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ESSAYS ON WHEAT
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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO
MACMILLAN & CO., Limited
LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE
THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd.
TORONTO
DK. CHAKLES SAUNDERS,
Tlie discoverer and introducer of ^Marquis Wheat,
ESSAYS ON WHEAT
INCLUDINO
THE DISCOVERY AND INTRODUCTION OF MARQUIS
WHEAT, THE EARLY HISTORY OF WHEAT-GROWING
IN MANITOBA, WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA, THE
ORIGIN OF RED BOBS AND KITCHENER, AND
THE WILD WHEAT OF PALESTINE
BY
A. H. REGINALDJBULLER
B.Sc. (London); D.Sc. (Birmingham); Ph.D. (Leipzig); F.R.S.C.
Professor of Botany at the University of Manitoba
WITH FIFTY ILLUSTRATIONS
IN THE TEXT
|]3eto gorfe
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1919
All rights reserved
Copyright. 1919
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY
Set up and electrotyped. Published December, 1919.
History . . . celebrates the battlefields whereon we
meet our death, hut scorns to speak of the plowed fieUs
whereby ive thrive; it hnows the names of the kings
bastards, but cannot tell us the origin of wheat. That is
the way of human folly,
J. Henki Fabke.
PREFACE
Marquis Wheat is one of the most valuable food plants
in the world. In the year 1917 upwards of 250,000,000
bushels of it were raised in I^orth America, and in 1918
upwards of 300,000,000 bushels; and, owing to its high
yield per acre, it was an important factor in assisting the
Allies to overcome the food crisis in the darkest period
of the war. The whole of the Marquis Wheat at present in
existence originated from a single grain of wheat planted
in an experimental plot at Ottawa by Dr. Charles E.
Saunders so recently as the spring of 1903.
I have written this book, in the first place, to do justice
to Dr. Charles E. Saunders as the discoverer and intro-
ducer of Marquis, and, in the second place, to put on record
facts which have an important bearing upon the agricul-
tural progress of both Canada and the United States. I
undertook the task of penning the history of Marquis with
all the more pleasure on account of the fact that I have
lived for nearly fifteen years at Winnipeg, in the center
of the great spring-wheat region of North America, and
for the reason that, as a Canadian citizen, I have shared
in the general prosperity that has come to the Dominion
through the development of her wheat-lands.
The heart of what I wish to say is contained in the
Third Chapter on The Discovery and Introduction of
Marquis Wheat; but, for the purpose of making the book
more comprehensive and of supplying information for
which I feel there is a considerable demand, I have written
two preliminary chapters, called respectively : The Early
viii PREFACE
History of Wheat-growi7ig in Manitoba, and Wheat in
Westerii Canada, and two concluding chapters upon The
Origin of Red Bobs a^id Kitchener and The Wild Wheat
of Palestine.
In order to collect the data embodied in the following
pages I have engaged in an extensive correspondence, have
made many inquiries at Winnipeg, and have visited Ot-
tawa, Brandon, Indian Head, Saskatoon, and Rosthern in
Canada, and Fargo, Minneapolis, and St. Paul in the
United States. I have also investigated personally the
sampling and grading of wheat at Winnipeg, of which an
account is given in the second Chapter. To the numerous
cerealists, grain growers, grain merchants, millers, statis-
ticians and others who have assisted me with information
and criticism, I here wish to express my hearty thanks.
A. H. Eegii^ald Buller,
Winnipeg, April 10, 1919.
CONTENTS
Preface
vii
CHAPTER I
The Early History of Wheat-Growing in Manitoba
SECTION PAGE
I The First Wheat Crops in Western Canada . . 1
II Troubles with the North- West Company . . 4
III Visit of Lord Selkirk . . ' 8
IV The First Farms 9
V The Plague of Grasshoppers 10
VI New Seed-Wheat from the United States . . 12
VII The Hour-Glass 14
VIII The Census of 1822 16
IX Milling Operations 16
X The Mice 18
XI The Great Flood 18
XII Prosperity in 1829 20
XIII The Red River Flour 21
XIV Windmills 24
XV The Experimental Farms 24
XVI The Bloody Flux 26
XVII The Census of 1849 27
XVIII Another Plague of Grasshoppers 28
XIX State of the Settlement in 1870 29
XX Effect of the Revolution in the Milling Industry 30
XXI The St. Paul Railway 32
XXII The Canadian Pacific Railway 33
CHAPTER II
Wheat in Western Canada
I Some Crop Statistics 35
II Wheat Growing 41
ix
X CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
III The Great Wheat Funnel 49
IV The Hudson Bay Railway 61
V The Shipment of Bulk Wheat through the
Panama Canal 52
VI Elevators 53
VII The Loading Platform 54
VIII The Old Flat Warehouse 55
IX The Country Elevator 56
X Box-Cars 57
XI Terminal Elevators 60
XII Lake Steamers 65
XIII The Lake Shippers' Clearance Association . . 66
XIV The Canada Grain Act 68
XV The Sample Market 69
XVI The Grades of Grain 70
XVII The Grading of Grain 75
XVm Inspection at Terminal Elevators 93
XIX Eeinspection 96
XX Weighing Wheat 98
XXI Warehouse Receipts, Registration, and Stock-
taking 100
XXII The Dominion Grain Research Laboratory . . 102
XXIII The Winnipeg Grain Exchange 105
XXIV The Geographical Position of the Grain Ex-
change 108
XXV The Grain Exchange Clearing House . . .109
XXVI The Wheat Pit 116
XXVII The Effect of the War on the Grain Trade . . 118
XXVIII Financing the Crop Movement 130
XXIX The Flour Mills of Western Canada .... 134
XXX Recent Improvements in the Conditions of Farm
Life 138
XXXI The Agrarian Movement 141
CHAPTER III
The Discovery and Introduction of Marquis Wheat
I Introduction 144
II Dr. William Saunders and His Assistants . . 144
III The Selection of Marquis by Dr. Charles E.
Saunders 151
CONTENTS XI
SECTION PAGE
IV The New Wheat is Named 154
V The Qualities of Marquis are Investigated . . 154
VI The Introduction of Mjarquis into Western
Canada 157
VII The Introduction of Marquis into the United
States of America 158
VIII General Description of Marquis ITO
IX Prizes Awarded to Marquis 172
X Long-Period Tests for Earliness and Yield . . 174
XI Earliness and the Gain of Working-time . . 175
XII Earliness and Storms 176
XIII Earliness and Bust 176
XIV Earliness and Frost 180
XV Marquis, Euby, and Prelude 183
XVI The Advance Toward the North of the Belts of
Wheat and Corn 187
XVII The Yield of Marquis in Western Canada . . 190
XVIII The Yield of Mlarquis in the United States . . 192
XIX The Favorable Grading of Marquis . . . .196
XX Kesistance to Shelling 197
XXI Milling and Baking Qualities 198
XXII The Origin of Hard Red Caloiutta .... 204
XXIII The Origin of Bed Fife 206
XXIV Marquis as the Off-spring of Bed Fife and Hard
Bed Calcutta 218
XXV The Future of Marquis 223
XXVI Saunders and Burbank 228
XXVII Burbank's Quality Wheat as a Possible Com-
petitor of Marquis 233
XXVin Biographical Sketch of the Discoverer of
Marquis 237
XXIX Governing Bodies and Scientific Besearch . . 238
XXX Other Work of Dr. Saunders 239
XXXI The Crop Value of Marquis in Canada and the
United States 243
XXXII The Increased Wealth Brought by Marquis to
the United States 246
XXXIII The Increased Wealth Brought by Marquis to
Canada 252
XXIV Summary 257
Xil CONTENTS
CHAPTER IV
The Origin of Red Bobs and Kitchener
SECTION PAGE
I Introduction 259
II Origin of Bobs 259
in Importance of the Color of Wheat Kernels . . 260
IV The Discovery of Red Bobs by Mr. Seager
Wheeler 262
V Red Bobs the Product of a Natural Cross . . 264
VI The Selection, Multiplication, and Distribution
of Red Bobs 268
Vll Red Bobs at the University of Saskatchewan. 270
VIII Description of Red Bobs 272
IX A Visit to Mr. Wheeler's Farm 272
X A Biographical Note 274
XI Kitchener 275
CHAPTER V
The Wild Wheat of Palestine
I The Importance and Antiquity of Agriculture . 278
II The Antiquity and Origin of Wheat . . . .279
III The Prototypes of Cereals 285
IV Kornicke's Discovery in a Herbarium . . . 286
V Rediscovery of the Wild Wheat by Aaronsohn . 286
VI The Botanical Classification of Wheats . . .292
VII The Brittle Rachis of the Primitive Cereals . 293
VIII Cultivated Wheats with a Brittle Rachis . . 295
IX Einkorn and Its Prototype Distinct from Other
Wheats 296
X Emmer the Only Possible Prototype of True
Wheat 298
XI Cross-fertilization 299
XII Conclusion 306
Index 307
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAQB
Frontispiece. Dr. Charles Saunders.
1. Map showing Lord Selkirk's grant of land, the route of
the Selkirk Settlers, and the boundaries of Manitoba 3
2. Hebrides women grinding with the quern or hand-mill 17
3. Combined acreage of spring-sown and autumn-sown
wheat in western Canada 37
4. Breaking the virgin prairie of Manitoba with a
four-horse plow (facing page) 44
5. Cutting the wheat crop with a four-horse binder (facing
page) 45
6. Wheat in the stook in western Canada (facing page) 46
7. Threshing wheat on the prairie (facing page) ... 47
8. Eastbound movement of western Canadian wheat in
the calendar year 1913 50
9. Country elevators at a railway station, rear view (fac-
ing page) 56
10. View of Canadian Pacific Railway yards in the busy
season at Winnipeg (facing page) 57
11. The Dominion Government Terminal Elevator at Port
Arthur (facing page) 62
12. Unloading a car of grain (facing page) 63
13. Design for the Dominion Government elevators at
Saskatoon, Moosejaw, and Calgary (facing page) . 64
14. A gang ready to start the work of sampling (facing
page) 80
15. Probing the grain, showing the sampler with his probe
or stabber (facing page) 81
16. Emptying the grain upon the cloth through the handle
of the stabber as practiced until recently (facing
page) 86
xiii
XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGB
17. The inspectors at work in Winnipeg (facing page) . . 87
18. Weighing the grain to determine its weight per bushel
and setting the dockage (facing page) 88
19. Taking a sample from a belt in a tunnel of the Domin-
ion Government Terminal Elevator (facing page) 94
20. Taking a sample on a steamer loading at the Dominion
Government Terminal Elevator (facing page) . . 95
21. The late Dr. William Saunders (facing page) . . . 146
22. A head of Marquis (facing page) 152
23. Small plots of cereals with peas in the foreground at the
Central Experimental Farm (facing page) . . . 153
24. Test plots of cereals at the Central Experimental Farm
(facing page) 156
25. Marquis Wheat in the Banner Season of 1915 (facing
page) 157
26. Cutting Marquis Wheat at the Experimental Farm,
Brandon, Manitoba (facing page) 160
27. Marquis wheat in stook at Brandon (facing page) . . 161
28. Reference map for the United States 163
29. Spike of Marquis Wheat compared with spikes of Min-
nesota standard varieties (facing page) .... 166
30. Kernels of Marquis Wheat compared with kernels of
Minnesota standard varieties (facing page) . . . 166
31. Cross-sections of Wheat Kernels. Marquis compared
with Minnesota standard varieties (facing page) . . 171
32. Prelude on the left and Marquis on the right, sown at
the same time, showing relative earliness of Prelude
in heading out (facing page) 184
33. Normal loaves from three varieties of wheat and one of
rye, showing characteristic differences in loaf vol-
ume (facing page) 200
34. Cereal and forage crops building at the Central Experi-
mental Farm, Ottawa (facing page) 201
35. Kneading table and cupboard where the dough is put to
rise in the testing of new wheats for bread-making
at the Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa (facing
page) 202
36. Dr. Charles Saunders in a field of Marquis wheat (fac-
ing page) 236
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv
PAGE
37. Small plots of cereals, new cross-bred varieties, and
new selections at the Central Experimental Farm,
Ottawa (facing page) 238
38. Selected Manchurian barley at the Experimental Farm,
Indian Head, Saskatchewan (facing page) . . . 239
39. Dr. Charles Saunders crossing wheats at the Central
Experimental Farm, Ottawa (facing page) . . . 240
40. Liberty oats (hulless), August, 1918 (facing page) . . 241
41. Typical heads of Red Bobs wheat (facing page) . . 262
42. Mr. Seager Wheeler in a plot of wheat at Rosthern,
Saskatchewan (facing page) 272
43. Demeter enthroned 281
44. View of Me j del esh Schems, on the slopes of M]ount
Hermon, where Wild Wheat was found (facing page) 288
45. Heads of an ordinary form of the Wild Wheat of Pales-
tine as grown at Bard, California (facing page) . 289
46. Wheat Kernels. A, Wild Wheat showing usual size;
B, large-seeded variation of Wild Wheat; C, Sonora
wheat commonly grown in the same locality at Bard,
California (facing page) 290
47. Classes of Wheat; Wheat, Durum, Club (facing nage) 291
48. Classes of Wheat; Poulard, Polish, Spelt, Einkorn,
Wild Wheat of Palestine (facing page) .... 294
49. Classes of Wheat; Bobs, White Fife, Taylor's Wonder,
and Emmer (facing page) 295
50. Head of a large-seeded variation of the Wild Wheat
(Triticum hermonis) with the spikelets falling apart
(facing page) 298
ESSAYS ON WHEAT
CHAPTEE I
The Eaely Histoey of Wheat-Growing in Manitoba
I. The First Wheat Crops in Western Canada
The earliest attempts at tlie cultivation of wheat in
western Canada are associated with the vicissitudes of the
Selkirk settlers and date from the year 1812. This little
band of pioneers was sent out from Scotland by Lord Sel-
kirk, via York Factory, to colonize 116,000 square miles
of territory granted him by the Hudson's Bay Company.
An advanced party of twenty-two men under the direction
of Miles Macdonell arrived at the junction of the Red and
Assiniboine rivers on August 30, 1812 ; and there they
founded the Eed Eiver Settlement.^ To make provision
for the future, they at once began to turn up the sod ; and
part of the breaking was sown with winter wheat brought
from their native land. Some spring wheat having the
same origin was also sown early in 1813. In the fall of
that year, the settlers, whose numbers by this time had
increased to nearly one hundred, were dismayed to find
that the wheat harv^est was a total failure.^ There was
1 Gf. Chester Martin, Lord Selkirk's Work in Canada, Oxford, 1916,
p. 43.
2 Governor Miles Macdonell in a letter to Lord Selkirk dated
July 17, 1813, states that: "Winter wheat being late-sown has
totally failed as also the summer wheat, pease, and English barley."
Selkirk Papers, p. 788.
For this and the other references to the Selkirk Papers which
are unpublished and contained within the Archives Building at Ot-
1
2 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
nothing to be done but to try again; but again Fortune
refused to smile upon the newcomers, and the crop of 1814
was as bad as its predecessor.^ But Scotch persistency
was to win in the end, for the third attempt at wheat-grow-
ing, made in 1815, was eventually brought to a successful
conclusion.
The failure of the first two crops of wheat was due
partly to the fact that the earliest settlers to arrive at the
Red River were crofters who knew more of fishing than of
farming, and partly to the absence of adequate farm im-
plements. There was not a plow in the whole colony, the
one harrow was incomplete and could not be used, and all
the labor of breaking up and working over the tough
prairie sod had to be done with the hoe.^ The Indians
looked on with surprise and amazement at the man with
the hoe seeking to gain a sustenance from the soil, and to
show his contempt for such work nicknamed the colonists
" Jardiniers." ^
The fertility of the soil along the banks of the Red River
was doubtless just as great when the colony was founded
as it is to-day. Although the cereals of 1813 and 1814
failed, other crops, such as potatoes and turnips, did well
from the first. Miles Macdonell, writing in the winter of
1813-1814 and telling of the harvest in the previous year,
says ^ : "I had five or six hundred kegs of potatoes and
tawa, I am indebted to my colleague, Professor Chester Martin, who
kindly gave me access to the notes which he made when studying
the original documents.
s Ibid. July 25, 1814. Macdonell says: "Wheat, pease, beans,
Indian corn, rye, and hemp entirely failed." Selkirk Papers, p.
1183.
*G. Bryce, The Romantic Settlement of Lord Selkirk's Colonists,
Winnipeg, 1909, pp. 87-88.
5lhid., pp. 20-21.
« Miles Macdonell in a letter to Auld, February 4, 1814, Selkirk
Papers.
EAKLY HISTORY OF WHEAT-GROWING
[ of Manitoba
Lord Selfcrk^ Grant ••
Route of the Selkirk Settlers i8U-t5 -
Fig. 1. Map showing Lord Selkirk's grant of land, the route of
the Selkirk settlers, 1811-15, and the present boundaries of the Prov-
ince of Manitoba.
4 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
some of the people who cultivated for themselves had re-
turns of at least fifty for potatoes." The turnips were ^' of
extraordinary size " ; but of the wheat, barley, and rye
there was nothing good to report, for '^ the grain was
choked up with weeds." "^ The choking of the grain with
weeds was probably due either to impure seed or to inex-
perienced labor. It is interesting to note that the weed
nuisance which the weed inspectors and farmers of Mani-
toba are to-day so vigorously combating, should have made
its appearance over a century ago as soon as the virgin
soil was turned into farm land.
One of the settlers appears to have used his hoe to greator
advantage than his fellows, for the story goes that in 1813
from four quarts of seed-wheat obtained from Fort Alex-
ander, a trading post on the Winnipeg Kiver, he reaped
twelve and a half bushels or an increase of one hundred-
fold.^ It is safe to say that an increase of one hundredfold
in wheat is unknown in the experience of the Manitoban
farmer at the present day, and it may be that the tradition
of the high yield of twelve and a half bushels from one-
eighth of a bushel contains an imaginary element.
The first harvests stood in danger from the air, for each
autumn flocks of birds, including the now extinct Pas-
senger Pigeon, settled in the fields and considerably dimin-
ished even such small crops as had been produced.^
II. Troubles ivith the North-West Company
The Red River settlers, in the first few years of their
7 lUd.
8 A. Ross, The Red River Settlement, London, 1856, pp. 23-24.
This incident is said by Ross, who came to the colony in 1825, to
have happened in 1813 but this may be an error in chronology, for
Miles Macdonell {vide a previous footnote) deiinitely reported in
1813 that both the winter and the spring wheat totally failed.
9 Ibid., p. 24. Dr. C. N. Bell, who came to Winnipeg nearly fifty
EARLY HISTOEY OF WHEAT-GROWINd 5
history, had not merely to struggle with l^ature to provide
themselves with their daily bread but also with their fellow
men. The Xorth-West Company which, as fur traders,
was the great rival of the Hudson's Bay Company, resented
the establishment of a civilized community in the heart of
the Indian country : firstly, because it was planted directly
across their main line of communication between the
ISTorth-West and Montreal and, secondly, because it was
situated on the very plains from which they drew their
supplies of pemmican for their voyages from Fort William
to the posts of the fur trappers. The Company feared
that the Settlement might eventually destroy the fur trade,
and they therefore determined to destroy the Settlement. ■^'^
In the spring of 1815, the Selkirk settlers sowed their
wheat and barley ; but many were the hardships to be borne
before the crops could be reaped. In June, the N^orth-
Westers with their half-breed adherents overawed the
colonists by a show of force. They trampled upon the
crops, stole the horses, and burnt Fort Douglas, the colony
mill, the stables and barns to the ground ; and Miles Mac-
donell, the Governor of the colony, surrendered himself as
a prisoner. Most of the settlers left in [N'orth-West canoes
for Upper Canada, and thirteen families made their way
up Lake Winnipeg to Jack River and settled at a place
now known as Norway House. John McLeod and three
others, however, succeeded in weathering the storm and re-
mained at the Forks. They stored what property they
could in a single log-house and stoutly defended themselves
with a three-pounder cannon fed with lengths of chain ob-
tained from the adjoining blacksmith's shop. Their half-
years ago, has informed me that he used to shoot Passenger Pigeons
on the banks of the Red River where the Winnipeg Grain Exchange
is now situated.
10 Cf. Donald Gunn, Report from the Select Committee on the Hud-
Bon's Bay Company, 1857, p. 382.
6 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
breed assailants, who were on horseback, could not face this
piece of artillery and soon desisted from their attacks. In
the end, McLeod and his little garrison were left in peace
to care for the crops and prepare for the return of their
friends. ^^
Colin Robertson, in charge of an expedition sent out by
Lord Selkirk from Montreal, arrived at the Red River a
few weeks after the expulsion of the colonists. On learn-
ing what had happened, he immediately pushed up Lake
Winnipeg to the Jack River, persuaded the settlers to
return, and brought them back in triumph. They were
delighted to find that, during their absence, the crops had
made good progress ; and within a few weeks the first suc-
cessful harvest was duly gathered in.
The new Governor, Robert Semple, who had been sent
out from Scotland by the Hudson Bay route, arrived at
the Red River Settlement on November 3, 1815. On
finding that there were one hundred and twenty persons
committed to his care, he at once began to feel anxious
about the food-supply for the winter. Straightway he
went to the granary where a rapid inspection revealed that
the stores of grain consisted of from 12 to 14 stacks of
wheat and barley. Would this satisfy the needs of the
settlers and keep famine from their doors until the next
harvest ? A resort to mathematics could alone settle the
question. Taking each stack as representing 50 bushels
each, he calculated that he had 400 bushels of wheat plus
200 bushels of barley. From these 600 bushels he de-
ducted 40 for spring seed and so had 560 left. Counting
50 pounds to the bushel, he calculated that the grain which
could be used as food amounted to 28,000 pounds. He
then reckoned that 120 persons at 2 pounds per day would
11 Chester Martin, loc. cit., pp. 85-89; also G. Bryce, loc. cit., p.
105.
EARLY HISTORY OF WHEAT-GROWING T
consume 240 pounds per day, and that this was equal to
7,200 pounds per month or 28,800 pounds for 4 months —
an amount of grain hut little more than the 28,000 pounds
he actually had at his disposal. And so the Settlement
would be free from the trials of hunger throughout the
winter of 1815-16. '' How was my heart relieved,'' writes
Semple to Lord Selkirk, '' when I arrived at the end of this
simple calculation which I tried again and again for fear
of a mistake." ^^
In the spring of 1816 the settlers sowed the forty bushels
of seed wheat and seed barley which had been saved from
the crop of the previous year, but alas for their hopes of
harvest ! Within a few short weeks, when every field was
putting on its summer garb of green, the colony was to be
broken up once more, and a goodly number of the settlers
were to find their graves. The quarrel between the rival
Companies came to such a pass that, on June 19, a bloody
combat took place between their rival forces. A boy on the
watch-tower of Fort Douglas sighted a large gathering of
hostile half-breeds ; and Governor Semple and about thirty
of his men went out to meet them. At a spot known as
Seven Oaks, a few miles north of Winnipeg near the Red
Eiver, the two parties came together. The half-breeds
were painted and disguised. Hot words were exchanged,
a shot was fired, and in the fight which followed Governor
Semple and twenty of his men were left dead upon the
field.^^ The rest of the settlers in bereavement and despair
made their way up Lake Winnipeg, and, after a long and
wearisome journey, again took up their abode at Jack
Eiver. ^^ The North- Westers occupied Fort Douglas until
12 Letter of Governor Semple to Lord Selkirk, Dec. 20, 1815, Sel-
kirk Papers, p. 2721.
