  2.     in  the  peninsula.    In  the  same  year,  discovery  of  America 

(p.  282),  and  consequent  acquisitions  on  the  other  side  of  the 
ocean  for  the  crown  of  Castile.  Conquest  of  Naples  (1501-1604,  see 
p.  327)  for  the  crown  of  Aragon.  Annexation  of  the  graudmaster- 
ships  of  the  three  military  orders  of  Calairava  (1487),  Alcantara 
(1494),  and  San  Jago  (1499),  to  the  crown.  Support  given  to  the 
league  of  the  cities  (Hermandad)  against  the  robber-nobles;  (Spanish) 
Inquisition. 

Upon  Isabella's  death  (1504)  her  daughter,  Joanna,  wife  of  PhtUpf 
archduke  of  Austria  (p.  301),  was  the  legal  heiress  of  Castile.  Her 
father,  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  however,  who  had  long  planned  the 
union  of  the  two  kingdoms  in  one  kingdom  of  Spain,  obtained  from 
the  Cortes  authority  to  carry  on  the  government  in  place  of  his  absent 
daughter.  In  1506,  Philip  and  Joanna  went  to  Castile  to  expel  Fer- 
dinand by  force.  Meeting  of  the  two  princes  and  treaty  of  ViUafa- 
Jila,  whereby  the  regency  was  granted  to  Philip.  Shortly  after  the 
treaty  Philip  died  suddenly  (of  poison  ?),  and  Ferdinand  resumed  the 
regency  (f  1516).  Joanna,  who  was  insane,  was  kept  in  strict  con- 
finement for  49  years  (f  1555),  first  by  her  father,  afterwards  by  her 
son  Charles.^  Ferdinand  was  succeeded  in  both  kingdoms  (at  first  as 
co-regent  of  his  mother,  in  theory)  by  the  son  of  Phuip  and  Joanna. 

Netherlanda. 

Preliminary  :  These  provinces,  originally  inhabited  by  Batavians 
and  other  Grerman  tribes,  formed  a  part  of  the  empire  of  Charles  the 
Great,  and  after  the  treaty  of  Mersen  (870)  belonged  in  great  part  to 
Germany,  forming  a  dependence  of  the  duchy  of  Lotharingia.  The 
decline  of  the  ducal  power  favored  the  growth  of  powerful  counties 
and  duchies,  such  as  Brabant,  Flanders,  Guelders,  tlolland,  Zealand, 
HainauU,  and  the  bishopric  of  Utrecht.  After  1384,  and  dorine  the 
fifteenth  century,  the  provinces  were  brought  under  control  of  the 
dukes  of  Burgundy. 

1  The  view  advanced  by  Bersenrotb  (Karl  V.  und  Johanna,  in  V.  BfbeVm 
Hist.  ZeitB.,  1868),  that  Joanna  was  only  dedared  insane  from  political  reasons, 
has  been  clearly  shown  by  other  scholan(Gaoliard,  Bodsler,  Maurenbreoberj 
to  rest  on  misunderstandings. 


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A*  D.  Spanish  Pmitwda  and  tfie  Netherlands.  d29 

PhiUp  n.  the  Bold, 

ionrth  son  of  John  11.,  k.  of  France.  In  1363  made  dnke 
of  Bnrfpindy  (the  duchy  leverted  to  the  crown,  1361,  by  the 
extinotion  of  the  first  ducal  line  in  the  person  of  Philip  I.). 
In  1369  m.  Margaret,  dau.  and  heiress  of  Louis  IILf  c.  of 
Flanden  and  Artoia,  f  1404^ 


John  the  Fearless, 
duke  of  Burgundy,  1404r-141d. 

PhiUp  the  Good, 
duke  of  Burgundy,  1419-1467. 
Acquired  Namur,  by  purchase,  in  1425 ;  in  1430,  Brabant 
and  Umbtirg,  which  had  been  bequeathed  by  Joanna,  dao. 
of  John  III,,  d.  of  Brabant,  to  her  great-nephew,  Antoine, 
brother  of  John  the  Fearless ;  in  1433,  Holland,  Hainanlt 
{Henneffau),  Zealand,  by  cession  from  Jacqueline  c.  of  Hoi- 
land  (of  the  Bavarian  Ime) ;  in  1448^  Luxemburg,  by  ces- 
sion from  Elizabeth  of  Luxemburg,  and  by  purchase;  be 
also  acquired  Antwerp  and  Mechlin. 


Charles  the  Bold, 

duke  of  Burgundy,  1467-1477. 
Acquired  Gtolderland  and  Zntphen  in  1472,  by  bequest 
from  dnke  Arnold, 


Mary,  -f  1462  »» Maximilian,  arch- 

J   duke  of  Austria, 
p  the  Handsome, 
nand  of  Arragon,  and      I  archduke  of  Austria^ 

Isabella  of  Caatile.  dnke  of  Burgundy. 

Charles  I.  (V.) 

k.  of  Spain;  archduke  of  Austria,  d.  of  Burgundy, 
k.  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  lord  of  Spanish  America, 
emperor. 

They  descended  to  the  Hapsburg  heirs  of  Charles  the  Bold,  united 
and  having  a  common  states-gener^.  In  1548  Charles  V.  annexed  the 
seventeen  provinces  (Brabant,  Limbvrg,  Luxemburg,  Odderland,  Flan- 
ders,  Artois,  HainauU,  Holland,  Zealand,  Namur,  Zutphen,  East  and 
West  Friesland,  MechUn,  Utrecht,  Ooeryss^  Grinmgen)  to  the  Bur* 
gundian  circle  of  the  empire. 

1516-1556.     Caiarles  I  (as  emperor,  C/iarles  V.  p.  302). 


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880  Modem  Btitaty.  ▲.  Du 


After  Buppresdng  a  revolt  in  Castile  he  founded  the  absoltOe  i  . 
imAy,  the  Cortes  henceforth  having  no  importance.  In  America  con- 
quest of  Mexico,  Peru,  Chilis  New  Granada  (p.  283,  etc).  Upon  his 
abdication  the  Spaniah  lands  and  the  ooloniea,  the  Netherlanda, 
Franche-Comttf,  Naplea,  and  Milan,  descended  to  his  son 

1666-1698.     Philip  II.,  who  married  four  times  :  1.  Mary  of 
Portugal,  mother  of  Don  Carlos  ;  2.  Mary  the  Catholic^  of  Eng- 
land (p.  336);  3.  Elizabeth  of  Valois  (p.  318);  4.  Anne,  droghter  of 

Mr^'Ti^'^'^^"  II. 

War  with  France  (p.  381).  Bloody  persecution  of  the  Moors  and 
the  Protestants  in  Spain.  Inquisition,  autos  da  fe  (i.  e,  acts  of  the 
faith).  Conflict  hetween  the  kmg  and  his  heir,  Don  Carlos  ;  the  lat- 
ter was  arrested  and  died  in  prison  (1668).  Don  John  of  AvMna^  a 
natural  son  of  Charles  I.  (Y.),  gained  oyer  the  Turks  the 

1671|  Oct.  7.    Naval  battle  of  Lepanto  (on  the  Gulf  of  Corinth). 

1568-1648.    War  of  Liberation  in  the  Netherlands. 

Caiue:  The  provinces  of  the  Netherlands,  which  fell  to  Spain  after 
the  abdication  of  Charles  I.,  rejoiced  in  the  possession  of  ancient  and 
important  privileges.  The  estates  {Staaten,  etats)  granted  taxes  and 
troops.  The  Spanish  garrison,  the  penal  edicts  against  heretics,  the 
dread  of  the  introduction  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition,  led,  during  the 
rule  of  the  regent  Maroaret  of  Parma  (1569-1667),  the  natural  sister 
of  king  Philip  II.,  andf  her  adviser,  bishop  Granvdla,  to  a  league  of 
the  nobles  (the  Cqmprcmis  de  Breda),  headed  by  Philip  Mamix  of  St. 
Aldegonde,  Presentation  of  a  petition  by  300  nobles  (Gueux,  Beggars, 
a  party  name,  originating  in  the  contemptuous  exclamation  of  the 
count  of  Barlaimont :  Ce  n*est  qu^un  tas  de  gueux).  Insurrection  of 
the  lower  classes.  Destruction  of  ima^s,  and  sack  of  the  churches. 
These  dbturlnuices  were  opposed  by  Lamoral,  count  of  Egmont  (b. 
1522,  fought  under  Charles  V.  in  Algiers,  Germany,  France  ;  led  the 
cavalry  at  St.  Quentin,  and  Gravelines,  1658  ;  appointed  governor  of 
Flanders  and  Artois  by  Charles  Y. ;  executed  June  6,  1668),  and 
William  of  Nassau,  prince  of  Orange,  the  leaders  of  the  higher  nobU- 
ity  in  the  Netherlands,  who  were  soon  no  longer  masters  of  the  move- 
ment. Separation  into  a  Catholic  and  a  Protestant  party.  Although 
quiet  was  nnally  restored  Philip  sent  the 

1567.  Duke  of  Alva  with  20,000  Spaniards  by  way  of  Genoa,  Savoy, 
and  Franche  Camid  to  the  Netherlands.  William  of  Orange 
and  many  thousand  Netherlanders  left  their  native  land.  Margaret 
resigned  her  regency  and  left  the  country.  Creation  of  the  "  Council 
of  Blood."  The  counts  of  Egmont  and  of  Hoom  and  many  others 
were  executed  (1668).  The  estates  of  those  who  did  not  appear  be- 
fore the  tribunal  were  confiscated,  including  those  of  W^iliam  of 
Orange*  The  latter  and  his  brother,  Louis  of  Orange,  invaded  the 
Netherlands,  but  were  repulsed  by  Alva. 

The  arbitrary  taxes  imposed  by  Alva  (the  tenth  pfennig  from  the 
price  of  every  article  sola,  the  one  hundredth  part  of  eveiy  income)^ 
produced  a  new  revolt.  Capture  of  Brille,  on  the  month  of  the  Meuse 
by  the  Water  Beggars  (1672).  Rapid  spread  of  the  insurrection 
particularly  in  the  northern  provinces. 

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A*  D*  J^anish  Penimula  and  the  NelherUmdM,  S31 

1878.    Ahra  recalled  at  his  own  request    His  suooesiior,  Luu  de  R^- 

queseiu  y  Zuniffa,  gained  a  yictorj 
1574.    At  Mookerheide,  where  two  brothers  of  the  prince  of  Onuee 

fell,  but  could  not  suppress  the  revolt,  and  died  ^1576).  The 
sack  of  the  cities  of  Antwerp,  Mastricht,  Ghent,  etc.,  oj  the  royal 
troops  brought  about  the 

1576.    Faoifioatlon  of  Ghent,  a  treaty  between  all  the  proyinces, 
whereby  they  united,  without  reg^ard  to  national  or  religious 
differences,  to  drive  the  Spanish  soldiers  from  the  country. 

The  new  governor,  Don  John  of  Austria  (p.  330),  was  not  recog- 
nized by  the  majority  of  the  provmces.  In  spite  of  the  new  disputes 
which  had  broken  out  among  them  he  was  unable  to  quiet  the  country, 
and  died,  1578.  He  was  succeeded  by  Alexander  Pamese^  duke  of 
PamuL  (1578-1592),  a  shrewd  statesman  and  an  excellent  generaL 
He  reduced  the  southern  Catholic  provinces,  which  form  modem  Bel- 
gium, to  submission  on  condition  of  the  restoration  of  their  old  poUti- 
oal  freedom.  The  seven  northern  provinces,  Holland,  Zaaland, 
Utrecht,  Gtolderland,  Oroningen,  Frlesland,  Overyasel,  con- 
cluded 

1579.    The  Union  of  Utreoht, 

proclaimed  their  complete  independence  of  Spain  (in  1581) 
and  settled  the  hereditary  Statthaltershtp  upon  WilUam  of  Orange 
(the  SUenty  b.  1533,  inherited  the  principalitv  of  Orange,  15ii,  ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief  of  the  Netherlands  and  eovemor  of  Hol- 
land, Zealand  and  Utrecht,  by  Charles  Y.,  resigned  his  offices  1567, 
converted  to  Protestantism,  elected  commandei^in-chief  by  the  rebels, 
1572,  relieved  Leyden^  Oct,  1574»  mnxdered  by  Balthazar  Gerard, 
10th  July,  1584).  After  his  murder  at  Ddft,  his  son,  the  seventeen- 
year^ld  Maurice  of  Nassau^  became  the  head  of  the  seven  provinces. 
Successful  campaign  of  Alexander  of  Parma ;  capture  of  Antwerp. 
The  help  furnished  the  Hollanders  by  the  English  (Leicester)  induced 
Philip  to  fit  out  the  Great  Armada,  which  was  destroyed  by  terrible 
storms  and  the  bravery  of  the  English  (1588).  After  a  long  contest 
with  changing  fortunes,  there  was  concluded  under 

1598-1621.    Philip  in. 

1609.  The  twelve  yearn'  tmoe,  on  the  basis  of  possession  at  the 
time.  Under  the  weak  king,  who  was  controlled  by  his  fa- 
vorites, the  dukes  of  Lerma  and  Uzeda,  father  and  son,  the  power  and 
the  prosperity  of  Spain  declined,  exhausted  by  constant  war,  the 
demoralization  consequent  on  the  discovery  of  America  and  the  intro- 
duction of  American  gold,  and  the  expulsion  of  800,000  Moors,  the 
most  learned  and  industrious  inhabitants  of  the  peninsula.  After  the 
expiration  of  the  truce  with  Holland  the  war  was  resumed  until  under 

1621-1665.  Philip  IV. 

TheBepublic  of  the  United  Provinoes  obtained  the 
1648*  recognition  of  their  independence  from  Spain  and  the 
empire  at  the  Peace  of  Westphalia. 


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332 


Modem  History, 


▲.  D. 


Under  Philip  m.  and  IV.  (minister  Olivarez),  decline  of  ihe 
Spanish  power.  InBurrection  of  the  CcUaUmiana,  laisting  twelve  years, 
ileyolt  of  Portugal. 

Portugal,  under  the  illegitimate  house  of  Burgundy  (138&- 
1580),  descendants  of  John  the  Bastard  (f  1433),  son  of  Peier  ths 
Cruelf  who  was  a  descendant  of  Robert^  duke  of  Burgundy,  grandson 
of  Hugh  Capet. 

John,  the  Bastard, 
Bon  of  Pedro  the  CnieL 


Bdward. 

I 
Ferdinand. 

I 


Alfoi 


Isabella  m. 
Charles  V. 


Johnm.   Lewis.  Henry.    Edward. 


Philip  n. 
k.  of  Spain. 


Carl 


Haria.  John.  The  Prior 
I       qfCfrtUo. 


Don  Carlos.    Sebastian. 


r 


Beatrice,  m. 
Charles  III. 
d.  of  Savoy. 


Fernando. 
Fernando- 


James. 


Emanuel 

Philiberif 

d.  of  Sawn/. 


Theododoa. 


Catharine - 


I 


t  JoAa. 


Maria  m. 
Alexander  of 
Parma.  Theodoelus. 

Banuccio  John  IV. 

of  Parma* 
Kings  of  Portugal  In  heavy  type.    Claimants  (except  Philip  II.)  in  italics. 

1495-1521.  Emcuiuel  the  Qreat.    Golden  age. 

Acmiisitions  in  the  East  Indies,  South  America  (Brazil),  and 
Northern  Africa.    Under  his  successors,  decline  of  the  Portuguese 
power.    Sebastian  fell  in  the  unfortunate 
157S.  Battle  of  Alkassorin  Morocoa  After  the  death  of  his  snoces- 

sor,  Henry, 
1581-1640.  Portugal  became  a  Bpaniah  province.    Four  (?)  false 

Sebastians.^     An  almost  bloodless  revolution  raised  to  the 

throne  of  Portugal  the  duke 
1640.  John  otBragansa,  as  John  IV.  (descended  through  his  mother 

from  the  legUimate^  through  his  father  from  the  illegitimate 

son  of  John  the  Bastard).  (See  pp.  S90,  414.) 

1  After  the  death  of  Henry  (1580)  there  were  five  claimants  for  the  crown  ol 
PortogaL 


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$u  D*  England  and  Scotland.  833 

§  8.    ENGIAND  AND  SCOTLAND.  {Seep.  S76.) 

1485-1603.  House  of  Tudor  (pp.  273,  275). 
1485-1509.  Henry  VH. 

Henry's  first  aet  was  to  imprison  the  Eari  of  Warmckf  son  of 
the  dnke  of  Clarence.    The  first  parliament   (1485)  secured  the 
crown  to  Henry  and  his  heirs.    Five  checks  on  the  crown :  1.  imposi- 
tion of  new   taxes  and  2,  the  enactment  of  new  laws  without  the 
consent  of  parliament  prohibited  ;  3.  no  man  could  be  imprisoned 
without  legsd  warrant ;  4.  trial  should  be  before  twelve  jurors  in  the 
county  where  the  offense  was  committed,  and  there  should  be  no  ap- 
pefd  ;  5.  officers  of  the  crown  were  liable  to  trial  for  damages  before 
a  jury  in  case  any  person  were  injured  by  them,  and  no  authority 
from  the  king  could  be  pleaded.     Violation  of  these  checks.     Bees- 
tablishment  of  the  king  s  court  (Star  Chamber  ?  1488),  which  took 
cognizance  of  forgery,  perjury,  fraud,  libel,  conspiracy,  etc.,  tt&ve  sen- 
tence without  the  use  of  a  jury,  and  inflicted  fines  and  mutiuitions. 
1487.  The  pretended  earl  of  Warwick  (Simnel)  landed  in  inland, 
but  was  defeated  at  Stoke  (16  June,  1^7),  and  became  one 
of  the  king's  scullions. 
148S-1499.  Attempts  of  Ferkin  "Warbeck,  a  Flemingwho  person- 
ated the  duke  of  Tork,  to  oyerthrow  Henry.    Disavowed  by 
Charles  YUI.  in  the  peace  of  Estaples  (Nov.  9, 1492)  which  ended 
the  war  in  which  Henry  had  engaged  on  account  of  the  annexation 
of  Brittany  by  Charles  V  III.  (1491),  Ferkin  found  a  warm  reception 
in  Flanders  &om  the  duchess  of  iburgundy,  sister  of  Edward  IV. 
Expelled  from  Flanders  b^  a  proyision  of  the  commercial  treaty  with 
England  (1496  Magnus  tntercursus),  Ferkin  fled  to  Scotland,  where 
his  claim  was  recognized.     Perldn  and  James  IV.  of  Scotland  in- 
vaded England  in  1496.    In  1497  a  formidable  insurrection  broke 
out  in  Cornwall  on  occasion  of  an  imposition  of  a  tax  by  parliament. 
It  was  suppressed  by  the  defeat  at  Blackheath  (June  22, 1497),  and 
the  leaders  executed  {Flammock).    Feace  with  Scotland  (Sept.  1497). 
Warbeck  was  soon  taken  and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  where  ho 
escaped,  but  was  recaptured.    Flottmg  another  escape  with  the  eari  of 
Warwick,  both  Ferkin  and  Warwick  were  executed  (1499). 
1495.  Statute  of  Drogheda  (Poymng*s  law).    1.  No  Irish  parliament 
should  be  held  without  the  consent  of  the  king  oi  England. 
2.  No  bill  could  be  brought  forward  in  an  Irish  parliament 
without  his  consent.    3.  All  recent  laws  enacted  in  the  Eng- 
lish parliament  should  hold  in  Ireland 
1502.  Marriage  of  Henry's  eldest  daughter,  Margaret,  with  James 
IV.,  king  of  Scotland. 
Henry's  distingpiishing  characteristic  was  his  avarice  ;  by  various 
extortions  (^mpson,  Dudley,  ^'Morton's  Fork")  he  accumulated  a  for- 
tune of  nearly  £2,000,000. 

During  this  reign  occurred  the  discovery  of  the  West  Indies  by 
Cokimbus  (1492)  and  that  of  North  America  by  the  Cabots. 


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834  Modem  History.  A.  D. 

1509-1547.  Henry  VIII., 

of  a  omel  disposition  and  variable  temperament.  He  was  ax 
times  married  :  1.  Caiharine  ofAragon,  widow  of  his  brother  Arthur^ 
mother  of  Mary  the  CcUholic  (married  June  3, 1509,  divorced  March 
30, 1533).  2.  Anne  Boleyn,  mother  of  Elizabeth  (married  Jan.  25, 
1533,  beheaded  May  19,  1536).  3.  Jane  Seymour  (married  May  20, 
1536,  died  after  the  birth  of  her  son  Edward  F/.,  Oct.  24, 1537). 
4.  Anne  of  Cleves  (married  Jan.  6, 1540,  divorced  Jime  24, 1540).  5. 
Catharine  Howard  (married  Aug.  8, 1^0,  beheaded  Feb.  12, 1512). 
6.  Caiharine  Parr,  widow  of  lord  Latmer  (married  July  10, 1543, 
outlived  the  king).  Henry  united  in  his  person  the  daun  of  both 
Lancaster  and  York. 

Execution  of  Empson  and  Dudley, 
1511.  Henry  a  member  of  the  Holy  League  (p.  300),  received  from 

the  Pope  the  title  of  *<  Most  Christian  King." 
Henry  having  laid  claim  to  the  French  crown  sent  troops  to 

Spain,  which  were  unsuccessful  ^1512).    In  1513  the  king 

went  to  France  in  person  and  witk  Maximilian,  the  emperor, 

won  the  bloodless  victory  of 
1513,  Aug.  17.    Gkdnegate,  the  "  Battle  of  the  Spurs  "  (p.  319). 

1513,  Sept.  9.     Battle  of  Flodden  Field.     Defeat  and  death  of 

James  IV.  of  Scotland  who  was  allied  with  France. 

1514,  Aug.    Peace  with  France  (Toumay  ceded  to  England,  aftep> 

wards  (1518)  bought  by  France  for  600,000  crowns)  and  with 
Scotland. 

1515,  Thomaa  Wolaey,  the  king's  favorite,  chancellor  (b.  1471,  ap- 
pointed almoner  and  dean  of  Lincoln  by  Henry  Vll.,  member 
of  the  council  1510,  bishop  of  Toumay  1513,  bishop  of  Lin- 
coln and  archbishop  of  York  1514,  cardinal  and  ohanoellor 
1515,  papal  legate  1517,  surrendered  the  great  seal  1529,  f 
Nov.  28,  1630). 

1520,  June  7.  Meeting  of  Henry  YIII.  and  Francis  I.  of  France  near 

CaUiis  ("Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gk)ld  "). 

1521.  Execution  of  the  duke  of  Buckingham  on  a  charge  of  high 
treason.  Buckingham  was  descended  from  Edvnud  III.  (p. 
277). 

1521.  Henry  wrote  the  "  Assertion  of  the  Seven  Sacraments ''  in  re- 

fly  to  Luther,  and  received  the  title  of  "Defender  of  the 
'aith  "  from  Pope  Leo  X. 
After  the  battle  of  Pavia  the  relations  between  Henry  and  the 
emperor,  which  had  been  weakened  by  the  double  failure  of  the  em- 
peror to  secure  the  promised  election  of  Wolsey  as  Pope,  became  so 
strained  that  war  seemed  inevitable,  and  a  forced  loan  was  assessed 
on  the  kingdom,  which  brought  in  but  little.  In  1523  an  attempt  to 
force  a  grant  from  parliament  met  with  no  success,  but  a  rebellion 
was  provoked  which  was  suppressed  only  by  abandoning  the  demand. 
1527.  Henry,  desiring  to  divorce  his  wife  in  order  to  marry  Anne 
Boleyn,  alleged  the  invalidity  of  ntiarriage  with  a  deceased 
brother's  wife,  and  appealed  to  Rome.  The  delays  of  the  Pope  and 
the  scruples  of  Wd^y  enraged  the  king,  who  deprived  the  latter  ol 


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A.  D.  England  and  Scotland.  —  Henry  VUL  589 

the  great  seal  aud  gave  it  to  Bir  Thomas  More  (1529).  Sentence 
and  pardon  of  Wolsey,  who,  however,  died  in  disgrace  (1580).  At 
the  suggestion  of  Cranmer  the  question  was  referred  to  the  univer- 
sities of  England  and  Europe,  and  a  number  deciding  in  the  kinefs 
favor  Henrv  married  Anne  Boleyn.  Henry  also  broke  with  the 
Church  of  Rome.  Confiscation  of  the  annates^  followed  by  the  res- 
ignation of  Sir  Thomas  More  (1532). 

The  Pope  excommunicated  Henry  and  annulled  his  divorce  from 
Catharine,  which  Cranmer,  now  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  had  pro- 
nounced. After  the  birth  of  Elizabeth  parliament  confirmed  the 
divorce,  recognized  Elizabeth  as  heir  to  the  throne  (1584),  and  se- 
cured the  succession  to  other  children  of  Anne  in  case  of  the  death  of 
the  princess. 

1534.  Aot  of  Bnpremaoy,  appointing  the  king  and  his  succes- 
sors "Protector  and  only  Supreme  Head  of  the 
Churoh  and  Clergy  of  England"  (1531).  Refusal  to 
take  the  oath  of  supremacy  was  made  "high  treason,  under 
which  vote  Sir  Thomaa  More  was  condemned  and  beheade* ' 
(1536). 

Thomaa  Cromwell,  a  former  servant  of  Wolsey,  and  his 
cesser  in  the  favor  of  the  king,  now  vicegerent  in  matters  relating  to  ^ 
the  church  in  England,  issued  a  comnussion  for  the  inspection  of 
monasteries  which  resulted  in  the  snppresaion,  first  of  the  smaller 
(1536),  and  afterwards  (1539)  of  the  larger  monaateriea,  and  the 
confiscation  of  their  property.  Abbots  now  ceased  to  sit  in  parlia^ 
ment. 

1538.  Execution  of  Anne  Boleyn  on  a  charge  of  adultery.  Princess 
Elizabeth  proclaimed  illegitimate  by  parliament  The  crown 
was  secured  to  any  subsequent  issue  of  the  king,  or  should  that 
fail,  was  left  to  his  disposal. 

1536.  *  Publication  of  Tmdale*8  translation  of  the  Bible,  by  Coverdale, 
under  authorilr  nom  the  king. 

1536.  Suppression  of  the  Catholic  rebellion  of  Robert  Aske,  aided  by 
Regmald  Pole,  son  of  Margaret,  countess  of  Salisbury,  daughter 
of  George,  duke  of  Clarence, 

1639.  Statute  of  the  Six  Articles,  defining  heresy;  denial  of  any 
of  these  positions  constituted  heresy :  1.  Transubstantiation  ; 
2.  Communion  in  one  kind  for  laymen ;  3.  Celibacy  of  the 
priesthood  ;  4.  Inviolability  of  vows  of  chastity  ;  5.  Necessity 
of  private  masses  ;  6.  Necessity  of  auricular  confession. 

1540.  Execution  of  Cromwell,  on  a  charge  of  treason.  CromweU 
had  fallen  under  Henry's  displeasure  by  his  advocacy  of  the 
king's  marriage  with  Anne  of  Cleves,  with  whom  the  king  was 
ill  pleased. 

1542.    Ireland  made  a  kingdom. 

1542.    War  with  Scotland.    James  Y.  defeated  at  the 

Nov.  25.    Battle  of  Bolway  Moss. 

James  V.  died  shortly  afterward.    Henry  propos^  a  marriage 
betwjcn  his  son,  Edward,  and  James's  infant  daughter,  Maiyt 


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836  Modem  History.  ▲.  d. 

bat  the  Scottish  court  prefeiTed  an  alliance  with  Vranee, 
whereupon  Henry  concluded  an  alliance  with  the  emperor. 

1544.  Parliament  recognized  Mary  and  Elizabeth  as  heirs  to  the 
crown,  in  the  event  of  the  death  of  Ed'VV'ard  without  issue. 

1545.  Invasion  of  France.  Coin  debased ;  property  of  guilds  coh« 
fiscated. 

1547.    Execution  of  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  on  oharse  of  hi^h  treason. 

Henry  VIII.  died  Jan.  28,  1547,  leaving  a  will,  wherem  the  crown 
was  left  to  the  heirs  of  his  sister,  Mary,  duchess  of  Boffolk,  in 
the  event  of  fcilure  of  issue  by  all  of  his  children. 

1547-1553.    Bdwaxd  VI., 

ten  years  of  age  ;  his  uncle,  earl  of  Hertford,  was  appointed 

lord  protector  and  duke  of  Somerset,  and  assumed  the  government. 

Bepeal  of  the  six  articles  (1547).  Introduction  of  rerormed  doc- 
trines. 

1549.  Execution  of  lord  Beymour,  brother  of  the  duke  of  Somerset, 
who  wished  to  marrv  the  princess  Elizabeth. 
Establishment  of  uniformity  of  service  by  act  of  parliament ; 
introduction  of  Edward  Vl.'s  first  prayer-book  (second, 
1553). 
Fall  of  the  protector,  Somerset,  who  was  superseded  by  lord 
Warwick,  afterwards  duke  of  Northumberland  (1550).  Exe- 
cution of  Somerset  (1552^. 

1651.    Forty-two  articles  of  religion  published  by  Cranmer. 

1553.  Edward  assigned  the  crown  to  Lady  Jane  Ghrey,  daughter 
of  his  cousin,  Frances  Grey,  eldest  daughter  of  Mary,  daughter 
of  Henry  VII.,  to  the  exclusion  of  Mary  and  Elizabeih, 
daughters  of  Henry  VIII.  Lady  Jane  was  married  to  the 
son  of  the  duke  of  Northumberland.  Death  of  Edward  VI , 
July  6, 1553. 

1653-1558.    Mary  the  CathoUc. 

The  proclamation  of  Lady  Jane  Grey  as  queen  by  Northumber^ 
land  meeting  with  no  response,  Northumberland,  Lady  Jane,  and 
others  were  arrested.  Execution  of  Northumberland  (Aug.  22, 1553). 
Restoration  of  Catholic  bishops.  Gardiner,  bishop  of  Winchester, 
author  of  the  Six  Articles,  lord  chancellor. 

1553.  Marriage  treaty  between  Mary  and  Philip  of  Spain,  son  of 

Charles  V.,  afterwards  Philip  II.  Philip  was  to  have  the  tUU 
of  king  of  Enghuid,  but  no  hand  in  the  government,  and  in  case  of 
Mary's  death  could  not  succeed  her.  This  transaction  ("  The  Spanish 
marriage  ")  being  unpopular  an  insurrection  broke  out,  headed  oy  Sir 
Thomas  Carew,^^  duke  of  Suffolk,  and  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt,  The  sup- 
pression of  the  rebellion  was  followed  by  the  execution  of  Lady  Jane 
Grey  (Feb.  12,  1554),  and  her  husband.  Lady  Jane  was  an  ac- 
complished scholar  (Roger  Ascham)  and  had  no  desire  for  the  crown. 
Imprisonment  of  Elizabeth  who  was  soon  released  on  the  intercession 
of  the  emperor. 

1554.  July  26.    Marriage  of  Mary  and  Philip. 

1555.  Cruel  persecution  of  the  j^testants  (Bonner,  bishop  of  Lou* 


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888  Jiodem  Hittary.  ▲.  d. 

doii\  Oct  16^  Ridley  and  Latimer;  March  21, 1556^  Cmuner  boznt 
at  tne  stake.  Aboat  300  are  said  to  have  been  bamt  daring  this  per- 
secntion.  Cardinal  PoUy  arohbishop  of  Canterbury  and  papal  legate 
(1556). 

1557.  England  drawn  into  the  Spanish  war  with  France.  Defeat  of 
the  French  at  the  battle  of  St.  Quentin  (Aug.  10, 1557). 

1558.  Jan.  7.  Zioaa  of  Calais,  which  was  eaptiued  by  the  duke  of 
Guise. 

Death  of  Mary,  Nov.  17, 1558. 

1558-1603.    Elizabeth. 

Sir  William  Cecil  (baron  Burleigh,  1571),  secretary  of  state. 
Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  lord  privy  seal.  Repeal  of  the  Catholic  legisla- 
tion of  Mary;  reenactment  of  the  laws  of  Henzr  VIII.  relating  to  the 
church ;  act  of  supremacy,  act  of  uniformity .  Kevision  of  the  prayer- 
book. 

1559.  Treaty  of  CateaorCambrMis  with  France.  Calais  to  be 
April  2.    ceded  to  En^and  in  eight  years. 

On  the  accession  of  Francis  II.  king  of  France,  Mary,  his  wife,  as- 
sumed the  title  of  Queen  of  England  and  Scotland.  Conformity 
exacted  in  Scotland.  Treaty  of  Berwick  (Jan.  1560),  between  Eliza- 
beth and  the  Scottish  reformers. 

1560.  Treaty  of  Bdinbnrgh  between  England,  France,  and  Scotland. 
July  6.    French  interference  in  Scotland  withdrawn.    Adoption  of  a 

Confession  of  Faith  by  the  Scotch  estates. 

1561.  Return  of  Mary  to  Scotland  after  the  death  of  Francis  11., 
where  she  was  at  once  involyed  in  conflict  with  the  Calvinists. 
(John  Knoz,  b.  1505,  the  friend  of  Calvin  at  Grcneva,  d. 
1572.;) 

1663.  Adoption  of  the  Thirty-Nine  Artioles,  in  place  of  the  forty- 
two  published  by  Cranmer.  Completion  of  the  establishment 
of  the  Anglican  Chnroh  (Church  of  England^  Episcopal  Church)  ; 
Protestant  dogmas,  with  retention  of  the  Catholic  hierarchy  and,  par- 
tially, of  the  cult.  Numerous  dissenters  or  non-conformists  (Presbyte- 
rians, Puritans,  Brownists,  Separatists,  etc.).  Parker,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  (1559). 

1564.  Peace  of  Troyes  with  France.  English'  claims  to  Calais  re- 
nounced for  220,000  crowns. 
In  Scotland  Mary  married  her  cousin  Darrdey,  who  caused  her  f a- 
Torite  Riaado  to  be  murdered  (1566)  and  was  himself  murdered  (Feb. 
10, 1567)  by  BothweU  (earl  of  Hepburn),  apparently  with  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  queen.^  Manwe  of  Mary  and  Bothwell  May  15, 1567. 
Hie  nobles  under  Murray,  Mary's  natural  brother,  reyolted,  defeated 
Maiy  at  Carhury  Hill  near  Edinburgh,  and  imprisoned  her  at  Lioch- 
leyen  Castle.  Abdication  of  Mary  m  favor  of  her  son,  James  VI., 
July  24, 1567.  Murray,  re^nt.  In  May,  1568,  Mary  escaped  from 
captivity ;  defeated  at  Langside,  May  13,  she  took  refuge  in  Kngland, 
where,  after  some  delay,  she  was  placed  in  confinement  (1568). 

1  CkMdeke,  Mmia  Stuart^  1879.  The  caune  of  Mary  and  Bothwell  has  beea 
recently  defended  by  John  Watts  De  Peyster. 


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A.  D.  England  and  Scotland.  —  EUzabeUu  dd9 

1575.  Elizabeth  declined  the  government  of  the  Netherknd  prov- 
inces of  Holland  and  Zealand,  offered  her  by  the  confederates. 

1577.  Alliiuice  of  Elizabeth  and  the  Netherlands. 

1583-84.  Plots  against  the  queen.  (Arden,  Parry)  ;  Spanish  plot  of 
Throgmortan;  execution  of  the  earl  of  Arundel  for  correspond- 
ing with  Mary.    Bond  of  Associatian, 

1585.  Troops  sent  to  the  aid  of  the  Dutch  republic  under  the  earl  of 

Leicester.    Victory  of  Zu^hen  (Sept.  22, 1586),  death  of  Sir 
Philip  Sidney. 

1586.  Expedition  of  Sir  Francis  Drake  to  the  West  Indies,  sack  of 

SL  Domingo  and  Carthagena  :  rescue  of  the  Virginia  colony 
(p.  290). 

1586.  Conspiracy  of  Savage,  Ballard,  Babington,  etc.,  discovered 
by  the  secretary  of  state,  Walaingham  ;  execution  of  the 
conspirators.  The  government  involved  Itfary,  queen  of 
Scots,  in  the  plot.  She  was  tried  at  Fotheringay  Castle,  Oct. 
1586,  and  convicted  on  the  presentation  of  letters  which  she 
alleged  to  be  forged.  She  was  convicted  Oct.  25  and  ezeonted 
Feb.  8, 1587. 

1588.  War  with  Spain.  Construction  of  an  English  fleet  of  war. 
The  Spanish  fleet,  called  the  invincible  armada  (132  vessels, 
3,165  cannon),  was  defeated  in  the  Channel  by  the  English  fleet 
{Howard,  Drake,  Hawkins),  July  21-29,  and  destroyed  by  a 
storm  off  the  Hebrides. 

1597.  Rebellion  of  the  Irish  under  Hugh  O'Neill,  earl  of  Tyrone  ; 
the  failure  of  the  earl  of  Essex  to  cope  with  the  insurrection  led 
to  his  recall,  and  his  successor  lord  Mountjoy  quickly  subju- 
gated the  country  (1601^  Capture  of  Tyrone,  flight  of  the 
earl  of  Desmond,  A  rebellion  oi  Essex  in  London  was  followed 
by  his  execution  (1601). 

1600.  Charter  of  the  East  India  Company.     Death  of  Elizabeth 
March  24, 1603. 
William  Shakespeare,  1564r-1616  ;  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  1554-1586; 

Bdmund  Spenser,  1553-1599 ;  WUUam  Tyndale,  1485  ?-15d6  ;  Ben 

Jonson,  1574-1637. 

1603-1649  (1714).  The  House  of  Stuart  Personal 
Union  of  England  and  Scotland. 

1603-1625.    James  I., 

as  king  of  Scotland,  James  VL,  son  of  Mary  Stuart,  The 
Scotch  had  brought  him  up  in  the  Protestant  faith.  He  was  learned 
but  pedantic,  weak,  lazy,  and  incapable  of  governing  a  large  king- 
dom. Divine  right  of  kingship,  divine  right  of  the  bishops  ("  no 
bishop,  no  king  ").  In  this  century  the  after-effects  of  the  Reformation 
made  themselves  felt  in  England  as  on  the  continent^|uid  in  both 
places  resulted  in  war.  In  England,  however,  owing  to  the  peculiar 
circumstances  of  the  Reformation  these  effects  were  peculiarly  condi- 
tioned ;  the  religious  questions  were  confused  and  overshadowed  by 
political  and  constitutional  questions. 
1603.  James  I.  was  proclaimed  king  March  24 ;  he  entered  London 


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840  Modem  Hislory.  A»  n, 

on  ihe  7th  of  May,  and  was  crowned  July  25.  Presentatkm  of  the 
millenary  petition  immediately  after  tfames's  arrival  in  London, 
siened  by  1,000  (800)  ministers,  asking  for  the  refonn  of  abases. 

The  Main  and  the  Bye.  The  **  Main "  was  a  plot  to  dethrone 
James  in  favor  of  Arabella  Stuart  (see  ^neaL  table,  p.  337),  con- 
cocted by  lord  Cobham^  Grey  and  others.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was  also 
implicated  and  imprisoned  until  1616  (*' History  of  the  World''). 
The  **  Bye  "  or  the  "  Surprising  treason  "  was  a  plot  to  imprison  the 
king.  Alliance  with  France,  negotiated  by  Ttomy  (Sully). 
1601.  Jan.    Hampton  Court  Conferenoe  between    the    bishops 

and  the  Puritans,  where  James  presided.  The  Puritans  failed 
to  obtain  any  relaxation  of  the  rules  and  orders  of  the  church.  The 
king  issued  a  procUunation  enforcing  the  act  of  uniformity  (p.  338), 
and  one  banishing  Jesuits  and  seminary  priests  {Goodwin  and 
Fortescue). 
1604,  March  ld-1611,  Feb.  9.    Ftrat  Parliament  of  James  I. 

The  king's  scheme  of  a  real  union  of  England  and  Scotland 
nnfavorably  received.  Appointment  of  a  commission  to  investigate 
the  matter. 

1604.  Convocation  (ecclesiastical  court  and  legislature  at  first 
established  [Edward  I.]  as  an  instrument  for  ecclesiastical  tax- 
ation; afterwards  convened  by  archbishops  for  the  settlement  of 
church  questions ;  since  Henry  vTII.  convened  only  by  writ  from  the 
king,  aiid  sitting  and  enacting  [canons]  only  by  permission  of  the 
king)  adopted  some  new  canons  which  bore  so  haraly  upon  the  Puri- 
tans that  three  hundred  clergymen  left  their  livings  ratner  than  con* 
form. 

Peace  with  Spain.  James  proclaimed  **  King  of  Great  Britain, 
France  and  Ireland"  (Oct.  24).  Punishment  of  many  recusants 
(under  the  recusancy  laws  of  Elizabeth,  whereby  refusing  to  go  to 
church,  saying  mass  or  assisting  at  mass  was  severely  punished). 

1605.  Nov.  5.    Ghmpowder  Plot, 

originating  in  1604  with  Robert  Cateshyj  after  the  edict  banish- 
ing the  priests.  Other  conspirators  :  Winter^  Wright^  Percy.  Prep- 
arations lor  blowing  up  the  houses  of  Parliament  with  thirty-six  barrels 
of  gunpowder.  Disclosure  of  the  plot  through  an  anonymous  letter  to 
Loni  Monteagle  from  one  of  the  conspirators,  his  brotheivin-law, 
Tresham,  Airest  of  Guy  ^Guido)  Fawkes,  in  the  vaults  on  Nov. 
4,  the  day  before  the  meetmg  of  parliament.  Trial  and  execution 
of  the  conspirators.     Parliament  met  Nov.  9. 

1606.  Penal  laws  against  papists.  Plague  in  London.  Episco- 
pacy restored  in  Scotland.  James  urged  the  union  anew 
but  in  vain. 

Impositions.  The  grant  of  customs  duties  made  at  the  begin- 
ning of  every  reign  (tonnage  and  poundage,  established  by 
Edward  III.)  proving  insufficient  to  meet  James'  expenditure, 
he  had  recourse  to  impositions  without  parliamentary  grant, 
which  Mary  and  Elizabeth  had  used  to  a  small  extent.  IVial 
of  Bates  for  refusing  to  pay  an  imposition  on  currants.  Th$ 
court  qf  excke^ptier  dwided  in  favor  qfthe  Jting, 


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A.  D.  England  and  Scotland,  —  James  L  341 

1607.  Setdement  of  Jamestown  (p.  291). 

1608.  EBtablishment  of  new  impositions. 

1610.  The  Great  Contract  ^  m  retam  for  the  snrrender  of  some 
feudal  privileges  the  long  was  to  receiye  a  yearly  income  of 
£200,000.  The  agreement  was  frustrated  by  a  dispute  over 
the  impositions.    DlMolntlon  of  parliament  (Feb.  9^1611). 

1611.  Flantimon  of  Ulster^  which  was  forfeited  to  the  crown  by  the 
rebellion  of  Tyrone, 

Creation  of  baronetg,  an  hereditary  knighthood  ;  sale  of  the 
patents. 

1611.    Completion  of  the  translation  of  the  Bible,  which  was 
authorized  by  the  king  and  had  occupied  forty-seven  mini»- 
ters  since  1604. 
Imprisonment  of  AraheUa  Stuart, 

1613.  Robert  Carr,  the  king's  favorite  (viscount  Rochester  in  1611), 
created  duke  of  Somerset^  and  lord  treasurer,  on  the  death  of 
the  earl  of  SaUtbury  (Robert  Cecil).  Death  of  Henrys  prince 
of  Wales  (Nov.  1612).    First  English  factory  at  Surat 

1613.  Marriage  of  the  princess  Elizabeth  Q*  queen  of  Bohemia  ")  to 
the  elector  Palatine.  Death  of  Sir  Thonuu  Overbury,  who  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower  by  the  malice  of  Somerset.  Maiv 
riage  of  Somerset  and  the  countess  of  Essex. 

16149  Apr.  &-June  7.  Beoond  Farliament  of  James  I.  Tluee 
hundred  new  members,  among  whom  were  John  Pym  (Somer- 
setshire), Thomas  Wentworih  (Yorkshire),  John  EHot  (St.  Geiv 
mains).  The  whole  session  was  spent  in  quarrelling  with 
the  king  over  the  impositions,  and  parliament  was  dissolved 
without  making  an  enactment,  whence  it  is  called  the  addled 
parliament, 

1615.  Renewal  of  the  negotiation  for  the  marriage  of  James's  son  to 
a  Spanish  princess  (opened  in  1611).  Imposition  of  a  benevo- 
lence, which  was  resisted  by  Oliver  St,  John  and  condemned 
b^  the  chief  justice.  Sir  Edward  Coke,  who  was  afterwards 
dismissed  from  office.  Death  of  Ardbdla  Stuart,  Mission  of 
Sir  Thomas  Roe  to  the  Great  Mogul. 

1616.  Condemnation  of  the  duke  and  duchess  of  Somerset  for  the 
poisoning  of  Overbury.  Rise  of  George  Villiers  in  the  king's 
favor ;  viscount  Villiers,  earl,  marquis,  dnke  of  Buokingham. 

1617.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  released  from  the  Tower,  allowed  to 
sail  for  the  Orinoco,  where  he  hoped  to  discover  a  g^ld  mina 
Failing  in  this  he  attacked  the  Spanish  towns  on  the  Orinoco. 

1618.  Proclamation  allowing  sports  on  Sunday  after  church  in  Scot- 
land (Articles  of  Perth).  Frands  Bacon,  lord  Verulam,  vis- 
count of  St,  Albans,  lord  chancellor.  In  this  year  iS^tr  Wal- 
ter Raleigh,  returning  from  his  expedition,  was  executed  under 
the  old  sentence,  as  reparation  to  Spain. 

1619.  Commercial  treaty  with  the  Dutch  respecting  the  East  Indies. 

1620.  Settlement  of  the  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth,  m  New  England 
(p.  294). 

1621.  Jan.  30-1622,  Feb.  8.    Third  Parliament  of  James  L    The 

parliunent  granted  a  supply  for  tlie  prosecution  of  the  war  in 


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d42  '  Modem  History.  ▲.  D. 

the  palatinate  (p.  310),  in  which  James  was  half-hearted,  and  then 
took  up  the  subject  of  grievances.  Impeachment  of  Mcmpeucn  and 
MUchdlt  who  had  boneht  monopolies  of  inn-licensinfl^  and  the  manu- 
facture of  gold  and  silyer  thread;  they  were  degradecC  fined,  and  ban- 
ished. Impeachment  of  Francis  Baoon,  the  chancellor,  for  bribeij. 
Bacon  admitted  that  he  had  received  presents  from  parties  in  suits, 
but  denied  that  they  had  affected  his  judgment.  He  was  fined  £40,- 
000  (which  was  remitted)  and  declared  mcapable  of  holding  office 
in  the  future.  Petition  of  the  commons  against  popery  and  the 
Spanish  marriage..  The  angry  rebuke  of  the  king  for  meddling  in 
affairs  of  state  ("  bring  stools  for  these  ambassadors  ")  drew  from 
the  parliament 

1621,  Dec.  18.  The  Great  Protestation  :  <<That  the  liberties,  fran- 

chises, privileges,  and  jurisdictions  of  parliament  are  the  ancient 
and  undoubted  birthright  and  inheritance  of  the  subjects  of  England, 
and  that  the  arduous  fmd  urgent  affairs  concerning  the  king,  state,  and 
defense  of  the  realm  . . .  are  proper  subjects  and  matter  of  council 
and  debate  in  parliament."  The  king  tore  the  page  containing  the 
protestation  from  the  journal  of  the  commons. 

1622,  Feb.  8.    Dissolution  of  parliament. 

Imprisonment  of  Southanmton,  Coke,  Pym^  Seiden.    Earl  of 
Buckingham  made  duke  of  Buckingham. 

1623,  Charles,  prince  of  Wales,  and  the  duke  of  Buckingham, 
went  to  Spain  and  negotiated  a  marrii^  treaty,  the  provis- 
ions of  which  were  so  favorable  to  the  Catholics  as  to  excite 
great  dissatisfaction  in  England;  finally,  being  unable  to  secure 
any  help  from  Spain  in  regard  to  the  palatinate,  Charles  and 
Buckingham  returned  in  anger. 

Massacre  of  English  residents  on  the  island  of  Amboyna  by  the 
Dutch. 

1624,  Feb.  12-1625,  Mar.  27.    Fourth  Parliament  of  James  I. 

The  Spanish  marriage  was  broken  off,  but  even  the  anger  of 
Buckingham  could  not  drive  the  parliament  into  a  declaration  of  war 
with  Spain.  Supplies  voted  for  defense.  Mansfeld  raised  1,200 
men  in  England  who  reached  Holland  but  nearly  all  perished  there 
£rom  lack  of  projier  provisions.  Marriage  treaty  with  France  for  the 
marriage  of  Frmce  Charles  with  Henrietta  MariOf  sister  of  Louis 
XIII. 

1625,  March  27,  death  of  James  L  at  Theobalds. 

1625-1649.    Chaxles  I. 

1625,  May  11.  Marriage  of  Charles  I.  and  Henrietta  Maria, 

Ships  Bent  to  TLrouis  XIII.  secretly  engaged  not  to  fight  against 

the  Huguenots. 
1625.    First  Parliament  of  Charles  I. 

(Assembled  Jime  18  ;  adjourned  to  Oxford  July  11 ;  dissolved 

Aug.  12.) 
Grant  of  tonnage  and  poundage  for  one  year  only,  and  of  £140,000 
for  the  war  with  Spain.     Proceedings  a^^ainst  Montague  Q'appello 
Ccaarem^  1624).     Unsuooessful  expedition  of  WinMedon  against 
Cadiz. 


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A.  l>.  England  and  Scotland.  —  Charles  L  343 

1626yFeb.6-June  15.    Beoond  Parliament  of  Charles  I. 

Charles  had  hoped  for  a  more  pliable  parliament,  as  he  had 
appointed  seyeral  of  the  leaders  of  the  first  parliament  sheriffs^ 
and  so  kept  them  oat  of  the  second.  But  this  parliament, 
under  the  lead  of  Sir  Johii  Eliot,  was  more  intractable  than 
the  last.  Lord  Bristol,  to  whom  no  writ  had  been  sent  by  order 
of  the  king,  received  one  on  the  interference  of  the  lords,  but 
was  requested  not  to  appear.  He  took  his  seat  and  brought 
charges  against  Bnoldnghain,  on  which  that  lord  was  mi- 
peached  (May).  Imprisonment  of  Sir  John  Eliot  and  Sir  Dud" 
ley  DiggeSf  who  were  set  at  liberty  upon  the  refusal  of  parlia- 
ment to  proceed  to  business  without  them. 
War  declared  against  France  (1626-1630). 

1627,  Inglorious  expedition  of  Buckingham  to  the  relief  of  Rochelle 
(/«7e  o/Ry). 

Exaction  of  a  forced  loan  to  raise  money  for  the  French  war,  and 
for  the  subsidy  which  Charles  had  agreed  to  supply  to  Chris- 
tian IV.  of  Denmark.  Five  persons,  who  were  imprisoned  for 
refusing  to  contribute,  sued  out  a  writ  of  habeas  eorpuSf  but, 
having  been  committed  by  the  king's  order,  though  without 
distinct  charge,  they  were  remanded  to  'prison. 

1628,  March  17-1629,  March  10.  Third  Parliament  of  Charles 
I. 

May.  Passage  of  the  Petition  of  Right :  1.  Prohibition  of  henevo- 
lences,  and  all  forms  of  taxation  uriihout  consent  of  parliament. 
2.  Soldiers  should  not  be  billeted  in  pruxUe  houses.  3.  No  com- 
mission should  be  given  to  military  officers  to  execute  martial 
law  in  time  of  peacj.  4.  No  one  should  be  imprisoned  unless 
upon  a  specified  charge.  Assent  of  the  king  (June  7).  Grant  of 
five  subsidies.  Suppression  of  the  royalistic  sermons  of  Main-- 
toaring. 

Charles  having,  after  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  continued  to  levy 
tonnage  and  poundage,  the  conunons  drew  up  a  remonstrance 
against  that  practice. 

June  26.    Prorogation  of  parliament. 

Seizure  of  goods  of  merchants  who  refused  to  pay  tonnage  and 
poundage. 

Aug.  23.    Assassination  of  Buckingham  by  Pelton. 

1629,  Jan.    New  session  of  parliament.     Oliver  Cromvrell  spoke, 

for  the  first  time,  in  this  parliament.  The  commons  at  once 
took  up  the  question  of  tonnage  and  poundage;  claim  of  privi- 
lege in  the  case  of  RolfSf  one  of  the  merc^mts,  whose  goods 
had  been  seized,  and  who  was  a  member  of  parliament. 
Adjournment  of  the  house  of  commons, 
tfarch  2.  Meeting  of  parliament.  Turbulent  scene  in  the  house  of 
commons  ;  the  speaker  held  in  the  chair  while  the  resolutions 
of  Eliot  were  read  :  Whoever  introduced  innovations  in  relig- 
ion, or  opinions  disag^eing  with  those  of  the  true  church; 
whoever  advised  the  levy  of  tonnage  and  poundage  without 
grant  of  parliament ;  whoever  voluntarily  paid  such  duties, 
was  an  enemy  of  the  kingdom. 


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344  Modem  History,  a.  d. 

March  5.    Arrest  of  membeiB  ;  imprisoiimeiit  of  Eliot  (f  Noy.  1632). 
March  10.    Dissolution  of  parliament.    For  eleven  jeaxB  Charles 
fforemed  without  a  parliament,  raising  money  hy  illegal 
kyies  of  taxes,  sale  of  monopolies,  and  many  other  ways. 

Charles'  advisers  :  William  Zaand  (h.  1573,  president  of  St.  John's 
college,  1611-1621;  dean  of  Gloucester,  1616;  in  Scotland  as  James  L's 
chaplain,  1617;  bishop  of  St.  David's,  1621;  chaplain  to  Buckingham, 
1622 ;  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  dean  of  the  chapel  royal,  1626 ; 
privy  councillor,  1627;  bishop  of  London^  1628  ;  chancellor  of  Oxford, 
1630 ;  in  Scothmd  with  Charles  I.,  1633 ;  ardibkhop  ofCcmterbury, 
1633 ;  commissioner  of  the  treasury,  1634 ;  impeached,  1641 ;  at- 
tainted (by  bill)  and  executed,  1645),  Thomas  Wentworth  (b.  1503; 
p  parliament,  1614, 1621-1625 ;  sheriff,  1625  ;  imprisoned  for  refus- 
ing to  comply  with  the  forced  loan  ;  in  parliament,  1628  ;  baron  Went« 
worth,  lord  president  of  the  council  of  the  north,  viscount  Wentworth, 
1628  ;  privy  councillor,  1620 ;  lord  deputy  of  Ireland,  1633  ;  went  to 
IreUmd,  1633;  earl  of  Strafford,  and  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
1630  ;  impeached,  1640  ;  attainted  (by  bill)  and  executed,  May,  1641), 
Weaton,  lord  treasurer. 
1630,  April.    Peace  with  France. 

1620.     First  charter  of  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  (p.  205). 
1630,  Nov.    Peace  with  Spain. 
1632.     Predominant  influence  of  WenJtworth, 

1633^  June.    Charles  crowned  at  Edinburgh  with  ceremonies  distaste- 
ful to  the  Scots. 

Government  of  Laud  and  Went^oorth,  Energetic  enforcement  of 
conformity.  The  declaration  of  sports  (p.  341)  reissued.  Inrailment 
of  the  communion  table.  William  Prynne,  author  of  Histrio-Moftix,  an 
attack  on  players,  which  was  thought  to  reflect  on  the  queen,  pilloried 
and  deprived  of  his  ears.  Wentworth,  governor  of  Ireland.  ^  Thor- 
ough." 

1634.  First  writ  for  ahip;-money,  a  war  tax  levied  only  on  seaboard 
towns,  issued  at  the  sageestion  of  Noy,  attorney-general,  and 
extended  over  the  whole  kingdom. 

1635.  Second  writ  for  ahip-money. 

1637.  Prynne,  Bastwick,  Burton,  pilloried. 

June  23.  An  attempt  to  read  the  Bngliah  liturgy  in  Edinburgh,  in 
compliance  with  the  order  of  Charles,  produced  a  popular 
tomult  at  St.  Giles. 

June.  Trial  of  John  Hampden,  for  refusing  to  pay  his  allotment  of 
ship-money  (twenty  shillings).  The  court  of  exchequer  de- 
cided against  him,  which  created  a  strong  popular  excitement. 
Shortly  after,  Hampden,  Pym,  Cromwell,  were  prevented  from 
sailing  for  America  by  a  royal  prohibition  of  emigfration. 

1638,  Feb.  28.     Siening  of  the   Solemn  League  and  Covenant 

(based  on  that  of  1580),  at  Greyfriar's  church  in  Edinburgh, 
for  the  defense  of  the  reformed  religion  and  resistance  to  inno- 
vations. 
1638,  Nov.  21.  Ceneral  assembly  at  Glasgow;  abolition  of  episcopacy, 
the  new  liturgy,  and  the  canons  ;  the  kirk  declared  inaependent 
of  the  state. 


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1.  D*  England  and  Scotland.  —  Charles  L  845 

1639.    The  first  bishops'  war. 

The  Soots  seized  £diiibiirgli  castle,  and  raised  aa  army. 
Charles  marched  to  meet  them  near  Berwick^  but  an  agreement  was 
reached  without  a  battle. 

1639,  June  18.    Paolfloation  of  Dimse  (or  Qerwiok).    The  armies 

were  to  be  disbanded,  and  difiFerences  refeired  to  a  new 
ffeneral  assembly  and  parliament.  The  general  assembly  at  Edtn- 
hurgh  confirmed  the  acts  of  the  assembly  of  Glasgow,  and  the  parlia- 
ment proved  intractable.  The  king's  necessities  were  now  so  great 
that  he  took  the  advice  of  WentworUi,  now  made  earl  of  Straflbrd, 
and  summoned 

1640,  April  13 -May  5.     The  fonrth  ParUaxnent  of  Charles  I. 

("The  Short  Parliament")  at  Westminster. 
As  no  supplies  could  be  obtained  without  a  redress  of  grievances, 
the  parliament  was  soon  dissolved.  Popular  tumults;  attack  on  Laud's 
palace  ;  assault  upon  the  court  of  hign  commission  (created  1559,  by 
Elizabeth,  to  try  offenses  against  the  ecclesiastical  supremacy  of  the 
crown). 

1640.  Second  bishops'  war. 

Defeat  of  the  royal  troops  at  Newhvam  on  the  Tyne  (Auff.  28). 
The  king  summoned  a  council  qf  peers  at  York  (Sept.).  Treaty 
of  Ripen  (Oct.  26).  A  permanent  treaty  was  set  m  prospect; 
meanwhile  the  Scottish  army  was  to  be  paid  £850  a  day  by 
Charles.  Acting  upon  the  advice  of  the  peers,  Charles  now 
summoned 

1640»  Nov.  3.    The  Fifth  and  last  Parliament. 

The  Long  Parliament  (Nov.  3, 164a-March  16, 1660). 

First  Session. 

Not.  3, 1640-8ept  a  1641. 

The  fact  that  the  Scotch  army  was  not  to  be  disbanded  until 
paid,  gave  the  commons  an  extraordinary  power  over  the  king, 
which  they  were  not  slow  to  use.    Iienthall,  speaker. 

Nov.  11.  Impeachment  of  the  earl  of  Btrafford,  followed  by  the  im- 
peachment of  Zaaud.    Both  were  conunitted  to  the  Tower. 

1641,  ^b.  15.    The  triennial  act  passed,  enacting  that  parliament 

should  assemble  every  three  years  even  without  being  sum- 
moned by  the  king. 

March  22.  Commencement  of  the  trial  of  Strafford.  The  result  of 
the  impeachment  being  uncertain,  it  was  dropped  and  a  bill  of 
attainder  introduced,  which  passed  both  houses  (commons, 
Apr.  21,  lords,  Apr.  29). 
Bill  to  prevent  clergymen  from  holding  civil  office  introduced 
but  thrown  out  by  the  lords  (June).  Introduction  of  a  bill  for 
the  abolition  of  bishops    ('*  root  and  branch  bill "). 

Biay  10.  Charles  with  great  reluctance  signed  the  bill  of  attainder 
against  Strafford,  and  also  the  bill  to  prevent  the  diaaolu- 
tion  or  proroguing  of  the  preaent  parliament  without  its 
own  consent.    C'  Act  for  the  perpetual  Parliament.*^} 


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846  Modem  BUtary.  a.  i>. 

1041,  May  12.    Execution  of  Btrafford. 

July.  Abolition  of  the  Star  Chamber  and  the  High  Commia- 
aion. 

Aog.  Treaty  of  paciftoation  with  Sootland.  The  Sootch  and  Engu 
lish  armies  were  paid  with  the  proceeds  of  a  poll-tax.  Charles 
went  to  Sootland.  First  interview  of  Edward  Hyde,  lord  Clar- 
endon (1609-1674  ;  '<  History  of  the  BeheUion  and  Civil  Wars 
in  England)/'  with  the  king. 

Sept  8.  Parliament  adjourned,  but  each  house  appointed  a  commit- 
tee to  sit  daring  the  recess  ;  Pfpn  chairman  of  the  commons' 
committee. 
Attempt  of  the  king  to  conciliate  the  **  moderates  "  in  parlia- 
ment by  giving  ofiBces  of  state  to  their  leaders  (Lacins  Cary, 
lord  Falkland). 

Oct  In  Scotland  the  marqnis  of  Montroae  formed  a  plot  for  the 
seizure  of  the  duke  of  ArgyUy  the  leader  of  the  Presbyterians^ 
in  which  the  king  was  thought  to  have  a  share.  The  diseovery 
of  the  plot  (''the  incident ''). threw  Charles  into  the  hands  of 
Argyle,  and  an  agreement  was  concluded  whereby  Charles 
gave  the  state  offices  to  Argyle  and  his  part^,  and  the  latter 
agreed  not  to  interfere  in  the  religious  affairs  m  England. 

Oct.  20.  Parliament  assembled.  Early  in  Nov.  came  news  of  the 
Irish  massacre  in  Ulster  ;  the  lowest  estimate  of  the  number  of 
Protestants  slain  was  30,000.  Great  indignation  in  England. 
Yet  the  parliament  was  unwilling  to  trust  Charles  with  an 
army. 

1641,  Dec.  1.    The  grand  remonatranoe,  which  had  passed  tiie 

house  of  conmions  in  November,  after  a  long  and  exciting  de- 
bate, by  a  majority  of  eleven,  presented  to  the  king.  It  was  a 
summary  of  all  the  grievances  of  his  reign.  On  Dec.  14  the 
remonstrance  was  or&red  to  be  printed. 
Several  of  the  bishops  having  declared  their  inability  to  attend 
parliament  on  account  of  the  conduct  of  the  mob,  and  protested 
against  the  action  of  parliament  in  their  absence,  they  were 
conunitted  to  the  Tower  for  breach  of  privilege  (Dec.  90). 
The  petition  of  the  commons  for  a  guard  under  the  earl  of 
Essex  rejected  by  the  king. 

1642,  Jan.  3.  Impeachment  of  lord  Kimbolton,  and  of  Fym, 
Hampden,  Haaelrig,  HoUea,  Btrode,  members  of  the  com- 
mons, for  treasonable  correspondence  with  the  Scots  in  the  recent 
war.  As  the  commons  declined  to  order  their  arrest  Charles 
resolved  to  take  matters  into  his  own  hands. 

Jan.  4.    Attempt  to  aeiae  the  five  membera. 

Charles  visited  the  house  of  conmions  in  person,  with  five 
hundred  troops,  but  finding  that  the  five  members  were  absent 
he  withdrew  quietly.  The  accused  members,  meanwhile,  were 
in  London.  The  conmions  immediately  foUowed  them,  and 
formed  themselves  into  a  committee  which  nai  at  the  CfuUd- 
hall,  under  the  protection  of  the  citizens. 

Jan.  10.  Charles  left  London.  The  five  members  returned  to  par- 
liament on  the  following  day.    Jan.  12,  rising  at  Kingstoa 


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A.  i>.  England  and  Scatbmd.  847 

The  freeholders  of  Budbinghamskire  sent  a  remonstmnee  to  the 
Idnf .  The  commons  made  sure  of  several  places  and  hastened 
to  uty  before  the  king  a  bill  excluding  the  bishops  from 
the  honse  of  Lords,  which  he  signed,  and  a  bill  seoming  to 
the  parliament  the  conmiand  of  the  militia,  which  he  re- 
fused to  sign.  Charles  at  York  (March),  where  he  was 
joined  in  Apnl  by  thirty-two  peers  and  sizty-five  members  of 
the  lower  house.  The  king  also  obtained  the  great  se^.  At- 
tempt on  Hull. 
Henceforward  the  parliament  at  Westminster  passed  ordinances 
which  were  not  submitted  to  the  king.  By  an  ordinance  passed 
in  May  they  assumed  control  of  the  militia. 

June  2.  Submission  of  nineteen  propositions  by  parliament  to  the 
kinjr,  demanding  that  the  king  should  give  his  assent  to  the 
militia  bill ;  tluit  all  fortified  places  should  be  entrusted  to 
officers  appointed  by  parliament ;  that  the  liturgy  and  church 
goYcmment  should  be  reformed  in  accordance  with  the  wishes 
of  parliament ;  that  parliament  should  appoint  and  dismiss  all 
royal  ministers,  appomt  guardians  for  the  king's  children,  and 
have  the  power  of  excluding  from  the  upper  house  at  will  all 
peers  created  after  that  date.  The  propositions  were  indig- 
nantly rejected. 

July.  Appointment  of  a  committee  of  pnblic  safety  by  wirliament. 
Eraex  appointed  captain-general  of  an  army  of  20,000  foot  and 
4000  cavalry.     Siege  of  rortsmouth. 

Aug.  22.    Charles  raised  the  royal  standard  at  Nottingham. 

1642-1646.    The  civil  war ;  the  Great  Rebellion. 

Oct.  23.  Drawn  battle  of  EdgehUL  (Prince  Rni>ert,  son  of  the 
elector  palatine  and  Elizabeth  of  England.)  The  king  marched 
upon  London,  but  being  confronted  at  Brer^ord  by  Essex  and 

NoY.  12.  the  trained  bands  of  London  imder  Skippon^  he  retired 
without  fighting.     **  ASsdr  of  Brentford." 

Dec.  The  associated  counties  of  Norfolk^  Suffolk^  Essex^  Cambridge^ 
Hertfordshire,  and  Huntingdonshire  raised  a  force  which  was  en- 
trusted to  Oliver  Cromwell  (bom  April  25, 15d9  in  Hunting'* 
doii)y  who  made  them  a  model  band,  '*  the  Ironsides." 

1643,  Feb.- Apr.  Fruitless  negotiations  at  Oxford,  followed  by  a  re- 
newal of  die  war.  Li  Feb.  the  queen  landed  in  Yorkshire, 
bringing  assbtance  from  Holland. 

Apr.  27.    Capture  of  Reading  by  Essex. 

May.  Royalist  rising  in  Cornwall ;  defeat  of  the  parliament  at  Stral- 
tan  HiU  (May  16).  Defeat  of  Wader  at  Lansdoume  HiU,  and 
at  Roundtoay  Down  (July). 

June  18.  Hampden  wounded  in  a  skirmish  with  Rupert  at  ChaU 
groviJieLdy  f  June  24. 

July  1.  'Weatminater  asaembly  (continued  until  1649),  for  the 
settlement  of  religious  and  theological  matters. 

July  25.  Capture  of  Briatol  (the  second  city  in  the  kingdom)  by 
Rupert.     Discouragement  of  the  supporters  of  the  parliament. 

Sept.  Essex  relieved  Gloucester,  which  was  gallantly  defended  by 
Afassey, 


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848  Modem  JSRUor^  A.  a 

1643,  Sept.  20.    Fmt  htMe  ot  Neuibwy.    Death  of  lord  Falkland. 
Sept.  25.  Signatnre  of  the  Solemn  Zieagne  and  Covenant  By 

twentj-five  peers  and  288  members  of  the  commons.  Parliar- 
ment  thus  agreed  to  make  the  religions  of  England,  Ireland, 
and  Scotland  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible,  and  to  reform  re- 
ligion "  according  to  the  word  of  God,  and  the  example  of  the 
best  reformed  churches."  All  civil  and  military  ofi&cers  and  all 
beneficed  clergymen  were  compelled  to  sign  the  covenant 
pearly  2000  clergymen  were  thus  deprived  of  Uieir  livings). 
Thus  the  assistance  of  the  Scots  was  secured. 

Sept.  Charles  concluded  pea^  with  the  Irish  insurgents,  and  took 
the  fatal  step  of  enlisting  a  force  from  their  numbers  for  the 
war  in  England. 

Dec.  8.    Death  of  Pym. 

1644.  Jan.  A  Scotch  army  crossed  the  Tweed.  Parliament  con- 
vened at  Oxford  by  the  king. 

Jan.  25.   Battle  of  Nantunch.    Defeat  of  the  Irish  by  Sir  Thomas 

Fair/ax. 
Feb.  15.   Joint  committee  of  the  two  ir<«g<ift«i« 
March.    Trial  of  Lcmd. 

York  besieged  by  Fairfax  and  the  Scots.    Siege  of  Oxford  bv 

Essex  and  WaUer.    Siege  of  Laduan  House  (countess  of  Derby) 

raised  by  Rupert  (May). 
Jnlj  2.    Battle  of  Maraton  Moor. 

Prince  Rupert,  who  defeated  the  Scots,  was  in  turn  totally  de- 
feated by  Cromwell  at  the  head  of  his  picked  troops  (Ironsides). 

Hitherto  the  king  had  held  the  west  and  north  of  England,  while 
the  parliament  was  supreme  in  the  east.  This  victory  gave  the 
north  to  parliament.  Surrender  of  York  Julv  16,  of  ^wcastle 
Oct  20.  This  success  was  partially  ofbet  in  the  south  by  the  de- 
feat of  Waller  at  the 

June  29.  Battle  of  Copredy  Bridge^  and  by  the 
Sept.        Surrender  of  Essex's  infantry  in  Cornwall  to  Charles.    Es- 
sex escaped  to  London  by  sea. 
.  1644,  Aug.-1645,  Sept.    Campaign  of  Montrose  in  Scotland. 

Montrose  entered  Scotland  in  disguise,  Aug.,  1644.  Victory 
of  Tippamnir  Sept.  1 ;  sack  of  Aberdeen  (Bridge  of  Dee)  Sept.  13  ; 
capture  of  Perth ;  Montrose  retired  to  Athole  (Oct.  4)  ;  Fyrie  castle 
(Oct.  14)  ;  Montrose  retired  to  Badenach  (Nov.  6)  ;  harrving  of 
Argyleshire  (Dec-Jan.  18)  ;  march  from  Loch  Ness  to  Invenochy  at 
Ben  Nevis  (Jan.  31-Feb.  1).  BatUe  of  Inverloohj,  Feb.  2.  Surren- 
der of  Elgin,  Feb.  19.  Montrose  at  Aberdeen  (March  9)  ;  Stone- 
haven  (March  21).  Victory  of  Anldcam  (May  4)  ;  victory  of 
Alford  (July  2)  ;  of  JOlsyth  (Aug.  15)  ;  court  at  BothweU  (Sept. 
3)  ;  Kelao  (Sept.  10)  ;  Leslie  crossed  the  Tweed  (Sept.  6).  De- 
feat of  Montrose  at  Philiphangfa  (Sept  13). 
1644,  Oct.  27.  Second  battle  of  Newbury  fought  between  the  king 

and  Essex,  Waller,  and  Manchester. 
Dec.    Promulgation  of  a  directory  instead  of  a  liturgy.    Chiistmai 

made  a  fast. 
1646.  Jan.  Attainder  and  execution  (Jan.  10)  of  Land. 


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tL.  IX  England  and  Scotland.  849 

1645,  Jaii.-Feb.  Truce  known  as  the  treaty  of  Uxbridge;  tlie  pro- 
posals of  the  parliament  rejected  bj  the  king. 
Dissensions  within  the  parliament.  Rise  of  the  sect  of  indepei^ 
dents  (advocates  of  religious  liberty)  who  formed  a  growing  opposi- 
tion to  the  Presbyterians.  Cromwell  fast  becoming  the  lending  man 
in  England  since  the  victory  of  Marston  Moor.  Quarrel  with  Man- 
cheater. 

April  3.  The  Belf-denying  Ordinanoe  passed  by  both  houses  (the 
commons  had  passed  a  similar  bill  l)ec.  1644)  preventing  mem- 
bers of  either  house  from  holding  military  command.  Estab- 
lishment of  Presbyterianism,  wiu  some  reservations  in  favor 
of  the  independento. 
Fairfax  superseded  Essex  as  oaptaiii-generaL  Gromwell, 
lieutenant-general  (suspension  of  the  Mlf-denying  ordinance 
in  his  case). 

Introduction  of  reform  in  the  army  after  the  plans  of  Crom- 
well ;  the  new  model. 
June  14.  Battle  of  Naaeby. 

Complete  defeat  of  the  king,  followed  by  the  general  ruin  of 
his  cause.  Capture  of  his  private  letters.  Surrender  of  Lei- 
cester (June  18),  Bridgewater  (July  23),  Briatol  (Sept.  11), 
Carlisle^    Winchester,  Basing    House    (Oct),  Latham   House 


March  26.  Defeat  and  capture  of  lord  Ashley  at  StouHm-4he-Wold ; 
last  battle  of  the  civil  war. 

1646,  May  5.    Charlea  aurrendered  hlmaelf  to  the  Bootik 
July  24.  Parliamentary  propositions  submitted  to  Charles  at  Newcastle, 

Parliament  to  have  control  of  the  militia  for  twenty  years ; 
Charles  to  take  the  covenant  and  support  the  Presbyterian 
establishment.  Charles  rejected  the  propositions,  preferring 
to  await  the  result  of  the  impending  breach  between  parlia- 
ment,  representing  Presbyterianism,  and  the  armyf  comprising 
the  independents.  The  independent  opposition,  tlie  '*  tolera- 
tion "  party  in  parliament,  grew  constantly  in  strength. 

1647,  Jan.  30.    The  Scots  surren£red  Charles  to  the  parliament  on 

payment  of  the  expenses  of  their  army  (£400,000).  Charlea 
was  brought  to  Hdmby  House  in  Nortluunptonshire. 
Contention  between  parliament  and  the  army.  The  commons 
voted  the  disbandment  of  all  soldiers  not  needed  for  garrison 
purposes  or  in  Ireland.  Fairfax  appointed  commander-in- 
chief.  The  self-denying  ordinance  re-enacted.  The  new 
model,  however,  refused  to  disband  until  its  claims  for  arrears 
were  satisfied. 

May  12.  Charles  accepted  a  modified  form  of  the  parliamentary 
propositions.    It  was  too  late. 

June  4.  uharles  seized  at  Holmby  House  by  comet  Joyce  and  carried 
to  the  army.  On  the  same  day  Cromwell,  having  heard  of  the 
intention  of  the  Presbyterians  to  seize  him  in  parliament,  fled 
to  the  army  at  Triptow  Heath.  Here  the  army  had  taken  an 
oath  not  to  disband  until  liberty  of  conscience  was  secure,  and 


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850  Modem  Hiitory.  ▲.  dw 

had  adopted  a  new  organization  ;  appointment  to  a  oonndl  of 
adjxMiicatoTS, 

1647,  June  10.    The  army  at  St  Albans.    **  Homhle  representation  * 

addressed  to  parliament. 

June  16.  The  army  demanded  the  exclusion  from  parliament  of 
deven  members  vho  were  peculiarly  obnoxious  to  it  {Holies). 

July  26.    The  house  of  commons  mobbed  by  London  apprentices  on 
account  of  a  change  in  the  commanders  of  the  London  militia 
which  the  army  had  requested. 
The  two  speakers,  fourteen  lords,  and  one  hundred  commons 
fled  to  the  army. 

July  24.  Proposals  presented  to  the  king  by  the  army.  Belief  and 
worship  should  be  free  to  all ;  parliament  to  control  the  mili- 
tary and  naval  forces  for  ten  years,  and  to  appoint  officers  of 
state  ;  triennial  parliament ;  reformation  of  the  house  of 
commons,  etc.,  rejected  by  the  king,  who  was  invited  to  Lon- 
don by  that  part  of  the  parliament  still  sitting  at  Westmin* 
ster. 

Aug.  6.  The  army  entered  London  and  restored  the  members  which 
had  taken  refuge  with  it.  Charles  removed  to  Hampton 
Court. 

Sept.  7.  Parliament  again  offered  Charles  a  modified  form  of  the 
nineteen  propositions ;  on  its  rejection  a  new  draft  was  pre- 
pared, but  before  its  presentation 

Nov.  11.  Charles  escaped  to  the  Isle  of  Wight,  where  he  was  detained 
by  the  governor  of  Carishroolce  CasUe. 

Dec.  24.  *<  The  four  bills  **  presented  to  the  king  by  parliament :  1. 
Parliament  to  command  the  army  for  twenty  years ;  2.  All 
declarations  and  proclamations  against  the  parliament  to  be 
recalled  ;  3.  All  peers  created  since  the  great  seal  was  sent  to 
Charles  to  be  incapable  of  sitting  in  the  house ;  4.  The  two 
houses  should  adjourn  at  pleasure.  Charles,  who  was  only 
playing  with  the  parliament  in  the  hope  of  securing  aid  from 
Scotland,  rejected  the  four  bills  (Dec.  28),  after  he  had 
already  signed 

Deo.  26.  A  secret  treaty  with  the  Soots  ("  The  Engagement"). 
Charles  agreed  to  abolish  Episcopacy  and  restore  Presbyte- 
rianism  ;  the  Scots,  who  looked  with  horror  on  the  rising  tide 
of  toleration  in  England,  agreed  to  restore  him  by  force  of 
arms. 

1648.  Jan.  15.  Parliament  renounced  allegianoe  to  the  king, 
and  voted  to  have  no  more  communication  with  him. 

1648.    Second  CivU  War. 

At  once  a  war  between  Scotland  and  England^  a  war  between 

the  Royalists  and  the  Roundheads,  and  a  vrar  between  the 

Presbyterians  and  the  Independents, 
Committee  of  safety  renewed,  sitting  at  Derby  House. 
March.    A  meeting  of  army  officers  at  Windsor  resolved  that  the 

king  must  be  brought  to  trial. 
April  24.    Call  of  the  house.     306  members.     The  Presbyterians 

having  returned  to  their  seats,  now  regained  control,  and  mani* 


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iu  D.  The  North  and  East.  851 

f ested  a  desire  to  come  to  an  agreement  with  the  king.    Yiiv 

tual  repeal  of  the  non-commanication  resolution. 
164S,  May  2.     Ordinance  for  suppression  of  blasphemies  and  heresies, 

aimed  at  the  independents,  especially  at  Cromtoell,  Iretoriy  etc. 
July  20-29.  Parliament  resolved  to  open  negotiations  with  the  king. 
Aug.  14.    Holies  resumed  his  seat. 

Royalist  outbreaks  in  Wales,  Cornwall,  Devon,  Kent;  riots  in 

JLondon, 
July  25.    The  duke  of  Hamilton  led  a  Scotch  army  into  England. 

CromweU  having  suppressed  the  rising  in  Wales  met  the  Scots 

in  the 
Aug.  17-20.    Three  days'  battle  at  Preston  Pans, 

and  annihilated  their  army. 
Aug.  28.    Surrender  of  Colchester  to  Fairfax.    End  of  the  second 

civil  war. 
Sept.  18-Nov.  "  Treaty  of  Newport "  negotiated  between  the  king 

and  the  parliament,  without  result. 
Nov.  16.    Grand  remonstrance  of  the  army. 
Dec.  1.    Charles  seized  by  the  army  and  carried  to  Hurst  Castle, 
Dec.  4.    The  army  entered  London  (19  peers,  232  commons). 
Dec.  5.   Parliament  voted  that  the  king^  propositions  formed  a  basis 

on  which  an  agreement  might  be  reached.    This  vote  was  the 

last  straw  ;  the  army  took  matters  into  its  own  hands. 
Dec.  &-7.   Pride's  Purge.     Colonel  Pride,  by  order  of  the  council 

of  officers,  forcibly  excluded  the  Presbyterian  members  (96) 

from  the  parliament. 
The  "  Rump  "  Parliament  (some  60  members). 
Dec.  13.    Repeal  of  the  vote  to  proceed  with  the  treaty.    Vote  that 

Charles  should  be  brought  to  trial.    The  king  conveyed  to 

Windsor  (Dec.  23). 
1649,  Jan.  1.    Appointment  of  a  high  court  of  justice  (135  members) 

to  try  the  king ;  as  this  was  rejected  by  the  lords  (Jan.  2)  the 

commons  resolved 
Jan.  4.    That  legislative  power  resided  solely  with  the  com- 
mons. 
Jan.  6.    Passage  of  the  ordinance  without  the  concurrence  of  the 

lords. 
}an.  20.    Agreement  of  the  people,  a  form  of  government  drawn  up 

by  the  army. 
Jan.  20-27.    Trial  of  Charles  I.  before  the  high  court  (67  members 

present,  Bradshaw  presiding)  ;  the  king  merelv  denied  the 

jurisdiction  of  the  court.     He  was  sentenced  to  death. 
Jan.  30.   Ezeoution  of  Charles  I.  at  Whitehall  in  London. 

(Seep,  376.) 
§  9.    THE  NORTH  AND  EAST.  (Seep.SJG.) 

The  Union  of  the  three  Scandinavian  kingdoms,  weakened 
by  the  action  of  Sweden,  since  the  election  of 

1448.   Christian  /.  of  Oldenburg,  lus  kine  of  the  Union,  was  com' 
pletely  dissolved  in  consequence  of  Uie  cruelties  of  Christian  IL 


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352  Modem  HUtory.  A.  i>. 

1520.  MbuHMiore  of  Btookholm.  Bevolt  of  the  DaUcarUan»  un- 
der the  coadiict  of  OKutaTiis  Vasa  (b.  1496,  hostage  in  Den- 
mark, 1518,  fled  to  Dalecarlia,  1519,  concealed  hiinself  under  dis- 
guises and  worked  in  the  mines).  He  defeated  the  Danesy  and 
became  first  administrator  of  the  kingdom,  then  king  (1523). 

Sweden.  {Seep,  S76.) 

1523~1654«  House  of  Vasa. 

1523-1560.    OKiataTiia  I.,  Vasa.    Introduction  of  the  Reformation. 

The  throne  made  hereditary.  Gustavus  I.  was  succeeded  by 
his  eldest  son  Erik  juv.,  who,  being  insane,  was  deposed  and  mur- 
dered. His  successor  was  the  second  son  of  Gustavus,  JTohn  m., 
whose  son  SigismuBd  was  Catholic,  and  king  of  Poland  (1587),  and 
hence  displaced  in  Sweden  by  his  uncle  Cl^lea  IX.  the  youngest 
son  of  GustaTus  I.  Charles's  son, 
1611-1632.  OKiataviis  II.  Adolphus,  conducted  successful  wars  with 

Poland  and  Russia.   For  his  participation  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  and  his  death  see  p.  311.    He  was  followed  by  his  daughter 
1632-1654.    Chxlatlna,  who  was  well  educated,  but  averse  to  affairs 

of  government.  She  abdicated  in  1654  in  favor  of  her  cousin 
Charles  Qtutavus  of  Pfalz-ZtoeibrUcken,  son  of  a  sister  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus.    Christina  became  a  Catholic  and  died  at  Rome,  1689. 

(Seep.SrS.) 
Denmark  and  Norway.  (See  p,  fS76.) 

These  countries  remained  united.  Under  Chriatlan  II.  the  Refor- 
mation began  to  spread  into  Denmark.  Christian  was  displaced  by 
his  uncle,  the  duke  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  who  ascended  the  Danish 
throne  as 

1523-1533.  Frederic  I.  and  favored  the  Reformation.  After  his 
death  (1533),  the  so-called  Feuda  of  the  Coonta  (JUrgen 
WuUentDeueTf  burghermaster  of  Liibeck),  Frederic's  son 
1536-1559.  Chriatian  HE.  completed  the  introduction  of  the  Refor- 
mation. For  the  participation  of  Christian  IV.  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  see  p.  310.    After  a 

1643-1645.    War  with  Sweden,  Christian  was  obliged  to  surrender 

the  islands  of  GolUand  and  Oesd  at  the  Peace  of  BrSnuebro 

(p.  315).  (Seep,S7S.) 

Poland.  (See  p,  ^77.) 

1386-1572.  Jagellona.  The  kingdom  reached  its  greatest  extent 
(Baltic f  Carpathiamtf  Black  Sea),  but  already  the  germ  of  de- 
cay was  forming  in  the  privileges  of  the  numerous  nobility, 
1572-1791.  Poland  an  elective  monarchy.  Introduction  of  the 
liberum  veto.  Elected  kings  :  Henxy  of  Anjou  (p.  322);  Ste- 
phen Bathoxy  of  Transylvania,  followed  by  three  kings  of  the  house 
of  Vasa  ;  Sigistmmd  III.,  Vladislas  IV.,  John  Casimir  (to  1668). 

(Seep.  374.) 

Rusaia.  (See  p.  276.) 

After  the  extinction  of  the  house  of  Rurik  (1596),  and  a  war  of 
I  lasting  ten  years  (the  false  Demetriuaj 


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A.  D.  The  North  and  Ecut.  85S 

1613*    The  house  of  Bomanow  succeeded  to  the  throne, 
which  it  occupied  until  1762.  {See  p.  S74.) 

Turk*.  (Seep.  £78.) 

The  empire  of  the  Ottoman  Turks  reached  its  highest  development 
under  Soliman  IL  (1520-1566),  the  Mftfnificent,  the  contemporary 
of  the  emperor  Chiurles  V.  (p.  303).  Under  his  successors  began 
the  decline,  caused  especially  by  the  influence  of  the  Janizaries, 

India.  {See  p.  241.) 

14d7.    CoviJham  reached  Calicut  by  land  from  Portugal. 
1498.    Portuguese  vessels  under  Vasoo  da  Gama  reached  Calicut 
by  the  way  of  the  Cape  of  Grood  Hope. 

The  Muhammedan  power  which  the  sultans  of  Delhi  under  variouB 
dynasties  had  extended  over  almost  all  India,  broke  up  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  fourteenth  and  during  the  fifteenth  ceuturpr.  When  the 
Portuguese  gained  a  foothold  in  the  peninsula,  its  pohtical  constitu- 
tion was  as  follows  :  At  Delhi,  Muhammedan  sultiuis  of  the  Afghan 
dynasty  with  greatly  reduced  dominion;  in  Bengal  (1340-1576), 
Afghan  rMuhanimedan)  kings;  in  Guzerat  (1391-1573)  a  Muham- 
medan aynasty  had  its  capital  at  Ahmedabdd ;  in  the  Deccan  the 
Muhammedan  empire  of  the  Bahmani  (1347-1525)  had  separated 
into  five  kingdoms  :  Bijdpur  (1489^1686),  Golconda  (1512-1687), 
Ahmednagar  (1490-1636),  EUichpur  (1484r-1572),  Bidar  (1492- 
1609[57].  The  southern  part  of  the  peninsula  was  still  in  the  hands 
of  the  powerful  Hindu  kmgdom,  Vijayanagar  (1118-1565).* 

Da  Gama  was  followed  in  1500  by  Cahral  (on  the  voyage  acciden- 
tal discovery  (?)  of  Brazil);  in  1502  a  papal  bull  created  the  king  of 
Portugal  <'  Lord  of  the  navigation,  conquests,  and  trade  of  Ethiopia* 
Arabia,  Persia,  and  India."  First  Portuguese  governor  and  viceroy 
of  India,  Almeida  (1505).  In  1509  Alfonso  d^  Albuquerque  was  ap- 
pointed to  this  office  ;  capture  of  Gk>a  (1510),  and  of  Mcdacca, 

1526-1761  (1857).  Mughal  (Mogul)  Empire  in  India. 
The  founder  of  the  Mughal  empire  was  Babar,  a  descendant  of 
Tamerlane  (1494  king  of  Ferahdna  on  the  Jazartes,  1497  con- 
queror of  Samarkand,  seized  Kdbul,  1504),  who  in  1526  invaded  the 
Punjab  and  defeated  the  sultan  of  Delhi  in  the 

1526.    Battle  of  Panipat.^ 

Defeat  of  the  Rajputs  of  Chittor  (1527).  Under  Bihar's  son  Hu- 
mdyvn  (1530-56)  the  Mughals  were  driven  from  India  by  Sher  Shah, 
the  Afghan  ruler  of  Bengal;  but  they  returned  in  1556  and  under 
Hnmiydn's  son  Akbar  (Bairdm  the  real  commander),  defeated  the 
Afghans  at  Panipat  (1556). 

155&-1605.    Akbar  the  Great 

whose  reign  is  a  long  series  of  conquests. 

1  The  first  of  the  three  great  battles  which  decided  the  fate  of*  India  on  that 
same  plam  ;  viz.  in  1526,  U56, 1761.    (Hunter,  Indian  Empire,  p.  984.) 


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854  Modem  Hi$tory.  ▲.  d^ 

1565.    Battle  of  TaUkot. 

Destruction  of  the  Hindoo  empire  of  Vijix^anagttr  by  a  onion  of 
the  Muhammedan  kingdoms  of  the  Deccan. 

Conquests  of  Akbar  :  1561-68,  Rajputs  of  Jaipur,  Jodhpur,  ChU- 
lor;  1672-73,  Guzerat  (revolted  1581,  reconquered  1593);  1586-92 
Kashmir;  1592,  Sind  ;  1594,  Kandahar ^  Akbar's  empire  now  comprised 
all  India  north  of  the  Vindhyar  Mts. ;  in  the  Deccan  he  was  not  suc- 
cessful. Akbar  organized  the  administration,  reformed  the  military 
and  financial  system,  and  conciliated  the  Hindus.  Akbar  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  SaUm,  Jahanglr  ^1605-27).  His  reign  was  much 
troubled  by  rebellions,  and  his  wars  in  the  Deccan  were  without  last- 
ing success.  Shah  Jahan  (1628-1658).  Kandah^,  several  times 
lost  and  recovered  between  the  Mughals  and  the  Persians,  was  finally 
lost  by  the  Mughal  empire,  1653.  Shah  Jahin  won  some  successes  in 
the  Deccan  ;  submission  of  Bijdpur,  Golconda,  Ahmednagar.  The 
empire  was  at  the  height  of  its  power  and  magnificence  (peacock 
throne).  Shah  Jahin  deposed  hjms  aon  Awrangzebf  and  imprisoned 
(died  1666). 

From  1500  to  1600  the  Portuguese  had  enjoyed  a  monopoly  of  the 
trade  with  India ;  with  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Dutch 
and  English  appeared  as  their  rivals.  The  East  India  Company  of 
London  was  mcorporated  in  1660,  and  various  others  similar  com- 
panies were  established  at  different  times  ;  but  all  were  ultimately 
mcorporated  with  the  original  company.  (**  The  (jovemor  and  Com- 
pany of  Merchants  of  London  trading  to  the  East  Indies,"  1600 ; 
Courten's  Association  ["Assador  Merchants"]  1635-1650;  « Com- 
pany of  Merchant  Adventurers,"  1655-1657  ;  "  General  Society  trad- 
injB:  to  the  East  Indies"  [«Endish  Company"],  1698-1709,  united 
with  the  original  company  as  ''  The  United  Company  of  Merchants 
of  England  trading  to  the  East  Indies  ").  The  first  twelve  voyages 
were  separate  ventures  ;  after  1612  voy^^  were  made  for  the  com- 
pany. Opposition  of  the  Portuguese.  Battle  of  SwaUy,  Defeat  of 
the  Portuguese.  Establishment  of  an  English  factory  at  Suratf  1614. 
Mission  of  Sir  Thomas  Roe  to  Jdhdngir  (Great  Mogul),  1615.  Treaty 
with  the  Dutch,  1619,  without  lasting  efrect.  Massacre  of  English  on 
the  island  of  Amhoyna  (1623)  followed  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  Eng- 
lish from  the  Indian  Archipelago  (1624).  Presidency  of  BanUm^ 
1635.    Foundation  of  Madras  (Fort  St  George)^  1639. 

Dutch  East  India  Coinpany,  1602.  French  East  India  Companies 
1604, 1611, 1615, 1642  (Richelieu's).  {Seep.  389.) 

China.  (See  p.  S73.) 

1506-1522.    Chlng-tih.    Rebellion  of  the  prince  of  Ning  suppressed 

after  a  severe  war.    About  1522  the  Portuguese  established 

themselves  at  Macao, 
1542.    Tatar  invasion  under   Yen-tOy  in  the  reign  of  Kea-tsing. 

Coast  of  China  ravaged  by  a  Japanese  fleet. 
1567-1573.    Lung-king.    His  reign  was  troubled  by  the  Tatars,  to 

relieve  the  country  of  whom  he  resorted  to  bribery. 
1573-1620.    "Wan-leih.    The  Tatars  continuing^  their  disturbances 

the  emperor  gave  Yen^ta  lands  in  the  provmce  of  Shen-^, 


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jl.  d.  China.  —  Japan.  Zf^ 

1592.    The  Japanese  invaded  Coiea,  bat  were  defeated  and  compelled 

to  sae  for  peace. 
1597.    The  Japanese  renewed  the  attack  and  defeated  a  Chinese  fleet 

and  army,  but  suddenly  evacuated  the  peninsula. 

1603.  Rxcdy  the  Jesuit,  at  the  Chinese  court ;  he  preached  Christian- 
ity in  China  (f  1610). 

1604.  Dutch  in  Cmoa  ;  also  the  Spanish. 

1616.  Invasion  of  Cluna  by  Manchoo  Tatars  who  defeated  the 
Chinese,  and  returning  in 

1619,  Conquered  and  settled  in  the  province  of  Leaou-tung. 

1620.  Teenr^ning^  the  Manchoo  ruler,  threw  off  the  pretense  of  alle- 
giance to  the  Chinese  and  proclaimed  his  independence.  He 
established  his  capital  at  San-Koo. 

Wen-leih  was  succeeded  by  Tai-chang  (1620),  who  was  followed 

by  Toen-ka  (1620-1627).    In 

1627,  Ttoung-ohlng,  the  last  severe^  of  the  Bfing  (1368-1613) 
dynasty  ascended  the  throne,  rebellion  of  Le  Tsze-cking  and 
Shang  Ko-he.  The  emperor,  being  hard  pressed,  applied  for 
aid  to  the  Manchoo  Tatars.  These  allies  defeated  the  rebels, 
but  refused  to  abandon  the  fruits  of  their  victories.  Seizing 
Pekin  they  raised  to  the  throne  of  China  a  son  of  Teen^ning, 
the  Manchoo  ruler,  who,  as  the  first  of  the 

1644— X,  Tflrtsinsr  or  Great  Pure  dynasty,  took  the  name  of 
1644.    Shon-che. 

Capture  of  Nan-king.  Period  of  confusion  wherein  the  lin- 
gering resistance  of  the  Chinese  was  gradually  crushed  out,  and 
the  shaved  head  and  pig-tail,  signs  of  Tatar  sovereignty,  became  more 
and  more  common^  (^See  p»  390.) 

Japan.  (See  p.  S78.) 

The  period  of  the  Ashikaga  shoguns  (1344-1573)  contains  few 
events  of  importance,  especiauy  after  the  end  of  the  dual  dynasties 
in  1391,  by  the  act  of  the  southern  emperor,  who  resigned  his  power 
on  the  condition  that  the  imperial  office  should  henceforward  alternate 
between  the  two  lines.  The  violation  of  this  agreement  was  the  cause 
of  much  fighting. 

1558-1588.    Oki-Machi,  mikado. 

This  reign  saw  the  fall  of  the  Ashikagas,  and  the  rise  of  three 
of  the  most  renowned  men  of  Japan ;  Nobunaga,  Hideyashiy  Tokugatna 
lyeyagu.  Introduction  of  cannon.  The  development  of  feudalism 
had  weakened  the  power  of  the  shoguns,  as  they  had  formerly  destroyed 
that  of  the  mikado.  Ota  Ndbunaga  was  a  feudal  lord  who  acquired 
fame  in  a  war  with  the  head  of  another  powerful  family,  Yoshimoto 
(1560).  To  him  the  mikado  entrusted  the  task  of  pacifying  the  un- 
happy country,  while  his  aid  was  also  soup^ht  by  Yoshiaki,  the  rightful 
shogrun,  who  had  been  dispossessed  by  Yoskikage.  By  the  battle  of 
Anagawa  (1570),  where  Tokugawa  lyeyasu  fought  under  Nobunagoy 
Yaskictki  was  restored  to  power,  but  in  1573  he  was  deposed  by  No* 
bunaga,  whom  he  had  plotted  to  murder. 


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d56  Modem  HiOory,  A.  D. 

1573-1582.    Oovenunent  of  Nobnnaga. 

Nobnnaga  appointed  no  Bucoessor  but  retained  the  power  in 
hiB  own  hands.  He  was  a  determined  opponent  of  the  over- 
powerful  Buddhist  priests,  and  took  Christianity  (the  Jesuit 
jCavier  at  Kioto)  under  his  protection.  Slaughter  of  the  Bud- 
dhist priests  and  capture  of  their  fortified  temples. 
Death  of  Nobvnaga  in  a  revolt  (1582). 

1582-1598.    Oovemment  of  Hldeyoshi. 

The  rebel  was  suppressed  by  the  general  Hideyoshi,  who  after 
considerable  fighting  reduced  the  whole  country  to  subjection 
(1592).  War  with  China;  invasion  of  Corea  (p.  355),  Rideyo- 
shi  was  unfavorable  to  Christianity.  1588,  publication  of  a  de- 
cree ordering  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits ;  this,  however,  was 
not  obejred.  In  1593  nine  missionaries  were  burned  at  Naga^ 
sakL  Hidevoehi,  the  Taiko.  He  was  succeeded  by  an  inmnt 
son,  under  the  regency  of  Tokugawa  I  je  jasu,  whose  govern- 
ment was  popular  but  who  was  involved  in  political  troubles 
that  led  to  war. 

1600.  Battle  of  Seklgahara.  lyeyasu  defeated  his  enemies,  and  in 
1603  was  made  Seirintairshogun,  being  the  first  of  the 

1603-1868.  Tokufirawa  Shoguns,  some  of  whom  subse- 
qaently  took  the  title  of  Tai-kun  (Tycoon)  ^'  high  prince." 

The  rule  of  lyeyasu  was  distingruished  by  the  revival  of  learning 
and  the  growth  of  foreign  intercourse  (Dutch,  English).  lyeyasu  re- 
signed his  office  in  1605  to  his  son  but  retained  his  power  until  his 
death. 

lyeyasu  died  1616,  leaving  the  ^  Legacy  of  lyeyasu,"  a  code  of 
laws.  Redistribution  of  land.  Those  vassals  of  the  crown  who  re- 
ceived a  revenue  of  10,000  measures  of  rice  were  called  daindos  and 
numbered  245,  eighteen  of  whom  were  governors  of  provinces  {hoku- 
shiu).  Next  to  the  daimioe  stood  the  aamnrai,  to  whom  the  daimios 
leased  their  farms  in  return  for  military  service. 

The  shogun  (who  was  the  first  of  the  daimios)  was  surrounded  by 
the  hatamoto,  ''house-carls,*'  from  whom  he  selected  his  officials. 
They  are  said  to  have  numbered  80,000,  Below  the  hatamoto  were 
the  gokenin,  also  attached  directly  to  the  shogun  as  private  soldiers, 
comprising  the  Tokugaioa  clan.  lyeyasu  removed  the  capital  of  the 
shogun  from  Kamakura  to  Tedo.  The  successor  of  lyeyasu,  Hide-- 
tada,  sent  a  messenger  to  Europe  to  study  Christianity,  but  his  report 
not  being  considered  favorable,  the  shogun  forbade  the  introduction 
of  that  religion. 

1630-1643.  Too-Faku-no-in,  daughter  of  the  mikado,  Go-mino-o, 
and  the  daughter  of  the  shogun,  HidetatOy  followed  the  former 
on  the  throne  as  Mioaho-Tenno. 

lyemitsu,  who  succeeded  to  the  shogunate  in  1653,  was  an  excel- 
lent ruler,  but  ordered  the  vigorous  enforcement  of  laws  against  the 
Christians,  and  closed  Japan   to  all  foreigners  except  the  Chinese 
and  the  Dutch,  who  were  allowed  to  trade  at  Nagasaki 
1637.    Revolt  of  the  Christians  at  Shimabara  finally  suppressed  j 


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A.  D.  America,  857 

muaacre  of  the  snrvivon.  Persecution  throughout  the  empire. 
Extirpation  of  ChrtBtianity.     Death  of  lyemUsu,  1649. 

(Seep.Ur>') 
SECOND    PERIOD. 

FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  WESTPHALIA  TO  THE  BEGINNING  OF 
THE  FIRST  FRENCH  REVOLUTION. 

164a-1789. 

A.  The  leoond  half  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

§  1.    AMERICA.  (See  p.  SOO.) 

British,  Dutch,  and  Bwedish  Colcnies. 

1644.  Union  of  Prcvldence  and  the  Rhode  Island  towns  (New- 
port, Portsmouth)  under  one  charter,  obtained  by  Roger 
Willlania. 

Union  of  Saybrook  and  Connectioat  under  the  latter  name. 
The  colony  contained  eight  taxable  towns  ;  that  of.  New- 
Haven  numbered  six. 

Separation  of  the  general  court  of  Massachusetts  Bay  into 
two  houses. 
April  18.    Three  hundred  colonists  massacred  by  the  Indians  in  Vir- 
ginia. 

1645.  Rebellion  of  Claybome  and  Ingle  in  Maryland  ;  they  seized 
the  government,  but  were  put  down  in  1646. 

1646.  In  Massachnsetts  John  Elioi  commenced  his  missionary 
labors  amone  the  Indians  at  Nonantum,  (Translation  of  the 
Bible  into  Massachusetts  dialect,  1661-63). 

Act  of  parliament  freeing  merchandise  for  the  American  colonies 
from  all  duty  for  three  years,  on  condition  that  colonial  pro- 
ductions should  be  exported  only  in  English  yessels. 

In  New  Netherlands  Kie/t  was  succee£d  by  Peter  Stuyvesant, 
as  f^yemor,  who  inunediately  formulated  a  claim  to  all  the 
region  between  Cape  Henlopen  and  Cape  Cod. 

1648.  The  petition  of  Rhode  Island  ^  to  be  admitted  to  the  union 
rejected,  as  that  colony  would  not  submit  itself  to  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  Plymouth. 

1649.  Incorporation  in  England  of  the  **  Society  for  Propagating  the 
Gospel  in  New  England." 

Grant  of  the  land  between  the  Rappahannock  and  Potomac  to 

lord  Ctdpepper  and  other  royalists. 
Massacre  of  the  Hnrons  at  St,  Ignatius  by  the  Iroquois. 
1660.    Agreement  between  New  Netherlands  and  the  United 

Colonies  establishing  the  boundary  between  the  Dutch  and 

English  at  Oyster  Bay,  on  Long  Island,  and  Greenwich  Bay, 

Connecticut. 

1  '*  Where  Rhode  Island  is  mentioned,  before  the  charter  of  1663,  it  is  prob* 
able  that  the  Island  only  is  meant.'*    Holmes'  AnnaUf  I.  287,  oote  3. 


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858  Modem  Hisiarj.  A.  d. 

1661.     IVwflage  of  tke  NaTigatkm  Act  in  Engiand  (p.  376). 

1652.    The  proyinoe  of  Maine  joined  to  Mamachwawtte. 

Hie  parliament  in  England  assumed  control  of  Maryland,  and 
suspended  the  government  of  Rhode  laland,  but  the  latter 
order  did  not  take  effect. 

1655.  StuvvemrU,  goyemor  of  Kew  Ketherlanda,  seized  the  Swed- 
ish forts  on  the  Delaware,  and  broke  up  the  colony  of  New 
Sweden. 

1659.    Virginia  proclaimed  Charles  II.  king  of  England,  Scotland, 
Ireland,  and  Virginia,  and  restored  the  lojtd  governor.  Sir 
WaUam  Berkeley. 
Execution  of  two  Quakers  in  Maaaachnaetta. 

1661.  Penal  laws  against  Quakers  suspended  bj  order  of  the  king. 

1662.  Charter  of  Connecticnt  granted  bj  the  king.  New  Haven 
refused  to  accept  it.  Hie  assembly  was  composed  of  the  gov- 
ernor, depaty-govemor,  twelve  assistants,  and  two  deputies 
from  every  town. 

1662.  Lord  Baltimore  confirmed  in  the  government  of  Maryland. 

1663.  Grant  of  Carolina  (aU  land  between  31"  N.  and  36"  N.)  to 
ihe  earl  of  Clarendon  and  associates. 

Charter  of  Rhode  laland  and  Providence  Plantationa. 

1664.  Grant  of  New  Netherlanda,  from  the  Connecticut  to  the 
Delawarey  to  the  kin^s  brother,  James,  duke  of  York  and 
Albany.  The  grant  mcluded  the  eastern  part  of  Mmne^  and 
islands  south  and  west  of  Cape  Cod. 

The  region  between  the  Hudson  and  the  Ddatoare  {Nooa  CceaarMt 

or  Ne^7  Jeraey)  was  granted  by  the  duke  to  lord  Berkeleffy 

and  Sir  George  Carteret. 
Aug.  27.    Surrender  of  Ne^^  Amaterdam  to  the  English  ;  name  of 

the  colony  changed  to  Ne^^  York. 
Sept.  24.    Surrender  of  Fort  Orange^  whose  name  was  changed  to 

Albany. 

1665.  Maine  restored  to  the  heirs  of  Sir  Fernando  Gorqez, 
Union  of  Connectioat  and  New  Haven. 

The  royal  commissioners  empowered  to  hear  complaints  in  New 
England,  after  conferring  with  the  general  court  of  Massachu- 
setts, left  the  provinces  in  anger,  as  the  court  would  not  ac- 
knowledge their  commission. 

1666.  Depredations  of  the  buccaneers  in  the  West  Indies. 

1667.  Grant  of  the  Bahamas  to  the  proprietors  of  Carolina. 

1667.  Treaty  of  Breda  between  England  and  France.  Acadia  sur- 
rendered to  France  ;  AntiguOy  Monserrat,  and  the  French  part 
of  St.  Christopher  surrendered  to  England. 

1668.  MaasachnaettB  reassumed  the  government  of  Maine. 

1669.  Adoption  of  the  Fundamental  Conatitntiona  of  Carolina 
which  were  drawn  up  by  /oAn  Locke. 

Incorporation  of  the  Hndaon  Bay  Company.  (Grovemor 
and  company  of  adventurers  of  England  tra^ng  into  Hud- 
son's Bay.) 

1670.  Foundation  of  Charleatown  in  Carolina. 


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A»  T>*  AmericcL  859 

Treaty  of  Madrid  between  Spain  and  England,  settling  the 
boundariea  of  their  respective  territories  on  the  basis  of  pos- 
session. 

1672.  The  Spaniards  at  St.  Augustine  endeavored  to  dislodge  the 
settlers  in  Carolina,  but  were  repulsed. 

1673.  War  having  broken  out  between  England  and  Holland,  the 
Dutch  captured  New  York  and  received  the  submission  of  that 
colony,  of  Albany  and  New  Jersey.  In  the  peace  of  1674 
these  places  were  restored  to  England. 

The  grant  to  lord  Culpepper  was  converted  to  a  lease  for  thirty- 
one  years. 
1675.  Edmund  Androe,  governor  of  Ne^^  Tork,  attempted  to  secure 
the  land  west  of  the  Connecticut  by  force  of  arms,  but  was 
foiled  by  the  energy  of  the  colonists. 

1675-1676.  King  Philip's  War. 

This  was  the  most  extensive  combination  which  the  natives 
had  formed  against  the  foreign  invaders.  King  Philip  was  the  son 
of  Massas(»t  and  chief  of  the  Wampanoags.    He  lived  at  Mount 


Hope,  near  Fdll  River,  Mass.  He  formed  aleague  comprising  nearly 
all  the  Indians  from  Maine  to  Connecticut.     War  broke  out  m  June. 

1675.  and  raged  with  peculiar  violence  in  Massachusetts.  Deerfield 
burnt  (Sept.  1\  Attack  on  Hadley  (Sept.  1)  repulsed  by  Qoffey 
one  of  tiie  judges  of  Charles  I.  (?).  In  the  fall  (Sept-Oct.)  the 
United  Colonies  took  the  war  upon  themselves  and  raised  2,000  troops. 
Capture  of  the  fort  of  the  Narragansetts  by  Window  (Dec.  19). 
Assaults  more  or  less  severe  on  Warwick,  Lancaster,  Medfidd, 
Weymouth,  Groton,  Rehoboth,  Providence,  Wrentham,  Sudbury,  Scituate^ 
Bridgewater,  Plymouth,  Hatfield,  and  other  towns  (1676,  Jan.-June). 
Defeat  of  the  Indians  near  Deerfidd  (May  19,  FaU  Fight).  Surprise 
of  Philip  by  captain  Church  ;  capture  of  his  wife  and  son  (the  latter 
was  sold  into  slavery),  Aug.  2.    Philip  shot  (Aug.  12). 

1676.  Rebellion  of  Nathanid  Bacon  in  Virgiiiia.  Jamestown  burnt. 
The  rebellion  came  to  an  end  with  the  sudden  death  of  Bacon. 
In  the  following  year  royal  troops  arrived  to  repress  the  rebel- 
lion, but  found  all  quiet. 

New  Jersey  divided  into  East  and  West  Jersey.  Bast  Jer- 
sey was  governed  by  Carteret;  West  Jersey  was  held  by  the 
di^e  of  York.     (Hence,  "  the  Jerseys.") 

1677.  The  dispute  between  Massachusetts  and  the  heirs  of  Sir  Fer^ 
nando  Gorges  over  Maine  being  decided  in  favor  of  the  latter 
by  the  English  courts,  Massachusetts  bought  the  province  of 
Maine,  which  henceforward  formed  a  part  of  that  colony. 

1680.  New  Hampshire   separated  from  Massachusetts  by  royal 
charter.    The  king  appointed  the  president  and  council,  and 
retained  the  right  of  annulling  all  acts  of  the  legislature. 
Foundation  of  a  new  settlement  in  Carolina,  o^ed,  like  the 
first,  Charlestoum  (the  present  Charleston), 
West  Jersey  restored  to  the  proprietors,  the  heirs  of  lord 
Berkeley. 
X681,March4.  Grant  of  Pennsylvania  (the  region  between  41° 


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360  Modem  Hittary.  a.  d. 

and  43°  N.  lat.  ranning  5^  west  from  the  Delaware  River)  t« 
'William  Penn.    Establishment  of  a  settlement. 

1682.  Penn  brought  a  colony  to  Pennsylyania  TAug.).    Publication 

of  a  frame  of  government  and  a  body  ot  laws  (April-May). 
Treair  with  the  Indians.    Foundation  of  Philadelphia. 

1683.  First  legislative  assembly  in  New  York  ;  two  houses.  Only 
two  sessions  are  known  to  have  been  held  before  the  revolu- 
tion of  1688. 

1684.  The  troubles  between  MassachtiBettB  and  the  crown  cul- 
minated in  the  forfeiture  of  the  charter. 

These  troubles  were  of  old  standing,  dating  from  the  restoration 
of  Charles  II.  The  favorable  reception  of  Goffe  and  Whalley,  two 
**  regicides,'*  in  Boston,  at  the  opening  of  that  monarch's  reign,  was 
no  favorable  omen  ;  and  almost  the  first  news  received  from  me  col- 
ony brought  complaints  of  ill-treatment  from  Quakers  who  had  suf- 
fered under  the  rigorous  laws.  In  1661  Charles  sent  a  letter  to  Mas- 
sachusetts prohibiting  the  colony  from  proceeding  further  in  the 
prosecution  of  imprisoned  Quakers,  and  ordering  their  release  ;  he 
subsequently  withdrew  his  protection.  Further  controversy  led  to 
the  dispatch  of  agents  to  England.  The  confirmation  of  the  char- 
ter obtained  by  them  was  conditioned  in  a  way  peculiarly  aggra^ 
vating  to  the  colonists  :  all  laws  derogatory  to  the  royal  authority 
should  be  repealed ;  the  oath  of  allegiance  should  be  imposed  ac- 
cording to  the  direotioDS  of  the  charter ;  freedom  and  Hbertv  of 
conscience  in  the  use  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  should  be 
allowed ;  the  sacrament  should  not  be  denied  to  any  person  of 
good  life  and  conversation  ;  all  freeholders  of  competent  estates  and 
good  character,  and  orthodox  in  religion,  should  be  admitted  to  vote. 
These  demands  being  evasively  met,  the  king,  in  1664,  appointed 
commissioners  (NiccuSf  Carr,  CartwriglU^  Maverick)  to  hear  com- 
plaints and  appeals  in  New  Ene^and,  and  settle  tne  peace  of  the 
country,  who,  barely  touching  at  Boston,  proceeded  to  the  seizure  of 
New  Netherlands.  Returning  to  Boston  m  the  spring  of  1665  their 
demand  for  a  recognition  of  the  oomnussion  was  met  by  the  excuse 
that  the  general  court  would  plead  his  majesty's  charter,  whereupon 
the  commission  returned  to  England  in  anger.  The  court,  however, 
acknowledged  the  conditional  right  of  freeholders  to  vote,  and  agreed 
to  permit  the  toleration  of  Quakers  and  churchmen  for  a  time. 
A  long  period  of  controversy  followed,  and  agents  were  sent  back 
and  forth  with  very  little  efDect.  In  1671  the  colony  was  **  almost 
on  the  brink  of  renouncing  any  dependence  on  the  crown."  The 
original  causes  of  dispute  became  complicated  by  the  controversy 
with  the  heirs  of  Gorges  in  regard  to  Maine,  and  by  the  evasion  and 
disregard  of  the  navigation  laws  practiced  by  the  colony  (1663).  In 
1676  the  royal  governors  were  commanded  to  insist  on  strict  compli- 
ance with  the  commercial  laws,  both  the  navigation  laws,  and  those 
imposing  duties  on  intercolonial  trade  (1672).  John  Leveretty  gov- 
ernor of  Massachusetts,  refused  compliance,  and  in  1679  the  general 
court  voted  **  that  the  acts  of  navigation  are  an  invasion  of  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  the  subjects  of  ms  majesty  in  this  colony,  they  not 
being  represented  in  parliament"    The  agents  then  in  London  to  de< 


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K,  D.  America,  861 

fend  the  colony  in  the  suit  of  the  heirs  of  Crorffes  weie  sent  home 
with  the  demand  that  the  Maine  pnichase  be  undone  and  new  agents 
sent  to  answer  the  complaints  agamst  the  colony.  Edward  Randclph 
was  sent  over  as  collector  of  customs  for  Boston,  where,  however,  ne 
was  sturdily  opposed.  The  new  a^nts  givin^^  no  satisfaction,  a  writ 
of  quo  warranto  was  issued  against  the  colony  m  1683  ;  in  1684  a  suit 
of  scire  facias  was  brought  and  the  court  of  chancery  declared  the 
charter  forfeited  (1684).  The  kine  appointed  colonel  Kirke  governor 
of  MassackusettSf  New  Hampshire,  Maine,  and  Plymouth,  but  before 
he  received  his  commission  Charles  died,  and  James  II.  appointed 
Joseph  Dudley  president  of  New  England.    He  took  office  m  1686. 

1686.  Issue  of  a  quo  warranto  writ  against  Connecticut  and  Carolina, 

New  York  deprived  of  an  assembly  and  other  liberties. 
Appointment  of  Sir  Edmnnd  Andros  as  president  of  New 
England.  He  arrived  at  Boston  Dec.  20.  Randolph  was 
now  deputy  postmaster  in  New  England.  Andros  assumed 
the  government  of  Rhode  Island.  iStablishment  of  an  £nis- 
copfu  society  in  Boston,  for  the  use  of  which  Andros  forcibly 
seized  the  Old  South  Church. 

1687.  Quo  warranto  against  Maryland. 

Oct.  Sir  Edmund  Andros  assumed  the  government  of  Connecticut 
and  attempted  to  secure  the  charter,  but  it  was  carried  off 
from  the  hall  of  assembly  and  hidden  in  the  famous  Charter 
Oak, 

1688.  Tyranny  of  Andros  in  MaasaohusettB.    New  Tork  and  New 

Jeraey  placed  under  his  government.    Erection  of  King's 
Chapel,  as  an  Episcopal  church,  in  Boston. 

1689.  On  the  receipt  of  news  of  the  revolution  in  England,  and  the 
landing  of  William  of  Orange,  Sir  Edmund  Andros  was 
seized  m  Boston  (April  18^  and  thrown  into  prison.  Restora- 
tion of  the  old  government.  **  Council  of  safety  of  the  people 
and  conservation  of  the  peace."  Assembly  of  representatives 
at  Boston.  Provisional  resumption  of  the  charter  ;  proclama- 
tion of  William  and  Mary,  lleestablishment  of  the  former 
governments  in  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut.  Ne^^ 
Tork,  Virginia  and  Maryland  proclaimed  William  and 
Maiy. 

1689>1697.  "  King  WilUain's  War  "  with  the  French, 
a  part  of  the  universal  war  against  Louis  XIY.  The  French 
were  assisted  by  the  Canadian  Indians  and  those  of  Maine, 
while  the  Iroquois  took  the  war  path  against  the  French. 

1690.  Surprise  and  destruction  of  Schenectady  (Feb.  8),  of  Salmon 
Falls  (March  18),  and  of  Casco  (May  17),  by  three  bands  of 
French  and  Indians. 

April.  Seizure  of  Port  Royal  by  Sir  William  Phips,  who  afterwards 
made  a  futile  attack  upon  Quebec,  by  vote  of  a  congress  of 
Massachusetts,  Plymouth,  Connecticut,  and  New  York.  The 
failure  imposed  so  large  a  debt  on  the  colonies  that  Massa- 
chusetts was  obliged  to  issue  paper  money  for  the  first  time. 

I6d2.  New  charter  for  Maasachuaetta.    Sir  William  Phips  ap« 


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862  Modem  BSstory.  a.  d. 

pointed  governor.  Under  this  charter  were  indnded  the  oolonj 
of  PlyfMuthf  the  proyinces  of  Maine^  Nova  Scotia  and  all  lani 
north  to  the  Sl  Lawrence  ;  also  the  Elizabeth  Islands,  NarUasket, 
and  Martha*8  Vineyard.  The  new  charter  gave  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  governor  to  the  crown,  and  vested  in  him  the 
right  of  calling,  proroguing,  and  dissolving  the  general  court, 
of  appointing  inilitary  officers  and  officers  of  justice  (with  the 
consent  of  the  council),  of  yetoing  acts  of  the  legislature  and 
appointments  of  civil  officers  mi^e  bj  the  legislature.  The 
electoral  franchise  was  extended  to  all  freeholders  with  a 
yearly  income  of  forty  shillings,  and  all  inhabitants  having 
,  personal  property  to  the  amount  of  £40.    Religious  liberty 

was  secured  to  all  except  Papists. 

1692,  Feb.  Commencement  of  the  Salem  ^Htoboraft  frenzy.    Be* 

fore  October  twenty  persons  were  executed. 
Construction  of  Fort  William  Henry  at  Pemaquid  in  Maine  by 

Sir  William  Phips. 
Rhode  lalaiid  and  Connectioat  were  allowed  to  retain  their 

charters. 
Charter  of  the  **  College  of  Wiiliam  and  Mary  "  in  Yiiv 

pnia. 
Sir  £dmnnd  Andros  appointed  governor  of  Virginia  and  Mazy% 

land. 

1693.  Government  of  Pennsylvania  taken  from  Penn  by  the  crown. 
An  English  expedition  against  Canada  was  planned  but  fiuled 
of  executiou.    1694.  Penn  reinstated. 

Fletcher,  governor  of  New  Tork  (and  now  of  Pennsylvania), 
having  ^n  entrusted  with  the  command  of  the  xnilitia  of 
Connecticut,  went  to  Hartford  Oct.  26  to  assert  his  authority, 
but  was  repulsed  by  the  assembly,  and  by  Wadttoorth^  senior 
captain  of  the  militia. 

French  expedition  of  Frontenac  against  the  Iroquois. 

1696.  Capture  of  the  fort  at  Pemaquid  by  the  French  under  Ibermlle, 
An  expedition  of  count  FVontenac  against  the  Iroquois  resulted 
in  little  more  than  the  destruction  of  their  harvests. 

1697.  The  Peace  of  Byswick  (p.  371)  prevented  the  exe* 
cution  of  a  French  attack  upon  Newfoundland.  Restoration  of 
conauests  by  both  combatants. 

Third  expedition  of  Frontenac  against  the  Iroquois,  with  little 
effect. 

1699.  The  French  settled  in  Louisiana.  The  French  claimed  control 
of  the  fisheries  on  the  north  coast,  and  of  the  territory  from 
the  Kennebec  eastward. 

Foundation  of  a  Scotch  settlement  at  Darlen  in  the  hope  of 
acquiring  great  wealth  by  the  conmiand  of  commercial  transit 
(Paterson).  The  first  expedition  (1,200  men,  besides  women 
and  children)  perished  from  starvation,  or  returned  to  Scot* 
land  ;  the  second  was  broken  up  by  the  Spaniards  who  con* 
sidered  the  settlement  a  breach  of  the  treaty  of  Ryswick. 

1700.  Iberville  took  possession  of  the  MiaBiaaippi  for  France. 
170L  William  Penn  gave  a  new  charter  to  Pennayivania. 


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A..  D.  Amerieeu  868 

1701.  Fonndatioii  of  Tale  College  at  New  Haven  in  Conneotioat. 

1702.  Joseph  Dudley,  governor  of  Maaaachnaetta.  Qnairel  wiili 
the  general  ooort  over  the  proposed  salaries  to  be  paid  ^ 
governor,  lieutenant-governor,  etc 

An  expedition  projected  by  governor  Moore  of  Carolina 
against  St.  Augustine  resulted  in  failure.  The  debt  thus  in- 
curred was  discharged  bj  an  issue  of  paper  money. 

1702-1713.  "  Queen  Anne's  War"  with  the  French. 

1703.  Pennsylvania  province  separated  from  the  territories,  or  lower 
counties  (Delatoare)  ;  separate  assemblies. 

1704.  DeerfiM  in  Maaaaohnaetta  destroyed  by  French  and  In- 

dians. This  was  avenged  bv  an  expedition  under  colonel 
Church  which  ravaged  the  French  settlements  on  the  east 
coast  of  New  England. 

Establishment  of  the  Church  of  Engbmd  in  Carolina.  The 
complaints  of  dissenters  against  some  details  of  ecclesiastical 
adnunistration  led  to  the  issue  of  a  quo  warranto  against 
the  colony,  but  nothinfi^  came  of  the  matter. 

1706.  Invasion  of  Carolina  by  the  French  and  Spanish  in  assertion 
of  the  Spanish  claims  to  that  country  as  a  part  of  Florida. 
They  were  repulsed  and  defeated  on  land  ana  sea  with  great 
loss  by  William  RhetL 

1707.  New  England  sent  an  expedition  against  Port  Royal,  which 
returned  without  effecting  its  capture. 

1708.  Surprise  of  Haverhill  by  French  and  Indians. 

1709.  An  expedition  was  planned  against  Canada  and   Acadia^  to 

which  the  colonies  were  to  contribute  2,700  men.  The  project 
was  abandoned  by  the  English  government  after  the  men  had 
been  raised,  and  Connecticut,  I^ew  York,  and  New  Jersey 
were  obliged  to  issue  paper  money  to  cancel  their  debts. 

1710.  Capture  of  Port  Royal  by  a  fleet  from  England.    Change  of 

the  name  of  the  city  to  Annapolis. 

1711.  An  expedition  against  Canada  numbering  68  sail  and  6,488  sol- 

diers, largely  raised  by  the  colonies,  met  with  disaster  and  was 
abandoned. 

1712.  A  massacre  of  colonists  in  Carolina  by  the  Tuscaroras  and  other 
tribes  was  followed  by  the  dispatch  of  £am«^. against  the 
Indians.  After  a  dif&cult  march  he  succeeded  in  almost  anni- 
hilating the  Tuscaroras,  many  of  whom  fled  to  the  Iroquois. 

1713.  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  between  Grreat  Britain  and 
France  (p.  393).  Cession  of  Hudson  Bay  and  Straits, 
of  Nova  Scotia,  Newfoundland,  and  St  Christojpher  (in 
the  West  Indies)  to  England. 

Frenoh  aettlementa  and  diaooveriea. 

In  the  earlier  part  of  the  century  the  French  had  established  a' 
elaim  to  Canada  and  Acadia,  extending  to  the  Kennebec  in  Maine, 
although  the  English  claimed  as  far  as  the  Penobscot.    From  this 


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S64  Modem  HUtory.  A«  ix 

vanta^  gionnd  they  extended  their  diBCoyenet  floath  and  vest.  Jes- 
uit musionaries  labored  among  the  Hurons  in  the  eonntry  between 
lakes  Erie,  Ontario,  and  Huron,  planted  the  missiana  of  St  Marp 
(1668)  and  MichiUimachinaCf  died  with  their  flocks  when  the  undying 
enmity  of  the  Iroquois  annihilated  the  Hurons  (Brebceuff  LaUemont)^ 
or  sought  torture  and  death  at  the  hands  of  the  Five  Nations  (Isaac 
Jogues,  1640-1654). 
1656.     Acadia  and  Nova  Scotia  granted  to  St.  EHenne  and  others  by 

Cromwell.* 
1656-1658.    French  colony  in  western  New  York,  soon  broken  up. 
1659.    Francois  de  Laval,  oishop  of  New  France. 
1662.    The  hundred  associates  of  Quebec  reconsigned  their  rights  to 

the  king,  who  soon  after  granted  New  France  to  the  French 

West  India  Company. 

1665.  CourceUeSf  governor  of  New  France.  The  colony  was  more 
than  doubled  by  the  transportation  of  many  emigrants  from 
France. 

1666.  Expedition  of  Tracy  and  Courcdles  against  the  Mohawks. 
1666.    AUouez  founded  the  mission  of  St.  Esprit  on  the  southern  shore 

of  lake  Superior. 
1668w  llie  peace  of  Breda  ended  the  war  between  England  and 
France  which  had  broken  out  in  1666.  England  restored  Aca- 
dia to  France,  and  obtained  from  France  ArUigua,  Montser- 
rat,  and  St.  Christopher,  This  was  followed  by  a  peace  between 
the  French  and  the  Five  Nations.  In  this  year 
Foundation  of  Satdt  Ste.  Marie,  at  the  entrance  of  lake  Superior 
by  Dablon  and  Marquette. 

1672.  Tour  of  AUouez  axid  DabUm  in  Wisconsin  and  Illinois. 

1673.  Discovery  of  the  MlBaiBsippi  by  Marquette  and  Joliet  (June 
17)  who  descended  the  stream  for  an  uncertain  distance. 

Count  Frontenac,  governor  of  Canada,  completed  a  fort  at  Ori' 
tario  called  after  himself.  Construction  of  a  fort  at  MichUU- 
machinac. 

1678.  Robert .  Cavalier  de  lot  Salle  began  his  career  of  discovery  in 
the  great  west.  Launching  in  the  Niagara,  the  Griffin,  a  ves- 
sel of  forty-five  tons,  the  first  ever  seen  on  the  great  lakes,  he 
sailed  Avl^.  7, 1679.  He  passed  through  lakes  Erie,  Hurcmy 
and  Michigan,  and  landed  at  the  extreme  southern  enid  of  the 
latter  lake  in  October.  He  built  a  fort  on  the  St.  Joseph  and 
crossed  the  portage  to  the  Illinois.  Not  hearing  from  the 
Griffin  he  returned  on  foot  to  Canada.  Obtaining  fresh  sup- 
plies he  retraced  his  route  to  the  Illinois  only  to  mid  the  fort 
which  he  had  there  erected  deserted.  Again  he  returned  to 
Canada ;  again  he  obtained  aid,  and  again  undertook  his  enter- 
prise. 

1680.  Discovery  of  the  Mississippi  by  Hermepin,  a  priest  in  the  com- 
pany of  La  Salle.  He  ascended  the  river  to  46^  N.,  but  the 
claim  which  he  later  advanced  that  he  had  explored  the  Mis- 
sissippi to  the  sea  is  probably  fiilse. 

1  The  eoathern  boundary  of  Acsdia  in  the  grant  of  Henry  IV.,  1690,  wai 
tSP  N.  ;  the  cmithwesrem  limit  of  Nova  Scotia  in  the  grant  of  JameB  I^.  162]« 
was  the  river  St.  Croix,    Holmes,  Annals,  I.  307,  note  i. 


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A.  D.  America*  865 

1682.  La  Salle,  reaching  the  Miaaiaslppi  by  way  of  the  St.  Jogeph 
and  the  lUmois,  descended  the  greai  river  to  the  sea  and  took 
poaaeaaion  of  its  valley  for  Louia  XIV.,  April  9,  under  the 
name  of  Lonlalana. 

1684.    Expedition  of  De  la  Barre  against  the  Iroquois,  which  failed  of 


La  Salle  having  announced  his  discovery  in  France  was  sent  out 
at  the  head  of  four  vessels  and  a  numoer  of  settlers  to  estab- 
lish a  colouv  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  Contention  be- 
tween La  Salle  and  the  commander  of  the  vessels,  who  was 
jealous  of  the  discoverer,  resulted  in  disaster.  The  squadron 
missed  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  and  landed  at  Matagorda 
Bay  (St.  Louis),  four  hundred  miles  to  the  west.  Here  La 
Salle  Duilt  a  fort,  but  privation  and  disease  soon  gpreatly  re- 
ducing the  numbers  of  the  colony  he  undertook  to  go  on 
foot  to  Canada  for  relief.    On  this  expedition 

1687.    La  Salle  was  shot  by  one  of  his  own  men.    The  settlement  of 

Mar.  19.    St,  Louis  soon  perished. 

1687.  Expedition  of  De  benonviUe  against  the  Seneoas.  At  this  time 
there  were  about  11,000  persons  in  New  France. 

1689-1697.    ^War  of  William  and  Mary,  see  p.  361. 

Expeditions  of  Frontenao  against  the  Iioquou  (1693^  1696, 
1697). 

1699.  The  French  and  the  English  both  attempted  to  found  a  ool- 
ony  in  Louisiana.  The  French  colony  was  sent  out  by  Louis 
XIV.  under  Lemoine  fTIbervUle,  who  entered  the  Mississippi 
March  2,  and  also  founded  a  colony  at  BUoan.  The  Bnglfah 
attempt  was  made  by  Coxe,  a  claimant  of  the  old  grant  of 
Carokma,  who  entered  the  Mississippi,  but,  finding  himself  an- 
ticipated, retired  (Detour  aux  Anglati\ 

1700.  An  expedition  from  Biloxi  ascendea  to  the  falls  of  St.  An- 
thony, m  search  of  gold. 

Iberville  returning  m>m  France  took  possession  of  Louisiana 
anew  for  the  crown.    Erection  of  a  fort. 
Foundation  of  Kaskaskia  in  Illinois. 
Foundation  of  Cahokia  in  Illinois.    Fort  at  Detroit  (1701). 

1702-13.    Queen  Anne'a  war,  see  p.  363. 

Iberville  brought  new  settlers  from  France  and  transferred  the 
colony  of  Biloxi  to  Mobile  in  Alabama.    Iberville  f  1706. 

1705.    Foundation  of  Vincermes  in  Indiana. 

1712.  Grant  to  Sieur  Antoine  Crozat  of  the  whole  commerce  of  fif- 
teen years  of  all  the  '*  king's  lands  in  North  America  lying  be- 
tween New  France  on  the  north,  Carolina  on  the  east,  and  New 
Mexico  on  the  west,  down  to  the  gulf  of  Florida  ;  by  the  name 
of  Louisiana."  {See  p.  ^17.) 

$S.    FRANCE.  (Seep.S26.) 

1643-1716.    Louis  XIV.  (five  years  old), 

under  the  guardianship  of  his  mother,  Anna^  daughter  of 
Philip  IIL,  king  of  Spain,  called  by  the  French  Anne  of  AuSna^  i*  a 


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866  Modem  Bistary.  A.  IK 


of  Hapsbnrg.     The  goyemment,  even  after  Louis'  arrival  at  i 
jority,  was  conducted  by  cardiual  MaBailn. 

1648-1653.  DiBturbances  of  the  Fronde  (cardinal  ReU;  prmoe  of 
Cande;  resistance  of  the  parliament  of  Paris),  Uie  hist  at- 
tempt of  the  French  nobility  to  oppose  the  court  by  armed  resist- 
ance. Condif  at  first  loyal,  afterwuds  engaged  against  the  court, 
fought  a  battle  with  the  royal  troope  under  (Henri  de  la  Tour  d^Ath- 
vergne,  vicomte  de)  Tnrenne,  in  the  Favbourg  Saint  Antoine,  and  took 
refuge  in  Spain.  The  first  conspiracy,  the  old  Fronde,  ended  in  1649, 
with  the  second  treaty  of  Rtid;  the  second  conspiracy,  the  new 
Fronde,  which  involved  treasonable  correspondence  with  Spain,  failed 
in  1650.  A  union  of  the  two  was  crushed  in  1653.  {Gaston  of  Orleans^ 
and  his  daughter,  "  Mademoiselle.") 
1648.    Acquisitions  of  France  in  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  p.  316. 

The  war  with  Spain,  which  sprang  up  during  the  Thirty  Tears' 
War  (victory  of  CondeAt  Rocroy,  May  18, 1643  ;  alliance  with  Eng^ 
land,  1657  ;  Cromwell  sent  8,000  men  of  his  army  to  the  assistance  of 
Tnrenne)  was  continued  till  the 

1669.    Peace  of  the  Psrrenees: 

1.  France  received  a  part  of  Roumllon,  Conflans,  Cerdagne^ 
and  several  towns  in  Artois  and  Flanders,  HatnavU  and  Ltaembourg. 
2.  The  duke  of  Lorraine,  the  ally  of  Spaui,  was  partially  reinstated 

S ranee  received  Bar,  Clermont,  etc.,  and  right  of  passage  for  troops)  ; 
prince  of  Cond^  entirely  reinstated.  3.  Mamage  between  Louis 
Xly .  and  the  infant  Maria  Theresa,  eldest  daughter  of  Philip  IV.  of 
Spain,  who,  however,  renounced  her  claims  upon  her  inheritance  for 
herself  and  her  issue  by  Louis  forever,  both  for  herself  before  mar- 
riage and  for  herself  and  her  husband  after  marriage,  in  consider!^ 
tion  of  the  payment  of  a  dowry  of  500,000  crowns  by  Spain. 

1661.      Death   of   Mazarin.      Personal    government    of 
ZiOuiJi  XIV.  (1661-1715),  absolute,  arbitrary,  without  eiats 

feneraux,  without  regard  to  the  remonstrances  of  the  parliament  of 
*aris  {V^tat,  c'est  mot).  Colbert,  controller  general  of  the  finances, 
from  1662-1683.  Reform  of  the  finances  ;  mercantile  system.  Con- 
struction of  a  fleet  of  war.  Louvois,  minister  of  i^ar,  1666-1691. 
Quarrel  for  precedence  in  rank  with  Spain.  Negotiations  with  the 
Pope  concerning  the  privileges  of  French  ambassadors  at  Rome. 
The  ambition  of  Louis  for  fame,  and  his  desire  for  increase  of  terri- 
tory were  the  causes  of  the  following  wars,  in  which  these  generals 
took  part :  Turenne,  Conde,  Luxembourg,  Catinat,  ViUars,  Vendome, 
Vauban  (inventor  of  the  modem  system  of  military  defense). 

1667-1668*     First  war  of  conquest  (war  of  devolation)  on 

account  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands. 

Cauae :  After  the  death  of  his  father-in-law,  Philip  IV.  of  Spain, 

Louis  laid  claim  to  the  Spanish  possessions  in  the  fiielgian  provmoes 

^Brabant,  Flanders,  etc.),  on  the  ground  that,  being  the  personal  estates 


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A.  D.  France.  867 

of  the  royal  family  of  Spain,  their  descent  ought  to  be  regnlated  by 
the  local  *'  droit  de  devolution,"  a  principle  in  private  Liw,  whereby  in 
the  event  of  a  dissolution  of  a  marriage  by  death,  the  survivor  enjoyed 
the  usufruct  only  of  the  property,  the  ownership  being  vested  in  the 
children,  whence  it  followed  that  daughters  of  a  first  marriage  inher- 
ited before  sons  of  a  second  marriage.^  The  renunciation  of  her 
heritage  which  his  wife  had  made  was,  Louis  claimed,  invalid,  since 
the  stipulated  dowry  had  never  been  paid. 

1667.  Turenne  conquered  a  part  of  Flanders  and  Hainault 

By  the  exertions  of  Jan  de  Witt,  pensioner  of  Holland,  and  Sir 

1668.  William  Temple,  England,  Holland,  and  Stoeden,  concluded  the 
Jan.  23.    Triple  Alliance,  which  induced  Louis,  after  Cond^  had, 

with  great  rapidity,  occupied  the  defenseless  free  county  of 
Burgundy  (Franche  Comte)  to  sign  the 

1668.    Peace  of  Aiz-la-Ghapelle. 

May  2.  Louis  restored  Franche-Comte  (the  fortresses  having  been 
dismantled)  to  Spain,  in  return  for  which  he  received  twelve 
fortified  towns  on  the  border  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  among 
others,  LiUe,  Toumay,  and  Oudenarde.  The  question  of  the  succession 
was  not  settled,  but  deferred. 

1672-1678.  Second  war  of  conquest  (against  Holland). 
The  course  of  Holland  in  these  transactions  had  inflamed  the  hatred 
of  Louis  against  her,  a  hatred  made  still  stronger  by  the  refuge  given 
by  the  provinces  to  political  writers  who  annoyed  him  with  their  abus- 
ive publications.  To  gain  his  purpose,  the  destruction  or  the  humiliaF- 
tion  of  Holland,  Louis  secured  the  disruption  of  the  Triple  Alliance 
by  a 

1670.  Private  treaty  with  Charles  11.  of  England  (p.  380),  and  be- 
1672.    tween  France  and  Stoeden.    Subsidy  treaties  with  Cciogne  and 

MUnster;  20,000  Grermans  fought  for  Louis  in  the  following 

war. 

1672.  Passage  of  the  Rhine.  Rapid  and  easy  conquest  of  southern 
Holland  by  Turenne,  Conde,  and  the  king,  at  the  head  of  100,000 

men.  The  brothers  De  Witt,  the  leaders  of  the  aristocratic  republican 
party  in  Holland,  were  killed  during  a  popular  outbreak  (Aug.  27), 
and  WiUiam  III.  of  Orange  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  state.  The 
opening  of  the  sluices  saved  the  province  of  Holland,  and  the  city  of 
Amsterdam.  Alliance  of  Holland  with  Frederic  William,  elector  of 
Brandenburg  (1640-1688),  afterwards  joined  by  the  emperor  and  by 
Spain. 

1673.  Frederic  William  concluded  the  separate  peace  of  Vossem  (not 
far  from  Louvaine),  in  which  he  retained  his  possessions  in 
Cleves,  except  Wesel  and  Rees. 

1674.  Declaration  of  war  by  the  empire. 

^  "Secandam  antiqaas  Meklin.  constitiitiones  et  fere  per  aniversam  Braban- 
tiam  superstes  altero  conjuco  mortuo  usufructuarius  redditur  saorum  bonarum, 
eorum  proprietate  statim  ad  liberos  proximo^  vel  qui  hsredes  futuri  »uiit  devo* 
uita."    Comm.  to  the  ctutoms  of  Mechlin.    Banke,  Franz.  Getch.  III.,  296. 


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368  Modem  Biitory.  ▲.  d. 

Peace  between  England  and  Holland. 
Louis  XTV.  conquered  Franche'Comte  in  peison ;  Cond^  fought 
against  Orange  (diawn  battle  at  Senef)  in  the  Netherlands.  Brilliant 
campaign  of  Twrerme  on  the  upper  Rhine  (first  ravaging  of  the  palat- 
inate) against  Maniecuculi^  the  imperial  fi^neral,  and  the  eiedor  of 
Brandenbura,  The  latter,  recalled  by  the  mroad  of  the  Swedish  allies 
of  Louis  XIV.  into  his  lands,  defeated  the  Swedes  in  the 

1675.  Battle  of  FehrbelUn.  Li  the  same  year  Turenne  fell  at 
June  18.    Sasbachf  in  Baden  (July  27).    The  French  retreated  across 

the  Rhine. 

1676.  Naval  successes  in  the  Mediterranean  against  the  Dutch  and 
Spanish.     Death  of  De  Ruyter, 

1677.  Marriage  of  William  of  Orange  with  Mary,  eldest  daughter  of 
the  duke  of  York. 

1678.  Surprise  and  capture  of  Ghent  and  Ypres  bv  the  French. 
Negotiations  with  each  combatant,  which  had  been  for  some 
time  in  progress,  resulted  in  the 

1678-1679.    Peace  of  Nimweffen. 

Holland  and  France  (Au^.  10, 1678)  ;  Spain  and  Fra»06 
(Sept.  17, 1678)  ;  the  Emperor,  with  France  and  Sweden  (Feb.  6, 
1679)  ;  HoUand  with  Sweden  (Oct.  12, 1679).  At  FontatnOUttu, 
France  and  Denmark  (Sept.  2, 1679).  At  Lund,  Denmark  and 
Sweden  (Sept.  26,  1679). 

1.  Holland  received  its  whole  territory  back,  upon  condition  of 
preserving  neutrality.  2.  Spain  ceded  to  France,  Franche-CcmU, 
and  on  the  northeast  frontier,  Valenciennes,  Cawbray,  and  the  Camr' 
hresiSf  Aire,  Poperingen,  St.  Omer,  Ypres,  Conde,  Bauchain,  Maubeuge^ 
and  other  towns ;  France  ceded  to  Spain,  Charleroi,  Binche,  Oude-- 
narde,  Ath,  Courtrag,  Limburg,  Ghent,  Waes,  etc. ;  and  in  Cata- 
lonia, Puycerda.  3.  The  Emperor  ceded  to  France  Freiburg  in  the 
Breisgau;  France  gave  up  the  right  of  garrison  in  Philippsburg ;  the 
dnke  of  Lorraine  was  to  be  restored  to  his  duchy,  but  on  such  con- 
ditions that  he  refused  to  accept  them. 

Louis  XIV.  forced  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  to  conclude  the 

1679.  Peace  of  St.  Gtormain-en-Iiaye,  whereby  he  surrendered  to 
Sweden  nearly  all  of  his  conquests  in  Pommerania,  in  return 

for  which  he  received  only  the  reversion  of  the  principality  of  East 
Friesland,  which  became  Prussian  in  1744,  and  a  small  indemnifica- 
tion (exclamation  of  the  elector  :  Exoriare  aliquis  nostris  ex  ossibus 
tdtor,  Virg.  Ma.  TV.  626). 

Louis  **  the  Great "  at  the  height  of  his  power.  His  boundless  am- 
bition stimulated  by  the  weakness  of  the  empire  led  him  to  establish 
the 

1680-1683.  Chambers  of  Reunion  at  Metz,  Breisach,  Be- 
sain'on,  an<l  Taiimay. 
These  were  French  courts  of  claims  with  power  to  investigate  and 
decide  what  dependencies  had  at  any  time  belonged  to  the  territories 
and  towns  which  had  been  ceded  to  France  by  the  last  four  treaties 
of  peace.    The  king  executed  with  his  troops  the  decisions  of  his  tri« 


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A.  D.  France.  869 

bonals,  thus  adding  to  violence  in  time  of  peace,  the  scoff  of  a  legal 
formality.      SaarbrUck,  Luxembourg^  DetucponU  (^Zweibriicken),  and 
many  other  towns  were  thus  annexed  to  France. 
1681,  Oct.    Capture  of  Straaburg  by  treachery. 

1683.  Invasion  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands^  occupation  of  Luxembourg, 
and  seizure  of  Trier  (1684).    Lorraine  permanently  occupied 

by  France.  To  the  weakness  of  Uie  empire,  the  wars  with  the  Tiurks, 
and  the  general  confusion  of  European  relations  since  the  peace  of 
Nimwegen,  it  is  to  be  attributed  that  these  outrageous  aggressions 
were  met  by  nothing  more  than  empty  protests,  and  that 

1684.  A  truce  for  twenty  years  was  concluded  at  Regensburg  between 

Louis  and  the  emperor  and  the  empire,  whereby  he  retained 
everything  he  had  obtained  by  reunion  up  to  Aug.  1,  l&l,  including 


Louis' mistresses  :  Louise  de  la  VaUtkre  ;  Madame  de  MorUespan; 
Bladame  de  Maintenon  (Francoise  d^Aubigne^,  Amaraw  bi|;ot  whose 
influence  over  the  king  was  boundless.  Marta  Theresa  died  1683. 
Louis  privately  married  to  Madame  de  Maintenon.  War  upon 
heresy.    The  dragonnades  in  Languedoc.     Wholesale  conversions. 

1685>  Oct  18.     Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 

The  exercise  of  the  reformed  religion  in  France  was  forbid- 
den, children  were  to  be  educated  in  the  Catholic  faith,  emigration 
was  prohibited.  Li  spite  of  this  more  than  50,000  families,  including 
■  militarv  leaders  (Schomberg),  men  of  letters,  and  the  best  part  of 
the  artificers  of  France,  made  their  way  to  foreign  countries.  Their 
loss  was  a  blow  to  the  indusl^  of  the  country,  which  hastened  the 
approach  of  the  revolution,  llie  exiles  found  welcome  in  Holland, 
England  (SpitcUfieldi),  Brandenburg.  The  Protestants  of  Alsace  re- 
tained the  freedom  of  worship  which  had  been  secured  to  them. 

1680-1697.  Third  War.  (War  concerning  the  succession 
of  the  palatinate.) 
Cause  :  After  the  extinction  of  the  male  line  of  the  electors 
palatine  in  the  person  of  the  elector  Charles  (f  1685),  whose  sister 
wafl  the  wife  of  Louis  XIV.'s  brother,  the  duke  of  Orleans,  the  king 
laid  claim  to  the  allodial  lands  of  the  family,  a  claim  which  he  soon 
extended  to  the  greater  portion  of  the  country.    Another  ground  for 

JTrederio  V.  (king  of  BoTieinia). 
t  1632. 

Sophia  m.  Oharles  Iiouia^ 

Krnest  Augoatua,  t  1680. 

of  Hanover. 


OeoTfce  I.                 Oharles,  Charlotte  Elizabeth, 

•f  England.                   t  1685.  m.  Philip,  dnke  of 

without  Orleans,  brother  of 

male  iMoe.  Louis  XIV. 
84 

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370  Modem  ERstory.  A.  d. 

war  was  found  in  the  qnarrel  over  the  election  of  the  archbishop  of 
Cologne,  which  Louis  was  resolved  to  secure  for  Von  FOntenhurg^ 
bishop  of  Strasburg,  in  place  of  prince  Clement  of  Bavaria  n.688). 
Meantime  the  umavorable  impression  produced  throufffaout  Protes- 
tant Europe  by  the  revocation  oi  the  Edict  of  Nantes  had  contribated 
to  the  success  of  the  plans  of  William  of  Orange,  and 

1686.  The  Leagae  of  Angabarg,  directed  against  France,  was  signed 
July  9.  by  the  Emperor^  the  kings  of  Sweden  and  Spain,  the  electors 
of  Bavaria^  of  Saxony,  and  the  palatmaie.  In  1688  occurred 
the  revolution  in  England  which  placed  WUUam  of  Orange  on  the 
throne  of  that  country,  and  added  a  powerful  kingdom  to  the  new 
foes  of  Louis.  The  exiled  James  II.  took  refuge  with  the  French 
monarch  (court  at  St.  Germain,  p.  385). 

1688.  XnTaaion  and  frtg^tfol  daTastation  of  the  Palatinate,  by 
Oct    order  of  Louvois,  executed  by  Melac  (Heidelbera,  Mannkem, 

Speier,  Worms,  and  the  whole  country  as  far  as  the  borders  of 
Alsace  ravaged  and  burnt).  The  military  successes  of  the  French  on 
the  Rhine  were  unimportant,  especially  arter  16d3,  when  prince  Louie 
of  Bavaria  assumed  the  chief  command  against  them. 

1689.  The  Ghrand  Alliance,  between  the  powers  who  had  joined  the 
League  of  Augsburg  and  England  and  Holland  (Savo^  had 

ioined  the  league  in  1687).    The  principal  scene  of  war  was  m  the 
Netherlands. 

1690.  June  30.  Battle  ofFleurus,  defeat  of  the  prince  of  Waldeck  by 

Louis'  general,  Marshal  Laxemboorg. 
The  French  expedition  to  Ireland  in  aid  of  James  had  but  a 
temporary  success. 

1690,  July  1.  Victory  of  William  III.  over  the  adherents  of  James 
II.  at  the  Battle  of  the  Boyne  in  Ireland  (p.  387). 
French  successes    in   Piedmont ;  Catinat  reduced  Savoy  ;  de- 
feat of  Victor  Amadeue  9Jt  Staffarda. 

1692,  Mav.  Defeat  of  the  French  fleet  under  Tourville  by  the  Eng^ 
lish  and  Dutch  at  Cape  Iia  Hogae.  The  mastery  of  the  sea 
passed  from  the  French  to  the  ^iglish.     Death  of  Loiwoia, 

1692,  July  24.  BatUe  of  Steinkirk  (Steenkericen)  in  Hatnault. 
Victory  of  Luxembourg  over  William  III,  Fall  of  Namir, 
(June). 

1693,  July  29.  Battle  of  Neerwinden.    Victory  of  Luxembourg 

over  William  III.,  who  in  spite  of  his  many  defeats  still  kept 

the  field. 
In  Italy  Marshal  Catinat  defeated  the  duke  of  Savoy  at  Mar- 
aaglia.  Rise  of  prince  Eugene  Q*Eu^enio  von  Savove,"  **the  little 
abb^,"  son  of  Maurice  of  Savoy-Cannian,  count  of  Soissons  and 
Olympia  Mancini,  niece  of  Mazarin,  b.  1663  at  Paris ;  refused  a 
commission  by  Louis  XIV.,  he  entered  the  Austrian  service  in  1683  ; 
died  April  21, 1736).  On  June  30,  the  English  fleet  was  defeated  at 
I.<agos  Bay  by  Tourville.  Failure  of  the  English  attack  upon  Bresi 
(1694),  not  by  the  treachery  of  Marlborou^.  Death  of  Luxem- 
bourg (Jan.  1696)  ;  he  was  succeeded  by  the  incapable  Villeroy. 


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A.  D.  France.  371 

1695,  Sept.  Reoaptaie  of  If  amnr  by  William  III. 

1696,  May  30.  Separate  Peaoe  with  Savoy  at  Torin.     All  oon- 

quests  were  restored  to  the  duke  (Pignerol  and  Caatde),  and 
his  daughter  married  Louis'  grandson,  the  duke  of  Burgundy. 
Savoy  promised  to  renuun  neutral. 

1697»  Peace  of  Byswick,  a  village  near  the  Hague.    Treaty 
Sept  30.  between  France,  England,  Spain,  and  Holland. 

1.  Confirmation  of  the  separate  peace  with  Savoy.  2.  Restoration 
of  conquests  between  France  and  England  and  Holland ;  William 
IXL  acknowledged  as  king  of  England,  and  Anne,  as  lus  successor, 
Louis  promising  not  to  help  his  enemies.  3.  It  was  acreed  that  the 
chief  fortresses  in  the  Spaniah  Netherlanda  should  be  garrisoned 
with  Dutch  troops  as  a  barrier  between  France  and  Hdland.  4. 
France  restored  to  Spain  all  places  which  had  been  **  reunited  "  since 
the  peace  of  Nimwegen,  with  the  exception  of  eighty-two  places,  and 
all  conquests.  5.  Holland  restored  Pondicherri  in  India  to  the 
French  East  India  Company  and  received  commercial  privileges  in 
return. 

1697,  Oct  30.    Treaty  between  France  and  the  emperor  (and  em- 

pire.) 

1.  France  ceded  all  the  "  reunions  *'  except  Alaace,  which  hencefor- 
ward was  lost*  to  the  empire.  2.  Btraaburg  was  ceded  to  France. 
3.  France  ceded  Freibwrg  and  Breisach  to  the  emperor,  and  Phillips' 
burg  to  the  empire.  4.  The  duchy  of  ZweibrQcken  was  restored  to  the 
king  of  Sweden,  as  count  palatine  of  the  Rhine.  5.  Lorraine  was  re- 
stored to  duke  Leopold  (excepting  Saarlouis).  6.  The  claims  of  car- 
dinal Fvtrstenbvrg  to  the  archbishopric  of  Cologne  were  disavowed. 
7.  The  Rhine  was  made  free. 

Brilliant  period  of  French  literature  in  the  age  of  Louia  XIV. 
ComeiUe  (1606-1684);  Raane  (1639-1699);  MoUdre  {Jean  Baptiste 
Poquelin,  1622-1673)  ;  La  Fontaine  (1621-1695)  ;  BoOeau  (1636- 
1711);  Bossuet  (1627-1704);  FlMier  (f  1710);  F^ielon  (Franixns  de 
Salignac  de  Lamothe,  1651-1716V 

liouis'  court  at  Versailles  (arter  1680)  was  the  pattern  for  all  the 
other  courts  of  Europe.  Buildings,  luxury,'  mistresses  (La  Vallikrey 
Montespan)  Fontange).  After  the  death  of  his  wife,  Maria  Theresa  of 
Spain  (1683),  Louis  made  a  secret  marriage  with  Francoise  d^Aubigni, 
widow  of  the  poet  Scarron  (1610-1660),  whom  he  made  Marriuise  de 
Maintenm.  (See  pp.  S90,  445.) 

$  8.    GERMANT.  {Seep.  S17.) 

1658-1705.    Leopold  I.,  son  of  Ferdinand  III. 

After  1663  permanent  diet  at  Re^nsburg,  consisting  of  the 
rmresenlaJtwes  of  the  eight  electors,  the  sixty-nine  ecclesiastical,  the 
mnety-six  secular  princes,  and  the  imperial  cities.  [A  miracle  of  te- 
dious legfislation,  often  degenerating  into  a  squabble  for  precedence. 
**  A  bladeless  knife  without  a  handle.  ]  Corpus  Catholicorum  and  Cor- 
pna  Xhrangelioonim ;  [the  corporate  organizations  of  the  Catholic  and 
the  evangelical  estates,  the  latter  being  the  most  important    This  or- 


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372  Modem  HUtory.  ▲•  0. 

fifanization  of  the  Protestftnt  estates  had  eadsted,  in  fact,  since  the  latter 
half  of  the  sixteenth  cental^,  but  it  was  legally  recognized  in  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia,  where  it  was  decreed  that  m  the  diet  matters 
relating  to  religion  and  the  church  should  not  be  decided  by  a  majority, 
but  should  be  settled  by  conference  and  agreement  between  the  Cath- 
olic and  Protestant  estates,  as  organized  corporations.] 
1661-1664.  FiTBt  war  with  the  Turks  ;  caused  by  a  dispute  con- 
cerning the  election  of  a  prince  in  Transylvania. 
The  Turkiui  successes  at  last  enabled  the  emperor  to  obtain  help 
from  the  empire  and  from  the  French.  Victory  of  the  imperial  gen-' 
eral  MontecucuU  over  the  Turks  at  St.  Gotthard  on  the  Raab  (1664). 
A  truce  for  twenty  years,  favorable  to  the  Turks,  was,  nevertheless 
concluded. 

War  of  the  empire  against  Louis  XIV.  (see  p.  367). 
1666.  Settlement  of  the  contested  succession  of  Cleve-JAlicli : 
Cleve,  Mark,  Ratfenstein,  and  half  of  Raveruberg  given  to  Bran- 
denburg ;  afterwards,  the  whole  of  Ravensberg  instead  of  Ra  - 
ven$tein. 
168^1699.  Second  war  with  the  Turks.  Conspiracy  of  Hua- 
garian  magnates  detected  and  punished.  Couut  Tdkolg  ap- 
pealed to  the  Turks  for  aid.  invasion  of  Iluiigary  by  the 
Grand  Vizier  Kara  Mustapha  and 

1683.    Siege  of  Vienncu 

Heroic  defense  conducted  hjRUdiaervon  Stahremberg.  Suo- 
oessf ul  relief  by  a  united  Grerman  and  Polish  army  under  Charles  of 
Lorraine  and  John  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland.  Henceforward  active 
participation  of  the  Grerman  princes  in  the  wax,  assisted  by  Venice. 
After  the  victory  of  Charles  of  Lorraine  over  the  Turks  at  MohacM 
(pron.  Mohatch)  Aug.  12,  1687,  the  diet  at  Pressburg  conferred  the 
hereditaiy  succession  to  the  throne  of  Hungary  upon  the  male  line 
of  Austria.  The  war  continued  with  varying  fortune  until  Prince 
Eugene,  by  the 

1697.     Victory  ofZenta,  brought  about  the 
1699,  Jan.  26.    Peace  of  Carlowitz  : 

1.  The  Porte  received  the  Banat    Temesoar;  Austria,  the  rest  of 

Hungary  and  Transylvania. 

2.  Venice  received  Morea  (the  Peloponnesus,  p.  416). 

Toward  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  and  hegiomnf  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  several  German  princes  obtained  an  elevation  in  rank. 
16d2.    1.  Hanover  became  the  ninth  electorate. 
1697.    2.  The  elector  of  Saxony  (Augustus  II.),  after  the  death  of 
John  Sobieski,  became  king  of  Poland,  and  adopted  the  Cath- 
olic faith. 
3.  Frederic  III.,  Sector  of  Brandenburg  (1688-1713),  son  of  the 
Great  Elector,  assumed,  with  the  consent  of  the  emperor,  the 
1701.   title  of  king  in  Pmaaia  (Frederic  I.)  and  crowned  himself  at 
Jan.  18.   Konigsberg.  {Seep.S97.) 


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The  North  and  East.  878 


I  4.    THE  NORTH  AND  EAST. 

Sweden.  (Seep.SdS.) 

Sweden,  whose  possessions  almost  surrounded  the  Baltic  Sea, 
was  the  first  power  of  the  North  after  the  Thirty-Years'  War. 
1654-1718   (1751).    Dynasty  of  the  oounts  palatine  of 
Zweibrucken  (p.  352). 

Id54r-1660.  Charles  X.,  Gnstavna,  undertook  a  war  with  Poland, 
because  John  Casimir  (of  the  house  of  Vasa)  refused  to  ac- 
knowledge him.  He  invaded  Livonia  and  Poland,  captured  Warsaw 
and  drove  John  Casimir  into  Silesia.  Frederic  WiUiam,  elector  of  Braa- 
denburg,  who  had  come  with  an  army  to  the  defense  of  East  Prussia, 
was  obUged,  by  the  treaty  of  Konlssberg  (1656^  to  receive  his  duchy 
in  fee  from  Sweden,  as  he  had  heretofore  held  it  from  Poland.  He 
received  also  the  bishopric  of  Ermdand.  Uprising  in  Poland  against 
the  Swedes.  Charles  Gustavus  and  the  elector  Frederic  William,  who 
had  become  a  still  closer  ally  by  the  treaty  of  Marienburg,  gained  the 
1656.  Three  days'  battle  of  WarBaw  over  the  Poles.  In  order  to 
further  secure  for  himself  the  aid  of  the  elector  of  Brandenburg, 
Charles  Gustavus  granted  him,  in  the  treaty  of  Lahiau  (1656)  the  soo- 
ereignty  over  East  Prussia  and-Ermeland.  Nevertheless,  Russia,  Den^ 
mark  and  the  emperor,  declared  war  upon  Sweden,  and  they  were  soon 
joined  by  the  elector  of  Brandenburfi^,  who  received  from  Poland  in 
the  treaty  of  Wehlau  ^1667)  recognition  of  his  sovereignty  over  East 
Prussia,  but  not  over  Ermeland,  for  which  he  received  compensation 
elsewhere.  The  Swedes  were  soon  driven  out  of  Poland,  retaining  a 
hold  on  Polish  Prussia  only.  Charles  Gustavus  attacked  Denmark 
which  he  soon  conquered  (croaaing  of  the  frozen  Belt,  Jan.  1658), 
and  compelled  to  make  important  cessions  in  the  pcMe  of  Roes^M 
(1658^.  In  the  same  year  Charles  Gustavus  invadea  Denmark  a  sec- 
ond time,  purposing  the  annihilation  of  the  monarchy.  Courageous 
defense  of  Copenha^n.  The  Danes  received  assistance  from  all 
sides.  Raise  of  the  siege.  Sudden  death  of  Charles  Gustavus  (1660). 
Under  his  minor  son 
1660-1697.    Charlea  XI.,  the 

1660*    Peaoe  of  Oliva  (monastery  near  Danzig)  was  con- 
cluded with  Poland. 

John  Casimir  abandoned  his  claims  upon  the  throne  of  Sweden,  as 
well  as  upon  Livonia  and  Esthonia.  Restoration  of  the  duke  of  Cur- 
land.     Ijie  sovereignty  of  Prussia  ratified  by  Sweden  and  Poland. 

This  was  followed  immediately  by  the 
Peaoe  of  Copenhagen  with  Denmark,  which  surrendered  forever 
the  southern  part  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  which  had  been 
ceded  already  by  the  peace  of  Roeskild,  but  retained  Drontheim  and 
Bomholm. 

Peace  between  Sweden  and  Russia  at  Kardis  (1661)  ;  reciprocal 
surrender  of  conquests. 


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874  Modem  HiUory,  A«  d« 

Wai-  between  Swederij  as  the  ally  of  France,  and  Brandenburg  ; 
battle  of  Febrbellin,  p.  368;  peace  of  Sl  Germain^en-Laye,  p.  368. 

{See  pp.  394,409.) 
Denmark.  (See  p.  Sr,2.) 

Immediately  after  the  peace  (1660)  the  third  estate  (burghers),  im- 
patient of  the  role  of  the  nobility,  and  the  clergy,  conferred  apon  the 
king,  Frederic  UL  (1648-1670),  an  absolutely  uncontrolled  authority. 
IiezRegia. 

In  the  same  way  the  Swedish  estates,  weary  of  the  over-great  power 
of  the  royal  council,  conferred  almost  unbmited  power  upon  king 
Charlea  XI.,  who  was  now  of  age.  (See  p.  409^ 

Poland.  {See  p.  S62  ) 

In  Poland,  on  the  contrary,  the  royal  power  had  become  a  mere 
shadow  at  this  period,  and  the  state  was,  in  fact,  a  republic  of  nobles. 
The  diet,  composed  of  the  eenate  (bishops,  woiwods,  castellanes),  and 
the  elected  representatiTes  from  tiie  country  (representatives  of  the 
nobility)  exercised  every  function  of  government  The  liberum  treiOi 
that  is,  the  right  of  each  individual  member  of  the  diet  to  defeat  a 
resolution  bv  his  protest,  and  thus  to  break  up  the  diet,  led  to  bribery, 
violence,  and,  in  the  end,  to  absolute  anarchy.  After  the  abdication 
of  John  Casimir  (1668),  Uiere  followed  a  bloody  contest  for  the  throne  ; 
then  John  S(^)ieski  (1674-1696),  the  liberator  of  Vienna  (p.  372),  and 
finally  Augustus  IL  of  Saxony  (1697-1733),  under  whom  the  war  with 
the  Turks  was  ended  by  the  Peace  of  Carlowits  (p.  372). 

(See  pp.  397,  410.) 
Rnaaia.  {Seep.  3o3.) 

Under  the  house  of  Romanow  Russia  developed  in  strength  and 
influence.  The  son  of  the  founder  of  the  dynasty,  Alexis,  reconquered 
Little  (White)  Russia  from  Poland,  and  began  to  introduce  European 
civilization  into  Russia.  After  the  death  of  his  eldest  son,  Feodar 
(1682),  his  brothers,  Ivan  and  Peter  (son  of  the  Czar's  second  wife, 
Natalia  Narischkin),  proclaimed  Czars  under  the  g^uardianship  of  their 
elder  sister,  Sophia,  by  the  Strelitzes,  the  noble  body-^guara  of  the 
emperor.  Peter  in  Preobaschensk,  under  the  guidance  of  Lefnrt,  a 
Swiss.  Playing  soldiers :  oripn  of  the  later  giuurd.  His  half-sister, 
Sophia,  endeavored  to  exduc^  him  from  the  throne,  but  was  sent  to 
a  cloister  by  Peter  (1689). 

1689-1725.    Peter  I.,  the  Great, 

reigned  as  sole  monarch,  his  weak  minded  brother,  Ivan,  con- 
tinuing until  his  death  (1696)  without  the  least  authority. 
Peter  began  his  reforms  with  the  assistance  of  Gordon,  a  Scot,  and 
Le/ort.  Conquest  of  Azoff  (1696).  After  cruelly  punishin?  a  revolt 
of  the  Strelitzes,  Peter  undertook  Ida  Jirst  journey  (1697-1698),  for  his 
instruction,  through  Germany  to  Holland,  where  he  worked  as  a  ship's 
carpenter  in  Saardam  {Zaandam),  and  afterwards  to  England  (en- 
f^agement  of  foreign  artisans,  artists,  and  military  officers^  Peter 
mtended  to  visit  Italy,  but  was  recalled  by  a  new  revolt  of  tiie 


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A.  D.  England.  875 

Strelitses  (16d8).    Bloody  puniflhinent ;  dissolntion  of  the  Streliizes, 
who  were  replaced  by  an  army  after  the  European  pattern  f  1699). 
1699.    Peace  with  the  Turks  at  Carlowitz,    Acquisition  of  Azoff, 

i  5.    ENGLAND.  {Seep.  S61.) 

1649-1660.  England  a  republic;  the  Commonwealth. 
The  government  was  actually  in  the  liauds  of  the  army  of  inde- 
pendents under  Oliver  Cromwell  (b.  at  Huntingdon,  April 
25,  1599,  where  he  met  prince  Charles,  1603 ;  i^mitted  to 
Sidney-Sussex  College,  1616 ;  death  of  his  father,  1617  ;  mar- 
ried Elizabeth  Bourchier,  1620  ;  M.  P.  for  Huntingdon,  1628  ; 
his  first  speech,  Feb.  1629 ;  removed  to  St.  Ives,  1631 ;  re- 
moved to  Ely,  1636 ;  affair  of  Bedford-Level,  1638  ;  M.  P.  for 
Cambridge,  1640 ;  removed  to  London  ;  resided  at  the  Cock- 
pit [Westminster],  1650 ;  at  Whitehall,  1654 ;  died  Sept.  3, 
1658.  Children :  Oliver,  Richard,  b.  1626  ;  abdicated  May  25, 
1659 ;  died,  1712  ;  Henry,  b.  1628 ;  Bridget,  married  Ireton, 
1646  [Fleetwood,  1651]  ;  Elizabeth,  married  Mr.  Clavpole ; 
died,  1658  ;  Frances,  married  Richaid  Rich,  grandson  of  War- 
wick, 1657;  Afary,  married  lord  jPatico/i6cr^),  but  theoretically 
the  legislative  department  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Rump  par- 
liament, consisting  of  some  fifty  members  of  the  commons  (in- 
dependents), while  the  executive  was  entrusted  to  a  council  of 
state  numbering  forty-one  members  (three  judges,  three  mili- 
tary commanders,  five  peers,  thirty  members  of  vie  commons). 
Abolition  of  the  title  and  office  of  kine,  and  of  the  house  of  lords. 

Charles  II.  proclaimed  in  Edinburgh  (Feb.  5).     New  great  seal. 

Rising  in  Ireland  in  favor  of  Chicles  II.,  under  the  marquis  of 

Ormond.    Expedition  of  Cromwell  to  Ireland  (Aug.  15). 

1649,  Sept.  12.    Storm  of  Drogheda ;  massacre  of  the  garrison, 

followed  by  the  storm  and  massacre  of  Wexford.  Cromwell 
returned  to  London,  May,  1650,  leaving  Ireton  in  Ireland.  The 
''rebellion"  was  not  thoroughly  put  down  until  1652,  when 
three  out  of  four  provinces  were  confiscated. 

1650,  Montrose  landea  in  Scotland,  was  defeated  at  Corbiesdale 
(April  27),  betrayed,  captured,  and  executed  at  Edinburgh 
May  21. 

June  24.  Gliarlas  n.  landed  in  Scotland,  and  after  taking  the  cov- 
enant, was  proclaimed  king. 

Cromwdl  appointed  captain-seneral  in  place  of  Fairfax.  He 
led  16,000  men  to  Scotland,  and  totally  defeated  the  Scots 
under  Leslie  at  the 

Sept.  3.    Battle  of  Dunbar. 

Surrender  of  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow. 

1651,  Jan.  1.    Charles  II.  was  crowned  at  Scone  and  marched  into 

England  (July)  at  the  head  of  the  Scotch  army  while  Crom- 
weU  took  JPerth  (Aug.  2).     The  latter  followed  the  long,  and 
at  the 
Sept  3.    Battle  of  Woroester 

totally  defeated  the  royalists.  Charles  in  disguise  escaped  to 
France.  ^ 

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376  Modem  Higtory.  A.  D. 

1051,  Oct.  9l  Fimt  navigation  aot,  f ortndding  the  importatioii  of 
goodfl  into  England  except  in  English  yessels  ^bat  goods 
might  be  conveyed  .to  England  in  vessela  belonging  to  the 
country  producing  Uie  ^[oocLb).  This  measure  was  aimed  at 
the  Dutch,  and  resulted  m  the 

1662,  July  8-1664,  April  6.    Dutch  War. 

Naval  actions  in  the  Channel ;  English  commanders,  ELake^ 
Monk ;  Dutch,  Vctn  Trompj  De  Ruyter.  English  victory  in  the 
Downs  before  the  declaration  of  \rar,  May.  Defeat  of  Van 
Tramp  and  De  Ruyter,  Sept  28  ;  defeat  of  Blake,  Nov. ;  de- 
feat of  Van  Tramp  off  Portland,  Feb.  18, 1663  ;  off  the  North 
Foreland,  June  2,  3.  Death  of  Ireton  (Nov.  1661). 
Between  the  army  and  the  Rump  there  had  bc^  growing  contention 

since  the  death  of  Charles  I.    A  new  parliament  was  desirable,  but 

the  members  of  the  Romp  wished  to  retain  their  seats  in  any  new 

parliament.     The  negotiations  for  ransom  of    oonfisoated  royalist 

estates  led  to  bribery  of  members. 

1662,  Feb.    Act  of  indemnity  and  oblivion. 

Aug.    First  act  of  settlement  for  Ireland. 

16^  April  20.  Cromwell  tamed  out  the  Romp  and  dissolved  the 
council  of  state.  Establishment  of  a  new  council  and  nomr 
motion  of 

July  4.  A  new  parliament  (**  Barebone's  parliament,"  also  called 
the  "  Little  parliament ''),  consisting  of  about  140  members. 

July  31.    Victory  of  Monk  off  the  Tezel ;  death  of  Van  Tromp. 

Sept.      Second  act  of  settlement  for  Ireland. 

Dec.  12.  The  Cromwellians  in  parliament  resi£;ned  their  powers  to 
Cromwell ;  an  act  subsequently  approved  by  the  majority. 

1653,  Dec.-1659,  May.    Protectorate. 

1653,  Deo.  16-1658^  Sept.  3.  Cromwell  Lord  Protector  of  the 
commonwealth  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland, 

**  The  instrument  of  government,"  a  written  constitution. 

The  executive  power  was  vested  in  the  lord  protector,  who  was  pro- 
vided with  a  council  of  twenty-one,  which  filled  its  own  vacancies. 
A  standing  army  of  30,000  men  established  ;  parliament  was  to  be 
triennial,  and  to  consbt  of  460  members,  and  when  once  summoned 
could  not  be  dissolved  inside  of  ^Te  months.    Between  sessions  the 

Eroteotor  and  council  could  issue  ordinances  with  the  force  of  laws, 
ut  parliament  alone  could  grant  supplies  and  levy  taxes. 

1654,  April  6.    Peace  with  the  Dutch. 

Sept.  3.  New  parliament.  As  the  course  of  the  assembly  did  not 
suit  the  protector,  he  ordered  an  exclusion  of  members  (Sept. 
12).  Alter  voting  that  the  office  of  protector  should  be  elec- 
tive instead  of  hereditary  the 

1655,  Jan.  22.    Parliament  was  dissolved. 

Aoril.    Blake  chastised  the  deys  of  Algiers,  Tunis,  Tripoli. 
March-May.    Rising  of  Penruddock  at  Salisbury  suppressed.    ExeciK 
tionof  Penruddock. 
England  divided  into  twelve  military  districts,  each  under  a 


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A.  D.  England.  S77 

major-general,  with  a  foroe  snpported  by  a  tax  of  ten  per 
cent,  on  royalist  estates. 
May.   Penn  and  Venables,  sent  to  make  reprisals  in  the  Spanish  West 
Indies,  captured  Jamaioa.  * 

1655,  Oct.   Pacification  of  Pmerolo  concluded  with  France.     The 

duke  of  Savoy  to  stop  the  persecution  of  the  Vaudois.    Charles 

to  be  expelled  from  France. 
Nov.    Anglican  clergymen  forbidden  to  teach  or  preach.    Priests 

ordered  out  of  the  kingdom.    Censorship  of  the  press. 
1656-1659.    War  with  Spain. 
Sept  9.    Capture  of  Spanish  treasure  ships  off  Cadiz. 

1656,  Sept.  17-1658,  Feb.  4.    Cromwell's  third  parUament. 
Another  exclusion  of  members. 

Oct.    Reduction  of  the  power  of  the  major-generaJs. 

1657,  Jan.    Plot  against  the  protector  (''  KilBng  no  Murder  ").    Pun- 

ishment of  Nayler. 

March-May.  Homble  petition  and  advice  altering  the  constitu- 
tion, adopted  by  parliament.  Establishment  of  a  second 
house  ;  me  council  of  state  reduced  in  power ;  the  protector 
deprived  of  the  right  of  excluding  members  ;  fixed  supply 
for  the  army  and  navy  ;  toleration  of  all  Christians  except 
Episcopalians  and  Roman  Catholics.  The  title  of  king  was 
offered  to  Cromwell  but  rejected  by  him  '(May  8). 

April  20.    y'lGtoTY  of  Blake  on  Santa  Cruz.    Death  of  B2al:^  Aug.  17. 

June  26.    Second  inauguration  of  Cromwell. 

1658^  Jan.  20.  New  session  of  parliament^  including  ^the  other 
house.'' 

Feb.  4.    Dissolution  of  Cromwell's  last  parliament. 

May.  Siege  of  Dunkirk  by  the  English  and  French.  A  Spanish 
force  advancing  to  the  relief  of  the  town  was  defeated  m  the 

June  4.  Battle  of  the  Dnnea,  which  was  followed  by  the  surrender 
of  Dunkirk  (June  17).  In  the  peace  of  the  F^nees  (1659, 
p.  366),  England  received  this  town. 

Bept.  3.    Death  of  Oliver  CromwelL 

1658>  Sept.  3-1659»  May  26.  Richard  Cromwell  lord  pro- 
tector. 

1669,  Jan.  27.  A  new  parliament  met,  and  was  soon  involved  in  a 
dispute  with  the  army,  which  induced  Richard  to 

April  22.  Dissolve  the  parliament  ("  Humble  representation  and 
advice  of  the  officers ").  a        r      x  n 

May  7.  The  Rump  parliament  reassembled  under  LenihaU  as 
speaker. 

May  26.  Richard  Cromweli  resigned  the  protectorate. 

Aug.    Insurrection  of  Booth  crushed  at  Winnington  Bridge  {Lam- 

Oct  13.  Expulsion  of  the  Rump  by  the  army  (Lambert).  Appoint- 
ment of  a  military  committee  of  safety.  This  assertion  of 
authority  did  not  meet  with  approval  even  within  the  army. 

Dec.  26.  Restoration  of  the  Rump.  Monk,  who  was  in  Scotiand, 
led  his  army  to  London  and  assumed  control  of  afEairs  (Feb. 
3, 1660).    Monk  captain-general. 

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378  Modem  Butory.  ▲.  D. 

1660»Feb.  21.  Restonticm  of  members  ezdnded  In  1648.  Be  ortab 
lifthment  of  tbe  Long  Parliament. 

March  16.    Final  diaaolntion  of  the  Ziong  Parliament.^ 

1660,  Apr.  14.  Declaration  of  Breda.  Charles  proclaimed  am- 
nesty to  all  not  especially  excepted  by  parliament,  promised 
liberty  of  religious  belief,  and  the  settlement  of  confiscated 
estates  in  the  £uids  of  the  possessors. 

1660,  Apr.  25--Dec.  29.  Convention  Parliament ;  chosen  without 
restrictious  and  numbering  556  members.  The  parliament  re- 
ceived the  declaration  of  Breda  favorably  and  returned  a  loyal 
answer  to  the  king  (Mav  1). 

May  8.    Charles  proclaimed  kmg ;  on  May  29  he  entered  London. 

1660-.1685.    Charles  n., 

extravagant,  dissipated,  careless  of  the  duties  of  his  position. 
Charles's  restoration  was  hailed  by  an  outburst  of  loyalty  wnich  en- 
abled him  to  neelect  many  of  the  promises  of  the  declaration  of  Breda. 
The  Idnff's  brother,  Jamesy  duke  of  Yorky  appointed  lord  hk^h  admiral 
and  waiden  of  the  Cinque  ports  ;  Monk  captain-general ;  Sir  Edward 
Hyde  (eoai  of  Clarendon)  chancellor  and  prime  minister. 

Abolition  of  the  feudal  rights  of  knight  service^  worship^  and  purvef" 
once  in  consideration  of  a  yearly  income  for  the  king  of  £1,^)0,000. 
Restoration  of  the  bishops  to  their  sees  and  to  parliament.  Act  qf  in- 
demnity for  all  political  offenses  committed  between  Jan.  1, 1637,  and 
June  ^,  1660  ;  the  regicides  were  excepted  from  this  act.  All  acts 
of  the  long  parliament  to  which  Charles  1.  had  assented  were  declared 
in  force.  The  army  waa  diabanded  (Oct.),  excepting  some  5,000 
men.    Declaration  for  the  settiement  of  Irehuid. 

1660,  Dec.  29.    Dissolution  of  the  Convention  parliament. 

1661,  Jan.    Rising  of  iheffih  monarchy  men  in  London  (Venner). 
Bodies  of  Cromwell,  Iretony  Bradshaw,  disinterred  and  treated 

with  indig^ty. 
Royalist  parliament  in  Scotland.    Abolition  of  the  Covenant. 

Repeal  of  all  enactments  of  preceding  parliaments  for  the  last 

twenty-eight  years. 
Apr.-July.    Savoy  Conference  of  Episcopalians  and  Presbyterians. 
Apr.  23.    Coronation  of  Charles  II. 

1661,  May  8-1679,  Jan.  24.  XTew  parliament.  «  Cavalier  "  or  *<  pen- 
sion  "  parliament. 
Solemn  league  and  covenant  burnt. 
1661,  May  27.    Execution  of  Argyle  in  Sootiand. 

1  Becapitnlation  of  the  history  of  the  Long  Parliament :  — 
1640,  Nov.  8.    First  assembled. 
1648,  Dec.  6,  7.    Pride's  Purge.    The  Rump. 
1653,  April  20.    The  Rump  turned  out  by  Cromwell. 
1659,  Mjiy  7.    The  Rump  restored. 
1659,  Oct.  18.    The  Rump  expelled  by  the  army. 

1659,  Dec.  96.    The  Rump  restored. 

1660,  Feb.  21.    Members  excluded  by  Pride's  Purge,  restored. 
1660,  March  16.    The  parliament  dissolved. 


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A.  D.  England.  379 

Not.  20.  Corporation  aot :  all  magistrates  and  municipal  officers 
obl]£^  to  take  the  sacrament  according  to  the  Church  of  Eng- 
lan(^  to  abjure  the  covenant,  and  to  take  an  oath  declaring  it 
illegal  to  bear  arms  against  the  king. 
James  Sharpe,  created  archbishop  of  St.  Andrews,  attempted  to 
introduce  episcopacy  in  Scotland. 

1662,  May  20.  Marriage  of  Charles  II.  with  Catherine  of  Bragama^ 
daughter  of  John  IV .  of  Portugal. 

Aug.  24.  The  aot  of  uniformity  (adopted  May  19),  went  into  oper^ 
ation.  All  clergymen,  fellows,  and  schoolmasters  were  reauired 
to  assent  toeyerything  in  the  book  of  common  prayer.  Nearly 
2,000  (?^  non-conformists  lost  their  livings  (dioaenters). 
Declaration  of  indul^venoe  promised. 

1662,  June  14.    Execution  of  Sir  Henry  Vane, 

Nov.  Sale  of  Dunkirk  to  France  for  i&400,000.  Act  of  settlement 
for  Ireland. 

1663.  An  insurrection  of  fifth  monarchy  men  in  the  north  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  passage  of  the 

1664^  May.    Conventicle  act,  forbidding  the  meeting  of  more  than 
five  persons  for  religious  worship,  except  in  the  household,  or 
in  accordance  with  the  established  church. 
Bepeal  of  the  triennial  act  (1641^. 

Aug.    Capture  of  New  Amsterdam  in  America. 

1665,  Feb.  22-1667,  July  21.    War  with  Holland. 

1665,  April.    The  plague  in  London. 

June  3.    Naval  victory  of  Lowestoft  over  the  Butch. 

Oct  The  five  mile  aot :  all  who  had  not  subscribed  to  the  act  of 
uniformity  were  ordered  to  take  the  oath  of  non-resistance,  to 
swear  never  to  undertake  any  alteration  in  church  or  state ; 
and  those  who  refused  were  prohibited  from  coming  within 
five  miles  of  any  incorporated  town,  or  of  any  place  where  they 
had  been  settled  as  mmisters. 

1666,  Jan.  16-1667,  July  21.     War  with  France. 

June  1-4.  Naval  victory  of  Albermarle  (Monk)  over  the  Dutch  (De 
Ruyter,  DeWiU)  otf  the  North  Foreland. 

Sept.  2.  Great  Fire  of  London  ;  lasting  over  a  week  and  burning 
a  renon  of  450  acres.  The  Mcnwnent,  St  Paul's  rebuilt  by 
Sir  Christopher  Wren. 

Nov.  28.  Battle  of  Pentland  HiUs  in  Scotland.  Defeat  of  the  Cov- 
enanters, who  had  revolted  under  their  persecutions,  by  Dalziel. 

1667,  June.  The  Dutch  fleet  burnt  Sheemess,  entered  the  Medway, 
and  sailed  to  within  twenty  miles  of  London. 

July  21.  Treatiea  of  Breda  between  England,  Holland,  France, 
Denmark.  England  received  from  France,  Antigua^  Mont- 
serrat,  English  St.  Christopher's;  France  received  Accuiia, 
England  and  Holland  adopted  the  status  quo  of  May  20, 1667; 
England  retaining  New  Amsterdam,  and  Holland,  Surinam,  It 
was  agreed  that  goods  brought  down  the  Rhine  might  be  trans- 
ported to  England  in  Dutch  vessels. 

Aug.    Fall  of  Clarendon,  on  whom  the  most  unpopular  acts  of  the 


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380  Modem  fftstory,  A.  d. 

sorenuneiit  were  fathered  ;  he  was  depriyed  of  the  great  seal, 
impeached,  and  banished  for  life  (died  at  Rouen,  1674). 
The  chief  officers  of  state,  whose  councils  determined  the  course  of 
government,  began  in  this  reign  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  distinct  (uncon- 
stitutional) council,  although  they  did  not,  for  some  time  to  come, 
stand  and  fall  together. 

Accession  of  a  new  ministry  called  the  **  Cabal "  ^  (Clifford,  ArUng- 
ton,  Buckingham,  Ashley,  Lauderdale). 

1668k  Jan.  13.    The  triple  sdliance  between  England,  Holland, 
and  Sweden  negotiated  by  Sir  William  Temple  and  John  De 
Witt  as  a  check  upon  the  aggressions  of  Louis  XIV.  (p.  367). 
1670,  May  22.    Secret  treaty  of  Dover  between  Charles  II.  and 
Louis  XIV.  negotiated  by  Charles's  sister,  Henrietta,  duchess 
of  Orleans. 
Charles  agreed  that  he  and  the  duke  of  York  would  openly  Join  the 
Church  of  £>me  as  soon  as  expedient,  that  he  would  support  Louis  in 
his  wars  with  Spain  and  Holland.    Louis  promised  Charles  £200,000 
a  year  while  the  war  lasted,  and  the  assistance  of  6,000  men  in  case  of 
an  insurrection.    Louise  la   Querouaille,  Charles's  mistress,  created 
duchess  of  Portsmouth.    The  duke  of  York  at  once  professed  his  be- 
lief in  Rome. 

1670.  Second  Conventicle  act,  more  stringent  than  the  first. 
1672.  Charles  being  in  want  of  money  closed  the  exchequer,  thus  seiz- 
ing £1,200,0^  which  had  been  advanced  to  the  government  by 
bcmkers.  A  general  panic  followed. 
1672,  March.  Declaration  of  Indulgence  ;  under  the  pretense  of 
lightening  the  burden  on  non-conformists,  die  proclamation 
really  aimed  at  securing  toleration  for  papists.  .  Parliament 
compelled  the  Id^  to  withdraw  the  indulgence  in  1673^ 

1672,  March  17-1674,  Feb.  9.    War  with  Holland. 

Invasion  of  Holland  by  Louis  XIV.  Revolution  in  the  Nether- 
lands. Murder  of  John  and  Cornelius  De  Witt,  William  of 
Orange  stadtholder. 

May  28.    English  naval  victory  at  Sonthwold  Bay. 

Nov.      Shaftesbury  (Anthony  Ashley  Cooper),  lord  chancellor. 

1673,  March.    Teat  act. 

All  persons  holdincr  office  under  government  were  compelled 
to  take  the  oaths  of  allegiance  and  of  supremacy,  to  abjure  tran^ 
substantiation,  and  to  take  the  sacrament  according  to  the  estab- 
lished church. 

The  duke  of  York,  Shaftesbury,  lord  Clifford,  resigned  office,  being 
superseded  by  prince  Rupert,  Sir  Thomas  Osborne  Qearl  or 
Danby,  viscount  Latimer,  marquis  of  Carmarthen,  auke  of 
Leeds),  and  Sir  Heneage  Finch  (earl  of  Nottingham).  Buck- 
ingham out  of  office. 
Nov.  21.  Marriage  of  tke  duke  of  York  with  Mary  d^Este,  princess 
of  Modena. 

1674,  Feb.  9.     Treaty  of  Weatminater.    End  of  the  Dutch-Eng- 
lish war. 

1  This  word  did  not  originate  from  the  initials  of  the  ministei^f  although  the 
coiocidence  of  their  happening  to  spell  the  word  gave  a  seat  to  its  application. 


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A.  D.  England.  381 

1677»  Not.  4.    Marriage  of  Mary,  daughter  of  the  dnke  of  York, 
with  W^liam  of  Orange  (aiteniwds  William  in.)- 
Treaty  with  Holland  ;  secret  treaty  with  France.    Abolition 
of  the  writ  de  heeretico  comburendo, 

Aug,  10.    Peace  of  Nimeguen. 

1678,  Sept    The  Fopiah  Plot.    This  famoos  scare  began  with  the 

ii^ormation  ^ven  by  Titos  Oates,  concerning  an  alleged  plot 
for  the  murder  of  Charles  and  the  establii£nent  of  Roman 
Catholicism  in  England,  devised  by  Don  John  of  Austria,  and 
the  father  confessor  of  Louis  XIV,,  Pere  la  Choose.  Death  of 
Sir  Edmondhwry  Godfrey.  Upon  the  meeting  of  parliament 
five  Catholic  lords  (rowys,  Bellasis,  Stafford,  Fetre,  Arundel) 
were  sent  to  the  Tower.  Conviction  and  execution  of  Coleman^ 
confessor  of  the  duchess  of  York.  Bedhe  swore  to  the  plot, 
moved  by  the  favors  showered  on  Gates.  Passage  of  the 
papists  disabling  act  (repealed  1828)  excluding  Boman 
Catholics  from  parliament. 
Dec.  Impeachment  of  Danby,  on  a  charge  of  criminal  correspond- 
ence with  France. 

1679,  Jan.  24.    Dissolution  of  the  ''Pensioned'*  Parliament. 

Danby  dismissed  from  the  office  of  lord  high  treasurer.  The 
duke  of  York  left  the  kingdom  after  procuring  from  Charles 
a  statement  that  he  had  never  had  any  other  tluui  his  present 
wife  (this  to  dispose  of  the  claims  of  the  duke  of  Monmouth, 
natural  son  of  Charles  and  Lucy  Walten). 
1679,  March  &-1679,  May  27.    Third  Parliament  of  Charles  IL 

The  impeachment  of  Danbv  was  resumed  ;  and  he  was  com- 
mitted to  the  Tower,  where  he  lay  until  1686. 
Adoption  of  the  council  of  thirty,  in  accordance  witii  the  scheme  of 
government  sketched  by  Sir  William  Temple.  Bein^  found  cumber^ 
some  in  practice  it  was  soon  superseded  by  a  new  cabmet  council,  com* 
posed  of  Sir  WHliam  Temple  ;  Savile,  viscount  HallfsT  ;  Capel,  earl 
of  Essex ;  Spencer,  earl  of  Sunderland  ;  Shaftesbury,  president, 
afterwards  in  opposition.  Introduction  of  a  bill  to  prevent  the  duke 
of  York  from  succeeding  to  the  crown,  he  being  a  Roman  Catholic. 
(<< Exclusion  bill"  passed  to  a  second  reading  in  tiie  commons,  207  to 
1280 

1679,  May.    The  habeas  corpus  act  signed  by  the  king :  judges 
were  obliged,  on  application,  to  issue  to  any  prisoner  a  writ  of 
habeas  corpus,  directing  the  iailer  to  produce  the  body  of  the 
prisoner,  and  show  cause  for  his  imprisonment ;  prisoners  should 
oe  indicted  in  the  first  term  of  their  commitment,  and  tried 
not  later  than  the  second  ;  no  person  once  set  free  by  order  of 
the  court  could  be  again  imprisoned  for  the  same  offense. 
May  27.     Prorogation  of  parliament  (dissolved  in  July). 
May-June.    Covenanters  in  Scotland  cruelly  persecuted  hyLauder^ 
dale.    Murder  of  archbishop  Sharpe,  May  3, 1679.    Defeat  of 
Claverhouse  by  the  Covenanters,  under  Balfour,  at  Drumclog, 
June  1. 
June  22.    Battle  of  Bothwell-Brlgg ;  defeat  of  the  Covenanters  by 
the  duke  of  Monmouth.     Cruelties  of  the  duke  of  York  in 
Scotland. 


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882  Modem  Biitory.  a.  d. 

Oct.  7.  The  fourth  parliament  of  Charles  U.,  prorogaed  immediately 
Qjpon  its  meeting  without  the  advice  of  the  council :  Sir  W, 
TempUy  EsseXf  and  Halifax  resigned,  and  were*  succeeded  by 
Sidney  Gk>dolpliiii,  earl  of  Gk>dolpliiii,  and  Laurence  Hjde, 
earl  of  Rochester  (son  of  Clarendon). 
"  Meal  tub  plot,"  an  alleged  papist  conspiracy  against  the  king, 
disclosed  by  Dangerjield.     (Papers  in  a  tub  of  meal.) 
Meeting  of  parliament  demanded  by  the  opposition  {Shaftesbury)* 
Petitions  sent  up,  asking  that  oarliament  be  called.    The  court 
party  retorted  by  sendmg  addresses  expressive  of  their  abhor- 
rence at  this  interference  with  the  king.     Hence  Petitioners 
(the  opposition)  and  Ahhorrers  (the  government),  afterwards 
Wlilga  and  Tories.     (  Whig,  name  of  a  Scotch^  Tory,  of  an 
Irish  faction.) 

1680,  Oct  21-1681,  Jan.  18.    Fourth  parliament  of  Charles  H. 

The  exclusion  bill,  passed  by  the  commons,  was  thrown  out  in 
the  lords  by  the  influence  of  Halifax. 

1681,  March  21-28.    Fifth  parliament  of  Charles  IL,  at  Oxford. 

A  new  exclusion  bill  being  introduced,  parliament  was  dis- 
solved, March  28. 
Jnly-Aug.    Execution  of  Plunkett,  archbishop  of  Armagh,  for  high 

treason  (July  1);  of  College  (Aug.  31). 
Nov.    Shaftesbury,  accused  of  mgh  tr^isou,  committed  to  the  Tower. 
The  bill  being  ignored  by  the  grand  jury  he  escaped  to  HoU 
land  (died  1683). 
Continued  persecution  of  the  Covenanters,  Conventiders,  and  Came* 
lonians  (so  ualled  after  a  popular  preacher,  f  July  20, 1680),  in  Scot- 
land.   Passage  of  a  test  act  against  the  Presbyterians,  which,  however, 
also  caused  the  resignation  of  some  eighty  Episcopal  clergymen. 
Trial  and  condenmation  of  the  earl  of  ArgyU  (Dec.) ;  nis  flight. 

1682,  William  of  Orange  in  England.  The  duke  of  York,  accom* 
panied  by  John  Churchill  (b.  1650,  served  under  Turenne  in 
France  ;  general  under  Janoes  II. ;  married  Sarah  Jennings ; 
baron  Churchill,  1685 ;  earl  of  Marlborough,  1689 ;  duke  of 
Marlborough,  1702  ;  died,  June  16, 1722),  blupwrecked  on  the 
voyage  to  Scotland.  Monmouth  made  a  progress  in  the  north- 
west counties,  and  was  arrested  and  held  to  bail. 

Dec.  Death  of  the  earl  of  Nottingham  (Finch);  Sir  Fronds  North 
made  lord  keeper.    SunderUmd,  secretary  of  state  (Jan.  1683). 

1683,  June.    Judgment  given  against  the  city  of  London  on  a  quo 

warranto;  forfeiture  of   the  charter,  which  was  ransomed. 

This  process  was  successfully  repeated  with  other  corporationa. 

Confederacy  of  Monmouth,  Essex,  Russell,  Gray,  Howard,  Sidney, 
Hampden,  for  securing  a  change  in  the  proceedings  of  the  gov- 
ernment This  was  supplemented  by  a  plot  of  a  different  set 
of  persons  for  the  assassination  of  the  king,  known  as  the 
Rye  House  plot,  from  the  place  whe^e  the  king  was  to  be 
shot.  Both  plots  were  revealed.  Suicide  of  Essex,  execution 
of  Russell  and  Sidney :  Monmouth  was  pardoned,  and  retired  to 
Holland. 
Sept.    Jeffreys,  lord  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench.    The  duke  of 


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A.  D.  England.  883 

York  was  reinstated  in  office.    Danby  liberated ;  Gates  fined 
(1684). 
1685,  Feb.  6.    Death  of  Charles  II.,  who  accepted  Roman  Catholi- 
cism on  his  death-bed. 

1685-1688.   James  n., 

a  cruel,  revengeful,  deceitful  despot.  He  was  twice  married : 
1.  Anne  Hyde,  daughter  of  lord  Clarendon  (daughters,  MarVf  mar- 
ried William  of  Orange  ;  Anne,  married  George  of  Denmark).  2. 
Mary  cPEste  (son,  James  Edward).  Halifax,  president  of  the  council ; 
Sunderland,  secretary  of  state  ;  Godolphm,  chamberlain  of  the  queen. 
Clarendon,  lord  privy  seal,  Rochester,  treasurer. 

1685,  May  19-1687,  July  2.  Parliament  of  James  IL  Trial  and 
condemnation  of  Richard  Baxter,  Danhy  and  the  popish  lords 
discharged. 

May.    Trial  of  Oates  and  Danqerfidd,  who  were  sentenced  to  be 

whipped.     (Dangerfield  died  from  the  punishment.) 
1^85.    Ezpeditioxi  of  Monmouth  and  Argyle. 
May.    Argyle  landed  in  Scotland,  where  he  was  coldly  received ; 

June  17  he  was  captured,  and  executed  June  30. 
June  11.    Landing  of  Monmouth  in  Dorsetshire.    He  proclaimed 

himself  king,  as  James  II.     Gathering  a  force  of   some 

60,000  men  he  was  defeated  in  the 
Julys.  Battle  of  Sedgemoor  (the  last  battle  in  England). 
July  15.     Execution  of    Monmouth    on   Tower    Hill.     ''Kirke's 

Lambs"  quartered  on  the  people  in  the  western  counties. 

Jeffreys  sent  on  a  circuit  in  the  west  to  try  the  rebels  and 

those  who  had  aided  them.  **  The  Bloody  Assizes  **  (Lady  Alice 

Lisle).    Jeffreys  made  lord  chancellor. 
Halifax  dismissed  from  the  presidency  of  the  council  and  supers 
seded  by  the  earl  of  Sunderland  (who  became  a  Roman  Catholic). 
Parliament  met  Nov.  9,  but  as  they  would  not  repeal  the  last  act 
they  were  prorogued  Nov.  27. 

Arrival  of  many  refugees  from  France  after  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes. 

1686,  June.    Sir  Edtoard  Hales,  a  papist,  ai>pointed   to  office   by 

James  under  a  dispensation.  In  a  suit  brought  to  test  the 
legality  of  the  act  judgment  was  procured  in  the  king's  favor, 
by  the  appointment  of  judges  favorable  to  the  court.  Catholic 
worship  allowed.  Protestwit  clergymen  forbidden  to  preach 
doctrinal  sermons.  Compton,  bishop  of  London,  refused  to 
remove  the  rector  of  St.  Giles  who  had  disobeyed  this  order. 
He  was  therefore  tried  before  a 

1686,  July.    New  court  of  eodealaatical  commiasion  and  sus- 

pended. 

Camp  of  13,000  men  at  Hounslow  Heath.     Bochester  dis- 
missed from  office. 

1687.  Chirendon  superseded  by  Tyrconnd  (Kichard  Talbot)  as  lord 
lieutenant  of  Ireland.  The  fellows  of  Magdalen  College  having 
refused  to  accept  Farmer,  a  papist,  whom  the  king  had  ap- 


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884  Modem  Hittory.  a.  d. 

pomted  president,  were  expelled  from  their  college.  ThiB  was 
only  a  part  of  the  attempt  made  bj  the  king  to  secure  the 
uniyersities. 

April.  First  declaration  of  liberty  of  conacienoe  published  by 
the  king  in  England  and  Scotland,  granting  liberty  of  con- 
science to  all  denominations. 

July.  Parliament  dissolved.  Father  Petre^  the  king's  confessor  and 
chief  adviser,  admitted  to  the  privy  council. 

1688,  April  25.  Second  declaration  for  liberty  of  conacience 
ordered  to  be  read  in  all  churches. 
Sancroft,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  bishops  Ken,  Lake, 
Lloyd,  Turner,  Trelatoney,  White,  were  committed  to  the 
Tower  for  having  petitioned  the  king  not  to  insist  on  their 
reading  an  illegal  oraer. 

June  10.    Birth  of  a  prince. 

June  29, 3a  Trial  of  the  biahopa  for  having  published  a  false, 
malicious,  and  seditious  libeL  The  bishops  were  acquitted,  a 
verdict  which  was  received  with  wild  enthusiasm  throughout 
the  country.  On  the  same  day  an  invitation  was  dispatched 
to  William  of  Orange  to  save  England  ^m  a  Catholic 
tyranny  ;  it  was  signed  by  the 

"  Seven  eminent  persona  "  or  **  seven  patriots,*^  the  earl  of  Dev- 
onshire, earl  of  Shrewsbury,  earl  of  Danby,  Comnton  (bishop  of 
London),  Henry  Sidney,  lord  Lumley,  admiral  RusselL 
James  declared  his  intention  to  call  a  parliament.    Last  meet- 
ing of  the  ecclesiastical  commission. 

Sept.  30.  Declaration  of  "William  to  the  people  of  England,  ac- 
cepting the  invitation  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  relieious 

and  civil  rights  of  Englishmen.    Doubts  thrown  on  the  birth  of  the 

prince. 

William's  army  was  under  Schawherg,  his  fleet  was  imder  admiral 

Herbert,    James's  land  force  was  led  hj  Feversham,  while  Dartmouth 

conunanded  the  fleet. 
The  declaration  frightened  James  ;  he  endeavored  to  retrace  his 

steps  and  dismissed  Sunderland  from  the  council.    William  sailed 

from  Hdvoetsluys  Oct.  19,  with  14,000  men,  but  was  driven-  back  by 

a  gale.    Starting  again  Nov.  1, 

1688,  Nov.  5.  William  landed  at  Torbay.  Risings  occurred  in 
various  parts  of  the  kiuffdom,  and  William  was  joined  by  the 
duke  of  Grafton  and  lord  ChurchUl  (Nov.  22).  rancess  Anne 
fled  from  London  in  company  with  lady  Churchill.  James  is- 
sued writs  for  a  new  parliajnent  and  sent  commissioners  to 
treat  with  William. 

Dec.  10.    Queen  and  prince  sent  to  France. 

Dec.  11.  Flight  of  James,  who  tore  up  the  unissued  writs  for  par- 
liament and  took  with  him  the  great  seal,  which  he  threw  mto 
the  Thames. 

1688,  Dec.  11-1689,  Feb.  13.  Interregnuin. 

Riots  in  London.    Flight  of  Sunderland  and  Father  Petre;  cap- 
ture of  Jeffreys  (f  in  the  Tower  April  18, 1689). 


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A.  D.  England.  885 

Beo.  12.    Proyisional  gorenmieiit  under  the  presidency  of  HaltfaXf 

established  by  the  peers  in  London. 
Deo.  17.     James,  who  had  been  stopped  at  Sheexness,  was  brought 

baok  to  London. 
Dec.  18.    James  retired  to  Rochester. 
Deo.  19.    William  entered  London. 
Dec.  22.    James  escaped  to  France,  where  he  received  a  pension  from 

Louis  XIV. 
1689,  Jan.  22-1690,  Jan.  27.  Convention  parliament,  sommoned 

by  the  advice  of  the  peers. 
On  Jan.  28  the  commons  declared  :  ^  That  king  James  IL  haying 
endeavored  to  subvert  the  constitution  of  the  kingdom  by  breaking 
the  original  contract  between  king  and  people,  and  bv  the  advice  of 
Jesuits  and  other  wicked  persons  havmg  violated  uie  fundamental 
laws,  and  having  withdrawn  himself  out  of  the  kingdom,  has  abdi- 
cated the  government,  and  that  the  throne  is  vacant"  Also  :  ''  That 
it  hath  been  found  by  experience  to  be  inconsistent  with  the  safety 
and  welfare  of  this  Protestant  kingdom  to  be  eovemed  by  a  popish 
prince."  The  lords  objected  to  the  use  of  uie  Word  "  abdicated," 
and  to  the  declaration  of  the  ''vacancy"  of  the  throne,  but  an 
agreement  being  reached  in  a  couferonce  of  the  two  houses,  the 
crown  was  offered  to  Mary  and  the  regency  to  William  ;  this  being 
refused, 
1689,  Feb.  13.    JPtoliament  offered  the  crown  to  TT^ilUam  and  Mary 

jointly,  accompanying  the  offer  by  the  prosentation  of  the 
Declaration  of  righta,  assertiuff  the  **  true,  ancient,  and  indubitable 
rights  of  the  people  of  this  realm."  1.  That  the  making  or  suspend* 
ing  law  without  consent  of  parliament  is  illegaL  2.  That  the  ezeroise 
of  the  dispensing  power  is  illegal.  3.  That  the  ecclesiastical  commis- 
sion court  and  other  such  like  courts  are  illegal.  4.  That  levying 
money  without  consent  of  parliament  is  illegaL  5.  That  it  is  lawfiU 
to  petition  the  sovereign.  6.  That  the  maintenance  of  a  standing 
army  without  the  consent  of  parliament  is  illegal.  7.  That  it  is  law- 
ful to  keep  arms.  8.  That  elections  of  members  of  parliament  must 
be  free.  9.  That  there  must  be  freedom  of  debate  in  parliament. 
10.  That  excessive  bail  should  never  be  demanded.  11.  That  juries 
should  be  impaneled  and  returned  in  every  trial.  12.  That  grants  of 
estates  as  forfeited  before  conviction  of  the  offender  are  illegaL  13. 
That  parliament  should  be  held  frequently.  "  William  and  Mary 
were  declared  kinf  and  queen  of  England  for  life,  the  chief  admuiis- 
tration  resting  with  William  ;  the  crown  was  next  settled  on  William's 
children  by  Mary  ;  in  default  of  such  issue,  on  the  princess  Anne  of 
Denmark  and  her  children  ;  and  in  default  of  these,  on  the  children 
of  William  by  any  other  wife."  The  crown  was  accepted  by  William 
and  Mary,  who  were  on  the  same  day  proclaimed  king  and  queen  of 
Great  Britain,  Ireland,  and  France. 

1689-1702.  William  HI.  and  Mary  (untH  1694). 

Privy  councillors  :  earl  of  Z^anby  (marquis  of  Carmarthen),  presi- 
dent ;  Nottingham^  Shrewsbury ^  secretaries  of  state ;  marquis  of 
Halifax,  privy  seal ;  Schomberg  (duke  of  Schomberg)  master-general 


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886  Modem  History,  a.  d. 

of  ordnaiioe ;  Bentinck  (eari  of  Portland),  priyy  purse  and  groom 

of  the  stole.    Bumet,  bishop  of  Salisbury,  author  of  ''  History  of  my 

own  Times." 

Feb.  22.    Conyention  parliament  transformed  by  act  into  a  regular 
parliament.    Settlement  of  the  coronation  oath. 

March  1.  Oaths  of  allegianoe  and  supremacy  taken  by  the 
houses,  the  clergy,  etc.  A  few  peers,  some  members  of  the  - 
lower  house  refused  them.  Six  bishops  and  about  400  clergy- 
men were  finally  (1691)  deprived  of  their  holdings  for  refus- 
ing to  take  the  oaths,  and  became  known  as  non-jurors. 

March  14.     Landing  of  James  at  Kinsale  in  Ireland  ;  joined  hj  Tjr* 
connel ;  entered  Dublin  March  24.    Irish  parliament.  May  7. 
Meeting  of  the  estates  of  Scotland. 
Reversal  of  RussdPs  attainders  Hater  of  Sidney's), 
First  mutiny  act  to  punish  detection  in  the  army ;  this  act, 
which  was  necessitated  bv  the  declaration  of  rights,  was  made 
for  a  year  only,  and  was  henceforward  passed  annually. 

April  11.    Coronation  of  William  and  Mary.    'William  and  Mary 
were  offered  and  accepted  the  cro^^n  of  Scotland. 

April  20-July  30.    Siege  of  Londonderry  by  James  {Walker); 
raised  by  Kirke, 

1689,  May  7-1697,  Sept  20.    War  with  France  (p.  361). 
May  24.    Toleration  act  exempting  diskienters  (who  had  taken  the 
oaths  of  allegiance  and  supremacy)  from  penalties  for  non-at- 
tendance on  the  services  of  the  established  church. 
Titus  Oates  pardoned  and  pensioned. 
July.    Episcopacy  abolished  in  Scotland. 

Graham  of  Claverhomef  now  viscount  Dundee,  enlisted  High- 
landers and  raised  the  standard  for  James.    At  the 
July  17.    Battle  of  KilUeorankie 

he  defeated  general  Mackay,  but  fell  on  the  field. 
July  30.  Battle  of  Newtown  BtUler  in  Ireland  ;  defeat  of  the  Catho- 
lics. Schomberg  in  Ireland. 
In  voting  supplies  parliament  assumed  as  a  right  the  practice 
which  had  grown  up  during  the  reign  of  Charles  11.  of  requiring 
estimates  and  accounts  of  supplies  needed  and  used,  and  intro- 
duced the  system  of  passing  aprpropriations  for  specified  objects 
from  which  they  could  not  be  diverted.  * 

1689.  Bee.  16.    Bill  of  Rights, 

a  parliamentary  enactment  of  the  declaration  of  rights,  repeat- 
ing the  provisions  of  that  paper,  settling  the  succession  as  de- 
tafled  (p.  385),  and  enacting  that  no  papist  could  wear  the 
crown. 

1690,  Feb.  6.    Dissolution  of  parliament. 

1690,  March  20-1695,  May  3.  Second  parliament  of  William 
m.  Tories  in  the  majority. 
Act  of  recognition,  affirming  the  legality  of  the  acts  of  the  convention 
parliament.  Settlement  of  the  civil  list.  William  was  offended  at 
not  receiving  so  large  an  income  as  had  been  granted  either  to  Charles 
II.  or  James  II. 


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A.  D.  England.  887 

169(^  May  20.  Act  of  Qraoe,  giving  indemnitj  to  all  sapporten 
of  James  11^  except  those  who  were  in  treasonable  corres- 
pondence with  him.    ResignaticMi  of  Shrewtibury  and  Halifax, 

May  23.  Prorogation  of  parliament.  Appointment  of  a  council  of 
nine  to  advise  Mary  during  the  ku^s  absence  (four  WhigSf 
five  Tories). 

June  14.  William  went  to  Ireland.  With  36,000  men  he  met  James 
at  the  head  of  27,000,  and  at  the 

July  1.    Battle  of  the  Boyne 

totally  defeated  him.  Death  of  Schcmberg,  James  fled  to 
France.    Capture  of  Dublin^  Waierfordf  etc. 

June  30.  Battle  of  Beaohy  Head  ;  defeat  of  the  English  fleet 
under  lord  Torrington  by  the  ^ench.  Torrington  was  tried 
by  court  martial  and  acouitted,  but  dismissed  the  service. 

Ang.  f^irst  siege  of  Limerick  by  William  repulsed  (SarsfiM). 
Marlborough  in  Ireland.    Capture  of  Cork  and  Kinsale, 

1691.    William  went  to  Holland.    Congress  at  the  Hague. 
TiUotson,  archbishop  of  Canterbunr. 

July  12.    Battle  of  Aiighrim,  in  Ireland. 

Defeat  of  the  French  general  SL  Ruth  and  the  Irish  Sarsfidd^ 
by  Ginkell  (death  of  St.  Ruth).    Death  of  TyrconneL 

Aug.-Oct.  Second  sieee  of  Limerick ;  the  town  surrendered  Oct.  3, 
under  the  conditions  known  as  the 

Oct  3.  Treaty,  or  pacification,  of  Limerick,  Free  transportation 
of  all  Irish  officers  and  soldiers  desiring  it  to  France.  (The 
Irish  Brigade,)  All  Irish  Catholics  to  luive  that  religious  lib- 
erty which  they  had  under  Charles  II.  ;  to  carry  arms,  exer<i 
cise  their  professions,  and  receive  full  amnesty. 
The  English  parliament  confirmed  the  treaty,  but  the  Irish  par- 
liament which  met  1605  (consisting  entirely  of  Frotestants) 
refused  to  ratify  it.  Enactment  of  severe  laws  against  the 
Catholics. 

lG92y  Jan.  10.  Marlborough  detected  in  correspondence  with 
James,  and  disgraced. 

1092,  Feb.  13.    Maaaaoxe  of  Glenooe. 

Indemnity  and  pardon  having  been  offered  to  all  Highland 
elans  who  took  the  oath  of  allegianoe  before  Dec.  31,  1691, 
thai  condition  was  fulfilled  by  im  except  the  MacDonalds  of 
Glencoe.  The  chief,  Mac  lan^  however,  took  the  oath  on  Jan. 
6.  This  fact  was  suppressed  by  tiie  foe  of  the  MacDonalds, 
Dalryinple,  secretary  of  Scotland,  and  William  III.  siened  an 
order  for  the  extirpation  of  the  clan.  It  was  faithf  tuly  exe- 
cuted by  captain  Campbell ;  Mac  Ian,  and  some  forty  others 
were  shm. 

May  19.    English  victory  of  La  Hogue  ;  Russell  and  TourviUe, 

July  24.    Defeat  of  William  at  Steinkirk. 

The  "Junto"  ministry  of  Whigs  ;  Somers,  lord  keeper;  Russell, 

Shrewsbury,  Thomas  Wharton,  secretaries  of  state  ;  Montague,  chan- 

eellor  of  tiie  exchequer.    Sunderland  returned  to  i>arliament. 

1693,  Jan.  Beginning  of  the  national  debt.  £1,000,000  borrowed 
on  annuities  at  10  per  cent 


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S88  Modem  History.  A.  du 

1693,  July  19.    Defeat  of  William  at  Neerwlnden  (Landen). 

1694,  July  27.    Charter  of  the  Governor  and  company  of  the 

Bank  of  England,  a  company  of  merchants  who  in  return  for 
certain  privileges  loaned  the  government  £1,200,000.  Bill  for 
preventing  officers  of  the  crown  from  sitting  in  the  commons 
(Race  Bfll).  Unsuccessful  attack  on  Brest.  (Treachery  of 
Marlborough  t) 
Dec.  22.  The  triennial  bill  signed  by  the  king. 
k^Dec.  28.    Death  of  queen  Mary. 

Bribery  in  the  parliament ;  expulsion  of  the  speaker  of  the 
commons,  Sir  John  Trevor, 
Expiration  of  the  lioenslng  act,  which  was  not  renewed ; 
hence  abolition  of  the  oenaorahip  of  the  press. 

1695,  July  2-Sept.  2.    William  recaptured  Namur, 
Oct.  It.     Dissolution  of  parliament. 

1695,  Not.  22-1698,  July  5.    Third  parliament  of  William  m. 

Q^rst  triennial  parliament). 

Whigs  in  majority.  Reooinage  act.  Isaac  Newton  master  of 
the  mint. 

1696,  Trials  for  treason  act;  two  witnesses  required  to  prove  an  overt 
act  of  treason. 

Plot  for  the  assassination  of  William,  execution  of  oonspiratois. 
One  of  these,  Fenwick,  was  condemned  by  bill  of  attainder, 
being  the  last  person  so  condemned.  Formation  of  a  layd 
€Usociation.    Suspension  of  the  habeas  corpus  act. 

Sunderland,  lord  chamberlain  ;  Somers,  lord  chancellor. 

1697,  Sept.  20.    Peace  of  Ryswick  (p.  371). 
Dec.    Sunderland  retired. 

William  acknowledged  by  Louis  XIV. 

1698,  Jan.    Peter  the  Great  of  Kussia  in  England. 
1698.    Spanish  succession,  see  p.  390. 

1698,  Dec.  6-1700,  Apr.  11.    Fourth  parliament  of  WilUam  UL 

1699,  Feb.    Disbandme' act,  reducing  the  army  to  7,000  men,  exdusion 

of  the  foreign  (Dntdi)  troops ;  annoyance  of  William. 

Act  for  the  resumption  of  forfeited  Insh  estates,  aimed  at  Wil- 
liam's Dutch  favorites;  the  bill  was  fastened  to  a  bill  of  supply. 

Act  for  preventing  the  growth  of  papacy  ;  all  persons  refusing  to 
take  the  oaths  of  allegiance  and  supremacy  forfeited  their 
estates  for  life.  Catholic  school-teachers  and  priests  were 
liable  to  imprisonment  for  life  (repealed  1778). 

1700,  March.    Miserable  end  of  Darien  settlement  (founded  1698). 

1700,  April.     Somers  dismissed  from  office.    Bombardment  of  Co- 

penhagen by  Rooke. 
July.    Death  of  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  the  last  of  Anne's  childi'en. 

1701,  Feb.  6-nJune  24.    Fifth  parliament  of  "William  m.    Tories 

in  the  maiority.  Robert  Harley,  speaker.  Portland^  Som^rs^ 
Oxford  (Kussell),  Hdlifaa,  impeached  (April- June). 

Earl  of  Marlborough  commander-in-chief  of  the  English  forces. 
Jnne  12, 1701.    Act  of  settlement. 

The  crown  was  settled  on  Sophia,  princess  of  Hanover,  grand- 
daughter of  James  I.,  and  her  issue. 


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A.  D.  India.  889 

The  sorereigiiB  of  Great  Britain  should  be  Protestant  and  not  leave 
the  kmsidom  withoat  consent  of  parliament ;  the  conntry  should 
not  be  mvolyed  in  war  for  the  defence  of  the  foreign  possessions  of 
the  sovereigns  ;  no  foreigner  should  receive  a  grant  from  the  crown, 
or  hold  office,  civil  or  imlitarj  ;  ministers  should  be  responsible  for 
the  acts  of  their  sovereigns  ;  judges  should  hold  office  for  life  unless  ^ 
guUtj  of  misconduct. 

1701,  Sept.  7.    The  grand  alliance,  p.  391. 

Sept.  16.    Death  of  James  II.      James  ZSd'ward  proclaimed  king  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  by  Louis  XIV. 

1701,  Dec.  30-1702,  July  2.    Sixth  parliament  of  WUliam  ILL 

Attainder  of  the  pretended  prince  of  Wales.    Oath  of  abjura* 
tion. 

1702,  March  8.    Death  of  William  ZIL 

Chief  authors  of  this  period  :  Sir  Thomas  Bnnone  (160&-1682)  ; 
John  Bunyan  (1628-1688);  J}anid  Defoe  (1661-1731);  John  Dryden 
(1631-1700)  ;  Edtiard  Hyde,  earl  of  Clarendon  (1608-1674)  ;  John 
Locke  (1632-1704);  John  Milton  (1608-1674);  haae  Neioton  (164^- 
1727).  {Seep^J^SS,) 

§  6.    INDIA.  (See  p.  S64,) 

1658-1707.    Aurangzeb,  Mughal  emperor. 

The  first  years  of  Aurangzeb's  reicp  were  occupied  in  subdu- 
ing and  putting  to  death  his  brothers.  When  freed  from  their  ri* 
viury  he  took  up  the  conquest  of  the  Deccan.  Bidar,  Ahmednagar, 
EUtchpuTj  he  had  conquered  while  his  father  reigned.  For  twenty- 
five  years  his  generals  warred  unsuccessfully  against  Biidpur  and  Gol* 
concfa,  but  when  Aurangzeb  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  troops 
those  kingdoms  quickly  fell.  Bijdpur  and  Crolconda  were  annexed  to 
the  Mughal  empire  in  1688.  It  was  not  with  the  Muhammedan 
powers  alone  that  Aurangzeb  had  to  contend  ;  a  new  power,  the  Hin- 
du kingdom  of  the  Malurattaa,  had  arisen  in  the  Deccan.  It  was 
founded  by  a  union  of  Hindu  tribes  of  the  Deccan  under  Sivaji 
(1627-1680),  son  of  a  Mahratta  soldier  of  fortune  who  had  fought* 
under  the  Deccan  kingdoms  against  the  Mughals.  8ivaj{,  by  alter- 
nately levyine  tribute  on  the  Deccan  kingdoms  and  assistine  them 
against  the  Mughals,  raised  the  Mahratta  confederacv  to  be  the 
ruling  power  in  the  Deccan.  In  1664  he  assumed  the  title  of  Rdj^. 
He  carried  on  a  war  with  Aurangzeb,  who  captured  and  killed  his 
son  Sambhajx  (168(V-1689),  and  imprisoned  his  grandson  Sdhu,  until 
his  own  death,  1707.  Aurangzeb,  however,  was  far  from  subduing 
the  confederacy,  which  had  driven  him  almost  to  despair  at  the  time  of 
his  death  ;  the  emperor  was  not  more  successful  in  Assam  (1662),  nor 
against  the  revolted  Rdjput  states  in  the  west  (1677-1681)  where  he 
ravaged  Jaipur^  Jodhpur,  and  Uddipur  without  subduing  them. 

Aurangzeb's  total  revenue  amounted  to  eifi^hty  million  pounds. 
1661.    &mbay  ceded  to  England  as  part  of  the  dowry  of  Catherine 

of  Braganza,  but  it  was  not  delivered  until  1665.    In  1668  it 

was  granted  to  the  East  India  Company. 
1670.    Foundation  of  the  Danish  East  Luna  Company. 
168L     Bengal  separated  from  Madras. 


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890  Modem  Btstory.  A.  D. 

1686.  Fonndatioa  of  Calcutta. 

1687.  Seat  of  western  presidency  transferred  to  Bombay. 

§7.    CHINA.  (Seep.S65.) 

1661-1721.    Kang-he 

conquered  Thibet  and  Formosa  and  carried  on  war  with  Russia 
(1684-1689^.  His  rei^  was  renowned  for  wise  adminiFtration  and 
for  the  cultivation  of  science  and  literature.  French  and  English  set- 
tled at  Canton,  (See  p.  ^44.) 


B.    The  eighteentli  centtiry  to  the  French  Revolution. 

§  1.    WAE  OF  THE  SPANISH  SUCCESSION.! 
1701-1714.  {8eepp.SSg,S?£,) 

The  family  relations  which  led  to  the  war  will  be  made  dear 
by  the  following  genealogical  table. 

Philip  III.,  king  of  Spain,  f  1621. 

Anna,  m.  Philip  17.  Maria  Anna. 

Louis  XIII.  I  m.  Ferdinand  HI. 


'  1  1  ' 

Iiouia  XIV.  =  Maria  Theresa.  Charlea  n.  Marearet  Tiieresa  «  Iioopold  L 

I  t  1700.  I 

Louis  the  dauphin.  Maria  Antoinette,  m. 

J  Max.  Emmanuel  of 

Bavaria. 
AzOon,  I 

as  king  of  Spain,  Philip  Y.  Joseph  Ferdinand. 

electoral  prince  of  Bavaria. 

Leopold  I.  had,  besides  his  daughter  Maria  Antoinette,  two  sons:  by 
his  second  marriage,  Joseph  I.,  emperor  from  1705-1711;  by  his  tkhrd 
marriage,  Charles  VI.,  emperor  from  1711-1740. 

Charles  IL,  king  of  Spain,  was  childless ;  the  extinction  of  the 
Spanish  house  of  Hapsburg  in  the  near  future  was  certain  ;  hence  the 

auestion  of  the  Spanish  succession  formed  the  chief  occupation  of  all 
le  European  cabinets  since  the  Peace  of  Ryswick.  The  question  had 
two  aspects:  a.  The  le^,  according  to  which  there  were  three  claim- 
ants: 1.  Lonis  XIV.,  at  once  as  son  of  the  elder  daughter  of  Philip  III. 
and  husband  of  the  elder  daughter  of  Philip  IV.  The  solemn  renim- 
ciations  of  both  princesses  were  declared  null  and  void  by  the  parlia^ 
ment  of  Paris.  2.  Leopold  I.,  the  representative  of  the  German  line 
of  Hapsburg,  as  son  of  the  younger  daughter  of  Philip  III.,  and  husband 
of  the  younger  daughter  of  Philip  IV.  Both  princesses  had  expressly 
reserved  their  right  of  inheritance.    3.  The  electoral  prince  of  Ba* 

1  Bohlosaer:  Ge$diichU  det  18  Jakrhunderts ;  V.  Noorden:  Europducks 
Qtsch.  tm  18  Jahrhundertf  vols.  I.  and  U. 


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A.  D.  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession.  891 

▼aria,  as  great-grandson  of  Philip  lY.,  and  grandson  of  the  younaer 
sister  of  the  present  possessor,  Charles  II.  b.  The  political  aspect  with 
regard  to  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe  ;  in  consideration  of  which 
the  naval  powers,  England  and  Holland,  would  not  permit  the  crown 
of  the  great  Spanish  monarchy  to  be  united  with  the  French,  or  to 
be  worn  by  the  ruler  of  the  Austrian  lands.  On  this  account  Leopold 
I.  claimed  the  Spanish  inheritance  for  his  second  son  Charles  onlvi 
while  Louis  XTV^'s  claim  was  urged  in  the  name  of  his  second  grand- 
son, Philip  ofAnjoa, 
1698.    First  trea^  of  partition. 

Oct.  11.    Spavn^  Indies^  and  tlie  Netherlands  to  the  electoral  prince  of 
Bavaria;  Naples  and  Sicilvy  seaports  in  Tuscanv,  and  the  prov- 
ince of  Gutpuzcodf  to  the  dauphin ;  the  duchy  of  Milan^  to  arch- 
duke Charles. 
The  negotiations  of  the  powers  in  regard  to  the  sacoession,  and  the 
conclusion  of  a  treaty  of  partition  without  the  participation  of  Charles 
II.,  provoked  that  monarch. 

In  order  to  preserve  the  unity  of  the  monarchy  he  made  the  prince 
elector  of  Bavaria,  then  seven  years  old,  sole  heir  of  the  whole  inheri- 
tance ;  a  settlement  to  which  the  naval  powers  agreed. 
1699  (Feb.  6).  Sudden  death  of  the  prince  elector.  New  intrigues 
of  France  (Harcourt  ambassador.  Cardinal  Portocarrero)  and 
Austria  at  Madrid,  while  both  parties  were  negotiating  a  new  treaty 
of  partition  with  the  naval  powers. 
1700.    Second  treatv  of  partition. 

Mar.  13.    Spain  and  the  Indies  to  archduke  Charles ;  Naples  and  Sicily 
and  the  duchy  of  Lorraine  to  the  dauphin  ;  Milan  to  the  duke 
of  Lorraine  in  exchange. 
Finally  Charles  IL,  although  originally  more  inclined  to  the  Aus- 
trian succession,  signed  a  new  will,  making  Louis'  grandson,  Philip  of 
Anjou,  heir.    Immediately  afterwards 

1700.  Charles  IL  died. 

Nov.  1.  Louis  XIV.  soon  decided  to  follow  the  will  rather  than 
the  treaty  with  England.  The  duke  of  Anjou  was  proclaimed 
as  Philip  v.,  and  started  for  his  new  kingdom.  *  (<<  11  n*y  a  plus  de 
Pyr^fides,**)  Death  of  James  II.,  1701 ;  Louis  recognized  his  son  as 
kmg  of  England. 

1701.  Ghrand  AUianoe  of  the  naval  powers  wiih  the  emperor 
Sept.  7.    Leopold  I.,  for  the  purpose,  at  first,  of  securing  the  Spanish 

possessions  in  the  Netherlands  and  in  Italy  for  the  Austrian 
house,  while  France  allied  herself  with  the  dukes  of  Savoy  and  Man- 
tudy  the  electors  of  Bavaria  and  Cologne,  The  other  estates  of  the 
empire,  especially  Prussia,  joined  the  emperor.  Portugal  afterwards 
joined  the  grand  alUance,  and  in  1703  Savoy  did  likewise,  deserting 
France. 

Three  men  were  at  the  head  of  the  grand  alliance  against  France  : 
Bugene,  prince  of  Savoy,  imperial  general ;  Marlborough,  English 
genera],  formerly  John  Churaiill;  A.  Heinsiua,  after  the  death  of 
.  William  III.,  1702,  pensionary  of  Holland. 

Spain,  the  real  object  of  the  war,  had  but  little  importance  in  the 


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892  Modem  Btstory.  A.  n. 

tampalgoaf  the  chief  seat  of  war  being  Ita^t  the  Netherlands,  and 
Germany.  ^ 

Philip  of  An  joa  was  recognized  in  Spain  as  king  Philip  V.  His 
strongest  support  was  in  Castile. 

1701.  Commencement  of  the  war  by  Eugent^s  inTasion  of  Italy. 
Victory  over  Catinat  at  Carpi,  over  Vuleroi  at  Chiari ;  the  layb- 
ter  was  captured  at  Cremona  (1702). 

Eugene  and  Vendome  fought  a  drawn  battle  at  Luzzara  (1702), 
after  which  the  French  had  the  advantage  in  Italy  until  1706. 

1702.  March  8.    Death  of  William  III.    Anne,  queen  of  England. 

1703.  The  Baoariam  invaded  Tyrol,  but  were  repulsed.  Eugene 
went  to  Germany,  along  the  Rhine.    Marlborough  invaded  the 

Spanish  Netherlands.    The  archduke  Charles  landed  in  Portugal^  and 
invaded  Catalonia.    The  English  captured  Gibraltar  (1704). 

1703.  Victory  of  the  French  under  ViUars  at  Hdchstddt  over  the  Ba- 
varians. 

1704.  Battle  of  Hdohstadt  and  Blindheim  (Blenheim), 
Aug.  13.     (between  Ulm  and  Donanworth),  Bavarians  and  Frendi 

(Tallard)  defeated  by  Bogene  and  Marlborongb. 

1705.  Leopold  L  died.    His  son,  Joseph  I.,  emperor. 

1706.  Charles  conquered  Madrid  but  held  it  for  a  short  time  only. 

1706,  May  23.  Victory  of  Marlborough  at  Banullies  over 
Yilleroi.    Submission  of  Brussds,  Antwerp,  Ghent,  Ostend,  etc 

Sept  7.    Victory  of  Eugene  at  Turin, 

over  Marsin  and  the  duke  of  Orleans  with  help  of  the  Prus- 
sians under  Leopold  of  Dessau,  Submission  of  all  Lombardy. 
Charles  III.  procliumed  at  Milan.  The  French  permanently 
excluded  from  Italy. 

1708,  July  11.  Victory  of  Marlborough  and  Eugene  at 
Oudenarde  over  Vendome  and  the  duke  of  Burgundy. 
Siege  and  surrender  of  Lille.    Severe  winter  in  France. 

Negotiations  for  peace.  Demands  of  the  allies :  surrender  of  the 
Spanish  monarchy  to  Charles  of  Austria,  and  of  the  border  fortresses 
of  the  Netherlands  to  the  Hollanders  ;  restoration  of  aU  matters  re- 
lating to  the  empire  and  the  emperor  to  the  state  |>rescribed  in  the 
peace  of  Westphalia,  t.  e.  the  cession  of  Strashura,  Brisach,  etc.  Eng- 
land insisted  on  the  recognition  of  Anne  and  the  Protestant  succes- 
sion (p.  388)  and  the  banishment  of  the  Pretender.  These  terms  Louis 
was  willing  to  accept,  but  when  the  demand  was  added  that  he  shoidd 
drive  his  grandson  from  Spain  with  French  weapons,  it  was  too  much, 
rhe  negotiations  were  broken  off,  Louis  made  a  successful  appeal  to 
the  people  of  France,  and  the  war  was  continued. 

1709.  The  French  were  again  humbled  by  the  victory  of 
Bept.  11.    Eugene  and  Marlborough  at  Malplaquet  over 

Villars.  The  bloodiest  battle  of  the  war.  The  allies  lost  20,000 
men.  New  approaches  on  the  part  of  Louis.  Capture  of  Douai, 
MonSf  etc.  (1710).  In  Spain  Philip,  by  the  aid  of  Venddme, 
had  Uie  advantage  of  Charles.    The  Spanish  people  favored 


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A*  J>»  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession.  898 

Philip.  Renewal  of  the  negodatioiis  at  GertruydenJburg,  Louib 
off ered  to  pay  subBidized  troops  against  his  grandson.  The  al- 
lies demanded  that  he  should  send  his  armies  against  Philip. 
Renewal  of  the  war.  Yiotories  of  Venddme  over  the  English 
(Brihuega,  1710)  and  the  imperialists  (Valla-yiciosa,  in  Spain). 

1710.  Aug.    Fall  of  the  Whig  minlatry  in  England,  and  accession 

of  the  enemies  of  Marlborough. 

1711.  Death  of  the  Emperor  Joseph,  whereby   Charles  became 
heir  of  all  the  Austrian  possessions,  so  that  the  monarchy  of 

Charles  Y.  would  haye  been  restored  had  the  Spanish  inheritance 
also  dcYolved  upon  him.  These  events  completely  altered  all  the 
political  relations,  in  faror  of  Louis  XIY . 

Marlborough  removed  from  command,  the  Grand  Alliance  dis- 
solved, preliminaries  of  peace  between  England  and  France.  Death 
of  the  dauphin,  of  Adelaide  of  Savoy,  her  husband  and  their  son, 
the  duke  or  Brittany. 

1712.  Victory  of  the  French  commander  ViUars  at  Denaln  over  lord 
Albermarle.    Recapture  of  Douaij  Le  Quesnoy,  and  Bouchain. 

Opening  of  the  congress  at  Utrecht.    Each  of  the  allies  pre- 
sented his  demands  separately.    Dissensions  between  the  auies 
cansed  the  conclusion  of  separate  treaties  of  peaos^  which  are  compre- 
hended under  the  name  of  the 

1713.  Peaoe  of  Utrecht. 
April  11. 

1.  England  :  Recognition  of  the  Protestant  succession  in  England; 
oonfirmation  of  the  permanent  separation  of  the  crowns  of  Prance 
and  Spain,  France  ceded  to  England  Newfoundland,  Nova  Scotia 
rAoadia),  and  Hudson  Bay  territory;  Spain  ceded  to  England 
Gibraltar,  the  island  of  Minorca,  and  tibe  Asiento,  or  contract  for  sup- 
plying the  Spanish  colonies  with  African  slaves. 

2.  Holland  :  Surrender  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands  to  the  republic 
of  Holland,  in  order  that  they  shoidd  be  delivered  to  the  Austrians, 
after  the  conclusion  of  a  Barrier  Treaty,  in  regard  to  the  fortresses 
alone  the  French  border  from  Fumes  to  Namur,  which  were  to  be 
eamsoned  by  the  Dutch.  LUie  restored  to  France.  Demolition  of 
the  fortifications  of  Dunkirk, 

3.  Savoy  received  the  island  of  Sicily  as  a  kingdom,  and  an  ad- 
vantageous change  of  boundary  in  Upper  Italy,  renounced  its  claims 
upon  Spain,  reserving,  however,  its  nght  of  inheritance  iu  case  the 
house  of  Bourbon  should  become  extinct  (p.  397). 

4.  Pruaaia  received  recognition  of  the  royal  title,  and  possession  of 
Neuchfttel  and  the  upper  quarter  of  Guddres,  Pnissia's  claim  upon  the 
principality  of  Orange  on  the  Rhdne,  was  transferred  to  France. 

5.  Portugal  obtained  a  correction  of  boundaries  in  South  America. 
Philip  V.  (founder  of  the  Spanish  branch  of  the  Bourbons)  was 

recognized  as  king  of  Spain  and  the  colonies. 

Reservations  in  the  peace:  1.  for  the  emperor,  the  possession  of  the 
appanages  of  the  Spanish  monarchy,  the  Netherlands,  Milan,  Naples, 
Sardinia,  but  not  Sicily  ;  2.  for  the  empire  the  status  quo  of  the  peace 
«f  Ryswiok,  only. 


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894  Modem  History.  A.  d. 

The  emperor  and  the  empire  oontiiiaed  the  war.  Unsaooesafol 
oampaini  of  Eugene,  who  was  wretchedly  supported  (1713).  Xan- 
dau  and  Freiburg  taken  by  VUlars*  After  these  losses  the  emperor 
concluded  peace  with  France,  in  his  own  name  at  Rastadt^  in  that  of 
the  empire  at  Baden  (in  Switzerland). 

1714.  Peace  of  Rastadt  and  Baden. 
March-Sept. 

Austria  took  possession  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  after  the 
Barrih-e  for  Holland  had  been  agreed  upon,  and  retained  Napies, 
SardifdOf  and  Milan,  which  she  had  already  occupied.  For  the  empire : 
ratification  of  the  peace  of  Rysmck  ;  the  electors  of  Bavaria  and 
Cologne  who  had  been  placed  under  the  ban  of  the  empire,  were  rein- 
stated in  their  lands  and  dignities.  Landau  was  left  m  the  hands  of 
France. 

No  peace  between  Spain  and  the  emperor,  who  did  not  reoognixe 
the  Bourbons  in  Spain.  (See  p,  l^i^.) 

§  3.    THE  NORTHERN  WAR. 

1700-1721. 

1689-1725.  Peter  L  the  Great,  Czar  of  Russia  (p.  374). 

1697-1718.  Charles  XII.,  king  of  Sweden. 

In  character  the  two  monarchs  formed  a  strong  contrast:  both  were 
of  unusual  ability  and  power,  but  Peter,  though  passionate  and  of 
irregular  life,  was,  in  his  political  actions,  governed  by  reason  and  calm 
reflection.  Oharles,  in  ids  private  life  passionless  and  of  rigid  mor- 
ality, was  under  the  control  of  passion  and  senseless  obstinacy  in  all 
public  relations.  The  steadv  purpose  of  Peter,  who  civilized  his  sub- 
jects by  force,  made  Russia  one  of  the  great  powers  of  Europe, 
Charles'  blind  obstinacy  caused  the  decline  of  Sweden's  power. 

The  causes  of  the  northern  war  were  :  1,  the  firm  determination 
of  Peter  to  make  Russia  a  naval  power,  and  to  get  possession  of  the 
harbors  of  the  Baltic  ;  2,  the  attempt  of  Augustus  if,,  elector  of  Sax- 
ony and  king  of  Poland,  to  unite  Livonia  wi&  Poland  (Pathd)  ;  3,  the 
quarrel  between  Frederic  IV.,  kins  of  Denmark,  and  tke  duke  of  Hoi- 
iUin^Chttorptihe  early  friend  and  orother^in-law  of  Charles  XA. 

The  youthfulness  of  Charles,  who  had  assumed  the  care  of  gov- 
ernment at  the  age  of  fifteen,  led  all  three  monarchs  to  think  it  an 
easy  task  to  regain  possession  of  those  lands  which  Sweden  had 
taken  from  them.  Secret  alliance  of  Russia,  Denmark,  and  Saxony 
against  Sweden. 

The  waiT  opened  with  an  invasion  of  Schleswiff  by  the  Danes,  while 
the  Saxons  attacked  Livonia.  Unexpected  landing  of  Charles  XII. 
in  Zealand  ;  he  threatened  Copenhagen  and  extorted  from  the  Danes 
the 

1700  (Aug.).  Peaoe  of  Travendal. 

1.  Indemnification  of  the  duke  of  Holstein.  2.  Denmark  promiaed 
to  abstain  from  hostilities  against  Sweden  for  the  future. 

Meantime  the  Saxons  were  besieging  Riga  (in  Livonia)  in  vain^ 


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A.  D.  7%0  Northern  War.  ,  895 

while  Peter  was  besiegiiu^  Naroa  (in  IngermanrUand)  with  like  result. 
Tending  of  Charles  XlL  with  8»()00  men  and  brilliant 

1700.  Victory  of  Narva^ 
Not.  30. 

oyer  the  Rossians.  Charles's  hatred  of  Augustus  led  him  to 
neglect  his  more  dangerous  opponent,  the  Czar,  and  to  seek  revenge 
upon  the  king  of  PoEmd.  Meeting  and  doser  alliance  of  Augustus 
and  Peter.    Charles  crossed  the  Diina  and 

1701.  defeated  the  Saxons  at  Riga,     Charles  inyaded  Lithuania. 
The  republic  of  Poland  was  drawn  into  the  war ;  alliance  of 

the  party  of  the  Sapiehas  with  the  Swedes.    The  city  of  Warsaw  sur^ 
renaered  at  the  first  summons. 

Victory  of  Charles  XII.  over  the  Poles  and  Saxons  at  KlisMow 
(1702)  and  at  Pultusk  (1703).    Charles  rejected  all  overtures  of 
peace,  caused  Augustus  to  he  deposed  by  thatparty  among  the  Poles 
which  had  joined  him  and  his  adherent,  the  Woiwod 
1704-1709.    StanialauB  Lesczinski  to  be  elected  king. 

Meanwhile  Peter  had  founded  his  capital,  St.  Peterabiirg,  in  the 
marshes  of  the  Neva  (1703),  and  captured  Narva  (1704). 

Continuance  of  the  war  in  Poland  and  Lithuania.    Victorv  of 
Charles  at  Punitz  (1704  Schulenburg's  masterly  retreat)  and  of  his 
general  Rhenskjdld  at  Fraustadt  (1706).    Charles  invaded  Saxony 
and  compelled  Augustus  to  sign  the 
1706.    Peace  of  Altranat&dt  (near  Leipzig). 

1.  Augustus  II.  abdicated  the  Polish  crown,  recognized  Stanitlaus 
LescaansH  as  king  of  Poland,  and  sent  him  a  written  expression  of 
cood  wilL  2.  Augustus  abjured  his  alliance  with  the  Czar,  and 
delivered  the  plenipotentiaiy  of  the  latter,  Pathd,  to  Charles  who 
had  him  executed  with  cruelty.  3.  Saxony  furnished  provisions  and 
pay  for  the  Swedish  army  during  the  winter. 

In  Sept.,  1707,  Charles  took  the  field  against  Peter,  who  had  well 
employed  the  interval  in  making  conquests  and  establishing  hispower 
on  the  Baltic,  and  in  forming  a  trained  and  veteran  army.  The  ap- 
proach to  Moscow  cut  o£F  by  devastation  of  the  countiy.  Charles 
allowed  himself  to  be  misled  by  the  Cossack  hetman  Mazejma^  who 
had  deserted  Peter,  crossed  the  Dnieper  (1708)  into  the  Ukraine, 
Futile  siege  of  Pultowa,  Peter  hastened  to  raise  the  siege  and 
by  force  of  numbers  completely  defeated  the  Swedes,  who  were 
exhausted  by  long  marches  and  lack  of  food,  in  the 
1709,  July  8.    BatUe  of  Poltowa, 

which  established  Peter's  new  creations  on  a  firm  basis,  and 
destroyed  at  one  blow  the  ascendency  of  Sweden.  The  Swedish 
army  was  completely  broken  up,  and  a  large  part  of  it  captured. 
Charles  took  refuse  with  the  Turks. 

1709-1714.  Charies  XII.  in  Turkey,  endeavoring  to  induce  the  Porte 
to  declare  war  against  Peter.  He  was  successful  in  1711. 
Peter,  allied  with  ibe  princes  of  the  MMau,  crossed  the  Dniester,  was 
surrounded  on  tibe  Pruth,  and  was  obliged  to  buy  the 
1711.  Peace  of  the  Pruth  from  the  Turks  by  bribery,  upon  the 
advice  of  his  wife  Catherine. 


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396  Modem  Butory.  a.  d. 

1.  Azoff  given  back  to  the  Porte.  2.  The  king  of  Sweden  allowed 
to  return  to  his  realm  unmolested. 

Charles  XII.,  indignant  at  this  peace,  refused  to  depart,  and  for 
three  years  more  misused  the  patience  and  hospitality  of  the  Turks 
at  Bender^  Bessarabia,  now  belonging  to  Russia,  and  in  DematUca, 
Senseless  defense  of  his  camp  against  a  whole  army,  when  the  at- 
tempt was  made  to  force  his  departure  (1713).  Meantime  hb  enemies 
were  making  good  use  of  the  tune.  Augustus  II.  drove  king  Stanis- 
laus from  Poland ;  the  Danes  tried  to  reconquer  the  southern  prov- 
inces of  Sweden,  but  were  repulsed.  Peter  the  Great  occupied  all  of 
Livonia,  Esthonia,  Ingermanmandj  Carelva,  Finland.  The  Convention 
of  the  Hague  (1710),  m  order  to  keep  the  war  away  from  the  German 
boundaries,  had  established  the  neutrality  of  all  the  (rtfrman  provinces 
of  Sweden,  as  well  as  of  Schleswig  and  Jutland.  Charles  Xtl.,  how- 
ever, having  from  his  retreat  in  Turkey  protested  against  this  treaty, 
the  Danes  took  Schleswig  away  from  tiie  duke  of  Holstein-Grottorp, 
and  conquered  the  Swedish  duchies  of  Bremen  and  Verden  (1712), 
which  they  afterwards  (1715)  sold  to  Hanover  upon  condition  that 
that  state  should  take  part  in  the  war  against  Sweden.  The  Swedish 
general  Stenbock  defeated  the  Danes  and  burnt  AUona,  but  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Russians  at  Tdnningen  (1713).  The  Danes  and  Poles 
invaded  Pommerania,  the  Prussians  occupied  Stettin. 
1714.    Charles  XII.  at  last  returned  to  his  kingdom.    Adventurous 

journey  through  Hungary  and  Germany.    The  king  reached 
Stralsund.    Alliance  between  Prussia^  Saxony,  Denmark,  Hanover^ 
Russia,  against  Sweden.    Stralsund   and  with  it  all  Pomerania  lost 
(1715),  W ismar  soon  captured  also  (1716). 
1716.    Peter  I.  made  a  journey  to  Denmark,  Holland,  France. 

Charles  XII.  negotiated  with  Peter  I.  through  Baron  voa 
Gdrz,  who,  in  spite  of  the  hatred  borne  him  by  the  Swedish  noblesy 
was  placed  in  control  of  the  internal  administration  of  Sweden. 
Three  expeditions  of  the  Swedes  to  Norway  ;  on  the  third, 

1718.  Charles  Xn.  was  shot  in  front  of  Friedrichshall,  prob- 
Dec.  11.   ably  by  an  assassin. 

After  limits  had  been  set  on  the  royal  power  in  the  interests  of  the 
royal  oouncil,  Charles's  nephew  was  passed  over,  and  his  youngest 
sister, 

1719.  Ulrioa  Eleanora,   raised  to  the  tihrone.    She  soon 
placed  the  control  of  the  government  in  the  hands  of  her 

husband, 

1720-1751.    Prederio  of  Hesse-Cassel. 

Execution  of  the  Baron  von  Gorz,  Charles's  intimate.  The  north- 
em  war  was  ended  by  a  series  of  treaties  concluded  at  Stockholm  and 
Fhedrichsburg, 

1.  With  Hanover  (1719),  which  retained  Bremen  and  Verden,  and 
paid  Sweden  one  million  thalers.  2.  With  Fmsaia  (1720),  which 
received  Stettin,  toestem  Pomerania  as  far  as  the  Peene,  the  islands 
of  WolUn  and  Usedom,  and  paid  two  million  thalers.    3.  With  Den- 


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A.  D.  Germany*  397 

mark,  which  restored  all  its  conquests.  In  return  Sweden  paid 
600,000  rix  dollars,  gave  up  its  freedom  from  custom  duties  in  the 
Sound  and  abandoneid  the  duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  whom  Denmark 
deprived  of  his  share  of  Schleswig.  4.  With  Poland  the  truce  of 
1719  was  continued. 

1721.    Aug.  30.    Peace  of  Nystadt  between  Sweden  and 
Itussia. 

1.  Sweden  ceded  to  Russia,  Livonia,  EstTumia,  Ingermannland,  part 
of  Cardia,  and  a  number  of  islands,  among  others  Oesel,  Dagd,  2. 
Russia  restored  Finland  and  paid  two  million  rix  dollars. 

(See p.  m) 
S  8.    GERMANY.  (8Mp.  S72.) 

1705-1711*   Joseph  !.»  son  of  Leopold.    He  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother 

1711-1740.  Charles  VI., 

War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  p.  390. 
1713-1740.  Frederic  "William  I.,  son  of  Frederic  I.,  king  of  Prus- 
sia, by  wise  economy,  a  military  severity,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  a  formidable  army,  laid  the  foundation  of  the  future  power  of 
Prussia.  Maintenance  of  a  standing  army  of  83,000  men,  with  pj 
population  of  two  and  a  half  million  mhabitants.  Prince  Leopold  of 
Anhalt-Dessau  ('<  the  old  Dessauan  "). 

1714r-1718.  War  of  Tnrks  with  Venice,  and  after  1716  with  the 
emperor.  Easy  conquest  of  Morea  by  the  Turks ;  the  Vene- 
tians, howeyer,  kept  Corfu,  Li  Hungary  the  war  was  brilliantly  con- 
ducted hj  prince  Eugene.  Victory  of  Feterwardein  (1716). 
Victory,  siege,  and  capture  of  Belgrade  (1717). 
1718.    July  21.    Peace  of  Fassarowitz  (Poshareimtz). 

1.  Austria  received  the  Banat  of  Temesvar,  a  part  of  Servia, 
with  Belgrade  and  Little  Wallachia.  2.  Venice  retained  her  con- 
quests in  Dalmatia,  but  ceded  Morea  to  the  Porte. 

The  seizure  of  Sardinia  (1717)  and  Sicily  (1718)  by  Spain,  where 
Elizabeth  of  Parma,  the  second  wife  of  I^ilip  V.,  and  her  favorite 
the  minister  and  cardinal  AWerom,  were  planning  to  recfain  the 
Spanish  appanages  lost  by  the  Peace  of  Utrecht,  brought  about  the 
1718.  Quadruple  alliance  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Peace  of 
Aug.  2,  Utrecht,  between  France,  England,  the  emperor,  and  (since 
1719)  the  Republic  of  Holland. 

After  a  short  war  and  the  fall  of  Alberoni,  who  went  to  Borne 
(t  1752),  the  agreements  of  the  quadruple  alliance  were  executed  in 
1720.  1.  Spain  evacuated  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  and  made  a  renuncia- 
tion of  the  appanages  forever,  in  return  for  which  the  em- 
peror recognized  the  Spanish  Bourbons.  2.  Savoy  was  obliged  to 
exchange  Swily  (p.  393)  for  Sardinia,  After  this  time  the  dukes  of 
Savoy  called  themselves  kings  of  Sardinia. 

The  emperor  Charles  VI.  was  without  male  offspring.  His  prin- 
cipal endeavor  throughout  his  whole  reign  was  to  secure  the  various 


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898  Modem  HUtory.  A.  D. 

lands  which  wete  united  under  the  sceptre  of  Austria  against  division 
after  his  death.  Hence  he  established  an  order  of  succession  under 
the  name  of  the 

Pragmatio  Sanotion, 

which  decreed  that:  1.  The  lands  belonging  to  the  Austrian  empire 
should  be  indivisible ;  2.  That  in  case  mue  heirs  should  fail,  tney 
should  devolve  upon  Charles's  daughters,  the  eldest  of  whom  was 
Maria  Theresa,  and  their  heirs  according  to  the  law  of  primogeni- 
ture ;  3.  In  case  of  the  extinction  of  this  line  the  daughters  of  Joseph 

1.  and  their  descendants  were  to  inherit. 

To  secure  the  assent  of  the  various  powers  to  this  pragmatic  sanc- 
tion was  the  object  of  numerous  diplomatic  negotiations.  A  special 
alliance  between  Austria  and  Spain  (1725),  in  regard  to  this  measure, 
produced  the  alliance  of  Herrenhcntsm,  in  the  same  year,  between 
jEngUwd,  France,  and  Prussia  in  opposition.  Fftissia  soon  withdrew 
from  the  alliance  and  joined  Austria  by  the  Treaty  of  Wusterhausen. 
The  alliance  between  Austria  and  Spain  was  also  of  short  duration. 

1733-1735.     War  of  the  Polish  Suooeesioii,  after  the 
death  of  Augustus  II. 

Cause  :  The  majority  of  the  Polish  nobles,  under  the  influence  of 
France,  elected  Stanislaus  Lesozinski,  who  had  become  the  father- 
in-law  of  Louis  XV,,  king,  a  second  time.  Russia  and  Austria  in- 
duced a  minority  to  choose  Augustus  UL,  elector  of  Saxony  (son  of 
Augustus  II.),  and  supported  the  election  by  the  presence  of  troops 
in  R>land.    France,  Spam,  and  Sardinia  took  up  arms  for  Stanislaus. 

The  seat  of  war  was  at  first  in  Italy,  where  MiUm,  NapUs,  and 
Sicily  were  conquered,  and  the  Austrians  lost  everything  except  Milan, 
and  afterwards  on  the  upper  Rhine,  where  the  old  prince  Eugene 
fought  unsuccessfully,  ana  Francis  Stephen,  duke  of  Lorraine,  the 
future  husband  of  Maria  Theresa,  alone  upheld  the  honor  of  the 
imperial  arms.  Lorraine  occupied  by  the  IPrench.  Kehl  captured 
Preliminaries  of  peace  (1735),  and,  after  long  negotiations, 

1738.    Nov.  18.    Peace  of  Vienneu 

1.  Stanislaus  Lesczinski  made  a  renunciation  of  the  Polish  throne, 
receiving  as  compensation  the  duchies  of  Xiorralne  and  Bar,  which 
at  his  death  should  devolve  upon  France.     Stanislaus  died  1766. 

2.  The  duke  of  Lorraine,  Francis  Stephen^  received  an  indemnifica- 
tion in  Tuscany,  whose  ducal  throne  had  become  vacant  by  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  family  of  Medici,  1737  (p.  416).  3.  Austria  ceded 
Naples  and  Sicily,  the  island  of  Elba  and  the  Stati  degli  Presidi  to 
Spain  aB  a  secundogeniture  for  Don  Carlos,  so  that  these  lands  could 
never  be  united  with  the  crown  of  Spain,  roceiving  in  exchange 
Parma  and  Piaoenza,  which  Don  Carlos  had  inherited  in  1731  upon 
the  death  of  the  last  Famese,  his  great-uncle.  4.  France  guaranteed 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction. 

1736-1739.  Unsuccessful  war  with  the  Turks  in  alliance  with  Russia 
(p.  411).    By  the  Peace  of  Belgrade  Orsofoa,  Belgradeb 
Servia,  and  Little  Wallachia  were  reatored  to  the  Turks. 
1740,  May.    Death  of  Frederic  "WiUiam  I.  of  Prussia,    . 

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400  Modem  BUUny.  a.  d. 

1740-1786-   Frederic  11.  the  Great  (twenty-eight  years 
old). 

Bom  in  1712,  leceiyed  a  French  education  under  Madame  de 
RocouUes  and  Duhan  de  Jandun;  musical  (Quafiz).  After  the  frus- 
tration of  the  projected  marriage  with  a  daughter  of  George  11. 
of  £ngland,  estrangement  between  the  king  and  the  crown  prince. 
Frederic  attempted  flight,  was  captured,  and  sentenced  to  KHstrin  as 
a  deserter  ^execution  of  KaUe)  where  he  found  employment  in  the 
Chamber  oi  War  and  of  Domain.  Marriage  with  a  princess  of  Brun»- 
wick-Bevem  ri733).  Correspondence  with  VoUavre,  Residence  at 
Rheinsherg  and  Ruppin  until  1740.  From  his  accession  to  his  death 
he  was  himself  the  ruler. 

1740>  Oct.     With  the  death  of  Charles  VL  the  male  line 
of  the  Hapsburgs  was  extinct.^ 

1740-1780.    Maria  Theresa, 

queen  of  Bohemia  and  Hunsaxy,  archducheae  of  Austria, 
etc.,  married  Francis  Stephen  of  the  house  of  Lorraine,  grand 
duke  of  Tuscany  (co-regent). 

1740-1748.    War  of  the  Austrian  Succession. 

Cause  :  The  following  claimants  for  the  Austrian  inheritance 
appeared:  1.  Charles  Albert,  elector  of  Bavaria,  who  had  never  rec- 
ognized the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  a  descendant  of  Anna^  the  eldest 
daughter  of  Ferdinand  I,  He  based  his  claim  upon  the  marriaee  con- 
tract of  Anna,  and  will  of  Ferdinand  I.,  whereby  the  Austrian  mheri- 
tance  was  (he  claimed)  secured  to  the  descendants  of  Anna,  in  case 
the  nude  descendants  of  her  brother  should  become  extinct.  (The 
original  will,  however,  read,  in  case  the  legitimate  descendants  of  her 
brother  became  extinct.)  2.  Philip  V.,  long  of  Spain,  relying  on  a 
treaty  between  Charles  V.  and  his  brother  Ferdinand  on  occasion  of 
the  cession  of  the  Grerman  lands,  and  upon  a  reservation  made  by 
Philip  III.  in  his  renunciation  of  the  Grerman  lands.  3.  Angoatus  UX 
of  Saxony,  the  husband  of  the  eldest  daughter  of  Joseph  I, 

The  cliums  advuiced  by  Frederic  II.  to  a  part  of  Silesia,  and  his  de- 
sire to  annex  the  wliole  of  Silesia  to  his  kinedom,  the  rejection  of  the 
ofFer  which  he  made  at  Vienna  to  take  the  neld  in  favor  of  Austria  if 
his  claims  were  recognized,  brought  about,  before  the  commencement 
of  hostilities  by  the  other  claimants,  the 

1740-1742.    First  Silesian  War.« 

Legal  claims  of  Prussia  to  a  portion  o/*  Silesia  :  *  1.  The  princi- 
pality of  Jdgemdorf  vrsa  purchased  m  1623  by  a  youn^r  branch  of  the 
electoral  line  of  Honenzollem,  and  the  future  acquisition  of  Ratibor  and 

1  See  the  grenealogical  table,  p.  899. 

'  A  Rupplement  to  the  Prussian  view  of  the  relations  of  Frederic  and  the  coarta 
of  Vienna  and  Paris  will  be  found  in  the  papers  hy  the  Due  de  Broglie  in 
the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes^  published  separately  as  Frederic  II,  and  Mtaria 
Theresa. 

*  Eichhorn,  Deutsche  StaatsAind  Jtecktsgeschichte,  iv.  §  583. 


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A.  D.  Germany.  401 

Oppeln  secured  at  the  same  time,  by  an  hereditary  alliance.  In  1623 
duke  John  George  was  placed  under  the  ban  by  the  emperor  Ferdi- 
nand 11.  (p.  309),  as  an  adherent  of  Frederic  Y.,  the  elector  palatine, 
and  in  spite  of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  (p.  316,  B.)  neither  he  nor 
his  heirs  had  been  reinstated.  2.  The  elector  Joachim  n.  had  made 
an  hereditary  alliance  in  1537  with  the  duke  of  LiegnitZy  Brieg  and 
Wohlauj  which  Ferdinand  I.  had  forbidden  as  king  of  Bohemia  and  feu- 
dal superior  of  the  duke.  After  the  extinction  of  £e  ducal  house  (1675) 
Austria  took  possession  of  the  inheritance.  In  1686  Frederic  nUHam^ 
the  Great  Elector,  renounced  the  Silesian  duchies,  in  return  for  the 
cession  of  the  circle  of  Schimebus.  The  latter,  however,  was  secured 
to  Austria  by  a  secret  agreement  with  the  prince  elector ^  and  was  restored 
by  him,  as  elector  Fredferic  III.,  in  1695. 

1740.  Occupation  of  Silesia  by  Frederic's  troops.    Capture  of  Glo^ 
gau. 

X741,  April  10.    Victory  of  ymiwite  (Schwerin), 

1741.  Secret  alliance  of  Nymphenbnrg  ^  against  Austria  concluded 
Play,    by  France,  Bavaria,  and  Spain,  afterwards  joined  by  Saxony, 

and  lastly  by  Prussia. 
The  allied  French  (Belle-Isle)  and  Bavarian  army  invaded  Austria 
pnd  Bohemia,  Prague  taken  in  alliance  with  the  Saxons.  Charles 
Albert  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  archduke  in  Linz,  while 
Frederic  II.  received  homage  in  Silesia.  Charles  Albert  was  elected 
emperor  in  Frankfort  as 

1742-1745.    Charles  VH. 

Meantime  Maria  Theresa  had  gone  to  Hungary.  Diet  at 
Presbnrg  ;  enthusiasm  of  the  Hungarian  nobility  ;  *  two  armies  raised ; 
alliance  concluded  with  England.  An  Austrian  army  conquered  Ba- 
varia where  Maria  Theresa  received  the  homage  of  Munich;  a  second 
besieged  the  French  in  Prague. 

1742.  The  victory  of  Frederic  at  Czaslau  and  Chotnsits,  and  Maria 
May  17.    Theresa's  desire  to  rid  herself  of  a  dangerous  enemy  led  to 

the  separate 
1742,  June  and  July.  Peace  of  Breslau  and  Berlin  between  Aus- 
tria and  Prussia  :  1.  Frederic  withdrew  from  the  alliance 
af;ainst  Maria  Theresa.  2.  Austria  ceded  to  Prussia  upper  and  lower 
Silesia  and  the  county  of  Glatz,  retaining  only  the  principality  of  Teschen 
and  the  southwestern  part  of  the  principalities  of  Neisse,  Troppau, 
and  Jdgemdorf,  the  Oppa  forming  tne  boundary.  3.  Prusaia  assimied 
the  debt  upon  Silesia  held  by  English  and  Dutch  creditors,  to  the 
amount  of  1,700,000  rix  dollars. 

Austria  prosecuted  the  war  against  the  allies  with  success,  driving 

1  J.  O.  Droysen,  Abhandlungen  (zur  neueren  Gkschichte)  1876,  claimed  that 
the  document  which  was  published  as  the  TraiU  de  Nymphenbourg  was  a 
forgery;  SohloBser  and  Ii.  v.  Banks  consider  it  genuine,  ae  that  as  it  may 
it  is  certain  that  new  enga^ments  (according  to  Slassan,  Hiit.  de  la  dipt.,  a 
formal  TraiU  d'alliance  offensive)  were  entered  into  at  Kymphenburg  by  Ba- 
varia and  France^  and  also  that  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  France  and 
Spain. 

3  The  truth  of  the  well-known  tale  of  the  exclamation  Moriamurprorege  noS' 
tro  Mat-ia  Theresa  is,  however,  disputed,  on  good  grounds. 
26 


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402  Modem  Hittory.  a.  i>« 

tbem  entirelyoat  of  Bohenua,  in  1742,  and  Bayaria  fl743);  the prao^ 
made  army  ([English^  Hanorerians,  Hessians),  under  king  George  Jl^ 
defeated  tbe  French  in  the 

1743.  Battle  of  Dettlngen.  The  emperor  Charles  VII.  was  a  ref- 
Jnne  27.    ugee  in  Frankfort 

These  Austrian  sneoesses  and  the  treaties  with  Sardinia  and 
Saxony  in  1743  made  the  king  of  Prussia  anxious  about  his  new  ac- 
quisitions. He  concluded  a  second  alliance  with  Charles  VII.  and 
France,  and  began  the 

1744-1745.    Second  Silesian  War, 

by  forcing  his  way  through  Saxony  with  80,000  men  ("  impe- 
rial reinforcements  "),  and  inYa£n£;  Bohemia.  He  took  Prague,  but, 
deserted  by  the  French,  was  soon  £iTen  back  into  Saxony,  1744. 

1744.  East  Friesland,  upon  the  extinction  of  the  reigning  house,  fell 
to  Prussia  (p.  368). 

1745.  Alliance  between  Austria^  Saxony,  England^  and  HoUand 
Jan.    against  Prussia.    The  French  and  Bayanans  took  Munidk. 

Charles  VII.  died  (1745,  Jan.). 
His  son  Maadmillan  Joseph  concluded  the 

1745,  April.    Separate  Peace  of  FtUuien,  with  Austria.    1.  Ans- 

Ma  restored  all  conquests  to  Bavaria.  2.  The  elector  of 
Bavaria  surrendered  his  pretensions  to  Austria  and  promised  Francis 
Stephen,  the  husband  of  Maria  Theresa,  his  rote  at  tne  imperial  elec- 
tion. 

The  French  under  marshal  Maurice  of  Saxony,  son  of  Augustus  XL 
and  the  countess  Aurora  of  Konigsmark,  defeated  the  pragmatic 
army  in  the 

1745>  May  11.    Battle  of  Fontenoy  (Irish  Brigade), 
and  began  the  conquest  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands. 
Frederic  tha  Great  defeated  the   Austrians  and  Saxons  under 
Charles  of  Lorraine  in  the 

1746,  June  4.  Battle  of  Hohenfrledberg,  in  Silesia,  and  the 
Austrians  alone  m  the 

Sept.  90.    Battle  of  Boor,  in  northeastern  Bohemia. 
By  the  election  of  the  husband  of  Maria  Theresa  as  emperor,  the 

1745-1806.    House  of  Lorraine-Tuscany  (p.  399)  ac- 
ceded to  the  imperial  throne  in  the  person  of  the  emperor, 
1745-1765.  Francis  I. 

After  a  victory  of  the  Prussian  general,  Leopold  of  Dessau,  aver 
the  Saxons  at  KessMorf,  Dec.  15,  the 

1745*  I>ec.  25.  Peaoe  of  Dresden  was  condaded  between 
Prussia  and  Austria  (Saxony). 

1.  Ratification  of  the  Peace  of  Breslauand  Berlin  in  regard  to  the 
possession  of  Silesia.  2.  IVederio  II.  recognized  Frcmcis  L  as  ent- 
peror.    3.  Bazony  paid  Prussia  one  million  rix  dollars. 

After  the  flower  of  the  English  army  had  been  recaUed  to  Englaodt 
where  iiiey  were  needed  in  the  contest  with  the  pretenders  (p.  438), 
Marshal  Saxe   obtained   at   Raucoiuc  (1746)    a   second   victory 


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A.  D.  Germany.  403 

oyer  the  allies  of  Anstria  and  completed  the  oonqaest  of  the  Aofttrian 
Netherlands. 

At  the  same  time,  the  naval  war  between  France  and  England,  and 
the  war  in  Italy  between  Spam,  France,  and  Austria,  were  carried  on 
with  varying  fortune.  Sardinia  had  oonclnded  peace  with  Austria 
aa  early  as  1743.  At  last  the  empress  of  Russia,  Elizabeth  (p.  411), 
joined  the  oombatants  as  the  ally  of  Austria  and  sent  an  army  to  the 
Rhine.    Congress,  and  finally, 

1748,  Oct    Peaoe  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1.  Reciprocal  restoration  of  all  conquests.  2.  Cession  of  Parma, 
Piacenza,  and  Ouastalla  to  the  Spanish  Infant,  Dan  Philip,  making 
the  second  secundogeniture  of  the  Spanish  Bourbons  in  Italy. 

The  following  guaranties  were  given  :  that  Silesia  should  belong  i 
to  Prussia  ;  that  tiie  pragmatic  sanction  should  be  sustained  in  Austria;  / 
that  the  house  of  Hanover  should  retain  the  succession  in  its  Grerman  / 
states  and  in  Great  Britain. 

Change  in  the  relations  of  European  states  induced  by  the  rise  of 
Prussia  to  the  rank  of  a  great  power.  Envy  between  Prussia  and 
4-ustria  ;  the  latter  seeing  a  disgrace  in  the  loss  of  Silesia  to  a  smaller 
power,  and  intriguing  for  the  recovery  of  the  lost  province.  Thus 
began  the 

1756-1763.    Third  Bilesian,  or  Seven  Years'  War. 

Canse :  Before  the  peace  of  Aix-larChapelle  Maria  Theresa  had 
concluded  a  defensive  alliance  with  Fi«deric's  personal  enemy, 
Elizabeth,  empress  of  Russia  (May,  1746).  Secret  articles  of  this 
treaty  provided  for  the  reunion  of  Silesia  with  Austria  under  certain 
speoifled  conditions.  In  Sept.  1750,  Gtoorge  II.  of  England,  moved 
by  anxiety  for  his  prinoipahty  of  Hanover,  signed  the  main  treaty, 
the  secret  articles  oeing  excepted.  Saxony  (minister,  count  BrUhl) 
siffned  the  treaty  unconditionally.  Prince  Kaunitz  (until  1753  Aus- 
trian ambassador  in  France,  then  chancellor  of  the  empire  in  Vienna) 
succeeded  in  promoting  a  reconciliation  between  the  cabinets  of  Ver- 
sailles and  Vienna,  ana  securing  the  Marquise  de  Pompadour  in  favor 
of  an  Austrian  alliance.  Formation  of  a  party  inimical  to  the  Prus- 
sian alliance  at  the  French  court. 

Maria  Theresa  and  Kaunitz  induced  England  to  conclude  a  new 
subsidy  treaty  with  Russia  in  1756.  In  June  of  the  same  year,  how- 
ever, hostilities  broke  out  between  England  and  France  in  North 
America  without  any  declaration  of  war.  Conflict  at  Newfoundland. 
Dreading  a  French  attack  upon  Hanover,  Greorge  II.  concluded,  in 
January,  1756,  a  treaty  of  neutrality  with  Frederic  at  Wesjrmngter^ 
which  caused  a  rupture  between  England  and  Russia.  Kaunitz  made 
skillful  use  of  the  indignation  at  Versailles  over  Uie  treaty  of  West- 
minster. In  May,  17^,  conclusion  of  a  defenaive  alliance  between 
France  and  Austria,  In  June,  1756,  war  broke  out  between  France 
and  England,  in  Europe. 

Frederic,  well  informed  concerning  the  alliances  of  the  powers,  and 
knowing  that  Russia  and  France  were  not  in  condition  to  take  the  of^* 


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404  Modem  History.  A.  d. 

fensiTe  affmrnst  him  in  1766,  decided  to  take  his  enemieB  hy  surprise.^ 

1756.  Frederic  invaded  Saxony  with  67,000  men.  Captiure  of 
Dresden  (Aug.). 

Oct.  1.     Victory  oyer  the  Anstrians  at  Loboeiiz, 

Surrender  of  18,000  Saxons,  who  were  compelled  to  serve  in 
the  Prossian  army  (Oct.  16). 

1757.  War  declared  upon  Frederic  in  the  name  of  the  empire.  He 
was  threatened  with  the  ban.    Hanover,  Hessej  Bnmiwick,  and 

Gotha,  however,  continued  in  alliance  with  Prussia.  Treaty  between 
Austria  and  Russia  (Jan.)  concerning  the  partition  of  the  Prussian 
monarchy.  Offensive  treaty  between  Austria  and  FVanoe  (May), 
also  looking  to  the  division  of  Prussia.  Sweden  joined  the  alliance 
against  Frederic  upon  receiving  the  province  of  Pommerania,  but  her 
rairt  in  the  war  was  unimportant.  Alliance  between  Prussia  and 
England  (Jan.  1757)  extended  into  a  subsidy  treaty  (April,  1758). 

1757.  The  Prussians  invaded  Bohemia  in  four  columns. 

May  6.     Victory    of  Frederio  at  Prague  over  the  Austrians. 
Death  of  Bchwerin.    Frederic  besieged  Prague  and  attacked 
Datm,  who  was  coming  to  the  relief. 
June  18.    Defeat  of  Frederic  at  Kollln.    Evacuation  of  Bohemia. 

The  French  reached  the  Weser. 
June  26.    Victory  of  the  IVench  at  Hastenbeck  over  Frederic's 

allies  (duke  of  Cumberland,  second  son  of  Georee  U.). 
Aug.  30.    Victory  of  the  Russians  {Apraxin)  over  me  Prussians 
(Lehwald),  whom  they  outnumbered,  in  the  battle  of  Gross- 
Jagemdorl    The  Russians  withdrew  from  Prassia  and  did  not 
utilize  their  victorv. 
Sept  8.    Treaty  of  the  Monastery  of  Zeven  (duke  of  CSumberland 
and  RicheUeu),  according  to  which  the  French  occupied  Han- 
over.   The  treaty  was,  however,  rejected  by  the  Finglish  gov- 
ernment. 
Ferdinand,  duke  of  Brunswick,  brother  of  the  ruling  duke,  re- 
ceived the  command  against  the  French.    A  second  French  army 
under  Soubise  joined  the  imperial  army  with  the  purpose  of  liberating 
Saxony. 

Nov.  5.    Victory  of  Frederic  at  Roasbach  over  the  French  and 

the  impenal  army  (Beydlitz). 
Frederic  led  his  victorious  army  to  Silesia,  where  the  Austrians 

had  defeated  and  captured  the  duke  of  Brunsunck-Bevem  in 

the 
Nov.  22.    Battle  of  Breslau. 
Dec.  5.    Victory  of   Frederic  at  Leuthen  over  the  Austrians 

(^Charles  of  Lorraine  and  Daun), 

1758.  Frederic  in  Moravia  ;  unsuccessful  siege  of  Olmiitz.  Advance 
of  the  Russians  under  Fermor,  to  join  the  Austrians.  In  the 
west,  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  drove  the  French  back  across  the 
Rhine,  and  def  eiU»d  them  in  the 

1  Cf.  A.  Bohftfer,  Geseh,  des  Sitbenjahngen  Krieges,  2  vols.  1867-1874 
Dunokerj  in  v.  Bybels,  Bist.-ZtiU,  18U8,  aud  £«.  v.  Banke,  Der  Urtprun$ 
det  dtbenjSkrigen  Kiiegttf  1871. 


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A.  D.  Germany.  405 

1758^  June  23.  Battle  of  Crefeld.  After  the  oonaoest  of  Prus- 
sia as  far  as  the  Mark  the  Russians  advanced.    Bloody 

Aug.  25.  Victory  of  Frederic  (Seydlitz)  at  Zomdorf  (not  far 
from  KUgtrm)  over  the  Russians. 

Austrians  advanced  upon  Lusatia.   The  king  hastened  to  the  aid 
of  his  brother  Henry  and  was  defeated  in  the 

Oct.  14.  Battle  of  Hoohkirch  (near  Bautzen)  by  Dann.  Nevei^ 
theless  he  maintained  himself  in  Saxony  and  Silesia. 

1759.  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  defeated  by  the  French  (duke  of 
Broalie) 

April  13.   In  the  skirmish  of  Bergen  near  Frankfori-onrthe-Main. 

BrogUe  was  joined  by  a  second  French  army  under  Contades, 

but  they  were  botib  defeated  by  Ferdinand  in  the 
Aug.  1.    Battle  of  Minden. 

The  Russians  advanced  anew  and  defeated  general   Wedell 
July  23.     (appointed  dictator  by  the  king)  at  Kay.    The  king  was 

unable  to  prevent  their  union  yrith  Uie  Austrians  under  Laudon. 

Severe 
A.ng.  12.    Defeat  of  Frederic  at  Kunersdorf  (Frankfort- 

on-the-Oder^  by  the  Austrians  and  Russians,  who  were  at  first 

defeated.    Dresden  captured  by  the  imperial  army. 
Nov.  20.    The  Prussian  general  FHnk  surrounded  by  Daun  at  Itfazen 

and  captured  with  13^000  men. 

1760.  Fouqud  defeated  and  captured  in  the 

June  23.    Battle  of  LandBhut,  by  the  Austrians.    Futile  siege  of 

Dresden. 
Aug.  15.    Victory  of  Frederic  at  Pfaffendorf  (Liegnitz)  over  the 

Austrians  under  Laudon. 
The  king  prevented  the  union  of  the  Austrians  and  Russians. 
Oct.    Berlin  surprised  and  burnt  bv  the  Russians  {ToUleben),  who 

retreated  upon  the  approach  of  the  king.    Bloody 
Kov.  3.    Victory  of  Frederic  at  Torgau  (Ziethen)  over  the  Aus- 

trians  under  Daun, 

1761.  Frederic  encamped  at  Bunzelwitz  (near  Schweidnitz),  op- 
posite the  united  Austrians  (Laudon)  and  Russians  (Buturlin), 
who  did  not  venture  on  a  decisive  battle. 

Separation  of  the  united  armies.  SchweidniU  captured  by  the  Aus- 
trians, Kolherg  by  the  Russians.  Frederic,  who  was  deprived  of  the 
English  subsidies  by  the  accession  of  George  III.  (1760),  was  in  great 
distress.    The 

1762.  Jan.  5.  Death  of  Elisabeth  of  Riuisia  was  the  salvation  of 
Flrussia.  Her  successor  Peter  lU.,  an  admirer  of  Frederic, 
concluded 

March  16.    The  truce  of  Stargard  with  Prussia,  and  soon  after  the 
May  5.   Peace  of  St.  Petersburg  :  Russia  restored  her  conquests  ; 

both  parties  renounced  all  hostile  alliances.    This  peace  caused 

the 
May  22.    Peace  of  Hamburg  with  Sweden :  status  quo  ante  bdlum. 

The  cdHance  between  Russia  and  Prussia  was  socm  broken  off 


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406  Modem  History.  a.  d. 

bytbedeiMMttioiiofPeter///.(Jiil79).  HusnooeBSor.GAtliailiielL, 
recalled  her  troops  from  Frederic's  army  ;  neyertlielefls  their  inactiv- 
ity upon  the  field  oontrilmted  to  the 

1762.  Victory  of  Frederic  at  BvrkeiBdorf  (Beichenbaeh)  oyer 
July  21.    the  Austians  (Dann).    After  Frinoe  Henry  in  the 

Oct  29.  Battle  of  Freiberg  had  defeated  the  Austrians  and  the 
imperial  forces,  and  the  preliminaries  of  the  peace  at  Foniaine' 
Ueau  (p.  439)  between  England  and  France  had  made  it  certain  that 
Vxe  French  armies  would  be  withdrawn  fnmi  Germany,  Awiria  and 
Pruseia  concluded  the 

1763.  Peaoe  of  Hubert(ii)8bi2rff. 

Feb.  15.  1.  Ratification  of  the  peace  of  Breslau  and  Berlin,  and  that 
of  Dresden,  u  e.  Prussia  retained  Silesia.  2.  Prussia  promised 
her  vote  for  the  archduke  Joseph  at  the  election  of  the  king  of  Rome. 
Saxony  (restoration  to  the  status  quo)  and  the  empire  were  included 
in  the  peace. 

Freaeric's  endeavors  to  heal  the  wounds  inflicted  by  the  war  upon 
his  kingdom.  Distribution  of  the  magazine  stares.  Remission  of 
taxes  for  several  provinces.  Establishment  of  district  banks,  of  the 
Bofii;  (1765)  and  &e3fariftmeC<>ii^Nmy  (1772)  at  Berl^  Afterwards, 
however,  introduction  of  an  oppressive  financial  administration ;  tobacco 
and  coffee  were  made  government  monopolies. 

DrainMje  of  the  marshes  alonf  the  Oder,  Werthe,  and  Netse. 
Canal  of  Fknen,  Finow,  and  Bromoerg. 

Reform  of  the  jurisdiction.  Codification  of  the  common  law  by 
grand  chancellor  von  Carmer,  a  part  of  which  was  published  in  1782. 

1765-1700.    Joseph  n.,  emperor, 

for  the  Austrian  lands  co-re&;ent  only,  with  his  mother  Maria 
Theresa^  until  1780,  and  without  much  influence. 

1778-1779*    War  of  the  Bavarian  Buocesedon.^ 

Canae:  Elztinction  of  the  electoral  house  of  Bavaria  with 
Maximilian  Joseph.  (1777).  Charles  Theodore^  elector  palatine,  the 
legal  heir  of  the  Bavarian  lands,  as  head  of  the  house  of  WUiMmch^ 
and  in  consequence  of  various  treaties,  was  persuaded  by  Joseph  II. 
to  recognize  certain  old  claims  of  Austria  to  lower  Bavaria^  and  a  part 
of  the  upper  Palatinate.  Treaty  of  Vienna  (1778,  Jan.).  Occupation 
of  lower  Bavaria  by  Austrian  troops.  CharUs  Theodore  was  childless ; 
his  heir  presumptive  was  Charles  Augustus  Christian^  duke  of  the  palap- 
tinate  of  Zweibriicken  (Deux-ponts).  Frederic  II.  opened  secret  ne- 
gotiations with  this  wavering  and  irresolute  prince  through  count 
Eustachka  von  Gdrz  and  encouraged  him,  under  promise  of  assistanoe^ 
to  make  aformal  declaration  of  ms  rie^hts  against  the  Austrian  claims. 
Saxony  and  MecJdenburgj  also  incited  bv  frederie,  protested  as  heirs 
presumptive  of  a  part  of  the  Bavarian  mheritaace.  As  direct  nego- 
tiations oetween  Austria  and  Prussia  were  without  result,  Joseph  uid 
Frederic  joined  their  armies,  which  were  already  drawn  up  face  to 
faee  on  the  boundary  of  Bohemia  and  Silesia. 
Saxony  allied  with  Prussia,  No  battle  in  this  short  war.  Frederic 
I  Cf .  Manso,  Uesch.  d.  preuti.  StaaU  mt  dem  HvJberUb.  Friedm. 


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A.  D.  Germany.  407 

and  prinoe  Henry  inyaded  Bohemia  (Jnly,  1778).  Lnpoaailnlity  of 
f oroing  Joseph  from  his  strong  position  alone  tfale  upper  £lbe,  or  of 
getting  around  it.  The  armies  maintained  £eir  positions  of  obser- 
vation so  long  that  want  began  to  make  itself  felt.  In  the  antumn 
prince  Henry  retirod  to  Saxony,  Frederic  to  Silesia.  Unimportant 
skirmishes  along  the  frontier.  A  personal  correspondence  between 
Maria  Theresa  and  Frederic,  commenced  by  the  former,  led  in  the- 
followinff  spring,  with  the  help  of  Russian  and  French  mediation,  to  a 
truce  and  a  congress^  and  soon  after  to  the 

1779,  May.    Peaoe  of  TesoheiL 

1.  The  troaty  of  Vienna  with  Charles  Theodore  was  abro- 
gated. Aufltzia  retained  only  the  district  of  the  Inn^  in  Bavaria,  t.  «. 
the  part  of  lower  Bavaria  between  the  7nn,  Sdlzay  and  Danube,  2. 
Austria  agreed  to  the  futuro  union  of  the  margravates  of  Ansbach 
and  BaxreuJth^  with  the  Prussian  monarchy,  3.  Saxony  obtained  some 
hitherto  disputed  rights  of  soveroignty  and  nine  miUion  rix  dollars; 
Mecklenburg  the  privilegwm  de  non  appellando, 

1780-1790.     Joseph  II.     Period  of  his  reign  alone 
and  of  his  attempts  at  reform.^ 

The  peaoeable  and  prudent  government  of  Maria  Therosa  (f  1780), 
with  its  carefully  matured  scheme  of  reform,  was  succeeded  by  the 
essentially  rovolutionary  roign  of  Joseph  II.,  whereby  the  ancient 
forms  were  shaken  to  their  foundations,  and  tlieir  substance,  reluctant 
and  stiff  from  lack  of  change,  f oroibly  subjected  to  experiments  made  in 
sympathy  with  the  enlightenment  of  the  century.  Joseph  U.  is  the  best 
re]^resentative  of  the  contradictions  of  the  eighteenth  century,  of  its 
philanthropy  and  its  devotion  to  right,  and  agjain  of  its  severity  and 
lack  of  consideration,  whero  thero  was  question  of  executing  some 
&vorite  theory.  Filled  with  dislike  of  tne  clergy  and  the  nobility, 
and  entertaining  the  ideal  of  a  strong,  centralized,  united  state,  Joseph 
pursued  his  roforms  with  the  purpose  of  breaking  the  power  of  the 
privileged  classes  mentioned  above,  of  destroying  all  provincial  inde- 
pendence, and  of  establishing  unity  in  the  administration  (central- 
ization). Despite  of  all  his  failures,  despite  of  the  fact  that,  with 
the  exception  of  the  abolition  of  serfdom  and  the  edict  of  tolerance^ 
not  one  of  his  reforms  outlived  him,  Joseph's  roign  rogenerated  the 
Austrian  monarchy,  lending  it  mobility  and  vitality. 

Edict  of  tolerance  (1781).  Withm  eight  vears  700  monasteries 
wero  closed  and  36,000  members  of  orders  roleased.  Thero  still  ro- 
mained,  however,  1,324  monasteries  with  27,000  monks  and  nuns. 
For  those  which  romained  a  new  organization  was  prescribed.  The 
connection  of  the  ecclesiastical  order  with  Rome  was  weakened, 
schools  wero  established  with  the  property  of  the  churches,  innovar 
tions  in  the  form  of  worship  wero  introduced,  nor  did  the  interior 
orpmization  of  the  church  escape  alteration.  Futile  journey  of  Pope 
Plus  VI,  to  Vienna  (1782)  undertaken  to  provent  these  changes. 
Reform  of  the  jurisdiction.  The  feudal  burdens  wero  roduced  to 
fixed  norms,  and  attempts  wero  made  to  completely  abolish  personal 
servitude  among  the  peasants. 

1  Hifcusser  ,  Deutsche  Geschiehte  vom  Tode  Friedricht  d.  Orotun, 


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4D8  Modem  History.  A.  D. 

Dispates  between  Joseph  and  the  Dntch  ;  the  emperor  arbitrarily 
annulled  the  barrier  treaties  (p.  393)  (1781).  He  demanded  that 
the  Schdde,  which  had  been  closed  by  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia  to 
the  Spanish  Netherlands,  in  favor  of  the  Dutch,  should  be  opened. 
Finally,  after  four  years  of  quarreling,  French  mediation  brought 
about  the  Peace  of  VermiUes  (1785).  Joseph  withdrew  his  demands 
in  consideration  of  ten  million  florins. 

Joseph  attempted  to  improve  the  legal  system  of  the  empire.  His 
encroachments  m  the  empire.  Violent  proceedings  in  the  case  of  the 
bishop  of  Fassau  (1783). 

The  endeavors  of  Frederic  the  Great  to  conclude  a  union  of  German 
princes  (1783),  which  should  resist  the  encroachments  of  the  emperor, 
and  to  strengthen  Prussia  in  her  political  isolation  by  a  **  combiuatiou 
wilidn  the  empire,''  were  at  first  but  coldly  supported  by  his  own  min- 
isters and  the  German  princes.  Frederic's  plan  was  not  taken  into 
favor  until  news  was  received  of 

1785-  Joseph  II.'b  plcui  of  an  exohanffe  of  territory* 
according  to  which  Charles  Theodore  was  to  cede  the  whole  of 
Bavaria  to  Austria,  and  accept  in  exchanee  the  Austrian  Netherlands 
(Belgium),  excepting  Luxemburg  and  Namurf  as  tHe  kingdom  of 
Burgnndy.  France  maintained  an  attitude  of  indifference.  Russia 
supported  the  project  and  endeavored  by  perauasion  and  threats  to 
induce  the  heir  of  Bavaria,  the  count  palatine  of  ZweibrUcken  (Deux- 
ponts)  to  consent  to  the  scheme.  The  latter  sought  help  from  Fred'- 
eric  the  Great,  who,  a  year  before  his  death  (f  1786,  Aug.  17),  soc* 
ceeded  in  forming  the 
1785,  July.    Iioagae  of  the  Oerman  Princes 

between  Prussia,  the  electorate  of  Saxony,  and  Hanooer,  which 
was  afterward  joined  by  Brunswick,  Mavm,  Hesse-Cassd,  Baden,  Meck- 
lenburg, Anhalt,  and  the  Thuringian  lands. 

Opposition  to  Joseph's  reforms  in  the  Austrian  Netherlands  and  in 
Hungary.  The  removal  of  the  crown  of  Huneary  to  Vienna  pro- 
duced so  great  a  disturbance  that  the  emperor  yielded  and  permitted 
its  return.  The  revocation  of  the  constitution  of  Brabant  caused  a 
revolt  in  the  Belgian  provinces  (1789).  War  with  the  Turks  (p.  414). 
Death  of  Joseph  n.  (1790). 

1790-1792.    Leopold  II.,  emperor. 

Joseph's  brother  and  successor.  He  suppressed  the  Belgian  insur- 
rection, but  restored  the  old  constitution  and  the  old  pri'^eges.  A 
conference  at  Reichenbach  prevented  a  war  with  Prussia,  which  (Jan. 
31, 1790)  had  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  Turks,  in  order  to  procure 
more  favorable  conditions  for  the  latter  from  Austria  and  Russia 
(p.  414).  {^See  pp.  ^Jft,  487.^ 


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4.  D.  Denmark^  Sweden,  Rtusioy  Poland.  409 


§  4.    DENMARK,  SWEDEN,  RUSSIA,  POLAND. 

(8eepp.S75,S97,) 
Denmark  (and  Norway). 

Since  the  close  of  the  northern  war,  Denmark  held  comjplete  posses- 
sion of  Schleswig  and  enjoyed  under  Frederic  /F.,  Christian  VI., 
Frederic  V.,  Christian  VII.  (count  Bemstorff,  minister),  a  long  interval 
of  peace  at  home  and  ahroad.  Under  the  weak  Christian  Vll,  revo- 
lutionary attempts  at  reform  after  the  maimer  of  Joseph  11.  by  the 
German  Struenaee  (born  in  Halle,  physician  in  Altona,  traveling 
companion  of  the  king,  instructor  x>f  the  crown  prince,  favorite  of  the 
queen,  Caroline  MaWda,  first  minister,  count,  who  was  overthrown 
in  1772  by  a  conspiracy  (queen  dowsu?er  Juliana  Maria)  and  be- 
headed along  with  his  fnend  Brandt.  The  disputes  with  tne  line  of 
Holstein-Grottorp  were  brought  to  an  end  in  1773  by  the  cession  of 
Oldenburg  to  the  younger  line  in  exchange  for  their  share  of  Holstem^ 
which  was  in  consequence  entirely  incorporated  with  the  Danish 
monarchy. 

Sweden. 

Until  1751  Sweden  was  under  the  rule  of  Frederic  of  Hesse-Cassel 
(p.  397).  Decline  of  the  royal  power  in  the  midst  of  the  dissensions 
of  two  parties  of  the  nobility,  Hmtej  "  hats  ; "  (French)  and  Mutzen 
<'  caps  y*  (Russian).  Unsuccessful  war  with  Kussia  (1741-1743), 
ended  by  the  disgraceful 
1743.    Peace  of  A.bo. 

1.  The  Ctfmen  made  the  boundary  between  Sweden  and  Russia, 
whereby  the  position  of  St.  Petersburg  was  made  more  secure.  2. 
The  succession  to  the  crown  of  Sweden  was  guaranteed  to  Adolf 
Frederic  of  Holstein-Gottorp. 

1751-1818*     The  house  of  Holstein-Gk>ttorp  in  Sweden. 

Under  Adolf  Frederic  (1751-1771)  the  royal  power  underwent 
such  reductions  at  the  hands  of  the  royal  council  that  Sweden  was 
rather  an  aristocracy  than  a  monarchy.  Inglorious  participation  in 
the  Seven  Years*  War.  Adolf  Frederic's  son,  Ghistavus  m.  (1771- 
1792),  crushed  the  power  of  the  royal  council  of  nobles  by  a  blood- 
less revolution  (1772),  and  reduced  it  in  the  new  constitution  from  a 
co-regent  to  a  simple  council ;  the  estates,  however,  retained  the  right 
of  veto  against  an  offensive  war. 

1788-1790.  War  with  RuflBia.  Drawn  battle  at  the  island  of 
Hogland  (1788).  Gustavus  invaded  Russian  Finland,  where 
the  officers  of  his  army  refused  him  further  obedience.  He  foimd 
support  among  the  people  (Stockholm  and  Dalecarlia).  The  edtates 
granted  him  (against  the  will  of  the  nobles)  the  right  to  declare  even 
an  offensive  war.  In  spite  of  brilliant  deeas  of  arms  Gustavus  con- 
cluded the  war  by  a  peace  (at  Werelce)  which  was  without  advantage 
to  Sweden. 
1792,  March.    Gustavus  III.  murdered  by  James  of  AiikarstrGm. 

iSeepp.WASJ.) 


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410 


Modem  Bisiaiy. 


A.  IK 


RUSSIA  AND  POLAND.  (See  pp,  S75,  S07.) 


t  1676. 


Teodor  HL 

tl68S. 


iTUi  tm  1689. 


Soi 


duchess  of 
Mecklenbaig- 
Schwerin. 


Anna, 
dachess  of 
Brunswick. 


iTanlV. 

tmi741, 

tl764. 


Peter  the  Grettt 

t  1726,  m. 

Ofttbarinel, 

tl727. 


t  1740. 


Alexis, 
t  1718. 


T 


Peter  n., 

ti7ao. 


duchess  of 
Holstein- 
Gottorp. 


SUsmbeth, 

11762. 


rin., 


Peter] 
t  1762. 
u.  Oatherine  H., 
tl796. 


The  flon  of  Peter  the  Great  (p.  374  and  394]),  Alexis,  who  laToied 
the  Russian  reaction,  was  condemned  to  execution  by  lus  father,  and 
died  in  prison  (7)  1718.  Peter  was  succeeded,  in  conseauence  of  a 
law  which  he  nad  issued  in  1722  ^afterwards  repealed  by  Paul  I.) 
which  allowed  the  reigning  sovereign  to  appoint  his  own  snooessor, 
by  his  wife 

1725-1727.     Catharine    I.,  who    was    governed  b^  prince 
Mensohikoil^  the  favorite  of  Peter  I.,  who  had  nsen  from 
the  lowest  rank  to  be  the  first  minister  of  state.    After  the  sudden 
death  of  the  empress  there  followed,  under  her  will, 

1727-1730.  Peter  n.,  .twelve  years  old,  grandson  of  Peter  I. 
He  was  for  four  months  under  the  influence  of  Menschikojffi 
who  at  the  end  of  that  time  was  overthrown  by  the  family  of  Dot- 
aoruky  and  sent  to  Siberia,  where  he  died  two  years  later.  Upon 
JPeter  n.'s  early  death, 

1730-1740.  Anna  Ivanovnss  yottnger  daaghter  of  the  elder 
brother  of  Peter  the  Great,  was  proclaimed  empress.  She  was 
ruled  by  MUnnich,  Ostermannj  and  her  favorite  Aron  (pronerly 
BUhrer^,  The  latter  soon  obtained  complete  control,  and  took  nn- 
bridledf  vengeance  on  his  enemies,  particularly  the  tkflgoruk^*  In 
1737  'he  was  appointed  duke  of  Curland,  at  the  desire  of  the  em- 

Sress,  b^  Augustus  III.,  king  of  Poland  (1733-1763).  Russia's  in- 
uence  in  Poland  established  by  the  war  of  the  Polish  succession 
(p.  3d8).  In  the  war  against  the  Turks,  brilliantly  conducted,  in 
combination  with  Austria  (p.  398),  by  the  general  Afilnnich  (1736* 
1739),  Azoffwta  the  only  acquisition.  The  empress  Anna  was  suo- 
ceeded  by  her  grand-nephew,  ihe  minor 


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AmTK  Denmark^  Sweden^  SuttiOy  Poland.  411 

1740-1741.  Ivan  IV.  (or  VI.),  whose  mother,  Anna  qf  Brun»- 
wicky  conducted  the  goveminent  for  a  short  time  after  ifiln- 
•nick  had  accomplished  the  fall  of  Btrem,  who  was  sent  to 
Siheria.    A  military  revolution  placed  upon  the  throne 

1741-1762.  Elizabeth,  the  yoangest  daughter  of  Peter  the 
Great.  Ivan  was  imprisoned,  the  leaders  of  the  preceding 
goyemment,  including  MUnnu^  were  sent  to  Siberia,  Biron  returned. 
Capricious  rule  of  women  and  fororites  ;  Lestocq,  a  friend  of  Prussia, 
to  whom  the  empress  was  chiefly  indebted  for  her  throne,  was  orer^ 
thrown  by  Bestushef,  friendly  to  Austria,  and  sent  to  Siberia.  War 
with  Sweden,  see  p.  410.  Participation  of  Russia  in  the  Seven  Years' 
War,  p.  404.  Accordine  to  Elizabeth's  direction  she  was  succeeded 
by  the  son  of  her  sister,  Feter,  duke  of  HoUUit^Goftorp, 

1762 — X.    House  of  Hol8tein-Gk>ttorp  in  Rusria. 

1762.    Peter  III.,  after  a  six  months'  reign,  which  he  begaiv 
with  the  imprudent  introduction  of   reforms,  was  depwed 
(July  9^  and  imprisoned  by  his  wife  (princess  of  Anhalt-Zerbst),  the 
energetic  and  immoral  - 

1762-1796.    Catharine  n. 

The  two  brothers  Orfq^  caused  the  emperor  to  be  strangled, 
whether  with  the  knowledge  of  Catharine  or  not,  cannot  be  stated. 
The  fact  that  she  overwhelmed  the  murderers  with  rewards  tells 
against  the  empress. 

Catharine  asked  and  received  from  Auaustus  III,y  king  of  Poland, 
the  restoration  of  Curland,  for  Biron,  who  administerea  the  duchy 
under  Russian  influence,  until  1772,  and  bequeathed  it  to  his  son. 

After  the  death  of  Aumutus  IIL  (1763),  Catharine,  in  alliance 
with  Frederic  U.,  procurea  the  election  of  her  prot^g^ 
1764-1795.  Stanlslaiui  Poniatowakl  (f  1797),  as  king  of  Poland. 
At  the  request  of  Russia  and  Prussia  the  distenten,  adherents 
of  the  Cheek  church,  and  protestants  received  equal  rights  with  catho- 
lics. In  opposition  to  this  change,  formation  of  the  Confederacy  of 
Bar  (1768),  which  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  abduct  the  long. 
In  the  civil  war  that  followed  the  king  was  successfully  supported  by 
a  Russian  army  against  the  confederacy.  The  Turlu,  allies  of  the 
confederacy,  declared  war  upon  Russia.  Russia's  success  in  this  war 
aroused  the  envy  of  Prussia  and  Austria^  which  led  to  an  attempt  to 
secure  an  equal  aggrandizement  of  the  three  powers  by  the 

1772.    First  division  of  Poland. 

1.  Rtuala  received  the  region  between  the  Duna,  Dnieper,  and 
Drutsch,  i,  e.  the  eastern  part  of  Lithuania.  2.  Austria  :  East 
GalUcia  and  Lodomeria.  3.  Praaoia  :  Polish  Prussia  (  West  Prussia, 
with  the  exception  of  Danzig,  Thorn,  and  Ermdand),  which  the  Ten- 
tonic  order  had  ceded  to  Pohind  in  1466  (p.  277),  and  the  NOze  dis- 
trict. 

The  assent  of  the  Polish  nation  to  this  high-handed  proceeding  was 
extorted  by  force.    Exertions  of  the  powers  who  had  shared  in  the 


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412  Modem  BUtary,  a.  d. 

divisioii  to  preserve  the  Polish  constitutioii,  which  wu  another  name 
for  anarchy. 

1768-1774.  Catharine's  first  war  agrainst  the  Turks 
was  successfully  conducted.  The  Turkish  fleet  was  defeated 
and  humed  by  the  Russians  off  the  island  of  Chios  (Tschesmej  1770). 
During  the  war  revolt  of  the  Cossack  Pugacheff,  who  gave  himself  out 
as  Peter  III.  The  success  of  Romamqff,  who  surrounded  the  Gtrmd 
Vizier  at  Shumla,  brought  about  the 

1774.    July  12.    Peace  of  Kutschouo  Kainaxdji. 

1.  Russia  received  Kinbum:  YenikaUj  and  Kertch  in  the  Crimea, 
and  their  districts;  and  obtainea  the  right  of  free  navigation  in  all 
Turkish  waters  for  trading  vessels.  2.  The  TaUxn  in  the  Crimea^ 
and  along  the  Kuban^  became  *'  independent."  3.  Restoration  of  con- 
quests in  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  to  their  princes,  whose  interests,  as 
opposed  to  the  Porte,  toere  henceforward  represented  at  Constantinople 
by  Russia. 

[*<  PerraanenUv  important  provisions  of  the  treaty  of  Kuischoue 
Kainardji :  I.  llie  Tatars  were  released  from  allegiance  to  Turkey 
and  brought  under  Russian  influence.  II.  Russia  obtained  a  firm 
footing  on  the  north  coasts  of  the  Black  Sea;  pushing  back  the 
Turki^  frontier  to  the  river  Boug.  III.  The  frontier  Ime  between 
the  two  powers  in  Asia  was  left  much  as  it  was  before  the  war.  lY. 
Russia  stipulated  for  an  embassy  at  Constantinople  and  for  certain 
privileges  for  Christians  in  Turkey.  V.  Russia  exacted  promises  for 
the  better  government  of  the  principalities,  reserving  a  right  of  re- 
monstrance if  these  were  not  kept.  VI.  Russia  obteined  a  dedans 
tion  of  her  right  of  free  commercial  navigation  in  Turkish  waters. 
All  subsequent  controversies  between  the  Porte  and  Russia  may  be 
referred  to  one  of  these  six  heads."  —  T.  E.  Holland  :  Treaty  rela- 
tions of  Russia  and  Turkey  from  1774-1853.] 

Prince  Potemkln,  Catharine*s  favorite,  soon  became  all-powerful 
and  conducted  all  state  affairs  according  to  his  humor  and  his  arbi- 
trary will. 

1780.    Armed  neutrality  at  sea, 

at  first  introduced  for  the  protection  of  commerce  during  the 
North  American  war  (p.  428).  The  subject  was  broached  by  Rus- 
sia, and  the  idea  graciually  found  support  from  Denmark,  Sweden 
(1780),  Prussia,  Austria  (1782),  Portugal  (1783);  Spain,  and  France 
Recognized  the  principle.  England  prevented  the  addition  of  Holland 
to  the  league  by  a  declaration  of  war. 

Demands  of  the  Armed  Neutrality.  1.  Free  passage  of  neutral 
ships  from  port  to  port  and  along  the  coasts  of  combatants.  2.  Free- 
dom of  an  enemy's  goods  in  neutral  ships  (le  pavilion  couvre  la 
marchandise),  with  the  exception  of  such  goods  as  were  contraband  of 
war.  3.  Exact  definition  of  a  blockaded  port ;  a  merely  nominal 
(''paper  ")  blockade,  that  is,  one  not  enforced  by  a  sufficient  number 
of  ships  of  war  in  the  vicinity  of  the  specified  harbor,  was  declared 
to  be  madmissible. 

Plan  of  Catharine  and  Potemkin  to  drive  the  Turks  out  of  Europci 


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A.  D.  Denmarky  Sweden,  Rusnay  Poland.  418 

and  to  restore  the  Greek  empire,  as  a  secondogemtnre  of  the 
1783.  imperial  house  of  Russia,  under  grand-duke  Conetantine,  The 
1787.  Cnmea  (Tauria)  incoiporated  with  Russia.  Catharine's  jour, 
ney  through  southern  Aussia  to  Kherson.  Shameless  represen- 
tation of  a  flourishing  condition  of  the  country  by  Potemkin 
the  Taurian  f    Meeting  with  Joseph  IT, 

1787-1792.    Catharine's  second  war  with  the  Turks 

(Potemkin  and  Suvaroff), 
in  alliance  with  Austria  {Laudon  and  the  prince  of  Coburg).  Potem- 
kin stormed  Otchdkoff  (1788),  victory,  in  union  with  the  Austrians  at 
Fokchany  and  on  the  Rimniky  Potemlon  conquered  Bender  (1789),  Su- 
varoff stormed  Ismail  (1790).  Victory  at  Matchin.  Peace  between 
Austria  and  Turkey  at  Sistova  (1791).  Austria  received  Old- 
Orsova  only.    Potemkin  died  1791.    Between  Russia  and  the  Porte 

1792.  Jan.  9.    Peace  of  Jassy. 

Russia  received  Otchahoff  and  the  land  between  the   lower 
Dnieper y  Bug,  and  Dniester ^  the  latter  river  becoming  the  boundary. 

1793-    Second  division  of  Poland. 

The  Poles  had  attempted  to  improve  the  war  of  Russia  and 
Austria  with  the  Turks,  and  the  seemmgly  friendly  aspect  of  Prussia, 
by  putting  an  end  to  their  dependence  upon  the  neignboring  states, 
and  to  the  anarchical  condition  of  affairs  at  home.  Alliance  with 
Prussia  (1790),  which  promised  to  help  the  Poles  if  foreign  nations 
should  attempt  to  interfere  in  their  internal  affairs.  The  ne'W  oon- 
Btitution  of  1791,  drawn  up  by  Ignaz  Potocki  and  his  friends,  1. 
converted  the  elective  monarchy  into  an  hereditary  monarc^,  appoint- 
ing the  elector  of  Saxony  successor  of  the  king  Stanislaus  PoniatovjsH 
and  making  the  throne  hereditary  in  the  house  of  Saxony  ;  2.  con- 
ferred the  executive  power  unon  the  kine  and  a  council  of  state,  the 
legislative  power  upon  a  met  of  the  kingdom  in  two  houses,  with 
abolition  of  the  liberum  veto,  and  3.  made  some  concessions  to  the  mid- 
dle classes  and  the  peasants,  permitting,  for  example,  admission  to 
the  rank  of  the  nobility,  all  of  whose  privileges,  however,  were  con- 
firmed. 

In  opposition  to  this  constitution  there  was  formed  the  Confederacy 
of  Targowitz  (Felix  Potocki),  under  the  protection  of  Russia,  which 
had  guaranteed  the  old  constitution.  A  Russian  army  invaded  Poland. 
Brave,  but  futile  resistance  under  P™ce  Poniatowski  and  Kosciuszko, 
who  were  defeated  at  Dufnenka,  The  king  joined  the  confederacy  of 
Targowitz  ;  the  new  constitution  was  repealed.  Under  pretense  of 
suppressing  Jacobinism,  Prussian  troops  entered  Poland.  Annexa- 
tion of  Danzig  (1793).  Russia  and  Pnissia  issued  a  common  procla- 
mation which  announced  to  the  Poles  that  Russia  and  her  former 
allies  had  already  come  to  an  understanding.  At  the  diet  of  Grodno, 
the  consent  of  the  nation  to  the  new  cessions,  was  extorted. 

RnsBla  took  the  larger  part  of  Lithuania,  being  all  that  remained, 
and  Volhynia  and  Podolia  ;  Pnissia  took  Danzig  and  Thorn,  and  the 
whole  of  Great  Poland  (now  called  South  Prussia),    Besides  all  this, 


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414  Modem  BUUyry.  A.  d. 

Bnnift  enforced  a  treaty  of  umon^  whereby  she  leeeived :  1.  free 
entrance  for  her  tzocme  into  Poland ;  2.  the  oondnet  of  all  fntoie 
wars  ;  3.  the  right  of  confirming  all  treaties  made  by  Poland  with 
foreign  powers. 

1794.  Revolution  in  Pohuid,  under  the  lead  of  Koacdnssko.    The 
Russians  in  Warsaw,  under  Igdstrom^  were  in  part  massacred, 

in  part  driven  from  the  city.  The  Prutskau  entered  Poland,  defeated 
Kosciuszko  at  Szczehosany  (pr.  Shtdtekozmy)f  took  Cracow^  but  be- 
sieged War$aw  in  vain.  The  Russians  were  victorious  at  Brzete  and 
at  Maciejotcice  (pr.  Matekevitz).  Kosciuszko  captured.^  Storm  of 
Prague  by  Suvaroff;  massacre  m  the  city. 

1795.  Third  and  last  partition  of  Poland. 

At  this  partition,  the  three  powers  took  possession  of  the  fol- 
lowing parts  of  Poland : 

Prosaia :  Masooia  with  Warsaw^  the  region  between  the  VUtuioj 
Bug,  and  Niemm  (New  East  Prussia),  part  of  Craoow  ^}few  SUesid); 
2.  Auatria:  Wett  Cfaiicia  as  for  as  the  Bug.  3.  Rnaaia :  all  that 
remained  towards  the  east.  The  powers  obtained,  by  the  three  parti- 
tions, about  the  following  increase  of  territory  : 

Russia,   181,000  square  miles,  with  6,000,000  inhabitants. 
Austria,   46,000      «  «  "    3,700,000 

Prussia,    67,000      «  «  «    2,500,000 

1795.  The  annihilation  of  the  kingdom  of  Poland  led  to  the  incor- 
poration of  Curland  with  Russia.  Curland,  legally  under  the 
crrerlordship  of  Poland,  had  been  praoticaUv  under  Rufi«ian  supremacy 
since  1737,  when  the  empress  Anna  (411)  had  obtained  the  duchy 
for  Biron  against  the  claims  of  the  Marshal  Saxe,  (See  pp.  J^lff,  4S7.) 

§  5.    SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL.  {Seep.  S94.) 

1701-1808  (1814-x).   The  House  of  Bourbon  in  Spain. 

Philip  V.  (1701-1746).  Bloody  punishment  of  the  adherents  of 
the  archduke  Charles  of  Austria  ;  particularly  in  Aragon  and  Cata^ 
Ionia.  Suppression  of  all  old  constitutions  and  rights  \Fueros)  which 
remained.  The  cjuadruple  alliance  against  Spain,  see  p.  397,  die  par- 
ticipation of  Spain  in  the  war  of  the  Polish  Succession  and  ike  estab- 
lishment of  a  secundogeniture  in  Naples,  see  p.  398. 

Under  Philip  and  Ms  successor  Ferdinand  VI.,  1746-1759,  par- 
ticipation in  the  war  of  the  Ausirian  succession,  see  p.  401.  Ferdi- 
nand was  succeeded  by  his  half-brother 

Charles  m.,  1759-1788,  previously  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  p.  417. 
Participation  of  Spain  in  the  Seven  Years'  War  between  £ng^ 
land  and  France  (Peace  of  Paris),  see  p.  441,  and  in  the  war  of 
American  Independence  (Peace  of  Versailles),  see  p.  433.  A  popu- 
lar revolt  against  Italian  favorites  of  the  king,  was  made  the  pretext 

1  Koiciussko  never  made  nse  of  the  well-known  expression  "Finis  Po^ 
lonia,*^  as  he  himself  openly  and  with  indignation  declared. 


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k.  D.  Portugal,  —  Itafy.  415 

for  the  banishment  of  the  Jesuits  from  Spain  (1767)>  which  waa  exe- 
cuted by  the  minister  Aranda. 

Portngal. 

Since  1640  Portngal  was  again  independent  of  Spain,  had  again 
reached  a  certain  degree  of  power  under  the  first  kings  of  the  house 
of  Braganzay  but  was  then  impoverished  by  a  misenSde  administrar 
tion,  and  brought  into  complete  dependence  upon  £ngLmd  by  a  com- 
mercial treaty  with  that  power.  Li  the  reign  of  Joseph  L  Emmanuel 
(1750-1777),  his  minister  Carvalho,  marquis  of  Pombal,  endeav- 
ored to  introduce  revolutionary  reforms,  in  the  spirit  of  the  century, 
in  the  same  direction  as  the  later  attempts  of  Joseph  XL  (p.  408). 
After  the  terrible 

1755*    Nov.  1.    Earthquake  of  Lisbon, 

in  which  30,000  people  lost  their  lives,  Pombal  caused  the 
ruined  portion  of  the  capital  to  be  splendidly  rebuilt  An  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  to  assassinate  the  king  (1758)  formed  a  pretext  for  bar^ 
ishing  the  Jesuits  from  Portu^  (1759),  and  a  welcome  chance  for  the 
minister  to  rid  himself  of  his  enemies.  The  death  of  the  king  was 
followed  by  the  fall  of  Pombal  and  the  undoing  of  his  reforms.  The 
order  of  the  Jesuits  was  dissolved  in  1773,  see  p.  416.  Pombal  sen- 
tenced to  death,  but  pardoned.  {See  pp.  447,  487.) 

§  6.    ITALY.  (Seep,  S£8.) 

Savoy. 

The  dukes  of  Savoy  and  Piedmont,  kings  since  the  peace  of 
Utrecht,  since  1718  kings  of  Sardinia  (p.  397),  understood  how  to 
increase  their  territory,  in  the  eighteenth  century  as  well  as  before, 
by  skillful  use  of  political  relations.  During  the  uxor  of  the  Austrian 
succession  they  acquired  a  considerable  extent  of  land  from  Milan 
(p.  400). 

Gtenoa. 

The  republic  of  Grenoa  was  constantly  obliged  to  defend  her  free- 
dom and  mdependence  against  powerful  neighbors,  who  coveted  her 
territory  (Savoy,  France,  Austria),  In  1730  the  inhabitants  of  the 
uland  of  Corsica,  which  had  been  under  the  supremacy  of  Genoa, 
revolted.  After  a  long  and  fluctuatinfl^  contest,  during  which  a  Ger- 
man adventurer.  Baron  ^euhof  of  Westphalia,  appeared  for  a  time 
as  King  Theodore  L  of  Corsica  (1736),  the  Genoese  called  in  the 
assistance  of  the  French,  who  after  great  exertions  and  bloody  bat- 
tles (particularly  against  Paoli),  succeeded  in  subjugating  the  island, 
which  the  Grenoese  ceded  to  them  in  1768. 

Venice. 

The  republic  of  Venice,  by  conseauence  of  its  obstinate  persis- 
tence in  the  old  aristocratic  forms,  politically  immired,  sank  into  an 
irremediable  decline.    Its  last  laurels  were  gained  in  the  seventeenth 


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416  Modem  Butory.  A.  D. 

century  in  the  glorious  wars  against  the  Turks.  The  latter  sorDriaed 
Candia  and  conquered  a  part  of  the  island  (1645-1647).  The  Vene- 
tian fleet  under  Grimani  and  Riva  repeatedly  defeated  the  much 
stronger  Turkish  fleet.  Brilliant  victory  of  the  admiral  Mocenigo^ 
1651,  and  Moroaini,  1655.  Marcello  annihilated  the  Turkish  fleet 
by  the  Dardanelles  (1656),  Mocenigo  defeated  the  Turks  at  CkioSf 
hut  was  himself  defeated  in  a  second  combat.  New  naval  victories 
over  the  Turks  in  1661  and  1662.  The  Venetians  received  aid  from 
Grermany  and  France,  but  were  obliged,  after  courageous  fighting,  to 
leave  the  island  of  Candia  under  Tujrkish  supremacy.  After  an  alli- 
ance between  the  republic  of  Venice,  the  emperor  and  John  SobiesH 
of  Poland  (1684),  renewal  of  the  war  against  the  Turks.  The  Vene- 
tians under  Morosini,  supported  by  (jerman  mercenaries,  began  the 
conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus  (jMored)  in  1685.  Count  Kikugsmark 
landed  at  Patras  (1687^  and  completed  the  subjugation  of  the  penin- 
sula. Morosini  capturea  Athens;  a  Venetian  bomb  blew  up  the  Par- 
thenon on  the  Acropolis.  Morosini,  who  had  been  elected  doge, 
landed  in  Negroponte  (£ulxBa),  but  the  plague  in  the  army  (Konigs- 
mark  f)  frustrated  the  expedition.  In  the  peace  of  CarlowOz,  1699 
(see  p.  372\  Morea  was  given  to  the  Venetians,  who  repopulated 
the  peninsula  with  Greek  colonists,  but  soon  earned  the  hatred  of 
their  new  subjects  by  the  rigor  of  their  administration. 

Tuscany. 

Tuscany  declined  in  power  after  the  seventeenth  centuir,  as  the 
influence  of  the  clergy  steadily  increased.  Ii^  1737  the  family  of  the 
Medici  became  extinct ;  the  later  members  of  this  house,  sunken  in 
dissipation,  were  sadly  unworthv  of  their  great  ancestors.  After  1737, 
the  mlers  of  Lorraine  were  dukes  of  Tuscany  (see  p.  398)  ;  Leopold 
IL,  upon  his  accession  in  Austria  (1790)  gave  Jhtsoany  to  Ids  second 
son  I^rdinand  Joseph.  Tuscany  was  an  Austrian  secundogeniture  from 
1766-1859. 

Parma,  Placenxa,  and  Goastalla  were  secundogeniiures  for  the 
Spanish  Bourbons  from  1731-1735,  and  again  1748-1859. 

Modena,  since  1597,  was  ruled  by  an  illegitimate  branch  of  the 
house  of  Este. 

Papal  States. 

In  the  Papal  States,  prosperity,  industry,  and  intellectual  life  stead- 
ily declined.  After  the  sixteenth  century  the  papal  chair  was  occu- 
pied by  Italians  only,  w^ho  were  for  the  most  part  members  of  the 
great  families  of  the  nobility.  Among  the  Popes  of  the  eighteenth 
century  Clemens  XIV,  (Ganganelli)  must  be  mentioned,  who  in  1773 
yielded  to  the  demands  of  the  Catholic  courts  and  dissolved  the  order 
of  the  Jesuits,  whose  general,  Ricci,  would  not  entertain  the  idea  of 
reform  (sint  ut  sunt,  aut  non  sint),  by  the  bull  Dominus  ac  redemptor 
noster. 

The  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 

After  1738  this  kingdom  was  a  secundogeniture  of  the  Spanish  Boni^ 
bons,  and  was  given  to  Ferdinand,  third  son  of  Charles  III.,  when  the 


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A.  D.  America:  Biitish  Colonxes.  417 

latter  ascended  the  Spanish  throne  in  1759.  '  Naples  and  Sicily  were 
governed  by  this  branch  of  the  Bourbon  family  solely  in  the  interest 
of  their  house,  and  not  in  that  of  the  people,  for  whose  intellectual 
and  material  welfare  little  or  nothing  was  aone.     (See  pp.  4^7,  487,) 

§  7.    AMERICA:  BRITISH  COLONIES.         (See  p.  S66.) 

1713.  Treaty  with  the  eastern  Indians  at  Portsmouth.  Rectification 
of  the  boundary  between  BffasaaohusettB  and  Conneotioat 
by  the  cession  of  over  100,000  acres  of  land  by  the  former  to 
the  latter. 

1715.  An  Indian  war  in  Carolina  undertaken  by  the  Yamasaeea  and 
allied  tribes.  The  Indians  were  defeated  and  driven  across  the 
Spanish  border  by  governor  Craven. 

1718.  Captain  Woods  Rogers^  appointed  governor  of  New  Providence, 
suppressed  the  buccaneers  in  the  "West  Indies ;  extirpation 
of  the  pirates  on  the  coast  of  Carolina  by  the  governor  of 
that  colony. 

1719-1729.  Overthrow  of  proprietary  government  in  Carolina. 
In  1719  the  people  of  Carolina,  having  for  some  time  chafed  under 
the  arbitrary  government  of  the  proprietors,  formed  an  association  for 
the  overthrow  of  the  proprietary  government.  The  assembly  prov- 
ing unruly  was  dissolved  by  governor  Johnson,  but  refused  to  obey 
the  proclamation  ;  they  elected  a  new  governor  and  council,  and  op- 
posed the  armed  demonstration  of  governor  Johnson  with  an  armed 
defiance.  A  threatened  attack  by  the  Spaniards  only  served  to  show 
more  clearly  the  determined  spirit  of  the  colonists.  (The  Spanish 
expedition  never  reached  Carouna,  beinr  repulsed  from  New  Provi- 
dence, and  overwhelmed  by  a  storm),  llie  late  events  being  reported 
by  the  agent  for  the  colony  in  England,  the  royal  council  declared  the 
charter  of  the  proprietors  forfeited,  and  forthwith  established  a  pro- 
visional royal  government ;  governor  Nicholson  (1721).  In  1729  an 
agp^ement  with  the  proprietors  was  reached  and  confirmed  by  act  of 
parliament.  Seven  of  the  proprietors  sold  their  titles  and  interest  in 
the  colony;  the  eighth  retained  his  property  but  not  his  proprietary 
power.  The  crown  assumed  the  ri^ht  of  nominating  governors  and 
councils.  The  province  was  divided  mto  North  and  South  Carolina. 
1720.     William  Burnet,  governor  of  New  York.    Prohibition  of  trade 

between  the  Indians  and  the  French. 
1722.  In  New  York,  governor  Burnet  continued  his  efforts  to  ob- 
struct the  French  in  their  policy  of  hemming  in  the  English 
searcoast  colonies  on  the  west.  Erection  of  a  trading-house  at 
Oswego  ;  negotiations  with  the  Six  Nations  at  Albany.  (The 
Tuscaroras  Imd  been  admitted  to  the  Iroquois  confederacy  as 
a  sixth  nation). 
1724.-  Indian  hostilities  in  New  Bngland.  War  with  the  Abinakis, 
who  were  incensed  by  the  rapid  extension  of  the  English  settle- 
ments, and  further  provoked  by  the  advice  of  Rasles,  a  French 
Jesuit  at  Norridgewock.  Futile  attempt  of  the  English  to  seize 
Rasles  was  answered  by  the  destruction  of  Berwick,  whereupon 
war  was  declared,  Norridgewock  burnt  and  Rasles  killed. 


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418  Modem  Odoff.  A.  Ik 


17261    The  FanaaeOythoiiglilmi^  Older  tlteptoleeliaB  of  tlteSM 
kids  10  Floridm,  eontjimwl  their  ■— iiHi  on  the  Englnh  ooIobj 
in  Carolinn.    Expedition  of  Palmer  to  St.  Angutiiiey  upon 
whieh  he  eheettwd  the  IndinniL 

1728.  The  general  eonrt  of  M aenachnaettn  hnring  heeome  in? ulfed 
in  n  eontroTeri^  with  guferuor  Mntey  the  Intter  ootnined  from 
the  crown  an  eipianaiorf  diarier  which  gmre  him  power  to 
iupprew  debate,  and  limited  the  time  for  whieh  the  hooae  of 
repreicntatiTea  mi^it  adjonniy  to  two  dnja. 
TnaJkj  off  peace  between  Maaaacfanaettn  and  the  eaatem  Ij»- 
diansy  which  was  long  kepL 

In  Hew  Tork,  n  trnty  with  the  Semeoas^  Cagwfost  and  Omoi^ 
dagoM  added  their  lands  to  those  of  the  Mokawke  and  Oneidae^ 
winch  were  already  nnder  English  proteetion. 

1728.  Burnet  goremoroi  ICaaaacliiiBeCta.  He  was  at  onee  inyolYed 
in  n  wrangle  with  the  legislature  orer  the  question  of  n  fixed 
■alarj  for  the  goremor,  which  the  ooart  refused  to  grant,  "  h»- 
caose  it  is  the  undoubted  right  of  all  Englishmen,  bj  Marina 
Charta,  to  raise  and  dispose  of  money  for  the  puUie  semee, 
of  their  own  free  aecord,  without  compulsion.'* 

The  boundary  between  Vize;inia  and  Horth  Carolina  was  waa- 
reyed  and  settled,  running  through  the  Dismal  Swamp. 

1729.  Diviflion  of  Carolina  into  Horth  and  Soath  Carolina 
(p.  417). 

1731.  Settlement  of  the  disputed  boundary  between  Hew  Tork  and 
Conneoticiit. 

1733»  Settlement  of  Qeorgia,  the  last  of  the  old  thir- 
teen colonies  (New  Hampshire,  MassachusettB,  Rhode 
Island,  Connecticat,  New  Tork,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylra- 
nia,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South 
Carolina,  Geor^^. 
It  being  thought  desiraDle  that  the  goremment  should  secure  for 
England  the  western  part  of  Carolina  in  order  to  prerent  the  French 
or  the  Spaniards  from  Louisiana  or  Flcmda  from  laying  hold  of  it,  a 
charter  for  the  lands  between  the  SoMfonnak  and  AUamaka  riTers  ex- 
tending to  the  Pacific,  under  the  name  of  Oeorgia,  was  granted  to 
Jamaa  Oglethorpe  and  associates,  not  as  proprietors  but  as  trustees 
(twenty-one  in  number),  for  twenty-one  years  for  the  crown,  at  the 
expiration  of  which  time  the  colony  was  to  revert  to  the  crown,  which 
should  then  determine  on  the  manner  of  its  future  goyerment.  lib- 
erty of  conscience  and  freedom  of  worship  were  secured  to  all  inhab- 
itants of  the  colony  except  papists.  Jamea  Oglethorpe,  the  moyiug 
spirit  in  this  projected  colony,  desired  to  establish  within  its  limits  a 
chance  for  reformation  for  English  prisoners,  and  a  home  for  poor 
and  oppressed  Protestants  of  all  nations.  Oglethorpe  brought  the 
first  colonists  in  1733,  and  settled  at  Savannah  ;  conciliation  of  the 
Indians  by  just  purchase  of  lands  and  by  kindness.  Oglethorpe  re- 
fused to  allow  the  importation  either  of  rum  or  of  slaves  mto  G€i>rgia. 
Many  Scotch  Presbyterians  as  well  as  Moravians  from  Austria  came 
to  the  new  colony.  One  of  the  first  enactments  of  the  trustees  de- 
clared that  male  issue  only  could  inherit  land  in  the  colony. 

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▲.  D.  America:  British  Colonies.  419 

1734.  In  Hew  Tork  arrest  of  Zenger,  printer  of  the  Weekly  Jour- 
naif  for  libel  on  the  goremor  (Cosby).  Trial  and  acquittal 
1735. 

1738.  Fonndation  of  a  college  at  Princeton^  in  Hew  Jersey. 

173^1748.    Oreat  Britain  at  war  with  Spain. 

1740.  Unsnoceesful  expedition  of  Oglethorpe  to  Florida  at  the  head 
of  l;200  men  from  Greorgia,  Carolina,  a|Ml  Virginia.  Siege  of 
St.  Augustine, 

Settlement  of  the  boondanr  dispute  between  Maaaaohmette 
and  New  Hampahire  in  ntvor  of  the  latter  colony. 

Expedition  of  Vernon  with  27,000  men  against  Cctrthagena, 
broken  up  by  disease* 

1741.  The  colonies  participated  in  an  attack  on  Cuba, 

1742.  Expedition  of  3,000  Spaniards  to  Georgia  repulsed  by  0^ 
thone  by  stratagem.  In  this  year  Oglethorpe  went  to  England 
and  never  returned  to  America. 

1744'1748.    War  between  Ghreat  Britain  and  Franoe» 

known  in  the  American  colonies  as  King  Gheorge's  War, 

in  reality  a  part  of  the  war  of  the  Austrian  Succession 

(p.  400). 

The  strongest  French  fortification  in  America  outside  of  Quebec 

4rBS  Xfonlaburg  on  Cape  Breton  Island,  a  part,  as  the  English  claimed, 

of  Acadia ;  the  French,  however,  had  refused  to  surrender  it  with 

that  province,  asserting  that  only  Nova  Scotia  was  comprised  under 

that  name. 

1746.  Apr.  90-June  16.  Biege  and  capture  of  XioulBbnrg  by 
4,(MX)  colonial  troops  under  William  Pepperelly  aided  by  a  few 
English  vessels. 

1746.  Projected  conquest  of  Canada,  by  a  united  effort  of  all  the 
colonies  prevented  by  the  arrival  of  a  large  French  fleet  at 
Nova  Sootia  under  lyAnoille,  which  spread  consternation 
Aroughout  the  English  colonies,  but  which,  by  the  death  of 
jyAnvHUf  the  suffering  of  the  troops  through  pestilence  and 
the  loss  of  vessels  by  storm,  was  prevented  from  accomplishing 
anything. 

1747.  Nov.  17.    An  attempt  of  the  English  commander,  KnowUs,  to 

press  men  for  his  vessels  in  Boston,  caused  an  uprising  of  the 
people;  the  governor  withdrew  to  Castle  William,  and  the  dis- 
turbance ?piis  only  quieted  by  the  release  of  most  of  the  men 
seised. 

1748.  Treaty  of  Alz-la-Chapelle  between  England,  France,  and 
Spain.  In  the  reciprocal  surrender  of  conquests.  Cape  Breton 
was  restored  to  tiie  French  (p.  404). 

Formation  of  the  Ohio  Company  under  a  charter  from  the 
English  crown,  which  gave  great  offense  to  the  French. 
1760.  In  spite  of  the  confirmation  of  the  cession  of  Acadia  to  Eng- 
land by  the  treaty  of  Aiz-lsrChapelle,  hostilities  sprang  up  be- 
tween the  French  and  English  there,  owing  to  oisputes  over 
the  boundaries. 


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420  Modem  Bittory.  a,  dw 

175L  GovetBOt  ClintoBy  of  New  York,  in  aaaociatioii  with  Soaib 
Garolinay  Massachusetts  and  Connecticaty  coneladed  a  peace 
with  the  Six  Nations. 

1752.  The  trustees  of  Greorgia  finding  that  the  colony  did  not  flourish 
under  their  care,  gave  up  their  charter,  and  the  crown  assumed 
control,  and  placed  Georgia  on  the  same  footing  with  other 
royal  colonies. 

The  English  parliament  adopted  the  reformed  or  Gkagorian 
oalendar  for  England  and  the  colonies  (p.  438). 

1753.  The  growth  of  the  British  colonies  extending  more  and  more 
west^nkrd  caused  the  disputes  between  Engb^d  and  France  to 

grow  to  a  head.  The  French  claimed  the  Mistisgippi  and  the  SL 
lAiwrence^  and  all  the  region  between  from  the  Appalachians  to  the 
Spanish  settlements  in  the  west,  and  were  intent  on  securing  this  re- 
gion by  a  line  of  forts  directly  back  of  the  English  colonies.  Accord- 
mg  to  the  English  all  French  settlements  wiSiin  the  territory  of  the 
colony  of  Plymouth  (p.  293)  were  iUeeal ;  they  also  claimed  the 
whole  reeion  occupied  oy  the  Iroquois,  The  settlement  of  Oeorgia 
and  the  £>undation  of  the  Ohio  Company  were  attempts  to  counter- 
act the  progress  of  the  French,  and  these  moves  in  their  turn  were  a 
cause  of  uneasiness  to  the  French,  who  seized  traders  within  the  limits 
of  the  Ohio  Company.  As  the  lands  of  the  company  were  within  the 
territory  of  Virginia,  Robert  Dinwiddie^  goyemor  of  that  colony,  dis- 
TOitched  George  Washington  to  the  forts  on  the  Alleghany  and  the 
Ohio  to  remonstrate  with  the  French  (Oct  31-Dec.  12).  The  com- 
mander of  the  Ohio  forts  promised  to  lay  the  remonstrance  before 
the  goyemor  of  Canada. 

1754.  Virginia  immediately  sent  a  force  to  the  Ohio^  two  companies 
of  which  were  under  Washington,    In  the  advance  upon  Fort 

Du  Quesne^  at  the  juncture  of  the  Alleghany  and  Monongahela,  he 
captured  a  small  French  party,  but  was  besieged  in  Fort  NeoessUy^ 
which  he  had  erected,  and  forced  to  capitulate  under  condition  of  free 
withdrawal  (July  4). 

June  19.  Conference  of  colonial  delegates  at  Albany  with  the  Six 
Nations.  By  the  advice  of  Benjamin  Franklin  the  conference 
also  drew  up  a  plan  of  a  union  of  all  the  colonies  under  a  president 
appointed  by  the  crown,  with  a  grand  council  of  delegates  elected  by 
the  colonial  assemblies,  with  a  right  of  legislation  subject  to  the  veto 
of  the  president  and  the  approvu  of  the  crown.  Connecticut,  object- 
ing to  the  veto  power,  rerused  to  sign  the  proposal,  which  was  after- 
wards rejected  both  by  the  colonies  and  the  crown. 

1755-1763.  War  between  England  and  Franoe,  called 
in  the  American  colonies  '*  The  Old  French  and  In- 
dian War ; "  being  a  part  of  the  Seven  Years*  War, 
in  Europe,  which  was  fought  in  Asia  and  Africa  as  welL 
War  was  not  declared  until  the  following  year,  but  it  is 
reckoned  from  1755  (p.  404  and  438). 

1755.  While  a  conference  of  the  colonial  governors  with  general 
Braddock,  who  was  sent  from  England  to  take  chief  commanc^ 


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A.  D.  America :  British  Colonies.  421 

decided  cm  three  expeditions:  1.  against  Fort  Dn  Qneane;  2.  against 
the  fort  at  Niagara ;  3.  against  the  French  fort  at  Crown  Point  in 
Kew  York;  a  band  of  3,0(X)  Massachusetts  troops  under  Wirulow  and 
Moncktan  captured  forts  Beausejour  and  Gaspereaux  in  the  disputed  dis- 
trict in  Nova  Scotia  (June  16-17),  and  dispersed  among  the  Britii^ 
colonies  about  7,000  of  the  inhabitants  who  refused  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  England  (''  Evangeline  "). 

Meantime  general  Braddock  took  the  offensive  at  the  head  of  the 
British  regulars  against  Fort  du  Queme,  and  fell  into  an  ambuscade, 
in  consequence  of  neglectine^  the  advice  of  the  provincial  officers 
(Waahington),  and  suffered  a  complete  defeat  and  great  loss  in  the 
1755^  July  9.  BatUe  of  Fort  da  Qaeane  or  «  Braddock'a  defeat." 
Death  of  Braddock. 
Attack  on  Crown  Point :  Construction  of  Fort  Edward  on  the 
east  of  the  Hudson  (Aug.). 

Sept  8.  Battle  of  Lake  George;  defeat  of  the  French  under  Dies- 
kau  (t),  bv  the  provincial  troops  under  Johnson,  Construction 
of  Fort  William  Henry  at  the  south  end  of  Lake  Greorge  by  the 
English.  Fortification  of  Ttconderoga^  between  Lake  George 
and  Lake  Champlain,  by  the  French. 
The  expedition  to  NiaflpEura  was  subjected  to  so  many  delays  that 
it  was  for  the  time  abandoned. 

1756,  Great  Britain  declared  war  on  France.  Earl  of  Loudoun  conn 
mander-in-chief  of  forces  in  America. 

Aug.    Forts  Oswego  and  George  captured  by  the  marquis  of  Mont- 
calm, conunander-in-chief  of  the  French  armies  in  Canada, 
and  destroyed. 
This  disastisr  occasioned  -the  abandonment  of  the  projected  enter- 
prises against  NiagarOj  Crown  Point,  Fort  du  Quesne  and  Eastern 
Canada,    Fortifications  of  Georgia  and  Carolina  (Fort  Loudoun  on  the 
Tennessee  river).    The  French  constructed  a  system  of  forts  in  the 
region  of  the  Imnois. 

1757,  August  9.    Capture  of  Fort  William  Henry  by  Montcalm, 

maaaaore  of  the  garrison,  whose  retreat  to  Fort  Edward  was 
guaranteed,  by  the  Indians  in  Montcalm's  army. 
In  MasBachuaetta,  controversy  between  the  governor.  Lord  Lou- 
doun and  the  general  court  over  the  quartering  of  troops. 

In  Pennsylvania,  controversy  between  the  governor  and  the  a»- 
semblv  over  a  scheme  of  taxation  ;  the  governor  refusing  lus  assent  to 
the  bill,  the  assembly  demanded  the  assent  as  their  right. 

1758,  July  8.    Repulse  of  Abercrombie  before  Ticonderoga. 

Bzpedition  against  Louiabnrg  (May  28-July  26).  Cap- 
ture of  the  fortress  (Amherst  and  Wolfe,  July  26). 

Aug.  27.    Capture  of  Fort  Frontenao  by  Bradstreet. 

Nov.  25.  Capture  of  Fort  du  Quesne  by  General  Forbes,  The 
fort  was  named  Ft  Pitt  (Pittsburg). 

1759,  July  25.     Capture  of  Fort  Niagara  by  Sir  William  Johnson. 
July  26.    Capture  of  Ticonderoga  by  Major-Greneral  Amherst. 

Expedition  of  Major-Crcneral  Wolfe  from  Louisburg  against  Que- 
bec.   Repulsed  at  the  Montmorency;  Wolfe  conducted  lus  force  by 


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422  Modem  History.  A.  ix 

night  to  the  elevated  plateaa  behind  Quebec  called  the  Plama  of 

Abrdkam,  where  in  the 

1759^  Sept.  13.  Battle  of  the  Plains  of  Abraham  the  French 
under  Montcalm  were  completely  defeated.  Death  of  Woift 
and  Montcalm.    Buxrender  of  Qnebeo  (Sept  18). 

1760.  Sept.  8.    Montreal  and  all  Canada  surrendered  to  the  Eng- 

lish. 

1761.  The  wxitB  of  aBaistance  in  MaaaachtisettB.  The  English 
goyemment  (Board  of  Trade  reestablished  1695)  having  for 

some  time  adhered  to  a  course  of  commercial  restrictions  and  duties 
upon  the  colonies  (^  molasses  charged  with  duty  except  that  imported 
from  the  British  West  Indies,  1733 ;  erection  of  rolling  mills  prohib- 
ited, 1760  ;  the  slaye  trade  fayored  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the 
colonial  legislatures  of  Virginia  and  Carolina,  etc.)  haa  roused  a  spirit 
of  resistance  throof  hont  the  colonies  based  on  the  perception  that 
such  duties  were  a  form  of  taxation  without  representation.  Hence 
so  much  eyasion  was  practised  that  finally  the  custom  house  officials 
in  Boston  applied  to  the  superior  court  of  judicature  {ThamoB  Huichn 
inson,  chief  justice)  for  the  issue  of  writs  of  assistance  such  as  were 
granted  by  the  exchequer  in  England.  The  case  was  argued  for  the 
colonists  by  Thacher^  and  especially  by  Jamea  Otia,  (1725-1783), 
who  urged  the  dangerous  character  of  the  writ  as  being  senrable  by 
any  officer  against  any  person  for  any  length  of  time,  and  accused  the 
acts  of  trade  as  infringements  of  the  charter.  The  court  deferred  its 
decision  ;  it  would  seem  that  the  writs  were  ultimately  granted,  but 
that  the  officers  did  not  yenture  to  use  them. 

1762.  Expedition  against  BSartiniqne,  by  the  royal  and  proyincial 
troops ;  surrender  of  this  island,  of  Orenada,  St.  jbudOf  SL 
Vincentf  and  of  all  the  other  French  West  Indies. 

War  between  Bngland  and  Spain  (p.  439). 
July.    Storm  of  Havana,  which  was  surrendered  to  the  English. 

1763»  Feb.  10.  Peace  of  Paris,  between  Ghreat  Britain, 
Franoe,  Spain,  Portugal  (Prdiminaiy  articles  1762, 
Nov.  3,  at  Fontainebleau,  p.  439). 

1;  France  ceded  to  Bngland,  Nova  Scotia^  or  Acadia^  Canada, 
Cape  Breton,  and  all  other  islands  in  the  jnilf  and  riyer  of  St,  Lait*- 
*encej  reaervlng  the  right  to  fish  and  dry  niBh  on  a  part  of  Newf  ound- 
iand,  and  of  fishing  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  three  leagues  from 
the  shore,  and  at  a  distance  of  fifteen  leagues  from  Ccme  Breton  ;  also 
the  river  and  harbor  of  Mobile  and  everything  on  the  left  of  the  mid- 
dle of  the  Mississippi,  the  Iberville,  and  lakes  Mawrepas  and  Ponchar- 
train,  except  New  Orleans,  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  to  be 
free  for  both  England  and  France  ;  also  Grenada,  St.  Vincent,  Do- 
minique, Tobago*  In  all  ceded  districts  certain  civil  and  religious 
rights  were  secured  to  the  French  inhabitants.  Englsmd  ceded  to 
France  the  islands  of  St,  Peter  and  Miquelon  in  the  Gulf  of  St 
Lawrence  for  fishing  stations,  not  to  be  fortified,  and  ChioddUnme^ 
Marigalante,  Bestrode,  Martinique,  BeUeisle,  St.  Lucia,  in  the  West 
Indies. 


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A.  V.  America :  British  OoUmies.  423 

2.  Spain  oeded  to  England  Florida^  and  all  other  ponetBions  east 
of  the  Mississippi ;  Spain  also  gave  up  her  claims  to  the  Newfound- 
land fisheries  ;  England  restored  Havana  to  Spain  and  destroyed  all 
English  fortresses  in  Spanish  America ;  right  to  cut  and  transport 
dye  wood  reserved. 

3.  France  ceded  to  Spain  the  whole  of  Louisiana  and  New  Or^ 
leans  by  a  previous  treaty  of  Nov.  3, 1762. 

The  English  acquisitions  were  divided  into  the  four  governments 
of  Quehecy  East  Florida^  West  Florida  and  Grenada, 

Th»  number  of  inhabitants  in  the  old  thirteen  colonies  at  this  time 
was  about  two  millions. 

1763.    The  oonapiracy  of  Pontiao. 

Pontiac  was  the  chief  of  the  Ottatoasy  a  firm  friend  of  the 
French  ;  relying  on  the  vain  hope  of  assistance  from  whom,  he  resolved 
to  wrest  from  the  English  the  border  fortresses.  To  this  end  he 
formed  an  alliance  of  almost  all  the  tribes  of  the  Algonquin  race, 
with  the  Wyandots  and  Senecas,  The  other  nations  of  the  Iroquois 
were  with  fireat  difficulty  kept  quiet  by  the  influence  of  Sir  William 
Johnson,  Fontiac  had  planned  to  open  the  attack  by  the  treacher- 
ous seizure  of  the  fort  at  Detroit  on  May  7.  Foiled  in  this  by  the 
coolness  of  Gladwyn,  the  English  commander,  who  had  been  previ- 
ously informed  of  the  plot,  the  enraged  chief  opened  the  siege  of 
the  fort  (May  9)  and  war  broke  out  along  the  whole  line  from  the 
Mississippi  to  Canada.  In  a  short  time  Fort  Pitt^  Niagara,  and  De- 
troit, of  all  the  border  fortresses,  alone  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
English.  In  July  Boquet  forced  his  way,  under  severe  fighting,  to 
Fort  Pitt,  which  he  relieved.  Pontiac  maintained  before  Detroit  the 
longest  siege  which  the  Indians  ever  executed,  but  on  September  3, 
the  garrison  was  relieved  by  a  schooner  from  Niagara,  and  with  the 
approach  of  winter  the  Indians  withdrew.  The  western  tribes  were 
not  subdued  before  1765,  but  the  danger  was  over*  Pontiac  did  not 
long  outlive  his  failure. 

1763,  Pazton  boys  in  Pennsylvania  ;  massacre  of  converted  Indians. 
The  peace  gave  to  Great  Britain  time  to  enforce  more  vigorously 

that  system  of  repression  and  taxation  which  the  ministers  thought 
the  fittinff  method  of  dealing  with  the  too  independent  colonists,  while 
it  save  the  colonists  time  to  reflect  upon  ana  to  resent  such  a  pro- 
cedure. 
1763-1765.    George  Orenville,  prime  minister. 

1764,  March.    Parliament  voted  that  they  had  a  rig?U  to  tax  the 

American  colonies,  though  the  colonies  were  not  represented. 
Passage  of  the  sugar  act  0*  it  is  just  and  necessary  that  a  reve- 
nue bo  raised  in  Ajnerica  )  and  of  an  act  for  increasing  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  revenue  service. 

Publication  at  Boston  of  <<  The  Rights  of  the  British  Colonies  as- 
serted and  proved,"  by  James  Otis.  Adoption  of  a  resolution 
not  to  use  British  manufactures. 

1765,  Bffarch.  Paaaage  of  the  Stamp  Aot;  prescribing  the  use 
of  stamped  paper  for  legal  documents,  pamphlets,  and  newa- 
papers  throughout  the  colonies.    (Speech  of  Colonel  Barre,) 


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424  Modem  History,  A.  d. 

The  news  was  received  in  America  with  the  g^^eatest  indigna- 
tion.   Besolutions  of  the  house  of  burgesses  in  Virgliiia  de- 

1765,  May  30.    nying  the  right  of  taxation,  introdooed  bj  Patrlok 

Henry  (1736-1797). 
Oct.  7.  Meeting  of  a  congress  of  twenty  eight  delegates  from  Mas- 
sachusetts Rhode  iSand,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylyania,  Delaware,  Maryland,  South  Carolina  (Virginia,  NorUi 
Carolina,  Georgia  were  not  represented,  but  were  in  sympathy  with  the 
colonies)  at  New  York  in  accordance  with  the  proposition  of  Masssr 
chusetts.  The  assembly  drew  up  petitions  and  memorials  to  the 
king  and  parliament,  and  adopted  a  ''Declaration  of  rights  and 
Ubertle8'*(0ct.  19). 

The  arrival  of  stamp  officers  led  to  riots  in  yarions  cities,  as  in  Bos- 
ton, where  the  officer  (Andrew  Oliyer)  was  burnt  in  effigy,  his  house 
and  that  of  lieutenant-goyemor  Hutchinson  sacked,  in  New'Tork, 
etc.    Non-importation  and  non-consumption  agreements. 
1765-1766.    Rockingham  prime  minister. 

1766,  March.    Repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act,  which  had  broueht  in  no 

reyenue  {Pitt,  Burke)  ;  examination  of  Benjamin  Franklin 
(b.  Jan.  17, 1706  ;  d.  Apr.  17,  1790)  ;  agent  of  Pennsylyania, 
before  the  commons.  The  repeal  was  accompanied  by  a  de- 
claratory act,  asserting  that  **  parliament  has  power  to  bind  the 
coUmieg  in  all  cases  whalsoever ''  (March,  1766  k 

1766-1770.  Dnke  of  Grafton  prime  minister  (Earl  of  Chatham 
priyy  seal). 

1^67.  Duty  imposed  on  glass,  paper f  painters*  colors^  and  tea  introduced 
into  the  colonies  (this  measure  followed  the  defeat  of  the  min- 
istry on  the  land  tax  in  England,  which  cost  the  revenue  a 
large  sum).  Out  of  the  revenue  thus  collected  Jixed  salaries 
were  to  be  paid  royal  officials. 
New  York  having  refused  to  make  provision  for  troops  quar- 
tered upon  the  colony,  the  legislative  power  of  the  assembly 
was  suspended  by  parliament  until  compliance. 
Creation  of  a  custom  house  and  board  of  commissioners  for 
America. 

1768.  Petition  of  Massachusetts  to  the  king  ;  circular  letter  to  the 
other  colonies.  The  British  ministry  demanded  that  the  court 
rescind  the  circular  letter  ;  the  court  refused  to  do  so  (92  to  17), 
whereupon  governor  Bernard  dissolved  the  assembly.  Similar 
proceemngs  occurred  in  other  colonies. 

June.  The  seizure  of  John  Hancocks  sloop  Liberty,  for  a  false  en- 
try by  the  custom  house  officials  in  Boston,  caused  a  riot,  and 
the  officials  fled  to  Castle  William. 

Oct.     Arrival  of  British  troops  at  Boston.    The  selectmen  refused 
to  provide  quarters  for  the  men. 
First  settlement  made  in  Tennessee. 

1769.  Parliament  adopted  a  resolution  looking  to  the  trial  of  acts  of 
treason  committed  in  the  colonies  in  England.  Resolutions  of 
the  house  of  burgesses  in  Virginia  denouncing  this  position. 
The  governor  dissolved  the  assembly.  Sinular  reaolntiona 
were  adopted  in  other  colonies. 


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▲•  D.  America :  British  CdUmies*  425 

The  general  court  of  Massachiuetts,  refusing  to  do  business 
while  a  guard  ?pii8  stationed  at  the  state-house,  was  adjourned 
to  Cambridge.    Refusal  to  provide  for  the  troops.    Submission 
of  the  assembly  in  New  York. 
1770-1782.    Lord  North  prime  minister. 

1770.  The  Boston  maaaaore.    In  a  broil  between  the  populace 
March  5.    and  the  British  soldiers  in  King  (State)  street,  three  men 

were  killed  and  eight  wounded.    The  officer  in  command 
(Preston)   was  brought  to  trial,  but  acquitted  (defended  by 
John  Aaanu  and  Jonah  Quincif). 
March.    Act  repealing  the  duty  on  paper,  glass,  and  painters'  colors, 
but  retaining  that  on  tea. 

1771.  Insurrection  of  the  ''regulators''  in  North  Carolina  sup- 
pressed by  governor  Tryon. 

^niomaa  Hntchinaon  (f ormerhr  lieutenant-governor)  governor 
of  Maaaachuaatta  (went  to  ^England,  1774). 

1772.  Deatraotion  of  the  British  revenue  sehooner  Gaapaa,  which 
June  10.  had  made  itself  very  obnozions  to  the  people  of  Rhode  Island, 

and  now  ran  f^round  in  pursuit  of  a  packet.     In  spite  of  a 
large  reward  offered,  no  information  concerning  the  offenders 
was  ever  given. 
Settlement  of  the  boundary  between  North  and  Bonth  Caro- 


1773.  The  Virginia  assembly  appointed  a  committee  of  correspond- 
ence for  intercourse  with  the  other  colonies. 
The  resolution  of  the  colonies  having  caused  a  diminution  both 
in  the  revenue  and  in  the  sale  of  tea,  the  British  government 
i^reed  to  relieve  the  East  India  Company  of  exportation  duty 
if  the  company  would  transport  its  teas  to  the  American  col- 
onies. Cargoes  were  therefore  sent  to  New 'York,  Fhiladel- 
phia,  Charleston,  Boston.  New  York  and  PhiladdMa  sent 
iMick  the  ships  ;  at  Charleston  the  tea  was  stored  in  damp  oel- 
lars,  where,  as  there  was  no  demand  for  it,  it  soon  spoiled.  At 
Boston,  as  the  return  of  the  ships  could  not  be  obtamed, 

1773,  Dec.  16.  They  were  boarded  by  citizens  disguised  as  Indians, 

and  342  chests  of  tea  were  emptied  in  the  water  (Boaton  Tea 
Party). 
Daniet  Boon  settled  in  Kentucky*    English  settlement  near  the 
Natchez. 

1774,  Mar.    Passage  of  the  Boston  Port  Bill,  closing  Boston  to  the 

importation  and  exportation  of  all  goods  except  food  or  fuel ; 
and  of  **  an  act  for  the  better  regrdcSng  the  government  of  Mas- 
sachusetts,*'  which  was  a  virtual  revooation  of  the  oharter, 
giving  the  governor  great  increase  of  power.  Another  act  de- 
creed that  persona  aoouaed  of  mnrder  or  any  capital  crime 
In  aiding  government  should  be  tried  in  ]^gland,  or  in 
some  other  colony  than  that  wherein  the  crime  was  committed. 
Gleneral  GkLge,  commander-in-chief  of  the  royal  forces  in  North 
America,  was  appointed  governor  of  Maaaaohuaetta. 
June  1.    The  port  act  went  into  operation  in  Boston. 

County   conventions    throughout    Maaaachuaetta    protested 
against  the  acts  (Aug.-Sept.). 

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426  Modem  Bisiarg.  A.  d. 

Sept  The  Soifolk  oonreiitioii  reaolved :  '^That  no  obedienee  is  due 
from  the  province  to  either  or  any  part  of  the  said  acts,  bat 
that  they  shoold  be  rejected  as  the  attempts  of  a  wicked  ad- 
ministration to  enslave  America." 
Tlie  project  of  a  congress  of  the  colonies,  moved  in  1773  by 
i^Wml^^tfi,  was  taken  up  by  Rhode  Uland,  Virginia,  BCa»- 
aaohnaettB,  and  the  other  colonies  (except  Geoigia). 

1774»  Sept.  6.    Continental  Ck>ngres8 

at  Philadelphia.  Peyton  Randolph^  president.  Among  the 
members  were  :  Samuel  and  John  Adams  (Massachnsetts^,  John 
Jay  (New  York),  George  Washington,  Patriok  Henry  (Virginia). 
An  address  was  prepared  to  the  king,  memorials  to  the  people  of 
British  America,  ana  to  the  people  of  Great  Britain,  to  Canada, 
Florida,  Greorgia,  etc.  A  declaration  of  rights  was  drawn  np.  The 
congress  also  concluded 

Oct  20.  The  American  Aasooiation  ;  an  agreement  to  prevent 
all  importation  and  exportation  from  and  to  Great  Britam  nntil 
the  acts  were  repealed.  On  Oct.  26,  the  congress  separated  with  a 
resolve  to  meet  the  next  year  if  justice  bid  not  by  that  time  been 
done. 

In  the  meantime  more  British  troops  had  been  concentrated  at 
Boston,  and  the  town  had  been  fortified.  The  town  was  the  recipient 
of  much  sympathy  and  many  generous  gifts  from  the  other  colonies* 
Oct  The  house  of  representatives  in  Massachusetts  having  been 
dissolved  by  the  governor  Sept.  28,  met,  and  voting  them- 
Oct  26.    selves  a  provincial  congress,  proceeded  to  organise  the 

militia  (minute-men)  and  collect  stores  and  ammunition. 
1775.    Fruitless  attempt  of  tiie  opposition  in  parliament  under  lord 
Chatham  to  procure  the  repeal  of  harsh  measures  toward  the 
cdonies. 

Acts  for  restraining  the  trade  of  New  England  and  the  southern 
colonies.  A  **  conciliatory  "  measure  introduced  by  lord  North 
exempting  from  taxation  any  colony  which  would  undertake 
to  raise  the  quota  assessed  upon  it  The  act  met  witii  no  re- 
sponse. 
Feb.  26.  A  British  expedition  to  Salem,  to  seize  some  cannon  stored 
there,  was  opposed  by  a  few  militia  under  colonel  Pickering, 
but  finally  withdrew  without  bloodshed. 

1775-1783.    War  of  Independence. 

April  19.    Bkirmishes  at  Lexington  and  Concord. 

A  body  of  800  British  soldiers,  detailed  to  destroy  stores  at 
Concord,  fired'  upon  a  number  of  provincials  assembled  on  the  green 
at  Lexington,  killing  eight  men ;  an  ineffectual  fire  was  retiuned. 
Proceeding  to  Concord,  the  British  destroyed  the  stores,  but  were 
obliged  to  retreat  {/ght  at  the  bridge)  ;  the  retreat  became  a  rout 
before  they  reached  Islington,  where  lord  Percy  with  fresh  troops 
met  them.  The  further  retreat  to  Boston  was  much  embarrassed  by 
the  constantly  increasing  number  of  provincials  Hie  British  loot 
273  men ;  the  Americans  103. 


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/L.  D.  America:  British  Colonies.  427 

In  BCaMaphnsettB  a  large  anny  was  raised  and  encamped  near 

Boston. 

May  10.  Capture  of  Ticonderoga  by  the  provincials  under  Ethan 
Allen, 

May  12.    Capture  of  Croum  Point  by  Seth  Warner, 

May  10.    Meeting  of  the  Contiiiental  Congress  at  Philadelphia. 

May  31.    The  county  convention  of  Mecklenburg  Co,,  North  Carolina, 
declared  the  colonial  charter  suspended,  and  the  government 
vested  in  the  provincial  and  continental  congresses. 
The  troops  before  JBoston  were  adopted  as  the  American  continental 

army ;  and  Oeorge  'Waahington  (bom  Feb.  22,  1732  ;  died  Dec 

14, 1199)  was  appointed  commander^inrchief  of  the  provincial  forces 

(June  15). 

June  17.  Battle  of  Bunker's  (more  properly  Breed's^  Hill,  opposite 
Boston,  where  the  Americans  had  thrown  up  intrenchments. 
The  provincials  were  finally  driven  from  their  intrenchment, 
after  their  ammunition  gave  out,  but  not  before  they  had  in- 
flicted a  loss  of  1054  men  on  the  British,  themselves  losing 
about  450  men  (  Warren  f). 

July  3.  Washington  took  command  of  the  American  army  at  Cam- 
bridge. 

1776,  July-3tfarch  17, 1776.     Siege  of  Boaton. 

1775,  Aug.  Georgia  joined  the  other  colonies.  An  expedition 
agamst  Canada  heing  resolved  upon,  general  Montgomery  took 
Montreal  (Nov.  12),  but  was  defeated  and  killed  before  Quebec 
(Dee.  31),  where  Benedict  Arnold  had  joined  him  after  an  ar- 
auous  march.    Fruitless  siege  of  Quebec  by  Arnold. 

1776,  March  4.    Occupation  of  Dorchester  Heights  by  Washington. 
March  17.    Bvaoaation  of  Boaton. 

1776,  April  23.    North  Carolina  authorized  its  delegates  to  join 

in  a  declaration  of  independence. 
May  15.    Congress  voted  "  that  the  exercise  of  every  kind  of  authority 
under  ue  crown  should  be  totally  suppressed,"  and  extended 
to  all  the  colonies  its  advice  that  they  should  set  up  govern- 
ments for  themselves. 
Virginia  directed  its  delegates  to  introduce  a  resolution  an- 
nouncing the  independence  of  the  colonies. 
Jane  7.    In  congress  it  was  moved  by  Riohard  Henry  Lee  of  Vir- 
ginia, and  seconded  by  John  Adams  of  Maaaachaaetta,  "  That 
these  united  colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and  indepen- 
dent states  ;  that  they  are  absolved  from  all  allegiance  to  the  British 
crown,  and  that  all  political  connection  between  them  and  the  state  of 
Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totallv  dissolved.*'    The  resolution 
was  referred  and  a  committee  appointed  to  draft  a  declaration,  which 
accepted  one  prepared  by  Thomaa  Jefferson,  of  Virginia.     Reported 
June  28.    Debate  Jidy  1.    The  resolution  waa  adopted  by  all 
the  ooloniea  except  Jyew  York,  whose  delegates  were  not  instructed 
on  so  grave  a  matter,  July  2. 
June  18.    Evacuation  of  Canada  by  the  Americans. 
Jane  28.    Repulse  of  the  British  before  fort  Sullivan  (Moultrie) 
off  Charleston,  S.  C. 


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428  Modem  History.  A.  d. 

1776i  Jiily  4.    Adoption  of  the  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence.   (Signed  Aug.  2  and  later.) 
To  have  taken  up  a  position  of  independence  was  a  moral 
gain  for  the  colonies,  but  the  act  ?pii8  followed  by  a  period  of 
military  disaster. 
After  the  surrender  of  Boston,  Washington  went  to  New  York, 
which  was  soon  attacked  by  the  two  Howes  with  some  30,000  men. 
The  British  commanders  brought  offers  of  peace,  but  they  were  not 
acceptable. 

Aug.  27.    Battle  of  Loxig  Uland  ;  defeat  of  general  Putnam.    Re- 
treat of  the  Americans  to  New  York. 
Sept.  15.    Occupation  of  New  Tork  by  the  British.    Washington 

retreated  to  the  Harlem  heights. 
Sept.  22.    Captain  Nathan  Hale,  sent  to  reconnoitre  the  British 
force  on  Long  Island,  was  captured  and  immediately  executed 
by  order  of  Sir  William  Howe  ;  the  attendance  of  a  clergy- 
man was  denied  him,  and  his  last  letters  to  his  mother  and 
friends  were  destroyed. 
Disaster  also  overtook  the  colonists  in  the  North. 
Oct.  11-13.    Defeat  of  Arnold  in  two  naval  engagements  on  Lake 

Champlain.    Occupation  of  Croton  Point  by  the  British. 
Oct.  28.    Battle  of  White  Plains,  near  New  York.    Defeat  of 

Washington. 
Nov.  16.    Capture  of  Fcft  Washington  by  the  British. 
Nov.  20.    Evacuation  of  Fort  Lee  by  the  Americans. 
Nov.  28.    Washington  retreated  across  Ne'w  Jersey,  and  passed 

into  Pennaylvania. 
Dec.  26.    Battle  of  Trenton  ;  Washington  having  crossed  the  Dela- 
ware by  night,  surprised  and  captured  about  1,000  Hessians  at 
Trenton  ;  two  days  afterward  he  occupied  the  town  in  force, 
and  defeated  the  British  in 
1777,  Jan.  3.    The  Battle  of  Prinoeton.    The  Americans  overran 
New  Jersey,  and  several  skirmishes  occurred  with  the  enemy 
during  the  spring.    The  army  was  in  a  very  bad  condition,  owing 
largely  to  lack  of  money,  which  congress  could  supply  only  by  the 
issue  of  paper  money  wluch  soon  depreciated  largely.     Even  the  ar- 
rival of  tiie   marquis  of  Lafayette^  who  was  appomted  major-general 
(July  31, 1777)  brought  only  temporary  encouragement 
Bnrgoyne'a  and  St.  Lager's  campaign  from  Canada. 

The  summer  of  1777  saw  a  change  of  fortune.  The  British  had 
planned  to  cut  the  colonies  in  two  bv  an  expedition  under  general 
Bnrgoyne  from  Canada,  which  should  be  met  by  a  northward  move- 
ment of  the  army  in  New  York.  (Capture  of  forts  Clinton  and 
Montgomery,  Oct.  6.)  Burgoyne  took  Ticonderoga  July  6,  and  de- 
feated the  Americans  at  Hubbardton  July  7. 