13 C/. Chester Martin, loc. cit., pp. 110-112.
1* John Macoim, Manitoba and the Great North-West, Guelph, 1882,
p. 437.
8 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
the end of the year; and, after this second expulsion, no
colonist was permitted to remain to gather in the crops.
Early in 1817, in the depth of winter, a force sent from
Fort William by Lord Selkirk wrested Fort Douglas from
the ]Xorth-West Company. A surprise attack was made
in the dead of night : the walls were scaled, and the sixteen
men within were all made prisoners. When daylight
came, the flag of the Hudson's Bay Company was again
hoisted on the staff. ^'^ With the arrival of spring, an ex-
press canoe was dispatched to Jack Eiver with the news
that Fort Douglas had been taken. The settlers were per-
suaded to return, and, in the hope that peace might finally
be established, resumed their agricultural pursuits. How-
ever, the facilities for tilling the soil were extremely lim-
ited and it was still necessary to use the hoe in place of
the plow.^^ Wheat was sown although late in the year
and, owing to its scarcity, in small quantity. It grew well
but, in the autumn, the crop was almost ruined by a violent
hurricane. So short of cereals were the colonists during
the winter of 1817-18 that they had to rely upon the
buffalo as a chief source of food.^"^
III. Visit of Lord Selkirk
Lord Selkirk, who was an experienced agriculturist, ar-
rived at the Settlement in the summer of 1817, and for
four months exercised a wise and generous supervision over
its affairs. ^^ His heart was in this work, for he had great
visions of the future. His belief in the possibilities of the
western prairie-land he once expressed in a remarkable
prophecy : ^^ It is a very moderate calculation to say that
15 Chester Martin, loc. cit., p. 127.
16 John Macoun, loc. cit., p. 437.
17 Chester Martin, loc. cit., p. 140.
IS Ibid., p. 133.
EARLY HISTORY OF WHEAT-GROWING 9
if these regions were occupied by an industrious popula-
tion, they might afford ample means of subsistence for
thirty millions of British subjects." ^^ So anxious was
Lord Selkirk to encourage agriculture that before his ar-
rival, in 1815, he had authorized Semple and Robertson
to offer on his behalf a prize of £50 to the farmer who
should raise the largest quantity of grain in proportion to
the number of hands employed.^''
Lord Selkirk left the Settlement on September 9, 1817,
for Montreal in order to answer charges brought against
him at the instigation of the I^orth-West Company. The
litigation in which he became involved affected his health,
which he attempted to recover by a visit to Pau in France.
There his end came on April 8, 1820 ; and the man whose
indomitable spirit caused the sowing of the first fields of
wheat in western Canada and who, with the insight of a
seer, foresaw the present and the future agricultural pros-
perity of the far-spreading prairie-land, now lies buried
in a French graveyard. The ^orth-West Company and
the Hudson's Bay Company settled their differences by
am'algamation in 1821, a year after Lord Selkirk's death.^^
IV. The First Farms
The Eed River Settlement, in the first few years of its
existence, concentrated its farming operations in what is
to-day known as the municipality of Kildonan. It was
arranged that each settler should purchase one hundred
acres of land at five shillings an acre, but Lord Selkirk
relinquished his claim to payment, when he visited the
i9JUd., p. 185.
20 Selkirk to Semple and Robertson, letter written December 18,
1815, Selkirk Papers.
21 Chester Martin, Lord Selkirk's Work in Canada, Oxford, 1916,
p. 165.
10 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
colony in 1817, in order to help the settlers who had suf-
fered so much in the two previous years. For the pur-
pose of giving each farmer access to the main highway —
the Red River — and to secure the advantage of compact-
ness for the colony as a whole, the farms were all made
long and narrow with one end fronting on the water, and
were placed side by side in a parallel series. Lord Selkirk
thus describes twenty-four ten-chain lots which he granted
to the settlers in free soccage : " Each lot has a front of
ten chains, or 220 yards, a little more or less, along the
said main line, except Lot 'No. 12 which has only five
chains. The division lines between the lots are at right
angles to the main line, and are marked off towards the
river by lines of stakes. Each lot is to extend to the dis-
tance of 90 chains or 1,980 yards back from the river, so
as to contain 90 English statute acres, besides which each
lot is to have a separate piece of wood-land, containing 10
statute acres, to be laid off on the east side of the river, at
any place which the Earl of Selkirk or his agent shall con-
sider as most suitable for the purpose." ^^
V. The Plague of Grasshoppers
During the next few years succeeding Lord Selkirk's
departure, the Settlement was plagued with grasshoppers.
Alexander Macdonell, in a letter to Lord Selkirk, stated
that millions of these pests had appeared on August 2,
1818, and that in places they were two or three inches
deep.^^ Ross thus vividly describes the destruction
wrought by these insects. '^ Every step was now a pro-
gressive one : agricultural labor advanced, the crop looked
healthy and vigorous, and promised a rich harvest. In
short, hope once more revived, and everything began to
22 A. Ross, The Red River Settlement, London, 1856, p. 43.
2» Governor Alexander Macdonell to Lord Selkirk, Selkirk Papers.
EARLY HISTORY OF WHEAT-GROWING H
put on a thriving and prosperous appearance : wlien lo ! in
the midst of all these pleasing anticipations, just as the
com was in the ear, and the barley almost ripe, a cloud of
grasshoppers ^'^ from the west darkened the air, and fell
like a heavy shower of snow upon the devoted colony.
This stern visitation happened in the last week of July,
and late one afternoon. IN'ext morning when the people
arose it was not to gladness but to sorrow ; all their hopes
were in a moment blighted! Crops, gardens, and every
green herb in the settlement had perished, with the excep-
tion of a few ears of barley, half ripe, gleaned in the
women's aprons. This sudden and unexpected disaster
was more than they could bear. The unfortunate emi-
grants, looking up towards heaven, wept." ^^ Once more
the settlers found it necessary to leave their homes and go
to Pembina where starvation might be staved off with
buffalo meat.
Early in the spring of 1819, the Scotch settlers returned
from Pembina to Kildonan and sowed the grain of such
24 The insect which was responsible for the plague of 1818, and for
subsequent plagues in 1864, 1857, etc., was known to the Red River
settlers as a grasshopper; but, as I am informed by my colleague
Dr. Charles H. O'Donoghue of the Department of Zoology, it would
be more correctly designated a locust. A certain amount of con-
fusion exists as to the correct application of the terms grass-
hopper and locust. It is preferable to apply the term locust to
those forms which migrate in long-distance flights and which usually
are of large size. On the other hand, the Field Grasshoppers, so
common on our sidewalks, are usually smaller animals and progress
only by characteristic, short flights. It is obvious, therefore, that
the insect seen by the settlers, although of medium size, was a
migratory locust. The species is known scientifically, according to
information sent me by Dr. Gordon Hewitt, the Dominion Entomolog-
ist, as the Rocky Mountain Locust, Melanoplus spretus. During
recent decades, this pest has not again appeared. Dr. Hewitt thinks
that this may be due to the northward extension of agriculture and
the possible decrease in the insect's breeding places.
25 A. Ross, loc. cit., p. 48.
12 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
cereals as had been rescued from the grasshoppers the
previous year. But the attempt to raise wheat and barley
was again defeated '^ not by a new flight of the pestilence
of last year, but, still worse, by the countless swarms pro-
duced in the ground itself where their larvse had been
deposited. As early as the latter end of June, the fields
were overrun by this sickening and destructive plague ;
nay, they were produced in masses, two, three, and in some
places, near water, four inches deep. The water was poi-
soned with them. Along the river they were to be found
in heaps, like seaweed, and might be shoveled with a spade.
It is impossible to describe, adequately, the desolation thus
caused. Every vegetable substance was either eaten up
or stripped to the bare stalk ; the leaves of the bushes, and
the bark of the trees, shared the same fate ; and the grain
vanished as fast as it appeared above ground, leaving no
hope either of ^ seed to the sower or bread to the eater.'
Even fires, if kindled out of doors, were immediately ex-
tinguished by them, and the decomposition of their bodies
when dead, was still more offensive than their presence
when alive." ^^
Thus it came to pass that by the year 1820 there was no
more seed-wheat left in the colony. The history of the
first variety or varieties of wheat grown in western Can-
ada, which, as we have seen, were of British origin, thus
came to an untimely close.
VI. Neiv Seed-Wheat from the United States
In order to secure a supply of seed-wheat to sow the
land in the spring of 1820, the Selkirk settlers found it
necessary to dispatch a party of men to Prairie du Chien,
a town on the banks of the Mississippi in the State of
26 A. Ross, loc. cit., pp. 49, 50.
EARLY HISTORY OF WHEAT-GROWING 13
Wisconsin. After journeying for several hundreds of
miles on snow-shoes, the men arrived at their destination
at the end of three months, and purchased 250 bushels at
IO5. per bushel. The grain was stowed in flat-bottomed
boats which were laboriously propelled up the Mississippi
Elver, up its tributary the Minnesota River, through
Big Stone Lake, and then down the Eed River. ^"^ The Set-
tlement was reached in June. The seed was immediately
sown and the wheat-plants made a vigorous growth; but
the grasshoppers again appeared, and it was feared that
the crop would be destroyed for the third time. However,
for some unexplained reason, the whole swarm suddenly
disappeared early in the season, and did not return.
Owing to the late sowing, the harvest did not ripen well.
Nevertheless, it came to sufficient perfection for seed.^^
After this the Red River never lacked seed-wheat again
until the year 1868 when, for the second time, a mighty
swarm of grasshoppers completely destroyed all the crops.
The cost of the expedition to Prairie du Chien was
tremendous, for it amounted to no less than £1,040.^^
However, it was not allowed to weigh on the settlers for it
was charged to the estate of Lord Selkirk and paid by his
executors.^^ Whether or not the new wheat brought from
a distant part of the United States with so much toil and
at so great an expense was a named variety or was simply
called wheat, unfortunately, does not now appear to be
known.^^
27 G. Bryce, loc. cit., pp. 157-158.
28 A. Ross, loc. cit., p. 51,
29 Ihid.
30 C. Martin, loc. cit., p. 173.
31 Dr. C. N. Bell has informed me that when he came to Winnipeg
nearly fifty years ago, there was a tradition in the colony that a
number of new weeds were introduced into the colony with the seed-
wheat from Prairie du Chien. Among these weeds the French-weed
or Stink-weed {Thlaspi arvense) was esnecially mentioned.
14 . ESSAYS ON WHEAT
The crop of 1821 was not a large one and, after a por-
tion of it had been stored as seed for the next spring, the
remainder was found to be insufficient to supply the food
requirements of the colony for the winter. The shortage
was rendered all the more acute by the arrival of a band
of emigrants from the Cantons of Switzerland. It was
therefore found necessary to send some of the settlers to
the haunts of the buffalo at Pembina. In the spring of
1822, these settlers returned and, during seed-time, the
whole colony suffered all but absolute starvation. To
such an extremity were some of the Swiss reduced that
one of them gave a silver watch valued at five guineas for
eight gallons of wheat, not to sow but to eat, another gave
five shillings for six small fishes known as gold-eyes, and
it is further reported that '^ one poor man, having nothing
else, gave the very snuff out of his box for the head of a
cat-fish." Thus ten years after the establishment of the
Red River Settlement the colonists were still bearing great
hardships. The first five years had been embittered by
the enmity of the Xorth-West Company, and the succeed-
ing five years by unfavorable crop conditions.^ ^
VII. The Hour-Glass
During the early years of struggle against adversity, the
colonists were prevented from suffering the direst want
and actual starvation by the care of Lord Selkirk and his
agents, who sent out to the Red River not only a supply of
general goods, clothing, implements of husbandry, arms,
and ammunition, but also a supply of oatmeal to fall back
upon in the last extremity. These articles were kept in
the colony store and supplied to the settlers by the Governor
of the Colony. The store was grossly mismanaged, and
32 A. Ross, loc cit., pp. 55-60.
EARLY HISTORY OF WHEAT-GROWING 15
one of tlie Governors, Alexander McDonell, was nicknamed
the " grasshopper governor," as he proved as great a de-
stroyer within doors as the grasshoppers had done in the
fields outside. The Governor affected the style of an In-
dian viceroy but, when the puncheons of rum arrived from
England in the fall, did not hesitate to carouse with his
secretaries, assistant-secretaries, accountants, orderlies,
grooms, cooks, and butlers. The liquor account was kept
in a distinctly novel manner, grains of wheat being used
for the purpose. The heel of a bottle was filled with wheat
and set on a cask, the contrivance being called the hour-
glass. For every flagon drawn off, a grain of wheat was
taken out of the hour-glass and put aside until the carousal
was over. The grains were then counted, and the amount
of expenditure ascertained. " From time to time,'^ says
Ross, " the great man at the head of the table would dis-
play his moderation by calling out to the butler, ^ Bob, how
stands the hour-glass ? ' ^ High, your honor ! high ! ' was
the general reply ; as much as to say they had drunk but
little yet. Like the Chinese at Lamtschu, or a party of
Indian chiefs smoking the pipe of peace, the challenges to
empty glasses went round and round so long as a man could
keep his seat ; and often the revel ended in a general melee
which led to the suspension of half-a-dozen officials and the
postponement of business, till another bouse had made
them all friends again. Unhappily, sober or drunk, the
business was as fraudulent as it was complicated." On
the arrival from England of Mr. Halkett, one of Lord Sel-
kirk's executors and a staunch friend of the colony, Gover-
nor McDonell's stewardship was brought to a close and the
celebrated hour-glass was used no more.^^
33 A. Ross, loo. cit., pp. 63-68.
16 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
YIII. The Census of 1822
A census ^^ of the Eecl River Settlement taken in the
spring of 1822 throws an interesting liaht upon the state
of the colony ten years after its foundation. The human
population consisted of 681 persons, of which 234 were
men, 161 women, and 286 children, boys and girls being
exactly equal in number. There were 126 houses and 160
gardens. The livestock consisted of: 3 bulls, 45 cows, 39
calves and 6 oxen; 10 sheep and 1 ram; 12 pigs; and 78
horses. The seed so^ti in the spring of 1822, reckoned in
bushels, was as follows: wheat, 235^%6; barley, 142^%2;
Indian corn, 12^%2 ; potatoes, 570 ; and peas, 17%. The
books numbered 81. The total value of the Settlement
w^as estimated at £4,620. Os. ^d., surely from our present
point of view a very modest computation.
IX. Milling Operations
In 1824, after a protracted struggle of twelve years, the
Scotch settlers reaped their first truly satisfactory crop of
grain. By this time the plow was being tried with consid-
erable success and greatly lightened the work of preparing
the seed-bed. The yields obtained were high, the returns
for wheat being forty-four from the plow and sixty-eight
after the hoe.^^ At harvest time, the wheat was gathered
with a sickle. It was then threshed with a flail and
ground into flour with a handstone known as a quern.
Several of these querns are still in existence, one being in
the possession of the Ogilvie Milling Company of Winni-
peg. Two others are at Lockport, one belonging to Mr.
John MacDougal and the other to Mrs. J. E. McAlister.
About 1823, the two-horse treadmill was introduced; and
34 An unsigned abstract in the Selkirk Papers, spring, 1822.
35 A. Ross, loc. cit., p. 78.
EAKLY HISTORY OF WHEAT-GROWING 1'?
this was followed later by a Hudson's Bay wind-mill at
Fort Douglas. The first millwright in the colony was
Samuel Lamont, who arrived in 1813. Lord Selkirk, who
sent him out, described him as one who " understands his
Fig. 2. Hebrides women grinding with the quern or hand-mill.
From E. 13. Tylor's Anthropology. Courtesy of Macmillan & Co.
business although he certainly looks like a dull fellow." ^^
It was Lord Selkirk's desire from the first that the Red
River Settlement should produce enough flour not only
to supply its own needs but also those of the Hudson's Bay
posts.^^ In 1814, he therefore instructed the Governor
to pay the farmers at least two shillings a bushel for what
they could spare and sent him a description of the most
suitable method for grinding the wheat into flour.^^ At
36 Lord Selkirk in a letter to Miles Macdonell, April 12, 1814,
Selkirk Papers,
37 lUd.
38 Ibid.
18 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
the same time, in connection with the raising of barley,
Lord Selkirk referred to the possibility of erecting a dis-
tillery.^^ In 1814 John Barleycorn was a king who little
knew the contraction that was to take place in his domin-
ions a century later.
X. The Mice
One of the most curious biological phenomena connected
with the^orth-West is the periodic rise and decline in the
number of rabbits and mice, with which is associated a
corresponding rise and decline in the numbers of the fur-
bearing animals, such as the mink, the lynx, the fox, and
the wolf, which feed upon them. The mice in 1825 evi-
dently attained a maximum in numbers, for Ross tells us
that, in the autumn of that year, the fields, the woods, and
the plains seemed literally alive with them. They at-
tacked the grain after it had been stacked and almost
totally destroyed it. The straw and even the very stubble
itself was cut to pieces by them, and, for a time, it was
feared that the new plague would be as calamitous as the
grasshoppers.^^ However, the next year the swarm of
mice was found to have disappeared, and the fruits of the
earth were no more threatened by them.
XI. The Great Flood
In the fall of 1825, a large party of half-breeds went
south to pass the winter on the plains. About the twen-
tieth of December there was an unusually heavy snowstorm
which lasted for several days, in consequence of which the
buffalo passed beyond the hunter's reach. Most of the
horses died, and, before assistance could arrive, famine set
39 lUd.
40 A. Ross, loc. cit., p. 97.
EARLY HISTORY OF WHEAT-GROWING 19
in. Thirty-three lives were lost, and only with infinite
difficulty were the survivors conveyed to the settlement.
The winter of 1825-26 followed a rainy season and was
exceptionally severe. It began earlier and ended later than
usual. The snows averaged three feet deep on the prairie
and in the woods from three to four feet deep. The cold
was intense, the temperature descending to 45 degrees
below zero. The ice in the Eed River became five feet
seven inches in thickness. The spring of 1826 was late
in coming. The wind blew from the south for several
days together, and the sudden burst of warm weather which
ensued rapidly melted the accumulated snows. Red Lake,
Otter-tail Lake, and Lake Travers overflowed their banks.
On the 2nd of May, the day before the ice started to move
in the Red River, the water rose nine feet in twenty-four
hours. On May 4, the water overflowed its banks and
spread so fast that, before the settlers could fully realize
what was happening, it had reached their dwellings. On
May 5, the settlers abandoned their houses and sought
refuge with their horses and cattle upon higher ground.
A mighty lake was formed in which houses, barns, furni-
ture, and moving blocks of ice were carried along to Lake
Winnipeg. The height to which the water rose above the
level of previous years was fifteen feet, and the water con-
tinued rising until May 21. Wheat which at the com-
mencement of the flood had fallen to 2s. per bushel soon
rose to 155.;, or nearly double its normal price, and beef
rose from %6?. per pound to 3c?. On May 22, the waters
came to a stand and after a day or two began to fall. On
the 15th of June, the settlers again drew near to their
former habitations. They then broke up into two parties.
One of them, comprising the Swiss emigrants, the de Meu-
ron soldiers, and other reckless spirits, determined to try
their fortunes elsewhere, and on June 24 took their de-
20 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
parture for the United States. The other party, consist-
ing of Scotch settlers, were not so easily chilled by disap-
pointments and, without any hesitation, resumed work on
their cheerless farms. The seeding season was already
very advanced, yet barley, potatoes, and even a little wheat
sowed as late as elune 22 came to maturity.**^
XII. Prosperity in 1829
After the disastrous year 1826 which, however, served
to purge the settlement of its human dross, conditions
greatly improved, and by 1830 the colony was thriving as
it had never done before. The saturation of the soil with
the flood water was favorable to succeeding harvests, and
several good crops were now reaped. Ross states that
from a field sowed with 10 bushels he obtained 255 bushels ;
and that from another field, sowing 8 bushels, which had
been left fallow for two years running, during which it
had been plowed three different times and then sown in
drills, he obtained for a first crop 280 bushels."*^
The population now became increased by the arrival of
a number of settlers who were of a much more desirable
type than those who had left after the flood ; and many new
houses were erected to accommodate them. This rapid
progress and the excellent crops soon fully restored confi-
dence in the future of the colony. Governor Donald
Mackensie, writing to Colvile in August, 1829, grew en-
thusiastic concerning the improvement which had taken
place and in colorful language referred to : the corn " rich
and flourishing," " the boundless prairie '' with cattle like
" herds of buffalo brousing," the groups of haymakers
41 A. Ross, loc. cit., pp. 08-107. Of the disastrous events in the
year 1820, Ross, Avho was an eyewitness, gives a very vivid de-
scription.
*^Ibid., p. 112.
EARLY HISTOEY OF WHEAT-GROWING 21
" healthy and blooming," the ^' community of sentiments,"
the " stacks and laden carts straining the eye in countless
succession," and to the " ensemble of landscape perhaps
nowhere to be equaled." ^^ I beg to congratulate you and
all my employers," he ended, " on the prosperous state of
the Colony." '^^
XIII. The Bed River Flour
Up to about the year 1831, the Hudson's Bay Company
could never rely upon the settlers for a sufficient supply
of flour for the needs of its servants scattered through
the West, and actually was obliged to import annually
from England, via the Hudson Bay, such articles of con-
sumption as it needed. To encourage agriculture, Gov-
ernor Simpson, the chief manager of the Company's affairs
throughout Rupert's Land, promised to take all the Com-
pany's supplies from the colony. This roused the settlers
to fresh activity and, for a time, all the wants of the
Company were adequately met. 'No sooner was this done,
however, than prices fell, flour coming down from IQs. to
11 5. 6d. per hundred weight, butter from Is. to 7d. per
pound, and cheese from Cyd. to 4d, per pound. The market
was becoming overstocked, and the settlers found that the
extension of their farming operations had made them but
little better off. Just at this time, a great outcry was
raised throughout the country against the quality of the
produce : the flour was said to be " heated, sour, and alto-
gether of so very bad quality as to be only fit to poison
pigs," and the refinements of the English language were
inadequate to condemn sufficiently the butter and the
cheese.^*
43 Chester Martin, loc. cit., p. 175.
44 A. Ross, loc. cit., p. 116,
22 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
That the flour was not good, there can be no doubt.
Its evil quality was largely due to the lack of the neces-
sary conveniences for pursuing agricultural operations.
" In the whole colony," says Ross, " there was not to be
found either a smut-mill or fanning machine to clean
the grain, and but few bams to thresh it in, and still
fewer to dry it ; much, therefore, of the grain had, of
necessity, to be threshed on an ice-floor, in the open air,
during all weathers, and then ground in a frozen state,
and immediately packed in casks made of green wood,
furnished by the Company itself." With such a mode
of preparation, it was little wonder that the flour became
heated and sour, and made unpalatable bread.