As  Burgoyne  reached  Fort  Edward,  Schuyler,  who  had  but  half  his 
force,  retired  to  Saratoga.  Meantime  St.  Leger,  who  was  to  cooper- 
ate with  Burgoyne  from  Lake  Ontario,  besieged  Fort  Schuyler  aad  de- 
feated Herkimer  (Aug.  6),  but  returned  to  Montreal  on  the  approach 
of  Arnold  with  reinforcements. 


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^.  D.  America:  British  Colonies.  429 

Hearing  of  provisions  and  stores  at  BenmmgUm  in  Vermont  (then 
called  New  Hampshire  Grants)  Burgoyne  sent  colonel  Bawn  to  seize 
them,  who  was  defeated  by  general  Stark  in  the 
1777,  Aug.  16.    Battle  of  Bemiingtoii. 

Schuyler  succeeded  by  Gates. 
Sept.  19.    Borgoyne    fought  the  battle  of  BtUlwater  (first  battle 

of  Bemis^s  Heights^  or  battle  of  FreemarCs  FarriC)^  retaining  the 
field,  although  he  suffered  a  heavier  loss  than  the  Americans.  On 
Oct.  7,  a  second  battle  was  fought  at  Btill^v'ater  (second  battle  of 
Bemi8*3  Heights  or  Saratoga),  in  which  the  British  were  defeated. 
Being  now  sorrounded  and  finding  retreat  impracticable, 
1.777,  Oct.  17.    Borgoyne  surrendered  his  entire  force  (about  6,600 

men)  to  Qatee. 
Ho'we's  Campaign. 

In  the  south  events  were  less  fortunate.     On  Aug.  25  general 
Howe  disclosed  his  purpose  of  attacking  Philadelphia.     Washington 
immediately  offered  oattle,  but  in  the 
Sept.  11.    Battle  of  the  Brand3rwine 

the  Americans  were  defeated,  although  they  retired  in  good 

order  (general  Greene). 
Sept.  27.    Howe  occupied  Philadelphia. 

Washington  attempted  to  surprise  the  camp  at  Germantown, 

but  was  defeated  in  the 
Oct.  4.    Battle  of  Oermantown. 

Capture  of  Fort  Mifflin  (Nov.  16);  evacuation  of  Fort  Mercer 

(Nov.  20) ;  loss  of  the  Delaware. 
Winter.    Washington  at  Valley  Forge.    Sufferings  of  the  army. 
Nov.  15.    Articlee  of  confederation  and  perpetual  union  amed 

upon  in  congress  between  the  states  of  New  Hampshire,  Mas- 
sachusetts Bay,  Rh^e  Island  and  Providence  Plantations,  Uonnecticuty 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia, 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia.  The  confederacy  was  to  be 
cajled  **Tte  United  States  of  America.*'  These  articles  were 
laid  before  the  legislature  of  the  separate  states  for  ratification.    This 

Srocess  proved  a  long  one. 
une  14.     Congress  voted  "that  the  flag  of  the  thirteen  United 
States  be  thirteen  stripes,  alternate  red  and  white ;  that  the 
union  be  thirteen  stars,  white  in  a  blue  field,  representing  a 
new  constellation.  • 

The  people  of  New  Hampshire  Grants  declared  themselves  an 
independent  state  under  the  name  of  Vermont  (Jan.) 

1778L    Treaties  with  France ;  recognition  of  the  indepeiidence  of 

Jan.  dO-Feb.  6.  the  United  States.  Tliese  treaties  were  negotiated  by 
John  Adams,  Benjamin  FranhUn  and  Arthur  Lee, 

Feb.  Parliament  renounced  the  right  of  tazinef  the  colonies  except 
for  the  regulation  of  trade,  and  appointed  a  eommission  to  ne- 
gotiate for  the  submission  of  the  colonies.  The  proposals  of 
Sie  commissioners  were  rejected  by  congress  (June  17)  and  by 
the  separate  states. 

June  18.    Evacuation  of  Philadelphia  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton. 
Washington  intercepted  Clinton's  march,  and  in  the 


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430  Modem  Buionf.  A.  I>. 


1778^  Joae  28L  BaftOa  of  Moomoath  tanwd  a  fdmi  b^im  hj 
woMtal  (Ckada)  Let  into  %  ^itbarj.    The  Btitali  decamped 

Arrhralof  GmnttTEsiamg  with  eighteen  VcMcla  and 4^000  troops 
off  Viiginia.  An  attack  on  Natport  haring  been  resolYed  on, 
the  French  fleet  naled  to  that  port.  Instead  of  eodpeiating 
in  the  attack  DTstaing  sailed  to  Boston  Aug.  22,  to  refit  (in 
aeeordanee  with  his  strict  orden),  and  in  ^ite  of  a  \ieborj  at 
Quolxr  JTiS  on  Bhode  Island  (ibig.  29)  the  Americans  nnder 
Snlliran  were  oblised  to  give  np  the  siege  and  retire  &om  the 
island  before  Sir  Henory  Clinton  who  hroujp^  reinforoements. 

Jnlj  4.  MissBcm  at  Wyomiiig  in  PennsjlYania  by  colonel  Builar^ 
a  Torjf  and  Brandt 

Sept.  14.    Bepjamiii  Franklin  minister  plenipotentiaiy  to  Fianee. 

Not.  11.    Massacre  of  Cheny  Valley. 

Dee.  29.    SaTannah  eaptored  by  the  British  under  colonel  Ctrnqn 

1779,  March  3.    Defeat  of  general  ilsAe  at  Briar  C^vdbbj  the  British. 

Loss  of  Georgia,  where  the  prorincial  goremment  was  re- 
stored. 
General  Tdnooln,  being  placed  in  command  of  the  sonthem  army, 
masehed  npon  Augiula^  while  the  British  leader,  /VooosC,  threatened 
Charlettan  bat  retired  before  determined  resistanoe.  UEetamg 
reaehiiLr  SaTannah  with  the  French  fleet,  an  assault  was  made  on  the 
town  (Oct  9),  bat  repolsed;  after  which  I^Estaing  left  the  dangerous 
coast  (death  of  PuUulu). 

JAaj,  (Coasts  of  y imnia  plnndered  by  an  expedition  from  New  Y<»k. 
July  5.    Plnnder  of  New  HaTen  in  Connecticut  by  Tryon;  followed 

by  the  sack  of  other  towns. 
July  16.    Storm  of  Btony  Point  on  the  Hudson  by  the  Americans 

under  Anthony  Wayne  ;  destruction  of  the  fortifications. 
Joly  19.    The  Americans  fortified  W^eat  Point. 

John  Patil  Jonea,  who  had  in  1778  surprised  Whiie  Haven^  sailed 

this  year  from  a  French  port,  and  alter  a  successful  cruise  in 

the  English  seas,  fought  a  most  desperate 
Sept  23.    Naval  battle  with  the  Serapia  and  the  Countess  of 

Boarborough  (Bonhomme  Richard,  Jones's  Tcssel),  in  which 

he  was  Tictorious. 
1780»«May  12.    Capture  of  Charleston  by  Sir  Henry  ClinUm,    Suh- 

jngation  of  South  Carolina  by  CUnUm  and  lord  Comwallia. 

Tbs  brave  resistance  of  Thomas  Bnmter  and  Franois  Marion 

was  seconded  by  the  approach  of  the  American  army  under 

De  Kalb  and  Gates.    But  in  the 
Aug.  16.    Battle  of  Camden, 

GaUSf  thous^  superior  in  numbers,  was  totally  defeated  by 

CamuHillis  (DeKalb  f)- 
Aug.  18.    Sunups  force  dispersed  by  colonel  Tarletan.    Marian  re- 

treated  to  North  Carolina. 
July.    Arrival  of  Rochambean  at  Newport  with  6,000  men. 

Benedict  Arnold  having  been  placea  in  command  of  West  Patni^ 
negotiated  with  Sir  Henry  Clinton  for  Its  surrender  ;  kis  treachery 


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4.  D.  America :  British  Coloniei.  481 

was  exposed  by  tbe  eaptore  (Sept.  23)  of  the  agent,  major  Andri, 
by  thr^  privates  of  the  New  York  militia,  John  Paulding,  David 
Williams,  laaao  Wirt,  who,  refusing  his  bribes,  detained  him  and 
seized  his  papers.  Arnold  escaped  to  the  British  lines.  Andr^  waa 
declared  a  spy  by  a  board  of  14  officers,  on  his  confession,  and  by 
order  of  Washington 

1780,  Oct.  2.    Andrtf  was  hnng  as  a  spy. 

Oct.  7.    Battle  of  King's  Mountain  in  North  Carolina.    Defeat  of 

the  British  under  major  Fergusson. 

General  Qreene  appointed  commander  of  the  southern  army. 
Adoption  of  a  constitution  by  Massachusetts,  with  a  bill  of 

rights,  which  was  held  by  the  supreme  court  to  have  abolished 

slavery. 
Abolition  of  slavery  in  Pennsylvania. 

1781,  Jan.  17.    Battle  of  the  Cowpens;  defeat  of  the  British  cav- 
alry under  Tarleton  by  Morgan, 

Comwallis  in  pursuit  of  Greene,  was  twice  prevented  from  over- 
taking  him  by  the  unexpected  rising  of  the  rivers  (Cotato&o, 
YadJtin), 
ICarch  15.    Battle  of  Guilford ;  bloody  victory  of  the  British. 
April  26.    Battle  of  Hobkirk^s  HUl  near  Camden  ;  Greene  defeated 

by  lord  Rawdon. 
June  5.     Capture  of  Augusta  by  the  Americans. 
June  19.    Greene  forced  to  raise  the  siege  of  fort  Ninety-six  in 

North  Carolina. 
Sept.  8.    Battle  of  Butaw' ;  defeat  of  Greene  followed  by  the  re- 
treat of  the  British  to  Charleston. 
Meantime  British  forces  under  lord  ComuxiUiSf  were  concentrated 
in  Virginia,  where  they  fortified  themselves  at  Torktown  and 
Gloucester  (Aug.).     In  Sept.  Lafayette,  Washington^  and  Rochambeau 
met  at  WiUiamshurg,  while  a  French  fleet  under  count  de  Grasse  en- 
tered the  Chesapeake. 
Sept  3(M3ct.  19.    Siege  of  Torktown. 

Expedition  of  Arnold  against  Connecticut ;  burning  of  New 
London. 
Oct.  10.    Surrender  of  lord  ComwalliB  with  7,000  men 
at  Torktown  in  Virginia. 

1782,  Feb.  27.    The  commons  resolved,  on  motion  of  ffenezal  Conuxiy^ 

that  ^  the  house  would  consider  as  enemies  to  bis  majesty  and 
the  country  all  those  who  should  advise  or  attempt  this  further 
prosecution  of  offensive  war  on  the  continent  of  North 
Amerioa»'' 

1782,  March  20.     Resignation  of  lord  North.    Ministry  of  the  mar- 

quia  of  Rookkigfaam  (f  July  1 ;  succeeded  by  lord  Shel- 

bume,  1782-1783). 
July  11.    Evacuation  of  Savannah. 
Nov.  30.    Preliminary  articles  signed  at  Paris  between  Great  Britain 

and  the  United  States. 
Dec.  14.    Evacuation  of  Charleaton. 

1783,  Jan.  20.    Cessation  of  hostilities  between  Great  Britain  and 


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482  Modern  History,  A.  n. 

the  United  States.  Signature  of  preliminaries  of  peace  be- 
tween Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spam  at  Versailles  ;  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  at  Paris. 

April  11.  Cessation  of  anus  proclaimed  by  congress.  Independence 
of  the  United  States  recognized  hy  Holland,  April  19, 1782  ; 
Sweden,  Feb.  5,  1783  ;  Denmark,  Feb.  25 ;  Spain,  March  24  ; 
Russia,  in  Jnly. 

April  19.    Peace  proclaimed  by  the  commander  of  the  army. 

1783,  Sept.  3.  Definitive  Treaty  of  Peace  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  signed  at  Farts ;  be- 
tween Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain  signed  at 

.  Versailles,     (p.  441.) 

1.  1.  Recognition  of  the  independence  of  the  United  States,  and 
establishment  of  boundaries.  (From  the  intersection  of  a  line  due 
N.  from  the  head  of  the  St,  Croix  river  in  Nova  Scotia,  with  the 
highlands  S.  of  the  St  Lawrence  ;  along  the  highlands  to  the  head  of 
the  Connecticut ;  along  that  river  to  45^  N.,  thence  W.  to  the  river 
Iroquois,  thence  through  lakes  Ontario,  Erie,  Huron,  Superior,  Long 
Lake,  and  Lake  of  the  Woods  ;  thence  W.  to  the  Mississippi  and  along 
that  river  to  31^  N. ;  from  this  point  R  to  the  Apalachicola  or 
Catouche,  along  this  river  to  the  Flint:  thence  direct  to  the  head  of 
St,  Mary's  river,  and  so  to  the  Atlantic :  east,  from  the  mouth  of  the 
St.  Croix  river  to  its  source,  and  due  north  to  the  highlands,  includ- 
ing all  islands  within  twenty  leagues  of  the  coast,  except  such  as  be- 
longed to  Nova  Scotia.) 

2.  Right  of  fishery  secured  to  the  United  States  on  the  Grand  Bank 
and  all  other  Newfoundland  banks,  and  in  the  gulf  of  St  Lawrence, 
as  well  as  on  the  coast  of  Newfoundland ;  right  to  cure  fish  on  all 
unsettled  parts  of  Nova  Scotia,  Labrador,  and  Magdalen  islands  as 
long  as  they  should  remain  unsettled. 

3.  All  good  debts  heretofore  contracted  should  be  oonsidered 
binding. 

4.  lusstitution  of  confiscated  estates  to  be  recommended  by  cokt- 
gress  to  the  states. 

5.  Navigation  of  the  Mississippi  to  be  open  to  both  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States. 

II.  Great  Britain  ceded  Tobago  to  France. 

III.  Great  Britain  ceded  Florida  to  Spain. 
Establishment  of  the  Society  of  the  Cincinnati  by  ofifioers  of  the 

army. 

Nov.  2.    Washington's  farewell  address  to  the  army. 

Nov.  25.    Evacuation  of  New  7ork. 

Dec.  23.    Washington  resigned  his  commission. 

1784.  Partial  abolition  of  slavery  in  Gk>nnectiont.  Erection  of  a 
temporary  government  for  the  western  territory  (April).  Or- 
ganization of  the  state  of  F^nkiin  or  Frankland  hj  the  west- 
em  counties  of  North  Carolina  (Dec.) ;  it  was  given  up  in 
1788. 

1786.  Insurrection  in  MaBaachnsettB  and  in  New  Hampshlra^ 
springing  from  financial  complications. 

1787,  Jam-Feb.     The    insurgents  in    Maaaachnsetts,  numbering 


Uigitized  Dy  ^ 


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A.  D.  America,  —  Great  Britain,  433 

about  1,100,  under  Daniel  Shaya,  met  the  troops  of  the  state 
under  general  Shepherd,  but  were  dispersed  by  the  mere  si^t 
of  artillery.    Three  men  were  killed  {Shays*  RebeUion), 
The  restricted  powers  of  the  congress  approving  themselyes  totally 
insufficient  for  the  proper  goyemment  of  the  country  (failure  to  estab- 
lish a  revenue  by  an  impost  tax  ;  infraction  of  treanes  by  the  states), 
Virginia  proposed  a  convention  for  forming  a  better  Constitution 
(1786).    The  recommendation  meeting  with  favor,  after  much  delay 
1787,  May  25.    Delegates  from  seven  states  met  in  convention  at  Phil'- 
adelphia,  and  elected  Washington  president.    Delegates  from 
other  states  came  in,  until  all  were  represented  except  Rhode 
Island.    The  debates  were  long  and  warm,  and  more  than  one 
compromise  (tacit  recognition  of  slavery  ;  equal  representation 
of  aU  states  in  the  senate  ;  in  the  house  representation  accord* 
ing  to  population)  was  necessary  before  the  delegates 

Bept .  1 7.  Signed  the  Ck>n8titution  of  the  United  States, 

which  was  forthwith  laid  before  the  separate  states. 
1787.    Ordinance  for  the  government  of  the  territory  north- 
July  13.   w^eat  of  the  Ohio,  which  was  ceded,  or  to  be  ceded,  to  the 
United    States    by  the  states,  and  bought  of  the  Indians. 
Slavery  and  involuntary  aervitade,  except  as  punishment 
for  crime,  'were  forbidden  within  this  region. 
1788y  Sept.  13.    All  the  states  except  Rhode  laland  and  North 
Carolina  having  accepted  the  Uonstitution,  congress  appointed 
days  for  elections  under  the  same.  {See  p»  547,) 

§8.    GREAT  BRITAIN.  {8eep,S89,) 

1702-1714.    Anne, 

seaond  daughter  of  James  II.,  wife  of  Prince  Greorge  of  DeiH 
mark.    In  the  first  part  of  her  reign  the  queen  was  under  the  influ* 
ence  of  the  Whigs  {John  ChurchUl,  duke  of  ifarlborough  and  his  wife), 
1702,  May  4.     War  declared  upon  France  by  the  grand  alliance,  in- 
cluding England.    For  the  war  (of  the  Spanish  Succession) 
see  p.  390.    Marlborouah  was  captain-general  of  all  the  land 
forces ;   Oodolphinj  lord  high  treasurer  ;  Nottinghamj  secre- 
tary of  state.    Halifax  and  Somers  not  in  the  privy  council. 
July  2.    Sixth  Parliament  of  ^^illiam  m.  diaaoived. 

The  campaign  of  this  year  resulted  in  the  capture  of  Venloo  and 
Likge  and  the  loss  of  the  lower  Rhine  to  France.  Sir  Creorge  Rooke 
failed  to  take  Cadiz,  but  seized  a  number  of  treasure  ships  at  Vigo 
Bay  (Oct.). 

1702,  Oct.  20-1705,  March  14.    Fint  parliament  of  Anne.^ 

Harley  speaker  of  the  house  of  commons.    Marlborough  made 
Skduke. 
Dec.    Bill  to  prevent  oooaaional  oonformity  passed  by  the  com- 
mons but  rejected  by  the  lords  (High  church  and  Low  church). 

1703.  Severe  laws  in  Ireland  against  Irish  Catholics. 

1  The  dates  are  those  of  the  actual  meetinfi:  and  reparation  of  the  parliaments^ 
not  of  the  oroclamations  summoning  and  dissolving  them. 
28 

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434  Modem  HUtory,  A.  d. 

1703,  Methnen  trea^  between  England  and  Fortagal.  England 
agreed  to  admit  the  heavy  wines  of  Portugal  at  one  third 
lower  rate  than  the  light  French  wines,  while  Portugal  prom- 
ised to  import  all  her  woolens  from  England. 

Sept.    Archdoke  Charles  assumed  the  title  of  Charles  III.  of  Spain. 

Nov.    Establishment  of  Queen  Anne's  Boonty  ;  a  grant  of  the 

first  fruits  and  tithes  which  Henry  VIU.  had  confiscated  for 

the  crown,  in  trust  for  increasinfi^  the  income  of  small  benefices. 

In  this  campaign  (1703)  Marlborough  took  Bonn  and  Huy^ 

Limburg  and  Gudden, 

1704,  Mar.    Case  of  Ashby  and  White  (right  of  electors  to  vote). 
July  24.    Oibraltar  taken  by  Sir  Cteorge  Roohe  and  Sir  Cloudesley 

Shood. 
Aug.  13.    Victory  of  Blenheim  or  Hdchstadt  (p.  392).    Naval  vic- 
tory off  Malaga  ovei  the  French. 
Attempt  to  pass  the  occasional  conformity  bill  by  tacking  it  to  a 
money  bill  (ta(^cer$).    The  scheme  was  defeated  in  the  com- 
mons. 

1705,  Oct.  4.    Capture  of  Barcelona  by  Charles  Mordaunt,  lord  Pe- 

terborough. 

1705,  Oct  25-1708,  Apr.  1.    Beoond  Parliament  of  Anne.    Whigs 

in  majority. 

1706,  May  23.  RamillieB  ;  conquest  of  Brabant  (p.  392)  ;  Turin, 
Sept.  7;  conquest  of  Italy  (p.  392).    The  allies  in  Madrid. 

1707,  Apr.  25.  Battle  of  Almanxa;  defeat  of  the  allies  by  the  duke 

of  Berwick.    Spain  lost  to  the  allies. 

1707>  May  1.    Union  of  England  and  Scotland  under 
the  name  of  Ghreat  Britain  went  into  effect. 
This  measure,  which  was  made  necessary  by  the  omission  of 
Scotland  from  the  act  of  settlement,  providea  :  1.  that  Sophia, 
princess  of  Hanover  and  her  Protestant  heirs  should  succeed 
to  the  crown  of  the  united  kinedom.     2.  There  should  be  one 
parliament,  to  which  Scotland  should  send  sixteen  elective  peers 
and  forty-five  members  of  the  commons.    No  more  peers  of 
Scotland  to  be  created.    Scotch  law  and  legal  administration  to 
be  unchanged ;  the  Episcopal  church  in  England  and  Presbyte- 
rian in  Scotland  to  oe  unchanged.    Adoption  of  the  Uxdon 
Jack  (Crosses  of  St.  George  and  St.  Andrew)  as  the  national 
flag  of  Great  Britain. 
1707,  Oct.  23.    Firat  Parliament  of  Great  Britain.^   The  influence 
of  Marlborough  and  his  wife  had  been  gradually  weakened 
by  Harley  and  by  the  influence  of  the  queen's  new  favorite,  Abigail 
HiUj  now  Mrs.  Masham,    Marlboroueh,  however,  was  still  so  strong 
that  a  hint  at  resignation  secured  the  dismissal  of  Harley  and  St.  John 
from  the  cabinet,  and  the  substitution  of  BoyU  and  Robert  "Walpole 
(secretary-ai-war).   Last  Royal  veto. 

1  Not  a  new  parliament,  but  the  second  parliament  of  Anne  revived  by  pro* 
clamation.  Henceforward  parliaments  are  numbered  without  regard  to  reigns, 
but  here  the  distinction  is  retained.  The  number  as  a  parliament  of  Great 
Britain  is  indicated  by  a  Roman  numeral  in  parenthesis. 


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A.  IX  Oreai  Britain.  488 

1706^  MaiolL  James  Bdward  (Chevalier  de  St  George,  the  (M 
Pretender)  landed  in  SeotlaJid.  A  Frenoh  fleet  sent  to  assist 
luin  was  repolsed  by  Admiral  Byng,  and  the  Pretender  soon 
returned  to  T ranee. 

July  11.    Battle  of  Oudenarde  (p.  392). 

1706,  Not.  16-1710,  Apr.  5.    Third  ParUament  of  Anne  (U.). 

Whig  majority.  Somen  president  of  the  eounoiL  Leaders 
of  the  whigs  (Junto)  :  Somen^  Halifax,  Whwrtonj  Oxford^ 
Sunderland. 

1709,  Sept.  11.    Battle  of  MalpUqnet  (p.  393). 
Oct.    Townshend's  barrier  treaty.    Copyright  act 

1710,  Feb.-Mar.    Trial  of  Dr.  Saoheverell  for  preaching  sermons 

of  an  ultra  Tory  cast.  He  was  convicted  and  thereby  secured 
great  popularity  in  the  kingdom. 

Harley  chancellor  of  exchequer.    St.  John,  secretary  of  state. 
Sept    Charles  III.  in  Madrid  dnyen  out  by  Vendome, 

1710.  Nov.  25-1713,  July  16.    Fourth  ParUament  of  Anne  (in.). 

Torymajority.    Dismissal  of  Oodolphin  ;  resignation  of  all 
the  Whig  ministers. 
South  Sea  Company  established. 

1711.  Mrs,  Masham  superseded  the  duchess  of  Marlborough  as 
keeper  of  the  priv^  purse.  The  duke  retained  his  office.  At- 
tempted assassination  of  Harley  by  the  marquis  of  GuLscard. 
Harley  created  earl  of  Oxford  and  Mortimer  and  lord  high 
treasurer. 

Sept  13.    Marlborouffh  caj^tured  the  fortress  of  Bouckain. 
Oct    Charles  IIL  left  Spam ;  elected  emperor  Charles  VL 
NoY.    Philip  V.  entered  Madrid. 

Passage  of  the  occasional  oonformity  biU. 
Marlborough,  who  had  returned  to  England,  was  accused  of 
peculation  (Nov.)  and  dismissed  from  iul  his  offices.  Duke  of 
Ormond,  commander-in-chief. 
Dec.  30.    Qualification  act  frepealed  1866). 

1712.  Creation  of  twelve  Tory  peers  to  secure  a  majority  in  the 
lords. 

July.    Henry  St  John  created  yiscount  Bclingbrohe. 

1713.  Apr.  11.    Peace  of  Utreoht  (p.  393). 
Articles  affecting  Great  Britain, 

Great  Britain  and  France :  Renunciation  of  the  Pretender; 
recognition  of  the  Protestant  succession  in  Great  Britain ;  crowns  of 
i^rance  and  Spain  not  to  be  united  under  one  head  ;  fortifications  of 
Dunkirk  to  be  leveled  and  its  harbor  filled  up ;  cession  of  Hudson's 
Bay  and  strait.  Nova  Scotia  (Acadia),  Newfoundlandy  St,  Christopher 
to  England;  Great  Britain  and  Spain,  cession  of  Gibraltar  and  Mi* 
norca  to  England;  grant  of  the  Aasiento  (el* pacta  de  el  asiento  de 
nigros),  or  contract  for  supplying  slaves  to  Spanish  America,  to  the 
subjects  of  Great  Britian  for  thiity  years  (Royal  African  Company). 

1714.  Feb.  16-1714,  Aug.  25.    Fifth  Parliament  of  Anne  (XY.)- 
i714.  May  28.    Death  of  princess  Sophia  of  Hanover.    Schism  act 
July.  27.      Earl  of  Oxford  dismissed,  and  succeeded  as  lord  high 

treasurer  by  the  earl  of  Shrewsbury  (Talbot). 


Uigitized  Dy  ^ 


joogle 


Modem  Hitiory, 


A.  DW 


Aug.].    Death  of  Anne. 

Alexander  Pope,  1688-1744 ;  Jonathan  Swift,  1667-1745  ; 
Daniel  Defoe,  1661?-1731;  Joseph  Addison,  1672-1719;  Sir 
Richard  Steele,  1671-1729.  Periodical  literature  ;  Tatler,  1709, 
Apr.  12-1711,  Jan.  2;  Spectator,  1711,  Mar.  1-1714,  Dec.  20. 

1714  —  X.    House  of  Hanover  or  Brunswick. 

None  of  Ann^s  seyenteen  children  liaving  surviyed  her,  the 
crown,  according  to  the  act  of  succession,  descended  to  the 
protestant  house  of  Hanover,  the  catholic  line  of  the  Stoart? 
being  excluded. 

James  I.  (Staart)  f  1625. 


8.  Elizabeth 
m.  Frederic  V., 
elector  palatine. 


>  palatin 


6.  Charles  1. 1 1649, 
m.  Henrietta  Maria, 
d.  of  Henry  lY.  of  France. 


12.  Sophia, 
m.  Ernest 
AufrustuseL 
of  Hanover. 


GhariesII. 

tl685.    m. 


Mary 
William  U. 
of  Orange. 


James  n. 

deposed  1688, 
d.  1701.  • 


Geoncel. 

fl727. 
m.  Sophia  Dorothea, 
d.  of  aulce  of  Brunswick 

and  Zell. 

I 


William  m. 

tl702. 


Mary 

t  1694. 


del 


by  Anne  Hyde  |  by  Mary  of  Este. 


Anne 
1 1714. 


I 
Georffen. 

t  1760, 
m.  Caroline 
of  Anspacli. 


1 

Sophia  Dorothea, 

m.  Frederic 
William,  elector 
of  Brandenburg. 

Frederic  IT., 
king  of  Pmssik 


James 

Francis 

Edward, 

the  Old 

Pretender. 

tl766. 

I 


Charles  Edward  Henry, 

the  young  Pretender,  cardinal 

without  issue.  York, 

1 1788.  without  issue. 

tl807. 


Frederic  Louis, 

t  1761, 
m.  Augusta,  d. 
of  duke  of  Saxe  Coborg. 

and  Gotha. 

George  m. 

tl820, 
m.  Charlotte  of 
Mecklenburg 
Strelitz. 

1714-1727.    George  I. 

1714)  Sept.  18.  The  king  landed  in  England.  George  L  favored 
the  Whigs  in  the  formation  of  the  first  government;  Lard 
Tovmshend  sec.  of  state  ;  Shrewsbury  resigned,  and  Halifax  was  made 
first  lord  of  the  treasury  {Shrewsbury  was  the  last  lord  high  treaturer)  ; 
Sunderland  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland ;  lord  Cofoper  chancellor : 
earl  of  Nottingham  president  of  the  council ;  Marlborough  comman- 
der-in-chief. 


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A.  D.  Great  Britain.  487 

1716,  Mar.  17-1722,  Mar.  7.    Flnt  ParUament  of  Oeorge  I.  (Y.). 

Impeachment  of  Bolinghrokey  Ormandy  Oxford.    Flight  of  Bd- 
inghroke  and  Ormond;  Oxford  committed  to  the  Tower.    Jac- 
obite riota.    Riot  act. 
1715-1716,  Sept.    Jacobite  rising  in  Scotland  nnder  the  earl  of  Mar. 
Battles  of  Sherijfffmuir  and  Preston.    Arrival  of  the  Pretender 
in  Scotland  (Dec.)    As  his  friends  dispersed  upon  the  approach 
of  the  duke  of  Argyle,  the  Pretender  abandoned  Scotland 
(Feb.  5, 1716)  and  returned  to  France. 
Barrier  treaty  (in  1781  Joseph  II.  dismantled  the  fortresses). 
Impeachment  of  the  Jacobite  leaders.    Execution  of  DerwerU' 
water  and  Kenmure  (Feb.  24). 
Act  creating  septennial  instead  of  triennial  parliaments. 

1717,  Jan.  4.    Triple  alliance  between  England,  France,  and  Holland 

in  consequence  of  the  intrigues  of  the  Pretender,  Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden,  and  Spain  (Alberoni). 
Feb.  20, 172l!^Mar.  7.    First  Septennial  Parliament. 

Convocation  ceased  to  meet  for  business  (revived  under  the 

X resent  reign), 
ug.  2.    Qnadruple  alliance  between  England,  Ftanee,  the 
emperor,  Holland  (p.  397).  '  • 

1718,  Dec.  17-1720.    War  between  England  and  Spain. 

1718,  Jan.    Repeal  of  the  oooasioncd  conformity  act  and  the 

Bchiamact. 

1719,  Abortive  Spanish  expedition  to  Scotland  in  favor  of  the  Pre- 
tender. 

Nov.  20.  Treaty  of  Stockholm;  Sweden  ceded  Bremen  and  Ver* 
den  (f.  397)  to  George  I.  for  1,000,000  rix  dollars. 

1720,  Jan.    Spain  joined  the  quadruple  alliance.    Burstins^  of  the 

Bonth  aea  bubble,  from  a  panic  originating  in  the  fiulure  of 
Law's  scheme  in  France. 

1721-1742.  Administration  of  ^Walpole  (1726-1742,  administra- 
tion of  Fleury  in  France). 

1722,  Oct.  9-1727,  July  17.  Second  parliament  of  Oeorge  L 
(VI.). 

1725,  Sept.  3.  Treaty  of  Hanover  between  England,  France  and 
Prussia  (alliance  of  Herrenkausen). 

1727,  June  11.    Death  of  George  L 

1727-1760.    George  n. 

Walpole  continued  in  office.  The  king  governed  by  his  wife, 
WUhelmma  Charlotte  Caroline,  of  Anspach. 

1728,  Jan.  23-1734,  Apr.  16.    Firat  Parliament  of  Oeorge  n. 

(Vn.). 

1729,  Kov.  9.    Treaty  of  Seville  with  Spain;  restoration  of  con- 

quest ;  confirmation  of  the  assiento.    Gibraltar  ceded  to  Eng- 

1731,  Mar.  16.  Treaty  of  Vienna :  dissolution  of  the  Ostend  East 
India  Co.  which  had  been  formed  as  a  rival  to  the  English  East 
India  Co.  by  the  emperor. 

1735,  Jan.  14-1741,  Apr.  25.  Second  Parliament  of  Oeorge  IL 
CVIIL). 


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4SB  Modern  Hatary.  A.  u 

1.736.    PortooBS  liolB  n  £uuuHiz]g[lL 
17a9-174a    ¥irar  widi  Spain. 

1739,  Not.  22.    CapCnze  of  Porto  A&  in  Danen  I7  adminl  Vernoo. 
174a    Foiile  attaek  iqwa  Cartiia0Uia  bj  Vemtm  and  Wentwortk. 

Biaeaae  in  the  anuT. 

1740,  8ept^l744,  June.     Voyage  of  oonunodote  Anaon  to  the  coast 

or  Chili  and  Pern  and  aroond  the  workL 

1741,  Dec  1-1747,  Jane  17.    Third  Parliament  of  George  XL 
(IX.).   FaUofWalpoleCsoooeededbj  the  earl  of  Wilmington, 

Feb.  1742). 
1743-1754.    Administration  of  Henry  Pelliam,  iriio  soeoeeded  the 
eari  of  WUmmgUm  (f),  Jolj  1743,  as  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 

1740-1748*    War  of  the  Austrian  Buccesaiozi. 

England  took  part  with  Austria  (pragmatic  army);  for  her 

share  in  the  war  see  p.  400. 
Not.    MinistiT  of  Pdkam,  PiU^  Newcatde^  Harrmglon  (Stanhope), 

Bedford.    C*  Broad  Bottom  Ministry.*') 
1745,  May  11.    Battle  of  Pontenoy  (p.  402);  Saxe  defeated  Ooii- 

bmand.    Louisburg  taken  from  the  French  (p.  ^1). 

1745,  Second  Jacobite  rebellion. 

The  young  Pretender,  Charles  Edward,  landed  in  Scotland 
(July  25),  and  proclaimed  his  father  (f  1766)  as  James  VIIL 
of  ScotUud  and  III.  of  England. 

Sept  11.    The  Pretender  entered  Edinburgh  with  some  2,000  men. 

Sept.  21.    Jacobite  victory  at  Preatonpana. 

Dec.  4.    Pretender  at  Derby  (about  6,000  men). 

Dec.  18.    Jacobite  victory  at  Penrith. 

1746,  Jan.  17.  Jacobite  victory  at  Palkirk  Moor,  over  general 
Hatcley, 

April  16.    Battle  of  Cnlloden ;  victory  of  the  duke  of  Cumberiand 
over  lord  George  Murray  and  the  rretender. 
Execution  of  Jacobite  lords.  Escape  of  the  Pretender  to  France 
(Sept.  20). 

1747,  Nov.  10-1754,  Apr.  6.    Pourth  Parliament  of  Gteorge  II. 

(X.). 

1748^  Oct    Peace  of  Aiz-la-Chapelle  (p.  403). 

1752.  Adoption  of  the  reformed  (Gregorian)  calendar  in  Eng- 
land and  the  coloniea. 

The  year  was  to  begin  Jan.  1  instead  of  March  25  ;  eleven  days 
were  omitted  between  Sept  2  and  14. 

1754.  The  duke  of  Newcastle  succeeded  his  brother,  Mr.  PeOuan  (f 
March),  as  prime  minister.    Pox  secretary  of  state. 

1754,  May  31-1761,  Mar.  19.  Pifth  Parliament  of  George  H. 
(XL,). 

1755-1763.  Land  and  naval  war  between  England  and 
Prance  (Seven  Years'  War),  originating  in  boundair  disputes 
in  North  America,  carried  on  by  land  in  America  (and  Ger- 
many), by  sea  in  all  parts  of  the  world.    The  English  had  the 


advantage  of  the  French  alniost  everywhere.     (War  in  Amezx 

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ica,  p.  420  ;  iu  Europe,  p.  403  ;  in  India,  p.  443.) 


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A.  D.  Great  Britain.  489 

1753.    Foundation  of  the  British  Museum. 

1756.    Black  Hole  at  Calcutta,    (p.  443.) 

1757-1761,  Oct.  5.  Coalition  ministry  of  the  duke  of  Newcastle, 
first  lord  of  the  treasury,  and  the  elder  Pitt  (William  Pitt,  b. 
1708;  member  of  the  commons  1735;  vice-treasurer  for  Ireland 
1746;  privy  councillor  and  paymaster-general,  secretary  of  stale 
1756;  retired  1761;  in  opposition  1761-1766  ;  privy  seal  1766- 
1768;  earl  of  Chatham  July  29, 1766 ;  died  May  11, 1778), 
secretary  of  state. 

1759,  Sept.  13.    Banle  of  Qnebeo,  death  of  Wolfe. 

1759,  Nov.  20.    Naval  battle  of  Quiberon  Bay  ;  defeat  of  the 

French  hjSir  Edward  Hawke, 

1760,  Oct.  25.    JDeath  of  George  n. 

1760-1820.     George  III.,  first  part  of  his  reign,  to  1783. 

1761,  Aug.  15.    Bourbon  family  compact, 

between  France  and  Spain  with  the  assumption  of  the  accession 
of  Naples  and  Parma,  for  reciprocal  guarantee  of  all  posses- 
sions and  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance.  Pitt,  insisting 
that  war  ought  to  be  declared  upon  Spain,  resigned  (Oct.  5). 
Lord  Bute,  the  true  adviser  of  the  king;  "  the  king's  mends; " 
the  *'  power  behind  the  throne." 
1761,  Oct.  5-1762,  May  29.  Ministry  of  the  duke  of  Newcas- 
tle. Egremont  and  ButCf  secretaries  of  state  ;  Gearffe  GrenvUle 
leader  in  the  conunons. 

1761,  Nov.  3-1768,  Mar.  10.    Fint  Parliament  of  Gteorge  XIL 

(xn.). 

1762,  Jan.    War  declared  against  Spain. 

1762,  May  2^1763,  Apr.  1.  Ministry  of  lord  Bute  ;  GrenvUle^ 
secretary  of  state. 

1763,  Feb.  10.    Peaoe  of  Paris 

between  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain, 
1.    France  ceded  to  England;  in  North  America,  Canada,  and  Cape 

Breton  Island;  the  Mississippi  was  recognized  as  the  boundary 
between  Louisiana  and  the  British  colonies;  in  the  West  Indies  Granada; 
in  Africa  the  French  possessions  on  the  Senegal.  Bngland  restored  to 
France  Goree  in  Africa,  and  all  conquests  in  India.  2.  Spain  ceded 
to  Zhigland  Florida,  as  indemnification  for  which  France  had  already 
ceded  Louisiana  to  Spain  ;  Spain  received  from  England  all  con- 
quests in  Cuba  includm^  Havana. 

In  conBe<]|uence  of  this  peace  and  her  acquisitions  in  India  (p.  443^ 
Great  Britam  reached  the  summit  of  her  e3d;ent  and  power;  the  North 
American  colonies  had  gradually  developed  into  states  under  fi;over- 
nors,  with  liberal  constitutions,  modeled  aner  that  of  Great  Britain. 
1763,  April  1-1765,  July.    Ministry  of  Oeorge  Grenville;  Halifax 

and  Egremont,  secretaries  of  states;  Fox  created  lord  Holland. 
No.  45  of  the  North  Briton  containing  insulting  remarks  concerning 
the  king  by  John  Wilkes,  general  warrants  for  the  apprehension  oi 
the  authors,  printers,  and  publishers,  were  issued.  Wilkes  was  ar- 
rested and  expelled  from  the  commons.  Greneral  warrants  declared 
illegal  by  the  chief  justice.     Wilkes  outlawed. 


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440  Modem  Buiorj,  a.  dl 


1765,  FMn    8taa9  act  (p.  4^o> 

1765^Jal^-176S,Jal^.  Mbiteliy  of  tbemnqiiiiof  ] 

cownl  Coweoy  iccwtMy  of  ilite  and  leader  cC  Uk  eoomionb 

176S,  iLiidb.    BcpeJofstomiiMtOk^S). 

1706^  April  22.  0«iiend  wanants  declared  iliasal  hj  reaoliitiGn 
o€  theeoanDou  (a  deelantflty  laO  to  dik  cAeei  was  tlDoini  out 
bjthe  lonb). 

Am^.  1767,  Dee.    Miniatiy  of  Chatliam;  Gnfion. 

17^,  I>e&-177Q,  Jan.  Iflnlatiy  of  tlie  daka  of  Grafton  ;  Tmnw- 
Aemf  efaaaeellor  of  the  exelieqner ;  genoal  Cuamji,  loid  Ske^ 
bumeyteaettuneBcittMbe,  Mt  (earl  of  Cbatliam)  lord  pmj 
•eaL    Lotd  HUIsborougk  fint  ecdoaial  tecreiaiy. 

1768,  Maj  10-1774,  June  22.  Second  Pariiament  of  Georga 
in.(XIIL).    Wakea  member  for  Middlaez. 

1769,Feb.  ^ITilkea  expelled  the  hone  for  aa  alleged  libel  on  kad 
WqfmauiJL  He  was  thrioe  elected  and  thiiee  rejected  ;  at  the 
last  election  his  opponent,  colonel  LuttnU,  who  reeeired  a 
small  minontj,  was  declared  elected. 

1769-1772.  Letters  of  Jnnina,  eontajning  bitter  attadcs  npon  the 
doke  of  Grafton^  lord  Manafield  (Itfiurmy),  and  other  mem- 
bers of  the  ggyemment,  appeared  in  the  **  Daily  Adreitiaer.'' 
Hie  aathor  is  still  nnknown,  though  the  letters  are  attributed 
bj  many  with  great  eonfidenee  to  Sir  PkSqt  Fronds. 

1770,  Jaa^l782,  March  20.  Mimstry  of  lord  Horth  (fint  lord  of 
the  treasury  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer). 

1770,  May.    Remooatrance  of  the  lord  mayor  ud  aldermen  of 

London  with  the  kine. 

1771.  Abortiye  attempt  of  the  commons  to  prevent  the  publication 
of  speeches.  (Complaint  of  colonel  Ondow ;  arrest  of  the 
printers ;  commitment  of  Cnw&y,  lord  mayor,  and  Ottwr,  alder- 
man of  London,  for  granting  baU. 

1774.    Beaton  Port  Bill  (p.  425). 

1774,  Nov.  29-1780,  July  8.  THird  Parliament  of  Geoiie  IZL 
(XIV.). 
Wilkaa,  lord  mayor,  and  member  for  Middlesex ;  motion  to 
expunge  the  resolution  rejecting  him.  (On  the  sixth  motion. 
May  3, 1782,  he  was  sucoessfol^  and  the  reatdutions  were  ex- 
pUI^^  ^  as  subrersive  of  the  n^ts  of  electors.") 

1776-1783-  War  of  independence  of  the  British  col- 
onies in  North  America,  see  p.  426. 

1778-1783.    War  between  Great  Britain  and  France. 

1778.     Repeal  of  pemil  laws  against  papists  in  England. 

1779--1783.    War  between  Great  Britain  and  Spain. 

1779-1782.  Gibraltar  besieged  by  the  French  and  Spanish  in  yain ; 
bravely  defended  by  EUiott. 

1780.  No  popery  riots,  caused  by  the  intended  relief  of  papists  in 
Scotland.  Protestant  associations;  lord  George  Gk>rdon, 
president. 

June  2.  Presentation  of  a  no  popery  petition ;  riot  in  Londoi 
lasting  five  day&    Executions. 


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A.  !>•  Great  Britain.  441 

The  aimed  neutrality  (p.  412)  formed  to  reaiBt  England's 
assumption  of  the  right  of  search. 
1780,  Oct  31-1784,  Mar.  24.    Fonrth  Parliament   of  George 
m.  (XV.). 

1780,  Deo.  30-1783.    War  between  Great  Britain  and  Holland. 

1781,  Oct.  19.    Surrender  of  ComwalUa  (p.  431).    In  this  year 

the  English  lost  Pensacola,  TobagOy  St.  Eustachiusy  DemerarOt 
EssequSoy  St,  Christopher,  Nevis,  Monserral,  Minorca  (1782\ 

1782,  Feb.    Motion  of  genercd  Conway  '<that  the  house  will  consider 

as  enemies  to  the  king  and  country  all  who  shall  advise,  or  by 
any  means  attempt,  the  further  prosecution  of  offensive  war, 
for  the  purpose  of  reducing  the  revolted  colonies  to  obedience 
by  force." 

Biarch  15.  Motion  of  Sir  J.  Rous  ''that  the  house  could  no  longer 
repose  confidence  in  the  present  ministers,"  lost  by  nine  votes. 
On  a  threat  of  renewal  of  the  motion  lord  North  resigned. 

1782,  March  2anJuly  1.  Minietry  of  the  marquia  of  Rooking- 
ham  (t  July  1, 1782) ;  lord  Shelbume,  and  Charles  Jamea  Fox 
(b.  1749,  son  of  Henry  Fox,  lord  HoUand;  entered  the  commons 
1768  ;  lord  of  the  acUniralty  1770,  of  the  treasury  1773;  1774 
in  opposition ;  1782  in  the  cabinet ;  1784  in  opposition  to  Pitt; 
died  Sept.  13, 1806),  secretaries  of  state  ;  lord  Thuriow,  lord 
chancellor;  Edmund  Burke  (b.  1729?  in  Dublin,  entered  par- 
liament 1765,  paymaster  of  the  forces  1782,  in  opposition 
with  Fox  1784,  until  the  French  revolution;  died  July  9, 1797), 
paymaster  of  the  forces ;  Richard  Brinaley  Sheridan  (b. 
1751  at  Dublin,  entered  parliament  1780,  died  July  7, 1816), 
under-secretary  of  state. 

April  12.    Battle  of  Martinique,  naval  victory  of  Rodney  and 
Hood  over  De  Grasse. 
Reduction  of  the  pension  list ;  establishment  of  the  legislative 
independence  of  Ireland  ;  exclusion  of  contractors  and  rev- 
enue officers  from  parliament. 

1782,  July  1-1783,  Feb.  24.   Ministry  of  lord  Shelbmne  following 

the  death  of  Rockingham.  ^WUliam  Pitt  (b.  1759,  entered 
parliament  1781 ;  chancellor  of  exchequer  1782  ;  prime  min- 
ister 1783 ;  retired  1801 :  returned  to  office  1804  ;  died  Jan. 
23, 1806),  twenty-three  years  old,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  ; 
Fox,  Burke,  Sharidan,  resigned. 
Nov.  30.    Secret  treaty  of  Paria  with  America  (p.  431). 

1783>  Jan.  20-Sept  3.  Peaoe  of  Versailles  and  Paris 
(p.  432), 

1.  Reception  of  the  independence  of  the  thirteen  United  States 
(the  Americans  retained  the  Western  territory  ;  the  navigation  of  the 
Mississippi  was  in  common).  2.  England  surrendered  to  France  in 
the  West  Indies  Tobago  ;  in  Africa  the  region  of  Senegal.  3.  Spain 
retained  Minorca  in  Europe,  and  Florida  in  America. 

1783,  April  2-Dec.  13.    CoaUtion  ministry  of  the  duke  of  Port- 

land ;  Cavendish,  chancellor  of  exchequer ;  lord  North  and 
Foz,  secretaries  of  state  ;  Burke,  paymaster. 


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442  Modem  History.  a«d. 

1757-1784.    ¥irar  of  the  BngUsh  in  India,  see  p.  44S. 

In  the  epoch  of  the  Seven  Yean'  War,  the  i^lish  East  India 
Company  (at  onoe  soyereigns  and  merchants)  began  the  foundation 
of  an  extensive  empire  in  place  of  the  existing  yactories.  The  vio- 
tories  of  lord  Clive  gave  the  English  the  upper  hand  of  the  French^ 
and  secured  for  them  BenaoL, 

War  with  the  MahraUaSy  who  were  allied  with  the  sultan  of  My* 
sore,  Hyder  AH  (t  1782,  his  son,  Tippu  Saib)y  with  the  Nizam  of 
Golkonda  and  the  French.  From  the  war  this  company  came  out  vie* 
torious  and  with  greatly  increased  strength.  Under  the  ministry  of 
the  younger  Pitt  (1783-1801)  the  company  was  subordinated  by 
the  E<ut  India  BiU  (1784)  in  political  and  military  affairs  to  a  royal 
commission  (board  cf  control). 

1768-1779.    Voyages  of  Jamea  Cook  (b.  1728;  under  Wolfe  at 
Quebec,  1769;  d.  1779). 

1.  Aug.  26, 1768,  to  June  11, 1771 :  discovery  of  Cooi^a  strait  and 
of  the  strait  between  Australia  and  New  Guinea,  2.  July  13, 1772, 
to  July  30, 1775:  touching  at  New  Zealand,  Cook  discovered  many 
islands  in  the  Pacific,  penetrated  to  71^  S.  latitude  and  rounded  Cape 
Horn.  3.  July  12, 1776,  investigation  of  Bekring's  strait ;  on  the  re- 
turn Cook  was  killed  by  the  natives  on  Hawaii^  one  of  the  Sandwich 
ishmds,  Feb.  14, 1779.  {See  p,  635,) 

5  9.    TBffi  EAST. 

India.  (Seep,  S90.) 

Decline  of  the  Mughal  empire  of  Delhi. 

Bahadur  Shah  (1707-1712),  Jahandar  Shah  (1712-1713),  son 
and  grandson  of  Aurangzeb,  both  under  the  control  of  the  general 
Zuljikar  Khdn.    Successful  revolt  of  Farrukhsiyyar  (1713-1719)  ; 
oppression,  revolt,  and  punishment  of  the  Sikhs  in  the  Punjab. 
1715.    Rajputana  practically  independent  of  the  empire. 

The  Sayyid  chiefs,  Husdm  Al{  and  AbduUd,  placed  two  boy  em- 
perors on  the  throne,  who  were  followed,  after  four  months, 

1719-1748.    Muhammad  Shah. 

1720-1748.     Independence  of  the  Deooan  established  under  the 

Nizam  ul  Mulk,  or  governor. 
1732-1743.     Practical  independence  of  Oudh. 
1739.    Invasion  of  India  by  Nadir  Shah,  of  Persia  ;  sack  of  Delhi. 
1748.    Death  of  Muhammad  Shdh;  from  this  time  the  emperors  were 

but  puppets,  with  a  shadow  only  of  power. 
1748-1754.    Ahmad  Shah. 
1748-1761.    Five  invasions  of    India  by  Ahmad  Shah  Durani, 

Afghan  ruler  of  Kandahar:  1748  ;  1761-1762  ;  1761  (sack  of 

Delhi)  ;  1759 ;  1761. 
1734-1759.      Alamgir  n. ;  capture  of   Delhi  by  the  MahraUds 

(1769). 
1759-1806.    ShahAlamn. 
1761.    Battle  of  Panipat ;  defeat  of  the  Mahrattds  by  the  Afghans 


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A.  D.  7%€  East:  India.  443 

ander  Ahmad  Shah  DnraiiL  The  Mahratta  power  was  foUowiiiff 
fast  in  the  footsteps  of  the  Mughal  emperors.  Under  Saku^  gTan£ 
son  of  Sivaji  (p.  389),  the  real  power  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  chief 
minister,  a  Brahman  with  the  title  of  PeahwB ;  this  man  and  his 
successors  (Bdlaji,  1713-1720 ;  Bdji  Rao,  1721-1740;  Bdlaji  Bdji 
Rao,  1740-1761 ;  Madhu  Rao,  1761-1772)  built  up  a  confederacy  at 
Poena  while  the  true  soyereigns  sank  into  the  petty  princes  of  Sdr- 
tdra  and  Kdhapur  (the  latter  still  exists).  Under  the  first  three 
Peshwtfs  their  armies  prospered,  they  conquered  the  Deocan  and  ez« 
torted  tribute  from  Bengal  (1751).    After  the  defeat  of  Panipat 

g761),  the  power  of  the  Peshwa  of  Poena  rapidly  declined,  and 
e  confederacy  split  up  into  five  divisions  :  the  Peshwds  (Poona^, 
Bhonslds  (N^ur),  Sindhia  (Gwalior),  Holbar  (Indore),  Gdekwdn 
(Banida). 

The  Brltlah  in  India. 

When  the  eighteenth  century  opened,  the  British  were  established 
at  Bombay,  Madras,  and  in  Bengal  (Calcutta).  The  French  had  a 
factory  at  Pondicherri,  south  of  Madras.  This  eastern  coast  land, 
the  Kamatic,  was  under  the  Nawdb  (Nabob)  of  Arcot,  a  subordinate 
of  the  Nizam  of  Haidardbdd  (Deccan). 

1744-1748.    VTar  between  France  and  England  in  Europe  ;  fol- 
lowed by  war  between  these  powers  in  India.    Dupkix,  gov- 
emor  of  Pandicherru 
1746.    Capture  of  Madras  by  the  French ;  it  was  restored  in  the 

peace  of  Aiz-larChapelle. 
1751-1754.  *War  between  French  and  Bxitiah  in  India.  De- 
fense of  Arcot  by  Clive  (Robert  Cliye,  b.  1725,  clerk  in 
Madras  1743,  ensign  1744,  naymaster  1748 ;  in  England  1753- 
1755 ;  goyemor  of  Bengal  1758  ;  Irish  peer,  baron  Cliye  of 
PUssey,  1760 ;  ffoyemor  of  Bengal  1765-1767 ;  conmiitted 
suicide  Noy.  22, 1774). 
1756-1763.  Seven  Team'  War  in  Borope  (p.  403)  and  Amer- 
ica (p.  420).  War  between  the  British  and  French  in  India. 
1756^  June  29.  <«  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta."  The  young  Nawdb 
(Nabob)  of  Beneal,  Sirdj-ud-Datdd  (Surajah  Dowlah),  hay- 
ing quarreled  wiu  the  English,  seized  Calcutta  and  imprisoned 
146  persons  in  the  military  prison  of  Fort  William,  a  room 
some  eighteen  feet  square.  In  the  morning  but  23  of  the  146 
were  aliye.  Cliye  recaptured  Calcutta,  took  the  French  fac 
tory  at  Chandamagar  aind  defeated  a  much  more  numerous 
force  under  Surajah  Dowlah  in  the 

i757»  June  23.    Battle  of  Flassey. 

Mir  J  afar  was  placed  on  the  (yioeregal)  throne  of  Bengal ;  Sura- 
/oA  Dowlah  was  soon  put  to  death. 
1753.    Clive  goyemor  of  Bengal ;  defeat  of  the  Dutch  (Noy.  1759). 

Establishment  of  British  influence  as  superior  to  that  of  the 

French  in  the  south. 


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444  Modem  History,  a.  d« 

170Oy  Jan.  22.    Battle  of  Wandewash;  defeat  of  tihe  Ftenoh  under 
Xially  by  colonel  (afterwards  nr  ^yre)  Coote.    Destraction  of 
the  French  power  in  India. 
The  British  having  deposed  Mir  J  afar  and  set  up  Mir  Kosim  as 

Nawdb  in  1761  were  soon  involved  in  a  war  with  the  latter  (massacre 

of  Patnd,  1763).    Sepoy  mutiny,  1764. 

1764.  Battle  of  Bazar  won  by  major  Munro  over  Shdk  AlatOf  the 
emperor.    Conquest  of  Oudh. 

1765.  Settlement  of  Indian  relations  by  Clive,  again  governor  of 
Bengal  (1766-1767).      Oudh  restored  to  the  NawAb  ;  Alia- 

hdbad  and  Kara  given  to  the  emperor,  ShcOi  Alamy  the  British  re- 
ceived the  financi^  administration  of  Bengal,  Behar,  Orissa,  and  the 
sovereignty  over  the  Northern  Circars, 
1771.    Shdk  Alam  submitted  to  the  Mahrattcu. 

Famine  in  Beng^  ;  bad  condition  of  the  company's  affairs  ;  its 
servants  grew  rich  on  extortions  and  perquisites,  but  the  com- 
pany was  near  bankruptcy.    Failure  of  Clive's  system  of  man- 
agement. 
1772-1774.    Warren  Haatinge,  governor  of  Bengal  (b.  1732;  derk 
in  Bengal  1749  ;  member  of  government  1761 ;  in  England; 
member  of  conncU  in  Madras  1765;  governor  of  Bengal  1772^ 
of  India  1774;  recalled  1785,  impeached  1788,  acquitted  17d5, 
privy  counselor  1814,  died  1818). 
1774-1785.    Warren  Hastings,  governor-general  of  India.    Coun- 
cil of  five  instead  of  twelve,  Hastings  having  the  casting  vote. 
Introduction  of  reforms  in  administration  ;   acquirement  by 
the  British  of  complete  control  of  the  finances  of  the  empire. 
Opposition  of  Philip  Francis  (Junius  ?). 
Holding  that  the  emperor  had  broken  the  agreement  with  Clive  by 
joining  the  Mahrattds,  Hastings  sold  AJkihdbdd  and  Kora  to  the  gov- 
ernor of  Oudh.    The  resistance  of  Chait  Sinh,  the  IB^ji,  of  Benares^ 
to  the  demands  of  Hastings  was  fanned  into  a  rebellion  ;  Hastings 
charged  the  mother  of  the  governor  of  Oudh  {Begam  of  Oudh)  with 
abetting  the  rebel,  and  extorted  over  £1,000,000  from  her.     For 
these  acts  Hastings  was  impeached  in  parliament  on  his  return  to 
Endand  (1788-1795  ;  speech  of  Burke),  but  acquitted. 

War  witii  the  MohraUds  (1778-1781),  and  with  Haidar  AU  of 
Mysore  and  his  son  Tipu  (Tippu  Saib).  (Seep.  6^1,) 

China.  {Seep,S90.) 

1721-1735.    Yung-ohing. 
1735-1795.    Kien-lnng. 

Annexation  of  Ilu  Conquest  of  East  Turkestan,  Unsuccess- 
ful invasion  of  Cochin  China  and  Burmah.  Suppression  of  a  Moham- 
medan revolt  in  Kan-sah.  Severe  persecution  of  the  Christians.  Liter- 
ary labors  of  the  emperor,  who  was  himself  a  poet;  foundation  of  four 
libraries. 
1792.    Conquest  of  the  Oorkhas  and  the  Nepaulese.    Unsuccessful  at* 

tempt  to  suppress  a  rebellion  in  Formosa, 


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A.  D.  Japan.  —  France,'  445 

1793.    Embaasy  of  earl  Macartney* 

1795.    Abdication  of  the  emperor,  who  died  in  1798.  -     (See  p,  660.^ 

Japan.  {See  p.  357.) 

From  1654  to  1853  the  history  of  this  country  is  marked  by  few 
events  of  interest.  Under  the  Tokugawa  Shogims,  many  of  whom 
were  famous  for  their  active  interest  in  science  and  literature,  the 
people  proere8sed  in  civilization  and  the  diffusion  of  education.  To- 
ward the  close  of  the  second  century  the  country  besan  to  feel  the 
evil  effects  of  the  long  peace  :  wealth,  luxury,  enervation.  lyetanna 
1650-1681 ;  construction  of  a  cooperative  history  of  Japan,  the  Dai 
Nikon  Shiy  under  the  care  of  the  prince  of  Mito;  department  of 
astronomy;  growth  of  Yedo,  Taunayoaki,  1681-1708,  the  friend  of 
learning.  Kaempfer  in  Japan.  Toahlmaxie,  1717-1744,  one  of  the 
ablest  of  the  Tokugawas ;  revision  of  the  crinunal  code  ;  introduction 
of  sugar-cane  ;  foundation  of  a  free  hospital  at  Yedo  ;  hygienic  in- 
formation distributed  throughout  the  country  (population  of  Japan  in 
1744, 26,080,000).^  From  1763-1770  an  empress  sat  on  the  Mikado's 
throne. 

1780-1816.  The  Mikado  Kokaku  ;  the  Shoguns  ;  lyeharu  1763- 
1786 ;  lyenori  1787-1837.  Reformation  of  the  administra- 
tion. During  this  reign  the  influence  of  the  Dutch  increased 
rapidly,  while  several  attempts  of  the  Russians  to  open  inter- 
course with  Japan  were  brusquely  repulsed.         {See  p.  562.) 

§10.  FRANCE.  (aeep.S71.) 

1715-1774.     liOtiis  XV.,  five  years  old, 

the  great-grandson  of  Louis  XTV.,  whose  son  (the  dauphm 
Louis),  and  grandson  (the  duke  of  Burgundy)  died  before  him. 
1715-1723.    Philip,  duke  of  Orleans,  regent  during  the  minority 

of  Louis  XV.  He  set  the  countzy  (and  the  king)  an  example 
of  the  most  shameless  debauchery.  His  fieivorite  was  oArHiiml  Dn- 
bola  (t  1723),  a  man  of  low  birth  and  character,  but  of  considerable 
ability.  Abandonment  of  the  policy  of  Louis  XIV. ;  alliance  with 
England  (1717,  p.  349)  ;  religious  tolerance.  The  quadruple  alli- 
ance, p.  397.  War  with  Spain  ;  marshal  Berwick  in  Spain  ;  peace, 
Feb.  17,  1720  (treaty  of  London  ;  the  emperor  received  Sicily,  Savoy 
obtained  Sardinia), 
1718-1720.    Law's  Mississippi  scheme. 

In  his  financial  distress  the  regent  grasped  at  the  dazzling 
plans  of  the  Scotchman,  John  Law.  Royal  hsuik  ;  company  of  the 
west ;  grant  of  Louisiana.  Popular  infatuation.  Enormous  infla- 
tion of  the  currency  ;  issue  of  notes  to  the  amount  of  3,000,000,000 
francs,  based  on  the  land  of  the  kingdom.  Sudden  ooUapse  of  the 
bank  and  the  company,  bringing  widespread  disaster  (1720).  See 
the  South  Sea  Bubble  (p.  437). 
1723-1726.     Administration  of   the  duke  of  Bourbon.    The  you 

king  married  the  daughter  of  the  deposed  king  of  Po' 

1  Beed.  i.  p.  23«. 


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446  Modem  History,  Jl»  d« 

Stanislaus  Lesczinski,  haTing  broken  off  the  projected  marriage  with 
the  Infanta  of  Spain  and  sent  back  the  princess  to  the  great  indig^na- 
tion  of  Philip  Y.  Louis  was  under  the  influence  of  his  tutor,  cardinal 
Fleury,  who  overthrew  the  duke  of  Bourbon  and  his  favorite  the  mar" 
quise  de  Priey  and  banished  them  from  court. 
1726-1743.    AdminiBtration  of  Fleuxy. 

Participation  of  France  in  the  war  of  the  Polish  snooes- 
Bion,  p.  398;  in  the  ixrar  of  the  Anatrian  BncceBBion,  p.  400;  in 
the  Seven  Tears'  War,  p.  403;  war  with  England  and  the  peace 
of  Paris,  pp.  422, 441. 

Persecution  of  the  Jansenists.    Miracles  at  the  cemetery  of  St. 
Medard.    Convulsionnaires.    Closure  of  the  cemetery,  1732. 

'*  De  par  le  Roi,  defense  k  Dieu, 
De  faire  miracles  en  ce  lieu." 

After  the  death  of  Fleury  (1743),  government  of  mistresses  and  of 
ministers  whom  they  placed  in  office.    Senseless  expenditure  and  re- 
volting arbitrary  rule.    Marquise  de  CTuUeauroux. 
1745-1764.    Marquise  de  Pompadour  (Lenormant  d^Etioles). 
1745,  May  11.    Battle  of  Fontenoy  ;    victory  of   Marshid  Saxe 
over  the  allies  (p.  402  and  438). 
Struggle  between  the  church,  parliament,  and  crown. 
The  due  de  Cholseul,  a  friend  of  Ponwadour,  minister. 

1756.  Hostilities  with  England  in  North  America  led  to  war  (p. 
438). 

1757,  Jan.  5.    Attempted  assassination  of  Louis  XV.  by  Damiens^ 

who  was  barbarously  tortured  and  torn  by  four  horses. 

1768.  Death  of  the  queen. 

1769.  Annexation  of  Corsica. 

The  inmiorality  and  eztravarance  of  the  court  reached  its  heieht 
when  Louis  XV.,  toward  the  cu)8e  of  his  reign,  came  imder  the  iimu- 
ence  of  the  shameless  prostitute  Jeanne  VaiSfemier,  by  marriage  with 
a  superannuated  courtier, 
1769-1774.    Countess  DuBarry. 

Contest  with  the  parliament  of  Paris,  which  was  abolished 
in  1771  by  the  chancellor,  Maupeou,  and  superseded  by  a  Conseil  du 
Roi,  without  political  privileges.  The  parluunent  was,  however,  re- 
stored under  the  next  reign.  Facte  de  famine  ;  a  company  in  which 
the  kin?  was  shareholder,  which  had  a  monopoly  of  the  com  supply. 
1774,  May  10.  Death  of  Louis  XV.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  grand- 
son, 

1774-1792.    Louis  XVI., 

whose  moral  purity  and  sincere  good-will,  neutralized  by  a 
total  lack  of  energy,  were  unable  to  quiet  the  approaching  storm  of 
the  revolution  by  feeble  attempts  at  reform.  Restoration  of  the 
parliament.  liouis,  while  dauphin  (1770)  had  married  Marie  An- 
toinette, daughter  of  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria.  The  queen,  at  first 
extremely  popular,  soon  incurred  the  dislike  of  the  people,  and  became 
an  object  of  the  grossest  slanders,  particularly  in  connection  with 
the  scandalous  affair  of  the  diamond  necklace  (1786 ;  given  to  the 


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A.  D.  I\ranc$,  44T 

qneen  by  cardinal  Rohan;  oounteflB  Lamcthe).    Her  inflnenee  was  an 

eyil  one,  being  exerted  for  tbe  maintenanee  of  the  system  of  fiiYorit- 

ism,  and  for  the  resistance  of  reforms. 

1774-1781.    Maurepas,  the  king's  favorite  minister. 

1774-1776,  May.    Torgot  minister  of  marine  and  finance. 

1777-1781.    Neoker,  minister  of  finance  ;  abolition  of  six  hundred 

superfluons  offices. 
1778.    AUiance  between  France  and  the  United  Statea  of  America 


(p.  429). 
•the 


For  the  participation  of  France  in  the  war  of  American  independ- 
ence, see  p.  429,  etc. 
1781.     Publication  of  the  compte  rendu  by  Necker.    On  the  death  of 

Maunpas  the  ConUe  de  Vergennes  succeeded  to  the  f aror  of  the 

king. 
1783-1787.    Calonne,  a  fayorite  of  the  queen,  minister  of  finance. 

Great  extravaganoe  of  the  court ;  contrattion  of  an  enormous 

debt. 

1787,  Feb.  22.    Aaaembly  of  notables  summoned  at  Versailles. 

Fall  of  Calonne. 
De  Brienne,  minister  of  finance.    Dissolution  of  the  assembly 
Ofay  26).    Opposition  of  the  parliament  of  Paris,  which  re- 
fused to  register  the  reform. 
Edicts,  alleginj?  that  such  changes  needed  the  approval  of  the 
Btates-generaL    Banishment  of  the  parliament  to  Troyes.    An  agree- 
ment was  patched  up,  but  on  the  recall  of  the  parliament,  a  still  more 
aggravated  quarrel  broke  out  concerning  new  loans. 

1788,  Jan.    Presentation  of  grievances.    Arrest  of  the  leaders  of  the 

parliament  Abolition  of  that  body,  the  place  of  which  was 
to  be  taken  by  a  caur  plenierey  nominated  by  the  king.  Bev oLta 
in  the  provinces. 

8unmions  of  a  states-general  for  May  5, 1789. 
1788,  Aug.    De  Brienne  resigned  ofiKce.    Necker  recalled. 

THIRD  PERIOD. 

FROM  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  FIRST  FRENCH   REVOLUTION 
TO  THE  CONGRESS  OF  VIENNA  (1789-1815). 

The  revolution  ran  through  three  stages  to  the  extreme  of  a  demO' 
erotic  renublie,  three  other  penods  brought  it  gradually  through  a  reac- 
tion bacK  to  absolute  monarchy,  after  miich  came  a  time  of  constitutional 
monarchy,  then  a  republic,  then  the  second  empire,  then  a  r^oublie 
again. 

1.  States  General  and  Conatltaent  Aasembly  (Constituante)  ; 
from  May  5  (June  17),  1789,  to  Sept.  30, 1791  (2^  years).  A  limited 
(constitutional)  monarchy.     Influence  of  the  higher  middle  classes. 

2.  The  Legialative  Aasembly  (Le'gislatif)  ;  from  Oct.  1. 1791,  to 
Sept.  21, 1792  (almost  a  year).  Monarchy  still  further  limit^  then 
suspended.    Increase  of  the  power  of  the  lower  claues. 

3.  The  National  Convention  (Convention  Nationale);  from  Sept. 
21, 1792,  to  Oct  25, 1795  (more  than  three  years);  called  to  frame  a 


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448  Modem  Htttary.  A.  D. 

new  eonstitatioii,  it  first  abolished  the  monarchy  and  condemned  the 
king  to  death  ;  it  supported  the  Reien  of  Terror,  and  then  overthrew 
it.    It  led  the  resistance  to  foreign  roes. 

N.  B.  The  left  of  the  oonatitaent  was  the  right  of  the  legiala^ 
tive,  and  the  left  of  the  legialative  was  (at  first)  the  right  of  the 
oonventlon. 

4.  The  Directory(Z)tr6c<mrc):  from  Oct.  26, 1795,  to  Nov.  9, 1799 
(18  Bnunaire,  An.  vlll.)  more  than  four  years.  The  middle  classes 
recovered  their  influence.  Party  divisions.  The  army.  General 
Bonaparte's  coup  d'etat. 

5.  The  Ck>]iaulate  (cormdat),  at  first  provisional  then  definitive, 
from  Dec.  25, 1799,  to  May  20, 1804  (4;  years)  ;  civil  and  military 
role,  virtually  of  one  man  ;  progress  of  French  arms. 

6.  The  (firat)  Umpire;  from  May  20, 1804  to  (April,  1814)  June 
22, 1815  (about  eleven  years).  Napoleon  I.  maae  France  the  con- 
trolling power  on  the  continent,  but  was  finally  overthrown.^ 

Qeneral  Canaes  of  the  Revolution. 

1.  The  spirit  of  the  eijg^teenth  century — a  spirit  devoted  to  the 
destruction  or  reformation  of  all  ezistmg  institutions.  Attacks  of 
French  writers  upon  church  and  state.  Monteaqnieu  (1689-1755)  ; 
.Voltaire  (1694r-1778)  ;  Rouaaeaa  (1670-1741)  ;  the  EncydopecQa 
(1751-1780),  the  work  of  the  Encyclopedists :  Holbaoh  (1723- 
1789)  ;  Helvetiua  (1715-1771)  ;  Diderot  (1713-1784)  ;  D'Alem- 
bert  (1717-1783^  ;  Condillac  (1715-1789). 

2.  The  unequal  division  and  miserable  cultivcuian  of  the  land  (nearly 
two  thirds  of  which  was  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy  and  the  nobles), 
and  the  strict  control  exercised  by  the  guilds^  which  checked  the  de- 
velopment of  trade  and  industry. 

3.  The  arbitrary  gavemmentf  the  abuses  m  the  adndnistradon^  the  un- 
equal  apportionment  of  the  burdens  of  taxation.  Since  1614,  the  consti- 
tutioiuu  assembly  of  the  kingdom,  the  etats-gineraux  had  not  been 
summoned  (p.  325).  Control  of  the  liberty  of  the  subject  by  arbitrary 
warrants  of  imprisonment  Qettres  de  cachety  Bastille)  of  their  property 
by  arbitrary  taxation. 

In  opposition  to  the  right  assumed  by  the  parliament  of  Paris,  to 
refuse  the  registration  of  edicts  of  taxation,  the  court  had  recourse 
to  beds  of  justice  (lits  de  justice,  a  despotic  enforcement  of  reeistra^ 
tion),  and  tne  banishment  of  members  of  parliament.  Commissions 
in  tne  army,  places  in  parliament,  and  most  of  the  higher  offices, 
were  purchasable,  but  as  a  rule,  only  by  the  nobles.  T%e  privileged 
classes  (nobility  and  clergy)  were  allowed  many  privileges  m  regard 
to  the  direct  taxes,  although  by  no  means  exempt  by  them.^  Continu- 
ation in  the  country  of  the  oppressive  feudal  burdens  (corvees,  enforced 
labor  on  the  estate  of  the  lord  and  on  public  roads  without  pay),  ex- 
actions of  the  feudal  lords,  who  wasted  their  revenues  in  the  capital 
and  gave  the  peasants  neither  protection  nor  assistance  in  retnra 
TaHlCf  land  and  property  tax;  gabdle,  tax  on  salt. 


1  Assmann. 

^  Von  aybel,  (rtichichte  der  RewUaitmtzeit. 


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A.  D.  Mm  French  BevohUion.  449 

^  Special  Cause. 

The  immerue  public  debt  and  the  deJicU,  The  yearly  deficit  owed 
its  origin  to  the  wars  of  Louis  XIV.,  to  his  costly,  often  senseless 
buildings  ( Versailles  with  its  basins  and  fountains  lyine  in  a  district 
totally  without  water),  and  to  his  extravagant  court ;  it  grew  under 
the  profligate  expenditure  of  Louis  XV.  and  the  cost  of  the  North 
American  war  under  Louis  XVI.  till  it  amounted  to  nearly  half  of 
the  yearly  income.  As  Turgors  (1774-1776^  attempts  at  reforms 
TremoTal  of  internal  duties  on  commerce ;  abohtion  of  the  corvee^  abo- 
lition of  many  guilds),  Necker^s  n776-1781)  economical  administn^ 
tion,  and  the  assembly  of  notables  summoned  upon  the  advice  of 
Calonne  (1787^,  brought  no  relief,  the  king  took  the  advice  of 
Necker,  who  had  reassumed  office  (1788),  and  resolved  upon  the 

1789,  May  5.  Summons  of  the  ^ats-O^n^aux  to  Ver- 
saiUeSy  with  a  double  representatton  of  the  middle  classes, 
the  third  estate  (tiers  ^tat),  nobles  300,  cler^  300,  commons  600.  Dis- 
pute about  the  manner  of  debating  and  of  voting  (whether  votes  should 
DC  cast  by  the  orders  as  such,  or  by  each  member  individually) 
which  broKC  out  during  the  verification  of  the  powers  of  the  members. 
The  nobles  and  the  clergy  demanded  a  separate  verification,  the  com- 
mons wished  that  it  should  take  place  in  common.  The  true. question* 
was  whether  the  legislative  body  should  consist  of  a  lower  house  of 
commons,  and  an  upper  house  of  nobles  and  clergy  which  would  check 
the  lower,  or  of  one  house  in  which  the  commons  equaled  in  number 
the  nobles  and  clergy  together.  Upon  the  motion  of  ^h^g|^M£UgZS^^ 
(author  of  the  remarkable  pamphlet  asking,  What  is  tieWffamatef)^ 
the  representatives  of  the  third  estate  assumed  the  title  of  the 

17889^01^0  17-1791.     National  Assembly  {constttuante) 
and  invited  the  other  orders  to  join  them. 

1789*     Suspension  of  the  meetings  for  three  days;  the  hall 
June  20.    closed  to  the  members,  who  at  last  resorted  to  a  neighbor- 
ing tennie  court  (jeu  de  paume)  and  took  an  oath  not  to 
separate  until  they  had  eiven  the  realm  a  constitution.    Pres- 
ident BaiUy,    Many  of  Vie  clergy  and  some  nobles  joined  the 
assembly. 
'  June  23.    Fruitless  royal  sitting  ;  the  king  ordered  the  assembly  to 
^  meet  in  three  houses. 

Principal  orator  of  the  assembly  :  BCirabeau  (Riquettif  count 
of  MirabeaUf  bom  1749,  of  remarkable  talent,  but  dissolute, 
in  debt,  at  variance  with  his  family,  elected  in  Provence  as 
representative  of  the  third  estate).  The  representatlTes  of 
the  clergy  and  the  nobility  join  the  third  estate  by  re- 
quest of  the  king.  Concentration  of  troops  near  Paris. 
Rumors  of  a  purpose  to  dissolve  the  national  assembly,  and  the  dis- 
missal of  Neoker  (July  11)  caused  the 

1789.     Storm  and  destruction  of  the  Bastille  in  Paris 
July  14.    (murder  of  De  Launay)f  Camille  DesmouHns.    Paris  in  the 
29 


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450  Modem  .autory.  a,  i>^ 

hands  of  the  moh  fleaioely  controlled  bv  the  efapffff^  Whn  \mA 
chosen  thp  denntiefl  f rom  Fbxjb  for  the  asaemblY  and  now  sat  . 
at  the  H&tel  de  VtUe  as  a  proyisional  goyemment.  !^ecker 
recalled.  Lafayette  commander  of  me  newly  established 
National  Ghiard.  ftiitfy/  rrmyor  of  Pftria.  Adoption  of  the 
triccicr :  blue,  red  (colors  of  Paris),  white  (color  of  France). 
Beginning  of  the  emigration  of  the  nobles,  headed  by  the  count  of 
Artois,  second  brother  of  the  king,  prince  Conde\  PoUgnac. 

Rising  of  the  peasants  against  the  feudal  lords  in  DaupMne,  Pro- 
vence, and  Burgundy.  Riots,  provisional  goyemments,  guards  in  the 
provincial  cities. 

Aug.  4.    Voluntary  surrender  by  the  representatives  of  the  nobles 
(yicomte  de  NoaiUes)  of  all  feudal  rights  and  privHeffes  ;  abo- 
lition of  the  titles,  prohibition  of  the  sale  of  offices,  mssolution 
of  the  guilds,  etc. 
Aug.  27.    Declaration  of  the  rights  of  man.    Discussion  of  the  veto 

power. 
Oct.  5, 6.  Outbreak  of  the  mob  of  Paris,  caused  by  hunger,  the  bribes 
of  the  duke  of  Orleans,  and  rumors  of  an  intended  reaction. 
March  of  a  band,  consisting  principally  of  women,  to  VersaiUes.  The 
royal  family,  rescued  by  Lafayette,  were  obliged  to  go  to  Paris, 
whither  the  national  assembly  followed  them.  200  members  re- 
signed. 

Democratic  monarchical  oonatltation  :  one  chamber  with  legisla- 
tive power  and  the  sole  right  of  initiation.  The  royal  veto  was  sus- 
pensive only,  delaying  the  adoption  of  a  measure  for  two  legislative 
terms.  The  king  could  not  declare  war  and  conclude  peace  without 
tiRT  consent  of  the  chamber,  ratification  by  which  was  necessaiy  foir 
the  validity  of  all  foreign  treaties. 

In  order  to  relieve  the  financial  distress  the  ecclesiastical  estates 
were  declared  public  j^roperty.  AaaignatB,  notes  of  the  govern- 
ment, having  for  security  the  public  lands,  the  value  of  which  was 
not  to  be  exceeded  by  the  issue  of  notes  (a  check  which  was  inopera- 
tive).    The  state  assumed  the  support  of  the  clergy. 

1790>  July  14.     National  federation  in  Paris ;  the  Constitavi^ 
tion  accepted  by  the  king. 
Abolition  of  the  old  provincee  and  governments;  France  divided  g 
into  eiffhty-three  departmenU,  llAfflM  ILfUlF  FlVers  and  mountains ; ' 
these  departments  being  subdivided  into  374  districts  and  cantons,  % 
The  communes  were  left  unchanged  (44,000) ;  imrimflZiA'cafpi  for  ^e 
exercise  of  active  suffrage  in  the  primary  assemblieslwhicCcnoBe 
electors  (dlecteurs)  who  then  elected  the  representatives  (746)  for  a  legis- 
lature with  a  term  of  two  years.     The  administrative  officers  of  the 
departments  and  districts  were  selected  from  the  electors;  the  munU' 
cipal  officers  and  the  judges  were  taken  from  the  great  body  of  voters, 
the  active  citizens.    Each  department  and  each  district  had  a  local 
assembly.     Abolition  of  the  parliaments  and  the  old  judicial  coustito- 
tion.    Juries,    Abolition  of  hereditary  nobility,  titles,  and  coats-of-arma. 
Dissolution  of  all  ecclesiastical  orders,  excepting  those  having  educa- 
tion and  the  care  of  the  sick  for  their  objects.    Civil  organization  of 


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A.  D.  First  French  RevoluHon.  451 

the  clergy;  the  pastorg  to  be  chosen  by  the  voters  of  the  districts,  the 
bishops  by  the  *iot^rs  61  IM  (i^tUlf IHi^mH.  C^lUy  0U»  mifU  01  \M 
ecclesiastics  submitted  to  the  new  constitution  by  taking  the  required 
oath,  so  that  henceforward  there  was  a  distinction  between  priests 
who  had  taken  the  oath  (pretres  assermentes)  and  priests  who  had  not 
(refnictaires), 

Clabs  had  existed  since  1789 ;  the  Jacobixui,  named  after  their 
place  of  assembly,  which  was  formerly  occupied  by  Dominican  monks 
from  the  Rue  St.  Jacques  {Robespierre),  soon  the  greatest  power  in 
the  state  ;  the  Cordeliers,  who  held  their  meetings  in  a  monastery 
of  Franciscans  {Dantony  ManU,  CanuUe  DesmominSf  Hebert);  the 
FeuillantB,  moderate  monarchists  who  had  separated  from  the  Jaco< 
bins  (LafdyeUe^  BciiUy),  Reorgft"iy-ation  of  the  wMiwioipality  (oom- 
mnn«^  «l  iW  in  fortr-eight  tSjiow ,"  W.UW  VoUw  (pAprknJ,UWJ ; 
general  council,  executive  Doara  {^^fk),  jf^acn  secuAu  lUUl  Uff^pRnnEfJ^*"** 
assembly. 

1790,  Sept.    Fall  of  Necker. 

Alliance  between  the  court  and  Mirabeau,  who  endeavored  to  stem 
the  revolution  and  prevent  the  destruction  of  the  throne. 

1791,  April  2.     Death  of  Mirabeau. 

June  20.  Flight  of  the  kin^.  Stopped  at  Varennes,  brou^^ht  back  to 
Paris  (June  25).  Unprovoked  assaulli  on  a  meetine  in  the 
Champs  de  Mars  (July  17, "  massacre  of  the  Champs  de  Mars."^ 
s>uspenaea,  remstatea  Dy  tne  moaerate  party  (oept.),  Louis 
.  X\i.  accepted  the  constitntioii  as  revised  and  com- 
pleted.  Diigsolution  of  the  assemblv  (SenL  aO'^  a-ftpr  if.  hnA 
votea  tnat  none  of  its  members  should  be  eligible  for  reeleo- 
tion  to  the  next  legislature. 

I79I9  Oct  1-1792,  Sept.    Legislative  Assembly^ 

^^T^j^jgpteaS^^y^Bf  mo8tly7rolB"the*miffile*class.  "Parties : 
^  tne  right,  composed  of  constitutionalists,  royalists,  FeuiUants,  became 
weaker  with  everv  day.    The  left  side,  comprising  tlKTUfciority,  was ' 
divided  into  :  1.  Moderate  republicans  (the  plain,  la  plaine),  contain-  .* 
ing  the  group  of  the  Girondists  (so  called  after  its  leading  members 
from  B^rdeauXy  the  department  of  the  Gironde)yGuadetj  Vergniavdf 
Brissoty  etc.,  advocates  of  a  federal  repubfitl.    1,  ThU  iUUiiiiLUn  (la 
montagney  lis  montagnards),  so  called  from  their  seats,  which  were  the 
highest  on  the  left  side  of  th^  Vi«1l^  radicals,  adherents  of  a  nmtfid. 
mdivisible  republic  (une  et  mdwtgiole),    lliey  were  composed  01  the        / 
leaders  of  the  clubs  of  the  Jacobins  and  the  Cordeliers.  PeUony  mayor        ' 
of  Paris.  r 

1791,  Aug.    Meeting  at  Pillnitz  between 

1786-1797.      Frederic   William    IL,    king   of   Pruasia       \ 
(  WoUner,  Bischofswerder),  and  ,- 

1790-1792,     Leopold  n.,  the  emperor. 

Preliminanr  understanding  in  regard  to  Eastern  matters,  the 
political  relations,  and  the  French  disturbances.  * 

Digitized  by  VjOC^Q IC  '.  1^ 

'     f  -A   - 


452  Modem  History.  jk.  d. 

1791,  Sept    Annexation  of  Avignon  (massacres)  and  the  Venaimn  to 
france. 

1792,  Feb.  Alliance  between  Austria  and  Prussia.  Leopold  was  soo- 
ceeded  by 

1792-1806.  Pranois  n.  (As  emperor  of  Austria,  Pran- 
oie  I.  until  1835). 

1792-1797.     War  between  France  and  the  First  Goali- 

tiofli  

A  Girondist  ministry  (Roland,  Dumouriez)  took  the  place  of  the 

eonstitutionalist  ministry,  whose  fall  was  caused  by  the  declaration  of 

PUlnitz. 

April  20.  Declaratian  of'  war  against  Austria.  Three  armies  in  the 
field.  Rochambeau  (48,000),  between  Dunkirk  and  Fhilippe- 
▼ille;  Lafayette  (52,000),  between  Phiiippeville  and  Lauter- 
bourg;  Zuckner  (^,000),  between  Lauterbour^  and  Basle. 
The  fortune  of  war  was  against  the  French,  which  increased 
the  revolutionary  excitement  at  Paris.  Dismissal  of  the  min- 
istry of  Roland  (June  13). 

June  20.  Invasion  of  the  Tuileries  by  the  mob.  Calm  behavior  of 
ih^  kUlg ;  the  bonnet  rouge,  i  ifW<< 

July  11.    The  Legislative  Assembly  pronounced  the  country  in  dan- 
ger.   Formation  of  a  volunteer  army  of  revolutionists  through- 
out the  country.     Threatening  manifesto  of  the  duke  qf  Bruns-^ 
unck. 
The  municipal  council  of  Paris  broken  up  and  its  place  usurped  by 

eommissioners  from  the  sections  ;  the  new  commune  (288  membersV 

Aug.  10.  (  Tenth  of  August).  Storm  of  the  Tuilerlea  by  the  mob,  m 
consequence  of  an  order  given  by  the  king  to  the  Swiss  g^uards, 
^o  were  advancing  victoriously,  to  cease  firing.  Massacre  of 
the  Swiss  guards.    The  kinf  took  refuge  in  the  hall  of  the 

Aug.  13.  Assembly,  was  suspended,  and  placed  in  the  tower  of  the 
tempWi^the  old  ^house  of  the  Knights  Templars).  Numerous 
arrests  of  suspected  persons.  The  Jacobins  in  power.  Call  of 
a  national  convention,  elected  by  manhood  suffrage,  to  draw 
up  a  constitution  for  the  state. 

/Lug.  20.  Lafayette,  impeached  and  proscribed,  fled,  was  captured  by 
the  Austrians  and  imprisoned  in  OlmiJUz  (till  1796).  Verdun 
taken  by  the  Prussians  ;  battles  at  Grandpre' and  Vabny. 

Sept.  2-7.  Jail  delivery  at  Paris  :  terrible  maBsacre,  lasting  five 
davs,  of  royalists  and  constitutionalists  detained  in  the  prisons, 

instigated  by  the  city  council  and  by  Danton,  the  minister  of  justice. 

Like  scenes  took  place  at  Versailles,  Lyons,  Rheims,  Meaux  and  Or- 

leans. 

20  Sept.  French  (Dumouriez,  Kellemutnn)  success  at  Valmy  against . 
the  allies  (duke  of  Brunswick). 

1792*  Sept  21-1795>  Oct    National  Convention  com- 
posed entirely  of  republicans  (749  members,  486  new 
^  men).    Parties,  Girondists  (right,    Vergniaud,  Brissot) 


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>• 


A.  D.  Fir9l  Frifich  Revolution,  458 

and  the  Mountain  (left ;  members  for  Paris,  Bobespierre^ 
duke  of  Orleans  {Philip  EgalUe)^  Danton,  CoUat  d! 
Herhois), 

1792.    Abolition  of  the  monarchy.    Frauoe  deolared  a 
Sept  21.    Republic. 

sept.  22  was  tbe  first  day  of  t^e  yeax  one  of  the  J^'rench  repub- 
lic.  Citoyen  et  ciioyerme ;  decree  of  perpetual  banishment  against 
emigrants;  tu  et  toL  Inglorious  retreat  of  the  Prussians  through 
Champagne  to  Luxembourg  and  across  the  Rhine.  The  French  general, 
Custine,  took  Speier,  Mamz^  and  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  Occupation 
of  Nice  and  Savoy  TSept.). 
of  tne  Fren< 


1792.    Victory  of  the  French  general  pumouriez  at  Jwnnmpea.    He     ^   t^ 
Nov.  6.    took  Brussels  and  conquered  the  Austrian  Netherlands.    The         r**^ 
Prussians  retook  Frankfort.  jtcA 

Nov.  19.    Proclamation  of  the  conyention  offering  French  assistance  Jt^^^^^  §^ 
to  all  peoples  who  wished  to  throw  off  their  present  govern- 
ment. 

Savov  and  Nice  annexed  ;  the  Schelde  opened  to  commerce  (p. 
408). 

1792,  Dec.-1793,  Jan.    Trlai  of  Iionia  XVI.  before  the  convention. 

Barrhre  prosecutor ;  MdLenher^^  Deshze^  Tronchety  for  the  de- 
fense. 
^oDosed  appeal  to  the  nation  rejected.  January  15, 683  votes  out 
of  721  declarea  the  king  guilty.  Jan.  lb,  361  votes,  exactly  a  major- 
ity (among  them  that  of  the  duke  of  Orleans  (EpaUt^y  were  cast 
fsnconditioncUly  for  death,  360  being  cast  for  impnsonm^it,  banish- 
ment, or  death  with  respite. 

1793,  Jan.  21.    Execution  of  Louis  XVI. 
Feb.  1.    War  declared  against  Great  Britain,  Holland,  Spain. 

EfigUiM,  nmana,  ApnW^a  m  hmptri  jomed  Ue  alliance 
against  France,  Sardinia  having  been  at  war  with  the  latter  power 
smce  July,  1792.  Annexation  of  Belgiam.  The  emigrants,  under  the 
prince  of  Cond^,  proclaimed  Iionia  XVIL,  who  was  a  prisoner  in  the 
temple. 

Boyalistic  revolt  in  the  Vendue,  upon  occasion  of  a  levy  of  recruits. 
(Charette,  Stqffiet,  Cathelineau,  La  Rochejaquelein). 

The  Austrians  under  the  duke  of  Coburg  defeated  Dumouriez  at 
^eerwinden  (March  18),  and  recaptured  Brussels.    Dumouriez  went 
over  to  the  Austrians  wiUi  the  duke  of  ChartreSy  Louis  Philippe,  son 
of  EgalUe. 
March  9.    Establishment  of  the  revojlutionary  tribunal. 

At  Paris,  in  the  convention,  struggle  for  life  and  death,  between 
i^ufli;fiQ^Ml/uji^^                        Aiter  the  failure  of  the  plan  of  the 
"'  I««wwtoH)eieM8iBg  


■ggyiiwKI— ii|iiM(iiiii,  to  make  tJiiijMkB  of .  Orleans 
(Fgalit^),  protector,  all  power  centred  in  the  Committee  of  General 
Security  and  the 

17fta     g^ipmittee  of  Pnblio   Safety    mnmifJ  du.  Rnl'u^. 
April  6.     Public),    Composed  of  nine  (afterwards  twelve)  members^ 

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454  Modem  HUtory.  A.  d. 

who  exeioised  dictatorial  power.  Leaders :  IVwif <in  ^from  the 
first);  /gAfti»yi^>m>.  Sit,  Jti»f.  n/witJunt  (f.hi>aA  fli»AA  in  July)  ; 
afterwards,  Cflr»Q<.w^o  "^;^"^|H  t^J  "^;^;%^  dApartmpnt 
only,  and  L^abt  d'tierbKns  (SSept.)/  The  third,  and  in  reahty 
the  greatest  power  in  the  state,  was  the  oommmie  of  Paris, 
now  reorganized  on  the  hasis  of  manhood  sutt'rage,  and  acting 
throngh  its  committee,  now  numbering  only  twenty,  at  the 
Hold  de  VilUf  under  the  guidance  of  Chaumettef  and  especially 
of  Hebert  (e^tor  of  Le  Pere  Duchesne). 
Financial  difficulties.  New  issues  of  assufnats  baaed  on  the 
lands  of  the  emigrants,  the  sale  ot  wluch  was  oMered.  At- 
tempts to  check  the  depreciation  of  assignats  by  seyere  penal- 
ties. 
Jane  2.  An  uprising  of  the  mob,  organized  by  the  oommnne  of 
Paris,  commanded  by  Henriot,  compeUed  the  convention  to  ar- 
rest  thirtv-one  Giroi^ists  (Bnssot.  Vfrarfiaud.  P^!Hon). 

The  secondy  fully  democratic  constitution,  as  passed  by  the  conven- 
tion, was  sent  to  the  primary  assemblies  of  voters  for  ratification^  but 
never  came  to  execution. 

17d3,  July  13.    Assassination  of  Marat  by  Charlotte  Corday  (executed 
Jidy  16). 

1793-1794.     Beiffn  of  Terror  in  France. 

Bobeapierre  at  the  head  of  the  state.  Revolutionary  commit'- 
tees  throughout  the  country.  Conmiiasaries  of  the  conamittee  of 
public  safety  committed  unheard-of  atrocities  in  the  large  cities  of^  tlie 
provinces.  TalUen  at  Bordeaux,  Lebon  in  Arras,  Carrier  in  Nantes, 
ChaiUer,  Couthon^  Fouche,  CoUot  d*Herbois  in  Lyons. 

Maina  captured  by  the  Prussians  after  a  siege  of  three  months 
(July).  The  allies  took  the  fortresses  of  Condi  and  Fa^mcioineff. 
For  this  reason  Custine  was  executed  at  Paris.  The  English  laid  siege 
to  Toulon.  The  jro^na  of  tha  Rppuhlm  w«»rft  drivftn  hiii^lr  Af.  ft1mn«t: 
jJljBMnts.  Revolts  in  the  interior,  partially  conducted  by  Girondists 
WHO  bad  "escaped  from  Paris.  Energetic  measures  of  the  committee 
of  public  safety  (Camot). 
1793,  Aug.  23.    Levy  of  the  whole  male  population  capable  of  heatv. 

mg  arms,   rouneen  armies  were  soon  piacea  m  tne  field,   t'aen, 

Bordeaux^  Marseilles,  conquered  by  the  republicans.  Lyons 
Oct    captured  after  a  two  months'  siege  and  partially  destroyed  ; 

Massacre  of  the  inhabitants  (CoUot,  Fouche;  la  commune  affnm- 

chie.) 
Sept.  17.    Establishment  of  a  maximum  price  for  a  vast  number  of 

commodities  ;  also  for  wages.    The  state  exacted  all  its  labor 
.   and  goods  at  the  maximum  price  and  paid  in  assignats  at  the 

face  value,  the  market  value  being  one  third  of  the  face. 

Defeat  of  the  Vendeans  at  ChoUet  (Oct.  20)  and  at  Le  Mans 
(Dec.  12).  Revolutionary  tribunal  at  Nantes  (15,000  persona 
put  to  death  in  the  three  months  of  October,  November,  Uecena- 
ber  by  Carrier;  noyades,  fusillades,  mariages  republwams). 


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A.  ix  First  French  RevchUion,  455 

Oct.  16.    Ezecntion  of  the  queen,  Maxle  Antoinette. 

Oct.  31.    Execution  of  the  GMrondists  (21).    Reign  of  the  revolu- 
tionary tribunal  and  the  guillotine  {Place  de  la  Revolution^  now 
Place  de  la  Concorde)  ;  ^QjMJgr^Tjjnj^^^uhlio  prosecutor. 
Sixty  executions  a  month;  neglec^^epnorms. 
Execution  of  jSmZZt/j  Bealit^  (Nov.),  Madame^oton^.    Abolition 

of  the  worship  of  God.    Cult  of  reason  (HeberfCtSMeiUf  Cloots), 

rrof anation  of  the  royal  sepulchre  at  St.  Denis. 
Revolutionary  calendar.    Beginning  of  the  year  one,  Sept.  22, 

1792.    The  months  :   Vendeimairey  Brumaire,  Frimaire;  Nivose,  Plu" 

viosCy    VerUose ;   Germinal,   Florealy  Prairial ;  Messidor,   ThermidoTf 

Fructidor;  each  month  had  thirty  days,  fiye  mtercalary  da^s  (sans  ou- 

lottides),  every  tenth  day  a  holiaay.    Transportation  of  priests. 

Kov.  10.    Festival  of  reason  in  Notre  Dame.    AV>lit]on  of  the  old 

army.    Creation  of  a  new  army.    Qw^^afjjyj^jjj^Ji^lff^^  ^ 

aeimes,  Le  Quesnoi  by  the  allies  (Coburg).    Jourdan  commander  of 

Oct.  11-13.    Storm  of  the  French  lines  at  Weissenburg  on  the  Rhine 

by  Austrians  and  Prussians  (Pichegru,  commander  of  the  French 

on  the  Rhine,  Hoche,  of  the  army  on  the  Moselle.) 
Nov.    Defeat  of  Hoche  by  the  duke  of  Brunswick  at  KaiserslatUem. 
Dec.     Hches;ru  defeated  the  Austrians  under  Wurmser,    Retreat  of 

the  auies  across  tiie  Rhine.     Worms  and  Speier  recaptured. 
Toulon  rescued  from  the  English. 
First  appearance  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  (b.  Aug.  15, 1769,  at 
Ajaccio  in  Corsica ;  1779  at  the  military  school  in  Bri^nne  ;   1785 
lieutenant  in  Valence,  1793  captain;  at  TquIou,  colonel;  after  the  cap- 
ture, brigadier^general ;  adherent  of  the  revolutionary  movement,  m 
eloee  connection  with  the  Jacobins,  particularly  with  the  two  Robes' 
pierresy  although  he  afterward  denied  it  ^). 
1794.    Robespierre  (representing  the  committee  of  public  safety) 

crushed  both  parties  which  were  opposed  to  him,  the  ultra-rev* 
olntionary  oommnne  ^Hebertists)  and  the  moderate  Vantomsts  (tiie 
Honn&Sn),  usmg  one  against  the  other.    'After  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt at  an  insurrection 
Ma»^  24.    Condemnation  and  execution  of  the  Hdbertists  (Chaumette, . 

Hebertf  Ctoots,  etc.).    March  29,  condemnation  of  the  Dan-    * 

tonists. 
April  6.      Execution  of   Danton,   CamUle    Desmoulins,  H^rauU  de 

Sechelles,  etc.  ' 

April  18.    Defeat  of  the  allies  by  Pichegrna^Tiit»^;i^gr 
Apni  IS^' '  l^aiy  ol  Ihe  Hague  between  EngUCBtt  and  IVussia  ;  sub-      . 

sidies  for  60,000  men. 
Unhampered  rule  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety.  .^ 

Robespierre  abolished  the  worship  of  reason  and  caused  the         ^    \. 

convention  to  pass  a  resolution  acknowledging  the  existence  of      '  y^ 

n.  HnniwmA  hAinflr.  ^. 


a  supreme 


June  8.    Fetes  de  VEtre supreme:  Robespierre  high  priest 
June  10.    Portentous  increase  of  power  beato wed  on  the  revolution- 
aryTfflBunST'TWrieffT^^OTrHcr^HfflSSi^^ 
>  P.  Lanilrey,  Histoire  de  Napoleon  I. 


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fi 


466  Modem  ffistary.  A.  d. 

argnment.    Enormous  increase  of  executions,  mnning  up  to 
354  a  month. 
June  25.    Capture  of  Charleroi  by  the  French. 
Jiyie  26.    Battl^  aMaiipift.  rennlse  of  the  allies  under  Coborg. 
"^^^^Evacuation  o^Belgmmr^^^ 

An  attemp^^^^^minate  the  Yendeans  {Turreau)  caused  a  fresh 
•outbreak  of  m^wSF 

Conspiracy  of  the  Mountain  and  the  moderates  against  Robespierre 
(Tallieny  Freron,  Fauche,  Vadier,  Coaotd*Herbois,BiUaud-Varennes). 

1794>  July  27  (9th  Thermidor).  Fall  of  Robespierre, 
arrest  of  the  two  Robespierres,  of  Couthon  and  St  Just ; 
being  released  they  were  outlawed,  surprised  at  the  Hdtel 
de  Ville,  and  executed,  with  eighteen  others.  On  the 
following  days  over  eighty  of  his  party  were  executed. 
The  commune  was  nearly  extinct 
179^1795.  The  National  Convention  controlled  by  the  mod- 
erates. 
Meanwhile  the  armies  of  the  republic  had  been  fortunate  on  the  bor- 
ders. The  Fmssians,  victors  at  Kaiaerslautem  in  May,  1794,  after 
a  secona  Dattie  at  tne  same  place  m  JbefHT^IrSCi^  across  ine  Rhine. 
The  duke  of  Cobnrg,  defeated  June  26, 1794,  by  Jourdan  at  FleumBg^ 
resirned  ills  conmiuid.  rue  Austnans  reured  across  cue  xuime  ^s^^ 
alio^). 

'fljia  thft  power  of  the  coTPTniinft,  tvf  the  Jacobins,  and  of 


.t.^^:■■.J.^RnlcaraT^i.TyTy¥/f■^:/}l^/eI;^j;!J^^^ 


___^ trs  of 

i  moderate  revolution,  and  by  the  violence  of  the  younff  meu  of  the 
upper  classes  ^called  later  the  Jeunesse  doree).  The  Jacobin  club 
closed  (Nov.  12\    Those  GirondSats  who  had  escaped  witjitiieir  lives 


were  readmitted  to  tneur  seats  m  tke  convention  (JJec.  9, 1794,  March 

8, 1795).    Execution  of  Carrier  and  Fouquier-TinvUle. 

"  Public  miserv.    Rflnijal  of  thft  Tn^pyimnm  (^Haa.  24,  1794).    New 

issues,  JncrftiMftd  dfturaniation  of  aMitmsLis^ j  m  May,  1795,  they  were 

worth  7  per  cent. 

X  JI1795,  April  1  (Germinal  12).    Bread  riots  in  Paris  ;  attack  on  the 

,     I  VU^      ^      convent  suppressed  ;  transporta5onmS3I38Sl!  CoUot,  Barrhre^ 

L^F      A/^ji^*  Vadier,    Growing  reaction  in  the  capital  and  the  provinces. 

mt^H^y^^      IJfiljim^yjjOTajip'ants.    Reactionary  terror  (The  White  Terror). 

^'^X^^IrMay  20  (Prairial  IJ.    Insurrection,  or  bread  riot.    Fierce  attack 

fy^  upon  the  convention.      Fimmess    of   the    president^   Boissy 

d'^AfiglhkJ  'isu^pression  ot  tne  outoreaic.  May  :2U.    ii^xtermma-- 


tion  of  the  Mountain. 
Mftfliitimft  the   «.rmiPH    of    France   we^  everywhere    successfal. 
Ptchegru  had  invaded  Holland  in  the  winter  of  1794r-1795.     The 
hereditary  stadthalter  fled  to  England. 

1795-1806.  Batavian  Republic  founded,  which  surrendered  Dutch 
Flanders  to  France.  Tuscany  withdrew  from  the  coalition  and 
■concluded  peace  with  France.  Prussia^  whqse  finances  were  exhausted 
and  which  had  quarreled  with  Austria,  concluded  with  the  convention 
the 


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A.  D.  First  French  Revolution.  457 

1795,  Afril  5.    Peace  of  Basle  (Hardenberg), 

which  Saxony,  HaAoyer,  and  Hesse-Cassel  joined.     Open  condi- 
tions :  1.  France  continued  in  possession  of  the  Prussian  territory  on 


niany.    aecret  artu^eg  ^iTussmc^sentea  to  tne  absolate  cession 
Ee  left  bank  of  the  BSSSetoTrSSSes^a  received  the  assurance  of 
a  recompense  thron&^h  secularization. 

After  other  notable  successes  of  the  French,  Spain  concluded  the 

1796,  July.    Peace  of  Basle.    Spanish  St.  Domingo  was  ceded  to 
France ;    all    other    conquests    were   restored    (Grodoy,  the 
Spanish  minister, /Trinceo/*  the  peace). 

In  the  naval  war  the  English  were  for  the  most  part  in  the  ascend- 
ency. ^^ 
1795,  June  8.    Death  of  the  ten-year-old  dauphin  (Louis  XvlL)  in 

the  temple,  where  he  had  been  most  shamefuUy  abused.^ 
June  27.  English  and  emigrants  land  at  Q^iberon  (Brittany)  to  assist 
the  royalists  of  that  region  (Chouans),  but  were  defeated  by 
Eoche  (July  16-21  j  and  over  700  emigrants  executed. 

Retaliatory  massacre  of  1,000  republican  prisoners  by  Charette. 
Conclusion  of  the  war  of  the  Vendue,  defeat  ,of  the.  insurgents 
by  Heche.  Execution  of  Stofflet  and  Charette  (latter  March  29, 
1796). 

At  Paris  adoption  of  a  new  (third)  oonstitntion.  Constitution 
of  the  year  III.,  or  1795.  The  executive  power  was  g^ven  to  a 
••  */.//>«,  «f  fl^«  «««i/.«a  .  the  legishitive  to  the  council  of  elders  (250). 
Atiwimi.  but  it  w«  MWllffll 'lUV  Ulb 
ftrst  temalTwoTIBHIWB'^ft  members  of  both  councils  should  be 
taken  from  among  the  members  of  the  National  Convention. 

Opposition  to  this  limitation  of  choice  at  Paris  and  in  the  provinces. 
The  royalists  in  the  capital  instigated  an  outbreak  of  the  sections 
(city  districts  or  wards).    On  the  motion  of  Barras,  general  Bona- 
parte w&s  placed  in  conmiand  of  the  troops  of  the  convention.    Bona- 
parte crushed  the  revolt  by  the  bloody  victory  of  the 
1795,  Oct  5.    13th  Vend&niaire,  called  the  Day  of  the  Sections. 
Cannonade  from  the  church  of  St.  Roch.    The  convention  dis- 
solved (Oct.  26)  after  having  voted  (Oct.  25,  Brumaire  3)  that 
relatives  of  emigrants  could  hold  no  office. 

1705-1799-    Government  of  the  Directory  in  France. 

4«  Substitution  of  mandats  convertible  into  a  specified  amount  of  land 

for  the  ftssipnatp.  of  which  145  billion  francs  had  been  issued. 

In  the  Vendee,  after  a  short^mice,  a  new  and.  bloody  war,  which 

spread  to  Brittany  {Chouans).    Hoche  suppressed  the  revolt  in  the 

Vendue  (ended  March  5,  1796). 
X*  By  the  advice  of  Camot  the  directory  undertook  a  triple  attack 

npon  Austria.    1.  The  army  of  the  Sombre  and  Meuse  under  Jourdan 

1  The  death  of  the  dMiphtn,  offickillv  establMMd'and  eyidenced  by  many 
witnemiefl,  w  beyond  doubt.  The  pretenders  who  assamed  bis  name  later  were, 
tne.i^od  1^1,  iinix)stQi«u^  .    


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458  Modem  HiUory,  A.  d« 

adyanced  from  the  lower  Rhine  to  Franconia ;  2.  the  anxw  of  the 
Rhine  and  Moselle  under  Moreau  penetrated  from  the  upper  Rhine  to 
Swabia  and  Bavaria  ;  3.  the  army  of  Italy  under  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte was  to  attack  Austria  m  ilaiy,  ana  umte  wicn  cne  two  former . 
by.  way  of  Tyrol.         * 

The  German  campaign  opened  successfully  for  the  French.  JouT' 
dan  and  Moreau  invaded  south  Germany.  Baden^  WUrtemberg,  and 
Bavaria  were  compelled  to  conclude  truces.  Suddenly  fortune 
changed. 

1796.  Archduke  Charles  of  Austria  (brother  of  the  emperor 
Francis)  took  the  offensive  against  Jourdarif  defeated  him  at 
Amberg  (Aug.^,  and  at  TVfirzbarg  (Sept.  3).  Jourdan  retreated 
to  the  Siegy  and  resigned  his  command.  The  archduke  then  turned 
upon  Moreauy  who  retired  to  the  upper  Rhine  (retreat  through  the 
Black  Forest). 

1796,  Mar.  9.    Marriage  of  Bonaparte  wilh  Josephine  de  Beauhamais. 
1796t    Brilliant  oampadgn  of  Bonaparte  in  Italy.    I^tarting  from 

iVtce  he  followed  the  coast,  defeated  the  Austrians  in  the 
April.    Battles  at  MUlesimo,  the  Piedmontese  at  Mondovi,  and! 

compelled  the  king  of  Sardinia,  Victor  Amadeus,  to  conclude 
May.     A  separate  peace.     1.  Cession  of  Savoy  and  Nice  to  the 

rrencn  rej^URllA.    2.  The  French  garrisoned  the  Piedmontese 

fortresses. 
Offensive  and  defensive  alliance  between  France  and  Spaing  the 

latter  declaring  war  on  England. 
May  10.    Pursuit  of  the  Austrians.    Storming  of  the  bridge  over  the 
*^'Athhi«t  fijodi  ;  Napoleon  entered  Milan  (Mky  15),  c5nc[uered 

the  whole  of  Lombardy  as  far  ^iPMAWna.    The  dukes  of 

Parma  and  Modena,  the  Pope  and  Naples,  purchased  a  tmoe 

with  money  and  art  treasures.    Definite  peace  with  the  Pope 

at  Tolentino  in  Feb.  1797 ;  the  Pope  ceded  the  Romagna^ 

Bologna,  and  Ferrara. 
1796-1797.     Siege  of  BCantaa.    Four  attempts  on  the  part  of 
July.    Feb.      the  Austrians  to  relieve  the  fortress.    The  Austrians 

defeated  at  CastiglUme,  Roveredo,  Bassano,  at 
Nov.  15-19.    Arcole,  and  at 

1797,  Jan.    RivoU.    Mantua  surrendered  (Feb.  2). 

17979  March-April.    Bonaparte  orossed  the  Alps 

to  meet  archduke  Charles  who  was  advancing  from  Germany. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Venetian  territory  rose  against  the  French  ^ 
in  Tyrol  and  Bohemia  the  people  were  called  to  arms.    Bonaparte,  in  * 
danger  of  being  cut  off,  opened  negotiations,  which  led  to  the  condn- 
sion  of  the 

1797.    Prellminartr  peace  of  Leobei^  under  the  f  ollomng  condi- 
April  18.    tions,  whicn,  however,  were  materially  changed  in  the 
definite  peace  of  Campo  Formio  (see  below). 

l._Agafaiacededflie.BgZgtan  provinces  to  France.  2.  A  congress 
shoTUdmeSSSeTSTpeacPwuFTnelimpire  6n.  tne  oasis  of  the  integ- 
rity of  the  empire.    SwAjiatdA-fifidfidJhfiJzeidQiLbeYOBdihe  OQliok 


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A.  D.  First  French  Revolution.  459 

reoeiying  in  retam  the  Veneiaan  temtoiy  between  the  Oy^to,  Po, 
and  Amiaiic  ^which  she  waa  to  conquer  for  herself),  Venetian  JDaU 
mada  and  Istna,  and  the  fortresses  of  MantuOf  Peachiera^  and  Palma 
Nova,  4.  Venice  was  to  be  indemnified  with  the  Romagna,  Boloana, 
and  Ferrara.  5.  Austiia  recognized  the  Cisalpine  R^ntblic  wnich 
was  to  be  formed  in  northern  Ituy. 

1797,  May.    The  French  declared  war  upon  Venice,  under  pretext 
of  an  outbreak  at  Verona.    Abolition  of  the  aristocracy  and 
establishment  of  popular  goyemment.    Occupation  of  the  republic 
by  French  troops  ;  also  of  the  Venetian  islands  of  Greece  (Ionian). 

Proclamation  of  the  Ciaalpine  Republic  {Milan,  Modena, 
Ferrara,  Bologna,  Romdgna).  Transformation  of  the  republic  of 
Genoa  into  the  liigarian  Republic  under  French  control. 

1797i  Sept  4  18th  Fruotidor.  Ck>up  d'Etat  at  Paris. 
Victory  of  the  republican  party  over  the  party  of  reaction, 
which  was  represented  in  the  council  of  five  hundred,  in  the  council 
of  ancients,  and  in  the  directory.  The  three  republican  directors, 
Barras,  Reiehel,  and  La  RevelUere  defeated  their  colleagues,  Bar- 
ihdlemy  and  Camot.  The  latter  escaped  by  flight;  Barth&emy 
and  many  of  his  adherents,  including  Ptchegru,  were  transported  to 
Cayenne, 
After  lengthy  negotiations,  France  and  Austria  concluded  the 

Oct.  17.    Peace  of  Caxnpo  Forxnio. 

Open  articles  :  . 

2.  A  congress  was  convene 

empire.    3.  Austria  received  the  territory  of  Venice  as  far  as 
the  Adige,  with  the  cily  of  Venice,  I  stria,  and  Dalmatia.   JL;.jJ[;UttLjit 
regained  the  Ionian  iflar^.    6.  Austria  recognized  the  Cisalpine 
Republic  and  indemnified  the  duke  of  Modena  with  the  Breisgau.     ^ 
^k  Secret  articles :  1.  Austria  agreed  to  the  cession  of  the  left  bank  of     ) 
the  Rhine  from  Basle  to  Anaemacn,  including  Mainz,  to  France  ;  the  ' 
navlgati61i  ^1  lfi\A  MfrifWnSltV^n  >u  Fiaauu  imd  Ooimany  in 
common  ;  those  princes  who  lost  by  the  cession  were  to  receive  in- 
demnification in  Qermany.    2.    France  was  to  use  her  influence 
to  secure  to  Anktria,  Saldnirg,  and  that  portion  of  Bavaria  which 
lay  between  Salzburg,  the  Tyrol,  the  Inn,  and  the  Salza.    3.   Re- 
ciprocal guarantee  that  Pmssia  should  not  receive  any  new  acquisi- 
tion of  territory  in  return  for  her  oessions  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine. 

1796-1801.     Paul  L,  Empeiror  of  BiiBsia,  suceeeded  his 
mother  Catharine  II.  (p.  411). 

1797-1840,    Frederic  William  IIL,  King  of  Prussia. 
Wollner  dismissed.    Edict  of  religion  revoked. 

1797,  Dec.-1799,  April.    Congress  of  Rastadt.    No  agreement 

1798.  The  French  occupied  Rome.    Proclamation  of  the 
Feb.    Roman  Republic.    Captivitv  of  the  Pope,  Pius  VI. 

Disturbances  in  Switzerland.    The  French  entered  the  country^ 
The  confederacy  transformed  into  one 


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460  Modem  Bistory,  A»  ix 

1798,  April.    Helvetian  Republic.    Geneva  atmezed  to  Fiance. 
1798-1799.     Bonaparte's  Egyptiaa  expedition, 

prepared  under  the  mask  of  an  invasion  of  England,  against 
whose  East  Indian  Empire  this  expedition  was  in  trath  directed. 
Army  of  England  at  Boulo^e.  The  opposition  of  the  directory  being 
overcome  the  fleet  sailed  from  Toulon  (M^  19,  1798),  with  35,000 
men,  accompanied  by  a  large  number  of  scientists.  Bonaparte,  Ber" 
tMer,  Kleberi\ateTf  Desaix.  Capitulation  and  occupation  of  Malta  (June 
12),  disembarkation  in  Egypt  (July  1).  Capture  of  Alexandria  (July 
2^.  Battle  of  the  Pyxamida  won  against  the  Mamdukes  (Jul^  21). 
Cfapture  of  Cairo  (July  22).  Desaix  advances  toward  upper  Egypt. 
The  English  fleet  annihilated  the  French  in  the 

1798.  Battle  of  the  Nile  at  Aboukir  (Nelson),  thoscat- 
Aug.  1.    ting  off  the  French  army  from  France. 

A  popular  uprising  in  Cairo  suppressed.  The  Forte  having  de- 
clared war  upon  France,  Bonaparte  attacked  the  pasha  of  byria, 
stormed  Jaffa  (massacre  of  1200  prisoners)  but  was  unable  to  capture 
St,  Jean  d'Acre  (^Akko),  the  defense  of  which  was  supported  by  the 
English.  Bonaparte  victorious  over  the  Turks  at  Mt,  Tabor  (April 
16).  Pestilence  in  the  French  army.  Retreat  to  Egypt  Arrival  of 
the  Turks  at  Aboukir,  where  they  were  completely  defeated  by 
Bonaparte  (Murat),  1799,  July  25. 

1799-1801.    Wax  of  the  second  coalition, 
^  composed  of  Russia,  Austria,  England,  Portugal,  Naples,  the 

Ottoman  Porte^  and  owing  its  origin  chiefly  to  Paul  /.,  emperor  of 

Russia,  whom  the  Knights  of  Malta  had  elected  grand  master. 
^      Flan  of  the  allies :  1.  An  English-Russian  army  (duke  of  York)  was 
«  4  to  drive  the  French  from  the  Netherlands.    2.  An  Austrian  army  {arfA" 

duke  Charles)  should  drive  them  out  of  Germany  and  Switzerland, 

•  while  3.  a  Russian-Austrian  army  expelled  them  from  Italy  (Suoaroff 

#  and  Mdas). 

The  war  began  in  the  latter  part  o|  1798  by  a  Neanolitan  invasion 
of  the  Roman  Republic,  under  the  Austrian  general  Mack,  The  in- 
vasion was  repulsed,  the  kin^  of  Naples  fled  to  Palermo,  the  kingdom 
of  Naples  was  occupied  bv  the  French  and  transformed  into  the 

1799.  Parthenopsean  Republic.  Tbe  grand  duke  of  I'uscany  was 
Jan.    driven  from  his  domains.    The  king  of  Sardinia  escaped  from 

Turin  and  took  up  his  residence  in  Cagliari  in  Sardinia;  his  for- 
tresses upon  the  mainland  were  placed  under  French  control.  After 
1802  they  were  annexed  to  France. 

'Q|ejjj{g||ty;vo]2£cgg^to  six  armies  under  as  many  com- 

msMoml^T'BrynemttSiSS^^  on  the  miJdle  Rhine; 

3.  Jourdan  on  the  upper  Rhine  ;  4.  Massena  in  Switzerland  ;  5. 
Scherer,  afterwards  Moreau,  in  upper  Italy;  6.  Macdonald  in  Naples. 
1799.  Jourdan,  defeated  by  archduke  Charles  at  Ostrach  and  Stock- 
March,    ach,  retreated  across  the  Rhine  and  laid  down  his  command. 

His  army  and  that  of  Bemadotte  were  placed  under  Massena. 
April    Scherer  defeated  by  the  Austrians  at  Magnano.    His  successor, 

Moreau,  defeated  by  the  Austrians  (Melas)  and  Russians  (51*- 

varoff)  at  Cassano.    Abolition  of  the  Cisalpine  Republic. 


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A.  D.  First  French  devolution.  461 

1799,  April  8.    Diflsolntion  of  the  Congress  of  Rasiadt.    Mysterioiu 
murder  of  the  French  amhaasadorSy  Roberfot  and  Bonnier  (De^ 
bry  escaped),  on  their  journey  home,  by  Austrian  hussars  irom 
Transylvania  (Apr.  28). 
June  4-7.    Massena  defeated  by  archduke  Charles  at  Zurich.    Mac- 
donald  being  called  to  upper  Italy,  the  king  of  Naples  returned 
and  the  Parthenopsean  Kepublio  was  aboliwed.    Terrible  ven- 
geance, accompanied  by  massacres.    Ndson^  Lady  Hamilton, 
Abolition  of  the  Roman  Republic. 
June  17-19.    Macdonald  defeated  oy  Suvaroff  on  the  TrMia,    Man- 
tua  taken  by  the  allies.    The  directory  sent  Javbert  to  Italy 
with  a  new  army.    He  was  defeated  in  the  bloody 
Aug.  15.    Battle  of  Nov!  by  Suvaroff  and  Meku.    Joubertf    Sit- 
varoff  grossed  the  Alps  by  the  pass  of  St.  Grothard  in  order 
to  unite  with  the  second  Russian  army  under  Korsakoff^  who  had 
taken  the  place  of  archduke  Charles  when  the  latter  went  to  the  mid- 
dle Rhine,  in  Switzerland. 

His  army  however  had  already  been  defeated  at  Zurich  bv  Mas- 
sena. Suvaroff  left  Switzerland  after  a  series  of  terrible  battles  and 
marches,  and  returned  to  Russia. 

A  Russian-Turkish  fleet  had  wrested  the  Ionian  islands  from  French 
control  in  May,  1799.  Erection  of  the  Republic  of  the  Ionian  lal- 
anda  under  Turkish  protection,  and  the  guarantee  of  Russia,  which 
occupied  the  same  until  1807. 

June  18.  Revolution  of  3d  Prairial.  Reorganization  of  the  directory 
under  Sieyes ;  a  revolution  which  resulted  in  the  return  of 
Bonaparte. 

1799>  Oct.     The  duke  of  York  was  defeated  and  capitulated 

at  Alkmar. 
Oct.  8.    Bonaparte,  returning  unannounced  from  Egypt,  landed  at 

Fr^jus,  and  in  alliance  with  the  directors, 
June.    Sieyes  and  Roger-Ducos  and  his  brother,  Lucien 

president  of  the  council  of  five  hundred,  overthrew  the  i 

tory  by  the 

Nov.  9,    Coup  d'Etat  of  the  18th  Brumaire, 

and  broke  up  the  council  of  five  hundred  upon  the  following 
^^day. 

1799-1804.    The  Government  of  the  Consulate 

with  Napoleon  Bonaparte  as  regent  under  the  title  of  first 
consul  for  ten  years,  and  two  consuls  appointed  by  him,  Cambacef^  and 
L^hrun^  who  had  consultative  voices  only. 

The  new  (fourth)  constitution  (constitution  of  the  year  VIII.),  ori- 
ginally devised  by  Sieyes,  but  easentially  changed  by  Napoleon,  and 
accepted  by  direct  vote  of  the  whole  nation  (3,(XX),000  to  1,567),  pre- 
served the  '*»»*»-'»«"'*>'»^  '^f  *»    9>tyn»ihU^  VkM*  ;»  iw»oi;fvaefa'K1iQliA/)   o   •miUtft' 

monarchy. 


eJSvm^m^wM^\:^^\h\iMM}WMf!rsHffsp^ 


little  to  do),  appointed,  from  lists  of  names  sent  in  by  the  depart- 
ments, the  members  of  tl^e  Uaislatfnp  dpnartnumL  the  higher  officials 
and  the  judges.    Legislative  power  without  the  initiative;  1.  tribunate 

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462  Modem  Hittory.  a.  D. 


1' 


100)  diBoassed  the  proposals  of  the  gorenimeiit  vUkout  Toting. 
L  The  legislative  chamber  (900)  oould  only  accept  or  reject  these 
proposals,  without  cLetMite.  The  executive  power  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  Jirst  consxd,  who  was  aided  by  a  council  oftiaie. 

The  people  voted  for  notables  of  the  communes,  who  then  elected  a 
tenth  of  their  number  as  notables  of  the  departmentSj  whence  were 
elected  a  tenth  portion,  the  notables  of  France,  from  which  latter  list 
the  senate  appointed  the  members  of  the  legislative  bodies. 

Establishment  of  prefectures  (administration  of  the  departments)  and 
sub-prefectures  (admmistration  of  the  arrondissements\  and  oonseqinent 
creation  of  that  centralization  which  stiU  prevails  m  France.  I^ew 
system  of  tax-collection  ;  receveur^general  for  each  department  (abol- 
ished under  the  second  empire),  receveur  particuUer  for  each  arron- 
dissement.     Code  Napoleon  commenced.  ^ 

The  overtures  of  peace  made  by  the  first  consul  were  rejected. 
Poti/,  emperor  of  Russia,  however,  was  won  over  by  Napoleon  s  flat- 
tery, and  withdrew  from  the  coalition.  Defensive  alliance  between 
Russia  and  Sweden  (1799),  closer  connection  between  Russia  and 
Prussia.  Paul  quarreled  with  England  in  regard  to  Malta.  Re- 
newal of  the  pre  vious  ( 1780)  armed  neutrality  at  sea  (p.  536).  North- 
ern convention  (1800). 

1800.  Double  campaign  of  the  French  in  ItaXj/  under  Napth 
lean  Bonaparte,  in  Upper  Germany  under  Moreau. 

April.    A.  In  Italy. 

Massena  defeated  at  Voltri:  MeLas  advanced  to  Nice.    Obsti- 
nate defense  of  Genoa  by  Massena  (and  SouU)  ;  after  a  terri- 

June  4.    ble  famine  (15,000  people  perished)  the  ci^  capitulated  to 

May.  Ott.  Meantime  passage  of  the  Qreat  St.  Bernard  bj 
Bonaparte.     ^The  fortress  of  Bard,  passed  by  a  detour). 

June  2.  Capture  of  Milan.  Restoration  of  the  Cisalpine  Republic 
General  Melas,  after  a  brave  contest,  and  after  victory  had 
once  been  in  his  hands,  defeated  by  a  second  attack  in  the 

1800»  June  14.    Battle  of  Marengo,  by  Napoleon. 

Desaix  f .  According  to  the  truce  concluded  with  Melas,  all 
fortresses  west  of  the  Mincio  and  souUi  of  the  Fo  were  sur- 
rendered by  the  Austrians  to  the  French. 
B.  In  Qermany :  Moreau  crossed  the  Rhine  from  Alsace  in 
April,  and  advanced,  winnine  victories  at  Engen  and  Stock- 
achy  toward  Kray  (May).  Moreau  in  Munich  (July).  Truce 
until  November.  Kecommencement  of  hostilities.  Moreau 
defeated  the  archduke  John  in  the 

1800>  Dec  3.    Battle  of  Hohenlinden, 

captured  Salzburg  and  advanced  to  the  Linz.    Truce  of  Steyer. 
After  Brune  in  Italy  had  won  a  battle  on  the  Mincio  (Dec.) 
and  had  crossed  the  Adige  (Jan.  1,  1801),  a  truce  was  conclu- 
ded in  Treviso,  which  was  succeeded  by  the 

180L  Feb.  9.    Peace  of  Lun^ville, 

from  which  the  abolition  of  the  old  Holy  Roman  ] 
practically  dates. 


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iL  D.  First  French  Revolution.  463 

Chief  conditions  :  1.  Ratification  of  the  cessions  made  by  Austria 
and  to  her  in  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio  (p.  459).  2.  Cession  of 
the  grand  duchy  of  Tuaoany  (Austrian  secundogenitnre^  to  Par- 
ma, to  be  indemnified  in  Germany.  3.  The  Emperor  ana  Empire 
consented  to  the  cession  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  to  France,  the 
valley  of  the  Rhine  (t.  e.  the  middle  of  the  river),  the  boundary.  The 
princes  who  lost  by  this  operation  received  indemnification  in 
Ghermany.  4.  Recognition  of  the  Batavian,  Helvetian,  Cisalpine, 
and  Lignrian  Republics.  Qermany  lost  by  this  peace,  taking 
the  Belgic  territory  into  account,  25,180  square  miles  with  almost 
3,500,0(K)  inhabitants.  The  Grerman  princes  received  an  increase  of 
territory.  The  shameful  negotiations  over  the  indemnifications  lasted 
more  than  two  years  (p.  &5),  during  which  time  the  ambassadors 
of  German  princes  haunted  the  antechambers  of  the  First  Consul  to 
beg  for  better  terms,  and  bribed  French  ambassadors,  secretaries  and 
their  mistresses. 

Tasoany  was  transformed  into  the  kingdom  of  Etrurian  for  the 
satisfaction  of  Parma,  Besides  losing  Parma,  a  Spanish  secundoeeni- 
ture,  Spain  ceded  Lotdaiana  to  Franoe,  which  afterwards  sold  it 
to  the  United  States  (1803).  The  peace  of  Lun^ville  was  succeeded, 
after  conciusion  of  a  truce,  by  the 

1801,  March  18.    Peace  of  Florence  with  Naples,    Conditions : 
1.  Closure  of  the  harbors  to  British  and  Turkish  vessels.    2. 
Cession  of  the  Neapolitan  possessions  in  central  Italy  and  the  island  of 
£lba.    3.  Reception  of  French  garrisons  in  several  Italian  towns. 

Prussia  joined  the  Northern  Convention  against  England.    Occupa- 
tion of  Hanover, 
1801,  March  23.    Paul  I.,  Emperor  of  Russia,  murdered.    He  was 

succeeded  by  his  son, 
1801-1825.    Alexander  I. 

Reconciliation  between  Russia  and  England  (in  1801  England 
had  attacked  Denmark,  the  ally  of  Russia,  and  forced  her  to 
withdraw  from  the  Northern  Convention).  The  Northern 
Convention  was  now  dissolved. 

1800.  Conspiracies  gainst  the  life  of  Bonaparte.  Infernal  ma- 
chines. 130  "  Terrorists  and  Jacobins  "  transported,  although 
the  attempts  had  originated  with  the  royalists. 

In  Egypt  the  chief  command  after  the  departure  of  Bonaparte 
had  devolved  upon  Kleber,  who  defeated  the  Turks  in  the  battie 
of  Hdicpolis  (1800,  March).  After  the  murder  of  Kldber  at  Cairo 
(June),  Menou  became  commander-iurchief.  He  concluded  a  treaty 
with  the  English  at  Cairo  (1801),  under  which  Egypt  was  to  be 
abandoned  and  returned  to  the  Ottoman  Porte,  and  the  French  army 
transported  to  France  by  the  English  fleet. 

1801.  Union  of  Ireland  with  Ghreat  Britain  under  one  parliament. 
In  France  restoration  of  the  Catholic  worship,  and  after  long 
negotiations  with  the  papacy,  conclusion  of  a 

1801.    .Concordat  (executed  in  1802),  whereby  the  (10)  French 
archbishops  and  (50)  bishops  were  to  be  appointed  and  sup- 
ported by  the  government,  and  confirmed  by  the  rope.    ^Ujg^VlL^ 
elected  m  wSd  in  Venice,  was  recognized  in  the  possessi^r^"^ 

Uigitized  Dy  ^ 


464  Modem  Hiitory.  jl»  j^ 

Fnpal  States,  without  Ferrara^  Bclo^na^  and  the  Romagna.  The  lib* 
erties  of  the  Gallican  churoh  were  strongly  asserted.  By  the  new 
organization  of  the  **  Uniyersit^,"  an  incorporated  body  of  teachers 
who  had  passed  a  state  examination,  the  entire  system  of  higher 
education  was  made  dependent  upon  the  government.  The  instUut 
national  was  reorgamzea  and  divided  into.^tir  (later  ^ve)  academies : 
1.  aoademie  /ranfoise  (1635)  ;  2.  a.  des  uucr^fftions  et  bdleg-ieOres 
(1663, 1701)  ;^.  a.des  sciences  (1666)  ;  ^.  a.  des  beaux  arte  (1648)  ; 
5.  a.  des  sciences  morales  et  politiques  (1832). 

After  the  withdrawal  of  the  younger  Fitt  from  the  "Rnglyali  cabi* 
net,  and  after  long  negotiations,  the 
1802.  March  27.    Peace  of  Amiemi 

was  concluded  between  England  and  France. 

1.  Surrender  of  all  conquests  made  by  England  to  France  and  her 
allies,  excepting  Trinidad  which  was  ceded  by  Spain,  and  Ceylon 
which  was  ceded  by  the  Batavian  Republic.  2.  France  recognized 
the  Republic  of  the  Seven  Ionian  Islands.  Malta  must  be  restored  to 
the  Older  of  the  Knights  of  Malta.  In  consequence  of  this  peaoe, 
peace  was  concluded  l^tween  Fhmce  and  the  Porte, 

Creation  of  the  order  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  (May  19, 1802).  A»- 
sumption  of  rend  state  and  authority.  Napoleon  Bonaparte  caused 
himself  to  be  ekcted  by  a  popular  vote  (pUbisdie,  3^  millions), 

1802,  August  2.     Conaul  for  life,  with  the  right  of  appointing  his 

successor. 
New  (fifth)  constitution.    The  powers  of  the  senate^  which  was 
ruled  by  the  first  consul,  were  enlarged;  the  importance  of  the  legie* 
lative  bodies  and  the  tribunate  was  very  decidedly  reduced. 

Napoleon  had  already  become  president  of  the  Italian  Republic,  as 
the  Cisalpine  Republic  was  henceforward  called.  j^jAa  and  Pied'- 
mont  were  annexed  to  France.  Military  interference  of  the  FrShch 
in  Switzerland,  which  was  torn  with  civil  dissensions.  The  act  of 
mediation  restored  the  independence  of  the  separate  cantons,  but  the 
country  remiuned  still  so  far  a  single  state  that  it  was  represented  by 
a  landamman  and  a  di^. 

As  regards  the  internal  relations  of  (jermany,  the  peace  of  Lun^ 
ville  was  executed  according  to  a  plan  of  indemnification  established 
by  France  and  Russia  by  the 

1803,  Feb.    Enactment  of  the  delegates  of  the  empire.    (jR^icft^ 

deputationshauptschluss).^ 
Of  the  ecclesiastical  estates  there  were  left  only  :  1.  the  former 
elector  of  MainZj  now  electoral  archchancellor,  with  a  territory  formed 
out  of  the  remains  of  the  archbishopric  of  Mainz  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Rhiiie,  the  bishopric  of  Regensburg,  and  the  cities  of  Regensburg 
and  Witzlar.  2.  the  masters  of  the  order  of  St.  John,  and  Uie  Ttfi^ 
ionic  order.  3.  Of  the  48  free  inyDerial  cities  which  still  existed,  only 
6  were  left,  the  3  Hanseatic  cities  :  Liibcck,  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and 
Frankfort,  Augsburg,  Nuremberg.  All  other  ecclesiastical  estates  and 
imperial  cities  were  devoted  to  indemnifications.  The  electoifd  bish- 
oprics of  Trier  and  Cologne  were  abolished.  Four  new  electorates  t 
aesse-Cassel,  Baden,  Wurtemberg,  Salzburg. 

I  Siohhom,  Deutsche  StaaU  u.  BfichUguchichte,  IV.  {606. 


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▲•  D.  First  French  EevoluUon.  465 

Principal  Indemnifications :  1.  The  grand  duohy  of  Tnaoany :  Sah- 
lurg,  and  Bercktesgaden.  2.  Duke  of  Modena :  Breisgau  (in  ex- 
eluuige  for  which  Austria  received  the  ecclesiastical  foundations  of 
Trient  and  Brixen).  3.  Bavaria  :  bishoprics  of  Wiirzburg,  Bamberg, 
Freising,  Augsburg^  the  majority  of  the  prelacies  and  imperial  cities 
in  Franconia  and  eastern  Swabia,  in  return  for  which,  4.  Baden 
received  that  portion  of  the  Palatinate  lying  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rhine  {Heidelberg,  Mannheim),  Baden  also  received  :  the  portion  of 
the  bishoprics  of  Constance,  Basle,  Strasburg,  Speyer,  on  the  right 
bank  of  liie  Rhine,  and  many  ecclesiastical  foundations  and  imperial 
cities.  5.  Wttrtemberg :  many  abbeys,  monasteries,  and  imperial 
cities,  especially  Reutlingen,  EssUngen,  Heilbronn,  etc.  Pmsala  :  the 
bishoprics  of  Paderbom,  Hildeskeim,  Uie  part  of  Thuringia  which  had 
belonged  to  Mainz  {EichfM  and  Erjurt),  a  part  of  MUnster,  many 
abbeys,  particularly  Quedlinburg,  and  the  imperial  cities,  MiihlhatP' 
sen,  Nordhausen,  Goslar,  7.  Oldenburg:  bishopric  of  Liibeck,  8. 
Hancver  :  bishopric  of  OsnabrUck.  9.  Hease  (Darmstadt  and  Cas-- 
sel)  and  Nassau  divided  the  portions  of  the  archbishoprics  of  Maim, 
Trier  and  Cologne,  which  remained,  upon  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine. 
10.  Nassau-Orange  :  bishopric  of  Fulda,  and  abbe^r  of  Corvey.  As 
a  rule  the  indemnified  princes  gained  considerably  in  territory  and 
subjects.  * 

1803.    New  dissensions  between  France  and  Enaland,  caused  by  the 
refusal  to  surrender  MaUa  and  the  quarreis  of  the  journalists. 

The  French  occupied  Hanover,  where  they  nearly  exhausted  the 
resources  of  the  state.  The  encampment  at  Boulogne  threatened 
England  with  an  invasion. 

Conspiracy  against  the  life  of  the  First  Consul  discovered  (1804, 
Feb.).  Pidkegru  met  a  mysterious  death  in  prison,  Oeorge  Cadour 
dal  was  executed.  Moreau  fled  to  America.  The  duke  of  Enghien, 
a  Bourbon  prince  of  the  branch  line  of  Condd,  was  taken  by  violence 
from  the  territory  of  Baden,  condenmed  by  a  commission  acting  in 
accordance  with  the  wishes  and  under  the  order  of  Napoleon,^  with- 
out the  observation  of  any  of  the  forms  of  law,  and  shot  at  Vincennes 
on  the  night  of  March  20-21.  On  the  18th  of  May  the  tribunate  and 
senate  proclaimed  the  Consul  Bonaparte, 

1804-1814  (15)  Napoleon  L,  Hereditary  Emperor  of 

the  French. 

The  succession  was  in  the  male  line,  the  emperor  having  the 
privilege  of  adopting  the  children  of  his  brothers,  in  default  of  which 
and  of  direct  issue,  the  crown  was  to  go  to  Joseph  and  Louis  Bona- 
parte. The  election  was  ratified  by  a  popular  election,  by  means  of 
lists  to  which  the  people  signed  tlieir  names  (3,572,329  to  2,569). 
The  emperor  was  consecrated  at  Paris  by  Pius  VI I,  (Dec.  2),  placinc^ 
the  crown  upon  his  own  head.     (Imitation  of  Pepin  and  especially  of 

1  That  DO  miiunderttandings  took  place,  as  is  asserted  bv  Thiers  and  othen, 
throughout  the  whole  shameful  proceeding,  that  Napoleon  {.  afterwards  endeav- 
ored m  all  ways  to  conceal  the  truth,  and  that  the  guilt  of  this  prfmeditated 
murder  rests  mainly  upon  himself,  has  been  proved  by  lAnfirey,  Hittoire  de 
NapoUon  I.  iii.  128,  foil. 
30 


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A.  D.  NapoUonie  Wars.  467 

Charles  tbe  Great,  who,  as  Charlemagne,  was  transformed  into  a 
Frenchman  and  prototype  of  Napoleon).  Establishment  of  a  bril- 
liant court.  Grand  dignitaries  of  the  empire  ;  eighteen  marshals. 
New  nobility.  An  absolute  monarchy  of  tbe  purest  type.  (Aboli- 
tion of  the  tribunate,  1807.) 
1805.    Napdwn  king  of  Italy.    His  stepson  Eugene  BeavhamaUt 

son  of  Josephine^  yrio&oj  of  Naples.     The  Ligwrian  Rqmblie 

incorporated  witii  France. 

1805-    Third  coalition  against  France, 

between  England,  Russia,  Austria,  and  Sweden  (^Gustamta 
IV,)f  for  the  purpose  of  restoring  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe. 
Spain  allied  with  France. 

The  camp  at  Boulogne  broken  up.  The  French  armies  under  Da- 
tfoutj  Smdty  Lannesy  Ney,  advanced  toward  the  Rhine.  The  main 
force  of  the  Austrians  m  Italy  under  archduke  Charles  opposed  to 
Massena  ;  in  Germany,  under  archduke  Ferdinand  and  M€tck.  Napo- 
leon commanded  in  person  in  Germany  ;  relying  on  the  support  of 
most  of  the  south  German  states,  he  aavanced  to  meet  the  Austrians 
who  had  invaded  Bavaria.  On  the  upper  Danube  he  concentrated 
his  forces  (200,000  men),  reinforced  by  Bemculottef  who  on  his  way 
from  Hanover  had  marched  through  the  neutral  territory  of  Ansbach 
in  Prussia,  and  by  troops  from  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  Baden, 
Hesse,  Nassau.  After  the  Austrians  (80,000  men)  had  been  de- 
feated in  several  engagements,  and  the  main  army  was  surrounded 
by  the  French, 

1805.    Mack  surrendered  in  Ulm  with  the  whole  Austrian  army 
Oct.  17.     (30,000  men),  prisoners  of  war. 

On  the  sea  England  opened  the  war  brilliantly  with  the 

1805*    Victory  of  Nelson  at  Trafalgar 
Oct.  21.    over  the  French  and   Spanish    fleet.     Death  of    Nelson 
("  England  expects  every  man  to  do  his  duty  ").    This  vic- 
tory broke  the  naval  power  of  France. 

The  French  marched  upon  Vienna^  which  was  taken  by  Mural 
without  resistance.  Archduke  Charles,  who  had  driven  back  Massena^ 
returned  to  Germany  ;  a  Russian  army  under  Kutusoff,  a  second  nn^ 
der  the  emperor  Alexander,  came  to  the  assistance  of  Austria.  In 
the 

1805«    Battle  of  Austerlitz  (the  battle  of  the  three  em- 
Dec.  2,     perors),  Napoleon  defeated   the  united  forces  of   Austria 

'  wod  Russia^  Truce  with  Austria.  Retreat  of  the  Russians. 
Dec  15.  Treaty  concluded  by  Prussia,  which  was  on  the  point  of 
joining  the  coalition,  with  Napoleon  at  Schonbrunn  (Haug- 
witz).  Fmssia  ceded  to  France  the  remaining  part  of  Cleve 
(Wesd)  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  Ansbach, and  Neuchdtel, 
and  was  promised  Hanover  in  exchange. 

Dec.  26.  Peace  of  PreBSbursr*  between  France  and  Austria. 

1.  France  received  Piedmont,  Parma,  and  Piacema,    2.  Anstria 

ceded  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy  all  that  she  had  received  of  Venetian 


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468  Modem  IRstory.  A.  ]>• 

territoTj  at  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio  (p.  459)  ;  also  Venetian 
Istria  and  Dalmatta^  and  recognized  Napoleon  as  kine  of  Italy.  3. 
Austria  ceded  to  Bavaria  :  Tyrdy  Vorarlbera,  the  bisnopzios  Brixen 
and  TrierUy  Burgau,  Eichstadt,  Passauy  Lmdau,  besides  wUch  Bavaiia 
received  the  free  city  of  Augsburg.  4.  Austria  ceded  to  Wifrtem- 
berg  and  Baden  what  remained  of  the  western  Austrian  lands.  5. 
Bavaria  and  Wtirtemberg  were  recognizied  as  kingdoms.  6. 
Austria  received  as  indemnification :  Salsburgf  BerdUesgaderiy  and 
the  estates  of  the  Teutonic  order  which  were  secnlarized.  The  elec- 
tor of  Salzburg  received  WUrzburg  from  Bavaria  oA  indemnification. 
Russia  remained  hostile. 

1805.  The  Bourbons  in  Naples  were  dethroned  by  a  proclamation 
Dec.    issued  by  Napoleon  from  Schonbrunn  (£a  dynasde  de  Naples 

a  cesse  de  regner), 

1806.  Joseph,  Napoleon's  elder  brother,  king  of  Naples.     The 
court  of  Naples  withdrew  to  Palermo. 

Sicily  was  beyond  Napoleon's  reach,  as  the  English  controlled  the 

Joachim  Murat,  brother-in-law  of  Napoleon,  created  rand  duke 
of  Berg  ;  Marshal  Berthier,  prince  of  Neuchdtel ;  Louis  Bonaparte, 
Napoleon's  third  brother,  king  of  Holland  (the  former  Batavian  Re- 
public). 

1806.  Establishment  of  the  Ck>nf  ederation  of  the  Rhine, 
July  12. 

Napoleon,  protector.  Prince  Primate,  formerly  electoral  arch- 
chancellor  ;  the  kings  of  Bavaria  and  WUrtemberg  ;  the  grand  dukes 
of  Baden,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  and  Berg,  duke  of  Nassau,  etc.  After- 
wards all  the  German  princes  joined  the  confederation  except  Aus» 
iria,  Prussia,  Brunswick,  and  the  electorate  of  Hes'se. 

Many  princes  holding  immediately  of  the  empire  mediatized.  The 
free  city  of  Nuremberg  assigned  to  Bavaria,  Frankfort  to  the  prince 
primas  {grand  duke  of  Frankfort), 

Emperor  Francis,  who  had  already  assumed  the  title  of  emperor 
of  his  hereditary  Austrian  estates  (1804), 

1806>  Aug.  6.     Abdicated  the  crown  of  the  Holy  Roman 
empire.    End  of  the  old  German  empire. 

1806-1835.     Francis  I.,  emperor  of  Austria. 

1806-1807-    (Fourth)  War  with  Prussia  and  Russia. 

Grounds  of  the  Prussian  declaration  of  war :  Erection  of  the  con- 
federacy  of  the  Rhine,  annexation  of  Wesd,  HeizSe^nSSerTa^ 
Verden,  garrisoning  of  half  of  Germany  with  French  troops  ;  Napo- 
leon's offer  to  England  to  take  away  iTom  ii'lrussia  the  territory  of 
Hanover  which  had  just  been  forced  upon  her  ;  the  Prussians  were, 
moreover,  embittered  against  the  French  by  the  high-handed  execu- 
tion of  Palm,  a  bookseller  of  Nuremberg,  who  had  published  some 
strictures  upon  Napoleon. 

Dangerous  situation  of  Prussia  at  the  outbreak  of  war.  The  oom« 
plete  separation  of  the  military  and  civil  orders  had  brought  it  about 


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ik.  D.  Napohanie  Wan*  469 

that  the  saf etjr  of  the  state  rested  on  a  half-trained  army  oompoeed 
in  part  of  foreigners,  on  a  superannuated  general,  and  on  suborcunate 
commanders  who,  full  of  arrogant  pride  in  the  ancient  military  fame 
of  Prussia,  regarded  the  French  with  contempt.  No  allies  except 
Saxony  and  distant  Russiei,  Dissension  between  Prussia  and  England* 
Want  of  decision  in  the  cabinet  and  in  the  conduct  of  the  war. 

1806.  Concentration  of  the  Prussian  army  in  Thuringia  under  the 
old  duke  of  Brunswick,  Defeat  of  the  Prussian  advance  at 
Saalfeld  (Oct.  10),  prince  Loms  Ferdinand  f.    In  the 

1806»  Oct  14.    Double  battle  of  Jena  and  Auerstadt 

the  main  army  was  completely  defeated.    Difwql|^fi/^n  /^f  fiw> 
ahny.     xne  reserve  under  the  prince  of  WUrtemberg  was  de- 
feated  and  scattered  at  HaUe  (Oct.  17). 
Naix>leoii  in  Berlin  (Oct  27).    The  prince  of  HcihenloKe  with 
12,000  men  was  forced  to  surrender  at  PiimUiu  (Oct.  28).    Blikher 
after  a  brave  defence  in  LObeck  was  oblised  to  surrender  his  whole 
corps  at  Ratkau  as  prisoners  of  war  (Jnov.  7).     Incredibly  hasty 
surrender  of  the  fortresses  :  Erfurt,  Spandau,  Stettin^  KUstrin,  Magde- 
hurg,  Hameln  -^  only  Kolberg  {uneisenau,  SchtU,  Nettelbeck)  and  Qran- 
denz  (  Courbiere)  defended  themselves  resolutely.  The  duke  of  Bruns- 
wick (t  Nov.  10,  at  OUensen)  and  the  neutral  elector  of  Hesse  were 
driven  out  of  the  country.    Coarse  behavior  of  Napoleon  toward  the 
royal  family  (queen  Louisa).    Robbery  of  the  museums  and  picture 

faUeries.  From  his  headquarters  in  Berlin  Napoleon  proclaimed  (Nov. 
1)  the  senseless  (paper)  blockade  of  Great  Britain  and  the  closure 
of  the  continent  to  British  trade,  a  policy  summed  up  in  the  title, 
**  Continental  S;pstem  "  (**  Berlin  decree  '>  The  troc^  of  France, 
Bavaria,  and  W  iirtemberg  invaded  Silesia,  The  Poles  summoned  to 
revolt  Separate  peace  and  alliance  of  Napoleon  with  the  elector  of 
Saxony  (Dec.  11),  who  joined  the  confederacy  of  the  Rhine  as  king 
of  Saxony.    Occupation  of  Hanover  and  the  Hanseatic  cities. 

1807.  Fall  of  Bmlauy  followed  by  that  of  the  most  of  the  Silesian 
fortresses.  After  several  bloody  engagements  in  the  neigh* 
borhood  of  PuUusk,  Prussians  and  Russians  fought  against  the 
French,  without  decisive  result,  in  the  murderous 

1807,  Feb.  7,  8.    Battle  of  Bylau, 

whore  the  Prussians  repulsed  the  right  wing  of  the  French 

under  Davout,    Winter  quarters.    Frederic  William  II L  went 

to  Memd. 
May  26.    Danzig  captured  after  a  brave  defense  {Kalckreuik).  After 

several  engagements  Napoleon  was  victorious  in  the 

June  14.    Battle  of  Friedland, 

over  the  Russians,     Konigsberg  and  the  country  as  far  as  the 
Niemen  occupied  by  Napoleon.    Truce  with  Russia  (June  21),  with 
Prussia  (June  25).    Meeting  of  Napoleon^  Alexander,  and  FMeria 
WilUam  on  the  Ntemen. 
1807.    Peace  of  Tilsit. 
July  7.     A.  Between  France  and  Russia, 
July  9.    B.  Between  France  and  Fruasia. 


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470  Modem  History.  A.  D« 

A.  1.  Russia  recognized  the  duclnr  of  Wcataw^  which  was 
formed  oat  of  South  PrusdOf  parts  of  West  Prtusioy  and  New  East 
Prussia^  nnder  the  king  of  Saxony.  2.  Danzig  restored  to  the  con- 
dition of  a  free  city.  3.  A  part  of  New  East  Prussia  (Bialystoct) 
ceded  to  Russia.  4.  Rnssla  recognized  Joseph  Bonaparte  as  king  of 
Naples,  Louis  Bonaparte  as  king  of  Holhuid,  Jerome  Bonaparte  as 
king  of  WestphaUay  a  new  kingdom  yet  to  be  created  ;  Russia,  more- 
over, recognized  the  Confederation  of  ike  Rhine,  and  accepted  the 
mediation  of  Napoleon  in  conclading  peace  with  the  Turks,  while 
Napoleon  accepted  the  like  good  offices  from  Alexander  in  regard  to 
England.  In  a  secret  article,  Alexander  agreed  to  an  alliance  with 
France  against  England,  in  case  the  latter  refused  to  accept  the  prof- 
fered peace. 

B.  1.  Prussia  ceded  :  (a)  to  Napoleon  for  free  disposal,  all  lands 
between  the  Rhine  and  Elbe;  (b)  to  Sazony,  the  circle  of  Cottbns  ;  (c) 
all  lands  taken  from  Poland  since  1772  for  the  creation  of  a  duchy  of 
Warsaw,  also  the  city  and  territory  of  Danzig,  2.  Prussia  recognized 
the  soTcreignty  of  the  three  brothers  of  Napoleon.  3.  All  Prussian 
harbors  and  lands  were  closed  to  British  ships  and  British  trade  until 
the  conclusion  of  a  peace  with  England.  4.  Prussia  was  to  maintain 
a  standing  army  of  not  more  than  42,000  men.  In  regard  to  the  res- 
toration and  evacuation  of  the  Prussian  provinces  and  fortresses,  it 
was  settled  by  the  treaty  of  KGnigsberg  (July  12)«  that  Prussia  should 
first  pay  all  arrears  of  war  indemnities. 

These  indemnifications,  fixed  at  nineteen  million  francs  by  the  Prus- 
sian calculations,  were  set  at  120  millions  by  the  French,  which  sum 
was  raised  to  140  millions  in  1808.  After  120  millions  had  been 
paid  the  fortresses  were  evacuated,  excepting  Stettin,  KOstrin,  and 
Glogau,  Until  this  occurred  the  Prussian  state,  reduced  as  it  was 
from  89,120  to  46,032  square  miles,  was  obliged  to  support  150,000 
French  troops. 

1807,  Aug.  Foundation  of  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  (capital, 
Cassd)  by  a  decree  of  Napmeon,  who  reserved  for  himself 
hiilf  of  the  domains. 

High-handed  proceeding  of  the  English  against  Denmark,  which 
had  heeu  summoned  to  join  the  continental  system.  An  English  fleet 
bombarded  (1807,  Sept)  Copenhagen,  and  carried  off  the  Danish 
fleet.  Alliance  of  Denmark  with  France.  Russia  declared  war  upon 
Ikgland.    Stralsund  and  RUgen  occupied  by  the  Fjrench. 

Portugal,  which  refused  to  join  the  continental  system,  occupied 
by  a  French  army  under  Junot  (duke  of.Abrantes)  Nov.  1807. 
The  royal  family  fled  to  Brazil.    MHan  decree,  Dec.  17, 1807. 

Spain  invaded  by  100,000  Frenchmen  under  the  pretext  of  guard- 
ing the  coasU  against  the  English.  Charles  IV.  (1788-1808)  abdi- 
cated  in  favor  of  his  son  Ferdinand  (March,  1808),  in  consequence 
of  an  outbreak  which  had  occurred  against  his  favorite,  the  prince  of 
the  peace,  Godoy.  Father  and  son,  with  Grodoy,  were  enticed  by  Na- 
poleon to  Bayonne  and  compelled  to  renounce  the  throne  ^May). 
Napoleon's  brother  Joseph  became  king  of  Spain,  Mnrat  taking  the 
throne  of  Naples  instead  of  Joseph.  Greneral  uprising  of  the 
Spaniards. 


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A.  D.  Napoleonic  Wars,  471 

1808-1814.  War  between  Napoleon  and  Oreat  Brit- 
ain in  Spain  and  Portugal     (*<  Peninsalar  War.") 

The  English  landed  in  Portugal  and  forced  Junoi  to  surrender 
Cintra,  after  which  he  was  obliged  to  evacuate  the  country  (Sir 
Arthur  WellesleyV  The  French  were  soon  driven  back  to  the  Ebro. 
Napoleon,  securea  against  Austria  by  a  closer  alliance  with  the  em- 
peror Alexander,  since  the  assembly  of  princes  at  Erfurt,  where 
four  kings,  thirty-four  princes,  and  other  (jerman  rulers  who  had  done 
him  homage,  hastened  in  person  to  Spain  with  250,000  men,  advanced 
to  Madrid f  and  with  SouU  drove  the  English  from  Spain  (battle  of 
Corunna  Jan.  16, 1809.  Death  of  Sir  John  Moore).  After  the  de- 
parture of  Napoleon  hostilities  continued  in  Spain.  Guerrilla  war- 
fare. The  English  returned.  Heroic  defense  oi  Saragassa  (Palafox), 
which  surrendered  in  Feb.  1809.  The  English  general,  Sir  Arthur 
Wdlesley  (b.  1769;  officer  in  East  India  1797-1805  ;  M.  P.  1806;  vis- 
count Wellington,  1809 ;  duke  of  Wellington,  1814 ;  prime  minister, 
1827-1830  ;  d.  1852,  Sept.  18),  after  his  victory  over  Josq>h  at  Tala- 
▼era,  July  28, 1809,  was  created  ▼iaooont  Wellington,  and  made 
commander-in-chief  of  all  English  troops  in  the  Spanish  peninsula. 
SouCC,  duke  of  Dalmatia,  at  &st  victorious  against  the  Spanish  and 
Portuguese,  was  obliged  to  evacuate  Oporto  again. 

In  Prussia,  meanwhile,  the  state  was  reorganized  after  the  dis- 
missal of  Beumes  and  Zastrow^  by  Charles,  baron  of  and  in  Stein 
(b.  1767  at  Nassau  ;  since  1780,  in  Prussian  civil  service  ;  1796  over^ 

5 resident  of  the  chamber  of  Westphalia ;  1804  minister  of  finance, 
.  1831),  and  Hardenherg.  Regulations  for  the  cities,  liberation  of 
industry,  abolition  of  hereditary  serfdom,  reformation  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  public  finances.  Reorganization  of  the  army  on  the  baas 
of  universal  military  service,  by  Gneisenau,  Grolman^  Boyen, 
Clauseujitz,  Scharnhorst  (b.  1755,  in  Hanover,  son  of  a  peasant,  offi- 
cer in  the  service  of  Hanover,  1801  lieutenant-colonel  in  Prussia,  taken 
prisoner  at  Ratkau  with  Blucher,  major-general  at  Eylau;  d.  1813). 

Foundation  of  the  nniversity  at  Berlin  (1810),  by  Humboldt,  AU 
tenstein,  Niebuhr,  ScMeiermacJier,  Ficht^s  addresses  to  the  Grerman 
nation.  Tugendbund,  Gymnastics,  John.  E.  M.  Amdt,  Preparations 
for  the  liberation  of  Grermany  and  Eurojpe  from  the  French  yoke. 
Futile  attempt  of  Austria  to  accomplish  this  liberation  alone,  by  mak" 
ing  use  of  Napoleon's  entanglement  in  the  Spanish  war. 

1808,  July-Nov.    English  expedition  to  Walcheren  (p.  537). 

1809.  (Fifth)  War  with  Aufitria. 

Archduke  Charles,  commander  of  the  Austrian  army  of  Bo" 
varia,  and  archduke  Jo?in,  commander  of  the  Austrian  forces  which 
were  sent  to  Italy,  summoned  the  Grerman  people  to  take  part  in  the 
struggle  against  the  French  supremacy.  Tyrol  alone  heeded  the 
summons,  and  took  up  arms  (Andreas  Hofer,  Speckhacher), 

Napoleon  engaged  archduke  Charles  in  Bavaria,  with  Gkerman 
Apr.  19-23.     troops,  drove  him  over  the  Danube  to  Bohemia,  after 
five  days'  fighting  at  Abensberg,  Landshut,  EckmUhl  and  Re^ 
May  13.    gensburg,  and  captured  Vienna  for  the  second  time.    Na- 
poleon crossed  the  island  of  Lobau,  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Dan- 
ube, where  in  the  bloody 

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472  Modem  HUtory.  k.  d. 

1809,  May  21-22.    Battle  at  Aspem  and  Bsalinfir 

(on  the  March/eld),  he  was,  for  the  Jint  time,  defeated  by 
archduke  CharUsy  and  (Lannes  f)  forced  to  recross  the  Dan- 
ube (Massena),  where  he  united  with  the  yieeroy  Eugene,  who 
had  pursued  archduke  John  from  northern  Italy  to  Hungary 
and  defeated  him  at  Raab*  With  180,000  men  Napoleon 
eroBsed  the  Danube  anew,  defeated  archduke  Charles  m  the 
murderous 

1809,  July  6-^.    Battle  of  Wa^rram, 

and  pursued  him  toward  Moravia.    Truce  of  Znaim, 
Oot.  14.    Peace  of  Vienna 

between  France  and  Austria,  signed  in  the  palace  at  SchSn~ 
brunn. 

1.  Austria  ceded  a  territory  of  32,000  square  miles,  containing  3^ 
million  inhabitants,  viz. :  a.  Salzburg  and  Berchtesgaden,  the  Itmn 
vierlelf  and  half  of  the  Haugrilchviertel  to  Bavaria  ;  b.  West  GaUcia 
to  the  duchy  of  WarsaTRT  ;  o.  one  district  in  East  GaUaa  (Tamopol) 
to  Russia  ;  d.  the  lands  beyond  the  Save,  the  circle  of  FtZ^ioA,  Istria, 
Hungarian  Dabnatia,  and  kagusa  to  the  emperor  Napoleon,  who 
created  from  these  cessions  and  the  Ionian  Islands,  which  Russia  had 
surrendered  to  him  in  1807,  the  new  state  of  the  lUyrian  provmoes  un- 
der Marmont,  duke  of  Ragusa,  as  eovemor.  2.  Austria  joined  the 
continental  system,  and  broke  off  a&  connection  with  £ngland. 

The  TyroUsey  left  to  themselves,  continued  the  war  with  heroic  cour^ 
age,  but  were  in  the  end  subdued,  Hofer  captured  and  shot  by  the 
French  at  Mantua  (1810).  Southern  l^rol  annexed  to  the  king- 
dom of  Italy. 

Bold  attempt  of  Schill,  a  Prussian  major,  to  precipitate  the  war  of 
liberation.  With  600  hussars  he  left  Eierlin  in  the  spring  of  1809, 
and  summoned  the  people  of  Germany  to  take  up  arms.  The  news 
of  Napoleon's  victories  on  the  Danube  frustrated  the  scheme.  SchiU 
fell  fighting  bravely  at  Stralsund  (May  31^.  Eleven  of  his  officers 
were  court-martialed  and  shot  in  Wesel,  tne  captured  soldiers  were 
condemned  to  hard  labor  by  order  of  Napoleon,  carried  to  France,  and 
after  a  half  vear's  imprisonment  in  the  bagno,  or  prison  for  galley- 
slaves,  enrolled  among  the  French  coast  guards. 
1809.  Bold  eznedition  of  the  (/tU:e  o/*Bnin«tcrtcik  across  northern  Ger- 
many. He  succeeded  in  transporting  himself  and  the  ^  Black 
Legion  "  to  England. 

Gustavus  IV.,  of  Sweden,  a  bitter  opponent  of  the  Revolution 
and  of  Napoleon,  but  ignorant  of  the  true  interests  of  his  country,  had 
been  since  1808  involved  in  war  with  Russia,  which  had  conquered 
Finland.  He  fell  at  last  by  a  military  revolution,  the  victim  of  his 
obstinacy.  The  capital,  Stockholm,  being  threatened  by  the  passae^e 
of  the  Russians  under  Barclay  de  Tolly  over  the  frozen  gulf  of  Bos- 
nia, by  the  capture  of  Tomea  and  that  of  the  islands  of  Aland,  a  mu- 
tiny broke  out  in  the  Swedish  army.  The  king  was  arrested  on  March 
13, 1809,  by  generals  Klingspor  and  Adlerhreuz,  obliged  to  abdicate,  and 
dismissed  from  the  kingdom  with  his  family.  The  crown  was  given 
to  the  uncle  of  the  king,  Charles  Xm.  (180^1818),  passing  over  his 


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A*  D«  NopoUonxe  Wars.  413 

son.  In  the  peace  of  medrichsham  with  Rusda,  Sept.  17, 1909, 
Sweden  surrendered  to  Russia  the  principality  of  Finland  as  far  as 
the  river  Tomea,  together  with  the  islands  of  Aland.  By  the  media- 
tion of  Russia  Sweden  concluded  the  peace  of  Paris  with  IVance, 
Jan.  6,  1810,  whereby  Sw^eden  joined  the  continental  system  and 
obtained  the  restoration  of  Stoedish  Pomerania,  After  tiie  sudden 
death  of  prince  Christian  August  of  HoUtan-Augustenburgj  whom 
Charles  aIII.  had  adopted  and  appointed  heir  to  the  throne,  the 
French  marshal  Bemadotte  (prince  of  Pantecarvo)  was  elected  crown 
prince  of  Sweden,  

Rome  had  been  occupied  hj  the  French  in  1808.  Pope  Pins  Vn. 
steadfastly  refusing  to  enter  mto  an  offensiye  and  defensive  alliance 
vrith  France,  and  to  close  his  seaports  against  England,  Napoleon, 
after  the  infliction  of  unheard-of  violence  for  a  year,  proclaimed  from 
SchSnbrunn,  May,  1809,  that  the  papal  states  and  the  city  of  Rome  were 
incorporated  with  France.  Pius  Vll.  excommunicated  Napoleon  in 
June,  whereupon  he  was  arrested  and  taken  over  Mt.  Cenis  to  Grenoble 
and  thence  to  Savona.  As  he  still  refused  to  vield  to  Napoleon's  de- 
mands. Pins  VII.  was  placed  on  prisoner's  allowance,  and  lived  for 
three  years  almost  entirely  upon  alms  (1812  taken  to  FontamebleauJ) 

In  Turkey,  after  the  deposition  of  SeUm  II L,  war  broke  out  again 
with  Russia  (1809-1812).  After  the  bloody  battle  at  Rustckuck,  the 
Russians  retired  across  the  Danube,  and  the  Turkish  army  wluch 
pursued  them  was  captured  (1811). 

1812,  May  28.  Peace  of  Bucharest :  the  Pmth  was  made  the 
boundary  between  Russia  and  Turkey, 

1810,  April.    Napoleon,  divorced  from  Josephine,  married  Maria 

Louisa,  dacqgfater  of  Fronds  L  of  Austria,  Abdicaticm  and 
flight  (July)  of  Lows  Boneqpartef  king  of  Holland,  who  had  refused 
to  ruin  his  country  by  joining  the  continental  system.  Annexation  of 
Holland,  as  the  <<  alluvial  deposit  of  French  rivers,*'  to  the  French 
empire.  Annexation  of  the  canton  of  WaUis,  and  soon  after  of 
Oldenburg,  a  large  part  of  the  kinj^om  of  Westphalia,  the  grand 
duchy  of  Berg,  East  Friesktnd,  the  lianseatic  cities^  so  that  the  I^reiieh 
empire,  which  now  comprised  130  departments,  attended  on  the  east 
as  far  as  the  Trace, 

In  Spain  strenuous  exertions  against  Napoleon ;  French,  Italian, 
and  Polish  troops,  along  with  those  of  the  confederacy  of  the  Rhine, 
overran  the  peninsula.  Conquest  of  Andalusia  by  Victor  and  Mortier, 
Unsuccessful  sie&;e  of  Cadiz,  whither  the  Central  Junto  had  fled  from 
Seville.  A  special  session  of  the  Cortes  called  at  Cadiz  assumed  the 
sovereignty  and  drew  up  a  constitution  (completed  1812). 

In  Portugal  struggle  between  Wellington  and  Massena,  Siege  and 
capture  of  Ciudad  Rodngo  by  the  latter  (July  10, 1810).  !&treat 
of  Wellington  to  the  lines  of  Torres  Vedras  (Oct.  9).  Winter 
quarters.  1811,  March  ;  masterly  retreat  of  Massena.  Siege  of 
Almeida  and  Badajoz  by  the  Fnglish.  Defeat  and  retreat  of  Massena 
from  Portugal.  SouU,  hastening  to  the  relief  of  Badajoz,  was  de- 
feated in  the  bloody 

1811,  May  16.  Battle  of  Albuera.  The  English  retomed  to 
Portugal.  1812,  capture  of  Ciudad  Rodngo  (Jan.  19)  and 
Badqjoz  (April  6).  ^ 

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474  Modem  Btttory.  a.  ix 

181%  July  22.  Battle  of  Salamanoa;  victofy  of  WeUmgton.  Cap- 
ture id  Madrid.    Lom  of  aoutheni  Spain  to  the  Freneh. 

Igll,  March.    Birth  of  a  son  to  Napoleon,  who  reoeiyed  the  pomp- 
OQB  title  of  king  of  Rome. 
Napoleon  L  at  the  sonimit  of  his  power.    In  the  naTal  warfare 

and  in  the  colonies  France,  like  Holland,  had  met  nothing  bat  losses. 

Cayenne,  Martinique^  Seneoal,  St.  Doming,  were  lost  in  1809.     Gwir 

ddoupef  Isle  Bourhon,  and  Isle  de  France  m  1810  ;  Jax>a  (with  BaUxoia) 

1811. 

1812-1814.  War  between  Bngland  and  the  United  Statea  of 
Nortb  America  in  consequence  of  commercial  dissensions 
concluded  by  \he  treaty  of  Ghent,  Dec.  24, 1814  (p.  551). 

1812.    (Sixth)  War  with  Russia. 

Canae :  Napoleon's  claim  to  rule  the  continent  of  Europe.  The 
refusal  of  Russia  to  carry  out  strictly  the  absurd  continental  system, 
which  Napoleon  himself  evaded  by  salable  licenses,  and  which  had 
mined  Russian  commerce,  roused  the  aiuer  of  the  tyrant.  The  ad- 
dition of  west  (jaiicia  to  the  duchy  of  Warsaw  by  the  peace  of 
Vienna,  had  caused  Alexander  anxiety  lest  the  restoration  of  Poland 
should  be  contemplated  ;  the  deposition  of  the  duke  of  Oldenburg, 
his  near  relative,  offended  him  deeply. 

Alliance  of  Napoleon  with  Austria,  which  furnished  30,000  men 
for  the  Russian  expedition,  and  Prussia,  from  which  he  obtained 
20,000  men.  Denmark,  favored  by  its  position,  succeeded  in  main- 
taining neutrality  during  the  war  with  Rusua.  Suseden  (Bema- 
doUe),  which  had  been  forced  by  the  violent  reproaches  of  Napoleon 
concerning  disregard  of  the  continental  system  to  declare  war  upon 
England  (1810),  seized  the  opportunity  of  ^e  Russian  war,  to  shake 
off  her  dependence  upon  France,  and  open  for  herself  the  prospect 
of  obtaining  Norway,  as  a  recompense  for  Fmland,  Occupation  of 
Swedish  Pamerania  and  Riigen  by  the  French,  Jan.  1812.  Treaty 
of  St.  Peterabnrg  between  Swedan  and  Ruaaia,  April :  Ruaaia 
promised  Sweden  the  annexation  of  Norway,  with  indemnification 
for  Denmark ;  Sweden  promised  Ruaaia  to  make  a  diversion  in 
northern  Germany  in  union  with  a  Russian  auxiliary  force. 

Bngland  concluded  peace  with  Rnaaia  and  Sweden  at  Or^fro 
(June). 

The  French  army  of  invasion  included  Frenchmen,  Itcdians,  Swiss, 
Dutch,  Poles,  and  contingents  from  all  the  German  princes  of  the  con- 
federacy of  the  Rhine  ,  in  fact,  the  smaller  part  only  of  the  army  waa 
Trench.  The  total  number,  according^  to  Thiers,  was  420,000  men, 
but  reinforcements  afterwards  swelled  it  to  553,000.  The  Aus* 
irians,  under  Schwarzenberg,  on  the  right  wing,  and  Prussians,  under 
York,  on  the  left  wing,  formed  separate  armies,  the  latter  being 
under  the  command  of  Macdonald. 

1812,  June.  Passage  of  the  Niemen  by  the  great  army  ;  occupation  of 
Wilna.  Poland  was  not  restored.  The  Russians  under  Barclay 
de  ToUy  retreated.  The  main  army  reached  Smolenak  without  a 
battie,  though  sufferincp  from  skirmishes  and  lack  of  provisions,  while 
the  Prussians  besieged  Riffa,  and  the  Austrians  penetrated  Volhy* 


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A.  p.  Napoleonic  Wan.  475 

fiMi.     Sionn  and  destraction  of  Smolensk  (Aug.  17, 18).    The  Russian 
general  Kuttuoff,  obtaining  the  command  in  chief,  fought  the  bloody 

1812,  Bept.  7.    Battle  at  Borodino  and  Moshaisk 

on  the  Moskowa,  in  which  both  parties  suffered  enormous  losses 
(French,  32,000  ;  Russian,  47,000),  but  the  Russians  were 
forced  to  withdraw.    Retreat  in  admirable  order  through 

Sept.  14.  Moscow.  Occupation  of  the  city,  which  the  inhabitants 
had  abandoned,  by  the  French,  whose  main  army  had  already 
shrunk  to  95,000  men.^    Napoleon  in  the  Kremltn, 

Sept.  16-19.    Burning  of  Mosoow  (Bastopschin). 

Sack  of  the  city  in  the  midst  of  ashes  and  ruins.  Napoleon 
proffered  a  truce,  which  the  Russians  rejected  by  an  answer 
whose  deliyery  was  purposely  delayed.  After  remaining  fiye 
weeks  in  Moscow,  Napoleon  commenced  his 

Oot.  19.    Retreat  from  Moscow, 

at  first  in  a  southwesterly  direction,  afterwards  towards  Smth 
lensk.  The  march  was  disturbed  by  the  Russian  main  army 
under  KxUusofff  and  by  countless  swarms  of  Cossacks.  £)e»- 
perate  contest  of  separate  corps  of  the  army  at  Jaroslavez, 
Oct.  24,  and   Vjazma,  Nov.  3. 

Nov.  6.  Commencement  of  the  cold  weather.  Terrible  suffer- 
ing from  hunger  and  frost.  Continuous  engagements,  espe- 
ci^y  at  Krasnoy  (Ney,  "the  bravest  of  the  brave"),  and 
Borissoff, 

Nov.  26-28.    Terrible  passage  of  the  Berezina. 

Ney  and  Oudvnot^  with  8,500  men,  forced  a  passage  against 
25,000.  From  tins  point,  the  disorganization  of  the  remain- 
ing fragments  of  the  army  was  complete,  and  the  retreat  be- 
came a  wild  flight.  Dec.  3,  Bulletin  (No.  29),  of  Malodeczno. 
Napoleon  left  the  army  and  hastened  to  Paris  where  he  arrived 
Dec.  18.  The  army  continued  its  retreat  pursued  by  the  Rus- 
sians until  Dec.  13,  when  the  remaining  troops  (100,000), 
crossed  the  Niemen.  The  Russians  made  100,000  prisoners 
according  to  their  reports. 
In  anv  case  this  expedition  cost  the  lives  of  at  least  300,000 
able-bodied  young  men  on  the  side  of  the  French  and  their 
allies. 

Dec.  30.  7ork  concluded  a  treaty  of  neutrality  with  the  Russian 
general  Diebitch,  in  the  mill  of  PoBcherun  near  Tauroggen, 

1813  and  1814.    The  Great  War  of  Liberation 
of  the  allies  against  Napoleon. 

1813,  Feb.  3.  Appeal  of  Frederic  William  III.  issued 
from  Breslau,  directing  the  formation  of  volunteer  corps, 
whereupon  all  the  young  men  capable  of  service  flew  to  arms. 

Feb.  28.    Alliance  of  Kalish 
between  Russia  and  Prussia  : 
1.  Offensive  and  defensive  alliance,  enumeration  of  the  auzi^ 

•  Cf  V    Ton,  Dtnkwardigktittn.  ^  j 

uigitized  Dy  VjOOQ IC 


A76  Modem  SRUory.  ▲.  d. 

iaiy  aimies  to  be  furnished  by  either  side.  2.  Restoration  of 
the  Prussian  monarchy  according  to  old  political  relations.  3. 
Invitation  extended  to  Avatria  and  England  to  join  the  alli- 
ance. 

X813»  March  3.  Treaty  between  England  and  Sweden  :  EngUnd 
paid  one  million  rix  dollars  in  subsidies  and  promised  not  to  op- 
pose the  union  of  Nonoay  with  Sweden.  Sweden  furnished 
the  allies  an  army  of  30,000  men  under  command  of  the  crown 
prince  Bemadotte  (the  inactive  and  suspicious  conduct  of  thi^ 
general  afterwards  entirely  disabled  the  northern  army). 

March  17.  Appeal  of  Frederic  William  m.  «  To  my  people/' 
and  "  to  my  army."  Establishment  of  the  Landwehr  and 
the  Landsturm.    Iron  Cross. 

March.    Outbreak  in  Hamburg.     Tettenbam  occupied  the  city.    The 
dukes  of  Mecklenburg  withdrew  from  the  confederacy  of  the 
Rhine. 
Great  preparations  on  both  sides.    The  Elbe  was  the  boundary  be- 
tween the  combatants  ;  Danzigy  Stettin,  Kiistrin,  GhgaUf  ModUn,  and 

Zamosc,  being,  however,  in  the  hands  of  the  French. 

March  27.     Occuj>ation  of  Dresden  by  Russians  and  Prussians  under 
Wittgenstetn  and  BlUcher,  after  the  withdrawal  of  marshal  Da^ 
vaut.    Flight  of  the  king  of  Saxony. 
The  French  army  and  the  contingents  of  the  confederacy  of  the 

Rhine  concentrated  in  Franconia,  Thuringia,  and  on  the  Elbe, 

Napoleon,  after  the  end  of  April,  was  at  the  head  of  180,000  men 

in  Germany.    He  was  unexpectedly  attacked  by  the  armies  of  the 

allies,  numbering  85,000  men,  and  forced  to  fight  the 

May  2.    Battle  of  Ghross-Gk>rschen  or  Liitaran. 

Victory  remained  with  the  French,  in  spite  of  their  losses. 
The  allies  withdrew  through  Dresden  to  Lusatia.  Schamhorst^ 
severely  wounded,  died  in  Pra^e. 

Napoleon  in  Dresden,  in  close  alliance  with  the  king  of  Saxony, 
who  had  returned  from  Prague. 

1813,  May  18.  Landing  of  the  crown  prince  Bemadotte  with  Swedish 
troops,  in  Pommerania. 

Afay  20  and  21.    Battles  of  Bantzen  and  Wurschen. 

Napoleon  attacked  the  allies  at  Bautzen,  forced  them  to  retreat 
across  the  Spree,  and  completed  the  victory  at  Wurschen,  with 
great  loss  to  himself.  Duroc  f.  The  allies  retreated  to  Si- 
lesia. 

May  30.    Hamburg  occupied  by  Davcmt,  after  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Russians,  and  terribly  maltreated. 
The  combatants,  exhausted,  waited  for  reinforcements  and  strove 
to  secure  the  alliance  of  Austria. 

June  4-Jttly  26.  Armistice  of  PoischwitSy  afterwards  prolonged 
until  Aug.  10  (16). 

June  15.  Bngland  concluded  a  subsidy  treaty  with  Fmssia  and 
Russia  at  Reichenbach. 

7uly  6  (28)-Aug.  11.  Congress  at  Prague.  Austria  played  the 
part  of  mediator.    After  futile  negotiations  (Metiemich,  Cau^ 

uigitized  Dy  vj^^v^v  i\^ 


▲•  D.  Napoleonic  Wars.  477 

laincourtj  WtUiam  von  Humboldt)^  the  congress  was  dissolved 
and 

1813y  Aug.  12.    Austria  declared  war  upon  Franoe. 

The  allies,  supported  by  English  subsidies,  placed  three 
main  armies  in  the  field  : 

1.  The  great  Bohemian  army  under  Schwarzenbergr 
{Kleistj  Wittgenstein) f  with  which  were  the  three  mon- 
archs,  Alexander,  Francis,  Frederic  William. 

2.  The  Silesian  army  under  Bliicher  (Yorkj  Sacken^ 
Langeron). 

3.  The  Northern  army  under  the  crown  prince  of  Swe- 
den, Bemadotte  (BUlow,  Tauenxien^  Winzingerode). 

Napoleon  opened  hostilities  with  an  attack  upon  Bliicher  who  re- 
tired behind  the  Katzbach.  Meanwhile  Schtoarzenberg  advanced 
against  Dresden  from  Bohemia,  Napoleon  hastened  thither,  leavine 
Macdonald  to  oppose  BlUcher.  Before  an  action  occurred  at  either  of 
these  points,  Ouainot  and  Reynier,  whose  attack  npon  Berlin  was  to  be 
supported  by  DavotU  from  Hamburgy  were  defeated  by  BUlow  in  the 
Aug.  23.    Battle  of  Grosbeeren, 

while  the  crown  prince  of  Saxony  looked  on  inactive. 
This  victory  saved  Berlin  from  oaptore  and  sack.    Directly 

afterwards  Macdonald^s  army  was  defeated  in  the 
Aug.  26.    Battle  of  the  Katzbach  near  Wahlatatt 

by  Bliicher,  a  part  being  captured.    BlUcher  created  Prince  of 

Wahlstatt, 
Meanwhile  the  attack  of  the  Bohemian  army  upon  Dresden 

failed.    Napoleon  won  his  last  great  victory  on  Glerman  soil 

in  the 

Aug.  26  and  27,  Battle  of  Dresden. 

Moreauy  on  the  side  of  the  allies,  was  severely  wounded  by  a 
cannon-ball,     f  Sept.  2. 

Aug.  27.  Victorious  engagement  at  HageUberg,  (Landwehr  of  the 
electoral  mark.)  Vandamme,  in  the  attempt  to  intercept  the 
retreat  of  the  Bohemian  army,  was  defeated  in  the 

Aug.  30.    Battle  at  Kulm  and  NoUendorf 

near  Teplitz,  by  Ostermann  and  Kleist,  and  captured  with 
10,000  men. 
Ney,  who  was  to  occupy  Berlin,  was  defeated  in  the 

Sept.  6.    Battle  of  Dennewitz 

by  BiUow  and  Tauenzein.  Austria  having  already  arranged 
the  preliminaries  of  an  alliance  with  Russia  and  Prussia,  (hir- 
ing the  armistice,  a  formal 

Sept.  9.   Alliance  was  concluded  at  Teplitz : 

1.  Firm  union  and  mutual  guarantee  for  their  respective  terri- 
tories. 2.  Each  party  to  assist  the  others  with  €U  least  60,000 
men.   3.  No  separate  peace  or  armistice  to  be  concluded.   Secret 


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478  Modem  HUtory.  jl  d. 

artieles  provided  for  the  restoration  of  the  Auttrian  and  Prv»' 

dan  monarchies  to  the  condition  of  1805. 
XSlSy  Sept.  17.    Napoleon  repulsed  by  Schwarxenberg  at  NoUendorf, 

York  forced  a  passage  across  the  Elbe  for  the  army  of  SUeiia 

by  the 
Oct  3.    Battle  of  'Wartenbnrg, 

against  Bertrand.    The  northern  army  also  crossed  the  Elbe. 

Oct.  8.    Treaty  of  Ried  between  Austria  and  Bavaria,  which  with- 
drew from  the  confederacy  of  the  Rhine  and  joined  the  alli- 
ance against  Napoleon.     In  return  the  king  of  fiavaria  was 
secured  in  all  the  possessions  which  he  held  at  the  date  of  the 
treaty. 
As  the  three  main  armies  of  the  allies  were  attempting  to  unite  in 
Napoleon's  rear,  the  latter  left  Dresden  in  order  to  escape  being  cut 
o£E  from  France,  and  concentrated  his  troops  at  Leipzig. 

1813*  Oct.  16,  18,  19.    Battle  of  Leipzig.    (« Battle  of 

the  Nations  "). 
Oct.  16.    On  the  first  day  : 

1.  Indecisive  battle  between  Napoleon  and  the  army  of  Ba~ 
hernia  under  Schwarxenberg  at  Wachau  (south  of  Leipzig). 

2.  Victory  of  Bluoher  at  Mdokern,  north  of  Leipzig,  over 
Marmont. 

Oct.  17.    On  the  next  day  the  main  armies  desisted  from  fighting. 
Napoleon  sent  offers  of  peace  to  Francis  L  which  were  rejected 
on  account  of  the  extravagance  of  hb  demands.    Toward  even- 
ing union  of  the  four  armies  of  the  allies :  the  grand  army, 
the  northern  army,  with  which  the  army  of  Silesia  had  already 
united  by  an  extraordinaiy  march  of  BlUcherf  and  finally  the 
Russian  reserve  (100,000)  under  Bennigsen.    The  armies  of 
the  allies,  forming  a  large  half  circle,  largely  outnumbered 
the  French.     (300,000  men  against  130,000). 
Oct  18.     On  the  third  day  general  attack  of  the  allies,  ending, 
after  nine  hours'  fighting,  in  a  complete  victory.     (Struggle 
for  Prohstheide).    In  the  evening  the  French  army  was  driven 
back  to  the  gates  of  Leipzig.    The  corps  of  Saxony  and  WOr^ 
temberg  went  over  to  the  aUies. 
Oct.  19.    Storm  of  Leipzig  and  capture  of  the  king  of  Saxony.    After 
suffering  a  loss  of  more  than  30,000  men,  the  defeated  army 
of  Napoleon  commenced  the  retreat.    The  destruction  of  the  bridge 
over  the  Elster  before  the  whole  army  had  crossed  caused  the  drown- 
ing of  many  troops  in  the  Elster,  among  them  prince  Poniatovfskif 
nephew  of  Uie  last  king  of  Poland. 

On  the  retreat  engagement  on  the  Unstrut  between  Napoleon  and 
York's  advanced  gu£u^  and  at  Hanau  (Oct.  30,  31)  with  an  Ans- 
tro-Bavarian  army  under  Wrede.    The  French  were  victorious. 

Immediate  consequences  of  the  battle  of  Leipzig:  flight  of  king 
Jirome  from  Cassel ;  end  of  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  and  of  the 
grand  duchies  of  Frankfort  and  Berg,  Restoration  of  the  old  rulers 
m  Casself  Brunswick,  Hanover,  Oldenburg,    The  central  administra- 


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JuJ>.  NapoUanic  Wart.  479 

tive  bnrefta  for  Germany  under  baron  von  Stem,  which  had  been 
created  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  for  the  government  of  those  difl- 
tricts  which  shoiud  be  occupied  by  the  troops  of  the  aUies,  found  its 
sphere  of  action  limited  ahnost  entirely  to  Saxony. 

1813,  Nov.     Napoleon  crossed  the  Rhine  at  Maimz,    'Wtirtemberg, 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  Baden,  and  the  renudnin|^  members  of  the 

confederacy  of  the  Rhine  joined  the  allies.  The  cities  occupied  by 
the  French  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  allies  one  after  another.  Dres- 
den (Nov.  11),  Suain  (Nov.  21),  Lubeck  (Dec.  6),  Zamosc,  Modlin^ 
Torgau  (Dec.  26),  Danzig  (Dec.  30),  Wittenberg  (Jan.  12, 1814,  by 
Tanenzien),  Kustrin  (March  7).  Glogau^  MagdeburOj  Hamburg  (Z>a- 
vout)^  Erfurt^  WibTzburgj  Wesel,  Mainz,  maintained  themselves  until 
the  peace. 

Ijprising  in  Holland  (Nov.  15),  expulsion  of  the  French  officials. 
A  part  of  the  northern  army  under  BUlow  entered  Holland,  while  the 
eroum  prince  of  Siveden,  with  the  main  body  of  the  northern  army 
separated  completely  from  the  allies,  invaded  Hoisteiny  in  a  short 
wmter  campaign  forced  Denmark  to  conclude  the 

1814,  Jan.  14.    Peaoe  of  Kiel :  1.  Denmark  renounced  the  posses- 
sion of  Norway  in  favor  of  Sweden,  which  guaranteed  to  the 

Norwegians  the  possession  of  their  liberties  and  rights.  2.  Sweden 
ceded  to  Denmark  western  Pomerania  and  RUgen,  At  the  same 
time  peace  between  Denmark  and  England,  the  latter  restoring  all 
conquests  except  Heligoland;  afterwards  peace  with  Russia  and  PmS' 
iia. 

Meantime  the  French,  after  they  had  already  (in  1812^  lost  the 
southern  part  of  the  country,  and  Madrid  itself  for  a  tmie,  were 
driven  almost  entirely  out  of  Spain  in  1813. 

After  the  French  power  had  been  weaJcened  by  the  departure  of 
Soult  with  a  large  number  of  troops  for  Germany  (Feb.  1813),  Well^ 
ington  repulsed  Soult's  successor,  Jourdan,  and  king  Joseph,  and 
defeated  them  in  the 
1813,  June  21.    Battle  of  Vittorla. 

Joseph  fled  to  France.  Siege  of  Pampehma  by  the  Spaniards. 
Soult  returning  with  reinforcements  to  the  relief  of  Pampeluna  was 
defeated  in  the  Pyrenees  (July  28,  29),  and  withdrew  behind  the  - 
Bidassoa.  At  the  same  time  marshal  Suchet  was  driven  out  of  Val' 
encia  into  Barcelona,  After  the  conquest  of  Pampeluna  (Oct.  31)  by 
the  Spaniards,  Wellington  crossed  the  Bidassoa,  defeated  Soult  on 
French  soil,  and  compelled  him  to  retreat  to  Bayonne,  Napoleon  en- 
deavored to  secure  peace  with  Spain  by  a  treaty  with  the  imprisoned 
king,  Ferdinand  (whom  he  liberated  from  his  confinement  at  VaUn- 
pay),  and  thus  to  protect  France  against  invaf^ion  from  the  side  of  the 
Pyraiees,  but  the  attempt  was  a  failure.  The  Cortes  did  not  ratify 
the  treaty,  on  the  ground  that  the  king  had  not  been  a  free  agent, 
and  that  they  were  unwilling  to  conclude  a  peaoe  which  did  not  in- 
clude the  English. 
1813.    The  allies  on  Nov.  8  laid  before  Napoleon  a  proposal  which 

secured  to  France  the  Alps  and  Rhine  for  boundaries,  but  as 
Dec.  1.    Napoleon  did  not  earnestly  entertain  it.  they  adopted  the 

resolution  to  prosecute  the  war  vigorously  and  to  pass  the 


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480  Modem  History.  ▲.  d* 

Rhine.  Napoleon  obtained  from  the  senate  a  new  leyy  of  300,000 
men  ;  the  carps  le'ffislati/,  in  which  words  of  bhune  were  ai  last  heard, 
was  prorogued  sine  die. 

Passaige  of  the  allies  across  the  Rhine. 

1813,  Deo.  21-26.    The  main  army  under  Schtoarzenbergf  Wrede,  etc., 

crossed  the  upper  Rhine  and  traversed  Switzerland  (Basle)^ 
whose  treaty  of  neutrality  with  Napoleon  was  disregaraed. 

1814,  Jan.  1.    Bliicher  with  the  army  of  Silesia  crossed  the  middle 

Rhine,  at  Mannheim,  Caub,  and  Cobleniz. 
The  total  strength  of  the  allies  on  their  entn^nce  into  French  terri- 
tory was  not  quite  200,000  men.    The  main  army  advanced  through 
Burgundy;  Bliicher  through  Lorraine  toward  Champagne.    To  pre- 
yent  their  juncture,  Napdeon  attacked  Bliicher  at  Bnenne,  and  drove 
Jan.  29.    him  back  ;  Bliicher,  however,  united  with  a  part  of  the 
main  army  {crown  prince  of  Witrtemberg)  and  defeated  the  em- 
peror in  the 
Feb.  1.    Battle  of  La  Rothi^re, 

and  drove  him  across  the  Aube.  The  impossibility  of  pro- 
visioning the  united  armies,  led  to  their  separation.  The  erand  army 
was  to  advance  upon  Paris  by  way  of  the  Seine,  while  ue  army  of 
Silesia  followed  the  Mame  to^raxd  the  same  goaL 

No  sooner  did  Napoleon  hear  of  this  separation  than,  with  aston- 
ishing boldness,  leavmg  a  very  small  bodv  of  troojps  behind  to  engage 
the  army  under  Schvoarzenberg,  he  hurled  himself  suddenly  upon  the 
separate  divisions  of  the  army  of  Silesia,  defeated  them  in/our  battles 
Feb.  10-15.  at  Champaubert  (Sacken),  Montmirail  {York  driven 
across  the  Mame^,  Chateau  -  Thierry,  and  Vauchanqts,  and 
forced  Bliicher  back  to  Etoges.  Then,  turning  like  a  flash  upon  the 
main  army,  he  defeated  it  in  the 
Feb.  17.    Engagement  at  Nangis  (VTittgenatein  and  Wrede), 

and  in  me 
Feb.  18.    Engagement  at  Montereau  {crown  prince  of  WUrtemr 
berg). 
Napoleon  thus  obliged  the  main  army  to  retreat  to  Troyes,  after 
which  the  two  armies  were  for  a  short  time  again  united  on  the 
Aube. 

Meanwhile  ambassadors  of  the  allies  had  met  the  envoy  of  Na- 
poleon, Caulaincourt,  in  a 

Feb.  5-March  19.    Congreaa  at  Ch&tillon  (on  the  Seine),  where 
Napoleon  Was  offered  the  possession  of  France  with  the  bound- 
aries of  1792,  but  the  negotiations  came  to  naught  by  reason 
of  his  haughty  and  dubious  conduct. 
March  1.    Closer  union  between  the  allied  powers  at  Chanmont. 
The  deposition  of  Napoleon  resolved  upon. 
The    two  armies  separated    again.     The  main  army  under 
Schwarzeriberg  defeated  Oudinof  and  Macdonald  in  the 
Feb.  27.    Battle  of  Bar-aur-Anbe. 

Bliicher  reached  Meaux,  was  forced  to  retire  across  the  Mame 
and  Oise,  and  joined  the  army  of  the  north  under  BOlow  and 
Winzingerode,    The  united  armies  defeated  Napoleon  in  the 


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A.  D.  Napoleonic  Wart,  481 

1814,  Maroh  d,  10.    Battle  of  Laon. 

Napoleon  now  turned  against  the  main  anny,  which  defeated 

him  in  the 
March  20,  21.    Battle  of  Arcia-aur-Aube. 

Meanwhile,  Wellington  had  been  driving  back  SouU  with  equal 
snooess.  Occupation  of  bordeaux  ^March  12),  where  the  royal  ban- 
ner of  the  Bourbons  was  first  raisea. 

Napoleon  formed  the  desperate  plan  of  throwing  himself  in  the 
rear  of  the  allies  in  Lorraine,  summoning  the  gainsons  of  the  for- 
tresses to  his  aid,  and  calling  the  entire  popuuition  to  arms.  The 
allies,  however,  with  equal  TOldness,  advanced  upon  Paris,  and  de- 
feated the  marshals  Marmont  and  Mortier  in  the 
Maidh  25.    Battle  of  La  Ftee-Champenoiae. 

Marmont  and  Mortier  threw  themselves  into  the  capital.    The 

regent,  Maria  lAwisa,  fled  to  BUns,   After  a  brave  defense  and 

after  the 
BCarch  30.    Storm  of  Montmartre 

they  capitulated  under  condition  of  free  departure,  and  left 

Paris  to  its  fate. 

March  31.    EntraJice  of  the  allies  into  Paris, 

where  the  senate,  through  the  influence  of  Talleyrand^  de- 
clared that  Napoleon  and  his  family  had  forfeited  the  throne. 

Napoleon^  hastening  to  the  relief  of  his  capital,  came  a  few  hours 
too  late.  His  marsh^  having  refused  to  follow  him  in  a  foolhardy 
assault  upon  Paris,  he  abdicated  the  throne  in  favor  of  his  son 
(April  6)  at  FofUaxnebleau^  and,  when  this  reservation  was  rejected, 
unconditionally  (April  11).  Napoleon  made  a  futile  attempt  to  poi- 
son himself.^ 

He  received  from  the  allies  the  island  of  Elba  as  a  sovereign  prin- 
cipality, and  an  annual  income  of  two  million  francs  to  be  paid  by 
France.   His  wife  received  the  duchies  of  Parma,  Piacenza,  and  Gwu^ 
telia  with  sovereign  power  ;  both  retained  the  imperial  title. 
1814.    VTellin^n  defeated  SouU  in  the 
April  10.    Battle  of  Toulouae. 
M^  4.    Arrival  of  Napoleon  at  Elba. 

Return  of  the  Bourbons.  Louis  Xyi.'s  brother,  the  count  oj 
ProvencCf  first  appointed  his  younger  brother,  the  count  of  Artois  as 
viceregent  (lieutenant  du  royaume),  and  then  returned  to  France,  as 

1814-1824.    Louis  XVIH. 

where  he  promulgated  a  constitution  which  was  an  imitation  of 
the  English  constitution,  but  with  many  limitations.     (Charte  octro^ 
y(k :  chamber  of  peers  and  chamber  of  deputies  without  the  initiative.) 
He  concluded  with  the  allies  the 
May  30.    (First)  Peaoe  of  Parla. 

1.  France  retained,  in  the  main,  the  boundaries  of  1792,  which 
embraced  3,280  square  miles  more  than  those  of  1790 :  Avignon,  the 

1  According  to  Thiers,  Histoire  du  Contulat  et  dt  VEnurire^  vol.  xviii.,  the 
truth  of  this  attempted  suicide  iH  very  doubtful.    Cf.  V.  HeUiBrt,  Nap.  /• 
Fahri  van  Fontaintoleau  nach  Elba,  1874. 
31 


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482  Modem  IRitary.  A.  ix 

Venai$nny  parts  of  SaToy,  of  the  German  empire,  and  of  Belgium.  2. 
Tnnoe  recognized  the  independence  of  the  States  of  the  N^herlands, 
according  to  their  future  enlargement,  as  well  as  of  all  Cferman  and 
Italian  states  and  of  SwiUeerland.  3.  Bngland  restored  the  French 
colonies  excepting  Tobago,  Sta.  Lucia,  and  Isle  de  France.  England 
retained  Media.  4.  The  alliee  remitted  all  sums  which  they  might 
have  claimed  for  supplies,  advances,  etc.  6.  France  promised  Bng-  . 
land  to  abolish  the  slave  trade. 

After  the  peace  of  Paris  Pius  VII.  returned  to  Rome,  the  king  of 
Sardinia,  Victor  Emmanuel,  to  Turin,  the  king  of  Spain,  Ferdinand 
VII.,  to  Madrid.  In  Spain  the  rejection  of  the  ultra-liberal  constitu- 
tion proposed  by  the  cortes  of  1812,  was  followed  by  the  immediate  out- 
break of  a  cruel  contest  of  arbitrary  power  aeainst  the  liberal  p&rty* 

Visit  of  Alexander  saA  FSrederic  Wuliam  III.  in  London  (June  7-22, 
1814),  accompanied  by  their  victorious  generals  (Blocker) ;  enthusiastic 
reception  by  the  English  nation.  For  the  purpose  of  restoring  and 
regulating  the  European  relations,  and  particularly  those  of  Germany^ 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  military  supremacy  of  the  French  empire^ 
the 

1814f  Sept.-1815>  June.    Gon^rress  of  Vienna 

was  assembled.  The  emperors  of  Austria  and  Russia,  the  kings 
of  Prussia,  Denmark,  Bavaria,  and  WilrtemJberg,  and  a  great  number 
of  Grcrman  princes  were  present  in  person. 

Chief  negotiators  :  Aoatrla,  Mettemich'  Fnuiaia,  Hardenberg  and 
W.  V.  HurSboldt;  Ruaaia,  Nesselrodetaidkasoumoffsky:  Great  Brit- 
ain, Wellington  and  Castlereagh ;  France,  Talleyrand  and  Dalberg. 
(Baron  vom  Stein,  prince  of  tjigne.) 

The  five  powers,  which  had  concluded  the  peace  of  Paris,  and  whidhf 
to  avoid  quarrels  about  rank,  were  henceforward  named  in  the  order 
of  the  Friench  alphabet,  Autriche,  France,  Grande- Bretaane,  Prusse, 
Russie,  formed  a  closer  union  at  the  congress  of  Vienna  (hence  after- 
wards called  tiie  Pentarchy  of  the  Oreat  Powers).  For  special 
cases  this  union  was  joined  by  Spain,  Portugal,  Sweden.  These  eight 
powers,  after  long  negotiations  and  after  the  disputes  over  the  Saxon 
and  the  Polish  questions  had  for  a  moment  threatened  to  lead  to  war 
(Russia  and  Prussia  against  Austria,  France,  and  England),  and  after 
Nc^[>oleon's  return  from  Elba  (p.  483),  signed  the 

Act  of  the  Con^rress  of  Vienna. 
Principal  artlolea : 
L  Restoration  of  the  Atiatrian  and  Proaaian  monarchies  :  a. 
Aoatrla  received  besides  her  ancient  domain  of  Milan,  Venice, 
which  had  been  conferred  upon  her  by  the  treaty  of  Campo 
Formio  (these  were  new  called  the  Lombardo-Venetian  king^ 
dam),  the  lUyrian  provuices  (the  kingdoms  of  lUyria  and  Dal" 
maUa),  Saldmrg,  Tyrol  (from  Bavaria),  and  Galicia.  b.  Proa* 
sia  received  a  part  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Warsaw  (Posen) 
with  Danzig ;  Swedish  hither  Pomerama  with  RUgen  in  re- 
turn for  Lauenburg,  which  was  ceded  to  Denmark  ;  its  old 
possessions  in  Westphalia,  somewhat  enlarged,  as  well  as  Neu^ 


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A*l>.  Napoleonic  Wart.  483 

chOid  and  the  ^rand  duchy  of  the  lower  Rkme^  and  the  sreater 
part  of  Saxony  as  an  izidemmfication  for  the  leas  of  some 
former  poaaessions,  as  Ansbach  and  BtaretUh  ceded  to  Bayana* 
East  Friesland  to  Hanover,  the  Polish  possessions  to  Russia. 

2.  Formation  of  a  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  comprising  the 
former  republic  of  Holland  and  Austrian  Belgium,  under  the 
former  hereditary  statthalter  as  King  William  /. 

8.  Creation  of  a  German  confederacy  to  take  the  place  of  the  old 
empire,  comprising  39  (at  its  dissolution  in  I860  only  34)  sover- 
eini  states,  including  the  four  free  cities  ;  all  other  princes 
who  were  formerly  sovereign  were  mediatized. 
Act  of  confederation  siepied  June  8, 1815,  supplemented  by 
the  final  act  of  Vienna,  May  15, 1820. 

4.  Rusaia  received  the  greater  part  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Warsaw  as 
the  kingdom  of  Poland.  Cracow  became  a  free  state  un- 
der the  protection  of  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia, 

6.  England  retained  Malta,  Heligoland,  a  portion  of  the  French  and 
Dutch  colonies,  and  the  protectorate  over  the  Republic  of  the 
Seven  Ionian  Islands  (the  latter  by  treaty  of  1815,  Nov.  5, 
which  was  made  an  integral  part  of  the  peace  of  Vienna.  See 
p.  482.  These  islands  were  given  to  (rreece  by  the  treaties 
of  Nov.  14, 1863-Nov.  29, 1864.    See  p.  606). 

6.  S'weden  retained  Nortoay,  which  had  been  ceded  to  her  at  the 

peace  of  Kiel  (p.  479)»  with  a. constitution  of  its  own  ;  Den- 
mark was  indemnified  with  Lauenburg. 

7.  The  nineteen  cantons  of  Switzerland  were  increased  to  twenty- 

two  by  the  accession  of  Geneva,  WaUis,  and  NeuchaJtd  (at  once 
canton  and  9^  principality). 

8.  Reatoration  of  the  old  dynasties  in  Spain,  in  Sardinia,  which  re- 

ceived Genoa,  in  Tuscany,  Modena,  the  Papal  States,     The 
Bourbons  were  not  reinstated  in  Naples  until  1815,  as  Murat 
had  secured  possession  of  that  state  ror  the  present  by  his  de- 
sertion of  Napoleon. 
News  of  the  discontent  in  France  with  the  government  of  the  Boui^ 
bons,  and  of  the  disoord  in  the  bosom  of  the  congress  of  Vienna,  as 
well  as  the  iuvitatipns  of  his  adherents,  encourag^  the  deposed  em- 
peror to  return  to  France. 

1815.    Landing  of  Napoleon  at  Cannes 
March  1.    with  1,500  men.    Forced  march  upon  Paris,    All  troops 
sent  against  him,  even  Ney  with  his  corps,  went  over  to  him. 

March  13.    Proclamation  of  the  ban  agcdnst  Napoleon 
by  the  monarchs  of  Austria,  Great  Britain,  Prussia,  Russia, 
France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Sweden, 
King  Louis  X  VIII,  fled  to  Ghent 

March  20.      Napoleon  entered   Paris.      The  Hundred 

Days,  March  20  to  June  29,  1815. 
Austria,  Great  Britain,  Prussia  and  Rusftia,  concluded  a  new 
March  25.    Alliance  at  Vienna  against  Napoleon,  whereby  each 

power  engaged  to  furnish  an  army  of  180,000  men.    All  En- 


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484  Modem  Hittory.  JL  n. 

ropean  nations  weie  invited  to  join  the  allianoe.  One  after  another  all 
the  states  joined  it  except  Sweden,  which  was  occupied  in  crashing 
with  military  power  the  resistance  of  Nomoay  to  the  personal  union. 
The  snm  of  the  contingents  fomished  against  Napoleon  amounted  to 
over  a  million  men. 

May.  Napoleon  found  himself  obliged  to  make  some  apparent  con- 
cessions to  the  liberal  party  in  France.  Champ  de  Mai : 
Acte  addiliond.  In  Belgium  concentration  of  a  Prussian  army  imder 
Bltkcher  and  an  EngHihr^German  under  'Wellington,  against  Napo- 
leon. 

Muratf  who  had  declared  for  Napoleon,  defeated  by  the  Austrians 
at  ToUnHno  (May  3).  Naples  captured  May  22.  Murat  fled  to 
France.  Reinstallation  of  Ferdinand  as  king  of  Naples. 
June  14.  Napoleon  crossed  the  boundary  of  Belgium.  Engagement 
at  Charleroi;  the  advance  guard  of  the  Prussians  under  Zietken 
forced  back.  June  15,  Napoleon  defeated  Bliioher  in  the 
June  16.    Battle  of  Ugny, 

after  a  brave  resistance  (BlUcher  in  personal  danger),  and  drove 
him  back.    Blucher  marched  upon   Wavre.     Ney  defei^ed  by  the 
prince  of  Orange  in  the 
Jnne  16.    Battle  of  Quatre-Braa. 

The  duke  of  Brunswick  fell.  Meantime  concentration  of  the 
army  of  Wellington,  consisting  of  British,  Hanoverians,  Dxdch,  and 
troops  from  Brunswick  and  Nassau.  Upon  this  force  Napoleon  hurled 
himself  with  superior  numbers. 

1815>  June  18.    Battle  of  Waterloo  and  Belle  Alliance^ 
called  by  Napoleon  the  battle  of  MotU  St  Jean. 
Napoleon  thought  he  had  insured  the  prevention  of  the  juncture  of 
the  Fmssiana  under  Bliicher  with  the  BngHah  under  JVelUngton,  bv 
directing  Grouchy  to  ens^age  the  former.    By  afternoon  Wellington's 
army,  though  still  unyieMmg,  had  suffered  so  heavily  that  the  day  was 
only  saved  oy  the  arrival  of  the  Prussians  under  Blttcher.    Complete 
defeat  of  the  French,  whose  army,  pursued  by  Oneisenau,  was  entirelv 
scattered.    Meanwhile  Grouchy,  on  whose  help  Napoleon  had  reUedy 
was  eneaged  at  Wavre  against  Thieleman,  whose  corps  he  by  some 
nnezplamed  error  took  for  the  whole  Prussian  army.^ 
June  22.    Abdication  of  Napoleon  in  favor  of  Lis  son. 
July  1.    Arrival  of  the  allies  before  Paris. 

July  7.    Second  oapture  of  Paris. 

Entrance  of  BlUcher  and  Wellington.  Hetum  of  Louis  XVIII, 
Arrival  of  the  two  emperors,  and  of  the  king  of  Prussia. 
Meantime  Napoleon  fled  to  Rochefort,  where,  after  futile  attempts 
to  escape  to  America,  he  surrendered  himself  to  the  British  admiral 
Hotham  on  the  ship-of-the-line  BeUerophony  who  Conveyed  him  to  Eng- 
land. Thence,  by  a  unanimous  resolve  of  the  allies,  he  was  transported 
as  prisoner  of  war  to  St.  Helena,  where  he  arrived  in  October  (f  May 
6, 1821). 

1  Thiers,  Hiatoire  du  Consulat  et  de  VEmpirt^  xx.;  Bopes,  Who  Lott  ITo* 
Urloot  —  Atlantic  Monthly,    June,  1881. 


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A.  D.  NapoUonie  Wart.  —  Modem  Inventions.  486 

Sept.  26.  Foundation  of  the  Holy  Alliance  upon  the  suggestion  of 
Alexander,  comprising  at  first  Russia,  Atistria,  Prussia,  theo- 
retically an  intimate  union  on  a  basis  of  morality  and  religion,  but 
practically  soon  degenerating  into  an  alliance  for  the  protection  of 
absolute  monarchy. 

Ney  made  his  escape,  but  was  captured,  condemned,  and  executed 
on  Dec.  7,  1815.  Murat  made  a  reckless  attempt  to  recover  his  throne 
by  landing  in  Calabria  ;  he  was  captured,  court-martialed,  and  shot 
Oct  13,  1815. 

Nov.  20.    Second  Peace  of  Paris. 

1.  France  surrendered  the  four  fortresses  PhilippemUe,  Ma- 
rienburg  (also  Bouillon  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands),  Saarlouis 
(and  Saarbrucken  to  Prussia),  Landau,  which  became  a  fortress  of  the 
German  confederation,  with  the  surrounding  region  as  far  as  the  Laur^ 
ter  (to  Bavaria).  France  ceded  to  Sardinia  tmit  part  of  Savoy  which 
she  had  retained  in  the  first  peace  of  Paris.  She  was  therefore 
brought  back,  generally  speaking,  to  the  boundaries  of  1790,  instead 
of  to  those  of  1792,  which  she  had  retained  in  the  first  peace. 

2.  Demolition  of  HUningens,  a  fortress  below  Basle. 

3.  Seventeen  fortresses  on  the  north  and  east  borders  of  France  were 
to  be  garrisoned  for  five  years  at  the  utmost,  by  troops  of  the  allies 
at  the  expense  of  France. 

4.  France  paid  700  million  francs  for  the  expenses  of  war.  Besides 
this  the  art  treasures  which  the  French  had  carried  away  from  various 
cities,  partly  by  treaties,  and  which  had  been  left  in  Paris  under  the 
first  peace,  were  now  reclaimed. 

The  desire  of  German  patriots  that  at  least  a  portion  of  the  ancient 
appanages  of  the  old  empire,  Lorraine,  Alsace,  and  Strasbur^,  should 
he  taken  from  France,  which  would  thus  be  deprived  of  a  pomt  of  at- 
tack against  Grermany,  was  not  gratified.  (JSe€j>,  5S6,) 

FOURTH  PERIOD. 

FROM  THE  CONGRESS  OF  VIENNA  TO  THE  PRESENT  DAY- 
1815-x. 

§1.    INVENTIONS. 

The  universal  adoption  and  application  of  four  in- 
ventions which  had  been  made  at  an  earlier  period,  and  in 
comparison  with  whose  influence  upon  the  transformation  of  the 
world  that  of  all  political  events,  wars,  treaties,  revolutions, 
almost  disappears,  lends  the  modern  world  its  peculiar  character. 
[A  century  of  material,  intellectual,  social  development  of  the 
people  follows  a  century  of  diplomatic  intrigue  and  misgovem- 
ment  (Compare  with  these  inventions  those  of  the  Jlfieenth 
centi^,  p.  279.)  ] 

1.  Tne  first  attempts  to  utilize  ateam  for  the  production  of  motion 
were  made  in  the  seventeenth  century.    Nothmg,  however,  is  cer- 


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486  Modem  history.  A.  D. 

tainly  known  about  either  the  exact  date  or  place  of  the  invention, 
or  the  person  of  the  true  discoverer.  The  French  ascribe  the  invention 
to  Dems  Papin,  of  Blois  (1647-1714),  the  English  to  the  Marquis  of 
Worcester  (1663)  and  Captain  Savery  (1698).  At  all  events  the 
first  steam  engine  which  deserves  the  name  seems  to  have  been  set 
up  in  England,  and  to  have  been  used  in  mining.  This  was  done  by 
Newoomen,  in  Devonshire  (1705\  The  man  who  did  the  most  to 
improve  the  steam  engine,  and  wnose  inventions  first  made  it  possi- 
ble to  use  these  machines  in  the  most  various  industries,  was  James 
"Watt  (1736-1819),  of  Greenock,  in  Scotland. 

2.  The  priority  of  the  idea  of  applying  ateam  to  navigation  is 
disputed  between  the  French,  English,  and  Americans.  Tlie  French 
ascribe  the  invention  to  the  above-named  Pajnn,  In  1774  the  count 
of  Auxiron,  and  in  1775  Perier,  are  said  to  have  sailed  the  first  little 
steamboat  upon  the  Seme,  The  experiment  was  repeated  by  Uie 
marquis  of  Jouffroy  in  1775  on  the  Doubs,  and  in  1780  on  the  Saone 
at  Lyons  with  a  vessel  of  larger  dimensions.  In  England  the  inven- 
tion is  ascribed  to  the  marquis  of  Worcester  ;  it  would  seem,  however, 
that  the  first  steamboat  in  Great  Britain  was  built  in  1786  by  Sym- 
ington at  Edinburgh.  To  America,  however,  where  experiments  with 
small  steamboats  had  been  made  upon  the  Delaware  in  1783^  1785, 
belongs  the  honor  of  establishing  the  first  regular  steamboat  service. 
This  was  instituted  in  1807  by  Fulton,  who  had  already  made  an 
experiment  with  a  steamship  on  the  Seine  in  the  presence  of  the  first 
consul.  Napoleon,  and  bad  in  vain  offered  to  apply  steam  to  the  French 
ships  of  war  (1803). 

3.  Railroads  were  without  doubt  an  English  invention.  In  the 
second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  wooden  railroads  were  used 
in  the  mines  at  Newcastle  on  the  l^^e,  in  imitation,  it  is  claimed,  of 
a  similar  arrangement  in  the  Harz  mines.  In  1716  the  rails  were 
covered  with  sheet  iron,  and  in  1767  the  wood  was  replaced  by  cast 
iron.  For  a  longtime  the  roads  were  used  only  for  securing  an 
easier  draught  for  horses.  The  first  application  of  steam  to  rail- 
roads was  made  in  1806  by  the  engineer  Trevithick.  Gradual  im- 
provement in  the  mechanical  constraction  of  the  eng^es.  George 
Stephenson  in  1814  invented  the  locomotive  and  in  1829  an  im- 
proved locomotive,  which  in  1830  ran  upon  the  first  great  railroad 
for  passenger  traffic  between  IdTerpool  and  Manchester.  The 
first  road  of  this  kind  was  constructed  in  1825  between  Stockton  and 
Darlington.  First  railroad  in  Germany,  Fiirth  to  Nuremberg  (1835), 
at  first  a  horse  railroad  ;  the  first  lar^r  line  worked  by  locomotives 
was  constructed  between  Leipsic  and  Dresden  (1837).  First  railroad 
in  the  United  States,  1827,  at  Quincy,  Mass. ;  cars  drawn  by  horses. 
First  roads  to  use  locomotives :  South  Carolina,  Baltimore  4*  Ohio. 
1830-31.  After  England  and  North  America  were  covered  with  an 
iron  network,  Germany,  and  much  later  France,  began  the  construc- 
tion of  railroads  upon  a  large  scale.  [Financial  disturbances  caused 
^especially  in  England)  by  the  withdrawal  of  capital  from  other  in- 
anstries  to  be  suiSl  in  construction  of  railroads,  and  by  stock  specula- 
tion.] 

4.  The  first  electric  telegraph  was  invented  in  1809  by  Sdmrnering, 


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A..  D.  Continental  Europe.  487 

a  Crermaiiy  in  Munich.  The  inyention  was  offered  to  Napoleon  I., 
who  dismissed  it  as  a  *<  German  notion."  After  the  Dane,  Orstedf 
had  discovered  electrtHnagnetism  in  1819,  the  Frenchmen  Ampere  and 
Ritschie  conceived  the  idea  of  applyins^  Uie  new  discovery  to  the  tele- 
graph. The  first  electro-magnetic  telegraph  which  was  actually  con- 
structed and  used  was  set  up  in  GoUingen  by  Gauss  and  Weber  in 
1833.  Somewhat  later  an  electro-magnetic  telegraph  was  invented 
in  Russia  by  a  German,  Schilling.  Schilling's  invention  was  carried 
to  Englana  by  Cooke,  an  Englishman.  There  it  was  improved  by 
Wlieatatone,  and  this  perfected  telegraph  was  first  practically 
worked  in  London,  between  Euston  Square  and  Camden  Toum.  After 
the  invention  had  undergone  many  improvements,  especially  in  Grer- 
many  and  America  (Morse,  1844),  Great  Britain,  tne  continent  of 
Europe,  and  North  America  were  covered  with  telegraph  wires.  The 
first  submarine  telegraph  was  laid  in  1851  between  England  and 
France  {Dover  to  Cape  Gris-nez).  Submarine  cables  were  then  laid 
from  England  to  Ireland  and  Belgium  (1851, 1853),  and  in  many 
other  locations.  The  gigantic  undertaking  of  connecting  Europe  and 
America  by  a  cable  faikd  in  1857.  A  second  attempt  in  1858  was 
crowned  with  success,  but  only  for  a  time.  In  1866  the  undertaking 
was  affain  renewed  and  brought  to  a  successful  close.  ( Valencia  in 
Ireland  to  Newfoundland,  1,650  English  miles.)  Since  that  time, 
many  others  have  been  laid.     In  1902  a  Pacific  cable  was  laid. 

§2.    CONTINENTAL  EUR0PE.1 

1817-18S2. 

1817.  Jubilee  festival  for  the  300th  anniversaiy  of  the  Reformation. 
FestlTal  of  the  'Wartburg.    Burning  of  a  number  of  absolut- 
ist writings  {AnciUon,  Schmalz,  HaUer,  etc.). 

1818.  Congress  of  Aiz-la-Chapelle.  The  great  powers  resolved, 
at  the  request  of  the  French  minister,  the  duke  of  Richelieu, 
to  withdraw  the  army  of  occupation  from  France. 

1819.  **  Demagogic  machinations."  Murder  of  the  German  writer 
and  Russian  counselor,  Kotzdtue  (Mar.  23),  by  the  fanatic 
Sand  in  Mannheim.  Secret  organization  among  Grerman  stu- 
dents (Burschenschqfiy  Reaction  in  Prussia.  W^.  i».  Humboldt, 
Beyme,  Boyen,  withdrew  from  the  service  of  the  state. 

Aug.  Congress  of  ministers  at  Carlsbad  controlled  by  Mettemioh. 
Censorship  of  the  press.  Supervision  of  the  universities  re- 
solved upon.  The  congress  continued  its  sittings  at  Vienna, 
where  the 

1820.  May.     Final  Act  of  Vienna  was  signed. 

In  Spain  rising  of  the  liberals  on  behalf  of  the  suspended 
constitution  of  1812,  which  was  restored. 
Oct.     Congress  at  Troppan,  > 

1821.  Congress  at  Laybach,  C 

assembled  to  consult  about  the  revolutionary  movements  in 
Naples  and  Piedmont, 
1821.    Victorious  campaign  of  the  Austrians  against  the  Liberals  in 

I  For  France  see  p.  526. 

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488  Modem  Hiaory.  l,  d. 

Naples  {Pepe,  Caracosa)  and  Sardinia  (Santa  Rosa,  battle  of 
Novard),  in  both  countries  absolutism  in  its  severest  form 
was  restored. 

1822.  Congress  of  Verona  on  account  of  the  Spanish  and  Grecian 
disturbances. 

1823.  French  intervention  in  Spain  under  the  lead  of  the  duke  of 
Angotdeme,  The  French  entered  Madrid,  forced  Cadiz  to 
capitulate,  and  liberated  king  Ferdinand  VII.,  who  had  been 
detained  a  prisoner  there.  Uruel  reaction,  numerous  execu- 
tions (Riego), 

1810-1825.    Conversion  of  the  Spanish  and  Portngnese  colonies 

in  Central  America  and  South  America  into  independent 

states. 

Colombia,  a  republic  since  1819  (Bolivar  dictator),  was  divided, 

in  1830,  into  three  republics  :  New  Granada  (now  Colombia  in  the 

narrower  sense),  Veneaniela,  Ecuador.    Peru  a  free  state  in  1821; 

La  Plata,  too,  Uruguay,  Chili,  and  southern  Peru,  under  the  name 

of  Bolivia,  became  independent.    In  the  Jesuit  state,  Paraguay,  Dr, 

(Joseph  Gaspard  Roderic  de)  Francia  (and  afterwimis  Lopez)  long 

governed  with  dictatorial  power.     Mexico  freed  from  Spanish  rule 

1821  by  Iturhide,  who  became  emperor  in  1822,  but  was  obliged  to 

abdicate  and  leave  the  country.    Mexico  a  republic  1823 ;  Iturbide 

returned,  but  was  executed  1824. 

Brazil  an  independent  empire  since  1822. 
1820-1834.  Revolutions  and  civil  wars  in  Portugal.  Don  Miguel, 
the  younger  son  of  king  John  VL  (f  1826),  aft«r  a  long  civil 
war  and  unheard-of  barbarities,  was  conquered  by  his  elder 
brother,  Don  Pedro  (since  1822  emperor  of  Brazil).  Don 
Pedro  (f  1834)  delegated  the  government  of  Portugal  in 
1826  to  his  daughter.  Donna  Maria ;  in  1831  he  delegated 
the  crown  of  Brazil  to  his  son,  Pedro  II, 

1821-1829.    Wax  of  Ghreoian  Independence. 

Secret  societies  (hetaries).  Prince  Alexander  Ypsilanti,  at 
the  head  of  a  Grecian  revolt  in  Moldavia  and  WaUachia  (March- 
June,  1821),  was  defeated  and  fied  to  Austria,  where  he  was  de- 
tained a  prisoner  in  Munkatsch  for  six  years.  Uprising  in  Morea 
(Mainots,  April,  1821).  Turkish  attacks  upon  the  Christians  in  Con- 
(tantinople,  Adrianople,  etc. ;  terrible  barbarities  in  Chios,  which  had 
revolted;  over  20,000  Greeks  murdered.  Canaris  burned  a  part  of 
aie  Turkish  fleet  and  put  3,000  Turks  to  death  (1822).  Lord  Bvron 
(t  Apr.  24, 1824),  Ei/nard  from  Geneva.  William  MiiUer  the  Ger- 
man  poet.  German  Philohellenists.  [Philo-hellenists  in  England  and 
America  (Dr.  Howe)'}.  Brave  defense  of  Missolonghi  (1826, 1826). 
1824-1830.     Charles  X.,  king  of  France  (p.  527). 

1825-1855*  Niohola43  I.,  emperor  of  Russia,  his  elder 
brother  Constantino  having  renounced  the  crown. 

1825-1827.  Ibrahim  Pasha,  Khedive  of  Egypt,  ravaged  Morea. 
England,  Russia,  and  France  interfered  in  behalf  of  the  Greeks, 
who  were  hard  pressed  and  at  variance  among  themselves. 


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A«  D.  Chntinental  Europe.  489 

1826.  Maasaore  of  the  Janlxaries  in  Constantmople  by  Sultan  Mdh- 
mud  II.f  after  a  mutiny.    The  troop  was  entirely  abolished. 

1827.  Battle  of  Navarino.    The  Turkish  fleet  was  destroyed  by 
Oct.  20.  the  English,  French,  and  Russian  fleets  ("  untoward  event "), 

and  Ibrahim  was  compelled  to  retreat  from  Morea. 
1828-1829.    Ruaso-TarkiBh  "War. 

The  Russian  general,  Diebitch,  crossed  the  Balkans  (whence 
his  surname,  Sabalkanski),  and  took  AdriarumU.  In  Asia  Kars  and 
Erzerottm  were  captured  by  Paakevitch,  who  had  captured  Erivan  in 
1827  in  a  war  with  Persia,  and  thereby  gained  the  name  of  ErivonskL 

1829.  Peace  of  Adrianople. 

Russia  restored  almost  all  her  conquests  to  Turkey,  the  latter 
power  recognizing,  in  advance,  the  resolves  of  the  London  Conforence 
which  announced  in  1830  the  Independence  of  Greece. 

Provisional  administration  of  the  count  Cc^  d'Istria  as  president, 
who  in  1831  was  murdered  in  Napoli  di  Romania  (NaupUa),  the  seat 
of  government.    The  guardian  powers,  England,  France,  Russioj  raised 
to  uie  Grecian  throne  the  Bavarian  prince, 
1832-1862.    Otto  I.,  f  1867. 

1830.  Capture  of  Alglera  by  the  French  (p.  527). 

1830>  July  27-29.    July  Revolution  at  Paris. 

Abdication  of  Charles  X. ;  accession  of 
1830-1848.    Louis  Philippe  I. 

For  the  details  see  p.  529.  This  revolution  was  followed  by 
liberal  uprisings  throughout  Europe. 

1830-1837.    William  IV.  (heretofore  duke  of  Clarence)  king 
of  England.    Whig  ministry. 

1830.    Revolution  in  Belgium.    Catise  : 

The  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  created  by  the  congress  of 
Vienna,  had  been  formed  by  the  enforced  union  of  two  utterly  differ- 
ent elements,  the  protestant  commercial  state  of  Holland,  which  was 
of  like  nationality  vrith  its  sovereign,  and  the  catholic  manufacturing 
country  of  Belgium,  which  was  divided  between  the  Flemish  and 
WaUdon  nationuities,  but  was  pervaded  by  French  culture.  The  suc- 
cess of  the  July  revolution  Jn  Paris  inflamed  the  long  smouldering 
dissatLsfaction  in  Brussels. 
1830,  Aug.  25.    Outbreak  in  Brussels  after  a  performance  of  the 

''  Masaniello"  The  mediation  of  prince  William  of  Orange, 
the  eldest  son  of  king  William  /.,  failed  of  success.  Prince  Frederic, 
the  king's  second  son,  who  had  occupied  a  part  of  Brussels  with  a 
division  of  the  army,  was  expelled  from  the  city  during  the  night  of 
Sept.  2e-27.  On 
Nov.  18,  Declaration  of  Independence  passed  by  the  Belgian  congress. 

Provisional  government. 
The  London  Conference  between  the  great  powers  procured  a  cessa- 
tion of  hostilities  between  Holland  and  Bdaium  and  recognized  the 
new  state  (Jan.,  1831),  which  in  February  adopted  a  liberal  monarch- 


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490  Modem  Histary.  A.  d. 

iqal  oonstitation.    After  Louis  PhiUppe  had  declined  the  honor  for  his 
second  son,  the   duke  of  Nemours,  upon  whom  the  first  choice  fell, 
1831-1865.    Leopold  L,  of  Saxe-Coborg,  was  elected  king  of  the 
Belgians.    [A  man  of  ability  and  excellent  disposition,  he  ap- 

e-oyed  himself  an  admirable  constitutional  monarch.]  The  war  with 
olland  lasted  until  1833.  Peace  was  established  in  1839. 
Results  of  the  July  Revolution  :  Revolutionary  movements  in 
Germany  (in  Saxony  and  Hesse-CasseL,  alteration  of  the  constitutions). 
In  Brunswick  duke  Charles  (f  1873)  was  expelled ;  duke  Witiiam 
taking  his  place,  in  accordance  with  a  decree  of  the  diet  of  the  con- 
federacy.   Democratic  transformation  in  many  of  the  Swiss  cantons. 

1830-1832.    Revolution  in  Poland. 

1830,  Nov.  29.    Revolt  in  Warsaw.    The  attempted  assassination  of 

the  grand  duke  Constantine  foiled.  Provisional  government : 
Lubecki  (pron.  Lubetski),  Czartorvski  (pron.  Tskar  — ),  ChlopicH 
(Khpitzki),  regarded  with  suspicion  by  the  democrats  (Leleiod). 
General  CJUopicki  dictator  until  Jan.,  1831,  then  prince  RadzivU  com- 
mander-in-chief.   The  emperor  Nicholas  deposed  by  the  diet  Jan., 

1831.  Prince  Czartaryski  president.  The  Russians  advanced  under 
Diebitch.  Bloody  engagement  at  Oroohow  (Feb.  19-25, 1831), 
where  the  Poles  with  45,000  men  offered  long  and  victorious  resis- 
tance to  the  superior  force  of  the  Russians  (70,000  men  with  more 
than  twice  as  manv  cannon  as  the  Poles  possessed),  but  were  at  last 
forced  back  upon  Prague.  Skrzynecki  commandeivin-chief ;  defeat  of 
the  Russians  at  Wawar  and  D^nbe  Widski:  the  insurrection  spread 
through  Lithuania  and  Podolia.  Diebitch  defeated  the  Poles  m  the 
bloody 

1831,  May  26.    Battle  of  Ostrolenka.    Diebitch  f  Jnne  10.    Want 

of  harmony  among  the  Poles.  Massacres  by  the  Polish  demo- 
crats in  Warsaw.  Czartoryski  escaped  and  was  replaced  by  the  in- 
efficient KrukoufieckL  The  new  Russian  general  Faskevitoh 
crossed  the  Vistula,  captured  Warsaw  (Sept  6  and  7, 1831).  The 
Polish  insurrection  suppressed.    The  Orgaiiio  Statute  of  Feb.  26, 

1832,  deprived  Poland  of  its  constitution  and  reduced  it  to  a  province 
of  the  Russian  empire,  although  with  a  separate  administration. 
1831.     Uprisings  in  Modena^  Parma,  and  Romagna^  quickly  sup- 
pressed with  the  assistuice  of  the  Austrians. 

1833-1840.  After  the  death  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  civil  war  in  Spain. 
Lied  by  EsparterOf  the  constitutional  party,  which  supported  the 
claims  of  Isabella  IL,  the  minor  daughter  of  the  king,  and  her  mother 
Maria  Christinaf  after  a  bloody  contest,  defeated  the  absolutist 
party  (Don  Carlos,  brother  of  the  king,  f  1^855  in  exile ;  leaders  of 
the  CarUsts :  Zumalacarregui,  f  1835,  Cabrera,  Gomez).  Espariero 
overthrown  in  1843.    Banishment  of  the  queen  dowager,  Christina, 

1833,  The  Frankfort  uprising,  wherein  two  watches  were  over- 
powered   for  a  few  hours,  caused    a  vigorous    reactionary 

movement  throughout  Germany.  Frankfort  received  an  Austro- 
Prussian  garrison.  Establishment  of  commissions  for  political  inves- 
tigations, arrests  and  condemnations.    Meeting  of  the  sovereigns  of 


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A*  D.  Oonttnenial  Europe.  49] 

AuatriOf  Pruuia,  and  Rustia  at  MUnchengrmz ;  ministerial  oonfereaee 
in  TepUiz  (1833)  and  Vienna  (1834),  by  whose  reaolationfl  the  righti 
of  the  estates  in  Crermany  were  still  further  curtailed. 
1833.  Foundation  of  the  Oerman  Cnatoms  Union  (ZoUveroln^ 
{Maa$9€n,  Prussian  minister  of  finance),  which  mid  been  zeal- 
ously advocated  by  Pmwiia  since  1818.  In  1830  the  union  already 
included  a  populadon  of  25»000,000  and  a  territory  of  80,600  square 
miles.  After  1854  it  embraced  98,000  square  milee  and  36,000,000 
inhabitants. 

1835-1848.    Ferdinand  I.,  emperor  of  Austria. 

The  chancellor  of  state,  Mettemich,  was  still  the  actual  head 
of  the  eoyemment  and  the  soul  of  the  oonservatiTe  reactionary  policy 
throughout  Europe.     CeMonhip  of  the  press.    Strict  system  of  poig' 
porti.    Police  surveillance. 
1837.    Upon  the  death  of  WiUiam  IV.  of  England,  Hanover,  where 

the  sqfie  law^  regulated  the  descent  of  the  throne,  beeame 

separated  from  England. 
Partial  repeal  of  the  fundamental  statute  of  1833  by  the  kine  of 
Hanover,  Ernst  August^  ^nder  the  pretext  that  the  constitution  had 
been  adopted  without  his  consent,  he  bein^  at  the  time  heir  to  the 
throne.  The  true  reason  was  probably  that  the  constitution  had 
made  the  domains  public  property  and  had  established  a  civil  list. 
Dismissal  of  seven  professors  at  Gdttingen  (Jacob  and  WiUiam  Grimm, 
Dahlmann,  Gervinus,  Ewald,  Albrecht  and  Weber),  for  refusal  to  take 
the  oath  of  homage. 

1837-1901*     Viotoria,  queen  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

1837.  Arrest  of  the  archbishop  of  Cologne  (Droste  von  Visckering), 
in  consequence  of  a  quarrel  with  the  Prussian  pivemment 
about  marriages  between  persons  of  different  religious  beliefs. 

1840.    Death  of  Frederic  William  lU.  of  Prussia.    His  son  and  soo- 

June  7.    cesser 

1840-1861.    Frederic  WiUiam  IV.  (see  p.  516). 

Mehemed  Ali,  viceroy  of  Egypt,  in  a  previous  victorious  war 
(1831-1833)  with  his  over^Ioid  the  sultan,  threatened  Constantinople. 
He  was,  however,  compelled  by  the  European  powers  to  make  peace, 
and  obliged  to  be  content  with  the  investiture  of  S^ria  as  a  flef  from 
the  sultan.  The  attempt  of  the  Porte  (1839)  to  deprive  him  of  Sjrria, 
failed.  Ibrahim,  son  of  Mehemed  Ali,  defeated  the  Turks  at  Nistb  on 
the  Euphrates.  Through  treachery  the  Turkish  fleet  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  viceroy  of  Egypt.  Kelying  on  the  support  of  France, 
Mehemed  Ali  demanded  from  the  voung  sultan  Abdul-Medjid  (1839* 
1861)  the  hereditary  investiture  of  all  lands  under  his  government. 
To  oppose  these  demands,  England  (lord  Palmeraton),  Austria, 
Prussia,  and  Russia,  concluded  in  1840  a  treaty  of  alliance,  to  the  ex- 
dnsion  of  France,  which  for  a  moment  threatened  the  peace  of  En* 
xope.    After  the  fall  of  the  ministry  of  Thiers,  however,  and  after 

t  Ci  p.  856»  note. 

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492  Modem  History.  x.  d« 

Onlzot  became  president  of  the  miniBtiy  in  October,  France  sub- 
mitted and  deserted  the  viceroy  of  Egypt.  The  armed  intervention 
of  Enghuid  and  Austria  in  Syria  forced  the  viceroy  to  take  a  lower 
tone,  and  he  retained  only  the  hereditary  rule  over  Egypt  under  the 
over-lordship  of  the  Porte. 

1846.  Deaui  of  Pope  Gregory  X  VI ,  Attempted  reforms  of  his  suc- 
cessor Pius  iX,  {MastairFerretH). 

1847.  Convention  of  the  united  legislature  {Landtag)  in  Prussia. 
"War  of  the  Sonderbund  (separate  confederacy)  in  Switzerland, 

against  seven  Catholic  cantons  (Jesuits).  Grcneral  Dufcur  quickly 
overpowered  Freiburg  and  Luzerne.    Dissolution  of  the  Sonderbund, 

Transformation  of  the  Swiss  confederacy  from  a  close  aUianoe 
rStaatenbundJ  of  sovereign  cantons  into  2^  federal  nation  [Bundesstaat]. 
The  former  diet,  in  which  ZUrich,  Beme^  and  Luzerne  had  in  turn  been 
the  chief  town,  was  now  succeeded  by  a  confederate  oouncll  which 
sat  in  Berne  and  consLsted  of  1.  a  council  of  estates  (representation 
of  the  governments  of  the  separate  cantons),  2.  a  national  council 
(representation  of  the  whole  Swiss  people  according  to  the  density 
of  the  population).  A  common  system  of  coinage  ;  centralized  postal 
service  and  military  organization. 

1848>  Feb.  24.    February  Revolution  in  Paris  (p.  630). 

1848-1861  (1862).    France,  for  the  second  time,  a  republic. 

In  Bwitserland,  complete  victory  of  the  radicals.  The  can- 
ton of  Neuchatd  threw  off  allegiance  to  its  prince,  the  king  of 
Prussia. 

1848.  Revolutionary  movementa  in  Germany,  in  consequence 
of  the  French  revolution. 

Feb.  ^7.  Popular  assembly  at  Mannheim  under  the  lead  of  Itzlein^ 
which  demanded  a  Grerman  parliament,  jury  trials,  free  press, 
right  of  forming  organizations,  societies,  etc. 

March  11.    The  elector  of  Hesse  obliged  to  agree  to  these  demands. 

March  13-15.  Outbreak  in  Vienna.  Mettemich  driven  from  the 
city,  which  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  burgher-guard  and  the 
students. 

March  18.  Conflicts  in  the  streets  of  Berlin.  The  troops,  tired  but 
not  conquered,  left  the  city  by  order  of  the  king  (March  19- 
20).  Formation  of  a  poorly  disciplined  burgher-guard.  Lib- 
ersil  ministers  frequently  changea.  Anarchy  in  the  capital. 
Call  of  a  constituent  assembly  at  Berlin. 

March  20.  After  disturbances  had  occurred  in  Munich  as  early  as 
March  6,  Louis  I.  (f  1868)  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son 
Maximilian  II.  Disturbances  in  Saxony,  Hanover,  Nassau, 
Mecklenburg,  etc. 

March  31.  Preliminary  parliament  in  Frankfort  opened  under  the 
presidency  of  Mittermaier.  Four  sessions.  Resolve  adopted 
to  call  a  national  Grerman  constituent  assembly t  for  the  purpose 
of  making  a  constitution  for  the  Grerman  empire. 

April.  A  republican  rising  in  Baden  (Hecker,  Struve),  supported  by 
the  arrival  of  refugees  (Herwegh)  and  foreign  republicans 
quickly  suppressed  by  the  troops  of  the  Grerman  confederation. 


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k.  D*  Gmtinental  Europe*  498 

General  Frederic  von  Gagem  treacherously  shot  by  the  toIuih 

teers  (April  20). 
May  15.    Second  insurrection  in  Vienna,  which  compelled  the  con- 

Tocation  of  a  constituent  dia.    The  emperor  left  Vienna  and 

went  to  Innsbruck,    The  intended  dissolution  of  the  Ugion  of 

students  caused  a 
May  26.     Third  insurrection  in  Vienna,  after  which  the  troops  left 

the  city  and  a  committee  of  public  safety  (citizens  and  students) 

controlled  the  city. 

1848-1849.  German  National  Assembly  (Paxliament) 

May  18.    in  Frankfort  (Church  of  St.  Paul)  for  the  purpose  of  «  har- 
moniziuj?"  a  constitution  for  the  German  empire  with  the 
governments  of  the  various  states. 

The  national  assemhly  elected  archduke  John  of  Austria  (66  years 
old)  administrator  of  the  empire.  He  entered  Frankfort  June  11.  The 
confederate  council  (Bundestag)  dissolved  itself.  First  imperial 
ministry  (afterwards  noade  more  complete^:  SchmerUng  (Austria), 
foreign  affairs,  and  interior;  Peucker  (Prassia),  war;  Heckscher  (Ham- 
bur?),  justice.  It  was  soon  evident,  however,  that  the  newly  cre- 
ated central  power  had  no  real  authority  either  as  regarded  foreign 
countries  or  the  separate  states. 

President  of  the  national  assembly,  Heinrioh  von  Gkigem.  Par- 
ties: right  (RadoimtZf  Vincke,  prince  Lichnowsky)^  holding  to  the  idea 
of  an  imperial  constitution  in  harmony  with  the  separate  governments; 
left  (  Vogtj  Rugey  Robert  Blum)^  proclaiming  the  principle  of  the  sov- 
ereijfnty  of  the  people,  and  endeavoring  to  establish  a  republican 
coruederation  (Bundestaat)  by  revolutionary  means;  right  centre 
(uagemy  DaJUmann,  GermnuSy  Amdt,  Beseler,  Bassermann,  J,  Grimm)^ 
which  hoped  to  persuade  the  governments  to  recognize  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  constitutional  monarchy  for  Grermany ;  left  centru 
(Rihnerf  Fallmerayer,  RaveauXy  etc.),  which  insisted  upon  the  uncon- 
ditional subordination  of  the  separate  states  to  a  central  monarchy ,  to 
be  created  on  the  basis  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  people  ;  it  recom- 
mended, however,  that  the  views  of  the  separate  governments  and 
such  particular  requirements  of  the  states  as  were  well  founded 
should  be  respected. 

1848.  In  Naples  grant  of  a  liberal  constitution,  followed  by  a  reac- 
Feb.  tion  after  the  victory  of  the  Swiss  troops  in  the  conflicts  in  the 
streets  (May).  War  with  Sicily,  which  was  in  revoU,  but  was 
subdued  by  FUangieri  with  great  severi<y.  After  the  murder  of  his 
minister,  Rossi^  Pius  IX.  fled  to  Gaeta  (Nov.).  Rule  of  the  anarchists 
and  republicans  (Mazzini)  in  Rome.  After  a  two  months'  siege  Rome 
was  captured  by  the  French  (July,  1849),  and  the  papal  authoritv 
was  restored.  The  Pope  did  not  return  to  Rome,  however,  untd 
1850.  (French  garrison  in  Rome,  1849-1866.) 
1848.     Slavonic  congreae  in  Prague, 

June  2.     called  by  the  Czechs  (Pa&cki),  in  order  to  unite  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  Slavonic  people  of  Austria  against  the  growth  of 
Germctn  culture  and  influence.      In  order  that  the  representatives 
«f  the  different  Slavonic  nationalities  might  understand  one  another, 


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494  Modem  History.  A.  D, 

the  proceedings  of  this  anti-German  conjness  were  held  in  German. 
Jane  12-17.     Uprising  of  the  Czechs  in  Prague  suppressed  hy  Win^ 

dischffr^Uz, 
Oct.  31.  Capture  of  Vienna  hy  imperial  troops  (  Wmdischgrdtz,  JeUa- 

chick),  Robert  Blum  (member  of  the  parliament  of  Frankfort), 

Messenhatuer  (commander  of  the  city),  and  many  others  were 

shot. 
Not.  1.    Commencement  of  the  reaction  in  Prussia.     Ministry 

Brandenburg '  ManteuffeL     General    Wrangd  entered  Berlin 

without  resistance  (Nov.  10).  Proclamation  of  a  state  of  siege. 
The  burgher-guard  disarmed. 
Nov.  27.     Transference  of  the  national  assembly  to  Brandenburg. 

As  a  quorvm  failed  to  meet  there. 
Bee.  5.     Dissolution  of  the  national  assembly  and  imposition  of  a 

constitution  with  two  chambers,  the  second  elected  by  uni- 

▼ersal  (manhood)  and  equal  suffrage. 
Deo.  10.    Prince  Louis  Napoleon  elected  president  of  the  French 

RepubUc  (p.  631). 

1848-1849.    War  between  Austria  and  Sardinia. 

The  Austrians,  driven  from  Milan  by  a  revolt  (March,  1848), 
retired  to  Verona,  An  Italian  attack  at  St,  Lucia  repulsed.  Ra- 
detski,  reinforced  ^  Nugent  (engagements  at  Udine  and  BeUuno}, 
advanced  again.  The  troops  of  Charles  Albert,  king  of  Sardinia, 
victorious  at  Goito  (May),  were  completely  defeated  by  Radetzki  at 
July  25.  Custozsa.  Milan  recaptured  by  the  Austrians.  Truce 
from  Aug.  9, 1848,  to  March  20, 1849.  Radetzki,  by  the  vic- 
tory of  Mortara  (March  21)  and  Novara  (March  23\  compelled  the 
conclusion  of  peace.  Charles  Albert  abdicated  in  nivor  of  his  son, 
Victor  Emmanud,  and  retired  to  Portugal  (f  Jul^^,  1849).. 

Capture  of  Brescia  after  terrible  fighting  in  the  streets.  Cruelties 
exercised  upon  prisoners  (Haynau),  In  Venice,  after  the  withdrawal 
of  the  Austrian  earrison  (March,  1848),  SLpromsional  government  in 
the  name  of  the  king  of  Sardinia  was  succeeded,  after  the  defeat  of 
the  Italian  army,  by  a  republic  (president  Manin),  Siege  and  cap- 
ture of  Venice  by  the  Austrians  (Aug.  1849).  The  whole  of  the 
Lombardo-Venetian  kingdom  subjected  anew  to  Austria. 

1848-1849.    Uprising  of  the  Hungarians  (Magyars). 

The  Hungarians  demanded  and  received  a  separate  ministry 
(April,  1848).  Count  Batthyanyi,  president  of  the  mimstry ;  Kossuth 
(pr.  KoshiU),  minister  of  finance.  Diet  in  Pesth  under  the  presidency 
of  the  archduke  Stephen  as  palatine.  The  opposition  of  the  Slavonic 
population  and  the  appanages  of  the  crown  of  Hungary  (Croatia, 
Transylvania)  to  the  supremacy  of  the  Magyars,  and  their  demand 
for  political  equality,  were  supported  by  the  court  of  Vienna.  Jella- 
chich  appointed  Ban  of  Croatia.  Kossuth  procured  from  the  diet  a 
levy  of  national  troops  (Honveds),  and  the  issue  of  Hungarian  paper 
money.  Jellachich  invaded  Hungary,  but  was  defeated  at  Velencze. 
The  archduke  palatine  Stephen  resigned  his  office.  Count  Lambera, 
created  imperial  governor  of  Hungary,  murdered  at  Pesth  (Sept.). 
The  emperor  dissolved  the  diet. 


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A«  D.  ChnHnemUd  Europe.  495 

After  the  abdication  of  Ferdinand  L  (f  1875)  his  nephew  mounted 
the  throne  as 

1848  —  X.    Francis  Joseph  L,  emperor  of  Austria. 

The  Hnngarian  diet  refused  to  recognize  the  abdication  of 
Ferdinand  I,  and  the  accession  of  Francis  Joseph  I.  Prince  Wir^ 
dischgrdtz  led  an  Austrian  army  into  Hungary.  KosstUh  and  the 
Magyar  officials  retired  to  Debreaan.  Windischgratz  occupied  Pesth 
(Jan.,  1849).  The  Polish  general  Bern,  to  whom  Kossuth  had  given 
a  conunand,  defeated  the  Austrians  in  a  series  of  engagements. 
Other  troops,  under  the  Pole  DembinsH  and  the  Magyar  princes 
GGrffey  and  Klapha^  were  successful  against  the  Austrians.  Denibinski 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  Magyar  forces,  but  was  de- 
feated at  Kapolna  (Feb.  26,  1849)  and  resigned  his  command. 
Meanwhile  a  bloody  struggle  was  in  progress  in  Transylvania:  Bern, 
defeated  by  the  Austrian  eeneral  Puckner  at  Hermanatadt  (Feb., 
1849\  after  having  received  reinforcements,  took  the  offensive  Miinst 
the  Austrians  and  Russians,  whom  the  former  had  called  to  their  aid, 
with  success;  driving  the  Russians  out  of  Transylvania.  In  the  west, 
too,  fortune  smiled  upon  the  Hungteian  arms.  Gdrgey  relieved  Ko« 
mom.  WindisckgrUtz  was  driven  back  to  Pesth,  which  his  successor, 
Weidenf  was  compelled  to  evacuate;  an  Austrian  garrison  remained 
in  Of  en.   '  In  consequence  of  the 

1849.    PubUcatlon  of  the  general  oonatttntioxi  for  Anatria, 
March  4.    which  abolished  the  ancient  Hungarian  constitution,  the 

diet,  upon  Kossuth's  motion,  pronounced  the  deposition  of  the 
house  of  Hapsburg'Lorraine.  KosstUh  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Mag- 
yar government  with  the  title  of  aovemor.  Divisions  and  lack  of  de- 
cision among  the  Hungarians,  instead  of  marchine  upon  Vienna 
they  laid  sieee  to  O/en,  which  GUrgey  captured  May  21.  JCossuih  and 
the  diet  made  a  pompous  entrance  into  resth.  Meanwhile  at  a  meet- 
ing of  the  emperors  of  Austria  and  Russia,  RnaBian  intervention 
was  agreed  upon,  and  a  common  plan  of  operations  adopted  for  the 
subjugation  of  Hungary. 

Last  decisive  strusgle  of  the  Hungarians.  Bern,  defeated  at  Her- 
mannsiadt  in  Transylvania  by  the  Russians  (LUden)^  who  outnum- 
bered him  three  to  one.  Dembinshi  forced  to  retire  before  the  su- 
perior Russian  force  under  Ptukeoiich.  GGrgey  tried  in  vain  to  break 
through  the  main  Austrian  army  under  HaynaUy  was  defeated  at 
Zsigard  and  Komcm,  went  to  the  aid  of  DembmsH^  defeated  the  Rus- 
sians under  Rudiaer  at  WaUzeny  but  was  obliged  to  retire  to  the 
mountains  upon  the  approach  of  Paskevitch,  escaping  the  Russians 
only  by  a  masterly  retreat.  Kossuth  fled  with  the  diet  to  Szegedin^ 
whither  Haynau  marched.  Dembinskij  attacking  him,  was  defeated  at 
Szdrek  (Aug.  5),  and  at  TemeBvar  (Aug.  9),  where  his  army  was 
almost  entirely  scattered.  Confusion  and  discord  among  the  Hun- 
garians. KosstUh  laid  down  the  chief  power ;  the  dictatorship  was 
conferred  upon  Gorgey.  Two  days  later  GGrgey  concluded  the 
1849,  Aug.  13.    Capitulation  of  Vilagoa, 

in  which  about  25,000  men  laid  down  their  arms  (120  cannon 
amiendered)  before  the  Russian  general  RUdiger,    Most  of  the  othef . 


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496  Modem  SiHory.  A.  d. 

florps  Bnrrendered  nnconditioiially  ;  Klapha  aloney  who  defended  JTo- 
monh  made  an  honorable  capitulation.  Kossuth,  Bern,  Dembinski, 
found  refuge  in  Turkish  territory.  Haynau  administered  terrible 
pumshment  to  the  captured  leaders  of  the  insurrection.  Numerous 
executions  (count  Batthyanyi  hanged),  imprisonments  and  confisca- 
tions. Abolition  of  the  Hungarian  constitution.  Transvlyania  and 
Croatia  separated  from  Hungary.  Abolition  of  the  general  constitution 
of  Austria,  Dec.  31, 1851. 

1848-185L  Three  wars  of  Sohleswig-Holstein  against 
Denmark. 
Cause:  «  Open  letter  "  of  the  king,  Christian  VIII.  (July  8, 1846), 
which  arbitranlv  decreed  the  continuance  of  the  union  of  the  dudiies 
with  Denmark^  m  spite  of  the  different  laws  of  inheritance  in  the  two 
states.  A  revolutionary  movement  in  Copenhagen  (Casino  party) 
oompeUed  king  Frederic  VII.  to  pronounce  the  annexation  of 
8ohleswig  to  Denmark  (1848>.  Hence  insurrection  in  the  duchies 
(March,  1^18),  and  formation  of  Aprovisional  government  of  the  coun- 
try (Beseler). 

1848,  Fhu%  War.  Prussian  troops  and  those  of  the  German  con- 
April-Aug.    federacy  came  to  the  assistance  of  the  duchies,  which 

were  obliged  to  form  a  new  army.  Greneral  Wrangel  defeated 
the  Danes  at  SchUstoig  (April  23)  and  advanced  to  Jiitland.  The 
losses  to  commerce  in  the  Baltic  by  the  Danish  blockade  and  the  in- 
fluence of  England  and  Russia  produced  the  not  very  honorable  truce 
of  Malmo  (26  Aug.  1848-26  March,  1849).  Establishment  of  «  com- 
mon government "  for  the  duchies. 

Dissatisfaction  with  the  truc9  throughout  Germany.  Angry  de- 
bates in  the  national  assembly  at  Frai3cfort ;  contest  in  the  streets 
with  the  populace,  who  were  excited  by  the  democrats.  Murder  of 
prince  Lichnowsky  and  general  von  Auerswald  (Sept.). 

1849,  March-July.    Second  "War.  Creation  of  a  governorship  (Bese- 

leTi  Reventlow-PreeU)  by  the  central  government  of  Germany. 
At  Eckemforde  the  ship  of  the  line  Christian  VI IL  was  fired  by  can- 
nonade and  the  frigate  Gefion  captured  (April  5).  Storm  of  the  re- 
doubts of  Duppel  by  Bavarian  and  Saxon  troops  (April  13).  The 
Prussian  general  Boniny  at  the  head  of  the  Schleswig^Holstein  army» 
defeated  the  Danes  at  Kolding  (April  20).  In  consequence  of  the 
threatening  attitude  of  England,  France,  and  Russia,  indifferent  con- 
duct of  Prussia  and  other  Grerman  troops  in  the  war  (general  Pritt" 
witz).  Siege  of  Fredericia  by  the  Schleswig^Holstein  army,  whicn, 
however,  suffered  a  considerable  loss  through  a  successful  sortie  of 
the  Danes.  Truce  of  Berlin,  between  Prussia  and  Denmark  (1849, 
July  10),  whereby  Schleswig  was  to  be  occupied  by  Swedish  troops  in 
the  north,  in  the  soutb  by  P^ssian  troops,  and  received  a  new  adrnxnis^ 
tration.  The  truce  was  converted  into  a  peace  (in  the  name  of  the  Ger- 
man confederation  as  well).  Bonin  and  all  Prussian  officers  were 
recalled  from  the  Schleswig-Holstein  army. 

1850,  Jan.-1851,  July.  Third  War,  conducted  by  Schleswig-Holstebi-- 

ers  alone  without  the  aid  of  Grermany.  General  Wulisen,  for- 
merly in  the  Prussian  service,  assumed  command  of  the  army.    He 


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A.  D.  OonHnental  Europe.  497 

WB8  defeated  at  Idstedt  (July  24,  25).  Schleswig  oocnpied  hj  tJie 
Danes.  In  the  engagement  at  Missunde  (Sept.  12)  the  Schleswig- 
Holstein  troops  were  again  defeated.  In  the  storm  of  FriedrichsUuU 
(Oct.  4)  they  were  repnlsed  with  great  loss.  The  chief  conmiand 
was  transferred  from  Willisen  to  general  Horst,  The  Grerman  con- 
federacy having  heen  restored  meanwhile  (p.  496)  enforced  under 
Austrian  influence  the  cessation  of  hostilities  ;  Holstein  was  occupied 
by  Austrian  troops  with  the  consent  of  Prussia,  and  delivered  to  the 
Danes  upon  the  vague  promise  of  "respecting  the  rights  of  the 
duchies"  (1862). 

1849.     Completion  of  the  constitution  of  the  German 
Empire. 

Diet,  composed  of  a  chamber  of  state,  appointed  half  by  the  govern- 
ments, half  by  the  popular  representatives  of  the  separate  states,  and 
a  popular  chamber.  Monarchical  power  with  only  a  suspensive  veto. 
Formation  of  two  parties,  the  great  Grerman  (Urossdeutsche)  party, 
which  wished  to  retain  the  German  territory  of  Austria  in  Grermany, 
and  the  small  German  {Kleindeutsche),  which  wished  to  exclude  Aus- 
tria and  form  a  narrower  confederacy  under  the  hegemony  of  Prussia. 
1849.  The  offer  of  the  crown  of  emperor  of  the  Germana,  by  a 
April  3.  deputation  of  the  national  assembly  at  Frankfort,  waa  de- 
clined by  the  king.  Frederic  William  declared  that  he  could 
assume  the  imperial  dignity  only  with  the  consent  of  all  Grerman  gov- 
ernments. 

Ikiay.    Uprising  in  Dresden  (TzschimeTf  Heubnerf  Todtj  Bakunin) 
suppressed  by  Prussian  assbtance. 
Recsdl  and  withdrawal  of  a  great  number  of  representatives 

1849.  from  the  national  assembly  at  Frankfort.  The  Rump-Par^ 
June,    liament  (president  Ldwe-KcUbe)  in  Stuttgart  dissolved. 

The  administrator  superseded  by  a  central  power  to  be  executed 
hjAustria  and  Prussia  alternately,  "for  the  German  confederacy" 
(The  interim).    Death  of  the  administrator,  Oct.  20, 1849. 
Hay.    Bepublican  uprising  in  the  county  palatine  and  in  the  grand 
dudiy  of  Baden  (Struve,  Mieroslawshi);  defection  of  the  army. 
Prussian  troops  under  the  prince  of  Prussia  entered  Baden,  de- 
feated the  insurgents  at  Waghdusd,  besieged  and  captured 
Rastadt, 
The  commander  Tiedemann  and  others  were  shot ;  many,  among 
them  the  poet  Kinkel,  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  life  with  hard 
labor  (Kinkelj  1850,  in  Spandau,  was  rescued  by  Karl  Schurz). 

1850,  Feb.  6.    In  Prussia  the  king  and  legislature  took  the  oath  of 

allegiance  to  the  revised  constitation. 
Exertions  of  Prussia  to  create  a  German  federal  state  (Bundesstaat), 
with  exclusion  of  Austria  (Radowitz),  actively  supported  by  the  old 
party  of  the  hereditary  empire  in  the  Frankfort  parliament,  the 
Gothas  (so  called  from  a  meeting  in  Gotha).  The  "  allianoe  of  the 
three  kings  "  (Prussia,  Hanover,  Saxony),  concluded  May  26, 1849, 
which  was  immediately  joined  by  most  of  the  smaller  German  states, 
was  soon  broken  up  by  the  withdrawal  ol  Hanover  and  Saxony. 
Nevertheless  tbb 

38 


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498  Modem  Binary.  A.  d. 

1850^  Mareh  20.    Parliament  of  Erfort  was  opened,  wbich  on  the 

27th  April  ooneluded  the  disoofision  of  a  new  German  Union. 
May  9-16.    Congraaa  of  prlnoaa  in  Berlin,  wherein  the  dislike  of 

electoral  Hesse  (Hcusenpjiug)  for  the  onion  came  to  light. 

Creation  of  a  couege  of  princes,    Austria  opposed  the  efforts 

of  IVussia  by  the 
Sept.  2.    Reopening  of  the  Frankfort  parliament. 

Contest  over  the  constitution  in  the  electorate  of  Hesse.  Re- 
peated dissolution  of  the  assembly  of  the  estates  by  Hanenpftug,  The 
whole  country  was  pronounced  in  a  state  of  war  (Sept  7).  Kesist- 
ance  of  the  officials  and  the  courts.  The  prince  elector  left  the  coun- 
try and  invited  the  intervention  of  the  diet,  which  had  been  restored 
by  Austria,  but  was  not  recognized  by  Prussia  and  her  confederates; 
uassenpflug  ambassador  to  Uie  diet  The  diet  granted  aid  to  the 
prince  elector,  Prussia  protesting.  General  Haynau  appointed  mili- 
tary dictator  in  electoral  Hesse  (Oct.  2).  Almost  the  entire  corps  of 
officers  in  electoral  Hesse  received  their  dismissal 

Rnptnre  between  Prussia  and  Austria ;  Nicholas  of  Russia  took 
sides  with  the  latter  (two  meetings  in  Warsaw),  Meeting  of  the 
emperor  of  ^  Austria  and  the  kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wibimiberg  at 
Bregens,  directed  against  Prussia.  Execution  of  the  decree  of  the 
confederacy  by  Bavarian  and  Anstrian  troops.  The  Prussian  gov- 
ernment sent  their  troops  (general  GrlShen)  into  electoral  Hesse,  and 
seemed  for  a  moment  about  to  oppose  the  execution  of  the  decree  of 
the  confederacy  (encounter  of  the  pickets  at  Bronmdl^  Nov.  8),  bnt 
were  finally  satiraed  with  occupying  the  military  roads  of  Prussia. 
Dismissal  of  the  minister  Radowitz^  and  thereby  complete  abandon- 
ment of  the  Prussian  exertions  for  union.    In  the 

1850.  Conferenoe  at  Olmiitz  (MatUeuffd  and  Sekwar- 
Nov.  29.    2enberg)  Prussia  yielded  to  all  the  demands  of  Austria ; 

SdUesufig'Holstein  was  delivered  to  the  Danes,  the  unlimited 
authority  of  the  elector  was  restored  in  electoral  Hesse.    The  ques- 
tion of  the  German  constitution  was  settled  at  the 
1860-1851.    Conferenoe  at  Droaden 

Deo.  23-May  15.  after  a  lengthy  discussion,  wherein  the  inflnenoe 
of  the  emperor  of  Russia  had  great  weight,  by  a  simple  re- 
turn  to  the  diet  of  the  confederacy,  Prussia  herself  invited  Uie 
former  members  of  the  union  to  send  representatives  to  that 
body,  so  that  the 

1851.  Oerman  oonfederation  of  1815  was  reestablished  in  its 
old  form. 

1851*  First  universal  industrial  exhibition  in  Lon- 
don. 

1851.  In  Paris,  coup  d!Hai  of  Louis  Napoleon,  who  be- 
Dec.  2.    came  president  of  the  republic  for  ten  years  (p.  531). 

1852,  May  8.    Treaty  of  Iiondon  ^protocol)  signed  by  the  five 
great  powers  and  Bweden.    la  order  to  guarantee  the  in- 
tegrity of  the  Danish  monarchy,  a  successor  was  appointed  for  the 
crown  of  Denmark  and  for  the  duchies  of  Schleswig^Holstein,  with* 


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A*  D.  OoniinenUd  Hurope.  499 

oat  consulting  the  estates  of  the  ^uchies.  The  female  line  next 
in  succession  having  renounced  its  rights,  Christian  of  SimderburO' 
GlOckshurg  was  proclaimed  heir  of  the  childless  king  Frederic  VU. 
for  the  entire  monarchy.  This  treaty  was  recognized  by  Hanovetj 
Saxony,  and  WOrtemberg,  but  not  by  the  German  confederation. 

1852,  Dec.  1.    Napoleon  in.,  emperor  of  the  French  (1852- 

1870). 
1853-1856.    War  of  Russia  against  Turkey  and 

1864-1856.     War  of   the  western   powers  against 
Russia.    Crimean  War. 

Cause  :  Resuscitation  of  the  old  Russian  plans  of  conquest  (Catha/- 
rine  II.  p.  411)  against  Turkey  by  Nicholas  L  xhinking  an 
alliance  between  England  aad  France  impossible,  and  believing  that 
he  had  made  sure  of  Austria  and  Prussia,  he  pressed  forward  with- 
out hesitation.  He  developed  his  views,  concealing  but  little,  to  the 
English  ambassador  in  St.  retersburg,  Seymour:  Servia,  Bosnia,  Buir- 
gana,  and  the  principalities  of  the  Danube  should  become  independent 
states  under  Russian  protection.  Constantinople  should  be  occupied 
prooisionally,  by  Russian  troops ;  the  prospect  of  the  acquisition  of 
Crete  and  Egypt  was  held  out  to  England.  In  spite  of  the  unfavor- 
able attitude  of  England,  the  emperor  pursued  his  plans.  Demand 
for  a  protectorate  over  all  Christians  of  the  Greek  church  in  the 
Turkish  empire,  urged  in  an  overbearing  manner,  by  the  Russian  am- 
bassador prmce  Mentchikoff,  The  Porte  refused  to  listen  to  the  prop- 
osition.   Mentchikoff  left  Constantinople  with  threats  (May  21, 1853;. 

1853,  A  united  French  and  English  fleet  was  placed  at  the  entrance 
to  the  Dardanelles,  aftermrds  in  the  Bosphorus,  for  purposes 

of  observation.  80,000  Russians  crossed  the  Pruth  and  occupied  the 
principalities  of  the  Danube  (July).  Meeting  between  Nicholas  and  the 
emperor  of  Austria  and  the  king  of  Prussia  in  Olmittz  (Sept.),  where 
however,  he  did  not  obtain  the  desired  alliance,  but  only  an  assur- 
ance of  neutrality  under  certain  conditions.  The  Porte  declared  war 
upon  Russia  (Oct.).  Omer  Pacha  crossed  the  Danube  and  held  his 
ground  against  the  Russians  at  OUenitza  (Nov.  4).  The  Russian 
fleet  surprised  and  defeated  a  Turkish  squadron  at  Sinope,  Nov.  4. 
Upon  the  refusal  of  the  emperor  to  evacuate  the  principahties  of  the 
Danube, 

1854,  March  12.    AUlanoe  of  the  western  powers  with  Turkey,  and 
March  28.    declaration  of  war  by  Bngland  and  France  upon  Rus- 
sia.   Pashevitch  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of  the  Russian 

army  which  crossed  the  Danube,  but  besieged  Silistria  in  vain  (June). 
England  and  France  sent  troops  to  the  aid  of  Turkey,  which  concen- 
trated in  GaUipcli.  Alliance  between  Prussia  and  Austria;  these 
states  declared  the  passage  of  the  Balkans  by  the  Russians  an  act  oT 
war,  and  soon  demanded  the  evacuation  of  the  principalities.  The 
emperor  Nicholas  ordered  the  evacuation  "for  strategic  reasons'* 
(July).  With  the  consent  of  the  Porte  the  principalities  were  pro* 
visionally  occupied  by  the  Austrians. 


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500  Modem  BUtoty.  A*  o 

A  second  iVeneh  and  Engliah  fleet  (Napier)  appeared  in  tihe  Baltic^ 
but  could  make  no  impression  upon  the  fortress  of  Kronstadt  and  cap- 
tured only  the  small  fortress  of  Bomarsund,  upon  one  of  the  Aland 
Islands. 

At  the  southern  seat  of  war,  the  allies  landed  at  Varna,  on  the 
Black  Sea  (June).  Marshal  SL  Amaud  and  lord  Raglan  command- 
ers-in-chief. The  French  iuTasion  of  the  Dobrudsha  was  followed  by 
great  losses  through  sickness.  At  Varna  the  expedition  to  the 
Crimea  was  resolved  upon,  in  order  to  destroy  Sebaatopol  and  an- 
nihilate the  Russian  naval  power  in  the  Black  Sea.  The  French  and 
English  (50,000  men  together)  and  6,000  Turks  landed  at  Eupatoria, 
on  the  west  coast  of  the  Crimea^  Sept.  14^  and  defeated  the  Russians 
in  the 
1854^  Sept.  20.    Battle  of  the  Alma. 

Marshal  St.  Amaud  died  of  the  cholera.  The  command  of 
the  French  given  to  Canrobert.  After  the  English  had  established 
themselves  on  the  bay  of  Balaldava,  and  the  French  on  the  bay  of 
Kamieschj  the 

1854-1855.    Siege  of  Sebaatopol 

Oct.  Nov.  began.  The  city  was  surrounded  by  new  fortresses  by 
MerUchtkofff  under  the  superintendence  of  ToUeben^  and  the 
harbor  closed  by  sunken  ships  of  war.  An  attack  of  the  allies  upon 
Sebastopcl  failed  (Oct.  17).  The  Russian  i^eneral  Liprandi  attacked 
the  English  at  Balaklava  (Oct.  25)  and  inflicted  a  severe  loss  upon 
them  (charge  of  the  Light  Brigade).  After  MerUchikoff  had  received 
reinforcements,  he  attacked  the  allies  anew,  but  was  defeated  in  the 
bloody 

1854,  Nov.  5.    Battle  of  Inkermann. 

Slow  prog^ss  of  the  siege  works  during  the  winter.  After 
the  emperor  of  Russia  had  rejected  the  conditions  of  peace  which 
were  supported  by  Prussia  and  Austria,  the  latter  power  joined  the 
alliance  of  the  western  ^wers  (Dec.  1854),  and  placed  a  consider^ 
able  force  upon  the  Russian  boundary  without,  however,  commencing 
actual  operations  of  war.  Prussia  persisted  in  her  neutral  attitude. 
Victor  Emmanuel  of  Sardinia  concluded  an  alliance  with  the  western 

g>wer8  and  sent  15,000  men  under  La  Marmora  to  the  Crimea.    A 
ussian  attack  upon  Eupatoria  was  repulsed  by  the  Turks. 

1855,  March  2.    Death  of  Nicholas  L    His  son 

1855-188L  Alexander  IL  (abolition  of  serfdom  1858- 
1863). 
Prince  GortchakoffTeQeiveA  the  chief  command  in  SebastopoL  After 
fruitless  negotiations  in  Vienna,  Austria  again  assumed  an  attitude 
of  waiting  and  withdrew  a  portion  of  the  troops  on  the  Russian  border. 
Enormous  losses  among  the  besie^rs,  from  sickness  {Florence  Night" 
vngaUy  Privations  and  daily  skirmishes.  At  the  request  of  Canro- 
bert the  command  of  the  French  forces  was  transferred  to  general 
Pelissier  (May  16).  A  general  storm  was  repulsed,  with  great  loss 
to  the  allies  (June  18).  Lord  Raglan  died  June  28,  and  Simpson  be- 
.  came  commander-in-chief  of  the  English  army. 


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A»9«  Continental  Europe,  501 

After  a  cantinaQiu  bombardment  and  many  bloody  engagements 
1855.    Storm  of  the  Malakoff  tower  by  the  French,  and  of  the 
Sept.  8.    Redan  by  the  English,  who  were,  however,  soon  driven  out 

again  by  the  Russians. 
Sept.  11.    The  Russians,  by  means  of  a  pontoon  brid^,  withdrew  into 

the  northern  part  of  the  fortress.    Occupation  of  the  cUy  of 

SebcLstopol  by  tiie  allies. 
Nov.  28.    In  Asia,  capture  of  the  fortress  of  Kan  by  the  Russians. 
At  the  congress  of  Paris  (France^  En^landf  Rusda,  Tvarkey^  Sar- 

dinia,  Austria,  and  at  the  last  Prusnd),  the 

1856>  March  30.    Peaoe  of  Paris  was  agreed  upon. 

1.  RuBsla  ceded  the  mouths  of  the  Danube  and  a  small  portion  of 
Bessarabia  on  the  left  bank  of  the  lower  Danube.  2.  Rnssia  re- 
nounced the  one-sided  protectorate  over  the  Christians  in  Turkey 
(whose  elevation  to  equality  with  the  Mohammedan  population  was 
promised  by  the  Porte),  and  over  the  principalities  of  the  Danube, 
whose  relations  were  to  be  settled  later.  3.  Russia  restored  Kars, 
and  promised  not  to  establish  any  arsenals  upon  the  Black  Sea,  nor  to 
maintain  there  more  ships  than  the  Porte.  4.  The  western  powers 
restored  Sebastopol  to  Russia,  after  having  destroyed  the  docks,  the 
constructions  in  the  harbor,  and  the  fort^cations.  [5.  Adoption  of 
the  four  rules :  1.  Privateering  is  and  remains  abolished.  2.  The 
neutral  flag  covers  an  enemy's  goods,  except  contraband  of  war.  3. 
Neutral  goods,  except  oontiaband  of  war,  not  liable  to  capture  under 
an  enemy's  flag.  4.  Blockades,  to  be  binding,  must  be  effective.] 
1856-1857.    Impute  between  the  king  of  Prussia  and  Switzerland,  in 

consequence  of  a  hasty  suppression  of  a  royalistic  outbreak  in 
Neuchdtel  (Neuehburg),  settled  by  the  release  of  tiie  royalistic  pris- 
oners by  the  Swiss,  and  the  renunciation  of  NeuckcUel  by  the  king  of 
Prussia. 
1857-1860.    French  and  EfaigUsh  expedition  against  China. 

Cause  :  infractions  of  tibe  treaty  with  the  English  (of  1842^ 
by  the  Chinese  led  to  hostilities  in  Oct.,  1856,  between  the  Englisn 
and  the  Chinese  officials  of  Canton.  The  French  government,  ^^ch 
purposed  an  alteration  of  the  conmiercial  treaty  with  China,  joined  in 
supporting  the  English  demands. 

1857,  Dec.    Occupation  of  Canton  by  the  allies. 

1858.  Treaty  of  Tien-Tsin,  which  opened  to  European  trade  and  the 
June,    missionaries  entrance  to  the  interior  of  Cfhina,  and  allowed 

standing  embassies  to  be  established  in  the  capital,  Pekm, 

1859,  June.    lofraction  of  the  treaty  of  Tien-Tsin,    The  English, 

French,  and  American  ambassadors,  who  were  on  their  way  to 
Pekin,  were  turned  back  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pei4io, 
The  attempt  of  the  English  and  French  to  force  their  passage 

failed;  an  attack  upon  the  forts,  undertaken  with  bit  few  troops,  was 

repulsed  with  great  loss. 

1860.  Landing  of  a  French  (general  Montauban)  and  En^^lish  (gen- 
May,    eral  G^nt)  corps  at  Shanff-hai;  storm  of  the  fort&ed  camp, 

while  the  flotilla  of  the  allies  proceeded  up  the  Pei^-ko. 
Negotiations  commenced  by  the  Chinese.    In  consequence  of  their 


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502  Modem  BUtory.  a*  d. 

dnbions  ai|d  ftdthless  oondnct  the  aDies  made  a  new  advaiioe,  defeated 
a  Tatar  army  of  25,000  men  in  the 

1860.    Battle  of  Palikao,  and  marched  npon  Pdbm.    Destmciion  of 
Sept.  21.    the  summer  palace  of  the  emperor  as  punishment  for  the 
cruel  mutihition  and  execution  of  several  persons  whom  the 
Chinese  had  treacherously  captured.    In  affright  prince  Kong^ 
the  emperor's  brother,  concluded  the 
1860.    Peace  of  Pekln,  which  ratified  the  tieaty  of  TiennTtm  and 
Oct.  24,  25.    imposed  upon  the  Chinese  the  payment  of  a  hirge  in- 
demnity. 
1857.    Illness  of  Frederic  William  IV.    The  prince  of  Prussia  as- 
Oct.    snmed  the  vice-regency,  and  later  (Oct.  7, 1858)  the  regency 
as  provided  by  the  constitution  of  Prussia.    Tne  prince  re- 
gent replaioed  the  ministiy  of  Manteuffid  by  an  old  liberal  ministry 
(prince  of  HahemoUem,  Auerswald,  Schleiniiz,  Bonin,  Bethmanih'Holl' 
wegf  and  afterwards  count  Schwerin), 

1869.    War  of  Fraaoe  and  Sardinia  with  Austria. 
April-July.     An  Austrian  ultimatum  having  been  rejected,  field- 
marshal  Cfyulay  crossed  the  Tidnoy  but  his  inactivity  gave 
the  French  time  to  come  to  the  assistance  of  the  Fiedmontese. 
Kapoleon  UL  assumed  the  chief  command. 
An  extensive  reconnoitring  expedition  of  Gyulay's  led  to  the 
May  20.    Engagement  of  Montebello  ;  the  Austrians,  after  obsti- 
nate resistance,  driven  back.     Garibaldi  and  his  volimteers  in- 
vaded Lombardy.    The  allies  assuming  the  offensive,  GyuLay  retired 
across  the  Ticino  and  was  defeated  in  3ie 
June  4.    Battle  of  Alagenta 

iNapdUon  IIL,  Canrobert^  MacMahon). 
Kapoleon  III.  and  Victor  Emmanuel  entered  Milan.    The  em- 
peror Francis  Joseph  took  the  chief  command  in  person.    Ihe 
Austrian  army  was  defeated  by  the  allies  in  the 
June  24.    Battle  of  Solferino. 

The  emperor  Francis  Joseph  in  a  meeting  with  Napoleon  IIL 
July  11,  in  Vfllafranoa  was  induced  to  accept  preliminaries  of  peace 
(exchanged  July  8)  which  were  ratified  and  completed  in  the 
2B59,  Nov.  10.    Peace  of  Ziirich. 

1.  The  emperor  Francis  Joseph  ceded  Lombardy  (with  the  ex- 
ception of  Mantua  and  Peschiera)  to  Napoleon  IIL,  who  surrendered 
it  to  Sardinia.  2.  Italy  was  to  form  a  confederation  (Staatenbimd) 
under  the  honorary  presidency  of  the  Pope.  3.  The  sovereigns  of 
Tuscany  and  Modena,  who  had  been  expelled  in  April  and  July,  were 
to  be  reinstated;  the  revolted  legations  (Bologna,  etc.),  were  to  be 
given  back  to  the  Pope,  but ''  without  foreign  intervention." 

Despite  these  enactments  of  the  peace  of  Ziirich 
1860.  Tuscany,  Parma  (whose  sovereigns  had  likewise  been  expelled). 
Spring.     Mo(Una,  and  the  papal  legations  were  united  with  the  mon- 
archy of  Victor  Emmanuel,  who,  in  return,  was  obliged  to  sui^ 
render  Savoy  and  Nice  to  France. 
Descent  of  Garibaldi  with  1,000  volunteers  (soon  4,000,  May  11) 


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A*  D.  Qmitnental  Europe.  503 

upon  Sicily.  He  marched  upon  Palenno.  Bombardment  of  the  city 
by  the  Keapolitan  general  Lama,  whereupon  the  city  capitulated  on 
condition  of  the  free  withdrawal  of  25|000  Neapolitan  troops  (June 
6).  Messina  evacuated  by  the  Neapolitans,  with  the  exception  of 
the  citadel  ^une  28).  Garibaldi  landed  on  the  mainland  (Aug. 
20).  Surrender  of  Reggio,  triumphal  progress  through  the  southern 
half  of  the  peninsula.  King  Prands  iL  left  his  capital,  Naples,  and 
retired  behind  the  VoUumo  with  40,000  men,  retreating  to  the  for- 
tresses of  Gaeta  and  Capua  (Sept.).  Meanwhile  the  Piedmontese 
troops  under  Fanti  and  CicUdini  had  entered  Umbria  and  the  Marches, 
where  the  desire  for  annexation  had  lone  since  made  itself  manifest. 
The  French  general  Lamoricihre,  who  had  entered  the  papal  seryiooy 
was  defeated  in  the 

1860.  Engagement  at  Caatelfidardo  by  Cialdwl  The  Papal 
Sept  18.    States  (excepting  the  Pairi$nonium  Petri)  were  annexed  Djr 

Victor  Emmanuely  who  thereupon  inyaded  the  Neapolitan  tem- 
tor^r  (Oct.)  and  joined  Garibaldi.  The  Neapolitan  army  retreated 
bemnd  the  GarigUanOf  Capua  was  talcen.  Francis  II.  and  his  troops 
retired  to  CfaSta. 

106Q-1861.  Siege  of  Gaeta.  FVancis  II.  capitulated  after  a  brave 
Nov.  12-Feb.  13.    defence  and  went  to  Rome. 

1861f  March  17.    Victor  Emmanuel  kingr  of  Italy. 

With  the  exception  of  Venice  and  the  Patrimonium  Petri  the 
whole  peninsula  was  united  under  one  sceptre.  Death  of  Cavour^ 
June  6, 1861.  New  expedition  of  Garibaldi,  with  volunteer  bands,  to 
liberate  Rome,  against  the  wishes  of  the  government.  He  waa 
wounded  and  captured  at  Aspromonte,  the  southern  point  of  Italy, 
Aug.  29, 1862.  Treaty  between  France  and  Italy  (Sept.  15, 1864), 
whereby  the  duration  of  the  French  occupation  of  Rome  was  limited 
to  two  years,  and  the  Italian  government  undertook  to  protect  the 
Patrimonium  Petri  against  any  foreign  invasion.  Florence  made  th^ 
capital  of  Italy. 

1861,  Jan  2.     Death  of  Frederic   William  IV.     The  prince  regent 

mounted  the  throne  as 
1861-1888.    William  I.,  king  of  Prussia. 
1861-1867.    Mexican  Expedition,  undertaken,  at  first,  by  /Vxwoe^ 

England,  and  Svain  in  common. 
1861.    Treaty  of  Lonaon  between  these  three  powers.    The  purpose 
Oct.  31.    of  the  expedition  was  to  force  the  republic  of  Mexico  to 

fulfill  certain  treaty  obligations  towards  these  nations. 

1861,  Dec.-1862,  Jan.    Occupation  of  La  Vera  Cruz  and  the  fort  of 

San  Juan  d^Ulloahj  the  allies. 

1862.  Treaty  of  La  Soledad  with  Juarez,  president  of  Mexico,  who 
Feb.  19.    promised  to  pay  the  indemnity  and  the  arrears  of  debt,  as 

reouired.  Juarez  did  not  fulfill  the  obligations  incurred,  and 
demandea  the  delivery  of  his  opponent,  Almonte,  who  had  come  to  the 
French  camp  from  Paris. 

England  and  Spain  withdrew  from  the  expedition.  Napoleon  III., 
acting  on  the  expectation  that  the  republic  of  the  United  States  of 
Amenoa  would  be  broken  up  by  ^e  war  between  the  North  and  the 


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504  Modern  Bittory.  A.  d. 

Soathy  resolved  to  create  a  mcniarchy  in  Mexico.  Magnificent  plan  to 
check  the  spread  of  the  Anglo-Germanic  race  hy  this  expedition,  and 
induce  a  regeneration  of  the  Latin  race. 

1862.  An  attack  upon  Puehla  by  5,000  French  repulsed.    Retreat  to 
May.    Orizaba.    The  emperor  sent  26,000  men  as  reinforcements,  fol- 
lowed by  more  considerable  numbers,  to  Mexico.    After  a  long 
and  bloody  contest 

1863.  Puebla,  oravely  defended  by  Ortega,  was  captured  by  the 
May.    French  general  Forey,  who  entered  Mexico.     The  French 

called  an  assembly  of  notables,  composed  of  opponents  of 
Juarez,  caused  the  monarchy  to  be  proclaimed  by  this  body,  and  the 
imperial  crown  of  Mexico  to  be  offeied  to  the  archduke  Maximilian, 
brother  of  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph  of  Austria.  This  young  and 
ambitions  prince,  nfted  with  excellent  abilities,  suffered  himself  to  be 
inveigled  by  Kapoleon  III.  into  accepting  the  crown. 

1864.  June.    Arrival  of  MaxtmUiain  in  Mexico.     Prolonged  contest 

with  the  republican  armies.  The  new  monarchy  constantly  in 
financial  difficulties.  Impossibility  of  establishing  a  settled  state  of 
affairs  in  a  land  so  torn  with  party  feuds. 

Meanwhile  the  end  of  the  civil  war  in  the  United  States  had  com- 
pletely altered  the  political  relations.  The  decisive  demand  of  the 
United  States  government  that  the  French  troops  should  be  with- 
drawn from  Mexico,  put  a  sudden  end  to  the  magnificent  plans  of  the 
French  emperor.  He  submitted  at  once  to  the  request  of  the  United 
States. 

1867.  Withdrawal  of  the  French  troops  from  Mexico.  The  emperor 
Spring.  Maximilian,  who  refused  to  leave  with  the  French,  contmued 
the  war  alone.  After  a  brave  resistance  he  was  surrounded  in 
Queretaro,  captured  by  treachery  {Lopez  f),  brought  to  trial  before  a 
court-martial  at  JuQre£  command,  and  shot  (June  19, 1867). 

In  Anatria,  in  spite  of  the  vehement  opposition  of  the  nobility  and 
the  clergy, 

1861.  Publication  of  a  new,  liberal  conatitntioii  for  the  tmited 
Feb.  26.  monarchy  with  a  close  diet  for  the  Germano-Slavonic 
^  lands,  and  a  wider  diet  (only  projected,  however)  which  by  the 
participation  of  Hungarian  members  was  to  represent  the  united  mon- 
archy, with  the  exception  of  Venice,  for  which  the  introduction  of  a 
special  constitution  was  promised.  Resistance  to  the  February  consti- 
tution, not  only  by  the  Hungarians,  who  demanded  the  restoration  of 
their  separate  constitution  with  a  special  ministry,  but  also  by  the 
national  parties  of  the  other  non-Germanic  peoples  of  the  empire. 
1861.  Coronation  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  William  L  in  Konigsberg; 
Oct.  18.  soon  after  there  broke  out  a  constitutional  conflict  in  conse- 
quence of  a  reorganization  of  the  army  which  the  government  had  carried 
out.  Dissolution  of  the  house  of  representatives  (March,  1862).  Res- 
ignation of  the  Schwerin  ministry.  Heydt  ministry.  The  opposi- 
tion majority  returned  from  the  new  elections  ^May)  with  increased 
strength  (party  of  progress  (Fortschritt),  and  the  left  centre). 

Von  Biamarok  (Otto  Edward  LeopM,  prince  of  Bismarck-SchSr^ 
lausent  born  1816, 1848  member  of  the  united  Prussian  legislature^ 


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A.  D.  Oontinental  Europe^  505 

1851  member  of  the  diet  of  the  confederation  at  Frankfort,  afte^ 
wards  ambassador  at  St.  Petersburg  and  at  Paris)  became  president 
of  the  ministry.  The  ministry  governed  without  the  passage  of  a 
money  bill.  [Especial  care  bestowed  upon  the  armyy  in  which,  accord- 
ing to  Bismarck,  the  hope  of  Prussia  and  Germany  rested  ("  Blood 
and  Iron  ")]. 

1862,  Revolution  in  Greece.    King  OUo  (t  .1867)  compelled  to 
leave  the  country  by  an  insurrection.    Provisional  government. 

After  a  long  search  the  Greeks  found  in  George  of  Denmark  a  prince 
who  accepted  their  throne  (1863).  England  ceded  to  Greece  the 
Ionian  Islands  (p.  483). 

1863,  Jan.  Uprising  in  Poland  and  Lithuania  suppressed  in  the 
*         .spring  of  1864. 

1863.     Congress  of  German  prinoes  at  Frankfort  o.  M,,  under 
Aug.    the  presidency  of  Francis  Joseph,  emperor  of  Austria,  to  con- 
sider a  reorganization  of  Germany.    The  meeting  was  without 
result,  Prussia  refusing  to  take  any  part  in  the  deliberations. 
The  ^  Eider-Danes  "  in  Copenhagen  having  brought  about  the 
1863.    Incorporation  of  Schleswig  with  Denmark,  the  patience  of 
March  30.    the  diet  of  the  German  confederation,  so  well  preserved 
in  face  of  the  encroachments  of  the  Danes  since  1852,  was  ex- 
hausted, and  an  immediate  execution  of  the  decree  of  the 
confederation  was  decreed  (Oct.  1). 

1863,  Nov.  15.    Death  of  Frederic  VII.,  king  of  Denmark. 
According  to  the  London  Protocol  (p.  498),  Christian  IZ.  suc- 
ceeded for  the  entire  monarchy.    In  spite  of  this  and  regardless  of 
his  father's  renunciation,  the  hereditary  prince  of  Augustenburg  pro- 
claimed himself  duke  of  Schleswig-Holstein  as  Frederic  VIII. 

Yielding  to  the  pressure  of  the  influential  party  of  the  Eider-Danes 
in  Copenhagen,  Christian  IX.  accepted  the  new  Danish  constitution 
which  incorporated  Schleswig  with  Denmark.  Great  excitement  in 
Grermany.  Public  opinion  decidedly  favored  the  complete  separation 
of  Schlestoig-Holstein  from  Denmark,  and  demanded  of  the  Grerman 
confederation  at  least  a  preliminary  occupation  of  the  duchies.  On 
the  motion  of  Austria  and  Prussia,  ho\vever,  who  were  bound  by  the 
London  Protocol,  the  confederation  undertook  nothing  but  the  execu- 
tion of  its  decree,  and  caused  Hanoverians  and  Saxons  (general  Hake) 
to  enter  the  duchies  of  Holstein  and  Lauenburg,  which  belonged  to  the 
confederation.    Frederic  VIII.  proclaimed  didce  throughout  Holstein. 

1864,  Feb.-Oct     War  of   Austria  and  Prussia  with 
Denmaxk. 

Cause:  Austria  and  Prussia  demanded  the  repeal  of  the  No- 
vember constitution  as  being  inconsistent  with  former  agreements. 
(Denmark  in  1852,  when  the  two  powers  handed  over  ScUeswig-Hol' 
stein  to  her,  had  promised  <'  to  respect  the  rights  of  the  duchies,'' 
which  clearly  excluded  an  incorporation  of  Schleswig.)  Refusal  of 
Denmark.  Advance  of  the  Austro-Prussian  army  (Feb.  1,  field-mar- 
shal t;.  Wrangel,  prince  Frederic  Charles  ;  Austrian  general  v.  Gab- 
lenz)  into  ScJUeswig.  (Holstein  continued  in  possession  of  the  troops  of 
the  confederation.)     The  Austrians  advanced  upon  the  Danewerk, 


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506  Modem  HUtary.  A.  !>• 

under  heavy  fighting;  the  PnissianB,  after  an  unsaccessf ol  cannonade  at 
Missimde,  crowed  the  Schlei  at  Amis.  The  Danish  commander  De 
Meza  surrendered  the  Danewerk  Feh.  5, 6.  He  was  repLiced  by  gen- 
eral Gerlach.  The  Anstrians  under  <ra62«ii2;  undertook  to  clear  T^ortli 
Schleswig  of  the  Danes.  (Brilliant  engagement  of  the  Austrian  ad- 
vance at  Ooeneey  Feb.  6.)  The  Prus^ans  under  prince  Frederic 
Charles  undertook  the  dijffieult  operation  against  the  entrenofaments 
of  Dilppdf  which  had  been  transformed  to  a  veritable  fortress. 
1864.  Skirmishes  and  preliminary  operations  until  the  arrival  of  the 
Feb.  22-March  12.    siege  artillery. 

March  15- April  18.     Actual  siege  of  the  entrenchments  of  DUppd. 
April  18.    Brilliant  Btorming  of  Diippel  by  the  Prosaiaiui.    Cap- 
ture of  all  the  entrenchments.    The  Danes  retreated  to  Alsm^ 
evacuating  the  fortress  of  Frederida.    A  part  of  Jutland  occu- 
pied by  the  allies,  as  a  ransom. 
May  12-June  26.    Tmoe,  and  meanwhile  peace  conference  at 
Irfmdosu 
Prussia  and  Austria  seceded  from  the  London  Protocol.    As  no 
agreement  could  be  reached  either  in  regard  to  &  personal  union  of  the 
duchies  with  the  crown  of  Denmark  (Beust  objecting  as  representa- 
tive of  the  confederation),  or  in  regard  to  the  division  of  Schleswig 
according  to  nationality,  the  war  broke  out  anew.    The  Prussians 
under  prmce  Frederic  Charles  (who  had  received  the  chief  com- 
mand) accomplished  the 

June  28-29.    Paaaage  to  the  island  of  Alsen,  defeated  the  Danes 
at  all  points,  and  took  a  large  number  of  prisoners.    All  Jiit- 
land  occupiea  by  the  allies. 

At  sea  a  Prussian  squadron  under  Jachmam  had  fought  success- 
fuUy  at  Jcumundf  March  17,  while  an  Austro-Prussian  fleet  under 
Tegethoff  had  won  a  victory  at  Hdigolandy  and  after  the  truce  had 
captured  the  islands  off  Friesland.  Inese  misfortimes  induced  Chris- 
tian IX.  to  make  direct  applications  for  peace,  which  led  to  the 

1864,  Oct.  30.    Peace  of  Vienna. 

1.  The  king  of  Denmark  renounced  all  his  rights  to  the 
duchies  of  Schleswig,  Holsteiny  and  Lauetiburg  in  favor  of  me  emperor 
of  Austria  and  the  kiug  of  Prussia,  2.  He  agreed  to  recognize  what- 
ever disposition  the  monarchs  should  make  of  these  three  states. 

Upon  the  motion  of  the  two  great  powers,  the  execution  against 
Holstein  was  declared  by  the  confederation  to  be  completed ;  the 
troops  of  the  confederation  (Hanoverians  and  Saxons)  evacuated  the 
country.  Prussia  and  Austria  established  a  common  government  in  the 
ci^of  Schleswig, 

While  the  question  of  the  succession  was  zealously  discussed  in  the 
diet  of  the  confederation,  in  diplomatic  negotiations,  and  in  the  press, 
and  the  cause  of  the  hereditary  prince  was  s^tated  in  both  duchies, 
the  Austrian  and  Prussian  commissioners  became  involved  in  a 
wretched  conflict.  In  order  to  put  an  end  to  this,  the  final  decision 
in  regard  to  the  duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  was  postponed  and 
the 

1865.  Treaty  of  Oastein  was  concluded  between  Prussia  and  Aub- 
Aug.  14.    tria. 


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A«  D.  AutirO'Pruirian  War.  607 

1.  Both  powers  retained  the  aovereiffii^  of  both  doehiesy  in  oom- 
mon;  Augtria  aasomin^  the  promnonaT  anministratbn  of  Holstein^ 
Prussia  that  of  Sohleswig. 

2.  Reridsburg  to  be  a  fortress  of  the  eonf ederation,  Kid  a  harbor  of 
the  confederation  ;  the  use  of  this  harbor  was  to  be  in  common,  but 
Prussia  received  the  chief  command  there;  a  military  road,  a  tele- 
graph and  postal  line  through  HoUtein  were  spiaranteed  to  Frossia.* 

3.  The  emperor  of  Austria  surrendered  all  his  rights  to  the  duchy 
of  Lauenburg  to  the  king  of  Prussia  for  two  and  a  hfuf  million  rix  dol- 
lars. 

In  execution  of  this  treaty  Prussia  occupied  the  duchy  of  SchUswig 
(governor,  v,  MarUeuffd)  and  Austria  the  duchy  of  Holstan  f  governor, 
V.  Gkiblffw).  The  duchy  of  Lauenburg,  after  the  consent  of  the  estates 
luul  been  obtained;  was  joined  in  personal  union  to  the  crown  of  Prus- 
sia. 

Deep  dissatisfaction  with  this  treaty  in  the  rest  of  Germany,  fie- 
•  tween  the  two  great  powers  new  disputes  soon  broke  out.  Austria, 
being  determined  not  to  agree,  under  any  circumstances,  to  a  real  in- 
crease of  Prussian  power,  returned  to  the  attitude  of  the  confed- 
eration upon  this  pomt,  and  entered  into  agreement  with  the  middle 
states  of  Germany.  Prussia,  regarding  the  decision  of  the  Grcrman 
question  by  war  as  unavoidable,  entered  into  negotiations  with  Italy. 

1866.    The  Austro-Prusedan  War.^ 

June  16--July  22.    The  war  proper  lasted  one  month :  June  22  to 

(Aug.  23).    July  22. 

Allies  of  Prussia :  the  gmdller  North  Oerman  states  and 
ItaZj/. 

Allies  of  Austria:  Bavaria^  Wiirtemberg,  Saxony,  Hano- 
ver,  Baden,  the  two  Hesses, 

Cause  of  the  war :  the  desire  of  the  German  people  for  greater 
unity,  and  the  impossibility  of  reaching  a  re-organization  of  Germany 
with  a  strong  central  government  as  long  as  two  great  powers  con- 
fronted one  another  in  the  Grerman  conf^eration,  one  having  a  pop- 
ulation largely  non-Germanic,  with  non-Grermanic  interests. . 

Special  oauaa :  the  quarrel  about  the  future  of  the  North  Al- 
bingian  duchies.  Austria  wished  that  the  crown,  prince  of  Aueusten- 
bure  should  be  recognized  as  duke  of  Schleswig-Hoisian,  and  join  the 
confederation  as  a  sovereign  prince.  Prussia  demanded  (note  of  Feb. 
22, 1865)  that  in  case  a  new  small  state,  ScUegwig-Holsteiny  was  cre- 
ated :  1.  its  whole  military  force  should  become  an  integral  part  of 
the  Prussian  army  and  fleet,  and  its  postal  and  telegraph  systems  be 
united  with  those  of  IVussia ;  2.  that  several  important  military  posts 
(Friedrichsort,  Sonderburg,  etc.)  should  be  given  to  Prussia,  to  enable 
her  to  undertake  the  necessary  protection  of  the  new  state  against 
Denmark. 

Reason  for  the  participation  of  Italy  in  the  war:  the  favorable  op- 
portunity of  acquiring  V  enice. 

1  Dw  Feldzug  van  1866  mi  Deutsehland  (by  the  Prutnnn  General  Sum 
lad  OuUrreichs  Kampfim  Jahre  1866  (by  the  AuUrian  General  Suff). 


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508  Modem  Htitory.  a.  d. 

Arming  of  the  three  powen,  each  claiming  to  be  diiven  to  that 
step  by  the  preparations  of  its  opponent. 

The  chief  command  of  the  Auatrian  armies  in  Bohemia  and  Mo^ 
ravia  (northern  army)  given  to  general  Benedek  (240,000  men), 
who  made  his  headquarters  at  Olmiitz:  The  command  of  the  army 
in  Venice  (southern  army)  given  to  archduke  Albert. 

Prussia  placed  five  armies  in  the  field  :  — 

1.  First  army  in  Lusatia  (93,000)  under  prince  Frederic  Charles. 

2.  Second  (Bilesian)  army  (115,000)  under  the  crown  prince, 
Frederic  William. 

3.  The  army  of  the  Elbe  (46,000)  in  Thurinffia  under  general 
Herwarth  von  Bittenfeld. 

4.  The  reserve  army  at  Berlin  under  general  v,  MOlbe  (24,000^. 

5.  The  army  of  the  Main  not  formed  until  lat^r,  at  first  divined 
into  three  corps,  Voael  v.  Falckenstein  at  Minden,  Manteuffd  at  Schles- 
wig,  Beyer  at  Wetzlar  (in  all  48,000  men).  Commander-in-chief  of 
all  forces,  king  William  I. ;  chief  of  the  great  general  staff,  gen- 
eral V.  Moltke. 

The  mediation  of  France,  England,  and  Russia,  proffered  at  Frank- 
fort, May  27,  28,  was  frustrated  by  the  demand  of  Austria  that  at 
any  peace  conference  which  might  be  held  there  should  be  no  refer- 
ence to  an  alteration  of  boundanes. 

The  convocation  of  the  Holstein  assembly  of  estates  (June  2)  by 
the  Austrian  governor,  v,  Gahlenz,  led  to  an  open  rupture.  Prussia 
declared  that  the  treaty  of  Gastein  was  broken,  and  general  v.  ifan- 
teuffel  entered  Holstein  (June  7)  ;  v.  Gablenz,  under  protest,  retreated 
to  Altona  with  the  Austrian  brigade,  and  thence  to  Hanoverian  terri- 
tory. 

On  the  motion  of  Austria,  which  declared  the  peace  of  the  confed- 
eration broken  by  the  action  of  Prussia  in  Holstem, 
1866.  The  diet  decreed  the  mobilization  of  the  whole  army  of 
June  14.  the  confederation,  with  exception  of  the  three  Prussian 
corps.  Secession  of  Prussia,  and  dissolntien  of  the  Gtermaii 
confederation. 
June  15.  Prussia  called  upon  Saxony,  Hanover,  and  Hesse  to  disre- 
gard the  resolve  of  the  confederacy,  to  replace  their  troops 
upon  a  peace  footing,  and  join  a  new  confederation  under  the  lead  of 
fSnissia.  Upon  the  rejection  of  these  demands,  the  Prussians  in- 
vaded Hanover  and  Electoral  Hesse.  King  George  retreated  to 
the  south  ;  the  elector,  Frederic  William,  was  carried  to  Stettin  a  pris- 
oner. The  Prussians  invaded  Saxony  (Herwarth)  ;  the  Saxon  army, 
king,  and  government  retreating  to  JBohemia.  Dresden  occupied 
(June  18)  ;  all  Saxony,  excepting  Kdnigstein,  in  the  hands  of  the 
Prussians  (June  20). 

Prussia  resolved  upon  an  offensive  war.  The  occupation  of  Saxony 
(^ened  the  way  for  a  strategic  march  of  the  army  of  the  Elbe  and  the 
Jirst  army  along  the  line  of  Bautzen-Dresden,  The  concentration  of 
the  Austrian  power  about  Olmiitz  threatened  the  province  of  Silesia, 
but  the  Austrian  army  not  being  completely  ready,  the  Prussians  de- 
termined to  forestall  the  enemy  by  an  invasion  of  Bohemia, 


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A.  D.  AustrthPrussian  War.  509 


A.  Prinoipal  Soe&e  of  War  in  Bohemia. 
June  22-25.    Prussian  invasion  of  Bohemia. 

June  26,  27.    Prussian  victories  (under  prince  Frederic  Carl  and  the 
crown  prince)  at  Hiihnerwasser,  Nachod  (June  27)  ;  victory  of 
the  Austrians  at  Trautenau  (June  27). 
June  28.    Prince  Frederic  Charles  at  Miincheneprats  forced  back  the 
Austrians  and  Saxons. 

Meantime  the  SUesian  army  defeated  v,  Gablentz  at  Soor  (June 
28),  and  the  crown  prince  occupied  Trautenau,  Prussian  victories  of 
Skalitz  (June  28,  heavy  losses)  and  Gitschin  (June  29).  Capture  of 
KdnigirJiof. 

The  engagement  at  Schweinschddd  completed  the  purposed  ap- 
proach of  the  two  Prussian  armies  to  one  another.  They  were  pur- 
posely not  united,  but  kept  asunder  in  a  manner  "which,  being 
without  danger  strategically  considered,  secured  great  tactical  ad- 
vantages.'' Hitherto  the  chief  movements  of  both  armies  had  been 
directed  by  telegraph  from  Berlin. 

June  30.     King  William  I.  and  general  Von  Moltke,  chief  of  the 
general  staff,  left  Berlin  for  the  seat  of  war. 

On  July  2  it  was  decided  to  attack  the  Austrians  with  the  whole 
force  on  the  next  day,  they  being  stationed  behind  the  Bistritz  brook, 
with  the  fortress  of  Koniggrdtz  and  the  Elbe  in  their  rear. 
1866.  July  3.    Battle  of  Konigratz  or  Sadowa. 

The/r*r  Prussian  army,  united  with  that  of  the  Elbe  (king  William 
/.,  prince  Frederic  Charles,  v,  Hencarth),  had  a  severe  contest  with  the 
northern  army  of  Austria,  in  an  advantageous  position,  under  Benedek; 
in  the  afternoon  the  second  (Silesian  army),  under  the  crown  prince, 
gained  the  flank  and  rear  of  the  Austrians,  after  a  fatiguing  march, 
and  in  combination  with  the  first  army  secured  the  complete  vic- 
tory of  the  Prussians.  Pursuit  was  stopped  by  the  Elbe  and  by  the 
exhaustion  of  the  troops.     Retreat  of  the  Austrians  toward  OlmiUz, 

Francis  Joaeph  appealed  to  the  mediation  of  France,  and  ceded 
Venetia  to  Napoleon  III.,  but  the  truce  desired  by  France  was  re- 
jected by  Prussia  and  Italy.  Two  thirds  of  the  Austrian  southern 
army  was  transferred  to  the  northern  seat  of  war. 

Occupation  of  Prague  by  the  Prussians  (July  8),  of  Brtinn  (July 
12).    March  of  the  main  Prussian  army  upon  Vienna. 

Benedek  advanced  to  the  defence  of  the  capital,  but  was  cut  oif 
from  the  direct  way  by  the  rapid  advance  of  prmce  Frederic  Charles, 
and  forced  to  attempt  the  circuitous  route  by  way  of  the  Little  Carpa- 
thians.   A  Prussian  corps  invaded  Hungary. 

July  22.    The  engagement  of  Blumenau  was  broken  off  by  the  an- 
nouncement of  the  conclusion  of  a  truce  for  five  days,  which 
waa  converted  into 
July  26.     The  truce  of  Nikolaburg,  after  the  preliminaries  of 
peace  had  been  signed  under  French  mediation  (p.  610). 

B.  Western  Seat  of  War. 

The  entire  army  of  the  confederation  was  under  the  command  of 
prince  Charlea  of  Bavaria. 


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f^lO  Modem  History.  A.  D. 

1866.     Victory  of  16,000  Hanoverians  over  8,000  Prussians  and 

June  27.  troops  of  Coburg-GothOy  at  Langensalza ;  the  junctioii  of 
the  Hanoyerians  with  their  southern  allies  was,  however, 
prerented. 

June  29.    Capitulation  of  the  Hanoverians  at  LagenaalKi. 

July  4-14.  V  ictories  of  the  Prussians  at  Dermbach  (July  4),  and  in 
five  hattles  on  the  Frankish  Saale,  over  the  south  German 
troops  {HammeUmrg,  Kissmgen,  Fnedrichshall^  Hausen^  Wal" 
daschofA)  July  10,  ihuB  forcing  the  passage  of  the  river. 

July  14.  Engagement  at  Aschaffenburg  ;  victory  over  the  united 
Hessian,  Austrian,  and  Darmstadt  troops.  Occupation  of  Franks 
fort  (July  16)  and  Darmstadt  (July  17).  Occupation  of  WUrz^ 
burg  and  Nuremberg. 

Aug.  2.    Truce. 

C.  Seat  of  War  in  Italy. 

1866.  Battle  of  CoBtoxsa  ;  victory  of  the  Austrians  (archduke 
June  24.  Albert)  over  the  Italians  (kmg  Victor  Emmanuel).  The 
Italian  army  rotret^ed  across  the  Mincio,  but  after  the  Aus- 
trian army  was  transferred,  in  large  part,  to  the  seat  of  war  in  the 
north,  the  Italians  again  advanced. 
July  20.  Naval  ylotory  of  the  Austrians  (Tegetkoff)  at  Lissa  over 

the  Italians  {Persano), 
1866.    Peace  of  Prague 
Aug.  23.    between  Pruaaia  and  Auatrla. 

1.  The  emperor  of  Aoatria  recognized  the  dissolution  of  the 
German  confederation,  and  consented  to  a  reorganization  of  Grermany 
without  Austria,  and  agreed  to  the  annexations  contemplated  by  Prussia. 
A  special  condition  secured  Saxony  (as  a  member  of  the  new  north 
Grerman  confederation^  from  an  alteration  of  her  boundary.  2.  Atia- 
tria  transferred  to  Prussia  her  rights  in  ScMesung-Holstein,  with  the 
reservation  that  the  northern  districts  of  Schleswig  should  be  reunited 
with  Denmark,  should  the  inhabitants  express  a  desire  for  such  re- 
union by  a  free  popular  vote  (rescinded,  1878).  3.  Auatrla  paid 
twenty  million  rix  dollars  ($15,000,000)  for  the  costs  of  the  war. 
4.  At  the  request  of  Pruaaia  Venice  was  ceded  to  Italy. 

Schleawlg-Holateln,  Hanover,  Electoral  Heaae,  Naasau,  and 
the  free  city  of  Frankfort  were  definitively  incorporated  with  Prussia, 
so  that  by  this  successful  war  the  extent  of  the  monarchy  was  in- 
creased from  111,000  square  miles  (over  nineteen  million  inhabitants) 
to  140,000  square  miles  (twenty-three  and  a  half  million  inhabitants). 

Peace  between  Prussia  and  WUrtemberg  (Aug.  13),  Baden  (Aug. 
17),  Bavaria  (Aug.  22),  Hesse  (Sept.  3),  Saxony  (Oct.  21). 

The  proposed  cessions  of  territory  in  the  southern  states  were  in 
the  mam  given  up,  inasmuch  as  Napoleon  III.  showed  a  desire  for  a 
rectification  of  boundaries  as  regarded  Germany  ;  conclusion  of  an 
offensive  and  defensive  alliance  between  Prussia  and  the  southern 
states.  Reciprocal  guarantee  of  territorial  integrity.  The  southern 
states  placed  their  entire  military  force  under  Uie  command  of  the 
king  of  Prussia  in  the  event  of  war*  The  demand  of  Napoleon  IIX 
rejected. 


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▲•  D.  Au8tr(hPru8sian  War.  511 

1866.    Peace  of  Vienna 

Oct.  3.    between  Anataia  and  Italy.    Austria  recofi;mzed  the  king- 
dom of  Italy,  with  which  Venice  was  united    Prussia  hay- 
ing  concluded  an  alUance  with  the  North  German  states  in  August, 

1866,  elections  for  a  North  German  diet  were  prescribed  on  a  basis  of 
manhood  and  direct  sufFrage. 

1867.  Firat  diet  of  the  North  German  Confederation. 

Feb.  24.  After  a  short  discussion  the  diet  agreed  with  the  goyem- 
ments  upon  a  constitution  for  the  North  German  Confed« 
eration :  presidency  of  the  league  united  with  the  crown  of 
Prussia,  which  represented  the  confederation  in  its  international  re- 
lations, declared  war,  concluded  peace  and  treaties,  and  accredited 
ambassadors  in  its  name.  The  governments  were  represented  in  the 
council  of  the  confederation  (Bundesrath),  in  which  Prussia  had 
seyenteen  votes,  and  the  other  twenty-one  members  twenty-six  votes 
altogether.  Imperial  diet  (Reichstag)  originating  from  diirect  man- 
hood suffrage.  Centralized  military  system,  under  the  command  of  the 
king  of  Prussia.  Universal  compulsorv  military  service.  United 
customs,  postal,  and  telegraph  service.  Uount  Bismarck,  chancellor 
of  the  confederation. 

1867.  In  Austria  a  reorganization  of  the  state  in  a  liberal  sense 
was  undertaken,  in  consequence  of  the  unsuccessful  war.  The 
former  Saxon  minister,  von  Beust,  president  of  the  ministry,  after- 
wards (uutil  1871)  chancellor  of  the  empire.  Agreement  with 
Hungary.  Restoration  of  the  Hungarian  constitution.  I^lemn  coronar 
tion  of  Uie  emperor  Francis  Joseph  in  Pesth  as  king  of  Hungary. 
Reunion  of  the  dependent  lands  {Croatia^  Transylvania)  with  Hun- 
gary. Establishment  of  a  liberal  constitution  in  that  part  of  the 
monarchy  this  side  of  the  Leith  (Cisleithania),  (The  constitution  of 
1861,  p.  504»  was  suspended  in  1865.)     Crermano-Slavonic  Reichstag. 

1867.    Luxemburg  question. 

Napoleon  III.  wished  to  secretly  indemnify  the  French  nation 
for  the  increased  power  of  Prussia  by  a  new  annexation.    His  nego- 
tiations with  the  king  of  Holland  in  regard  to  the  purchase  of  Sie 
grand  duchy  of  Luxemburg  were  broken  off  in  consequence  of  the 
objection  of  Prussia,  whereupon  Napoleon  III.  demanded  that  the 
Prussian  garrison  of  Luxemburg  should  evacuate  the  fortress.     Un- 
der the  excitement  which  the  dispute  aroused  in  Grermany  and  France, 
the  outbreak  of  war  seemed  unavoidable,  when  the 
1867.    London  Conference  (Italy  recognized  as  the  sixth  great 
ilay  7-11.    power)  succeeded  in  establishine^  -the  following  agree- 
ments :  1.  The  neutrality  of  the  grand  duchy  was  guaranteed 
by  the  great  powers  in  common,    2.  The  Prussian  garrison 
evacuated  Luxemburgj  and  the  fortifications  were  razed. 
1867.     Italian  volunteers,  with  the  tacit  favor  of  the  Italian  govem- 
6ept.-Nov.     ment,  made  an  attack  upon  the  papal  territory.     Napo- 
leon III.  declared  the  former  treaty  (p.  503^  broken,  and  sent 
assistance  to  the  Pope.    The  free  troops  were  defeated  at  Mentana. 
Rome  received  a  new  French  garrison. 


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512  Modem  History .  A*  Jk, 

1868,  April.    First  customs  parliament  in  Germany. 

1868.  Outbreak  of  the  Spanish  Revolution  in  Cadvt.  The  royal- 
Sept,    ist  troops  under  Novaliches  were  defeated  by  the  insurgent 

troops  under  Serrano  at  Alcolea.  Queen  Isabella  fled  to  France ; 
the  whole  country  declared  in  favor  of  the  revolution.  Provisional 
government.  The  Bourbons  deposed  from  the  throne.  Summons  of 
a  constitutional  cortes.  The  majority  of  the  cortes  established,  in 
spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  numerous  republican  members,  a  new 
constitutional  monarchy,  Serrano  provisional  regent.  After  many 
negotiations  with  foreign  princes,  conducted  by  Prim  (murdered 
1870),  without  result,  the  prince  of  HohenzoOem  (1870,  p.  613)  ac- 
cepted the  Spanish  crown.  After  his  withdrawal,  during  the  Franco- 
Prussian  ^var,  the  duke  of  Aosta^  the  second  son  of  Victor  Emmanudy 
king  of  Italy,  was  elected  by  the  cortes,  and  ascended  the  throne  as 
1870-1873.    Amadena  L,  kin^  of  Spain. 

1869.  In  France  general  election  for  the  corps  legisUUtf;  for  the  first 
time  during  the  second  empire,  stron&r  manifestation  of  party 

spirit,  and  a  large  number  of  votes  east.  The  departments,  espe- 
cially the  country  population,  gfave  the  government  a  good  majority, 
though  weaker  than  formerly.  In  Paris  and  Lyons  victory  of  the 
ultra  radical  party,  and  election  of  candidates  opposed  to  the  gooem- 
ment  and  the  dynasty, 

1869>  Nov.  16.  Formal  opening  of  the  Suez  Gaxial,  which 
was  completed  by  the  indomitable  perseverance  of  its  projec- 
tor, the  Frenchman,  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps. 

1869,  Dec.  8.    Opening  of  the  Vatican  Council.    Proclamation  of 

the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility  July  18,  1870,  by  a  vote  of 
547  to  2.  Adjournment  of  the  council,  Oct.  20, 1870. 
Vacillating  and  indecisive  conduct  of  the  emperor  Napoleon  IIL 
in  face  of  the  daily  increasing  dissatisfaction  in  tlie  country  with  the 
arbitrary  character  of  the  government^  which  was  no  longer  offset  bv 
any  brilliant  achievements  outside.  Dismissal  of  the  «  vice  emperor '' 
Rouher  (July).  Formation  of  a  new  cabinet,  composed  of  similar  re- 
actionary elements  ;  then,  as  the  different  factions  of  the  opposition 
(Thiers,  OUitner,  Favre,  Gambetta,  Rochefort)  grew  more  bold,  formar 
tion  of  the 

1870,  Jan.     Ministry  of  Ollivler  from  the  ranks  of  the  moderate 

liberals.  Dismissal  of  the  prefect  of  the  Seine,  Hausmann, 
The  death  of  a  radical  journalist  at  the  hands  of  Pierre  Bonaparte,  a 
cousin  of  the  emperor  (self-defence  or  murder  ?),  produced  an  ex- 
traordinary excitement  in  Paris.  Riots.  Condemnation  and  imprison- 
ment of  Rochefort,  in  consequence  of  his  incendiary  newspaper  arti- 
cles. New  riots.  Arrest  of  many  radicals.  Prince  Pierre  Bonaparte 
declared  not  guilty  by  the  court  in  Tours. 
April.    A  new  liberal  constitution,  introduced  by  the  government, 

was  accepted  by  a  decree  of  the  senate,  whereupon  a  vote  of 
confidence  was  demanded  from  the  people  by  a  "plebiscite  **  TMay), 
which  resulted,  thanks  to  the  application  of  well-known  methods,  in  a 
majority  of  more  than  seven  million  yeas  to  one  and  a  half  million 
naifs,  the  latter  being  cast  in  Paris  and  the  larger  cities.    In  the 


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A.  D.  Franco-German   War.  513 

army  and  the  fleet  more  than  50,000  voted  **  no."  In  view  of  this 
grave  dissatisfaction  in  the  army,  and  of  the  constant  agitation  of  the 
parties,  which  were  in  no  wise  quieted  by  the  liberal  concessions  whicn 
had  been  made,  a  diversion,  to  be  induced  hj  involving  the  oountrv  in 
foreign  disputes,  such  as  had  often  been  tried  in  France,  seemed  to 
be  the  best  means  of  extrication.  To  the  adoption  of  this  means  the 
emperor,  who  was  anxious  for  the  future  of  his  dynasty,  was  more 
and  more  strongly  urged  by  his  intimate  councillors  (the  empress^ 
marshal  Lebaeafy  duke  of  Granumt,  minister  of  foreign  affairs). 

1870,  July  19-1871,  March  3.    Pranoo-Priissian  War.* 

General  Canaea  :  1.  The  idea  entertained  by  a  great  part  of  the 
French  nation,  and  kept  alive  by  historians,  poets,  and  the  daily 
press,  of  the  reconquest  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  (les  fronti^s 
natureUes^).  2.  The  French,  not  understanding  the  long  struggle 
of  the  German  nation  for  political  unity,  saw  in  the  consummation 
of  this  union  only  a  forcible  aggrandizement  of  Prussia,  and  in  the 
victory  of  the  latter  state  over  Austria  an  unpermissible  encroach- 
ment upon  their  own  military  fame. 

Special  canaea :  1.  The  internal  troubles  of  the  government  of 
Napoleon  III.  ^p.  512).  2.  The  rejection  of  the  "  compensation  "  de- 
manded, since  1866,  &om  the  cabinet  of  Berlin,  for  the  growth  of 
Prussia  in  extent  and  population.  3.  News  of  the  approaching  in- 
troduction of  an  improved  weapon  for  the  north  German  infantry, 
which  threatened  to  put  in  question  the  superiority  of  the  French 
chass^pot. 

Immediate  oanae:  The  election  of  the  prince  of  HohemoUem  to 
the  throne  of  Spain  (512),  which  was  represented  in  Paris  as  a  Prus- 
sian intiifi^e  endangering  the  safety  of  France.  The  request  made 
by  the  french  ambassador  Benedetti  in  Ems  of  king  Wuliam  I.  in 
person,  that  he  shoidd  forbid  the  prince  of  Hohenzollern  to  accept  the 
Spanish  crown,  was  refused.  After  the  voluntary  withdrawal  of  the 
prince,  the  French  government  looked  to  the  king  of  Prussia  for  a 
distinct  announcement  "  that  he  would  never  again  permit  the  candi- 
dacy of  the  prince  for  the  Spanish  crown."  King  William  refused  to 
discuss  the  matter,  and  referred  Benedetti  to  the  regular  method  of 
communication  through  the  ministry  at  Berlin. «  This  and  the  tele- 
graphic announcement  of  the  proceeding  was  represented  by  the  duke 
of  Gramont  as  an  insult  to  France.  Tremendous  excitement  in  Paris, 
artificially  fermented  (cries  of  "  ^  Berlin  I ").  In  the  corps  legislatif 
(July  15),  opposition  of  a  small  minority  (Thiers:  "because  France 
is  not  prepared  for  war  ")  to  the  declaration  of  war,  which  the  imperial 
government  declared  was  forced  upon  them  by  Ptnssia  ("  Za  France 
accepte  la  guerre  que  la  Prusse  lui  offre  "). 

1  Dtr  deutsck-fram.  Krieg  1870-71,  edited  by  the  diviftion  of  the  Fru8« 
slan  (General  BtafT  on  military  history.  Niemann,  Derfrane.  Feldzu^  von 
1970-71,  2  vols.  An  English  rendering  of  the  French  view  of  the  war  will  be 
foand  in  Jerrold's  Life  of  Napoleon  fll.j  vol.  iv. 

s  The  first  use  of  this  idea,  which  can  be  established,  was  by  king  CharUi 
r//..1444. 


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614  Modem  IKtiory.  a.  d. 

In  Germany  quiet  bnt  dedded  attitude  of  the  govemiiieiit  and  tbe 
people.     Wwiam  /.  on  his  retom  to  Berlin  enthnaiaatioalij  reoeiTed 
(July  IS).    The  same  evening  mobilization  of  the  north  German 
army  and  convention  of  the  Reichstag  ordered. 
July  19.    DeUTery  of  the  FVench  declaration  of  war. 

Opening  of  the  north  Grerman  Reichstafff  which  unanimously 
voted  a  war  credit  (July  23). 

South  Grermany  understood  that  the  French  attack,  although  ap- 
parenUy  directed  against  Prussia  alone,  was  in  reality  an  attacE  upon 
the  German  nation,  and  that  Napoleon's  purpose  was  the  conquest  of 
German  territory  and  the  establishment  of  a  new  confederation  of 
the  Rhine.  The  patriotic  attitude  of  Louis  II.  of  Bavaria,  who  on 
July  16  had  declared  that  the  case  of  war  contemplated  in  the  con- 
federation was  at  hand,  and  had  ordered  the  mobilization  of  the  Ba- 
varian army,  had  a  decisive  influence  upon  Wiirtemberg.  Patriotic 
attitude  of  Baden. 

The  French  cabinet,- which  had  counted  on  the  neutrality  of  south 
Germany,  at  the  least,  undeceived.  Hence  a  new  military  plan.  The 
grand  army  was  to  be  divided  into  three  groups,  the  two  former 
(250,000)  of  which  were  to  force  neutrality  upon  the  south  Germans, 
and  hasten  the  hoped-for  alliance  with  Austria  and  Italy.  This  should 
be  followed  by  an  attack  upon  the  north  Gierman  army,  while  expedi- 
tions to  the  coasts  of  the  German  ocean  should  instigate  an  iipnsing 
in  Hanover  and  secure  the  assistance  of  Denmark.  In  reimty  the 
strategic  advance  of  the  French  army  took  place  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Corps  under  marshal  MacMahon,  at  Strasburg, 

2.  Corps  under  general  De  Failly  at  BiJtsch. 

3.  Corps  under  Marshal  Bazaine  at  Metz. 

4.  Corps  under  general  Ladmirault  at  ThionviUe  (Diedenhofen). 
The  corps  of  marshal  Canrobert  at  Ch&Ums,  of  general  F.  Dooay 

at  Bdfort,  and  the  Oarde  under  general  Bourbakl  at  Nancy  formed 
the  reserve  (320,000).  Commander-in-chief,  Napoleon  m. ;  chief 
of  the  general  staff,  marshal  Leboeuf. 

It  appearing  that  most  of  the  corps  were  not  in  readiness  tot  war 
theplan  of  attack  was  exchanged  for  a  defensive  plan. 

llie  German  forces  moved  m  three  great  armies. 

I.  Army,  right  wing,  Stelnmets  at  Coblentz  (60,000). 
n.  Army,  centre,  prinoe  Frederio  Charles,  Mainz  (134,000, 
with  the  reserve  194,000). 

m.  Army,  left  wing,  crown  prinoe  Frederic  'William  at  Mann- 
heim (130,000). 

The  total  strength  of  the  north  German  army  750,000  (of  which 
198,000  were  Landwehr) ;  of  the  south  German  100,000.  Commander- 
in-chief,  king  William  I. ;  chief  of  the  general  staff,  g^aeral  Von 
Moltke. 

The  strategic  movement  of  the  German  armies  was  at  first  planned 
for  defense  simply,  but  as  the  enemy's  delay  gave  a  chance  for  an 
attack  an  advance  of  all  three  armies  towards  the  boundary,  from 
Trier  to  Landau,  began  in  the  latter  part  of  July.  Before  the  Ger- 
mans could  take  the  offensive  the  French  made  an 


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516  Modem  HiMtory.  a.  p. 

1870.    Attack  upon  8marbiiicke&.    The  repulse  of  a  nngle  bat- 
Aug.  2.    talion  by  three  divisions  was  represented  in  the  French  re* 

ports  as  an  important  victory. 
Ang.  4.    Engagement  at  Weisaenborg.    MaoMahon  after  a  most 

courageous  defense  defeated  in  the 
Aug.  6.    Battle  of  "Worth  (Reichshofen)  by  the  army  of  the  croum 

prince^  which  was  numerically  greatly  his  superior. 
Aug.  6.    Qerman  victory  at  Spicheren  (Saarbrikken). 

In  consequence  of  tiiese  defeats  the  French  army  commenced 
its  retreat  to  the  Moselle,  The  crown  prince  detached  a  corps  to 
besiege  Strasbwg  and  other  Alsatian  fortresses,  and  advanced  upon 
Nancy  ;  the  I.  army  marched  upon  Metz  :  the  II.  army  upon  Pont  h 
Mou88on^  with  the  intention  of  surroundmg  the  main  force  of  the 
French  about  Metz  and  cutting  them  off  from  Paris. 

To  prevent  this  Basaine,  upon  whom  the  emperor  had  conferred 
the  chief  command,  resolved,  after  some  indecision,  to  retreat  upon 
ChdUma-sur-Mame  and  join  there  the  remnants  of  MacMahon's  com- 
mand and  a  newly  formed  army.  To  prevent  such  juncture  the  ad- 
vance guard  of  the  I.  army  attacked  Bazaine  and  in  the 
Aug.  14.  Battle  of  Colombey-Noullly  and  the 
Aug.  16.    Battle  of  Vionville  (drawn  battle),  with  great  losses, 

prevented  the  retreat  of  the  French  to  Verdun. 
Upon  the  arrival  of  the  delayed  corps  of  the  I.  and  II.  army  on  the 
next  day,  the  French  were  again  attacked  in  their  excellently  chosen 
and  partially  strongly  fortified  positions.    In  the 

Aii^.  18.    Battle  of  Gravelotte  and  St.  Privat  (E&umr 
vUle)  the  Grermans  under  command  of  king  William  I.  gained 

an  advantageous  position  after  eight  hours'  hot  fighting,  in  spite  of  the 

desperate  resistance  of  the  French. 

Aug.  19.    Retreat  of  the  French  under  the  guns  of  Metz. 

The  result  of  these  three  bloody  battles  near  Metz  was  to 

separate  the  French  force  into  two  parts,  and  to  surround  their  main 

army  in  and  about  a  fortress  which  was  not  provisioned  for  so  large 

a  body  of  troops. 

1870,  Aug.  19-Oct  27.    Biege  of  Metz. 

Aug.  14-Sept.  27.    Siege  of  Strasburg  by  general 
Von  Werder. 

After  the  battles  near  Metz,  advance  upon  Chalons.  MacMahon 
evacuated  Chfilons,  but  instead  of  retreating  to  Fkris,  as  was  expected 
at  the  German  headquarters,  he  attempted  to  reach  Metz  and  lioerate 
Bazaine  b^  a  circuitous  flank  march  to  the  northeast.  Napoleon  ILL 
accompamed  the  armv.  On  learning  of  this  manceuvre  the  Germans 
made  a  detour  toward  the  right  (north*). 

Bazaine's  attempt  to  break  through  tne  German  lines  and  join  Mac* 
Mahon  frustrated  by  the 
Aug.  31  and  Sept.  1.    Engagements  at  Noisseyille. 

MacMahon  saw  the  impossibility  of  reaching  Metz,  and  con- 
centrated his  forces  at  Sedan.  The  Germans  (240,000)  far  outnum- 
bering the  French  (about  100,000)  decided  to  send  a  part  of  their 


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A*  !>•  Franco-German   War.  517 

troops  over  the  Meuse  and  sarround  the  French  army.    This  was 
accomplished  by  the 

Sept.  1.    Battle  of  Sedan. 

MacMahony  wounded  in  the  momine,  gave  up  the  command  to 
Ducrotf  who  afterwards  transferred  it  to  &.e  older  general  Wimpffm. 
The  yictorioiis  advance  of  the  Germans  on  all  sides  was  not  checked 
by  the  brilliant  charges  of  the  French  cavalry.  At  three  o'clock  the 
French  army  was  surrounded.  Napoleon  m.  delivered  his  sword 
to  WUUam  L  and  acknowledged  hunself  a  prisoner.  Negotiations 
between  Von  Moltke  and  Wimpffen,  and  between  Napoleon  II L  and 
Bismarck,  The  following  forenoon  the 
1870»  Sept.  2.  Capitulation  of  Sedan 
was  signed. 

The  entire  French  army  prisoners  of  war  :  39  generals,  2,300  ofiBi- 
cers,  83,000  men,  20,000  having  been  captured  during  the  battle 
(3,000  escaped  to  Belgium).  Napoleon  III.  conducted  to  WUhetrM- 
hohe. 

In  Paris  the  news  of  the  first  defeats,  which  had  been  long  con- 
cealed, produced  great  excitement  and  the  fall  of  the  ministry  of 
OUivier  (Aug.  10).  Montauban-PaUkao,  the  minister  of  war,  formed 
a  new  ministry  composed  of  ultra-Bonapartists.  Falsification  of  war 
news.  Paris  m  a  state  of  siege.  The  receipt  of  the  news  of  the  ca- 
pitulation of  Sedan  caused  the 

1870.     Fall  of  the  Empire  and  Proclamation  of  the 
Sept  4.     (third)  Republic. 

Flight  of  the  empress  Eugenie  to,  England.  Provisional  gov- 
ernment oi  the  "  National  defense.''  Troohu  (president  and  gover- 
nor of  Paris^,  Fatrre  ^foreign  affairs),  Gambetta  ^interior),  Crendeux 
^justice),  Stmon  (rehgion  and  education),  Lejw  (war),  Foiurichon 
(navy). 
Sept.  4-16.    March  of  the  German  armies  upon  Paris. 

Defenses  of  Paris :  continuous  line  of  bastions  and  trenches,  suiv 
rounding  the  suburbs  ;  around  this  on  the  inside  a  belt  railroad  ;  six- 
teen detoched  /orte,  two  of  which,  Mont  ValSrien  in  the  west  and  St. 
Denis  in  the  north,  were  actual  fortresses,  all  connected  by  continu- 
ous entrenchments  and  liberally  provided  with  heavy  artille^  and 
military  stores.  Including  the  railors  and  garrison,  about  72,000 
veterans  ;  with  the  mobilized  guards  from  the  provinces,  the  g^uard 
mobile  and  national  guard  of  Paris,  over  300,000  men.  Extensive 
accumulation  of  provisions. 

The  negotiations  between  Bismarck  and  Fatfre  leading  to  no  result 
(refusal  of  any  cession  of  territory),  the  great  city  was  invested  by 
the  IV.^  army  on  the  north  and  east,  by  the  111.  army  on  the  S.  and 
W.    Headquarters  at  Versailles. 

1870>  Sept  19-1871*  Jan.  28.     Siegre  of  Paris. 

After  the  capitulation  of  Sedan  the  whole  war  was  a  struggle 
for  Paris.    Excepting  the  conquest  of  Alsace  and  German  Lorrune^ 

^  The  lY.  ariny  was  formed,  after  Grsvelotte,  from  coips  of  the  I.  and  II* 

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518  Modem  Hittory,  a.  ix 

whioh  Germany  had  regarded  as  the  prize  of  yictory,  £rom  the  com- 
mencement of  the  war,  all  the  military  operations  of  the  Grermans  had 
the  object  of  preserving  the  positions  and  the  lines  of  connection  of 
the  armies  about  Paris,  and  of  preventing  any  attempt  to  raise  the 
siege  ;  the  raising  of  the  siege  was,  on  the  contrary,  the  object  of  all 
the  French  operations. 

1870.  In  consequence  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  ganuon 
Sept.  20.    from  Rome,  capture  of  that  city  by  the  Italian  army 

and  abolition  of  tiie  aecular  power  of  the  Pope. 
Sept.  23.    Capture  of  Tool. 
Sept.  27.    Capitulation  of  Strasbnrg. 

The  delegation  of  the  French  goyemment  in  Toun,  sinoe  Oct. 
9|  under  the  dictatorship  of  Oambetta,  who  had  left  Paris  in  a  bal- 
loon, formed  tioo  armies  for  the  relief  of  Paris  :  a.  army  of  the  Loire 
(not  30,000);  h.  northern  army.  The  former  defeated  by  the  Ba- 
varian general  Von  der  Tann  in  the 
1870,  Oct.  10.    Engagement  at  Artenay,    Occupation  of  (Means. 

While  Gambetta  with  the  greatest  energy  was  strengthening  and 
arming  forces  for  relief,  Bazaine,  who,  as  leader  of  the  lareest  regu- 
lar army  in  France,  had  thought  to  play  a  political  rdle,  hy  means 
of  negotiations,  was  forced,  after  several  unsuccessful  sorties,  to  the 

1870,  Oct.  27.    Capitulation  of  Metz. 

(3  marshals,  6,000  officers,  187,000  men,  622  field  artillery, 
876  fortress  cannon).  A  part  of  the  besieging  army  was  sent 
to  reinforce  the  armies  before  Paris ;  a  part  was  dispatched 
under  ManUuffel  against  the  French  army  of  the  north  ;  the 
largest  part,  under  prince  Frederic  Charles,  was  sent  against 
the  army  of  the  Loire: 

Nov.  28.  Defeat  of  the  army  of  the  Loire  at  Beanne  la  Rolande 
(by  prince  Frederic  Charles),  whereby  Uie  purpose  of  the 
French  commander  to  force  his  passage  to  raru  was  frus- 
trated. 

Nov.  27.  Defeat  of  the  army  of  the  north  at  Amiens  by  Man^ 
UuffeL 

Not.  30.  At  Paris,  sortie  under  Trochn  and  Dnorot,  in  coopera- 
tion with  the  intended  advance  of  the  Loire  army.  Storm  and 
capture  of  Champigny  and  Brie.  Successful  defense  of  VU- 
Iters  and  CceuUy  by  Wiirtemberg  troops.  Further  French  ad- 
vance was  checked,  but  they  kept  Brie.  After  great  losses  in 
the  fight  and  through  cold  the  French  troops  returned  to 
Paris  (Dec.  3). 

Deo.  2-4.    Battle  of  Orl^ana, 

the  name  given  to  a  number  of  en^gements  in  which  the 
Germans  defeated  the  army  of  the  Loire,  with  the  following 
results :  1.  Capture  of  tlie  strong  French  entrenchments  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Loire,  and  re-occupation  of  Orleans.  2.  Sep- 
aration of  the  army  of  the  Loire  into  two  parts.  Flight  of  the 
delegation  of  the  »)vemment  to  Bordeaux  (Dec.  9). 
The  lar^r  part  of  the  Loire  army  driven  behind  Yenddme  ,* 
Frederic  Charles,  at  Orleans,  covered  the  beneging  armies  be- 
fore Paris  from  the  south. 


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A.  D.  Franco- German   War.  519 

Dee.  27.  Opening  of  the  bombardment  of  the  forts  of  FkiriB,  after 
the  transportation  of  heavy  artillery  and  munitions  had  been 
aceompliwed  with  the  gr^ttest  difficnlty.  Bombardment  of 
the  city,  Jan.  8, 1871. 

1871,  Jan.  12.    Battle  of  Le  Mans. 

Defeat  of  Chanzy  by  Frederic  Charles.     The  French  army  al- 
most annihilated. 

Jan.  6-12.     Sortie  from  Paris  against  Meudon  and  Clamart,  and  one 
against  Le  Baurget  repulsed. 
In  the  south,  Baurbaki  with  160,000  men  forced  von  Werder,  who 

was  besieging  Belfort,  without  giving  up  the  siege,  to  take  up  a  favor- 
able position  along  the  Lisaine  by  a  masterly  retreat.    In  the  three 

days 

Jan.  15-17.    Battle  of  Belfort, 

Van  Warder  successfully  defended  his    position,  and  forced 

Baurbaki  to  retreat. 

Jan.  18.  Benewal  of  the  title  and  office  of  Gtonnan 
Emperor  in  the  palace  of  Louis  XIV.  at  Versailles,  all  the 
sovereign  princes  and  the  three  free  cities  having  offered  the 
crown  to  long  William  I. 

Jan.  19.  Last  great  sortie  from  Paris,  with  100,000  men,  under 
TrochUf  repulsed  after  severe  fighting.    On  the  same  day, 

Jan.  19.    Battle  of  St.  Quentin, 

in  which  general  Van  Gdben  completely  defeated  and  scattered 
the  French  army  of  the  north,  in  the  south  Manteuffel  forced 
the  French  to  take  refu^  in  the  neutral  territory  of  Switzer- 
land, where  they  were  disarmed. 

1871,  Jan.  28.    Capitulation  of  Paris  by  the 

convention  of  VersaUles  :  1.  surrender  of  all  the  forts 
with  munitions  of  war,  disarmament  of  the  city  wall ;  2.  all  French 
soldiers  in  Fans  considered  as  prisoners  of  war,  with  exception  of 
12,000  men,  which,  with  the  national  guards  preserved  order ;  the 
French  officials  to  provision  the  city  ;  3.  the  city  of  Paris  paid  200 
million  francs  ;  4.  truce  (excepting  the  departments  of  Doubs^  JurOy 
and  Cote  d*or)  for  three  weeks,  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  a^ee  elec- 
tion for  a  national  assembly,  which  was  to  meet  in  Bordeaux^  and  de- 
cide between  peace  and  war. 

Ghambetta's  resistance  to  this  agreement  was  soon  broken  ;  his 
resignation  (Feb.  6^.  Elections  throughout  France  (Feb.  8).  The 
national  assembly  formed  in  Bordeaux  (Feb.  12).  Truce  prolonged 
to  24th  Feb.,  and  afterwards  to  March  3.  Thiers,  elected  head  of 
the  executive  department,  conducted  the  negotiations  with  Bismarck 
which  resulted  in  the 

Feb.  26.    Preliminaries  of  pea<)e  at  Versailles. 

1.  France  ceded  to  the  Oerman  Empire  :  Alsace  (except 
Belfort  and  territory)  and  German  Iiorraine,  with  Metz  and  Dte" 
denhofen  (Thiomnlle),  in  all  4^700  square  miles,  with  one  and  a  half 
million  innabitants  ;  2.  France  agreed  to  pay  five  milliards  of  francs 
for  indemnification  in  three  years,  which  were  secured  by  an  ocoupi^ 
tion  of  French  territory. 


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520  Modem  Hiitary.  A«  ix 

March  1.  Entrance  of  90,000  Gennan  troops  into  Paris  (addi- 
tional article),  and  temporary  oocapataon  of  a  small  part  of  the  citj  ; 
eyacuated  again  on  March  3d.  The  preliminaries  of  peace  were  rati- 
fied, and  the  details  settled  in  the  definitive 

187L  May  10.    Peaoe  of  Frankfort  on  Main. 

The  results  of  the  war  were  :  1.  destniction  of  the  xnilitazj 
power  of  France  ;  2.  acquisition  of  a  secure  military  boundazy  for 
Germany  on  the  west ;  3.  the  realization  of  the  political  unity  of  the 
German  nation. 

March  21-June  15.    First  imperial  Parliament 

of  the  new  German  federal  state  (Bundestaat),  which  on  AprQ 
14  almost  unanimously  adopted  the  following  constitution  for  the  em- 
pire :  presidency  hcureditarily  connected  with  the  crown  of  IVnBsia» 
whose  king  bore  the  title  of  Qerman  emperor,  and  represented  the 
empire  in  international  relations,  declared  war  and  peace  (witii  the 
consent  of  the  BundearcUh),  concluded  aUianoes,  and  had  the  chief 
oonunand  of  the  army  and  navy.  The  representatiyes  of  the  25  gov- 
ernments formed  the  federal  oonncll  (Bundesrath)  under  the  pres- 
idency of  the  chancellor  of  the  empire  (the  first :  prince  Bis- 
marck). (In  all,  58  votes :  Prussia  17,  Bavaria  6,  Saxony  and  Wiir- 
tember^  each  4^  Baden  and  Hesse  each  3,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  and 
Brunswick  each  2,  the  rest  each  1.)  The  representatives  of  the  people 
formed  the  imperial  parliament  (ReichstagX  consisting  of  382  mem- 
bers, chosen  by  direct  manhood  suffrage.  Centralized  military  sys- 
tem ;  universal  compulsory  service  (3  years  in  standing  army,  4  years 
in  reserve,  5  years  m  the  Landwehr),  uniform  postal  and  telegraph 
service,  umform  system  of  coinage,  weights  and  measures. 

The  new  German  empire  comprised  216,770  sq.  miles,  and  more 
than  41,000,000  inhabitants. 

1871,  July  1.     Rome  became  seat  of  the  goyemment  and  capital  of 

Italy,  now  completely  united  under  the  sceptre  of  Victor  Em- 
manuel (guarantee  for  the  Pope). 
Sept.    Opening  of  the  Mt.  Cenis  tunnel  across  the  Alps  (began 
1859  ;  7.6  miles  long). 

1872,  June  29.    New  agreement  between  Germany  and  Franoe, 
which  fixed  the  payment  of  the  fourth  milliard  for  Mardi  1, 

1874 ;  the  fifth,  March  1, 1875  ;  and  permitted  the  substitution  of  a 
financial  security  for  this  last  millian^  for  the  occupation  of  French 
territory. 

1873,  Jan.  9.    Death  of  Napdeon  III.  in  Chiselhurst  (England). 
Feb.    AmadeuB  I,  resigned  the  Spanish  crown.    Spain  a  republic. 

Anarchy.  Civil  war  against  the  Federalists  in  Cartagena  (cap- 
tured 1874),  and  against  Don  Carlos  in  the  north. 
July-Sept.    The  German  troops,  after  an  anticipation  of  the  indem- 
mty,  leave  the  French  territory. 
In  Itahf  in  Stoitzerlandy  and  in  Prussia,  struge^le  between  the  state 
and  the  Koman  catholic  hierarchy.    In  Italy,  dissolution  of  all  mon- 
asteries in  Rome  and  the  former  papal  states  (May,  1873).  In  Swit- 
zerland, complete  rupture  with  the  Roman  chair  and  establishment 


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A.  D.  FranethOerman   War.  521 

of  a  catholic  clergy  elected  by  the  people.    In  PniMla»  in  oonae- 

Sience  of  the  ISay  law«  (afterwards  extended),  which  the  eatholie 
ergy  openly  resisted,  numerous  anests  and  removals  of  ecelesiaft* 
tics.    This  contest  led  to  the 

1874.  Introduction  of  compulsory  oivil  marriage  and  the  civil 
Oct.  1.    registration  of  births  and  deaths,  which  afterwards  became 

an  imperial  law  (Jan.  1, 1876). 
Oct    Intematioiial  Postal  Congress  in  Bern. 

The  regulations  agreed  upon  went  into  force  July  1,  1875 

(for  France,  Jan.  1, 1876). 
Dec.  2^-31.    Military  ** pranunciamierUot "  for  AlfoiuOf  prince  of  As- 

turiay  son  of  queen  Isabella,  led  to  the 

1875,  Jan.*    Restoration  of  monarchy  in  Spain. 
1875-1885.     Alfonso  XII.,  king  of  Spain.     In  the  north,  in  spite 

of  some  successes  of  the  royal  troops,  the  civil  war  continued 
against  Don  Carlos,  whom  the  new  kiug  declared  to  be  an 
usurper. 

1875.  Bevolt  against  Turkish  government  in  HenegoTina,  snp- 
July.    ported  bv  Montenegro  and  Bervia. 

March.  End  of  the  civil  war  in  Spain.  Don  Carloe  was  obliged  to 
leave  the  country,  and  went  to  England. 

May.  The  Turks  proved  unable  to  suppress  the  revolt  in  Henego' 
vina.  Murder  of  the  German  and  French  consuls  in  Salonica. 
The  three  northern  great  powers  invited  the  other  three  to 
join  in  making  a  common  representation  to  the  Porte  Tmemo- 
randum  of  Berlin).  Great  Britain  refused  to  join.  Beiore  the 
memorandum  could  be  presented  a 

May  29.  Falaoe  Revolution  occurred  in  Constantinople.  Deposi- 
tion of  the  Sultan  Abdnl-Azix,  who  died  shortly  afterwards. 
Murad  V.  succeeded. 

1876,  July.  Servia  (prince  Milan)  and  Montenegro  (prince 
Niklta)  declared  war  upon  the  Porte. 

A  revolt  which  had  broken  out  in  Bulgaria  bloodily  suppressed  by 
the  Turks.  The  Turkish  troops  and  tiie  Turkish  militia  exercised 
shameful  cruelties,  which  produced  the  greatest  indispiation  through- 
out Europe,  particularly  m  Russia,  thereby  eiving  uie  Russian  gov- 
ernment a  welcome  excuse  to  proclaim  itself  the  protector  of  the 
oppressed  Christians,  and  especially  of  the  Slavonic  population  in 
Ti^key.    Military  preparations  in  Russia. 

Meanwhile  the  war  was  waged  unsuccessfully  by  Servia,  in  spite  of 
the  open  Russian  assistance,  and  the  presence  of  Russian  volunteers 
in  the  Servian  army,  which  obtained  a  Russian  commander  in  Ttoher- 
najefi^  while  the  Montenegrins  were  several  times  victorious. 
1876.  New,  bloodless  palace  revolution  in  Constantinople.  Mnrad 
Aug.  v.,  who  suffered  from  an  incurable  mental  disorder,  deposed. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Abdnl  Hamid  n.  The 
Turkic  army  crossed  the  Servian  frontier,  and  was  prevented  from 
marching  further  only  by  an  ultimatum  of  the  Russian  government. 
The  Poiie  agreed  to  a  truce  for  two  months  at  first,  and  afterward 
for  six  montiis. 

Russia  being  unable  to  induce  any  other  power  to  join  her  in  an 


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622  Modem  BUtary.  ▲.  ix 

aimed  intexf eienoe  with  Turkey,  and  Mnff  henelf  nnpre^axed  for 
war  and  hindered  by  the  winter  season,  dimomaiio  negotiationa  were 
prolcmged.  Finally  a  eonf erenoe  of  ambaasadoia  of  all  the  great 
powers  was  arranged  to  meet  in  Constantinople. 
Deo.  24.  Meeting  of  the  oonference.  Promulgation  of  a  oonatitO' 
tlon  for  the  whole  Ottoman  empire,  which  gave  the  Ghristiaiia 
eqnal  rights  with  Mnhammedans  and  which  the  Porte  hoped  would 
make  unnecessary  any  n>ec]al  provisions  in  &7or  of  his  Christian  sab- 
jects,  to  be  gaaranteed  by  the  power^. 

1877.  The  gpiarantees  which  were  still  demanded  by  the  conference 
in  spite  of  ths  Turkish  constitution,  but  which  had  been  grad- 
«ia]ly  reduced  in  extent,  were  rejected  by  the  Porte,  after  consulta- 
tion with  an  imperial  council  summoned  for  the  occasion.  The  am- 
bassadors of  all  the  great  powers  left  Constantinople. 

Peace  concluded  between  the  Porte  and  Servia  on  the  baas  of  the 
Mtatui  quo  ante  heUvm,    Montenegro  continued  in  arms. 

After  further  negotiations  with  the  European  powers,  which  had  no 
result,  and  after  completion  of  its  preparations,  the  Russian  goyem- 
ment  concluded  to  take  up  arms  alone  against  Turkey,  making  a 
formal  declaration  that  it  had  no  conquests  in  view. 

1877>  April-187&  March.    Turoo-Bussian  War. 

A.  Seat  of  war  in  Europe  :  A  Russian  army  under  the 

rad  duke  Nicholas  crossed  the  PnUh,  an  understanding  with  Koume- 
having  been  previously  reached,  and  advanced  to  the  Danube, 
which  was  first  crossed  June  22  by  a  corps  under  Ztnini^rmann,  which 
occupied  the  Dobrudsha  :  the  main  army,  which  Alexander  II.  had 
meanwhile  joined,  foroea  the 
1877.  Paaaage  of  the  Danube  at  Bhiatova. 
June  27.  A  flying  corps  under  Gurko  crossed  the  Balkan  by  an  un- 
guarded pass,  and  drove  the  Turkish  garrison  from  the  imnor- 
tant  Shipka  Paaa,  by  an  attack  from  the  south  (July  17-19),  while 
one  division  of  the  main  army,  under  the  crown  prince,  fronted  east 
and  by  hard  fighting,  prolonfi;ed  for  months  about  the  rivers  Janira 
and  Ijom,  held  m  check  the  l^kish  army  vatdeTAbdvl  Kerim  (aftei^ 
wards  under  Mehemed  Alit  and  finally  under  Suleiman). 

The  other  division  of  the  Russian  armv  captured  Nicopolis  (July 
15),  but  suffered  repeated  repulses  with  heavy  loss  before  Plevna 
(S.  W.  from  Nicopolis),  where  Osman  Pasha  had  collected  Turkish 
troops  and  thrown  up  strong  fortifications  (July  20  and  30),  and  was 
forced  to  wait  for  reinforcements. 

Meantime  Suleiman  Pasha  attempted  in  vain  to  storm  the  Shipka 
Paaa  from  the  south  with  superior  numbers  (Aug.  23,  Sept.  17).  He 
was  now  appointed  commander  of  the  Turkish  army  in  the  east  on 
the  LoMf  where  his  troops  had  been  sadly  missed. 

Arrival  of  Roumanian  troops  and  Russian  reinforcements  before 
PUvna.  After  the  failure  of  an  attempted  storm  (Sept.  7-12),  a  reg- 
ular siege  was  undertaken  (gen.  Todehen),  and 
Pec.  10.  Plevna  captured.  Osman  Pasha,  with  44,000  men,  obliged 
to  surrender  after  a  futile  attempt  to  break  through  the  Rna- 
tian  lines.    Return  of  the  Roumanians  to  their  country,  of  Alexander 


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▲•D.  Tureo-Ruman  War.  523 

IL  to  SU  Peienhurg.    Senria  (Deo.  14)  declared  war  npon  the  Port^ 
anew. 

Dec-Jan.  A  Russian  division  under  Gurko  crossed  the  western  Bal- 
kans and  occupied  Sophia  :  a  second  under  Radetzki  and  Sko- 
hdeffpoiaed  through  the  Shipka  Pass.  Both  divisions,  in  conjunction 
with  tne  portions  of  the  eastern  army  which  had  also  crossed  the 
Balkans,  advanced  hy  way  of  PhUippopclis  (victory  of  Gurko  over 
remnants  of  the  Turkish  army,  Jan.  16  and  17, 1878)  and  Adrianaple 
(occupied  Jan.  20),  close  upon  Constantinople. 

B.  Seat  of  war  in  Asia  (Russian  commander-in-chief  grand 
duke  Michael),  While  the  operations  of  a  Russian  division  against 
Batoum,  as  well  as  an  expedition  of  the  Turkish  fleet  to  the  Caucas- 
ian coasts,  were  without  result,  the  main  column  of  the  Russian  army 
(Laria-Melikoff)  forced  its  way  to  Kars,  which  it  invested  (May, 
1877).  Two  other  divisions  occupied  Ardaghan  and  Bajasid,  ^  The 
reverses  suffered  from  Mukhiar  PashOj  who  advanced  to  the  relief  of 
Kars  from  Erzeroum  (June),  compelled  the  Russians  to  retreat  across 
tlie  frontier,  ahandoning  almost  all  their  conquests. 

In  October  the  Russians  advanced  again,  and  after  the 

1877.  Storm  of  Kara 

Nov.  8.    pushed  on  victoriously  to  Erzeroum. 

The  success  of  the  Russian  arms  created  lively  apprehensions 
'  in  the  west,  particularly  in  England,  to  whom  Turkey  appealed  for 
mediation.    Angry  negotiations  between  England  and  Russia.    Mean- 
while the  Porte  was  obliged  to  ask  for  peace  directly  of  Russia,  which 
in  the 

1878.  Agreement  of  Adrianople 

Jan.  31.    granted  a  preliminary  truce,  and  sketched  the  plan  of  a 

future  peace. 
1878,  Feb.  1.     Greece  sent  her  troops  into  Thesealtfy  but  was  induced 

to  withdraw  them  after  a  few  days. 
After  the  Russians  had  drawn  their  lines  closer  and  closer  about 
Constantinople  and  had  occupied  Erzeroum  in  Armenia,  and  a  part  of 
the  English  fleet  which  was  lying  before  the  Dardanelles  had  entered 
the  Sea  of  Marmora,  the 

Maroh  3.  Peace  of  San  Btefano  (near  Constantinople) 
was  concluded  between  Ruaaia  and  Turkey:  1.  Montenegro 
and  Servia  received  considerable  additions  from  Turkish  territory, 
and  were  recognized  as  independent ;  likewise,  Ronmania.  2.  Bul- 
garia, i.  e.  the  larger  part  of  ancient  Mama,  Thrace,  and  Macedonia 
(boundaries :  Danube,  the  Black  Sea  and  jEgean  Sea,  Albania  and 
Servia)  remained  tributary  to  the  Porte,  but  received  a  Christian 
prince,  separate  administration  and  militia ;  a  Russian  commissary 
with  50,000  men  was  to  remain  two  years  in  the  country.  3.  The 
Porte  was  to  introduce  certain  reforms  in  the  small  portion  o^  his 
European  possessions  which  remained  to  him.  4.  Turkey  paid  Rue- 
aia  300  million  rubles,  and  ceded  large  parts  of  Armenia  in  Asia 
and  the  Dobrudiha  in  Europe,  Russia  agreeing  to  give  the  latter  to 
Roumania  in  return  for  the  part  of  Beaaarabia  (p.  501)  which  she 
had  ceded  in  1856. 


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524  Modem  Hutory,  ▲.  d. 

This  peace  aroused  great  opposition  in  the  west,  especially  in  Eng- 
land, which  showed  herself  ready  to  go  to  war  with  Russia  in  case  the 
latter  insisted  on  the  execution  of  the  above  conditions.  Austria  also 
began  to  arm. 

June  4  The  Porte  concluded  a  treaty  with  England  (at  first  secret), 
wherein  the  latter  undertook  to  protect  ^nirkey  in  Asia  against 
Russian  conquest.  The  Porte,  however,  promised  to  introduce  reforms 
in  these  parts,  and  gave  up  the  island  of  Cyprus  to  England  (Cyprus 
occupied  July  11). 

Germany  having  mediated  between  Russia  and  England,  to  prevent 
war,  and  three  powers  having  come  to  a  preliminary  understanding, 
the 

1878»  June  l«%July  13.  Congress  of  Berlin 
met  under  the  presidency  of  prince  Bismarck, 
Principal  conditions:  1.  Montenegro,  Servia,  Rotunania,  became 
independent,  but  the  cessions  to  be  made  to  the  two  former  states 
were  somewhat  reduced,  while  the  territory  which  Roumania  was  to 
receive  in  exchange  for  Bessarabia  was  somewhat  enlarged.  2.  The 
principality  of  Bulgaria  was  limited  to  the  country  between  the 
Danube  and  the  Balkans^  including,  however,  Sophia  and  its  territory. 
(An  assembly  of  notables  elected  prince  Alexander  of  Battenberg 
(Hesse),  a  nephew  of  the  Russian  emperor,  April,  1879.)  3.  The 
southern  portion  of  Bulgaria,  with  its  boundaries  considerably  uur- 
rowed  toward  the  south  and  west,  was  left  under  the  immediate  rule 
of  the  sultans,  with  the  title  Province  of  Baat  Roumelia,  but  received 
a  separate  militia,  and  administration  under  a  Christian  govemor-aen^ 
eral ;  only  in  specified  cases  could  it  be  occupied  hj  refi[ular  Turkish 
troops.  4.  The  Russian  troops  were  to  evacuate  East  KoimMUa  and 
Bulgaria  inside  of  nine  months,  Roumania  inside  of  a  year.  5.  The 
Porte  ceded  to  Anstrla  the  military  occupation  and  administration 
of  Bosnia  and  HerzegomnOf  as  well  as  the  military  occupation  of  the 
Sandshak  of  Novi  Bazar.  6.  The  Porte  was  advised  to  cede  a  part  of 
Epirus  and  Thessaly  to  Greece.  7.  Russia  received  in  Asia  hatovm 
(as  a  free  harbor),  Kars^  Ardaghan,  and  some  border  territories. 
8.  In  Turkey,  and  all  the  states  which  had  been  separated  from  her, 
there  should  be  political  equality  of  all  confessions. 
1878.    Death  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  king  of  Italy  (p.  503). 

Jan.  9.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Umberto  (Humbert')  I.  

Feb.  7.    Death  of  pope  Pioa  IX.    He  was  succeeded  by  Leo  Zm. 

(Peed). 
May  11  and  June  2.    Attempted  assassination  of  the  German  em- 
peror WiUiam  /.,  who  at  the  second  attempt  was  somewhat 
dangerously  wounded.     In  consequence,  law  against  the  ear- 
cesses  of  the  social  democrats, 

1878.  Entrance  of  the  AustriaiiB  into  Bosnia  and  Hersego- 
July  29.    Vina,  where  part  of  the  inhabitants  offered  armed  resLst- 

ance  until  autumn  (1879,  occupation  of  the  Lim  territory). 

1879.  In  the  German  empire  excited  discussion  of  changes  advocated 
by  prince  Bismarck  in  the  tariff  and  economiciu  policy  (new 
tariff,  July).    Attempted  reconciliation  with  the  Pope.     The 


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Fnissiaii  minister  of  religion  (Falk  since  1872)  retired  ;  bis 
successor.  Von  PtUtkamer  (JxAj  14). 
Russia  assuming  a  hostile  attitude,  and  attempting  to  form  an  al- 
liance with  France  against  Germany, 
Sept.  21-24.    Bismarck  visited  Vienna,  and  a  defensive  alliance  was 

concluded  hetween  Prussia  and  Austria. 
Oct.  1.    The  new  system  of  jurisprudence  for  the  entire  German  em- 
pire went  in  force  (supreme  court  in  Leipzig). 

1880.  The  boldness  of  the  Nihilists  in  Bussia  continuing  to  increase 
Feb.    in  spite  of  the  severe  measures  of  the  government  (three  des- 
perate attempts  upon  the  life  of  Alexander  II.  inside  of  ten 

months),  general  LoiriS'MelikoffwBs  clothed  with  a  sort  of  dictatorial 
pK>wer,  but  endeavored  to  prevent  the  imminent  dangers  by  conces- 
sions. 

Conflict  with  the  papacy  in  regard  to  ecclesiastical  orders  and  new 
laws  relating^  to  education  in  Francey  and  still  more  sharply  in  Bel- 
gium (liberal  ministr}^  of  Frere  Orban  since  1878). 

In  Prussia,  all  negotiations  with  the  papacy  proving  vain,  certain 
limitations  of  the  existing  laws  relating  to  the  church  (p.  620)  were 
introduced  as  an  attempt  to  reach  the  desired  result  by  political  leg- 
islation. 

The  resolutions  of  the  congress  of  Berlin  had  never  been  com- 
pletely carried  into  execution,  in  part  because  of  the  resistance  of  the 
Albanian  league  (secretly  aided  by* the  Porte?)  to  the  cessions  made 
to  Montenegro,  and  also  because  the  negotiations  relative  U)  a  sur- 
render of  territory  to  Greece  had  been  without  result.  Hence  the 
June  16-July  1.    Conference  of  Berlin 

was  called,  which  delivered  to  the  Porte  certain  distinct  propo- 
sitions in  regard  to  these  questions  (ThesseUy  and  Epirus  with  Jantna 
to  be  given  to  Greece),  which  should  eventually  be  enforced  by  armed 
interference.  The  Porte  still  delaying,  a  squadron  of  vessels  of  aU 
the  great  powers  assembled  at  Ragusa  (Sept.).  This  demonstration 
produced  tiie 
I^ov.    Surrender  of  Duldgno  and  territory  to  Montenegro. 

1881.  March  13.    Alexander  II,  murdered  in  St.  Petersburg.  He  was 

succeeded  by  his  son, 

1881-1894.    Alexander  HI. 

Roumania  made  a  kingdom. 
March- April.    Conference  of  ambassadors  at  Constantinople.    The 

Porte  decided  to  carry  out  the  surrender  of  territoiy  to  Greece, 

though  to  a  somewhat  smaller  extent  than  was  indicated  by  the 

Berlm  conference. 
Sept  8.    Meeting  of  William  I.  of  Germany  and  Alexander  III.  of 

Bussia  at  Danzig. 

1882.  Disturbances  in  southern  Dalmatian  Herzegamna,  and  Bcmua. 
Jan.    Dispatch  of  Austrian  troops  to  these  points. 

Jan.  7.  Excitement  created  in  Prussia  by  the  publication  of  a  royal 
rescript,  attacking  the  theory  of  responsible  ministers,  and  an- 
nouncmg  that  all  persons  in  government  service  were  expected 
to  support  the  government  at  elections. 


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{^26  Modem  History.  ▲«  ix 

1881»  Jan.  21.  Passage  of  the  electoral  refonn  bill  in  Italy. 
Suffrage  conferred  on  all  male  Italians  oyer  twent j-one  years 
of  age,  who  possessed  either  (1)  a  certain  amount  of  property 
or  (2)  a  certain  amount  of  education.  Adoption  of  the  scrvim 
de  Uste ;  minority  representation  in  districts  returning  five  or 
more  deputies. 

Feh.  11.  Lectures  in  the  Czechish  (Bohemian)  language  established 
in  the  university  of  Prague. 