To improve the quality of the flour produced in the
colony, Governor Simpson resolved to discontinue buying
flour from the settlers and to buy wheat instead. The
wheat was then to be dried and milled under the direction
of the Hudson's Bay Company. The price of the grain
was fixed at 3s. 6d. per bushel, equivalent to lis. Qd, per
hundred weight, which had been considered by both par-
ties a fair price for the flour. At the next harvest, which
was below the average, the Company bought in from 8,000
to 10,000 bushels of wheat and kept it in their granaries
for the winter. Unfortunately these buildings were too
small, there was no space in which to shift the grain from
place to place, and it had to be heaped up often four
or five feet deep. The wheat had been bought by the
measured bushel, and all that had been offered, good, bad,
and indifferent, had been taken. Some of it had been
threshed in barns and some of it on ice-floors in the open;
and it was by no means free either from moisture or smut.
On being left piled up in the granaries, the wheat naturally
heated and became almost baked together. The rest of
the story is best told in Ross's own words : " Large quan-
EARLY HISTORY OF WHEAT-GROWING 23
tities of dried buffalo meat had been stored up in the same
buildings, the daintiest fragments of which were carried off
by the mice and mixed up with the wheat, making a
compound of wheat, smut, icicles, dried meat, mice, and
mice nests, all more or less heated together; the smell of
which, without the hazardous experiment of tasting, was
absolutely disgusting. In this state, despite all advice
to the contrary, and the certainty of bringing disgrace
upon the colony, the wheat was ground and the flour
shipped off to the different trading posts. The writer,
having a mill, was among those patronized on this occasion
and can bear witness that the smell was intolerable.
When the complaints of the victimized consumers had
to be answered, the whole blame was laid upon the
millers." ^^
To grind its wheat into flour, the Hudson's Bay Com-
pany had employed twelve mills belonging to the colonists.
The flour thus produced contained a large amount of
bran, as is proved by the following analyses *^ made by
Governor Finlayson:
Pounds Pounds
of of
Flour. Bran.
No. 1. In 112 from John Vincent's mill was found 12
No. 2. In 112 from William Bird's mill was found 12
No. 3. In 112 from George Flitt's miU was found 12
No. 4. In 112 from Narcisse Marion's mill was found 14
No. 5. In 112 from Michel Klyne's mill was found 14
No. 6. In 112 from James Inkster's mill was found 14
45 A. Ross, loc. cit., p. 120.
^GlUd., p. 121. Ross adds: No. 1 and 2. Half-breeds of English
extraction. 3. An Orkney man. 4. A Canadian. 5. A German.
6. An Orkney-man. 7. A half-breed of Scotch extraction. 8. An
Irishman. 9. A half-breed of English extraction. 10. A Scotchman.
11. A half-breed of Orkney extraction. 12. A half-breed of Canadian
extraction.
24 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
Pounds Pounds
of of
Flour. Bran.
No. 7. In 112 from Thomas Logan's mill was found 14
No. 8. In 112 from Andrew McDermot's mill was found... 18
No. 9. In 112 from Thomas Bird's mill was found 20
No. 10. In 112 from Hugh Poison's mill was found 20
No. 11. In 112 from Robert Sandeson's mill was found 26
No. 12. In 112 from Cuthbert Grant's mill was found 28
XIV. Windmills
In the early years of the Settlement, Lord Selkirk sent
out a windmill to replace the querns. This had cast rollers
and machinery capable of working two pairs of stones;
but, when it arrived, no one was able to set it in opera-
tion. It was therefore sent back to England and re-
shipped. At length, ten years after its first arrival in
the Colony, Lord Selkirk's executors sent out a Scotch
mill-wright named Mitchell to put it in order. His ef-
forts having been successful, the windmill began to work
in 1825. It had cost no less than £1,500. It was then
sold to Mr. Logan for a fifth part of this sum, and he,
having some knowledge of machinery, turned the mill to
good account for many years. In the spring flood of
1852, its strong and lofty pillar resisted the high water
and afforded protection to many of the settlers who
sought refuge within its walls.^'^ After Logan's mill had
proved a success, similar ones were erected ; and windmills
dotted here and there came to form an interesting feature
of the landscape.
XV. The Experimental Farms
On three occasions before 1850, an attempt was made to
help the settlers by the institution of experimental farms ;
*- Ibid., pp. 144-145.
EARLY HISTORY OF WHEAT-GROWING 25
but all these farms failed, and they became known in the
colony as the " three unfortunate sisters." *^
The first experimental farm was planned by Lord Sel-
kirk and was called the ^' Hay Eield Farm." A Scotch
farmer named Laidlaw was sent out to take charge, but
mismanagement ruined everything. ^' Barns, yards,
parks, and houses of every description," says Ross, " were
provided; and yet all the time there was not an ox to
plow, nor a cow to milk in the settlement. To crown
the folly and extravagance of the undertaking, a mansion
befitting a peer was built at an expense of £600, which
at the moment of completion was accidentally burnt to
ashes in a drunken frolic. After several years' labor,
waste, and extravagance, every vestige of property on the
farm had disappeared, the experiment having cost Lord
Selkirk £2,000." ^^ The project was abandoned in 1822.
The second experimental farm was a favorite scheme
of Governor Simpson, and greatly was he dejected by its
failure. Its one contribution to the welfare of the settlers
appears to have been the introduction of a fine stallion
from England at a cost of £300, with a consequent improve-
ment in the breed of horses. The management of the
farm unfortunately was put into the hands of a fur
trader who tried various experiments without success.
Finally, after six years' trial, the farm was sold with
a dead loss to the Company of £3,500." ^^
The third experimental farm was organized by a com-
mittee in London, and Captain Cary, a half-pay ofiicer,
whose agricultural knowledge appears to have been more
theoretical than practical, was sent out to take charge.
Everything that money could procure was provided, but
^»Ibid., p. 212.
49/&wf., pp. 77-78.
50/6id., pp. 133-135.
26 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
the settlers always had the better crops both in quantity and
quality. The model farmers mowed down their fields of
grain with the scythe in place of cutting it with a sickle,
and gathered it with rakes instead of tying it into sheaves.
This practice, however, the settlers refused to follow. The
dairy served to keep the Governor's tea-table in milk ; but
his butter and cheese were furnished by the settlers.
After dragging out its existence for about ten years, the
farm ceased to operate, and, when its stock and implements
had been sold, the experimenters were losers by £5,500.^^
The Dominion Experimental "Farms system was founded
in 1888, and among the first branch farms to be established
was one at Brandon in Manitoba. This experimental
farm has been the scene of the carrying out of many im-
portant investigations both in respect to field crops and
live-stock, and has contributed in no small degree to the
progress of agriculture in the West. Lord Selkirk's be-
lief in the value of an experimental farm has therefore been
justified.
XVI. The Bloody Flux
In 1846, the Eed River Settlement was terribly afflicted
by a disease known to the settlers as the bloody flux.
In January of that year the influenza raged, and in May
measles broke out; but neither of these maladies proved
very fatal. In June, however, the bloody flux began its
ravages among the Indians of the White Horse Plains
and soon spread with alarming rapidity and awful con-
sequences to the whites. At the Settlement " there was
not a smiling face in a summer's day," " hardly anything
to be seen but the dead on their way to their last home,
nothing to be heard but the tolling of bells, and nothing
51 A. Ross, loc. cit., pp. 211-219.
EARLY HISTORY OF WHEAT-GROWING 2Y
talked of but the sick, the dying, and the dead." On
one occasion thirteen burials were proceeding at the same
time. From June 18 to August 2, the deaths averaged
seven a day, or 321 in all, so that the population was
reduced by one person out of every sixteen. ^^ The Span-
ish influenza which became epidemic in the city of Winni-
peg in the present year, 1918, serious though its effects
have been, has not exhibited one-tenth the virulence of
the bloody flux of 1846, for out of a population of some
200,000 there have been fewer than 1,000 deaths, or
about one death for every two hundred persons. There
is every reason to believe that the bloody flux was due to
insanitary living conditions. The disease itself, which is
now sometimes called bleeding diarrlicca, was doubtless a
form of dysentery and may have been caused by the water-
inhabiting parasite Amoeha histolytica, which was respon-
sible for so many deaths to the soldiers of the British Em-
pire during their gallant attack on the Gallipoli Peninsula.
XVII. The Census of 1849
A census taken in 1849 shows that by this time great
progress had been made in the development of the colony.
The population had grown to 5,391 persons. There were
745 houses, 12 schools, 7 churches, 2 water-mills and 18
windmills. The plows numbered 492, the harrows 576,
the carts 1,918, the boats 40, and the canoes 428. The
land under cultivation was upwards of 6,000 acres. The
live-stock consisted of 1,095 horses, 990 mares, 2,097 oxen,
155 bulls, 2,147 cows, 1,615 calves, 1,565 pigs, and 3,096
sheep. ^^
52 A. Ross, loc. cit., pp. 362-363.
53 Ihid., loc. cit., p. 409.
28 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
XVIII. Another Plague of Grasshoppers
In the spring of 1852 and 1861, the colony was again
flooded by an overflow from the Red River, and scenes were
witnessed recalling those of 1826. Grasshoppers laid
waste the crops inl857, 1858, 1864, 1867, and 1868.^^
The devastation caused by the grasshoppers in 1868
was as complete as in 1819. The insects arrived in 1867
at the beginning of the harvest and, after greatly injuring
the wheat and entirely destroying the oats and barley, de-
posited their eggs just as they had done in 1818.^^ In
1868 the eggs hatched and the larva:^ which emerged cleared
the fields of every vestige of vegetation. ^' The multitude
of insects," says Hargrave, ^^ was so great as to render
it difficult to convey an appreciable idea of their numbers
to the minds of those absent from the scenes of their devas-
tations. Piled in heaps about the walls of Fort Garry,
they were carted away and burned up to prevent the
efiluvia from their decaying bodies contaminating the at-
mosphere during the stifling heats of an unusually warm
summer." Threatened with absolute starvation, the colo-
nists were obliged to appeal for help ; and the appeal was
not in vain. Letters were written to the Times with the
result that the British public sent to the succor of the
colony the sum of £3,000. In addition, $12,000 were col-
lected in Canada and £000 in the United States of Amer-
ica. In the meanwhile, the Council of Assiniboia voted a
sum of £1,600 for immediate expenditure as follows:
£600 to purchase seed wheat, £500 to procure flour from
the United States, and £500 for fishing tackle and ammu-
nition. The flour to be conveyed to the colony was re-
ceived by an agent at St. Paul and then transported over
54 J. J. Hargrave, Red River, Montreal, 1871, pp. 175-176, 446.
55 lUd., p. 419.
EARLY HISTORY OF WHEAT-GROWING 29
the plains during the winter by the laborious and expensive
means of horse and ox sledges. There were 260 miles of
journeying from St. Paul to Fort Abercrombie, and then
another 250 miles from Fort Abercrombie to the head-
quarters of the Settlement on the Red River. The trans-
portation of the flour, however, was successfully accom-
plished, and the settlers, as they ate their bread in the
winter of 1868-69, were cheered with the thought of the
warm sympathy which their needs had awakened in the
great world without. ^^
XIX. State of the Settlement in 1870
After the Hudson's Bay Company altered its route for
the importation of the goods intended for its trade from
the old one of the Hudson Bay to that of St. Paul, a very
considerable traffic by means of Red River carts grew up
between St. Paul and the Red River Settlement. Accord-
ing to Hargrave, who wrote in 1871, some 1,500 carts made
the journey yearly and 500 carts twice a year. They
carried furs to the south and brought back manufactured
articles on the return journey. Three hundred carts also
plied between the Settlement and the district of Saskatche-
wan.^^ This contact with other civilized communities
gradually became more intimate and the Settlement corre-
spondingly less isolated.
In 1870 the total population, including white settlers,
56 Ihid., pp. 446-449. In one item Hargrave is in error, for he
states that the Canadian contribution to the relief of the Settlement
was $3,600. This figure is too small. Chester Martin, who has had
access to the accounts, says that " Canadian cities and private indi-
viduals contributed more than $12,000." Vide C. Martin, The Red
River Settlement, in Canada and Its Provinces, Toronto, 1914, Vol.
XIX, p. 68. Minnesota's contribution, according to Martin, was
$5,000.
57 Ihid., pp. 167-168.
30 ESSAYS 01^ WHEAT
Indians, and half-breeds, was 12,800,^^ but the amount
of land under cultivation was still very small. There was
no market to supply except that at home and that provided
by the requirements of the Hudson's Bay Company, so
that there was no inducement to the settlers to extend their
farming operations. The farms were all situated on the
Ked River between Upper Fort Garry and Lower Fort
Garry, and along the northern bank of the Assiniboine
River. Even as late as 1870, the possibility of growing
cereals on the prairie more than two miles back from the
rivers had not been tested. ^^ The first settlers on the open
prairie appear to have been the Mennonites, who came to
the southern part of the province of Manitoba from Russia
in 1875. Among other things which the Mennonites
brought with them was a variety of wheat known as White
BiLSsian, which was ultimately supplanted by Red Fife.
The first exportation of wheat to the East took place in
1876 and consisted of 857 bushels of Red Fife — all that
could be obtained — which was required in Ontario for
seeding purposes. The consignment left Winnipeg by
steamer and was conveyed up the Red River to Fisher's
Landing where it was transferred to a railway truck for
carriage to Duluth.®^
XX. Effect of the Revolution in the Milling Industry
The extension of the cultivation of Red Fife and other
hard red spring wheats in western Canada and the Great
Plains region of the United States was profoundly influ-
enced by the revolution which took place in the milling
58iud., p. 174.
69iud., pp. 176-177.
60 For a more extended account of this incident, vide Chapter III,
Section XXIII.
EARLY HISTORY OF WHEAT-GROWING 31
industry between the years 1870 and 1880. In 1870
there was introduced into Minnesota the first purifier^ a
device for separating branny particles from midlings and
flour, which had been invented in France by Perrigault.
Before the advent of the purifier, the method of milling
was such that the intrinsic value of the flour of hard spring
wheat was unknown and unsuspected: spring-wheat flour
was regarded as far inferior to flour from winter-wheat
on account of the fact that although it was strong and pro-
duced well-risen loaves, it was of poor color. With the
coming of the purifier which was first used in connection
with mill-stones and afterwards with chilled-iron rollers,
all this was changed, for the new machine enabled the
miller to grind from the hitherto despised hard spring
wheat a product with the desired whiteness, which, on ac-
count of its strength, immediately commanded a price
equal to the best flour from winter wheat.^^ " This," says
Edgar, '^ gave a great impetus to milling in the North-
West, increased the demand for spring wheat, rendered
valuable the crops of Minnesota, the Dakotas, and western
Canada, and led to the agricultural development of that
section of the western continent. Spring-wheat flour
sprang into favor in America, and when introduced abroad,
especially in the United Kingdom, won its way against all
competition. In the end, the demand for it caused British
millers to remodel their mills and grind a mixture of
home-grown and American wheats." ^^ jj^^j [^ j^q^ ]^qqj^
for the invention of the purifier, it is certain that the grow-
ing of spring wheat in the West would have been greatly
retarded, cereal breeding at Ottawa might not have been
begun so early as it was, and Marquis wheat, to which the
61 William Edgar, The Story of a Grain of Wheat, London, pp.
155-156.
62 Ihid.
32 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
third Chapter is devoted, might never have come into
existence.
The Kiel insurrection which took place in 1869, was
occasioned by want of tact on the part of the Government
at Ottawa in its dealings with the Red River settlers ; and
it was only brought to an end in 1870 by a military expe-
dition sent out under the leadership of Col. Garnet
Wolseley.<53
In 1870 the Province of Manitoba was formed and be-
came the fifth of the sisterhood of the Provinces of the
Dominion. In the same year a census was taken of the
village of Winnipeg, with the result that 215 persons were
found to be residing within its boundaries.
XXI. The St. Paul Railway
Soon after Manitoba had been organized as a province,
settlers began to pour into it from the south. Immigrants
from Ontario and the Old Country were compelled to come
through the United States to Chicago, then northwest to
St. Paul, and then northwards across 450 miles of level
prairie. For eight years a stream of immigrants made the
long journey into Manitoba by wagon, by stage, by coach,
and by Red River steamer ; and great was the relief to the
trafiic when at last, in 1878, the first railway entered the
province from the south. This new means of communica-
tion gave a direct connection between St. Paul in Minne-
sota and the little town of St. Boniface on the right bank
of the Red River. On arriving at railhead, the settler, in
C3 Cf. George Brj'ce, Sketch of the History of the City of Winni-
peg and of the Four Provinces of Western Canada, in A Handbook
to Winnipeg and the Province of Manitoba, British Association for
the Advancement of Science, Winnipeg Meeting, 1909, Winnipeg, pp.
13-15.
EARLY HISTORY OF WHEAT-GROWING 33
order to get to Winnipeg, had merely to cross the river in a.
ferry boat.^'*
XXII. The Canadian Pacific Railway
The St. Paul Railway was a great boon and formed a
splendid link with the United States; but something still
was lacking. The rising spirit of Canada, supported by
the voice of Manitoba, demanded that an all-Oanadian rail-
way should be built across the continent, so as to give the
West a direct connection with the East. This great project
was eventually brought to a successful conclusion, with the
result that in 1886 there took place an event of outstand-
ing significance for the subsequent development of wheat-
growing in western Canada : there passed through Winni-
peg on Dominion Day, July 1, the first through train from
Montreal to Vancouver. Its engine, Canadian Pacific
Railway No. 1, ran upon a line of steel destined to bear
to the country's ports hundreds of millions of bushels of
wheat required to satisfy the world's craving for bread.
A grain of wheat is a very tiny thing in itself, but the
prosperity of western Canada is bound up with its exist-
ence ; and it is not too much to say that without the grain
of wheat in its collective form, the great and thriving city
of Winnipeg, with its population of 200,000 souls, its im-
posing buildings, its fine streets, and its busy cosmopolitan
life, would scarcely have advanced at the present time be-
yond the status of a small trading station. The growth
of Winnipeg from a village of 215 people in 1870 to its
present proportions has been due in large measure to the
construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway, the connect-
ing of the east and west parts of Canada by a band of steel.
Through mile after weary mile for hundreds of miles was
6* Cf. G. Bryce, loc. cit.
34 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
the track pushed from the east, past lake and swamp and
stream, onwards amid the lonely forests of Pine and Pop-
lar, of Spruce and Birch, on, on, through all that long
stretch of rocky howlder-strewn country north of the Great
Lakes which was swept bare of soil in the dawn of human
history, onwards and ever onwards, until at last it reached
the West. All the vast difficulties in the path of the engi-
neers were overcome because the men behind the C. P. R.
were men of vision, men who could see in the mind's eye
under the blue dome of heaven the golden grain which
would come to clothe the fertile acres of the broad prairie-
land. Surely the brightest dreams of the founders of the
C. P. R. have been amply justified by events.
The completion of the eastern half of the Canadian Pa-
cific Railway immediately provided that direct connection
with the Old Country market for which Manitoba had been
longing; and soon the agricultural progress and prosperity
of the West were assured. The tide of immigration grew
ever stronger and Winnipeg became the great gateway to
the new Land of Promise. The buffalo disappeared, the
Indian gave place to the white man, and vast tracts of the
virgin prairie were turned with the plow. The wheat of
the prairie provinces, on account of its high quality, ac-
quired universal fame, and Canada came to be called the
Granary of the British Empire. How well that Granary
served the cause of the Allies in its time of trial needs
no telling; for it is known to the whole world.
CHAPTER II
Wheat in Westeei^ Canada
I. 8ome Crop Statistics
The rapid progress made by western Canada in recent
years is reflected by the crop returns. In 1904 the wheat
crop in Manitoba and Saskatchewan was only 56,000,000
bushels, and the raising of cereals in Alberta was then in
its initial stages. In 1906, the wheat crop of Manitoba,
Saskatchewan, and Alberta had risen to 102,000,000
bushels. In 1913, this was about doubled and amounted
to 209,000,000 bushels. In 1915 the wheat crop in the
Prairie Provinces was produced under exceptionally fav-
orable weather conditions and w^as a most extraordinary
one. The Dominion Census Bureau estimated it to be
360,000,000 bushels. When it is borne in mind that in
1915 much less than one-half of the good wheat land of
the West had as yet been broken by the plow, the optimism
of western Canadians in the future of their half of the
Dominion seems to be well justified.
Owing to the development of the West, Canada has now
attained a very important place among the commonwealth
of nations as a grain-producing country. Referring to
the great crop year of 1915, Mr. W. E. Milner, as retiring
President of the Winnipeg Grain Exchange, in September,
1916, made the following remarks: '^ This has been one
of the most phenomenal years in the history of the grain
business in the Dominion of Canada. Our farmers, hav-
35
36
ESSAYS ON WHEAT
ing been blessed bv the hand of Providence, produced the
largest crop ever grown in this country and, now that the
final figures are available, we find that our wheat crop
reached the enormous total of 376,448,400 bushels; our
oat crop, 389,000,000 busliels ; barley, 39,202,000 bushels ;
and our flax (1,000,000 bushels, making a grand total of
810,650,400 bushels of grain." ^
The crops for 101 H, 1917, and 1918 have not been nearly
as good as those of the banner year 1915. i^evertheless,
during this period, in the Prairie Provinces, the wheat
crop on the average has been well in excess of 200,000,000
bushels.
The chief wheat-growing province is now Saskatchewan,
after which comes Manitoba and then Alberta, as is shown
by the following figures for spring wheat for the year
1915:2
Acreage and Yield of Wheat for 1915
Acreage
Uushels
Yield
per acre
Saskatchewan ....
Manitoba
Alberta
6,884,874
3,664,281
1,637,122
173,723,775
96,662,912
58,830,704
25.23
26.40
35.93
The average annual yield of wheat in bushels per acre
in the principal wheat-growing countries of the world, for
the five consecutive years 1909-13, was as follows: ^
1 W. E. Milner, President's Address, Eighth Annual Report (new
series) of the Winnipeg Orain Exchange, Winnipeg, September, 1016,
p. 24.
2 Supplement to the Cereal Maps of Manitoba. Saskatchewan and
Alberta, issued from the Natural Resources Intelligence Branch of
the Department of the Interior, Ottawa, 1017, pp. 4, 6, 8.
3 Ihid., p. 13.
WHEAT IX WESTERN CANADA
37
38 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
Average Yield of Wheat in Bushels per Acre
Yield Yield
per acre per acre
United Kingdom . . . 31.9 United States 14.6
Germany 31.8 Australia 13.2
Austria 20.2 British India 11.9
Canada 20.0 Eussia 10.8
France 19.1 Argentina 9.9
Hungary 18.8
from which it will be seen that the fertility of the soil in
Canada has exceeded that of the United States by 5.4
bnshels per acre but has been considerably less than that
of the United Kingdom and Germany.