Feb.  21.  Trial  of  persons  accused  of  being  concerned  in  the  murder 
of  the  czar  of  Russia.  In  spite  of  some  concessions  to  the 
peasants,  and  of  the  continuance  of  vigorous  repressive  meas- 
ures, undaunted  activity  of  the  nihilists. 

March  6.    Servla  made  a  kingdom  ;  prince  Milan  kinjr  as  MUan  L 

March  10.  Suppression  of  the  disturbances  in  Herzegauwa  and  south- 
em  Dahnatia  by  the  Austrians. 

Tendency  in  the  German  Reichstag  and  the  Prussian  Landtag 
to  come  to  terms  with  Rome  and  the  clerical  party  (autumn). 
Approaching  end  of  the  KuUurkampf. 

April  10.  Retirement  of  Oortachakofl;  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in 
Russia  ;  he  was  succeeded  by  De  Giers;  this  change,  regarded 
as  an  assurance  of  peaceful  intentions,  quieted  the  apprehen- 
sions which  had  been  aroused  by  the  anti-Teutonic  invectives 
of  SkobeUff'm  Paris  and  elsewhere  (Skobeleff,  f  July  7). 

May  22.  Opening  of  the  St.  Oothard  railroad  across  the  Alps. 
(Begun  1872,  tunnel  9J  miles  long.) 

June  2.  Death  of  Giuaeppe  Garibaldi  (b.  1807,  at  Nice  ;  couroira- 
tor  in  1833 ;  in  Montevideo,  in  South  America,  1835  ;  defense 
of  Rome,  1849  ;  in  North  America,  1854  ;  service  against  Aus- 
tria, 1859,  1860  ;  unsuccessful  attempts  upon  R>ome,  1862, 
1867 ;  participation  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  1870,  1871 ; 
member  of  the  Italian  chamber  of  deputies,  1875). 
Rejection  of  the  tobacco  monopoly  a4ivocated  by  Bismarck,  in 
the  German  Reichstag. 

1882  June  21.    Expiration  of  the  Storthing  in  Norway.    Violent  royal 
'    speech  rebuking  the  oppositjou.     Constitutional  struggle  over 
the  royal  veto,  and  presence  of  mimsters  in  the  Storthmg. 

Sept.     Anti-Jewish  riots,  especially  at  Pressburg  (Sept.  27-^30). 

Sept -Nov.  New  elections  in  Norway.  Return  of  an  increased 
radical  majority.  iSeep.  573.) 

§8.    FRANCE.  {Seep.4S5.) 

1815-1882. 

1814  (1815)-1824.    Lo^is  XVIIL 

First  restoration,  Apr.  6.  Royal  proclamation  of  a  Uberal 
constitution  (charte  canstiiutianelle),  June  4,  1814 :  here<Utary  men- 
archv  •  two  chambers  (peers  nommated  by  tiie  king,  lower  houee 
elected  by  the  people);  freedom  of  the  oress  ;rehgious  liberty  ;  re- 
aoonsible  ministers  ;  judges  not  removable.  Return  of  Napoleon. 
TOe  Hundred  Days  (W.  20^une  22),  see  page  483-  Fall  of 
Napoleon. 


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A«  D.  France.  627 

1815y  July  8.    Second  restoiatiou. 

1815,  Sept  25-1818,  Dec.  29.  Ministry  of  the  dnke  of  Richelieu. 
Nov.  20.  Second  peace  of  PariB  (p.  485). 
An  ultra-royalist  chamber  {chanibre  introuvable;  compare  the  "  Cav- 
alier" parliament  of  Charles  II.  of  England,  p.  378).  La  terreur 
Uanche.  Partiee  :  court  (Richelieu),  advocating  return  to  the  old 
monarchy  ;  legitimists  {Decazes);  doctidnaires  (Guizot\  advocates  of 
constitutional  monarchy  with  strong  administration  ;  liberals  (inde- 
pendents, Perier,  Lafayette)  ;  Bonapartvtts ;  republicans.  Gravitation 
towards  a  monarchy  resting  on  the  middle  classes  (bourffeoisie). 

MiniBtry  of  DesBolea-Decaaea  (1818,  Deo.  29-1819,  Nov.)  ;  of 
Decaaee  (1819,  Nov.  10-1820,  Feb.). 

1820,  Feb.  13.    Murder  of  the  duke  of  Berry,  the  second  nephew  of 

Louis  XYIII.,  by  Louvel.     Ultra-royalist  ministry.    Dslws  re- 
stricting freedom  of  the  press  and  of  elections. 
Sept.  29.    Birth  of  the  duke  of  Bordeaiuc,  posthumous  son  of  the 
duke  of  Berry  ;  «  Henry  V.  ; "  «  Europe's  child."    Fresenta- 
tion  of  the  castle  of  Chambard  by  national  subscription. 

1821,  May  5.     Death  of  Napoleon  I.  at  St.  Helena. 

1821,  Dec.  13-1828,  Jan.  4.    Ministry  of  ViUdle  (ultra-royalist). 

1823,  French  intervention  in  Spain  ;  capture  of  Madrid  and  Cadiz  ; 
liberation  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  by  the  duke  of  Angoulftme. 
Cruel  reaction.  Numerous  executions  (Riego).  Septennial 
election  law  ^violation  of  the  charter).  New  chamber  of  ul- 
tra-royalists (chambre  retrouvc'e,  1824). 

1824,  Sept.  16.    Death  of  Louis  ZVm. 

1824-1830.    ChaxlesX. 

1825,  March.   QtnsA  of  a  miUiard  (9200,000,000)  to  returned  refugees 

as  compensation  for  their  confiscated  estates.^ 
Growth  of  the  liberal  party  :  CoUaudy  Conttanty  Porter,  Bro^ie^ 
Chateaubriand.     Outcry  against  the  Jesuits. 

1827,  April  30.     National  guard  disbanded. 

1828,  Jan.    Fall  of  the  VtUele  ministry  in  consequence  of  the  return 

of  a  liberal  majority  at  the  election. 

1828,  Jan.  4-1829,  Aug.  8.    Martignac  ministrv  r«too  liberal  for 

the  royidists,  too  reactionary  for  the  liberals  '^. 

1829,  Aug.-1830,  July.    Polignao  ministry  ;  reactionary,  ultra-roy« 

aHst.    ''  No  more  concessions  ! " 

1830,  March  18.    Address  of  the  221,  in  reply  to  the  king's  speech ; 

vote  of  want  of  confidence.    Dissolution  May  16. 
July  5.    Capture  of  Algiers  by  the  French. 

Reasons  for  the  eniedition :  1.  An  insult  offered  the  French 
ambassadors  b^  the  Dey,  Jausseyn.  2.  The  desire  of  the  Fk^ench  gov- 
ernment to  qmet  the  agitation  and  dissatisfaction  which  prevailed  in 
France,  by  some  outside  success. 

Algeria  (Afiique  Franqaise)  subjugated  by  a  tedious  war  with  the 
Arabi  and  Kabvls,  constanUy  breakin|p  out  anew.  Abdel-Kader 
<1827,  captured  oy  Lamoriakre  and  the  duke  of  Aumale,  fourth  son  of 

1  The  ruined  cavalien  in  England  got  $8,000,000  in  1661. 


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A.  D.  France.  529 

Louis  Philippe  ;  1852,  released  and  sent  to  Asia  Minor  by  Louis  Na- 
poleon), 

New  elections.  Betum  of  an  increased  liberal  majority  ;  202  of 
the  221  reelected  ("  aide  toi"). 

1830,  July  27-29.    The  Jtily  Revolution.    The  Three 
Days  of  Jiily.     The  Great  Week. 

Cause  :  publication  of  the  three  (five)  ordinances  on  July  26, 

Srofessedly  founded  on  article  14.  1.  The  recent  elections  declared 
legal.  2.  llie  electoral  system  arbitrarily  changed  so  as  to  restrict 
the  suffrage  to  rich  land-owners.  3.  Prohibition  of  the  publication  of 
newspapers  and  pamphlets  without  a  royal  permit.  This  violation  of 
the  diarter  produced  a  revolt  in  Paris  July  27.  Protests  (Thiers, 
Mignet),  Barricade  fights.  July  28,  rising  of  the  bourgeoisie ;  imper^ 
feet  military  preparations,  bad  leadership  and  care  of  uie  troops,  who 
in  part  deserted,  resulted  in  the  victory  of  the  populace.  Capture  of 
the  Hotel  de  ViUe,  July  29,  capture  of  the  Louvre,  Betreat  of  tbe 
troops.  Provisional  government :  LaJUte,  Perier,  Barrot,  Lafayette 
commander  of  the  national  guard.  Futile  repeal  of  the  ordinances. 
Duke  of  Orleans  lieutenant  general  of  France  ("  the  charter  hence- 
forward to  be  a  reality  "). 

Charles  X.  ^f  in  Gorz,  in  Styria,  1836),  and  his  son,  the  duke  of 
Angoulime,  abdicated  in  favor  of  their  grandson  and  nephew,  the  duke 
of  Bordeaux  (who  subsequently  called  nimself  count  of  CJiambord,  p. 
527).  The  claims  of  this  pretender  being  set  aside,  the  younger  Hue 
of  Bourbon  (Orleans,  see  genealogical  table,  p.  528)  was  raised  to  the 
throne  in  the  person  of 

1830-1848.  Louis  Philippe,  the  king  of  the  French  (U 
roi  bourgeoise:  monarchy  of  July),  Alteration  of  the  charter  in 
a  liberal  spirit.  Abolition  of  art  14.  Prohibition  of  the  censure. 
The  king  to  share  the  initiative  with  the  chamber.  Ministry  of  Bro- 
gUe,  Ghiizot,  Lafayette  (1830,  Aug.  11-Nov.)  ;  of  Lafltte  (1830, 
Nov.  2-1831,  March  13)  ;  of  Casimir  P^er  (1831,  Mar.  13-1832, 
May).    Trial  and  condemnation  of  four  ex-ministers  of  Charles  X. 

Bebellion  of  the  duchess  of  Berry  (1832). 
1832,  Oct.  11-1836,  Feb.    Miniatry  of  Thiers,  Ouizot,  BrogUe. 
Insurrection  in  Lyons  Q834,  April). 

1835,  July  28.     FieschVs  infernal  machine. 

By  this  attempt  upon  the  life  of  Louis  Philippe  twelve  persons 
were  killed  and  forty  wounded.  It  was  followed  by  the  adoption  of 
laws  limiting  the  freedom  of  the  press  (laws  of  September).  Be- 
tirement  of  Ouizot,  Broglie  (doctrinaires);  ministry  of  Feb.  22, 1836 
(Thiers,  progressionists).  Ministry  of  Sept.  6  (Mole,  Ouizot;  Thiers 
out). 

1836,  Oct.  30.    Louis  Napoleon  (nephew  of  Napoleon  I.,  see  the 

genealogical  table,  p.  466)  made  an  adventurous  attempt  to 
get  himself  proclaimed  emperor  at  Strasbur^.  He  was  captured 
without  difficulty,  his  accomplices  brought  to  trial,  he  himself  sent  to 
America  by  the  French  government  on  a  ship  of  war  (with  an  annuity 
of  15,000  francs  from  Louis  Philippe's  privy  purse). ^ 


1  Guizot,  MemoirtSy  vol.  iv.  chap.  24. 
34 


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530  Modem  HUtory.  a.  d. 

Bfiiiistry  of  Ai»ril  15  (1837),  AffoM  without  CktizoL  Union  of 
Ouizol  and  Tkien  in  opposition.  Republican  insurrection  in  Paris 
(Maj  12, 1839).  BfinlBtry  of  Soult  (1839,  May  12-1840,  Mar.  1), 
without  Guizoty  Thiers,  Odilon-Barrol.  Ministry  of  Thiers  (1840, 
Mar.  1-Oct.  29).  Diplomatic  complications  consequent  on  the  revolt 
of  Mehemet  Alt  (p.  491). 
1840.     Second  adventurous  attempt  of  Louis  Napoleon, 

He  sailed  from  Margate  with  only  fifty  adherents  to  Bologne^ 
where  he  was  captured  by  the  national  guard,  tried  by  the  court  of 
peers,  and  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  life  (escaped  from  Ham 
under  the  name  and  in  the  di^ss  of  a  mason,  Badinguety  1846). 

The  remains  of  Napoleon  I.,  brought  from  St.  Helena  by  the 
prince  of  Joinville,  the  third  son  of  Louis  Philippe,  were  solemnly 
entombed  under  the  dome  of  the  Intfolides  at  Pans  Q840,  Dec.  15). 
Fortification  of  Paris.  Quadruple  treaty  of  London  (1840,  July  15); 
anger  of  France.  Fall  of  Thiers, 
1840,  Oct.  2^1848,  Feb.  24.    Ministry  of  Soult  and  Ouirot. 

Death  of  the  duke  of  Orleans  (1842,  July  13).  Trouble  with 
Englaiid  :  Tahiti  (Pritchard)  ;  Spanish  marriages  (1843-44).  De- 
mand for  electoral  reform  and  exclusion  of  place-men  from  the 
chamber  of  deputies  rejected  by  the  government  (pensSe  immuable). 
During  this  reign  development  of  the  parties  :  Legitiniists  (oount 
of  Chjunbord);  Orleanists  ;  Bonapartists  ;  Repnblicans. 

1848,  Feb.  22-24.    The  Revolution  of  February. 

Barricade  fights  with  the  troops,  conducted  principally  by 
members  of  the  secret  (socialistic)  societies,  assisted  by  a  section  of 
the  national  guard,  which  was  dissatisfied  with  the  reactionary  policy 
of  the  government.  Partial  defection  of  the  troops.  Cktizot  resigned 
(Feb.  23).  Louis  Philippe  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  grandson,  the 
Count  of  Paris,  son  of  the  duke  of  Orleans  (f  1842)  and  the 
princess  Helena  of  Mecklenburg.  Duchess  of  Orleans  in  the  chamber 
of  deputies.  (L'emeute  etait  devenue  une  r^olution.)  Provisional 
government  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville  (Dupcnt  de  VEure^  Lamartiney 
Ledru  Rollin,  Marie,  Cremieux,  Arago,  Gamier-Pagh,  the  elder). 
Repnblic  proclaimed  (Feb.  24),  to  the  disagreeable  surprise  of  the 
bourgeoisie  of  Paris.  The  socialist  Louis  Blanc  became  the  head  of  a 
conunission  of  laborers  ([afterwards  called  ministry  of  progress)  with 
a  view  to  the  '*  organization  of  labor,''  but  accomplished  nothing  prac- 
tical. Call  of  a  national  assembly  at  Paris  to  adopt  a  constitution 
for  the  new  democratic  republic.  Fstablishment  of  costly  public 
workshops  (ateliers  neUionaux)  and  recognition  of  the  "  right  to  work." ' 
Establishment  of  the  garde  mobile, 
1848-1851  (1852).    France  (for  tihe  second  time)  a  repub- 

Uo. 
June  23-26.  Terrible  insurrection  (the  days  of  June)  in  Paris  in  con- 
sequence of  the  closing  of  the  ateliers.  Bloody  fights  in  the 
1  It  18  claimed  that  Lonis  Blanc  was  deceived  bv  the  government,  who  wished 
his  sapport,  but  distrusted  his  theories.  The  workshops,  predestined  to  failure, 
were  neither  conceived  nor  carried  on  in  accordance  with  the  design  of  their  pro- 
jector. See  Xly,  French  and  German  Socialism  in  Modem  Timet,  p.  113,  wnere 
authorities  are  quoted. 


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A.  D.  France*  531 

streets.    Murder  of  archbishop  Ajffre  and  of  general  Brea.    Greneral 
Cavaignac  clothed  with  dictatorial  power.    Tne  continued  efforts  of 
the  troops  and  the  national  guard  subdued  the  insurrection  of  the 
laborers.    Nov.  4,  oonstitation  of  1848. 
Dec.  20.    Proclamation  of  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte  as  president 

of  the  republic  (5,327,345  to  1,879,298  votes). 
1849,  Apr.-Aue.     Expedition  to  Rome. 

Le^slative  assembly  (one  house)  with  a  monarchical  majority. 
Death  of  Louis  Philippe  at  Claremont  (1850,  Aug.  26). 

I85I9  I>ec.  2.  Coup  d'etat  of  Lords  Napoleon,  who,  in 
complicity  with  St,  Amaud,  Maupas^  Momy,  etc.,  caused  the 
leaders  of  the  republicans  and  Orleanists  (Cavaignacy  Charras,  Chaiv- 
gamier,  LamoricUref  Bedeau,  Thiers^  Victor  Hugo,  and  others)  to  be 
surprised  in  their  dwellings  at  night  and  imprisoned,  dissolved  the 
(second)  national  assembly  (1849-1851),  annulled  the  constitution 
which  he  had  sworn  to  defend,  crushed  (with  some  shedding  of  blood) 
the  revolt  which  broke  out  in  the  streets  of  Paris  on  Dec.  3  and  4 
in  conseauence  of  these  measures,  and  summoned  the  whole  people  to 
a  general  election  (plebiscite).  This  resulted  in  the  election  of 
Dec.  20,  21.    Louis  Napoleon  as  president  for  ten  years 

by  a  majority,  it  was  asserted,  of  more  than  six  imllion  votes. 
The  president  was  clothed  with  monarchical  power,  and  permitted  to 
issue  a  constitution.  By  a  decree  of  Jan.  9, 1852,  the  president  arbi- 
trarily banished  his  most  important  opponents  ;  by  a  decree  of  Jan. 
14  he  established  a  constitution  like  that  of  the  first  empire  (senat, 
corps  legislati/f  see  p.  464).  A  third  decree  confiscated  the  appanages 
of  the  house  of  Orleans,  and  compelled  the  members  of  this  house  to 
sell  their  whole  private  property  in  land  in  France  within  a  year. 
Freedom  of  the  press  restricted. 

1862,  Deo.  2-1870.  Napoleon  III.,  emperor  of  the 
French.  Proclaimed  by  a  senatus  considtwn,  Nov.  7,  and  rati- 
fied by  a  pU'bisdte  (Nov.  21, 22),  with  7,824,189  votes  a^pdnst  253,145. 
Napoleon  recognized  by  all  European  powers.  Assertions  of  peace- 
ful intentions  with  regard  to  Europe,  particularly  in  an  add^ss  at 
Bordeaux  (**L* Empire  a? est  la  paix").  x^apoleon  III.  married  (Jan. 
29, 1853)  the  Spaniard  Eugime  MonHjo,  countess  of  Tdba.  Birth  of 
the  prince  imperial,  1856,  Mar.  16. 
1854-1856.     Crimean  war  (p.  499)  ended  by  the 

1856,  May  30.    Peace  of  Paris  (p.  501).  The  empire  at  its  height 

of  power  and  respect. 

1857,  French  expedition  to  China  (p.  501). 

1858,  Jan.  14.     OrsinVs  attempt  upon  the  life   of  Nanoleon  III. 

Bombs.  Orsini,  under  sentence  of  death,  urged  Napoleon  to 
undertake  the  liberation  of  Italy  (Orsini's  *'  Testament,**  published  in 
the  Moniteury  Loi  de  s(trete  generale,  allowing  the  government  to  ar- 
rest and  banish,  in  certain  cases,  without  trial  (Feb.  19).  Meeting  of 
Napoleon  III,  and  the  Sardinian  minister  Cavour.  Marriage  of  the 
prince  Napoleon  Bonaparte  (geneaL  table,  p.  466)  with  Chtilde, 
daughter  of  Victor  EminanueL 


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5S2  Modem  History.  ▲.  ix 

1859.  Anstro-Sardliiian  war  (p.  502). 

1860.  Nov.  24.    Decree  allowing  &e  address  to  the  thiQne,  and  cre- 

ating ministers  without  portfolios. 

1861.  Debates  permitted  to  be  inserted  in  full  in  the  Journal  Offidd. 
1861-1867.    Meadcan  expedition  (p.  503). 

1867.    Great  Exposition  at  Paris. 
1867.    Luzembotirg  question  (p.  511). 
1867.    Expedition  to  Rome  (p.  511). 

1869»  May.    New  elections ;  for  the  first  time  dorinff  the  second  em- 
pire active  participation  of  the  parties  and  a  large  vote.    The 
government  received  a  good  majority.    In  Paris  and  Lyons^  victory 
of  the  ultrarradical  party. 

1870,  Jan.  2.    Ministry  OlUvier.    Repeal  of  the  lot  de  tihreU.    Al- 

teration of  the  constitntion  by  senatus  cansuUam  and  pUhiscite^ 
Apr.  20,  May  8.     (5,679,000  majority  for  the  government^ 
large  vote  of  m?  in  the  army.) 
1870-1871.    nranco-German  war,  p.  513  fol. 

1871  —  z.  France  (for  the  third  time)  a  Republic. 

During  the  siege  of  Paris  the  numerous  socicdist  parhr  had 
made  several  attempts  to  seize  the  supreme  power,  which  had  been 
frustrated  by  the  troops  and  the  national  guard.  After  the  capitula- 
tion the  workingmen  had,  under  various  pretexts,  got  possession  of 
several  hundred  cannon,  and  converted  the  northeasternpart  of  the 
city  (MorUmartre  and  BelleviUe)  almost  into  fortresses.  The  attempt 
of  general  Vinoyf  commander  of  the  city,  to  repossess  himself  of  these 
arms  led  to  a  general 

1871,  March  18'.  Uprising  of  the  Commune  (murder  of  generala 
Lecomte  and  Thomas),  and,  after  the  defection  of  several  regi- 
ments, to  the 

March  28-Ma7  22.  Hvle  of  the  Booialistio  Coxmnune 
(BUmqui^  Pyat,  Flourens,  Delesduze^  Cluseret,  Rossel^  etc.). 
Seat  of  the  regular  government,  Versailles,  The  coniite  des  tntemO' 
tumalistes  held  a  reign  of  terror  in  Paris.  Spoliation  of  the  churches. 
Several  million  **  advances  "  exacted  from  the  Bank  for  the  payment 
of  the  armed  mob  called  the  National  Guard,  whose  ranks  were 
swollen  by  socialists  of  all  nations.  The  march  upon  Versailles  ended 
in  a  shameful  retreat,  the  insurgents  bein?  fired  upon  from  Mont 
Valdrien.  Arrest  of  archbishop  Darhoy  and  other  ''  hostages,**  after- 
wards murdered.  Proclamation  resolving  France  into  a  number  of 
municipal  republics. 

April  G-May  22.     Second  eiege  of  Paris 

by  marshal  MacMahon,  commander  of  the  troops  of  the  na- 
tional assembly,  on  the  south  and  west  sides,  the  German  troops  pre- 
serving a  strict  neutrality  in  the  forts  which  they  occupied  on  the 
northeast. 

Bombardment  of  the  southern  forts,  and  the  city  itself,  by  the  Ver- 
sailles  troops  from  the  parallels  which  the  Germans  had  constructed. 
Meantime  socialistic  violence  in  Paris.  Destruction  of  the  house  of 
Thiers,  and  overthrow  of  the  CoUmne  Vendome,  May  16,  1871  (re. 
erected  1874). 


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A.  D«  I^rance.  533 

May  21.  The  YenailleB  troops  entered  the  eity  through  the  Parte 
SL  Cloud,  of  whose  unguarded  condition  they  were  apprised  bj  a 
Paxisiazu  ^l<i^^  contest  against  barricades  (Maj  21-28)  in  the 
heart,  of  Paris,  ^e  commune  caused  the  principal  buildings  of  Paris 
to  be  set  on  fire.  (The  TuUeries,  a  part  of  the  Palais  Rayal,  the  li- 
brary of  the  LauvrCy  the  whole  of  the  Hotel  de  ViUe,  the  palace  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor,  the  building  of  the  ministry  of  finance,  etc.,  actu- 
ally destroyed.) 

1871,  May  28.    Bloody  suppression  of  the  insurrection  ;  executions 
en  masse;  40,000  or  50,000  socialists  captured,  or  afterwards 
arrested.    The  leaders  court-martialed,  many  shot,  many  trans- 
ported to  New  Caledonia. 
1871,  Aug.  31.     Thiera  elected  president  of  the  republic  for  the 

session  of  the  national  assenibly. 
May  10.    Definitive  treaty  of  Frankfort  (p.  520). 
1873,  Jan.  9.    Death  of  Napoleon  m.  at  Chiselhurst,  in  England. 
May  24.    Thiers  forced  to  resi^  by  a  parliamentary  coalition  of  the 
monarchical  parties  (LegUimists,  OrleaamtSy  Bonapartists).  Maiv 
shal  MaoMfiihon  elected  president  by  the  national  assembly. 
Nov.  19.    After  the  attempt  at  a  restoration  of  the  monarchy  under 
Henry  V.  (count  of  Chambord)  had  failed,  marshal  BSao- 
Mahon  was  entrusted  with  the  regency  for  seven  years  (aeso- 
tennat)  under  the  title  **  President  of  the  Republic, 
1873,  Oct.-Dec.     Trial  of  Bazaine  in  the  Trianon  at  Versailles  before 
a  court-martial,  the  duke  of  Attmale  (fourth  son  of  Louis  Phi- 
lippe)  presiding.    Bazaine  was  condenmed  to  degradation  and  death, 
but  the  sentence  was  remitted  to  twenty  years'  imprisonment.     Ba- 
zaine conveyed  to  the  island  of  Ste.  Marguerite,  near  Cannes,  whence 
he  escaped  in  the  summer  of  1874. 

1875)  Feb.  After  a  long  struggle  between  the  parties  in  the 
national  assembly  a  republican  constitution  was  finally  agreed 
upon. 
The  legislative  poinrer  was  exercised  bv  two  chambers  :  the 
ohamber  of  depntiea,  which  was  elected  by  direct  elections  and 
manhood  su&mse  for  four  years,  and  the  senate  (300  senators :  75 
for  life,  elected  by  the  national  assembly,  and  afterwards  by  the  sen- 
ate itself  ;  and  225  elected  for  nine  years  by  electoral  colleges,  com- 
posed of  deputies,  councils  of  the  departments  and  districts,  and  dele- 
gates of  the  communes).  The  executive  power  was  entrusted  to  a 
president,  who,  after  the  expiration  of  the  septennat  (above),  was 
to  be  elected  by  the  senate  and  chamber  of  deputies  united  in  a  na- 
tional assembly  for  this  purpose,  for  seven  years,  and  at  the  expira- 
tion of  his  term  of  ofi&ce  should  be  again  eligible.  The  president, 
who  governed  by  a  responsible  ministry,  exercised  almost  all  the 
rights  of  a  constitutional  monarchy,  but  could  be  impeached  by  the 
chamber  of  deputies  before  the  senate  for  high  treason. 
1875,  Dec.    After  the  adoption  of  a  new  electoral  law  (scruHn  ^  d'ar- 

1  By  the  aerutin  d*arrondis8ementf  the  vomers  in  each  district  voted  for  one 
delegate  only ;  by  the  scrutin  de  Uste  (favored  by  Gambetta)^  the  voters  of  each 
department  vote<f  for  the  whole  lifft  of  delegates 'from  that  department  —  Mui/« 
LSB,  Political  History  of  Recent  Times, 


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584  Modem  IRstary.  ▲.  d. 

rondissement^t  the  national  assembly,  wMch  had  bd^n  in  ses- 
sion since  1871,  separated. 

1876,  Jan.,  Feb.  The  new  elections  resulted  in  a  senate  composed 
half  of  republicans  and  half  of  the  three  monarchical  parties, 
while  in  the  chamber  of  depnties  the  republicans  haa  a  de- 
cisive majority.  Dufaure  ministty  (March),  Simon  ministry 
(Dec). 

1877,  May  16.  Simon  ministry  displaced  by  the  arbitrary  act  of 
MacMahan  («  coup  d'^tat^').  Broglie  ministry.  Protest  of 
363  members  of  the  lower  house  against  the  action  of  the  pres- 
ident. 

Sept.  4.    Death  of  Thiers  (1797-1877). 

1877,  Oct.     New  elections.     Maintenance  of  the  republic.     In  spite 

of  the  return  of  a  republican  majority,  Macmahon  formed  a 
royalist  ministry  (fiochebouet).  As  the  house  refused  to  deal 
with  such  a  mmistry,  formation  of  the  ministry  Dufaure  (re- 
publican). 

1878,  International  Exhibition. 

1879,  Jan.  16.     Pardon  of  over  2,000  communists. 

1879,  Jan.  30.  MacMahon,  involved  in  inextricable  conflict  with  the 
chamber  of  deputies,  resigned  his  office,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Ghr^vy. 
187d-1887.     Jules  Or^vy    president   of  the   republic.     G-am- 
betta  succeeded  him  as  speaker  of  the  house.    Ministry  of 
Waddington.     Amnesty  for  communists.     Removal  of  the  legislature 
from  Versailles  to  Paris.     Secularization  of  education  ;  debate  and 
agitation  over  the  bill  introduced  by  Jvles  Ferry y  minister  of  public 
instruction,  limiting  the   influence  of  relifi^ious  orders  in  education 
(§  7  :  total  exclusion  of  unauthorized  reli^ous  orders  from  giving  in- 
struction).    Ministry  of  Freycinet  (1879,  Dec). 

1879,  June  1.    DeaUi  of  prince  Louis  Napoleon  in  South  Africa.    In 

spite  of  the  nomination  in  his  will  of  prince  Victor^  son  of 
Jerome  (son  of  the  king  of  Westphalia),  the  latter  ("  P/on- 
Plon  ")  was  generally  recognized  by  the  Bonapartists. 

1880,  Mar.  30.    Proclamation  disbanding  the  order  of  Jesuits. 
Jun9.    Greneral  amnesty  for  convicted  communists.   (^Rochefort,^ 
Sept.  19.    Ministry  of  Jules  Ferry. 

Nov.     Expulsion  of  unauthorized  orders  from  their  religious  houses. 

1881,  Expedition  to  7\in»,  ostensibly  to  punish  marauding  border 
tribes,  and  to  uphold  the  claims  of  the  Societe  MarmUaise  to 
certain  lands  in  Tunis,  resulting  in  an  attempt  to  establish  a 
protectorate  over  Tunis,  Complications  wiUi  Great  Britain^ 
Italy,  Spain, 

l^ov.  13.  Ministry  of  Oambetta  (Foreign  Affairs)  ;  M.  Paul  Bert, 
minister  of  public  worship. 

1882,  Jan.  30.    Ministry  of  M.  Freycinet  (Foreign  Affairs)  ;  Leon 

Say  (Finance)  ;  Jules  Ferry  (Public  Instruction).   Oambetta, 
having  been  aefeated  on  a  motion  to  adopt  the  scrutin  de  li^ 
had  resigned  Jan  27. 
Jan.    Failure  of  the  Utiion  Gcntrale  (founded  1881). 


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A.  D.  Great  Britain.  535 

July  29.  Resiniation  of  the  ministry  Freycinet  after  defeat  utoii 
a  question  of  supplies  for  protecting  the  Suez  canal.  Min- 
istry Duclero  (Gambettist). 

French  claims  upon  Madaffoscary  especially  to  a  protectorate  over 
the  northwest  coast,  opposed  by  the  native  HovaSy  and  diseussed  be- 
tween France  and  England. 

The  French  protectorate  over  Armata  (1874)  being  threatened  by 
the  presence  of  Taiping  refugees  («  Black  Flags,"  p.  462^  in  Ton- 
quin,  the  government  resolved  upon  energetb  measures  for  the  as- 
sertion of  the  rights  of  France. 
Dec.  31.    Death  of  Leon  Oambetta  (b.  1838,  Oct  30).  (See  p.  STS.y 

§  4.  GREAT  BRITAIN.  (Seep,  44^.) 

1783-1882. 

1783,  Nov.  Pox  brought  forward  a  bill  to  reform  the  government  of 
India,  which  was  thrown  out  in  the  lords.  The  king,  thereupon, 
dismissed  the  coaUtion  ministry,  and  William  Pitt  became 

1783,  Deo.  26-1301,  March  17.  Pint  lord  of  the  treasury  and 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  He  introduced  an  India  biU, 
which  was  rejected,  and 

1784,  March  25.    Parliament  was  dissolved. 

May  18.    The  Pifth  parliament  of  George  m.  (XYI.) 
Aug.  13.    Pitt's  India  bill  became  law  (p.  442). 

1787,  The  first  convicts  sent  to  Australia  (Botany  Bay). 

1788,  Oct.  12.    The  king  became  insane.     Fox  prop<»ed  that  the 

Prince  of  Waiea  should  assume  the  regency  as  of  right. 
Pitt,  though  admitting  the  prince's  daims,  insisted  that  the 
legislature  oAd  the  rient  to  make  the  appointment.    Pending 

1789,  Feb.    the  discussion  the  king  recovered. 

1791,  Representative  institutions  granted  Canada. 

1792,  June.    Poz's  libel  bill,  which  gave  ti^e/ury  power  to  render 

a  general  verdict  of  guilty  or  not  guilty  upon  the  whole  matter 
in  issue,  received  the  royal  assent. 

1793,  Jan.    Alien  bilL    Traitorous  correspondence  bill. 

1793,  Feb.  1.    The  Ptench  republic  declared  war  .against  Ghreat 

Britain,  etc.  (p.  453). 

1794.  Spread  of  revolutionary  principles.  Suspension  of  the  habeas 
corpus  act. 

May.     I^l  of  Hardy,  Home  Tooke,  and  Thdwall,  all  of  whom, 
Oct-Dec.    through  the  efforts  of  Erskxne,  were  acquitted. 

1794,  Nov.    Treaty  with  the  United  States  (Jay's  treaty,  p.  548). 

1795,  July-Nov.     Holland  having  joined  the  French  against  Eng- 

land, the  latter  seized  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Ceylon,  and 
other  possessions  of  the  Dutch  in  the  East. 

1796,  Sept.  17.    Sixth  parliament  of  George  m.  (XYII.) 
Oct.  11.    Spain  declared  war  against  England  (p.  458). 

1797,  Feb.  27.    Bank  of  England  stopped  specie  payments. 
1797,  April  15.     A  mutiny  broke  out  in  the  fleet  at  Spithead  (off 

Portsmouth).    The  demands  of  the  sailors,  which  were  rea- 


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536  Modem  History.  ▲•  JK 

May  IV.    sonable,  were  granted  and  the  fleet  put  to  sea.    Another 

and  more  violent  mutiny  broke  out  at  the 
May  22.    Nore  (mouth  of  the  Thames),  which  was  finally  put  down 
June  30.    by  force  and  the  ringleader  heinged. 

1797,  Occ.  11.    Victory  of  Camperdown  (Duncan)  puts  an  end  to 

the  danger  of  immediate  invasion. 

1798,  Apr.  20.    Habeas  corpus  act  again  suspended. 
Aug.  1.    Battle  of  the  Nile  (p.  460). 

17^.    Failure  of  the  expedition  to  the  Netherlands  (p.  461). 

1800,  Deo.  16.    Armed  neutrality  of  1780  revived  (p.  412). 

The  United  Irishmen,  an  association  of  malcontents,  mainly 
Protestants,  was  formed  in  1791  to  secure  the  entire  separation 
of  Ireland  £rom  England.  The  French  sent  more  than  one 
expedition  to  their  aid  ;  of  these  the  most  formidable,  under 

1796,  Dec.    Hoche,  was  scattered  by  a  storm,  while  a  snuJler  one 

1798,  Sept.  8.    was  defeated  at  Ballinamuck. 

1798,  June  21.    The  United  Irishmen  were  beaten  at  Vinegar  Hill, 

1799.  and  the  insurrection  put  down  with  cruel  severities.  These 
events  led  to  the 

1801)  Jan.  1.  Legislative  Union  of  Qreat  Britain  with 
Ireland  under  the  name  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  act 
of  union  provided,  among  other  things,  that  there  should  be 
one  imperial  parliament,  to  which  &eland  should  send /our 
spiritual  lords,  sitting  by  rotation  of  sessions  ;  twentg-eight  temn 
poral  peers,  elected  for  life  by  the  Irish  peerage  ;  and  one  Aim- 
dred  members  of  the  commons ;  and  that  the  churches  of  the 
two  countries  should  be  united  into  one  protestant  episcopal 
church. 
Mr.  Pitt  proposed  to  bring  in  a  bill  making  certain  concessions 
to  the  Roman  catholics.  The  king  being  persuaded  that  such 
concessions  would  be  a  breach  of  the  coronation  oath  refused 

1801,  Feb.  3.    his  consent,  and  Mr.  Pitt  resigned. 

Mar.  17-1804,  May  15.    Addington  administration.    Lord  Eldon^ 

lord  chancellor. 
Apr.  2.    Battle  of  Copenhagen  (Nelson).     Convention  between  Eng- 
June  17.    land  and  Russia.    £nd  of  the  second  armed  neutrality  (p. 

463). 
Apr.  19.    Habeas  corpus  act  again  suspended. 

1802,  Nov.  16.    Seventh  parliament  of  G«orge  m.  (2nd  impe- 

rial). 

1802,  Mar.  27.    Peace  of  Amiena  (p.  464). 

1803.  The  English  ambassador  (lord  Whitworth),  publicly  insulted 
Mar.  13.    by  Napoleon. 

May.    War  renewed  between  England  and  France  (p.  465). 

1803.  Emmets  insurrection  in  Ireland,  easily  suppressed,  but  showed 
the  deep-seated  hostility  of  the  Irish,  and  led  to  the  suspension 
of  the  habeas  corpus  act  in  Ireland. 

1804.  May  10-1806,  Jan.  23.    Pitt'e  aeoond  ministry. 

1805.  Third  coalition  against  France  (p.  467). 
Oct  21.    Trafalgar  (Nelson,  p.  467). 


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▲.  D.  Great  Britain.  587 

1806,  Jan.  23.    Death  of  Pitt. 

1806,  Feb.  10.-1807,  March  31.     AU  the  Talents  :  Lard  GrenviUe, 

piixne  minister ;  Charles  James  Foa^  foreign  Becretary,  f  Sept. 

13 ;  lord  Erskine,  lord  chanceUor ;  lord  Homck  (afterwards 

earl  Grey),  first  lord  of  the  admiralty. 
Nov.  21.    Berlin  Decree  (^.  469). 
Dec.  15.    ISi£^th  (3d  imperial)  parliament  of  Oeorge  m. 

1807,  March  23.    Abolition  of  the  slave  trade  in  the  British 
dominions. 

The  ministry  went  out  on  the  cathoiUc  question^  and  were  sao- 
ceeded  by  the 

1807,  Mar.  31.-1809,  Oct.  29.  dnke  of  Portland,  first  lord  of  the 
treasury  ;  Canning  and  CasUereagh,  home  and  foreign  secre- 
taries ;  Spencer  Perceval^  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
(George  Canning,  b.  1770,  entered  parliament  1793,  under  sec- 
retary 1796,  t  1827).  (Castlereagh,  afterwards  marquis  of 
Londonderry,  b.  1769,  f  1822.) 

June  22.    Ninth  (4th  imperial)  parliament  of  George  m. 

July  7-9.    Treaty  of  Tilsit  (p.  469). 

Sept.  7.    Second  bombardment  of  Copenhagen  (p.  470). 

Jan.-NoY.     Orders  in   Council  which  declared  France^  and  all 
countries  under  her  control,  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade. 

1807,  Nov.  8.    Russia  declared  war  against  England. 

Dec.  17.  Milan  decree,  a  supplement  to  the  Berlin  decree  (p.  469). 

1808,  Aufl^.    Convention  of  Cintra  (p.  471). 

1808.  TtKd  failnre  of  the  "Walcheren  expedition  sent  to  destroy 
July-NoY.    the  docks  and  shipping  at  Antwerp,  caused  a  rupture  be- 
tween Castlereagh  and  Canning^  both  of  whom  resigned. 

1809.  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  (b.  1769,  entered  the  army  1787  ;  As- 
May.    saye  1803 ;  entered  parliament  1806  ;  commanded  in   the 

Peninsular  War.      Commander-in-chief  1842,  f  1852),  after- 
wards duke  of  Wellington,  enters  Spain,  and  the 

1808-1814.     Peninsnlar  war  was  fairly  beeun  (p.  471). 

1809,  Oct.  29.    Death  of  the  duke  of  Portland. 

1809,  Dec.  6-1812,  May  11.    Mr.  Perceval /rsf  lord  of  the  treasury. 

1810,  Oct.  and  Nov.    Lines  of  Torres  Vedras  (p.  473). 
Nov.    The  king  became  hopelessly  insane,  and 

1811,  Feb.  5.     The  Prinoe  of  Wales  waa  appointed  re^ 

srent. 
Nov.    The  breaking  of  machinery  by  the  Luddites  became  so  fre- 
ouent  that  frame  breaking  was  made  a  capital  offense. 

1812,  May  11.    Assassination  of  Perceval  by  Bellmgham. 

1812,  June  8-1827,  Apr.  24.     Liverpool  ministry :   Castlereagh, 
foreign  secretary. 

1812,  June  18.     War  with  the  United  States  ended  by  the  treaty  of 

Ghent,  1814,  Dec.  24  (p.  551). 
Nov.  24.    Tdnth  (5th  imperial)  parliament  of  George  m. 

1813,  June  21.    Vittoria  (p.  479). 

1814,  May  30.    Peace  of  Paris  followed  by 

1815,  March  25.    Treaty  of  Vienna.    England  gained  Cape  of 


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538  Modem  HUtory,  a.  d. 

Good  Hope,  Demerara,  Essequtbo,  MaUoj  Tobago,  St.  Lucia^ 
and  Mauritius.    Hanover  hecajne  a  separate  kmgdam^   with 
George  III,  first  king,  and  descent  to  heirs  nude  (p.  481). 
1815f  June  15.    Waterloo  (p.  484). 

The  English  national  debt  had  grown  from  less  than  2G0  mill- 
ion pounds  in  1793  to  over  850  millions  ;  the  laboring  dassea  fonnd 
it  difficult  to  obtain  the  bare  necessaries  of  life.  Consequentlv  ziots 
took  place  in  the  agricultural  districts,  while  the  Luddites  broke  oat 
with  fresh  vehemenoe.  Incited  by  the  Weekly  Politloal  Register 
(William  Cobbett,  1762-1835),  the  orj  of  parliamentary  reform  was 
raised,  aud  Hampden  clubs  were  formed  throughout  the  country. 
1816,  Mar.  3.  The  habeas  corpus  act  was  suspended. 
Mar.  10.     The  Blanket  meeting  at  Manchester  broken  up  bj  the 

military;  lord  Sidmouth's  (Addiogton)  circular  letter. 
Dec.    Acquittal  of  Hone. 

1816,  July.     Dey  of  Algiers  compelled  to  abolish  christian  slavery. 
1819,  Jan.  14.    Eleventh  (6th  imperial)  parliament  of  G^oree 

m. 

1819,  Aug.  16.    A  meeting  of  t£e  Radicals  at  St.  Peter's  Fields,  Man- 

Chester,  dispersed  by  the  military  with  bloodshed  ;  hence  called 
the  Manoheater  Maaaacre,  or  Peterloo.  In  consequence  of 
these  disturbances,  the  Biz  Aota,  strengthening  the  hands  of 
government,  were  passed. 

1820,  Jan.  29.    Death  of  George  III.    Chief  descendanto:  — 

Qmtf  m.  ^  Charlotte  of  MeeklenbttTt-Strdits. 

rftXy.,  mmamZV.,        Wederie.        Edward.  Erneit,  Adolphva, 

^liSSO.  Itsao-iasr.         a.  of  York.    d.  of  Kent.     d.  of  Cum.      d.  of  Ounbridlg*. 

VletQite, 


lifltmsin.  

t  without  iarae.      t  without  iuue.  f  1827,  1 180).        berlandi  k.  f 

without  uan«.         I  of  UanoTcr, 

I  U37-U81. 

Albert  of  B^VletQif 
Saxe-Coburg-  |  fl901 
Ootha. 


bertofss^i 
:oburg-   I 


TIetofta,     MwaidVn.     Alleo.      Alfred,         Helena,    Louiie,    Arthur,    Leopold,  Beat 
m.  Oer-    m.  Alexandra   m.tx.   d.  of  Edin-    m.  pr.  of    m.  mar-     d.  of       d.  or  AU      m. 


Heaxyof 


n.  Alexandra   m.gt.   d.  of  Edin-    m.  pr.  of    m.  mar-     d.  of       d.  of  AU 
d.  ofk.  of       d.of    burgh.  tI90O.  SehletiwiK.  ouUof      Con-  bany, 

. Denmark.        Hcne,      an  d.of        HoUtain.   tome,    naucht      tlWL 

fim.              I                11878.    Saxe-Coborg-  nwy. 

I Ootha. 

Albert  Yieior.           flMnn.  LouIm.        Victoria.          Bland, 

d.  of  Clarenoe,    Frinoe  oTWalea,  m.d.of                             m.Chariea, 

t  IW2.          m.  Mary  of  Teck,  Fife.                               pr.  of  Den- 

K.  g.  d.  of  mark. 
George  III. 

IdvMd  Attar*.        Albert.        Vietorla.        Heniy.         O«of|«. 

1820-1830.     George  IV.  (prince  regent  since  1811). 
1820,  Apr.  21.    Pirst  (7th  imperial)  parliament  of  Gtoorge  IV. 
1820.    Cato  atreet  oonapiraoy  for  assassinating  the  king^s  nuni»- 

ters  discovered. 
May  1.    The  leader,  Thistlewood,  and  fonr  accomnlices  executed. 
1820,  Aug.-Nov.    The  king,  while  prince  of  Wales,  had  been,  in  a 

manner,  forced  to  marry  his  cousin.    Hie  marriage  was  an 
unhappy  one,  and  not  long  after  his  accession  ministers  brcNight  foF- 


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A.  D.  Great  Britain.  589 

ward  a  blU  of  pains  and  penalties  to  degrade  and  dvoom  (ke  queen 
on  chams  of  misoondaot.  In  the  tiial  of  queen  Caroline  which 
followec^  Mr.  (afterwards  lord)  Brougham  and  Mr.  (afterwards  lord) 
Denman  so  shook  the  evidence  against  her,  on  the  oross-examinatipn 
(1821,  Julj  18),  that  the  bill  was  abandoned.  She  was,  howeyer,  ex- 
cluded from  the  coromUioti,  and  not  long  after  died. 

1821,  Ma^.    Bank  of  England  resnined  specie  payments  (p.  535). 

1822.  (faedertaak  (lord  Londonderry)  committed  suicide,  and  was 
succeeded  at  the  foreign  oMce  by  Gkeorge  Canning.  Mr. 
Ped  home  secretary. 

1823. '  The  next  year  Htukisson  became  president  of  the  board  of 
trade,  and  Mr.  Robinson  (afterwards  lord  Goderieh)  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer. 

1825,  Commeroial  panic;  modification  of  the  monopoly  of  the  Bank 

1826,  Not,  14.    Second  (8th  imperial)  parliament  of  Gkeorge  XV. 

1827,  Aug.  8-1828,  Jan.  25.    Lord  Gk>derioh  premier. 

1827,  Oct  20.    Navarino ;  "  untoward  event ''  (p.  489). 

1828^  Jan.  26-1830,  Noy.  22.  Dnke  of  Wellington  prime  min- 
ister. Robert  Peel,  home  secretary  (b.  1788 ;  M.  F.  1809 ;  colo- 
nial secretary  1810  ;  f  1860). 

1828^  Feb.  26.  Lord  John  RuaaeU  (b.  1792  ;  M.  P.  1813 ;  earl  Rus- 
sell 1861 ;  t  1878)  moved  tlie  repeal  of  the  corporation 
and  test  acts  (p.  380),  which  was  carried  (May). 
A  declaration  containing  the  words  "  on  the  true  faith  of  a 
christian  "  was  substituted  for  the  sacramental  test,  thus  ad- 
mitting proteatant  dissenters  to  office. 

1828,  July  15.    The  restrictions  on  the  importation  of  breadstuffs 

were  modified  by  the  adoption  of  the  sliding  scale. 
The  duke  of  Wellington  and  Mr.  Peel  became  convinced  of 

the  necessityof  catholic  emancipation. 
1829^  April  13.     The  catholic  relief  act  substituted  a  new  form  of 

oath  for  the  oaths  of  supremacy ,  allegiance,  and  abjuration,  and 
there  were  now  no  offices  from  which  catholics  were  excluded,  ex- 
cept those  of  regent,  lord  chancellor  of  England  and  Ireland,  and  vice- 
roy of  Irdand,  Tlie  franchise  in  Irdand  was  raiaed  from  409.  to  lOf., 
and  certain  regulations  were  made  respecting  the  exercise  of  the 
Roman  catholic  religion. 
1830,  June  26.    Death  of  George  IV. 

^830-1837.    WiUiamlV. 
1830,  Sept.  15.    Opening  of  the  Manchester  and  Uverpool  rail* 

way  (Rocket  locomotive),  f  of  Hnsldsson. 
1830,  Oct.  26.    First  (9th  imperial)  parUament  of  IT^imani  IV. 

When  parliament  opened  earl  Grey  declared  that,  in  his  opin- 
ion, the  only  way  to  avert  political  convulsions  was  by  a  reform  in 
parliament    The  duke  of  Wellington  expressed  himself  as  opposed  to 
reform,  and  being  defeated  on  a  minor  question  resigned  Nov.  16. 
1830,  Nov.  24-1834,  July  18.    Barl  Grey,  prime  minister.    Lord 

Althorp,  chancellor  of  exchequer ;  lord  Brougham,  lord  chan- 

ceUor;  lord  John  RuaUU,  paymaster-general  of  the  forces  ;  and 

lord  Melbourne,  home  secretary. 


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540  Modem  S^ttory.  A.  Dw 

1831,  March  31.    Loid  John  Roflsell  introdaoed  his  refomi  bill.    It 

iMxm  beoame  apparent  that  there  was  no  prospect  of  passing 
Apr.  22.    the  hill,  and  parliament  was  dissolyed. 
Jane  14.     Baoond  (10th  imperial^  parliament  of  William  IV. 

The  reform  bUl  again  introouced;  passed  the  commons  Sept. 

21,  but  was  thrown  out  by  the  lords,  and  riots  ensned  through- 

out  the  country. 

1832,  Mar.  19.    Tha  reform  bill,  with  some  alterations,  was  again 

passed  by  the  commons.  In  the  lords  an  amendment  was  car- 
ried against  ministers,  who  resigned  May  7,  but  resumed  o£Bce  May 
18,  the  king  having  consented  to  create  a  sufficient  number  of  new 
peers  to  secure  the  passage  of  the  bill ;  but  this  proved  unnecessary, 
as  many  tory  peers  refrained  from  voting,  and  Uie  bill  received  the 
royal  assent  June  7. 

1832.  By  thi8,tihe  First  Reform  Aot,  143  boroughs  lost  one 
or  both  members,  and  the  seats  thus  obtained  were  given  to 

several  large  towns  (Manchester^  Birmingham^  etc.),  to  the  lar^  coun" 
tieSf  and  to  new  boroughs.  At  the  same  time  the  franchise  was  ex- 
tended.   The  Scotch  reform  act,  July  17;  the  Irish  reform  act,  Aug.  7. 

1833,  Jan.  29.  Third  (11th  imperial)  parUament  of  William  IV. 
Apr.  2.    The  Irish  coercion  act. 

In  August  the  bill  for  the  abolition  of  alavery  throughout  the 
Britiah  empire  was  passed.  The  sum  of  20,000,000/.  was 
voted  to  the  slave-ovmers. 

1833.  Renewal  of  the  charter  of  the  Bank  of  England  ;  and  of  the  East 
India  Company  for  twenty  years,  but  the  trade  with  China 
was  thrown  open  (p.  561). 

1834.  The  question  of  an  extension  of  the  Irish  coercion  act  led  to 
the  resiniation  of  earl  Grey. 

1834,  July  16-Nov.  14.  Lord  Melbourne  became  premier.  Lord 
Auhorpf  lord  John  Russell^  and  lord  Brougham  retained  their 
places. 

1834.    Poor  law  amendment  aot.    Local  boards  abolished  in  favor 

Aug.  of  a  central  board  of  commissioners.  Poor  law  unions  took  the 
place  of  ujork-houses,  and  the  system  of  outdoor  reUrfwBS  in  a 
great  measure  reformed. 

Nov.  The  king  dismissed  the  ministry,  and  the  duke  of  Welling- 
ton took  control  of  affairs  until  air  Robert  Peel  could  be 
summoned  from  Rome. 

1834,  Dec.  8-1835,  Apr.  18.  Peel's  first  administration.  (Wel- 
lington, foreign  secretary.)     The  majority  in  the  commons 

1834,  Dec.  30.    was  against  ministers,  parliament  was  dissolved,  and 

Peel  issued  the  Tamworth  manifesto. 

1835,  Feb.  19.    Fourth  (12th  imperial)  parliament  of  IT^illiam 

IV.  The  conservatives,  as  the  supporters  of  Peel  termed  them- 
Apr.  selves,  being  in  a  minority  in  the  commons,  ministers  resigned. 
1S35,  Apr.  18-1841,  Sept.  3.    Second  Melbourne  ministry. 

Pahnerston,  foreign  secretary  (b.  1784  ;  M.  P.  1807 ;  f  Oct 
18, 1865);  lord  John  Russell,  home  secretary;  viscount  Howickf 
secretary  of  war,  —  succeeded  in  1839  by  T.  B.  Macarday 
(b.  1800  ;  M.  P.  1830  ;  raised  to  the  peerage  1857 ;  f  1859J. 


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A.  D.  Great  Britain.  541 

1835,  Sept.    Reform  of  municipal  corporatioiui  act,  London  not 

included. 

1836,  Commutation  of  tithes  act. 

1837,  June  20.    Death  of  WiUiam  IV,  (See  p.  64£,) 

The  BritiBh  in  India.  (See  p.  444-) 

1786-1793.    Lord  ComwaUiB,  goyemor-general. 

1792.  War  with  Tipu  Stdtdn,  ended  by  tiie  cession  of  one  half  of 
Mysore  to  the  English  and  allies. 

1793.  Capture  of  Pondicherri,  sir  John  Shore  (afterwards  lord 
Teignmouth),  governor-general,  succeeded  by 

1798-1805.  lord  Momington  (afterwards  marquis  of  Welleoley^. 

1799.  Tipu  Sultan,  trusting  in  the  promises  of  Bonaparte,  agam 
took  up  arms,  was  Idlkd,  and  his  dominions  were  divided  be- 
tween the  English  and  the  Nizam. 

1802.  Holkar,  one  of  the  MahrcUtd  chiefs,  drove  the  Peshwa  from 
Poona,  By  the  treaty  of  Bassein  the  English  a^ed  to  assist 
the  PeshwiC  provided  he  would  surrender  his  mdependence, 
and  maintain  a  body  of  European  troops  (the  subsidiary  policy). 
Sindhia  and  the  Raja  of  Nagpur  umted  with  Holkar  against 
the  English.  The  latter  under  sir  Arthur  Wellealey  (after- 
wards duke  of  Wellington),  brother  of  the  govemor-general, 

1803.  gained  the  battles  of  Asaaye,  Sept.  3,  and  Argaum,  Nov. 
29,  while  another  army  under  general  (afterwards  lord)  Lake 
won  the  battle  of  Laawari,  Nov.  1,  and  captured  Delhi.  The 
Raja  of  Nagpur  and  Sindhia^  by  treaties,  surrendered  much 

1804.  territory  to  the  English.  In  the  next  year  Holkar  was  de- 
feated by  Lake  at  Purrukahad,  and  again  near  Bharipw  1805, 
and  made  peace  with  the  English  1806,  Jan.  7. 

1805.  July-Oct    Lord  ComwaUia  again  governor-general;  f  Oct. ; 

and  was  succeeded  by 
1805-1807.    sir  O.  Barlow. 

1806.  Mutiny  of  the  Sepoys  at  Vellore. 
1807-1813.    Lord  Blinto,  govemor-generaL 

1809.    Mutiny  of  the  European  officers  at  Seringapatam. 

1813-1823.  Lord  Molra  (afterwards  marquis  of  Hastinga),  gov- 
ernor-general. 

1814-1815.     War  with  the  Gurkhas  of  Nepal. 

1817.     Pinddrfwar. 

1817-1818.  Last  Mahratta  war.  The  dominions  of  the  Peshwd 
were  annexed  and  the  Rdjd  of  Nagpur  was  put  under  British 
guardianship,  while  the  states  of  Rajputana  placed  themselves 
under  British  protection. 

1823-1828.    Lord  Amherst,  governor-general. 

1824-1826.     First  Burmese  war,  English  acquire  Aaaam,  etc. 

1828-1835.  Lord  'William  Bentinck,  governor-general.  Financial 
reforms  ;  abolition  of  aati  (suttee)  or  widow-burning ;  aup- 
preaaion  of  the  thagi  (thues)  or  hereditary  assassins. 

1833.  Company^s  charter  renewed  for  twenty  years,  but  the  trade 
was  thrown  open,  and  Europeans  allowed,  to  settle  in  the  oounr 


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542  Modem  History.  A*  D. 

try.  A  legal  member  added  to  the  gOTenMHr's  oonneil,  and  a 
commission  appointed  to  reviBe  and  oodif  j  the  laws.  Maoau- 
lay,  first  legal  member,  and  president  of  the  eommiasion.  The 
ooiy  annexation  of  this  time  was  that  of  Coorg, 
183&-18d6.  Short  admlnistratioii  of  air  Charlaa  (afterwards 
lord)  Metcalfe,  memorable  for  giving  entire  fieedom  to  the 
press.  (See  p,  546,) 

Great  Britain.  (See  p.  64I.) 

1837*1901.  Viotoria  (only  child  of  the  late  duke  of  Kent). 
Separation  of  Hanover  trom  Great  Britain  ;  duke  of  Cumber^ 
kmdy  the  eldest  surviving  son  of  George  III.,  became  king. 

1837,  Nov.  15.    Firat  (13th  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria. 

1837.  Rebellion  in  Canada.  Burning  of  the  American  steamer  Car-- 
oline.  The  rebels  finally  reduced  to  obedience  in  1839.  The 
two  provinces,  upper  and  lower  Canada,  were  united  in 
1840,  and  in  1847  responsible  govermnent  was  introduced  into 
the  colony. 

1838,  Aug.    Meeting  of  working  people  near  Birmingham.    A  na« 

tional  petition  or  peoplaa'  charter  was  drawn  up.  The 
petitioners  or  chartiitB  demanded,  1.  annual  parliamanta ;  2. 
univeraal  (manhood)  auffrage  ;  3.  vote  by  ballot ;  4.  abolition 
of  the  property  qualification  of  members  of  parliament :  and  5. 
payment  for  their  services.  To  these  *'  five  pointa  '*  a  sixth,  that 
of  equal  electoral  diatricta,  was  afterwurds  added.  The  petition 
was  presented  to  the  commons,  1839,  June  14,  and  its  rejection  was 
followed  by  riots  which  were  easily  suppressed. 

1838,  Sept.    The  anti-corn  law  league  formed  at  Manchester  under 

the  leadership  of  John  Bright  (b.  1811;  M.  P.  1343 ;  f  1889) 
and  Richard  Cobden  (h.  1804 ;  M.  P.  1847;  f  l^^)- 

1839.  Opium  war  with  China  ended  by  treaty  of  JVafO^n,  1842, 
Aug.  29  (p.  561). 

i^l840,  Jan.    Penny  poatage  introduced  (sir  Rowland  HUl), 
Feb.  10.    The  queen  married  her  cousin  Albert  of  Saxe-Uoburg  and 

Gotha. 
1841,  Aug.  19.    Second  (14th  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria. 

1841,  Sept  6-1846,  June  29.  Peera  aecond  adminiatratlon. 
Duke  of  Wellington  in  the  cabinet  without  office  ;  earl  Ripon^ 
board  of  trade,  succeeded  in  1843  by  W.  B.  Qladatone  (b. 
1809  ;    M.  P.  1832  ;  f  1898). 

1842.  Second  eliding  acaile  adopted  ;  and  the  duties  on  over  700 
articles  either  removed  or  reduced,  the  deficiency  so  created  be» 
ing  made  up  by  an  income  tax  (June  22). 

1844.    Charter  of  the  Bank  of  Enghmd  renewed  (Peel  act).    The 
issue  department  established,  weekly  returns  to  be  published  ; 
and  circulation  limited  to  14,000,0002. 
1846.    Total  repeal  of  the  com  lawa. 

The  sliding  scale  abolished ;  the  duty  on  wheat  imported  at  or 
above  63*.  per  quarter  to  be  49.  per  quarter  until  1849,  Feb.  1,  after 
that  time  to  be  an  uniform  Is.  per  quarter  on  aU  kinds  of  ^m  im- 
ported into  the  United  Kingdom  ;  this  Is.  duty  was  repealed  m  1869. 


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A.  D.  Great  BritcAn.  543 

1846,  June.  Settlement  of  the  Orrarofr  boondaiy  dispnte  with  the  United 
States  (p.  664). 

1846,  July  6-1852,  Feb.  23.  Bfintetry  of  lord  John  RiiMea ;  lord 
Palmerston,  foreign  secretaty  ;  Macaulay,  paymaster  gen- 
eral. 

1846.  Failure  of  the  potato  crop  in  Ireland  oansed  a  famine  1846 
and  1847.  Population  of  Ireland  1841,  8,222,664.  1861. 
6,633,982. 

1847.  Commercial  panic  in  England. 

1847,  Nov.  18.    Third  (16th  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria. 
This  distress  coupled  with  the  excitement  produced  by  the  rey- 

1848.  olutions  of  1848  (p.  492)  roused  rebellion  in  Ireland,  which 
was  easily  suppressed,  and  its  leaders  Smith  O'Brien  and  Mit- 

1848,  April  10.    chdl  transported  ;  while  in  England  the  chartiatB 

held  a  monster  meetmg  on  Kennington  command  and  presented 
a  petition  to  parliament. 

1849,  June.    Repeal  of  the  navigation  laws.    Encumbered  estates 
July,    act  (Ireland). 

1860,  Sept  30.  Papal  bull  establishing  a  Roman  catholic  hie- 
rarchy in  England. 

1861,  July.    Ecclesiastical  titles  biU,  imposing  a  fine  of  1001.  on  all 

who  should  endeavor  to  carry  this  papu  bull  into  efFect,  passed 
(never  executed). 
1851.     Telegraphic  communication  between  France  and  Eng- 
land. 

1851.  Great  exhibition  of  the  industries  of  all  nations  in  Hyde  Park, 
London. 

1852,  Feb.  27-Dec.  18.  Earl  Derby's  first  miniatry,  Disraeli, 
chancellor  of  exchequer  (b.  1805  ;  "  Vivian  Grey "  1825  ; 
M.  P.  1837  ;  earl  of  J^eaconsfield,  1876  ;  f  1881). 

Sept.  14.    Death  of  the  duke  of  Wellinffton. 

1862,  Nov.  4.    Fourth  (16th  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria. 
1862,  Dec.  28-1866,  Feb.  5.    Aberdeen  administration.    W.  B. 

Gladstone,  chancellor  of  exchequer;  lord  Palmerston,  home 
secretary  ;  lord  John  Russell,  foreign  secretary. 
End  of  (Jaffir  war  in  South  Africa. 
Oct.  30.    The  British  fieet  entered  the  Bosphorus. 
1853-1856.    Crimean  war  (p.  4d9). 

1864,  June  5.    Reciprocity  treaty  with  the  United  States  conelnded 

(p.  656)  ;  abrogated  1866. 
1866.    The  mismanagement  with  regard  to  the  supply  of  food  and 
clothing  for  the  army  in  the  Crimea  and  the  feeble  prosecu- 
tion of  the  war  rendered  the  administration  unpopular,  and 

1865,  Jan.  30.    lord  Aberdeen  resigned. 

1866,  Feb.  6-1868,  Feb.  22.  Palmerston  premier.  Gladstone, 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  res.  Feb.  22. 

Feb.  19.    Bread  riots  at  Liverpool. 

1866.    Treaty  of  Paris  ended  the  Crimean  war  (p.  601).    War 

Mar.  30.     with  China.    Treaty  of  Tienrtsin,  June  26,  1869.    Peace 

ofPeJdn  Aug.  24, 1860  (p.  662). 
1857,  Apr.  30.    Fifth  (17th  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria. 


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644  Modem  Hislary.  a.  i>. 

Not.  12.    Oreat  oommeroial  panic.    Siupension  of  (he  hank  dkarter 

act  0/1844. 
In  oonseqaenoe  of  the  attempted  asMfsinatian  of  Napoleon  Til. 

hf  Orsiniy  lord  Pabnerston  introduced  the  conspiracy  to  murder 

btU.    On  its  rejection  in  the  commons  the  nunistry  resigned, 

and  the 
1858,  Feb.  22-1859,  June  11.    Second  Derby  miniatry  took  offioe  ; 

Diaraell,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 

1858,  June.    Property  qualification  of  members  of  parliament 

aboliahed. 
July.    Jewa  admitted  to  parliament. 

.  Act  for  the  better  government  of  India. 
Aug.  5.     The  successful  laying  of  the  fret  Atlantic  cable  (ceased 

working  Sept.  4). 
Aug.  26.    Treaty  with  the  tycoon  (shogun)  of  Japan  (p.  563). 
18^.    The  queen  of  England  proclaimed  aoTereicpQ  of  India. 

The  govemment  of  the  East  India  company  ceased* 
Tlie  ministry,  defeated  on  a  reform  bill  introduced  by  Disraeli^ 
Apr.  13.    dissolyed  paiiiament,  but  being  in  a  minority  in  the 
1&9,  May  31.    Sixth  (18th  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria, 

resigned,  and  the 

1859,  June  13-1865,  Nov.  6.     Second  Palmeraton  ministry  came 

in.  Qladstone,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer ;  earl  Russell 
(formerly  lord  John),  foreign  secretary ;  lord  Campbell^  lord 
chancellor. 

1860,  Jan.  23.     Commercial  treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  France, 
July-Oct.    The  prince  of  Wales  visits  the  United  States  and  Can- 

ada. 

1861,  July  27.    Rupture  of  diplomatic  relations  with  Mexico. 

Nov.  8.    Mason  and  Slidell  taken  from  the  British  maU  steamer 

Trent  (p.  557). 
Dec.  23.    Death  of  the  prince  consort. 

1862,  Second  Bxhibition  of  the  industry  of  all  nations  opened  in 
klay  1.    London. 

1863,  The  Maori  (native)  war  in  New  Zealand,  ended  in  1869. 

1864,  The  Schleswig-Holstein  question  (p.  505). 

June.    Final  cession  of  the  Ionian  Islands  to  Greeoe  (p.  483)< 
July.    The  Thames  embankment  begun. 

1865,  June.    Commencement  of  the  Cattle  Plague. 
Oct.    Insurrection  in  Jamaica. 

Oct.  18.    Death  of  lord  Palmerston. 

1865,  Not.  6-1866,  June  26.    Barl  RusseU  premier. 

1866,  Feb.  1.    Seventh  (19th  imperial)  parUament  of  Victoria. 
Feb.    Habeas  corpus  act  suspended  in  Ireland. 

May.     Failure  of  Overeud,  Gumey  and  Co.  (liabilities  over  19,00(Xr 

000/.).    Panic  in  London. 
July     Telegraphic  communication  with  America  finally  established. 

1866,  July  6-1868,  Feb.  27.      Third  Derby  ministry.    Disraeli, 

chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 

1867,  Aug.  15.    The  second  reform  act,  —  <' a  leap  in  the  dark,**--* 

which  greatly  extended  the  franchise,  received  the  royal  asi 
sent. 


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▲.  D.  Great  Britain.  545 

1867.  The  Fenians  attempted  the  seizure  of  the  anenal  at  Chester 
(Feb.).  Rising  in  Ireland,  easily  snppressed.  Attempt  to 
release  Fenians  confined  in  Clerkenwell  prison,  by  exploding 
gunpowder  under  the  walls. 

1867.  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick  were  combined 
into  one  Dominion  of  Canada,  with  power  to  teke  in  new 
provinces.  Each  province  retained  its  own  legislature  for 
local  affairs.    All  Britiah  America,  with  the  exception  of 

^  NewfauruUandf  now  belongs  to  this  confederation. 

1807.    Abyssinia  ezpedition,  Magdala. 

1868»  Feb.  27-Dec.  3.  Lord  Derby  resigned,  and  Mr.  DisraeU  be- 
came  premier.  The  general  elections  to  the  new  parliament 
were  so  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  liberals  that  the  ministry  re- 
signed, and 

1868,  Dec.  d-1874,  Feb.  21.  Mr.  aiadstone  became  prime  minister. 
1868,  Dec.  10.    XSighth  (20th  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria. 
July  26.     Disestablishment  and  disendowment  of  the  Irish 

church.  A  portion  of  the  money  so  obtained  given  to  the 
Roman  catholic  college  of  MaynooUi,  and  another  portion  ap- 
plied to  educational  purposes.  The  royal  aAsent  was  at  the  same 
time  given  to  the  bankruptcy  bill,  and  to  a  bill  abolishing 
imprisonment  for  debt.  (Debtors*  prisons  :  Fleets  Marshal- 
seay  etc.) 
•— 1868,  Oct.  16.     Opening  of  the  Sues  canal. 

1870.    Irish  land  act  provided,  among  other  things,  for  compen- 
sation to  out-going  tenants  ;  for  loans  to  landlords  for  im- 
provements, and  to  tenants  desirous  of  purchasing  their  hold' 
mgs  (Bright  clauses). 
At  the  same  session  a  system  of 

1870.    national  education  was  established  by  law. 
^871.    Purchase  in  the  army  abolished. 

Treaty  of  Washington  with  the  United  States,'  by  which  the 
Alabama  claims  were  settled  by 

1872.  Arbitration  at  Geneva  and  the  so-called  northtoestem  bow^ 
dary  dispute,  decided  by  the  emperor  of  (xermany  as  arbiter 
(p.  660). 

1872.  Vote  by  ballot  introduced. 

1873.  Ashantee  war.  Coomassie  taken  by 

1874.  the  British,  commanded  by  general  Wolsdey, 

1874,  Feb.  21.-1880,  Apr.  28.  Mr.  DisraeU  (1876,  Aug.,  earl  of 
Beaconsfield),  premier  ;  nr  Stafford  Northcote^  chiuioellor  of 
the  exchequer. 

1874,  March  5.    Ninth  (21st  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria. 

1875.  Purchase  of  Suez  canal  shares  from  the  khedive  of  Egypt. 
1876, 1876.     Visit  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  to  India,    The  queen  pro- 
claimed empress  of  India.    Commercial  panic. 

1878,  July  13.    Treaty  of  Berlin.    British  take  possession  of  Cyprus 

July  14  (p.  624). 

1879.  Irish  land  league,  supported  by  PomeO,  Dilioth  eU%  187S^ 
1880»  famine  in  Ireland* 

1879.     War  with  the  Zulus  ("  Jingoism  ")• 
35 


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546  Modem  HtOanf.  A.  D. 

1880,  Feb.  23.  Fkrliameiit  dissolved.  Elections  In  &Tor  of  liberals ; 
resigiutioii  of  ministen,  Apr.  22. 

1880^  Apr.  28.  Mr.  Qladstone.  prime  minister  ;  marqw  ofHar^ 
tington^  secretary  for  India;  W.  E,  Fontery  chief  secretary  for 
Ireland,  succeeded  by  lord  F,  Cavendish^  and  be  by  G,  0,  7Ve- 
veUyan*    John  Bright,  chanceUor  of  the  dachy. 

1880,  Apr.  29.    Tenth  (22d  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria. 

1881,  March  3.    Irlsli  ooeroion  aot. 

Aug.  22.  Iriah  land  aot  provided  for  a  court  of  commission  to  tiy 
differences  between  landlords  and  tenants  ;  and  in  a  measure 
^^anted  the  <<  three  F*s  :"  1,  free  sale  ;  2.  fair  rents;  Z,  fix- 
ttv  of  tenure, 

1882,  May  6.  Morder  of  lord  Frederick  Cavendiah  and  an 
nnder-seoretary  in  Dublin. 

July  11.    Bombardment  of  Alexandria  (Egypt).     Resignation  of 

John  Bright, 
Jnly  14.    A  new  Irish  cnereion  act  went  into  force. 
8ept    Total  defeat  of  Egyptian  rebels  by  the  British,  conmumded  by 

Mr  Gomel  Wolseleg.    Capture  of  TeM-Kebir.      (Seep.  666.) 

The  British  in  India.  (Seep,  642.) 

1836-1842.    Lord  Anokland,  govemor-generaL 

1838.  First  Afghan  ^^ar,  occasioned  by  an  attempt  to  place  a  ruler 
in  Afghinisfain  who  should  be  subservient  to  the  British. 
Kdbul  was  easily  occupied.  Dost  Muhammad  taken  prisoner, 
and  Shdh  Shufd  installed.  In  November,  1841,  the  A%h<ns 
rose,  and,  led  by  Akbar  Khan,  drove  the  British  from  AdbvL 
Terrible  winter  retreat  to  Jaldldbdd, 

1842-1844.  Barl  of  Eilenborough,  governor-general.  Two  ar^ 
mies  sent  to  Afghinistin.  Belief  of  Kandahar  and  Jaldldbdd. 
Capture  of  Kd&L  The  bazar  blown  up.  Dost  Muhammad  re« 
placed,  and  the  British  withdrawn. 

1844-1848.  Sir  Henry  (afterwards  lord)  Hardinge,  governor- 
general. 

1845.     First  Sikh  war. 

1848-1856.    Barl  of  Dalhoosie,  governor-general. 

1848,  1849.  Second  Sikh  war  ended  in  the  anneTetion  of  the 
Punjab, 

1852.    Second  Bnrmeae  war.    British  Burma  annexed. 

1856.    Anneaeation  of  Oudh  on  the  ground  of  misnde. 

1856-1862.    Barl  Canning,  governor-general. 

18679  May  10.  Mutiny  of  the  Sepoys  at  Miraih  (Meerut).  Rising 
of  the  Muhammadans  at  DelhL  BCaaaacre  at  Cawnpore 
(Ntfna  SWb),  June  27.  First  reUef  of  Lucknow  by  Haoo-^ 
lock,  Sept.  25  ;  final  deliverance  of  the  garrison  by  sir  Cdin 
CampheU,  Nov.  16.  Siejra  and  capture  of  Delhi,  June-Sept. 
Hie  mughal  emperor,  Sahddur  Shdh,  captured,  depoe^  and 
banished  to  Rangoon  ;  f  1862.    Bnd  of  the  mnc^ud  empire. 

1858.  The  government  of  India  transferred  to  the  orown ;  goy- 
emor-general  to  be  viceroy. 


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A.  1>.  United  Satei.  547 

1862-1863.     Lord  Elgin,  vioeroy ;  1864-1869,  lord  Lawrence, 

viceroy.   Famine  in  Orissa^  1866  ;  in  Bunddkkand  and  Upper 

Hindustan,  1868, 1869. 
1869-1872.    Lord  Mayo,  Ticeroy.    Internal  improyements. 
1872-1876.    Lord  Northbrook,  viceroy.     Dethronement  of  the 

MahrcUtd  Gdehodr  of  Baroda,    Visit  of  the  prince  of  Wales  to 

India. 
1876-1880.    Lord  Lytton,  viceroy. 

18779  Jcui.  1.  The  queen  proclaimed  empress  of  India. 
1877, 1878.    Famine  in  southern  India. 

1878-1881.  Second  Aljshan  war.  Refusal  of  Sher  AH  to  admit  a 
British  emhassy.  The  Khaibar  (Kyber),  the  Kuram,  and  the 
Bddn  passes  ocoupied  by  the  British  troops,  f  Sher  Ali,  Abdication 
of  his  son,  Ydkub  Khdn.  Defeat  of  a  brigade  of  British  troops  by 
Aiftib  Khan,  Brilliant  march  of  sir  F.  Roberts  from  Kabul  to  Kanda- 
har, and  ront  of  Ayub  Khan,  1880,  Sept  1.  Abdurrahman  Khan, 
the  eldest  male  representative  of  Dost  Muhammad,  recognized  by  the 
British  as  Amir,  and  their  troops  withdrawn  from  Kabul  and  Kanda- 
hdr. 

1880.  Marqnia  of  Ripen,  viceroy. 

1881.  Population  of  all  India  2523^>210,  an  increase  in  ten  years 
of  over  twelve  millions.  (^See  p,  565) 

§5.    UNITED  STATES.  (Seep.4S9,) 

1789-1882. 

1789.    First  congress  met  at  New  York,  March  4. 

1789.    Gfreorsre  Waahinfirton  (Virginia),  president.    John 

Apr.  30.    Adams,  vice-president 

Nov.  1.    North  Carolina  accepted  the  constitution. 

1789.  Three  executive  departaients  created.  Thomas  Jefferson 
n>.  1743^  1 1825^,  secretary  of  state  ;  Alexander  Hamilton 
(b.  1757, 1 1804),  secretary  of  the  treasury  ;  Henry  Knox,  sec- 
retary of  war.  These  with  the  attomev  general  formed  the 
cabinet.  A  national  judiciary  was  also  established.  John 
Jay,  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court, 

1789.  First  ten  amendments  (in  the  nature  of  a  bill  of  rights)  to 
the  constitution  proposed  by  congress  to  the  state  legislatures,  and 
ratified,  in  the  course  of  two  years,  by  three  fourths  of  the 
states. 

1790,  M^  29.    Rhode  Island  accepted  the  constitution. 

1790.  The  financial  affairs  of  the  country  were  put  on  a  firm  basis. 
The  seat  of  government  to  be  at  Philadelphia  for  ten  years,  and 
after  that  permanentiy  located  on  the  Potomac,  where  land 
was  ceded  by  the  states  of  Maryland  and  Virginia  (District  of 
Columbia),  and  the  city  of  Washington  laid  out 

1790-1795.  Indian  war.  Defeat  of  Harmar  1790 ;  Sl  Clair  1791  ; 
and  victory  of  Wayne  1794. 

1790.  Death  of  Franklin. 

Population  3,921,326  (1st  census).    National  debt  Jan.  1, 1791, 
$75,463,476i»2. 

1791,  Aug.   George  Hammond,  minister  from  Great  Britain,  received. 

Vermont  admitted  (14th  state). 

uigitized  Dy  VjOOQ IC 


5^  Modem  BUtarg.  A.  D. 

« 

A  notional  bank  (United  States  bank)  charteied  far  twenty 
1792,  Apr.  2.    jears,  and  a  minty  were  established  at  Philadelphia. 
1792.    Two  parties  now  came  into  prominence :  the   republican, 

afterwards  democratic,  led  hj  Jefferson;  and  the  federaliat, 

whose  leaders  were  HamiUon  luid  Adams, 

1792.  Kentucky  admitted  (15th  state). 
EU  Whitnetf  invented  the  cotton  gin, 
Washington  and  Adama  reelected. 

1793.  France  declared  war  against  Great  Britain,  and  sent  Genet  as 
minister  to  the  United  States.  He  arrived  at  Charleston  in 
April,  and  proceeded  to  fit  out  privateeis,  eto. 

Washington  issned  a  proclamation  of  nentrality,  Apr.  22  ; 
and  the  next  year  (1794)  the  neutrality  act  was  passed. 
Grenet  appealed  from  the  executive  to  the  people,  and,  upon  the 
demand  of  the  government,  was  recalled. 

1793.  FogitiTe  slave  act,  substantiallj  a  dead  letter  until  revived 
in  1850. 

1794.  Whiskey  Insnzrection  in  western  Pennsylvania.  It 
was  caused  by  an  internal  revenue  law  of  1791,  which  laid  an 
excise  on  domestic  spirits,  and  was  put  down  by  an  army  com- 
posed of  the  militia  of  Pennsylvania  and  adjoining  states. 

1794.  Eleventh  amendment,  securing  the  non-«iiability  of  states, 
proposed  by  congress,  and  declsired  ratified  Jan.  1798. 

1794.  Peace  purchased  from  Algiers,  and  from  TripoU  and  Tunis 
in  the  following  years. 

17J94.  The  treaty  of  peace  (p.  432)  had  been  fully  carried  out  by 
neither  party.  Great  BriteUn  had  not  delivered  the  posts  held 
W  her  on  the  northern  frontier.  And  she  teas  accused  of  inciting  the 
Indians  to  hostility,  of  impressing  American  seamen,' and  of  capturing 
American  trading  vessels  ;  and  besides,  manv  slaves  had  been  carried 
away  by  the  British  when  they  evacuated  New  York.  On  the  other 
side,  it  was  alleged  that  the  provisions  of  the  treaty  with  regard  to 
the  collection  of  debts  due  to  British  subjects  had  not  be^i  o&rved. 
To  settle  these  differences  John  Jay  was  sent  to  England,  and  a 

4794,  Nov.  19.  Treaty  of  amity,  conmierce,  and  navigation 
(Jay's  treaty)  was  concluded.  It  provided  for  the  delivery 
of  the  posts  before  June,  1796 ;  for  a  commission  to  decide 
what  river  was  the  "  St.  Croix  *'  (p.  432) ;  for  compenmtion  in 
certain  cases  to  British  subjects  taia  American  citizens,  to  he  as- 
certained by  commissioners  ;  for  the  regulation  of  trade  between 
the  two  countries ;  for  the  extradition  of  criminals,  ete.  The 
treaty  met  with  great  opposition;  the  ratifications  were  not  ex- 
changed till  Oct.  1795  ;  and  the  money  necessary  to  carry  it 
out  was  not  voted  till  1796  {speech  of  FHsher  Ames), 

1795.  Treaty  with  Spain  established  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
United  States,  and  secured  the  free  navigation  cf  the  Missis  • 
sippi,  with  right  of  deposit  at  New  Orleans, 

1796.  Tennessee  admitted  (16th  state). 
Sept.  18.     Washington's  farewell  address. 

1797f  Mar.  4.  John  Adams  (Massachasetts),  federaUst,  2d 
president. 


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A.  D.  United  States.  549 

Thomas  Jeffsrson,  republican,  rioe-president. 
1797.    Special  mission  to  France.    Attempt  on  the  part  of  the  French 

to  extort  money  (X.  7.  Z.  affair),  rinckney,  one  of  the  envoys, 
replied  :  '*  Millions  for  defense,  not  one  cent  for  mbnte."  Hostilities 
actually  began.  Provisional  arm^  raised;  Washington, lientenant- 
gener^ ;  navy  department  organized  1798  ;  ConstdUUion  captured 
l/Inmrgente  1799 ;  but  when  Bonaparte  came  into  power  more  pacific 
intentions  prevailed,  and  a  convention  was  concluded  1800,  Sept.  30. 
1797.    The  language  of  the  French  sympathizers  became  so  violent 

that  l^e  alien  and  sedition  lacTm  were  passed.  They  were 
followed  by  the  Kentucky  and  Virginia  resolutions  of  1798-1799, 
in  which  it  was  asserted  that  a  state  had  a  right  to  decide  for  itself 
how  far  the  national  authority  should  be  considered  binding. 

1799,  Dec.  14.    Death  of  Washington. 

1800,  Nov.  22.    Congress  met  in  Washington  for  the  first  time. 

Population,  5,319,762  (2d  census). 

1801,  John  Marshcdl,  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court.  In  the 
elections  of  1800  the  republican  candidates  received  a  major- 
ity of  the  votes,  but  as  they  had  equal  numbers  the  election 
went  to  the  house  of  representatives,  which  chose 

1801.  Thomas  Jefferson  (Virginia)  3d  president;  and 
Aaron  Burr,  vice-president.  James  Madisony  secretary  of 
state  ;  Albert  GaUcUin,  secretary  of  the  treasury. 

1801-1802.  Repeal  of  the  internal  revenue  taxes,  and  of  many  un- 
popuhir  kws.    1802.    Ohio  admitted  (17th  state). 

1803f  April  30.  The  Louisiana  Purchase,  by  which  the 
United  States  acquired  :  all  of  its  present  area  between  the 
Mississippi  and  the  Rocky  Mountains^  north  of  the  then  northern 
boundary  of  Mexico;  the  island  on  which  New  Orleans  stands  ; 
and  a  claim  to  Texas,  to  west  Florida,  as  that  portion  of  the 
present  states  of  Mississippi  and  Alabama  south  of  31°  north 
latitude  was  then  called,  and  perhaps  even  to  territory  west  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  (p.  654).  llie  price  was  fifteen  mil- 
lions of  dollars,  and  the  original  area  of  the  United  States 
was  more  than  doubled, 

1803,  Dec.  12.  Twelfth  amendment,  altering  the  mode  of  elect- 
ing president  and  vice-president,  proposed  by  congress,  and  de- 
clared ratified  1804,  Sept.  25. 

1804r-1805.  Failure  of  the  impeachment  of  Chase,  a  justice  of  the 
supreme  court. 

1804,  July.    Aaron  Burr  killed  Alexander  Hamxiion  in  a  duel. 
1801-1805.    TripoUtan  war.    Burning  of  the  frigate  Philadelphia 

(Decatur),  which  had  been  captured  while  afipround,  1804. 
Capture  of  Deme,  Bombardment  of  Tripoli,  Treaty  1805. 
No  more  tribute  to  be  paid  by  the  United  States. 

1805,  Thomas  Jefferson  reelected  president;  Georsre 
Clinton  vice-president. 

1806,  April.    The  British  ship  Leander  fired  on  an  American  trad- 

ing sloop,  killing  John  Pierce,  the  owner.  The  Leander  ordered 
out  of  the  waters  of  the  United  States. 


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550  Modem  BUtaiy.  ▲.  d. 

1806,  May  16.    The  British  BOTemment  issued  ordeni  in  oonnoU, 

declaring  the  coast  of  £arope  from  the  Elbe  to  Brest  to  be  in 
a  partial  state  of  blockade  ;  Napoleon  replied  (Not.  21)  by  the  Ber- 
lin decree  (p.  469).  Great  Britain  issued  other  orders  m  council 
r Jan.  7  and  Not.  11, 1807),  foUowed  (Dec.)  by  the  Milan  decree 
(p.  537),  which  orders  and  decrees  practically  put  an  end  to  the  most 
profitable  portion  of  the  commerce  of  the  United  States. 

1807,  June  22.    The  frigate  Chesapeake  was  fired  into  by  the  British 

ship  Leopardf  and  four  men  claimed  as  deserters  were  taken  out 
of  her  by  the  British.  The  president  by  proclamation  ordered  all 
British  ships  of  war  to  leaTe  tl^  coast ;  repwktion  was  demanded  of 
Great  Britain,  and  congress  laid  an  embargo  (Jefferson's  embargo) 
on  all  shipoing  in  the  ports  of  the  United  States  (Dec.  22). 

1806.  Faunre  of  Miranda's  scheme  for  reTolutioniring  the  Span- 
ish American  colonies. 

1807.  Trial  and  acquittal  of  Aaron  Burr,  late  Tioe-president» 
for  treaaon.  It  is  said  that  he  had  designed  seizing  New 
Orleans,  detaching  seTeral  states  from  the  union,  and  invading 
Mexico. 

1807.  Robert  Fulton  made  the  /rst  successful  application  of  steam 
to  navigation,  in  the  steamboat  Clermont  (engine  imported). 

180&    The  importation  of  slaves  into  the  United  States  prohib- 
ited after  Jan.  1,  1808. 
The  embargo  policy  was  designed  to  compel  Great  Britain  and 
France  to  withdraw  their  orders  s^  decrees.    The  further  history  is 
as  follows  :  — 

1808.  Supplementary  acts  :  1.  Jan.  8,  coasting  and  fishing  Tea- 
sels to  give  bonds  to  re-land  cargoes  in  United  States.  2.  Mar. 

12,  boats  and  Tessels  of  all  kinds  and  land-carriages  made  subject  to 
the  embargo  [April  17,  Bayonne  decree  directing  the  seizure  of  aJl 
American  Teasels  then  in  the  ports  of  Fr^ce].  3.  Apr.  26,  coasting 
trade  forbidden  to  foreign  Tessels,  and  to  be  ezerdaed  by  others  only 
under  the  most  stringent  rules ;  enforcing  act  of  1809  (Jan.  9),  by 
which  cTery  attempt  to  avoid  the  embargo  worlced  ihe  forfeiture  of  ship, 
boat,  or  Tehide,  and  iuToWed  a,Jine  of  four  times  the  Talue  of  the  mer- 
chandise, one  hidfto  the  informer,  and  the  president  was  authorized  to 
tiM  ike  army  ana  navy  to  enforce  the  embargo.  Zhnbargo  repealed 
ezoept  as  to  France  and  England,  to  take  effect  1809,  Mar.  15.  No 
goods  to  be  imported  from  those  countries  after  May  20. 
1809»  March  4.    James  Madison  (Virginia),  democrat,  4th 

president.    James  Monroe,  secretary  of  state. 
1810.    Popuktion  7,239,881  (3d  census). 
1810,  March  23.     Rambonillet  decree,  ordering  the  sale  of  all 

American  Tessels  which  had  been  seized  for  Tiolating  the 

French  decrees. 
1810,  MaT  1.    Act  known  as  Macon'a  No.  2  proTided  that  in  case 

either  Great  Britain  or  France  should  rcToke  its  edicts  the 
United  States  would  prohibit  trade  with  the  other.  Napoleon  reToked 
the  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees,  but  not  the  Rambonillet  decree,  Aug. 
5,  to  take  effect  Not.  1,  as  to  American  Tessels.  This  was  considered 
by  the  president  as  a  sufficient  compliance  with  the  condition  of 


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▲•  D.  UniUd  Statei.  551 

Macon's  No.  %  and  a  pioclamation  declared  the  non-oi^Mtffatum  act 
revived  a$  to  Great  Briiam  after  Feb.  2, 1811. 

1811,  May  16.    Engagement  between  the  American  frigate  Preal- 

dent  and  the  British  ship  Little  Belt. 

1812.  Lonifllana  admitted  (18th  state). 

1812,  Apr.  4.  Embargo  for  ninety  days.  War  declared  against 
Great  Britain.  The  orders  in  council  of  Jan.  and  Apr.  1807, 
revoked  (June  23). 

1812-1814.  War  with  Great  Britain.  Events  of  1812. 
Unsuccessful  invasion  of  Canada,  surrender  of  Detroit  (Aug. 
16),  defeat  at  Qneenstown  (Oct.  13).  On  the  water,  however,  the 
American  ship  Basex  (Porter)  captured  the  Alert;  the  Conatitntion 
(Hull),  the  Guerrihre;  the  Waap,  the  Frolic  (both  taken  bv  the  Poio- 
tiera,  a  British  74)  ;  the  United  States  (Decatur),  the  Macedonian  ; 
and  the  Constitation  (Bainbridge),  the  Java,  In  1813  the  Amer- 
icans were  defeated  at  Prenchtoum  (Jan.^;  gained  the  battle  of  Lake 
Erie  (Ferry) ;  but  were  driven  from  their  posts  on  the  Niagara,  The 
English  blockaded  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  June  1  the  British 
frigate  Shannon  captured  the  Chesapeake  ;  the  Pelican,  the  Argus  ; 
but  on  the  other  hand  the  American  ship  Hornet  took  4iie  Peacock  ; 
the  Bnterpriae,  the  Boxer,  In  1814  there  was  another  attempt  to 
invade  C<mada;  the  Americans  captured  Fort  Xhle  and  won  the 
battles  of  Chippewa  (Julj  5)  and  Lundy's  Lane  (Jul^  16),  but 
these  victories  led  to  nothmg.  Battle  of  Lake  Champlam  won  by 
McDonough  (Sept.  11).  Aug.  24,  the  Britiah  under  Ross  defeated 
the  Americans  at  Bladensburgh  ;  entered  Waahington  the  next  day 
and  bnmt  all  the  public  buildings  ;  but  were  repulsed  in  an  at- 
tempt on  Baltimore  (Sept.  13)  ;  and  with  great  loss  at  New  Or- 
leans (Dec.,  Jackson).  At  sea  the  American  ship  Essex  (Porter), 
after  a  successful  cruise  in  the  Pacific,  was  captured  by  the  PhoAe 
and  Cherub:  the  Peacock  captured  the  Epervier ;  the  Wasp,  the 
Reindeer  ana  Avon.  In  1815  tne  Conatitntion  captured  the  Cyane 
and  Levant;  and  the  Hornet,  the  Penguin;  while  the  President  sur^ 
rendered  to  a  British  squadron.  Peace,  however,  had  been  made  at 
Qhent,  December  24, 1814,  by  a  treaty  by  which  none  of  the  ques- 
tions which  led  to  the  war  were  settled,  but  which  provided  for  com- 
missions to  run  the  boundaries,  as  determined  in  previous  treaties. 

The  eastern  states  had  resisted  the  embargo^  and  later  had  taken 
a  veiy  lukewarm  interest  in  the  war,  and  had  consequently  been  left 
to  shift  for  themselves.  This  dissatisfaction  led  to  the  summonins^  of 
the  Hartford  convention,  1814,  Dec.  15,  which  adjourned  in  three 
weeks  without  accomplishing  anything. 

1815.  Squadron,  under  Decatur,  sent  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  a 
treaty  negotiated  ujith  Algiers. 

1816.  The  second  United  States  bank  chartered  for  twenty 
years  (charter  of  Ist  expired  in  1811).  Protective  tariff.  In- 
diana admitted  (19th  state). 

1817'-1825.  James  Monroe  (Virginia),  democrat,  5th  pres- 
ident. Bra  of  good  feeling.  J.  Q.  Adams,  secretary  of 
state  ;  W,  H,  Crawford^  secretary  of  the  treasury  ;  and  John 
C.  Calhonn,  secretary  of  war  (res.  1817). 


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552  Modem  Hittary,  A.  D. 

1817.  BffisBiMippl  admitted  (20tli  state). 

1817-1818.  Seminole  war  (ilaokson).  Inyiuion  of  FUmdOy  then  a 
colony  of  Spain.     Execution  of  two  British  subjects. 

1818.  niinoia  admitted  (2lst  state). 

Penaiona  granted  to  the  survivors  of  the  revolntionary  war,  in 
needy  circumstances. 

Convention  with  Great  Britain  as  to  ^e  fisheries;  the  coun- 
try weat  of  the  "  Stony  [Rocky]  Mountains  "  to  be  occu- 
pied by  the  two  powers  in  common  for  ten  years,  etc. 

1819.  Treaty  with  Spain.  She  gave  up  all  claim  to  weat  Florida, 
(p.  432)  which  had  been  occupied  by  the  United  States  since 
1810,  and  ceded  eaat  Florida.  The  United  States  gave  up  all 
claim  to  Tezaa,  and  agreed  to  pay  an  indemnity  of  five  zniU- 
ions  to  its  own  citizens  for  cLiims  which  they  had  against  Spain. 

1819.  Alabama  (22d  state).    Financial  crisis. 

1820.  Maine  (23d  state).    Population  of  the  United  States  9,638,453. 

1820.  Missoiiri  compromise,  by  which  it  was  agreed  that 
slavery  should  be  prohibited  in  the  United  States  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  north  of  36°  SO'  north  latitude,  this  being  tho 

1821.  southern  border  of  Missouri,  which  was  admitted  as  a  slave 
state  (24th  state). 

1823,  Dec.  2.  The  president  in  his  annual  message  enunciated  the 
Monroe  doctrine  :  '<  That  the  American  oontinenta,  by 
the  free  and  independent  position  which  they  have  assumed 
and  maintained,  are  henceforth  not  to  be  considered  as  subjects 
ioT  future  colonization,  by  any  European  power;  **  and  that  the 
extension  of  the  system  of  the  Holy  alliance  (p.  485)  to 
America  would  not  be  viewed  "  in  any  other  light  than  as  the 
manifestation  of  an  unfriendly  disposition  toward  the  United 
States." 
Neither  of  the  candidates  for  president  receiving  a  majority  of 
the  electoral  vote,  the  house  of  representatives  chose 

1825-1829.  John  Quinoy  Adams  (b.  1767,  f  1348) 
(Massachusetts),  democrat,  president,  although  Andrew  Jack- 
son had  received  a  plurality  in  the  electoral  college  ;  John  C. 
Calhoun  (b.  1782,  f  1850),  vice-president ;  Henry  Clay  (b. 
1777, 1 1862),  secretary  of  state. 

1825.  The  Erie  canal  was  finished  ;  the  first  nulroad  in  America  (at 
Quincy,  Mass.)  was  completed  in  1827,  although  steam  was 
not  used  on  such  a  road  in  this  country  until  1829. 

1826.  Failure  of  the  Panama  congress,  and  1827  of  another  ap- 
pointed to  meet  near  the  city  of  Mexico.  These  were  at- 
tempts to  put  the  Monroe  doctrine  into  practice. 

1828.    Tariff  of  abominations. 

1829-1837.  Andrew  Jackson  (b.  1767, 1 1845),  (Tennes- 
see), democrat,  7th  president;  John  C.  Calhoun,  vice-president 
(res.  1831);  Martin  Van  Buren  (b.  1782,  f  1862),  secretary  of 
state. 

Inauguration  of  the  spoils  system  ;  about  690  office  holders 
removed  by  the  president  during  tJi^  first  year  of  Ids  admini 


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A.  D.  United  SUttes.  553 

istration,  in  contrast  with  only  seventy-four  xemoTals  by 
all  farmer  presidents.  The  government  was  now  in  the  hands 
of  those  who,  according  to  senator  Marcy  of  New  York,  saw 
**  nothing  wrong  in  the  rule  that  to  the  victor  belong  the 
spoils  of  the  enemy/' 

1829.  The  merchemts  of  Boston  protested  against  the  tariff  acts,  and 
were  followed  by  the  legislatures  of  South  Carolina,  Virginia, 
Alabama,  and  North  Carolina, 

1830.  Population  12,866,020  (5th  census). 

1830,  Jan.  27.    Speech  of  Daniel  ^Webster  (b.  1782,  f  1852),  in  the 

senate  of  the  United  States  in  reply  to  colonel  Hayne  of  South 
Carolina,  who  upheld  extreme  states-rights  views. 

1831.  'William  Uoyd  Garrison  established  in  Boston  a  paper 
called  the  Liberator,  advocating  the  immediate  and  uncondi- 
tioned emancipation  of  the  negroes.  This  led  to  the  organization 
of  the  abolitionists. 

1831.  Convention  with  France,  mutual  settlement  of  claims.  France 
to  pay  the  United  States  25,009,0vX)  francs,  and  to  be  paid 
1,300,000  francs,  such  sums  to  be  distributed  to  claimants  in 
either  country. 

The  tariff  act  of  1832,  while  containing  a  reduction  of  duties, 
retained  the  protective  principle.  A  convention  held  in  South 
Carolina  reported 

1832.  A  nullification  ordinance  (Nov.  1832),  which  de- 
clared that  the  tariff  laws  of  1828  and  1832  were  unconstitu- 
tional **  and  are  null  and  void,  and  no  law,  nor  binding  upon  this  state," 
etc.  Colonel  Hayne  was  elected  governor  of  South  Uarolina,  and  CaJ- 
houn  took  the  seat  thus  vacated  in  the  senate.  Dec.  10  president 
Jackson  issued  the  nullification  proclamation,  in  which  the  doc- 
trine of  states-rights  was  refuted  and  the  national  theory  set  forth ; 
and  he  declared  his  intention  of  executing  the  laws  of  the  United  States. 
This  was  followed  by  the  nullification  message,  1833,  Jan.  16.  This 
trouble  was  finally  ended  by  the  compromise  tariff  act,  introduced 
into  the  senate  by  Henry  Clay,  1833,  Feb.  12.  Both  sides  claimed 
the  victory. 

1835-1842.    War  with  the  Seminole  Indians. 

1836.  Arkansas  (25th  state). 

1837.  Michigan  (26th  state). 

1837-184L  Martin  Van  Buren  (New  York),  democrat, 
8th  president. 

1837.  Financial  crisis :  causes,  removal  (1833)  of  deposits  from 
the  United  States  bank  to  the  local  banks  ;  great  extension  of 
credit,  and  over-issue  of  paper  money  ;  contraction  of  the  vol- 
mne  of  the  currency  by  the  (1836,  July  11)  specie  circular, 
which  produced  a  great  scarcity  ^f  money. 

1837.  Rebellion  in  Canada,  burning  of  the  American  steamer  Car- 
oline by  the  royalists.    McLeocTs  case, 

1838-1839.  The  gag  resolutions,  by  which  con^ss  declared  that 
petitions  praying  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  m  the  District  of 

Columbia  or  against  the  interstate  slave  Urade  should  be  tabled  without 

being  debated,  referred,  or  printed. 


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554  Modem  History.  A.  d. 

1840.  Independent  treaeiiry  established ;  the  national  fnads  to  be 
kept  in  the  treasury  at  Washington  and  in  the  tub-treasuries 

established  in  certain  cities,  subject  to  tne  order  of  the  treasurer. 

1840.     Population  17,069,453  (6th  census). 
After  an  exciting  contest  was  elected 

1841-1845.  WiUiaxn  Henry  Uarriaon  (Ohio),  ivfiig,  9th 
president,  f  1841,  Apr.,  succeeded  by  John  Tyler  (b.  1790, 
f  1862)  of  Virginia,  vice-president.  Daniel  Waster,  secretary 
of  state  (res.  1843). 

1842.  The  northeastern  boundary  dispute  with  Great  Britain  set- 
tled by  the  Ashbtirton  treaty. 

1842.    Dorr  rebellion  in  Rhode  Island. 

1844.  Experimental  telegraph  line  between  Washington  and  Balti- 
more built  by  professor  8.  F.  B.  Morse  with  money  appro- 
priated by  congress. 

1845.  Florida  (27th  state). 

In  1821  Mexico  had  separated  from  Spaioy  and  in  1836  Texas 
declared  itself  independent  of  Mexico.     Houston  with  eight  hundred 
Texans  defeated  Santa  Anna  at  the  San  Jacinto  (1836,  Apr.  21),  and 
drove  the  Mexicans  across  the  Rio  Grande  ;  and 
1845»  March.     Tez£U9  W£U9  annexed  to  the  United  States. 
1845-1849.     James  K.  Polk  (Tennessee),  democrat,  11th 

president ;  James  Buchanan  (b.  1781,  f  1868),  secretary  of 

state. 

1845.  Texas  (28th  state)  ;  1846, Iowa  (29th  state). 

The  United  States  and  Great  Britain  claimed  the  territory 
west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  from  the  northern  boundary  of  Mexico, 
420  north  latitude,  to  the  southern  boundary  of  Alaska,  54^  W  north 
latitude.     By  the 

1846.  Oregon  treaty  this  tract  was  divided  between  them,  the  49th 
parallel  forming  the  boundary,  and  the  southern  portion,  which 
fell  to  the  United  States,  retained  the  name  of  Oregon. 

The  annexation  of  Texas  led  to  a 

1846-184a    T77ar  with  Mexico, 

which  was  invaded  by  an  army  from  the  north  commanded  by 
Zachary  Taylor  (b.  1786,  f  1850);  battles  of  Palo  Alto  (May  8), 
Resaca  (May  9).  Surrender  of  Monterey  (Sept.  24),  Buena 
Vista  (1847,  Feb.  22  and  23).  In  March,  1847,  another  army 
under  general  Scott  landed  near  Vera  Cruz,  which  surrendered 
March  29th.  He  then  set  out  for  the  city  of  Mexico,  and  won 
the  battles  of  Cerro  Gordo  (April  18),  Churubusco  (Aug.  20), 
captured  the  fortress  of  Chaptdtepec  (Sept.  12  and  13),  and  en- 
tered the  city  of  Mexico  (Sept.  14).  On  the  Pacific  the  Amer^ 
loans  had  been  equally  successful,  and  the  war  was  ended  by 
the 

1848»  Feb.  2.    Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo. 

Mexico  gave  up  all  claim  to  Texas,  the  Rio  Orande  to  be  the 
boundary,  and  ceded  to  the  United  States  the  provinces  of  New 
Mexico  and  Upper  CaMomia,  in  all  about  522,955  square 
miles,  in  consideration  of  fifteen  millions  of  dollars. 


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A.  P.  Dmied  Siatet.  555 

1848.    Wlsoonain  (30th  state). 

In  1846  the  Wilmot  proviso,  which  provided  that  ilaoerff 
should  not  be  permitted  in  whiUever  territory  should  be  acquired  from 
Mexico,  was  defeated ;  but  the  agitation  it  occasioned  led  to  the  organ- 
ization of 
184S.    The  Free  soil  party,  the  precursor  of  the  present  republican 

party. 
1849-1863.  Zaohary  Taylor  (Louisiana),  whig,  12th  presi- 
dent, t  July  9, 1850 ;  succeeded  by  Millard  Fillmore  of  New 
York,  vice-president.    John  M,  Clayton,  secrdtary  of  state  ;  fol- 
lowed by  Daniel  Webster  1850,  July  20,  f  1852  ;  who  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Edward  Everett  (b.  1794,  f  1865). 
1850.    Popuhition  23,191,876  (7th  census).    The  discovery  of  gold 
in  California  (1848^  had  led  to  the  rapid  population  of  that 
territory,  and  in  1850  it  became  the  31st  state. 
1850,  Sept.  Clay'a  oompromiaea  provided  for  the  admission  of  Cal- 
iromia  as  a  free  state  ;  for  the  payment  to  Texas  of  ten  millions 
for  her  claim  to  New  Mexico  ;  for  the  organization  of  Utah  and 
New  Mexico  as  territories  without  any  mention  of  slavery ;  for 
the  prohibition  of  the  slave  trade  in  the  District  of  Columbia ; 
and  for  the  rendition  of  slaves  who  had  escaped  to  free  states, 
this  last  known  as  the 
1850.    Fugitive  Slave  Law. 

1850,  April  19.    Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  with  Great  Britain  settled 
certain  questions  with  regard  to  communication  between  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  ;  whidi,  owing  to  the  acquisition  of  Cali- 
fornia, had  become  of  importance  to  the  United  States. 
1853-1857.     Franklin  Pierce  (New  Hampshire),  demo- 
crat, 14th  president ;   William  L.  Marcy,  secretary  of  state  ; 
Jefferson  Davis  (b.  1808  ;  f  1889),  secretary  of  war. 
1853^  Dec.  30.    Boundary  dispute  with  Meadoo  settled  by  the 
Gkidaden  pvachame  ;  by  which  the  boundary  was  to  be  the 
Rio  Grande  from  its  moulh  to  31^  20^  north  latitude  ;  thence  due 
west  to  the  111th  meridian  of  longitude  west  of  Greenwich  ;  thence 
in  a  straight  line  to  a  point  on  the  Colorado  river  twenty  miles  below 
the  junction  of  the  Qua  ;  thence  up  the  middle  of  the  Colorado  river 
until  it  intersects  the  boundary  of  California  as  determined  by  the 
treaty  of  1848.  The  price  was  ten  millions,  and  the  area  thus  acquired 
was  45,000  square  miles. 

1854.    Treaty  with  Japan,  which  opened  that  country  to  commer- 
cial intercourse  with  the  Unitea  States,  negotiated  by  commo- 
dore Perry  (p.  563). 
1854.    Reciprooity  treaty  with  Ghreat  Britain  secured  to  the 
Americans  the  right  to  the  *' fisheries  ^  **  and  certain  articles  were 
to  be  admitted  free  of  duty  into  the  Umted  States  and  the  British 
provinces.    This  treaty  was  terminated  in  1866  by  the  United  States. 
1854.    Kanaaa-Nebraska  bill  passed.    It  provided  for  the  organ- 
ization of  two  territories,  Kansas  ana  Nebraska,  and  left  the 
question  of  slavery  to  those  who  should  there  settle  (squatter  sov^ 
ereigniy),  thus  repealing  in  part  the  Mlsaouri  compromiae.    A 


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656  Modem  History.  jl  d. 

stru^le  immediately  ensued  between  the  slave-holdera  and  the  aboli- 
tioniflts  as  to  which  party  should  colonize  these  territories  first.  Sack 
of  Lawrence  by  «  border  ruffians  "  (1856,  May  21)  ;  battle  of  Ossawat- 
tomie  (John  Brown),  At  last  the  anti-slavery  party  proved  sacoessfoL 
1866.  Rise  of  ^^ Knouy-Nothingismy*  or  secret  opposition  to  foreign 
influence  in  national  legislation. 

1857-1861.    James  Buchcuiaji  (Pennsylvania),  democrat, 

15th  president. 
1857.  In  the  Dred  Scott  case  the  supreme  court  decided  that  un- 
der the  constitution  neither  negro  slaves  nor  their  descen- 
dants, slave  or  free,  could  become  cittaens  of  the  United  States  ; 
and  added,  as  a  dictum,  that  the  Missouri  compromise  was  vnconsHtu- 
Honal,  and  that  therefore  a  slave  did  not  become  free  by  being  carried 
to  a  territory  where  slavery  had  been  prohibited  under  that  compro- 
mise. 

1857.  Great  commercial  distress  throughout  the  country. 

1858.  Mlzmesota  (32d  state)  ;  1859,  Oregon  (33d  state). 

1859.  John  Brown  with  a  handful  of  men  seised  the  United 
Oct  19.  States  arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry;  but,  after  half  his  men 

were  killed,  was  captured,  and  hanged  December  2d  of  the 
same  year. 

1860.  PopuUtion  of  the  United  States  31,443,332  (8th  census). 
1860,  Nov.     Abraham  Idncoln  (b.  1809,  f  IdOo)  of  Illinois,  re- 
publican, received  the  electoral  votes  of  all  the  free  states,  — 

New  Jersey  excepted,  — but  none  from  the  slave  states,  and  was  de- 
clared president-elect.    {New  Jersey  gave  Lincoln  4,  Douglas  3  votes.) 

1860,  Dec.  20.    South  Carolina  seceded  from  the  union,  and  was 

followed  by  Mississippi,  Florida,  Alabama,  Georgia,  Lou- 
isiana, and  North  Carolina  in  January,  1861  ;  by  Texas  in  Febru- 
ary ;  Virginia  in  April ;  and  by  Tennessee  and  Arkansas  in  May. 
Missouri  and  Kentucky  declared  themselves  neutral.  Delegates  from 
the  seceded  states  met  in  c0kivention  at  Montgomery,  Alabama,  1861, 
Feb.  4  ;  and  formed  a  provisional  government  under  the  style  of  the 
Confederate  States  of  America,  Feb.  8.  Jefferson  Davis  was 
elected  president ;  Alexander  H,  Staohens,  vice-president  The  se- 
ceding states  endeavored  to  seize  all  the  national  property  within 
their  borders,  and  were  successful  except  at  Pensacola  (Florida)  and 
Charleston  (South  Carolina).  At  the  latter  place  the  commander 
of  the  United  States  forces  withdrew  to  an  unmiished  fort,  Sumter, 
on  an  island  in  the  harbor,  Dec.  26, 1860  ;  and  on  the  9th  of  January, 
1861,'  a  steamer,  the  Star  of  the  West,  bringing  him  supplies,  ^v^as 
fired  on  by  the  state  forces,  and  forced  to  return. 

1861,  Jan.  29.    Kansas  admitted  to  the  union  as  2k  free  (34th)  state. 

1861.  Linooln  reached  Washirigton  in  safetnr  Feb.  23  ;  and 
was  inaugurated  (16th)  president  of  the  United  States  on 
March  4  without  disturbance.  William  H.  Seward,  secretary  of 
state  ;  Simon  Cameron,  succeeded  Jan.  1862,  by  Bdwin  M.  Stan- 
ton, secretary  of  war ;  Salmon  P.  Chase,  secretary  of  the  treasury. 

The  government  of  the  so-called  confederate  states  attempted  to  open 
negotiations,  with  the  federal  authorities,  for  a  peaceful  separatioi], 


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A.  D.  Dhtted  States.  557 

but  the  president  declined  to  entertain  any  sneh  propositions.  On  the 
contrary,  it  was  determined  to  succour  the  garrison  in  Charleston 
harbor.  The  insurgents  fired  on  fort  Sumter  1861,  Apr.  12,  which 
surrendered  Apr.  14. 

1861-1865.    The  Civil  Wax. 

Apr.  15,  the  president  issued  a  proclamation  calling  for 
75,000  voltmteers  to  serve  for  three  months  ;  and  summoned  congress 
to  meet  July  4.  April  18  a  few  companies  of  FennsylTania  mili- 
tia reached  Washington  ;  and  on  April  19,  the  anniTersary  of  the  bat- 
tle of  Lexington,  the  sixth  Massachusetts  regiment  was  attacked 
by  a  mob  while  passing  through  Baltimore.  Tne  same  day  the  pres- 
ident declared  the  ports  of  the  seceded  states  to  be  in  a  state  of 
blockade.  On  May  3d  he  issued  a  call  for  42,000  men  to  serve  for 
three  years  or  the  war.  May  13,  Great  Britain  recognised  the 
so-called  confederate  states  as  belligerents.    June  10  the  union  i 

troops  were  repulsed  at  Big  Bethel,  and  July  21  were  routed  at  Bull  ln^Oow^cij.^ 
Ron  or  Manassas.  n^^eAf 

Nov.  1.  Gheorge  B.  McClellan  succeeded  general  Scott  in  command 
of  the  union  forces,  Nov.  8,  Mason  and  Slidell,  commissioners 
from  the  confederate  states  to  Great  Britain  and  France,  were 
taken  from  the  British  mail  cteamer  Trent  by  the  American 
steamer  San  Jacinto,  War  with  Great  Britain  averted  through 
the  prudence  and  skill  of  Mr.  Setoard,  The  commissioners 
were  given  up,  and  thus  was  established  a  principle  of  inter- 
national law  for  which  the  United  States  had  invariably  con- 
tended. 

Events  of  1862.  Feb.  6,  capture  of  Fort  Henry  (in  Ten- 
nessee) by  the  union  forces.  Feb.  16,  **  unconditional  sur- 
render "  of  Fort  Donelson  to  general  U.  8.  Ghrant  (b.  1822  ; 
t  1885^.  Mar.  9,  Monitor  and  Merrimac.  Mar.  14,  cap- 
ture Of  Newborn.  Apr.  6  aud  7,  battle  of  Shiloh  or  Pitts- 
burgh landing  (Grant) ;  retreat  of  the  coufederates.  Apr. 
16,  slavery  abolished  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  April  24, 
a  fleet  under  flag-officer  (afterwards  admiral)  David  G.  Far- 
ragut  ran  the  forts  below  New  Orleans,  and  received  the 
surrender  of  that  city  the  next  day. 
Ifareh  to  July,  Peninsular  campaign  (McClellan).  Battle  of  Fair- 
Oaks  May  31  and  June  1 ;  seven  days  battles  before  Rich- 
mond (Mechanicsville,  Gaines*s  Mill,  White  Oak  swamp,  and 
Malvern  Hill  July  1)  ;  withdrawal  from  the  peninsula.  The 
7*  confederate  army,  now  under  the  command  of  general  Rob- 

ert E.  Lee  (b.  1807,  t  1870),  pressed  forward  toward  Wash- 
ington. Battle  of  Cedar  Mountain  (Aug.  5)  ;  defeat  of  the 
union  army  under  Pope  .at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run, 
Aug.  30.  Lee  crossed  the  Potomac  into  Maryland,  but  was  de- 
feated at  South  Mountain,  and  after  the  battle  of  the  Antie- 
tam  (Sept.  17)  recrossed  the  Potomac,  McClellan  superseded 
by  Bumsidef  who  was  repulsed  with  great  loss  at  Fredericks- 
burg (Deo.  13),  and  was  succeeded  (Jan.  26)  by  general 
Hooker, 


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558  Modem  Bittory,  A.  D. 

Events  of  1863.  After  the  battle  of  the  Antietam  the  presu 
dent  had  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  that  aU  slaves  in 
states  or  parts  of  states  in  rebellion  Jan.  1, 1863,  should  then 
be  free  ;  and  on  that  day  he  issued  the  formal  emancipation 
proclamation. 

^e  army  of  the  Potomac,  under  general  Hooker,  defeated  at 
GhanceUon^Ule  (May  3).  f  Stonewall  Jackson  (b.  1826). 
Ziee  again  attempted  an  invasion  of  the  north,  bat  was  de- 
feated by  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  now  commanded  by  gen- 
eral George  O.  Meade  (b.  1816,  f  '1872\  at  Gettysburg 
(July  1-3).  Julyi,  Vicksborg  Burrenderea  toGhrant.  These 
two  events  were  the  turning  points  of  the  war.  Grant  assumed 
command  of  the  military  division  of  the  Mississippi^  and  with 
force  composed  of  the  army  of  the  Cumberland  commanded  by 
Thomas  (b.  1816,  f  1870),  and  reinforcements  from  Vicksburg 
under  T77illiam  T.  Sherman  (b.  1820 ;  f  1891),  and  from 
the  Potomac  under  Hooker,  fought  and  won  the  battles  of 
Lookout  Mountain  and  Missionary  Ridge  at  Chatta- 
nooga, Tennessee,  Nov.  24  and  25. 

West  Virginia  (loyal  portion  of  Virginia)  (35th  state). 

Events  of  1864.  Grant  made  a  lieutenant-general  (March  9), 
and  commander-in-chief  (Mar.  12)  of  all  the  armies  of  the 
United  States  which  henceforth  opmUed  on  a  settled  plan.  May 
3,  Grant  with  the  army  of  the  Potomac  under  general  Meade 
crossed  the  Rapidan,  fought  the  battles  of  the  'Wlldemeas 
(May  5  to  12),  Spottsylvania  (May  12-21),  North  Anna 
(May  21-31),  Cold  Harbor  (June  1-3),  and  sat  down  before 
Petersburg,  June  19.  A  confederate  force  under  Early  was 
sent  to  thieaten  Washington,  and  thus  to  secure  the  with- 
drawal of  Grant.  Early  penetrated  into  Maryland  and  Penn- 
sylvania, but  was  defeated  by  Sheridan  (b.  1831)  at  Opequan 
rSept.  19),  Fisher's  HiU  (Sept.  21),  and  at  Cedar  Creek 
(Oct.  19).  The  Shenandoah  valley  was  then  devastated, 
and  Sheridan  rejoined  Grant  before  Petersburg.  The  western 
armies  under  Sherman  began  a  campaign  against  the  confed- 
erates led  by  general  Joe  Johnston  (b.  1807)  May  6,  and 
after  a  series  of  engagements  reached  Atlanta,  wluch  was 
evacuated  by  the  confederates  Sept.  2.  A  portion  of  his  army 
was  then  sent  north  under  Thomas  to  watch  Hood  (the  sue- 
cessor  of  Johnston),  who  was  finally  defeated  before  Nash- 
ville, Deo.  15  and  16.  Meanwhile  Sherman,  after  burning  At- 
lanta, started  on  the  march  through  Georgia.  He  reached 
the  sea  Dec.  12,  and  took  Savannah  Dec.  22.  On  the  water 
the  Kearsarge  (  Winslow)  sank  the  confederate  steamer  Ala- 
bama off  Cherbourg  (Alabama  claims,  p.  560)  ;  and  a  fleet 
under  vice-admiral  Farragut  ran  the  f oits  at  Mobile,  Aug.  5. 

1864,  Nov.    Nevada  (36th  state). 

Kov.  8.  Reflection  of  Abraham  Iiincoln.  Andrew  Johnson,  vice- 
president. 

1865.  The  Thirteenth  Amendment,  prohibiting  slav- 


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A.  V.  United  States.  559 

ery  within  the  United  States,  was  proposed  bj  oongress 
Feb.  1,  and  was  declared  ratified  Dec.  18th. 

Etvents  of  1865-  Surrender  of  Fort  Fisher  to  general 
Terry,  Jan.  15.  OrarU  had  f^radually  drawn  his  lines  around 
Lee's  light  flank,  and  on  Apnl  let  Sheridan  won  the  battle  of 
Five  Forks,  which  compelled  the  eyacuation  of  Petersburg 
April  2,  and  the  surrender  of  Richmond  April  3.  Ghrant,  with 
his  whole  army,  nnder  Meade  and  Shendan,  pursued  Lee, 
who,  being  surrounded,  capitulated  at  Appomattox  Conrt 
House,  Apnl  9.  Meantime  Sherman  had  set  out  from  So" 
vannah  for  the  narthf  Feb.  1.  On  Feb.  17,  he  compelled  the 
evacuation  of  Charleston,  and  on  April  26  received  the  surren- 
der of  the  last  confederate  army,  under  Johnston. 

1865,  April  15.    Assassination  of  Lincoln. 
Andrew  Johnson,  tfice-prendent,  succeeds. 

Cost  of  the  wjur.  National  debt  in  1860,  664,842,287 ;  m  1866^ 
82,773,236,173,  which  great  increase  was  in  addition  to  the 
debts  incurred  by  the  states  and  municipalities. 

1865,  May  22.    The  southern  ports  declared  open. 

May  29.    Amnesty  to  all  persons  engaged  in  the  rebellion,  with  the 

exception  of  fourteen  specified  classes. 
1866^  Apr.  9.    Civil  rights  bill  passed  over  the  president's  veto. 

June  16.  Fourteenth  amendment,  securing  to  ihefreedmen 
the  right  of  citizenship,  declaring  the  validity  of  the  national 
debt,  and  regulating  the  basis  of  representation  and  disquatifi" 
cation  from  Office,  proposed  by  congress,  and  declared  latified 
1868,  July  28. 

3866,  July  16.  Act  to  continue  the  freedmen's  bnrean,  which  had 
charge  of*  the  loyal  and  suffering  classes,  black  and  whUe,  in 
the  southern  states,  passed  over  the  president's  veto. 

1866,  July  27.  Telegraphic  communication  finally  established 
with  Great  Britain. 

1867,  March  1.    Nebraska  (37th  state). 

Mar.  2.  Beconstruotion  act  passed  over  the  president's 
yeto.  It  divided  the  ten  southern  states  into  five  military 
districts,  each  commanded  by  an  army  officer,  who  should  see 
to  the  protection  of  life  and  property.  The  seceded  states 
to  be  restored  to  their  place  in  the  vmion,  whenever  a  con- 
vention of  delegates,  '*  elected  by  the  male  citizens,  ...  of 
whatever  race,  color,  or  previous  condition,"  except  those  dis" 
franchised  for  participation  in  rebdlion,  etc.,  should  frame  a  con- 
stitution, which,  being  ratified  by  the  people  and  approved  by  con~ 
gress,  should  go  into  operation,  and  the  leg;islature  thereupon 
elected  should  adopt  the  fourteenth  amendment. 

1867,  Mar.  4.  Tenure  of  office  bill  passed  over  the  president's  veto. 

1867,  Mar.  30.  Alaska  purchase  Area  577,340  square  miles; 
price  a  little  over  seven  million  dollars. 

1868,  Feb.  2'4-May  26.  Impeachment  of  president  An* 
drew  Johnson  by  the  house  of  representatives.    He  had  op« 


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660  Modem  Mstory,  A.  d. 

posed  the  reconstraction  measures  of  congress  ;  but  the  imme* 
diate  cause  of  the  impeachment  vras  an  Sieged  violation  of  the 
tenure  of  office  act  of  1867,  Mar.  4.  The  senate  acquitted  him 
by  one  vote  (35  to  19,  the  constitution  requiring  a  two  thirds 
majority). 

1868,  Dec.  25.    Amnesty  extended. 

1869,  Feb.  26.  Fifteenth  amendment,  that  the  rtghi  to 
vote  shall  not  he  denied  or  abridged  on  aeoount  of  **  race,  odor^ 
or  previous  condition  of  servitude^**  proposed  by  congress,  and 
declared  ratified,  1870,  Mar.  30. 

1869,  Mar.  4-1877>  Mar.  5.  Ulysses  8.  Grant  (Illinois), 
republican,  18th  president. 

1870,  Population  38,555,983  (9th  census). 

1871,  Mar.  3.  A  clause  in  the  appropriation  bill  authorized  the 
president  to  appoint  a  civil  service  commission  to  prescribe 

rules,  etc. 

1871,  May  8.  Treaty  of  Washington  with  Great  Britain 
provided :  1.  For  the  reference  to  the  emperor  of  Grermany  of 
the  dispute  as  to  the  Oregon  boundary  (decided  in  favor  of  the 
United  States,  1872,  Oct  21).  2.  For  a  partial  settlement  of  the 
fishery  dispute  (Halifax  award,  1877,  gave  Great  Britain  five  and 
one  half  million  dollars)  ;  this  part  of  the  treaty  abrogated  by  act  of 
the  United  States,  1883.  3.  For  the  settlement  of  the  Alabama 
clalmB  (Greneva  tribunal  of  arbitration  awarded  to  the  United  States 
over  fifteen  million  dollars). 

1873.    Commerolal  oriels.    1875.    Colorado  (38th  state). 
1876.     Centennial  exhibition  at  Philadelphia. 

1876.  The  national  elections  of  this  year  were  very  close,  and  con- 
gress appointed  an  electoral  commission  (five  senators,  five 
representatives,  and  five  justices  of  the  supreme  court),  which 
declared  the  republican  candidate  elected. 

1877»  Mar.  5-1881»  Mar.  4.  Rutherford  B.  Hayes  (Ohio), 
republican,  19th  president. 

1879,  Jan.  1.    Resumption  of  specie  payments. 

1880,  Population  50,155,783  (10th  census). 

1881,  Mar.  4.    James  A.  Garfield  (Ohio),  repablican,  20tb 

g resident.    July  2,  shot  and  mortally  wounded,     f  Sept.  19. 
ucceeded  by  the  vice-president,  Chester  A.  Axtbnr,  of  New 
York,  republican. 

1882,  May  6.  Immigration  of  Chinese  laborers  suspended 
for  ten  years,  in  accordance  with  a  treaty  with  China,  con- 
cluded 1880,  Nov.  7. 

1883,  Jan.  9.  Civil  service  act  (Pendleton  bill)  introduced 
the  principle  of  compulsory  competitive  examination  into  the 
civil  service  of  the  United  States.  (^See  p.  586.) 

$6.    CHINA.  {Seep.U5.) 

1796-1882. 
1796-1820.     Kiaklng. 

Frequent  insurrections,  rampant  piracy.    Embassy  of  lord  Am-- 
herst  (1816). 

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Mu  D*  China.  561 


X820-185a    Tankwang. 

The  exclusive  privilege  of  the  East  India  company  ceasing  in 
1834,  lord  Napier  was  appointed  superintendent  of  British  trade 
(t  1834).  Imperial  prohibition  of  the  opium  trade.  Commissioner 
Lin  sent  to  Cantcm  with  extraordinary  powers  (1838^.  Surrender  of 
opium  hy  Capt.  EUioit  British  commissioner  to  the  Chinese,  by  whom 
it  was  destroyed  (over  20,000  chests),  1839,  Mar.-June.  llie  con- 
tinuance of  the  trade,  and  the  English  demands  that  the  loss  be  made 
good  to  their  traders,  caused  the 

1840-1842.  FixBt  war  with  Great  Britain  (Opium  war).  A 
treaty  concluded,  by  Keshiny  successor  of  Lin  (Hon^-kong 
ceded  to  England),  was  rejected  by  the  emperor.  The  Engliui  cap- 
tured Amoy  (1842,  Aug.  27),  iVtn^^po  (Oct.  13),  Shang^Mi  (1842, 
June  19),  and  stormed  Ching-keang  (July  21). 
1842,  Auj?.  29.    Treaty  of  Nanking. 

1.  Canton,  Amoy,  FtAchau,  Ning^,  SJumghai,  opened  to  British 
trade.  2.  Hong-kong  ceded  to  England.  3.  The  Chinese  paid 
821,000,000.  4.  Establishment  of  a  regular  tariff.  5.  Official  inter- 
course to  be  on  a  basis  of  equality. 

1844,  July  3.    Trea^  with  the  United  States  (Caleb  Cushing,  am- 
bassador),   l^eaty  with  France  (Oct.  23). 
1850-1860.     Hienfong. 

1850,  Aug.  Outbreak  of  the  Tai-ping  rebellion  (1850-1864).  The 
leader  was  Huna  SwrUuen,  who  called  himself  Tien-teh  ('*  ce- 
lestial virtue  "),  and  claimed  to  have  been  commissioned  by  heaven 
to  conduct  a  political  and  religions  reform  of  the  empire.  Fromulgar 
tion  of  a  religious  system  based  on  some  knowledge  of  Christianity. 
1853.  Capture  of  Nanking  (Mar.  19),  Shanghai  (Sept  7).  Sui- 
tauen  proclaimed  emperor. 

1855.  Failure  of  the  attack  made  by  the  rebels  on  Peking. 

1856,  Oct  8.    The  lorcha^  Arrow,  owned  by  a  Chinese,  but  com- 

manded by  an  Irishman  and  flying  the  British  fla^,  was 
boarded  at  Canton  by  Chinese  officers  in  seami  of  suspected  pirates  ; 
twelve  natives  were  carried  off  and  the  flag  pulled  down. 
1856,  Nov.    Three  Chinese  forts  destroyea  by  the  American  fleet 

under  commodore  Armstrong,  the  Chineise  having  fired  upon 
American  boats. 

The  attempt  of  the  English  government  (PalmersUm,  p.  543)  to  ob- 
tain a  disavowal  of  4he  attack  upon  the  Arrow,  or  an  apology  ther&» 
for,  resulted  in  the 
1857-1860.     (Second)  war  with  Great  Britain  allied  with  France. 

Lord  Elgin,  English  envoy.  Destruction  of  the  Chinese  fleet 
(1857,  May  26,  27).  Capture  of  Canton  (Deo.  28,  29).  Treatiea  of 
Tientsin  (June,  1858)  with  Great  Britain,  France,  the  United 
Statea. 

Infraction  of  the  treaty  (1859,  June),  renewal  of  the  war.  Repulse 
of  the  English  attempt  to  force  the  passage  of  the  Peirho  forts  (June 

■*  Lorcha:  a  light  Chinese  sailing  ressf',  carrying  gims,  built  after  the  EuriK 
pMn  model,  but  rigged  like  a  Chinese  junk.  —  Impkual  DicnoMABT. 


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662  Modern  Miitary,  A*  D. 

25).    Chinese  defeat  at  PaWcao  (1860,  Se^  21}.    Destraction  of  the 
Bummer  palace  (Oct.  6),  surrender  of  Pekmg  (Oct.  12). 
1860,  Oct  24.    Treaty  of  Peking. 

Ratification  of  the  treaty  of  Tientsin;  toleration  of  Chtis- 
tianitj  ;  revised  tariff ;  payment  of  an  indemnity ;  resident  amhawnv- 
dors  at  Peking, 
1860-1875.    Tangchly  six  years  old. 

Palace  revolution.    Administration  of  prince  Kung.     Reor- 
ganization of  the  imperial  army  under  general  Ward,  an  American 
(t  1861),  and  colonel  Gordon,  an  Englishrnan.    The  "  ever  Tictorions 
force." 
1862-1864.     Suppression  of  the  rebellion.     Capture  of  Nanking 

(1864,  July  19).    Suicide  of  Hxmg  SuiUsuen. 
1866.    Successful  rebellion  of  Yakub  Beg  (f  1877)  in  Kashgar. 
1868.    Embassy  of  Anson  Burlingame  (fuid  two  Chinese  envoys)  to 

the  treahr  powers.   (Burlingame  f  1870.) 

1870,  May.  Mouinamedan  rebeUion  in  the  northwest  (ytm-fiofiy 
Kan-suh), 

1871.  Rnsaia  annexed  Ktddja,  until  the  Chinese  power  should  be 
reestablished  in  that  region. 

1873.  Settlement  of  the  audience  question  ;  foreign  ambassadors  re- 
ceived by  the  emperor  without  the  ceremony  of  prostration 
(koUno).    Suppression  of  the  Mohammedan  rebellion. 

1875-1908.    Kwangail,  three  years  old  {Tsairtien), 

1876,  June  30.    Opening  of  the  first  railroad  in  China  (Shanghai  to 

Woosung,  eleven  miles). 
1877-1878.     l%rrible  famine  in  the  north  of  China. 

1877,  Dec.    Defeat  and  assassination  of  Yakub  Beg,     Capture  of 

Kashgar. 
1879,  June.    Treaty  with  Russia  negotiated  bv  Chtmg-hmo :  China 
obtained  only  a  portion  of  Kuldja  and  paid  an  indemnity.  Re- 
jection of  the  treaty. 

1881,  Aug.  ^    Peace  with  Russia  negotiated  by  the  marquis  Tseng, 

Cession  of  nearly  all  of  the  Kuldja  district ;  China  paid  the 
expenses  of  Russian  occupation. 

1882.  A  threatened  war  with  Japan  avoided  by  Chinese  diplomacy. 
Dispute  with  the  French  over  Tonguin  (j^,  635).    (See  p,  694J) 

§7.    JAPAN.  (Seep, 445.) 

1817-1882. 

1817-1846,  Ninko  ITO^S^^^TyS^!' 

(1838-1853        lyeyoshi. 

1846-1866,  Komei         \  1853-1859        lyesada. 

( 1859-1866        lyemochi. 
1867  — X.   Mutsuhito       1866-1868        Keiki  (Uitotsubashi-yoshi- 

nobu  ;  Noriyoehi). 
Growing  dissatisfaction  with  the  usurped  power  of  the  shognns 
jimong  the  samurai ;  jealousy  of  the  long  possession  of  the  shognnate 
by  the  Tokugawa  family  (1603-1868)  amonff  the  great  damios, 
1853,  July  7.  Commodore  Perry,  of  the  United  States  navy,  en- 
tered the  harbor  of  Yedo  with  four  vessels,  but  soon  departed  i 
in  Feb.  1854,  he  returned,  and  concluded  a  ^  j 

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▲•  p.  Jaj^n,  563 

1854,  Mar.  21.  Treaty  between  Japan  and  the  United  States, 
which  was  signed  by  the  shogun^  whom  Perry  took  to  be  the 
''secnlar  emperor  "  of  Japan,  under  the  newly  ajssumed  title  of  toi- 
hm  (tycoon,  *<  great  prince,"  properly  a  title  of  the  mikado).  Trea- 
ties with  Oreat  Britain  (1854,  Oct.  14),  and  Rnsaia  (1855,  Jan.  26). 
In  1858  treaties  (peace,  amity,  unrestricted  commerce)  concluded 
with  the  United  States  (Toumshend Harris),  Great  Britain  (Elgin), 
France,  Russia,  —  all  signed  by  the  shogun. 

1859.  Yokohama,  Nagasaki,  Hakodate,  opened  to  trade. 

These  unwarranted  assumptions  of  power  on  the  part  of  the 
shogun  angered  the  mikado  and  ike  Kioto  court,  where  the  foreigners 
were  regaraed  with  deep  distrust. 

1860.  first  Japanese  embassy  to  the  United  States  sent  out  by  /t, 
prime  minister  of  the  shog^  (assassinated  Mar.  23). 

1861-1865.  Civil  dissensions.  Outrages  upon  foreif;n  repretenta- 
tives.  Death  of  an  Englishman  (^Richardson)  m  a  broil  with 
the  train  of  the  brother  of  the  prince  of  Satsuma,  avenged  by  the 
bombardment  of  Kagoshima  (in  Satsuma),  and  the  exaction  of 
^625,000  (1862). 

1862.  The  datmios,  released  from  compulsory  residence  at  Yedo, 
flocked  to  Kioto. 

1863.  Some  American,  Dutch,  and  French  vessels,  having  anchored 
in  the  forbidden  roadstead  of  Shimonoseki  after  due  warning, 

were  fired  upon.     In  reprisal  these  powers  bombarded  the  batteries, 
inflicting  considerable  loss.    In  spite  of  this 

1864,  Sept.  4.    Bombardment  and  destruction  of  the  Shimonoseki 

batteries  by  English,  French,  Dutch,  and  American  vessels. 
Exaction  of  an  indenmity  of  $3,000,000,  of  which  the  United  States 
received  $785,000.1 

1865,  Nov.  25.    Ratification  of  treaties  extorted  by  the  foreign  pow* 

ers. 

1867.  Nov.  19.    Resignation  of  Keiki,  the  last  shogun. 

1868.  Restoration  of  the  mikado.    End  of  the  dual  goy- 
emment. 

The  proclamation  setting  forth  the  resumption  of  government 
by  the  mikado  (1868,  Jan.  3)  was  followed  by  the  revolt  of  Keiki  and 
by  open  war,  which,  after  severe  fighting  (battles  of  Fushind,  1868, 
Jan.  27-30  ;  Wakamatsu,  Hakodate),  ended  in  favor  of  the  imperial- 
ists (June,  1869). 

1869.  Nov.    Residence  of  the  mikado  transferred  from  Kioto  to  Yedo 

(Jeddo),  the  name  of  the  latter  place  having  been  previously 
changed  to  Tokio  ("  the  eastern  capital    ). 

1870.  The  mikado,  by  advice  of  the  leading  sctmurai  {Okubo), 
changed  front,  and  welcomed  the  foreigners. 

1871.  Embassy  to  the  United  States  and  Europe. 

187L     Abolition  of  feudalism ;  relegation  of  the  daimios 
to  private  life  ;  abolition  of  the  title  ;  exchange  of  their  rev- 
enues for  pensions. 

1  In  Feb.  1883,  the  house  of  repreMntatives  accepted  a  favorable  report  upon 
the  Japanese  indemnity  bill.    Repayment  of  the  $785,000  without  interest. 


uigitized  Dy  vjv^' 


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564  Modem  ERtUny.  A.  d. 

AiMimnation  to  western  etvilixatioiL  Iflsiie  of  a  code  of  crimiiial 
law  (reyiaed  1881)  ;  establishmeiit  of  a  govemment  post ;  introduo- 
tion  of  the  telegraph  ;  railroad  from  Tokohama  to  Shinogaaa  (1872); 
bureau  of  education  ;  adoption  of  the  Gregorian  calendar  (1874|  Jan. 
1)  ;  female  normal  school  (1876)  ;  universitj  of  Tokio  (1873);  ree»- 
tablishment  of  the  Skinto  faith  (p.  32)  ;  new  military  system. 
1874.  Expedition  to  Formo$a^  avengmg  the  murder  of  Japanese  sail- 
ors on  that  island. 

1876.  Enforcement  of  a  treaty  with  Corea. 

1877.  Bebellion  in  Satauina  (Saigot  Kirimo)  suppressed  after  heavy 
fighting  (SaigOyf  Sept  24).  Large  issue  of  moonyertible  paper 
money  to  de&ay  the  expenses. 

1878.  Establishment  of  local  elective  assemblies  for  regulating  local 
taxation,  and  with  right  of  petitioning  the  central  govemment ; 

francHise  secured  to  all  males  twenty-one  years  of  age  who  pay  a 

knd  tax  of  $5.00. 

1881.    Negotiations  with  the  foreign  powers  relative  to  the  adoption 

of  a  higher  tariff,  and  to  the  abolition  of  the  privilege  enjoyed 
bv  foreigners  of  living  under  the  jurisdiction  of  their  native  country. 
Dispute  with  China  over  the  LoO'Choo  islands. 
18^  Oct.    Imperial  decree  establishing  a  new  ooostitntion  \  promise 

of  a  national  anembly  in  1890  (p.  594).  {Seep.  594.) 


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APPENDIX  (1883— x). 


§8.  GBEAT  BRITAIN.  (Bee  p.  646,) 

1883-1908. 

1883^  Jan.  18.  Fnuioe  haying  declined  to  join  in  the  expedition  against 
Arabif  the  dnal  control^  was  abolished  ij  the  khedive 
(^Tewfik  Paska),  and  a  Britlah  financial  agent  appointed  in 
place  of  the  controllers.  Sir  Evelyn  Barina  (later  Lord  Cro- 
mer)»  British  diplomatic  agent  and  consul-general.  In  the 
Soudan  the  mahdi  Muhammad  Ahmad  was  conducting  a  reli- 
gions revolt  Hicks  Pasha's  Egyptian  army  annihilated  (Nov. 
3-5»  1883);  (Valentine)  Baker  Pasha  defeated  (Feb.  4, 1884). 
Great  Britain  insisted  on  eyacnation  of  the  Soudan,  and 

1884|  Feb.  18.  Gen.  Charles  Gordon  ("Chinese"  Gordon,  p.  562) 
arrived  at  Khartum  to  withdraw  the  garrisons  and  establish  a 
native  government. 

Feb.  27.  By  the  Convention  of  London  the  Sonth  Afrioan 
republic,  now  first  so-called,  was  granted  practical  inde- 
pendence in  internal  affairs,  but  Cheat  Britain  reserved  a  veto 
over  treeOies  with  other  states,  except  the  Orange  Free .  State 
and  native  tribes.  Draft  gnarantMing  fuU  independence  was 
refected  by  Great  Britain;  but  the  new  convention  made  no 
mention  of  preamble  of  convention  of  1881,  in  which  the  suzer^ 
amty  of  Qreat  Britain  was  asserted,  while  it  expressly  substi- 
tuted its  articles  for  the  articles  of  1881.  Western  lx>undary 
established. 

Nov.  6.    Protectorate  proclaimed  over  southeastern  New  Guinea. 

Dec.  6.  Third  reform  aot  received  royal  assent  (pi>.  540,  544). 
Uniform  franchise  in  counties  and  troughs,  ana  in  the  three 
kingdoms;  about  2,500,000  enfranchised.  Redistribution  of 
seats  act  (June  25,  1885)  ;  counties  now  have  more  seats  than 
boroughs  have  ;  single  member  seats.  Total  members  of  par- 
liament, 670. 

1885,  Jan.  26.  Khartum  oaptored  by  the  mahdi;  death  of  gen. 
Gordon.  A  relief  expedition  which  had  been  demanded  by 
the  opposition  since  March,  1884,  had  started  under  lord 
Wolsdey  in  Sept.    After  severe  fighting  {Abu  Klea,  Jan.  14) 

1  Egypt  became  bankrupt  in  1876  in  conseanence  of  loans  contracted  by 
the  khedive  Ismail  Pasha  (aeposed,  1879),  and  the  financial  aifairs  were  under- 
taken by  the  nations  representing  the  chief  creditors.  In  1881  France  and 
Great  Britain  practically  assumed  the  administration  of  the  coantry. 

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566  Modem  History.  ▲.  n. 

aa  advanced  g^ard  approached  Khartum,  Jan.  28,  but  the  ex- 
pedition was  toithdraum, 

March  30.  Rusnans  occupied  Penjdeh,  driving  oat  Afghan  force. 
Rupture  imminent,  but  an  adjustment  was  finally  made  and  the 
Russian-Afghan  froniier  delimited  by  joint  commission  (1886), 
Russia  retaining  Penjdeh. 

March-A^y.  Rebellion  of  Louis  Riel  iu  Northwest  territory, 
Canada.     Riel  surrendered,  May  15  ;  executed,  Nov.  16. 

June  23.  Lord  Saliabary  (b.  1830 ;  M.  P.,  1854 ;  lord,  1868 ; 
1 1903),  prime  minister. 

Sept.  30.  British  Bechuanaland  made  a  crown  colony ;  protectorate 
over  Northern  Bechuanaland. 

1886.  Canadian  and  Bering  sea  fisheries  ^p.  586). 

Jan.  1.  Upper  Burma  annexed  to  British  India  as  result  of  the 
defeat  of  king  Theebato, 

Jan.  12.  XQeventh  (23d  imperial)  parliament  of  Viotoria  met, 
Irish  nationalists  (86)  holding  balance  of  power.  Bradlauffhf 
after  repeated  exclusions  because  of  his  relijgious  opinions,  was 
allowed  to  take  the  oath.     Government  de&ated,  and 

Feb.  12.  Gladstone  became  premier  for  the  third  time ;  sir  W. 
Vernon  Harcourt  (exchequer),  lord  Rosehery  (foreign),  John 
Morley  (Ireland),  Joseph  Chamberlain  (local  government 
board). 

April  8.  Gladstone  introduced  a  Home  rule  bill  for  Ireland. 
Separate  parliament,  and  Irish  members  excluded  from  the 
imperial  parliament ;  lord-lieutenant  appointed  by  the  crown 
with  right  of  veto  ;  prerogatives  of  crown  untouched;  customs 
and  excise  under  British  treasury;  Ireland  to  pay  ^  of  inter- 
est on  national  debt.  Secession  of  liberal  unionists  under 
lord  Hartington  and  Chamberlain  (resigned  in  March)  followed. 
Land  purchase  bill  for  Ireland  introduced.  Home  mle  bill 
was  defeated  on  second  reading,  June  7  (341^11),  and  par- 
liament was  dissolved  (Jnne  ^).  The  elections  gave  316 
conservatives,  191  home-rule  liberals,  78  liberal  unionists,  and 
85  Irish  home-rulers.     Gladstone  resigned  (July  20)  and 

July  21.  Lord  Salisbury  became  prime  minister ;  lord  Iddesleigk 
(bit  Stafford  Northcote)  (foreign);  lord  Randolph  ChurduU 
(exchequer  and  leader  of  the  Commons),  succeeded  by  G,  /. 
Goschen,  Jan.,  1887;  sir  M,  Hicks  Beach  (Ireland),  succeeded 
hjA,J,  Balfour,  March  5, 1887. 

Aug.  5.  Twelfth  (24th  imperial)  parliament  of  Viotoila  met. 
A  tenant's  relief  bill  introduced  by  Pameli  failing,  the 

Oct.  17.  plan  of  campaign  was  put  into  force  in  Ireland;  rests 
offered  and  refused  were  formed  into  a  joint  fund  for  the  sup- 
port of  evicted  tenants. 

1887,  May.     Canadian  Pacific  railwag  opened  (2905  miles). 

June  21.  Jubilee  day  in  commemoration  of  the  fiftieth  anniver- 
sary of  the  accession  of  queen  Viotoria. 

July  19.  Criminal  latui  amendment  (Ireland)  act  ("Crimes  act'*); 
Irish  land  act,  Aug.  23;  Sept.  9,  disturbances  at  Mitchels- 
town,  Ireland. 


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▲.  D.  Great  Britain.  567 

1888,  Marcb  27.    ConTeraion  of  the  national  debt  TGoeehen's  act). 
Jnne  11.    Lord  Stanley  appointed  goTemor-generai  of  Canada. 
Aug.  13.    Local  govemmefU  act  (England  and  Wales)  received  royal 

assent.  County  administration  (except  judicial  and  licensing 
powers)  transferred  from  justices  of  the  peace  to  elective 
county  councils.    London  county  council  (p.  570). 

May-Sept.  Protectorate  established  over  North  Borneo,  Brunei, 
and  Sarawak. 

Dec.  10.    Lord  Lansdaume  appointed  viceroy  of  India. 

1889,  June  14.     Samoan  treaty  (p.  587). 

Oct.  29.    Royal  charter  granted  to  British  South  Africa  Company, 

1890,  Feb.  13.    Report  of  the  apeoial  ("Parnell")  commission 

on  charges  against  the  Irish  leaders.  In  Feb.  R.  Pigott  con- 
fessed the  forgery  of  the  letter  {TimeSf  April  18,  1887)  in 
which  Pamell  was  made  to  approve  the  mnrder  of  Burke  (p. 
546).  Commission  found  that  the  personal  charges  against 
Pamell  were  false;  that  direct  complicity  with  crime  was  not 
proved  as  to  the  respondents  collectively,  but  that  they  *'  en* 
tered  into  a  conspiracy  to  promote,  by  a  system  of  coercion 
and  intimidation  an  agrarian  agitation  for  the  purpose  of 
impoverishing  and  ezpelling  the  Irish  landlords,"  and  did  not 
denounce  a  system  which  they  knew  led  to  crime. 

March  17.  Convention  signed  with  China  on  boundary  of  Thibet 
and  India. 

Jnly  1.  Treaty  with  Germany  signed,  fixing  boundaries  of  Grerman 
East  and  West  Africa  and  British  possessions,  with  recip- 
rocal free  transit  for  commerce;  Heligoland  ceded  to  Ger- 
many in  exchange  for  Zanzibar  (protectorate  proclaimed, 
Nov.  7). 

Aug.  5.  Convention  signed  recognizing  French  protectorate  over 
Madagascar^  and  French  sphere  of  influence  from  Algeria  to 
the  Niger  and  lake  Chad. 

Nov.  28-Dec.  6.  Division  of  Irish  nationcdists  following  conviction 
of  Pamell  of  adultery;  Justin  McCarthy  leader  of  the  major- 
ity.   Pamell  f  Oct.  6, 1891. 

1891,  Feb.  26.    Population  of  all  India,  287,314,671. 

March  24.    Protocol  signed  with  Italy  on  African  spheres  of  influ- 
ence ;  Abyssinia  toithin  Italy's  sphere. 
April  5.    Population  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  38,104,975. 

1891,  Jnne  11.    Treaty  with  Portugal  signed,  regulating  the  bonnd- 

aries  of  African  possessions.  Agreement  on  spheres  of  influ- 
ence, May  31, 1893. 

Aug.  5.  Elementary  education  act  (England  and  Wales)  received 
royal  assent;  public  grant  to  denominational  and  board  schools. 
Assent  also  given  to 

Aug.  5.  Land  purchase  (Ireland)  act;  vohmtary  agreement  of  sale 
between  landlord  and  tenant;  landlord  paid  by  government 
bonds. 

1892,  Jan.  7.  f  Tewfik  Pasha,  khedive  of  Egypt,  succeeded  by  Abbas 

n.  Pasha. 
Aug.  4.    Thirteenth  (25th  imperial)  parliament  of  Viotorla. 


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568  Modem  Ristory.  a.  d. 

The  goyemmenfc  wma  defeated  on  a  motion  of  want  of  oonfl- 
dence  and  resigned,  and 

Aug.  16.  Oladatone  became  (4th  time)  premier ;  sir  W.  Vernon 
Harcourt  (exchequer),  lord  Roeebery  (foreign),  John  Morley 
(Ireland),  James  Bryce  (chancellor  of  Lancaster),  H,  Camp- 
hdl  Bannerman  ([war). 

1893^  Jan.  16-19.  Minbterial  crisis  in  Egypt;  khediye  informed 
that  Britiah  advioe  moat  be  followed. 

Feb.  13.  Home  rule  bill  for  Ireland  introduced  bj  Gladstone.  It 
was  like  the  earlier  bill  except  that  80  Irish  members  were 
to  sit  in  the  imperial  parliament  with  (by  amendment  in  com- 
mittee) right  to  vote  on  all  matters.  The  bill  passed  the 
Commons  on  Sept.  1  (301-267)  but  was 

Sept  8.    rejeoted  by  the  Hooae  of  Ztorda  by  vote  of  419  to  41. 

July-Noy.    MatabeU  war,  ending  in  the  defeat  of  chief  Lobengula 


(t  Jan.  23, 1894). 


Aug.  15.    Bering  sea  arbitration  award  (p.  588). 

18M,  March  1.    Anglo-Chinese  agreement  (p.  595). 

March  3.  Resignation  of  Gladstone ;  lord  Roaebery  prime  min- 
later. 

March  6.  Parish  council  (England  and  Wales)  act;  elective  coun- 
cils to  supersede  vestries  except  in  church  matters. 

March  20.  Sovereignty  over  Pondoland  proclaimed;  annexed  to 
Cape  Colony  (June  7). 

May  21.    Manchester  ship  canal  opened. 

Aug.  7.  Evicted  tenants  ^Ireland)  bill  passed  the  Commons,  but  was 
rejected  by  the  Loras  (Aug.  14). 

Aug.  27.    Treaty  with  Uganda  signed  ;  protectorate. 

18^,  Jan.  21.  Agreement  on  Sierra  Leone  hinterland  signed  with 
France. 

March  5 -April  20.  English  garrison  at  Chitral  besieged  by 
Afghan  freebooters.  The  government  sanctioned  permanent 
occupation  of  Chitral  (Aug.  10),  and  several  punitive  expedi- 
tions against  frontier  tribes  followed  (1897). 

June  22.  Rosebery  ministry  resigned  after  a  defeat  on  a  side  issue, 
and  was  succeeded  by  the 

June  25  third  miniatry  of  lord  Saliabnry  (foreign);  A,  /.  Bal" 
four  (treasury  and  leader  of  the  Commons),  sir  JIf.  Hicks 
Beach  (exoheauer),  Joseph  Chamberlain  (colonies),  O.  J.  Gosehen 
(admiralty),  ford  Lansdowne  (war,  after  1900,  foreign). 

Aug.  12.  Fourteenth  (26th  imperial)  parliament  of  Viotoria 
met  ;  government  majority,  152. 

Deo.     Venezuela  boundary  controversy  (p.  590). 

1895,  Dec.  29.     Jameson  Raid. 

Cauaea  :  development  of  gold  mines  in  South  Afrioan 
republio  (discoverv  of  gold,  1884)  by  foreigners  (uitlanders),  who 
outnumbered  the  Durghers  but  were  allowed  no  politioal  rights 
by  president  Kruger  (b.  1825;  pres.  1883  ;  f  1904)  and  the  Boer  oli- 
garchy,  while  they  were  oppressed  by  the  burdens  of  citizenship, 
monopolies  (especially  of  dynamite),  and  maladministration  j  growth 


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A.  D.  Oreat  Britain.  569 

of  Britbh  control  north  and  west  of  TransTiud ;  rejection  by  the 
Boers  of  the  British  claim  of  Biiseraiiity  over  them  (p.  565) ;  desire 
of  the  Cape  authorities  to  place  the  Dutch  states  under  British  control. 
Cecil  Rhodes  (b.  1853  ;  f  1002),  premier  of  Cape  Colony  and  head 
of  the  British  Soath  Africa  Company,  which  controlled  the  region 
north  and  west  of  Transvaal,  fostered  a  conspiracy  of  uiHanders  at 
Johannesburg  and  collected  a  body  of  troops  under  X.  S,  Jameson  at 
Mafeking  to  aid  them.  Jameson,  without  orders  or  cooperation  of 
the  uitlanders,  crossed  the  frontier  (Dec.  29)  and  marched  on 
Johannesburg  with  600  horse.  He  was  captured  (Jan.  2)  and  turned 
over  to  the  British  authorities  (Jan.  14).  Secretary  Chamberlain 
denounced  the  raid. 
1896-1903.    Plague  in  India;  also  during  earlier  years,  famine. 

1896,  Jan.    Expedition  against  Ashantee  ;  Idng  Prempeh  deported. 
Jan.  15.    Convention  signed  with  France  on  China  and  oiam  (p. 

696). 
Marohr-Sept  Advance  of  British  and  Egyptians  in  Soudan  under 
gen.  Herbert  (later  lord)  Kitchener;  opposed  by  Osman  Digna. 
The  Egyptians  were  established  near  DongoJa. 

1897,  Jan.  11.    General  arbitration  treaty  signed  with  the  United 

States  ;  but  it  was  rejected  by  the  Senate  (May  5). 

June  22.  Jubilee  of  the  sixtieth  anniversfury  of  the  aeoession  of 
queen  Victoria ;  prominent  participation  of  colonies  and  de^ 
pendencies.  Conferences  of  colonial  premiers  with  secretary 
Chamberlain. 

July.    Oold  discovered  at  Klondike  in  Canadian  Northwest  territories. 

Aug.  6.  Workmen^s  compensation  act;  employers  made  liable  for 
injuries,  but  '<  contracting  out "  allowed. 

Oct  1.  Chamberlain  reasserted  l^itlsh  suaerainty  over  South 
African  republic  in  answer  to  Kruger^s  demand  for  for- 
eign arbitration  on  the  Convention  of  London  (p.  565). 

Dec.  25.    Italians  evacuated  Kassala,  which  the  Egyptians  occupied. 

1898,  April  8.    The  Anglo-Bgyptlan  army  under  Kitchener  de- 

feated the  dervishes  near  Atbaraf  securing  Berber.  The  advance 

was  continued  during  the  summer  and 
Sept  2.    the  forces  of  the  mahdi  (AbduUahi)  were  defeated  at  Om- 

durman  and  Khartum  occupied.    This  was  followed  by 

the  final  defeat  and  death  of  Ae  mtihdi  near  Gedid  (Nov.  24, 

1899),  and  the  capture  of  Osman  Digna  (Jan.  19, 1900). 
1898,  May  19.    t  Gladstone. 
June  13.    Act  of  the  Canadian  parliament  approved,  giving  to  Great 

Britain  and  some  of  her  colonies  a  taiiff  preferential  of  25%. 

This  was  increased  in  1900  to  33^%.     Germany  retaliated^ 

July  7, 1899,  by  depriving  Canada  of  the  most  favored  nation 

treatment 
July  25.     Lord  Minto  appointed  govemor^general  of  Canada. 
Aug.  10.     George  N.  (later  lord)  Curzon  appointed  viceroy  of  India. 
Aug.  12.    Local  government  (Lreluid)  act  received  the  royal  assent ; 

extension  to  Ireland  of  county  and  district  councils  (p.  567), 

but  not  of  parish  councils. 
Sept.-Nov.    Fashoda  incident    A  French  expedition  under  major 


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570  Modem  History.  a.  d. 

Marchand  declined  to  comply  with  Kitchener's  request  to  with- 
draw from  Fashoda  on  the  White  Nile  (Sept.  19).  Nov.  4 
the  French  goyemment  agreed  to  withdraw  the  force,  and  on 
March  21, 1899,  a  convention  was  signed  as  to  possessions  and 
spheres  of  influence  in  central  Africa.  Franca  renounoed 
any  claim  to  the  Nile  valley. 

Nov.  1.     Old  age  pension  law  enacted  in  New  Zealand. 

Dec.  25.  An  &iperial  penny  postage  rate  went  into  operation 
with  most  of  the  colonies.    Australia  included,  April  2^,  1902. 

1899,  Feb.     Attempt  of  France  to  obtain  territory  at  Mtucat  from 

sultan  of  Oman  prevented  by  Great  Britain. 

March  15,  Oct.  28.  Agreements  between  Germany  and  Rhodes  for 
the  construction  of  the  Cape  to  Cairo  telegraph  through  Ger- 
man £a8t  Africa. 

July  13.  London  (outside  the  City)  divided  into  separate  boroughs^ 
with  powers  previoi&ly  held  by  the  county  council  (p.  667). 

Aug.  9.     Central  hoard  of  education  established. 

1899-1902.    South  Afriocui  War. 

Unsuccessful  negotiations  followed  the  Jameson  raid  (p.  668). 
To  the  demand  of  Great  Britain  for  recognition  of  the  rights  of  the 
nitlanders,  the  Transvaal  responded  with  a  claim  of  entire  inde- 
pendence not  only  in  such  (internal)  affairs  but  in  foreign  matters, 
a  request  for  indemnity,  and  active  military  preparation.  Violation 
of  London  convention  (p.  665).  March  24, 1899,  petition  of  British 
eitizens  at  the  mines  for  intervention.  Various  projects,  including 
an  offer  (Aug.  19)  of  the  franchise  on  five  years'  residence  and  a 
quarter  representation  in  the  rand,  in  return  for  Great  Britain's  re- 
nunciation of  the  claim  of  suzerainty,  were  refused  by  England.  Both 
sides  prepared  for  war,  and  the 
Oct.  12.    Boars  issued  an  ultimatum,  demanding  the  immediate 

withdrawal  of  British  troops  from  the  frontier  and  the  removal 

of  all  reinforcements  from  South  Africa.     When  this  was 

refused  the  forces  of  the 
Oct  12.    two  Dutoh  republioB  (in  offensive  alliance)  invaded 

Natal  and  Cape  Colony,  and  also  laid  siege  to  Kvrnherley  and 

Mafeking, 
The  Boars  had  the  advantage  of  better  preparation  and  more 

mobility,  and  besieged  sir  George  White  and  12,000  men  at 

Ladysmith.    Sir  nedvers  Buller,  marching  to  relieve  the 

town,  was  defeated  at 
Dec.  16.     Colanso,  on  the  Tugela,  at 

1900,  Jan.  23.     Spion  Kop,  and  at 

Feb.  6.    Vaal  Krantz  ;  but  finally  succeeded  in 

Feb.    28.    relieving    Ladysmith.     Lord  Methuen,  advancing    on 

Kimberley,  was  defeated  at 
1899,  Dec.  10, 11.    Maagersfontein  on  the  Modder  by  gen.  Cronjej 

and  gen.  Gatacre  at 
Deo.  10.     Btormberg  by  the  Boen  who  had  invaded  Cape  Colony. 

Lord  Roberts  was  sent  out  as  oommander-in-ohief,  with 

Kitchener  as  chief  of  staff.    The 


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A.  D.  SaiUh  African  War.  671 

1900y  Feb.  15.    relief  of  Ktmherley  (where  RhodM,  the  "  evil  genias 

of  the  Boers/'  was)  was  accomplished  bj  gen.  FrencA,  while 

Roberts 
Feb.  17.    Burroiinded  Cronje  at  Faardesburg,  and  after  ten  days 

received  his  surrender  and  that  of  4000  men.    The 
May  24.     annexatioii  of  the  Orange  Free  State  was  proclaimed 

by  lord  Roberts,  who  soon  after 
June  5.    occupied  Pretoria,    This  advance  had  also 
May  17.    raised  the  siege  of  Maf eking  (held  by  col.  Baden-PomdL), 

The  Boers  were  defeated  at 
June  11.    Diamond  Hill^  and  the  railroad  to  the  Portuguese  frontier 

having  been  cleared,  the 
Sept.  1.    South  African  republic  was  annexed.    Kruger  retired 

to  Europe^  and  Roberts  left  the  command  to  Kitchener. 
The  Boers,  under  Botha,  De  Wet,  and  Delarey,  began  a  guerilla 
i^arfare  :  commuoicatious  were  cut,  supplies  captured,  and  isolated 
garrisons  "  rushed,"  while  engagements  were  avoided.  The  British 
built  lines  of  hlockhauMes,  connected  them  by  means  of  entangfements, 
established  concentration  camps  for  noncombatauts,  and  kept  an  army 
of  250,000  in  the  field  againsc  a  force  averaging  45,000.  The 
1902,  May  31.   Boers  finally  submitted,  receiving  honorable  terms, 

but  renouncing  independence.  British /orce  during  the 
war,  450,000  ;  Boer  force,  about  75,000 ;  British  loss,  22,000 ;  Boer 
loss,  about  5000.  Deficiency  in  organization  and  administration  of 
the  British  army  (report  of  royal  commission,  Aug.  26,  1903)  and 
participation  of  coimuU  troops  were  features  of  the  war.  The  con- 
quered states  became  the  crown  colonies  of  Orange  River  and 
TransTsal,  with  appointive  legislative  councils. 

1900,  Jan.  10.    First  train  from  Cairo  to  Khartum. 
July  9.    Royal  assent  given  to  the  act  constituting  the  Common- 
wealth of  Australia.     All  of  Australasia  united  in   one 
government  except  New  Zealand.    Bicameral  parliament  of  des- 
ignated powers  ;  an  equal  number  of  senators  from  each  colony,  pop- 
ularly elected  ;  representatives  apportioned  according  to  population, 
and  given  control  of  revenue  bills  ;  bills  to  receive  the  royal  assent 
direct  or  through  the  governor-general.     Bxecutive  composed  of 
the  governor-general  and  a  responsible  ministry.  Federal  judiciary 
of  supreme  and  lower  courts,  with  regulation  of  appeal  to  king  in 
eonncil;  appointed  justices ;  jurisdiction  over  interstate  and  state 
and  federal  relationships.    Special  provisions  for  trade  and  finance, 
new  states,  and  amendment.     Lord  Hopetoun  was  appointed  first  goo^ 
emor-general.    The  government  was  inaugurated,  Jan.  1, 1901;  first 
parliament  met.  May  9  ;  first  ministry  formed  by  Edmund  Barton. 
Oct  31.     Union  of  Free  and  United  Presbyterians  in  Scotland .    Thirty 
ministers  and  100  congregations  of  the  Free  church  refused 
to  accede  to  the  nnion,  and  the  House  of  Lords  (Aug.  1, 1904) 
decided  they  were  the  legal  holders  of  all  of  the  property  of 
the  Free  church. 
Deo.  3.    Fifteenth  (27th  imperial)  parliament  of  Victoria  ;  gov- 
ernment majority,  134. 


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572  Modem  History.  ▲.  d. 

1001— z.  Ejq>edUumt  bj  Britbh  and  Abyssiuians  affainst  tbe  Mullah  in 
SomalUand,  A  force  of  British,  Indiaus,  Boon,  and  natives, 
under  gen.  Manning  was  in  the  field  in  1902.  British  defeated, 
Oct.  6, 1902. 

Jan.  22.     f  Queen  Victoria  ;  succeeded  by  her  son  as 

1901-1910.    Edward  VU. 

March  15.     Population  ofall  India,  294,361,056. 

April  1.     Population  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  41,607,552. 

July  22.  House  of  Lords  decided  thdX  trade  %mUm$  could  be  sued  as 
corporatums  (Taff  Vale  case). 

Nov.  18.    Abrogation  of  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  (p.  593). 

1902.  Renewed  trouble  In  Ireland  over  rent  questions,  influ- 
enced also  by  pro-Boer  demonstrations.  Members  of  parlia- 
ment convicted  for  conspiracy  under  the  summary  jurisdictioa 
of  the  crimes  act  of  1887.     Industrial  depression  in  England. 

Jan.  30.  Defenaive  alliance  'with  Japan  as  to  the  eastern  ques- 
tion (p.  598). 

May  15.    IVeaty  signed  with  Abyssinia  ;  Soudan  boundary,  railway. 

March  26.  f  Rhodes.  His  will  provided  for  the  education  of  colonial, 
American,  and  German  students  at  Oxford  {Rhodes  scholar- 
ships), 

July  11.  Resignation  of  lord  Salisbury,  A.  J.  Balfour,  prime 
minister  ;  George  Wyndham  (Ireland). 

Aug.  9.    Coronation  of  Edward  YII. 

Oct.  31.  First  message  sent  over  British  Pacific  cable  between  Canada 
and  Australia,  completing  the  aU  British  cable  round  the  world, 

1902,  Nov.,  1903,  March.     Visit  of  Chamberlain  to  South  Africa  on 

an  official  tour  of  investigation  and  to  promote  reconciliation 

and  unity. 
Nov.  21.    Lord  Tennyson  appointed  governor-general  of  Australia. 
Dec.    Coercion  of  Venezuela  (p.  585). 
Dec.  10.     Opening  of  the  Assuan  dam  on  the  Nile. 
Dec.  19.     Bducation  act  for  England  and  Wales  received  royal 

assent.     Voluntary  (denominational)  schools  entitled  to  pubUc 

support  on  equal  footing  with  board  schools  ;  local  councils  to 

control  aided  schools  in  secular  matters.    Passive  resistance 

by  nonconformists. 
Deo.  21.     Wireless  telegraphic  messages  exchanged  between  England 

and  Canada. 

1903.  Cape  to  Cairo  railway  completed  to  near  the  Zambesi. 
Agitation  in  South  Africa  for  coolie  labor  in  tbe  mines.    Dec. 

30,  favorable  vote  by  the  legislative  council  of  Transvaal,  and 
first  Chinese  arrived  on  June  22,  1904. 

May  5.  Declaration  by  lord  Lansdoume,  foreign  minister,  as  to 
British  control  of  Persian  gulf. 

May  15.  Secretary  Chamberlain  began  his  campaign  for  imperial 
unification  through  a  colonial  preferential  tariff.  The 
ministry  divided  on  the  question  ;  Balfour  showed  leanings 
toward  a  retaliatory  tariff.  Sept.  9  Chamberlain  resigned 
from  the  cabinet,  as  did  several  free  trade  members. 


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A.  D.  Continental  Europe.  578 

Aug.  8.    Lord  Northcole  appointed  governor-general  of  Australia. 

Aug.  11.     Prohibition  of  bounty-fed  sugar  (p.  584). 

Aug.  14.  Irish  land  porchase  act  received  royal  assent.  Three 
metlvods  of  non-compulsory  sale  to  tenants:  (1)  As  under 
former  law  (p.  567) ;  (2)  sale  of  entire  estate  to  tenants  at 
annuity  less  than  present  rent;  (3)  sale  to  aland  commission 
for  resale  to  tenants.  Landlords  paid  in  cash^  the  govern- 
ment issuing  British  bonds  for  that  purpose. 

Aug.  22.  f  Lord  Salisbury, 

July-x.  Thibet  mission.  China  and  Thibet  agreed  to  send  com- 
missioners to  meet  the  British  commissioner,  col.  F.  E.  Young^ 
husband,  at  Kamba  (Julv)  to  discuss  frontier  and  trade  rela- 
tions; but  failed  (as  often  before)  to  do  so.  Preparations 
were  made  to  advance  the  mission  under  military  protection 
to  Lhasa,  and  movement  began  Dec.  11. 

Oct.  14.  Greneral  arbitration  treaty  with  France  si^ed;  phase  of 
a  rapprochement  shown  also  in  official  visits  of  king  Edtoard  to 
Paris  (May  1)  and  president  Loubet  to  London  (July  6). 

Oct.  20.    Alaskan  boundary  award  announced  (p.  594).  (See  p.  599.) 

§9.    CONTINENTAL  EUROPE.      (See pp.  626,  636,) 
1883-1903. 

1883,  Jan.  16.  Manifesto  and  arrest  of  prince  Napoleon  Bon- 
aparte (Plou-Plon)  (released  Feb.  9),  followed  by  attempt 
to  eacpel  the  princes.  Resignation  of  ministry  Duclerc 
(Jan.  28)  and  ministry  FdUih-es  ^Feb.  21).  Ministry  Ferry 
took  office  (Feb.  21);  Waldeck-rRousseau  (interior),  Tirard 
(finance).     Princes  placed  m  inactivity. 

Feb.  8-March  10.  An  international  conference  at  London  regulated 
the  navigation  of  the  Danube. 

March  15.  Triple  alliance  (Dreibund)  of  Germany,  Austria,  and 
Italy,  acknowledged  in  Italy. 

May-July.  Railway  convention  in  France;  abandonment  of  Frey- 
cinet's  policy  of  state  ownership. 

May  31.  Grerman  act  prescribing  the  insurance  of  workmen  against 
illness  (Krankenkassengeselz) ;  employer  to  pay  \  of  premium. 
In  1888,  5,400,000  insured. 

May  2.    Consecration  of  the  tzar  Alexander  III.  at  Moscow. 

June  13.  French  occupied  Tamatave  in  Madagascar^  continued 
resistance  of  the  novas. 

Anti-Semitism  in  Hungary;  accusations  of  ritual  murder;  severe 
persecutions  at  Pressburg  and  elsewhere. 

Aug.  24.  t  Count  of  Chambord  ( *'  Henry  V.").  Legitimists  acknowl- 
edged the  count  of  Paris  (table,  p.  528). 

Aug.  25.  Preliminary  pe€u:e  between  France  and  Anam  ;  French 
protectorate.    War  with  Black  Flae^s  continued. 

Sept.  29.  Alfonso  XII.  of  Spain  insulted  by  a  mob  in  Paris  for  hav- 
ing received  the  honorary  colonelcy  of  a  German  regiment 
stationed  at  Strasbnrg. 

Deo.  17.    Visit  of  the  German  crown  prince  to  the  pope  Q*  sec- 


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574  Modem  History,  a.  d. 

ond  joarney  to  Canossa").  The  Grerman  governmeDt  had 
eradually  withdrawn  from  the  position  of  the  May  laios^  as 
Bismarck  found  support  of  cathdics  necessary, 

1884.  In  Belgium  the  extension  of  the  suffrage  was  followed  by  a  cath- 
olic reaction;  communes  allowed  to  adopt  derical  schools, 

Feb.  11.  Annexation  of  Merv  and  Sarakhs  bjr  Russia,  bringing 
the  frontier  within  200  miles  of  Herat. 

June  26.  Under  the  liberal  minister  Sverdrup  royal  assent  was 
given  to  an  act  for  a  reaponalble  ministry  in  Norvray. 

May  11.  Treaty  of  Tientsin  between  France  and  China;  China  to 
retire  from  Tonquin  and  respect  French  protectorate  over 
Anam.  Definitive  treaty  with  Anam,  June  6;  also  with  Cam- 
bodia, June  17.  Dispute  over  construction  of  Chinese  treaty, 
and  direct  war.  French  attacked  Formosa  (Aug.  3)  and 
Fuohan  (An?.  23). 

June  27.     Worhneirs  accident  insur<mce  ad  {Unfallversieherungsge-' 
*setz)  enacted  in  Germany.    In  1888,  10,340,000  insured. 

Joly  28.    Earthquake  at  Ischia;  2000  killed. 

Aug.  French  constitation  revised;  repubUcan  form  of  govern- 
ment not  subject  to  future  proposals  of  revision,  princes  not 
eligible  for  the  presidency.  Reform  in  the  organization  of  the 
senate  (Dec.) ;  proportional  representation  in  the  electoral  con- 
gress, no  more  life  members  to  be  created. 
The  establishment  of  the  Deutsche  Colonialverein  in  1882 
foreshadowed  German  imperialism.  In  Jan.  1884,  Bis- 
marck announced  the  protectorate  over  Angra  Pequena  in 
southwestern  Africa.     After  a  controversy  with  Great  Britain 

Ang.  13.  the  protectorate  was  extended  from  Cape  Frio  to  Orange 
River  (except  Walflsh  Bay),  and  over  Kamarun  and  Togoiand. 
Bismarck's  policy  was  to  protect  mercantile  nndertakmgs 
rather  than  to  inaugurate  state  colonization. 

Ang.  18.    Vatican  library  opened  to  scholars  for  research. 

Oct.  28.  Elections  for  the  German  Reichstag;  gains  by  conserva- 
tives and  socialists. 

1885.  Hereditary  house  of  peers  abolished  in  Portugal;  house  of 
100  life  peers  and  50  elective  peers  substituted. 

Jan.,  Feb.     Italy y  after  an   understanding  with  England   (Jan.   1, 

1884),  occupied  Assdb  and  Massatoa,     Unfriendly  relations 

with  king  John  of  Abyssinia. 
Jan.,  Feb.     Earthquakes  in  Spain,  great  loss  of  life;  cholera. 
Feb.  17.    Imperial  charter  granted  to  German  East  Africa  Company, 
Feb.  26.    General  act  of  Congo  conference  signed  at  Berlin. 

Provisions  for  freedom  of  trade,  eradication  of  slave  trade, 

neutrality  of  the  basin,  and  regulation  of  future  oocnpattons 

on  coast  of  Africa. 
March  30.     Resignation  of  ministry  Ferry  in  France  in  consequence 

of  defeat   in   Tonquin.    Ministry  Brisson  (justice)  formed; 

Freycinet  (foreign),  Sadi-Camot  (public  works,  later,  finance). 
Russia  at  Penjdeh  (p.  566). 
May.     In  Grermany,  increase  in  agrarian  duties. 
May.     Recidivist  law  in  France ;  transportation  of  habitual  criminals. 


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A.  i>.  Continental  Europe.  575 

June  8.  Adoption  of  the  scruHn  de  liste  (note,  p.  533)  in  the  election 
of  deputies  in  France. 

Jane  9.  Franco-Chinese  treaty  of  peace,  recognizing  the  treaty  of 
Tientsin. 

Aug.  25.  Germany  took  possession  of  the  Caroline  IslandSf  bat  the 
pope,  as  referee,  upheld  Spain's  protest  (Oct.  22). 

Sept.  13-17.  Revolution  in  Bast  Rumelia  ;  allegiance  offered  to 
Alexander  uf  Bulgaria,^  who  accepted  the  crown  under  the 
suzerainty  of  the  Porte.  The  union  was  distasteful  to  the  sig- 
natory powers  (except  England),  but  the  sultan  accepted  the 
personal  union  in  the  end.  Meanwhile  Senria  and  Greece  were 
arming,  and 

Not.  13.  Servia  declared  w^ar  and  suffered  defeat  at  Slivnitza 
in  Bulgaria  (Not.  14-20).  The  Bulyarian  counter-invasion 
was  stopped  by  Austria,  and  an  armistice  signed,  Dec.  27. 

Not.  25.  ^  f  Alfonso  XII,  of  Spain  ;  queen  Maria  Christina  regent ; 
prime  minister  Canovas,  with  Campos  and  Sagasta  at  inter- 
vals. 

Deo.  1.    Population  of  Germany,  46,885,704. 

Dec.  17.  jFrencA  treaty  with  Madagascar;  protectorate,  but  not  ac- 
knowledged by  the  Hovas. 

Deo.  28.  Re-election  of  president  Oxinrj,  Oct.  elections  showed 
increase  in  tnonarchists.  Ministry  Brisson  resigned,  and  min- 
istry Freycinet  (foreign)  formed  (Jan.  7,  1886);  Sadi-Camot 
(finance),  Botdanger  (war). 

1886,  March  3.    The  powers  force  a  treaty  of  peace  between  Ser- 

via and  Bulgaria  at  Constantinople.    Qreeoe  continued  to 

arm  for  the  occupation  of  Macedonia  until 
May  10-June  7.    the  allied  fleet  blockaded  her  ports. 
April  5.    Protocol  of  the  powers  ;  prince  of  Bulgaria  to  be  governor 

of  East  Rumelia. 
May  31.     Population  of  France,  38,218,903. 
May  17.    Birth  of  Alfonso  XTTT.  of  Spain. 
June  22.    Bxpnlaion  of  the  French  princes. 
Aug.  22.    Prince  Alexander  of  Bulgaria  kidnapped  by  Russian 

sympathizers.     A  provisional  government  under  Stambouloff 

arrested  the  revolutionary  leaders,  and  the  prince  returned 

Aug.  28 ;  but  on  Sept  3,  in  consequence  of  the  displeasure 

of  the  tzar,  he  abdicated. 
Oct.  3.    Law  regulating  primary  instruction  in  France. 

1887,  Jan.  14.    German  army  increased  from  427,000  to  468,000  men 

because  of  the  military  activity  of  France  and  Russia. 

April  21.  The  arrest  on  a  charge  of  espionage  of  the  French  com- 
missioner Schnabele  by  Germans  bnt  on  French  soil  aroused 
much  excitement  (released  April  29). 

May  30.  Ministry  Rouvier  (finance);  Ferron  (war).  The  change 
was  due  to  conservative  distrust  of  the  intentions  of  Boulan- 
ger,  who  continued  to  increase  his  popularity. 

Jone.    Renewal  of  the  triple  alliance  causes  increase  in  Italian  army 
to  252,000  men. 
1  Of  the  house  of  Battenberg,  elected  prince  of  Bulgaria  in  May,  1879. 


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576  Modem  History,  a.  ix 

July  7.    Pzinoe  Ferdinand  of  Coburg  elected  prince  of  Bnlgazia 

in  spite  of  Russia's  refusal  to  recognize  the  election. 

July  27.  Death  of  the  Italian  prime  minister,  Dupretis ;  Crispi  suc- 
ceeded him,  Rudini  and  GioliUi  at  intervals. 

Oct.  A  scandal  in  France  over  the  sale  of  decorations  and  other 
jobbery  a£Fecting  Gravy's  son-in-law  resulted  in  the  fall  of  the 
Rouvier  ministry  and  the  resignation  of  Gr^vy  (Dee.  1). 

Dec.  3.  Election  of  Sadi-Camot  as  president.  Dec.  12,  ministry 
Tirard  (finance);  FaUieres  (justice),  Flourens  (foreign). 

1888,  Jan.    Papal  jubUee. 

March  9.    f  'W'illiam  I.  German  emperor ;  succeeded  by  his  son  as 

1888,  March-June.  Frederick  III.  The  emperor,  soffering 
from  cancer,  f  June  15,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 

1888,  June  -z.     William  II. 

March  19.  A  period  of  five  years  instead  of  three  adopted  for  the 
German  Reichstag. 

March  21.  Gen.  Bonlanger  on  account  of  political  intrigues  and 
disregard  of  discipline,  was  removed  from  the  French  army. 
Ministry  Tirard  succeeded  by  the  ministry  Floquet  (interior)  on 
April  3;  Freycinet  (war).  Bonlanger  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  by  a  large  majority ;  he  declared  himself  in 
favor  of  a  revision  of  the  constitution. 

May  27.  Completion  of  the  Sarmarkand  section  of  the  Transcanca- 
sian  railway. 

Aug.  14.  Von  Moltke  resigned  as  chief-of-staff  of  the  German 
army.  The  publication  in  Sept  of  extracts  from  the  diary  of 
Frederidc  III.  indicated  that  the  establishment  of  the  empire  was 
due  in  good  part  to  his  initiative.  Bismarck  aedarea  the  ex- 
tracts had  been  interpolated,  but  their  genuineness  was  shown. 

Oct.  29.    Suez  canal  convention  signed  at  Constantinople;  free  navi- 
gation. 
Completion  of  the  Eastern  railway  connecting  Constantinople 

with  Calais. 
Upon  the  receipt  of  remonstrances  from  Austria,  Germany,  and 
Russia  against  asylum  to  political  offenders  in  Switzerland^  that 
country  voted  16,000,000  francs  for  military  supplies. 

1889,  Jan.  30.    -Suicide  of  crown  prince  Rudolf  of  Austria. 

Archduke  Carl  Ludwig,  brother  of  the  emperor,  transferred  kis 
right  of  succession  to  his  son  archduke  Ferdinand, 
Adoption  of  the  zone  railway  tariff  in  Hungary,  v^ 
Feb.  Popularity  of  Boulanger  increased ;  he  was^  elected  to  the 
assembly  from  Paris  in  Jan.  by  a  large  majority.  Floquet 
secured  a  return  to  the  scrutin  d'arrondissement  (note,  P^633), 
but  was  defeated  on  a  proposal  for  revision.  Ministry  Tirard 
(commerce)  formed  on  Feb.  22  ;  Rouvier  (finance),  Constans 
(interior),  Freycvnet  (war),  Thevenet  (justice),  i^oZZigre*  (in- 
struction). The  new  government  at  once  took  up  the  repres- 
sion of  the  Boulangist  movement ;  Boulanger,  THUon^  and 
Roche/ort  fled  (April),  and  while  absent  were  condemned  by 
the  senate  of  an  attempt  against  the  security  of  the  state  ( Ang). 


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A.  0.  Continental  Europe.  bll 

liaroh  7.    Aldication  of  king  MUan  of  Servia  in  favor  of  hu  son 

Alexander;  qneen  Natalie  banished. 
May  6.    International  ezpositioD  opened  at  Paris  in  commemoration 

of  the  revolution  of  1789.     Eiffel  tower,  984  feet. 
May  24.     Aged  and  indigent  workmen's  insurance  act  adopted  in  Ger- 


Jnne  14.    Samoan  treaty  (p.  587). 

July.    Electoral  reform  in  France  ;  plural  candidacy  abolished.  In 
Sept.  and  Oct.  the  elections  showed  decided  rqnMican  gains, 
and  interest  in  Boulanger  visibly  declined. 
Oct.  9.    t  -2^^^  ^^9  ^^S   ^^    Portugal ;   succeeded  by  his    son 

Carlos  Z. 
1890-1903.  A  period  throughout  Europe  of  much  social  unrest, 
indicated  by  anarchistic,  socialistic,  and  anU-Semitic  agitations 
which  assumed  acute  phases  especially  noticed.  Strikes  were  frequent 
and  usually  of  politiciu  significance.  In  Germany  and  in  Rtissia  (espe- 
cially under  Witte)  industrial  development  was  forced,  and  a  policy  of 
navcd  expansion  entered  upon.  In  France,  in  spite  of  setbacks,  the 
republican  government  was  strengthened.  Foreign  interests  shifted  from 
the  near  to  the  far  Bast,  and  the  political  map  of  Africa  was  more 
clearly  marked. 

1890^  March  18.    Resignation  of  Bismarok  in  consequence  of  dif- 
ferences of  opinion  with  the  emperor.   He  was  created  duke 
of  Lauenburg  and  retired  to  Friedrichsruhe.   Von  Caprivl 
appointed  chancellor. 
March  1&-19.    International  labor  conference  at  Berlin  at  sugges- 
tion of  the  emperor  ;  recommendations  with  regard  to  lalx>r  of 
women  and  children,  and  Sunday  labor. 
July  1.    Anglo-German  treaty;  Heligoland  and  Africa  (p.  567). 
July.    In  Russia  enforcement  of  the  May  laws  of  1882 ;  Jews 
forbidden  to  reside  in  the  rural  districts,  to  own  or  farm  land, 
to  enjoy  educational  advantages,  to  practice  law  or  engineer- 
ing, to  act  as  army  doctors,  or  to  hold  any  govemment  position. 
Aug.  6.     Franco- British  African  convention  (p.  667). 
Nov.  23.     t  William  III.  of  the  Netherlands  ;  queen  Emma  regent  for 
his  daughter  'Wilhelmina.   Luxemburg  passed  to  Adolf  of 
Nassau. 
Dec.  1.     Population  of  Germany,  49,428,470. 
Dec.  31.    Population  of  Austria-Hungary,  41,231,342. 

1891.  Radicals  gained  control  in  Norway,  advocating  universal 
suffrage,  and  separate  consuls  and  foreign  ofiBce.  Through 
various  ministries  this  agitation  has  continued. 

March  17.    f  Prince  Napoleon  Bonaparte  at  Rome. 
March  24.     Anglo-Italian  protocol  on  Africa  (p.  567). 
April  12.    Population  of  France,  38,342,948. 
June  11.     Anglo-Portuguese  African  convention  (p.  567). 
July,  Aug.     French  fleet  at  Cronstadt  visited  by  the  tzar  ;  demon- 
strations of  friendship  between  Russia  and  France. 
Sept.  30.     Suicide  of  Boulanger  at  Brussels. 

1892.  Cholera  and  distress  ;  activity  of  anarchists. 

Jan.  11.     French  protective  tariff  ;  regular  and  minimum  rates. 


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578  Modem  History.  a.  d. 

Feb.  1.  New  German  commercial  treaties  became  operative  ;  hostile 

to  agrarian  tnterestn, 
Feb.   16.     Papal  encyclical  to   French  catholics ;  republic  to  be 

unreservedly  recognized. 
Feb.  28.     Change  in  French  ministrv  on  question  of  associations  bills  ; 

ministry  Laubet  (interior);  Freycinet  (war),  Ribot  (foreign). 
Nov.  22-Dec.  17.     International  monetary  conference  at  Brussels  at 

invitation  of  the  United  States ;  no  results  on  bimetallism. 
Dec.  3.     French  protectorate  over  Dahomey. 
18d2-1893.     Panama  acandal  in  France.     A  French  company 

having  secured  from  Colombia  the  right  to  build  a  ship  canal 
(May  18,  1878),  de  Lesseps  undertook  the  task.  Company  declared 
bankruDt,  Feb.  4, 1889 ;  of  1,434,000,000  fr.  disbursed  only  560,000,- 
000  f r.  nad  been  spent  on  the  canal  and  much  of  this  misappropri- 
ated. Exposure  of  great  fraud,  blackmail,  and  bribery,  inculpating 
legislators  and  former  ministers  (Nov.  1892)  ;  ministry  reconstructed 
under  Ribot  (Dec.  5),  and  again,  Jan.  12,  1893,  without  Loubet  and 
Freycinet,  Dupuy  (education).  Trials  and  confessions  followed  ( Jan.^ 
March).     The  company  was  reorganized,  but  sold  out  (p.  593). 

1893.  Bcmk  scandal  in  Italy  (Panamino^,  involving  premier  Gio- 
liUi  and  exHpremiers  CHspi  and  Rudmi.  Crispi  formed  a  new 
ministry  (Dec.  14).  Financial  and  monetary  disturbances 
during  the  year  ;  deficit,  $35,000,000.  Socialistic  disturb- 
ances in  Sicily. 

Feb.  19.     Episcopal  golden  jabilee  of  Leo  XIII, 

April  13.  Coup  d'etat  in  Servia;  Alexander  deposed  his  regents  and 
took  personal  charge  of  the  government. 

May  6.  German  Reichstag,  having  refused  to  vote  an  increase  of  the 
army,  was  dissolved.  The  New  Reichstag,  showing  increase 
of  socialists,  passed  the  act  (promulgated  Aug.  3),  providing 
for  479,000  men. 

Aug.  Tariff  war  between  Russia  and  Germany,  ending  in  a  commer" 
cial  treaty  (Feb.  10,  1894),  reducing  duties  on  German  mamt" 
factures  and  Russian  grain  ;  agrarian  opposition  in  Germany. 

Sept.  7.  Amendments  to  Belgian  constitution  sanctioned  ;  nniTeraal 
male  auffirage  with  system  of  plural  votes ;  senate  reorgan- 
ized. 

Oct.  3.     Franco- Siamese  treaty  of  peace  (p.  595). 

1894,  March  15.     Franco-German  convention  ;  bonndaries  of  French 

Congo  and  Kamerun,  spheres  of  influence  about  lake  Chad. 
May  28.     Ministry  Dupuy  (interior)  formed  ;  Poincare  (finances^ 

Delcasse    (colonies),    Guerin   (justice),   Hanotaux   (foreign), 

Faure  (marine),  Mercier  (war). 
June  21.    Compulsory  civil  marriage  in  Hungary, 
June  24.     President  Sadi-Carnot  asaassinated  by  an  anarchist  at 

Lyons. 
June  27.    Caaimir-P^rier  elected  president  of  France. 
June  29.     French  law  for  compulsory  insurance  of  miners;  employers 


to  pay  ^  of  premium. 


Sept.    t  Count  of  raris  ;  sneceeded  in  his  claim  by  his  son  the  dnc 
d'Orleans. 


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A.  D.  Armenian  McLSsaeres.  579 

Sept  29.    Completion  of  the  North  Sea-Baltio  (Kiel)  ship  canal, 

61  miles  long  ;  formal  opening,  June  19-22, 1895. 
Oot  15.  Capt.  Alfred  Dreyfas,  of  the  general  staff  of  the  French 
army,  an  AlscUian  Jew,  arrested  on  aoensation  of  sending 
military  seoreta  to  the  Germans,  as  shown  by  a  letter  in  his 
handwriting  (bordereau),  Dreyfus  was  convicted  by  a  secret  court- 
martial  (Dec.  22)  on  the  divided  opinion  of  g^phologists,  the  perjured 
testimony  of  major  Henry,  and  the  contents  of  a  secret  *'  dossier  "  pre- 
pared by  the  minister  of  war,  Mercier,  and  submitted  privately  to 
the  judges.  He  was  publicly  degraded  (Jan.  5, 1895)  and  sentenced 
to  perpetual  imprisonment  on  Devil's  Island.  The  affair  became  a 
political  matter,  involving  anti-Semitism  and  the  relation  of  the 
army  to  the  republic. 
Oct.  26.    Resignation  of  ohancellor  t.  Caprivi ;    succeeded  by 

prinoe  v.  Hohenlohe. 
KoT.  1.    t  ^ZAT  Alexander  m.  of  Russia ;  succeeded  by  his  son 

1894-Z.    Nicholas  II. 

Dee.  27.  Convention  deliminating  the  possessions  of  Congo  and 
French  Congo. 

1894-1896.  Armenian  Massacres.  Causes :  religious 
and  racial  antipathy;  an  energetic  people  under  the  rule  of  a 
quietistic  government ;  abuses,  misrule,  and  forced  conversion 
to  Mohammedanism ;  Armenian  plots  against  Turkish  rule. 
In  Aug.  1894,  Kurds  and  Turkish  soldiers  plundered  many 
villages  in  Sasun  and  massacred  thousands  of  Armenians. 
After  investigations,  England,  France,  and  Russia  (under 
treaty  of  Berlin) 

1895,  May  11.    presented  a  project  of  reform  to  the  Porte,  and 

after  much  friction  an  irade  was  issued  (Oct.  17)  ordering  the 
reforms  proposed.  Meanwhile 
Sept.  80,  an  Armenian  demonstration  at  Constantinople  provoked  a 
riot,  and  as  a  result  of  this  Kurds,  Circassians,  and  Turkish 
soldiers  began  to  massacre  the  Armenians  in  the  pro- 
vinces included  in  the  reform  irade,  which  continued  through- 
out the  year,  and  resulted  in  the  murder  of  over  25,000  and 
destitution  for  hundreds  of  thousands  as  the  result  of  pillage. 
Foreign  relief  expeditions  were  sent  to  the  desolated  districts 
(1896).  Disturbances  continued,  especially  at  Van  (June) 
between  Mohammedans  and  revolutionists. 

1896,  Aug.  26.    An  attack  on  the  Ottoman  bank  at  Constantinople  by 

Armenians,  caused  a  general  attack  on  Armenians  by  organized 
bauds  of  Mussulmans,  which  continued  several  days.  Wholesale 
arrests  of  Armenians  at  the  capital,  and  many  thousands  fled. 
Dec.  22.  A  general  amnesty  was  issued  covering  all  MoLimmedans 
and  most  of  the  Armenians.  Reforms  put  in  operation,  call- 
ing for  Christian  officials  and  gendarmes,  control  over  the  Kurds, 
and  tax  reforms;  of  little  practical  effect.  Action  of  the 
powers  hampered  by  lack  of  unity,  fear  of  international  compli- 
cations, and  condition  of  Turkish  finances.  EnglancTs  policy 
checked  by  the  results. 


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S80  Modem  History.  a.  d. 

1895.  Naval  Increase  in  Germany,  to  protect  commercial  ex- 
paruion.  Agrarian  agitation  for  state  monopoly  in  foreign 
oereala. 

Jan.  14.     Resignation  of  ministry  Dupay;  financial  scandals.    Also 
Jan.  15.    resignation  of  Caaimir-Mrier  because  of  hostile  criti- 
cism. 
Jan.  17.    Felix  Fanre  elected  president  of  France. 
Jan.  21.    Anglo-French  agreement  on  Sierra  Leone  hinterland. 
Jan.  26.    Ministry  Ribot    (finance)   formed ;   Hanotata  (foreign), 

Poincark  (education). 
Feb.    Revolt  in  Cuba  (p.  590^. 
March  11.    Russian  and  English  spheres  of  influence  in  the  Pamirs 

deliminated. 
April  7,    Nansm  reached  86°  14' ;  farthest  nonh. 
April  12.    Interference  in  Chinese^apanese  treaty  (p.  596). 
May  11.    Anti-revolutionary  bill  (Umsturzoorlage)  against  socialists  in 

Germany  dropped  because  open  to  too  general  application; 

oontinuation  of  lese-majeste  prosecutions. 
July  15.    Btambonloff,  anti-Russian  leader  in  Bulgaria  (premier^ 

1887-94),  attacked,  by  assassins;  f  July  18. 
Sept.  30.    French  occupy  capital  of  Madagascar  after  an  advance 

of  several  months  from  the  coast.    Treaty  of  peace  (Oct.  1); 

protectorate. 
Nov.  2.    Radical  ministry  Bourgeois  (interior)  formed  ;    Ctwaignae 

(war),  Berihdot  (foreign),  Canwes  (education). 
Dec.  2.    Population  of  Germany,  52,279,915. 

1896.  Agricultural  depression  throughoht  Europe. 

Electoral  reform  in  the  Netherlands ;  suffrage  made  dependent 

on  educational  or  financial  tests. 
Italy,  claiming  a  protectorate  over  Abyssinia,  advanced  troops 
(1895)  to  annex  it  to  Eritrea.    King  Meneldc  surprised  them, 
compelled  the  evacuation  of  Mahaleh  (Jan.  23, 1896),  and  de« 
feated  them  in  the 

March  1.  battle  of  Adua  (Adotoa).  Crispi's  ministry  fell  (March  5) 
and  Rudinif  the  new  premier  (<<  peace  with  honor  "),  withdrew 
the  forces.  At  the  peace  of  Addi's  Abeda  (Oct.  26)  Italy 
acknowledged  the  full  independence  of  Abyssinia. 

Jan.  15.     Anglo>French  agreement  on  Siam  (p.  596). 

Feb.  AnstrUm  Reichsrath  introduced  general  sullrage  for  |  of 
members  of  the  house;  remainder  still  elected  by  }  of  the 
electors. 

Feb.  14.  Baptism  of  prince  Boris,  heir  apparent  of  Bulgaria,  in  the 
Greek  church  ;  restoration  of  Russian  aacendency. 

March  29.     Population  of  France,  38,617,957. 

April  28.  Ministry  Meline  (agriculture),  succeeds  ministry  Bour- 
geois; Hanotaux  (foreign). 

May  16.  Hungarian  parliament  passed  a  law  recognizing  the  Jewish 
faith. 

May  26.  Consecration  of  Nicholas  II.  at  Moscow;  disaster  in  the 
crowd  (May  30). 

Aug.  6.    Madagascar  declared  a  French  colony. 


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A.  D.  Turco-Oreek  War.  581 

Sept.  26.    Opening  of  the  Iron  Gates  of  the  Dannbe. 
Oct.    Viait  of  the  tsar  to  Franoe. 

1896-1899.  Cretan  Revolt  and  Turoo-Qreek  War. 
In  Crete  a  Christian  (Greek)  insurrection  began  in  May, 
1896,  against  Turkish  rule.     The 

1897,  Feb.  7.  insurgents  proclaimed  union  with  Ghreece,  and 
Greece  landed  troops,  refusing  to  withdraw  at  the  order  of 
the  power*  (Feb.  18),  who  had  assumed  joint  oponpation 
of  the  island  and 

March  2.    presented  an  ultimatiun;  no  annexation  to  Greece,  but 

Crete  to  have  an  efFective  autonomous  government.    Greece 

still  refused  to  withdraw  (March  8),  and  the  powers  announced 

the  blockade  of  Crete. 

Public  opinion  in  Greece  forced  the  government  into  a  war  with 

Turkej,  for  which  she  was  utterly  unprepared.    The  conflict 

began  on  the  Thessalonian  frontier  on  April  16,  and 

April  17.    Turkey  declared  war,  her  forces,  under  Edhem  Pasha, 

driving  the  Greeks  out  of  the  lifilotina  paaa  (April  18),  and 

causing  a  general  retirement,  though  unsuccessful  at  Raveni 

pass  (April  19).    The  Greaka,  under  the  crown  prince,  seized 

with  panic, 

April  25.    evacuated  Lariaaa  and  retreated  to  the  KardUsa^Volos 

line.    The  Greek  ministry  was  dismissed  and  Athens  almost  in 

revolt    Meanwhile  the  Greeks  had  invaded  Epirus  from  Arta  (April 

20),  but  were  driven  back  by  Osman  Pasha  (April  28).     Karditsa  was 

abuidoned  on  the  advance  of  £dhem  Pasha;  May  5  the  Greeks  were 

driven  from  Fersala  and  Velestino,  and  May  8  the  Turka  entered 

Volos.     Fiffhting  closed  with  the  further  retreat  of  the  Greeks  from 

Domokos  to  Lamia  (May  17). 

May  10.     Greece  consented  to  withdraw  from  Crete  and  was  ready 

for  mediation,  which  the  powers  offered   to  Turkey.    Russia 

and  Austria  had  ordered  the  Balkan  states  to  keep  out  of  the 

war  (April  29),  and  now  at  a  hint  from  the  tzar  the 

May  18.    Porte  anapended  hoatUitiea.    Turkey  was  not  allowed 

to  profit  by  her  victories.     By  the 
Dec.  4.    treaty  df  peace  at  Constantinople,  the  JrontieF  was  rectified 
(Turkey  gained  control  of  the  passes),  and  Greece  paid  an 
indemnity  of  817,600,000.    A  commission  of  the. powers  assumed  con^ 
trol  of  Greek  revenues  sufficient  to  pay  this  and  the  old  Greek  loans. 

Meanwhile  in  Crete  the  settlement  made  little  progress,  though 
the  Christian  assembly  accepted  autonomy  (Aug.  26)  and  the  powers 
increased  their  zone  of  occupation.  The  powers  failed  to  agree 
among  themselves  or  with  Turkey,  and  Germany  and  Austria  with- 
drew. Turkey  wished  to  keep  troops  on  the  island  as  a  mark  of  her 
suzerainty  and  have  the  Christian  governor  her  subject ;  but  the  with- 
drawal of  her  troops  was  forced  (Nov.  12,  1898)  after  a  Moslem 
attack  on  the  British  troops  and  Christians  at  Candia  (Sept.  6),  and 

1898,  Dec.  21.     Prince    George   of    Greece  was  maae  governor- 

general  by  the  powers,    A  constitution,  drawn  up  by  a  native 
commission,  was  accepted  by  the  four  powers  (Russia,  Great  Britain, 


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582  Modem  History.  A.  o. 

Italy,  France)  and  the  Cretan  assembly  (April,  1899).    Many  desti- 
tute Mohammedans  ^emigrated. 

1897,  Feb.  9.    Population  of  Russian  empire,  129,004,514. 

April  5.    By  ministerial  decree  in  Austria  Case  oh  (Bohemian)  was 

placed  on  an  official  equality  with  German  in  Bohemia.  A 
race  war  followed  in  Bohemia.  In  the  Reich srath  violence  and  a&> 
strucHon  by  the  Germans  produced  a  deadlock  which  continued  during^ 
1898  and  1899  and  made  necessary  legislation  by  decree  under  a 
temporary  suspension  of  the  constitution.  The  Auagleich  was  thus 
renewed  as  a  modus  vivendi.  Matters  were  complicated  by  socialism 
and  anti-Semitism.  In  Hungary  there  was  opposition  to  the  renewal 
of  the  Aus^leich.  The  repeal  of  the  language  ordinance  (July  20, 
1900)  was  Followed  by  obstruction  by  the  young  Czechs. 
July  23.    Convention  defining  the  boundary  of  French  Dahomey  and 

German  Togoland. 
Aug.    Visit  of  the  president  of  France  to  Russia;  the  tzar  toasted 

the  *<  allied  "  nation  (Aug.  26). 
Dec  2.     Gold  standard  adopted  in  Russia. 
1898-1899.    Dreyfus  affair.    An  attempt  by  col.  Picquart  to  re-open 

the  Dreyfus  case  (p.  579),  with  proof  that  the  dossier  con- 
tained nothing  applicable  to  him  and  that  the  bordereau  was  written 
by  another  officer  (Esterhazy),  was  met  by  an  attempt  to  discredit 
Picquart  and  his  evidence  by  forgeries  made  by  Henry,  acquittal  of 
Esterhazy  by  court-martial  (Jan.  11, 1898),  the  declaration  that  the 
case  was  une  chose  jugee,  and  that  the  Dreyfusards  (including  Zold) 
were  trying  to  dishonor  the  army.  Public  opinion,  led  by  the 
Patriotic  League,  anti-Semites,  army  officers,  and  reactionists,  became 
rabid  against  the  revisionists.  But  Henry  confessed  to  the  forgeries 
and  committed  suicide  (Aug.  31),  and  the  prime  minister  (Brisson) 
now  favored  a  revision;  but  while  the  court  of  cassation  was  con- 
sidering the  question,  the  ministry  resigned  after  a  vote  virtually 
accusing  them  of  permitting  attacks  on  the  army,  and  the  ministry 
Dupuy  with  Freycinet  as  war  minister  succeeded  (Oct.  30).  The 
court  of  cassation  (June  3,  1899)  ordered  a  new  conrt-martial, 
declaring  the  bordereau  to  be  Esterhazy's  work  and  the  secret  dossier 
without  reference  to  Dreyfus,  but  the  new  court-martial  renewed  the 
conviction  (Sept.  9).  Meanwhile  the  agitation  had  endangered  the 
stability  of  the  republic,  and  the  ministry  Dupuy  ("trimmers") 
was  replaced  (June  22)  by  the  ministry  'Waldeck-Honssean 
(interior)  ;  Delcasse  (foreign),  Gallifety  later  Andre  (wsltY  This  was 
Known  as  the  ministry  of  republican  defense,  and  it  steadily 
repressed  the  "  affair."  Dreyfus  was  pardoned  (Sept  19),  the  leaders 
of  militarism  transferred  and  subdued,  and  an  act  of  amnesty  passed 
(Dec  24, 1900). 

1898,  Feb.  20.    Referendum  in  Stoitzerland  voted  in  favor  of  state 

ownersh^  of  railways. 

April- August.     Spanish- American  war  (p.  590). 

May.  Distress  in  Italy  led  to  strikes  and  riots,  assuming,  under 
socialistic  and  clerical  encouragement,  a  political  character^ 
amounting  in  Milan  (May  6-8)  to  an  insurrection. 


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A.  D«  Continental  Europe.  583 

Jane.  Eleotious  for  Cferman  Reichstag  showed  increase  of  social 
democrats  ;  but  little  increase  of  agrarians. 

Jane  14.  Franco-British  convention  on  spheres  of  influence  about 
Niger  river. 

Jaly  17.  Italian  law  for  pension  Jitnd  for  workpeople;  national  sub- 
vention of  members  of  the  fund. 

July  30.    t  Biamarok. 

Aug.  31.    Accession  of  queen  WUhdniina. 

Sept.~Nov.    Fashoda  incident  (p.  569). 

Sept  10.    Empress  of  Austria  assassinated  by  an  anarchist. 

Oct.-Nov.  Visit  of  the  German  emperor  to  Constantinople  and  the 
Holy  Land. 

ISOQy  Jan.  25.  The  speech  from  the  throne  to  the  Finnish  diet  an- 
nounced that  the  military  sarvioe  of  Finland  would  be 
made  uniform  with  that  of  the  rest  of  the  empire.  Feb.  15, 
an  imperial  manifesto  displayed  the  intention  of  using  auto- 
oratio  authority  over  legislation  respecting  Finland,  leav- 
ing to  the  diet  only  the  right  of  consultation. 

Feb.  16.     t  President  Fawre. 

Feb.  18.    Zknile  Loubet  elected  president  of  Frcmoe. 

May  18-July  29.  Hagne  peace  conference.  Aug.  24  and  Dec. 
30,  1898,  the  tzar  of  Russia  proposed  a  couference  to  consider 

limitation  of  armaments,  arbitration,  and  laws  of  war.     The  conference 

was  attended  by  representatives  of  European  nations,  United  States, 

Japan,  China,  Persia,  and  Siam.  No  conclusion  was  reached  as  to  re- 
duction of  armaments,  but  conventious  signed:  (1)  for  a  permanent 

court  of  international  arbitration  at  the  Hague  and  friendly 

mediation;  (2)  on  laws  and  customs  of  war  on  land;  (3)  extending 

the  Geneva  convention  to  maritime  warfare  ;  and  also  declarations 

prohibiting  the  use  of  special  means  of  destruction. 

June,  July.  Socialistic  demonstration  in  Belgium  against  the  ffovem- 
ment's  electoral  bill ;  in  Brussels  fierce  rioting.  Ministry 
resigned  (Aug.  1)  and  the  new  ministry  carried  through  a 
law  ioT  proportional  representation  (Dec.  29). 

June  30.    Spain  ceded  the  (JaroUne  Islands  to  Germany. 

Dec.  2.    Samoan  treaty  (p.  592). 

1900,  March.  Successful  obstruction  by  socialists  in  the  Italian  cham- 
ber of  deputies  of  a  drastic  bill  for  the  public  safety,  the  out- 
come of  the  disturbances  of  1898. 

April  14.  Paris  exposition  to  commemorate  the  work  of  the  century 
opened. 

June  26.  Imperial  ukase  issued  for  gradual  introduction  of  Russian 
as  the  official  language  in  Finland, 

June  27.  Franco-Spanish  convention  deliminating  possessions  in 
Sahara  and  on  gulf  of  Guinea. 

July  29.  Assassination  of  king  Humbert  of  Italy  by  an  anarch- 
ist, succeeded  by  his  son 

1900-X.    Viotor  Emmanuel  III. 

Sept  First  election  in  Norway  under  universal  manhood  (25 
years)  snifrage. 


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584  Modem  History.  A.  ix 

Oct.  17.  Count  von  Biilow  sucoeeded  prince  ▼.  Hohenlohe  as 
ohanoellor  of  the  Grerman  empire. 

Deo.  1.    Population  of  Germany,  66,367,178. 

1901.     Industrial  depression  in  Germany. 

1901-1902.  Attempted  Oermanization  of  PxuBsian  Polcmd 
through  settlement  of  German  proprietors  and  language  de- 
crees made  little  progress  against  opposition. 

1901-1903.  In  Jan.,  1901,  revolt  of  atudenta  throughout  Roasla; 
BogoUpoff,  minister  of  education,  assassinated  (Feb.  27).  ToUtoi 
excommunicated  (Feb.  25).  Trouble  renewed  at  the  end  of 
year,  assisted  by  workmen  and  with  revolutionary  purposes. 
Sipiagin^  minister  of  the  interior,  was  assassinated,  April  15, 
1902,  and  so  was  his  successor,  PUhve  (July  26, 1904).  lAbor 
BtzlkeB  followed,  a  novelty  in  Russia,  due  to  over-sUmulation 
and  collapse  of  manufacturing  enterprises.  Distress  and 
famine  caused  agrarian  agitation  and  sacking  of  large  estates 
(April,  1902). 

1901 — X.  Macedonicm  revolt,  headed  by  Bulgarian  revolutionists 
{Boris  Sarafof),  which,  with  the  conduct  of  the  Turkish 
troops,  produced  a  reign  of  terror.  Rusda  and  Austria  up- 
held the  status  quo  and  presented  a  scheme  of  reform  to  the 
sultan  (Oct.  24, 1903)  which  he  accepted. 

1901,  Feb.  10.     Population  of  Italy,  32,475,253. 
March  24.     Population  of  France,  38,961,945. 

April  19.    A  liberal  cotistihUion  decree  in  Servia,  creating  a  senate. 

June  25.     Army  reorganization  law  in  Sweden;  compulsory  service. 

July  1.  AssociationB  law  in  France.  Causes  :  attitude  of  clergy 
in  Dreyfus  affair  ;  teachings  of  the  regular  clergy  considered 
reactionary ;  <Hoo  many  monks  in  business,  and  too  many  monks 
in  politics."  All  religious  associations  and  their  establishments 
fnust  be  authorized  by  the  state;  all  unauthorized  ones  after 
Oct.  1  to  be  considered  dissolved.  Many  congregations,  espe- 
cially the  Jesuits,  transferred  their  property  beyond  France 
before  that  date.  The  law  was  construed  strictly,  especially 
against  associations  engaged  in  teaching  and  business  (Char- 
treuse). 

July  11.  Imperial  edict  deprived  Finnish  army  of  its  natioMd  charaC' 
ter;  attempt  at  recruiting  at  Helsingfors  failed  (April  17, 
1902). 

Aug.  26.  Rupture  of  Franco-Turkish  diplomatic  relations  over 
claims  and  French  religious  orders.  Nov.  7,  naval  demonstra- 
tion. The  Porte  yielded  and  also  recognized  Frencli  pro- 
tection of  catholics  in  the  Eaat. 

1902, 1903.     Famine  in  Sweden  and  Finland. 

1902,  Jan.    Completion  of  the  Tranaaiberian  railway. 

Jan.  16.    Turkish  irade  for  a  German  raihoay  across  Asia  Minor  to 

Persian  gulf. 
March  5.     Brussels  sugar  convention  signed  by  most  European  states, 

abolishing  bounties;  in  effect  Sept.  1.    Great  Britain  (Aug. 

11)  forbtMle  import  of  bounty-fed  sugar. 
April.    A  general  strike  in  Belgium  against  plural  suffrage  failed. 


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A.  D.  ContineiUal  Europe.  585 

April,  May.    French  elections,  hearty  support  of  the  government. 

May  7.  Eruption  of  Mount  PeUe^  Martinique  ;  destraction  of  St. 
Pierre. 

May  17.    Aoeession  of  Alfonso  XIII,  of  Spain. 

June  3.  Resignation  of  ministry  Waldeck-Roasseaa  ;  succeeded  by 
ministry  Combes  (interior,  worship)  on  June  7 ;  Ddcasse 
(foreign),  Andre  (war),  Rouvier  (finance). 

June  7.  German  Reichstag  assented  to  the  abolition  of  the  dictator 
paragraph  (state  of  siege)  in  Alsace-Lorraine, 

June  28.    Triple  alliance  renewed  at  Berlin. 

July.  Riots  in  Brittany  and  Savoy  against  the  closing  of  unauthorized 
religious  schools.    About  3000  schools  closed  in  France. 

Sept  30.  Further  Rnaalfioation  of  Finland.  Edicts  issued  giv- 
ing governor-general  power  to  appoint  officials  and  remove 
judges;  Ruaalan  to  be  the  official  language  Oct.  1, 1903. 
Russian  espionage  and  Cossacks  employed.  Great  emigra- 
tion. Bodrikoff,  govemor  general,  assassinated,  June  16, 
1904. 

Deo.  Coercion  of  Venesnela.  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  Italy, 
presenting  claims,  blockaded  Venezuela,  United  States  re- 
fumed  to  interfere  so  long  as  no  permanent  occupation  was 
attempted,  but  through  its  good  offices  the  Hague  tribunal  was 
asked  to  decide  whether  coercing  powers  should  have  prefer- 
ence oveY  other  claimants  (Feb.  13, 1903),  and  the  blockade 
was  raised.    Claims  conventions. 

Dec.  14.  Tariff  biU  passed  the  German  Reichstag;  minimum  duties 
on  agricultural  products  raised. 

1908.  In  France  an  agitation  developed  for  separation  of  church  and 
state  and  denunciation  of  the  Concordat  Tp.  463);  members  of 
dissolved  congregations  denied  the  right  to  preach  in  the 
parishes.  The  visit  of  the  king  of  Italp  to  Paris  (Oct.  14), 
and  the  Franco-Italian  general  arbitration  treaty  (Dec,  25) 
harmonized  with  this  movement. 

Feb.  20.     Silver  jubilee  of  papacy  of  Leo  XIII. 

Mareh  5.    Bagdad  railway  convention  signed  at  Constantinople. 

April.  In  Servia  kine  A  lender,  not  receiving  the  support  of  the  radi- 
cals, suspended  the  new  constitution.  June  11  he  and  queen 
Draga  were  murdered  by  army  officers.  Peter  Kara- 
georgeritch,  the  rival  claimant,  elected  to  succeed  (June 
16). 

April  19,  20.  Planned  riot  against  the  Jewa  at  Kiahinef,  Russia, 
the  authorities  Bympathizing  with  the  rioters.  The  afiFair 
attracted  world-wide  attention.    Sept.  14,  similar  riot  at  Gomel. 

July  20.  t  ^o  XIII,;  Pine  X.  (Sarto),  patriarch  of  Venice,  elected 
to  succeed,  Aug.  4. 

Sept.  14.  Emperor  Francis-Joseph  sharply  denounced  the  demand 
of  the  Kossuthites  for  use  of  Hungarian  in  the  army.  Ministe- 
rial crisis. 

Oct.  14  Franco-British  general  arbitration  treaty  (p.  573).  (See 
p.  699.) 


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686  Modem  History.  a.  d. 

§  10.    UNITED  STATES.  (See  p.  660.) 

188^-1908. 

1883,  Beginning  of  the  new  steal  navy  ("  white  squadron  "). 
March  3.    Tariff  act;  protection  principle  maintained. 

May  24.    Opening  of  the  New  York-Brooklyn  suspenBion  hridffe. 

1884,  Jane  6.  Republican  convention  at  Chicago  nominated  J.  G. 
Blaine  for  president;  protective  platform.  The  democratg  nom- 
inated Grover  Cleveland  at  Chicago,  July  11,  and  advocated  tox- 
ationfor  revenue  only.  Both  platforms  supported  civil  service 
reform.  Campaign  of  much  personality.  Democrats  buo- 
ceBBfal  at  election  (Nov.  4),  carrying  {h^  pivotal  stale  of  New 
York  by  1047  votes.    Electoral  vote,  219-182. 

1885,  Feb.  26.    Act  forbidding  importation  of  contract  laborers. 

1885}  March  4-1889,  March  4.  Grover  Cleveland  (b. 
1837)  (New  York),  democrat,  22d  president;  T.  A,  Hen- 
dricka,  vice-president  (f  Nov.  25, 1886) ;  T.  F,  Bayard,  sec- 
retary of  state. 

1886,  Jan.  19.  PreBidential  BucceBBlon  law;  members  of  the 
cabinet  to  follow  the  vice-president  in  succession. 

March  6-May  3.     General  strike  on  the  Gould  system  of  railroads; 

rioting  suppressed  by  regulars  and  militia.     Knights  of  Labor 

controlled  the  strike. 
May-July.    Seizurea  made  of  American  fiahermen  in  Canadian 

waters,  reopening  old  controversy  under  convention  of  1818 

(p.  552).   Retaliatory  legislation. 
May  1.    Strikes  and  socialistic  demonstrations  throughout  the  country 

for  the  eight-hour  system. 
May  4.     Anarchist  riot  in  Hay  market  Square,  Chicago. 
Aug.  31.     Earthquake,  much  havoc  wrought  at  Charleston. 
1886, 1887.    Beiaure  of  British  vessels  for  pelagic  eealing  in 

Bering  eea.    A  diplomatic  discussion  covering  several  years 

followed. 

1887,  Feb.  3.    Act  to  regulate  the  counting  of  the  electoral  votes  ; 

votes  certified  by  state  executives  to  be  counted,  unless  both 
houses  reject  them. 

Feb.  4.  Interstate  commeroe  act ;  regulation  of  interstate  rail- 
road transportation,  prevention  of  discrimuuiiion  in  rates,  pool- 
ing,  and  other  abuses  ;  commission  with  administrative  and 
judicial  powers  to  execute  the  act.  Results  under  the  act  have 
been  disappointing. 

Dec.  6.  The  president's  annual  message  to  congress  was  deroted 
entirely  to  surplus  revenue  and  tariff  reform  ("  it  is  a  con- 
dition which  confronts  us  —  not  a  theory"),  making  the 
tariff  the  issue  of  the  next  election. 

1888,  Feb.  15.     A  fisheries  treaty  with  Great  Britain  sijp^ed,  grant- 

ing certain  rights  in  Canadian  inshore  in  return  n>r  free  fish. 
The  senate  rejected  the  treaty  (Aug.  21). 
June  6.    Democratic  convention  renommated  Cleveland  at  St.  Louis. 
The  republicans  nominated  Benjamin  Harrison  at  Chicago, 


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A.  D.  *  United  States.  587 

June  25.  Tariff  the  iBane,  and  repnbUccma  flvccesafiil 
(Nov.  6)  by  233  electoral  votes  to  168. 

Jane  13.  Department  of  labor  created,  but  without  a  seat  in  the 
cabinet. 

Oct.  1.  ChineBe  exdusian  act  made  more  stringent,  after  China  had 
refused  to  ratify  a  treaty  for  the  same  purpose  ;  former  resi- 
dent laborers  not  to  be  allowed  to  return. 

1888-1889.  Introduction  of  the  Anatralian  ballot;  gradually 
adopted  by  most  of  the  states. 

1889,  Feb.  9.    Department  of  Agriooltore  authorized. 

1889,  March  4-1893,  March  4.  Benjamin  Harrison 
(b.  1833  ;  1 1901)  (Indiana),  republican,  23d  president ;  Levi 
P.  Morton^  vice-president ;  James  O.  EUane^  secretary  of  state 
until  June,  1892. 

April  22.  Oklahoma  opened  to  setdemerUj  wild  rush  of  settlers. 
Territorial  government  authorized,  May  2, 1890.  Population 
(189^,  78,476. 

April  30.  Centenary  of  Washington's  inauguration  celebrated  at 
New  York. 

May  31.  Destruction  of  Johnstown,  Pa.,  caused  by  the  bursting  of  a 
dam  ;  2280  perished. 

June  14.  Treaty  on  Samoa  signed.  United  States^  Great  Britain^ 
and  Germany  united  in  a  declaration  recognizing  the  independ- 
ence and  neutrality  of  the  islands  ana  providing  for  an 
autonomous  government  under  their  joint  control. 

Oct.  2-1890,  April  19.  Pan- Amerloan  Congreaa  of  all  the  Ameri- 
can states  except  San  Domingo  met  at  Washington.  Few 
positive  results  ;  reciprocity  recommended.  Bureau  of  Amerir 
can  Republics  organized  (1890)  to  collect  and  distribute  com- 
mercial information. 

1889,  Nov.  2.    North  Dakota  (39th  state). 
Nov.  2.    South  Dakota  (40th  state). 
Nov.  8.    Montana  (4l8t  state). 

Nov.  11.    'Waahington  (42d  state). 

1890-1903.  Prominent  features  of  this  period  were  :  the  advent  of 
Amerioa  as  a  world  po^irer  ;  great  industrial  prosperity 
following  a  period  of  depression  ;  amalgamation  of  capital,  forming 
virtual  monopolies  and  "  tmata  ; "  growth  of  trade-unionism  and 
protracted  strikes;  corruption  m  municipal  government;  development 
of  rural  communication  by  means  of  electric  railroads,  telephones,  and 
free  delivery  of  mail.  At  the  South,  a  slow  bettemient  in  the 
economic  condition  of  the  colored  race,  but  constitutional  disfran- 
chisement in  six  states  (''grandfather"  clause,  *' understanding *' 
clause)  and  lynching. 

1890,  Feb.  14.    New  rules  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  enabling 

the  speaker  to  include  in  the  quorum  those  present  but  not 

voting. 
June  1.    Population,  62,979,766  (11th  census). 
June  19.    Force  bill  reported  m  the  House,  providing  for  federal 

control  of  federal  elections,  and  intended  to  protect  negro  voters. 


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588  Modem  History.  a.  j>. 

Passed  the  House,  July  2,  bat  was  9hdoed  m  the  Senate  by  aid 
of  republican  yotes,  Jan.  1891. 

June  27.  Disability  and  dependent  pension  aot ;  pensions  to 
be  paid  to  all  Union  veterans  incapacitated  from  earning  a  Umg 
by  manual  lahoTf  and  to  widows  dependent  upon  their  own  daily 
toil.    Pensions  paid,  1889,  989,132,000  ;  1892,  9141,087,000. 

Jaly  2.  Anti-tmat  (Sherman)  la'w  ;  all  trusts  or  combinations  to 
restrain  or  monopolize  interstate  or  foreign  trade  declared 
illegal. 

July  3.    Idaho  (43d  state). 

July  10.    "Wyoming  r44th  state). 

July  14.  Sherman  silver  purdhaae  law  ;  fixed  amount  of  silrer 
to  be  purchased  each  month  and  silver  Tretuury  notes  issued 
e^ual  to  its  bullion  value  ;  notes  to  be  redeemed  in  coin  and 
retssued, 

Oct.  1.  McKinley  tariff  la^ir  ;  reduction  in  revenue  but  increase  in 
protection,  free  raw  sugar  and  bounty  on  home  production,  pro- 
vision for  limited  reciprocity  treaties,  several  of  which  were 
concluded. 

1891,  March  3.    International  copyright  law. 

March  14.    Lynching  in  New  Orleans  of  Italians,  members  of  the 

**  Mafia."  Italy  protested  and  closed  her  legation  (March  31). 

April  12,  1892,  the  United  States  paid  an  indemnity. 
June  15.    Modus  vivendi  with  Great  Britain  on  Bering  sea  sealing, 
Oct.  10:  Attack  on  American  sailors  in  Valparaiso  hj  mob  and  police, 

resulting  from  conditions  during  a  recent  civil  war  in  Chile. 

War  imminent,  but  Chile  finally  apologized  (Jan.  25, 1892), 

and  paid  an  indemnity. 

1892,  Feb.  29.    Bering  aea  arbitration  convention  signed  with 

Oreat  Britain  ;  right  of  the  United  States  to  proteot  aeala 
from  pelagic  fishing  in  Bering  sea  referred  to  a  tribunal, 
which  decided  (Aug.  15, 1893^  against  any  such  riaht  outside 
the  three-mile  limit.  United  States  paid  damages  for  seizures 
made. 

Jnne-Aug.  Strikes  and  rioting  at  CoBur  d'Alene  mines  in  Idaho 
Temployment  of  non-union  miners) ;  at  Homestead,  Pa. 
(wages,  non-union  laborers,  private  detectives)  ;  and  in  west 
Tennessee  mines  (convict  labor).  Martial  law  declared,  mili- 
tia and  regulars  called  out. 

June  10.  RepMican  convetiHon  at  Minneapolis  renominated  Hat' 
rison  and  supported  protection  •and  bmetaUism,  Democrats  at 
Chicago  renominated  Cleveland  and  denounced  the  McKinley 
tariff,  the  Force  biU,  and  also  fwheld  bimetallism.  A  third  party 
(people's  party)  nominated  James  B.  Weaver  (July  5),  and 
declared  for  labor  unions,  free  silver,  no  national  banks,  and 
national  ownership  of  railroads.  Cleveland  was  eleoted 
(Nov.  8),  by  277  electoral  votes  to  145  for  Harrison  and  22 
for  Weaver. 

Feb.  14.  Treaty  of  annexation  with  Hawaii  signed  at  Wash- 
ington. Reform  party  in  Hawaii,  aided  by  the  United  States 
minister  (Stevens)  and  marines,  had  depoaed  the  queen  (Ltft- 


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▲.  D.  United  Statu.  589 

uoiboZont)  (Jan.  17).  President  Cleveland  (MtLteh  9)  with- 
drew the  treaty  from  the  Senate,  and  after  inTestigation 
proposed  to  reinstate  the  queen  under  certain  oonditions.  She 
refused  the  conditions  (]Noy.  13)  and  the  independent  repulH 
Ucan  government  of  Hawaii  was  recognized  (Aug.  7, 1894). 

1893>  March  4-18979  March  4.  Qrover  Cleveland  presi- 
dent for  second  time.  A,  E.  Stevenson  vice-president ;  W.  Q. 
Gresbam,  later  Richard  Oiney^  secretary  of  state.  Demoorate 
controlled  the  legisktive  and  executive  departments  for 
first  time  since  1858. 

May-Cot.  "V^orld'a  Columbian  Ibcposltion  at  Chieago  to  oom- 
memorate  the  400th  anniversary  of  the  discovery  of  America. 

June  27.  Disastrous  panlo,  following  a  heav^  ea^ffort  of  gold  and  news 
that  India  had  suspended  the  free  coinage  of  silver  ;  fear  of  a 
silver  basis. 

Aug.  7.  Extra  session  of  congress  to  consider  financial  matters. 
President  advocated  repeal  of  silver  pnrohase  law  to  stop 
drain  on  gold  reserve ;  alternative,  sale  of  bonds  to  replenish 
gold  reserve  continuall  v  or  payment  of  obUgaHons  in  datreciated 
silver.  Repeal  passed  House,  Aug.  28  (239-108),  and  Senate, 
Oct.  30  (43-32).  Public  opinion  sharply  divided;  agitation 
for  free  silver. 

1894,  Feb.,  Nov.  Sale  of  government  bonds  to  replenish  gold  reserve, 
8100,000,000. 

Feb.-June.  Great  coal  strike  affecting  six  states,  mining  trouble  in 
Colorado;  disorder,  and  militia  called  out. 

March  17.  Treaty  with  China  signed,  renewing  the  exclusion  of 
Chinese  laborers. 

March  24-May  1.    March  of  '^Coxey's  army;''  demonstration  of 


Biaroh  30.  Veto  of  a  bill  to  coin  the  seigniorage  of  the  purchased  sil- 
ver bullion. 

June  26-July  19.  Amerioan  Railroad  Union  strike.  Trains 
were  blocked  and  riots  ensued,  especially  at  Chicago.  Federal 
injunction  issued  against  the  strikers  to  prevent  mterf erence 
with  interstate  commerce  and  the  mails  (July  2) ;  later,  leaders 
were  arrested  for  contempt  of  the  injunction  ('<  government 
by  injunction "),  and  also  for  conspiracy  to  block  the  mails. 
United  States  troops  sent  to  Chicago  (July  3)  and  other  places. . 
Strike  extended  to  the  Pacific  coast.     Strike  failed. 

Aug.  27.  'Wilson-Oorman  tafiCF  law  enacted  without  president's 
signature;  some  reductions  in  protective  schedules,  but  raw 
material,  except  wool,  still  taxed;  tax  on  sugar;  income  lax  to 
make  revenue;  reciprocity  repealed. 

1895,  Jan.  9.  Presidential  recommendation  of  national  and  state 
bank  notes  defeated  in  the  House  (124-130),  also  bill  for  low- 
rate  gold  bonds  (Feb.  7)  (135-162).  Coin  bonds  ($62,000,000) 
sold  to  a  syndicate  to  replenish  gold  reserve  ;  discussion  of 
legality  of  issue.  Free  silver  6ttf  in  the  ^t^sXe  prevented  (Feb.) 
by  filibustering. 


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590  Modem  History,  A.  d. 

Feb.  Outbreak  of  rebellion  in  Cuba ;  carried  on  by  guerrilla 
warfare,  assisted  by  a  junta  in  the  United  States,  and  attended 
by  much  devastation  and  sutferiug,  especially  in  the  reeonceiUration 
camps  established  by  the  Spanish  captain-general  (  Weyler),  The  tr»- 
turgents  had  no  real  government,  and  various  efforts  of  congress  (1896, 
1897)  to  accord  them  the  right  of  belligerents,  or  to  recognize  their 
independencet  were  opposed  by  the  president.  Filibustering  expeditions 
were  guarded  against,  but  many  of  them  reached  Cuba.  Diplomatic 
Jrictian  with  Spain.  Relief  sent  to  the  destitute. 
May  20.  Income  tax  declared  unconstitutional  by  the  supreme  court. 
Jnly-1896,  Jan.  Venesuela-Britlsh  Guiana  boundary  oontro- 
veray.  Great  Britain  refused  to  submit  to  arbitration,  and 
secretary  Olney  considered  (July  20)  the  Monroe  doctrine  iuvdved, 
as  the  United  Statea  was  **  practically  aovereign  on  thia  con- 
tinent "  and  her  safety  was  endangered  by  Great  Britain's  attitude 
((Hney  doctrine),  Dec.  17  Cleveland  asked  congress  to  authorize  a 
commission  to  determine  the  rights  of  the  controversy;  "the  duty  of 
the  United  States  to  resist  .  .  .  the  appropriation  by  Great  Britain 
of  any  .  .  .  territory  which  after  investigation  we  have  determined 
of  right  belongs  to  Venezuela."  Commission  authorized  and  ap- 
pointed (Jan.  1, 1896),  but  Great  Britain  and  Venezuela  signed  an 
arbitration  treaty,  Feb.  2, 1897.  The  award  gave  most  of  the  dis- 
puted territory  to  Great  Britain  (Oct.  3, 1899). 
1896.  Rural  free  delioery  of  mail  began;  in  1902  there  were  11,660 
routes. 

1896,  Jan:  4.    Utah  (45th  state)  ;  constitution  forbids  polygamy. 

Feb.  5.  Popular  issue  of  bonds  (8100,000,000),  largely  oversub- 
scribed above  par.  After  the  election  in  Nov.  the  drain  of  gold 
for  hoarding  and  export  ceased, 

June  18.  Republican  convention  at  St.  Louis  nominated  William 
McKinUy  for  president  and  declared  ioT  protection  and  a  gold 
atandard.  The  democrats  at  Chicago  nominated  WUliam  J, 
Bryan  (July  10)  and  declared  for  free  ailver.  The  populists 
supported  Bryan.  McKinley  waa  elected  (Nov.  3),  by 
271  electoral  votes  to  176. 

1897,  Jau.  11.    General  arbitration  treaty  signed  with  Great  Britain, 

but  rejected  by  the  Senate,  May  5. 
1897,  March  4-1901.  Sept  14.  William  MoKinley 
(b.  1843;  1 1901)  (Ohio),  republican,  24th  president ;  Garret 
A,  Hobart  (f  Nov.  21, 1899),  vice-president ;  John  Sherman^ 
later  Jo/in  Hay,  secretary  of  state.  Republicans  regained  control 
of  executive  and  legislative  departments. 

1897,  July  24.    Dingley  tariff  act ;  intended  to  increase  the  revenue 

(which  had  been  below  the  expenditures  since  1893)  and  also 
increase  the  protection  ;  provisiou  for  reciprocity  treaties. 

1898,  Jan  1.     Inauguration  of  Greater  New  York  government;  New 

York  City,  Brooklyn,  and  vicinity  in  one  municipal  govern- 
ment.   Area,  359  square  miles  ;  population  (1900),  3,^7,202. 
1898.    Spanish  War. 
Rebellion  in  Cuba  (above)  made  no  progress,  nor  was  Spain 


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A.  D.  Spanish  War.  591 

able  to  end  it ;  contest  became  one  of  famine  and  anmhUaiion.    Ameri- 
oan  sympathy  was  with  the  Cubans,  Anierican  interests  deeply  in- 
volved, and  Spain  uniformly  refused  offers  of  friendly  mediation. 
A  new  ministry  {Sagtuta)  announced  an  autonomous  government  for 
Cuba  (Oct.  6,  1897),  but  it  satisfied  neither  party  there. 
Feb.  15.    U.  8.  8.  Msdne  was  blow^n  np  in  Havana  harbor,  arous- 
ing national  resentment  Q*  remember  the  Maine  1 ").    McKin- 
ley  sent  to  Congress  a 
April  11.    "war  meaaage,  declaring  that  the  intolerable  conditions 
in  Cuba  must  cease,  and  asking  authority  for  forcible  inter- 
vention.   Congrress  passed 
April  20.     a  resolution  recognizing  the  independence  of  the  people  of 
Cuba  (but  not  of  the  so-called  republic),  authorizing  inter- 
vention, and  disolaiming    cmy   intention  of   anneadng 
Cuba.    Spain  considered  this  a  declaration  of  war.    Later 
both  nations  made 
April  24,  25.    *f ormal  declarations  of  war. 
May  1.    Battle  of  Manila  Bay.     Commodore   Gtoorge  De^irey 
with  7  cruisers  destroyed  the  S|>anish  fleet  of  10  inferior  vessels 
and  held  Manila  at  his  mercy,  but  with  no  troops  to  occupy  it.     Rein- 
forcements and  an  army  were  sent  to  him.     Admiral  Cervera  sailed 
for  Cuba  from  Cape  Verde  Islands  with  a  Spanish  fleet  of  4  armored 
cruisers  and  2  destroyers  (April  29),  and  admiral  Sampson,  searching 
for  him,  bombarded  San  Juan  (May  12),  and  finally  blockaded  him 
at  Santiago  (June  2).   An  army  of  16,000  men  under  gen.  Shafier 
landed  near  Santiago  (June  22),   and  in  advancing  defeated  the 
Spaniards  at  the 

Jaly  1.    battles  of  Bl  Caney  and  San  Juan  Hill,  and  demanded 
the  surrender  of  the  city  (July  3).     Cervera  made  a  dash 
from  the  harbor,  and  in  the 
July  3.    naval  battle  of  Santiago  his  fleet  was  utterly  destroyed. 
July  17.     Santiago  surrendered.    General  Miles  landed  in  Porto 
Rico  (July  25),  but  his  advance  on  San  Juan  was  stopped  by 
the  signing  of  the 
Aug.  12.    peace  protocol.     Before  this  was  known  the  army 

gathered  in  the  Philippines  under  gen.  Merritt 
Aug.  13.    captured  Manila. 

Dec.  10.    The  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Paris.     Spain 
retired  from  Caba,  ceded  to  the  United  States  Porto  Rico^ 
Guam,  and  the   Philippines,  receiving  $20,000,000  for  the  last. 
Pending  the  organization  of  its  government,  Cuba  was  ruled  by  the 
United  States  war  department,  and  a  commission  was  appointed  (Jan. 
20, 1899)  to  study  conditions  in  the  Philippines.     The  administration 
of  the  army  during  the  war  was  sharply  criticised. 
1898,  July  1.     Law  for  a  uniform  system  of  bankruptcy. 
July  7.     Annexation  of  Haw^aii  by  joint  resolution  ;  possession 
taken,  Aug.  12.     Territorial  government  established,  April 
30, 1900. 
Ang.  25.    Anglo-American  commission  met  at  Quebec  to  consider 
pending  questions  with  Canada.    Reassembled  at  Washing- 


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592  Modem  History.  A.  ix 

ton  (Not.  1),  but  diMgned  on  the  qnastioB  of  Al—kaa  bound- 
ary (Feb.  20, 18d9). 

1899-1002.  FhiUppine  Insorrectioii*  A  body  of  FUu 
pinas  ander  Emiiio  Agumaldo  were  in  revoU  againtt  Sp<xin  before 
the  American  war»  and  during  it  poesesaed  themselves  of  all 
of  Luxon  except  the  capitaL  They  objected  to  American 
soyereignty  ana  made  fui 

1899,  Feb.  4.  attack  on  Manila,  where  the  American  army  was, 
bat  were  beaten  oif.  Severe  fighting  continued  during  the 
year,  the  rebeb  being  driven  into  the  mountains.  In  1900 
the  insurgents  adopts  guerriila  wxrfcart^  huskwhadangf  and 
temoftffin,  and  the  American  army,  averaging  over  60,000,  was 
distributed  in  many  posts. 

1901,  March  23.    Agninaldo  was  captured  by  stratagem,  and  other 

leaders  then  surrendered,  but  the  insurrection  was  not  finally 
suppressed  until  April,  1902. 

1902,  July  4.    Proclamation  ofamnetty. 

1899,  Sept.  6.    Open-door  policy  (p.  697). 

Oct.  20.  Modtu  vwendi  on  Ala$ka;  provkional  boundary  tfarongfa 
the  i^asses  beyond  Lynn  Canal. 

Dec  2.  Disturbances  continuing  in  Samoa  under  the  tridomininm 
(p.  687),  a  treaty  was  signed  at  Washington  dividing  the 
tilandi.  United  State$  received  Tutmla  and  uermanif  the  other 
two  islands;  England  compensated  by  receiving  the  ^Toioe 
Islands  from  Germany. 

1900,  Boxer  rising  (p.  697). 

March  14.  Ck>ld  standard  act ;  all  paper  money  to  be  redeemed 
in  ffold,  provision  for  maintaining  gold  reserve,  increase  in 
national  iiank  notes. 

March  16.  President,  as  commander-in-chief,  appointed  a  second 
Philippine  conuniaaion  of  five,  William  a.  Tafy  president, 
to  continue  the  establishment  of  civil  government.  After  Sept. 
1,  it  exercised  legislatioe  authority  and  established  courts,  local 
governments,  civil  service,  and  schools,  and  controlled  finances. 

April  12.  Civil  aovemmentfor  Porto  Rico  ;  the  act  also  provided  that 
temporarily  import  duties  between  the  island  and  the  states 
should  be  16%  of  the  regular  rates,  but  on  July  26, 1901,  J^ 
trade  was  proclaimed. 

June  1.  Population,  76,903,387,  not  including  Porto  Rico  or  Philip- 
pines (12th  census). 

June  21.  McKinley  renominated  by  the  republicans  at  Philadelphia  : 
the  democrats  renominated  Bryan  at  Kansas  City,  and  upheld 
free  silver  and  anti-imperialism,  McKinley  elected  by  292 
electoral  votes  to  166  (Nov.  6). 

Sept.  8.    Tornado  wrecked  Galveston,  with  great  loss  of  life. 

1901,  Feb.  2.     Act  to  reorganize  the  army ;  maximum  of  lOOfiOO 

men, 
March  2.    Piatt  amendment  on  Cvba  ;  as  conditions  of  withdrawal 
from  the  island,  Cuba  to  grant  naval  stations  and  right  of  inters 
vention  to  protect  life,  property,  or  Cuban  independence. 


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A.  D  United  States.  593 

These  conditions  were  embodied  in  the  Gabon  oonstitntiony 
June  12. 

March  2.  President  authorized  (Spooner  amendment)  to  establish 
snoh  temporary  olvU  government  for  Philippinea  as  he 
saw  fit.  He  continued  the  commission  (p.  592),  and  made  its 
president  the  civil  goyemor,  replacing  the  miUtary  executive 
(July  4).  Sept.  1  three  Filipinos  were  added  to  the  commission 
and  executive  departments  created,  to  which  members  of  the 
commission  were  assigned. 

March  4.  Second  administration  of  McKinley  began ;  Theodore 
RooseveUf  vice-president. 

May  27.  Insular  oases  decided  by  the  supreme  court  ;  congress 
has  authority  to  make /or  new  territory  laws  ^including  a  tar- 
iff) different  from  those  applicable  to  the  states  (constitution  does 
not  follow  the  flag),  but  until  congress  acts  goods  imported 
from  the  territory  cannot  be  taxed  as  foreign. 

Sept.  6.    resident  McKinley  shot  by  an  anarchist;  f  Sept.  14. 

190LSept.  14-x.  Theodore  Roosevelt  (b.  1868  )  (New 
x'ork)  republican,  2oth  president 

1901,  Nov.  IS.    Treaty  signed  with  Great  Britain  abrogating  the  Clav- 

tof^Bulwer  treaty  (p.  555^  ;  isthmian  canal  to  be  under  the  sole 
Jurisdiction  of  the  Unitea  States. 

1902,  flan.  1.    In  Cuba,  presidential  election  ;  May  20,  American 

oooupation  ended. 

Jan.  24.  Danish  West  ludies  purchased,  but  the  Rigsdag  refused  to 
ratify  the  cession  (Oct.  22). 

Maroh  8.    Imports  from  the  Philippines  to  pay  75%  of  usual  rates. 

May  12-Oct.  16.  Anthracite  coal  miners  strOte,  threatening  a  coal 
famine  in  winter.  Through  the  influence  of  Roosevelt^  the 
matter  wiks  referred  to  a  commission  appointed  by  him,  and 
the  men  returned  to  work  pending  the  decision. 

June  17.    Act  for  the  reclamation  of  arid  public  lands. 

June  28.  Isthmian  ocmal  aot ;  president  authorized  to  construota 
canal  at  Panama,  if  he  could  acquire  the  rieht  of  the  French 
company  for  $40,000,000  and  the  cession  nom  Colombia  of 
the  right  and  necessary  territory ;  if  not,  to  construct  the 
Nicaragua  canal.^ 

1902,  July  1.    Act  for  olvil  govemmant  in  the  Philippines. 

Civil  government  established  by  the  president  confirmed  (pp. 
502,  603)  ;  bill  of  rights  except  as  to  right  to  bear  arms  and 
trial  by  jury  ;  provision  for  future  bioameral  legislature 
of  commission  and  an  elected  house;  two  resident  commis- 
sioners in  the  United  States. 

Dee.     Coercion  of  Venezuela  (p.  686). 

Dec.  11.    Reciprocity  treaty  with  Cuba  signed ;  in  force  Dec.  27, 1903. 

1903,  Jan.  22.    Canal  treaty  signed  with  Colombia,  but  Colombian 


1  For  the  French  canal,  see  p.  578.    An  American  company  had  acquired 
the  Nicaragua  right,  but  the  grant  had  been  cancelled.    Several  commissions 

ma  under  the 

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had  reported  on  the  canal  project,  the  last  (1900)  iavormg  Panama  under  the 
conditions  named  in  the  act. 


594  ,       Modem  History.  ▲.  ix 

oongrau  refuged  to  ratify  it  (Aug.  12).    Parobase  made  from 
the  French  company. 
Jan.  24.    Alaakan  boundary  question  referred  to  a  tribunal  of 
six  ;    award  (Oct.  20)  sustained  the   claim  of  the  United 
States,  Canada  being  barred  from  the  ocean  inlets. 
;  ^         Feb.  14.    Department  of  commerce  and  labor  created. 
'  ;    '  -^  Feb.  14.     GeneHil  «^a^  authorized  for  the  army. 

May-July.     Postal  scandal. 
\^  ,        July  4.    American  Pacific  cable  opened  between  San  Francisco  and 
/  '  Manila. 

"^  Nov.  3.  Revolt  of  Panama ;  independence  declared.  United 
States  troops  were  landed  to  ureveut  hostilities,  and  the  new 
government  was  recognized  on  Nov.  6. 
KoT.  18.  Canal  treaty  algned  with  Panama  ;  United  States  to 
have  sovereignty  over  the  canal  strip  and  to  safeguard  uu/e- 
pendence  of  Panama. 
Deo.  Agreement  of  the  Philippine  commission  with  the  Roman 
Catholic  authorities  for  the  purchase  of  the  friars*  kmdSf  whieh 
had  been  a  cause  of  disturbance  under  Spanish  rule.  (See 
p.  509.) 

§  11.    ASIA. 

1883-1903.  (See  pp.  562,  5^4.) 

1883.    Corea  opened  to  western  trade.^ 
1883-1885.    France  and  China  (pp.  673-^75). 

1883,  Aug.  27.     Eruption  of  Krakatua  in  Java;  great  loss  of  life 

from  tidal  waves. 

1884,  Dec.  4.     Insurrection  in  Corea  ;  Japan  and  China  both  sent 

troops,  then  signed 

1885,  April  18.    a  treaty  by  which  China  acknowledged  Japan's 

intereat  in  Corea.  Attempt  by  Russia  to  gain  %  protectorate 
over  Corea  prevented.  Great  Britain  occupied  Port  HamHtan 
(April),  but  withdrew  (Feb.  27,  1887),  China  guaranteeing 
Corea's  territorial  integrity. 

1886^  July  24.  Anglo-Chinese  agreement  on  Burma ;  British  rule 
recognized,  also  China's  formal  suzerainty. 

1887-1889.    Floods  and  famine  in  China;  millions  perished. 

1888,  Oct.  Railway  between  Kaiping  (Chili)  and  Tientsin  opened, 
first  permanent  line  in  China.^ 

1889,  Feb.  11.    Conatitution  of  Japan  proclaimed.    Smperor*a 

powers  carefully  guarded,  including  right  of  peace  and  war, 
and  power  to  issue  ordinances  having  force  of  laws.  Bicameral 
diet ;  upper  house  of  peers  and  representatives  of  merit  and 
wealth;  lower  house  elected  through  limited  suffrage;  diet  has 
a  restricted  control  of  finances.  Bill  of  rights,  religious  fite^ 
dom.    First  diet  met  Nov.  29,  1890. 

1  The  first  treaty  was  with  the  United  States,  signed  May  22, 1883. 

>  The  Shanghai  line  (p.  562)  was  abandoned.  A  portion  of  the  Tientsin 
line  was  0|[>ened  in  1882.  In  1881  there  was  a  telegraph  line  between  Shanghai 
and  Tientain. 


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▲•  B.  Chineae-^apanese  War.  595 

Feb.  Ktoariffsuy  Chinese  emperor,  assumed  the  goTemment,  em- 
press dowager  retiring. 

1890,  March  31.     Chungking,  on  upper  Yangtze,  made  a  treaty  port, 

1891.  Outbreak  of  rioting  against  missionaries  in  China,  incited  oy  a 
body  of  literati;  ineffectual  decree  issue  against  the  rioters 
(June  13). 

1893,  Oct.  3.    French-Siamese  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Bangkok,  after 

short  period  of  hostilities.     France  obtained  all  the  territory 
east  of  the  Mekong  and  military  control  of  the  west  bank. 

1894,  March  1.    Anelo-Chinese  treaty  on  Burma  boundaiy;  territory 

east  of  the  Mekong  ceded  to  China  on  condition  of  non- 
alienation. 

1894-1895*   Chinesa-Japanese  Wax. 

Canaes  :  China^s  claim  of  suzerainty  in  Corea  and  denial  of  Japan's 
equal  interest  there;  conviction  in  Japan  that  a  military  success  was 
necessary  to  her  recognition  as  a  power  by  the  Occident.  China  sent 
troops  to  suppress  an  insurrection  in  Corea,  and  Japan,  protesting 
that  Corea  was  independent,  also  sent  troops  (June  9,  18S4).  Japan 
proposed  reforms  to  prevent  future  distnrlmnces  (July  3),  but  Corea, 
backed  by  China,  refused,  upon  which 
1894^  Jaly  23.    Japanese  troops  seized  the  palace  and  the  king  at 

Seoul.    Both  nations  prepared  to  poar  troops  into  Corea  and 
July  25.    actual  war  began  with  a  naval  victory  for  Japan. 
Aug.  1.    Both  nations  declared  war  (contrasting  declarations). 

The  Japanese  under  Nodzu 
Sept.  15.    captured  Piengyang,  the  Chinese  fleeing  across  the  Yalu 

River.    In  the 
Sept  17.    naval  battle  of  Talu  River  (first  battle  of  modern 

men-of-war),  the  fleets  being  of  about  equal  size  (12  vessels 

each),  the  Japanese  under  Ito  dispersed  the  enemy's  fleet 

STing)  and  destroyed  five  of  the  ships.  The  Japanese  army 
Yamagata) 
Oct.  25.  forced  the  Talu  and  invaded  Manchuria,  meeting  with  little 
resistance.  A  second  army  of  20,000  under  Oyama  landed  on 
Liaotung  peninsula  (Oct.  24),  and,  after  capturing  Kingchau 
(Nov.  6)  and  Talien  (Nov.  7),  began  the 
Nov.  21.  attaok  on  Port  Ai^ur,  the  strongest  port  in  China, 
with  modern  defences.  Several  forts  were  stormed  during 
the  day,  and  at  night  the  Chinese  garrison  of  10,000  abandoned 
the  rest.    The  Japanese  army  and  navy  then 

1895,  Jan.  30-Feb.  12.    besieged  and  captured  ^Veihaiwei  and 

Tinges  fleet  there.  The  feature  of  the  siege  was  the  night 
attacks  by  Japanese  torpedo  boats  (Feb.  5,  8).  Meanwhile  the  first 
army  {Yamagata)  captured  Haicheng  (Dec.  13,  1894);  iVo^',  ad- 
vancing from  Port  Arthur,  occupied  Kaiping  (Jan.  10, 1895) ;  and  the 
united  forces  took  Niuchuang  (March  4)  and  its  port  (March  7). 
The  war  had  shown  the  rottenness  of  China's  military  strength  and 
the  impotence  of  her  administration.  The  burden  of  it  fell  on  Li 
Hungchcsng  (b.  1823;  f  1901),  who  was  also  sent  to  make  peace. 
By  the 


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596  Modem  History.  a.  d. 

April  17.  treaty  of  81ilmono«eki,  China  acknowledged  the  inde- 
pendence of  Corea^  oeded  Fontioia,  the  PeicadoreSf  and  Idao- 
tung  peninsula  (Port  Arthur)  to  Japan,  and  paid  au  indemnity  of 
$158,000,000.  But  Rueela,  France,  and  Germany  protested 
against  the  cession  of  the  peninsula  ('<  integrity  of  Chinese 
territoi^'),  and  Japan  yielded  (May  10),  receiving  an  additional 
indemnity  of  822,200,000.  Japan  hegan  to  reform  Corea,  hut 
qoeen  Arm  espoused  a  reaction,  and  was  murdered  (Oct.  8)  by 
natives  and  Japanese  partisans  (jotAt).  This  destroyed  Japan's 
prestige,  but  there  was  a  gradual  extension  of  the  reforms. 

lS9if  July  16.  Japanese  treaty  of  commerce  signed  with  Great 
Britain.  Cessation  of  the  right  of  exterritoriality  in 
Japan,  freedom  of  trade  and  residence.  Similar  treaties 
were  made  by  Japan  with  the  other  maritime  powers  (1894- 
1897),  and  all  of  them  went  into  effect  (July  17,  Aug.  4, 1899) 
after  the  new  code  of  civil  procedure  and  commercial  law  had 
been  tested. 

1896,  June- Aug.    Attack  on  missionaries  in  China. 

June  20.  China  ceded  to  France  territory  acquired  from  England 
(p.  595),  and  concessions  and  railway  rights  in  southern 
China  (reward  for  intervention). 

1896.  Japan  entered  upon  an  elaborate  policy  of  military  and  navtd 
expansion, 

Jan.  1.  Convention  between  Fr<tnce  and  Great  Britain.  Spheres  of 
mftuence  in  Siam  and  independence  of  that  nation.  No  exclusive 
privileges  to  be  sought  in  southern  China. 

Feb.  10.  A  small  Russian  force  landed  and  marched  to  Seoul,  and 
next  day  the  Una  (  Ft  Hi)  fled  to  the  Russian  legation^  where 
he  remained  until  Feb.  20, 1897.  While  there,  he  granted  to 
Russians  the  right  to  cut  timber  in  the  Yaln  valley. 

May  1.  Shah  of  Persia  (Nasr-ed-din)  assassinated,  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Muzaffar-ed-din, 

May  14,  June  9.    Russian-Japanese  agreements  on  Corea  signed. 

June  15.     Tidal  wave  in  northern  Japan,  30,000  perished. 

Sept.  8.  Chinese-Russian  railway  convention  signed  at  Peking. 
Chinese  Eastern  Railway  Company  to  build  the  Transsl- 
berlan  railway  across  Manchuria. 

1896-1898.  Railway  concessions  granted  by  China  to  French,  Bel- 
gian, American,  British,  Russian,  and  (xerman  companies;  also 
for  exploiting  mines. 

1897,  Feb.  20.     King  of  Corea  returned  to  his  palace,  but  Russian 

ascendency  eontinned.  On  Nov.  5  a  Russian  agent  was  ap- 
pointed to  control  the  finances,  but  the  British  incumbent  re- 
fused to  resign,  England  and  Japan  sent  ships  to  Chemulpo, 
and  the  Russian  agent  was  dismissed  (March  15,  1898)  after 
anti-Russian  demonstrations. 

March  29.    Japan  adopted  the  gold  standard ;  ratio,  321  to  1. 

Nov.  14.  Germany  seised  lUaoohau,  because  of  the  murder  of 
two  Gverman  missionaries  in  Shantung.  Prince  Henrys  brother 
of  the  emperor,  sent  to  command  the  Grermau  fleet  in  Chinese 


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A.  D.  Asia.  597 

waters,  the  emperor  speaking  of  his  intention  to  extend  the 
empire  (*< mailed  fist"). 
Dec.  18.     A  Russian  fleet  entered  Port  Arthur  to  winter. 

1898.  A  series  of  progressive  ediots  issued  by  the  emperor  of 
China;  but  a  reaction  ensued,  the  empress  dowager  ob- 
tained control,  and  virtually  deposed  the  emperor  (Sept.  21). 
The  reforms  were  repealed  (Se^t  27),  and  anti-Christian  riots 
ensued. 

Maroh  6.  China  leased  Kiaoohan  to  G^ermany  for  99  years, 
with  a  sphere  of  influence  30  miles  inland,  and  railway  and 
minine  concessions.    ELiaochau  a  treaty  port  (Sept.  2). 

March  27,  May  7.  China  leased  to  Russia  for  25  years  Port 
Arthur,  To^iefMoan,  and  the  territory  and  waters  north  to  Port 
Adams,  with  a  neutralized  zone  beyond,  within  which  conces- 
sions to  other  powers  were  forbidden.  Port  Arthur  to  be  a 
closed  naoal  base,  but  Talien-wan  to  have  an  open  port.  Rus- 
sia also  received  the  right  to  oonnect  the  leased  territory 
with  the  Transsiberian  railway  in  Manchuria. 

April  10.  China  leased  to  Frcmoe  Kwcmgohau-wan  for  99 
years,  with  railway  concessions.  Kwangchaa  a  free  port 
(190^. 

April  25.  Russian-Japanese  agreement  on  Corea ;  Japanese  para- 
mount interest  recognized,  Corea  temporarily  out  of  Russians 
sphere. 

June  9.  Territory  on  mainland  adjoining  Hongkong  leased  to 
Oreat  Britain,  also 

July  1.     "Weihaiwei  for  as  long  as  Russia  occupied  Port  Arthur. 

1899.  Feb.  28.    Italy  demanded  the  lease  ofSammun  Bay,  but  China 

refused. 

April  29.  Agreement  between  Russia  and  Great  Britain;  the  former 
not  to  seek  concessions  in  the  Yangtze  valley,  and  the  latter 
not  to  seek  them  north  of  the  Great  Wall. 

July  17.    End  of  exterritoriality  in  Japan  (p.  596). 

Sept.  1.    First  Corean  railroad  opened  from  Seoul  to  Chemulpo. 

Sept.  6.  Open-door  policy.  Secretary  Hay  of  the  United  States 
asked  assurance  from  the  Powers  £hat  there  should  he  no  in- 
terference  urith  free  commerce  or  vested  interests  within  leased 
territory  or  spheres  of  influence  in  China.  Favorable  responses 
were  received  (1899-1900)  from  London,  Paris,  Berlin,  xlome, 
St.  Petersburg,  and  Tokio. 

1900.  Boxer  Rising. 

Causes  :  Reaction  against  drastic  reforms;  antagonism  o{  foreign 
exploitation  of  the  country  and  the  efforts  of  the  missionaries,  whose 
actions  sometimes  gave  an  excuse  for  the  false  charges  made  against 
them.  A  secret  society  called  the  Boxers  (*'  patriotic  harmonious 
fists  ")  spread  throughout  China,  especially  in  the  northern  provinces, 
committing  outrages  on  missionaries  and  converts.  Countenanoed 
by  the  government  and  aided  by  the  army,  they  cut  the  communica- 
tion between  Peking  and  the  coast  (June  6),  and  threatened  the 
foreign  legations,  for  whose  defense  450  legation  guards  had  been  sent 
by  the  different  nations. 


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598  Modem  Hutmy.  A.IK 


Jveia    Am  wUnmtimai  rdi^  tmlmmm  €i  2000  i 

«OMt  aader  admixal  Segmomff  bat  it  was  oU^ed  to  ictnrat. 

Jaw  17.    The  TolM/orfffwerabomlMBdedaadapiucd  bytbeoOwtf 
Jtk^,  wlueb  inereaied  the  ib|^  of  the  Boxen,  aad 

J«ae20.  bnoaT.Ketteler, the  Gennuiminstery  was  slain  in  Uie 
street  in  Pekio;.  The  sine  day  thelegatknon  were  borieged 
The  oiUtfrf  fiofumf  (JsfMa,  Rosoa,  Great  Biitein,  United  Stio^ 
Franee)  sent  a  retiermg  farce  of  18,000^  whieh,  after  the 

Jal  J  14.    reduetiom  of  TiaUtm^  marehed  to  Peking  and 

Aa^.  14.    reacaed  tlM  lagationa.    The  empress  dowager  and  em- 


peror fled  to  Singan-fa,  and  the  allied  f ones  oecnpied  the 
Saend  Citj.     Li  Huna  -     -        ^  - 


iCitj.  Z^'fran^QkBif  and  prineeClM^  were  appointed 
earoys  to  negotiate  a  pease.  The  joint  powcis  pumnted  an 
ttltlmtmn  (Dee.  22),  and 
1901,  Sept  7.  a  protocol  was  signed  ombodjing  ttcao  oomdi- 
tioiin :  an  eatpiatoty  anssasn  to  Germany  and  moonment  to 
Kettder;  pmmkmeni  of  the  ddef  Boieia  (this  had  already  been 
done);  prohibition  of  the  importation  of  arms;  an  inrfgmiify  of 
•33<MMMXN)  in  gold;  the  forU  between  Peking  and  the  sea  to  be 
1;  anti-foreign  societies  to  be  forbidden,  and  pmrineial  and  loeal 
made  responsible  for  good  ofder;  rrform  m  ike/oragm  office 


1900,  July.    Massaere  of  Chinese  at  Elagooeetehemk  by 

troops,  followed  by  an  in^anioii  of  Manchmia,  whieh  the 
Knmiant  oeeopied  and  held  on  the  plea  of  protecting  the 
railway  and  preserring  order.  The  opposition  of  the  other 
powers  especially  Japan,  prerented  Chma  from  aeqnieseing 
m  this. 
Oet.  16.  Germany  and  Great  Briiam  signed  an  agreement  upholding 
the  territorial  iniegriiif  of  Chma^ihe'*  open  door^^'mm^wHk^Mi^^ 
f erenee  in  her  internal  affairs. 

1901,  Jnly  6.    A  mission  from  the  Dalai  Lama  of  Lhasa  was  reeeired 

by  the  tzar;  political  significance  dissTOwed.     Great  Britain 

(Sept  2)  protested  against  any  proceedings  tending  to  disturb 

existing  conditions  in  Thibet. 
Oct  1.     t  AMurrakman,  ameer  of  Afghanistan;  sneeeeded  by  his 

ton,  HabibuUah. 
KoT.  9.     Persian- Russian  treaty  secretly  signed,  giTing  iSnssia  tf»- 

creased  control  ooer  Persian  trade. 

1902,  Jan.    Tranaaibeiian  railway  opened. 

Jan.  90.  Anglo-Japanaae  defenaive  alUanoe  oondoded  to  main- 
tain the  terxltorial  integrity  of  China  and  Corea.  Aasisi- 
anee  to  be  given  if  either  signatory  power  in  defending  this 
integrity  was  opposed  by  two  nations.  This  alliance  was 
answered  by  tbe 

Msreh  16.    declaration  of  **  allied  ^  Rnssia  and  France. 

April  8.  Russia  agreed  to  restore  Manchuria  to  China;  eTacn- 
ation  to  be  completed  by  Oct.  9, 1903. 

Sept  5.  Anglo-Cbinese  commereial  treaty  signed ;  uniform  coinage 
in  China, abolition  of  transit  dues  (likin),  improTement  in  nari- 
gation,  protection  of  investments,  new  treaty  ports,  i 


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A.  D.  Asia.  599 

aries,  trade  marks,  copyright,  tariff,  mining,  exterritoriality. 
Similar  treaties  with  Japan  and  United  Stotes  (Oct.  8, 1903). 
Oct.  7.    Siamese-French  treaty  signed;  caused  by  French  encroach- 
ments.    Siam  ceded  additional  territory. 

1903.    Bussian-Japanese  Crisis. 

Russia  not  withdrawing  from  Manchuria  as  agreed,  and 
showing  evidences  of  settlement  and  fortification  at  Yogampo  in 
CoreOy  Japan  remonstrated,  considering  her  own  independence  in- 
▼olved.     As  a  basis  of  agreement 

Aug.  12.  Japan  proposed  that  the  territorial  integrity  and  in- 
dependence of  China  and  Corea  and  the  ^  open  door  "  should 
be  recognized,  also  the  preponderating  inUresi  of  Russia  in  Manchuria 
and  of  Japan  m  Corea,  subject  to  the  first  stipulation.  Japan  to 
have  the  ezclusiye  -right  to  aid  Corea  when  necessary,  and  the 
right  to  connect  the  Corean  and  Manchurian  railway  systems. 
Oct.  3.  Russia's  reply  ignored  Manchuila  and  China,  and  pro- 
posed restrictions  on  Japanese  rights  in  Corea.  Nego- 
tiations continued  until  Feb.  6,  1904,  when  Japan,  her  last  note 
of  Jan.  13  not  having  been  answered,  severed  diplomatic  rdations  and 
1904»  Feb.  8.    began  the  war. 

§  12.    LEADING  EVENTS,  1904-1908. 

1904^  March  14.    The  United  States  supreme  courtpronounced  the 
merger  of  the  Northern  Pacific  R.  K.  and  the  Great  Northern 
R.  R.  in  the  Northern  securities  co.  illegal ;  the  first  result  of 
an  attempt  by  the  goyemment  to  check,  uuder  the  Sherman 
act  (p.  588)  the  development  of  combinations  of  capital  in 
place  of  competition. 
April  3.    Anglo-Frenoh  treaty.     France  recognized  the  position 
of  Great  Britain  in  Bgypt,  and  Great  Britain  the  special 
interests  of  France  in  Moroooo.     France  abandoned  her  ezcln- 
sive  fishery  rights  on  the  French  shore  in  Ne^v^oundland  under  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713),  reoeiring  an  indemnity  and  territorial  con- 
cessions in  Senegambia  and  Nigeria,     Great  Britain  withdrew  her 
protests  against  the  French  customs  regime  in  Madagascar.    De- 
limitation of  spheres  of  influence  in  Biam.     Differences  in  the  Vfew 
Hebrides  to  be  settled  by  a  special  agreement  (Conyention  of  Oct. 
20, 1906). 

April  9.     Death  of  Isabella  ILf  former  queen  of  Spain. 
April  24-^30.     President  Loubet  visited  the  king  of  Italy,  ignoring 
the  Pope,  who  protested  to  the  powers.    French  ambassador 
to  the  Vatican  withdrawn  (May  21). 
The  Japanese  under  Kuroki,  having  occupied  Corea, 
May  1.    defeated  the  Russians  at  the  Yalu  river. 
May  21-26.     Oku  won  the  battles  of  Kinchau  and  Nanshan ,  Dalny 
occupied  May  29.    Nogi  began  the  siege   of   Port  Arthur. 
Three  armies  moving  northward  united  under  marshal  Oyama 
and 
Aug.  25-Sept.  4.    defeated  the  Russians  at  Idauyang.    Kuro- 
paUan  withdrew  in  good  order  to  Mukden. 


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600  Modem  Bistory. 

1904,  Jaly  8.    Law  forbidding  all  teaehing  by  religimu  ordeTs  in 

France  for  ten  yean  (p.  584). 
July  14.     Death  of  ex-president  Kruger  of  the  Transvaal  in  Switier- 

land  ;  buried  at  Pretoria  Dec.  16. 
Aug.  12.    Birth  of  an  heir  to  the  tsar  of  Rnsaia  (Alexis), 
Aug.  13.     On  the  arrival  of  American  warships  the  snltan  of  Tar> 
key  granted  the  claims  of  the  United  States  as  to  treatment 
of  their  citizens  and  schools. 
Aag.  29.    Death  of  Murad  V.,  former  sultan  of  Turkey  (p.  621). 
Sept.  7.    Ang^o-Thlbetan    treaty  signed  at  Lhaaa,  where   the 
British  mission  (p.  573)  arrived  Aug.  3  after  armed  resist- 
ance.    Thibet  to  open  three  trade  marts;  not  to  grant  territorial 
eonoessions  to  foreign  powers,  nor  to  admit  their  representatives 
or  agents.    The  treaty  was  ratified  hr  China  and,  after  a  proteat, 
acknowledged  by  Russia  (Aug.  31, 1907). 
Sept.  16.    Birth  of  an  heir  to  the  king  of  Italy  (Umberto). 
Oct  9-18.    Russian  advance  repulsed  at  the  Shaho. 
Oct.  22.    The  Russian  fleet  under  Rozkettoensky  starting  for  the  East 
fired  on  Bngliah  tra'vrlera  in  the  iforth  sea,  killing  two 
men.    After  detention  of  the  fleet  at  Vigo,  war  was  averted  by 
reference  of  the  matter  to  an  international  commission,  which 
reported  (Feb.  25,  1905)  that  the  firing  was  in  point  of  fact 
unjustifiable  ;  no  torpedo  boats  being  present    £65,000  paid. 
After  a  sie^  lasting  from  May,  1904,  and  marked  by  very  se- 
vere fightmg 

1905,  Jan.  2.    Port  Arthur  waa  anrrendered  by  Stoessd  with 

41,000  men,  over  500  guns,  and  much  ammunition  and  pro- 
visions. 

Jan.  18-24.  Cabinet  crisis  in  Franoe  on  account  of  the  espionage 
(delation)  scandal  in  the  army.  Ronvier  succeeded  Combea. 

Jan.  22.  In  St,  Petersburg  a  large  body  of  strikers  marching  to  the 
Winter  palace,  led  by  father  Oapon,  to  present  a  petition  to 
the  tzar  were  fired  upon  and  many  killea.    (Red  Sunday.) 

Feb.  12.  The  United  Btatea  senate  amended  the  arbitration  treaties 
signed  with  the  European  nations  and  Mexico  so  as  to  require 
a  special  treaty  for  each  case  of  arbitration.  The  adminis- 
tration thereupon  dedined  to  present  the  treaties. 

Feb.  20-March  9.    The  Ruaalana  defeated  in  a  great  battie  at   . 
Mukden  by  the  five  Japanese  armies  (Kurola^  OJbu,  Nogi, 
Nodzu,  Kawamura)  under  Oyama,    Kuropatkin  superseded  by 
Linieoitch, 

1906,  March  4  — 1909.  Theodore  Roosevelt,  president 
of  tiie  United  States ;  C,  W.  Fairbanks^  vice-president 
At  the  elections  (Nov.  8,  1904)  the  republicans  had 
336  electoral  votes,  the  democrats  (A.  B,  Parker^ 
H,  O,  Davis)  140 ;  popular  majority,  2,541,635. 

March  31.    The  German  emperor  visited  the  suUan  of  Morocco  at 

Tansier. 
April  4.    Violent  earthquake  in  northern  India  ;  20,000  killed. 


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Leading  Events,  1904-1908.  600  a 

1905,  April  27.  The  United  BUtes  pnrohaied  the  Panama  canal 
property  of  the  French  eompany. 

May  27-29.  Naval  battle  of  Tenalilina  straits  ;  the  Rassian  fleet 
of  32  Teasels  annihilated  by  the  Japanese  under  Togo. 

May  28.  The  sultan  of  Morocco  rejected  the  French  reform  pro- 
poeals  and  asked  for  a  conference  of  the  powers.    After  the 

Jane  6.  resignation  of  DeUxuse;  the  French  foreign  minister,  France 
and  Grermany  agreed  to  the  suggestion. 

June.  Dissension  in  the  management  of  the  EqwUMe  Ufe  asturance 
80C,  in  New  York  led  to  the  disclosure  of  grave  irregnlarities 
in  the  conduct  of  the  affairs  of  the  great  insurance  compa- 
nies. The  report  of  the  A rvutrong  tnveitigaHng  commiUee  ( Feb. 
21,  1906)  resulted  in  more  stringent  legislative  regulation, 
and  similar  action  was  taken  in  oUier  statesi  sometimes  with 
undue  severity. 

June  7.  The  king  of  Sweden  refusing  to  sign  an  act  establishing 
separate  Norwegian  consulates,  the  Norwegian  ministry  re- 
signed, and  no  one  would  accept  ofBce,  whereupon  the  Nor- 
wegian storthing  voted  that  the  union  between  Norway  and 
Sweden  had  been  dissolved;  since  the  king  of  Sweden 
had  acknowledged  himself  unable  to  form  a  Norwegian  min- 
iBtrv  and  could  not  discharge  his  constitutional  functions. 

July  1.  Death  of  John  Hay,  secretary  of  state  of  the  United 
States  ;  EUhu  Root  succeeded  him. 

July.  Chinese  boycott  of  American  goods  as  a  protest  against  the 
application  of  the  exclusion  act  to  merchants  and  scholars. 

July  24.  The  body  of  John  Paul  Jones  (p.  430),  disoovered  at  Paris, 
April  14,  was  received  at  Annapolis. 

Aug.  11.  Executive  committee  appointed  by  parliament  in  accord- 
ance with  the  report  of  the  £1^^  commission  (April  19),  to 
apportion  the  property  elaimed  by  the  Free  diurch  and  the 
United  Free  church  of  Scotland  (p.  571). 

Aug.  12.  Anglo-Japanese  alliance  renewed  for  ten  years, — to 
secure  peace  in  the  East  and  the  independence  and  vUegrUy  of 
China,  with  equal  commercial  rights  for  all  nations.  Special 
interests  of  Japan  in  Corea  and  of  Great  Britain  on  the 
Indian  frontier  reoognized.  Each  nation  to  assist  the  other 
in  case  of  war  in  defence  of  territorial  rights  in  the  East. 

Aug.  21.  The  earl  of  Bflinto  viceroy  of  IncUa ;  lord  Curzcn  re- 
signed, Aug.  12,  in  consequence  of  the  decision  of  the  home 
government  in  favor  of  the  proposals  of  lord  KUchener^  com- 
mander-in-chief, concerning  the  military  administration  in 
India. 
In  Russia  strikes,  riots,  and  assassinations  continued  ;  muti- 
nies at  Odessa,  eto.  Increasing  dissatisfaction  over  the  war ; 
difficulties  in  securing  new  loans.    On 

Aug.  19.  the  tzar  announced  that  a  representative  assembly 
(duma)  would  be  summoned. 

Sept.  5.  Treaty  of  peace  between  Japan  and  Russia  signed  at 
Portsmouth  navv  yard,  after  a  conference  which  began  Aug.  5. 
Russia  acknouAedged  Japan's  paramount  interest  in  Coreai 


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600  b  Modem  History. 

traatf erred  to  Japen  the  lease  of  Port  Arthur,  and  the  rail* 
road  to  Chang-chaDg,  and  ceded  the  soathem  half  of  StMalin, 
Manohnrla  to  be  eoacuaied  by  both  powers  and  restored  to 
China.  On  account  of  the  failure  to  obtain  an  indemnity  the 
treaty  was  unpopular  in  Japan  ;  riots  in  Tokio. 

Sept.  24.  Treaty  of  aeparation  signed  by  Sweden  and  Norway 
after  a  referendum  in  Norway  (Aug.)  :  —  368,208  for  sepa- 
ration, 184  against. 

A  eongress  of  Russian  proYincial  assemblies  (zemilvoe)  having 
declared  (^Sept.  25)  in  favor  of  a  broader  basis  of  represen- 
tation, and  a  general  strike  following, 

Oet.  90.  the  tsar  granted  an  extension  of  the  franchise,  the  neces^ 
sary  approval  of  laws  by  the  duma,  and  inviolability  of  person, 
freedom  of  eonseience,  speech,  and  association.  Coant  WkU 
prime  minister. 

Oet.  30.    Report  of  the  oommission  appointed  by  the  king  of  Bel- 

S'um  to  inquire  into  conditions  in  the  Congo  Kree  State; 
e  work  of  the  state  commended,  but  some  abuses  admitted 
and  reforms  suggested  in  the  treatment  of  the  natives. 
Not.  4.    The  tzar  reatored  the  oonatitation  of  Finland  as  it 

existed  prior  to  1899  (pp.  583, 585). 
Nov.  17.    Japan  secured  (by  treaty)  control  of  the  foreign  relattons 

of  Corea,    Marquis  fto  resident-generaL    Japanese  abuses. 
Nov.  27.    Prince  Charles^  grandson  of  king  of  Denmark,  took  the 
oath  as 

1906  —  X.  &akon  VII.,  king  of  Norway.  (Oowned 
Jane  22, 1906.) 

Dee.  4.  Re$ignation  of  Mr.  Balfour,  English  prime  minister  ;  liberal 
ministry  formed  under  sir  Henry  Campbell-Bannerman. 
Mr. il«^tf A  (exchequer);  John  Morley  (lord  Morley  in  1908) 
(India);  sir  Edward  Urey  (foreign);  James  Bryce  (Ireland  ; 
afterward  ambassador  to  the  United  States);  Jmn  Burnt 
(local  government  board);  A,  BirreU  (board  of  education; 
afterwards  Ireland). 

Deo.  9.  Law  for  the  aeparation  of  choroli  and  atate  in  Franoe* 
The  concordat  of  1802  (p.  463)  abrogated  and  control  of  the 
state  over  the  choice  of  bishops  thereby  ended.  All  payments 
for  support  of  public  worship,  catholic,  protestant,  or  Jewish, 
eeased,  but  diminishing  pensions  were  granted.  Churches 
and  other  ecclesiastical  buildings  remained  the  property  of 
the  state,  but  were  to  be  loaned  gpratuitously  to  boards  of 
public  worship  (associations  cuUuelles)  to  be  formed  by  adher- 
ents of  the  several  faiths. 

1906,  Jan.  29.  Death  of  Christian  IX,,  king  of  Denmark ;  his  son 
succeeded  as 

1906  —  X.    Frederick  vm. 

Feb.-July.    Insurrection  of  the  natives  in  Natal,  . 

Feb.  13.  Second  (28th  imperial)  parliament  of  Bdward  VU. 
The  elections  following  the  dissolution  of  Jan.  8  returned  376 


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Leading  Events,  1904r-1908.  600  c 

liberaU,  190  oonBenrstiTeSySS  nationalists,  54  labor,  27  liberal 

unionists. 
1906,  Feb.  17.    Falli^res  elected  president  of  Ftanoe.    On 
Mar.  12.    a  new  ministry  was  formed  under  Sarrien: — Bourgeoit 

(foreign),  Clemencecm  (interior),  Briand  (public  instraction). 
April  5-12.    Violent  and  destructive  eruptions  of  Vesavius. 

The  conferenoe  on  Morocco  which  met  at  Algeciraa  in 

Spain,  Jan.  16,  included  the  chief  European  powers  and  the 

United  States.    On 
April  7.    a  oonyention  was  siened.    A  police  force  for  coast  towns  to 

be  established  under  y^ench  and  Spcmish  instructors  and  a 

Swiss  inspector-general.     International  state  bank  founded. 

Freedom  of  trade  and  settlement  for  foreigners.    Germany 

did  not  insist  on  equality  of  footing  with  France. 
April  5.    Act  reorganizing  the  United  States  consular  service. 
April  18-21.    Earthquake   and   fire   at    Ban  Francisco ;  the 

rter  portion  of  the  city  destroyed. 
A  new  record  of  farthest  north  was  made  by  R.  E,  Peary 
at  87°  6'. 

May  6.  Greneral  election  in  France  resulting  in  a  large  majority 
for  the  government. 

May.  The  U^ted  States  congress  adopted  plans  for  a  lock  canal 
for  Panama.  Work  began  at  once  under  the  special  canal 
commission ;  in  April,  1907,  it  was  placed  in  charge  of  army 
engineers. 

May  10-July  22.  First  Russian  dnma;  524  deputies  ;  about  200 
constitutional  democrats  and  125  independents  (peasants) 
formed  the  left.  Goremykm  prime  minister  (May  2).  The 
insistence  of  the  duma  on  a  general  amnesty,  responsible 
ministers,  and  compulsory  expropriation  of  land  for  the  peas- 
ants led  to  a  dissolution.     Stolypin  prime  minister.    On 

July  23.  a  manifesto  advocating  non-payment  of  taxes  and  refusal  to 
enter  the  army,  signed  at  Vxborg  in  Finland  by  about  200 
members  of  the  duma,  who  were  later  tried  and  condemned 
therefor.  Despite  government  measures  for  agrarian  relief, 
mutinies,  strikes,  riots  {Moscow^  Dec.  21),  massacres  of  Jews 
(Bialystokt  June  14),  and  peasant  outrages  prevailed  until 
lorcibly  controlled.     (Field  courts-martial.)     Famine. 

May  30.  Formal  opening  of  the  Simplon  tunnel,  the  longest  in  the 
world  (12^  miles). 

May  31.  Marriage  of  Alfonso  XII I. y  king  of  Spain,  and  princess 
Victoria  of  England.    Attempt  at  assassination. 

June  1.     Synod  of  French  bishops,  the  first  held  since  the  Revolution. 

June  29.  Railway  rate  act  in  the  United  States  {Hepburn  act). 
Interstate  commerce  commission  given  power  to  fix  rates  for 
interstate  trafBc  of  railroads,  pipe  lines,  and  express  com- 
panies.   Appeals  to  the  courts  allowed. 

June  30.  Pure  food  and  drugs  act,  and  meat  inspection  act  in  the 
United  States. 

July  12.  The  French  court  of  cassation  reversed  the  decision 
of   the  Bennea  tribunal  in  the  Dreyfus  case   (p.  582). 


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600  d  Modem  History. 

Drtyfiu  restored  to  his  rank  and  promoted ;  Picquart  also 

Sromoted. 
ulj  2a-Aag.  27.  Third  int«matiozua  oonferanoe  of 
Amerioan  states  at  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Drago  doctrine  against 
forcible  collection  of  debts  referred  to  the  second  Hague  con- 
ference. Sec.  Root  attended  and  afterwards  visited  other 
South  American  countries. 

Aug.  10.  Papcd  enoyolioal ;  French  catholics  not  permitted  to 
form  €U90ciation8  cultuelles.  Protestants  and  Jews  conformed 
to  the  law. 

Aug.  1^14.  Negro  troops  at  BroumsviUe,  Texas,  fired  on  towns- 
people ;  the  discharge  of  a  battalion  by  order  of  the  president 
for  "  conspiracy  of  silence"  caused  much  discussion  in  congress. 

Aug.  13.  Capt.  Roald  Amundsen  reached  Nome  after  a  three  years' 
expedition  in  search  of  the  magnetic  pole,  having  made  the 
Northwest  passage  for  the^rs<  time  by  sea, 

Aag.  16-17.    Destructive  earthquake  in  Chile. 

An  insurrection  (Aug.)  in  Cnba,  resulting  from  dissatisf action 
over  the  reelection  of  president  Po/mo,  led  to  the  landing  of 
troops  and 

Sept  29.  the  establishment  of  a  provisional  government  by  the 
United  States.    (Gov.  Magoon,) 

Oet  7.  Meeting  of  the  first  national  representative  assembly 
in  Persia. 

Oct.  The  segregation  of  Japanese  children  in  the  public  schools 
in  San  Francisco  led  to  strained  relations  between  the  United 
States  and  Japan  and  between  the  city  and  federal  govern- 
ment. Upon  the  inclusion  in  the  new  immigration  law  (Feb. 
20,  1907)  of  restrictions  on  the  immigration  of  Japanese 
laborers  the  rule  was  rescinded  (March). 

Oct.  21.     Clemenceau  ministry  in  France  ;  Picquart  (war). 

Nov.  ft-26.  President  Roosevelt  visited  the  canal  zone;  at  Panama, 
president  of  the  United  States  for  the  first  time  outside  its 
lurisdiction. 

Nov.  The  Chinese  government  issued  a  decree  ordering  the  growth 
and  importation  of  opium  to  be  diminished  10<J^  annually  for 
ten  years,  aud  restricting  opium  smoking.  During  1906-07, 
reforms  in  education  in  China ;  creation  of  a  new  army. 

Nov.  25.  Russian  peasants  granted  ownership  of  allotments  re- 
ceived at  the  time  of  emancipation;  unpaid  dues  remitted. 
The  peasants  had  been  previously  released  from  the  control 
of  the  communes  and  much  land  had  been  sold  to  them. 

Dec.  12.  Constitation  granted  the  Transvaal ;  bicameral  legis- 
lature; manhood  suffrage  for  whites. 

Dec.  20.  English  edncation  bill  abandoned,  the  commons  refus- 
ing to  accept  the  lords'  amendments.  The  intention  of  the 
bill  was  to  make  rate-supported  schools  undenominational 
while  providing  moral  teaching  and  opportunity  for  denomi- 
national instruction  where  desired. 

Dec.  21.     Universal  manhood  suffrage  in  Austria. 

Deo.  21.    Trades  disputes  act  in  Sngland  exempts  trade  union 


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Leading  Events,  1904-1908.  600  e 

funds  from  liability  for  damages  committed  daring  a  strike^ 
thus  reversing  the  Taff  Vale  ^oision  (p.  572). 

1907.  Jan.  8.  — 1909.  Muhammad  All  Mina,  shah  of 
Persia,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  Muzaffer  ed-din. 

Jan.  25-Feb.  5.  Elections  for  the  Gkerman  Reiobstag,  which  was 
dissolved  Deo.  15  after  rejectiof  the  grants  asked  for  the  war 
in  Oerman  Southwest  Africa,  The  social  democrats  lost  39  of 
their  82  seats,  though  their  total  vote  was  not  reduced. 

Feb.  Treaty  between  the  United  States  and  Ban  Domingo  rati- 
fied; the  United  States  to  collect  customs  revenues  and  pay 
foreign  claims  on  basis  of  the  agreement  of  Feb.  1905. 
In  the  United  States  during  the  spring  and  summer  many 
states  enlarged  the  powers  of  railroad  commissions,  regulated 
the  hours  of  employees,  and  Jixed  passenger  rates  at  2  to  2^ 
cents  per  mile.  Conflicts  with  the  federal  courts.  The  gen- 
eral government  brought  numerous  prosecutions  for  rebating. 
Investigation  of  the  Harriman  roads. 

March  6-June  16.  Second  Rmiaian  dnma ;  proring  equally  radi- 
cal with  the  first,  it  was  dissolved. 

ApriL  Land  fraud  scandal  in  the  United  States.  Since  1902  the 
government  had  been  tracing  the  fraudulent  acquisition  of 
public  lands ;  many  suits  were  brought  and  some  convictions 
obtained. 

April  5.  At  the  elections  for  the  legislative  assembly  in  Finland  19 
women  chosen  as  deputies. 

May-July.  Agitation  by  winegrowers  in  the  south  of  France  secures 
legislation  against  adulteration  and  sugaring  of  wine. 

May  7.  Irish  council  bifl  introduced  in- parliament.  It  placed  the  ad- 
ministration of  Ireland  in  the  bauds  of  an  elective  body,  allow- 
ing a  veto  to  the  lord-lieuteuant ;  being  unsatisfactory  to  the 
nationalists,  it  was  withdrawn  (June  3). 

May  9.  Trial  of  Haywood,  sec.  of  the  Western  federation  of  miners, 
who  with  the  president  was  indicted  for  the  murder  of  ex-gov. 
Steunenberg  of  Idaho;  acquitted  July  28.  Startling  testi- 
mony as  to  yiolence  during  the  Colorado  strikes  of  1903-01. 

May  10.    Birth  of  a  son  and  heir  to  the  king  of  Spain. 

June  l&-Oct.  18.  Second  international  peace  conference  at 
the  Hague  (p.  583).  Forty-four  states  represented  (Corea 
not  received).  Further  restrictions  were  placed  on  naval  and 
land  warfare  in  the  interests  of  non-combatants  and  neutrals. 
International  prize  court  established  (court  of  appeal);  Eng- 
land and  the  United  States  reserved  assent.  The  establish- 
ment of  a  court  of  arbitral  justice  was  advocated  by  the  United 
States  and  recommended  by  the  conference,  which  could  not 
agree  on  a  plan  for  the  choice  of  judges.  Forcible  collection 
of  debts  to  be  allowed  only  after  failure  of  arbitration. 

July  19.  Abdication  of  the  emperor  of  Corea  in  favor  of  his 
son.  Japan  obtained  by  treaty  a  protectorate  over  Corea 
(July  25). 

July  3(>-Ang.  5.    Several  Europeans  killed  in  an  outbreak  at  Casa-- 


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600  {  Modem  History. 

Uanea  in  Morocco.  The  French  bombarded  the  town  and 
landed  troops. 

1907,  Aug.  3.  Fine  of  $29,240,000  imposed  by  a  federal  conrt 
on  the  Standcard  oil  co.  of  Indiana  for  receiving  rebate.  (Re- 
versed on  appeal,  July  22, 1908.) 

Aug.  6.  The  state  of  Georgia  adopted  a  prohibition  act.  Similar 
legislation  in  Alabama  (Dec),  Mississippi  (Feb.  1908),  North 
Carolina  (Maj,  1908),  constitutional  prohibition  in  Oldahoma. 

Aug.  16.  Mulej  Hafid,  brother  of  the  sultan  of  Morocco,  pro- 
claimed sultan  at  Marrakesh ;  civil  war;  the  new  sultan, 
though  opposed  by  the  French,  gradually  obtained  control 
of  the  greater  part  of  the  country. 

Aug.  28.  Parliament  passes  an  act  (retro-active)  legalizing  max^ 
riage  with  a  deceased  wife^s  sister, 

Aug.  31.  Anglo-Rusaian  convention.  Russia  to  have  commer- 
cial control  in  the  northern  half  of  Persia,  Great  Britain  in 
*  the  southern  half.  Great  Britain  agrees  not  to  annex  Afghan- 
istan nor  to  alter  the  government;  Russia  acknowledges 
that  country  to  be  outside  her  sphere  of  influence.  Russia 
recognizes  the  AngUhThibetan  treaty. 

Oct.  16.    Opening  of  the  first  Philippine  legislative  assembly. 

Oct.  17.  Wireless  telegraph  service  opened  between  Cape  Breton 
and  Ireland. 

Oct.  22.  Panic  in  New  York.  The  financial  disturbances  which 
beg^n  in  March  followed  by  shortage  of  currency  throughout 
the  country  ;  commercial  depression. 

Nov.  14.  Third  Russian  duma,  elected  under  a  new  decree  ; 
number  of  deputies  442,  Poles,  Caucasians,  etc.,  reduced  ;  the 
infiuence  of  landed  proprietors  and  privileged  classes  largely 
increased.  The  duma^  however,  resolves  that  the  tzar  has 
divested  himself  of  his  autocratic  power. 

Nov.  16.  Oklahoma  (united  with  the  Indian  territory)  46th  state 
of  the  United  States. 

Nov.  30.  Loss  of  the  successful  French  war  balloon.  La  patrie. 
Marked  development  in  1906-08  of  dirigible  balloons  and 
aeroplanes. 

1907,  I>ec.  8  — X.  Ghistav  V.,  king  of  Sweden,  saoceeds 
on  the  death  of  his  father,  Oscar  IL 

Dec.  16.    The  United  States  fleet  sailed  on  a  cmise  to  the  Padfio 

coast  and  around  the  world. 
Dec.  20.    Treaty  of  peace  and  seven  conventions  between  the  Central 

American  states  signed  at  Washington ;  Central  American 

court  of  justice  established. 

1908,  Feb.  1.     Carlos  /.,  king  of  Portugal,  and  the  crown  prince 

assassinated  ;  the  second  son  of  Carlos  succeeded  as 

1908— X.    Manuel  11. 

April  5.  Resignation  of  sir  Henry  Camj^U-Bannerman  (f  April  22); 
Mr.  Aaqnith  became  prime  minister. 


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Leading  Events^  1904-1908.  600  g 

1908,  Apnl  23.  North  sea  treaty  between  Germany,  Great  Britain, 
Holland,  Sweden,  and  Denmark.  Baltic  aea  treaty  be- 
tween Germany,  Rusaia,  Sweden,  and  Denmark. 

May  13.  United  States.  Conference  of  governors  of  the  states 
at  Washington  on  the  conservation  of  national  resources. 

'bIfAj  25.  The  United  States  remitted  its  claim  to  ^13,000,000  of 
the  Chinese  boxer  indemnity  (p.  598). 

June.     Civil  war  in  Persia  between  the  shah  and  the  parliament. 

June  18-19.  Republican  convention  in  the  United  States  (Chi- 
cago) nominated  W,  H.  Toft  (Ohio)  for  president,  and  •/.  5. 
Sherman  (New  York)  for  vice-president. 

June  24.  Death  of  Graver  Cleveland,  ex-president  of  the  United 
States. 

July  10.  Democratic  convention  at  Denver  nominated  W,  J.  Bryan 
(Nebraska)  for  president  and  /.  W,  Kern  (Indiana)  for  vice- 
president. 

July  25.  The  Irish  universities  hUl  passed  in  the  house  of  com- 
mons ;  two  universities  without  religious  tests  created  in 
Ireland. 

July  30.  Old  age  pensions  act  in  Great  Britain  ;  it  is  supposed  to 
affect  500,000  peraons. 

July  24.  The  sultan  of  Turkey  proclaimed  the  restoration  of 
the  constitution  of  1876  and  ordered  the  assembling  of  a 
chamber  of  deputies  elected  by  the  people.  A  peaceful  revo- 
lution by  the  young  Turks. 

Oct  1.  Two  cent  postal  rate  between  the  United  States  and  Oreat 
Britain. 

Oct.  5.  The  independence  of  Bulgaria  proclaimed  by  prince 
Ferdinand. 

Oet  7.  The  emperor  of  Austro-Hungary  asserted  rights  of  sover- 
eignty and  succession  in  Bosnia  and  Herzego'^dna  (compare 
treaty  of  Berlin,  p.  524).  The  popular  assembly  in  Crete 
proclaimed  union  with  Greece.  Negotiations  looking  toward 
a  European  conference. 

Nov.  3.  United  States  presidential  election;  Taft  chosen  (321 
electoral  votes  to  162). 

Nov.  15.  Death  of  the  emperor  of  China  (Kwangsu)  and  of  the 
empress-dowager  announced. 

Nov.  30.     Agreement  between  the  United  States  and  Japan. 

1908.  I>ec.  2  —  X.  Hsuan-tiXQff,  emperor  of  China  {Pi-yiy 
3  years  old,  son  of  the  regent  prince  Chung). 

Dec.  17.     Opening  of  the  Turkish  parliament. 

Dec.  17-19.  In  Venezuela  president  Cipriano  Castro  (1899-1908), 
who  had  suspended  intercourse  with  nearly  all  foreign  coun- 
tries, deposed  (while  in  Europe)  in  favor  of  Juan  Vincents 
Gomez. 

Deo.  28.    Destructive  earthquake  in  Sicily  and  Calabria. 


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600h  Modem  History. 

1909,  Jan.  28.  President  Oomex  inangiuwied  in  Cuba;  United 
States'  proTiaional  goTemment  ceases. 

1909,  March  4-x.  William  Howard  Taft*  26thi  president 
of  the  United  States;  /.  S.  Skermanf  vice-president. 

April  6.    The  North  Pole  reached  by  R.  B.  Peary,  U.  S.  K.    (An- 
nouncement made  Sept.  6.) 
Beyolt  in  Turkey  against  Young  Turki  suppressed.    Abdvl 
Hamid  II  deposed;  his  brother 

1909,  April  27— x.  Muhammad  V.  sultan.  Massacres  of  Arme- 
nian Christians. 

1909,  July  16— X.  Sultan  Ahmad,  shah  of  Persia;  his  father, 
Muhammad  AH,  deposed. 

Jnly  20.    In  Franoe  M.  Briand  premier  in  place  of  M.  Clemeneeau. 

Aug.  5.  In  the  United  States  new  (Payne-Aldrich)  tariff  act. 
Few  changes  downward;  hides  free.  Free  trade  with  Philip- 
pines. "Tariff  board."  The  act  unpopular  in  the  middle 
west    '<  Insurgents." 

KoT.  15.  Indian  Councils  act  operative  in  India ;  powers  of  legis- 
latiYe  councils  increased,  and  a  minority  of  members  directly 
electiTC.    Separate  electorate  for  Mohammedans. 

1909,  I>ec.  17~X*  Albert  I,  king  of  the  Belgians,  on  the 
death  of  his  uncle,  Leopold  IL 

In  England  the  House  of  Lords  having  rejected  Mr.  Hofjfd- 
Georg^s  budget  (Lord  Lansdowne's  motion,  Not.  30)  which 
increased  taxes  on  wealth,  and  introduced  new  taxes  on  land 
(fi[eneral  valuatwn\  parliament  was  dissolved,  and  the      

1910,  Feb.  21.    third  (29th  imperial)  parliament  of  Edward  VH 

opened  with  unionist  gains  (275  unionists,  273  liberals),  but 
a  government  majority  of  124.  Resolve  of  the  Commons 
that  the  Lordt^  veto  should  be  limited.  The  budget  received 
royal  assent  Ai>ril  29.  On  May  6  Edward  VII  died,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son 

1910-X.    C^eo^fife  V. 

May  31.    Union  of  South  Africa  (Cape  Colony,  Natal,  Trans' 

vaal,  Orange  Free  State)  inaugurated. 
Aug.  22.    Japan  annexes  Korea. 
Sept.  7.    The  International  Court  of  Arbitration  gives  its  decision 

in  the  ITewfoundland  fiaheriea  oaae  between  the  United 

States  and  Great  Britain. 
Oct.  3.    The  new  Chinese  senate  opened. 

Oct.  5.    Revolution  in  Portugal;  King  Manuel  dethroned;  a  repub- 
lic established. 
Nov.    State  elections  in  the  United  States;  g^reat  democratio 

miins. 
Nov.  28.    Britlah  parliament  dissolved.    The  elections  return  272 

unionists  and  272  liberals;  government  majority  126. 
Dec.  10.    Population  of  the  United  States  (exclusive  of  the  Philip- 

pines)  announced  as  93,402,151.     (13th  census.) 

1  If  Mr.  Cleveland's  second  tenn  were  counted,  Mr.  Taft  would  be  the  S7th 
president. 


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INDEX. 


ABBBSTIATMUra  I  A.  i>  sbbott  ■dm.  — 

d.  —  diik«i  «.  —  «uii  eL  —  deetort 
ktBCi  Uadg.  —  Umdcniv*!  margr. 

of  AJMrie*!  TllO.  ■■  TilOOIlBl. 


.  —  adinlxal  i  b.  ■■  Mdiop  t  Inngr.  ■■  hmggnm  i  e.  —  eooal  t 
•t  f.  d.  —  grind  dnkei  H.  B.  E.  ■-  Holy  Bman  Empirai  k.  la 
i-musimTet  pr.  — pnafWi  q.  — qoMi&i  U.S.>-Uiund  BMm 


a,  kii«i  of  ItoTpt :  I.,  4 ;  II.,  7. 
dM.  rale  of  the,  18& 


AAOBnr,  186, 19&    &<  ilx- 

iUhiiiw,k-        ■-  - 

AbbMidM, ..«,  w«  .»<.,  .»w. 

Abdol-Kjuier  oftptnved  by  Uw  Franeh,  £87. 

Abd-or-Bahmaa :  I.,  foanded  «aUphat«  of 
CordoTa,  188, 208 ;  III.,  a08i 

Abdal-Aiis,  depodtion  of,  6SL 

Abdul Hainid,  II.,  631;  IC«tim,6a2. 

Abel,  k.  of  Dennuurk,  286. 

Aberdeen  adminlrtntion,  648. 

Ab«,  FWoeof,409. 

AboilUoniBti,  orgaDiattlon  of  ibe,  668. 

Abonklr,  battle  of,  400. 

Abraham.  7. 

Abaalon,  bLdiop,  286. 

Aba-Bekr,  182. 

Abul  Abbas,  orerthzowi  Ommiads,  188. 

Ab7<lo«,hatUesof,68. 

Abyssinia,  Christian  kingdom  of,  ISO. 

Abysrinian  expedltlonTotf. 

Aead^mie  Francaise  fovnded,  828. 

Acadia,  explorations  in,  290 ;  neneh  elatms 
to,  8^;  limits  of,  864,  n.j  granted  to 
St.  Btienne,  864 ;  ceded  to  Sngland,  868, 
419;  dispersion  of  the  Fieneh  Inhabit- 
ants, 421. 

Aehiean  League,  48, 48 ;  under  Antoe,  79 : 
under  FnUopaemen.  80 ;  fall,  80 ;  first 
Macedonian  war,  11& 

AchsBan  War,  80, 122. 

AehSBmenidae.  2fr-27. 

Achaia,  89,  48 :  Bomaa  proflliot,  80, 146; 
duehv  of,  216. 

Achilles,  47. 

Acilios  Glabrio,  119,  186. 

A^oka,  emp.  of  Wamdha,  28. 

Acre,  conquest  of,  in  8d  enuade,  215; 
taken  by  Mamelukes,  217;  repulse  of 
Napoleon,  460. 

Act  for  the  better  gorentmsnt  of  India, 
644;  of  confederation,  488;  of  grace, 
887 ;  of  mediation,  464 ;  for  perpetual  par- 
liament, 846 ;  of  setUement,  888 ;  of  su- 
premacy under  Henry  TnL,  886,  under 
Klisabeth,  838 ;  of  uniformity,  888,  en- 
forced by  James  I.,  340,  under  Oharles 
II.,  879 ;  of  Vienna,  482;  final  act,  488, 
487. 

Actium,  Coreyreans  rlotorious  at,  66 ;  de- 
feat of  Antonius.  146. 

Adalbert,  arohb.  of  Bremen,  190. 

Adams,  John,  defends  Preston,  425 :  mem- 
ber of  Continental  Congress,  426, 427 ; 
negotiates  treaty  with  Franee,  428 :  vloe- 
pNS.,647,548ipns.,548. 


Aduni,  Jdhn  Qvlnej,  see.  of  itato,  551 ; 
nres.,  662. 

j^4p**^f,  Samual,  426. 

Addington  administnlion,  586. 

Addison,  Joseph,  486. 

**  Addled  "  parliament,  841. 

Adelheid,  empress,  married  Otto  I.,  125^ 
regent  in  Italy,  197. 

Adhemar  of  Puy,  214. 

Adherbal,  126. 

Adlerkreus,  Gen..  472. 

Adolf  of  Naanu,  elected  k.  of  Gennaay,  244. 

Adolf  Fraderie,  k.  of  Sweden,  409. 

Adrianople,  battle  of,  J59, 171 ;  peaee  oi, 
489 ;  agreement  of,  628. 

JEdiles,  plebeian,  96 ;  eumle,  101 ;  p^  for 
the  great  games,  120. 

AUgatian  Islands,  Tictotr  of  Catulus,  IIL 

&lna,  Doric  community,  68 ;  war  with 
Athens,  67 ;  tribntair  to  Athens,  68  *,  as- 
signed to  Athenian  citiiens,  66. 

ibospotami,  battle  of,  69. 

^fred  the  Great,  k.  of  Xngland,  204. 

.fiUa  CapitoUna,  12, 158. 

iBUe,  leader  of  the  South  Saxons,  177. 

JBmilianus,  156. 

2Bneas,  87. 

2Bneas  Sylvius,  268.    Sm  Pius  IL 

iBolian  tribes.  48 ;  colonies.  49. 

JEqui,  wars  with  Rome,  97, 96, 100 ;  nodn 
Roman  citiiensfaip,  106. 

Jiraiii,92. 

JSscendun  J^anes  defteted  at,  204. 

ASscliines,  72. 

Aschylus,  64. 

JCthelflsMl,  lady  of  the  Mercians,  204. 

iBthelzed,kin8i  of  England,  I.,  208, 204  i 

II.,  the  Unready,  206: 
"'•   *       .k.  ofBngli 


^•»D».w.,  •.  v«  j>usland,  204. 

.fithelwulf,  k.  of  Bngland,  206. 

Aetius,  172 ;  defeata  Attlla,  178. 

.Stolian  League  founded,  79 ;  assists  Rome, 
116. 

Afghan  war,  first,  540 ;  second,  547. 

Afghans  of  Ghor,  supremacy  in  India,  211. 

Africa,  eircumnayigated  by  Anrptians  (?), 
6;  by  Portuguese,  279,  wO;  Roman 
province,  121 ;  Cassar's  war.  142 ;  Octavl- 
anus  admlnlstoiB,  146;  Vandal  king- 
dom, 172 ;  fall  of  the  Vandal  power,  174 

Agamemnon,  47. 

Agathodea,  k.  of  Syracuse,  20. 

Axe  of  Augustus,  147;  of  Louis  XIY^ 
871;  of  Pericles,  64. 

AgeiUaufc  k.  of  SnaitiS  70, 7L 


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602 


Indau 


AglDMrait,  tettle  of,  269,  STl. 

Agnes  of  Mecaa,  226 :  of  Poiton,  199. 

Agnurfan  laws,  96,  97:  UcinUn,  101:  re- 
forms of  the  Gnedii.  121, 125 ;  of  Dru- 
sns,  128 ;  of  Sulla,  l82 ;  of  Fompeius, 
187. 

Agrioola,  In  Britain,  87,  IfiS;  hia  dmth, 
162 ;  his  wall  In  Britain,  176. 

Agrigentnm,  84 ;  captnied  by  Carthaginians, 
20 ;  bT  Romans,  110. 

Agrippa,  M.  Vipsaoins.  146. 

Anippina,  the  elder,  Iffi ;  the  younger,  148, 

Affuinv,  Lope  de,  288. 

Ahmad  Shah.  emp.  of  India,  442 :  DuFani, 

iuTades  India.  4^^448. 
Ahmednagar,  Unedom,  868, 889. 
Ahuxamaida,  24/26. 
Ainos,88. 

Aistulf ,  k.  of  Langobaxdi,  176, 184. 
Aiz-larOhapelle,  peace  of    1668,  867:    of 

1748, 408,  419,  ^7ooogi«is,  487.    &«, 

also,  Aaohen. 

Akbur  the  Great,  868, 864. 

Akkad,  1& 

Alabama,  admitted  to  the  Union,  652. 

Alabama  eJaims  settled,  545, 660. 

Alamanni.   on   the   Rhine,  170;   occupy 

Germania   superior,  172;   defeated  by 

Ghlodwig,  178. 
Alamgir  if.,  emp.  of  India,  442. 
Alani,  170, 171. 

AlaRon,  explores  the  Colorado,  287. 
Alario,  k.  of  West  Goths,  171. 
Alaska  purchase,  669. 
AlA-ud-din,  sultan  of  Delhi,  241. 
Alba  Longa,  87 ;  deatruetion,  89. 
Albttolan  league,  625. 
Albemarle,  d.  of,  879.    &<,  also.  Monk. 
Alberonl,  card.,  897. 
Albert,  the  Bear,  maigr.  of  Brandenbuig, 

Albert  I.,  emp.  of  H.  R.  E.,  of  Auftila, 

246'  n.  2681 
Alberl,  e.  of  Holstein.  285. 
Albert,  d.  of  Mecklenburg,  287, 288. 
Albert,  of  Saxe-Gobuig,  marries  Victoria, 

542;  dies, 644. 
Albertlne  line,  in  8«zony,  806. 
Albigenses,  227. 
Albinus,  Clodius,  166. 
Albion.  86. 

Alboln,  k.  of  Langobardi,  176. 
Albueia,  battle  of,  478. 
Albuquerque.  280,  866. 
Alcantara,  order  of,  240,  828. 
AlcibiadM,  66 ;  trial  and  flight,  68 ;  death, 

69. 
Aloolea,  battte  of,  612. 
Alcnhi,  186. 
Alembert,44B. 
Aleppo,  sultanate  of,  210. 
Alesia,  siege  of,  189. 
Alessandrm  built,  221. 
Alexander,  prince  of  Bulgaria,  624. 
Alexander,  ttie  Great,  k.  of  Macedoala,  78 ; 

expedition  to  Porsia,  20, 29,  78 ;  innulet 

India,28, 76 :  plans  to  HeUeniae  the  Kuit, 

76;  hisdeati,76. 
Alexander, Fopee:  ni.,221;  ?.,261;  VI. 

887. 


u«E>  lear  of  Rusik:   I.,  aoeM 
408 ;  defeated  at  Austeriita,  497 ;  In  ko. 
war  of  1818,  477 :  in  London,  482L  fiOO: 
n.,  600 ;  murder,  6» ;  ni..  606. 

A1exaadrii^  founded,  74 ;  capital  of  Btayvt, 
77;  Vespasian,  161;  captured  bjWr. 
slans,  191 ;  captured  by  Arabs,  lS2 :  by 
the  French,  400 ;  bombarded  by  tfaa  ^wi^ 
lish,  546.  ^^ 

Alexandrine  libraxr  founded,  77. 

Alexandrine  war,  142. 

Alexis,  taar  of  Russia,  874. 

Alexius  Comnenna,  Greek  emn^  114. 

Alfonso  m.,  k.  of  Aragon,  276. 

Alfonso  X.j\,  of  Gasme,  2K.  210. 

Alfonso  Xn.,  k.  of  Spain,  621. 

Alfotd,  battle  of,  848. 

Algarbe,  kingdom  of,  276. 

Algeria,  exp.  of  Charles  V.,  801 : 

Alien  bill,  685. 

Alien  and  sedition  laws  In  U.  8.,  619. 

Alkaasor,  battle  of,  882. 

Alkmar,  batUe  of,  46L 

"Alleluia  TictoiT,»88. 

Allen.  Ethan,  427. 

Allenhelm,  battle  of,  816. 

All]A,batUeofthe,lOO. 

**  Alliance  of  the  three  kings,"  4197. 

AUouea,  in  New  France,  SA. 

"  All  the  talents'  "  ministij,  687. 

Alma,  battle  of  the,  600. 

Almagro,  Diego  de,  286, 287. 

Ahnann,  battle  of,  484. 


Almeida,  260 :  siMe  of.  478. 
Almoadan.    Sm  Toorin-ahih. 
Almohades,  conquer  Spain,  2I0l 
Almorairides,  conquer  Spain,  209,  HO. 
Alp  Anlan,  m. 
Alsace,  formerly  Germania  superior,  ITS: 

ceded  to  Fiance,  816 ;   proteateali  1^ 

869;  ceded  to  the  German  empire,  619. 
Alaen,  island  of,  606. 
Altranstldt,  peace  of,  896, 
Alra,  duke  of,  in  the  NetheriaDdi,  880. 
AlyaEado,8B7! 

Alyattes,  k.  of  Lydia,  21, 26. 
Amadous  I^  k.  dt  Spain,  612, 520. 
Amagro,2B7. 

Amabric,  k.  of  West  Gothi,  174. 
AmalasuntlUL  174. 
Amalric,  k.  of  JemsalaA,  214. 
Amasls.    &t  Aahmes. 
Amaaon,  dlsooTery  of,  284, 2B8. 
Amaaons,46. 
Amberg,  battle  of.  466. 
AmbiorU.  189. 

Ambolse,  conspixaoy  of,  821 ;  peaoe  of,  8SL 
Amboym,  massacre  of ,  842,  sBr 
Ambroaius,  b.  of  MUaa,  16L 
Amendments  to  U.  8.  Constitution,  flnl 

ten,  647;    llth,   648;  12th,  648;    18th. 

668  ;  14th,  660 ;  16«h,  660. 


Amcnemhat,  kgs.  of  Korpt :  I.,  conqi 
Nubia ;  II*ni..  built  lake  Meti,  4. 

Amenhotep,  m.,  k.  of  Xgypt,  war  with 
Syrians,  etc,  4 ;  his  statue  (Hemnott),  & 

America,  ftU^ged  diacoTery,  280  n. ;  die* 
coTcry  by  Northmen,  280 ;  by  Columbai^ 
279  i  named,  288 ;  conquest  of  Maxki^ 


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JtiidiXm 


603 


386  f  ooiic|uwi  of  PbtiIi  9B6 .  wi 
colonies,  288:  Vixvlnla  explored,  m^  ^ 
f  omuUiion  of  Fort  Royal  bj  French,  290 ; 
KngUaheolonieii,291;  Dutch  and  Swed- 
ish settlemento,  nnlon  of  the  colonies, 
398 ;  New  France  and  the  Arctic  re- 
gion, 299 :  BritiBh,  Dateh,  and  Swedish 
eolonies,  867:  King  PhUips  war,  859 ; 
King  William's  war,  861 ;  Qaeen  Anne's 
war,  868}Frenoh  settlements  and  dis- 
coTerles,  868 ;  King  Geoige-s  war,  419. 
French  and  Indian  war,  42l> ;  Stamp  act, 
433 :  Continental  Congress,  war  of  inde- 
pendence, 436 :  signing  the  Constltation, 
4^.  Sf  Canada,  United  States,  Spanish 
colonies. 

American  Association,  426. 

Amherst,  lord,  gov.  gen.  In  India,  Ml. 

h  mhemt,  gen.,  421. 

Amlda,  sack  of,  188. 190. 

Amiens,  peace  of,  18  j2,  464, 686 ;  battle  of, 
618. 

Ammon,  2, 6. 

AmnlaK,  battle  of,  129. 

Ampfing,  battle  of,  247. 

Amphictyonic  coancil,  42 ;  flmt  holy  war, 
61, 62;  2d  holy  war,  72 ;  Philip  a  mem- 
ber, 72. 

Amphipolis,  battle  of,  66. 

Ammo,  oonqneiv  Egvpt,  182. 

Amulins,  k.  of  Alba  lionga,  87. 

Amyrtteos,  29. 

Anabaptists,  804. 

Anagawa,  batUii  of,  366. 

Anastasins,  Greek  emp.,  190. 

Anazagoras,  64. 

Ancns  Marciof,  k.  of  Ronip,  89. 

Andelot,  Francoii*  d*,  821. 

Andemach,  189 ;  battle  of  198, 19S. 

Andi«,  major,  481. 

Andrew  II.,  k.  of  Uangary,  emsade,  216. 

Andriscns  (Psendo-Philippns),  122. 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund,  361. 

Angelun,  dynasty  of,  240. 

Anglas,  Boissy  d',  466. 

Angleii,  settle  in  Britain,  172,  176;  east, 
north,  178 ;  middle.  179. 

Anglican  Churrh,  8S8. 

Anglo-Sajcon  chronicle,  204. 

Anglo-Saxons.  Su  Angles,  Saxons,  Jutes, 
England. 

Angora,  battle  of,  278. 

Augouleme,  c.  &<  Francis  I.,  k.  of 
Fnuice. 

Angoulftme,  house  of,  317. 

Angromainyu,  24. 

Anjou,  house  of,  England,  281 ;  France, 
m. ;  Hungary,  277 ;  Naples,  226,  2G3. 

AnkarstrOm.  409. 

Anna,  of  Brittany.  362,  818. 

Anna  iTanoTua,  of  Russia,  410. 

Anna-Dido,  17. 

Annam.  French  in,  686. 

Anne  ox  Austria,  866. 

Anne  Boleyn,  884, 885 ;  of  Cleres,  884. 

Anne,  q.  of  England,  as  princess  denerts 
Jamefi  II.,  884 ;  acknowledged  succes-sor 
of  WUliam  III.,  8n ;  her  xeign,  433 ; 
death,  486.  .         .  --o-.         . 

Anno,  arehb.  of  Cologne,  199. 

Annus  normalis,  817. 

Aosalm,  arahb.  of  Cuterbviy,  380. 


I  Ansgariua,  307, 308. 
;  Anson,  Toyage  of,  488. 

Antalddas,  peace  of,  70. 

Anthemins,  Roman  emp^  162i 

And-com  law  league,  542. 

Anticosti,  disoovery  of  ,287. 

Antietam,  battle  of,  667. 

Antigonus,  76, 77 ;  Gonatas,  77. 

Antiochia,  77 ;  capture  of,  190. 

Antiochus,  m.,  the  Great,  k.  of  Syria,  28^ 

Antipafter,  76, 79. 

Anti-xeformatton,  806. 

Antium,  104. 

Anton,  k.  of  NaTirre,  821. 

Antoninus,  emp.  of  Rome,  rebuilds  Agrioo- 
la's  wall,  88 ;  reign,  164. 

Antonlus,  C,  consul.  186, 187. 

Antonlus,  M.,  war  with  Pompeius,  141 :  as- 
sumes oontrol  upon  Caesar's  death,  144 ; 
follows  Cleopatra,  146;  second  triumTi- 
rate.  146 ;  governor  of  the  East,  146 ; 
Parthian  war,  80, 146 :  defeat  and  death, 
146. 

Antwerp,  eaptare  of,  881. 

AuTiUe,  d*,  in  America,  419. 

Apepi,  k.  of  Bgrpt,  8. 

Aphrodite,  8.l7. 

Apis,  saeved  bull,  2, 87. 

Apollo,  saves  Croesus,  26 ;  oracle  of,  61. 

Appius  Claudius,  decemvir,  98  ;  the  censor. 
1^,  106:  csBcus,  106 ;  caudex,  110. 

Apries.    Sm  Hophxft. 

Apulia,  88, 14L 

AausB  SextlsB,  battle  of,  127 ;  colony  of, 

Aquillius,  129. 

Aquilonia,  battle  of,  106. 

Aquitania,  84, 182. 

Arabia,  tributary  to  Assyria,  14 ;  invaded 
by  Seti  I. ,  6 ;  by  Romans,  148 ;  Roman 
province,  153 ;  invaded  by  Chosro&,  190. 

Antblan  dynasty  in  Chaldea,  18. 

Arabit,  conquest  of  Africa,  182 ;  of  Spain, 
188 ;  war  with  the  Greek  empire,  210  ; 
crusades  against,  213 ;  conquest  of  Per- 
sia, 196  ;  invasions  of  India,  211 ;  dy- 
nasties in  India,  241 ;  capture  of  Con- 
stantinople, 260. 278.    Sn  Moon. 

Aragon,  united  with  Catalonia,  240 ;  wan 
with  the  Moon  and  with  Castile,  276; 
united  with  Castile,  828.    Sw  Spain. 

Aranda,  416. 

Aratus,  79. 

Arausio,  battle  of,  127. 

Arbela,  battle  of,  74. 

Are,  Joan  of.     iSre  Dare. 

Arcadius,  Greek  emp.,  161. 

Arohelaus,  130. 

Archidamus,  66. 

Archons,  development,  61 ;  elected  by  all 
citiaens,  68 ;  reductton  of  tteir  power, 
66. 

Arcis-sur-Aube,  battle  of,  481. 

Aroole,  battle  of,  468. 

Arcot,  Nawib  of,  448. 


Azdaghan,  628, 624. 
Ardoin  of  Ivrea,  197. 


Areopagus,  68,  62. 

Argal,  deputy  gov.  of  S.  Vixglnia,  292;  al< 

leged  submission  of  Dutch  lo,  296 :  exp» 

ditk»toMt.])sitri,28A. 


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604 


Bidex. 


Ananm,  UIM»  of,  Ml. 

ArglnuMB,  IwtUe  of, ». 

AigonauU,  expedition  of,  46. 

Anoe,  ehief  town  in  Peloponnenu,  48; 
deoUne  of  power,  66 ;  alUed  with  Athene, 
62. 

Axgyle,  d.  of,  846, 487. 

Annrle,  e.  of.  triel,  882, 888. 

AiCoUemjlfid. 

Arioeto,d28. 

ArioTietne,  188, 167. 

Ari0tagofei^2B. 

Arietion,  180. 

Ari«tobalu0,  k.  of  the  Jewi,  11. 

Ari8todemue,61. 

Ariatogiton,  54. 

Aristomenee,  51. 

Aiietophanes,  61 

ArlstoUa,  78. 

Ark  of  the  Covenant,  8. 

ArkuuM  edmitted  to  the  Union,  668. 

Arlee,  kingdom  of,  196. 

Arlington,  88U. 

Annada,  Great,  881,  889. 

Armagnace,  attaek  Baale,  268 ;  maancnd, 
269. 

Armed  neutrality,  412 ;  z«nefwed|  686. 

Armenia,  12, 78 :  InTaded  by  AeeiraMiatdr 
pal  I.,  14 ;  nibleet  to  Awyria.  14,  to  Me- 
dia,  25,  to  Cyrus  the  Pendan,  20 ;  attacked 
by  the  Parthlans.  80;  Roman  province. 
158 ;  conquered  by  Sapor,  188 ;  reduced 
by  M.  AureUuB,  l98  ;  ceded  to  RoflBia, 

Arminlus  defeats  Vanu,  148;  after-hietory, 
167. 

Armorica,  Yenetli  in,  188;  Britons  emi- 
grate to,  172. 

Amim,  812. 

Arnold  of  Brescia,  221. 

Arnold,  Benedkt,  siege  of  Quebec,  427 ; 
defeat  on  Ctiamplaln,  428 ;  Ills  treason, 
480. 

Amnlf  of  Carlnthia,  198. 

Arpads  in  Hungary,  277. 

Arques,  battle  of,  824. 

Arnces,  founder  of  the  Itethian  mon- 
arehy,  29 ;  dynastic  name  of  all  the  Par- 
thian monarehs  (I.-XXX.),  29,  80. 

Arsaddas,  165. 

Arses,  emp.  of  Persia,  29. 

Art  in  Greece,  64 ;  in  Italy,  827. 

Artabanus  I.,  k.  of  ParthU  (ArsaoesVIII., 
80 ;  lU.  ( Arsaoes  XXX.),  last  k.  of 
Parthia,  defeated  by  Artazenes.  80, 187. 

Artaphemes,  57. 

Artavasdes,  k.  of  Armenia,  146. 

Artaxata,  185 ;  captured,  160. 154. 

Artazenes,  k.  of  Persia,  I.|  28 ;  II.,  defeate 
the  yoniwer  Gyrus,  29 ;  III.,  29 ;  Artaz- 
enes I.  founds  the  new  Porsian  empire. 


80,187:  II.,  189. 
ArtemU,  2l. 

Artemisium,  battle  of,  68. 
Artenay,  battie  of,  518. 
Arterelde,  Jacob  ran,  257. 
Arthur,  k.  of  the  Silurea.  87;  traditions 

ooneeming  him  In  the  N.  and  8.,  178; 

cycle  of  romances,  286. 
Arttrar,  d.  of  Brittany,  226 ;  death,  288. 
Arthur,  Chester  A.,  pres.  of  the  United 

Btates,  660. 


AitlelM  of  aonfedmtlon,  429;  of  Plffb- 
841. 

Artois,  e.  of,  460. 

Arundel,  e.  of,  impeached,  270 ;  ezeoated, 
889. 

Aryans,  uncertainty  eoneemlng,  Intnd. 
It.  ;  In  Asia  Minor,  21  ;  primittve  homew 
24;  Celts,  84. 

Aschaffenbnrg,  battle  of,  510. 

Asculum,  battle  of,  1U6. 

Ashantee  war,  646. 

Ashburton  treaty,  654. 

Ashby  and  White,  case  of,  484. 

Ashera,  PlMsnician  goddess,  17. 

Ashikaga  shoguns,  278,  866. 

Ashley,  880. 

Asia,  Roman  proTince,  124. 

Aske,  Robert,  rebellion  of,  886 

Aspasia,  64. 

Aspem,  battle  of,  472. 

Asi«m,889,641. 

Assandun,  battle  of,  205. 

Assays,  battle  of,  541. 

Asshur.  12. 1& 

Asshuriianipal,  emp.  of  Assyria,  6, 16. 

As8httr«bU-lll,  k.  of  Ntaiereh,  15. 

Asshur-natair-pal  I^  emp.  of  Assyria,  14. 

Assignats,  issued,  460 ;  decline  two  thirds, 
464;  total  amount  iMoed,  457.  Sm 
Mandats. 

Assises  of  Clarendon,  282. 

Associations  of  nobles,  260. 

Assyria,  geogtaphy,  religion.  12;  cirlUn. 
tlon,  chronology,  18;  art,  16;  no  Assyr* 
ian  conquest  of  £gypt  under  Shanhsng 
I.,  5  n.  2 :  conquest  of  Bgypt  by  Bsar- 
haddon,  6  ;  independent  empire,  18 ; 
height  of  power,  16 ;  fall  of  the  empire, 
16, 25 ;  attacks  Iran,  26 ;  northern  A.  kab- 
ject  to  Rome,  80, 168. 

Astarte,  16, 17. 

Astnria,  kingdom  of,  188,  208. 

AstYsges,  k.  of  Media,  21,  26.  26. 

Atahuallpa,  inca  of  Peru,  287. 

Athalaric,  k.  of  West  Goths,  174. 

Athanasius,169. 

Athanlf,  171, 172. 

Athena,  identlfled  with  Nelth,  2. 

Athenlon,  128. 

Athens,  ally  of  the  Ionian  cities,  28,  40; 
founded,  44;  old  constitution,  51:  ra- 
f orms  of  Solon,  62 ;  Pisistratus,  refonns 
of  Clisthenes,  54;  burned  by  Xerxes, 
60 ;  hegemony  of,  61 ;  war  with  Sparta, 
64 ;  under  Pericles,  64 ;  sumnder  of, 
69 ;  thirty  tyrants,  6B ;  Demetrius  Po- 
lioreetes  in,  79;  captured  by  i^uUa, 
180  ;  adorned  by  Hadrian,  168 ;  duchy  of, 
216 ;  captured  by  Venetians,  416.  Sis 
Greece. 

Athos,  Mt.,  56, 58. 

Atlanta  evacuated,  658. 

Atlantic  cable  laid,  487, 544. 

Atreus,  44. 

Attalus,  kings  of  Pergamns,  78 ;  I.  Joins 
JStolian  league,  116 ;  implores  aid  of 
Rome,  118 ;  III.  bequeaths  Feigamiis  to 
Rome,  124. 

Attains,  appointed  emp.  of  Bona  bj  A]» 
ric,  itl. 

AttiU  in  Gaul  and  Italy,  178. 
I  AUyadM,  flttt  Ljdiaa  djiiMtj*  SL 


Digitized  by 


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index. 


605 


AiMkluid,  lord,  gOT.  gen, 
Aumtitdt,  battle  of,  409. 


in  India,  646. 


Aughrim,  battle  of,  887. 

Augsbuxg,  founded,  167:  diet  at,  808; 
confession  of,  808 ;  religious  peaoe  of, 
806 ;  peace  of,  817  :  league  of,  870. 

Augures,  college  of,  86. 

Augustine  in  Britain,  179. 

Augustus,  CsBsar  Octarianns,  emp.  of  Rome, 
his  reign.  147 ;  family,  148 ;  death,  149. 

Augustus  II.,  elector  of  Saxony,  elected  k. 
of  Poland,  874 ;  part  in  northern  war, 
894. 886 ;  III.,  elected  k.  of  Poland,  898 ; 
claimant  for  the  Austrian  succession, 
400;  death,  411. 

Anrangieb,  emp.  of  India,  deposes  his 
father,  864;  his  xein,  889. 

Anrelianus,  emp.  of  Kome,  167;  Penian 
war.  and  death,  188. 

Anrelius,  Marens,  Rom.  emp.,  war  with 
Parthia,  80  J  reign,  164. 

Auranci,  86, 108. 

AusterUts,  battle  of,  467. 

Australia,  first  oonTiets  sent  to,  686. 

Austrasia.  181-188. 187. 

Austria.  Ostmark  xe&tablished,  196 ;  made 
aduony,  221;  house  of  Hapsbuiig,  244 ; 
Hungarian  suooession  secured  to,  278 ; 
circle  of ,  800 ;  anti-reformation  in,  800; 
peace  of  Carlowits,  872 ;  war  of  the  Span- 
ish sneeession,  891 ;  peaoe  of  Rastadt, 
894 ;  peace  of  FMsarowits,  887 :  alliance 
with  Spain,  898;  pragmatic  sanction,  898 : 
war  of  Austrisn  succession,  400;  seren 
years^war,  408:  reforms  of  Joseph  II., 
406 ;  alliance  with  Prussia,  462 ;  first  co- 
alition against  France,  ^:  peace  of 
Campo  Formio,  469;  second  coalition, 
460;  peaoe  of  Luneriile,  462 ;  indemnifi- 
cations, 466 ;  third  coalition,  467 ;  peace 
of  Pressburg,  467 ;  Francis  I.,  rssigns  the 
crown  of  the  H.  R.  B.,  becomes  emperor 
of  Austria,  468  ;  war  with  France,  471 ; 
peace  of  Vienna,  472 :  alliance  with  Na- 
poleon, 474 ;  war  of  liberation,  477 ;  con- 
gvesi  of  Vienna,  482 ;  influence  in  Oer- 
manv  and  Italy,  487 ;  Ferdinand  I.,  491 ; 
reToIutionaiy  moTements,491,498;  war 
with  Sazdinia,  484 ;  Hunguian  rerolt,  494 ; 
Francis  Joseph  I.,  496 ;  general  constitu- 
tion, 496;  aooUshed,  4w;  Qerman  em- 
pire, 497 ;  war  with  France  and  Sardinia, 
loss  of  Lombardy,  602 ;  February  consti- 
tution, 604;  war  with  Denmark,  606; 
with  Prussia,  607 ;  with  Italy,  610 ;  with- 
draws from  Qerman  confederation,  610 ; 
union  of  crowns  of  Austria  and  Hun- 
gary, 611 ;  occupies  Bosnia  and  Herscvo- 
Tlna,  624;  alliance  with  Prussia,  6&; 
disturbances  in  Bosnia,  626. 

Austrian  succession,  war  of,  400, 488,  446. 

Austro-Prussien  war,  607. 

Austro-Sardinlan  war,  682. 

Authari,  176. 

ATars,  assist  Alboin,  176;  subjugated  by 
Charles  the  Great,  185,  192. 

ATeeta,24. 

ATinion,  Popes  at,  268 ;  annexed  to  France, 

ATitos,  Roman  emp..  162. 
Ayllon,  Lucus  Vasques  d\  286. 
lormer  de  Valence,  267. 


Ayoabitee,  dynasty  ol,  216, 217. 

Ay^bKhin,647. 

Asermidocht,  reign  of,  192. 

Aioff,  gained  by  Turkey,  876;  eonqneied 

by  Peter  the  Great,  874 ;  finually  gained 

by  Russia,  410. 
Asores,  discorery  of,  276, 279. 

Baal,  9, 10, 16, 18. 

Babar,  founds  Mughal  empire,  868. 

Babenberg,  house  of,  feud  with  house  of 
Coniad,  194 :  receires  the  Bastmark,  196 ; 
becomes  extinct,  244. 

Babington,  conspiracy  of,  889. 

Babylon,  capital  of  Babylonia,  12;  eentee 
of  the  Chaldean  empire.  18 ;  founded  by 
Ninus  (?),  14 ;  adorned  oy  Nebuchadnea- 
nr.  16 ;  captured  by  Cyrus,  26 ;  rerolt 
and  recapture,  27. 

Babylonia,  geography ,  12 ;  religion,  12 ;  oIt- 
iliiation,  ehronoloeir,  18;  dependent  on 
Blam,  independent  (old  or  Chaldean  em- 
pire), 18 ;  subordinate  to  Assrria,  18;  14 ; 
rerolt  under  Mabopolassar,  16,  26 ;  new 
empire,  the  leading  Eastern  power,  16; 
becomes  a  Penian  woTinoe,  16,  26 ;  re- 
rolt against  Darius,  27 :  subject  to  Mith- 
ridates  I.  of  Parthia,  86. 

Babylonish  captirlty  of  the  Jews,  11 ;  of 
the  papacy,  268. 

Bacallaos  (NewfonndUnd).  288. 

Bacon,  Frsnds,  lord  ehan.,  841;  im- 
peachment of,  842. 

Bacon's  rebellion,  869. 

Bacon,  Roger,  286. 

Bactria,  geography,  24 ;  religion,  24 ;  em- 
pire of,  26 ;  subject  to  Fkurthia,  80. 

Badges,  geographical  oongiess,  286;  ilsge, 

Baden,  peaee  of,  894:  beeomes  an  etoeto- 

rate,  464 ;  joined  allies,  479. 
B«cula,baUleof,117. 
Bnda,180. 


L,  royage  of,  299. 
Bagdad,  darphate  of,  188:  under  the  Ab- 

basides,  210 ;  destroyed  by  Mongols,  a4L 
Bagleme,  288. 
BagnMias,141. 

Bahadur  Shah,  emp.  of  India,  442, 646. 
Bahamas,  868. 

Bahram  ( Varahran  VI.),  191. 
BaiUy,  major  of  Puis,  460, 461, 466. 
Bajasld,  m. 
Bajaaet  I.,  278. 
Bill  lUo,  448. 
Bakolara,  battle  of,  600. 
B41aji  Biji  KAo,  448. 
Bales,  emp.  of  Penla,  189. 
Balbinus,  Callus,  166. 
Balboa,  Vasco  NuBei  de,  284. 
Baldur,  164, 166. 
Baldwin,  k.  of  Jenuilem,  L,  214, 284 ;  U 

toV.,il4. 
Baldwin,  of  Flanders,  216. 
Balfour,  defeats  Clarerhonse,  881. 
Baliol,  Edward,  k.  of  Scotland,  264, 26B. 
BaU,  John,  288,  2ea 
Ballard,  conspiracy  of,  889. 
Baltimore,  Lord,  T^ 


Bamberg,  diet  of,  221. 

Bante,  Swedish  general,  812, 814. 

Bank  of  England,  chartered,  888 ; 


stoipped 


Uigitized  Dy 


Google 


606 


Lfidex, 


vpeeie  pajment,  686;    rMWoed,   68B; 

enarter  renewed,  644. 
Bankraptej  bUl  in  Bnglend,  646. 
Bannookbum,  battle  ox,  287 
Bar,  eonfederaoT  of|  411. 
Bar,  dachy  of,  806. 

Barcelona,  ooontr  of,  908:   united  with 
,240. 


Barebone's  parliament,  876. 

Barlow,  sir  Q.,  goT.  gen.  in  India,  641. 

Bamet,  battle  of,  274. 

Baronets,  oroation  of,  841. 

Banaa,459. 

Barrtf,  colonel,  428. 

Barrier  treaties,  371,  803. 

Bairy,  countess  du,  446. 

Bar-finr-Aube,  battle  of,  480. 

Barthelmy,  460. 

BsMntello,  battle  (?),  187  n. 

Basle,  council  of.  810 ;  peace  of,  467. 

Basseln,  treaty  of,  641. 

Bastidas,  de,  Toyage  of,  284. 

Bastile,  destruction  of,  448. 

Batavian  repnblio,  founded,  466;    tiaiia- 

formed  to  kingdom  of  Holland,  M8. 
Batavians,  rerolt  of,  161. 
Bates,  trial  of,  840. 
Batoum«  Russians  attack,  628;  ceded  to 


Battbyanyi,  count,  404, 486. 

Bacu,  240. 

Baum,  colonel,  420. 

Bautsen,  battle  of,  476. 

Bararia,  Bararians,  duchy  established,  186 ; 
growth  of  power,  194 ;  granted  to  Otto  of 
Nordheim,  then  to  Welf ,  100  ;  Henry  the 
Proud  dispotfessed.  210 ;  Henry  the  Lion 
reinstated,  221;  giren  to  Otto  of  Wit- 
telsbaeh,  222;  duke  Bfaxlmilian,  809  ; 
war  of  Spanish  sucoenion,  800:  extinc- 
tion of  eleotoral  house,  war  of  Bararlan 
succession,  406:  to  be  exchanged  for 
Netherlands,  406 ;  allied  with  Napoleon, 
467 ;  with  Austria,  478 ;  allied  with  Aus- 
tria in  Austro-Prussian  war,  607  ;  joins 
Prussia  in  the  Franco-German  war,  614  ; 
Tote  in  Bundestag,  62). 

Bazar,  battle  of.  444. 

Bayard,  cher.,  802.  818. 

Bayonne  decree,  660. 

Baiaine,  marshal,  at  Mett,  614,  616;  sur- 
renders Meta,  618  ;  trial,  688. 

Beachy  Head,  battle  of,  887. 

Beaconsfield,  lord  (Disraeli),  sketch  of  life, 
648;  chan.  of  ezch.,&43;  premier,  646; 
raised  to  peerage,  646. 

Beaufort,  cardinal,  271. 

Beaune  hi  Rolande,  battle  of,  618. 

Beausejour,  421. 

Becket,  Thomas,  aiehb.  of  Oanteibory, 
231 ;  murdered,  282. 

Bedford,  d.  of,  200. 

Bedf ordjmlnistry  of,  488. 

Bedloe,  881. 

Beheim,  Martin,  260. 

Bel,  12, 18. 

Belfort,battle  of,  610. 

Belgil,  87 :  subjugation  of,  188. 

Belgium,  Bolglans,  84 ;  annexed  to  Franco, 
4S3;  reTolution  of  1880,  488;  conflict 
with  papacy,  6a& 


Belmde,  battle  of,  278,  887 ; 

89f,  808. 
Beliasrlus,  174, 180. 
Bellona,  84. 
Belshaisar,  16. 

Bem,  Polish  general,  486,  406. 
Benedetti,  at  Ems,  618. 
Benedict,  popes,  V.,  176;  IX..  100;   irr 

264  ;  XIII.,  261:  deposed,  26ft. 
Benedek,  general,  606,  600. 
BencTentum,  battle  of,  106;   (Manfrad), 

S26. 
Bengal,  22;  Muhanunedan  sultana  in,  863 : 

Britbh  to,  448. 
Bennington,  battle  of,  428. 
Bentinck,  earl  of  Portland,  886. 
Bentinck,  lord  William,  goT.  gen.  la  India, 

Berengar  II.  (of  iTrea),  106. 
Bereslna,  passage  of  the,  476. 
Berg,  grand  duchy  of,  468,  478. 
Bergen,  406. 
Bergetmc,  peace  of,  822. 


Berkeley,  lord,  grant  in  America,  868. 

Berkeley,  sir  WlUiam,  868. 

Berlin,  in  Hanseatio  lea^e,  240;  unircr- 
siU  founded,  471 ;  eonllicts  in  tlie  atreeCa, 
492;  peace  of. 401;  truce  of.  496;  ooat- 
grei*  of,  624 ;  oonference  of,  626. 

Berlin  decree.  687, 660. 

Bermudas,  282. 

Bemadotte,  on  middle  Rhine,  460;  on  up- 
per Danube,  467 ;  erown  prinoe  of  Sa^ 
den,  478  ;  acts  with  aUies,  476, 477. 

Bernard,  a.  of  Clairraux.  214. 

Bernard,  goT.  of  Mass.,  424. 

Berne,  joins  Swiss  eonfederaey,  248 ;  ob- 
tains the  Waadtland,  827;  eonfedeate 
council  in,  402. 

Bemhard,  of  Aseania,  222;  k.  of  Italy. 
186 ;  d.  of  Saze-Wetmar,  812, 818. 

Bemicia,  178. 

Bemstorff,  c,  400. 

Berry,  d.  of.  murdered,  627. 

Berthler.  prinoe  of  Neueh&tel,  468. 

Berthold  of  Zlhringen,  reoeiTesCaiinthla, 
199;  aids  Lothar,  218. 

Berwick,  Knglish,  'aS6  \  capture  of,  264, 274} 
treaty  of,  888 :  parlllcatlon  of,  845^ 

Berwick,  maidial.  446. 

Bessarabia,  oeded  by  Russia,  601 ;  taken 
back  in  treaty  of  San  Stcfano,  ^623 ;  In 
congress  of  Berlin,  624. 

Beesus.  the  satrap,  20,  74. 

Bestushef ,  411. 

Bethlen  Gal)or,  pr.  of  Transylrania,  d.O, 
810. 

Beust,  ▼.,  611. 

Beslers,  storm  of,  227. 

Bharcpur,  battle  of,  641. 

Blami,  discovers  America,  281. 

Bible,  translated  by  Luther,  802;  English 
translation  completed,  841. 

Bibracte,  battle  of,  188. 

Bidar,  kingdom  of,  863 ;  conquered  by  Au- 
rangxeb,  889. 

Bijilpur,  kingdom,  868 ;  annexed  to  Mughal 
empire,  380. 

Bill  of  Attainder,  last  used,  888. 

Bill  excluding  bishops  from  Honaa  ol 
Lords.  347. 

BiU  of  EighU,  886. 


Digitized  by 


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Index. 


607 


BilU,  the  four.  prMmtoa  by  partiamunt  to 
Gharles  I..  360. 

BirgttrJarl,287. 

Birkebenorne.  288. 

Birou,  410, 411 ;  inTwted  with  Onrlaad,  414. 

Birtben,  battle  of,  186. 

BiMop,  Benedict,  180. 

BUmAick,  count  ▼.,  early  life,  604;  ehac. 
of  the  confederation,  611 ;  negotlatloas 
with  Va?re,  6l7 ;  chan.  of  the  empire, 
520 ;  at  congress  of  Berlin,  624 ;  at  Vien- 
na, 626 ;  defeated  in  Beichatag,  626. 

Cithynla.snbjunted  by  Alyatteeof  Lydia, 
21:  kings  ofTvS;  war  with  Micbridates, 
129 ;  bequeathed  to  Borne,  184, 186. 

Bla,  Lydian  goddess,  21. 

Black  Death,  in  England,  268,  289 ;  in 
France,  268. 

Black  Hole  of  Calcutta,  448. 

Black  Prince.    Sei^  Hdward,  the. 

Blackheatb,  battle  of,  888. 

Bladensbunrh,  battle  of,  66L 

Bladud,87. 

Blake.  876. 

Blanche,  regent,  227. 

Blanket  meeting  at  Sfanoheeter.  689. 

Bleking,  joined  to  Sweden,  280 ;  ceded  to 
Denmaric,  288. 

Blenheim,  battle  of,  892,  484. 

Block,  Adrian,  296, 298. 

Bloody  Assiie,  888. 

Blucher,  lurrenders,  469;  occupies  Dres- 
den, 4i6  *,  in  the  war  of  liberation,  477- 
4S4:  created  Prinoe  of  Wahlstadt,  477; 
at  Waterloo,  484. 

Biumenau,  battle  of,  609. 

Boadicea,  rcTolt  of,  87. 

Bobadilla,  288. 

Boccaccio,  GioTanni,  288. 

Bocchus,  k.  of  Mauritania,  127. 

Bocholt,  battle  of,  186. 

Bockeliohn,  Johann,  804. 

Bodenstein.  801. 

Body  of  Uberties,  296. 

BoBOtla,  40  ;  conquered  by  A>lians,  48  ; 
submite  to  Xerxes,  68 :  allied  with  Sparta, 
62 ;  aristocraoies  in,  f& ;  war  with  Sparta, 
77,80. 
Bohemia,  ooeupied  by  BoU,  167 ;  by  Mar- 
eomanni,  167 ;  by  SlaTS,  168 ;  war  with 
Henry  I.,  194 ;  does  homege  to  empire, 
218 ;  dukes  created  kings,  221 ;  Ottokar'a 
war  with  Bodolph,  244;  Luxembourg 
house,  247 ;  Charles  IV.,emp.,  248  ;  Hus- 
sites, 262;  united  with  Hungary,  278; 
Ferdinand  I.  elected  king,806 ;  in  Thirty 
Years'  War,  808, 809 ;  in  Anstro-Ptussian 
war,  609 ;  Bohemian  language  in  Unirer^ 
Bity  of  Prague,  626. 
Rohemond  of  Tarentum,  214. 
BibuiUch-Brod,  battle  of,  262. 
iloii,  in  Qaul,  84,  86;  in  Bohemia,  167. 
BoiUeau,  871. 

Bole«U?,  k.  of  Poland,  197. 
Bolingbroke,  Henry.     Se*  Henry  lY.  of 

England,  270. 
Bolingbroke,  yisc.,  St.  John  ereatad,  486; 

impeached,  487. 
BoUrar.  488. 

Bolivia,  independent,  488. 
Bombay,  271;  British  in,  448. 
Booaparto,  Jerome,  k.  of  Weetphalia,  470. 


Bonaparte,  Joeeph,  468:  k.  of  Naplea, 
470;  of  Spain,  470;  drlTen  frcnn  Spain, 
479. 

Bonaparte,  Louie,  k.  of  Holland,  468, 470; 

Bonaparte,  Lucien,  461. 

Bonaparte,  Napoleon,  first  appearance,  466 ; 
in  command  for  the  conrention,  467  ; 
marriage  to  Josephine,  468 ;  crossed  the 
Alps,  468 ;  Bgyptian  exp.,  460 ;  regent  of  • 
the  conaulate,  461 ;  campaign  in  Italy, 
462  ;  passage  of  the  Gt.  St.  Bernard,  482 : 
consul  for  Ufe,  464  ;  hereditary  emp.  of 
the  French,  466.     Set  Napoleon  I. 

Bonaparte,  Prince  Napoleon,  maniage,  631. 

Bonaparte,  Pierre,  612. 

Bonapartists,  627,  680,  684. 

Bond  of  aii8ociation^^9. 

Bonder,  family  of,  287. 

Boniface,  apostle  of  the  Germans,  180, 18L 

Boniface,  marquis  of  Montf erxat,  216. 

Boniface  VII I.,  pope,  264. 

Bonifacius,  Roman  gOTcmor,  184. 

Bonner,  b.  of  London,  886. 

Boon,  Daniel,  426. 

Bordeaux,  d.  of,  627,  629. 

Borgia  family,  827. 

BomhoeFed,  battle  of,  224,  38S. 

Borodino,  battle  of,  476. 

Boroughbriige,  battle  of,  267. 

Bosnia,  occupied  by  Auttriani,  fQik\  dia- 
turbonoes,  526. 

Bosphorus,  bridge  of  boats  over,  28 ;  kinp 
dom  of  the,  1*^. 

BosBuet,  871. 

Boston,  settlement  of,  296 ;  manaere,  426: 
tea-party,  426;  port-bUl,  426,440;  dega 
ani  surrender,  427. 

Bosworth  neld,  battle  of,  27& 

Both  well,  33S.    ' 

BothwoU-Brigg,  battle  of,  881. 

Bouilloa,  Godfrey  of,  214. 

Bourbiki.  614,  619. 

Bourbon,  card,  of,  822 

Bourbon,  constable  of,  defaoti<»i,  802: 
death,  803. 

Bourbon,  d.  of,  446, 446. 

Bourbon  lamily  compact,  489. 

Bourbon,  house  of,  contest  with  Catherine 
de*  Medici,  821 ;  descent,  824 ;  in  Spain, 
414;  in  Naples,  416.  468:  return  to 
France,  481,  626 ;  final  ^pulsion,  629. 

BouTines,  battle  of,  228,  227, 288. 

Borianum,  capture  of  ,106. 

Boyne,  batUe  of  the.  870, 887. 

Braddook's  defeat,  421. 

Bradford,  William,  296. 

BradKtreet,  421. 

Bragania,  house  of.  in  Portogal,  882,  ti6. 

Brahma,  religion  of,  28. 

Brahmans,  caste  of,  23. 

Brandenburg,  conquered  by  Albert  the 
Bear,  218 ;  falU  to  Ludwig  the  Bavarian, 
247 ;  an  electorate,  248 ;  &lls  to  Charles 
ly. ,  249  ;  giren  to  Frederic  of  Nuremberg 
(HohenxoUem),  262 ;  this  not  a  sale,  2G3 
n. ;  Joins  peace  of  Pngue,  814 ;  indem- 
nifications in  peaoe  of  Westphalia.  816: 
great  elector,  868 ;  elector  becomes  king  of 
Prussia.  872 ;  East  Fimssia,  secured  to^ 
877. 

Brandt,  409. 


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608 


Adex. 


BnndjwiiM,  iMtttle  of,  429. 

BnksidM,06. 

BrmTmllA,  battle  of,  207. 

Brasil,  diMOfuwd, 264:  indepoBdcnt, 488. 

Breda,  compromise.  8«);  deolataUon  of, 
878 ;  treaty  of,  8^864, 879. 

Bremen,  free  city,  222 ;  in  lee^e  of  Rhine 
cities.  249;  not  ceded  to  Sweden,  816; 
remains  free  in  1806, 464. 

Bremen,  bishopric,  oeded  to  Sweden  m  a 
daehy,  816;  Danee  eapture  and  sell  to 
Hanorer,  896. 

Brennns,  British  prinoe  (?)  87;  at  Borne, 
100. 

Brentf ord^ffftir  of,  847. 

Breogan,  d9. 

BNslao.  batUe  of,  404 ;  peace  of,  401 ;  lUl 
of,469L 

Bietigny,  peace  of,  268, 268. 

Bretwalda,  178. 

Brlenne,  de,  447. 

Bright,  John,  642;  redgnation,  646. 

BriLot,  Girondist  J61,  462, 464. 

Bristol,  eutnred,  267 ;  by  Rupert,  847 ;  war* 
rendered,  849. 

Britain, jgeogiaphy,  religion,  mythical  his- 
tory, 86 ;  probable  history  to  the  year 
411,  87;  Irish  invMion,  »;  expedition 
of  GMar,  189 ;  conquest  begun,  160 ;  de- 
scription, 168, 164 ;  Roman  Britain,  176 ; 
Teutonic  conquest,  176.    Su  BngUnd. 

Britannicus,  160. 

Brithnoth,  death  of,  206. 

British  Museum  founded,  489. 

Brittany  (Bretagne),  independent  J82, 201 ; 
under  Henry  II.  of  England,  281 ;  con- 
tested Buocesslon,  267 ;  Inal  union  with 
French  crown,  8Sl) ;  annexed  to  France, 
888. 

"  Broad  Bottom  Ministir,"  48S. 

Broglle  ministry,  627,  CW,  688. 

Bromsebro,  peace  of,  816, 862. 

Brook.  Lord,  grant  in  Oonn.,  296. 

Brougham,  lord  chancellor,  689. 

Brown,  Jonn,  hanged,  666. 

Bruce,  claimant  for  Scottish  ciown,  264. 

Bruce,  Robert,  coronation^SKB ;  wins  Ban- 
nockbum,  %67 ;  death,  968. 

Bruhl,  0.,  m. 

Brunanburh,  battle  of,  206. 

Brundislum,  siege  of,  141. 

Brunhllde,  181. 

Brunswick,  221, 816, 490. 

Brunswick,  d.  of,  manifesto,  462 ;  com- 
mands Prussians,  469 ;  exmdition.  472. 

Bmnswick-Lttnebuig,  duchy  of,  224. 

Brute,  37. 

Brutus,  Decimus,  144, 146. 

Brutus,  L.  Junius,  w\  consul,  96;  puts 
his  eon  to  death  in  609  (accidentally 
omitted  from  the  first  paragraph  in  page 

Brutus,  M.  Junius,  188 ;  murder  of  Casar, 

144;  death,  146. 
Brythonie  Celts,  87. 
Buccaneers,  417. 
Buchanan,  Jamee,  U.  8.  see.  of  state,  664 ; 

ppes.,656.^^ 
Bucharest,  peace  of,  478. 
Buckingham,  d.  of:  (1)  faTorito  of  Richard 

m.,  276 :  (2)  d.  in  the  reign  of  Henry 

VIII.,  884 ;  (8)  VUUers,  farorite  of  James 


I.,841;aMSPiiiati0B,848;  (4)lkVttil»«C 

Charles  II.,  830. 
Buddha,  28. 
Buddhisin,  its  origin,  28 ;  Introdnead  into 

China.  81;  Into  Japan,  88. 
Buena  Vista,  surrender  of,  664. 
Bulnria,  rerolt  in,  621 ;  prinelpalli^  o^ 

Bull  of  Alexander  TL,  diTldlng  the  wiyrld, 
282;  auseulta  flli,  254;  olerids  laieoA, 
264,286. 

Bull,  golden,  of  the  H.  R.  B.,  248 ;  of  Hon- 
8««7.  277. 

Bull  Run,  batUes  of,  667. 

Bunker's  UlU,  batUe  of,  427. 

Bunyan,  John,  889. 

BunselwiU,  406. 

Burford,  battle  of  J80. 

Burghley,  baron,  ffffi. 

Buxgoyne,  gen.,  428 ;  surrender  of,  429. 

Burgundians.  on  the  Oder,  164;  axonad 
Worms,  170,  171:  on  the  Rhone  and 
8a6ne.  172;  subjugnted,  18L 

Burgundy  (see  -  Buxsnndisns),  part  of 
Fnmkish  kingdom,  bi  the  seeond  dlvla- 
ion.  181 ;  in  the  third,  182;  giren  to 
Lothar  In  the  trea^  of  Verdun,  187; 
after  his  death,  assigned  to  the  wwt 
Franks,  198 ;  dlrlded  Into  tmnsjumiw 
under  Rudolf,  209 ;  and  einjurane  under 
Boso,  196, 201 ;  these  two  united  Into  tha 
kingdom  of  Burgundy  or  Aries,  196*. 
which  Rudolf  III.  bequeathed  to  Henrj 
II.,  196 ;  and  which  was  united  with  Che 
empire,  198 ;  the  duchy  of  Burgundr  re- 
mained with  France,  was  seised  by  John 
II.,  and  giren  to  PhiUp  the  Bold,  268 ; 
nowth  of  its  power,  strife  with  klnn  <tf 
France,  269 ;  Burgundy  and  OrUans, 260 : 
ia  the  Hundred  l^ars*  War,  260 :  death  of 
Charles  the  Bold,  the  duchy  united  with 
France,  262 ;  the  other  Buxgundkn  lands 
fell  to  Maximilian  of  Qermany,  288, 801 ; 
the  duchy  claimed  by  Charles  V.,  802; 
these  claims  renounced  bv  Charles,  806 ; 
■  new  kingdom  of  Burgundy  proposed  bx 
Joseph  n.,  406. 

Burlie,  Bdmund,  441. 

Burkersdorf,  battle  of,  406. 

Burleigh,  heron,  sec  of  state,  888. 

Burlingame,  Anson,  662. 

Burma,  22,  80:  iuTssion  of,  444 ;  1st  Bur- 
mese war,  641 ;  2d,  646;  annexed  to  In* 
dia,646. 

Burnet,  b.  of  Salisbury,  886. 

Burnet,  William,  gor.  of  New  Toxk,417; 
of  Mass.,  418. 

Bumside,  gen..  667. 

Burr,  Aaron,  rice-pres.  of  U.  8.,  6tti  dual 
with  HamUton,  6<^;  trial,  660. 

Burs-Nimrud,  ruins  of,  12  n.  2L 

Bute,  lord,  489. 

Butler,  Irish  gen.,  818. 

Button's  Bay,  disooTery  of,  209. 

Busaard's  Bay,  discoTery  of,  2B0i 

*•  Bye  "  or  "  Surprising  »  treason,  840. 

Bylot,  Toyage  of,  289. 

Byng,  adnUraV484. 

Byron,  lord,  488. 

Bysanttnm,  eaptursd,  61, 68 ;  fmpottance  ta 
Athens,  72 ;  name  changed  to  Oonstantl. 
nople,  169 ;  capital  of  eastern  enpirs,  ISl* 


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Google 


Mex, 


609 


•'GaUa>'mlni8tr7,880. 

Cabochians  oTerthrown.  96D. 

Cabot,  John  and  S«baatian,  diieorer  North 
America,  288, 888 ;  Sebastian,  royage  of, 
288;  alleged  Toyage,  286;  Tojage  to 
South  Axnerioa,  ^. 

Cabral,  diiiooFerfl  BxaiU,  SSi  868. 

Cade,  Jack,  rebellioa  of,  271. 

Cadiz,  expedition  of  Wimbledon,  842 ;  siege 
of,  473 ;  capture,  637.    Set  alao  Gades. 

CadmuM,  18,  46. 

Cadoudal,  executed,  466. 

Csedmon,  180. 

CsBflar,  0.  JuliuB,  leader  of  the  democrats, 
186;  consul,  187;  triumrir,  187;  re- 
ceives Gallia  Cisalplna  and  Narbonen- 
sis,  188;  conquest  of  Oaul,  visits  to 
Britain,  189:  war  with  Pompeius,  140; 
Pharsalus,  141;  in  Bgypt,  142;  «ei»», 
vidi,  vieif  142 ;  African  war,  1^ ;  war 
with  sons  of  Pompeius,  148 ;  G.  impera- 
tor,  143;  reform  of  th»  calendar,  148; 
assassination,  144. 

CsBsar,  O.  and  L.,  adopted  bj  Augustus,  148. 

Gafllr  war,  648. 

Cairo  captured  by  the  French,  400. 

Cajetanus.    See  Vio. 

Calais,  captured  by  Edward  III.  of  Eng- 
land, 267;  only  English  possession  m- 
France,  272;  lost,  821,  888. 

Calatrara,  order  pf ,  240, 828. 

Caloutto,  22, 890. 

Calendar,  reformed  by  CaBsar,  144;  by 
Gregory  XIIL,  827;  republican  e.  in 
France,  466. 

Calhoun,  John  C,  U.  8.  see.  of  war,  661 ; 
▼loe-pres.,  662. 

California,  discovered  by  Cortes,  286,  287 ; 
by  Drake,  289 :  gold  discovered  in,  666 ; 
8lst  State  of  the  Union,  666. 

Caligula,  160. 

Caliphate,  earlv  histoir,  182, 188 ;  Uaroun- 
al-Rashid,  186:  division  into  c.  of  Bag- 
dad, 188;  under  Abbasldes,  210:  de- 
stroyed, 241;  and  the  c  of  Cordova, 
founded  and  bvoken  up,  200. 

CalixtinUns,  262. 

Calixtus  II.,  Pope,  201. 

Calmar.  union  of,  287,  288,  276, 861 

Calonne,197,447. 

CalonneM,  449. 

Calpumius,  C,  118. 

Calvin,  804. 

Calvinistfl,  not  Inoluded  in  convention  of 
Papmu,  305 ;  nor  in  peace  of  Augsburg, 
306;  included  iu  peace  of  Westphalia, 
317. 

Camaret,  of  Rouen,  284. 

Camaigo,  Alonso  de,  287. 

Cambray,  league  of,  800, 818, 826 ;  peace  of, 
303. 

Cambyses,  k.  of  Persia,  defeats  Psamethik, 
7 ;  attempted  conquest  of  Carthage,  19 ; 
conquest  of  Egypt,  slaughter  of  Apis(?), 
27. 

Camden,  battle  of,  480. 

Camillus,  M.  Furius,  100, 108. 

Campania,  81,  88, 104. 

Campbell,  lord  ehan.,  644. 

Gampegglo,  802. 

(Jamperdown,  battle  of,  686. 

Gampo  Fonnio,  pmen  of,  468, 460, 463, 468. 


1,  7,  8, 16. 

Canada.  See  New  France,  French  in,  289; 
French  claims  to,  868;  wars  wish  Izo- 

Suois,  864, 865 ;  with  British  colonies,  ue 
Ling  William's  war,  Queen  Annexe  war, 
George's  war,  old  French  and  Indian 
war ;  in  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  362,  871, 
888;  in  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  868,  898, 
486 ;  in  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  404, 
419, 488 ;  Seven  Years'  War,  420 ;  peace  of 
Paris,  422,  439;  ceded  to  Great  Britain 
receives  representative  gov.,  686 ;  divided 
into  upper  and  lower  C,  642  ;  dominion 
of  C,  M6. 

Canaris.  488. 

Canary  Islands,  discovery  of,  279. 

Candaules,  k.  of  Lydla,  21. 

Candia.    See  Crete. 

CannsB,  battle  of,  115. 

Cannibals,  288. 

Canning,  e.,  gov.  gen.  In  India,  646. 

Canning,  Gemge,  home  sec.,  687 ;  f 
sec.,  688. 

Ganosna,  castle  of,  200. 

Canrobert,600,602,614. 

Cantabri,  148. 

Canterbury,  88 ;  captured  by  Danes,  208 ; 
archb.  of,  ue  Dunstan,  Anselm,  Beoket, 
etc. 

Canton,  81,  661. 

CanuMum  (Mareellus  defeated  at,  in  209 
B.  0.,  accidentally  omitted  on  p.  117). 

Canute.     See  Ruut. 

Cape  Ann,  seUlement  of  Puritans  at,  296  ; 
Augustine,  discovery  of.  284 ;  Cod,  dis- 
covered by  Northmen  (?),  281 ;  by  Gos- 
nold.  290 i  surveyed,  294;  Florida, 286 ; 
Good  Hope,  rounded,  280 ;  seised  by 
England,  585,  ue  Caflli  war,  Zulu  war ; 
Mendocino,  discovered,  288:  Peregrine, 
800;   Vela,  288;  Verde,  diMoveiy  of, 

Capet,  Hugo,  272. 

Capetian  dynasty,  202, 206. 267. 

CapitoUnus,  M.  Biianlius,  100. 

Capitularii.  186. 

Capo  d'lstrU,  489. 

Cappadoda,  conquered  by  Cyrus.  26 ;  oecn* 

pled  by  Tigranes,  184 :  snbjeci  to  Rome, 

156;  Roman  prov..  149. 
Capua,  battle  of,  106 ;  secession  of,  116  { 

surrender,  116. 
Catacalla,  Roman  emp.,  Pkrthian  ezp.,80) 

reign,  156. 
Caractaeus,37. 
Cazaffa.    See  P&ul  IV. 
Carbury  Hill,  battle  of.  888. 
Carchemish,  battle  of,  6, 11, 16. 
Carew,  sir  Thomas,  886. 
Caria,  20 ;  subdued  by  Alyattes,  21 ;   by 

Uarpagus,  26. 
Carib8,S2. 
Carinthia,  made  a  duchy,  196 ;  sunendsred 

by  Bohemia,  244. 
Carinus,  158. 
Carisbrooke  castle,  860. 
Carlos,  don.  son  of  Philip  11.,  revolt  and 

arrest,  880 ;  leader  of  the  absolutists  in 

Spain,  490 ;  Carlists.  520,  521. 
Carlowiti,  peace  of,  8i2,  874,  875,  416. 
Carlsbad,  congress  of  ministers  at,  487* 
CarUtadt.    See  Bodenstein. 


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610 


index. 


Canu>t746M67, 460. 

Ctfolftoft,  288;  gntatMl  to  Hnth,  396; 
«i«iiiMd  by  Com,  866. 

CoioUuft,  GaiolMUi  ragnaUd  under  thb 
naoM,  296 ;  gimntod  to  Clarendon,  868 ; 
fandAnumtal  constitution  Adopted,  858  ; 
inTided  bj  French  end  Spanish,  368; 
Indian  war,  417 ;  proprietaxy  kof.  over- 
thrown, 417;  diTidrd  into  North  and 
South  C.  (q.  T.),  417 ;  bonndarj  rectilied, 
425. 

Carolina,  fort,  288. 

Caroline,  q.  of  England,  589 

Carolinnans,  Austrasian  mayoraof  the  pal- 
ace.^; Icings  of  the  Knwkji,  184;  in 
Italy  and  Germany,  193 ;  in  France,  20L 

Carpi,  batUe  of,  892. 