The average yield of spring wheat per acre for the
Prairie Provinces for the ten-year period, 1908-lT inclu-
sive, was as follows : *
Average Yield of Spring Wheat in Bushels per Acre
Manitoba 17.75 bushels
Saskatchewan 18.50 bushels
Alberta 22.50 bushels
Upwards of nine-tenths of Canada's wheat is produced
in the Prairie Provinces. These provinces, in the five
years, 1913-17 inclusive, produced 1,283,000,000 bushels
of wheat, whereas the rest of Canada in the same period
produced only 118,000,000 bushels.^
In per capita production of wheat Canada leads all coun-
tries. This is due to the smallness of her population rela-
tively to the vastness of her acreage sown to wheat. The
* Monthly Bulletin of Agricultural Statistics, Ottawa, August,
1918, pp. 222-223.
5 The annual figures upon which this calculation is based are given
in a foot-note in the last Section of Chapter III.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 39
following have been the figures for the production of wheat
for every man, woman and child in a few leading coun-
tries: Canada 32 bushels, Argentina 25 bushels, Aus-
tralia 17.5 bushels, Rumania 14.5 bushels, Bulgaria 12.5
bushels, France 8 bushels, the United States 7.5 bushels,
and the United Kingdom 1.5 bushels.^
Canada is a most extravagant user of wheat. For seed
and other purposes she has used about 16.5 bushels per
capita or about half what she has produced. The next
countries making the freest use of wheat are : Argentina
11 bushels per capita, France 9.5 bushels, Italy and Aus-
tralia 7.5 bushels, and the United Kingdom 7 bushels,*'^
Canada leads all other countries in the dijfference be-
tween her per capita production and consumption of wheat,
and this, combined with her vast wheat crops, puts her in
a very favorable position as a wheat-exporting country.
In 1913, the year before the war, when reliable statistics
could still be obtained for all countries, the exports of
wheat (including flour reduced to grain) from the twelve
most important countries were as follows : ^
Exports of Wheat in Bushels, 1913
Bushels Bushels
United States . . . 154,760,000 Roumania 54,203,000
Canada 151,975,000 Australia 53,207,000
Russia 130,596,000 Germany 29,638,000
Argentina 109,637,000 Belgium 15,898,000
Netherlands 64,501,000 Bulgaria 11,456,000
British India 54,711,000 Austria-Hungary 1,730,000
from which it is obvious that Canada stood second in the
6V. C. Finch and 0. E. Baker, Geography of the World's Agri-
culture, Washington, 1917, figures read from the diagram in Fig.
11, p. 14.
7 lUd.
« Supplement to the Cereal Maps of Manitoba, etc., loc. cit., p. 14.
40 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
list, exporting only slightly less wheat than the United
States.
In the year 1915-16, the world's exports of wheat were
seriously disturbed by the war. In that year, Canada had
an immense surplus of wheat and took the premier position
as a wheat-exporting country, surpassing even the United
States. The exports of the four leading nations for
1915-16 were as follows: ^
Export of \Yheat in Bushels, 1915-16
Bushels Bushels
Canada 267,766,000 Argentina 91,390,000
United States . . . 239,526,000 Australia and
New Zealand . . 63,249,000
So far as the total production of wheat is concerned,
Canada is still far behind several other countries, notably
the United States, the Russian Empire, British India, and
France, as will be seen from the following statistics of
wheat production which are given as the average for the
three-year period 1911-13 inclusive: ^^
Amount of Wheat Raised in Bushels
Bushels Bushels
Kussian Empire 727,133,300 Brought forward 2,601,951,600
United States. . 704,995,000 Italy 190,840,000
British India. .. 369,612,300 German Empire 160,236,700
France 324,136,700 Argentina 155,828,300
Austria-Hungary 247,141,000 Australia 88,961,000
Canada 228,933,300 United Kingdom 61,297,300
Japan 26,305,300
Carried forward 2,601,951,600 Other Countries 527,589,700
Total 3,813,009,900
From these figures one may draw the conclusion that, be-
9 Ibid., p. 15.
10 Geography of the World's Agriculture, loc. cit., p. 8.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 41
fore the war, Canada's fraction of the total wheat produc-
tion of the world was less than one-sixteenth of the whole.
In the year 1918, the farmers of both Canada and the
United States, with a view to winning the war, made a spe-
cial effort to increase the wheat crop, with the result that
the combined wheat harvest of the two countries amounted
to more than 1,100,000,000 bushels. The following were
the crops resulting from the '^ food offensive " as esti-
mated in October: ^^
United States 918,920,000 bushels
Canada 210,000,000 bushels
In this competition to succor the Allies, Canada was un-
fortunately handicapped by a prolonged drought, whereas
in the United States the weather conditions were about
normal. Thus it came to pass that in 1918 the United
States produced upwards of four times as much wheat as
Canada. However, there is still very much good wheat
land in western Canada untouched by the plow, and some
day Canada may produce more wheat than the United
States. It is even possible that at no very distant date
the United States may look to her northern neighbor for
a large part of her daily bread.
11. Wheat Growing
12
Winter wheat has a higher yield than spring wheat,
wherever it can be successfully grown. However, on ac-
11 The United States figures are taken from the Monthly Crop
Report for October, 1918, issued at Washington, and giving indica-
tions as for October 1 ; and the Canadian figures are taken from a
press bulletin issued Oct. 31 by the Dominion Census Bureau.
12 For valuable assistance in writing this Section, I am indebted
to Professor John Bracken of the Field Husbandry Department of
the University of Saskatchewan.
42
ESSAYS ON WHEAT
count of climatic conditions, very little winter wheat is
grown in western Canada. The following Table shows the
acreage devoted to spring wheat and winter wheat respec-
tively in the three Prairie Provinces in the year 1918: ^'
Number of Acres Devoted to Spring and Winter Wheat in 1918
Spring
Wheat
Winter
Wheat
Albprta
3,187,000
9,101,000
2,616,000
58,000
Saskatchewan
Manitoba
2,000
Total
14,904,000
60,000
From this Table it is clear that snch winter wheat as is
grown at all in the West is chiefly produced in Alberta,
and that the acreage devoted to winter wheat in the three
Prairie Provinces taken tosrether amounted in 1918 to only
two-fifths of 1 per cent, of the total wheat acreage. West-
em Canada, therefore, as a whole, is a spring-wheat region.
The climatic factors which tend to kill winter wheat are:
(1) very low temperatures during the winter, (2) the rela-
tive absence of snow locally, (3) alternate freezing and
thawing in spring, and (4) drying winds in spring.
The wheats sown in the spring are hard red varieties, the
chief sorts being Marquis and Red Fife. The winter
wheats, sown in the autumn, are chiefly Turkey Red and
Kharkov. In dry parts of southern Alberta and southern
Saskatchewan durum wheats are grown to a very small
extent, but their culture may be considerably increased in
the future.
The virgin prairie is usually broken in the month of
June. Its surface is then cultivated and left uncropped
13 Monthly Bulletin of Agricultural Statistics, Ottawa, August,
1918, pp. 222-223.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 43
until the following spring. Thus the prairie grasses, etc.,
are prevented from growing and using up moisture, and
the moisture is stored and conserved in the newly-broken
land.
After one or more crops have been taken from the land
subsequently to new breaking or summer fallowing, the
land is prepared for the next crop by fall or spring plow-
ing, by disking, cultivating, or, in some cases, by seeding
on the untilled fields without any previous cultivation.
Fall plowing is the most common practice but, in the dryer
areas, spring plowing is sometimes carried out instead.
The disadvantage of spring plowing arises from the delay
which is involved in putting in the seed: spring plowing
necessitates late sowing, late sowing is followed by late
ripening, and late ripening of the grain increases the dan-
ger to which the crop is exposed from early fall frosts. In
some areas where plowing is not considered necessary but
where some form of surface tillage is deemed advisable,
the stubble fields are disked or cultivated either in the fall
or the spring. Sowing on untilled stubble fields, while
not a general practice, is frequently carried out on land
which is free from grass and weeds and the surface of
which in the spring is found to possess a natural mulch
or loose top layer of soil forming a natural seed-bed. In
some districts, where untilled fields are sown, the stubble
which holds the snow during the winter is burned oif in
the spring before seeding.
Until recently, but little or no attempt was made to
apply manure or fertilizers to the land, and the grain fields
were cropped year after year without anything being added
to them. Of late, however, with the introduction of mixed
farming, farm-yard manure has come to be more commonly
used, particularly on the lighter soils. The manure is
spread upon the summer fallow, root-grounds, etc., some-
44 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
what thinlv bv means of a machine known as a manure
spreader. This practice has been found to increase the
yield of the crops on soils which have long been cultivated
and thus to add to the profits of farming. It is, there-
fore, doubtless destined to be much more generally adopted
in the future.
On account of the low rain-fall, moisture limits the
yield of grain per acre. The bare fallow, or some modi-
fication of it, is therefore resorted to once in from two to
five years, more often in the dryer districts and less often
in the more humid ones. The summer fallow is the basic
practice of dry farming. Its purpose is to store moisture
in the soil by preventing its utilization by growing plants,
and by conserving it in the soil by means of a soil mulch
created by surface tillage. The surface tillage breaks the
capillary tubes in the soil and so lessens evaporation.
In older districts, the summer fallow has a double func-
tion, for it is not only used to conserve moisture but also
to control weeds. Among the annual weeds which have
proved to be pests are Wild Oats (Avena fatua) and vari-
ous members of the Mustard family ; and, among the per-
ennials. Sow Thistle {SoncJms ai'vensis), Canada Thistle
(Cnicus arvensis), and Quackgrass (Agropyron repens).
The very dry parts of southern Alberta and Saskatchewan
are troubled with the Russian Thistle (Salsola Kali).
Practically all of the noxious weeds of the West have been
introduced either directly or indirectly from Europe.
Seed-wheat, before being sown, is usually cleaned by
passing it through a fanning mill which, by means of sieves
and screens and a blast of wind, removes the weed seeds,
smut-balls, and other impurities, and also small and
shrunken kernels of wheat. The seed wheat is then sub-
jected to treatment with formalin, which is a 40 per cent,
solution of fomialdehyde. This is mixed with water in
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 45
the proportions of one pound of formalin to forty gallons
of water, and the mixture is then sprayed carefully over
the seed or the seed is passed through the liquid by means
of a smut machine. The purpose of this treatment is to
kill any spores of the Stinking Smut Fungus (Tilletia
foetens) which may be clinging to the kernels and which,
if not destroyed, might germinate on the kernels in the
soil, infect the seedlings, and cause smut-balls instead of
sound kernels to be produced in the heads of the diseased
plants. When there is any doubt as to the germinating
ability of seed-wheat, the wheat is tested for germination
either at home on the farm or in seed-testing laboratories
provided by the Dominion or Provincial Departments of
Agriculture.
The seed-wheat is sown by using large drills which are
from eight to ten feet wide and which are drawn either
singly by a team of four or more horses, or several together
by an engine driven by gasolene or kerosene. These drills
are so constructed that they force the seed evenly into the
ground in rows which are from six to seven inches apart.
The depth of sowing can be regulated and is usually from
one to three inches below the surface. Seeding is usually
completed between the middle of April and the tenth day of
May, April seeding being preferred when soil and climatic
conditions permit of its being undertaken. The seed is
sown at the rate of from three-quarters to two bushels per
acre, the smallest quantity being used on the lighter soils
in the dryest districts and the largest quantity upon the
heaviest and richest soils in the more northerly humid dis-
tricts. Under most conditions, the amount of seed usually
sown is between one and one and a half bushels.
The wheat grower endeavors to prepare the land to be
sown so that it shall be well stored with moisture, free from
weeds, firm, and mellow. After seeding in such soil at a
46 ESSAYS ON "WHEAT
depth of from one to three inches, the deptH varying with
the soil's moisture contents, the land is generally firmed
down by using a packer and then harrowed to create a
mulch to lessen the evaporation of moisture.
The seedlings appear above the ground in from four to
ten days after seeding, the period before emergence vary-
ing with conditions of moisture and temperature. In
some places, the land is again harrowed after the plants
have appeared above the ground, the purpose of this sec-
ond harrowing being either to kill the small weeds that
may appear at this time or to replace the mulch which may
have been destroyed by rains.
The crop usually heads out during the first half of July
and ripens between the tenth of August and the twentieth
of September.
The crop is harvested slightly before it has attained per-
fect maturity by means of self-binders. These machines
are hauled either by teams of four or six horses, or a num-
ber of them may be drawn by a tractor. Each binder cuts
a width of from six to eight feet and, at the same time, ties
the grain into bundles or sheaves. The sheaves measure
from ten to twelve inches in diameter and, as soon as they
have been tied, are thrown to the ground. They are then
placed in stooks or shocks by men who follow the binders
as closely as possible. The purpose of stocking is three-
fold: (1) to assist the drying or curing \)f the sheaves,
(2) to lessen the danger to the grain of serious injury from
weathering, and (3) to facilitate the further filling of the
grains in the heads.
The grain is separated from the straw by means of large
threshing machines driven by tractors and having a capac-
ity of from 500 to 2,000 bushels per day. In the past, the
straw on the large wheat farms has been considered to be a
useless by-product, and the great straw piles which dot the
WHEAT IN WESTEKlSr CANADA 47
prairie after the threshing season (except for small por-
tions saved for bedding horses, feeding, etc.) have usually
been burned. The straw-pile fires reflected against the
clouds at night in the autumn are well known everywhere
in the West and form a strange and unexpected sight to
newcomers from Europe where straw is of so much value.
The recent development of mixed farming, however, offers
in western Canada an opportunity for the utilization of
straw to a much greater extent than hitherto as roughage
for stock feed.
On large farms, the threshing is done directly from the
stooks which are hauled in wagons from the places in the
fields where they were set up straight to the threshing
machines. The stooks may be loaded on to a wagon me-
chanically by means of stook-loaders, or they may be
pitched by men into bundle racks. The threshing is car-
ried out as soon as possible after the bundles have become
sufiiciently dry to pass through the machine without diffi-
culty and after the grain has become sufiiciently dry to be
safely stored in bulk. If threshed when too moist, the
grain may heat in storage and thereby be injured for com-
mercial purposes. On the smaller farms, when for any
reason threshing may be delayed, stacking is sometimes re-
sorted to. This permits of fall tillage being undertaken
at once and provides safe storage for the sheaves until a
threshing machine becomes available.
The harvesting and threshing season is the busiest part
of the year in western Canada. To assist in relieving the
labor shortage which is always felt at this time, some
20,000 to 30,000 extra harvesters are annually brought to
the Prairie Provinces from the east of the Dominion and
from the United States.
The grain, after it has been threshed, may be stored in
temporary granaries on the farm or it may be hauled at
48 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
once from the threshing machine to the country elevator or
to a loading platform on a railway siding.
In the West, the standing crops are sometimes destroyed
locally in summertime by violent hailstorms which in ex-
treme instances have been known to rain down hailstones
the size of hens' eggs.-^* Usually the area ruined by a
hailstorm is several miles in length but seldom more than
a mile in width. To compensate for the destruction
wrought by the ice-balls, a system of cooperative hail insur-
ance has been introduced in Saskatchewan and Alberta, and
many private hail insurance companies also carry on busi-
ness in all parts of the West.
The western plains, in general, are very level and free
from large trees, and hence are easy to break with the
plow. The soil is thick and rich in humus and gives a
good crop from the first. The chief difficulties of wheat
raising arise from temporary droughts in summer, drying
winds, early fall frosts, occasional severe attacks of the
Black Stem Rust disease, and the already mentioned local
hailstorms. Rain, however, seldom falls in too large a
quantity and the weather during the harvesting and thresh-
ing season is usually dry and bright. There is no more
exhilarating sight in the West than the prospect of the
binders at work on the sea-wide, sky-skirted prairie, with
the golden grain gleaming under the August sun and above
and about all the cloudless blue dome of heaven. And
when the last sheaf has been cut and the binders are silent,
14 This is no exaggeration. Photographs showing hailstones and
fowls' eggs of equal size were exhibited by Professor J. W. Shipley to
the Physics section at the Winnipeg meeting of the British Associa-
tion held in 1909. Vide J. W. Shipley, On the Size of Hailstones
observed during a storm in Western Canada, Reports of the British
Association, 1909, p. 400. Some of the hailstones " were larger than
hens' eggs. At the center of one hailstone a small black fly was
found."
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 49
how splendid is the view across the gently rolling stubble
fields: stook beyond stook, stook beyond stook, for a quarter
of a mile, for half a mile, and still more stooks as far as
the eye can see, stooks cresting the distant horizon, ten
thousand stooks all waiting to be threshed and each with its
promise of bread, the gift of the 'New World to the Old.
The unbroken expanses of the prairie create within one a
sense of freedom which is best known only to those who
dwell far from crowded cities, who plow and sow and reap,
and whose daily toil causes them to commune uncon-
sciously with Mature and thus to absorb something of her
simplicity and her charm.
III. The Great Wheat Funnel
In order to meet the ever-growing requirements of west-
ern Canada for travel and transportation, a complex sys-
tem of railways has grown up with ramifications extending
for many thousands of miles. The principal railroads
tapping the wheat-lands are the Canadian Pacific, the Ca-
nadian Northern, and the Grand Trunk Pacific. Their
main lines all focus upon Winnipeg so that this city has
become, as it were, the converging point of a great wheat
funnel, the spout of which leads to the water-front of Lake
Superior. Through Winnipeg, each working day of the
crop year 1915-16, on the average, there passed more than
one thousand cars of wheat. ^^ The accompanying dia-
gram (Fig. 8) shows the eastbound movement of western
Canada wheat in the calendar year 1913. An inspection
of it reveals the fact that most of the 1913 wheat, after
passing by rail from Winnipeg to Port Arthur and Fort
William, was conveyed by water to Montreal and Buffalo,
15 W. E. Milner, President's Address in Eighth Annual Report of
the Winnipeg Grain Exchange, September, 1916, p. 26.
50
ESSAYS ON WHEAT
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 51
and that from these two latter cities it was then dispatched
to the Atlantic Ocean via the St. Lawrence Eiver or by
routes leading to the ports of St. John, Halifax, Portland,
Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore.
IV. The Hudson Bay Railway
In 1811, the Selkirk settlers entered Canada via the
Hudson Bay, and the Bay remained for many decades the
almost exclusive means of communication between the Red
Eiver Settlement and the British Islands. Through the
Bay, as we have seen, came with the settlers the first seed-
wheat sown in western Canada ; and through the Bay sailed
each year, for nearly two centuries, the rich argosies of the
Hudson's Bay Company, outward bound with great car-
goes of fur and inward bound with food-stuffs and manu-
factured goods. Shortly before 1870, the Hudson's Bay
Company, taking advantage of the improved means of
transportation in the Great Plains region of the United
States, changed its trading route from the old one of the
Hudson Bay to a new one passing south through Winnipeg.
Thus it came about that for many years the icy waters
of the Hudson Bay were almost deserted by commerce.
However, at the present moment, there is being built the
Hudson Bay Railway which, in all-Manitoban territory,
will give direct communication with the sea. This new
line is to pass from The Pas to Port Nelson, a distance of
410 miles, of which 320 have already been completed. In
the near future it is doubtless destined to carry to the sea-
board a large amount of grain raised in northern Sas-
katchewan and Alberta. For the Province of Manitoba,
the prospect, for at least four months in the year, of a
shorter sea route to the British market than that from
52 ESSAYS OX WHEAT
Xew York, marks a curious return to the historic condi-
tions which were so familiar to the Selkirk settlers.
V. The Shipment of Bulk Wheat Through the
Panama Canal
The opening of the Panama Canal has presented the
possibility of shipping Canadian wheat to Europe from
ports on the Pacific Coast. However, until a year ago, no
attempt to ship wheat in bulk via the Panama Canal had
been made, and it was not known whether or not bulk wheat
could be safely transported through the tropics by this
route without arriving at its destination in a heating con-
dition.^^ Dr. F. J. Birchard and Mr. A. W. Alcock, of
the Dominion Grain Eesearch Laboratory, therefore car-
ried out a test experiment on bulk shipment in the fall
of 1917.
One hundred thousand bushels of wheat for shipment
were collected at various points in Alberta, graded by gov-
ernment inspectors, carefully tested for moisture, and then
stowed in bulk in the hold of a steamer at Vancouver.
The forward hold, into which the main bulk of the wheat
was loaded, was one hundred feet long, fifty feet wide, and
eighteen feet six inches deep. Each parcel of wheat of a
particular grade, after being delivered to the vessel, was
trimmed so that its surface was practically horizontal, and
then separating cloths were spread over the top so as to
divide it from the succeeding layer. Rows of electrical
resistance thermometers were embedded in each layer of
the wheat so that all changes of temperature in every part
16 For a number of years wheat has been shipped south from Seattle
and Portland (Oregon) round the Cape to Europe in bags. Doubt-
less, however, the ventilation of wheat in bags is better than that of
wheat in bulk. Wheat is shipped in bags from Australia and India
to England.
WHEAT IN WESTEKN CANADA 53
of the cargo could be observed by instruments on deck.
One of the experimenters accompanied the boat from Van-
couver down the Pacific Coast, through the Panama Canal,
and across the Atlantic to London, the voya2;e occupying
three and a half months. The shipment of the wheat was
successfully made, for the Superintendent who supervised
the discharge of the wheat at London reported that only
160 bushels, or less than 0.2 per cent, of the total cargo,
had been damaged. It is evident, therefore, that bulk
wheat, although subjected to a much higher temperature
and to a much longer voyage when transported to England
by the Panama route than when transported by the usual
routes from the Atlantic coast, can yet be safely brought
to its destination. Whether or not the new route for ship-
ping wheat will be much used in the future is uncertain ;
but it seems not unlikely that a portion of the wheat pro-
duced in northern Alberta may be more cheaply trans-
ported by this route than by any other.
VL Elevators
To store the grain produced on the farm before it can
be exported or otherwise used, special warehouses, known
as elevators, are provided. The wheat is elevated into
these buildings by machinery and deposited in bins. The
bottom of the shipping bin is always situated at some dis-
tance above the level of the ground and opens into a mov-
able spout on the exterior of the elevator. When it is de-
sired to ship wheat away from an elevator, advantage is
taken of the flowing property of the grain in bulk: the
spout is opened and the grain falls through it by gravity
and passes into a box-car or the hold of a steamer.
Elevators are of several kinds. There are country ele-
vators along the railways for receiving grain from the
54 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
fanners for storage before it has been inspected, terminal
elevators which receive or ship grain and which are located
at points declared to be terminal so far as inspection is con-
cerned, hospital elevators which are used for cleaning or
specially treating rejected or damaged grain and which
are equipped with special machinery for this purpose, and
mill elevators which are used or operated as part of a plant
engaged in the manufacture of grain products. •'^'^ In the
Western Inspection Division of Canada, for the license
year 1916-17, there were 1,384 railway stations having
elevators, the number of elevators was 3,338, and the total
capacity of all the elevators together was 163,144,000
bushels. ^^
VII. The Loading Platform
A country railway station, in addition to its elevators,
is provided with a loading platform^ a wooden structure
on a siding on to which a farmer can drive his team, and
from which he can shovel the grain into a car. When the
grain has been loaded, the farmer can either sell it on the
spot as track grain, or consign it to a commission firm at
Winnipeg or Fort William to be sold for his account, or he
may ship it to a terminal elevator to be stored for his ac-
count. By using the platform, he can save the elevator
charges which amount to about $17 per car and avoid
negotiations with the elevator companies. On the other
hand, he has the trouble of securing the car, of making
arrangements to sell the grain, and of loading the grain
into the car with his own labor. Some farmers therefore
17 For definitions of elevators vide The Canada Grain Act, 1912,
Section 2.
18 Capacity of elevators by Provinces, license year 1916-17, in
Supplement to the Cereal Maps of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Al-
berta, Ottawa, 1917, p. 16.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 55
use the loading platform and others do not. I^aturally,
the elevator owners look upon loading platforms with dis-
favor, and railway operators regard them as tending to
delay the cars unduly. Their popularity with the farm-
ers, however, is shown by the fact that their number has
now been increased to upwards of 1,600 and that about 30
per cent, of the grain shipped from the country points is
loaded from them.^^
VIII. The Old Flat Warehouse
Elevators first came into existence about the year 1880.
Before this time the only receptacles for wheat along the
railway line were small flat warehouses built by grain
dealers. Farmers brought their wheat to these ware-
houses in sacks and sold it to the dealers, who shipped it
in car lots to Winnipeg for sale. The flat warehouse was
divided into two by a passageway running across the
middle from the front to the rear, and each end was sub-
divided into bins. The bottom of the bins was on a level
with the ground. The machinery consisted of a scale in
the passageway, a trolley for pulling the sacks, and a
small four-wheeled grain cart for handling the wheat in
bulk. The cart was propelled by hand along a light rail
which ran through the passageway to the railway track.
When a dealer wished to ship his grain away, he pulled or
pushed it to a railway car in his grain cart. The handling
of grain is much more efiiciently done by an elevator than
by the old flat warehouse, and on this account the latter has
fallen into disuse. ^^
19 Cf. R. Magill, Grain Inspection in Canada, Department of Trade
and Commerce, Ottawa, 1914, pp. 11-14.
20 Ibid., p. 11.
56 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
IX. The Country Elevator
The country elevators in 1916-17, in the three Prairie
Provinces, numbered 3,287, and the average capacity of
each was about 30,000 bushels. Either as single build-
ings or veiy often as a row of buildings along the railway
track, they form a characteristic feature of western rail-
way stations. They are usually constructed of wood with
galvanized iron plates on the outside. This covering
serves to keep out water and diminishes the risk of fire.
The farmer hauls his load of wheat from the farm to a
country elevator in bulk in an open wagon or, if it is win-
ter time, in an open sleigh. ^^ On arriving at the elevator,
he drives his wagon on to the scales which are raised upon
a platform about six feet from the level of the ground;
and here he obtains the gross weight of his wagon and its
load. The elevator operator, with the aid of a crank, then
moves the wagon in such a fashion that the front end is
raised and the back end is lowered. He then pulls up the
door of the grain pit and removes the end-board of the
wagon, so that the grain runs out from the back of the
wagon into the pit. The empty wagon is then weighed,
and its weight when subtracted from the gross weight of
the load and wagon previously obtained, gives the weight
of the grain deposited in the elevator. If the elevator has
a cleaner, the wheat, after passing into the pit, may have
its screenings removed, and these may be taken home by
the farmer to be used as feed. Finally, the wheat is trans-
ferred from the pit to the bins by means of an elevator
composed of buckets attached to an endless rubber belt
21 The wheat when being loaded on to a wagon or sleigh is scooped
into a grain-tight box holding from 00 to 100 bushels. The inven-
tion of the grain-tight box has relieved the farmer of the necessity of
hauling his wheat to the elevator in sacks.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 57
driven by a gasolene engine. Each country elevator con-
tains a number of bins so that the different varieties and
grades of grains may retain their identity, and so that a
farmer may have his wheat specially binned if he so wishes.
One of the bins in the elevator is known as the shipping
bin. Its base is about sixteen feet above the railway track
and a few feet above the level of the top of a box-car. The
storage bins which vary in number from eight to twenty-
two, and each of which may hold from 300 to about 4,000
bushels, have their bases about five feet above the level of
the ground. When the time comes to ship away the wheat
contained in one of the storage bins, the wheat is let out
through a hole in the bottom of the bin so that it falls into
the wheat pit. From this place it is elevated by the
buckets on the revolving rubber belt to the top of the ele-
vator where it is caused to fall into the shipping bin. The
bottom of this bin is connected with a spout which can be
opened at will to allow the wheat to pass into a box-car.
X. Box-Cars
When it is desired to ship out the grain from a country
elevator, a box-car is placed alongside of the elevator just
by the spout, the two outer side doors are slid open, and
a grain door, from about five to six and a half feet high
according to the size of the car, is fixed against each open-
ing from within so as to leave a space of about two feet
above. The grain, carried by the force of gravity and di-
rected by the spout leading from the shipping bin, is then
made to flow laterally into the car over the top of the grain
door facing the elevator. The roof of a box-car is always
a fixture and grain cannot therefore be put into such a car
directly from above. Whilst the grain is flowing into the
car — a, process which occupies about twenty minutes —
58 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
the spout is directed by the operator to each end of the car
in turn, so that the filling is more or less evenly accom-
plished. If necessary, however, when the car has been
filled, the operator climbs into the car over the top of one
of the grain doors on his hands and knees and levels the
load with a scoop shovel. After the load has been levelled,
the outer doors on the sides of the car are slid back into
position so as to cover the grain doors and entirely block
the two openings. The railway agent then seals the side
doors, whereupon the car is ready for transportation to
Winnipeg for inspection.
The depth of the wheat in a loaded car is a few inches
less than the height of the grain doors and varies from
four feet ten inches to six feet four inches, according to
the size of the car. Between the wheat and the roof of the
car there is always a space left, two feet or more high, in
which a man may move when he is obtaining samples of
the grain for the government inspector at Winnipeg.
Most of the box-cars now in use for transporting grain
are of two sizes only, the smaller cars having a capacity
of 60,000 pounds and the larger ones of 80,000 pounds,
so that for the former the full load is 1,000 bushels and
for the latter about 1,350 bushels. During the last two
years, however, the Canadian Pacific Railway Company
has been building still larger cars with a capacity of
94,000 pounds, or about 1,650 bushels. The loads in all
cases may be exceeded by shippers to the extent of 10 per
cent, of the car's capacity without special rates being
charged.
Box-cars require to be strongly built, for wheat in bulk,
like water, exerts an enormous pressure upon the sides and
base of its container. In constructing the grain doors, the
original intention was that they should not be nailed or
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 59
fastened in any way when being set in position, so that they
might be lifted on the arrival of the car at a terminal ele-
vator and thus allow the grain to flow out beneath them.
However, it very frequently happens in practice, and ap-
pears to be now the rule, that farmers or elevator operators
nail up the grain doors from the inside of the car before
the car is filled. The object in view in putting in the nails
is to prevent absolutely the grain doors slipping during
the switching or shunting of the cars, and thereby to make
quite sure that no leakage of grain shall occur whilst the
car is in transit. When a car with nailed doors arrives at
a terminal elevator at Fort William or Port Arthur, it is
necessary, in order to liberate the grain, to smash in the
doors with an ax, for the doors cannot be pressed back
owing to the weight of the grain or lifted owing to the
presence of unseen nails. The destruction of grain doors
at the terminal elevators takes place on a great scale and
thousands of new doors to replace the old need to be con-
structed every year.
In the busy season, when grain is flowing freely from the
prairie-land to Winnipeg on its way to the lake front, grain
trains are made up at the divisional railway points ; and
night and day such trains, often composed of from forty
to forty-five heavily-laden box-cars, form an east-bound
procession, one train following another unceasingly. Thus
the transportation of the wheat crop makes very heavy de-
mands upon the railways every year. To give some idea
of what these demands may be, it is only necessary to men-
tion that following the great crop of 1915, one thousand
cars of wheat arrived in Winnipeg each working day
throughout a whole year, and that the wheat inspected by
the Western Grain Inspection Division amounted to
338,425,200 bushels.
60 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
XI. Tenninal Elevators
Relatively to the country elevators, the terminal ele-
vators where inspected wheat is stored ready for shipment,
are few ; but they make up for their small number by their
immense size. Upon the immigrant, passing west for the
first time and on the look-out for wheat-fields, the imposing
bulk and curious form of the terminal elevators at Port
Arthur and Fort William make a never-to-be-forgotten
impression. Thirteen such elevators have a combined ca-
pacity of 41,750,000 bushels or, on the average, of 3,000,-
000 bushels each. Terminal elevators are usually con-
structed of concrete, a building material which, although
not beautiful to look at, is yet well suited to its purpose ;
for it gives to the elevators great strength, so that they may
resist the pressure of the grain in the bins, and, at the
same time, renders them non-inflammable with a conse-
quent saving in insurance against fire.
In the mind of the immigrant, when first he beholds one
of the huge terminal elevators, some very curious questions
are apt to arise, for while he has heard of the vast crops
of wheat which are produced annually in western Canada,
he, of necessity, is ignorant of the means whereby the
grain is handled for export : " I wonder what all those
great big pillars are for? They seem to be quite solid;
but I never before saw a building with such thick pillars
as those. They don't seem to be supporting much above
them. Ah ! perhaps they are hollow ; but why have they
not got windows? How do people see when working in
them? I suppose they are lit up with electric light. I
wonder whether they have spiral staircases ? I suppose
the bins are on different floors in each column; but how
on earth is the wheat put into them and taken out again ? "
And so forth ; but the immigrant does not stand alone, for
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 61
many a man who has been long resident in western Canada
knows as little about the workings of a terminal elevator
as he does about the mechanism of his own digestive sys-
tem. On passing a mighty building, beautifully special-
ized to handle grain in the most efl&cient and economical
manner, some there are who regard the pile with no more
than the mild curiosity with which, to use an expression of
Martin Luther, a cow looks at a new gate : the mystery in
concrete is tacitly accepted as insoluble; but others with
more enquiring minds actively desire to learn how it car-
ries on its functions, and it is for these that the following
pages have been written.
A terminal elevator at Fort William or Port Arthur is
situated upon the lake front, so that the grain which it con-
tains may be passed directly into the hold of a lake
steamer. It is usually divided into two parts : the working
house and the storage bins. The working house is rectan-
gular in shape, much higher than it is long or broad, and
has numerous windows in its upper half. Here the wheat
is received from the box-cars, elevated, weighed, tempo-
rarily stored in smaller bins, and cleaned. Here, too, are
situated the shipping bins from which the wheat passes into
the freight vessels. The storage bins, on the other hand,
are great concrete cylinders which stand vertically upright
and are connected by concrete where they are in contact.
There may be several parallel rows of them. The space
between any four adjacent cylinders is not wasted but is
used as a smaller bin. Kunning over the top of each row
of bins is a passageway which leads from the upper part
of the working house. The grain is conveyed along these
passages and is deposited in the bins from above. Each
bin can be filled from the bottom to the top, and a single
cylinder may hold as much as 30,000 bushels of grain.
Under each row of bins there is a tunnel leading to the
62 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
base of the working house. The wheat is let out of a bin
through a hole in its base. The capacity of an elevator
depends on the size and number of its cylindrical storage
bins. The bins are cylindrical because engineers have
found that cylindrical bins resist the pressure of the grain
within them better, and require less concrete in their
frame, than bins of any other form. In order to compre-
hend more fully the working of a terminal elevator, let us
follow a car-load of wheat into the building, observe what
is done with it, and watch it being shipped away.
A car of wheat which has been inspected at Winnipeg
is brought to the elevator. The seals on its two outer
side doors are broken, the grain doors, if nailed up, are
smashed with an ax, and a large part of the grain then
pours out of the car. A man then enters the car and, by
means of a wooden scoop pulled by chains from the work-
ing house, quickly evacuates all the wheat which has re-
mained. The emptying of a car occupies about ten min-
utes. The wheat falls down on each side of the car
through a grating into an opening in the ground known
as a receiving pit. From the pit the wheat is conveyed
on a revolving belt or conveyor which is lower along the
center than at the sides, to the base of the working house
where it is elevated to the top of the house by means of
buckets attached to an endless rubber belt. On arriving
at the top of the house, the wheat is weighed in a scale,
the whole car-load at one time. It is then stored tem-
porarily in one of the many small bins available in the
working house, cleaned if necessary, and treated in any
way desired. It is then transferred from floor to floor
by spouts until it reaches the top of the storage bins.
Here it is carried along on the top of another revolving
belt which runs in the passageway over the top of the
storage bins ; and it is diverted into whichever of the bins
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 63
the operator wishes to fill. The different grades of wheat
are kept in separate bins. If, therefore, our car-load of
wheat has been graded at Winnipeg as No. 1 l^orthem, it
would be deposited in a 'No. 1 N^orthern bin, if as No. 2
]N"orthern, then in a No. 2 ISTorthern bin; and so forth.
When a car-load of wheat has been put in a bin with other
wheat of the same grade, it loses its identity and cannot
again be recovered. Wheat in a terminal elevator is there-
fore stored in bulk according to grade. This storage in
bulk greatly simplifies the work of the elevator and cheap-
ens the cost of handling the grain. The wheat is not only
stored in bulk according to grade but is also bought and
sold for export in the same manner. We have seen our
car-load of wheat pass into the elevator, be weighed,
cleaned, and deposited in a storage bin, but here we lose
it as such: if it was No. 1 Northern, we simply know
that it has been mixed with other wheat in a No. 1 North-
ern bin. Wheat which has arrived at the elevator after
the formation of ice has brought navigation to a close,
i. e., after the middle of the second week in December,
must be kept in storage until the next May when naviga-
tion is again resumed or be shipped away on an all-rail
route.
When it is desired to ship away, say, 100,000 bushels
of No. 1 Northern, the wheat in certain of the No. 1
Northern storage bins is let out through their bases into
the tunnels, conveyed by belts running horizontally along
the tunnels to the bottom of the working house, elevated
by buckets to the top of the working house, and there
weighed in the scales. After being weighed, it is sent
down the elevator through a system of spouts into one or
more of the shipping bins, and from there it is conveyed
by spouts on the outside of the elevator into the hold of a
vessel or into a railway car.
64 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
The passage of wheat through a terminal elevator is by
far the cheapest and most eflScient means of taking it from
the box cars and getting it on board a lake freight-boat, for
loading simply consists of letting the wheat out from a
shipping bin through a spout so that it flows by its own
weight into the hold. The rapidity with which the cargo
boats can be loaded from a terminal elevator is truly as-
tonishing. The average loading run to any boat is about
30,000 bushels an hour ; but the record speed for loading at
the head of the lakes is 200,000 bushels in one hour and
fifty-five minutes.
There are thirteen terminal elevators at Port Arthur
and Fort William, one at Vancouver and one at the
Hudson Bay. In addition there are four so-called interior
terminal elevators. These are situated on the prairie far
from any lake or ocean port, at Transcona (near Winni-
peg), Calgary, Saskatoon, and Moosejaw. The Trans-
cona elevator was built by the Canadian Pacific Railway
to give reserve storage and so relieve the pressure in the
elevators at the lake front when such relief is needed.
It also serves to supply part of the grain milled between
Transcona and the lake front. The terminal elevators at
Calgary, Saskatoon, and Moosejaw have been erected
by the Government, not to take the place of the lake term-
inal elevators for grain being shipped east but with a
view to supplying the needs of the Hudson Bay and
Panama routes when these come to be used. At the same
time, they bring the work of inspection somewhat nearer
the grain-growing area, give additional storage capacity
in times of emergency, and provide useful hospital ap-
paratus for drying wheat damaged by rain or snow be-
fore it is sent on a long railway journey to the lake
front.22
22 Cf. Robert Magill, loc. cit., pp. 54-56.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 65
XII. Lake Steamers
Upon the Great Lakes, there is a large fleet of boats
especially constructed to carry commodities in bulk, such
as coal, iron ore, and grain. The distance between ports
is short and the lake boats, as compared with ocean-going
boats, therefore, require but little coal for each journey.
In consequence, the amount of space devoted to coal in
any ship is small whilst the cargo space is relatively
large.
Each vessel is an elongated shell with its machinery at
the rear end and the living quarters for the crew placed
on deck. The hull is divided by two or three transverse
walls from the bottom of the vessel to the deck, so that
the number of holds is usually three or four. The deck
completely covers these holds, and is provided along the cen-
ter with a series of hatches which may be opened for the
introduction or removal of the cargo. When a vessel is
being loaded with wheat, the grain is spouted into the
holds from the shipping bins of an elevator until all the
holds are full. Three or four spouts may be discharging
wheat at one and the same time. When a boat has been
loaded, the hatches are put on so as to close the holds
tightly and thus prevent rain or snow or lake water from
entering and damaging the cargo. From time to time,
great storms rage upon the lakes, and many of these vessels
have been wrecked.
'' The capacities of these ships," says Piper, " are
enormous. An average car-load of wheat is a little more
than 1,200 bushels. The average train load consists of
about forty cars or 48,000 bushels. The larger boats will
carry over 300,000 bushels of wheat equivalent to seven
train loads, or about three hundred cars. The largest
boat now on the lakes will carry nine train loads. The
66 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
best record the Canadian Pacific Railway lias yet reached
is to haul into Fort William a little more than 1,000 cars
of grain a day. Therefore only three or four of these big
ships a day are required to take care of all the grain this
railway can deliver. These ships are loaded at the rate
of from 75,000 to 100,000 bushels per hour and unloaded
at the rate of from 20,000 to 40,000 bushels per hour, de-
pending on the machinery equipment of the elevators per-
forming the service." ^^
Transportation of freight by water is always cheaper
than by rail. It is the recognition of this principle that
has led to the development of Fort William and Port
Arthur, and which has brought into existence the busy
fleet of freighters on the Great Lakes. A single large
vessel costs only as much as a few miles of railway track
and it moves upon a medium which is forever renewed
by Nature herself, so that it never wears out or needs
repairing by man. On a water route, there is no invest-
ment in a roadbed or in rails, bridges, telegraph lines, or
costly terminal yards. The relative cheapness of lake
as compared with rail transportation is shown by a cal-
culation of Piper who states that one of the big lake boats
" carrying six or seven train loads, will run eleven or
twelve miles an hour or about as fast as the average speed
of freight trains, with a coal and labor cost of about one^
quarter as much as on the railroad.'' ^*
XIII. The Lake Shippers' Clearance Association
At Fort William and Port Arthur there are now four-
teen public terminal elevators all of which deliver grain
23 C. B. Piper, Principles of the Grain Trade, The Empire Ele-
vator Company Limited, Winnipeg, 2nd edition, 1917, pp. 19-20.
24.1hid., p. 20.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 67
to boats. Let us suppose that a shipper of a large cargo
of wheat has received warehouse receipts showing that the
grain to be loaded is distributed in all these elevators.
If now it were necessary for him to send his boat first to
one elevator to receive a few thousand bushels, and then
to another elevator for a few more thousand bushels, and
so forth, much valuable time would be consumed and the
cost of loading would be considerably increased. More-
over, each small amount loaded would require to be treated
as a separate cargo, and the documents and records would
be greatly multiplied.
To make it unnecessary for ships to be moved continu-
ally from one elevator to another, to save clerical work,
and thus to facilitate the dispatch of the grain from the
lake front, there has been formed a voluntary organiza-
tion known as the Lake Shippers' Clearance Association.
The shippers who are members of the Association exchange
warehouse receipts with one another, and thus each ship-
per concentrates his cargo which he desires to load, in
one or two elevators. If, for instance, a shipper had
warehouse receipts for 200,000 bushels of No. 1 Northern
of which 50,000 bushels were contained in each of four
elevators, he would notify the office of the Association, and
the manager would make an arrangement that the shipper
should load his boat with 200,000 bushels of No. 1 North-
em from one only of the four elevators. The shipper's
warehouse receipts for No. 1 Northern in three of the
elevators would be exchanged for warehouse receipts for
No. 1 Northern belonging to other shippers whose grain
was in the particular elevator from which it was ar-
ranged that the shipper should draw his whole cargo.
It is evident that the Lake Shippers' Clearance Associa-
tion carries out its function in such a way as to save
68 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
both time and labor in the transportation of grain.
Its work in the end is therefore beneficial to the whole
community.
XIV. The Canada Grain Act
As the grain business in western Canada grew in volume
and importance, the farmers often complained of the
treatment they received from the elevator companies.
They accused the elevators of unjust weighing and grad-
ing, of paying prices that were too low and exacting
charges for handling the grain in the elevators that were
too high, of not cleaning the grain, of refusing to give
special bins, of pooling profits, of killing competition, and
of forming monopolies. They also complained that rail-
way companies discriminated among the applicants in the
distribution of cars, and that buyers of grain in various
ways took advantage of the grain growers. This dissatis-
faction caused Parliament to regulate the business of
handling grain by passing a succession of measures.
Finally this legislation was codified in the Canada Grain
Act of 1912.25
The Canada Grain Act creates a Board of Grain Com-
missioners to administer the Act, defines the statutory
grades of wheat, etc., arranges for the establishment of
commercial grades, and regulates the grading and weigh-
ing of grain. It also contains provisions concerning the
construction of loading platforms, the operation of ele-
vators, the distribution of railway cars, and the trading
between the farmer on the one hand and the track buyer
and conmaission merchant on the other. The Act requires
each person buying grain, and each person or company op-
25 Cf. Eobert Magill, Grain Inspection in Canada, Department of
Trade and Commerce, Ottawa, 1014, p. 14.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 69
erating a country elevator, to take out an annual licence
and to furnish bonds for such an amount as the Board of
Grain Commissioners may demand; and it further pro-
vides the machinery for the investigation of all complaints
made in writing under oath. The whole tendency of the
Act is to give the farmer as nearly as can be accom-
plished an absolute guarantee of fair dealing.
XV. The Sample Market
Many years ago, both in the United States and Canada,
wheat was sold by sample only; but, as the grain trade
grew in volume and complexity, this proved unsatisfac-
tory. It was then that the grading system was intro-
duced, first at Minneapolis and Duluth and, subsequently,
about 1884, at Winnipeg. The grading system permits
of wheat being sold and stored according to grades, the
grades being determined by government inspectors.
For the last thirty years, the wheat of western Canada
has been sold almost entirely by grade, and sales by
sample have been relatively few and unimportant. How-
ever, a few years' ago, a desire was expressed on the part
of a number of farmers that, while the sale of wheat by
grade should be continued, facilities should also be given
for selling by sample. As a result, by Order-in-Council
signed at Ottawa in August, 1917, sample trading was
approved. Sample rooms are now provided by the govern-
ment in the Grain Exchange at Winnipeg, and at Fort
William and Port Arthur.
A farmer wishing to sell his grain by sample, marks
his shipping bill when shipping his grain, in care of the
sample market. On arrival of the consignment at Winni-
peg a sample is drawn from the car by the government
samplers and is inspected in the usual way. A part of
YO ESSAYS ON WHEAT
it is then taken to the sample market at Winnipeg and
another part is expressed to the sample room at Fort
William and Port Arthur. The car from which the sam-
ple has been taken, is sent from Winnipeg to the head
of the lakes, the journey of 420 miles usually occupying
several days. If, on arrival at Fort William or Port
Arthur, the grain in the meantime has not been sold by
sample, it is binned in a terminal elevator in the usual
way, in accordance with the grade given to it at Winni-
peg. It can then only be sold by grade. To the sample
market grain merchants come, examine the samples on
exhibit at their leisure, form their own judgment as to
values, and, if they are so inclined, make competitive bids
for the wheat on sale. On the other hand, samples may
be exposed without any bids being made.