CvrrhsB,  battle  of,  140. 

Carteret,  Sir  Georn,  858. 

Carthage,  founded,  l8 ;  lfeltier>  rlew  eon- 
oeming,  18,  n.  1;  constitution.  19 ;  oppo- 
•Itlon  to  Grecian  colonisation,  19 ;  threat- 
ened by  Cambyms,  19,  27  ;  wan  with 
Sicilian  Greelu,  20;  defeat  at  Hlmeia, 
90 :  treaty  of  eommoree  with  Rome,  108 ; 
allied  with  Rome,  li)8 ;  war  with  Rome. 
Set  Punic  wan;  d^troyod,  12;  occu- 
pied by  VandalK.  172.     See  Phoenicia. 

Carthage,  New,  taken  by  Sdpio,  117. 

Carthagena,  285 ;  rnclc  of,  290 ;  saclicd  by 
Drake,  89) ;  attaclccd  by  Veroon,  419, 488. 

Cartier,  Jacques,  ToyHgtt*  to  America,  287. 

Cams,  Roman  cmp.,  \bl 

Carrer,  John,  gor.  of  Plymouth,  294. 

Casco,  destruction  of,  361 

Gasimlr  the  Great,  li.  of  Pohind,  277. 

Casimir,  John,  873,  374. 

Cassander,  76. 

Casaiterldes,  visited  by  Phoenicians,  17  n. 

Cassius,  144,  145. 

Cassius,  Sp.  97. 

CaasiTelaunus,  87, 139. 

CMtelildardo,  battle  of,  503. 

Castes,  in  E^pt,  3 ;  in  India,  23. 

Castile,  county,  afterwards  Idngdomof ,  209 ; 
final  union  with  Leonj240 ;  Icings  of,  276 ; 
united  with  Aragon,  828 ;  supporU  Philip 
of  Anjou,  892. 

Casttllon.  battle  of,  272. 

Castlereagh,  at  Vienna,  482;  foreign  see., 
587;  suicide,  539. 

Catalaunian  fields,  battle  of  the,  173. 

Catalonia,  240;  royal  house  extinct,  276; 
inTaded892. 

Cateau-CambrMs,  treaty  of,  821, 827, 888. 

CatesbT,  Robert,  840. 

Cathari,  227. 

Cathay,  80. 

Catherine  de'  Medici,  821,  824. 

Catherine,  emp.  of  Russia,  I.,  reign,  410 ; 
II., in  serenyean'  war,  406 :  reign,  411 ; 
war  with  the  Turks,  412, 413. 

Catholic  league,  808. 

Catholic  relief  act,  539. 

Catiline,  conspiracy  of,  186. 

Catinat,  870,  892. 

Oato,  If.  Poreius,  tht  elder,  in  Spain,  118; 
accuses  Scipio.  120 ;  "  Carthaginem  esse 
delendam,"  121 ;  the  yoimger,  absent  txom, 
Borne,  138;  returned,  u9:  at  Dyrra- 
ehium,  141 ;  euicide,  142. 


Gate  slnet  eoBfpinej,  688. 

Cattle  plagne,  644. 

Catullus,  C.  Valerius,  148. 

CandinePass,  106. 

Caulalnoourt,  477,  480l 

Causa  fldei,  refbrmationis,  anknilf,  SSL  9& 

*•  OavaUer  "  parliament,  878,  881. 

Garendish,  F.,  sec.  for  Ireland,  516L 

Cavour,  c.  508,  581. 

Gawnpore,  massaefe  at,  6ML 

Cazton,  William,  275. 

Ceawlin,  k.  of  Wessex,  178. 

CeciL     See  Burghley. 

Oecrops,  44. 

Celibacy  introdooed,  200. 

Celtiberians,  86. 

Celts,  migrations  of,  86 ;  OoUeUe  and  Rrf- 
thoDic,  85;  CelU  of  GauL  Se«  OmniM. 
Celts  of  British  tsles,  36.  See  also  Bklt. 
ain.  Celts  in  Italy,  86,  86;  Join  Ilaaai- 
bal,  114 ;  annihiUted  as  a  naUoo,  US. 

CeuHor.  creation  of  the  oillce,  99 :  one  eett- 
sor  plebeian,  102 ;  power  Hmlted.  181 ;  re- 
stored, 188 ;  giren  to  Caear,  148. 

Censonhip  of  the  press  abolishad  Ib  Aic» 
bmd,88l. 

Census  of  American  colonies,  42B ;  of  Ib* 
dia,  1881, 547 ;  of  IreUnd,  648;  of  Jaima, 
446;  of  New  France,  866 ;  Bonuuie.,AI; 
of  it.  8. 1st,  547 ;  2d,  649 ;  4th,  668;  6th, 
563;  6th,  554;  ish,  566:  8th.  666;  Bch 
and  10th,  560;  of  Viiginm,  W,  288. 

Ceorl,  177. 

Ceimusius,  emp.  of  Britain,  88. 

Cerdic,  178. 

Cereaiis,  152. 

Ceres,  84. 

Cerro  Gordo,  battle  of,  664. 

Ceylon,  Buddhism  in,  28:  selMd  bj  Fng 
iUh,635. 

Ghabilas,  70, 71. 

CluBronea,  battle  of,  73, 18L 

Chaireddin  Barbarossa,  804. 

Chait  Sinh,  Hii.  of  Benares,  444. 

Ghalcedon.  battle  of,  184 ;  fall  ol,  IBL 

Chaldea,  13. 

Chaleur  Bay,  294. 

Ch&lons,  battle  of,  173 ;  618. 

Chamben  of  Reunion,  868. 

Chambord,  c  of.    See  Bordeaux,  d.  of,  QBl 

Clumpigny,  storm  of,  618. 

Champlain,  Samuel,  Toyage,  290  :  dtooo^ 
en  the  lakes,  299 ;  death,  80O. 

ChancellonTilleJbattle  at,  668. 

Chandra-gupta,  28. 

Chansy,  defeat  of,  519. 

Chapultepec  captured,  564. 

Chanre  of  the  Light  Brigade,  600. 

Chanbert  I.,  k.  of  Franks,  181, 

Charlemagne.     See  Charles  L,  emp. 

Cliarles  of  Anjou,  225,  226. 

Charle.<i,  arohd.  of  Austria,  888,  468,  4O0L 
467,471,472. 

Charles  of  Bararia,  600. 

Charles  the  Bold,  d.  of  Burgundy,  260. 

Charles  I.,  k.  of  England,  goremmentla 
VIxginia,  298:  in  Spain,  842;  mairiag^ 
842;  reign,  81^51 ;  surrenden  to Seoti, 
849 ;  escapes,  860 ;  exaeotion,  351. 

Charles  II.,  defeat  and  flight.  876;  piD> 
claimed  k., 878;  maRiage,  879 ;  tnity  d 
SoTer,  880;  death,  88ir 


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Index* 


611 


Oburks  in.,  k.  of  Franee,202;  iy.,ttM 
fair,  966;  V.,  the  W1m,268;  YI.,  369; 
Yll.,  268,  2»);  VIll.,  382;  IX.,  821; 
"X.'\  eardiiULl  of  Bourbon,  824 ;  X.,  488 } 
abdicates,  489,  527. 

Charles  I.,  emp.  of  the  H.  R.  E.,  the  Great 
(Charlemagne),  184,  1U8 ;  II.,  the  Bald, 
186,  IsiTaOl;  ni.,  the  Fat,  198,  201; 
IV.,  248;  v.,  ancestor  of  the  Smq- 
Iflh  Une  of  Hapsburg,  801;  reign,  W2; 
Charles  and  Luther,  802;  wars  with 
Francis  I.,  808,  808,  804 ;  with  Henry  II., 
806;  Schmalkaldlc  war,  306;  abdicar 
tion,  806.  Am  Charles  I.,  of  Spain  ;  VI., 
claims  to  Spanish  succession,  ^  ;  reign, 
837 ;  pxagmatie  sanction,  898 ;  death, 
400 ;  VTI. ,  election,  401 ;  exile,  death,  403. 

Charles,  card,  of  Lonmine,  819. 

Charles,  d.  of  Lorraine,  last  CaroUnglan 
heir  to  French  crown,  202. 

Charles  of  Lonmine,  Austrian  gen.,  872, 404. . 

Charles,  k.  of  Navarre,  the  Bad,  268. 

Charles,  k.  of  Spain,  I.,  possessions  in  the 
Netherlands,  829 ;  reign,  830.  »«,  also, 
Charles,  emp.  of  U.rTb.,  V.;  II.,  880; 
m.,  414 ;  IV M  abdicates,  470. 

Charles,  k.  of  Sweden,  IX.,  362;  X.,  878; 
XI.,  873;  XIL,  894;  wars  with  Peter 
the  Great,  894 ;  Varna,  896 ;  in  Turkey, 
death,  896;  xni..472. 

Charles  Albert,  e.  of  BaTarIa,  claimant  for 
Austrian  inheritance,  400. 

Charles  Albert,  k.  of  Sardinia,  494. 

Charles  Bdward,  young  pretender,  488. 

Charles  Gustarus  of  Pfalt-Zweibrilcken, 
k.  of  Sweden,  862. 

Charles  Martel,  188, 184. 

Charles  Theodore,  406:  elector  palatine, 
claimant  for  the  Spanish  succession,  406. 

Charleston,  Carolina,  foundation  of,  868, 
869 ;  capture  by  Clinton,  430 ;  eTaeua- 
tion,  481  i  in  the  drll  war,  687 ;  eraou*- 
tlon,669. 

Charter  Oak,  a6L 

Ohattisto,  m. 

Chase,  Salmon  P.,  U.  8.  ssc  of  thetnaf.,666. 

Chastenoy,  peace  of,  822. 

Chateaubriand,  627. 

Chatham,  e.  of,  as  Wm.  Pitt  in  Broad  Bot- 
tom ministry,  488 ;  sec  of  state,  489 ; 
sketch  of  life,  439 ;  prime  minister,  424. 

Ch&tillon,  congress  at,  480. 

Chattanooga,  battle  of,  668. 

Chaucer,  Geoffrey,  270. 

Chaumont,  alUanoe  of,  480. 

Chedorlaomer,  li.  of  Babylon,  18. 

Cheops.    8te  Khufu. 

Chephren.    See  Khafra. 

Cheraaco,  treaty  of,  311,  825. 

Cherry  Valley,  massacre  of,  430. 

Cheruaci,  168. 

Chester,  battle  of,  179. 

Cbevy  Chase,  battle  of,  269. 

Che-wang-te,  emp.  of  Chinaj  boOt  the 
Chinese  wall ;  destroyed  books,  32. 

Chiari,  battle  of,  392. 

Chiersl,  dietof,  201. 

ChUdebert  L,  k.  of  the  Franks,  181. 

Chiiderio  m.,  k.  of  the  Franks,  184. 

Chili,  invaded  by  Almagro,  287  ;  indepen- 
dent, 488. 


Chilperie  I.,  k.  of  the  Franks,  18L 

China,  gMnaphy,  30 ;  religion,  81 ;  ehro- 
nology,  81 ;  origin  of  Chinese,  81 ;  early 
dynasties,  8^;  brilliant  epoch,  82;  the 
three  kingdoms.  82 :  Buddhism  in.  28 ; 
brilliant  period,  211 ;  conquered  by  Hon- 
gols,  242;  in  the  16th  cent.,  278;  Tiatar 
conquest,  854  ;  ti>ar  with  Russia,  890 ; 
French  and  BngliBh  ezp.  against,  601 ; 
opium  war,  542, 5iSl ;  treaties  with  France 
and  U.  S.,  561 :  war  ^ith  Great  Britain 
and  France,  561;  famine,  662;  treaty 
with  Rusxia,  662. 

Chhieae  emigration  to  U.  8.  suspended, 
660. 

Chios,  battle  of,  412 :  416 ;  lerolt,  488. 

Chippewa,  battle  of,  661. 

Chlodwig,  k.  of  the  Viaiikf ,  ITS. 

Chlopicia,483. 

Chlotar  L,  k.  of  Franks,  181. 

Choiseul,  d.  de.,  446. 

Chosroes,  k.  of  Parthlm,  war  with  Tnriaa, 
80 ;  k.  of  Armenia,  158 ;  depoeed,  1^. 

Chosroes,  k.  of  Persia,  I.,  (Anushirwan), 
r«ign,  190. 191 ;  ILTEberwia,  191. 

Chotusits,  battle  of,  401. 

Chow  d;ynasty  in  China,  82 ;  later  Chow, 
211. 

Chowaresmians.  empire  of  the,  210. 

Chremonides,  79. 

Christ,  birth  of,  11, 149. 

Christian  of  AnhsU.  809:  of  Bninswlok, 
defeatedbyTUly,810. 

Christian,  k.  of  Denmark,  I.,  of  Olden- 
burg, 861 ;  II.,  union  of  Calmar  broken, 
861,862:  in.,  862;  IV.,  head  of  lower 
Saxon  eirele,  in  thirty  years'  war,  810; 
war  with  Sweden,  814,  862;  VI.,  VIL, 
409;  Vni.,  annexes  8chleswig.Holsteln, 
400 ;  IX.,  aocepto  the  constitution,  606, 
606. 

Christiania  founded,  209. 

Christianity,  first  persecution,  161 :  under 
Decius,  166 ;  under  Diocletian,  168 ;  made 
state  religion  by  Constantino,  159 ;  aban- 
doned  by  Julian,  160;  reinstated  by  Jovi- 
anus,  160;  adoption  of  pagan  customs, 
166:  conversion  of  Goths,  170;  of  the 
Franks,  173 ;  of  Langobards,  176 ;  begin- 
ning of  the  papacy.  175 ;  conversion  of 
BritouN,  88  ;  of  the  Anglo-^Saxons,  179 ;  of 
the  Qermanx ,  184 ;  Christians  persecuted 
in  Penia,  189;  tolerated  in  Persia,  190; 
conversion  of  the  North,  207,  206,  209 ; 
tolerated  in  China,  211 ;  conversion  of  Po- 
land, Prussia.  Hungary,  277 ;  preached  in 
China,  866  ;  introduced  in  Japan,  but  re- 
jected, 866;  Jesuits  in  Canada.  8d4 ;  pei^ 
secution  in  China,  444;  Christians  in 
Turkey,  622,  624 ;  toleration  seeuied  In 
China.  662. 

Christina  of  Sweden,  862. 

Christopher  II.,  k.  of  Denmark,  286. 

Chrysanthemums,  war  of  the,  2i8. 

Church,  high  and  low,  438. 

Churchill.     Sei>  Marlborough. 

Cibola,  seven  cities  of,  287. 

Cicero,  birthplace  of,  82;  sketch  of  life, 
136  ;  speeches  against  Catiline,  187 ', 
b^tnished,  188 ;  recalled,  189 :  pffoeoiifilL 
140:  murdered,  145.       *       *  '^ 


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612 


Index. 


Cid,10O. 

CiUciA,  SMBitle,  21 ;  mul«r  Pwri»,  3S»  S7, 
IM ;  Roman  prorhioe,  186. 

Cimbri,  inFmdo  Itoly,  1^,  128, 167. 

Cimon,  67, 61 ;  rivalry  with  Themutoeles, 
62 ;  recalled  to  Athens,  death,  68. 

fflp*on,  peace  of,  68. 

CineinnaH,  sodetj  of  the,  482. 

Cindnnatuii,  L.  Quinctitw,  86. 

Cin«at,  106. 

OInna,  180, 181. 

Cinq-Man,  marquis  of,  826. 

Ginqoe  Ports,  264. 

Ciiclesof  theU.  R.  B.,800. 

Cisalpine  republic,  founded,  468 ;  included 
in  Italian  republic,  464. 

Ciudad  Kodrigo,  captured,  478. 

Ciril  marrisge  compulsory,  621. 

ClTil  rIghtsbiU,  669. 

GiTil  serrice  act,  660. 

Ciril  war,  in  Roland  (Roses),  272 :  great 
rebelUon,  847,  860 ;  in  Franeej  ffll,  822 ; 
In  Portugal,  488 }  in  Rome,  180, 140 ;  in 
Mn,  4»0,  690 ;  InSwUzerland,  492 ;  in 
UniUtt  SiaUa,  Shays's  rebelUon,  488; 
whiskey,  648 ;  great  rebelUon,  66i. 

CiTllls,  CI.,  168. 

Clarence,  d.  of,  274. 

Clarendon,  e.  of,  first  interrlew  with  the 
king,  846 :  receires  grant  of  South  Caro- 
lina, 868  ;  chancellor,  878 ;  fall,  879. 

Clark,  John,  settles  Rhode  Island,  297. 

Claudia,  148, 819. 

Claudius,  Roman  emp.,  oonquett  of  Brit- 
ain, 87 ;  reign,  167. 

Claudius  Puldier.  111. 

GlaTerhouse,  defeat,  881 ;  rictory  and 
death,  886. 

Clay.  Henry,  U.  8.  seo.  of  state,  661 

Clay*s  oompromises,  666. 

Gkyton-Bulwer  treaty,  666. 

Clemens  Mazlmus,  161. 

Clement  II.,  pope,  199 ;  in^200 ;  Y.,  264 ; 
goes  to  ATignon.  268 ;  XlY.^Jld. 

Oleomenes,  k.  of  Sparta,  66 ;  III.,  79. 

Cleon,  66,  66. 

Cleonatra  placed  orer  "Sm^  by  Caesar, 
142 ;  meets  Antonius,  146;  fsils to oharm 
Octarian,  death,  147. 

ijlermont,  council  of,  214. 

^lere-JlUJoh,  contested  suecesnion  begun, 
803 ;  ended,  872.  [G«neal.  table,  80f  ] 

Clientea,  90. 

Cliff  temples  in  India,  28. 

Clinton,  Sir  Henry,  429,  480. 

Clisthenes,  reforms  of,  64. 

Clitns,  murder  of,  76 

cure ,  lord.  442 ;  sketch  of  life,  448 ;  In 
India,  448,  444. 

Clodlus,  P.,  186;  tribune  exiles  Cicero, 
128 ;  ultra  democrat,  189 ;  death,  14a 

Cloten,  87. 

Cloris.     See  Chlodwig. 

Cnut.     See  Knut. 

Coalition  ministry,  441. 

Cobbet,  William,  688. 

Cobden,  Richard,  642. 

Cochin  China,  80 ;  anneied  to  China,  278 ; 
inraslon  of,  444. 

Code  Napoleon,  462. 

Codrus,  k.  of  Athens,  48. 

Ooenkm  aet,  646. 


Coke,  Sir  Edward,  841. 841 

Colbert,  886. 

Colchester,  taken  by  Fairfax,  861. 

Coleman,  execution,  88i. 

Coligny,  adm.  de,  attempts  to  found  a 
Huguenot  colony  in  America,  288 ;  mur> 
dered,  821. 

Collacinuii,  89,  98. 

College,  execution  of,  388. 

Colleges  of  Macred  lore,  86 ;  founded,  170. 

Colmar,  186. 

Cologne,  diet  of,  800 ;  archbUbop  of,  elee- 
toV}  24o. 

OolomUa,  488. 

Colonies,  Greek,  48, 49  ;  Roman  and  Utin, 
109;  in  America:  Spanish,  282,  et^r. ; 
Xnglish,  291;  Dutch,  bwedish,  2W; 
rz^eh,  299,  ^ 

Colosseum,  82, 161 

Coiumbey-NouiUy,  battle  of,  616. 

Columbus,  Bartholomtyo/ttli\Ckrittopker^ 
Toyages  to  America,  ^  288, 284 ;  stat« 
of  Japan  at  the  time  of  his  voyage,  278  ; 
Ihfgo,  284. 

Comioa,  centuriata,  origin,  92  :  growth  of 
power,  94. 1(*2  ;  chooMS  cennbrs,  99 ;  de- 
cline, 107  ;  democratic  reform  of,  112; 
reformed  by  Sulla,  180;  further  conser- 
TatiTe  changes,  182 ;  powers  transferred 
to  the  senate,  149 :  cwiata,  original  con- 
stitution. 91,  92;  chanees  in  ueeonsti- 
tutioo,  94  and  n. ;  constitution  in  the  4th 
r«nt.  B.  0.,  102 :  tributa,  estoblished,  96 : 
summons  Coriolanus,  97;  made  equal 
with  eenturiata,  98 ;  constitution  in  4th 
oent.  B.  c,  102  ;  reeolres  made  uni?er- 
saUy  binding,  107. 

Commeroial  panie  in  England,  689 ;  In  U. 
S.,  666, 660. 

Committee  of  public  safety,  in  Bn^and* 
847;  in  France,  468, 466. 

Commodus,  Roman  emp.,  164.    * 

Common  law.  266. 

Commune  of  Fttrls  461,  464,  466;  upris- 
ing, 682. 

Comnenes,  dynasty,  240 :  house.  240. 

Compton,  b.  of  London,  888,  884. 

Compurgation,  abolition  of,  281 

Concilium  Qermanicum,  184. 

Condni  (Marshal  d'Anere),  826. 

Concord,  battle  of,  426. 

Concordat  in  France,  819,  461 

Cond«,8l6,866,868,460. 

Condillao,  448. 

Confederate  States  of  America,  666 ;  reeog- 
nised  by  Great  Britain,  666. 

Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  establishment, 
468;  dissolution,  479. 

Confession  of  faith,  888. 

Conflrmatio  chartarum,  966. 

Conflans,  treaty  of,  260. 

Confucius,  82. 

Congreiw,  Continental,  426, 427 ;  of  United 
States,  647. 

Connecticut,  colony  of,  296 ;  charter,  858; 
united  with  New  Haven,  868  ;  gorem- 
ment,  861,  862;  slaTerr  partially  abol- 
ished, 482. 

Conrad,  emp.  of  the  H.  R.  B.,  I.  (of  Fm» 
oonia),  194 :  n.  (the  Salianj,  198 :  lU, 
erusac{e,2li:  i«ign,219;  IV.,S2& 

GonxBd  the  Red,  ofLotharingla,  126. 


Uigitized  Dy  ^ 


joogle 


Index* 


618 


Oonxadln,  235, 228. 

Coiuell  dtt  Rol,  446. 

Conediitoriuin  principU,  160. 

Constance,  council  of,  261 ;  peace  of,  222. 

Constance,  of  Sicily,  married  Heoiy  VI., 
222. 

OonstanB,  Roman  emp.,  100. 

Constant,  B.,  627. 

Constantine,  Roman  emp.,  I.  (the  Qxsat), 
169:  II.,  100. 

Constantinople,  fall  of,  200,  278 ;  palace, 
lerolution  in,  621 ;  conference  of,  622. 
See  Byiantinm. 

Constantios,  Roman  emp.,  168,  100 ;  Per- 
sian war,  188. 

Constaatins  Ghloras,  168. 

Constituent  aflembly  in  Fiance,  447, 448. 

Constltutio  Antoniana,  166. 

ConsUtutlon  of  Austria,  of  1849, 486;  Feb- 
ruary c.  604 ;  o.  of  1806, 611. 

Constitution,  French,  Jtrst^  accepted  by 
Louis  XIV.,  460;  second  (Republican), 
nerer  executed,  464 ;  tk&d  (of  1786), 
467:  /ourth,  461;  Mh,  464;  of  the 
First  Empire,  466;  o.  of  Louis  XVIII., 
666 ;  c. of  Louis  Philippe, 628:  c. of  1848, 
681 ;  c.  of  Louis  Napoleon,  681 ;  third  re- 
public, 682 ;  c.  of  1876,  688. 

Constitution  of  Germany.  See  Bull,  Gold- 
en, and  diet  of  Regensburg.  End  of  the 
H.  R.  E.,  464;  German  confederation, 
488 ;  attempt  to  frame  a  new  c,  488 ; 
new  0.  completed,  487 ;  return  to  the 
confederation.  496;  confederation  dis- 
■olred,  468 ;  NorUi  German  confedera- 
tion, 611 ;  c.  of  the  German  empire,  620. 

Constitution  of  Uungacy.  See  Bull,  gold- 
en.  UnderJoseph  II..  408;  in  1848,484; 
abrogated,  486;  in  1861,  604;  restored, 

Constitution  of  Naples,  408. 

Constitution  of  Pohuid,  old,  874 ;  c  of  1781, 

418;  abrogated,  480. 
Constitution  of  Prunsia,  487. 
Constitution  of  1812  in  Spain  formed,  478 ; 

abrogated,  488 ;  restored,  487 ;  abrogated. 

Constitution  of  United  States  signed,  488. 
See  Amendments. 

Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  282. 

Consulate,  French,  448,  461 ;  Roman,  et- 
tabUshed,  88 ;  first  plebeian  consul,  101 ; 
age  of  eligibility,  120 ;  treatment  under 
the  empire,  147- 

Conventicle  act,  878. 

Convention  parliament,  878,  886. 

Convocation,  840, 487. 

Conrulsionnaires,  446. 

Cook,  James,  Toyages  of,  442. 

Coote,  Sir  Eyre,  444. 

Copenhagen,  capture  of,  248;  1st  b<Hn- 
bardment,  470;  battle  of,  686;  2d  bom- 
bardment, 687  ;  peace  of,  878. 

Corcyta,  64,  66. 

Corday,  Charlotte,  464. 

Cordeliers,  461. 

Cordova,  Caliphate  of,  188,  208. 

Cordova,  G<m8alvo  de  818. 

Corea,  conquered  by  Chinese,  82 ;  by  Jap- 
anese, 88 ;  treaty  with  Japan,  664. 

Corflnlum,  capital  of  Italia,  128. 

Ooiinth,  origin,  48 ;  national  ■sswnbly  at, 
87 


78;  jdnsAchsBan league, 79;  dartroyed, 

Corinthian  war,  70. 

Coriolanus,  87. 

Com  laws  repealed,  642. 

Oomaro,  Catherine,  2132. 

Comeille.  871. 

Comwallis,  lord,  in  the  Southern  States, 

480;  sumnder  of,  481,  441;  in  India, 

641. 
Cprcebus,  61. 

Coronado,  Francisco  Vasques,  287. 
Coronea,  battle  ojMSS,  70. 
Corporation  act,  878,  688. 
Corpus  CathoUcorum,  871. 
Corpus  Bvangelieorum.  871. 
Corpus  iurls  clvUis,  210. 


Corsica,  f^oesoans  driven  from,  18. 26,  84; 
assigned  to  Sextus  Pompeius  146;  king- 
dom of,  416. 

Cortenuova,  battle  of,  224. 

Cortereal,  Gaspar  and  Misrnel  de,  284. 

Cortes  at  Cadis,  478. 

Cortes,  Hernando,  conquers  Mexico,  286; 
discovers  Lower  California,  287. 

Corvinus,  Matthiaf.  k.  of  Hungaiy,  268. 

Goea,  Juan  de  la,  284. 

Council  of  ten,  262. 

Council  of  the  church,  first  oecnaenieal, 
160;  last,  168,  612. 

Count  of  the  Saxon  Shore,  88. 

Courcelles,  gov.  of  New  France,  864. 

Court  of  Common  Pleas,  Exchequer,  King *i 
Bench,  266. 

Conrtiai,  battle  of,  264. 

Conthon,464,466. 

Covenant.    See  Solemn  League. 

Covenanters,  defeat  of,  878. 

Covllham,  868. 

Cowpens,  battle  of,  48L 

Ooxe,  866. 

Cracow,  414 ;  free  state  of.  488. 

Cradock,  Matthew,  gov.  of  Mass.  Bay,  286. 

Cranmcr,  axehb.  of  Ouiterbuiy,886 ;  burnt 

Oxassus,  expedition  aninst  Puthia,  80, 
188 ;  democrat,  186,  ^ ;  consul,  140. 

Craterus,  74 ;  rcffent  of  West,  76 ;  in  the 
Lamian  war,  79. 

Craven,  gov.  of  Carolina,  417. 

Crawford,  W.  H.,  U.  B.  sec.  of  the  trees., 
661. 

Crtey,  battle  of,  248, 267. 

Cxefeld,  battle  of,  406. 

Cremoiuh  86 ;  founded,  112 ;  battle  of,  161 ; 

Crescentius,  187. 

Crespy,  peace  of,  806. 

Crete,  Phoenician  Bettlements  in,  IT ;  un- 
der MinoB,  18,  41 ;  assigned  to  BrutUK, 
144 ;  belongs  to  Venice,  826 ;  yielded  to 
Turks,  416. 

Crimean  war,  498, 600, 648 ;  end  of,  681. 

Critlas  slain,  08. 

Croatia,  611. 

CroBsns,  k.  of  Lydia,  conquers  Grecian 
cities,  intercourse  with  Greece,  war  with 
Persia,  21, 22;  defeated,  22, 26;  story  of 
his  miraculous  rescue,  2S. 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  sketch  of  life,  876 ;  first 
speech,  848;  "  Ironsides,"  847;  Mantoa 


Uigitized  Dy  ^ 


joogle 


614 


Index. 


Mow,  848 ;  lieuteiMiit-gmierml,  818;  lord 
l»t>taetor,  876 :  tiuoB  out  the  rump.  876 ; 
rejects  title  of  king,  877;  death,  rd, 

Cromwell,  Richard,  876,  8(7. 

Cromwell,  Thomas,  886. 

Crown  Point,  421,  428. 

Crout,  Bleur  Autoine,  866. 

Crusades,  cause.  218;  I.,  214:  II.,  HI., 
215;  IV„  v.,  216;  VI.,  VII.,  217;  r^ 
iiulta,217'. 

CteeiphoD,  158, 192. 

OuIm  diflcoTered,  278,  282 :  clreumnarlcat- 
ed,  284 ;  conquered,  284 ;  attack  on,  419. 

Culloden,  battle  nf,  488. 

Culpepper,  lord,  grant  in  America,  857. 

Cumberland,  d.  or,  became  k.  of  UanoTsr, 
642. 

Cumberland  Straits,  diseoTozy  of,  2H8. 

Cunaxa,  battle  of,  29. 

Ounctator.    Set  Pabius. 

Cup-bearer,  196. 

Gurise,91. 

Ourio  subjugated  Sieilr.  141. 

Curius  Dentatus,  M\,  106. 

Curland,  ineorpoiated  with  Roiiiai  414. 

Curland,  d  of,  restored,  878. 

Custine,  gen.  468,  454. 

Gustoaa,  baUle  of,  494,  510. 

Cjaxares,  orerthrows  Ninoreh,  16, 16 ;  war 
with  Alyattes,  21,  26. 

Cybele,  Lydian  goddess,  21. 

Cylon,  insurrection  of,  51. 

Cymbeline,  87. 

Cynoseephalse,  baUleof,  71,  80,  119. 

Cynrio,  178. 

Cyprus,  tributary  to  Assyria,  14 ;  Phoeni- 
cian colonies  in.  17,  41 ;  giTen  to  Ouy  of 
Lusignan,  by  Richard  of  England,  215 ; 
siren  by  Catherine  Gomaro  to  Venice, 
262;  surrendered  to  the  Turks,  896; 
given  to  England,  624 ;  British  take  poa- 
Bosilon.  646. 

Oyrcne  in  Africa,  hosUlitlea  with  Egypt, 
6;  founded,  19:  submits  to  Cambyses, 
27 ;  conquered  by  Darius,  28 ;  aaigned 
to  Cassius,  144. 

Oyrus,  emp.  of  Persia,  deposes  As^yages, 
62 ;  defeats  Croesus,  21,  28 ;  takes  B^y- 
Ion,  16, 26 :  death.  27 :  Us  younger,  90. 

Gysicus,  battle  of,  68,  IM. 

Caartoryski,  490. 

Cnslau,  battle  of,  401. 

CiechB,  498. 

Dablon,  864. 

Bacia,  war  with  Rome,  152,  158 ;  made  a 

Roman  proTince,  152 ;  given  up  by  Au- 

relian,  157. 
Deedaluj,  18. 
Dale,  Sir  Thomas,  292. 
Dalecarlians,  revolt  of  the,  852. 
Dalhoujde,  e.  of,  gov.  gen  in  India,  546. 
Dalmatia,  525, 526. 
Dalsiel,  879. 
Damascus,   defection    from   Solomon,   9 ; 

captured  by  Ramannarari,  14, 188 ;  sul- 

tonate  of,  210. 
Damiens,  446. 
Damietta,  captured,  217. 
D-tn  no  ura,  battle  of,  242. 
Dan  the  Famous,  k.  of  Norway,  907. 
Danaus,44. 


Danby,  Impeaehment,  8C 
of  privy  oouncil,  8w. 


I,  888,  384 ;  pm. 


Dandolo,  Henrjr,  doge  of  Venice,  216, 262. 

Danegeld,  instituted,  206 :  abolished,  281. 

Danelagh.  204 ;  reconquered  and  lost,  205. 

Danes.  See  Denmark,  Northmen.  In  Eng- 
land; three  epochs  of  their  ravages,  208 : 
treaty  of  Wedmore,  204;  massacre  oi 
Danes,  805 ;  political  conquest  of  Enff- 
laod,i06. 

Danaerfleid,  882^888. 

Danish  vespers,  206. 

Danneborg,  235. 

Dannevirke,207. 

Dante  Alighieri,  268. 

Danton,  member  of  Coirdellen,  451,  46^ 
468 ;  of  the  Committee  of  Publle  Safety, 
464 ;  execuUon,  466. 

Daniig,  annexed  to  Poland,  418 ;  captured 
by  Napoleon,  469. 

Dans,  battle  of,  190. 

Dare,  Jeanne,  caxecr,  200. 

Dardanoa.  peace  of,  l81. 

Dan,  Virctnia,  289. 

Darien,  discovered  by  Columbus,  284 
tacked  by  Drake,  989;  Sootoh  i 
at,  862. 

Darius,  name  of  several  k.-s  of  Petaia,  I. 
succeeds  Bardija,  recaptures  Babylon, 
27 :  war  with  Scythians,  reforms,  war 
with  Ionian  Greeks,  with  European 
Oraeks,  death,  28 :  n.  Natluu,  29 ;  III., 
Codomammu,  defiBated  by  Alexander, 
death,  29,  74. 

Damley,  murdered,  888. 

Datis,  67. 

Daun.  marshal,  404,  406. 

Dauphin,  title  of  the  heir  to  the  French 
crown,  258. 

Dauphin^  of  Vienne,  transferred  to  the 
crown  of  France,  266. 

David,  k.  of  the  Jews,  8,  9. 

David  II.,  k.  of  Scotland,  capture  of,  968. 

Davila,286. 

Davis,  Jefferson,  U.  S.  sec.  of  war,  666 ; 
pres.  of  the  Confederate  States,  566. 

Davis,  John,  Arctic  voyages,  289,  290. 

Davout,  on  the  Rhine,  467;  defeated  at 
EyUu,  469 ;  in  Hamburg,  476, 479. 

Day  of  the  feetions,  467. 

Deoaaes,  ministry  of,  527. 

Deecan,  in  India,  geographical  position, 
22 ;  arrival  of  Hindus,  28 ;  state  of.  In 
1498,863;  independence  of,  442;  paasea 
under  the  control  of  the  British,  64L 

DecebaluB,  162, 168. 

Decelean  war.  67. 

Decemvirs,  98. 

Decius,  Roman  emp.,  166. 

Decius  Mus  P.,  10& 

Declaration  of  Independence  in  Belglnm, 
489 ;  in  the  United  StateSj^. 

Declaration  of  indulgence,  880. 

Declaration  of  rights,  885. 

Declaratloo  of  rights  and  liberties,  424. 

Deerfleld,  Indian  attack,  868. 

Defoe,  Daniel,  888, 486. 

Deiotarus,  k.  of  Oalatia,  78,  186  ;  i 
to  Cesar,  142. 

Deira,  178. 

Dejooes,  Median  chief,  25. 

Delaware,  lord,  gov.  of  S.  Yizglnia,  293. 


Uigitized  Dy  ^ 


joogle 


Index. 


615 


Delhi,  in  Indis.  23;  sultuif  of,  341,  868 ; 
Mptaved  by  Uk«,  Ml ;  nTolt,  MO. 

Delos,  41, 62. 

Delphi,  ftdTlce  to  Cneeiu.  21 ;  attacked  by 
Gaols,  86;  oracle,  61,*  plundered  bj 
Krim,  64  ;  by  Phociaos,  72. 

Demades,  peace  of,  78. 

Demaratiw,  66, 68. 

Demes,  62. 

Demetrins,  the  folie,  862. 

Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  77 ;  in  Athens,  79. 

Democratic  party  in  U.  S.,  648. 

Demosthenes,  the  general,  66,  67. 

Demosthenes,  the  orator,  opposition  to 
Philip,  72  ;  forms  alliance  with  Thebes, 
78;  poisons  himself,  70. 

Denain,  battle  of,  892. 

Denmark,  people  of,  164;  early  history, 
207;  war  with  Charles  the  Great,  186; 
with  Otto  I.,  196 ;  with  Otto  II.,  197 ;  in- 
?asion  of  Biwland,  2U8, 204 ;  oonqueet  of 
England,  206)^206 ;  under  Waldemar  the 
conqueror,  2fe ;  capitulation,  286 ;  Union 
of  Calmer,  287,  276;  share  in  thirty 
years*  war,  310 ;  war  with  Sweden,  814 ; 
feuds  of  the  counts  in,  862 ;  lex  r^^, 
874 ;  treaty  with  Sweden,  897 ;  alliance 
with  France,  470;  receives  Lanenberg, 
488 ;  Sohleswig-Hohitein,  496  ;  incorpora- 
tion of  the  duchies,  606 ;  war  with  Aus- 
tria and  Prussia,  605. 

Dennewita,  battle  of,  477. 

Denyn,  Jean,  284. 

Deorfaam,  battle  of,  178. 

Derby,  e.  of,  impeachment,  270. 

Du^.  e.,  Itt  ministry  of ,  643 ;  2d,  644 ;  8d, 

Dermod,  k.  of  Leinster,  282. 

Derwentwater,  execution  of,  487. 

Desaix,46D. 

Deeiderius,  k.  of  Langobards,  184. 

Desmoulins,  Gamille,  at  the  storm  of  the 

Bastile,  449 ;  member  of  Cordeliers,  461 ; 

executed,  466. 
Deepensers,  267. 
Dessau,  bridge  of,  battle,  810. 
Dessoles-Decases,  ministry  of,  627. 
Detmold,  battle  of,  186. 
Detroit,  besieged  by  Pontiao,428. 
Dettingen,  battle  of,  402. 
Dentsch-Brod,  battle  of,  262. 
Deuxponts.    &e  Zweibrtteken. 
DcTolution,  war  of,  866. 
Diadoehi,  wars  of,  76. 
Di«us,  122. 
Diana  of  Poitiers,  820. 
Dial,  Bartholomsens,  280. 
Dictatorship,  established.  96 ;  nature,  94 ; 

opened  to  plebeians,  101 ;  disappeaxance, 

123 ;  Sulla  assumes  the  ofllce,  182. 
Diderot,  448. 

Didiufl,  Julianus,  Roman  emp.,  164. 
Dido,  17, 18. 
Diobitch,  490. 
Die^kau,  421. 
Digges,  sir  Dudley,  343. 
Dijon,  battle  of,  174,  2S& 
Dillon,  646 

Dinwiddie.  Robert,  goT.  of  Virginia,  420. 
Diocletianus,  Roman  emp  ,  168. 
Dionysius,  tyrant  of  STracuse,  20. 
Dixeeikoiy,  in  Fxanoe,  448;  goTenunent of, 


467  ;  18th  Frnetidor,  ebange  within  tha 
directory,  468 ;  8d  Preirial,  reoigaalnd, 
18th  Bmmaire,  OTerthrown,  461. 

Disrasli.     Sf  Beaconsfleld. 

Dissenters,  879. 

Dobrudsha,  invaded  byFrench ,  600 :  occu- 
pied by  Russians,  622 :  ceded  to  Russia 
and  exchanged  for  Bessarabia,  628,  624. 

Dodecarchy  in  Egypt,  6. 

Dodona,  48. 

Dofflngen,  battle  of,  260. 

Doge  of  Venice,  2ta. 

Dolabella,  consul,  144. 

Dolgoruky,  family  of,  410. 

Domitianus,  Roman  emp.,  conquest  of  Brit* 
aln,87;  reign,  1£2. 

Donauw9rth,806. 

Doomsday  book,  299. 

Dorea,  Andrea,  doge  of  Genoa,  806, 826. 

Dorians  in  Asia  Minor,  subjugated  oy  Croe- 
sus, 21 ;  Dorus.  mythical  ancestor,  48; 
migration  of,  w;  Doric  communities. 
48,48;  colonies.  49. 

Dorr  rebellion,  664. 

DorylsBum,  battle  of,  214. 

Dost  Muhammad.  646. 

Douglas,  e.  of,  270. 

Dover,  secret  treaty  of,  880. 

Draco,  61. 

Dragonnades,  869. 

Drake,  Francis,  voyage  around  the  world. 
289;  New  Albion,  289:  expedition  to 
West  Indies,  rescues  Virginia  colony,  280, 
889. 

Dred  Scott  case.  666. 

Drepanum,  sea-flght  at,  111. 

Dresden,  peace  of,  402 ;  battle  of,  477 ;  up- 
rising in,  497 ;  conference  at,  tt8. 

Drogheda,  statute  ofj^888. 

Drogheda.  storm  of,  876. 

Drogo,  196. 

Druids,  84. 

Drumclog,  battle  of,  881. 

Drusus,  M.  Livius,  125. 126, 128. 

Drusus  (the  younger),  son  of  Tiberlna, 
campaigns  in  Germany,  167;  poisoned, 
149. 

Dry  den,  John,  889. 

Dubienka,  batUe  of,  418. 

Dublin,  conquest  of,  208, 209. 

Dubois,  card.,446. 

Duces,  dynasty,  240. 

Duclerc,  ministry,  686. 

Ducrot,  617,  618. 

Dudley,  Joseph,  pres.  of  New  England 
861;goT.of  lia8s.,868. 

Dufaure,  ministry  in  France,  684. 

Duilius.  C.  110. 

Dulcigno,  ceded  to  Montenegro,  625. 

Dumouries,  468,  463. 

Dunbar,  battle  of,  266,  876. 

Dundee.    Se«  Claverhouse,  886. 

Dunes,  battle  of  the^Jg^7. 

Dunkirk,  siege  of,  877;  sold  to  Franca 
879. 

Dunse,  pacification  of,  845. 

Dunstan,  archb.  of  Canterbury,  206. 

Dupleix,  gov.  of  Pondicherri,  448. 

Dttppel,  storming  of ,  606. 

Duraao,  house  ox,  in  Naples,  268. 

Dnr-Sarrukin,  12, 16. 

Dutch  in  Amezlo^  296;  inlDdia,861 


Uigitized  Dy  ^ 


joogle 


616 


Index. 


Dutch  war,  8761. 

I>a(ch  Wert  India  Comnay,  88B. 
DattUngen,  battle  of,  814. 
DauinTui  eaeronuii,  86. 
}>yau8h-pilar,  22. 
I^Rbachiam,  battle  of,  UL 

Badberht,  180. 

Hadgar,205. 

Eadgar,  JStheling,  206. 

liadgar,  k.  of  Seoiland,  880. 

Badraund  Ironside,  206. 

Eadred,206. 

liadwaid  (tbe  elder),  k.  of  Sngland,  204; 
the  eonfeaeor,  806. 

Badwig,  805. 

Jtedwin,  earl  of  Merda,  806 ;  rerolt  of  Kng- 
lieh  nnder,  229;  k.  of  Northombria,  179. 

Eastern  empire,  sqiarafeed  from  weetem, 
161 ;  under  JusUnian  L,810, 216 ;  under 
Uaeedooian  house,  210 ;  under  the  houses 
of  llucas,  i'omiienes,  and  Angelus,  210 ; 
eonqneet  of  Constantinople,  278  ;  plan 
to  restore,  418. 

East  Goths,  in  Southern  Rusria,  170 ;  king- 
dom of,  in  Italy,  174 ;  destroyed  by  Nar^ 
B«s,  175. 

East  India  bill,  442. 

Bast  India  Company  of  London,  origin, 
854 :  cliarter  renewed,  640 ;  goTemment 
of  India  eeases,  641 ;  exclusire  trade 
with  China  eeasea,  661. 

East  Indies,  ocean  route  to,  discoTeied, 
279.    5^e,  also,  India. 

EastphaUa,  185. 

East  Ronmelia,  proTinoe  of,  684. 

Eberhard.  d.  of  Fnmconia,  196 :  d.  of 
WOrtemberg,  wars  with  Rudolf  I.,  844 ; 
der  Greiner,  wars  with  eitks,  819. 

Eberwls.     Set  Chosroes  II. 

Bcbatana,  24,  86.  86,  88. 

Ecclesiastical  commission,  new  eouit  of, 
d»i. 

Ecclesiastical  titles  bUl,  64& 

Bcgberht,  k.  of  Weesex,  lord  of  England 
Houth  of  the  forth,  180, 181, 206. 

Eck,  801. 

Eckmuhl,  battle  of,  4n. 

Eclipeeof  thesun,  21. 

Vcnomus,  battle  of,  110. 

Ecoador,  republic  of,  48BB. 

Edda,  elder  and  younger,  166. 

Edessa,  captured,  216. 

EdgehUl,  battle  of,  847. 

Edict  of  Nantes,  promplgation,  824:  roTO- 
cation  of,  809;  of  restttotion,  810;  of 
tolerance  of  Joseph  11..  407. 

Sdinbunh,  treaty  of.  9^ ;  Utuigy  in,  844 ; 
geaeni  assembly,  M6. 

Edmund,  St.,  k.  of  England,  806. 

Edward  I.,  k.  of  England,  agreement  with 
Philip  IV.,  of  Fiance,  254 ;  reign,  268, 
864 ;  reforms,  266;  II.,  nign,  867;  III., 
ralgn,  868  ]war  with  France,  257 ;  laws  in 
Iieland,  269 ;  lY. ,  reign,  272. 274 ;  iuTades 
France,  860;  y.,i«ign,  275:  VI.,  reign, 

Edward  the  Black  Prince.  TictorT of  Poitiers, 
258;  aids  Pister  the  Cruel,  276;  death, 
269. 

JCgmont,  at  OraTelinea,  321 ;  sketch  of  Ufe, 
oxecution,  330. 


Bgranont,  see.  of  slate,  itH. 

E^pt,  geography,  nligicB,  8;  eiTilfagai 
tion,  chronolo^,  8;  old  empire,  ne« 
empire,  4 ;  stones  of  Seeostiis,  6 ;  not  con- 
quered by  Assyrians  961  a.  c,  5  u.  8 ;  con< 
quered  by  Ethiopians,  6 ;  by  Assyrians, 
6, 14 ;  revolt  of  Paamethik,  6 ;  becomes 
a  province  of  Persia,  7;  conquered  by 
Cambyaee,  87 ;  nnder  the  Ptolemies,  77 ; 
conquered  by  G«sar,  148;  Roman  proT- 
inee,  147  ;  reconquered  by  Aurelian,  157 ; 
by  Muhammedans,  182;  sixth  ernsMle, 
217 ;  revolt  of  Hehemed  AU,  491 ;  rerolt 
of  Arabi  PSsha,  646. 

Elder-Danes,  605. 

El,  18. 

El  Dorado,  888. 

Ehigabalus,  Koman  emp.,  156. 

Elam,  empire  of,  18. 

Klba,  conferred  upon  N^mlaon,  481. 

Eldon,  lord  chan.,  686. 

Eleanor  of  Poitou,  married  Louis  YII.,  and 
afterward  Henry  of  Anjou,  286. 

Eleanor,  wife  of  Edward  I.  of  England, 
death  of,  864. 

Electoral  reform  bill  in  Italy,  586. 

Electors  of  the  H.  R.  E.,  848. 

Electro-magnetism  dtocov^ed,  487. 

Elgin,  lord,  viceroy  of  India,  646 ;  enTDj 
to  China,  561. 

Elijah,  9. 

Eliot,  John,  solssionary,  857. 

Eliot,  sir  John,  811,  84& 

Elisha,9. 


Carthage,  18. 

EUnbeth  of  Bohemia,  841. 

Elisabeth  of  YaloU,  834, 880. 

Eliasbeth,  q.  of  Enjgland,  reign,  888, 889. 

Elisabeth,  ttsrina  of  Russia,  ally  of  Ana- 
tria,  408;  death  xalieves  Frederic,  406; 
rsign,  411. 

Elifltbeth  Ishuds,  290. 

EUeuborough,  e.  of,  gov.  gen.  in  India,  646- 

Eilichpur,  kingdom  founded,  858;  con- 
quered by  Auranaeb.  889. 

Eliiter,  batUe  of  the,  478. 

Ely,  capture  of,  229. 

Emadeddin  Zenki,  215. 

Emancipation  of  the  serfs  in  Russia,  oOO. 

Emancipation  proclamation,  558. 

Embarso  policy  of  U.  8.,  650. 

Emir-al-Mumenin,  188 ;  al  Omra,  810. 

Emmanuel  Philibert,  d.  of  Savoy,  886. 

Emmanuel  the  Great,  k.  of  Portujnl,  888. 

Bmmeit's  insurrection  fa  Inland,  686L 

Bmund  Ganunle,  k.  of  Sweden,  808. 

&iactment  of  the  delegates,  464. 

Encumbered  estates  act,  648. 

Endicott,  John,  295,  »6. 

Engfaien,  d.  oL    See  Cond4. 

Enghien,  d.  of  executed,  466. 

Encland.  &e  Britain.  Teutonic  conquest, 
176;  West  Saxon  kings,  808;  Danish  su- 
premacy, 806;  Norman  conquest,  806; 
Norman  kings,229 ;  house  of  Plantageoet, 
large  possessums  in  France,  281 ;  conquest 
of  lreland,282 J  magna  charta,  888 ;  par- 
liament, 284;  hundred  yean*  war,  257: 
loses  French  possessions,  260 ;  annexation 
of  Wales,  264 ;  reforms  under  Edward  I. 
266 ;  first  perfect  parliament,  867  ;  Scot 
land  lost,  868;  black  death. 868;  peaot 


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Lukx, 


617 


of  Bratlny,  988;  pMaat  nTolt,  980 ; 
hoofo  ox  LiaoMlfr.  970 ;  wftn  c^  the 
RosM,  272 ;  houM  of  York,  272 ;  wttlo- 
mento  in  America,  280,  201-296:  hoiue 
of  Tador,  888;  ■oeeirion  from  the  Ro- 
man Oathollo  ehorch,  885;  houie  of 
Stuart,  penonal  union  with  Bootland, 
880 ;  long  parliament,  846 ;  great  rebel- 
lion, 847 ;  ezaoutton,  of  Charle*  I.,  861 ; 
Britlfh  in  India,  864;  oommonwealth, 
876;  monarohj  restored,  878;  interreg- 
num, 884 ;  rerolutkm,  886 ;  bUl  of  righto, 
886 ;  war  of  the  Spanish  suoeeesion,  888, 
800 ;  protestant  succesilon  seeured,  808 : 
onion  with  Scotland,  484 ;  peace  ox 
Utrecht,  486 ;  house  of  HanoTer,486 :  war 
with  Spain,  410,  487;  war  of  the  Aus- 
titen  soeeession,  410, 488 :  peace  of  Alz- 
la-Chapelle,  404,  410,  488;  adoption  of 
new  style,  4tt ;  seren  Tears*  war,  404, 
420,  4%,  446;  peaoe  of  Wris,  422.  480  ; 
war  with  the  rerolted  American  oolonies, 
424, 426, 440 ;  peaoe  of  YersaUles,  482,441 ; 
armed  neutraUty,  418,  441 ;  British  «n 
India,  448 ;  war  with  France,  468,  686 ; 
with  HoUand,  686 ;  with  Spain,  686 ; 
union  with  Ireland,  468,  686 ;  Peninsula 
war,  471,  470 :  txeaty  of  Tienna,  482, 687  ; 
Waterloo,  688 ;  war  with  United  States, 
474,  661;  eommereial  panio.  Catholic 
•mancipation,  680 ;  reform  aet,  640 ;  ab- 
olition of  slarery,  640 ;  India,  641 :  Vic- 
toria, 642 ;  queen,  soTcxeign  of  India, 
644 ;  Irish  troublea,  646 ;  India,  646. 

Ingllah  Fade,  270. 

bkoeping,  battle  of,  288. 

Snido.  k.  of  Sardinia,  226. 

Xpaminondu,  71. 

Xphialtes,  law  of,  62. 

Xphialtes,  the  txaitor,  60. 

XphthiaUles,  wars  with  Penia,  180, 100. 

Xpigoni,  war  of  the,  47. 

Xpirus.  41 ;  alUed  with  Maoedonia,  70 ;  sub- 
dued by  Flamininus,  110:  punished,  121. 

Xplseopacy  in  England,  888:  restored  in 
Scotland,  840:  abolished,  844;  attempt 
to  introduce,  870;  abolished  886;  not 
introduced  at  the  union,  484. 

Equity,  266. 

Xresbttig,  captured,  186 :  battle  of,  106. 

Sretria,  deserto  the  Ionians,28;  captured, 
67. 

Erfurt,  assembly  of  princes  at,  471. 

Erfurt,  parliament  of,  486. 

Erie  canal,  662. 

Erigena.     See  Joannes  Sootus. 

Erik,  megod^.  of  Denmark,  908;  OUp- 
pingy  k.  of  Denmark,  286 ;  Mmoed,  k.  of 
Denmark,  286. 

Erik,  Biodoxe.  k.  of  Norway,  906 ;  Graa- 
frU.  k.  of  Norway,  208 ;  PrieMt-kater,  k. 
of  Norway,  288. 

Erik  EdmundssoH,  k.  of  Sweden,  208;  TX., 
the  saint f  k.  of  Sweden,  287 ;  Eriksson 
Lttspe,  k.  of  Sweden,  287;  XIY.  of 
Sweden,  852. 

Erik  the  Red,  dlftcovexy  and  settlement  of 
QreenUnd  by,  200. 

Srikson,  Leif  and  Thorwald,  281. 

Snnanarich,  k.  of  Kant  Onthn,  170. 

Ermeland,  binhoprio  of,  378. 

EmesUne  line  in  Saxony,  8U6. 


Maui,  d.  of  Swabia.  t«?olt  of,  106. 

Ernst  August,  k.  of  HanoTer,  40L 

Xtakine.  lord  ohan.,  687. 

Eiyz,  m. 

EsBihaddon,  k.  of  Assyria,  6, 16. 

Espartero,  480. 

"       ,  settled,  178. 

,  e.  of,  rebelUon,  888. 

Essex,  e.  of,  in  cabinet,  881 ;  sakide,  882. 

bsling,  battle  at,  472. 

EBtaing,'c.  d*,  in  America,  480. 

Bstaples,  peaoe  of,  888. 

Este  map,  284. 

Esthonla,  retained  by  Denmiik,  286;  >•> 
nounoed  by  Poland,  878. 

Estridsen,  dynasty  in  Denmark,  207;  ox« 

,anct.of,ffl6. 

Btats-Qte^imux,  summoned  by  Louis  XIII. 
the  last  time  before  1780,  824;  sum- 
moned by  Louis  XVI.,  440. 

Ethandun,  battle  of,  204. 

Ethiopians,  attacked  by  Seti  I.,  6 ;  founda- 
tion of  the  kingdom  of  Napata,  6 ;  eon- 
quer  Egypt,  expelled  by  Eserfaaddon,  6, 
16;  war  against,  148. 

Btruria,  kingdom  of,  468. 

Etruscans,  expel  the  Phocieans  from  Gobu 
sica,  10;  country  of,  81;  ethnography, 
86;  war  with  Rome,  06;  VeU  tiSkm  by 
Rome,  00;  all  southern  Etruria  submita 
to  Rome,  108 :  share  in  second  Sanmite 
war,  106 :  in  the  second,  106 ;  peaoe  with 
Rome,  108. 

Euboea,  41 ;  land  giTen  to  Athenians,  66 ; 
Persian  ships  lost  at,  60 ;  seoond  dlTision 
of  land,  68. 

Euclldes,  laws  of,  60. 

Eudes,  o.  of  Fluls,  201. 902. 

BugeAe,  pr^  sketch  of  life,  870 ;  war  with 
Turks,  872 ;  head  of  grand  alliance,  80L 
882 :  war  with  Turics,  407, 808. 

Eugene^  Ticeroy,  472. 

Eugenie  de  Montijo,  681. 

Xugenius,  Ronuui  emp..l61. 

Eugenius  IV.,  pope,  258. 

Bumenes,  k.  ox  Fexgamus,  76,  78;  allj  of 
Rome,  ho,  120. 

Eumolpus,  «4. 

EupatridsB,46,61,64. 

Euphrates,  expedition  of  Seti  I.  to,  6; 
Babylon  built  on,  12 ;  dlrerted  by  Cy« 
rus,  26;  battle  of ,  186. 

Euripides,  64 

Buropa,  18. 

Eurybiades,  60. 

Eurymedon,  battle  of  the,  62. 

Butaw,  baUle  of,  481. 

Brerett,  Bdward,  U.  S.  see.  of  state,  666. 

Evesham,  battle  of,  284. 

Exarchate,  176 :  given  to  the  papacy,  184. 

Exchequer,  reefttablished,  28l;  closed  by 
Charles  II.,  880. 

Exodus  of  the  Jewn,  8. 

Kylau,  battle  of,  460. 

Eaekiel.  11. 

Pahli.  97,  100. 

Kal  iu<i  Maximus,  Q.  (Cunctator),  114,  116 { 

Rulliann*,  Q.,  108,  106, 106. 
Fahricius,  C  ,  victory  of,  107, 108. 
Fairfax,  sir  Thomas,  848, 848 ;  supeXMdo4 

by  Cromwell,  876. 


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Google 


618 


Adex. 


ValiOTo.  Mvfaio,  dof»  of  y«niM,  982. 

Valk,6K. 

Falkirk,  Iwttle  of,  968. 

Valkizk  Moor,  battle  of,  488. 

Falkland,  lord,  846,  848. 

FalkoBping,  battle  of,  287,  288. 

Fanner,  pres.,  of  Magdalen  college.  883. 

Farneae,  extiuctiou  of  tbe  family,  HM. 

F»tima,  182. 

Fatimitee,  218,  214. 

Faost.    See  Fust. 

Farentia,  battle,  181. 

Farra,  512,  517. 

Fawkes,  Gay,  840. 

February  rerolution,  492. 

Federalist  party,  648. 

Fehrbellln,  battle  of,  868,  874. 

F^nelon,  871. 

Fenians,  546. 

Fenwiok,  condemned,  888. 

Feodor,  tsar  of  Russia.  874. 

Ferdinand,  arohd.  of  Anstrfa.  467. 

Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  k.  of  Arsgon,  376, 
818 ;  marries  Isabella  of  Castile,  828. 

Ferdinand  I.,  emp.  of  Austria,  m  ;  abdi- 
cates, 495. 

Ferdinand,  d.  of  Brunswick.  See  Bruns- 
wick. 

Ferdinand  emp.  of  H.  R.  E.,  relation  to 
BjMln,  801.  808;   reign,  806;   II.,  806, 

Ferdinand  Vl.,  k.  of  Spain,  leign,  414 ;  VU. , 
479,482,490. 

Ferdinand,  k.  of  Naples,  expelled  by  Napo- 
leon, 468;  reinstated.  484. 

Ferdinand,  k.  of  Two  BicUles,  416. 

Ferdinand  Joseph,  of  Tuscany,  416. 

Ferrex,  87. 

Ferry,  Jules,  ministry  of,  584. 

Ferry  Bridge,  battle  of,  274. 

Fetiales,  college  of,  85. 

Feudal  system  in  China,  82:  in  Europe, 
166:  in  Japan,  212;  lu  Norway,  906 ;  in 
England,  SS.  -v.        . 

FeuiUants,  46L 

FldeuK,  88. 

Fiefs  declared  hereditary,  201. 

"  Field  of  Lies,"  186. 

Flesohi's  infernal  machine,  539. 

Fiesco,  conspiracy  of,  826. 

Fillmore,  Millard,  555. 

Fimbria,  131. 

Financial  crisis  in  U.  S.,  568, 668. 

Finch,  flir  H.,  e.  of  Nottingluun,  880. 

Firboigs,  in  Ireland,  39. 

Firdud,  25. 

Fire  worship,  25. 

Fisher's  Hill,  battle  of.  668. 

Fisheries,  in  peace  of  Puis,  482 ;  partlally 
settled,  560. 

Fits  Peter,  Geoffrey,  238. 

Fire  Forks,  battle  of,  559. 

Flaecus,  L.  Yalerius,  130. 

Flacous,  M.  FulTius,  125. 

Flambard,  Ranulf,  280. 

Flamines,  85. 

Flamlninns,  T.  Quinctlus,  119. 

Fiamlnius,  114. 

Flanders,  Independence  rMonilied,  254; 
acquired  by  Buxgundy,  829;  ceded  to 
Fnuioe,466. 

tlaTian  emperon,  14L 


Ftolx,  treaty  of,  822. 

Fletcher.  goT.  of  New  Toric,  863. 

Fleurus,  battle  of,  870, 466. 

Flenry,  card.,  446. 

Vlodden  Field,  baUle  of,  884. 

FloFRnce,  under  the  Medici,  968 ;  B«wmi» 
rola,  827 :  peaoe  of,  468 :  beeomea  tMf^ 
tHl  of  Italy,  508. 

Florida  discovered,  284;  ceded  by  Spain 
4o  EugUud  in  1768,  487;  restored  to 
Spain  in  1788, 441  j  sold  by  Spain  Co  the 
United  Stotes,  552;  admitted  to  tka 
Union,  554. 

Fuix,  (teffton  de,  818. 

Kokchany,  battle  at,  418. 

Volkunger  dynasty,  287. 

Fontainebleau,  peace  at,  406 ;  pmHwrtnaty 
articles,  422 ;  Napoleon  at,  48L 

Fontanetum,  battle  of,  186. 

Fontenoyj  Uttle  of.  403, 488,  446. 

Formosa,  uiland  of,  81 ;  conquoed,  890 :  i»- 
belUon,  444 ;  Japanese  expedition,  6M. 

Forster,  W.  E.,  chief  see.  for  Iielaiid,  54A. 

Fort  Christiana,  296;  Doneboo  aarrwB- 
dered,  657:  Du  Qnene,  420;  expadifcioB 
against,  421 ;  Edward,  constmetum,  4tl ; 
Erie,  captured,  551 ;  Fisher,  surrenderad, 
559;  George,  captured  by  Montealns, 
421 ;  Henry,  captured  by  Union  foreca, 
557;  Moultrie,  ue  Fort  SulliTan;  Ne- 
ceesity,  490;  Orange,  built,  998;  St. 
Geoxge,  built,  294  {see  Madnw);  PIU, 
498;  Sullivan,  427:  Sumter  fired  upon. 
557 ;  Washington,  428  ;  William  Heniy, 
captured  by  Montcalm,  42L 

Forum  Romanum,  82. 

Fossalta,  battle  of,  226. 

Fotherlngay,  treaty  of,  274. 

Fouqu4,  406. 

Fonquler-TinTille,  456,  466. 

Fox,  voyage  of,  800. 

Fox,  Charles  James,  sketch  of  life,  441; 
India  blU,  libel  bill,  585 ;  for.  •««.,  687. 

Fox,  Henry.    See  lord  Holland. 

"      ce.    filM  Franks. 


France.  See  Franks.  Capetian  dynas|V 
of  French  kingdom,  capital  at  Fsuis,  908 : 
royal  wealmess,  908;  loss  of  Poitou, 
Guyenne,  and  Oasoony .  996 :  administim- 
tion  of  Suger,926;  Philip  II.,  Augustus, 
crusades,  220;  Bouvines,  St.  Louis, 
growth  of  royal  domain,  227 ;  quarre  with 
Boniface  YIII., 264;  Courtrai,  254  ;  Salio 
law,  265 ;  house  of  Yalols,  257 ;  hun- 
dred years'  war,  Cr<cy,  257 ;  black  death, 
Poitiers,  958;  peace  of  Bretigny,  258; 
Aginoourt,  268:  Jeanne  Bare,  English 
expelled,  960;  Bunnindy  united  with 
crown  of  France,  968 ;  houses  of  Orleans 
and  Angoulftme,  817,  818;  Frsncis  L, 
819:  wan  with  Charles  V..  802;  house 
of  Lorraine  and  Guise,  820  ;  Brittauy 
united  with  crown,  890  ;  capture  of  Ga> 
lais,  821 ;  St.  Bartholomew,  821 ;  wan  of 
the  Huguenots  821, 824 ;  house  of  Bour> 
bon,  S£L;  Henry  IV.,  edict  of  Nante^ 
824;  last  states-general,  825 :  Richeliei^ 
825;  era  of  Louis  XIV.,  865;  Masarin, 
Fronde,  866;  Frsnce  in  thirty  yesi^ 
war,  814  ;  peace  of  Pyrenees,  866 ;  peeet 
of  Nlmwegen,  868 ;  reunions,  868 ;  revo* 
ration  of  edict  of  Nantes,  869 ;  peaoi 
of  Ryswlek,  871 ;  golden  age  of  UUn 


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Google 


hidex. 


619 


tars,  871  *«  war  of  SpuiUh  uwaorwKMfm, 
890;  pweition  tnatiM,  891  •.  paaoe  of 
Utneht  808;  Fleary's  ftdmiiiistntlon, 
446 ;  Pnnee  in  Austrian  snooeMioii,  400 ; 
aeTon  yean*  war,  404,  424;  peaee  of 
~    lt.Al; ' 


Paris, 


Louis  XVI.,  446 


)   peaee  < 
nanee  i 


war  of  American  Independeuoe,  481 ;  first 
Fxenoh  rerolution,  448:  storm  of  Bas- 
tile,  448}  constituene,  449;  legislative, 
451 ;  eoiiTeiitioD,452 ;  first ooaliUon, 462; 
first  republic,  468 ;  directory,  467 ;  second 
coalition, 460 ,  consulate, 457  ;  third  coa- 
lition, 467 :  first  empire,  466j  wan,  468, 
471,  474,  476 ;  congress  of  Vienna,  482 ; 
hundred  days,  488;  restoration  of  tlie 
Bourbons,  liouis  XVIII.,  629 ;  Jv^  rer- 
olntion,  629 ;  second  republic,  680 ;  see- 
ond  empire,  681 ;  Crimean  war,  489 ; 
Franco  -  German,  618^,  third  republie, 
582;  ezeessefl  of  the  socialistic  com- 
mune, 682;  fall  of  MacMahon,  684; 
Tonquin,  686. 

Franche-Comt^,  887, 868. 

Francis,  d.  of  Alen^on.  822. 

Fiancli,  d.  of  Guise,  8l9, 821. 

Francis  I.,  emp.  of  Austria,  468. 

Francis  I.,  k.  of  France,  reign,  819 ;  11., 
821,888. 

Francis  I.,  emp.  of  H.  B.  B.,  402  ;  II.,  462 ; 
abdicated  the  crown  of  the  H.  B.  IE.,  468. 
S—  Francis  I.,  emp.  of  Austria. 

Franda  II.,  k.  of  Two  SicUies,  608. 

Fkands  Joseph  I.,  emp.  of  Austria,  496, 
602, 606,  6(» ;  k.  of  Hungary,  611. 

Francis,  Philip,  444. 

Francis  Stephen,  d.  of  Lorraine, 896.  See 
Francis  I.,  emp,  of  H.  R.  E. 

Franco-German  war.  618,  632. 

FranconU,  duchy  of.  181, 194,  818. 

Fnmconian  or  Salian  emperors,  198. 

Frankfort,  imperial  cliamberat,900 :  grand 
duchy  of,  468,  478  ;  umrising,  490 ;  pre- 
liminary parliament,  482 ;  parliament  re- 
opened, 486 ;  incorporated  with  Prussia, 
610;  peace  of,  620. 

Fnmldand,  organisation  of,  482. 

Fxanklln,  Benjamin,  420;  minlstar  to 
Fiance,  480;  death,  647. 

Ftank-pledge,  282. 

Franks,  Ripuarian  and  Saltan,  170,  171; 
Chlodwig,  ruler  of,  178 ;  under  the  Mero- 
wingians,  181 ;  under  the  Carolingians, 
188;  Gharlea  the  Great,  184;  treaty  of 
Verdun,  187 ;  later  Carolingians,  201  ; 
Northmen  in  France,  209 ;  extinction  of 
Carolingians,  209.    See  France. 

Fmtres  arrales,  86. 

Fredegunde,  181. 

Frederic,  buigr.  of  Nuremberg,  261. 

Frederic  I.,  k.  of  Denmark  and  Norway, 
862;  IV.,  894,  409;  V.,409;  VIL,  606. 

Frederic  I.,  Barbarossa.  emp.  of  H.  R.  E., 
crusade,  216;  reign,  219  ;  expeditions  to 
Italy,  219,  221,  222,  286;  II.,  228.  224; 
cession  to  the  Danes,  236;    charter  to 
Schwys,246;  III.  (of  Austria),  247 ;  IIL 
(IV.),  reign  of,  268. 
Frederic  of  Hobenstaufen,  200. 
Frsderio  of  Hoheniollem,  244. 
Frederic  the  Warlike,  d.  of  Austria,  224. 
Frederic  the  Warlike,  maig.  of  Mdssen, 
2SL 


Frederic  the  WarUkc,  d.  of  BaxoBy,  963. 

Frederie  V.,  elector  palatine,  aleeted  to 
tixrone  of  Bohemia,  809. 

Frederie  I.,  k.  of  Prusria,872;  IL,  the 
Great,  reign,  400 ;  fint  Silesian  war,  400  -, 
seoond,  ¥u ;  seTcn  years'  war,  408 ;  war 
of  Bavarian  succession,  406;  league  of 
princes,  death,  408. 

Frederic  VIII.,  d.  of  Schleewig-Holstctai. 
606. 

Frederic,  d.  of  Swabia,  218,  219. 

Frederie  of  HesM-Cassel,  k.  of  Sweden,  896, 
409. 

Frederie  Charles,  pr.  of  Fninia,  606^  606L 
608,  609,  614,  61S: 

Frederic  William,  el.  of  Brandenburg  (the 
neat  elector),  accession,  814;  peace  of 
Vossem,  867 ;  Fehrbellin,  868 ;  Polish 
afEairs,  878:  Sileeian  duchies,  401. 

Frederic  William  I.,  k.  of  Prussia,  897 ; 
death,  896;  II.,  461;  III.,  469;  ecu- 
quered  by  Napoleon,  469 ;  appeal  to  the 
people,  4i6,  476;  war  of  liberation,  477 ; 
in  London,  482;  IV.,  491;  declines  the 
German  crown,  497 ;  death,  603. 

Frederic  William,  crown  pr.  of  Prussia, 
war  with  Austria,  606;  with  Fiance, 
614. 

Fredericia,  slegs  of,  496. 

Fredericksburg,  battle  of,  667. 

Free  soil  party,  666. 

Freedmen*B  bureau,  660. 

Freiburg,  battle  of,  406;  treatF  of  (la  paiz 
perpetuelle),  819. 

Fnnch  rerolution,  443.  &#,  also,  Ftance, 
and  Tsble  of  Contents,  p.  ▼!. 

French  settlements  in  America,  868. 

Frey  Tngre,  k.  of  Sweden,  208. 

Freycinet,  ministry  of,  684, 686. 

Fribourg.    See  Freiburg. 

Fridigcrn,  k.  of  West  Goths,  171. 

Friedewald,  treaty  of,  806. 

Friedland,  battle  of,  460. 

Friedrichsburg,  peace  of.  896. 

Frieclrichshalf,  sii^,  m 

Friedrichsham,  peace  of,  478. 

Friedriohstadt,  storm  of,  497. 

Frobisher,  Blartin,  voyages,  280. 

Frode  the  Peaceful,  k.  of  Denmack,  207. 

Fronde,  old  and  new,  866. 

Frontenae,  goT.  of  (^ada,  882, 864. 

Frontiires  natnrelles,  618. 

Fuea,  Juan  de  la,  290. 

Fugitive  slave  act  of  1798, 648 :  lerlTWl  la 
1860,666. 

Fujiwara,  family  of,  212,  218.  248. 

Fulco  of  Anjou,  k.  of  Jenualem,  214. 

Fulton,  Robert,  486, 660. 

Fulvius,  M.,  126. 

Fulvius  Flacous,  (^,  118. 

Furrukabad,  641. 

Fiirstenwalde,  treaty  of,  249. 

Fushimi,  batUe  of,  668. 


Fussen,  separate  peace  of,  4Q2. 
Fust,  Johann,  m 

Gabelle,268. 

Gades,  Phceniciaa  colony,  17: 

Sciplo,  117, 141. 
Gadsden  purchase,  666. 
G^kwars,  443. 
Gaels,  88»  176. 


l»l 


Digitized  by 


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620 


JSukSB. 


Ga«la.ai«8»of,60B. 

Gac  remlatioBs,  663. 

Gai*,  gvneral,  goT.  of  MaiwfhwMtti,  436. 

GiJUmiI,  ChlteMi,  enaiaoD,  SS8,  SB;  fkU, 

287. 
OftUtla,86.«7,78. 
G*IK  Solpidiu.  Boann  Mp.,  161. 
Qaleriiu,  168, 16^. 
G*lilM,7,ll. 
Gam«oGAlU«i,8S7. 
G«Um,  818, 816. 
Gallatin,  Albot,  U.  S.Me.  of 
OaUia  Olaalpina,  81, 144. 
Gallia  MaxboiMiisU,  38: 

126. 
GalUanaa,  166»  167. 


GaUiu,  Bomanomp.,  166. 
ma,  Taaoo  da,  Sil),  868. 


,643. 
piOTiBeo, 


Gambetto,  in  oppoiltion,  61S:  BMmlMrof 
national  dafenae,  617,  618, 619 ;  naakar, 
684 ;  Bdnlrtry,  6d4 ;  death,  686. 

Gaim7,  fOT.  of  JaiDaiea,JB6. 

Gaidiner,  lord  ehaa.,  886. 

Garfield,  Jmmot  A.,  piM.  U.  S.,  660. 

Garibaldi,  faiTadM  Lombardj,  Siellj,  608  : 
death,  sketeh  of  Ufa,  63S. 

GarigUano,  battle,  818. 

Ganlwn,  W^IUlam  Uoyd,  668. 

Gaaca,  Pedro  de,  prea.  of  Fern,  2B8. 

OaaeoQ7  (Gaaoogne),  182;  lateod  and  kM* 
with  SleaDor,  228,  281 ;  eaded  to  bf- 
land,  268:  loat  by  Bngland,  200. 

Oaapee,  deakrojrwl,  425. 

Oaap«reaDx«  421. 

Gaat,  Pierre  da,  290. 

Gantein,  treaty  of,  506. 

Gatee,  geneial,  raeraeds  Sehayler:  Biir- 
gojme  BurRndere  to,  429 ;  dafeated  by 
Corawallia,  480. 

Gaogamala,  battle  of,  29.  74. 

Gauls,  geography,  religion,  84;  eiTiU»- 
tion,  chronology,  emigrations,  86 ;  oon- 
guest  of  Gaul  by  Caaear,  ending  61  a.  o., 
88, 188 ;  in  AaU  Minor,  78 ;  iuTade  La- 
tium,  100;  wars  with  Borne,  108 ;  Cisal- 
pine Gaul  rabjogatod,  118 ;  Cispadana 
iano  Gaols  LatlniMd,  11& 


and  TtanspadanoGai 
Gaums.  batUa  of,  104. 
Gaata,287. 
Gareston,  Plen,  267. 
Geert,  c  of  UoUtein,  286. 
GeUmer.174. 
eellios  EJEiiatina,  106. 
Gelon,  tyrsnt  of  Syxaeoae,  20. 
Genealogies. 

Angoul^me,  818. 

Aqjou,  261. 

AuguKtuff,  fiunilr  of,  148. 

Bonaparte  family,  4^. 

Bourbon.  Loui5  ix..  to  Henry  III.,  888 ; 
Henry  IV.  to  "  Henry  V.,»-  688. 

Brittanv,  descent  of,  820. 

Brun<!Mick,  43»i. 

Buckint;tiain,  *27o. 

Burgundy,  261,329. 

Cleveiu^lulirh,  3^7. 

CoontT  Palatine,  969. 

Denmark,  239. 

England,  soTerrigns  from  Icgbehrt  to 

^Uniry  III.,  228;  sneeeseion  in  1563- 
1606,  887  ;  deaeendanto  of  Geo.  UI., 
688. 


naoden,  eoaati  ol,  888. 

Fraoee,aaeaaarionnilS2B,8M.  

f naee,  siieoeasloa  from  Looia  TIH.  I| 

Charles  Vm.,  861. 
Guise,  880 

HanoTer  or  Brunawlek,  4861 
Uapsburg,  801. 

Hapsbuzg,  German  branch,  800. 
Hohenstaufen,  220. 
Hoheniollem,  sinee  the  assomptloB  d 

the  royal  Utle,  616. 
Lancaster  and  Torfc,  278. 
Lorraine,  330. 
Naples,  kings  of,  861. 
Normandy,  dukes  of,  228. 
Norway,  soToreigns  o<,  289. 
Orleans.  318. 
Portugy,  illegitimate  house  of  Baiga» 

~      *       '  I  of  Alexia,  410. 


Spanish  suoeession,  390. 

Sweden .  soTereigui  of,  380i. 

ValoU,267. 

Welfs,  210. 
Geneiml  fundamentals,  297. 
General  waRaats,440. 
Genera  annexed  to  Vranee,  460 ;  _  _ 

to  Switaerland.  488 ;  treaty  of,  819. 
GengUKhaa.    &«  Jenghis  Khaa. 
Geiji.     St«  Minamoto. 
Genoa,  war  with  Venice,  888;  goveraaMnt. 

863,826;  republic  of.  416;  tnusfomsd 

into  Ugurian  republic,  469;   given  te 

Saidinia,  488. 
Genserie  eonquered  Ouihage,  178. 
GcolTiey  of  Anjon,  830;  of  " 


George  I.  k  of  Bnglaad,  488;  death  of, 
437;  II.,  403.  437  :  I1I.,4S9;  inaaai^, 
687;  death, 688;  IV .,688, 689. 

George,  k.  of  Greece,  606. 

George  Podiebrad,  k.  of  Bohemia,  268. 


418, 


George  William,  eL  of  Braadenboif  ,  311. 
Georgia,  in  America,  settlement  of. 


4aU; 


a,  419; 


upon, 
▼Incial'gOT.  restored,  480; 
march  through,  668. 

Georgia,  in  Europe.    See  Iberia. 

Ge{4dje,  176. 

Gerbert,  arehb.  of  Bheiam,  8D2.    81k  SjU 
▼ester  II. 

GervoTia,  siege  of,  189. 

Germaala  magna,  168. 167. 

Gcnnanicus,  expeditions,  140, 167. 

Oermantown,  battle  of  ,429. 

Germany,  gcooaphy,  168;  hi|^  and  low 
Germans,  168 ;  aadent  religiaii,  164 ;  civ- 
ilimtiou,  166;  early  history,  167;  futile 
attempt  of  Rome  to  subdue,  148 ;  iiabit*- 
tions  of  the  tribes  in  4th  cent.,  a.  n.  170 ; 
migrations  and  settlemeats,  170-175; 
Frankisk  empire  under  Merowingtaaa, 
181 ;  under  CaroUngiaas,  183 :  Charles  the 
Great,  1S4;  renewal  of  tlie  Roman  em- 
pire, 185;  treaty  of  Terdun,  separmdoa 
of  French  and  German  nationalities,  197 
Carolint^ans  In  Germany,  196:  Saxoa 
bou.<«,  194  :  Ho'9  iZemm  ^mpire^  196, 
Prankish,  or  Swablaa  emperois,  198 ;  in> 
▼estiture  strife,  199 ;  concordat  of  Wocma 
801;  hMiaa  of  BotatflaiifcB,  819;  Ba* 


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JOidiBX* 


621 


.,  219 ;  Welf  and  WAlbllB(E«n  (Ho- 
hanflteufan),  328 ;  Interragnum,  226 ;  Ru- 
dolf of  UaMbarg,  244 ;  Ludwig  and 
Vrederie.  247 ;  Laxemboig  emperors, 
golden  bull,  248;  dty  leagues,  249: 
eouneil  of  Constance,  261 ;  bouse  ox 
Hapsburg,  268;  Max,  800;  reformation, 
801;  Charles  v.,  802;  peace  of  Augs- 
burg, 806 ;  anti-reformation,  806 ;  thirty 
▼ears'  war,  806;  peace  of  Westphalia, 
815 ;  Leopold  1^871 ;  war  of  the  Span- 
ish succession,  wO ;  prsjnnatie  sanction. 
898;  Polish  snoceesion,  fira ;  male  line  of 
Uapsburg  extinct,  400 ;  war  of  Austrian 
Buceession,  Uaria  Theresa,  and  Frederic 
the  Great  of  Prussia,  400 ;  seven  yean' 
war,  4U8 ;  Joseph  II..  407 ;  war  with  first 
French  xepublie,  468;  peaoe  of  Lune- 
▼ille,  462 ;  enactment  of  imperial  dele- 
gates, 464 ;  end  of  the  Holy  Boman  em- 
phe,  468.  QmftderatiaH  of  tkt  /Uiim, 
468;  war  of  liberation.  476;  congress 
of  Vienna.  482 ;  establishment  of  the 
German  eon/ederationt  488 :  reactionary 
measures  in  Germany,  487, 490 :  founda- 
tion of  the  Zollverein.  491 ;    CKJttingen 

•  professors  expelled,  4dl :  rcTolntionary 
moTements,  492 ;  national  assembly,  498 ; 
constitution  completed,  497 ;  conference 
at  OlmUts,  496 ;  confederation  renewed, 
486 ;  German  ( Anstro-Prusslan)  war,  6(i7 ; 
North  German  eon/ederalionf  610,  611: 
Franco-German  war,  618;  capture  of 
Paris,  619 ;  German  empire  founded,  619, 
620 ;  Kulturkampf .  621,  626 ;  congress 
of  Berlbn,  624;  tobaooo  monopoly  de- 
feated,  62^. 

Gero,  manrr.,  194, 19& 

Gerontes,  50. 

Gerson,  261. 

Gertruydenbnzg,  898. 

Qessler,246. 

Geta,  166. 

Gettysburg,  battle  of,  668. 

Ghami,  supremacy  of  the  sultans  of,  211. 

Ghent,  paolflcation  of,  881 ;  peace  of,  474, 
637,  66L 

Qhlbellines.  219. 

Gibraltar,  whence  named,  188  n. ;  taken  by 
English,  892, 484 ;  ceded  to  England,  487 ; 
defended  by  Elliott,  440. 

Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey,  289. 

Gilbert,  Raleigh,  298. 

Olnkell,  887. 

Girondists,  party,  461 :  execution  of,  466. 

Giselbert,  1957 

GlBbrio,  M.  AdUus,  119. 186. 

Gladiators,  war  of  the,  188. 

Gladstone,  W.  B.,  642;  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer,  648,  644 ;  1st  administration, 
646 ;  2d  administration,  646. 

Glasgow,  general  assembly  at,  844. 

Glaucia,  C.  Serrllins,  metor,  128. 

Glencoe,  mamacre  of,  887. 

Olendower,  Owen,  rerolt  of,  270. 

Gloucester,  d.  of,  protector,  271. 

Gloucester,  d.  of,  274 :  becomes  king  Rich- 
ard III.,  276. 

Sneisenau,  defeats  Kotberg,  469;  lefonns 
the  army,  471 ;  at  Waterloo,  484. 

Anesen.  arohblshopilo,  197. 


G5ben,  gm.  von,  619. 

Oo.lMgo,248. 

Goderieh,  lord,  premier,  689. 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  218, 214. 

Godfrey,  k.  of  Denmark,  207. 

Godfrey  the  Bearded,  d.  of  Lotboiln^ 

199. 
Godfrey,  8br  Kdmondboxy,  881. 
Godolphln.e.  of,  In  council,  882;  ehaoii 

berlain,  888;  loxd  high  ti«aa..488:  dls- 

mis8ed,486. 
Godoy,  470. 

Godwine,  e.  of  WesMi,  206. 
Gofle,  869,  880. 
Goidelic  Celts,  87. 
Golconda  kingdom,  868 ;  annexed  to  MQi 

ghal  empire,  889 ;  Nimm  of,  448- 
Golden  bull,  of  H.  R.  E.,  248 ;  of  Hnngaiy, 

277. 
Golden  rule  enuneiated  by  Confucius,  81. 
GdUheim,  battle  of,  246,  246. 
Gomes,  Estevan,  Toysce  of,  286. 
**  Good  "  parliament,  269. 
Goidianus  I.,  U.,  III.,  Roman  emp.,  166  { 

Persian  exp.,  IBS, 
Gordias,  kings  of  Phrygia,  22. 
Gordon  assists  Peter  the  Great,  874. 
Gordon,  col.  ("  Chfaiese  "),  suppresses  TMd- 

ping  rebellion,  662. 
Gordon,  lord  George,  440. 
Gorges,  sir  Fernando,  296-297. 
GOrgey,  496. 

Oorkhas,  conquest  by  Chinese,  444. 
Gorm  the  Old,  k.  of  DMimark,  207. 
Gortschakoir,  in  Sebastopol,  600;  retires, 

626. 
GOn,  baron  Ton,  896,  406. 
GosnoM,  Bartholomew,  280, 291. 
Goths,  164 ;  location,  170 ;  defeated  by  !>•- 

oius,  166 ;  Goths  in  Sweden.  208.     See 

Gauta,  East  Goths,  West  Goths. 
Gourges,  Dominique  de,  289. 
Gtaagus,209. 
Gracchus,  Cains,  attempts  rerolutionaxy 

reforms,  124 ;  tribune,  126;  death,  126. 
Gracchus,  Tiberius,  rictory  oTer  the  Celtl- 

berians,  118. 
Gracchus.  Tiberius  Sempronius,  attempts 

reTolutionaiy  reforms,  124. 


Gmfton,  d.  of,  424;  administration,  424, 
440.  * 

Granada,  kingdom  of,  276;  conquest  of, 
276.  ,         ,      -H  , 

Grand  alllaDoe  between  England,  Holland, 

and  others,  870,  891. 
Grand  remonstrance  presented  to  Charles 

I    846. 
Gninicus,  battle  of  the,  74. 
Granson,  battle  of,  262. 
Grant,  U.  S.,  takes  Fort  Donelson,  667; 

Vlcksbuig,   668;   lieut.-gen.,  668;    Le« 

capitulates  to,  669;  president  of  U.  8. 

GxsnTella,  b..  880. 
Grasse,  de,  441. 
Gratlanus,  Roman  emp.,  160. 
GraTamlna  ecclesiastica,  817. 
GraTelines,  battle  of,  821. 
Grarelotte.  batUe  of,  616. 
Great  Britain.    See  wiigiaiwi. 
Great  contract,  841. 
Qvaat  protastation,  842. 


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622 


Index. 


Gnat  nbelUoD,  In  BnglAod,  847;  in  the 
United  Stotea.  667. 

Great  wall  of  China,  82. 

Great  war  of  liberation,  475. 

Greece,  seogxaphy,  89 ;  rellclon,  41 ;  my- 
thological hiiitorjr,  48;  Theasalian  and 
Dorean  miezations,  47;  early  oomcUu- 
tions,  60,  62;  Persian  wars,  28,  56-60; 
hegemony  of  Sparta,  66;  hegemony  of 
Athens,  61 ;  age  of  Pericles,  64 ;  Pelopon- 
nesian  war,  6^69 ;  hegemony  of  Sparta, 
69;  hegemony  of  Thebes,  <0;  rlne  of 
Macedonia,  7L;  Haoedonian  supremacy, 
78;  empire  of  Alexander,  78-76  i  strug- 
gles of  the  Diadocbi,  76 ;  formation  of 
separate  kingdoms.  77 ;  Lamlan  war,  79 ; 
Achsum  and  ^tolian  leagues,  79;  de- 
clared independent,  119;  Biacedonia, 
Roman  province,  122;  Achala.  Roman 
prorince,  147 ;  Morea,  conquei«d  by  Ven- 
ice, 872 ;  by  Turks,  8d7,  416 ;  war  of  in- 
dependence, 438 ;  revolution,  6U6. 

Greek  colonies,  19, 20. 

Greene,  gen.,48L 

Greenland,  disoorery  of.  20O,  280. 

Gregorian  calendar  Introduced,  827; 
adopted  by  England,  420,  488 

Grsgory  I.,  pope,  176;  VI..  199;  VII.  (Ilil- 
debrand),  liW,  200 ;  IX.,  224 ;  XII.,  261 ; 
abdiojited.  262 ;  Xin.,  reformed  the  cal- 
endar. 8:^ ;  XVI.,  492. 

GrenTille,  George,  prime  minister,  428; 
leader  of  Commons,  489. 

GreuTille,  lord,  prime  minister,  687. 

Grenyille,  nir  Richard,  289. 

On^vy,  Jules,  pros,  of  the  French  republic, 
5:>4. 

G rey ,  e.,  prime  minister,  689 ;  resigned,  640. 

tirov,  lady  .lane,  886. 

GriJalTa,  Juan  de,  2b6. 

Griuioald,  175. 

Grochow,  battle  of,  490. 

Grodno,  diet  of,  414. 

Grosbecren,  battle  of,  477. 

Qross-Gorschen,  battle  of,  476. 

Groflsjagemdorf,  battle  of.  404. 

Grumbach,  execution  of,  806. 

Quadaloupe,  Hidalgo,  treaty 0^664. 

Guanahani,  its  identification,  282. 

Guantalla.  house  of,  811,416. 

Guatimosin,  k.  of  Mexico,  286. 

Gu«ibrlant,  French  marshal,  814. 

Guelfs.     See  Welfs. 

Guoticlln,  Bertrand  da,  269,  276. 

Oueux,  380. 

Guilford,  battle  of,  481. 

Guinegate,  "  batUe  of  the  spurs,"  319, 384. 

Guinea  captunNi  from  the  English,  321. 

Uuidc,  house  of,  819,821. 

Oulxot,  527;  ministry  of,  497,  629;  with 
Soult,  580 

Gunpowder  first  used,  279. 

Gunpowder  plot,  840. 

Guntherof  Schwanbnig,  248. 

Guntram,  181. 

Guptas  in  India,  24,  210. 

Ourko,622,  628. 

Gustavus  L,  Vasa,  k.  of  Sweden,  862 ;  II., 
Adolphus,  reign  in  Sweden,  8o2 ;  In  the 
thirty  yean*  war,  811;  death  of,  312; 
III..  409 ;  IV.,  abdication  of,  472. 

GotenDezg.  John,  early  printer,  253. 


Oaehonn,904. 

Guy  of  Lnsignan,  k.  of  J«nMal«n,  814 

216,216. 
Guyenne,  trsnsferred  from  Vnaee  to  Ks* 

land,  226^  281;  ceded  to  Bnglaad,  26tl: 

lost,  200.    See  Aquitania. 
Guserat,  expedition  of  Mahmnd  to,  211; 

conquest  of,  241 :  Afghan  kings,  ^& 
Gyges,  k.  of  Lydia,  6. 21. 
GyUppus,  67. 
Gyaii^,602. 

Habeas  eorpos  aet,  881;   svipendad,  88& 

636,  586,  688 ;  in  Ireland,  544. 
Hadrian,  Roman  emp.,  rcTolt  of  Jews  «»• 

der,  12,87  ;  lelgn,  168:  In  Britain,  11^ 
Hafurstfjord,  battle  of.  2lJ8. 
Hagelbexg,  batUe  of.  477. 
Hague,  conrention  of  the,  896. 
llaTdar  All  of  Mysore,  442,  444. 
Haldaribid,  nimm  of,  448. 
Hakem  II.,  209. 
Hakodate,  battle  of,  668 
Hakon,  k.  of  Norway,  908 ;  lY.,  288 ;  T, 

288 ;  VII.,  287, 238 ;  VIIIm  288. 
Hakon  .larl,  k.  of  Norway,  206. 
Hale,  Nathan,  42S. 
Hales,  sir  Edward,  8^. 
Halfdan  the  Black,  k.  of  Nomy,90B. 
Hallaxtna,  battle  of,  70 
Halifax,  member  of  council,  881  Mn  oppo- 
sition, 882 ;  pres.  of  council,  883 ;  prao. 

of  proYirional  council,  846 ;  rerigna,  887  ; 

impeached,  888;  not  in  council,  438; 

whig  leader,  436 ;  first  lord  of  treas.  4801 
Halifax,  e.  of,  sec.  of  state,  488. 
Halland.286,238. 
Halys,  21, 184. 
Hamburg,  free  city,  222;  conquered   by 

Knut  VI.,  286  ;  alliance  with  Lttbcek, 

249 ;  Davout  in,  476 ;  siege  of,  479 ; 

of,  406. 
Hamiloar,  X. 

Hamilcar  Barak  or  Batcas,  111,  113. 
Hamilton,  Alexander,  547, 648. 
Hampden,  John,  refuses  to  pay  ship  i 

844 ;  impeached  JM6 ;  death,  847. 
Hampden  clubs,  688. 
Hampton  court  conference,  840. 
Han,  dynaMty  in  China,  82 ;  later  Han,  2U. 
Hanau,  battle  at,  478. 
Hancock,  John,  424. 
Hanging  gardens  in  Babylon,  12L 
Hannibal,  destroys  Saguntum,  118 ;  erosuss 

the  Alps,  118 ;  aronses  the  Gauls,  86, 114 ; 


CHunn,  116 ;  before  the  gates  of  Rome, 
110 ;  leayes  Italy,  117  ;  debated  at  Zama, 
118 ;  reoeired  by  Antioehus,  119 ;  death. 
120. 

HanoTer,  ninth  electorate,  872  :  treaty 
with  Sweden,  896 ;  allied  with  Wussia, 
404  ;  treaty  with  England,  487  ;  reeeiTei 
OsnabrUck,  465  ;  Prussia  receirefl  U., 
467  ;  Napolran  wishes  to  take  away.  468; 
occupied  by  French,  468 ;  becomes  king. 
dom  under  Geo.  III.  of  England,  5w; 
separation  from  Great  Britain,  491,642: 
loTaded  by  Prussians,  608 ;  inoorpontel 
with  Prussia,  510. 

lUnseatic  cities  annexed  to  Franoe,  478L 

Ilanneatic  league,  237,  219. 

Uapabuig  counU  in  Switaerlandi  246i 


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Index. 


623 


Bamboxs,  honae  of,  258;  male  line  ex- 
tbcl,  iOO ;  deposition,  485. 

Hardeknut.    See  Uarthacnut. 

Hardeiiberg,457,482. 

Hardinge,  sir  aenrj,  goT.  gen.  in  India, 
646. 

Harley,  Robert,  speaker,  888,  488;  dis- 
missed from  cabinet,  484 ;  attempted  a»- 
aassinatioD,  485 ;  created  earl  of  Oxford 
and  Mortimer,  485. 

Harmodius,  54. 

Harold  Hildetaui.  k.  of  Denmark,  207; 
Bhu-tooth^  k.  of  Denmark,  207 ;  lf<y», 
k.  of  Denmark,  208. 

Harold  I.,  Hare/oot  (son  of  Cnnt),  k.  of 
£ngland,  206;  U.  {son  of  Godwiiu). 
206. 

Harold  HaarfageT^  k.  of  Norway.  208; 
Hardfoda^  k.  of  Norway,  inyaded  Eng- 
land, 206;  war  with  Denmark,  207; 
founds  Opsla,  209 ;  GiUe^  k.  of  Norway, 
288. 

Haroun-al-Rashid,  186, 210. 

Harpsgus,  26. 

Harrison,  Wm.  H.,  pres.  of  U.  S.,  664. 

Hartford  conyention,  551. 

Uarthaonut,  k.  of  England,  206 ;  k.  of  Den- 
mark (Hardeknutj,  207. 

Hartington,  marquis  of,  see.  for  India,  646. 

Hanrard  College,  297. 

Hasdrubal.  in  Spain,  118;  defeated,  116; 
death,  117. 

Hasdrubal,  son  of  Gisgo,  117. 

Hastenbeck,  battle  of,  404. 

Hastings,  batUe  of,  206. 

Hastings,  Warren,  sketch  of  life  of,  goT.- 
gen.  of  India.  444. 

Hatto,  archb.  of  Bfainx,  194. 

Uarana,  surrendered  to  English,  422 ;  re- 
stored to  Spain,  428. 

Hawaii,  442. 

Hayes,  B.  B.,  pres.  of  the  United  States, 
600. 

naynau,496,486,498. 

Uayne,  colonel,  558. 

lleathfleld,  battle  of,  179. 

Hubert,  451, 464, 456. 

Hebrides,  conquest  of,  209. 

Hector,  47. 

Hegemony  of  Aigos,  48 ;  of  Sparta,  66,  69 ; 
of  Athens,  61 ;  of  Thebes,  70 ;  of  Mace- 
donia, 78. 

Hegiia,  182. 

Hei.     See  Helke. 

Heidelberger  StaUung,  250. 

Heike.     See  Taiia. 

Heilbronn,  league  of,  818. 

Heinrich  Raspe,  226. 

Heinsius,  A.,  SOi. 

Helena,  47. 

Heliasts,  53. 

Heliogabalus.     See  Elanbalos. 

Heliopolis,  battle  of,  4ra. 

Helle,  46. 

Hellen,  43. 

Helluland,  281. 

Helots,  50;  rerolt,  62. 

Helsingborg,  battle  of,  249. 

Helvetian  republic,  460. 

Helyetius,  448. 

HelToetsluys,  884. 

Hemming,  k-  of  Denmark,  207. 


Hengestesdnn,  batUe  of,  181, 208. 
Hengist,  177. 


Hennepin,  diseoTers  Mississippi,  864. 
Henry,  d.  of  Anjoa.     Sec  Henry  III.,  k. 
of  fiance. 


Henry  the  Bastard,  k.  of  Castile,  276. 

Heniy  the  Ouanelsome^  d.  of  Bayaria,  196, 
19<  ;  the  Pr<md,  d.  of  Bavaria,  218, 219 ; 
JasomirgoU^  d.  of  Bavaria,  219. 

Henry  I.,  k.  of  England,  reign,  280;  IT., 
BenuderCf  acquired  Poitou,  Onyenne, 
and  Oasoony  by  marriage,  226;  reign, 
281 ;  ff^dqucst  «f  ifelajii,  Beeket,  282; 
111.  of  Kng  1*11(1,  rtt^ia,  254;  IV.  (d.  of 
LiiLtiiAj^ten.  r«igti,  2(0;  V.,  war  with 
FntDfo,  '^fi^ ;  mgD,  371  j  VI.  in  Viance, 
269;  r^Lorn,  271;  captured,  277;  put  to 
death,  TA,  VIL  {e.  of  Richmond),  275; 
reign,  333:  vni.,  Bltlftiacu  with  Charles 
v.,  305^  reijifi,,  3M  \  h^ai  nf  church,  885. 

Henry  I.,k.  uf  Fruivu/i^KS  ;  II.,  treaty  with 
Ch«Tt«j(  v.,  tJOoj  rfi^rt,3J9;  acquisition 
of  Britbnnv,  B2U ;  of  Calais,  Me ts,  Toul, 
and  V[TdUTs3;£l  ;  llf.,  i^^lgn,  822;  k.  of 
Polnud.  ^')2;  )V.  fNftTAiTu),  part  in  the 
wart  ui  fuUfii-tn,  3^  ;  f^igo,  824 ;  •*  V.," 
688. 

Henry  I.,  k.  of  Germany,  194, 196 ;  II.  (the 
SmntU  emp.  U.  R.  B,  197,  198;  III. 
(the  Rack),  19a ;  IV.,  199,  200 ;  V.,  201 ; 
VI.,  222,  2^;  VII.,  245. 

Henry  of  Champagne,  k,  of  Jerusalem,  216L 

Henry  of  Guise,  &1. 

Henry  of  Nararre.  See  Henry  IV.,  k.  of 
Fnmce. 

Henry  of  Plauen,  277. 

Henry,  k.  of  Portugal,  240,  882. 

Henry,  pr.  of  Prusria,  406, 407. 

HeniT,  e.  of  Bichmond.  See  Henry  VII. 
of  England. 

Henry  the  lion,  d.  of  Saxony,  219;  Hefs 
forfeited,  222  :  war  with  Henry  VI.,  228. 

Henry  the  Navigator,  276.  279. 

Henry,  pr.  of  l^les,  death  of,  84L 

Henry,  Patrick,  424,  426. 

Henrys,  war  of  the  three,  822. 

Heraclea,  battle  of,  108. 

Henusles,  45. 

HeraclidsB,  L^dian  dynasty,  21;  Dorian 
dynasty,  46  :  conquest  of  the  Fdopon- 
nesus,  48:  kings  of  Sparta,  60. 

Hemolius,  Grecian  emp.,  191. 

Herbert,  adm.,  884. 

Herbert  of  Vermandois,  202. 

Herbois,  CoUot  d\  458, 464, 466. 

Heroulaneum,  88, 152. 

Hercules.     £>«  Ilerscles. 

Herdonius,  97. 

Hereward,  229. 

Hermandad,  828. 

Hermann  of  Balk,  218 ;  of  Salm,  200 ;  of 
Balsa,  218 ;  Billnng,  marg.  of  Bchleswig, 
196. 

Hermann,  d.  of  Swabia,  197. 

Hermanrich.    See  Ermanarich,  170. 

Hermanstadt,  battle  of,  493. 

Herminones,  163,  1G4. 

Hermundurl,  164,  167, 168. 

Hermus,  battle  on  the,  26. 

Hemici  join  Latin  league,  97;  war  with 
Rome,  103 ;  Hemician  Inagua  dissolved. 
100. 


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624 


Index. 


Hend  (the  Qreat),  k.  of  Jadea,  11. 

Uerod  Agrippa,  I.,  k.  of  Jadea,  11. 

llflrrenhauMn,  allteaoe  of,  896. 

lIon^poTina,  reTolt.  621  ;  giren  to  Aitt- 
tria,  SSbix  di8turumoo  in,  625;  rap- 
pren«l,  DflB.  , 

HeiM,  origin,  226,  492. 

Hei8e>0auol,  In  peace  of  Weetphalia,  816; 
becomes  an  electorate,  464  ;  not  In  con- 
federacy of  the  Bhine,  468 ;  rerolution 
In,  482 ;  taiTaded  by  ProBsianB,  604 ;  in- 
corporated with  Pruwia,  610. 

Heue-Darmiitadt,  Joine  confederacy  of  the 
Rhine,  468 ;  jolne  aUles,  479. 

HIa,  dynasty  of,  in  China.  81. 

HideyoBhi,  goYemment  of,  855,866. 

Uiemp«a,  m 

Hienf  nng,  661. 

Uieio,  k.  of  SyraeuM,  110, 115. 

Hierogiyphiea,  8. 

High  Committion,  846. 

Hlldebiand.    Se*  Qregoxy  TH. 

Uimeia,  battie  of,  30. 

Hincmar  of  Rheimt,  201. 

Hindus.    Su  India. 

Hipparohns,  64. 

Hlppias,  64.67. 

Hippo,  17, 19. 

Uinun,  k.  of  Tyre,  18. 

Hlrhor,k.ofEgypt,6. 

UirtiuB,  144. 

Hispania,  citerior,  118 :  ulterior,  118, 141. 

Histinus  of  Miletus,  ffi. 

Hobkirk's  HUl,  battle  of,  481. 

Hoche,  456,  467 ;  ezpediUon  to  Ireland, 
686. 

Hochelaga.    Se*  St.  Lawrence. 

Uochkirch,  battle  of.  405. 

Udcbst,  batUe  of,  810. 

Hochstluit,  battle  of.     See  Blenheim. 

Hofer,  Andreas,  471,  472. 

Hohenfricdberg,  battle  of,  402.  ' 

UohenUnden,  batUe  of,  462. 

Uobenstaufen,  house  of.  See  Frederic  of 
H.,  219.  220. 

Hobensollem.  See  Frederic,  bnregraTe  of 
Nurembergj^244 :  acquires  Brandenburg ; 
in  Prussia,  802 ;  in  thirty  years'  war,  811, 
812;  in  peace  of  Westphalia,  816;  kings 
of  Prussia,  872 ;  in  the  north  and  east,  un- 
der the  great  elector,  868, 878, 874 ;  gene- 
alogy, 516 ;  emperors  of  Germany,  619. 

Hohensollem,  pr.  of,  612.  518. 

Hojeda,  Alonso  de,  288,  S84. 

Hojo,  famUy  of,  248. 

Holbaoh.448. 

Holkar,  448,  641. 

Holland,  kingdom  of,  under  Louis  Bona- 
parte, 468 ;  merged  in  kingdom  of  the 
Netherlands,  488 ;  sepaiated  from  Bel- 
gium, 489.   &e.  also,  Netherlands. 

Holland,  lord,  489,  441. 

Holies,  impeachment  of.  846, 851. 

Holsteb,  given  to  Adolf  of  Schanmbefg, 
218 ;  Adolf  oapt.  by  Knut  VI.  of  Den- 
mark, cedes  H.  to  Waldemar,  II.,  k.  of 
Denmark,  286  j  ceded  to  Adolf  the  young, 
286;  peace  of  TrsTendal,  894;  united 
with  Denmark,  409 ;  war  with  Denmark, 
496 ;  occupied  by  the  German  conf  edeia- 
tlon,  606  ;  united  with  Prussia,  610. 

flolstein-GoMorp,  d.  of,  894, 897. 


Holsteln-Gottorp,  hooMof  In  Sweden,  409: 

in  Russia,  41L 
Holy  alliance.  486 ;  Monvoa'a  attttode  m* 

oeming,  662. 
Holy  league  against  Fxaaoa,  800,  818,  S^ 

Holy  league  in  Fiance,  822. 

Holy  Roman  Kmpire.  reritml  of  ^^*— *n  ca» 

pire  under  Otto,  196 ;  end  o<,  482,  4A 

See  Germany. 
Holy  wa»,  L,  62 ;  H.,  71 ;  UL,  1% 
Homer,  49. 

HomUdon  HIU.  battto  of,  230. 
Hone,  acquittal  of,  688. 
Honorius,  Roman  emp.,  88, 18L 
Honoritts  m.,  pope,  2SI4. 
Hooker,  gen.,  667, 668. 
Hoom,  c.  Ton,  executed,  880. 
Hophra,  k.  of  Bgypt,  6. 
Hdpital,  de  l\  m. 
Hoiatii,  89. 
Horatins,  laws  of,  98. 
Horatius,  Flaocus,  OL,  88, 147. 
Horatius,  Marcus.  98. 
Horatius  Cooies,  96. 
HonnisdasI.,emp.of  P«iBia,188,  II..  188 

IV.,  191.  ' 

Hormus,  battle  of,  187. 
Hormnsan,  192. 
Horn,  GustaTUS,  818. 
Horsa,  177. 

Hortensius,  dictator,  107. 
Hospitalers.    See  Knights  of  St.  John. 
Hdtel  de  Ville  destroyed,  688. 
Hotham,  adm.,  484. 
Hotspur     See  Perey. 
Howe,  lord,  occupies  Philadelphia,  499. 
Howick.  first  lord  of  the  admiral^,  537| 

twc.  of  war,  540.    See  earl  Grej. 
Hubert  de  Burgh,  281. 
Hubertsbutg,  peare  of,  406. 
Hudson  Bay  Company,  incotporation  o^ 

Hudson's  Bay,  di^coreiy  of,  298, 868. 

Hudson,  Henry.  ▼oya«m  of,  296. 

Hudson  river,  294,  298. 

Hugh  the  White,  d.  of  France.  808. 

Hugh  Capet,  k.  of  Fiance,  70L 

Huguenot  colony  in  America,  288. 

Huguenots,  wars  of  the,  821. 

Humbert  I.,  k.  of  Italy,  684. 

Humboldt,  W.  von,  477,  482,  487. 

Hundred  days  in  France,  585. 

Hundred  years*  war,  267. 

Hnngazy,  occupied  by  Magyars,  191L  277 ; 
Hungarians  ravage  Germany,  194;  de- 
feated by  Henry,  195;  and  Otto  (Lech- 
feld),  196  ;  lose  Btyria  to  Bohemia,  244; 
emp.  Albert,  II.,  k.  of,  258 ;  history  to 
1490,  277 ;  golden  bull,  TH  \  H.  united 
with  Bohemia  and  secured  to  Mnp.  Mas.. 
278 ;  war  with  Turks  (MobaesK  disimted 
election,  808 ;  Fexdinand  1.,  elected  k., 
806;  succession  secursd  to  HMsbur^, 
872 ;  Maria  Theresa,  q.  of  H.,  40o ;  Mo- 
riomtir,  etc.,  disputed,  401,  n.;  revolt 
under  Kossuth,  494;  constitution  abel- 
ished,496;  Feb.  oonstitation,  604;  ooi»- 
stitution  of  H.  rsstoied,  Austrian  emp., 
k.  of  H.  61L 

Hung  Sni-tsuen,  leader  of  the  Tki-ping  v» 
benion,661isaieide,562. 


Digitized  by 


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Index. 


Homi  oTon  the  Volga,  170 ;  undw  AttiU, 

Hunyafdi,  John,  k.  of  Hongazy,  278. 
Hurons,  864. 
Hiuiin  AU,  442. 
HosUasoa,  589. 
Hu3B,  Jobn,  262. 
HoMite  war,  262. 

Hatehinaon,  gor.  of  MaM,  424,  426. 
Hutten,  Ulrich  Ton,  802. 
^  iHwang-ho,  in  China,  80 ;  first  aettlenMnV 
\ja  Chinese  made  along,  81. 
Qy^aspes,  battle  of ,  76. 
HydeXAnne,  888. 

Hyde,  B^  Bdwaxd.    iSr^  Clarenr*jn,  earl  of. 
HyderAm.    SteHaidarAl* 

Uyphasi8,76.^--v 
Hyrcanoa,  186. 

lapyglaiu,  86. 

Iberia,  84, 188. 

Iber^le,  862. 

Ibrahim  Pasha,  488,  491. 

Iceland,  settled  by  Northmen,  280 ;  oon- 

qnered  by  Uakon  V.,  of  Norway,  918. 
Iconiom,  sultanate  of,  210. 
loonoolasts,  210. 
Ida,  **  the  flame  bearer."  178. 
IdUtariso,  battle  of,  m 
Idstedt,  battle  of,  497. 
Ilerda,141. 

IllinoU,  864  ;  admitted  Co  the  Union,  662. 
imtnrij,  batUe  of,  116. 
Illyrian  prorlnoee,  472. 
Illvrians,  war  with  Bome,  112 ;  conqoexed, 

Imp^ial  ohamber,  800. 

Impositions,  840u 

Imprisonment  for  debt  abolished  in  Sng- 
huid,646. 

Inaros,  28. 

Independents,  849, 860. 

India.  Tlsited  by  Syrians,  IS ;  geogxaphr, 
early  religion,  22 ;  arriral  of  Hindus  in 
the  Punj«>,  22;   settlement  and  con- 

auest,  28 ,  castes,  ib. ;  rise  of  Brahmism, 
ii ;  of  Buddhism,  ib, ;  inrasion  of  Alex- 
ander, 28,  76 ;  Baotrian  rulers,  24 :  Scyth- 
ians, Guptas,  tft.;  early  history,  210 ;  sul- 
tans of  Ohaml,  of  Ohor,  211 ;  sultans  of 
Delhi,  Timur  Shah,  241 ;  western  route 
to  India,  232;  Mughal  empire,  868; 
Portuguese,  Dutch,  £ngUsh  in  I.,  East 
India  companies,  864 ;  Auranoxeb,  888 ; 
decline  of  Mughal  empire,  4i2;  Mah- 
ratta  power,  448;  British  in  India, 
Black,  Hole,  448;  ClWe,  Hastings,  444 , 
Bast  India  Company  subordinated  to 
goTemment,  442;  Comwallis  and  Wel- 
UDgton  ;  Mahxatta  wars,  641  ;  qneen  of 
Rngland  proclaimed  soTerelsn  of  India, 
644  ;  Afghan  wars,  646,  647 ;  Sopoy  re- 
bellion, 646 ;  goTemmeut  transferred  to 
crown,  644 ;  famine.  647. 

India  bUl,  635. 

Indians  of  America ;  rapid  disappearance 
from  West  Indies,  284  ;  John  Smith  cap- 
tured by,  291 ;  intercourse  with  Plym- 
outh colony,  296;  Poquot  war,  287: 
Champlaln  among,  299;  John  Eliot 
a]n«ig,867;  Hurons mamrred  by  Iro- 


J;  King  fhilU>: 
aty,800.  King  V^ 


625 


war,  869: 


quols,    857 

Psnn^s  treaty,  »uv ,  .^ub  "luum's  war 
861,  Queen  Annes  war,  i>«,rfield  d»> 
»'«>y«i»  »68  ?  i'rencnamji^ti^.  Hurons, 
wars  with  lroquota,^7y^„  j^  Caro^ 
Mn*,  and  N«w  %j^^  417  .  ^w  French 
and  L^Uan^T^itf;^ ;  conspiracy  of  i  ou- 
u^428TWvomlng  massacre,  480;  In- 
llan  war,  647;  Seminole  war,  662,  668. ' 

^jido-European  family.  Introduction,  x., 
86, 86. 

Ine,  king  of  Wessex,  180. 

Inge  Baaxdsen,  k.  of  Norway,  288. 

Ingebord,226,285,288. 

Ingjald  lU-raada,  k.  of  Sweden,  208. 

IngiBTonea,  168. 

Inkermann,  battle  of,  600. 

Innooent  III.,  pope,  originates  tha  4th 
crusade,  216;  obtains  Idathilda's  estates 
from  Otho  IV.,  228 ;  contest  with  John 
of  England,  288 ;  IV.,  226. 

Inquisition,  establishment  of.  by  Gregory 
IX.,  227;  by  Paul  UI.,  827;  in  Spain, 

Interim  of  Augsburg,  806. 

International  postal  congress,  621. 

Interregnum  m  the  Holy  Roman  Ih&pire. 
226;  in  England,  884. 

IntibiU,  battle  of,  116. 

Inrerlochy,  battle  of.  848 

Investiture  strife,  200,  201. 

Ionian  Islands,  retained  by  Venice,  826; 
occupied  by  French,  ceded  to  Fiance, 
469;  RepnbUo  of  the  Seren  I.  1.  461; 
forms  a  part  of  the  Illyrian  proTlnces, 
472;  protectorate  over,  glren  to  Eng- 
land, 488;  ceded  to  Greece,  606, 644. 

lonians  in  Greece,  48;  colonise  Asia  Mi. 
nor,  49 ;  subdued  by  Croesus,  21 ;  ntrolt 
from  Persia,  28. 

Ipsus,  baUle  of,  77. 

Iran,  plateau  of,  12;  subjugated  by  Tiglath- 
Pileser  II.,  14 ;  inhabited  -by  Bactrians, 
Modes,  Persians,  24 ;  attacked  bvAssyr- 
ians,  26;  conquered  by  Cyrus,  26;  sul- 
tanate of,  210. 

Ireland,  andenc,  geography,  religion,  and 
ciTilisation,  88 ;  mythical  history,  88, 
89 ;  Norwegians  take  Dublin,  209 ;  con- 
quered by  Henry  II.,  232 ;  English  Pale, 
270:  statute  of  Drogheda,  888  ;  rebellion 
of  Tyrone,  889;  coyernment  of  Went- 
worth  (Strafford),  844  ;  Ulster  rebellioD. 
846,  818 ;  Cromwell  in  Ireland,  storm  of 
Drogheda,  876;  war  for  James  II.,  8S6 ; 
batUe  of  the  Boyne,  887  ;  treaty  of 
Limerick,  A. ,-  Irish  catholic  laws,  433 ; 
United  Irishmen,  686 ;  union  with  Great 
Britain,  ib. ;  Irish  reform  act,  640  ;  fam- 
ine of  1846-47,  648 ;  uprising  under 
O'Brien,  ib. ;  habeas  corpus  act  suspend- 
ed, 544 ;  disestablishment  of  the  Irish 
^Episcopal)  church,  646;  land  league, 
f 6. ;  coercion  act,  l^id  act,  646. 

Ir^ne.  210. 

Ireton,876. 

Iroquois,  war  with  Hurons  and  Canada) 
864.    Se%  Indians  of  America. 

Isaac,  7. 

Isaac  Angelus,  Grecian  emp.,  216. 

Isabeau  of  Bavaria,  269 

Isabella  heiress  of  OastUe  276  828. 


Uigitized  Dy 


Google 


^r 


626 


Indix. 


iMbellA 


n  ^  ^'.  of  Ipilii,  clAiflUof , tfO,  OS. 
/«nk,188;n.,18B:m., 

iAfe!!:«- 

Uto  oi  Sable,  S90.        "  ^  ,. 

UmaU,418. 

Ismel,  a  leiMrate  "ng"*^".  0;  ^mtmlCyi^ 
Idolatry,  16.  /  tributarr  to  liiiijiliM.  lit 
destroyed  by  Saigon,  10, 14. 

Iiras,  battte  of,  74. 

letKTonee,  168. 

Iitar,  Phoenician  goddeM,  18, 14, 16. 

lethmian  festival,  4S. 

ItiOia,  federal  rapubUo  of,  129. 

Italy,  geogxaphical  surrey  of,  81 ;  ethno- 
grapnieal  sketch,  86;  ancient  history, 
Mt  Rome;  Odoraker,  ruler,  178;  SsKt 
Ooths,  Theodorlc,  li4 j  Lansobaxds  in 
Lombardy,  papacy,  176;  Charles  the 
Great,  king  of  Italy,  184 ;  Carolingians  in 
Itoly,  198;  Berengarof  lTrea,196;  Otto, 
II.  III.,  in  Italy,  197  ;  CxMcentius,  ih. ; 
Normans  in  Italy.  199 ;  Vrederio  Barba- 
lossa  and  the  Liombard  cities,  Quelf^  and 
Ghibelins,  221 ;  peace  of  Constance,  222 ; 
•Frederie  II.,  in  SicUy,  224,226;  Nicies 
conquered  by  Charles  VIIL  of  Fiance, 
262;  leaffue  of  Oambiay,  800:  holy 
league,  8UD,  818 ;  campaigns  of  Napoleon 
In  Italy,' 468;  Cisalpine  and  Ligurian 
and  Boman  republics  founded,  469;  JPlsr- 
thenopsean  republic  founded,  460 ;  abol- 
~  ,461 ;    Roman  republic  abolished. 


461;  ItepoleM  to  IMHf,  4tU\  Cisalpine 
Md  Urvnui  nmibliw  recognised,  468 ; 
Hapotoon  VMsMent  of  Italian  (Cintlpine) 
nimbUc,  M4;  NapoAeon  king  of  Italy, 
Ugurian  repablie  iaooirporated  with 
f  nnee,  487 ;  Italy  isetwed  to  Its  condi- 
tion before  1789,  483 ;  absolutism,  488 ; 
nprisingi  suppressed  by  Austrians,  480  : 
Austro-Sardiniaa  war,  494 ;  liberation  of 
Italy,  Garibaldi.  602  :  Victor  Emmanuel 
king  of  Italy,  808 :  war  with  Austria, 
Venice  aoquired»610 ;  recognised  as  sixth 
great  power,  611 ;  Rome  the  oapltal.  620 ; 
dissolution  of  monasteries.  620 ;  eieeto< 
ral  reform  act,  626.  &«,  also,  Florence, 
Genoa,  Naples,  Papal  Statea,  Sardinia, 
l^idly,  Tuscany,  Venice. 

Ithome,  61. 

Iturbide,  emp.  of  Hezloo,  488. 

Ivan,  brother  of  Peter  the  Oreat2874. 

Ivan  III.,  the  Great,  of  Bnasia,  277. 

iTan  IV.  (or  VI.),  411. 

iTar  Vtdfadme,  k.  of  Skaania,  206. 

Irry,  battle  of,  824. 

Jackson,  Andrew,  pres.  of  U.  S.,  662. 

Jackson,  Stonewall,  668. 

Jacob,  his  sons,  8. 

Jacobins,  461 ;  elub  closed,  466^ 

Jacobite  rebelliouK,  I.,  437  :  II..  488. 

Jacqueline,   of  Holland,  her  inheritsnce 

goes  to  Bunrundy,  259. 
Jacquerie  in  Fiance,  268. 
Jaffa  Btoimed  by  Bonaparte,  460. 
Jagello,  house  of,  277,  862. 
Jahandar  Shah,  emp.  of  India,  442. 
^ahangir,  emp.  of  India.  864. 


JaUdeiiTH3ratBtfis,4Kl       , 

Jamaiea,  disoovery  of,  288 ;  taken  by  ftna 

and  Venables,  877  ;  insurrection,  644. 
James  Bay  discovered,  800. 
James,  e.  of  Douglas,  268. 
James  I.,  k.  of  England  (VI.  of  flootl 

reign  in  England,  889 ;  II.,     ' 

flight,  884 ;  deposition,  886 ;  ta 

wfih  LouU  XIV.,  8<0;  death. 

dvka  of  York.  ' 

I.,  k.  of  Scotland,  mi 


'^fSt, 


II.,  27S :  !▼.,  inraded  Engl 
'^  vbA  de»lh,  834 ;  VI.,  ai 
akdiAtioK  of  Itey  in  favor  oC, 


"% 


of8eo«k4nd, 
ra<,flV^    Bm 


i^ion  of ,  %9L 


James  BdwJxL  1 
486.  ^ 

Jamestown,  fo( 

Janiaaries,  868 ; 

Jankau,  battle  of,  816. 

Japan,  Buddhism  in,  28 ;  geugwafcy,  i 
ton,  82;  chronology,  88;  eany  v 
88;  conversion  of  native  Dsi 
nese,  88,  n.  2 ;  origin.  88 ;  < 
of  dual  gov.,  mikado  ssperaeded  by 
shogun,  212;  war  of  Gen  aad  Hel,  ttf; 
Hojo  supremacy,  repulse  of  Ibe  Moofols, 
war  of  the  Chrysanthemums,  Aswlop- 
ment  of  feudalism,  248 ;  Ashikaga  sho- 
guns,  dynastic  wars,  J.  in  the  time  of 
Columbus.  278;  domination  of  Nobu- 
nagaand  Hldeyoshi,  806 ;  Tokugawa  sho- 
|uns,  866 ;  extirpation  of  Christianity, 
867  ;  later  Tokugawas,  446 ;  Peny*s 
treaty.  668 ;  restoration  of  the  mikado, 
abolition  of  feudalism,  A.;  ■■rtmflittoa 
to  western  civiliaUion,  664. 

Jason,  46. 

Jassy,  peace  of,  418. 

Jay,  John,  in  continental  oougrew,  426 ; 
chief  Justice,  647. 

J«y's  treaty,  686,  648. 

Jeanne  d'Arc     Stt  Dare. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  427 ;  drafts  deelamtfcm 
of  independence,  427 ;  sec  of  state,  647 ; 
vice-pres.,648;  pres. ,  649. 

Jefferson's  embargo,  60O. 

Jeffreys,  chief  Justioe,  882;  **  bloody  M- 
siiea,"  883;  death,  884. 

Jemmapes,  battle  of,  468. 

Jena,  batUe  of,  469. 

Jenghis  mum,  leader  of  the  Mongols,  210 ; 
conquered  China,  242. 

Jeremiah,  11. 

Jersey,  east  and  west,  860. 

Jerusalem  conquered  by  Shisak,  6 ;  names, 
7 ;  captured  oy  David,  9 ;  taken  by  Is- 
raelites. 10 ;  besieged  in  vain  by  Assyr- 
ians, 10 ;  captured  bv  Nebuchadnesnr, 
and  destroyed,  11,  16 ;  destroyed  by  Ti- 
tus, 12, 162 ;  storm  of,  214 ;  kingdom  of, 
214:  finally  lost,  217. 

Jesuits,  order  of,  founded,  804 ;  banished 
from  Spain  and  Portugal,  416;  abol- 
ished,  416;  expelled  from  France  in 
1672. 

Jews,  geography,  chronology,  7 ;  settled  in 
£S7P^  exodus,  8 ;  government,  t6.  ,•  di- 
vision into  Israel  and  Judah,  9 ;  carried 
to  Assyria,  10;  to  Babylon,  11;  sent 
back  by  Cyrus,  11,  27 ;  subject  to  Per> 
slans,  etc.,  11 ;  revolt  under  the  Macca- 


Digitized  by 


Google 


bki^ 


627 


IMM,  11,  78;  mibdiwd  br  noiM,  11; 
rarolt,  fall  of  Jenmlem,  12 :  dispenal, 
tb. ;  ftocuaed  of  firing  Robm,  Ul ;  p«ne- 
eaUoa,  163;  revolt,  168;  oxpelled  from 
SngUnd,  961;  •dmitCod  to  pMrliMPont, 
644. 

^immn  Tenno.  milUKlo  of  Jspui,  88. 

^oaohlm  II.,  elector  of  Brandenbnxg,  40L 

Joaona,  heireM  of  Gaatile,  801, 838. 

Joexua,  heirees  of  NaTure,  364. 

Joannes,  the  usurper,  161. 

Joannes  Sootns  Srigena,  201. 

JolM^  of  Moraria,  ftl. 

John,  archduke  of  Aofltr^  adminlatnitor 
of  the  Qerman  empire,  47l,  488. 

John,  don,  of  Austria,  Lepanto,  826;  In 
the  Netherlands.  88d,  881 ;  popish  plot 
attributed  to,  881. 

John,  k.  of  Bohemia,  347 ;  death,  367. 

John,  k.  of  England,  Lackland,  leign^JBlS. 

John  II.,  le  Bon,  k.  ofFnunee,  reign,  268. 

John  of  Brienne,*'  king  of  Jerusalem  ** 
216. 

John  of  Qaunt,  369. 

John  de  Montfort,  367. 

John  of  Proeida,  326. 

John  the  VearieM,  d.  of  BaiKundj,  368. 

John  XXIII.,  pope,  261. 

John  IV.,  k.  of  Portugal,  882 ;  VI.,  488. 

John  III.,  k.  of  Sweden,  862. 

John  Gasimlr,  k.  of  PoUnd,  862. 874. 

John  Frederic,  el.  of  Sazonjr,  806. 

John  George,  el.  of  Saxony,  818, 401. 

John  Pariicida,  246. 

John  Sobieskl,  k.  of  Poland,  874. 

John  Zimisces,  Grecian  emp.,  210. 

Johnson,  Andrew,  668, 668. 

Johnson,  Sir  William,  421, 438. 

Johnston,  Joe,  gen.,  668 

Joint  committee  of  the  two  klngdoma, 
848. 

Jones,  John  Paul,  480. 

Jonson,  Ben,  888. 

Joseph,  8. 

Joseph  I.,  emp.  of  ttm  Holj  Roman  Bm- 
Dlre,  880;  reign,  882;  death.  808.  887; 
II.,  oO'iegent,  406:  reign,  407;  plan  of 
an  exchange  of  temto^,  MB. 

Joseph,  k.  of  Naples.  &e  Bonaparte,  Jo- 
seph. 

Joseph  L,  k.  of  Portogal,  reign,  416. 

Joseph  I.,  k.  of  Spain.  Bm  Bonaparte,  Jo- 
seph. 

Joshua,  8. 

Joubert,  461. 

Jourdan,  466, 467, 468, 460, 479. 

JoTianns,  Boman  emp.,  160;  peace  with 
Persia,  188. 

Juan  de  la  Fuca  strait,  290. 

Juares,  608, 604. 

Juba,  k.  of  Numidia.  141, 142. 

Judm,  attacked  by  Shinik,  6 ;  geograph- 
iesl  position,  7;  dependent  king>lom  un- 
der Herod.  11 ;  part  of  Rom«n  proTlnoe 
of  Syria,  11 ;  Roman  proTlnoe,  160l 

Judah,  kingdom  of,  geography,  7 ;  founda- 
tion, 9;  idolatry  in,  10;  allied  with 
Eigyptians.  ib.;  tributary  to  the  Asuyri- 
aus.  10,  14 ;  subject  to  Babyloniann,  11 ; 
to  the  JEgyptlans,t».;  laTagisd  by  Sovth- 
lans,tb. 

Judges  among  the  Jews  8. 


Jugnrthan  war,  136, 127. 

Julia,  the  elder  and  younger,  148. 


I  emp.,  160 ;  InTadsd  Ba^ 


Julian,  count,  188,  n. 
Julian  emperors,  147. 
JuUanus,  Roman  < 

sia,  188. 
JUllch-Cleres  snoceeslon,  qoacnL  bsgiiBf 

8U8 ;  ended,  872. 
Julius  II.,  pope,  887. 
July  rerolution  at  Paris,  489, 639 ;  its  va- 

sult8.480. 
Junius,  440. 
Juno,  84. 

Junonin,  colony  of,  established,  126. 
Junot,  duke  of  Abrantes,  470, 471« 
Junto,  486. 
Jupiter,  84 ;  Ammon,  his  tompio  In  Atriea, 

27,  74 :  Oapitolinus,  temple  of,  82. 
Jury,  grand,  282. 
Jury  trial,  its  Norman  origin,  204. 
Jus  auxilii,  intercesslonis,  96 ;  refoxnandi, 

806,  817. 
Justinian   I.,  Grecian  emp.,  Tletories  in 

Italy  and  Africa,  174 ;  war  with  Fsrsia, 

190;  nign,210. 
Jutes,  176. 
JttTBcum,  foundation  of,  167. 

Kaempfer  In  Japan,  446. 

Kagoenima,  bombardment  of,  668. 

Kahror,  battle  of,  24. 

Kaisenlantom,  battle  of,  466, 466^ 

Kalb,  de,  480. 

Kaled,  expedition  of,  192. 

Kalish,  alliance  of,  476. 

Kamakura,  242, 348. 

Kameel,  sultan,  217. 

Kandahar,  442. 

Kanlshka,  Scythian  k.  In  India.  24. 

Kansas  admitted  to  the  Union,  666. 

Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  666. 

Kapolna,  battle  oM86. 

Kara,  Hustapba,  872. 

Karl  Martel.  188, 184. 

Karlmann,  brother  of  Charles  the  GnaL 

184. 
Karlmann,  k.  of  Aquitaine,  20L 
Karlsef  ne,  Thorflnn,  281. 
Kara,  storm  of,  488, 601,  628. 
Kashgar,  rebellion  of  Yakab  Beg  In,  663; 

capture  of,  t6. 
Katabaoh,  battle,  477. 
Kaunits,  prince,  408. 
Kay,  baUle  of,  406. 
Kelki,  the  last  shogun,  668. 
Kellermann,  462. 
Kelso,  battle  of,  848. 
Kenmure,  execution  of,  487. 
Kentucky  admitted  to  the  Union,  648. 
Kentucky   and    Vlzginia    resolutiona    ol 

1796-1799,  649. 
Kepler,  806. 

Kerman,  sultanate  of,  210. 
Kertk,  Louis,  Thomas,  and  Darid,  289. 
Kbafra,  k.  of  Egypt,  4. 
Khanates,  241. 

Khasars,  war  with  Persia,  189, 190. 
Khorsabad,  12. 
Khuf  u,  k.  of  Kgypt,  4. 
Khusru  in  India,  211. 
Kieif,  grand  prince  of,  276. 
Kief  t,  goT.  of  New  Netherlands  861 


Uigitized  Dy  ^ 


joogle 


623 


Index. 


Kiel,  peice  of.  479. 

Kiew.    SecKieff. 

KUlj  AxBlan,  sultui  of  leooiiUB,  214. 

Kllkmuij,  8Utate«  268. 

KUlieonnkie,  Uttte  of,  886. 

KiUyth,  battle  of,  848. 

Klmbolton,  lord,  846. 

Kin  dyiiMty,  in  China,  fall  of,  242. 

King  Oflotge^s  war.  419 }  Philip's  war,  860 ; 
William's  war,  861. 

King's  Mountain,  battle  of,  481. 

Kinsale  oaptuxed,  887. 

Kioto,  in  Japan,  82 ;  capital  of  the  mikado, 
218,  242 ;  false  mikado  at,  278 ;  capital 
transferred  to  Tokio,  668. 

Kiike,  886 ;  appointed  goT.  of  Mass..  861 ; 
Kirke-s  lambs,  888 ;  raises  siege  of  Lon- 
donderry, 886. 

Klapka,  496, 496. 

Kl^ber,  468. 

Klissow,  battle  of,  896. 

Knighthood,  religious  orders  of,  217 ;  Span- 
ish  orders,  240, 828. 

Knights  at  Borne,  8  centuries,  88 ;  number 
doubled^ ;  in  the  army,  91 ;  farm  the 
tozes,  128;  change  in  nature.  126;  de- 
prived of  jury  serrice,  182 ;  which  is  par- 
tiaUy  restored,  188. 

Knights  in  Athens,  68. 

Kniprode,  WInrieh  Ton,  277. 

Knowles  in  Boston,  419. 

Knox,  Heniy,  U.  S.  see.  of  war,  647. 

Knox,  John,  804,888. 

Knut  the  Great,  k.  of  Sngland  and  Den- 
mark, Tisit  to  Rome,  196 ;  reign  in  Eng- 
land, 206,  206 :  in  Denmark,  'Ml. 

Knut,  St.,  k.  of  Denmark,  208 ;  VL,  286. 

Kobad  I.,  k.  of  Persia,  first  reign,  189; 
second  reign,  190 ;  II.,  192. 

Kblhapur,  448. 

Kollin,  batUe  of,  404. 

Kong,  prince,  602. 

KSniggri^  battle  of,  600. 

Kdnigsberg,  treaty  of,  878,  470. 

Kdnigsmark,  816,  416. 

Koran,  the,  182. 

Koseiussko,418,414. 

Kossuth,  484,  496,  486. 

Kotiebue,  murder  of  ,487. 

Kiasnoy,  battle  of,  476. 

Kublai  Khan  in  China,  242. 

Knldja,  disputed  between  China  and  Bns- 
sia,662. 

Kulm,  battle  at,  477. 

Kulturkampf  in  Italy,  Switierland,  and 
Prussia,  620;  in  Prussia,  Franee,  Bel- 
gium, 626 ;  approaching  end,  626. 

Kunersdorf ,  battle  of,  406. 

Kurlle  islands  given  to  Japan  by  Russia, 
82,  n.  8. 

Kusnnoki-Masashig^,  248. 

Kdtab-ud-din,  sulUn  of  Delhi,  241. 

Kutschouc  Kainsrdji,  peace  of,  412. 

Kutusofl,  467, 476. 

Labiau,  treaty  of,  878. 
Labienus,  180, 1^,  148. 
lAborers,  statute  of,  268. 
lAbrador,  discovery  of  the  coast  of,  284. 
Ubyrinth,  in  Bgypt,  4,  6;  in  Crete,  18. 
Laoedemonlans,  in  Sparta,  60.    &#  Qreece 
and  Sparta. 


Ckeonia,  name  flnt  g!T«n  to  Midae,  SBB. 

Lade,  batUe  of,  28. 

Ladislaus  II.,  k.  of  Hungary  and  B6hf^ 

mia,  278. 
Ladislaus  Postomus.  k.  of  Ilongacy,  278. 
Lady  of  England,  281. 
Ladjr  of  the  Mercians,  204. 
La<^,  177. 
Lafayette,  in  America,  428 ;  eommandgr  of 

national  guard,  460 ;  proscribed,  452 ;  m 

liberal,   G27 ;    commander  of    natinnal 

guard,  629. 
La  Fdre-Champenoise Jbattle  of,  48L 
Ufltte,  ministry  of,  629. 
U Fontaine,  Stl. 
LagidsB.    See  Ptolemies. 
La  Hogue,  battle  of,  370,  887. 
Lahore,  Muhammedan  dymtfty  at,  211. 
Lake  Erie,  battle  of ,  651 ;  Qeorge,  battto  o^ 

421. 
Lally,444. 
Lamaehus,  67. 
Lamberg,  count,  494. 
Lamian  war,  79. 
Lamoridire,  608, 627. 
Lancaster,  house  of,  270. 
Lancaster  Sound,  290. 
Land  act,  646, 646. 
Land  league  in  Ireland,  645. 
Landshut,  batUe  of,  405,  471. 
Landwehr,-eturm,eBtabliiihed,  476. 
Lanfranc,  arehb.  of  Canterbury,  229. 
lAngensalsa,  610. 
Langobards,  location,  170 ;  found  klngdoHi 

in  Italy.  175;  crushed  by  Charles  th* 

Great,  184. 
Ungside.  battle  of,  888. 
Langton,  Stephen,  288,  284. 
Lansdowne  Uill.  battle  of,  847. 
Laoa,  capital  of  German  kingdom  of  tlM 

Franks,  202 ;  battle  of,  481. 
lAotsie,  Chinese  phlloeoiriier,  81. 
La  Plata,  disooveiy  of,  286;  a  freeetata, 

488. 
La  Roohelle,  granted  to  Huguenots,  221; 

siege  of,  825. 
La  Rothi^re,  battle  of,  480. 
La  SaUe,  discoveries  of,  364, 866. 
Lsseaxls,  Theodore,  216* 
Las  Casas,  Bartholom^  de,  285. 
La  Soledad,  treaty  of,  608. 
Lsswari,  battle  of,  541. 
Lateimn  eouncil,  201. 
Lateranus,  L.  Sextus,  101. 
Latham  house,  siege  of,  848. 
Latimer,  888. 
Latin  empire,  216, 240. 
Latin  lesigue,  Rome*s  hegemony  over,  90g 

dissolution  of,  104. 
LaUn  war,  great.  104. 
Laud,  Willbm.  844,  315 ;  ezecuUon,  348. 
Lauderdale,  880,  881. 
Laudon,  406, 418. 
Laudonni^,  R^n^,  288. 
Launay,  de,  murder  of,  449. 
Lautree.  invaded  Naples,  808. 
lAvaL  Fraagoii  de,  864. 
Law's  Mississippi  scheme,  445. 
Lawrenoe,  lord,  viceroy  in  India.  646. 
Law  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  WO. 
Laws  of  Ine,  of  Offa  ISO ;  of  the 

tables,  98. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


iddex. 


629 


Lajbftch,  congNm  at,  487. 

liaiica,  ceded  to  Rome,  190;  invaded  by 

Uormisdas,  191 ;  Uexaclius  in,  192. 
League  in  France,  822.    See  Holy  leagoe. 
Lieagae  of  the  German  princes.  «)8. 
Ijeague  of  tlie  public  weal,  260. 
Lear(Leir),87. 
Leboeuf ,  marshal,  618,  614. 
Le  Bourget,  battle  of,  619. 
liochfeld,  battle  of,  196. 
Lee,  Charles,  480. 
Lee,  Richard  Henry,  427. 
Lee,  Robert  E.,  in  oommand  of  Confederate 
army,  667 i  Gettysbuig,  668;  sorrender, 
668. 
Lefort,  in  Switierland,  874. 
**  Legacy  of  Igayasu,"  866. 
Leges  ComelisB,  182 ;  dnodedm  tabnlamm, 
98 ;  LiciniaB,  101 ;  PublilisB,  102  ;  Valerias 
Horatise,  98. 
Legion,  in  the  Serrlan  constitution,  92; 
change   in   the  4th   cent.,  b.  a,  106; 
change  under  Marius,  128. 
Legion  of  honor,  created,  464. 
LcgislatiTe  assembly  in  France,  447, 461. 
Legitimitists,  in  France,  680. 
Legnano,  battle  of.  222. 
Leipdg,  battle  of,  812 ;  second  battte,  814 ; 
battle  of  the  nations.  478 ;  supreme  court 
in,  626 ;  unirersity  founded,  261. 
LeMans,batUeof,619. 
Lenthall,  846,  877. 
Lenien,  Uttle  of,  194. 
Leo  the  Great,  pope,  178  ;  X.,  327  ;  XIII., 

624. 
Leo  the  Isaurian,  Grecian  emp.,  210. 
Leoben,  peace  of,  468. 
Leofric,  e.  of  Mercia,  206. 
Leon,  name  changed  from  Asturla,  209  ; 

Anally  united  with  CastUe,  240. 
Leonidas,  68. 

Leopold,  IV.  (V.)  d.  of  Austria,  reoeiTee 
BaTaria,  219;  V.  detains  Richard  Goeur 
de  Uon,  216. 
Leopold,  archd.  of  Austria,  defeated  by  the 

Swiss,  247  ;  III.,  Sempach,  260. 
Leopold  I.,  k.  of  the  Belgians.  490. 
licopold  of  Dessau,  892,  ®7,  402. 
Leopold  I.,  emp  of  the  H.  R.  B. :  reign  of, 
8n,  872 ;  Spanish  claimant,  890 ;  death, 
892;  II.,  408, 416, 461. 
Leotychidas.  60. 
Lepanto,  batUe  of,  826,  880. 
Lepidus,  H.  J&milius,  188, 14L 
Leptis,  17, 19. 
Lerma,  d.  of,  831. 
Lesbos,  41,  66. 
LeasepH,  Ferdinand  de.  612. 
Leiitocq,  in  Russia,  411. 
Leucopetra,  battle  of ,  80, 122 
Lieactra,  battle  o^,  70. 
Leuthen,  battle  of,  404. 
Leyexett,  John,  gOT.,  of  Mafls.  360. 
Lerites,  8. 

Lewes,  battle  of,  284. 

Lex  agraria,  128.  See  agrarian  lawn  :  an- 
nalls.  12J  ;  Aurelia,  183 :  Canuleia  de 
eonuDio,  99 ;  de  civitate  sociiH  danda, 
128 ;  Clodia,  188  ;  de  falso,  122, 132  ;  Ga- 
binia,  184 ;  Hortensia,  107 ;  judiciaria, 
126,  128  ;  Julia  de  agro  campano,  187  ; 
Julia,  149 :  MaenU    107  ;  de  maiestate 


149;  Manilia,  136;  Fapia  Poppca,  149; 
Pedia,  146 ;  Plantia-Papiria,  m,  Poetllia, 
103 ;  Pompeia,  129  ;  de  proecribendis, 
182,  proTocatio,  91,  98,  94,  98, 126 :  Pub- 
lilia,  97 ;  regia,  374 ;  de  sicariis,  122, 182 ; 
Trebonia,  140 ;  Valeria  de  proTocatione, 
98  ;  de  Ti  et  ambitu,  140. 

Lexington,  battle  of,  426. 

liberty  of  conscience,  declarations  of, 
884. 

Licensing  act,  expiration  ot  888. 

Ucinian  laws  passed,  101 ;  reenacted,  124. 

Licinius  appointed  Augustus,  160* 

Liegnits,  battle  of.  406. 

Ligny,  battle  of,  4S4. 

Ligue  du  bien  publique,  260. 

Ligorian  republic,  founded,  469 ;  Incorpo* 
rated  with  Fiance,  467. 

Idbybnum,  siege  of,  HI. 

lima,  occupation  of,  287. 

Limerick,  siege  of,  387 ;  treaty  of,  887. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  prM.  of  the  United 
States,  666 ;  reQeetion,  668 ;  assassina- 
tion, 689. 

Lincoln,  gen.  480. 

Lincoln,  battle  of,  281. 

Lindolf ,  d.  of  Swabia,  196. 

Lisbon,  earthquake  of,  416. 

lissa,  battle  of,  610. 

Lithuanians,  169. 

"  Little  "  parliament.    See  Baiebonei. 

Liudolf,  d.  of  Swabia,  196. 

Liutprand,  176. 

LiTerpool  ministry,  687. 

LiTia,  148, 149. 

LiTins,T.,8L 

LiTius  Salinator,  117. 

LiTonia,  878. 

Lobosits,  battle  of,  404. 

Locke,  John.  858, 889. 

Looomotire  iuTented,  ^6. 

Lodbrog,  Ragnar.  208. 

Lode,  battle  at,  2&. 

Lodi,  storming  of  the  bridge  at,  468. 

Lollards,  269. 

Lombard  league,  219,  221,  224. 

Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom,  482, 494,602. 

Lombards.    See  Langobards,  176. 

Lombardy.  See  Langobards,  Italy,  Pied- 
mont, Sardinia. 

London,  founded,  176 ;  captured  by  Danes, 
208 ;  great  fire,  plague,  379 ;  first  indus- 
trial exhibition,  49B  :  peace  conference, 
606 ;  second  Industrial  exhibition,  644 ; 
financial  panic  in,  f6. 

London  Company.  291 ;  conference,  489, 
611  ;  protocol,  606 ;  treaty  of,  498. 

Londonderry,  siege  of,  386. 

Long  Island,  battle  of,  428. 

Longjameau,  peace  of,  321. 

Longland,  William.  268. 

Long  parliament,  346-361,  876-878 ',  leca- 
pitulation,  878,  n. 

Longobards.     See  Langobards. 

Loo-Ohoo  islands,  664. 

Lookout  Mountain,  battle  of,  668. 

*'  Loose  coat  field,"  274. 

Loris-Melikoir,  628,  626. 

Lorraine,  German  part  of  Ludwig's  share 
In  the  treaty  of  Verdun,  187,  198 ;  be- 
comes a  duchy,  194;  Tacillates between 
Bast  and  West  Franks  194 ;  upper  and 


Uigitized  Dy  ^ 


joogle 


680 


Bidex. 


low«r  Lofnlne,  199 :  oeenpiedbj  Fimaoe,  I 
800;  exchanged  to  SUnlBlaiu  Leactln- 
•U  for  TuMuy,  896 ;  house  of .899, 416 ; 
ceded  to  the  <}erman  empire,  619. 

Lorraine,  d.  of,  partially  reinstated,  866, 
868  i  transfer  of  the  daehy,  898. 

Lothar,  d.  of  Saxony,  war  with  Henry  T., 

aoi. 

Lothar,  emp.  186 ;  treaty  of  Verdun,  187. 

Lothar,  emp.  of  the  H.  K.  E..  218. 

Lothar,  k.  of  MTeet  Franks,  m 

Louis  I.,  k.  of  Bararia,  m ;  U.,  614. 

Louis  of  Gond^  821. 

Louis,  <?mv.     Str  Ltidwitf. 

U>nis  VI.,  fe.  M  »fta*-o,  IBS,  [For  the  Car- 
olinglfLD  IttDKii  cjf  tblfl  iituie,  it  Lud- 
wIgK.  u|  FruiAa.  t.-V.  |  VlL,  crusade, 
216  ;  i^l^u.  2!^^ ;  kn  Engt&UHl,  2.'S:  VIIL, 
227 ;  M  \^Tiwcv,  \n  ICti^lnud,  28S ;  IX., 
St.  I>jui»,  reign,  *^i  ,  Arbltrntioo,  284; 
erusaa^p,  217;  X.,  Lt  Htttin,  266;  XI., 
of  Ftmao?,  2dU ;  XJI-,  31^;  Xill.,  826; 
XI W, m^^iV  ;  ^pani^ti  ftupf'i^^ion,  890 ; 
XV.,  416  :  XVL.  il'i :  llWlit  and  return, 
461;  triuiiu^  ,^^^-1^011,  i63i  (XVII.,) 
of  Fiance  proclaimed,  4^ ;  death,  457  ; 
XVIII.,  first  return.  481 :  Bight,  488 ; 
return,  484, 626  ;  death,  527. 

Louis  the  Qreat,  k.  of  Poland  and  Hun- 
gary, 277. 

Louis  Napoleon,  first  attempt  to  be  pro- 
claimed emperor,  629 ;  second,  680 ;  pres- 
ident of  the  republic,  494,  681 ;  coup 
d'  litat,  498, 681 ;  as  emperor.  Me  Napo- 
leon III. 

Louis  Napoleon,  pr.  of  France,  imperial 
birth,  681;  death,  684. 

Louis  Philippe  I.,  accession,  489, 629 :  ab- 
dication, 680 ;  death.  681. 

Louisa,  q.  of  Prussia,  469. 

Louisburg.  siege,  419, 421. 

I^uise  la  Qnerouaille,  880. 

Louise  of  Savoy,  808. 

Louisiana,  disooTcred  by  La  Salle  and  set- 
tled by  Frencb,  Snglish  attempt  to  colo- 
nise fails,  862, 866;  ceded  to  Spain,  423, 
489 ;  restored  to  France,  468 ;  bought  by 
the  United  States,  468, 649 ;  admitted  to 
the  Union,  661. 

LouTois,  866,  870. 

Ldwen,  battle  of,  198. 

LSwenbund,  260. 

Lowestoft,  battle  of.  879. 

Loyal  association,  8d8. 

Lovola,  Ignatius,  804. 

Lttbeck,  free  city,  222 ;  conquered  by  Knut 
VI.,  286 ;  capital  of  the  HanseaUo  league, 
249;  peace  of,  810. 

Lubecki,  490. 

Lucanians,  83 :  wars  with  Rome,  106, 107. 

Lucius,  k.  of  Britain,  86,  88. 

Lucka,  battle  of,  246. 

Lucknow,  relief  of,  646. 

Lucretia,  89. 

LucuUus,  L.,  181, 184, 136. 

Lud.  iL  of  Britain,  37. 

Luddites.  637. 

Ludwig  I.,  the  Pious,  le  IMbonnaire,  emp., 
186:  II.,  198;  of  Bararia,  247. 

Ludwig,  the  German,  k.  of  the  Sast  Fnnks, 
share  at  the  treaty  of  Verdun,  187 ;  reign, 
198;  theChild.f94  . 


Ludwig  II., 
Franks; 


.  the  Stafflmenr,  k.  of  the  Wert 
201  [Ludwig  the  Pious,  emp., 

U  also  Ludwig  I.,  k.  <^  the  West  Franks] ; 

IIL,  201 ;  IV.,  d'  Outre  Mer,  202 ;  V.,  the 

Faineant  (for  kings  of  France,  ses  Louis  V 

202. 
Ludwigslied.  20L 
LUgenfeld,  186. 
Lumley's  Inlet,  290. 
Lundy^s  Lane,  battle  of,  661. 
Lunerilie.  peace  of,  462. 
Luperol,86. 

Luque,  Hnrnando  de,  266. 
Lusatia  (Lauslti).  origin,  194 ;  lower  La- 

satla  united  with  Bohemia,  948 :  mort. 

need  to  Saxony,  810 ;  ceded  to  Baxonj, 

Lusitanians.  118 ;  war  with  Rome,  128L 

Lustrum.  92. 

Lutetia  Parlslorum.  189. 

Luther,  Blartin,  801. 

Luther  am  Baxenberge,  battle  of.  810. 

LUtaen,  battle  of  (Gustavus  AdoiphaiL 
812;  (Napoleon),  476. 

Luxembourg,  marshal,  870. 

Luxembunr,  house  of,  245,  248 ;  Hungaiy 
under,  2i7. 

LuxembuiY  auestion,  611,  682. 

Luynes,  d.  of,  826. 

Lusaara,  battle  of,  892. 

Lycia  conquered  by  Harpagus,  26 ;  Bonian 
proTince,  160. 

Lycos,  battle  on  the,  186. 

I^curgus,  constitution  of,  60. 

Lydia,  geography,  20 ;  religion, ehronologj. 
21 ;  under  Attyadse.HentclidsB,  Mennna- 
dsB,  21 ;  conquers  Phiygla,  21 ;  war  with 
Graxares,  21,  26 ;  conquered  by  Cyras, 

Lyons,  council  of,  226 ;  parttadlj  destroyed, 

Lysander,  68, 60,  70. 

Lyslmachus,  76. 

I^tton,  lord,  Tieevoy  of  India,  647. 

Macao,  Portuguese  at,  864. 

Macartney,  e.,  embassy  of,  446. 

Macaulay,  T.  B.,  sec.  of  war.  640 ;  in  In- 
dia, 6£2 ;  paymaster  gen.,  648. 

MaccabsDUS,  Judas,  11. 

Macchiavelli,  888. 

McClellan,  gen.,  667. 

Macdonald,  460,  461, 474,  477,  480. 

Macedonia,  41 ;  rise  in  power  under  Philip, 
71 ;  Macedonian  supremacy,  78;  Alexan- 
der, 78-76 ;  under  descendants  of  Deme. 
trius  Poliorcetes,  78;  wars  with  Rome 
116, 118, 120, 121 :  fall  of  the  monarchy, 
120 ;  Roman  prorince,  78, 122. 

Macedonian  line,  Greek  emperors,  210. 

Maciejowice,  battle  of,  414. 

Mack,  gen.,  460,  467. 

Mackay,  gen.,  386. 

MacMahon,  in  Italy,  602 ;  in  Franco-Prua. 
fiian  war,  514,  516 ;  siege  of  Paris  (com 
mune),  632:  pros.,  688;  resigned,  684. 

Macon *■  No.  2  act,  660. 

Macrinus,  Roman  emp.,  80, 166. 

fifacro,  150. 

Madagascar,  French  claims  upon,  686^ 

Madeira,  discoyery  of,  276,  279. 

Madison,  James,  649,  650. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Iniez. 


6dl 


KmIm,  NbelUoD  of,  9M. 

Madni,  In  IndiA,  22 ;  f onndBd,  1)64 ;  cap- 
tured and  restored,  448. 

Madrid,  Charles  in,  8d2 ;  Napoleon  at,  4n  ; 
taken  bj  Wellington,  474 ;  by  the 
Trench,  Kt7 ;  peaoe  of,  808. 

MsBoenas,  147. 

MasUus,  Sp.  99. 

Magadha,  empire  of,  28. 

HagalhaBB,F.,280. 

Magdehuxg,  bishopric  of,  196 ;  placed  un- 
der ban,  806 ;  stonned  by  Tilly,  8U. 

Magellan.     Set  IfagelhsBs. 

Magellan,  straitsof,  2B0,  286. 

Magenta,  battle  of,  608. 

MagiBns,26. 

Magister  eqnltam,  94. 

Magna  Charta,  233,  266, 418. 

Magnano,  battle  of,  460. 

Magnesia,  battle  of,  78, 119. 

Magnetic  needle,  279. 

Munus  the  Good,  k.  of  Norway .  reign  in 
Denmark,  207;  In  Norway.  209;  II., 
209;  III.,  Barfod,  209,  288;  IV.,  the 
Blind,  k.  of  Norway,  28d;  V..288i  VI., 
Lagaboeter,  288. 

Magnus,  d.  of  Saxony,  199. 

Magnus,  k.  of  Sweden,  287,  288;  Bmek,  k. 
of  Sweden,  286.  287. 

Mago,  117. 

Magyars.    Set  Hungaiy. 

Uaha-bhaiata,  Hindu  epic.  28. 

Mahmud,  sultan  of  Ghaml,  211. 

Mahmud  II.,  sultan  of  Turkey,  489. 

Mahzatta  wan,  444. 641. 

Mahrattas,  rise  of,  88i»,  448, 444 ;  conquered 
by  the  British,  641. 

Maid  of  Norway.    See  Maitsaret. 

Maid  of  Orleans.    See  Dare. 

"  Main  "  plot,  840. 

Maine  (in  AmericajLPring's  Toyage,  290 ; 
Popham  colony,  W&  \  granted  to  Ooiges 
and  Manon,  296,  297 :  annexed  to  Mass., 
868 ;  restored  to  heirs  of  Qorges,  tfr. ; 
bought  by  Mass.,  869;  admitted  to  the 
Union,  562. 

Maine  (in  France),  281. 

Mainots,  488. 

Maintenon,  Madame  de,8e9,  371. 

Mains,  first  archbishop  of,  184:  eleetor, 
248 ;  electoral  archchaneellor,  461 

Majestltsbrief,  808. 

Majorianus,  Roman  emp.,  163. 

Malacca  taken  by  the  Dutch,  868. 

Malaga,  battle  of,  484. 

Malakoff,  storm  of  the  601. 

Malcolm,  k.  of  Scots,  206, 280. 

Maldon,  battle  of,  206. 

Malmo,  truce  of,  496. 

Malmutius  Dun  wall,  k.  of  Britain,  87. 

Malplaouet,  bnttle  of,  892,  486. 

Malta,  Phoenicians  settle  upon,  17 ;  glTen 
to  knights  of  St.  John,  21 1 ;  surrendered 
to  Napoleon,  460;  to  be  restored  to  the 
order,  464  \  not  surrendered,  466 ;  given 
toEngUnd,488. 

MalTran  HiU,  battle  of,  667. 

Mamelukes,  orerthrow  the  Ayoubltes,  217  *, 
defeated  by  Napoleon,  460. 

Mamertlnes.  109. 

Mamun,  186,  210. 


Manchester  and  LlTVipool  nflvaj,  689 

Mandate,  457. 

Manes.    See  Mani. 

MiuMtho,  hist,  of  Egypt,  8, 4,  n  8. 

Manfred,  226. 

>ianhattan  Island,  purchased,  288. 

Blanl.  Manicheism,  188. 

Manlins,  GapitoUnus,  M.,  100;  ImperioniiL 

1.,  104 ;  TorquatuB,  T.,  108. 
Ifonsfleld,  count,  800, 810. 
Mansfield,  lord,  440. 
Manteullel,  gen.,  goTemor  of  Schleewig. 

607,608;  Franco-Prussian  war,618,6l5! 
ISanteuffei,  minister,  494;  at  OlmUti,  488  S 

dismissal,  602. 
ManUnea,  battle  of,  67,  71,  80. 
Mantua,  siege  of,  468. 
Mantuan  war,  811. 
Manu,  28. 

Maori  war  in  New  Zealand,  l»44. 
Mazftt,  member  of  Cordeliers  461 ;  •Maiil' 

nated,464. 
Marathon,  battle  of,  57. 
Marbod,  149, 167. 
Mareel,  Stienne,  268. 
HarceUus,  M.  CUudlns,  115-117. 
Marehfeld,  battle  of ,244. 
Maroomanni,  154, 167. 
Biaroy,  William  L.,  665. 
Mardonius,  56.  60. 
Marengo,  battle  of,  462. 
Margaret  of  Auttriaj  negotiated  Pais  det 

Dunes,  806 ;  q.  ox  Dtnmatie.  /Vorwoy, 

and  Sweden.  287, 288, 276 ;  wife  of  Heunr 

VI.  of  fngtoiid,  240,  271, 272,  274. 
Margaret,  *'  The  Maid  of  Norway,*'  288. 
Margaret  Maultasoh,  247,  249.  . 

Maruret  of  Parma,  880 ;  o.  of  Salisboiy,    * 

Marhattte.    &«  Mahrattas. 

Maria  Looisa,  wife  of  Napoleon  I.,  481. 

Maria  Theresa  of  Austria,  heiress  of  Gharlea 

VI.,  898 ;  wars  with  Frederie  the  Great, 

400-406. 
Maria  Theresa,  wife  of  Louis  ZIV.,  806; 

died,  869. 
Mariana,  296, 296. 
Marie  Antoinette,  unpopularity,  446 ;  en* 

cution,  465. 
Marienbnn,  grandmaster   at,  218,  877; 

Marignano,  Tictoir  of,  by  fxands  I.,  819. 

Marion,  Francis,  480. 

Marius,  C,  82:  in  Nnmidia,  127;  defteta 

Cimbri  and  Teotones,  127,  128;  social 

war,  129;  death,  180. 
Marius  the  younger,  181. 
Marlborough,  d.  of,  sketch  of  Ufa,  882  -, 

Joins  William  III.,  884 ;  in  IreUnd,  887 ; 

disgraced,  887 ;  in  the  war  of  the  Bpanlsk 

succession,  891-398,  484;  made  a  duke, 

488;   dismissed,   898,   485;    reinstated, 

486. 
Marmont,  goT.  of  Illyrlan  provineee,  47% 

Marquette  disooTers  the  MisrissippI,  864. 

Mars,  84,  85. 

Marshal,  ofllce  of,  195. 

Biarahall,  John,  6^. 

Marshall  William,  regener  of,  284. 

Marsian,  or  social  war,  129. 

BlantonMoor  battle  of  848. 


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632 


Adex, 


tal«t(7,6S7. 

MMtan  v.,  pope,  m 

Martiaique,  tnken  by  England,  Mded  to 
Fnnoe,  422,  441. 

Martinlti,  8(i9. 

MartiniTogel,  the,  260. 

Vmxj,  helresa  of  BuxKundy,  268. 

Mnnr,  the  Catholic,  q.  of  England,  reign, 
89),  886,  a88 ;  married  Philip  of  Sp2n, 
88d. 

Mary  Stoart,  q.  of  Scotland,  married  rntn- 
cls  II.  of  France,  821 ;  reign,  888 ;  eze> 
ention,  888. 

Maryland,  granted  to  lord  Baltimore,  996; 
rebellion  of  Claybome  and  Ingle.  867 ; 
&>glish  parliament  anomed  control,  868 ; 
quo  warranto  against,  861. 

Maianiello,  827. 

Maaerfeld.  battle  of,  180. 

Masham,  Mrs. ,  484,  486. 

Bfason,  John,  grant  of  Uaxiana.  286. 296. 

Mason  taken  from  the  Trent,  644, 667. 

Massachnsetts  Bay  colony  founded,  286; 
separatiaB  of  genexml  court  into  two 
houses,  867  i  execution  of  Quakers,  868 ; 
rsaasumed  goTemment  of  Maine,  868; 
forfeiture  of  the  charter,  800 :  new  cluur- 
ter,  861 ;  trsat/  of  peace  with  the  east- 
ern Indians,  418 ;  adoption  of  aeonstita- 
tion,  431 ;  insnrreotion  In,  488. 

MassagetsB,  27. 

Massatia,  founded,  19, 141. 

Maasaaoit,  206. 

Masaena,  460,  461,  462,467,472;  masterly 
ratieat,  478. 

Massiniflsa,  116 :  dethroned,  117 :  rsstored, 
118, 121. 

Matchin,  418. 

Matilda,  marchioness  of  Tuscany,  200;  her 
estates  accepted  by  Lothar  from  the  pope, 
218 :  withheld  by  Henry  VI..  228 ;  given 
to  the  papacy  by  Otto  IV.,  228. 

Matthias,  emp.  of  the  H.  R.  E.,  808. 

Matthias  of  Thum,  809. 

Matthias  Conrinns,  k.  of  Hungaiy,  278. 

Maupeou,  446. 

Maupertnis.    Sm  Poitiers 

Mauxepaa.  447. 

Mauietania,  Roman  poor.,  160. 

Maurice,  Greek  emp.,  191 ;  of  Naaaau,  881 ; 
d.  of  Saxony,  806. 

Mazen,  auxrender  of,  406. 

Maxentina,  Roman  emp.,  168, 169. 

Maximianns,  168. 160. 

Maximilian,  d.  of  Bavaria,  in  thirty  yean' 
war,  806,  809. 

Biaximillan,  emp.  of  Mexico,  604. 

Maximilian  I.,  emu.  of  the  H.  R.  B.,  mar- 
ried heiress  of  fiuxgundy.  268:  secures 
succession  of  Hungaxy,  278 ;  xeign,  800 : 
II..  492,  806. 

Maxlminus,  168, 150. 

Maximinus  Thrax,  Roman  emp.,  156, 166. 

May  laws  in  PrussU,  621. 

Mayas,  286. 

Mayence.    See  Malni. 

Mayenne,  d.  of,  824. 

Mayflower,  294. 

Mayo,  lord,  Tieeroy  of  India,  547. 

Mayors  of  the  palace,  origin  of  their  power, 
182,  188,  184 ;  eompaxed  with  the  sho- 
fans  In  Japan  218. 


aarin,  in  thirty  Ttan*  war,  814 ;  igMil 
of  the  pone,  826;  hia  administration  and 


,189. 

Maaeppa,896. 

Meade,  gen.,  658. 

Mecklenbuig,  226,  816. 

Medea,  46. 

Media,  revolt  under  Phraortea,  15 : 
raphy,  24 ;  aubject  to  Aaayria,  £» ,  .«. 
volt  auppreaaed  by  Saxgon,  14:  revolt 
under  Phraortea,  16, 26 ;  Median  empixe, 
26;  supremacy  paased  from  Media  to 
Persia,  26;  revolt  suppreiiaed  by  D»> 
rius,  27;  subject  to  Parthia,  80;  large 
portion  ceded  to  Armenia,  188. 

Median  wall,  16. 

Medici,  Alexander  de',  827 ;  Catherine  de% 
821 ;  Cosimo  de-,  created  g.  d.  of  Tus- 
cany, 827  ;  Mazy  de',  r^ency  of,  825. 

Medici  family  in  Florence,  9S8 ;  in  Flor- 
ence and  Tuscany,  827 ;  extinction,  896. 

Megaclea,  61. 

Megalopolis,  H  ;  battle  of,  78. 

Menra.  Doric  state,  48 ;  ally  of  Athena, 
@ ;  old  constitution  restored,  68 ;  Joined 
the  Peloponnesiana,  66. 

Megiddo,  battle  of,  6, 11. 

Mehemed  Aii,  revolt  of,  491,  580. 

Meiaaen,  origin,  194;  given  to  Conmd  of 
Wettin,  218;  eastern  part  of  Thnringia 
Joined  to,  226 ;  Frederic  of  Meiaaen  re* 
celves  the  electorate  of  Saxony,  262. 

Melac,  370. 

Melanchthon,  806. 

Melaa,  460,  461,  462. 

Melbourne,  lord,  home  sec.,  589 ;  premier, 

Melkart,  Phomician  divinity,  17. 

Meminius,  0.,  126,  128. 

Memnon,  5. 

Memphis,  In  Lower  Egypt,  2 ;  worship  of 

Pteh,9f;  Cambysesin,27. 
Mena,  first  k.  of  J^orpt,  3,  4. 
Mendoaa,  vicerov,  2Bi . 
Menkaura,  k.  ox  Egypt,  4. 
Menon,  46o. 
Menschikoff,  410,  600. 
Mentana.  battle  of,  511. 
Merela,  founded,  179 ;  anpxemaey  of,  180 1 

Danea  in,  208. 
Mercurius.  84. 
Mercy,  814. 

MecKentheim,  218  ;  battle  of,  815. 
Meri    lake,  constructed   by  Amenemhat 

MermnadsB,  dynasty  in  Lydla.  21. 

MeroB,  kingdom  in  Ethiopia,  5. 

Merowingians,  86 ;  derivation  of  the  nams^ 
170;  defeat  Syagrins,  178;  Franks  un- 
der, 181 ;  superseded  by  the  Caroling^ 
ans;i84. 

Merseberg,  196,  n. 

Merwan  II.,  last  Ommlad  oallph,  182. 

Meaehish,  k.  of  Gaul,  86. 

Mesopotamia,  Roman  prov.,  158. 

Mea8alina,160. 

Measana,  51, 100. 

Meesenian  wars,  I.,  IE.,  51 ;  III., 63. 

Mete  Incognita,  m 

Meteurus,  battle  of  the,  117. 

Metcalfe,  air  Charles,  in  India,  541t 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Jkdex, 


638 


KHeUuB,  L.  Gasdllas,  defeats  Haadnibal 
at  Puiormiu,  111. 

UeteUus  (Macedonlcui),  Q.  CooIUuji,  in 
the  Ath.  Macwionian  aod  Aclueaa  war, 
122. 

Uetellufl  (NumanticuB)^  Q.  Gecilius,  cap- 
tures Numantta.  128 ;  defeats  Jugurtha, 
laS ;  superseded  by  Marios,  127. 

Metellns  (PiusX  Q.  Caecilias,  war  with  Ser- 
torius,  138 ;  subdues  Crete,  184. 

Methuen  treaty,  484. 

Bletoeci,  62. 

Mettemich,  at  tbe  congvera  of  Pxaffue,  476 ; 
of  Vienna,  482;  of  Carlsbad,  487 ;  head 
of  the  ooDservatiye  party,  ^1 ;  driven 
from  Vienna,  492. 

Mets,  siege  of,  806,  616,  618. 

Mexican  expedition,  608, 682. 

Mexico  conquered  by  Cortes,  286 ;  fxeed 
from  Spanish  rule,  488 ;  war  with  the 
United  States,  664. 

Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti,  828. 

BOohigan  admitted  to  the  Union,  66& 

MichilUmachinae,  Jesuit  mission,  864. 

Mloipsa,128. 


Midas,  k.  of  Phrygia,  22. 
Middle  Kingdom,  82. 
Middlesex,  178. 


MieesesUT  U.,  leader  of  the  Poles,  198. 

Miguel,  Don,  of  Portugal,  488. 

Mikado.    See  Japan. 

Milan,  captured  by  Sclplo,  86 ;  captured  by 
Baroarossa  and  destroyed,  221 ;  rebuilt, 
t6. ;  under  the  Visoonti  and  Sforsa,  282 ; 
war  between  Charles  V. ,  and  Francis  I. , 
concerning,  804,  819;  Philip  invested 
with,  t». ;  claims  of  Louis  XII.  to,  818 


appanage  of   Spain,  826 :  assigned  to  the 

emperor,  898 ;  Victor  Emmanuel  in,  662. 
Milan  decree,  660. 

Milan,  pr.  of  Serria,  621 ;  becomes  k.,  620. 
Milesians  setUe  at  the  month  of  the  Tigris, 

28;  in  Ireland,  89. 
Miletus,  in  league  with  Croesus,  21,  28 ; 

lonlans  settle,  49 :  battle  of,  67. 
Milliaud,  confederation  of,  822. 
Military  roads  in  Persia,  28  :  eonstraeted 

in  Itoly,  82 ;  in  Britain,  176. 
Millena4ry  petition,  840. 
Millesimo,  battle  td.  468. 
Milo,  S.  Annius,  139. 
Miltiades,  28 ;  at  Hamthon,  67. 
Milton,  John,  889. 
Minamoto  family,  212,  2U,  242. 
Minden,  battle  of,  406. 

Ming  dynasty  in  China,  242. 

Minnesota  admitted  to  Union,  666. 

Minos,  k.  of  Crete,  18,  46. 

Minotaur,  18. 

Minto,  lord,  gov.  gen.  In  India,  641. 

Minucius,  M.,  114. 

Minuit,  Peter,  298. 

MinysB,  48, 46.  48,  49. 

Mir  Jaf^,  448,  444  :  Kosim,  444. 

Mirabeau,  C.,449,461. 

Miramichi  Bay,  discovery  of,  287. 

Miranda,  660. 

Misenum,  treaty  of,  146. 

Mlssi  regis,  186. 

Missionacy  Bidge  battle  of,  668 


Mississippi  admitted  to  the  Unkm,  661. 
Mississippi  riwr.  diseov.  287, 864;  possession 

taken  for  France,  862,  866 ;  claimed  by 

France,  420 ;  navigation  free  to  England 

and  France,  422 ;  to  England  and  the 

United  States.  482. 
Missolonghi,  488. 

Missouri  admitted  to  the  Union,  662. 
Missouri  compromise,  662. 
Mithra.  26. 
Mithndates,  I.,  founded  Parthian  empire, 

80;  n.,  k.  ofP&rthia,80. 
Mitliridates  VI.,  k.  of  Pontns,  his  power, 

129;  Sulla  concluded  peace  with,  181; 

alliance  of  Sertorius  with,  188;  killed 

bimKcir,  136. 
Mitbridaticwars,r.,129;  IL,182;  IIL,184. 
Mobile  colony,  866. 
Mocenigo,  adm.,  416. 
Mockem,  battle  of,  478. 
Modena,  416,  468. 
Moesia,  148, 168. 
Mohacs,  battle  of,  808,  872. 
Mohammed,  182. 

Moira,  lord,  gov.  gen.  in  India,  6IL 
Molai,  Jacques  de,  266. 
Moldaviii,  »9o,  488. 
Mol«,  ministry  of,  680. 
Moli^re,  371. 
MollwiU.  battle  of,  40L 
Moloch,  17,  18. 
Moltke,  608, 6iJ0, 617. 
Momemphls,  battle  of,  6. 
Mompeeon,  impeachment  of,  842. 
Monasteries  in  Ireland,  88 ;  suppitwed  In 

England,  886 ;  in  Austria,  407 ;  in  FiaiMe, 

634;  in  Rome  and  Papal  states,  620. 
Mondovi,  battle  of,  468. 
Moi«ols,  defeated  by  fhe  Chinese,  82 ;  in- 

va«(ion  of   Germany,  240;    conquest  of 

China,  242;   repulse   from  Japan,  248; 

supremacy  in  Russia,  277 ;  check  the  (}§• 

man  power,  278. 
Monk,  876,  877,  878.    See  Albemarla. 
Monmouth,  battle  of,  480. 
Monmouth,  d.  of,  88^  888. 
Monroe  doctrine,  662. 
Monroe,  James,  660,  661. 
Mens  saoer,  96,  96. 
Montague,  proceedJ 
Montaigne,  Michael,  I 
MonUMm,  421, 422. 
Monteagle,  lord,  840. 
Montebello,  baUle  of,  602. 
Montecuculi,  868,  872. 
Montenegro,  war  with  the  Porte,  621, 622 1 

became  independent,  624. 
Montereau.  269 ;  battle  of,  480. 
Monterey,  battle  of,  664. 
Montesquieu,  448. 

Montesuma,  Mexiean  empire  of,  286. 
Montgomery,  general,  42i . 
Montiel,  battle  of,  276. 
Montl'hery,  battle  of,  260. 
Montmartre,  storm  of,  481. 
Montmirail,  battle  at,  480. 
Montmorency,  820 :  exeoution,  826. 
MontpeUier,  268. 
Montreal,  settled  by  Maisonneuve,  800 ;  sur 

rendered  to  English,  422;  captured  by 

Montgomery,  42?. 
Montrose,  marquis  of,  plots  sgainft  AigjUt 


842,887. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


684 


is  BeotlABd,  848 ;  «nea- 

tlon,  875. 
Monta,  tleordtt.ttO. 
Moon,  ariffin,  188 ;  oooqiwr  Sptln,  188 ; 

caliphate,  2)9;   eooqiMred  bj  Almom- 

Tides,  309 ;  bj  Almotaadei,  210 ;  oonqaeet 

of  GmuuU,  276. 
Moqni  Cafion,  287. 
MorabethM,  W9,  210. 
More,  Sir  Thomas,  886. 
Morea  {§»•  Oreeoe),  eonqnend  by  Toxkt, 

887;  raTa«ed,4»8. 
Moreau,  468, 400, 402, 466, 477. 
Moisaa,481. 
Monarten,  battle  of,  247. 
Morken,206,229. 

Mominfton,  lord.  gor.  gen.  In  India,  641. 
Mora,  LudoTieo,  818. 
Moroeini.  416. 
Mono,  487. 
Mortler,  481. 

Mortimer,  Bdmond,  290;  Roger,  287, 288. 
Mortimer^s  Cross,  battie  of,  272. 
Mortmain,  statate  nf,  308. 
Moscow,  national  centre  of  Rnasla,  277; 

bnmiog  of,  476. 
Moees,8. 

Moshaisk,  battle  of,  476. 
Moslems,  182. 
Mt.  Cenis  tunnel,  630. 
Mount  Desert,  292,  299. 
Mountain,  the,  in  the  legislatiTO  aMcmblj, 

461,468. 
Mowbra/,  eonnpiracy  of.  270. 
MuawwW  L,  caUph,  l8i 
Mucins  ScsBTola,  96. 
Mughal  empire,  founded,  868;  end  of,  646. 

See^  also,  India. 
Mubammed  II.,  destroyed  eastern  empire, 

278. 
Mubammed  Ghori,  211,  241;  Shah,  442; 

TughUk,  241. 
Muhammedaninn,  in  China,  81 ;  origin  In 

ArabU,  182:  oonquesU  in  west,  Itfi ;  in 

Pttrsia  192, 193. 
MUhlbeig,  battle  of,  806. 
Mtthldorf.  battle  of,  247. 
Mukhtar  Pasha,  628. 
Mummius,  122. 
Mttnchengrllts,  481, 609. 
Mnnda,  battle  of,  148. 
Mttnger,  Thomas,  802. 
Munich,  312,  492. 

Municipal  corporations  lefonn  not,  641. 
MUnnioh,  410,  411. 
Munro,  major,  444. 
MUnster,  anabaptists  in,  804 ;  negotiations 

for  peace  at,  816. 
Mured,  I.,  sultan  of  the  Turks,  278 ;  Y., 

doposed,521. 
Murat.  400.  467 ;  g.  d.  of  Berg,  468 ;  k.  of 

Naples,  470 ;  driven  from  Naples,  484 ; 

executed,  48o. 
Murray.    See  Bfanitfleld,  lord. 
Murrsy,  earl  of,  regent,  888. 
Murrsy,  lord  Geoige.  483. 
Murten,  batde  of  ,262. 
Mnsa,  188. 

Muthul,  battle  of,  126. 
Mutlna,  founded,  112 ;  batUe  of,  36, 144. 
Mutiny  act,  886. 
Mutsu-Hito,83,662. 


Myoalo.6L 

Mylm,  battle  of,  110, 146. 
Myonnesns,  battle  of,  119. 
Mysia,  20, 2L 

NabU,  80, 119. 

Nabonetus,  k.  of  Babylon,  16. 

Nabopolasasr,  k.  of  Babylon,  16, 16, 25^ 

Nachod,  battle  of,  609. 

Nadir  Shah,  invades  India,  442. 

Nlf els,  battle  of,  260. 

Nagpur,  raja  Of,  641. 

NaKnt.  battle  of,  269. 


,      ,       .681. 

Nantes,  edict,  ue  edict  of,  809;  reyol» 
tiooary  tribunal  of,  464. 

Nantwich,  battle  of,  848. 

Napata,  kingdom  of,  6. 

Napier,  60a 

Napier,  lord,  661. 

Naples  {ue  Sicily),  separated  fron  Sidly, 
under  Charles  of  Anjou,  226 ;  oonquered 
by  Charlee  \1IL,262 ;  by  Alphonmof  Ar- 
agon,  268 ;  by  Loois  XII.  and  Ferdinand, 
818 ;  reTolt  of  Masanielk|,  887 ;  ceded  by 
Austria  to  Spain,  896,  416 ;  tiansfemd 
into  Pwthenopoan  republle,  460 :  Fremeh 
garrison,  468 ;  Bourbons  banished,  468 ; 
restored,  483  ;  reTolncionary  moTemenls, 
487. 486 ;  liberated  by  Garibaldi,  608. 

Napoleon  I.,  emp.  of  the  French  (se«  Bona- 
parte, Napoleon),  erowned,  406;  k.  of 
Italy,  467 ;  protector  of  the  oonfedeimey 
of  the  Rhine,  468 :  diToreed  from  Joee- 
phine,  478 ;  birth  of  the  k.  of  Rome,  474 ; 
campaign  of  Feb.,  1814,  480;  abdicated, 
481 ;  remoTod  to  Blba,  481:  return,  483, 
626;  hundred  days,  488;  Waterloo,  484; 
transported  to  St.  Helena,  484;  death, 
627 ;  entombment  in  Fteis,  680i 

Napoleon  III.,  emp.  of  the  French  (set 
Louis  Napoleon),  elected,  480.  681;  at- 
tempted assassination,  681,  644 ;  war 
with  Italy,  602,  682;  Mexican  expedi- 
tion, 606 ;  Luxemboun  question.  611 ; 
Franco-Prussian  war,  618 ;  surrenders  to 
WUliam  III.,  617 ;  death,  630, 688. 

Nanagaonett  Indians,  869. 

Narses,  176, 188. 

Narra,  battle  of,  896w 

Narraes,  286,  286. 

Naseby,  battle  of,  849. 

Nassau  incorporated  with  Prussia,  610. 

National  couTcnUon,  447,461,4^;  f  ' 
tion,460;  petition.  642. 

Naueraries,  68,  66,  68. 

Nararino,  battle  of.  489, 689. 

Nararre,  origin,  309;  Joanna,  heiress  ol 
marries  Philip  IV.,  354;  Charles  the  Ba& 
k.  of,  268 ;  in  the  Huguenot  wars,  821. 

NaTBrrete,  battle  of,  376. 