The sample market in western Canada has only been
organized on a government basis during the last two
years, and, up to the present, has been but little used.
However, the two years have been war years during which
the price of wheat has been fixed. Whether or not, when
normal conditions in the grain trade are resumed, selling
by sample will prove popular and thereby affect selling
by grade in any considerable degree, remains to be re-
vealed by the passing years.
XVI. The Grades of Grain
The grades or classes of wheat are numerous and varied,
for this cereal, when marketed by the farmer, is by no
means uniform in its admixtures, its condition, or, if clean
and in sound condition, in its milling qualities.
The admixtures of wheat may consist of other cereals
such as barley and oats, or of flaxseed, or of various
weed seeds, such as those of Wild Mustard, Wild Oats,
WHEAT IN WESTEKN CANADA '71
Pigweed, and Stinkweed. These admixtures must be re-
moved before tbe wheat can be milled into flour, and their
presence therefore decreases the value of the wheat to
the buyer. Whenever a sample of wheat is graded, the
admixtures are separated by sieving and weighed. The
percentage of admixtures is then determined, and this is
called setting the dockage. The amount of the dockage
influences the price at which the wheat may be sold, and
its accurate determination is therefore a very important
part of grain inspection.
The condition of wheat is affected by various causes.
Among these are such diseases as smut, wheat scab, and
rust. Smut balls are diseased kernels filled with several
millions of black spores, the reproductive bodies of the
smut fungus. When smutted grain is threshed, many of
the smut balls break and scatter their spores over the
sound kernels so that the latter become blackened and dirty
in appearance. Moreover, smutted grain has a very evil
odor, smelling like decaying fish. Smutted wheat, there-
fore, must be thoroughly scoured before it can be milled.
Wheat scab causes wheat kernels to take on a pink ap-
pearance. Rusted kernels are usually quite sound al-
though shriveled, but it sometimes happens that they be-
come black-pointed owing to the presence, at the stalk end
of the kernel, of a little pustule of black spores of the rust
fungus. Wheat may contain too large a percentage of
moisture and thus be tough, damp, or wet. It may also
be frosted, dirty, musty, heating, or bin-burnt. Frosted
grains are known by their wrinkled skin. Heating and
burning in the bin so that the grains may even become
charred, only take place when the wheat contains too
much moisture.
The different varieties of wheat, when free from ad-
mixtures and sound, differ from one another in their yield
72 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
of flour both as to quality and quantity. Different lots
of a single variety of hard spring wheat, such as Red
Fife or Marquis, may vary, with the conditions under
which they have been produced, in weight per bushel, in
plumpness, in color, and in milling and baking qualities.
Hard spring wheat may also contain a smaller or greater
number of soft kernels of some other variety, with a pro-
portionate reduction in the grade. The supreme test of
wheat is its milling and baking qualities. Judged by this
test, however, the crop of even a single variety is never
quite uniform, and the difference between two distinct
varieties is often very great.
When wheat is classified according to its freedom from
admixtures, its soundness, and its milling and baking
qualities as indicated by hardness and softness, the result-
ing classes are known as grades. Let us now consider
the nature of these grades for western wheat.
The statutory grades are the highest grades, are defined
in the Grain Act, and do not vary with the crop. There
are four of these grades for spring wheat.
No. 1 Manitoba Hard. This wheat must be sound and
well cleaned, weighing not less than 60 pounds to the
bushel, and must be composed of at least 75 per cent, of
Hard Red Fife or Marquis.^^
No. 1 Manitoba Northern. This wheat must be sound
and well cleaned, weighing not less than 60 pounds to
the bushel, and must be composed of at least 60 per cent,
of Hard Red Fife or Marquis.
26 The definitions here given are taken from the Canada Grain Act
of 1912, with the exception of the words or Marquis. The definitions
were made when Red Fife was the dominant wheat in the West ; but,
soon after Marquis began to be largely grown, it became necessary to
make provision for the new wheat in the statutory grades. The
words or Marquis were therefore added after Red Fife by an order
of the Board of Grain Commissioners.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA T3
No. 2 Manitoba Northern. This wheat must be sound
and reasonably clean, of good milling qualities and fit
for warehousing, weighing not less than 58 pounds to
the bushel, and must be composed of at least 45 per cent,
of Hard Red Fife or Marquis.
No. 3 Manitoha Northern. Any wheat not good enough
to be graded No. 2 Manitoba Northern is graded No. 3
Manitoba Northern at the discretion of the Inspector.^''
The commercial grades are grades which on account
of climatic or other conditions cannot be included in the
grades established by the Grain Act. The grain of one
year often differs so much from that of another that the
lower or commercial grades require to be defined annually.
The commercial grades are set by the Western Grain
Standards Board and at present are three in number:
No. 4 Wheat, No. 5 Wheat, and N"o. 6 Wheat.
The term no grade is applied to all good grain that has
an excessive amount of moisture in that it is tough, damp,
or wet, or grain which is otherwise out of condition and
unfit for warehousing.
The term condemned grain is applied to all grain that
is in a heating condition or that is badly bin-burnt of
whatever grade it might otherwise be.
The term rejected grain is applied to all grain that is
unsound, musty, dirty, smutty or sprouted, or that con-
tains a large admixture of other kinds of grain, weeds,
or wild oats, or that from any other cause is unfit to be
classed under any of the recognized grades.
We thus see that there are seven chief grades of west-
ern hard red spring wheat, which, with the word Mani-
toha left out as is the custom among farmers and grain
dealers, are as follows:
27 There is also the grade ~^o. 1 Hard White Fife, but very little
of this wheat is grown in the West.
74 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
:n'o.
1 Hard,
ISTo.
1 Northern,
:n-o.
2 Northern,
ISTo.
3 Northern,
No.
4 Wheat,
No.
5 Wheat,
No.
6 Wheat.
statutory grades defined by Parlia-
ment.
commercial grades defined by the
Standards Board.
Each of the three grades of Northern and each of the
three commercial grades is subdivided, for the wheat in
any of these grades may fall under the general categories
of no grade, condernned, or rejected. Thus, for instance,
there are at present six divisions of the grade No. 1 North-
em as follows :
No. 1 Northern,
No. 1 Northern Tough,
No. 1 Northern Damp,
No. 1 Northern Smutty,
No. 1 Northern — Kejected on account of seeds,
No. 1 Northern — Rejected on account of heat.
We thus obtain, in addition to the one grade for No. 1
Hard, thirty-six grades. But the list of grades is not ex-
hausted with these, for we may have grades consisting of
combinations such as:
No. 1 Northern Damp and Smutty,
No. 1 Northern Smutty Rejected on account of seeds ;
and so forth.
In the autumn of the great rust year, 1916, the Stand-
ards Board defined for the crop year 1916-17 an addi-
tional grade known as No. 4 Special. This grade in-
cluded grain which had been badly shriveled by rust.
Its minimum weight per measured bushel was only 54
pounds. There is no such grade this year, 1918-19.
There is a grade which is generally recognized by buy-
ers and sellers known as Feed, but it has not been defined
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 'iTS
by the Standards Board. It includes any grain which is
not good enough to he put into No. 6 Wheat. Grain
known as Feed, as the name suggests, is used for feeding
animals.
XVII. The Grading of Grain
An essential element in the grain business of western
Canada is the classifying or grading of grain by govern-
ment inspectors. The wheat is bought, sold, transported,
and stored in bulk according to grade. If wheat which
comes into the market is graded too low, the farmer suffers
an undeserved loss and the miller or grain buyer reaps an
undeserved gain. If, on the other hand, the wheat is
graded too high, the positions of the farmer and miller
are reversed : the farmer gains and the miller loses. The
exact price of all grain sold in the Winnipeg Grain Ex-
change depends on the grade, there being a spread of sev-
eral cents a bushel between any lower grade and the next
higher one. Since the question of grade enters into prac-
tically every grain transaction in western Canada, the
importance of the accurate determination of grade and
the great responsibility resting upon the shoulders of the
government inspectors at once become obvious.
The government inspector is in a very delicate position.
On the one hand he is liable to receive complaints from
farmers for grading wheat too low and in thus beina: too
severe in his judgments, while, on the other hand, he is
equally liable to receive complaints from millers for grad-
ing wheat too high and in thus being too lenient in his
judgments. In addition to this, he may be criticized by
the grain merchants either as too severe or as too lenient
according as they themselves are sellers or buyers. Thus
the inspector is in the position of an arbitrator who daily
'?'6 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
must make decisions of great importance which, are binding
upon two opposed and powerful interests. For him, there-
fore, as he values his peace of mind and his security as a
government official, there is only one safe path to tread,
the path of absolute impartiality. In order to secure this
impartiality in the determination of grades, a grading
system has been evolved of such a kind that neither the
samplei's who take the samples of wheat from the box-
cars nor the inspectors who grade the samples, have the
least idea whence the grain has come, to whom it belongs,
or to whom it is consigned. The inspectors must there-
fore grade the grain simply on its merits in accordance
with the standards set up for their guidance.
The task of determining the grade of wheat is by no
means an easy one. The inspectors, says Magill, " have
to inspect an enormous volume of grain per car unit,
and in certain seasons they must work rapidly and con-
tinuously during daylight. They must never be bewild-
ered either by the variety or continuity in which nature
revels, or by the multiplicity of grades of which the terms
are neither very distinct nor unambiguous. They have
few mechanical aids. Their senses must always be keen,
and their judgment always sound, for one error will be
remembered against years of efficient service. Their work
is of supreme importance, for their verdict fixes which
rate per bushel, out of several quoted on the market, the
seller will receive, and the grain is stored, transported, and
sold both at home and abroad on their certificate." ^^
For the whole of Canada there are two inspection divi-
sions. The Western Inspection Division stretches from
the Great Lakes to the Pacific Ocean, and the Eastern
Division from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean.
28 R. Magill, Grain Inspection in Canada, Department of Trade
and Commerce, Ottawa, 1914, p. 20.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA T7
The law and practice of grading are the same in both;
but, as the varieties of grain grown in the West are differ-
ent from those grown in the East, the inspectors of the
Western Division have nothing to do with the grain grown
in the Eastern Division and the inspectors in the Eastern
Division have nothing to do with the grain grown in the
Western Division. The Chief Inspector alone has juris-
diction in both divisions.
The Chief Inspector for the whole Dominion is Mr.
George Serls, a gentleman who by his integrity has won
the confidence of all who are interested in the grain trade.
At Winnipeg the Inspector is Mr. J. D. Eraser, ^^ and the
number of Deputy Inspectors is thirteen, ten of whom
work together at the grading tables at any one time. In
addition, the inspection staff includes a considerable num-
ber of samplers, yard foremen, clerks, and other assistants.
In order to become eligible for the position of inspector
or deputy inspector, the candidate must first pass exam-
inations conducted by a Board of Examiners with the aid
of the Chief Inspector. The examiners " are experi-
enced grain men, men of integrity, ability, and standing,
and men who, though wealthy, are willing to render their
service in the interests of the grain industry. The exam-
inations are conducted annually, and they are thoroughly
practical tests of the ability to grade. Usually, though
not always, the candidates are men who have been working
as samplers, track foremen, weighmen, etc., and usually
not more than fifty per cent, of the candidates succeed
in passing. After passing the examination, the candidate
is appointed on the recommendation of the Chief Inspector.
Neither in the examination, the recommendation, nor the
29 To Mr. Fraser I am much indebted for showing me through the
grading rooms and for giving me a detailed explanation of the
grading system.
T8 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
appointment have political considerations any place, and
this applies throughout the service." ^^
If the Government were to attempt to grade wheat at
the country railway stations from which the wheat is
shipped in the first place, an army of samplers and skilled
graders would be required instead of a few, the cost of
grading would be greatly increased, and it would be diffi-
cult to give the work of grain inspection the necessary
uniformity. It so happens that most of the grain for ex-
port passes on its way to the head of the lakes through
Winnipeg; and it has therefore been found convenient
to concentrate the work of grading in this city. Other
inspections, however, are made at Calgary, Moose jaw, and
Saskatoon, at Fort William, Port Arthur, and Duluth,
the formula for inspection being everywhere the same.
The Government has rented rooms in the building of the
Winnipeg Grain Exchange, and in these rooms most of
the wheat in western Canada, and all that passes through
Winnipeg, is graded. Here, too, the Chief Inspector for
the Dominion has his office.
When a grain train from the West arrives at Winnipeg,
a sample of wheat is taken from each car, the other de-
tails necessary for issuing certificates are collected in the
railway yards, and both samples and details are taken
to the inspection office in the Grain Exchange. The in-
spectors determine the grade of wheat in any car from the
sample supplied them, and it is therefore very necessary
that each sample shall be properly secured. The length
of time between harvesting and the close of navigation at
the head of the lakes is only about seventy days. It is
therefore essential that box-cars containing grain shall be
delayed for as short a time as possible at Winnipeg.
Moreover, hundreds of cars arrive in Winnipeg during the
80 R. Magill, loc. dt.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 79
busy season every twenty-four hours. The work of sam-
pling, therefore, has to be carried out at all hours, by
night and day, both on Sundays and week days. An
accurate and detailed description of the manner in which
the samplers and graders carry out their work has been
given by Robert Magill, the Secretary of the Grain Ex-
change, and this will now be quoted.
^^ The samplers work together in gangs in shifts of
eight hours. They work in gangs because teani work
is more efficient than solitary effort. Usually the gang
consists of fourteen men, four of whom are track foremen,
eight are samplers, one is a car opener and one a car
sealer. . . . The track foremen are responsible for the
efficiency of the work, each foreman usually looking after
two samplers.
" On the arrival of the train, the conductor leaves the
car bills in the railway company's yard office. The train
clerk of the inspection department makes a list of these
bills, showing the car numbers, the name of the shipper, the
shipping station, the destination, and the name of the per-
son or company to whom the car is billed. These de-
tails are necessary for the issuing of the certificates. He
takes this list to the yard office of the inspection depart-
ment, and hands it to the clerk there. This clerk is also a
Government employee, and his work is to prepare the
sheets needed in the inspection office. These sheets are
two in number, a larger and a smaller. The larger sheet
shows all the details mentioned^ and the smaller, a carbon
copy, only shows the car number and a column for the
grade. Both these sheets are sent to the inspection office
with the corresponding samples, but the larger sheet with
all the details is given to the clerical staff who issue the
certificates, while only the smaller sheet is given to the
inspectors who grade the grain. In this way all knowledge
80 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
of ownership of the grain is kept from the man who grades
it. He does not know whose grain he is grading; his
information is limited to the number of the car.
" When the train is ready the work begins immediately.
A train consists of about forty-five cars, and the gang
should finish with it in less than one hour. The car
opener leads off, opening the car doors, and placing an
empty sample bag in each car. These bags are well
cleaned beforehand, so that no foreign matter shall be
mixed in the sample.
" The sampler mounts the ladder, enters the car on
the top of the grain, and drives his probe into the grain
several times and at several points. He empties the grain
each time out of the probe on to a cloth laid on the grain
near the car door.
" The space between the grain and the roof is not
deep. A line, called the load line, marked on the in-
side of the car, shows how deep the car should be loaded.
It sometimes happens that a car is loaded so full that a
fair sample cannot be taken. In such cases the fact of
the overloading is put on the ticket by the sign ' I.H./
which means ^ hold for inspection.' Such cars are pro-
visionally inspected at Winnipeg. The car numbers are
sent to Fort William with instructions to inspect while
being unloaded.
" Less frequently cars are ' plugged,' loaded, that is to
say, with intent to get some low grade grain past the
inspectors by concealing it somewhere in the car. The
sampler may discover the fraud, and if he does not the in-
spector at the terminal point usually does. Plugging is a
losing game for the shipper, for the whole car is graded
according to the quality of the worst grain found in it.
" If the car is divided by partitions, a sample is taken
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WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 81
out of each partition, otherwise the unit of quantity for
sampling is the car.
^' The track foreman mounts the ladder, leans over the
car door, watches the probing, mixes up the sample so as
to secure an average, puts it into the sample bag, writes
the sample ticket, inserts the ticket in the sample bag, and
on descending hangs the bag on the car door.
" His name is stamped on the back of the ticket, and on
the face he writes the car number, the date, the load line,
the initials of the sampler, and any other notations neces-
sary, e. g. leakages, etc. Should any question arise later
about the sample, the ticket shows who did the work, the
notations made at the time, and the name of the foreman
responsible.
^^ When the sampling is finished, the bags are collected,
counted, and taken to the Government office in the yard.
The numbers on the sample tickets are checked with those
on the track sheet by the car office clerk, and both the
samples and the sheets are sent immediately to the in-
spection office.
" The car sealer follows the samplers, closing and seal-
ing the doors. Every car is sealed at the shipping point by
the railway agent. The object of sealing is, of course, to
protect the grain on the way. At Winnipeg only one door
of the car is opened, and therefore only one seal is broken.
The car sealer reseals that door, and the seals are not
touched again until the car is placed at the elevator to be
unlocked.
^' When the samples reach the office they are set out on
the tables according to number, those ending in 0 — 2 —
4, etc., being put together. Each inspector then takes his
sheet, the small one prepared by the car office clerk, and
picks out the samples the numbers of which correspond
82 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
with the numbers on his sheet, and he places them in large
boxes in rotation as they appear on the sheets.
'" The inspection proper then begins. As good light is
essential to grading, the inspection begins at 9 a. m. and
ends at 3 p. m. The north light being the best, each in-
spector does his grading at a north window. The actual
grading can only be done by men legally qualified and ap-
pointed either as deputy inspector or inspector. Inspec-
tion turns mainly on these points: the quality of the
grain, the condition, and the admixtures. The quality
depends on soundness, color, weight, and the percentage
of hard wheat. The condition depends on moisture con-
tent (which in doubtful cases is tested mechanically),
heat, etc. The admixtures are tested by a process of
sieving and weighing called setting the dockage. In this
process either the cleaned grain or the resulting screen-
ings can be weighed. Both methods are permissible and
both give accuracy. At Winnipeg the screenings are
weighed, while at Fort William the cleaned grain is
weighed.
" When the grading is finished, the samples are put into
tins, and placed systematically in shelves. They are kept
so long as it is considered possible that they may be re-
quired, and then they are sold.
^' The inspector's sheets are handed over to the clerical
staff, and the records made, and the certificates of grade
issued."
To the above description of the work of inspection
at Winnipeg, a few supplementary details will now be
added.
The railway cars are distinguished from one another
by numbers painted'with large figures on both their sides ;
but they are not labeled with tickets showing their con-
tents, origin, etc. Cars in which goods have been shipped
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 83
have both doors sealed at the shipping point, so that on
the arrival of a train at Winnipeg it is impossible with-
out breaking the seals to look into the cars and see what
is inside them. It is therefore sometimes asked : how, in
the case of a mixed train in which some of the cars con-
tain grain and other merchandise, does the car opener
know which cars to open? The answer lies in the in-
foimation given by the train conductor. The conductor
has a way hill for every car on his train, and the way bills
provide him with particulars of the origin of each car,
its destination, the shipper, the contents, etc. From these
way bills he writes out on a card a irain list which shows
the number of each car and the nature of the contents.
On arrival of the train in the railway yard, he takes his
way bills and his train list to the railway yard office.
The way bills are then given to the clerk in the inspection
yard office and the train list is put into the hands of the
car opener. The car opener then goes out to the train
ahead of the samplers and yard foremen, looks at his train
list, and opens every car containing wheat, rye, oats, barley
and flax, but leaves untouched all those containing mer-
chandise, such as coal, wood, machinery, etc. It is thus
the conductor's train list which enables the car opener to
do his work with the necessary discrimination.
The seals on railway cars are composed of a narrow
band of soft metal with a perforation at one end and a
bulb at the other. After the ribbon is put through the
hasp of the closed door, the end with the perforation is
pushed into an opening in the bulb. Two tiny split rings,
like those used for holding keys, hidden in the bulb, then
come into play and lock the two ends of the ribbon to-
gether. It is impossible to get at these rings without
breaking open the seals. The seals are all numbered, and
the railway company keeps a list of all those supplied to
84 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
the inspection office. As soon as the samplers have fin-
ished their work, the car closer pushes the outer door of
each car into the closed position and reseals it. As soon
as all the cars have been resealed, he puts on each end of
the train a ticket which states that the work of sampling
has been finished. This gives notice to the locomotive
engineers that the train may be taken on to Fort William
or Port Arthur. All trains containing grain are sampled
immediately on their arrival at Winnipeg whatever may
be the time of day or night, and the longest grain trains
are finished with in about an hour. The work of sampling
therefore does not delay a train at Winnipeg unduly.
The prohe, referred to as being used for obtaining sam-
ples from box-cars, is also knowm as a sampler but perhaps
more commonly as a stahher. A stabber consists of a
double brass tube which is pointed at its base and closed
at both ends. Its length is about 65 inches and its
diameter 2 inches. Both tubes are perforated on one side
by eleven equidistant coincident apertures each of which
is about three and a half inches long and one inch wide.
Between each two adjacent apertures are unperf orated
portions of the tubes about tw^o inches long. The inner
tube is divided into eleven chambers by plugs at intervals
so that each aperture leads into a single chamber. The in-
ner tube can be revolved within the outer one by means
of a handle at the top of the instrument. By turning the
handle, and thus revolving the inner tube, the apertures
leading into the inner tube can be closed or opened.
A sampler, when using his stabber in a car of wheat,
first closes its apertures by turning the handle. He then
pushes his instrument vertically downwards into the grain.
The deeper the stabber is pushed into the grain, the
gTeater is the resistance which the grain offers. When
the point of the stabber is near the car floor, considerable
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 85
pressure is required to drive it home, but only a small part
of the stabber is left unburiod above the grain. At this
stage in the proceeding, therefore, the sampler often ceases
to use his hands and prepares for a new effort by putting
his foot upon the top of the stabber and setting his back
against the roof of the car. He then exerts the muscles of
his body and one leg and at the same time brings to his
aid the whole weight of his body. If a car is very full,
the working space between the grain and the roof of the
car may be so small that the sampler may find it necessary
first to drive the stabber for some distance into the grain
more or less obliquely and then to force it into a vertical
position. When the pointed end of the stabber has reached
the bottom of the car, the upper end by this time being
often almost buried, the sampler turns the handle of the
instrument, thereby allowing the grain from eleven differ-
ent levels to rush into the eleven chambers in the interior
of the inner tube. The chambers having been filled, he
again turns the handle and thus closes the apertures. He
then pulls out the stabber from the grain in which it has
been immersed, holds it lengthwise just above a long piece
of cloth by the grain door, and turns its handle so as
to open its apertures once more. Immediately the grain
falls out of the eleven chambers on to the cloth where it
forms a row of eleven corresponding heaps. At least
seven stabs are made in each car of wheat and the number
is usually nine. The cloth by the grain door thus comes
to have deposited on it at least seventy-seven small heaps of
grain and usually ninety-nine such heaps. Formerly the
stabbers were not plugged and there was but one chamber
in each. ^ The wheat was then poured out of a stabber
through its open handle, the bottom wheat coming out
last. The plugged stabber is an improvement on the un-
plugged but takes more time to empty.
86 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
As the space between the top of the grain and the roof of
a box-car is often very limited, tall men are at a disad-
vantage in the work of sampling. Taking samples re-
quires considerable physical strength and endurance, and
cannot be undertaken by weaklings. The men chosen
as samplers, therefore, are of medium height and sturdy
build.
The amount of wheat taken out of each car to fill the
sample bag is from two and a half to three pounds, and,
relatively to a car-load which varies from 60,000 to 100,-
000 pounds, is very small indeed.
^ot a day passes without from one to six cars being
found unevenly filled or plugged. When a car has been
found to be unevenly filled, several separate samples are
taken from the load. Thus in one case which came under
the observation of the writer, a sample taken from the up-
per layers of the load graded 'No. 3 ^Northern, another
sample taken from the bottom layers at one end of the car
graded No. 4 Smutty, a third sample taken from the
bottom of the other end of the car also graded No. 4
Smutty, while a fourth sample representing an average
for the whole car graded ]^o. 4 Smutty. The shipper
would have done better with his grain had he put a parti-
tion in the car and loaded his No. 3 Northern at one end of
the car and his No. 4 Smutty at the other end. The in-
spectors are aware that uneven filling may be due to acci-
dent as well as to design, and they use their judgment in
penalizing the shipper accordingly.
If a car is too full, it is impossible to use the stabber
properly. Thus, if the space in which the grader must
work is only 10 inches high at one end of the car, 30
inches in the middle, and 12 inches at the other end, it
is impossible for the sampler to obtain a satisfactory sam-
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 87
pie. The car is then marked for inspection at Fort Wil-
liam or Port Arthur. The samples are then taken during
unloading as the grain is pouring out of the car into the
grain pit just prior to its passing into a terminal elevator.
Ten graders usually work side by side at the long
window table in the grading room. Standard samples of
the six grades, No. 1 to No. 6, are kept in boxes in front of
each grader, so that he may refer to them for compari-
son whenever he so desires. A handful of wheat from
the sample of each car inspected is put into a pail by each
grader, the grades being kept separate. The pails are
emptied monthly. Thus monthly averages can be com-
pared for the information of the inspectors.
The first operation in the work of grading is to deter-
mine the weight of the gtain per measured bushel. A
piece of brown paper about eighteen inches square is
spread out on the grading table, and upon it is set an
imperial quart measure, made of brass and attached to
a beam balance. The sample to be graded is then poured
from its bag into the quart measure until the latter over-
flows. The grain is then stroked off level at the top.
The balance is then suspended from the hand and the
weight moved along the beam until equilibrium has been
established. The number of pounds weight the wheat
weighs per bushel is then read off directly from the scale
on the beam. As we have seen, No. 1 Hard and No. 1
Northern must weigh not less than 60 pounds to the
bushel, and No. 2 Northern not less than 58 pounds to the
bushel. Weight per bushel is also taken into account in
connection with other grades, and its determination is
therefore an important feature of grading. When the
weight per bushel has been taken, the wheat in the quart
measure is poured out on to the sheet of brown paper.
88 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
IJsiiallv the paper is then taken np and the wheat upon it
poured back into the sample bag. The weight per bushel
is recorded on the ticket in the bag.
When there is the least chance that the amount of dock-
age may influence the weight per bushel to the extent of
affecting the grade, the dockage is removed and the weight
of grain per measured bushel again determined.
To estimate the amount of the admixtures of weed seeds
and oats, etc., i. e., to set the dockage, the sample is poured
out on to the sheet of brown paper and then thoroughly
mixed by hand. Then one pound of the wheat is put
into a hopper and weighed out on a balance. The in-
spector then takes a standard sieve with ten meshes to
the inch each way and pours the pound of wheat into it.
The sieve is then shaken until the weed seeds have come
through, leaving the wheat behind. If buckwheat is pres-
ent, this is left behind with the wheat, and the wheat
and buckwheat are then sieved again with another sieve
of special construction having triangular holes. Through
these holes the buckwheat passes, leaving the wheat be-
hind. Then, if oats or wild oats are present with the
wheat, the oats and wheat are shaken in another sieve with
larger rounded holes. Through these holes the wheat
passes, leaving the oats and wild oats behind. The dock-
age is then collected and weighed on the same balance
that was used for weighing out the original pound of
wheat. As soon as equilibrium has been established, the
percentage of dockage for the wheat is read off directly
from the scale on the beam bearing the weight and at
once recorded on the sample ticket. By weighing the
dockage which is relatively of small mass, there is less
chance of making a spill than when weighing the cleaned
grain. If any of the dockage should be spilled before
weighing, the spill will operate in favor of the farmer.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 89
In testing for the amount of moisture, the wheat is
spread out on the hrovm paper sheet and felt with the
fingers. Dry wheat slips through the fingers more easily
than wheat containing a considerable proportion of mois-
ture. Tough or damp wheat gives a clammy impression.
Most samples of wheat can be classified at once as dry,
tough, or damp by the feel. All doubtful samples are
tested for amount of moisture in a Brown-Duvel moisture
tester. The test is carried out as follows : One hundred
grams of wheat are weighed out very carefully and put
into a glass retort with 150 cubic centimeters of engine
oil. Then a thermometer, passing through the rubber
cork of the flask, is inserted into the mixture of wheat and
oil. The switch of an electric heater is then turned on,
and the temperature of the contents of the flask is raised to
180 °C. The oil and wheat thus come to be raised to a
temperature far above the boiling point of water. As
a consequence, the moisture in the kernels is turned into
steam. The steam is conducted through a glass tube which
passes into a tank of running water. Here the steam is
all condensed and the water arising from it runs into a
glass tube graduated according to percentages of moisture
in 100 grams of wheat. This crop year, 1918-19, wheat
having up to 14 per cent, of moisture is passed as dry
grain, wheat having over 11 per cent, moisture and up to
IT per cent, is graded as tough, and wheat with more than
17 per cent, moisture is graded as damp. About ninety
tests with the Brown-Duvel apparatus for determining
moisture are made every day.
The grader, as we have seen, has mechanical aids at
his disposal in the weighing machine, the sieve, and the
moisture tester ; but for the rest of his work he must use
his sense of sight, his sense of touch, and his sense of smell.
The fanner tends to see the good kernels in the grain
90 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
which he hauls to the country elevator, but it is the business
of the government grader to find the poor kernels in each
sample and to estimate their number and nature relatively
to the good ones. He has to take note of the proportion of
shriveled grains, immature grains, smutted grains, pink
grains, soft grains, frosted grains, etc., and in forming
his judgment must rely on his own keen senses, his ex-
pert knowledge, and his experience.
The charge for inspecting a car of wheat is 60 cents,
and this, added to 40 cents for weighing, makes a total
inspection and weighing charge to the farmer of one
dollar per car.
An inspector, after grading a sample, at once writes
down his report on his sheet containing car numbers.
This sheet eventually goes to the clerical staff who prepare
the certificates of grade.
The wheat composing any sample, after being graded,
is put into a tin box which is nine inches long, three inches
high, and three inches wide. The box is filled, and, when
full, holds about two pounds of grain. Each box is
labeled outside with the car number, date, etc., and con-
tains within the original sample ticket which now sets
forth the car number, the initials of the sampler, the name
of the yard foreman who put the sample in the bag, the
depth of the wheat in the car, the grade, the amount of
dockage, the grader's name, and the dates of taking the
sample and grading. The boxes are carefully filed on
shelves in the sample room. The sample room, which
adjoins the grading room, at any one time contains about
60,000 tin boxes which are kept filled for as long as
they are likely to be needed for reference and are then
emptied. An official goes through the sample room and
empties a certain number of boxes each day and thu5
makes room for new ones coming daily from the grading
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA
91
room. The contents of the wheat boxes are emptied into a
sack so that they are all mixed together. This mixed
grain, made up of all grades, is then sold by the Govern-
ment and the proceeds go toward paying the expenses
of the Grain Inspection Department. The grade at which
the mixed grain is usually sold is ISTo. 3 Northern. Any
one may bid for the grain who wishes. A considerable
proportion of it is disposed of to a local milling company
who fetch so much away each day.
The large amount of work which falls to the Western
Grain Inspection Division is shown by the following sta-
tistics.^^
Number of Cars Inspected in the Crop Year 1916-17
Point of
Inspection
Wheat
Oats
Bar-
ley
Flax
Rye
Screen
ings
Totals
Winnipeg . .
Saskatoon . .
Calgary
Moosejaw . . .
Medicine Hat
Duluth
147,773
5,377
3,939
4,634
2,710
2,585
42,840
1,331
3,175
822
25
612
7,204
42
757
21
4
147
5,822
234
48
121
104
113
52
71
5
62
433
9
10
204,124
6,984
7,999
5,613
2,843
3,519
Totals ....
167,018
48,805
8,175
6,442
190
452
231,082
From the above Table the dominating position of Win-
nipeg as a center of grain inspection may be readily per-
ceived. For the crop year 1916-17, 147,773 cars of
wheat out of a total of 167,018 were inspected in that city.
During the busy season as many as 2,000 oars are often
graded by the Winnipeg inspectors every day.
31 The statistics are taken from the Ninth Annual Report (new
series) of the Winnipeg Grain Exchange, Winnipeg, Sept., 1917.
pp. 85, 87. ^ f B> f > .
92
ESSAYS ON WHEAT
Number of Cars of Wheat Inspected in the Western Grain In-
spection Division During the Crop Years Stated
1908 70,527 cars
1909 89,329 cars
1910 81,506 cars
1911 135,756 cars
1912 125,969 cars
1913 137,403 cars
1914 95,926 cars
1915 282,021 cars
1916 167,018 cars
1917 127,765 cars
To show how the grades are distributed, the statistics
for the grades for the crop years 1914, 1915, and 1916
may be quoted. In 1915, the wheat crop was the largest
ever obtained in the West, while in 1916 the crop suffered
severely from the rust disease.
Number of Cars of Different Grades in the Crop Years Stated
Wheat
1914
1915
1916
Hard No. 1
Northern No. 1
21
16,152
32,735
23,057
1
3,833
3,848
15,990
216
60
13
2,126
138,117
49,110
36,497
1
21,962
9,336
23,954
742
82
94
79
18,261
Northern No 2
32,262
Northern No. 3
30,207
White Fife
No Grade and Feed
Rejected
40,885
3,171
Commercial Grades
Winter Wlieat
41,828
166
Condemned
Others
93
66
Total cars
95,926
282,021
167,018
The importance of accurately determining the grades
of car-loads of wheat is shown by the following Table
which gives the price of wheat in cents per bushel for the
chief grades for the crop year 1918-19. These prices
were fixed by the Board of Grain Supervisors as a war
measure; but corresponding differences in prices affect
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA
93
the grades in normal years, when there is open competi-
tion in buying and selling. The blanks in the table indi-
cate prices that were not fixed.
Fixed Prices in Cents per Bushel, for the Crop Year 1918-19,
for Wheat in Store at Fort William or Port Arthur
Straight
grades
Tough
Rejected
on account
of seeds
Smutty-
No. 1 Northern
No. 2 Northern
No. 3 Northern
No. 4 Wheat. ..
No. 5 Wheat. ..
No. 6 Wheat.. .
2241/2
2211/2
2171/2
2111/2
1991/2
1901/2
2I8I/2
2151/2
2091/2
2141/2
2111/2
2O6I/2
2151/2
2121/2
2O8I/2
The difference in price between two grades is known
as the spread. From the above Table, it is clear that
the spread between the different grades is often consider-
able. Thus, in respect to the straight grades, the spread
is as follows : between ISTo. 1 Northern and l^o. 2 Northern,
3 cents per bushel ; between No. 3 Northern and No. 2
Northern, 4 cents ; between No. 4 Wheat and No. 3 North-
em, 6 cents; between No. 5 Wheat and No. 4 Wheat, 12
cents; and between No. 6 Wheat and No. 5, 9 cents per
bushel. The spread between No. 6 Wheat and No. 1
Northern in the straight grades amounts to 34 cents per
bushel. The grades thus very materially affect the price
which the farmer gets for his wheat, and it is not there-
fore surprising that grades and grading are subjects in
•\^^hich he is keenly interested.
XYIII. Inspection at Terminal Elevators
One of the chief objects in grading grain is to classify
the grain for bulk storage in the terminal elevators. The
94 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
individual car-load is merged, as we have seen, in a bin
containing grain of the same grade; and thus the cost
of storage is lessened. It is highly important that the
car-loads should be deposited in their right bins according
to grade.
The Winnipeg inspection governs the storage in the
terminal elevators except in the following cases: (1) cars
which were too full for proper sampling at Winnipeg, (2)
cars that have been " plugged," (3) cars that have gone out
of condition, (4) cars on which reinspection has been
asked, and (5) cars upon which an appeal to the Survey
Board has been demanded. All these cars are sampled and
inspected whilst being unloaded.
Every evening the Winnipeg inspection office dispatches
to Fort William by express train a sheet showing the car
numbers of inspected cars, the grade, the dockage, the in-
spector's notations, the shipping point, the destination, the
party to whom the car is billed, and the number of the in-
spector's certificate. As trains are broken up at Winni-
peg, or between Winnipeg and Fort William, a new
train sheet is made out at Fort William. This sheet is
made from the car bills and from the Winnipeg sheet,
and it shows the Winnipeg sheet number, the grade and
notations, the elevator to which the car is sent, and the
shipping point.^^
At Fort William a grade ticket is then made out for
each car and nailed to the car. As the grain is pouring
out from the car during unloading, an inspector takes
samples at intervals with a ladle, mixes up the grain thus
taken, and then decides whether or not the grade is the
same as that on the grade ticket. Usually the grades,
when thus checked over, are confirmed. Very exception-
ally they are found to be different. In case of any altera-
32 Vide R. Magill, loc. cit., p. 35.
r^^^^^^^^^B
.^- ■ T \ ^
y ' ' "^ \ ^
di?nm1^
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WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 95
tion in grade, the Winnipeg Inspection office is notified
by wire, and the Winnipeg grade after investigation may
be altered.
A report of all cars unloaded at each terminal elevator
is made daily. The report shows the carrying company,
the car number, the date, the Winnipeg sheet number, the
Fort William sheet number, the grade, the dockage, the
seal record, the condition of the car (damages, leaks, bulk-
heads, etc.), the load line, the inspection notations as to
grading, cleaning, etc., and the weighman's notation.
One copy of the report is supplied to the elevator, one is
sent to the Chief Inspector at Winnipeg, and one is re-
tained in the inspection office at Fort William. The grain
is taken into storage in the elevator just after unload-
ing and is binned with other grain of the same grade.
It is thus seen that the government keeps a most careful
record of all grain entering each terminal elevator.^*
Wheat is not only graded into a terminal elevator but
it is also graded out again. '^ Grading the grain as it is
being loaded out of the elevators into the lake steamers,"
says Magill, " presents some difficulties not experienced in
Winnipeg. It is easier to secure a fair average sample
of the grain in a standing car, than to secure one out of a
mass of grain rushing in several streams from a huge
elevator into a steamer. Further, the car sample in Win-
nipeg is graded in the central office and not in the rail-
way yard, but grain being loaded into a steamer must be
graded there and then. To sample the grain, send the
sample to a central office and grade it there, might mean
that the wrong grain would be loaded into the vessel, and
the steamer started off with grain different from that called
for by the shipper. To unload grain out of a vessel at Fort
William would be difficult, as there are no marine legs,
33 Vide R. Magill, loc. cit., p. 39.
96 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
and to delay the steamer would add to the cost. The grain
must be graded as it runs from bin to boat.
^' An inspector with assistants is placed in charge of
each elevator, and he is held responsible for the grading
out. The grain is sampled at three places: in the tun-
nels as the grain runs from the storage bins to the work-
ing house, on the floor of the working house, and on the
steamer as it pours from the shipping bin into the hold.
" If any grain is seen at any of these places which is
not up to the required grade, the stream is stopped in-
stantly. While the grade is given by the inspector in
charge of the elevator, all the three samples are sent to
the inspection office at Fort William and examined there.
In this way the grading by the inspector in the elevator
is checked by the grading of the inspector who has charge
of all the inspection at the terminal points, Mr. Symes.
A sample of every cargo with the Fort William inspection
is also sent to the Chief Inspector at Winnipeg." ^*
XIX. Reinspedion
The certificates of grade for each car-load are sent out
to those who should receive them as soon as they have
been written, and the corresponding samples are filed in the
sample room. The ovniers of the grain, or their repre-
sentatives, then have the privilege of examining the sam-
ples in the sample room and thus of judging whether in
their opinion the grades are satisfactory. Nearly all the
samples which have been graded in the government grad-
ing rooms thus come to be checked over privately.
If the owner of the grain in a car, or his representative,
is dissatisfied with the grade given by the Winnipeg in-
spector, he may ask for reinspection. Owing to the fact
34 R. Magill, loc cit., pp. 41-42.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 97
that, as soon as a sample has been taken from any car, the
car is dispatched to the head of the lakes without delay, it
is necessary that reinspection of a car shall be made not
at Winnipeg but at Fort William or Port Arthur. The
negotiations to secure reinspection take place, therefore,
whilst the car to be reinspected is moving forward to
its destination. When a car is to be reinspected, the In-
spection office at Fort William is notified, and, as soon
as the car arrives, a new sample is taken from it and
graded. There is no extra charge for reinspection.
If, after reinspection, the owner of the grain is still
dissatisfied, he may appeal to the Winnipeg Survey Board.
The members of the Board are recommended for their
positions by the Winnipeg Board of Trade and by the
Ministers of Agriculture of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and
Alberta ; and they are all appointed by the Board of Grain
Commissioners. The rules and regulations of the Survey
Board are made by the Grain Commission. No appeal
can be made on grain which has lost its identity by being
mixed with other grain. If the inspector's grade is con-
firmed, the owner of the grain pays three dollars for the
survey; but, if the grade is altered, there is no charge.
A Survey Board, when once appointed, is independent
during its period of office, and, in cases of contested grade,
its verdict is final.
When the crop is of high grade, very few appeals are
made ; but, when the crop is of low grade, appeals may be
as numerous as 2 per cent. Most of the appeals are made
on what are known as line grades, i. e., on samples which
stand very high in a grade, near the line between its
grade and the next higher one. When a sample is near
a dividing line, the government inspector must decide the
delicate question as to which grade the sample really be-
longs. Here, occasionally, there is some room for a dif-
98 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
ference of opinion even among experienced graders. If,
for instance, wheat which has graded No. 5 Wheat is a
very good sample of wheat in that grade and is evidently
very near the line separating 'No. 4 Wheat from No. 5,
on reinspection it may happen that another inspector may
put it in No. 4 Wheat; but this second inspector will
doubtless consider it to be only a very poor sample of
this higher grade and only just worthy to be included
in it. Of the appeals made, only about one in ten re-
sult in any change being effected. Since owners of grain
do not usually ask for reinspection of samples which are
very low in their grades and which might on reinspection
be put down a grade, the reinspections that are called for,
if they residt in a change at all, usually, but not always,
result in a rise of grade and not a fall.
XX. Weighing Wheat
It is just as important for a shipper of wheat to obtain
accurate weights as it is to obtain accurate grades, for
weighing, equally with grading, affects the total amount
of money he will receive for his grain.
Weighing of grain may seem to be a very simple me-
chanical process; but, for various reasons, it is difficult
to carry out with uniform success in western Canada. In
the first place, grain is received into upwards of 3,000
country elevators, and it is weighed at every elevator; in
the second place, the men who weigh the grain at the ele-
vators are employees of the elevator companies and not of
the State ; and, in the third place, at the terminal elevators
the grain is weighed after it goes into the elevator and not
before.
In the terminal elevators, the work of the elevator
weighman is supervised by a Government employee; but,
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 99
on account of the number of weighmen who would be re-
quired, such constant supervision could scarcely be pro-
vided at the country elevators. As we have seen, if a
shipper is not satisfied with the grade of his wheat, he
can call for reinspection and appeal. Dissatisfaction with
weights, however, cannot be so easily remedied. In most
cases, wheat, after being weighed, is binned with other
grain and cannot again be obtained as an entity for re-
weighing. It is only possible to re-weigh satisfactorily
when there has been no leakage between the scale and the
receiving pit or between the receiving pit and the scale,
and when the wheat concerned has been stored separately.
The scales in the country elevators are inspected and
approved by inspectors of the Inland Eevenue Depart-
ment ; but there are so many elevators that it has not been
possible to visit each scale and thoroughly inspect it more
than about once a year. In addition to the fact that the
scales are apt to get out of order, other difficulties con-
nected with weighing are to be found in car damage and
leakage, pilfering, and occasional dishonesty of one of
the weighmen. Since a government official cannot be pres-
ent to watch all the weighing that goes on in country ele-
vators, and with a view to protecting the shipper, the
Canada Grain Act provides that ''persons interested in
the weighing of grain shall have free access to the scales
while such grain is being weighed.'' A farmer, there-
fore, if he chooses, can always supervise the weighing of
his grain. Falsifying or misstating weights is heavily
penalized ; and, if a farmer is dissatisfied with the scale at
a country elevator, he can apply for an inspector who will
at once visit the scale and investigate its condition.
Some farmers have set up on their farms private scales
of their own and weigh each wagon load of grain before
hauling it to the country elevator. By this means they
100 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
know what their grain should weigh on the scale of the
country elevator and thus have a check upon the work of
weighing performed b}^ the elevator operator.
There is a Chief Weighmaster who has charge of all
the weighing in Canada. His authority is exercised under
the Board of Grain Commissioners. At the terminal
elevators he is also the scale inspector and is thvis re-
sponsible at the lake front not merely for weighing but for
the condition of the scales.
A car of grain which has been shipped from a country
elevator or a loading platform, is inspected for grade at
Winnipeg but is not weighed officially until it arrives at
Fort William or Port Arthur. When a car has been
brought into place or spotted at the siding of a terminal
elevator, it is at once examined for defects or leakages
and, if such are found, a record is made of the car num-
ber and the condition. The seals on the doors are also
observed and a record is made of their numbers and
whether or not they are intact. The outer doors of the
car are then drawn aside, the depth of the grain in the
car is measured, and the load line noted. One or both
of the grain doors are then removed, and the grain is un-
loaded into the grain pit. From this pit it is elevated
to the hopper above the scale in the working house, and
it is then weighed by the elevator company's weighman
under the supervision of the Government weighman. A
draft ticket which shows the amount which has been
weighed, is then punched by the scale register. A record
of the weight is taken, and upon this the certificate of
weight is issued.^^
XXI. Warehouse Receipts, Registration, and Stochtahing
When grain has been received into a terminal elevator
35 Vide R. iMagill, loc. cit., pp. 46-47.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 101
at the lake front, weighed, and binned, a warehouse receipt
for it is issued to the person who delivered the grain.