Navigation  act,  876;  repealed,  648. 

Nayler,  877. 

Nebraska,  admitted  to  the  Union,  669. 

Nebuchadnessar,  k.  of  Babylon,  6, 11, 16L 

Neeker,  447,  449. 

Neerwinden,  battle  of,  870,  888, 468. 

Nehavend,  battle  of.  188, 198. 

Neku,  k.  of  Egypt,  6, 11, 16. 

Nelson  at  Abonkir,  460;  at  Trafiaiw  401 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Index. 


6d5 


I  fMtlfiJ,  43. 

Nemed,  89. 

Nepaleie,  eonqaend  by  Chinflse,  444. 

Neptunafl,  84. 

Nero,  G.  CUadias,  eonral.  117. 

Nero,  RoDum  emp.,  160,  151. 

Nerra,  Romui  emp.,  162. 

Neaaelrode.  482. 

Netherlenda,  Mqniaition  by  the  houM  of 
Baxgandj,  828,  829 ;  ww  of  liberation, 
880 ;  independence  reoogniaed,  881 ;  war 
witli  Louis  XIV.,  887 ;  with  Snglaad, 
879,  880:  New  Amsterdam  lost,  868; 
Speaiih  Netherlands  giTen  to  Austria, 
■trilb  with  Joseph  II.,  408;  trans* 
f onned  into  the  BataTian  zepublie,  466 ; 
Into  the  kinsdom  of  UolUnd.  468;  in- 
oorporated  with  Vranee,  478 ;  tne  Freneh 
expelled,  479;  kingdom  of  the  Nether, 
lands  formed,  488;  Belgium  sepaxated 
from  Holland,  488. 

Neachfttel,  giren  to  Pruasia,  898;  toBer- 
tliier,  468 :  as  prmctpoAy  leatored  to 
Proasia,  488;  as  canton  joined  to  the 
Swiss  oonfedenaey,  488;  zotoU  fron 
Prussia,  492;  giren  up  by  Prussia,  COL 

Neuhof,  baron,  k.  of  Gorsioa,  416. 

Nenstria,  decay  of,  86 ;  in  the  Sd  dlrision 
of  the  Prankish  kinplom,  181 ;  in  the  8d, 
182, 188;  in  tieaty  of  Verdun,  187. 

Neutrality  act,  648. 

Nerada  admitted  to  the  Union,  668. 

NeTers,  house  of,  811. 

NerUle's  Cross,  battle  of,  9S8. 

New  Albion,  west,  dlscoTered  by  Diake, 
289 :  cost,  granted  to  Plowden,  298. 

New  Amsterutm,  founded,  296 ;  captured 
by  Inglish,  8U,  879. 

Newbury,  battles  ot  848. 

Newcastle,  ministry  of;  488»  489. 

Newoomen,  486. 

New  Bngland,  named,  294 ;  presidency  of, 
861 :  Indian  hostUities  in,  417. 

New  Forest,  280. 

Newfoundland,  disooTeiT,  284, 287;  Oilbert 
takna  possession  of,  289;  gruit  of  a  part 
to  sir  Geo.  GalTcrt,  289. 

New  France,  Freneh  settlements  in,  289; 
name  extended  to  the  west,  864,  866; 
ceded  to  England.  422. 

New  Granada,  488. 

New  Hampshire,  granted  to  Mason,  296; 
separated  from  Massachusetts  869 ;  in- 
surrection in,  4^ 

New  HaTcn,  colony  of,  867 ;  vnloii  with 
Connecticut,  868. 

New  Jemey,  gnoted  to  Berkeley  and  Car- 
teret, 868;  under  Andrea,  8a ;  diTided 
into  east  and  west  Jersey,  869. 

New  Netherlands,  agreement  with  the 
united  colonies,  867;  gmitodtodnkesof 
Tork  and  Albany,  868. 

New  North  Wales,  299. 

New  Orleans,  reserred  to  Fruioe,  422; 
British  repulsed  at,  661. 

Newport,  treaty  of,  ffiL 

New  South  Wales,  299. 

New  Sweden,  298. 

Newton,  Isaac,  888,  889. 
.  Newtown  Butler.  b.%ttle  of  886. 

New  Tork,  name  of  New  Amsterdam 
•hanged  to,  808 ;  CMptuzed  bjr  the  Dutch, 


to  Bngliwl.  869 ;  go?.  Andros , 

860,  861;  goT.  Fletcher,  862 ;  gor.  Bur- 
net, 417 ;  settlement  of  Conn,  boundary, 
418;  treaty  with  the  Iroquob,  418;  occu- 
pied by  the  British,  428  ;  evacuated,  4»L 

Nay,  467 :  *'  bravest  of  the  braTc,**  476, 
477 :  Joined  Napoleon,  488 ;  executed,  486 

Niagara,  expedition  iiminst,  421,  428. 

Nicaa,  council  of,  lS>;  Greek  empire  ol 
216. 

Nice,  truce  of,  804;   annexed  to  Franca, 

Nicephorus  Phoces,  Greek  emp.,  210. 

Nicholas  I.,  tsar  of  Russia,  488;  Polish 
rsTolution,  490;  interrention  in  Hun- 
gary, 496 ;  Joins  Austria,  498 ;  Crimean 
war.  499;  death,  600. 

Nicholas  v.,  anti-pope,  147. 

Nicias,  66-67;  peace  of,  66. 

Nlcomedes,  k.  of  Bithynia,  78;  m.,  129, 

Niels,' k.  of  Dmunark,  208. 

NlghUngale,  Florence,  600. 

Nihilists,  626,  626. 

Nikita.  pr.  of  Montenegro,  621. 

Nikolsbnxg,  trnce  of,  6(i9. 

Nile,  battle  of  tbe,  400, 686. 

Nimrod,  k.  of  Assyria.  6,  n.  2 ;  18. 

Nimwegen,  peace  of,  868. 

Nineteen  propositions,  847. 

Ninereti,  on  the  Tigris,  12;  foundation, 
14 ;  captured  by  Cyaxarcs,  16, 26 ;  batUe 
of,  192. 

Ninus,  14. 

Nippon,  proper  meaning,  82,  n.  2. 

Ni!j(b,l^tleof,49L 

Nitta  Toshisada,  248. 

Ninm  ul  Mulk,  442. 

Noah,  86, 89. 

Noames,  Ticomte  do.  460. 

Nobiaty  In  Rome,  101,  102;  aboUahad  is 
France,  468;  new  nobility,  407. 

NobunajBs866^866. 

NoisseTttk,  battle  of,  616. 

Nola,  battle  of,  149. 

NoUendorf,  battle  of,  477, 47a 

Nombie  da  Bios,  289. 

Non-Jurors,  886. 

No  popery  riots,  440. 

Nordliogen,  battle  of.  818. 

Nore,  mutiny  at  the,  686. 

Noreta,  battle  of.  127. 

Noricnm,  148, 107. 

Normandy,  settled,  202;  Vexiu  annexed 
to,  208:  duke  William  conquem  Eng- 
land, 208 ;  belongs  to  Henry  II.  of  Eng- 
land, 281 ;  conquered  by  Philip  Augus- 
tus, 227. 

Normans.    Set  Northmen. 

North,  sir  Francis,  882. 

North,  lord,  adndnistration,  400,  426;  r»- 
sigi^,  441. 

Northampton,  battle  of,  272. 

North  Anna,  iMtUle  of,  668. 

Northbrook.  lord,  riceroy  of  India,  647. 

North  Carolina,  separated  from  South  Car- 
olina, 418 ;  colonial  charter  suspended, 
427 ;  insurrection  In,  426 ;  aocepted  tbe 
oonstltudon  of  U.  S.,  647. 

Northcote,  sir  Staffoid,  646. 

Northern  couTention,  462  468> 

Northern  war,  894. 


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686 


iukx. 


North  0«niftii  Coiifed«ratlon.    Sm  Oer- 

VorthoMn,  wan  with  Charlea  the  Oraat, 
185;  ratages  in  France  and  Oermany, 
188, 201 ;  nettled  in  Italy,  198,  199,  200  ; 
■lege  of  Parin,  201:  settlement,  202;  In 
England,  308,  204, 2to ;  oonquei t  of  Eng- 
land, 206. 

Horthumberland,  d.  of,  896 ;  e.  of,  370,  271. 

Northumbria,  kingdom  of,  178, 179, 180. 

Norway,  early  history  to  1108,  208  ;  from 
death  of  Magnus  Barfod  to  union  of  Cal- 
mar,  1108-lS97,  288;  to  1624,276,851; 
to  1789. 409 ;  ceded  to  Sweden,  479,  488: 
war  with  Sweden,  484 ;  oonstitatlonal 
contest  in,  626. 

Notables,  asrambly  of,  447. 

Notium,  battle  of,  60. 

Nottingham,  e.  of,  impeached,  270. 

Nottingham,  e.  of,  sac  of,  state,  886,  488 ; 
pres.  of  counciL  486. 

NoTara,  hatUe  of,  819«  488, 484. 

Nora  Scotia.  Ranted  to  sir  Wul  Alexan- 
der, 295,  wSi ;  ceded  to  England,  888 ; 
422,  439 ;  fisheries  in,  482. 

Novgorod,  208,  277. 

NoTi,  batUe  of,  461. 

Nullification  proclamation,  658. 

Numa  Pompillns,  )l.  of  Rome.  88. 

Numantia,  deatruction  of,  128. 

Numerianus,  Roman  emp.,  158. 

Nnmidia,  dlTided  between  Bocehos  and 
Gauda,  121, 127, 142. 

Nuremberg,  peace  of,  808 ;  fortified  camp 
of,  812. 

Nymphenburg,  alliance  of,  401. 

Nystadt,  peace  of,  897. 

Ofttea,  Titus,  plot,  881 ;  trial,  888  ;  pardon, 

886. 
Oaths  of  allegiance  and  supremacy,  886. 
Obelisks,  8. 

Ocampo  circumnarigates  Cuba,  284. 
Occasional  conformity  act,  brought  in,  488, 

434;  passed.  485;  repealed,  487. 
Ootaria,  146, 160. 
OctaTianus,  C.  Julius  Ciesar  ;  n^otiations 

with  the  senate,  144 ;  appointed  consul, 

146 ;  recelTee  the  west,  146 ;  war  witb 

Seztus  Pompeius  and  Antonius,  146 ;  sole 

ruler,  147.     See  Augustus. 
Odenathns,167. 
Odin.  164. 166. 
Odo,  b.  of  Bayeuz,  239 ;  c.  of  Puii.    See 

Eudes. 
OdoTaker,  ruler  of  Italy,  162,  178;  OTer- 

thrown  by  Theodoric,  174. 
Odysseus,  4<. 
CBdipus,  46. 

(Eneus,  k.  of  Athens,  44. 
(Bnophyta,  battle  of,  68. 
OfTa,  k.  of  Mercia,  180. 
Offices  of  state  opened  to  plebeians.  101. 
Oglethorpe,  James,  settles  Georgia,  418, 

419. 
Ohio  admitted  to  the  Union,  640. 
Ohio  Company,  419, 420. 
Olaf  Hunger,  k.  of  Denmark,  206. 
Olflf ,  k.  of  Denmark,  287  ;  of  Norway,  940. 
Olaf,  St.,  k.  of  Norway,   309;  Tnetelje, 

flr«t  k.  of  Norway,  208:  TrygraaeoD,  k. 

of  Norway.  208,  ^. 


Olaf,  the  Lap-king,  of  Sweden,  908. 

Oldcastle,  sir  John,  271. 

Old  French  and  Indian  war,  420. 

Oldenbuig,  409 ;  house  of,  851 ;  i 
to  France,  478. 

OliTa,  peace  of,  873. 

OliTarea,  883. 

OUiTier,  ministry  of,  512.  682. 

Olmttti,  conference  of,  488 ;  siege  of,  40^ 

Olybrius,  Roman  emp.,  162. 

Olympiad,  first,  60. 

Olympian  fe«tiTal,  42. 

Olympias,  77. 

Olynthiae  oratioofi,  79. 

Olynthus,  battle  of,  66;  70 ;  alliance  with 
Philip,  71 ;  revolt  and  destrucUoo,  72. 

Omar,  182, 192. 

Omar  Pacha,  489. 

Ommlads  obtained  the  caliphate,  182 :  onr 
thrown  by  Abbaaiden,  188 ;  founded  cal- 
iphate of  Cordora,  188,  208. 

O'Neil,  Hugh.     See  Tyrone. 

Onomarchns,  72. 

Opequan,  battle  of,  668. 

Opium  war,  642,  661. 

Oppitts,  Spurius,  96. 

Optimates,  lul. 

Orange.  William  of  (the  Silent),  880,  88L 

Orbau  Fr&re,  minintry,  626. 

Orchomenus,  kwttle  of,  181. 

Ordinance  for  the  goremment  of  the  terri- 
tory northwMit  of  the  Ohio,  438. 

Ordinances  instead  of  acts  pasMd  by  long 
parliament,  347. 

Orebro,  peace  of,  474b 

Oregon  admitted  to  the  Union,  666  ;  boun- 
dary decided,  648,  560 ;  treaty,  664. 

Orellana,  Francisco,  288. 

Orford  (adm.  Russell),  iuTites  William  III., 
884 ;  victory  of  La  Ilogue  887;  created 
earl  of  Orford,  impeached,  888. 

Organic  statute,  480. 

Orinoco,  diseoTexy  of,  288. 

Orkneys,  conquest  of,  208. 

Orleanlsts,  580. 

Orleans  besieged  by  AttiU,  178 ;  maid  of, 
200 ;  cap.  of  Burgundy,  181 ;  battle  of, 
618. 

Orleans,  d.  of,  murdered,  268 :  death,  680 ; 
Gaston  of,  conspirscies  of,  Wb,  826, 866; 
Philip  of,  regent,  446;  Philip  EgbiiUi^ 
450 ;  execution  of,  456. 

Orleans,  house  of,  strife  with  Burgundy, 
259;  comes  to  the  throne  in  France, 
817;  again  In  1880,489,  529;  expeUod, 
680 

Orloir,  411. 

Ormaguas,  empire  of  the,  288. 

Ormond,dnke  of. impeachment,  487. 

Ormuad.    See  Ahuramaada. 

Orodee  I.,  k.  of  ParthhK  80. 

Orsini,  681. 

Osborne,  etr  Thomas.    See  Danby,  880. 

Osiris,  2, 3. 

Osman  I..  278 ;  Fuha,  622. 

Osnabriiok,  negotiations  for  peace  at,  815. 

Ostend  East  India  Co.,  487. 

Ostmark  (Lusatia),  formation  of,  194  ;  Ba 
Tarian  Oi^tmark  reestabliahed,  196;  ea 
laiged,199.    See  Austria. 

Ostraeh,  battle  of,  460. 

Oatocism.  66. 


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OrtrogoChii.     See  But  GothB. 

Oatroleaka,  baUle  of,  480. 

Oswald,  of  Northumbria,  180. 

Oswego,  captured  by  Moat«alm.  421. 

Oswieu,  k.  of  Northambria,  180. 

Othmann,  182. 

Otho.    For  Qemiitn  ralers,  $ee  Otto. 

Otho,  Roman  emp.^61. 

Otis,  James,  422,  428. 

Otterbume.     Sfe  Cheyy  Cham. 

Otto  the  Finne,  marg.  of  Brandenbuig, 
249. 

Otto  L,  Ic.  of  Greece,  aooession,  489;  ex- 
polsioa,  606. 

Otto  I.  the  Great,  emp.  of  the  H.  S.  B., 
195 ;  n.,  196, 197 ;  III.,  *•  Wonder  of  the 
World,"  197;  IY.,of  Brunswick,  228. 

Otto  of  Nordheim,  199. 

Otto  of  Wittelsbach,  222. 

Otto  the  lUnstrions,  d.  of  Saxony,  194. 

Ottocar,  k.  of  Bohemia.  244. 

Oudenanto,  battle  of,  392,  435. 

Oudh,  proTince  in  India,  22;  under  the 
Gupts^,  24;  independence  of,  442:  an- 
ntrxatiou,  640. 

Oudinot,  476,  477,  480. 

Ovando,  288. 

Orerbury,  sir  Thomas.  841. 

Ovidins  Maso,  P.,  83,  148. 

Oxenstierna,  Axel,  313,  314,  316. 

Oxford,  parliament  of  Charles  I.  at,  348. 

Oxford,  e.  of  (Harley),  lord  high  trea- 
surer, 436;  dismissed,  435;  impeodbed, 
437. 

Paehes,  GO. 

Paoiflo  Ocean,  discovered,  284. 

Facte  de  famine,  446. 

Paiz  des  dames,  808 ;  de  monsieur,  322. 

Palnoiogi,  Greek  emperors,  278. 

Falsologus,  Michael,  216. 

Palatinate,  electorate,  248;  in  the  thirty 
years'  war,  810;  division  of,  816;  war 
over  the  succession  in,  869 ;  devastation 
of,  870 ;  in  the  war  of  the  Bavarian  suc- 
cession, 406. 

Palestine,  6,  7. 

Palikao,  battle  of,  602.  662. 

Palladius,  in  Ireland.  89. 

Palm,  execution  of,  468. 

Paimerston,  lord,  in  the  Egyptian  trouble, 
401;  alliance  with  Turkey,  499;  for. 
aeo.,  home  sec,  premier,  643;  second 
ministry,  death,  6M. 

IVklmyra,  167. 

Palo  Alto,  battle  of.  664. 

Pampeluna,  siege  of,  479. 

Panama  congress,  662. 

Pandulf,  284. 

Panipat,  battles  of,  858,  448. 

Flsnnonia,  Roman  prov..  149, 167. 

Panormus,  17, 20;  battle  of,  111. 

Pansa,  144. 

Paoli,  416. 

hipaey,  origin,  176 ;  foundation  of  its  seo-* 


ban  n.,  crusades,  218-217;  contest  with 
Irederic  I. ,  221 ;  Innocent  I II . ,  228 :  Greg- 
ory  IX., strife  with  Frederic  II.,  224, 2^; 
ooonoll  of  I^ons,  226;  Adrian  IV.  gives 


Ireland  to  ilenrr  II., 282 ;  InnoeeDt  III., 
contest  with  John,  Sfi8 ;  council  of  Con- 
stance proclaims  its  superiority,  2ol; 
Boniface  VIU.,  quarrel  with  Philip 
the  Fair,  264 :  Babylonish  capUvity  in 
Avignon,  266,  263;  great  schism,  263: 
reformation,  301 ;  council  of  Trent,  806 ; 
anti-reformaUon,  806;  Alexander  VI  ^ 
Gregory  XIII.,  reform  of  calendar,  927 ; 
dispute  with  Henry  VIII.,  384;  bull  ap- 
portioning the  unrliscovered  portions  of 
the  world, 353;  Pius  VI.  and  Joseph  II., 
408 ;  Pius  VI..  seised  by  the  French,  469 ; 
concordat  of  1801, 463 ;  Pius  VII.,  seised 
by  Napoleon,  473;  receives  the  papal 
states  again,  483:  Pius  1X^492;  i«volt 
in  Rome  suppressed  by  French,  493 ; 
honorary  president  of  the  Italian  l4««fue, 
602 ;  Vatican  council  papal  infallibility, 
612 ;  temporal  power  of  the  pope  abol- 
ished. 618 :  guarantee  for  the  pope,  620  ; 
contest  with  Italy,  Prussia,  Swltserland, 
621;  Leo  XIII  .,624. 

Papal  8tate!<  founded,  184;  estates  of 
Matilda  obtained,  228;  independent  of 
the  empire,  263;  declining  prosperity, 
416;  cession  of  Bologna,  Ferrara,  the 
Romagna,  458;  transformation  into  the 
Roman  republic,  469 ;  without  Romagna, 
Bologna,  and  Ferrara  restored  to  the 
pope,  4o4 ;  incorporated  with  France, 
478;  restored  to  the  papacy,  488;  Bo- 
logna, Fenara,  Romagna,  incorporated 
with  Italy.  402 ;  patrimonium  Petri  to  be 
protected  by  Italy,  608:  patrimonium 
Petri  also  incorporated,  618. 

Paper,  improvement  in,  279. 

Paphlagonia,  21, 186. 

Papin,  I»enis,  486. 

Ftoirins  Carbo,  126, 127, 180, 131 ;  Cursor, 

Papists  disablinjp  act,  381. 

Pappenheim.  311, 312. 

Paragw,  discovery  of,  286 ;  rale  of  Fian- 

Faris,  Lutetia  Parisiomm,  occupied  by  La- 
bienus,  189 ;  court-camp  of  Childebert 
I.,  181 ;  siege  by  Otto  II.,  196;  siege  by 
the  Northmen,  201 ;  capital  of  the  Fnnek 
monarchy  {see  Laon),  202 ;  entrance  ol 
the  allies,  481;  second  capture,  484; 
siege,  617 ;  bombardment.  619 :  capitu- 
lation, 619 ;  second  siege,  680.  <See,  also, 
France. 

Paris,  peace  of  1768,  422.  439 ;  of  1788, 
481,  441 :  between  Sweden  and  France, 
473 ;  of  1814,  481 ;  of  1816, 486 ;  dosing 
the  Crimean  war,  601. 

Paris,  son  of  Priam,  47. 

Paris,  Matthew,  235. 

Paricer,  archb.  of  Canterbury,  338. 

Parliament,  in  Bngland,  the  witan,  177: 
p.  of  Simon  of  Montfort,  234 ;  taxation 
without  consent  of  p.,  illegal,  266 ;  first 
perfect  p^  267 ;  separation  into  two 
houses,  268 :  the  "  good  p.,'*  the  "  won- 
derful p.,"  269:  English  in  the  house 
of  commons,  271 :  grand  protestation 
842 ;  petition  of  right,  848 ;  scene  in  the 
commons,  318 :  no  p.  for  11  years,  844  ; 
the  "short  p.,"  346 ;  the  "  long  p.," 
346;  "Rump,'  376;    ••  Barebone-*  p.," 


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638 


Index, 


976:  lOBff  p.  diaolTtd,  178 
Its  hiiloiy,  878,  n.  ^«oDTCBttoB  p.,-' 
878;  "eaTalltf  p., ^'878;  eoBTentfcm  p.. 
886;  fint  trtonnlftl  p.,  888;  flnt  p.  of 
Great  Brltein.  484;  flnt  svpteuiUl  p., 
487 ;  Wilkes,  440 ;  epeechee  printed,  440  ; 
eoDtncton  and  rerenne  ofllcen  exelnded, 
441 ;  flnt  imperUl  p.,  £90 ;  CatboUetflnt 
Admitted,  888 ;  reform  act,  MO ;  mnnnal 
p.  demanded,  642 ;  property  qunllflcation 
abolished,  Jews  admitted,  id  raform  aet, 
644. 

Tlirliamont  of  Franco,  ezplahi«d,264 ;  mixed 
chamben,  ftM ;  mixed  chauiben  in  4  par- 
llamentA,  Kf4:  rvKinrance  of  ttie  p.  of 
Paris.  im\  p.  of  PariH  abollKbed.  but  re- 
stored, 446 :  again  abolinhcd,  44i. 

Pirliament  of  Germany,  498-496. 

Fitfma  oeded  to  Spanish  Bourfoom,  40&  416  ; 
eedod  to  Pianee,  468 ;  gl7«n  to  Napoleon's 
wife,  481 ;  incorporated  with  Sardinia, 
602. 

Pknna,  d.  oL  881,  468. 

Farmenlo,  74, 76. 

Pamell,  646. 

Parthenon,  built,  64 :  blown  up,  416. 

Parthenopsean  repubiio ,  kingdom  of  Naples 
transformed  into,  460 :  abolished,  461. 

Farthia,  on  the  plateau  of  Inn,  21 ;  rcTolt 
subdued  by  Sarlus,  27 ;  geogiaphy  of, 
29;  rerolt  under  Anaces,  29;  kingdom 
of,  wan  with  Rome,  etc.,  80;  kingdom 
of,  78 :  On«us,  140 ;  war  with  Tndao, 
168;   diasolntioii  of   monaiehj,  80,166. 

Pftrtholan,  k.  of  Ireland,  88. 

Partition  of  Poland,  I.,  411 ;  II.,  418 ;  IH., 

Partition  of  Prussia  propoeed,  404. 

Partition  treaties,  891. 

Puchal  II.,  pope,  201:  HI.,  281. 

PaskcTitch,  48»,  480,  iSb,  480. 

Ptesarowita,  peace  of,  897. 

PtMsau,  conTention  of,  806,  817. 

PMkul,894,896. 

Fatni,  masaaen  of  ,^. 

Pktriclans,  oilcin,  88,  00 ;  conflicting  Tiews 
concerning.  94 ;  conflict  with  the  plebei- 
ans, 96,  96.  97, 100 ;  create  a  new  oflice, 
bat  soon  lose  ezclusiTe  control  of  all 
ofllees,  101. 

Paul  I.,  taar  of  Busida,  466, 462,  468. 

Planl  IV.,  pope,  827. 

Plaallns,  L.  JKmiliuii,  112 ;  consul,  falls  at 
Cannn,  116 ;  the  younger,  rictory  over  the 
Lusitanlans,  118  :  detatted  Perseus,  120. 

Paulas  I>iaconuii,  186. 

I*aasantas,  60,  61,69 

Paria,  176 :  siege,  184 ;  battle  of,  808. 

reasants'  war,  in  Germany,  802. 

Pedro,  I.,  emp.  of  Brasil,  488 ;  n.,  488. 

Peel,  Robert,  home  sec.,  689 :  flist  adminis. 
tntion,640;  second  administration,  642. 

Peking,  treaty  of,  602, 648, 601. 

Pela«1uB,  188. 

Pelasgians,  48,  49. 

Pclhnm,  Ilenry,  administiatkMi,  488. 

P^liwier,  600. 

PelopidsB,  44. 

Pelopldas,  70,  71. 

Peloponnesian  war,  64-69. 

pBlunlnm,  2:  battle  of,  7,27;  taken  by 
Persians,  191. 


Penates,  84. 

Penda,  k.  of  Mania,  179. 180. 

Peninsula  caBpabrn  of  MeCleUaii,  567. 

Peninsula  War,  471,  687. 

Penn,  WUliam,  860, 877. 

Pennsylrania  gnnted   to  William   Peni^ 

869 ;  goTernment  taken  from  Penn,  882; 

new  charter  obtained  bv  Pann,  888. 
Penny  postage  in  Snglaod,  642. 
Penobscot,  »4, 800. 
Penrith,  battle  of,  488. 
Penmddock,  nbelUon  of,  876. 
'*  Pensioned.**  parliament,  878, 8BL 
Pensions,  662. 

Pentarehy  of  the  gnat  powen,  482. 
Pentland  Hills,  battle  of,  879. 
Peppenll,  William.  419. 
Pequigny,  peace  ox,  274. 
Pequot  war|287. 
Peroefal,  687. 

Ptoe  la  Chaise,  881. 

Pexgamon,  kingdom  of,  78^  124. 

Psilclet,  ziral  of  Cimon,  62 ; 
tionof.64;  death, 6& 

Purler,  486, 687;  ministzy  of,  629. 

Perioed,  60. 

Peroaes,  k.  of  Penia,  189. 

Perpema,  182, 188. 

Perpetual  peace,  819. 

Perry,  com.,  at  Yedo,  668. 

Pemeus,  k.  of  Macedonia.  78, 120. 

Persia,  geography,  24  ;  religion,  94,  8b, 
nrolt  under  Cyrus,  26 ;  old  Persian  am- 
pin, ib. ;  conquests  of  Cambyaes  and  Da. 
rius,  27 ;  administration  of  the  empira, 
28  ;  war  with  the  Gneks  of  Asia  Minor. 
ib. ;  of  Europe.  28, 66 ;  decline  and  fall  of 
the  empin,  29;  subject  to  Parthia,  80; 
new  Persian  empin  founded,  tfr.,  166, 
187;  wan  with  Rome,  190;  restored  to 
the  limlta  reached  under  Bwius,  191 ; 
conquest  by  Arabe,  192, 196. 

Persian  wan,  I.,  II.,  66;  HI.,  68;  IT., 
60. 

Pert,  rir  Thomas.  286. 

Pertinax,  Roman  emp.|164. 

Peru,  explontion  of,  286 ;  conqueat  of  by 
Plnrro,  287 ;  a  f  ne  state,  488. 

Perusia,  ciTil  war  of,  146. 

Pescennius  Niger,  166. 

PeshwA,  448.  641. 

Peter,  k.  of  An«on,  226;  III.,  2iB;  IV., 
276. 

Peter  the  Cruel,  k.  of  Castile,  war  wlttt 
268,  276. 

Peter  I.,  the  Great,  tsar  of  Russia,  874 ;  i« 
England,  888  ;  war  with  Charles  Xll^k. 
of  Sweden,  894,  886,  896,  410;  II.,  OO; 
III.,  406. 411. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  20O,  219. 

Peter  de  la  Mara,  299. 

Peter  dee  Roches,  284. 

Peter  de  VInea,  226. 

Peterboroagfa,  lord,  484. 

Peterborough,  sack  of,  204. 

Peterloo.    Set  Manchester  1_. 

Peterwardein,  battle  of,  897. 

Potion,  461, 464. 

Petition  of  Right,  848. 

Pstnrca,  ITxancesco,  263 


Uigitized  Dy  ^ 


joogle 


hkdex. 


639 


P«fen,fiitiMr,884. 

P»«nliu,  141, 142. 

Peuronlns  Mazinms,  BoBUUi  emp.,  10L 

Pfaflendorf ,  batU«  of,  406. 

Pharaoh,  2,  n. 

Phulie8t,U. 

Pharnabums,  68.  70. 

PhaniacM,  142, 148. 

Phanalns,  battle  of,  141. 

PhldiM,  64. 

Philadelphia,  foundation  ot  860 ;  oeenpiejl 

by  British,  OTaciiated,  429;  centennial 

ezhibicioQ  at,  660. 
Philadelphia,  bnrning  of  the  flrlgate,  548. 
PhiljBni,  altan  of,  U. 
Philip,  d.  of  Anjou.    St€  Philip  Y.,  k.  of 

Spain. 
PhlUp  the  Fkir,  arehd.  of  Aaitria,  268, 

Philip  the  Sold,  d.  of  Burgundy,  268 ;  the 
Oo^,268.  B     -^.        . 

Philip  I.,  k.  of  Fiance,  206, 226;  II.,  A%- 
gustui,  cnuade,  216;  BooTlnes,  228; 
rdgn,  226 ;  Intr^snes  against  Richard  of 
■ngland,  282:  trouble  orer  Ingebord, 
286^;  IIL, ie  Hardi,  264 ;  lY.,  («  ife<,  264 ; 
v.,  icL<mr,  266;  VI.,  257. 

Philip,  landgr.  of  Heam,  804, 805. 

PhiUp,  k.  of  Macedonia,  H ;  V.,  k.,  war 
with  Rome,  116,  118;  with  Antioehua, 
119. 

Philip,  d.  of  Orleans.    See  Orleans. 

Philip  II.,  k.  of  Spain,  war  with  Henrr 
II.,  of  France,  821 ;  claim  to  French 
erown,  824:  reign,  880;  in.,  881;  IV., 
881;  v.,  dafan urged  by  Louis  XIV.,  881; 
war  of  Spanish  succession  882;  recog- 
nlHd  in  Spain,  898 ;  claimant  for  Aus* 
trian  succession,  400 ;  lelgn,  414. 

Philip  of  Swmbia,  emp.  of  the  IL  R.  E., 

Philip,  king,  IndUn  chief.  869. 
Philiphaugh,  battie  of,  848. 
Phillppi,  founded,  71 ;  battle  of,  145. 
Philippics  of  Demosthenes,  72;  of  Cicero, 

Philippus  Arabs,  Roman  emp.,  166, 188. 

PhilisUnes,  7,  8, 14. 

Phlloerates,  peace  of,  7X 

Philomelus,  i2. 

Philopoemen,  80. 

Phips,  sir  Wm^goT.  of  Mats.,  861. 

Phocseans ,  19,  26. 

Phodon,  70,  79. 

Phabidas,  70. 

Phoenicia,  Phcenldans,  ezpedltioiis  of  Ba- 
messu  I.,  6;  war  of  Fsamethik  I.,  8; 
subject  to  TtglaCh-Pileser  I.,  14:  geog- 
raphy, 16 ;  religion.  16, 17 ;  constitution 
of  the  cities,  17 ;  Sidon's  greatest  power, 
tfr.;  Toy  ages  and  oolonies,  tb.,*  rise  of 
Tyre,  18:  foundation  of  Carthage,  ib.f 
decline  of  Phoenician  cities,  19 ;  subject 
to  Assyria,  B^pt,  Babylon,  Persia,  ib. ; 
to  Maoedon,  %e  Seleuddae,  the  Ptole* 
mies.  20;  retains  native  rulers  under 
PWBia,  26, 37 :  P.  refuse  to  assint  Camby- 
sea  against  Carthage,  27;  reTolc  snp- 
preeaed  by  Artaxenes  III.,  29;  ncTor 
Tlsited  Britain,  87. 

Phxaates,  name  of  sereral  Fuihlan  kings, 
1^29;  U.,  80;  III., first  war  with  Rome, 


I  SilTius. 


80;  IV.,  attsAked  by  AataifaM,  80. 

with  Augustus,  148. 
Phnortes,  16, 26. 
Phxatries,  64. 
Phrizos,  46. 
Phxygia,  21,  22. 
Phylae,  46,  64. 
Piacenaa,  416.  467. 
Piasts,  Poland  under  the,  277. 
Piceolomini,  818,  814.    See  Jin 
Picenum,  81,  88, 14L 
Pichegru,  465, 466, 468,  466. 
Pledmoni,  settled  by  Celts,  conquered  by 

Rome,  86,  118 ;  under  the  Bast  Goths, 

174;  under  the  Langobards,  176,   con- 

Siiered  by  Charles  the  Great,  184 ;  Caro- 
ngians  in,  198;  Otto  I.  conquers  Be- 
rengar  of  Inea,  196,  196;  Henry  II. 
oonquers  Ardoin,  197;  Lombard  league 
and  Frederio  Baibaiossa,  219-222 ;  Fred- 
eric I.,  224 ;  diTkled  into  small  states, 
202 ;  under  dukes  of  SaTov,  827 ;  who 
became  kings  of  Saiidlnia,  415 ;  Napoleon 
occupies  P..  468 ;  Cisalpine  republic,  469 ; 
abolished  480;  restated,  482:  Italian  xe- 
pttbUc,464;  Napoleon,  k.  of  Italy,  467; 
ceded  to  France,  467;  Lombardo- Vene- 
tian kingdom  ceded  to  Austria,  488  ;  reT- 
olutionaxy  moyements,  487 ;  war  between 
Austria  and  Sardinia,  494;  interrentlon 
of  France,  Austrians  expelled,  602,  608. 

Pierce,  FrankUn.  656. 

Piers  Plowman,  268. 

Pignerol  ceded  to  France,  826. 

Pilgrims,  294. 

Pillnlta,  conference,  461 :  defliimtfim  462. 

Pllpay,fU>lesof,  19L 

Pindar.  78. 

Ptaierolo,  paeifleation  of,  877, 

Pinto  in  Japan,  856. 

PlnaoD  Vincent  Y&nes,  284. 

Pipin,  d^Heristal.  188 ;  the  Small,  k.  of  the 
Franks,  176, 184. 

Pirwus,  fortifled,  68, 61,  64;  blockade  of, 

Pirates,  war  against,  184. 

Pisa,  conquered  by  Genoa,  268;  council 
of,25L 

Pislstratus,  64. 

FIsiioria,  battle  of,  187. 

Pitt,  William,  the  elder.     See  Chatham. 

Pitt,  William  the  younger,  sketch  of  life, 
441 :  first  adminlstradon,  442,  585  ;  sec- 
ond administration,  686 ;  death,  687. 

Plus  IL,  pope,  253  ;  VI ,  407 :  VII.,  con- 
secrated Napoleon  I.,  466;  imprisoned, 
478 ;  returned  to  Rome,  488 ;  IX.,  at- 
tempted reforms  ol,  492 :  death,  624. 

Pitarro,  Francisco,  286,  287. 

Piacida,  161. 

Plague  in  Germany,  248 ;  in  London,  879 

Plains  of  Abraham,  battle  of,  421 

Plantagenet,  house  of,  28L 

Plawey,  battle  of,  448. 

Platieae,  battle  of,  00 ;  sunenden,  06. 

Plato,  68. 

Plebeians,  traditional  origin,  89;  true  ori- 
gin, 90,  91.  92;  admitted  to  senate,  94; 
rontest  with  patricians,  96;  tribunes, 
96;  comitia  tributa,  96^  97;  seoei  ' 
96 ;  one  plebeian  eonaul,  101 ;  all  c 
opened  to,  101, 107. 


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640 


index. 


PleniA,  eaptoM  of,  822. 

Plinioi,  the  eldtt,  162. 

PHstoanaz.  68. 
'  Plon-Plon/'  408, 684. 

Plovden,  Bir  Bdward,  298. 

Plunkett.  ezeoation  of,  882. 

Plymouth,  oooncil  of,  294;  flurrenden 
charter,  297 ;  eettlement  of,  in  New  Eng- 
land, ik.  * 

Plymouth  Gompany,  291, 2B6. 

Pocahontas,  29i: 

Poisehwiit,  armlrtlee  of,  478. 

Poitiers,  battle  of  (Oharlee  BCartel),  188 ; 
(Black  Prince).  268. 

Poltou,  acquired  by  England,  226,  281, 

Poland,  kingdom  formed,  168  ;  war  with 
Henry  n.,197;  with  Conrad  II.;  sub- 
mits to  empire.  196;  under  the  Plasts, 
united  with  lithuania,  277 :  Jagallons  : 
P.  an  eleetlTe  monarchy,  86^ ;  elector  of 
Saxonr,  k.  of  P.,  872 ;  republic,  874 ; 
Stanislaus,  k.,  896;  truce  of,  897;  war 
of  the  Polish  suoceesion,  898,  414 ;  first 
division,  4U:  second,  418;  third,  414; 
kingdom  of,  488 ;  reTolntion  In  400. 

Pole,  Michael  de  la.  209. 

Pole,  Reginald,  card.«886, 888. 

Polignae  miniitrY,  627. 

Polk,  James  K.,  664. 

Pollentia,  battle  at.  17L 

Polo,  Alaroo,  242,  2&2. 

Polycrates  of  Samos,  7. 

Polygnotus,  64. 

Polysperohon,  76. 

Pombal,  marquis  of,  4tf . 

Pomerania,  eztinctioii  of  the  ducal  house, 
814 ;  glTcn  to  Sweden  and  Brandenburg, 
816 ;  lost  br  Sweden,  Hither  P.  giren  to 
Prussia,  896 ;  Hither  P.  ceded  to  Den- 
mark, 479  ;  to  Prussb,  482. 

Pompadour,  marquise  de,  408, 446. 

Pompeii,  88, 162. 

PompeiusjAfoignMs).  subjected  the  Jews  to 
Aome  11;  consul,  129;  joined  Bulla, 
131;  war  with  Sertorius,  188;  defeats 
the  pirates,  184;  command  in  Asia,  186 ; 
first  triumvirate,  187 ;  consul,  140 ;  de- 
feat at  Pharsalus,  141 ;  death,  142, 148 ; 
Sertus  escaped  to  Spain,  Iti;  repulsed 
C«&mr,  148 ;  treaty  with  triumTlrs,  146 ; 
defeated  and  died,  146. 

Ponce  de  Leon.  284. 

Pondicherrl,  448. 

PoniatowsU,  413. 

Poncefract,  castle  of,  270. 

Pontiac,  conspiracy  of,  428. 

Pontifices,  college  of,  86. 

Pontius  GaTius,  106,106. 

Pontus,  kingdom  of ,  78 :  first  Mithrldatlo 
war,  129;  second,  182;  third,  184;  P. 
Roman  prorlnce,  186. 

Poona,  confederacy  of,  448. 

Poor-law  amendment  act,  640. 

Pope,  Alexander,  486. 

Popfaam,  Qeorge,  298. 

Popillius  Lsenas,  12L 

Popish  plot,  881. 

Popllcola,  L.  Valerius,  98. 

Poppna  Sabina,  160. 

Populonia,  battle  of,  107. 

Porrex,  k.  of  Britain,  87. 


Porsena  of  Clusinm,  96. 

Port  Royal,  foundation  of ,290 ;  rased  b^ 
Algal,  292 ;  captured  by  Phipe,  861 ;  by 
English,  86a 

Portcous  riots  in  Edinburgh,  488. 

Portland,  d.  of,  administration,  637. 

Porto  Bello  captured  by  Vernon,  488. 

Portocarrero,  canL,  391. 

Portugal  granted  to  ilenry,  count  of  Boiv 
gundy,  240;  his  son  becomes  king  of 
Portugal,  ib. ;  P.  reaches  its  greatei4 
power,  dlscoTeries,  and  settlements,  27d, 
^ ;  Portuguese  In  India,  864 ;  Emman- 
uel the  Great ;  Spanish  province ;  revolt, 
882,  898;  house  of  Bragansa;  earth- 
quake of  Lisbon,  416;  refuses  to  join 
eondnental  system ;  occu]ried  by  French, 
470 ;  peninsula  war,  471 ;  revoiatlon,  488. 

Poscherun,  treaty  of,  476. 

Potemkin,412,41& 

Potocki,  Felix  and  Ignas,  418. 

Potosi,  mines  of,  288. 

Poutrinoourt.  290. 

Powhattan,  291. 

Poyning's  law.    Su  statute  of  Dxogheda. 

PrsBmunire,  statute  of,  269,  270. 

PrsBtorship.  established,  101 ;  first  ple- 
beian, 102 ;  limit  of  age  for,  120  \  num- 
ber of,  122 ;  pro-pnetors,  122. 

Pragmatic  sanction  of  St.  Louis,  of  France, 
m ;  of  Charles  VTI.,  revoked,  260 ;  of 
the  emp.  Charles  VI.,  898. 408. 


Prague,  battle  of,  404 ;  conipaet  of,  2 
ogress  at,  476 ;  peace  of,  814, 610 ;  i 
vernty  of.  founded,  248;   secession  of 


cong 


;  uni- 


at,  476;  peace  c 

T«»ti.j  of.  founded,  24o,   ix>w«i>nvu  v. 

Germans,  251 ;  lectures  in  Cieehish  lan- 
guage established,  626. 
Presbyterians,  860. 
President,  engagement  with  the  Little  Belt, 

661. 
Premburg,  anti-Jewish  riots,  626 ;  peace  of, 

467. 
Preston,  426. 
Preston,  battle  of,  487. 
Preston  Pans,  battle  of,  861, 488. 
Pretender,  old  P.,  487 ;  young  P.,  488. 
Priam,  47. 
Pride's  Purge,  85L 
Prie,  marquise  de,  44& 
Prim,  murdered,  612. 
Prince  Edward's  Island,  287. 
Princes  in  the  Tower,  murder  of,  275. 
Princeton,  battle  of,  428;  foundation  of 

college  at,  419. 
Pring,  llartin,  290. 
Printing,  invention  of.  211, 263»  279. 
ProbuR,  Roman  emp.,  167. 
Proconsuls,   the  flrst^  106;    prooonsulai 

provinces,  128. 
Propertiu8,S.,148. 
Property  qualification  abolished,  644. 
Prophets  in  Israel,  9. 
Pro-prsBtors,  122. 
Proscriptions,  under  SuUik   182;  vnda 

the  second  triumvirate,  146. 
Protectorate  in  England,  876. 
Protestant  union,  Sl6. 
Protestants,  808. 
Providence,  foundation  of,  297. 
Providence  Plantations,  charter  of,  86& 
Provisions  of  Oxford,  284. 
Prusias,  78, 120. 


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641 


fnml«  (m«  alM>  Bninde»bin|fX  Inhabited 
by  Wendfl,  168 ;  conquered  hj  the  Teu- 
tonic order,  218,277 ;  Wefit  Prumia  ceded 
to  PoUnd,  277 ;  refornwtion  in,  Albert 
of  Brandenburg  becomes  d.  of  P.  under 
Polish  Huseniintj.8U2;  elector  of  Bran- 
denbun  beoomea  k.  of  Prussia,  872,  878; 
P.  obtauB  NeuchAtel,  and  upner  Quel* 
den,  relinquishes  claims  upoti  o-niTitr^  to 
France,  898;  cessions  from  S^v^l^Ji^u,  396; 
P.  under  Frederic  the  Qt^\.  4m.>^08; 
claims  upon  Silesia,  400;  prcyx^-E^d  ^j^rti- 
tlon  of  P.,  404;  SUeela  rec.iiri'U  ^06; 
■hares  in  the  partition  of  I'oLiujd,  Ul, 
413,  414;  Joins  first  ooall^Lim  n^Ainst 
France,  462;  alliance  with  I'^u^hmd, 
456;  peace  of  Basle,  457;  iNl-Dmitlca- 
tlons,  465;  treaty  with  NainLeoa.  467; 
not  in  the  coniederaev  of  tTtt^  Tthine, 
468 ;  war  with  France,  «58 ;  ptuc<;  c.  lil- 
iiit.  470;  reform  of  the  state  and  army. 
47l ;  war  of  liberation,  475 ;  congress  of 
Vienna,  482 ;  recelTes  Siiarbriicken,  486; 
Zotfreretn,491 ;  united  Landtag,  492 ;  up- 
rising in  Berlin,  482;  Schleswlg-Hol- 
•tein,  496 :  offer  of  German  crown  to 
king  of  Prussia,  497 ;  rerirad  constitu- 
tion, 497 ;  conference  of  Oim'dts,  496 ; 
William  I.,  608;  constitutional  conflict, 
Bismarck,  604;  war  with  Denmark, 
605;  with  Austria,  607-610 ;  Luxemburg 
question,  611;  war  with  France,  613- 
620 ;  king  of  Pmseia  Qerman  emp. ,  519 : 
number  of  votes  in  the  Buwiesrath.  520 ; 
May  laws,  civil  marriage,  521 ;  alliance 
with  Austria,  626 ;  royal  rescript  of  Jan., 
1882, 626. 

Pruth,  peace  of  the,  896. 

Prynne,  William,  844. 

Prytanles,  66. 

Psamethik,  ks.  of  Egypt:  I.  revolted 
against  Assyria,  6, 15;  II.,  6;  III.,  de- 
feated by  Oambyses,  7- 

Psammeticufl.    See  Psamethik  I. 

Pseudo-Philippus,  122;  8merdis,27. 

Pteria,  battle  at,  21,  26. 

Ptoleinais.     See  Acre. 

Ptolemies,  kings  of  ^gypt,  11,  20,  74,  76, 
77,  142. 

Public  peace,  80O. 

PubliUus  Philo,  102, 106. 

Pugacheff,  412. 

Pul,  Chaldean  king,  18. 

Pulaski,  death  of,  480. 

Pultowa,  battle  of,  895. 

Pultusk,  battle  of,  895. 

Punic  wars,  I.,  109 ;  II.,  85, 118 ;  IH.,  121. 

Punits,  battle  of,  396. 

Punjab,  22;  invaded  by  Alexander,  28; 
conquered  by  Groeco-Bactrian'<.  •&./  by 
Scythians,  24,  241 ;  annexed,  646. 

Pupienus  Maximus,  156. 

Pnrandocht,  reign  of  J[92. 

Puritans  In  America,  i296  ;  in  England,  846. 

Putnam,  general,  428. 

Pattkamer,  v.,  525. 

Pydna,  bnttlo  of,  120. 

Pygmalion,  of  Tyre,  18. 

Pylos.  66. 

Pym,  John,  M.  P..  841:  imprisoned,  842 ; 
impeach<>d.  316:  death,  848. 

Pyramids,  3;  buttle  of  the,  460. 


Pyrcneea,  battle  of,  479?  peaee  of  ihe^ 

866. 
Pyrrhus,  k.  of  Briuin,  87. 
Pyrrhus,  k    of  Epirus,  aids  the  Synum- 

sans,  20;  war  with  the  Romans,  107- 

109 ;  death,  108. 
Pytheas  of  MaMilia,  87, 167. 
Pythian  festival,  42. 

Quadi,  war  with  Rome,  164. 

QuHdruple  alliance,  897.  487, 446. 

Qusestiones  perpetun,  122. 

Quaestors  appointed,  98 ;  two  more  added. 

99;    accompany    pro-praeton,  122;    20 

qnsdstois,  182. 
Quaker  Hill,  battle  of,  480. 
Quatre-Bras,  batUe  of,  484. 
Quebec,  founded,  299 :  taken  by  the  Kertk«, 

299;  surrendered  to  the  English,  422; 

besi^  In  vain  by  Amoldr427 ;  battle 

Queen  Anne's  bounty,  484 ;  war,  868, 866 

Queenstown,  battle  of,  651. 

Qoiberon  Bay.  battle  of,  489. 

Quincy .  Joeiah,  426. 

Quito,  287. 

Quiviia,  287. 

Rabelals,819. 

Racine,  871. 

Radagais,  171. 

Radetski.  494.  628. 

Radowits,  497,  498. 

Radxlvil,  490. 

RsBdwald,  k.  of  East  AngUa,  179. 

Rstia,  148, 167. 

Raf  n,  descripton  of  Vinland,  28L 

Ragas,  battle  of,  268. 

Raglan,  lord,  600. 

Ragnarok,  166. 

Railroads,  invention,  486:  in  the  United 

States,  486,  652. 
Rain,  battle  of,  812. 
Rajputana,  22  ;  conquered  by  Akbar,  864; 

unsuccessful  wars  of  Aurangxeb  in,  889 ; 

independent,  442. 
Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  grant  of  Virginia.  289 ; 

expedition  to  Ouiana,  290 ;  expedition  to 

llie  Orinoco  and  ezeentlon  841. 
Ramannarari,  14. 
Ramayana,  Indian  epic.  28. 
Rambouillet  decree,  560. 
Ramessu,  k.  of  Ib^pt,  IT.,  the  Greek  Seeoe- 

tris,  6 ;  III..  Rhampsinitus,  6. 
Ramillies,  battle  of,  392,  484. 
Ramses.     S^e  Ramessu  II. 
Randolph,  Edward,  361 ;  Peyton,  426. 
Raphael,  Santi,  827. 
Rastadt,  peace  of,  894 ;  congress  of,  459 : 

diMoludon,461. 
Ratisbon.     See  Kegen^burg. 
Raucoux,  battle  of,  402. 
Ravaillao,  825. 
Ravenna,  imperial   residence,  161  ;    red 

dence  of  Theodore,  174 ;  battle  of,  818. 
Recimir,  162. 

RiHsiprocity  treaty.  648, 666. 
Recoinage  act,  8^. 
Reconstruction  act,  659. 
Redan,  storm  of  the.  601. 
Reform  act,  first,  bw ;  Scotch,  640 ;  second 

644 


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Dtlioa,  bi|fiiBlBK  of,  801 ;  tr«  Aw- 
1,  885 ;  In  Fnnee,  821 ;   IntHMlueed 

Into  GcneTS  by  Cmlrfn,  8M ;  la  8wltnr> 

Und,  801. 
Bofgnubmg,  foanded,  107,  216;  eleotoml 

MMinbljr  at,  811 :  pennaDeni  diet  at,  816, 

871;bam«of,471.  . 
itegUltiB,  battle  of,  06. 
RmuIiu.  M.  Atillns,  110,  111,  112. 
B^henMeh,  battle  of,  400 ;  conf erBnoe  at, 

406:  treaty  of,  476. 
Reich«deputatloii«haiiptMthliiH,  464. 
Belchnhofen,  battle  of ,616. 
RetckukamiMrgexicht,  800. 
Relohetac,  Oerman.  611,  680,  686. 
Reign  of  terror,  464. 
Bekenlts,  battie  of,  196. 
Bemigios,  b.  of  Rheinu,  174. 
Renae,  eleetoial  meeting  at,  248. 
Bepublie  of  the  8«Ten  Ionian  lalaadi.   Bm 

Ionian  laiandi. 
ReirabUoan  party  In  U.  8.,  648;  tn  Fnaet, 

Sepnblioe  founded  by  the  Vreneh  daring 
the  rerolnUon:  Batayiaa,  466:  GiaJ- 
pine,  468;  HelTetian,  460;  Ugnriaa, 
460;  Farthenopnan,  460;  Roman,  468. 
[Seren  Ionian  Island*,  founded  by  Raa> 
■ia,461.] 

Ruwii  latum  ecclesiaiitieum,  806. 810. 

ReatoraUon  of  the  Boarbou,  481,  484,  £26, 
627 ;  of  the  Btuarts,  878. 

Resumption  of  specie  payments,  660. 

Reutlingen,  battle  of,  260. 

Resolution,  Ameriam,  426 :  Selgian^  408 
of  1880,  480  ;  Central  Amenean,  488 
Englisk,  I..  847,876;  U.,8e4;  Frenek, 
I.,l47;  II.  (July),  629;  III.  (Feb.).  680^ 
IV.  (Sept.),  617;  German,  482:  Greek, 
488;  ^iigarta»,494:  /lo/ion,  480, 498 
602;  J4v>ane$e,  663;  PoUsk,  490,  606 
Portuguese,  488:  South  Amerieon,  488 
apanuk,  488,  612. 

RaTolutlonary  tribunal.  468. 

Resonirllle,  battle  of,  616. 

Rhampsinitus.     See  Ramessu  m. 

Rh4,  Isle  of,  848. 

Rhett,  William,  868. 

Rhine  cities,  league  of,  248. 

Rhode  Island,  colony,  founded,  297  ;  pe- 
tition of,  to  be  admitted  to  the  colonial 
union  rejected,  857 ;  charter,  858 ;  gOT- 
emment,  881, 8C2;  accepted  the  eonstt- 
tution  of  I).  S.,  647;    Dorr  rebellion, 

ftUodes,  ooloniied  by  Phoenicians,  17t  41 ; 
Independent,  78  ;  Roman  province,  79 ; 
war  with  Antlochus  III.,  119, 120;  cao- 
tured  by  Persians,  191 ;  g^yen  to  knights 
of  St.  John,  lost  to  Turks,  217. 

Ribanlt,  Jean,  288. 

Rlod,  Jesuit  general,  416. 

Richard  of  Clare,  e.  of  Leinster,  282. 

Richard  of  Cornwall,  elected  emp.  of  H.  R. 
B.,226. 

Richard  I.,  OoeuxMie-JUon,  k.  of  Bngland, 
crusade,  216 :  imprisoned,  216 ;  released, 
228 ;  war  with  fliilip  Augustus,  226 
reign  In  England,  288  i  II.,  260,  270 

Richard,  d.  of  ToeIe,  27L 

RioheUeu,  card.,  in  thirty  yean^  war,  811, 


814;  admlnistimtioii,  SS5;  d.  of,  487 
ministry,  627. 

Richmond,  surrender  of,  668.  

Richmond,  e.  of,  275.  Sm  Bmaj  VII, 
k.  of  England. 

Ridley,  8W. 

Ried,  treaty  of,  478. 

Rlend,  Cola  di,  268. 

Riga,  siege  of,  474. 

Rimnlk,  battle  of,  418. 

Rio  de  la  Plata,  discoTety,  286. 

Ripon,  marq.  of,  viceroy  of  India,  681^ 

Ripon,  treaU  of,  846. 

Rivers,  e.  of,  execution,  274. 

Riulo  murdered,  888. 

Roanoke  Island,  colony,  288. 

Robeiiot,  murder  of.  46L 

Robert  of  Belesme,  280. 

Robert,  c.  of  Clermont,  824. 

Robert,  d.  of  France,  proclaimed  k.,  tti 

Robert  I.,  k  of  Fiance,  208. 

Robert,  d.  of  Normandy,  114,  UQ. 

Robert  Guiscard,  200. 

Roberval,  gov.  of  Canada,  287,  288. 

Robespierre,  member  of  the  Jaeobtais,  461 : 
in  the  convention,  468  c  at  the  head  of 
the  reign  of  terror,  4M :  emshes  the 
moderates  and  radicals,  4o6 ;  ortrthrow 
and  execution,  466. 

Robinson,  John,  284. 

Rochambeau,  480,  462. 

Roche,  marquis  de  la,  290. 

Rochefort,  612. 

Rochester,  e.  of,  882,  8B8. 

Rockingham,  first  admfaiistratioa,42l,440: 
second,  481,  441. 

Rocroy,  batUe  of,  866. 

Rodnev,  441. 

Roe,  sur  Thomas,  864. 

Koeskild,  peace  of,  878. 

Roger  Il^k.  of  the  Two  Sidliti,  218. 

RMers,  wood,  cant.,  417. 

Rohan,  oard.,  44<. 

Roland,  death  of,  18& 

Roland,  madame.  executed,  466. 

Roldsn,  revolt  of,  288. 

Rolf, 208;  siege  of  Flois  by,201;  flfst  d. 
of  Normandy,  202. 

Roman  republic,  proclaimed,  469 :  abol- 
ished, 461. 

Romanow,  house  of.  858, 874. 

Rome,  geography,  81;  religion,  84:  ath* 
nogtaphy ,  8o ;  origin,  my thioal  and  real, 
87 ;  the  kings  in  Icsend,  88 :  In  history. 
90;  constitution,  91 ;  republic,  eonstitu- 
tion,  98 ;  patricians  and  plebeians,  95 ; 
decemvirs,  98;  conquest  by  the  Gauls, 
85,  98 ;  equalisation  of  the  old  orders, 
100 ;  Samnite  and  Latin  warn,  l<t4,  105, 
106 ;  war  with  Tarentnm,  conquest  ox 
Italy,  107 :  Punic  war,  I.,  109:  II.,  118; 
Hannibal  in  Italv,  114-117 ;  Macedonian 
wars,  116, 118, 120, 121 ;  war  with  Antlo- 
chus, 119;  Punic  war,  TIL,  destruction 
of  Carthsffe,  121 ;  de«truetion  of  Corinth, 
122;  provinces  of  Rome.  122:  civil  dis- 
turbances, the  Gracchi,  124 ;  Jugurthian 
war,  126:  Gimbri  and  Ttoutones.  127; 
Mithridattc  wars,  129, 188, 184;  llarius 
and  Sulla,  180 ;  conservative  refonns  d 
Sulla,  182 ;  war  with  the  gladlatom,  188; 
with  the  pizatea,  184;   ocganiaatSon  c| 


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AsU,l»;  CfttUiii«,186;Clo»o,187:  lit 
triiunTlxftte.  187 ;  oonqnest  of  (Hal,  188 ; 
oiTil  war,  l40 :  oonitttution  nndMr  Gienr, 
148 ;  anusination  of  CsBMr,  144 :  ad  tri- 
mnTiiatef  146  :  war  batween  OetaTianiu 
«nd  Antoiaius,  146 :  OetaTiaiiiu  ruler  and 
emperor,  147 ;  Julian  emperors,  147-151 ; 
FlaTian,  161 ;  the  good  emperors,  16S- 
164  :  emperon  appointed  by  the  soUUerB, 
154;  AnreUan,  167;  Diocletian,  158; 
Constantino,  160 ;  dlTision  of  the  empire 
into  the  eastern,  or  Greek,  and  the  wesi> 
am  empire,  161 :  fail  of  the  western  em- 
pire, 162 ;  Persian  wan,  187. 188 ;  Fkr- 
thian  wan,  9i.  See  Holy  Roman  Xm- 
pire,  and  Bastem  Bmnira. 

Borne  (the  city)*  demsTibed,  82;  founded, 
87  ;  Cloaen,  Eierrian  wall,  89 ;  sacked  by 
Ganls,  100;  fire  in,  under  Nero,  161; 
aaoked  by  Alarie,  171 ;  by  the  Vandals, 
178:  seat  of  the  papaey,17S;  Pipin  pa- 
tricius,  184 ;  Charles  the  Great  erowned 
In,  186 ;  Amulf,  IM ;  Otto  I.,  196 ;  fiBd- 
erio  III.  (iy.)t  lu^  emp.,  erowned  in 
Home,  268;  saeked  by  the  army  of  the 
constable  of  Bourbon,  808;  occupied  by 
the  Trench,  459,  478;  return  of  pope. 
482 :  occupied  by  French,  608 ;  captured 
by  Italians,  518 ;  capital  of  Italy,  620. 

Bomulus  and  Remus,  87. 

Romulus  Aucustulus,  Roman  emp.,  168. 

Ronceraux,  186. 

Rooke,  sir  Georae,  484. 

Roeamunda,  176. 

Roses,  wan  of  the,  372. 

Rosny.    See  Sully. 

Roesbach.  battle  of,  404. 

Rostim,8i  lOi. 

Rotbari,  176. 

Rouher,  512. 

Roum,  sultanate  of.  210. 

Ronmania,  independent,  594 ;  kingdom,  634. 

Roumanian  language,  168. 

Roundheads,  860. 

Roundway  Down,  battle  of,  847. 

Rousseau,  448. 

RoyaUsts,  860. 

Rudolf,  arehd.  of  Austria,  M9. 

Rudolf,  of  Burgundy,  k.  of  franee,  202. 

Rudolf  in.,  k.  of  Burgundy  (Aries),  be- 
qaeaths  kinsdom  to  Henry  IT.,  106. 

Rudolf  I.,  of  llapebuxg,  emp.  of  H.  R.  E., 
nign,244;  II.,  reign,  806. 

Rudolf,  of  Rheinfeld,  d.  of  Swabia,  199 ; 
anti-kinc  of  Germany,  900. 

Rndolflan  Tine.  816w 

Ruel,  treaty  of,  866. 

Rallianus,  102, 106. 

Rump  parliament,  in  England,  851,  876 ; 
in  Germany,  486. 

Rupert,  count  palatine,  260.  251. 

Hupert,  pr.,  at  Rdgehill,847;  at  Manton 
Moor,  M8 ;  in  cabinet.  880. 

Rorik,  house  of,  276.  8&i 

Russell,  adm.     See  Orford. 

Rnisell,  lord,  executed,  882. 

Russell,  lord  John,  5^;  home  sec.,  640; 
lint  ministiy  of,  548  :  foreign  sec.,  548; 
earl  Russell,  544 ;  second  ministry,  544. 

Russia,  Swedes  subjugate  the  BUts  around 
NoTgorod,  206;  R.  under  the  Mongols, 
241;  under  the  hoose  of  Rurik,  rise  of 


Moieow,  276 ;  hooH  of  Rnrlk 
by  that  of  Romaaow,  863;  Peter  the 
Gnat,  874 ;  war  with  Charles  XII..  894 ; 
peace  of  Nystadt,  897 :  eeren  yean*  war, 
408;  Sliaabeth  succeeded  by  Peter  IIL, 
Frederic's  friend,  406;  Catherine  II., 
neutral,  406;  war. with  Sweden,  409; 
house  of  Holstein-Oottorp  in  K.,  411; 
the  partition  of  Poland,  411,  418,  414;  . 
peace  of  Kutsehouc  Kalnardji,  412;  Pnnl 
I. ,  459 ;  R.  in  the  second  coalition  against 
Trtace,  460 :  Suwaroir  In  Italy  and  Bwit- 
aerlaad,  461:  Alexander  I.,  468;  third 
coalition,  467;  war  with  France  in  alli- 
ance with  Prussia,  468 ;  peace  of  Tilait, 
470 ;  war  with  France,  474 :  burning  ox 
Moscow,  476 ;  aUUmoe  of  Kaliseh  with 
Prussia,  476;  receites  Warsaw  at  the 
eoDgnss  of  Vienna,  488;  Nicholas  4., 
488:  war  with  Turkey,  487;  peace  of 
Adrlanople,  489 :  rerolt  in  Poland,  490; 
alUanoe  of  1840,  491;  interrenUon  In 
Hungary,  496 :  Crimean  war,  409;  peace 
of  Paris,  601 ;  TurkUh  troubles,  681 ; 
war  with  Turkey,  682 ;  peace  of  San  Sta- 
fano,  688 ;  oengress  of  Berlin,  621 ;  Alex- 
ander III.,  626 ;  Nihilisto,  690. 

Rwitchock,  battle  at,  47& 

Rat,  John,  286. 

RatU,  oath  on  the,  246. 

Rnyter,  de,  868, 876,  879. 

Rydesdale,  WUUam  of,  272. 

Ryswick,  peace  of,  868, 871. 

8a>ad  Ibu  Abl  Wakas,  102. 
Saalfeld,  battle  of,  469. 
8aUll]ans,86. 
Sablnea,   Sabine      , 

Rome,  89 ;  subjunited,  107. 
8acheTereU,Dr.,486. 
Saddncees,  11. 
Sadowa,  batUe  of,  609. 
Baghalen,  ceded  to  Russia,  82,  n.  8. 
Saguntum,  siege  of,  118. 
8i£s,  in  India,  210. 
aaTf,19a 

St.  Albans,  battlea  of,  272. 
St  Aldegonde,  880L 

St.  Augustine,  castle  of,  289 ;  siege  of,  4UL 
St.  Bartholomew,  night  ol,  82L 
St.  Clair,  defeat  of7647. 
8t.  Claire  sur  Epte,  trea^  of,  902. 
St.  Denis,  517. 
St.  Rsprit,  mlsikm  of,  864 
St  Bstienne  de  la  Tour^^SOQL 
St  Germain,  peace  of,  821 ;  treaty  of.  800. 
St  Germain-en-Laye,  trsaty  of,  868, 874. 
St  Gotthard,  battle  of,  872 ;  railroad,  62& 
St  Ignatius,  massaon  at,  867. 
St  Jacob,  batUe  of.  25& 
St  John,  Henry,  dismissed  from  the  eabi. 

net,  484 ;  sec.  of  state,  485 ;  created  Tieo^ 

Bolingbroke,  q.  t. 
St  John,  OliTcr,  841. 
St.  John,  knights  of,  217. 
St.  John  Riyer,  disooTery  of;  290. 
9t  JuMt,  464,  456. 

St  Lawrence,  discoTeiy  of,  284, 287. 
St  Leger,  428. 

St  Louis,  settlement  of,  866. 
St.  Lucia,  ceded  to  the  English,  421. 
St  Mary,  mission  of,  804. 


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644 


Index. 


%L  PMriok,  8B. 

Bt.  Pvtenburg,  foundatioii  of,  8861  patee 

of,  406,  474. 
St.  PxiTftt,  bftttl«  of,  616. 
St  Quendn,  baUle  of,  821,  888, 619. 
St.  Rath,  gon.,  887. 
St  Sarior,  ooloay  of,  292. 
St  Vincent,  ceded  to  EngliBh,  422. 
SaUutin,  216. 

Salamanca,  battle  of,  474. 
Salamis,  t>attle  of,  69,  82. 
Salem,  settled,  286 ;  witchcmtt,  862. 
Salic  emperors,  196. 
Salio  Franbi.  170, 178. 
Salic  Uw,  266,  481. 
Salli,  or  danciug  prieeta,  86. 
Baliiibur.v,e.  of .  272. 
Saiyins  Julianas,  168l 
Salsbttig,  made  an  electoimte,  464 ;  giTen 

to  Austria,  468  ;  ceded  to  Bararia,  472 ; 

ceded  to  Austria.  482. 
Samaria,  7 ;  capital  of  Israel,  9 ;   eaptored 

bj  Sargon,  10 ;  tributary  to  Assyria,  14. 
Sammuramit,  14. 
Samnltes.  81, 88;  waxs  with  Rome.  I.,  104; 

II.,  106;  IIL,  106;  Join  Pjrrhus,  re- 

conquerad,  108 ;  rsrolt  after  OMinsB,  116 ; 

attack  Rome,  but  are  lepulsed  by  Sulla, 

181. 
Same,  k.  of  the  StaTB,168. 
Samson,  8. 
Samuel,  8. 

Samurai  in  Japan,  212,  663. 
Saneho  IV.,  k.  of  Castile,  276. 
Sancho  I.,  k.  of  Natarre,  200;  Ul.^the 

Great,  209. 
Sancroft,  archb.  of  Canterbury.  884. 
San  Domloffo,  foundation  of,  883 :  sack  of, 

290,339. 
Sandon,  21, 26. 
Sandonidae,  21. 

Sandra-Kottos.     Set  Chandzagupta,  23L 
San  JaffOf  240. 828. 
Ban  Stelono,  peace  of,  623. 
Senta  F^,  foundation  of,  291. 
Sapor  I.,  k.  of  Persia,  187  ;  XL,  188 ;  IIL, 

Sarsgofisa,  surrender  of,  471. 
Sarakos.     Set  Asshur-ebil-ili. 
Sardanapalus.  Sm  Isshur-natdr-pal  L,  As- 
shur-bani-pal,  Oreolan  myth  oonoemlng, 

Sardes,  21, 22.  26, 28. 

Sardinia.  Phoenician  colonies  in,  17 ;   sub- 

iucated  by  Carthage,  19 :  ceded  to  Rome, 
12;  glyen  to  Seztus  Pompeius,  146; 
Eniio,  k.  of  Sardinia;  S.  also  claimed 
by  the  pope,  226 ;  xeserred  for  the  em- 
peror, 893;  seised  by  Spain,  but  aban- 
doned, and  glyen  to  Sayoy  in  exchange 
for  Sicily ;  dukes  of  Sayoy,  kings  of  Sar- 
dinia,  897, 416 ;  compelled  to  cede  Sayoy 
and  Nice  to  France,  468 ;  possessions  on 
the  main-land  occupied  and  annexed  by 
France,  460 :  old  dynasty  rastored,  488  ; 
Austrians  put  down  the  liberals,  488; 
war  with  Austria,  494  ;  share:*  in  the 
Crimean  wars,  600 ;  the  French  and  Sar- 
dinians defeat  Austria,  602, 681 ;  Victor 
Emmanuel  k.  of  Italy,  608.     Set   Italy. 

Sargon,  k.  of  Assyria.  10, 14. 

BMbaoh,  battle  of,  868. 


Sanfleld,  887. 

SessanidsD,  in  Peisiaf  80,  166 ;  «ril  o« 
182. 

Satsama  rebellion,  664. 

Satuminus,  L.  Appuleius,  128. 

Saucourt.  battle  of,  201. 

Saul,  k.  of  the  Jews,  8. 

Saussage  at  St  Sayior,  299. 

Savage,  conspiracy  of,  838. 

Savannah,  captured  by  the  British,  480} 
evacuated,  431  ;  taken  by  Sherman,  668u 

Sayery,  eapt,486. 

Sayonarola,  827. 

Sayoy,  most  powerful  state  in  northerc 
Italy,  827  ;  obtains  Sicily  as  a  kingdom, 
893 ;  exchanges  Sicily  for  Sardinia,  dukes 
become  kings  of  Sardinia,  397 ;  acquires 
part  of  Milan.  416  i  ceded  to  France,  468 ; 
restored,  485 :  ceded  ajcain  to  t  nuice,  6U& 

Savoy  palace,  2^^ 

Saxe,  marshal,  488,  446. 

Saxou  Idngs  and  emperors,  194. 

Saxons,  pirates,  88:  location.  170;  settle 
in  Britain.  172,  176,  177,178;  subdued 
by  Charles  the  Oi««t,  184. 18& 

Saxony,  194;  revolt  against  Ilenzj  IT., 
199,200;  Lothar,  duke,  becomes  emp., 
218 ;  Saxony  under  Heniy  the  Proud  and 
Henry  the  Uon,  218. 219 ;  division  of  the 
old  duchy,  222 ;  electorate  given  to  Fred- 
eric, margrave  of  Meissen,  262 ;  sepam- 
tion  of  the  Albertine  (CathoUc),  and  Er- 
nestine (Lutheran)  line,  806 ;  alliance  of 
Ferdinand  and  the  Lutheran  elector, 
809;  receives  Lusatia,  814;  Augustus 
II.,  becomes  k. of  Poland,  372  ;  deposed, 
896  ;  Augustus  III.,  claimant  for  Poland, 
893 ,  claimant  for  the  Austrian  succes- 
sion, 400  ;  allied  with  Prussia,  408.  469 ; 
with  Napoleon,  469;  elector  liecomes 
king  and  Joins  confederacy  of  the  Rhine, 
469 ;  capture  of  the  king,  478  ^  haU  of  8. 
ceded  to  Prussia,  483  ;  revolutionary  dis> 
turbanoes,  492,  499;  allied  with  Aua- 
tria  against  Prussia,  607  ;  vote  in  the 
Bundesrath,  520. 

Say  and  Seal,  vise.,  296. 

Saybrook  united  with  Connecticut,  857. 

Scandinavia,  geography,  168:  ethnography, 
164;  reliKion,  166.  Set  DenmaA,  Moc^ 
way,  Sweden. 

Schamhorst ,  471,  476. 

Schenectady,  destruction  of,  86t. 

SchiU,  472. 

Schism  act,  repeal  of,  487. 

Schism  in  the  church,  221;  the  greats., 
268. 

Schlegler,  the,  250. 

Schloswig,  foundation  of,  194 ;  yielded  to 
the  Danes,  198 ;  war  in  Denmark  over. 
286;  conquered  by  Wallenstein,  810; 
taken  from  the  duke  of  Uolstein-Got^ 
torp  by  the  Danes,  896  ;  annexed  to 
Denmark,  496 ;  three  wars  with  Den- 
mark, 496  ;  delivered  to  thr  Vanes,  496; 
incorporated  with  Dennuurk,  605 ;  re- 
rigned  by  Denmaric,  606;  provisionally 
governed  by  Prussia.  607  ;  ineorporatefl 
with  Pruraia,  610. 

Schmalkaldic  league,  808 ;  war,  805. 

Schoffer,  Peter,  258. 

Sehombezg,  834, 885, 886,  387. 


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645 


Bebttnbnmn,  treaty  of,  487. 
Bohulenbivg,  896. 
Schuyler,  gen.,  429. 
Schwanenberg,  474, 477, 478. 480. 
SchweinsehSdel,  batUe  of,  509. 
Bchweppermann,  247. 
flcipio.  On.,  112;  killed,  118. 
Scipio  (Asiaticiu),  L.  Corneliiu,  119. 
Boipto  (Barbatua).  L.  ComeUiu,  106. 
Scipio,  P.  Cornelian,  118, 116 ;  killed,  116. 
Seipio,   P.  Comeliue   (Afrlcanus   major), 
elected  conBul.  117 ;  defeated  Antiochus, 
119 ;  death,  120. 
Scipio,  P.  Cornelius,  JEmilianus  (Africanua 
minor),  captures  Carthage,  121 ;    takes 
Numantia,  123. 
Scipio,  P.  Nasica,  124. 
Scotland,    seography,   86;    ScoU  raTase 
Britain,  88,  176  ;  war  with  Bdward  I., 
264 :  contested  ftuocension,  264, 266 ;  Soot- 
land  independent  after   Bannockbum, 
268;  ^ture  of  James,  prinoe  of  Scot- 
land, 2171) ;  James  IV.  Inyades  England, 
^3 ;  Flodden  field,  884 ;  Mary  queen  of 
Scots,  888,  889 ;  James  YI.  succeeds  in 
England  as  Jamee  I.,  889 ;  episcopacy  in 
Scotland,  840 ;  riot  in  Edinburgh,  solemn 
league  and  covenant,  844 ;  biwops'  war, 
846;  Scotch  Invade  England,  848;  Mon- 
trose in  Scotland,  848;  Charles  surren- 
ders to  Scotch,  849;  secret  treaty  with, 
880;  Cromwell  in  Scotland,  876 ;  perse- 
cution of  covenanters,  882 ;  William  and 
Mary  receive  the  crown,  886 ;  union  with 
England,  484. 
Scroop,  archb.  of  York,  270. 
Scurcola,  battle  of,  226. 
Scutage,  introduction  of,  281. 
Scy thiann,  invade  Media,  16, 26  ;  India,  24 ; 
attacked  by  Darius  without  success,  28. 
Sebastian,  k.  of  Portugal,  832. 
Sebastopol,  siege  of,  600. 
Seoessio  plebis,  96,  98, 107, 
Secession  of  the  Southern  States  in  North 

America,  668. 
Sedan,  battle  of,  517. 
Sedgemoor,  battle  of,  888. 
Betsachtbeia,  62. 
Sejanus,  149. 

Sekigahara,  battle  of,  866. 
BeleucidsB,  conquer  the  Jews,  11 ;  over  the 
Phoenicians,  20 ;  kings  of  Syri»,  77 ;  con- 
quered by  Rome,  120, 158. 
Seleucus.  76. 

Self-denying  ordinance,  849. 
Selim  II.,  sultan  of  Turkey,  806  ;  III.,  478. 
Seminole  war,  662.  • 
Semiramis,  14, 16.    &«  Sammuramit. 
Semitic  peoples,  religion  of*  12. 
Sempach.  battle  of,  260. 
Bempronlus  Longus,  T..  114. 
Sena  gallica,  battle  of,  117. 
Senate,  French,  under  the  4th  constitu- 
tion, 461 ;  receives  greater  power,  464 ; 
under  Liouis  Napoleon,  681 ;  constitution 
of  1876,  638. 
Senate,  Roman,  origin,  87  ;  enlargement, 
89 ;  in  the  monarchical  constitution,  91 ; 
under  the  republican  constitution,  94; 
growing  importance,  102 ;  conflict  with 
the  Gracchi,  124 ;   loses  the  jury  duty, 
125  \  the  raf orms  of  Sulla  give  the  S.  a 


temporary  repreeentative  ebAraet«r,  182 ; 

power  of  revision  restored  to  censor^ 

188 ;   reduced  to  a  council  under  CsBsar, 

148 ;  receives  the  power  of  appointing  ofll- 

daU,  149. 
Senate  in  the  United  States,  488 
Seneca,  150. 
Senlac.    Set  Hastings. 
Sennacherib,  10, 16. 
Senones,  84,  86, 107. 
Sentinum,  batUe  of,  106. 
Sepoy  mutiny,  646. 
September  laws  in  Fiance,  629. 
Septennial  parliament,  487. 
Septimania,  174, 201. 
Septimius  Severus,  Roman  emp.,  154. 
Serfdom,  166;   aboliibed  by  Joseph  II., 

407;  by  Alexander  11.,  600. 
8ertoriu8.Q.,180,188. 
Servia,  621,  628;  independent,  524;  king- 
dom, 626. 
Servian  constitution,  91. 
Servile  wars,  1, 128 ;  II.,  128 ;  IH,  188. 
Servllius,  P.,  consul,  184, 14L 
Serviliu8Ahala,C.,90. 
Servius  TulUus,  89. 
Sesonchis.    Su  Shashaog  I. 
Sesostris,  6. 
Setil.,k.  of  Egypt.  5. 
Seven  years'  wai^  408 ;  In  America.  420 ;  in 

IndU,  443 ;  participation  of  Spain,  411 
SeveruB  Alexander,  Roman  emp.,  164. 
Seville,  treaty  of,  437. 
Seward,  WiUiam  H.,  666. 
Sextius  LateranuB,  L.,  100, 101. 
Seydlitz,  404,405. 
Seymour,  lord,  execution  of,  886. 
Sfona,  Francesco,  becomes  d.  of  Milan 

262,802,808,304. 
Shabak,6. 

Shaftesbury,  lord  ohan.,  880,  881,  882. 
Shah  Alam  II.,  emp.  of  India,  442.  444  \ 

Jah^,  emp.  of  India,  reign  of,  864. 
Shahnameh,  Persian  epic,  refers  to  old  Bao- 

trian  empire,  26, 191. 
Shahx^Bars,  Persian  general,  191,  192. 
Shakespeare,  889. 
Shalmaneser,  ks.  of  Assyria,  II.,  14 ;  IV. 

10, 14. 
Shang,  mythical  dynasty  in  Chins,  81. 
Shanghai,  81, 601 ;  opened  to  British  tnde, 

661. 
Sharpe,  archb.,  murdered,  881. 
Shashang  I.,  k.  of  %ypt,  5, 10. 
Shays's  rebellion,  4K. 
Sheeah.  182. 
Shelbume,  lord,  administration,  481,  441 , 

sec.  of  state.  440. 
Shenandoah  valley,  668. 
Shepherd  kings  in  Egypt,  5 
Sher  Ali,  death  of,  647. 
Sheridan,   general,   Opequan,   658;   rivo 

Forks,  669. 
Sheridan,  Richard  Brinsley,  441. 
Sheriflmuir,  batUe  of,  4di . 
Sherman,  ifen.,  campaign  against    John- 
ston, 668  ;  march  through  Georgia,  668 ; 
received  the  surrender  of  the  last  confed- 
erate army,  669. 
Shiloh,  battle  of,  667. 
Shimonoseki  batteries  destroyed,  668. 
Shinto  religion,  82, 88;  Teestablished,  664 


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646 


Index* 


BhipkA  pMt,  832. 

Shlp-mon«r,  wrifii  for,  844. 

ShlMk.    Set  ShaflhAngl. 

Shogans,  JapuieM  mayors  of  Che  palMo, 
rise  of,  218:  Yoritomo,  218;  Ashtkaga 
ahoguns,  278,  8&5 ;  Tokugawa  shoguns, 
866, 446 ;  overttarow  of  Uio  sbogun .  668. 

Shore,  sir  John,  go7.-g«n.  in  India,  641. 

**  Short  "  parliament,  846. 

ShoTel,  Sir  Cloudesley,  484. 

Shrewsbury,  battle  of,  270. 

Shrewsbury,  e.  of.     See  Tslbot. 

Shrewsbury,  e.  of,  884:  secretary  of  state, 
886;  resignation,  8S7 ;  last  lord  high 
traaa.,486,48S. 

SielUan  respers,  226. 

Sicily,  Phoenician  colonies  in,  17:  wars  of 
Carthaginians  and  Greeks  in,  20 ;  Hease- 
nians  settle  in,  61 ;  S^raensanezpeditton 
of  the  Athenians,  67;  geographical  de- 
scription, 88 ;  collision  between  Rome 
and  Cartilage,  110 ;  ceded  to  Rome,  west- 
em  S.  the  first  Roman  proyince.  111 ; 
war  in  Sicily,  116 ;  snbingated,  117 :  re- 
Tolt  of  slaTcs  in,  128, 120 ;  war  with  Sox- 
tus  FompeiuB  in,  146. 

Sicily,  kinigdom  of,  Roger  IL  assumei 
title  of  k.  of  the  Two  8.,  218 ;  Constance, 
beiress  of  the  Ichigdom,  wife  of  the 
emp.  Henry  VI..  222:  «urwith  Tucred, 
228 ;  Frederic  II.,  2^  ;  Bianfied.  226 ; 
Cliarlee  of  Anjou  reoeiTcs  kingdom 
■from  the  pope,  226  ;  Sicilian  respers, 
French  ddTen  from  S..  which  falls  to 
Peter  of  Aiagon,  226  (mc  Naples) ;  8. 
united  with  Aragon,  263 ;  gi^en  as 
kingdom  to  SaToy,l396 ;  seised  by  Spain, 
but  abandoned,  and,  by  Savoy,  exchanged 
with  Austria  for  SardinU,  897 ;  after  the 
war  of  tlie  Polish  succession  ceded  by 
Austria  to  Spain,  with  NapU»,2&i\  8. 
and  Naples  (as  iLingdom  of  the  Two  Sici- 
lies) giren  to  Ferdinand,  8d  son  of  Charles 
III.  of  Spain,  416 ;  depriyed  of  Naples 
by  Napoleon,  the  court  retires  to  S.,  468 ; 
dynasty  restored,  488;  reToIt,498;  Gari- 
baldi liberates  8.,  602. 

Siekingen.  Frans  tou,  802. 

Sicyon,  40,  48:  Joins  Actuean  league,  72. 

Sldney^ecntion  of ,  882 ;  tlr  Philip,  death 

Bidon,  chief  town  of  the  Sidonians,  16 ; 
greatest  power,  17 ;  superseded  by  Tyre, 
18;  first  city  of  Phoenicia  under  Persia, 
10 ;  alMuidoned  by  erunulsrs,  217. 

^SleTershauiien,  battle  of,  806. 

Sioyes,  448,  461. 

Sigibert  I.,  k.  of  the  Franks,  181. 

Sigismund,  emp.  of  the  H.  R.  E.,  261. 

Sigismund,  Ie.  of  Hunnry,  277. 

Sigismund  III.,  k.  of  Poland,  862. 

6iguzd,  k.  of  Norway,  288. 

Siffuid  Ring,  k.  of  Sweden,  207,  208. 

Sikhs,  reTolt,  442 :  two  wars  with  the  Brit- 
ish, 646. 

Sllarus,  battle  of,  188. 

Bilenia  united  with  Bohemia,  248 ;  claims 
of  Prussia,  400;  retained  by  Prussia, 
406.  /  •-» 

Silesian  wars,  I.,  400 ;  II.,  402  ;  III.,  404. 
Simon,  J  ,  61i  :  ministry.  684. 
Simon  of  Monttort,  the  elder,  227. 


Simon  of  Uontfort,  6.  of  UloistOT,  Ui  H» 

liament,  284. 
Simony,  200. 
SindhSk  448,  641. 
Sinope,  Mttle  of,  489. 
Sipylus,  battle  of,  118. 
SiriJ-ud-Daui4,  44& 
SistoTa,  peace  of,  418b 
SiTi^i,  8&,  44a 

Siward,  e.  of  Northnmbtrlaad,  208. 
Six  articles,  886. 
SixtasV.,pope,887. 
Skaania,286,287,288. 
Skobeleff .  m,  636. 
Sknyneokl,  490. 
SUTery  abolished  thronghouC  the  BritUh 

empire,   640;     partially    abolished    in 

Conn.,  482 ;  abolished  in  Bfaasachusetts, 

481 ;  in  Pennsylyania,  481 ;  in  the  United 

States,  488. 
Slare-trade  abolished  in  British  dominion, 

687 ;  In  the  United  States,  660. 
Slayes  in  Athens,  62;   in  Gemoai^,  168^ 

177. 
SlaTonic  congress  in  Pmgoe,  488. 
SlaTs,  great  monarchy  of,  168 ;  raUgloB, 

169 ;  regain  their  liberty,  178. 
SUwata.809. 
SUdell,644.667. 


Sluys,  battle  of,  257. 
Smerdes.    Set  Hirhor. 


Smith.  Jolin,  in  Vliginia,  291, 292  ;  axnlo- 

ration  of  coast  of  New  England  by,  394. 
Smolensk,  474,  476. 
Sobieski,  John,  k.  of  Poland,  valievea  Vl« 

enna,  872 ;  in  Poland,  874. 
Social  democrats  in  (Germany,  634. 
Socialistic  commune,  in  Fmnee,  682. 
Socrates,  64, 69. 
Sogdianus,  k.  of  Psrsla,  29. 
Soissons,  battle  of.  178, 181. 
Solemn  league  and  covenant,  in  Seotiaod, 

844:  inBngland,848. 
Solferlno,  battle  of,  602. 
Soliman  II.,  snltan  of  Turkey,  besieged 

Vienna,  808;  alliance  with  Franeia  L, 

804,806;  death^806 ;  reign, 868. 
Soliman  Buha,622. 
Solis,  Jnaa  Diai  de.  284, 286. 
Solomon,  k.  of  the  Jews,  9. 
Solon,  of  Athens,  visited  Crossns  of  I^din, 

21 ;  constitution  of.  63. 
Solway  Moss,  battle  of,  886. 
Somen,  lord  keeper,  887 ;  loid  ohan.,  888: 

whig  leader,  tf6. 
Somerset,  execution  of,  886. 
Sommering,  486. 
Sooneea,  182. 
Soor,  battle  of,  402, 600. 
Sophia,  princess  of  Hanover,  486. 
Sophia  of  Russia,  874. 
Sophocles,  64. 
Sophonisbe,  117. 
Soto,  Ferdinando  de,  287. 
Soult,  marshal,  on  the  Rhine.  467 :    in 

Spain,  471,  478,  479 :  in  Fiance,  481 
Soult,  ministry  of.  680. 
South  Sea  bubble,  485,  487,  446. 
South  wold  Bay,  l)attle  of,  880. 
Spain,  Phoenician  settlements  in,  17;  Gaiw 

thaginian  colonies  in,  19 ;  war  with  Ca» 

thaginians  in,  116 ;  regarded  as  a  Bobmi 


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Index. 


647 


pvoTtoM,  118 ;  lnf«d»d  hj  Vaadilif  Soeri 

Alani,   171;  Wwt  Gothic  Ungdom  in, 

172,  If 4 ;  Su«t1  and  West  Ctottaa  unite  and 

are  eonterted,  176;  oonqaondbTHoon, 

188 ;  f aU  of  OordovaTrlM  of  OhifatiMi 

kingdoms,  76&-106ft,  tOO ;  wf  olt  of  Por- 
tugal, union  of  OMtila  and  Leon,  840 ; 

eonqoMt  of  Granada,  wan  botweon  OMtile 

Ukd  Aiagon,  276 ;  imion  of  Azagon  and 

CMtile,  828:    diMorwriea  in   Amarioa, 

282 ;  war  with  Fianee,  peace  of  the  Fyie- 

neee,  866 ;  war  with  Aigland,  877 ;  war 
of  the- Spanish  raoceealon,  880 ;  partition 
treaties,  891;  peace  of  Utfeoht,  888; 
bouse  of  Bonrbonj  414 ;  Jesnits  expelled, 
416 ;  war  with  Sngland  in  America,  419, 
487, 488 ;  Florida  ceded  to  England,  428, 
488;  war  with  Snsdand,  440;  rioridaie- 
stored  to  Spain,  482,441 ;  Fiance  declares 
war  against,  468 ;  Bourbons  displaeed  in 
faTor  of  Joseph  Bonaparte,  470 ;  penin> 
aula  war,  471,478  ;  constitution  of  1812, 
ib,  ;  French  dzfreD  from  Spain,  479  ; 
Bourbons  restored,  488;  liberal  rising, 
eonst.  of  1812  rsstorsd,  4s7 :  French  in- 
terrention,  488 ;  reTolt  of  ibe  American 
colonies,  488:  rsTolutlon  of  1868,  612  :S. 
a  republic,  620 ;  monarchy  restored,  621 ; 
treaties  with  the  United  States,  648,  662. 

Spanish  succession,  888 ;  war  of.  890. 

Sparta,  founded,  48 ;  eonstitutioo  of  Ly- 
curgus,  60;  first  h^emony,  66  ;  Thei^ 
mopjisB,  68 ;  PiatsMe,  60  ;  hegemony 
transferred  to  Athens,  61  ;  war  with 
Athens,  62 ;  Felononnesian  war,  64 :  sec- 
ond hegemony,  6v;  loss  of  hegemony  to 
Thebes,  70 :  war  with  the  Achsma 
league,  79,122;  Nabis  defeated  by  Ro- 
mans, 80. 

Spartaons,  188. 

Spectator,  486. 

Speier,  diet  at,  224 ;  imperial  chamber  al, 
800;  dietof,80MNL 

Spenser,  Edmund,  88Bl 

Speyer.     Set  Speisr. 

Sphaeteria,  66. 

Sphinx,  8, 46. 

Spleheren,  battle  of,  616i 

Spinola,  809,  810. 

Spitamas,  26. 

Spithead,  mutiny  at,  685. 

Spoils  system,  in  U.  S.,  662. 

Bpottqrlyaoia,  battle  of,  668. 

Sparine  Cassius,  97. 

Stadtlohn,  battle  of,  310. 

Stahremberg,  872. 

Stamford,  battle  of,  274. 

Stamfordbridg^  battle  of,  206. 

Stamp  act,  passage  of,  428, 440 ;  repeal  of, 
424,440. 

Standard,  battle  of  the,  280. 

Standish,  Miles,  296. 

Stanislaus  Lescslnsici,  \.  of  Poland,  896 ; 
abdicates,  898,  446. 

Stanislaus  Poniatowski,  Ic.  of  Poland,  41L 

Staoton,  Edwin  M.,  666. 

Star  chamber,  888 ;  abolitioa  of,  846. 

Btatgard,  trace  of,  406. 

Btaric,  gen.,  429. 

Btates  General.    See  Etats  G^^ranx. 

Btstthaltership,  in  the  Netherlands.  881. 

Btsam,  iint  attempt  to  atUlae,4d6j  flz»t 


steam«enginer486  ;  applied  to  aart^tioib 

486. 
Steele,  sir  Richard,  488. 
Steenkirke,  battle  of,  870. 887. 
Stein,  baron  of,  reorganiaee  Pmaria,  471  v 

central  admlaistraticn,  478, 479;  at  eon- 

gzess  of  Vienna,  482. 
Stehunets,  614. 

Stenbock,  Swedish  general,  896. 
Stenkil.  k.  of  Sweden,  208, 287. 
Stephen,  aiohd.  palatine,  494. 
Stephen  of  Blois,  k.  of  Sngland,  880. 
Stephen,  St.,  k.  of  Hungary.  277. 
Stephen  Bathory,  elected  k.  of  Pokndt 


SteTenion,  Geonre,  486L 

Steward,  ollloe  of,  19& 

Stayer,  truce  of,  462. 

Stilieho,  161, 171. 

StiUwator.  battles  of,  429. 

Stockaoh,  battles  of,  460, 461 

Stockholm,  massacre  of,  862;  treaty  o^ 

896,487. 
Stony  Point,  storm  of,  480. 
Strafford,  earl  of,  sketch  of  life,  844 ;  Ian 

peachment,  846 ;  execution,  846. 
Stralsund,  peace  of,  287, 249 ;  siege  of,  810  *, 

lost  by  Sweden,  896. 
Stiassburg,  remains  to    the  em|Mre,  816; 

seised  by  Lo^s  XIV.,  860;  siege,  616  j 

capituUtlou,  618 ;  ceded  to  the  German 

empire,  619 ;  bi-Ungnal  oath  of,  186w 
Stiategi.66. 
Strathcly  de  subjected  to  Northnmbria,  180 ; 

submits  to  England,  204. 
Stratton  Hill,  battle  of,  847. 
Strelitaes,  874. 
Struensee,  409. 
Stuart,  tionse  of,  iaeceeds    In   Englandt 

889;  expelled,  876;  netored,  878;   ex- 

Stuart,  Arabella,  840;  imprisonment  and 
deatih,84L 

StnyTceant,  Peter,  857. 868. 

fliiBSsnia,  battle  of,  104. 

Sueri,  location,  164,  170;  InTade  Spain, 
in ;  unite  with  West  Goths,  176. 

Sues  Canal,  612^646. 

Suffolk,  d.  of  ( Wm.  ds  la  Pole),  impeach* 
ment|271. 

Sugar  act.  pasean  of,  428. 

Sugar,  abbotofSt.  Denis,  226. 

Suleiman.    See  Solimaa. 

Sulla,  L.  Gomelius.  takes  Juguitim,  127 ; 
in  the  social  war,  l29  ;  war  with  Narius, 
180;  war  against  Hlthridates,  180;  ap- 
pointed dicUtor  in  Some,  182 ;  abdicated, 
188;  death,  t6. 

Sully,  d.  of,  825,  840. 

Snlpicius  Galba,  P.,  118 ;  Rnf  us,  ISOi 

Sumir,  18. 

Sumter,  Thomas,  480. 

Sunderland,  (2d)  e.  of  (Spencer),  in  cabinet, 
881 ;  sec.  of  sUte,  882 ;  becomes  Catho* 
lie,  883;  dismissed,  884;  returned  to 
parliament,  887 ,  lord  chamberlain,  888 ; 
(8d)  e.  of,  whig  leader,  486 ;  lord  lieut.  di 
Inland,  486. 

Song,  kingdom  of,  842. 

Surajah  Dowlah.     See  SlrdJ-nd  BauU- 

Surat,  EnglUh  factory  at.  868. 

SurinattH  dlsooreiy  of,  288. 


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648 


Index. 


8an»7,  etfl  of,  esMUtodf  886. 

SiuUna  in  Fttnia,  24,  80;  inTided  by 
Armbf,  192. 

Bntru,  Hindu  acriptnTM,28. 

Suttee,  abolition  of,  641. 

SnTaroff ,  Turkish  wmr,  418 :  itonns  Pncno, 
414 ;  in  It&ly  and  Switaerland,  400,  Ml. 

Buy  dynasty  in  China,  82. 

BTatoplnlL  IL,  k.  of  Monrla,  194. 

BTca,  206,  287. 

Bvend,  Forked  Btard,  k.  of  Denmark,  207  ; 
in  Sngland  (Swegen),  206 ;  Estrid»«»,  k. 
of  Denmark,  207. 

BTerre,  k.  of  Norway,  288. 

BTold.  battle  of,  209. 

Bwabia,  dnehy  of,  194;  verolt  of  duke 
Enut,  198 ;  Rudolf  of,  antt-king,  20O ; 
rite  of  WOrtembeig  and  Baden,  244  i 
league  of  cities,  conflict  with  counts  of 
Wiirtembexg,  260. 

Bwabian  city  leatfue,  249. 

Bwally,  batUe  of,  864. 

Vweden,  Srea  and  Gdta,  mytliical  history, 
208 ;  Christianity  introduced ;  union  of 
Calmar,  288 ;  seUlementa  in  America,  298 ; 
in  the  thirty/ears'  war  (GustaTus  Adol- 
phus),  811--814;  at  the  peace  of  West- 
phalia acquires  Pomerania,  Rttgen, 
Wlsmar,  Bremen,  Weiden,  816;  house 
of  Vasa,  862;  house  of  ZwelbrUcken, 
873 ;  war  with  Biandenbuxs,  874 ;  Charles 
XII. '8  war  with  Peter  the  Gnat,  894, 
876;  loss  of  Bremen,  Werden  to  Han- 
over; Stettin,  Wollen,  Usedom,  Hither 
Pomerania  to  Pruraia,  896;  *' Hats  " 
and  **  Caps,"  409 ;  house  of  liolstein-Got- 
torp;  war  with  Russia,  4<)9;  Joins  third 
coalition  against  France,  467  ;  forced  ab- 
dication of  GustaTus  IV.,  472;  loss  of 
Finland,  478  ;  Bemadotte  crown  pxlnce, 
478;  alliance  with  Russia,  promise  of 
Norway,  474  ;  alliance  with  England, 
476 ;  peace  with  Denmark,  Iom  of  Pom- 
erania and  ROgen,  479 ;  at  congress  of 
Vienna  reoeiTes  Norway,  488 ;  which  has 
to  be  subdued,  484. 

Bwegen.     Set  Syend. 

Bwift,  Jonathan,  486. 

Bwftxerland,  162 ;  origin  of  the  confeder- 
acy, 246 ;  story  of  Tell,  246 ;  war  with 
Austria.  247;  Berne  Joins  the  confed- 
eracy, 248:  Sempach,  260;  Armagnacs 
attack  Basle,  268 ;  practically  indepen- 
dent, 800 ;  reformation,  ZwinjrU,  801 ;  in- 
dependence acknowledged,  816;  Berne 
takes  the  Waadtland  from  SaToy,  827 ; 
transformed  into  the  UelTeUan  republic, 
460 ;  rratontion  of  thp  independent  can- 
tons, 464;  addition  of  Geneva,  WalUs, 
and  Neuchfttcl,  483  ;  civil  war,  new  con- 
stitution, 492;  Neochfttel  resigned  bv 
the  king  of  Prussia,  601 ;  rupture  with 
the  piracy,  620. 

Syagrinus,  173. 

Sybota,  battle  of,  66. 

Sylvester  II.,  nope,  197 ;  III.,  199. 

Symington,  4iJ96. 

Bypbax,116^118. 

Byracuse  besieged  by  Osrfhaginians,  20 ; 
foundation  of,  61 ;  expedition  of  Athe- 
nians against,  67 ;  war  under  Uiero  ;  war 
with  Rome,  111 ;  sack  of,  116. 


Syria,  Sgypdan  snnremaey  over,  4  $  losi 
byRamessu  IL,  6;  wars  of  Fsaniethik 
in,  6;  subject  to  Asevrla,  14 ;  eonouered 
by  Nebuchadneasar,  16  ;  under  tlieSeleu. 
elds^  77 ;  taken  possession  of  by  Tl> 
granes,  184;  a  Roman  provUMe,  IBS; 
subdued  by  Anrelian,  167. 


Tabemaele,  8. 

Taboritea,  262. 

Tacitus,  Roman  emp.,  167. 

Tkdmor,  f oundaticgi  of,  8l 

TMonssac,  290. 

Tsginac,  battle  of,  176. 

n«liacoaM>,  baitle  of,  221 

Tahaxak,  k.  of  JE^pt,  6. 

Tsi-plng  rebellion,  66L 

Taiza  family  in  Japan.  212, 218,2iaL 

Talavera,  battte  of,  471. 

Talbot,  e.  of  Shrewsbury,  272. 

Tklikot,  battle  of,  864. 

Tallagio,  de  non  concedendo,  267. 

Tklleyrand,  481, 482. 

Tameriane,  defeats  Bajaiet,  278,  86& 

Tanagra,  batMe  of,  63. 

Tukcnd  of  HauteviUe,  199,  214;  of 


Tang  dynasty  In  China,  21L 

Tannegny    DnchAtel,  269. 

Tannenberg,  battle  of,  277 

T&oism,  in  China,  81. 

Tarentum,  61  ;  war  with  the  SanmlfcaiL 
104 ;  war  with  Rome,  107. 

Targowits,  confederacy  of,  418. 

TkrifF  of  abominations,  662. 

Ikrik.lSS. 

Tarleton,  481. 

Tarpeian  rock,  82. 

Tarquinius  PriMsus,  86.  89 ;  Snpeibni^  89. 

Tarouins,  expulsion  ot,  93;  war  with,  108L 

Tasttlo,  d.  of  Bavaria,  revolt  of,  186. 

Tasso,  Toniuato,  $28. 

Tatars,  MonfoU,  240:  Khitam  in  China, 
241;  MonnU  in  China,  242;  Manekoot 
Invade  China,  866 ;  become  independent, 
412. 

Tktler,486. 

Ta-tsing  dynasty  in  China,  866. 

Tauroggen,  treaty  of,  476. 

Taylor,  Zachary.  666. 

TegethofF,606,610. 

Tela,  k.  of  Bast  Goths,  176. 

Telamon,  battle  of,  112. 

Teleeraph  invented,  486  ;  first  submarina, 
48i  ;  communication  between  Franca 
and  England,  648;  experimental  Una 
built  by  S.  F.  B.  Moree,  664 ;  communi- 
cation between  U.  S.  and  Great  BritaiiL 
660. 

Tel-el-Kebir,  capture  of,  646. 

Tell,  William.  246. 

Temesvar,  872,  897, 49& 

Templars.  217. 

Temple,  in  Jerusalem,  erection  of,  9;  dft 
structlon,  reerection,  11. 

Temple,  sir  William,  382. 

Temuohin,  240. 

Tennessee,  admitted  to  the  Union,  648. 

Tenure  of  oilloe  bill,  669. 

Tepliti,  alliance  of,  477;   oonferenet  a^ 


Digitized  by 


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Index* 


649 


ItoBntmiuAm,97. 

Temur  blanche,  627. 

TexTitoxy  N.  W.  of  Ohio,  488. 

Teny,  gwiexal,  669. 

Tescheo,  peace  of,  407. 

Te8(act,880:  repealed, 680l 

Testri,  battle  of,  188. 

TecricoB,  167. 

Teizel,  Dominican  monk,  801. 

Teuta,  queen  of  the  Illyriane.  112. 

Teutobod,  king  of  Teutonee.  127. 

Teucoburg  foreet,  Roman  legionB  annihi- 
lated in,  149, 167. 

Teatones,  invade  Italy,  127, 107. 

Teutonic  knighte,  217, 464. 

Teoton«,  86;  geography,  162;  ethnology, 
168;  religion,  164;  dTiUiation,  166; 
history.  167;  migration  of  Teutonic 
tribes,  170 ;  Teutonic  monarchies  in  the 
Boman  empire.  171 ;  in  Britain,  176. 

Tewksbury,  battle  of,  274. 

Ttoxas,  annexed  to  United  States,  and  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union,  664. 

Thaies,21. 

Tliankmar,  196). 

Thapnus,  battle  of  ,142.  • 

Thebes,  in  Iteypt,  2, 4. 

Thebes,  in  fioeotia,  founded,  46;  war  of 
the  Seren  against,  46;  subdued,  48; 
Thebans  at  TnermopylsB,  69 ;  allied  with 
Sparta  against  Athens,  62,  66 ;  war  with 
Sparta,  hegemony  of,  70 ;  destruction,  78. 

Themistocles,  67 ;  rebuiULs  walls  of  Ath- 
ens, 61 ;  death,  61. 

Theodelinde,  176. 

Theodora,  210. 

Theodore,  archb.  of  Canterbniy,  180. 

Theodore  I.,  k.  of  Corsica,  416. 

Theodoric  the  Great,  k.  of  Bast  Goths,  174. 

Theodoric  I.,  k.  of  the  Franks,  181. 

Theodoric  I.,  k.  of  West  Goths,  17a 

Theodosius,  Boman  emp.,  161, 171. 

Theophano,  wife  of  Otto  XL,  196, 197. 

Theramenes,  69. 

Thermidorlans,  466. 

Thermopylae,  battle  of,  68, 119. 

Theron  of  Agrigentom,  20. 

Theseus,  46,  61. 

Thesprotians,  41. 

Thessalian  migration,  47. 

Thessalonica,  kingdom  of,  216. 

Thessaly,  40,  797141,  62& 

Theret,  Andr^,  288. 

Thibet,  Buddhism  in,  28;  conquered  by 
Kang-he,  890. 

Thierry,  k.  of  the  Franks.    See  Theodoric. 

Thiers,  fall  of  the  ministnr  of,  491 ;  in  op- 
position, 612;  head  of  the  executire 
619;  ministiy,  629;  fall,  680;  president, 
683 ;  rpBigns,  tA. ;  death,  684. 

Thirty-nine  articles,  388. 

Thirty  tyrants,  69, 167. 

Thirty  years'  war,  808. 

Thistlewood,  executed,  688. 

Thomas,  gen.,  668. 

Thor,  164, 166. 

Thorn,  peace  of,  first  and  second,  277. 

Thimcia,28,160. 

riuasybulus,  68,  69.  70. 

Three  bishoprics  (Toul,  Mets,  Verdun), 
taken  by  Franee,  806,  821;  ceded  to 
Vzanoe,  816 ;  taken  by  Qennaay,  618. 


Three  kingdoms  in  China,  82. 

Throgmorton,  Spanish  plot  of,  889. 

Thucydides  (son  of  Melastas),  64. 

Thueydldes  (the   historian),   64; 
ment,  66b 

Thugs,  suppression  of  the,  641. 

Thunngia.  kingdom  of,  conquered  by  The- 
odoric L,  181;  landgrares  become  ex- 
tinct, terriloiy  dlTided,  226. 

Thusnelda,  149. 

Thutmes  111.,  k.  of  Egypt,  4. 

Thyrea,  battle  of,  66. 

Tiberias,  battle  of,  216. 

Tiberius,  Roman  emp. ,  149 ;  adopted  by  Au« 
gustus,  148;  subjugated  Pannonia,  149. 

TibuUus,  Aibius,  148. 

TIcinus,  battle  of,  114. 

Ticonderoga,  fortification  of,  421 ;  captured 
by  Ethan  Allen,  427 ;  by  Burgoyne,  428. 

Tien-Tsin,  treaty  of,  601,  602,  648,  661, 
662. 

TifkUa.  battle  of,  ISl. 

TigUtkAdar,  k.  of  Assyria,  14. 

Tiglath-PUeeer,  ks.  of  Assyria.  I.,  n.,  14. 

Tigranes,  k.  of  Armenia,  80, 184, 186. 

Tigranoeerts,  battle  of,  186. 

Tillotson,  archb.  of  Canterbury,  887. 

Tilly,  White  Hill,  809;  hi  Uolstein,  810; 
Hegdebuxg,  811:  death,  812. 

Tilsit,  peace  of,  4^,  687. 

Timoleon,  90. 

Tin  not  brought  from  England  by  PhoBiii* 
clans,  17,  n. 

Tinchebrai,  battle  of,  280. 

Tingitana,  160. 

Tippamuir,  battle  of,  848. 

Tlpu  sultan,  442,  444,  64L 

Tirhakah.     See  Tahaiak. 

Tiridates,  k.  of  Armenia.  160, 188. 

Tiridatee,  k.  of  Farthiar29. 

Tissaphemes,  67,  70. 

Titian,  828. 

Titus,  Roman  emp.,  161, 163;  dsatngrt  J«i 
rusalem,  12. 

Togrul  Beg,  210. 

Tokia     See  Yedo. 

Tokoly,  count,  872. 


Tokugawa  Iveyasu,  856. 

Tokugawa 

Tolbiacum, 


Iveyasu, I 


866. 


Tolentino,  battle  of,  484 ;  peace  of,  468L 

Toleration  act,  886. 

Tolly,  Barclay  de,  472,  474. 

Toloaa,  kingdom  of,  172 ;  battle  of,  24a 

Tbnningen,  surrender  of,  886. 

Tonquin,  annexed  to  China,  278;  dlspotl 

with  the  French  over,  662. 
Toorin-shdh,  217. 
Torbay,  884. 

Toraau,  alliance  of,  802 ;  battle  oj;  40& 
Tones,  origin  of  the  name,  882. 
Torres  Vedras,  lines  of,  47o,  687. 
TomteuRon,  814,  815. 
Tost  ig,  206. 

Totila,  k.  of  East  Goths,  174, 17& 
Totleben,  406,  60a 
Toul.    See  Three  bishoprlca. 
Toulouse,  battle  of.  48L 
Tours,  battle  of,  188. 
Tourrille,  870,  387. 
Tower  of  Babel,  12. 
Townshend,  486, 44a  .  --^ 


Jigitized  by  VjOOQ IC 


650 


Adex. 


TowUMi«lMttl«0C,S7i. 
Ti»fal«ar,  ImUto  of,  4fft. 
Tnitofoua  eorrwpond0BO8  bill,  686^ 
trajMi,  IkMDui  «mp. ;  Ftethiui  op.  8D  : 

reign.  IfiS,  168. 
TxmnsabstaBtlatloB,  909. 
TnoajlTaBift,  8u»,  816, 418, 61L 
'aMniM,W( 


(16,416, 
DIM,  iMttia  oC  Uk«,  U/L 
TrMtenMi,  tetUe  of,  60a 


TcMia 


TniTeiuUl,  peace  of,  884. 

TrouoD,  stetnto  of,  200. 

Tnbks  battle  of  the,  U4,  461. 

TreblMiid,  Greek  empire  of,  216^ 

TreUwney.  b.,  884. 

Trent, ftlbir of  thiL667. 

Trent,  council  of,  806. 

Txenton.  battle  of,  428. 

TreTelyan,  O.  0.,  eee.  for  Ireland,  616. 

Trsres.    Ste  Tiler. 

TnTithlek,  486. 

TreTor,  air  John,  888. 

Trial  of  the  biahope  under  James  II.,  884. 

Tribes  of  iBimel,  8. 

Tribones,  appointmeBt,  96,  97 ;  military 

tribnnee  created,  90  ;   alwlifliied,  101 ; 

loee  their  reTolntionary  ebaiaeter,  102; 

their  power  Umited  by  Bulla,  182;  r«- 

stored,  188 ;  conferred  upon  Caiar,  148. 
Tribur,  imperial  diet  at,  190, 200. 
Tnbaii.92. 

Triennial  act,  846,  888. 
Trier,  arehb.  of,  248. 
Trierarchy,  68. 
Tri&num,batUeat,104. 
Trifels,  216. 
Triple  alliance  between  Kngland,  HoUaad, 

and  Sweden,  807, 880 ;  between  Bngland, 

France,  and  Uolhuid.  487. 
Tripolitan  war,  649. 
Triumvirate,  Are t,  187 :  leoond,  146. 
Troohu,617,618,619. 
Trojan  war,  47. 
Troppan,  oongraae  at,  487. 
Troyea,  peace  of,  269, 271, 888. 
Truce  of  Ood,  190, 206. 


^^»x»«.e,  battle  of.  412. 

Taeng,  marquis,  662. 

Tkheraajeff.  621. 

Tain  dynaaty  in  China,  82;  later  Trio.  211. 

Tuathal,89. 

Tudor,  houae  of,  888. 

Tughlak,  sultan  of  Delhi,  241. 

Tulleriea,  storm  of  the,  462 ;  burnt,  688. 

Tullua  UoatiUua,  89. 

Tunes,  battle  of,  11 L 

Tunis,  Louis  IX.  at,  217 ;  ezpediUon  of 
Charlea  V.  against,  804;  French  expe- 
dition to,  684. 

Turoo-Rusaian  war  In  Burope,  622;  in 
▲aia,  688. 

Turenne,  marshal,  816, 866 ;  death,  868. 

TuiKot,  447. 

Turin,  peace  of,  871 ;  battle  of,  892,  484. 

Turks,  Turkey,  empire  of  the  Beljuk  T., 
210 ;  Aipremacy  of  the  Osman  or  Otto- 
man T.,  278  ;  war  with  Charlea  V.,  808 ; 
alliance  with  Fraoeia  I.,  806 ;  war  with 
Max.  II.,  806;  with  Venice  (Lepanto), 
826;  hiffheat  deTelopmeut  of  the  em- 
pire, decline,  868  ;  want  with  Leopold  I. 
(ai^ge  of  Vienna),  872 ;  peace  of  Carlo- 
wlti,  T.  teeelTea  TemesTar,  loeoa  M orta 


to  Veuloe,  Huaniy  and  baavlwite  la 
Ansteia,  872,  416 ,  AmM  lost  to  Enaala, 
876;  Charlaa  XU.  in  T.,  806:  Aioff  n- 
gained,  896 ;  conquaat  of  Moraa,  war 
with  Auatria,  peace  of  PasaarowiU,  Aus- 
tria recelToa  Teteaerar,  Uttle  Wallaehla, 
Belgrade,  part  of  Serria,  897 ;  war  with 
Poland  and  Buwia,  rajgaina  BelgradOb 
Serria,  Uttle  Wallaehia,  896 ;  war  with 
Ruaaiaand  Austria, 408, 410 ;  Aaoff  6nallj 
lost,  410;  with  Catharine  II.  (1),  peace  of 
Kutaehouc  Kainardji,  Bug  the  boun- 
dary. 412  ;  (2)  peace  of  Jaaqr.  Bnieattf 
the  boundary.  418;  war  with  Rnaite, 
peaoe  of  BucharaeL  Pruth  the  boun- 
dary, 478;  revolt  of  Greece,  488;  mas- 
sacre of  Janisaries,  Navarino,  488 ;  war 
with  Bnnia,  peace  of  Adrianople,  480 ; 
Crimean  war,  499 ;  peace  of  Paris,  601 ; 
revolt  of  HeraegoTina,  etc,  "  Bulgarian 
atrodUes,"  621 ;  war  with  Russia,  622 : 

Koe  of  San  8tefano,  628 ;  congress  of 
lln,  624 ;  loss  of  much  territory,  624 ; 
conference  of  Berlin,  surrender  of  Dnl- 
eigno,  626. 
Tusoany,  Coaimo  de  Medici  of  Florenoe 
becomes  grand  duke  of  T.,  827 ;  Fxanois 
Stephen,  of  Lorraine,  receivca  T.,  80S, 
416  ;  becomes  an  appanage  of  Austeia, 
416 ;  grand  duke  expoUed.  461 ;  ceded  to 
Parma,  as  kingdom  of  Btruria,468;  old 
dynastyrastored,  483 ;  united  with  Sai^ 

Tnscaroims,  868,  417. 

Two  Sicilies.    &<  Naples,  SioUj. 

Xrooon.     Se«  Shogun. 

Tyler,  John,  664. 

Tyler,  Wat.  209. 

Tyndal«*s  translation  of  the  Bible,  886. 

Tyndaris,  batUe  oil,  110. 

Tyrant,  49. 

Tyroonnel,  888,  887. 

T>re,  16 ;  aubdued  by  NebochadneBsar,  16 ; 
surpasTCs  Sidon,  18;  height  of  Ita  pros- 
perity under  Hixam,  18 ;  decline,  19 ;  bo* 
sieged  by  Nebuehadnessar,  19;  ei^turad 
by  Alexander,  20. 

Tyrol,  acquired  Carinthla.  244 ;  given  to 
Austria  by  liargaret  ManUas^.  249 ; 
fUls  to  arohduke  Maximilian,  268;  fan 
vaded  l>y  Bavarians,  892:  ceded  to  Ba- 
Taria,  403 ;  revolt  of  Tyrol  under  Holsr, 
471 ;  rerolt  subdued,  southom  1>rol  sn* 
nexed  to  Italy,  472  ;  T.  lestorad  to  Ans> 
tria,481 

Tyrone,  e.  of,  rebelUon,  880, 84L 

nif-JarL2Q7. 

Ulm,  aiSO;    truos  of,  816;  somndnr  d; 

467. 
Ulrica  Bleanora,  q.  of  Sweden,  896. 
Ulrich,  d.  of  WUrtomboig,  Tieiory  of  Swm 

blan  league  over,  260. 
Ulrich,  d.  of  WlkrtondMig,  restored,  804. 
Umbria,  81,  88, 14L 
Umbro-Sabellian  tribe,  86. 
**  Unam  Sanctam,"  264* 
Union  of  Calmer,  287, 288, 240,  86L 
Union  G^n^rale,  failure  of,  684. 
Union,  German,  498. 


Union.  Proteafant,  806,  80O. 
Union  Jaok,  484 


Digitized  by 


Google 


^dex. 


651 


tlDltod  ttHoallm  of  N«v  SngVoid,  296. 

DaiUd  Irishman,  68S. 

Unitwl  Kingdom  of  Giwt  Britefai  and  Ixe- 
lMid,6a6. 

United  Netherkndi,  npnblio  of,  818.  S§4 
NetlierlMids. 

United  New  Netherland  compuij,  298. 

United  ProTinoei.     Set  Netherlands. 

United  States  of  America,  independence 
proclaimed,  428;  articles  of  confedera- 
tion, 429 ;  indcMndenoe  recognised  and 
boundaries  established,  482 ;  first  con- 
gress at  New  York,  647 ;  first  meets  at 
Washington,  649;  Jay's  treatise,  648; 
Louisiana  purchase,  649;  war  of  1812, 
661 ;  Missouri  compromise,  662 ;  war  with 
Mezioo,  654  j  f  ogitiTe  slare  Uw.  648, 666 ; 
oItU  war,  667,  prohibition  of  slarery, 
668;  xesnmptioQ,  oiTil  serrice  reform, 
680. 

United  States  bank.  647 :  second,  66L 

Unstmt,  battle  of ^96,  l99. 

Ursna,  Pedro  de,  888. 

Urban  IlMjpope,  218. 

Urchan,  27o. 

Uruguay,  disooTcry  of,  286 ;  independent, 


Utraquiai 

Utrecht, 


Usnrtaaen,  ks.  of  Bgypt,  I.,  XL,  ITL,  4. 
tJtica,  Phoenician  colony,  17;  battle,  14L 


of, 998, 436;  teMtjof,a68; 


Uzbridge,  treaty  of,  849. 
Useda,  d.  of,  331. 

Va^a,  Cabe^  de,  288. 

Tadimonium  lake,  battle  of,  106, 107. 

ValdiTia,  287. 

Valens,  Homan  emp.,  100. 

Yalendnianus,  I.,  Roman  emp.,  100 ;  11., 

laO;  ni.,  161, 178. 
Valerlanns,  Roman  emp.,  166, 188. 
Valerius,  Uws  of,  98. 
Valerius  Corvus,  M.,  108,  104 ;  Maslmtu, 

110;  PopUooU.98. 
Valley  Forge,  429. 
Valmy,  battle  at,  462. 
Valols,  house  of,  267. 
Van  Buren,  Martin.  662, 668. 
Vandals,  location,  170  Mnraded  Spain.  171 ; 

kingdom  in  Africa,  172 ;  power  in  Afrioa 


Henry,  execution  of,  879. 


destroyed,  174. 
Vane,  sir  Henry,  ex 
Van  Tromp.  376. 
Varahran  I.,  k.  of  Persia,  n..  m.,  188; 

IV.,  v.,  189 ;  VI^  se<  Bahran. 
Varna,  battle  of,  278. 
Varro,  0.  Terentius,  116. 
Varus.  Quintllius.  148, 149, 187. 
Vasa,  house  of,  862. 
Va««als,  166. 
Vatican  council,  612. 
Vaucelles,  truce  of,  806. 
Vauchamps,  battle  of,  480. 
Vedas,  22,28. 
Veil,  war  of  Bomnltu  with,  88;  dege  of, 

99. 
Velasqnes,  Diego,  284, 286. 
Venaissin,  annexed  to  France,  462. 
Vendte,  royalistic  rcTolt  In  the,  468, 464 ; 

oonclusion  of  the  war,  457 ;  new  rsTolt 

reprassodi  •&•  _^^ 


Venddme,  892, 485. 

Venddme,  column,  682. 

Voneinela,  diseoTeiy  of,  2B8 ;  ispnUle  o^ 

VenioB  founded  by  Italian  fngitlTet,  178 ; 
shares  in  4th  erosade,  218;  oonstita- 
tion,  697-1464, 282 ;  ftequiattion  of  Gocfti 
and  Cyprus,  height  of  ita  power,  ib.; 
league  of  Oambiay,800, 818 ;  holy  league, 
818;  decline  in  powsr,  loses  Cyprus  to 
the  Turks,  826;  at  the  peace  of  Carlo- 
wits  reoeiTos  Mozea,  878 ;  which  it  loses 
at  the  peace  of  Passarowits.  897 ;  these 
wars  described,  416 ;  V.  selasd  by  France, 
goT.  OTerthrown,  4Bd ;  oeded  to  Austria, 
except  Ionian  Islands,  469 :  at  the  con- 
gress  of  Vienna,  Austria  retains  V. ,  which 
forms  with  Milan  the  Lombardo- Venetian 
kingdom,  482 ;  rerolt  and  subjugation, 
494;  oeded  to  Napoleon  IIL,  609;  ceded 
to  ItaW.  610,  and  united  with  that  king- 
dom, 611. 

Venus,  84. 

Vera  Cms,  286:  rarrender  of,  to  gaa. 
Scott,  654. 

VeroellsB,  battle  of,  128. 

Vercingetorix,  189. 

Verden,  ceded  to  Sweden,  816;  eononom^ 
by  Denmark  and  sold  to  Hanorer,  89& 

Verdun,  MS  the  Three  Ushopries:  ttmtj 
of,  18^. 

Veie,  Robert  de,  impsaehawni,  909. 

Vergennes,  c.  de.  447. 

Vergilius  Maro,  P.,  81, 147. 

Vergniaud,451,462,454. 

Vermont,  organiaed,  429;  admitted  to 
Union,  547. 

Verona,  eongieis  of,  488. 

Veronese,  Paul,  828. 

Verraaano,  GioTanni  tt,  288. 

Versailles,  conrentlon  of,  519 ;  pralimlaa- 
ries  of  peace  at,  519;  treaty  of,  406: 
peaee  of,  48^  441. 

Vems,  Lucius,  164. 

Verrins,  treaty  of,  824. 

Vesontio,  battle  of,  188. 

Yespasianus,  Roman  emp..  87, 160, 16L 

Vespoeei,  Amerigo,  288, 284. 

Vestal  Tirgins,  85. 

Vexin,208. 

Via  JBmilla,  118 ;  Appia,  construction  of, 

106 ;  Flaminia,  construction  of,  106, 118: 

Valiria,106. 
Vicksburg,  668. 

Victor  Amadaus,  k.  of  Sardinia,  468. 
Victor  Emmanuel,  k.  of  Sardinia,  retains  to 

Turin,  482. 
Victor  Emmanuel,  k.  of  Sardinia,  succeeds 

to  the  throne,  494 ;  in  Crimean  war,600 : 

k.  of  Italy,  608;  death.  624. 
Victoria,  q.  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 

491;  marriage,  642;  emprsss  of  India, 

546, 647.  _ 

Vienna,  grand  atlianoe  of,  870.  Vee  Grand 

alliance. 
Vienna,  alUance  of,  against  Napoleon  (1816), 

488 ;  concordat  of,  268 :  eonference  in, 

491 ;  congress  of,  482, 687 ;  final  act,  487 ; 

peace  of  (ending  war  of  Polish  succession^ 

898 ;  peace  of  batween  France  and  Aw- 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Index, 


tria  (laW),  472 :  pMeo  of,  ending  the  war 
of  AuiMe  end  Prunia  with  Denmark 
(1864),  606:  pcaoe  of,  between  Austaria 
and  iWy  (1866),  611 ;  treaty  of  (1781), 
487;  lieffety  the  Talks,  808, 872;  foon- 
dation  of,  m ;  outbreak  In,  482 :  eeoood, 
490;  thinl,«M. 

yienne.    Set  Dauphin^. 

Yijajanagar,  Hindu  kingdom  of,  341, 868; 
deitruetion,  864. 

Yllagoe,  capitnUtion  of,  496. 

VUlafk^U,  treaty  of,  W. 

ViUafranea,  meeting  at,  608. 

Villare,  866,  &».  ffiS. 

Tillegagnon,  288. 

YiUehardottin,  216. 

YilMle,  minietrr  of,  637. 

VUleroi,  87U,  892. 

Vinci,  Leonardo  da,  827. 

Vindelicia,  84,  149,  167. 

Vindex,  C.  Juliu»,  151. 

Vinegar  Hill,  battle  of,  686. 

Vinland  (Amerio^  209, 28L 

Vfaioj,  general,  bSO. 

VIo,  oaxdinal  de,  801. 

TionTlUe,  battle  of,  616. 

Virginia,  96. 

Ybginia,  jiaBMd,  289;  dirifioik  of,  291; 
flxvt  gefteial  aMembly  in,  292 ;  mameze 
of  oolonLite  In,  867 ;  Bacon's  rebellion, 
869 ;  resolntiona  of  tlie  house  of  bur- 
gesses, 484 ;  secedes,  666. 

Yiriathtts,  128. 

VIseonti,  John  Galeano  becomes  duke  of 
Milan,  261 ;  eztinetlon  of  the  line,  T/O, 
818. 

Visiffoths.    See  West  Qoths. 

Vltellins.  Roman  emp.,  161. 

Titigee,  L  of  East  OoUks,  174. 

Vittoria,  battle  of,  470V»7. 

Vladimir  the  Great,  of  Russia,  276. 

Vladislas  in.,  of  Poland,  elected  k.,  of 
Hnnnr7,276;  IV..  862. 

VoUbUs  in  India,  210. 

Volero,  PubliUuii.  »i. 

Yologeses,  ks.  of  FSuthia,  III.,  war  with 
M.  Aurelius,  80 ;  IV.,  loses  northern 
Assyria,  80. 

Yolacii,  wars  with  Romans,  97,  96,  100, 
108:  recclTe  dtisenship  without  suf- 
frage, 104. 

YoltJre,400,448. 

Voltn,  battle  of,  462. 

Vortigem,  87,  Si. 

VoBsem,  peace  of,  867. 

Vote  by  ballot  in  England,  646. 

VouiUtf ,  battle  of.  I7l 

Vul-lttsn  III.,  s«s  Ramannarari. 

Wachan,  battle  at,  478. 

Waddlngton,  ministry  of,  in  Pnusoe,  684. 

Wadsworth.  862. 

Wagram.  battle  of,  472. 

Wahlstett,  battle  of,  240,  477. 

Waiblin^n.     See  Welfs. 

Wakefield,  battle  of.  272. 

Walcheren  expedition,  471. 

Waldemar  I.,  k.  of  Denmark,  the  Great, 

235 ;  II.,  the  Conqueror,  224,  286  ;  lU., 

287. 
Waldemar  the  False,  248. 
Waidenses,227. 


Wales,  migration  of  Britons  to,  172 ;  eon* 
quest  by  Ifidward  L,  864;  annexed  te 
Rng.,  864. 

Wales,  pr.  of.  rlsltB  United  States  and  Cit 
ada,M4:  India,  646. 

Walja,  k.  of  the  West  Qoths,  172. 

WaU  of  China.  82. 

Wallace,  sir  Wm.,  266. 

Wallenstein,  Albert  of,  81(),  818. 

Waller  847. 

W^le,  484  i    edministration  487;   fall, 

Walsingham,  889. 

Walter  the  Penniless.  200, 218. 

Walter,  Hubert,  arehb.  of  Oanteicbnry,288. 

WalUemUUer,  Hartin,  283. 

Wandewash,  batUe  of,  444. 

Warbeck,  Perkin,  83a 

Warsaw,  battle  of ,  878 :  besieged  by  Prus- 
sians, 414  ;  captured  oy  Kussians,  490. 

Warsaw,  duchy  of,  crsaled  for  the  k.  of 
Saxony,  470;  West  Oalfcia  ceded  to, 
472 ;  a  portion  ceded  to  Prussia,  482 ; 
the  rest,  as  kingdom  of  Poland,  to  Rn»> 
8U.488. 

Wartbuiv,  Luther  at  the,  805;  festtTalof 
the,  487. 

Wartenbnxg,  battle  of,  478. 

Warwick,  e.  of,  impeachment,  270. 

Warwicl^e.  of  (the  King-maker),  takes  up 
arms,  272, 274. 

Warwick,  e.  of,  grant  in  America,  296. 

Warwick,  e.  of,  executed,  883. 

Wsshington  dty  laid  out.  647. 

Washington,  trea^  of,  646,  660. 

Washington.  George,  expedition  to  the  forts 
on  the  Alleghany,  420 ;  at  Biaddock*s 
defeat,  421 ;  in  continental  congress,  426: 
commander-in-chief,  427  ;  war  of  inde- 
pendence. 427-481 ;  resigned  his  commis- 
bsion,  482 :  first  pros,  of  U.  S.,  647 ;  re- 
elected, 648 ;  death,  649. 

Waterloo,  battle  of,  484, 638. 

Watt,  James,  488. 

Wavne,480,647. 

Webster,  Daniel,  speech  in  reply  to  Bmiml 
668  ;  U.  8.  sec.  of  stete,  664, 666. 

Wedmore,  treaty  of,  204. 

Wehlau,  treaty  of,  873. 

Weinitberg,  battle  of,  219. 

Weissenbuig,  engagement  at,  616. 

Welf ,  186,  199 ;  V.,  marries  Matilda  of 
Tuscany,  200. 

Welfd,  contest  with  the  Ilobenstaufen 
O^aibUngen),   219,   224 ;  genealogy  of, 

Welfesholae,  battle  of,  201. 

Wellesley,  sir  Arthur,  in  India  641.  Set 
Wellington. 

Wellington,  d.  of,  687 :  sketch  of  life,  pen- 
insula war,  471 ;  in  Portugal,  478 ;  Vit- 
toria, 479 :  in  Vranee,  481 ;  congress  of 
Vienna,  482 ;  Waterloo,  484 ;  admlnistia- 
tion,  689 ;  for.  sec.,  640;  death,  643. 

Welser,  286. 

Wenceslaus.     See  WenseL 

Wends,  168;  wars  with  Henry  I.,  194; 
Otto  L,  196;  Otto  n.,  197;  Teutonic 
knights,  218;  subjugated  by  Waldei 
286, 249. 

Went  worth,  Thomas.     See  Strailord. 

Weniel,  emp.  of  IL  R.  S.,  260. 


uigitized  Dy  vjv^' 


ogle 


i^deXn 


e5s 


Wezdsr,  g«n.  toq,  616, 6I9L 

Werela,  peace  of.  409. 

Werth,  818,  814,  816. 

WaHex,  fonnUed,  178;  growth  of,  180; 
kingii  of,  become  klngi  of  England,  306; 
Danes  in,  304. 
West,  fiands,  396. 

Weet  Vzanks.  sepaxation  from  the  Bast 
Franks,  187  ;  Garolingian  ralers,  301 ; 
develop  into  the  Vzencii  nation,  303. 

Western  empire  separated  from  the  eastern 
empire,  16  ;  fall  of,  168, 178  ;  reTlTal  by 
Charies  the  Great,  186 ;  by  Otto  I.,  196. 

West  Goths,  location,  170 ;  enter  the  Roman 
empire,  171 ;  found  kingdom  in  Spain, 
173;  under  Theodoric,  k.  of  the  East 
Goths,  174 ;  conquered  by  the  Arabs,  188. 

Westminster  assembly,  847. 

Westminster,  treaty  of,  880,  408. 

Weston,  lord  treasurer,  844. 

WeatphaluLl84 ;  kingdom  of,  formed, 470 : 
fall  of,  478  ;  peace  of,  816 ;  conditions  of 
the  peace,  816,  817. 

West  Point,  480. 

West  Virginia  admitted  to  the  Union,  668. 

Wettin,  house  of,  in  Meissen,  318 ;  reeelTas 
electoral  Saxony,  363 :  diyision  of  the 
Une,  806. 

Wetxlar,  Imperial  chamber  at,  800. 

Wexford,  massacre  of,  87& 

Weymouth,  George,  2S0. 

Wharton,  Thomas,  sec  of  state,  887 ;  in  Che 
whig  Junto,  486. 

Whcatstone.  487. 

Whigs,  origin  of  the  name,  883. 

WhiAey  insurrection  648. 

White,  John,  goT.,  389. 

White  Hill,  battle  on,  809/ 

White  Plains,  battle  of,  438. 

Whitney,  Ell,  inrented  cotton  gin,  648. 

Whittington,  sir  Richard,  371. 

Wlclif,  doctrine  as  taught  by  Boss  con- 
demned, 363 ;  in  England,  m 

Widukind,  18& 

Wiesloch,  battle  of,  810. 

Wilderness,  battle  of  the,  668. 

Wilkes,  John,  489,  440. 

William  I.,  the  Conquefor.  k.  of  England, 
Hastings,  306;  reign,  m  Sire  William 
duke  of  Normandy ;  II.,  the  Red,  reign 
of,  380. 

William  and  Mary  sovereigns  of  England, 
870,  871 ;  reign,  886 ;  of  Soothmd,  886  ; 
wan  with  France,  870,  871;  death  of 
Mary,  888.  See  WiUiam,  prince  of  Or- 
ange. 

William  ni.,k.  of  England,  reign  alone, 
888, 889 ;  war  of  Span&h  sueceMion,  890- 
894 ;  death,  889,  893  ;  IV.,  489  ;  leign, 
689;  death.  491,  641. 

William  I., emperor  of  Germany,  election, 
619;  attempted  assassination,  634. 

William  I.,  k.  of  Holland,  489. 

William  Longsword,  d.  of  Normandy,  303. 

Willkm,  d.  of  Normandy's  claim  to  the 
English  snooesslon,  300,  306 :  conquest 
of  England,  306.  S$e  William  I.,  k.  of 
England. 

WiUlam  I.,  of  Orange,  the  Silent,  881. 

William  of  Orange,  867;  marriage  with 
Mary,  868,  881 ;  becomes  stadtholder, 
880  ;  declaration  to  the  people  of  Eng- 


land,884.    &e  William  IH..  k.  of  Eng- 
land. 
William  L,  k.  of  Prussia,  608 ;  coronation 
of,  604 ;  commander  of  the  army,  608, 
609,614.    See  William  I.,emp.  of  Ger- 
many. 
WlUiam  the  Lion,  k.  of  Scotland,  383. 
William  II.,  k.  of  SicUy,  323. 
WilLiam  and  Mary  college,  863. 
William  and  Mary,  war  of,  866. 
Williams,  Roger,  397,  867. 
Wilmington,  e.  of,  48B. 
Wilmot  proviso,  666. 

Wimbledon,  expedition  aoiast  Oadis,  841 
Wimpfen,  battle  of,  810. 
Wimpffen,  general,  617. 
Winchester,  statute  of,  267. 
Windischgrita,  pr.,  486. 
Winfrith.     See  Boniface. 
Winkelried,  Arnold  of,  260. 
Winlhrop,  John,  296. 
Winthrop,  John,  son  of  gov.  W.,  founda* 

tion  of  Conn,  colony  by,  287. 
Winwaed,  battle  of,  180. 
Wisconsin,  exploration  of,  864 ;  admitted 

to  the  Union.  566. 
Witt,  de,  867,  883 ;  commander,  879. 
Wittelsbach,  house  of,  in  Bavaria,  833; 
count  palatine,  333;  head  of  the  union 
and  the  league  both  of  this  house,  806 ; 
Wilhelmian  and  Rudolfian   line,   816; 
Bavarian  succession,  406. 
Wittstock,  battle  of,  814. 
WhMiimir.    See  Vladimir. 
Wocokon,  island  of,  389. 
Woden.    See  Odin. 
Wolfe,  gen.,  421, 422. 
Wollaston,  296. 

Wolseiey.  sir  Garnet,  646, 646. 
Wolsey,  Thomas,  card.,  884. 
Wolstenholme's  Sound,  209. 
"  Wonderful  "  parliament,  269. 
Worcester,  battle  of,  876. 
Worcester,  e.  of,  conspiracy  against  Henrr 

IV.,  270. 
Worcester,  marquis  of,  486. 
Worms,  capital  of  the  old  kingdom  of  Bur* 
gundy,  170 ;  concordat  of,  301 ;  diet  of, 
802. 
Wdrth,  battle  of,  616. 
Wrangel,  German  commander,  494,  496^ 

606. 
Wrangel.  Swedish  cfHDmsnder,  816. 
Wr«de,m 

Wren,  sir  Christopher,  879. 
Writs  of  assistance  In  Massachusetts,  422. 
Wnrschen,  battle  of,  476. 
Wilrtemberg,  rise  of  the  Swablan  counts 
of,  244 ;  contests  with  the  league  of  Swa- 
blan cities,  249.  250;  duke  Ulrich  forced 
to  abdicate,  804 ;  becomes  an  electorate 
464;  enriched  by  the  mediatiation  of 
many  imperial  cities,  466;  troops   Join 
Napoleon,  467 ;  becomes  a  kingdom  and 
acquires  lands  from  Austria,  468;   be- 
loiqsi  to  the  confederation  of  the  Rhin^ 
468;    loins  the  allies,  479;    Joins   tha 
North  German  confederation,  614. 
Wttrri>niK,  diet  at,  228 ;  batUe  of,  468. 
Wnsterfaansen,  treaty  of,  396. 
Wyandots,428. 
Wyat,  sir  Vraaois,  gon  of  S.  Vlxglnla,  292i 


Digitized  by 


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654 


Index, 


WyoUf.    &«WieUf. 
Wykahn,  WillUn  of,  M. 

X.  T.  Z.  ftflair,  649. 

Xanthippus  mcomi  MlltkdM,  67; 

AUMnka  flMt»  00;  UOtn  of  Pwlolao, 

63. 
XaatUppni,  th*  Bputen,  IIL 
Xmophon,  1«mIi  th*  Gnek  mtmnrnxim 

ander  Oynu  tho  yomiger,  39,  09. 
XerH  dfl  U  Vrontezm,  battto  ol,  188. 
XerxM.  ks.  of  Ponds:  I.,  war  with  Onooo, 

9S,  6d-00 ;  IL,  29. 

Taknb  Bcc,  602. 

Yiknh  Khin,  obdiestloii  of,  647. 

Tale  coUefs,  foundod,  868. 

Tamaaeea, Indian  war,  417, 418. 

Teazdloyiilr  Goofgo,  gor.  gen.  of  8.  Vir- 
ginia, 292. 

Todo.  in  Japan,  82;  capital  of  the  shogun, 
866:  name  changed  to  Tokio,  beeouot 
capital  of  the  mikado,  668. 

TngUngar  dynasty  In  Sweden,  206. 

Yokohama,  82 ;  opened  to  tiade,  668. 

York,  Jamot,  duke  of,  giant  of  New 
Netherlands,  868;  lord  Ugh  admixal, 
878;  profeeeae  CathoUeiam,&0;  thrown 
out  by  the  test  act,  880;  ezclniion  bUl, 
881 ;  sncoeeds  as  Ji  ~  ~ 

land,  888. 


I U.,  k.  of  ] 


York,  sen.,  474, 476, 478^  480. 

Toric.  hoose  of,  in  the  wan  of  the  roses, 

rorktowB,  siege  of,  48L 


Toritomo,2tt;24& 
Tpsilaati,  488. 
TBoataaj^<gsooT«ry  of,  284,  V^ 


lattle  0^118. 
),k.  of  Persia.  180. 
Zapolya,  John,  pr.  of  Tlwuyltuiia,  80ft 
Keemeboh,  169. 
Zela.  battle  of,  186, 142. 
ZendaTesta,  24,  n. 
Zenger,  azxost  of,  for  libel,  419L 
Zeno,64,168. 
Zenobla,  167. 
Zenta,  battle  of,  872. 
Ziela.    fiMZela. 
Zipangu,  82,  h,  281 
Ziska,2^ 
Zoaim,  tmoe  of,  472. 
ZollTerein,  foandsd,  491 ;  flnt 

612. 
Zopynis,27. 
Zonidorf ,  battle  of,  406w 
Zoroaster,  reforms  the  InnSo  rsUglon,  91; 

his  religion  restored,  187. 
Zrfny,  806. 
Zni'dkMx  Khin,  442. 
ZOlpich,  battle  of,  178. 
Znlns,  war  of  England  with,  846. 
Zttrioh,  bttttto  of,  461;  peaee  of,  602. 


Zwe1 

878. 
Zwingli,8Ql. 


I,  battle  of. 


house  of,  in  Swsdn,  M8^ 


Digitized  by 


Google 


INDEX  TO  APPENDIX. 


AiBAB  n^  UMdire  of  Bgypt,  6G7. 

AbdulUhi,  vaabM,  660. 

Abdumhnuuii,     aokMr  of    iighaaiaten, 

death,  608. 
▲bu  Klea,  batttof  665. 
AbyMlnia,  and  Italy,  607,  CT4, 680 ;  British 

treaty,  572. 
▲fhli*s  Abeda,  pcaoe,  680. 
Adoa,  battle,  680. 
Afghanistan,  fnmtier  dalimhiatod,  666; 

Chltral,  568 ;  Habibollah,  608. 
Agrarian  agitation,  Oermanj,  680;  Ruaria, 

584. 
Agnlnaldo,  Bmilio,  innirrectlon,  602. 
Alaaka  bonndaxy,  602,  504. 
Alexander,  p.  of  Bnlgarla,  and  East  En- 
.  melia,  576 ;  kidnapped,  resigns,  576. 
Alexander  III. ,  tar  ci  Biusia,  oonseorated, 

673 ;  death,  670. 
Alexander,  k.  of  Serria,  677 ;  ooop  d^Atat, 

678;  liberal  oonstitoiion,  684;  asMSsi- 

nated,  685. 
Alfonso  XII.,  k.  of  Spain,  Paris  mob,  673 ; 

daath,  576 ;  ZIII.,  675 ;  aoeeaiion,  586. 
Alsaoe-Lorraina,  dictator  paragraph  abol- 
ished, 585. 
American  Bailroad  Union  strike,  680. 
Anam,  French  wrar,  673,  574. 
AnarchisUc  aotiylty,  5n,  578,  683,  693. 
Andrd  in  ministry,  682,  585. 
Angra  Pequena,     Oermaa    protectorate, 

574. 
Arbitration,  Anglo-French    treaty,  673; 

Hague  conference,  583 :  Frmeh-Itallan 

treaty,  585 ;  Bering  sea,  588  :  Teneaueia 

boundary,  690 ;  Anglo-Amarioan  treaty, 

600. 
Armenian  massacres,  579. 
Armies,  increase  in  Continental,  576,  678 ; 

Swedish  conscription,  684;  increase  in 

U.  S.,  502 ;  general  stalT,  604. 
Ashantee  expedition,  569. 
Aasab,  Italy  occupies,  574. 
Associations  law,  French,  584, 686. 
Assnan  dam,  572. 
Atbara,  battle,  569. 
Aus(i:leich  renewed,  582. 
Australia,  constitution,  671. 
Australbn  baUot,  587. 
Austria,  trij^  alBsnne,  573, 585 ;  electoral 

reform,  680 ;  language  controversy, 

Auftleich  renewed,  682  ;  empress  ( 

nated,  583. 

Baden-Powell,  col.,  Mafeking,  571. 
Baker  Pasha,  565. 

Balfour,  A.  J.,  sec.  for  Irehmd,  566 ;  of  trea- 
sury,.668  ;  premier,  572 ;  and  tariff,  673. 
Bank  scandal  in  Italy,  578. 
Bankruptcy,  uniform  law,  601. 


Baring,  Brolyn,  in  Iteypt,  666. 

Barton,  Edmund,  6717 

Bayard,  T.  F.,  sec.  of  state,  686. 

Beach,  M.  H.,  sec.  for  Ireland,  666 ;  ex- 
chequer, 668. 

Bechuanalsnd,  British,  666. 

Belgium,  suffrage,  674,  578,  683, 684 ;  so- 
cUistic  demonstrations,  583,  684. 

Berber,  660. 

Bering  ssa,  sealing  coutrovei-sy,  686,  688. 

Berthelot  in  ministry,  580. 

BimetaUiam,  intematlottal  oonfisrenoe, 
578.    i$«e  surer. 

Bismarck,  pr.  Ton.,  and  catholios,  574* 
colonial    policy,    574;    resigns,     ff7T; 


Blalue,  J.  O.,  republican  nominee,  586  s 

sec.  of  state,  687. 
Bodrikoff  assassinated,  686. 
Bogolepoff  sanssluated,  584. 
Bonaparte,  prince   Napoleon,  manifeste, 

5t3;  death,  677. 
Botha,  gen.,  8.  African  war,  671. 
Boulanger,   in  ministry,  675;    agitatioa, 

575,  576 ;  flight,  676  ;  suicide,  577. 
Bourbon,  house  of,  extinct,  573. 
Bourgeois  ministxy,  680. 
Boxer  rising,  507. 
Bradlangh  m  parliament,  666. 
Brisson  ministry,  574,  582. 
British  Booth  Africa  company,  667, 660. 
Brunei,  protectorate,  567. 
Bnran,  W.  J.,  democratic  nominee,  690, 

Bnrce,  James,  in  cabinet,  668. 

Bulgaria,  Berrian  war,  575 ;  Alexander  re- 
signs, 575;  Ferdinand,  676;  Russian 
ascendency,  580. 

BuUer,  BedTcrs,  S.  African  war,  670. 

BUlow,  c.  TOQ,  German  ohanceUor,  584. 

Burma,  upper,  annexed,  666;  Anglo-Chi- 
nese agreements,  594,  e06L 

Cra^pbell  Bannerman,  H.,  sec.  of  war, 

Campos,  premier  of  Spain,  575. 

Canada,  Pacific  railway,  566 ;  RiePs  rebel- 
lion, 566 ;  Uriff  preferential,  %C9  ;  fish- 
eries,  586 ;  joint  high  commisaion,  .HOI. 

Canals,  Manchester,  «)8;  Sues  convention, 
576 ;  Panama,  578,  594  ;  Kiel,  579. 

Caprlvi,  v.,  Oerman  chancellor,  577,  579. 

Carlos,  k.  of  Portugal,  577. 

Camovas,  premier  of  Spain,  575. 

Caroline  lalanda,  Oermany  secures,  676, 
683. 

Caslmir-P^rier,  pres.  of  France,  578 ;  re- 
signs. 680. 

Cancasia,  railwav,  676. 

Cavaignac,  in  mfpistiy,  680. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


656 


Index  to  Appendix. 


CoTTonf  it4int*Ttl,  S91. 

Ohad,  lake,  control,  667,  978. 

CbamlMrlAin,  Jo«eph,  in  oablnot, 
libonl  nnioniat,  666;  ookmial  MC. 
tod  Tntmnmlf  669 ;  and  colonial  pre- 
mian,  669;  in  &  Africa,  672;  tariff 
campaign,  672. 

Ohamboni,  c.  of,  daath,  573. 

GharlMton  earthquake,  686. 

Chile  and  U.  B.,  688. 

China,  French  war,  674,  676 ;  and  Japan 
in  Corea,  6M;  flood*  and  famine,  OM ; 
miflBiooanee.  696;  empre«  dowager, 
696,  607;  Japaneae  war,  696;  oonoea* 
■ioni,  696;  territorial  leases,  596,  697; 
reforms,  697;  open-door  policy,  687, 
608;  Boxer  rising,  697;  oonmwrdai 
treaties,  608. 

Chinese  exclusion  act,  687,  689. 

Ching,  pr.,  Boxer  rising,  696. 

Chitral,  668. 

Cholera  In  Europe,  677. 

Chungking,  trei^  port,  606. 

Chnrohill,  Banddph,  in  cabinet,  566. 

Clayton-Bnlwer  traabr  abrogated,  608. 
iTer,  democratic 


Cleveland,  OroTer,  uciuuunMiv  iKuniimnj, 
686,688;  pres.  of  U.  8.,686,  689;  tariff, 
686 ;  and  Hawaii,  689 ;  silver  purchase 
law.  689;  bond  issues,  680,  600;  Ysne- 
suela,600. 

Colenso.  battle,  670. 

ColombLs,  canal  treaty,  603. 

C<donies,  German  African,  674. 

Combes,  in  ministry,  680;  premier,  686. 

Concordat,  agitation  against,  686. 

Congo,  conference,  574 ;  boundaiy,  579. 

Ccnstans  in  ministry,  676. 

Constitution,  French,  revised,  574;  Ana- 
trslian,  671 ;  Japanese.  604. 

Contract  laborers,  U.  8.  law,  586. 

Coolie  labor  in  B.  Africa,  672. 

Copyright,  international,  688. 

Corea,  opened  to  trade,  604;  China  and 
Japan  (1883),  604;  (1894),  686 ;  ~      ' 
intrigue,  604,  606;   Japanei 
606;  Russia  and  Japan,  606, 

Cretan  rerolt,  681. 

Crimes  act,  666. 

Crispi,  premier  of  Italy,  676;  bank  scan- 

Cronje,  gen.,  B.  African  war,  670,  571. 

Cuba,  rebellion,  690;  Spanish- American 
war,  690;  U.  &  disdatms  desire  for, 
691 :  Spain  relinquishes.  601;  conditioDS 
of  U.  B.  withdrawal,  602  ;  independent 
gOTemment,  693 ;  reciprocity  with  U.  &, 

Ounon,  lord,  yloeroy  of  India,  660. 

Dahomey,  BYenoh  protectofmte,  578 ;  bound- 

DanUi  West  Indies,  failure  of  purchase, 
603. 

Danube,  narigation.  573,  581. 

Delarey,  gen.,  B.  African  war,  571. 

Delcaas^  &  ministry,  578,  582, 686. 

Department,  of  labor,  587,  594;  of  agricul- 
ture, 687 ;  of  commerce,  604. 

Deutsche  Colonialyerein,  674. 

De  Wet,  gen.,  S.  African  war,  571. 

Dewey,  George,  UsaOa  bay,  601. 


I>oi«dla,6e9. 

Dreyfus  affair,  679,  682. 

Dopuy,  in  ministry,  678;  premlar,  578, 582, 

Kaat  Rumelia,  rerolution,  576. 
Education,  EngUdi  acts,  667,  672 ;  central 

board,  670 ;  French  laws,  676,  664. 
Edward  YIL,  k.  of  Great  Britain,  572. 
Egypt,  foreign  control,  666 ;  Soudan,  666. 

669;  Abbas n.,667;  crisis, 668. 
Eiffel  tower,  677. 
El  Caney,  batUe,  601. 
Electoral  Tote,  reguhition,  686. 
Election  hkWB,  Franch,  675^577.    See  Snf- 

Electiims,  U.  S.  (1884),  586;  (1888),  686; 

(1892),  688 ;  (1896),  590 ;  (1900),  Wi. 
Emma,  q.  regent  of  Netherlands,  577. 


Dghmd,  Egypt,  666,  668,  669;  Boufti 
African  repubUc,  666.  668;  AfghanlsTan, 
666,  668 ;  Fashoda,  6^ ;  imperial  post, 
570;  Ptoraian  gulf,  670,  672;  Booth 
African  war,  670;  Edward  VIL,  672; 
tariff  agitation,  572;  TUbet,  573,  698; 
Pamirs,  580  ;  Venesuela-Guinea  bound- 
ary, 590;  Corea,  604,  606;  China,  607, 


Eritrea,  beginning,  674 ;  Al^yssinian  war, 

680. 
Esterhaiy,  Dreyfus  affair,  682. 
B^ctedteDantobiU,668. 
Exterritoriality,  ns— tion  in  Ji^ian,  696. 

lUUtoes,  premier,  673 ;  In  ministry,  576. 

Fashoda  inoidflnt,  660. 

Faure,  Felix,  in  ministry,  578;  praa.  of 
France,  580 ;  death,  583. 

Ferdinand,  cr.  p.  of  Austria,  676. 

Ferdinand,  p.  of  Bulgaria,  676  ;and Bnaala, 
680. 

Ferron  in  ministnr,  676. 

Feiry,  Jules,  ministTy,  673. 

Finland,  BussiAcation,  683-685;  famine, 
584. 

FLaheries,  oontroreny,  586;  Bering  aea, 
586,588. 

Floquet,  premier,  676. 

Flourens  in  ministry,  576. 

Force  bill,  687. 

Formosa,  French  attack,  674 ;  ceded  to 
Japan,  606. 

France,  Egypt,  666 ;  Africa,  667,  578-660, 
682,  C83;  Fashoda,  669;  Omsn,  670; 
nrinces,  673,  676;  Anam  and  China, 
073-676 ;  constitution  rerised,  574  ;  elec- 
tion laws,  675-577 ;  Gr^vy,  575  ;  Bou- 
laoger  aflUr,  576,  676;  Badi-Camot, 
576 ;  republicanism  strengthened,  577, 
586;  Roaaian  friendahip  and  aUianoe, 
677,  581,  5%2;  and  Pftpacy,  578,  686; 
Panama  acandal,  578;  Casimir-Ptfrier, 
678 ;  Dreyfus  affair,  578, 682 ;  Fanra,  580; 
Loubet,  683 ;  asaoclations  law,  584,  585 ; 
and  catholics  in  east,  684 ;  and  Turkey, 
684 ;  81am,  606,  596,  699 ;  interference 
hi  Chinese-Japanese  treaty,  696;  oonoea- 
sions  In  China,  596 ;  Kwangchan,  697 ; 
and  Anglo-Japanese  alliance,  698. 

Frederick  ni.,  emp.  of  Germany,  aocea- 
aion,  death,  576. 

French  Congo,  boundary,  678. 


Digitized  by 


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hidex  to  Appendix. 


657 


FreydiMt,  in  mlniBtiy,  574, 576,  678, 582 ; 

pmiilfl£.  675. 
FaofaAQ,  Ilrench  sttack,  674. 

GhJltf efe  in  ministry,  682. 

GalTMtoo  tornado,  602. 

Oatade,  gen.,  Stormberg,  670. 

George,  p.  of  Greece,  gor.-gen.  of  Orete, 

681. 
Oexmen  East  Africa  company,  574. 
0«iinan    Beat  Africa   and  West  Africa, 

boundarjea,  567. 
Germany,  Africa,  567,  574,  678,  679,  682 ; 
and  Canadian  tariff,  669 ;  triple  allianoe, 
673, 585 ;  cathdica,  573;  Caroline idanda, 
675,  583:    army    inoreaied,  575,   578; 
Frederick  in.,  676;  William  II.,  576  ; 
forced  development,  577 ;  naval  increaae, 
680 ;  agrarian  agitation,  580;  aodaliam, 
680,  583 ;  deprevion,  584 ;  and  Chineae- 
Japanese  treaty,  596;  Kiaochaa,S06,597; 
upholds  integrity  of  China,  608. 
GioUtti,  premier  of  Italy,  576  ;  bank  scan- 
dal, 578. 
Gladstone,  W.  S.,  3d  administration,  656 ; 
home  rule,  566,  568  ;  4th  administration, 
568;  resigns,  568 ;  death,  669. 
Odd  reserve  of  U.  8.,  689,  590. 
Odd  standard,  Busrfa,  682 ;  U.  8.,  692 ; 

Japan,  696. 
GOTdonTcharles,  at  Khartum,  killed,  666. 
Gosdien,  O.  J.,  in  cabinet,  666,  668. 
Ooschen  act,  567. 
Greece,    coerced    by   powers,  676;   and 

Crete,  681 ;  Turkish  war,  681. 
Gresham,  W.  Q.,  sec.  of  state,  589. 
Gr^vv,  Jnles,  re-elected  pres.  of  France, 

576 ;  redgns,  676. 
Guerin  in  ministry,  678. 

HabibnUah,  ameer  of  Afghanistan,  686. 

Hague  peace  conference,  683. 

Hauotaux  in  ministry,  678,  580. 

Harcoort,  W.  Y.,  fai  cabinet.  566,  668. 

Harrison,  Benjamin,  republican  nominee, 
586,  688 ;  pres.  of  U.  8.,  687. 

Hawdi,  attempted  annexation,  688 ;  an- 
nexed, territory,  691. 

Hay,  John,  see.  of  state,  600 ;  open-door 
policy,  587. 

Haymarket  riot,  586. 

Heligoland  ceded  to  Germany,  667. 

Hendricks,  T.  A.,  v.-pres.  of  U.  B.,  686. 

Henry,  p.  of  Prussia,  in  China,  606. 

Henry,  major,  Dreyfus  alfdr,  579,  682. 

Hicka  Pasha,  565. 

Hobart,  G.  A.,  v.-prea.  of  U.  8.,  600. 

Hohenlohe,  p.  von,  German  chancellor, 
579. 

Home-rule  bills,  666,  668. 

Homestead  strike,  688. 

Hopetouu,    lord,  gov.-gen.  of  Australia, 

House  of  Representatives,  quorum  count- 
ing, 587. 

Humbert,  k.  of  Itdv.  assassinated,  683. 

Hungary,  anti-8emltism,  673;  dvil  mar- 
rii^  578;  recognises  Jewish  fdth, 
580;  Auagldch  renewed,  682 ;  tauiguage 


Idaho  admitted,  688. 

Iddeslelgh,  lord,  foreign  see.,  666. 

Income  tax  in  U.  &,  689,  600. 

India,  Chitrd,  668;  plsgue,  669;  TUbet 
misdon,  573. 

Injunction,  government  by,  689. 

Insular  cases,  593. 

Insurance,  workmen's  aoddent,  669,  574 ; 
illneas,  573;  dd  sgo,  577,  683;  miners*, 
578. 

Interstate  commerce  act,  686. 

Ireland,  nationalists,  666,  667;  home-rule 
bills,  666,  5G8 ;  phtn  of  campaign,  666 ; 
crimes  act,  666;  Pamdl  commbsion, 
667 ;  laiid  purchase  acts,  667,  673;  local 
government,  569;  n«t  disturbances,  572. 

Isohia,  earthquake,  574. 

Ismail  Pasha,  khedive  of  Egypt,  665. 

Isthmian  canal,  French  scandd,  578;  Glay- 
ton-Bulwer  treaty  abrogated,  668;  act, 
503 ;  abortive  treaty  with  Colombia,  593 ; 
treaty  with  Plsnama,  604. 

Italy,  Eritrea,  567,  674;  triple  alliance, 
673,  686;  increase  in  army,  575;  pre- 
miers, 676;  bank  scandd,  678;  Abys- 
dnian  war,  680;  socialistic  riots,  682, 
683;  Victor  Emmanuel  III.,  583;  and 
New  Orleana  lynching,  688;  Bammun 
Bay,  607. 

Ito,  admird,  in  Chinese  war,  f&i, 

Jmrnemm  rdd,  S68. 

Japan,  and  China  in  Corea,  694,  606 ;  con- 
sUtution,  691 ;  Chinese  war,  595;  tidd 
wave,  596 ;  end  of  exterritorldity,  696 ; 
military  expandon,  596 ;  and  Russia  in 
Cores,  596,  697 ;  English  alliance,  606; 


Jews,  anti-8emitiam,  673,  677; 

May  lawa,  677;  recofmiaed  in  Hungary, 

680;  Kishinef  riot,  686. 
John,  k.  of  Abyssinia,  674. 
Jdmatown  flood,  587. 

Kamerun,  German  protectorate,  674; 
boundary,  578,  679. 

Kettder,  b.  von,  killed,  696. 

Khartum,  captured  by  mahdl,  666;  re- 
taken, 669 ;  rdlway,  671. 

Kiaoohau,  Germany  sdaes,  606;  leased, 
607. 

Kiel  cand,  679. 

KImberley,  siege,  670,  571. 

Kishinef,  anti-Bemitic  riot,  685. 

Kitchener,  lord,  Soudan,  560;  Faahoda, 
670;  South  African  war,  670,  571. 

Klondike,  gold  discovered,  669. 

KnighU  of  Labor,  586. 

Krakatoa,  mount,  eruption,  694. 

Kruger,  8.  J.  P.,  pres.  of  8.  African  repub- 
lic, and  Uitlaudera,  668;  and  England, 
669,  671. 

Kwangchau-wan,  French  lease,  597. 

Kwangsu,  emp.  of  China,  accession,  605 ; 
reforms,  697;  vlrtud  deposition,  607. 

Labor,  unions  as  oorporations,  672 ;  inter- 
nationd  conference,  677;  strikes  in  Eu- 
rope, 577,  582,  684;  strikes  in  U.  8.,  686, 
688,  688;  U.  8.  dsMiiment,  687,  604; 
growth  of  unions,  687.    See  Intoiance. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


658 


Index  to  Appendix. 


Ladyimitb,  ilega,  570. 

Luid  iraroiiaM  mU,  Irekuid,  667. 673. 

Luudowne,  lord,  Tioeroy  of  India,  667;  in 

oabiaetj  668 ;  ftnd  PoniMi  gulf,  672. 
LariMa,  OrMks  eraouate,  681. 
Leo  Xill.,  pope,  Jobileee,  676,  578,  686 ; 

death,  686. 
LeewpB,  Ferdinand  de,  Panama  eoandal, 

678. 
Li  Hnngchang,  Japaneae  war,  606;  Bozor 

rialng,6a8. 
LibMafunioniata,  666. 
LUiookalani,  q.  of  Hawaii,  688. 
Lobengola,  668. 
Local  goTemment,  Bnbland,  667, 568, 670 ; 

Ireland,  669. 
London,  oonrention  of  1884,  665 ;  govem- 

ment,  667,  670. 
Lonbet,   Kmile,   premier,   678;   prea.  of 

Franoe,  683. 
Lala,  k.  of  Portugal,  death,  577. 
Lynching,  687,  688. 

Maagenfontein,  battie,570. 

McCarthy,  Joatin,  667. 

Macedonian  rerolt,  684. 

McKinley,  William,  repnblioan  nominee, 

600,692;  prea.  of  U.  8.,  690;  war  mee- 

■age,  691,  693 ;  Philippine   oommiiflion, 

602 ;  atmninatni,  693. 
Madagaaoar,  iTrench  in,  667,  673,  676,  680. 
Mafeking,  aiege,  670,  571. 
Maine,  u.  S.  &,  blown  up,  691. 
Mancheeter  ship  canal,  668. 
Manchuria,  Japan  invadea,  696 ;  railways, 

696,  697;  Ruaala  oocnpiea,  696 ;  Ruadan- 

Japeneee  oriaia,  699.    See  Port  Arthur. 
Manila,  captured,  691;  inaurgenta  attaok, 

692. 
ManUa  bay,  battle,  691. 
Manning,  gen.,  Bomaliland,  572. 
Marohand,  major,  Faahoda,  670. 
Maria  Ghriattna,  regent  of  Spain,  675. 
MaaMwa,  Italy  oocnpiea,  674. 
Matabele  war,  668. 
May  laws.  In  Pruada  relaxed,  574 ;  in  Boa- 

aia,  677. 
Mdline  ministry,  680. 

Meneiek,  k.  of  Abyminia,  ItaUan  war,  580. 
Meroier,  in  miniatry,  678 ;  Dreyf ua  ailair, 

679. 
Merritt,  gen.,  in  PhlUppinea,  691. 
Merv,  Buaeia  annexes,  674. 
Methuen,  lord,  Maagenfontein,  670. 
Milan,  k.  of  Servia,  abdieatea,  677. 
MUes,  gen.,  in  Porto  Rico,  691. 
MUouna  paaa,  battle,  681. 
Minto,  lord,  gor.-gen.  of  Canada,  669. 
Mlasionaries  In  China,  695-697. 
Moltke,  TOO,  resigns.  676 ;  and  estabUah- 

ment  of  empire,  676. 
Montana  admitted,  687. 
Morley,  John,  sec.  for  Ireland,  666,  668. 
Morton,  L.  P.,  T.-pres.  of  U.  8.,  687. 
Muhammad  Ahmad,  mahdi,  565. 
Muscat,  French  attempt,  670. 
MuaaSai^ed-din,  ahah  of  PerMa,  696. 

Hansen,  farfeheat  north,  680. 
Naar-ed-din,  shah  of  Persia,  killed,  606. 
Katalie,  q.  of  Banria,  baniahed,  677. 


Navy,  inoreaie  in  OernMiy,  580 ;  in  U.  &, 

586;  in  Japan,  606. 
Negroea,  oondiUon,  687;  force  bill,  687. 
Netherlanda,  Wilhelmlna,  677;   elector^ 

reform,  680. 
Mew  Q-uinea,  protectorate,  565. 
Mew  Orleana,  Mafia  lynctdng,  688. 
Mew  York  city,  Greater,  690. 
Mew  Zealand,  old  age  penaiona,  670. 
Mioholaa  II.,  tsar  of  Russia,  579,  580. 
Miger  rirer,  nherea  of  inftnenoe,  588. 
Mile  ralley,  Freneh-Snglish  uonfeutfona. 


570,  683 ;  Assuan  dam,  572. 

Modsu,  gen.,  in  Chinese  war,  696. 

Mogi,  gen.,  in  Chinese  war,  696. 

Mqrth  Borneo,  protectorate,  667. 

Morth  Dakota  admitted,  587. 

Morthcote,  lord,  gov.-gen.  of  Auatralia, 
573. 

Morthcote,  Stafford.    i9ee  Iddaslelgfa. 

Morth  pole  exploration,  680. 

Morwi^,  reaponsible  ministry,  674 ;  sep- 
arate oonsius,  577  ;  suffrage,  688. 

Oklahoma  opened,  687. 

Olney,  Richard,  sec.  of  state,  588;  doc- 
trine, 690. 

Omdurman,  battle,  668. 

Open-door  policy,  607. 

Orange  Free  State,  war  with  Btagiand,  070 ; 
anaexed,  671 ;  colony,  671. 

Onnan  Digna,  669. 

Oyama,  gen.,  in  Chinese  war,  606. 

Paardeaburg.  battle,  671. 
Pamirs  delimtnated,  680. 
Pan-American  consress,  687. 
Panama  revolt,  694. 
Panama  canal.    See  Isthmian. 
Panic  hi  U.  8.,  689. 

Papacy,  and  Germany,  673 ;  Tatican  li- 
brary opened,  574 ;  and  France,  678, 686 ; 

Pius  X.,  585. 
Paria,  c.  of,  death,  578. 
Paris  expositions,  577,  683. 
Pariah  council  act,  668. 
Parliament,  English,  reform  act,  665 ;  aeata 

redistributed,  666;  23d  imperial,  666; 

home-rule  bills,  666, 668 ;  24th,  666 ;  2Gth, 

667 ;  26th,  668 ;  27th,  671. 
PameU,  C.  S.,  commission,  567;   death, 

667. 
Peking,  Boxer  rising,  697,  598. 
Pelte,  mount,  eruption,  686. 
Peujdeh,  Rnasia  occupies,  666. 
Pensions,  old  age,  670 ;  U.  &  military,  688. 

See  Insurance. 
Persia,  Musaff ar-«d-dln,  696 ;  Rnaaian  trade 

treaty,  698. 
Persian  gulf,  Britiah  control,  570, 572. 
Pescadoree  Islands,  ceded  to  Japan,  596. 
Peter  Karageorgeritch,  k.  of  Serria,  685. 
Philippine  lalanda,  ceded  to  U.  8.,  691 ; 

commisaion,  691 ;  insurrection,  502 ;  got- 

emment,  602,  608 ;  piimhaaB  of  fiiara* 

landa,  594. 
Picquart,  col.,  J>niytn»  affair,  682. 
Piengyang,  battle,  605. 
Pigott,  R.,  567. 
Pius  X.,  vape.  585. 
Plague  in  India,  660. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Index  to  Appendix. 


659 


Flehre  Meawlnalied,  684. 

Poinoar^  in  miniitry,  678,  680. 

Pondolaiid,  iOTereipitj  OTor,  668. 

Population,  India,  667,  572  ;  Chraat  Britain 
and  Ireland,  667,  672  ;  France,  576,  677 
58a,  684 ;  Oermany,  676,  677,  680,  684 
Auatila-Hangazy,   677;    Bniifla,    682 
ItaW,  664 ;  U.  B.,  687, 602. 

Port  Arthur,  Japanese  captare,  695 ;  pro- 
test agidnat  ceulan,  696  { leaied  to  Rua- 
■laJ97. 

Port  Hamilton,  Bngliah  oocnpation,  694. 

Porto  Rico,  campaign,  601 ;  ceded  to  U.  S., 
691 ;  ffOTemmenC602. 

Portugal,  Africa,  6v7 ;  house  of  peers,  674 ; 

Poet,  imperial  penny,  670 ;  U.  8.  rural  free 

deliTery,  600. 
Prempeh,  king,  669. 
Preabyterian  church,  dispute  in  Scotland, 

671. 
Preaidential  sacceasion  law,  688. 
Proportional  representation,  Belgium,  683. 
Ptuasia,  Poland,  684.  £ee  Oermany. 

Ballroada,  Canadian  Fadflo,  666;  Calro- 
Khartom,  671;  Cape  to  Cairo,  672; 
French  convention,  673 ;  Transcaucaaian , 
Calais-Constantinople,  Hungarian  sone 
tarifr,  576 :  Swiss  state  ownership,  682; 
TranoBiberlan,  684,606, 698 ;  Asia  Minor, 
684;  Bagdad  oouTention,  686;  U.  B. 
strikes,  686,  669;  interstate  commerce 
act,  686;  first  CUnese,  694;  Chinese 
ooocesaions,  696 ;  Transmanohurian, 
696,  607 ;  first  Corean,  697. 

Recidivist  law,  French,  674. 

Reciprocity,  U.  8.  proTiaions,  588^690; 
with  Cuba,  603.  5ee  rCsriiT. 

Reform  act,  third,  565. 

Reichstag,  Carman,  elections,  674,  678, 
683 ;  period,  676. 

Rhodes,  Cecil,  Jameson  raid.  669;  conti- 
nental telegraph,  670;  at  Kimberley, 
671 ;  death,  672 ;  scholarahips,  672. 

Ribot,  in  ministry,  678 ;  premier,  678,  680. 

Riel,  Louis,  rebellion,  666. 

Roberts,  lord,  S.  African  war,  670,  671. 

Rochef ort  and  Boulanger,  676. 

RooeeTelt,  Theodore,  v.-pres.  of  U.  S., 
693 ;  pies.,  503. 

Rosebe^,  lord,  foreign  sec.,  666,  568; 
premier,  568. 

RouTler,  premier,  575 ;  in  ministry,  576, 
686. 

Bttdini,  premier  of  Italy,  676,  680 ;  bank 
seaDdal,  678. 

Rudolf,  cr.  p.  of  Aoatria,  suicide,  676. 

Rural  communication,  development,  567  ; 
postal  delivery,  590. 

Russia,  Penjdeh,  666 ;  Merv.  674 ;  and  Bul- 
garia, 675,  680;  anti-Semitism,  677, 
685 ;  forced  development,  677 ;  French 
friendship  and  alliance,  677,  581,  582  : 
Nichohhs  n.,  579;  Pamirs,  580;  gold 
standard,  682  ;  FinUmd,  588^585 ;  agita- 
tion, 684 ;  Corea,  501,  586  ;  interference 
in  Chineae^apanese  treaty,  506 ;  Port 
Arthur,  587  ;  Manchuria,  598  ;  Persia, 
608 ;  Thibet  688 ;  and  AngloJapaneae 
allianoe,  668 ;  Japanese  crisis,  689. 


Sadi-Camot,  in  ministiy,  674, 675 ;  pns.  of 

France,  676 ;  assassinated,  678. 
8umst«i  premier  ot  Spain,  576 ;  and  Cuba, 

Sahara,  boundary,  588. 

SaUsbuxj,  lord,  Ist  adrainlstratlan,  666  x 
2d,666;  8d,568;resigna,672;death,ff73. 

Sammun  Bay,  Italy  demands,  697. 

Samoa,  treaties,  687, 692. 

Sampson,  admiral,  Spanish  war,  601. 

San  Juan  HiU,  battle,  691. 

Santiago,  Cuba,  campaign,  naval  battle, 
591. 

Sarafof,  Boris,  684. 

Sarakha,  Rnasia  annexes,  674. 

Sarawak,  protectorate,  667. 

Sohnabele  affair,  576. 

Scotland,  church  controversy,  671. 

Bervla,  Bulgarian  war.  676;  Alexander, 
677;  coup  d*dtat.  578;  Uberal  constitu- 
tion, 584 ;  regicide,  Peter,  686. 

Seymour,  admiral.  Boxer  rising,  698. 

Shafter,  gen.,  Santiago  oampa^n,  501. 

Shimonoeeki,  treaty,  696. 

Blam,  and  France,  506,  699 ;  Anglo-Fxenofa 
agreement,  696. 

Siberia,  raUway,  584,  596. 

Sierra  Leone  hinterhmd,  568. 

Silver,  purchase  law,  588;  repeal,  689; 
acltation  for  free,  689. 

Si^ffin  assassfauited,  584. 

SUvnitsa,  battle.  676. 

Socialism,  activity^  in  Europe,  6r7 ;  gains 
in  Germany,  678,  583;  (German  bill 
'   580;  Italian  riots,  682, 583;  Bel- 


Somaliland  expeditions,  572. 

Soudan  expeditions,  666,  569. 

South  African  republic,  convention  of 
London,  666 ;  Jameson  raid,  668 ;  Eng- 
lish suzerainty,  568;  Biu^ish  war,  670; 
annexed,  671 ;  colony,  671 ;  Chamber- 
lafai  in,  572 ;  coolie  labor,  672. 

South  African  war,  670. 

South  DakoU  admitted,  587. 

Spain,  earthquakes,  574;  premiers,  Al- 
fonso ZIII.,  676;  Cuban  insurrection, 
600 ;  American  war,  600. 

Spanish- American  war,  600. 

Spion  Kop,  batUe,  670. 

Btambouloff,  Bulgarian  leader,  675 ;  mur- 
dered, 680. 

Stanley,  lord,  gov.-gen.  of  Canada,  667. 

Stevenson,  A.  E.,  v.-pres.  of  U.  S.,  689. 

Btormberg,  battle,  670. 

Strikes.    5ee  Labor. 

Students*  revolt,  Russia,  584. 

Sues  canal  convention,  676. 

Suffrage,  extension  in  Belgium,  674,  678, 
584;  Netherlands  reform,  680;  Aus- 
trian, 680 ;  Norwegian,  583. 

Sugar  bounty,  673,  684. 

Sverdrup,  Norway  minister,  674. 

Sweden,  conscription,  684 ;  famine,  684. 

Switaerland,  asylum  for  political  offend- 
ers, 576 ;  state  railways,  582. 

Taff  Yale  case,  572. 

Taft,  W.  H.,  Philippine  commission,  602. 

Tklien-wan,  687. 

Tariff,  Canadian  preferential,  669 ;  Cham* 


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Index  to  AppemdisL. 


,  trwtj,  574 
Tinrd,  fai  MiBMCvy,  5*3;  |ii— in,  57<w 

TiMgrMl,  eotaqr,67t.   Bet 

ivpiioIm. 

TOvok  aad  Gfwk  vmr,  MI ;  MiniiiliwMM 
TOvomSM;  —dPiMU^SMw 

VfMdft  jratoeConte,  BO. 

MS }  flalwi/  coBtrovwiy*  606 ;  Berni|f 
MS  CW;,  &W ;  wwU  power,  fi^  ;  CUls, 
&A8;  paaie  aad  ilnawMJoa.  58Gr;  Yom- 
CMl»««te»  boawl«7,  fiOO;  SpMiirii 
war.  600;  jotat  Ugh  «w— iaaiao,  0n 
iMakirc«M,6n.  8e»r 
Utek 


II.,   676;  ii   Hi^   iMd,  5B3; 

ftit,5B7. 
Will«a  IIL,  k.  if  Will  Bill  li, 

677. 
WolMfar,  kid,  !■  Soatea,  SSl 


sn. 


Tata  rW«r,  b^Ua,  SB& 
673: 


Ti  m,  k.  oTCona,  1 


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Index  to  Appendix* 


b«rkiii*B  eunpalgn,  870 ;  0«rauui,  674, 

678,  686;  Frenob,  677;  Riuao-Oemuui 

war,  678 ;  U.  B.,  686, 688-600. 
Tdegraph,  Fftdfio  cables,  672,  604;  win> 

iMft,  672 ;  flnt  CUneM,  604. 
IlnmyMm,   lord,  gor.-goD.  of  Australia, 

672. 
Tewfik,    khedlre  of  Egypt,  666 

667. 
Tbaebaw,  k.  of  Burma,  666. 
Therenet  In  mlniatry,  676. 
Thibet,  boundary,  567 ;  Britidi 

673 ;  and'RoMa,  686. 
Tientain,  treaty,  574 ;  reduced,  606. 
Ting,  admiral,  in  Japraeee  war,  606. 
TiTMtl,  in  minietry,  673 ;  premier,  676. 
Togoland,    Oerman    protectorate,    674; 

boundary,  682. 
Traurraal,  colony,  671.   Ste  South  African 

republic. 
Triple  alliance,  678;  renewed,  666. 
Tnuia,  development,  687 ;  enti-truet  law, 

688. 
Turkey,  Armenian  maaMcre,  670 ;  Cretan 

xvTolt  and  Greek  war,  681 ;  ]~ 

revolt,  684 ;  and  Fnmce,  684. 

Uganda  protectorate,  668. 

United  States,  and  coercion  of  Venesuela, 
686;  flahery  controversy,  686;  Bering 
sea,  686,  688 ;  world  power,  687  ;  Chile, 
688 ;  panic  and  depreadon,  589 ;  Vene- 
BuelMniana  boundary,  600;  Spaniah 
war,  680 ;  Joint  hig^  oommlision,  601 ; 
insular  cases,  603.  See  Etootions. 

Utah  admitted,  600. 


Yaal  Kraatt,  battle,  670. 

Venesuela,  ooerced,  685;  bonndaKy  die- 

y££>r*Kmi!ianuel  IH.,  k.  of  Italy,  683. 
Victoria,  q.  of  Bngland,  jubilees,  666, 669 ; 

death,  672. 
Volos,  Turks  occupy,  681. 

Waldeck-Bouasean,  in  ministiy,  ff7S ;  pre- 
mier, 682. 

Washington  admitted,  687. 

Weaver,  J.  B.,  populist  nominee,  688. 

Weihaiwei,  Japanese  capture,  685  :  leased 
to  Bngland,  607. 

Weyler,  ciH)i.-gen.  of  Cuba,  600. 

White,  George,  Ladysmith,  670. 

WUhelnUna,  q.  of  Netherlands,  SH;  ao- 
oess{on,683. 

William,  emp.  of  Germany,  I.,  death,  676; 
U.,  67G;  in  Holy  Land,  683;  mailed 
list,  607. 

William  in.,  k.  of  Netherlands,  death, 
677. 

Wolseley,  lord,  in  Soodao,  666. 

Workmen.    See  Insurance,  Labor. 

World's  Columbian  expoeition,  680. 

Wyndham,  George,  sec.  for  Ireland,  672. 

Wyoming  admitted,  688. 

Tain  river,  battle,  606. 
Yamagata,  gen.,  in  Chinese  war,  6e&. 
Ti  Hi,  k.  of  Corea.  and  Russia,  606. 
Tounghusband,  F.    S.,  TUbet 
673. 

faniibar,  protectorate,  667. 


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