Upon this receipt is set down the place, the date, the ship-
ping point, the name of the owner, the kind and grade of
the grain, the net weight, and the car number.
The warehouse receipt is first sent to the registration
ofiice of the Board of Grain Commissioners at Fort Wil-
liam where it is compared with the inspector's report of
the cars unloaded at the elevator in question. If found
correct it is registered.
On receipt of the bill of lading, the warehouse receipt
is given to the owner of the grain. When a shipper has
obtained such a receipt: he may sell his grain, if not al-
ready sold, for cash; or make delivery of his grain, if
sold, by handing over the receipt for a cheque; or use
the receipt as collateral security for a loan from his bank.
When grain is passed out of a terminal elevator into
a lake steamer or box-car, the warehouse receipt repre-
senting it must be presented to the registration office for
cancellation within seventy-two hours after loading of
the grain has been accomplished.
The registration records of the registration office show
the total quantities of the various grains by grades re-
ceived into and shipped out of each elevator. The in-
spection and weighing departments also possess such rec-
ords, so that the operations of each elevator are well
watched.
The Government, in carrying out its work of supervis-
ing the grain business, annually takes stock of all grain in
each terminal elevator. In the month of August, officers
of the Board of Grain Commissioners go into each ele-
vator and make out statements showing the kinds, grades,
and weights of the grain in each house. The registration
clerks add up the receipts issued and canceled during
102 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
the year ; and thus, for every elevator, the annual surplus
or shortage of grain is determined. The information so
obtained is then published for the information of every
one interested.
The Government in response to the demand of the grain
growers for increased governmental control of the market-
ing of grain, erected in 1912-14 at Port Arthur an ele-
vator with a capacity of 3,500,000 bushels^ and subse-
quently built other large terminal elevators at Vancouver,
Moose jaw, Saskatoon and Calgary. Thus the Govern-
ment procured, at first-hand, knowledge of the cost of
elevator construction and operation. Farmers now have
a wide choice of terminal elevators at the lake front.
They may ship to an elevator operated by the Government
as a public utility, to one of three elevators operated by
their own trading companies, to an elevator owned by
either the Canadian Pacific Railway, the Canadian ISTorth-
ern Railway or the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, or,
finally, to one of the elevators operated by a commercial
company.^®
XXII. The Dominion Grain Research Laboratory
The Board of Grain Commissioners was established to
administer the Canada Grain Act of 1912. In the course
of its work, it was continually encountering problems re-
lating to grain which demanded solution by patient study
and research, and its first chairman. Dr. Robert Magill,
therefore advocated the establishment of a Grain Research
Laboratory. As a result, the Laboratory came into exist-
ence at Winnipeg in the year 1914.
The Grain Research Laboratory is under the direction
of Dr. F. J. Birchard, who is ably assisted by Mr. A. W.
86 Cf. R. Magill, loc. cit., p. 54.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 103
Alcock and other investigators. It is equipped with an
experimental mill, a fermenting cupboard, an electric bak-
ing oven, moisture testers of various designs, and much
other apparatus. The chief aims of the laboratory are,
firstly, to study problems which relate to the keeping
qualities of grain when it is under transportation or in
storage, and, secondly, to gather information which may
be used as a basis for placing the grading of grain on a
more scientific basis than has hitherto been possible.
It is often asked: What is the normal amount of
moisture in grain? Does frosted wheat and immature
wheat heat more readily than normal wheat of the same
moisture content ? How much moisture can the different
grades of grain safely carry without heating in cars or
boats or when stored in elevators ? To these questions
which are vitally important to the grain trade, some an-
swer must be given every day. However, the problems
suggested by them can only be solved by long-continued
observations and careful scientific work such as is being
carried out in the Grain Research Laboratory.
One of the experiments already made by Dr. Birchard
and Mr. Alcock was the trial shipment of wheat in bulk
from Vancouver to London via the Panama Canal ; and, as
we have seen, it was crowned with success.
Difficulties concerning the proper grading of grain are
constantly coming to the fore. Thus, in the autumn of
the great rust year, 1916, the comparative milling value
of rusted grain and the baking qualities of the flour pro-
duced were matters of the greatest moment. This prob-
lem was immediately studied in the Grain Research
Laboratory and the milling yields of the different grades
at once published. An exhibition of loaves baked from
the flour of rusted and non-rusted grain respectively was
104 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
made on the floor of the Grain Exchange, so that all who
were interested could form their own opinion as to the
value of the different grades for milling purposes.
Other questions in which the laboratory has become in-
terested and which affect grading are these : What is the
milling value of tough wheat and damp wheat as com-
pared with straight-grade wheat ? ^^ What are the most
suitable temperatures for the drying of tough wheat and
damp wheat ? What value should be given in grading to
spring-threshed wheat and to admixtures of grains show-
ing special characteristics such as immature green grains,
pink grains, black-pointed grains, and frosted grains ?
According to the Grain Act, wheat grading as ISTo. 1
N^orthern, after being dried, cannot receive a higher grade
than No. 3 Northern : is this justifiable ? How does the
grading of flax seed correspond with the amount and qual-
ity of the oil extracted from each grade ?
The Western Grain Standards Board, which is ap-
pointed by the Board of Grain Commissioners, sets the
commercial grades ^^ of wheat each autumn from the first
samples of the new crop brought to Winnipeg. Average
samples are sent as soon as possible to Dr. Birchard who
puts them through the usual milling and baking tests.
He then submits a report to the Grain Standards Board
for its guidance in setting the commercial grades. The
results of the tests are published yearly at Ottawa in the
Monthly Bulletin of Agricultural Statistics and also in
trade journals.
37 Tough wheat is wheat which carries a large percentage of
moisture. If the moisture is excessive, the wheat is known as damp
wheat. In straight-grade wheat, the amount of moisture is normal.
38 The statutory grades of western spring wheat are : No. 1 Hard,
No. 1 Northern, No. 2 Northern, and No. 3 Northern. The Stand-
ards Board defines such additional grades as No. 4 Wheat, No. 5
Wheat, and No. G Wheat, each having subdivisions. Vide supra.
Section XVI.
WHEAT IN WESTEKN CANADA 105
XXIII. The Winnipeg Grain Exchange
One of the most important factors in facilitating the
marketing of the wheat of the Canadian West is the
Winnipeg Grain Exchange. This great institution was
incorporated in 1891, and subsequently, in 1908, was
re-organized as a voluntary association of grain dealers.
At first there were only ten members, and the entrance
fee was $15 ; but now the members number more than
three hundred, and the value of the seats has increased
to $5,000. So commanding a position has the Exchange
now attained that the leading grain dealers on the con-
tinent feel it imperative to become membei^. The pres-
ent Grain Exchange building is a fine and massive struc-
ture which cost $2,000,000; and employed within its
walls are more than fifteen hundred persons.^^ The Ex-
change compiles, records, and publishes statistics; obtains
and distributes information respecting the produce and
provision trades; promotes and maintains uniformity in
the business, customs, and regulations in these trades
among those engaged in them; and adjusts controversies
and misunderstandings arising between the traders.*^
The Exchange spends thousands of dollars every year in
its telegraphic comnmnications with the consuming
markets of the world, and every day posts on blackboards
the prices prevailing at London, Liverpool, Paris, Buenos
Ayres, Chicago, Minneapolis, Kansas City, and Duluth.
Other statistical information is also being constantly re-
ceived and given to the press. The prices prevailing on
the Winnipeg market are telegraphed daily to at least four
thousand points in the western provinces. All this in-
formation is given to the farmers without charge, so that
39 W. E. Milner, The President's x\ddress, Eighth Annual Keport
of the Winnipeg Grain Exchange, Sept. 13, 1916, p. 29.
40 These functions are mentioned in the articles of incorporation.
106 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
nearly all of the agricultural population are supplied with
figures which enable sellers to dispose of their grain under
conditions which they consider to be most advantageous
to themselves. ^^ In 1915-16 the Exchange was the larg-
est of all the cash wheat markets on the American con-
tinent.^2 j^^ ^j^^t year nearly $500,000,000 were dis-
tributed throughout the Prairie Provinces, and nearly all
of this business was by verbal or telegraphic communica-
tion. So high, however, were the business ethics of the
Exchange, that there was not an agriculturist who did
not receive full money for his grain.^^ Through the
efforts of the Exchange, permanent standards have been
secured for the various grades of grain, and these have
proved of great benefit to producers and grain dealers
alike throughout the West.
The Grain Exchange provides a most convenient meet-
ing place for buyers and sellers. The sellers who act
either directly or indirectly for the producers, are the
elevator companies, farmers' trading companies, and com-
mission men ; while the buyers who represent the con-
sumers, are the Canadian millers and exporters. The ex-
porters sell to English or European mills either directly or
through other grain exchanges.
The price of wheat is like the mercury in a barometer
in that it is constantly fluctuating from hour to hour, from
day to day, and from week to week. In neither case can
even the wisest of men predict the changes in detail. The
mercury in the barometer rises or falls in delicate response
to the slightest alterations in the pressure of the atmo-
sphere. The price of wheat on the Winnipeg Grain Ex-
change is equally sensitive to pressure of another kind:
it goes up and down in sympathy with the ever-changing
41 \Y. E. Milner, loc. cit., p. 27.
42 Ihid., p. 26.
43 Ihid.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 107
relation between the world's demand for and supply of
the leading cereal, and it is also affected by variations
in the facilities for transportation and in the conditions
of the money market. All the fluctuations in price which
result, operate to make fair values for every one con-
cerned. The Exchange perfonns its part in influencing
these fluctuations by giving to its buyers and sellers as
much up-to-date information concerning world conditions
affecting the grain trade as possible, and by posting up as
the fair value at the moment the prices at which sales
have just been made.^^
The charge for selling wheat on the Winnipeg Grain
Exchange is fixed by what is known as the Commission
Rule. According to this rule, the rate for selling con-
signed wheat is one cent a bushel. The rate is uniform
for every customer, and members of the Exchange are not
permitted either to lower it or raise it. The commission
rule has various advantages : it allows a seller to estimate
beforehand what his selling charge will be, it prevents dis-
crimination between customers, it compels keen competi-
tion in service, and it provides a fair reward for services
rendered, thus reducing the temptation to dishonesty.^^
Applications for membership on the Exchange are care-
fully scrutinized in order to prevent the entry of un-
scrupulous traders, for it is most important that the repu-
tation of the Exchange for integrity in the dealings of its
members should be kept as high as possible. If a mem-
ber violates any of the rules or regulations, his conduct is
inquired into and he may be disciplined even to the extent
of expulsion.
44 Cf. C. F. Piper, Principles of the Grain Trade in Western Can-
ada, Winnipeg, 1917, pp. 177-178.
45 Hid., p. 180.
108 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
XXIV. The Geographical Position of the Grain Exchange
Owing to the peculiar geographical features of western
Canada, the main lines of the railways in this vast ter-
ritory have been built so that they converge toward Win-
nipeg and lead to Fort William and Port Arthur on the
lake front. These ports are the natural points for the
delivery of grain to be sold in bulk for export or for
transportation to the eastern part of the Dominion. How-
ever, the Grain Exchange, where this wheat is bought
and sold, is not located at Fort William or Port Arthur,
where the wheat is stored, but at Winnipeg, a city situated
420 miles west of the lake front and therefore far from
what would seem to be the natural market. Nowhere else
in the world does a parallel case exist : in other coun-
tries the grain exchanges are all to be found where the
wheat in which they deal is delivered. The separation
of the Grain Exchange of western Canada from its ap-
parently natural market is unique, and it is therefore of
interest to inquire as to its cause.
Port William and Port Arthur are far away from the
prairie land which produces the grain. For 400 miles
immediately west of these twin cities the country is rocky
and unproductive. On the other hand, Winnipeg is a
large metropolis and a great railway and banking center,
and it is situated between the grain fields and the lake
front. It is therefore much more convenient to operate
the grain trade from Winnipeg than from Fort William
or Port Arthur. Exchanges of letters can be made much
more quickly, and telegrams sent more cheaply, between
country points and Winnipeg than between those same
points and the lake front. Moreover, Winnipeg is the
center of a set of long-distance telephones which radiate
in all directions and thus enable many farmers and their
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 109
agents to communicate with members of the Grain Ex-
change directly ; but were the Exchange at the lake front,
such communication, owing to distance, would be very
much more restricted. The buyers are relatively few,
while the farmers or producers are relatively numerous.
It is, as Piper *^ says, '^ easier to bring the concentrated
portion of the business from Fort William and Port
Arthur to Winnipeg than it is to take the divergent and
extended portion of the business from the grain fields
in the west to Fort William." The buyers can operate
with relatively slight inconvenience to themselves at a dis-
tance from the terminal elevators, whereas, if the farmers
and those who represent them were obliged to travel an ex-
tra 420 miles to the lake front when they wished to visit
the Exchange, they would be put to a very considerable
extra expense and loss of time. It is therefore not sur-
prising, all this being considered, that the most impor-
tant and largest Grain Exchange of the West is situated at
Winnipeg and not at Fort William or Port Arthur.
XXV. The Grain Exchange Clearing House
For various reasons it is often necessary for grain
dealers to deal in what are known as futures, i. e., to buy
or sell grain which is to be delivered to the purchaser
during some future month. Thus, in August, a miller
might buy September wheat, i. e., wheat that must be
delivered to him in September, or October, November
or December wheat, i. e., wheat that must be delivered to
him in the months of October, ISTovember, or December re-
spectively; and in the winter he might buy May wheat,
i. e., wheat that must be delivered to him in May, and so
4G C. B. Piper, Principles of the Grain Trade of Western Canada,
p. 171.
110 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
forth. Of course, pure speculators may and often do
speculate in wheat as in other things in the hope of an-
ticipating the movements of the market and thereby mak-
ing money; but, apart altogether from such speculations,
dealing in futures is, tmder normal conditions, an ab-
solute necessity for the grain trade. Millers, for in-
stance, in order to regulate the output of their mills, must
anticipate their needs for wheat to grind into flour often
months before they are ready to have the grain delivered
to them, and accordingly must deal in futures. Some-
times it is necessary first to buy wheat and then sell it
again. Thus if in August a miller has bought, let us
say, more October wheat than he finds he can actually
store when October is approaching, he may be obliged to
hedge, i. e., sell his October wheat and buy wheat to be
delivered during a later month such as November or De-
cember.^"^ Dealing in futures is not merely advantageous
to the domestic miller but plays an essential role in the
business of exporting wheat to foreign countries from the
terminal elevators.
Within the Grain Exchange is an independent corpora-
tion known as the Winnipeg Grain Exchange Clearing
47 The term hedge really means to protect and is applied to all
kinds of transactions made to prevent loss due to fluctuations of the
market. For the sake of illustration, let us suppose that an ele-
vator owner has sent a number of agents into the country who have
purchased wheat from various farmers, and let us further suppose
that the wheat so purchased is not due to arrive at Fort William
until several months have elapsed. In the interval the market may
fluctuate seriously. To avoid possible loss, the owner of the wheat
may hedge, i. e., sell the grain which he has purchased for delivery
in a future month. ^Yhen he has done this, he knows exactly what
his obligations are in respect to the wheat he purchased but has now
sold, and whether he has made a loss or profit from it. In any case,
as the fluctuations of the market under normal conditions are small,
his loss or profit can only be relatively small also; but the intention
in hedging is to avoid undue risks.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 111
House. This corporation performs most important func-
tions, for it greatly simplifies and facilitates trading opera-
tions between the members of the Exchange and, at the
same time, provides absolute security in all transactions
concerned with the future delivery of wheat or other
grains. The principle of the Clearing House is that for
every contract which the Clearing House accepts, the
Clearing House becomes seller to the buyer and buyer
to the seller. In carrying out this principle, the Clearing
House with all its resources comes to stand solidly behind
every accepted contract. The result of this is that a per-
son who buys or sells grain for future delivery can rest
assured that, so long as he is willing to fulfill his part
of the contract and provide the necessary security against
the fluctuations of the market from day to day, if he is
a buyer, on the contract date the grain will be ready for
him to receive, and, if he is a seller, on the contract date
a buyer will be ready to take delivery of his grain and
pay him for it.
Some of the features of a single transaction may first
be considered. Let us suppose that a grain broker buys
for a customer 5,000 bushels of May wheat and that the
price of May wheat at the time he wishes to make the
purchase is about $1.54 per bushel. He assembles with
other brokers in the wheat pit on the floor of the Ex-
change. A seller may say ^' I'll sell May wheat at fifty-
three and a half!" By this he means that he offers
for sale 5,000 bushels of wheat to be delivered in May
at the price of one dollar, fifty-three and one-half cents
per bushel, the unit amount of wheat offered being always
understood as 5,000 bushels unless some other amount
is specified.*^ If the purchaser says '^ Sold! " the sale is
48 The standard contract grade of wheat on the Winnipeg Grain
Exchange is No. 1 Northern, but No. 2 Northern and No. 3 Northern
112 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
considered made. The buyer enters up the transaction on
a card at once and the seller does likewise. Then, in their
oflSces, they each make up a clearing sheet. At the end
of the working day^ each sends his sheet to the Clearing
House where it must be deposited by a specified time
early in the afternoon. As soon as the Clearing House has
accepted the transaction as recorded on the clearing sheets,
the particular buyer and seller part company so far as their
transaction is concerned, and have nothing more to do
with one another. The seller has contracted to deliver
5,000 bushels of May wheat, i. e., to deliver this amount
of wheat some time in May, on any working day. He
waits until the month of May arrives, and then when he
is ready, his 5,000 bushels of wheat being now stored in
a terminal elevator at Fort William or Port Arthur, he
goes to the Clearing House and tells the Manager that he
has his wheat ready for delivery. The Manager then
looks through his books and finds some one who bought
5,000 bushels of May wheat and whose turn it is to take
delivery, the turns being arranged in the order of buy-
ing. He then informs this buyer that such and such a
seller, our original seller, wishes to deliver 5,000 bushels
of May wheat to him and he informs the seller who it
is to whom his wheat is to be delivered. Then it is the
duty of the seller to deliver his wheat to the buyer with
whom the Clearing House has brought him into contact,
at once. The Clearing House has then finished its deal-
ings with the buying and selling contracts here involved,
but the seller and buyer only end their business when the
seller delivers an invoice with the warehouse receipts for
the wheat and the buyer hands the seller a marked check
for the amount due. The receipts show that the wheat
are deliverable thereon at arbitrary discounts of three cents and
eight cents respectively. This is a fair rule to protect sellers. Vide
C. F. Piper, loc. cit., p. 150.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 113
of which the buyer now gets possession, is in storage in an
elevator at Fort William or Port Arthur on the water
front of Lake Superior. We thus see that the 5,000
bushels of wheat that were originally bought in the trans-
action in the wheat pit have gone not to the original buyer
but to some one else. Having now disposed of the original
seller in the transaction in the wheat pit, let us turn our
attention to the original buyer. How does he obtain the
5,000 bushels of wheat which he purchased ? The original
buyer waits until May until his turn to receive May wheat
arrives. The Manager of the Clearing House then in-
forms him that a certain seller has 5,000 bushels of May
wheat to deliver and that he is to accept this wheat from
this particular seller, and he also informs the seller that
he is to deliver his wheat to our original buyer. It is
then the duty of the original buyer to accept the 5,000
bushels of wheat from the seller with whom the Clearing
House has brought him into contact ; and this second pair
of buyers and sellers, like the first pair, completes the
transaction with a marked check and a warehouse receipt
for the grain. The wheat delivered is always of just the
same grade and quality as that originally purchased, so
that in the end nothing it lost by the substitution of one
seller for another at the time the delivery of the wheat is
made.
The Clearing House system, as it affects traders, in
simplifying their transactions in respect to future deliv-
eries of wheat, and in guaranteeing security for the ful-
fillment of such transactions, may be thus described.
Every member of the Clearing House is bound at the end
of each working day to send in a sheet showing ywrchases
made, the names of the vendors, and the prices. He must
also send in another sheet showing the sales he has made,
the names of the purchasers, and the prices. The amounts
114 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
of each sheet are totaled and entered in a recapitulation
sheet, and upon this sheet is then set out a balance of ex-
cess of purchase over sale or vice versa. The difference
between the price on the sheet and the closing market price
is then worked out and this difference is paid within one
hour by the Clearing House to the member or vice versa
as the case may be. And thus, on the next day, the pur-
chase or sales sheet of the member will bring a balance
forward. Upon these new sheets the day's transactions
will be set, the sheets will be forwarded to the Clearing
House at the close of trading, and the transactions settled
as before. Thus from day to day, after a contract has been
entered into, if the market drops, a purchaser will be re-
quired to pay the difference to the Clearing House, or, if
the market rises, he will receive the difference each day
from the Clearing House. This daily payment of differ-
ences is continuously made until the contract month ar-
rives. If now the member wishes to take delivery of his
grain, he notifies the Clearing House which causes a ware-
house receipt for the grain he has bought to be handed over
to him from an indicated seller and he pays for the same
to the seller at the current market price. If this current
market price is higher than the price he contracted to pur-
chase at, he is not a loser, because, during the time the con-
tract was open, he has received from day to day the differ-
ence between the price at which he bought and the market
price of the day. If, on the other hand, the current price
is lower than the price he has contracted to purchase at,
he is not a gainer, because, during the time the contract
was open, he has paid to the Clearing House the difference
between the price at which he bought and the market price
of the day. Similarly, a seller, at the final settling, when
he gives up his warehouse receipt to the purchaser, may
receive a lesser or greater price for his wheat than that he
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 115
contracted for ; and yet he is neither a loser in the one case
nor a gainer in the other, for the differences involved have
heen already settled with the Clearing House during the
time the contract was open.
The Clearing House system permits of the same wheat
being bought and sold a number of times within a season
and a single warehouse receipt, say for 5,000 bushels of
wheat, may have an adventurous career in passing through
a long series of brokers' offices. In a single year, indeed,
the amount of wheat bought and sold on the Exchange may
be several times the amount of the entire available crop.^^
Yet, in the end, the final purchasers all obtain the wheat
they have contracted to buy, at the proper moment and
without fail. The system of the Clearing House, owing to
the security which it affords, allows of transactions being
made closer to the margin of necessary profit than would
otherwise be possible, with the result that farmers obtain a
higher price for their grain than they could if no such
system were in operation.
The Clearing House makes it its business to know the
financial standing of its members and any failure of a
member to live up to his contracts is visited with instant
punishment. If a member should appear to be plunging
49 From this no inference can be drawn that the transactions in
futures are necessarily unduly speculative or gambling in their na-
ture. Thus a miller who has bought more October wheat in April
than he finds in August he is likely to be able to grind in view of
orders received since the date of purchase, may sell in August the
excess for delivery in October to some one else. In September, how-
ever, he may find that, after all, owing to the receipt in that month
of unexpectedly large orders for flour, he may require, in order to
meet these orders, even more October wheat than he has sold. He
therefore once more goes into the market and again purchases Oc-
tober wheat. Thus a part of the original purchase of October wheat
in April and of his sale of the same in August simply become book
entries which go to swell the entries in the Clearing House records
and to increase the total volume of buying and selling but which do
not affect the amount of the actual grain involved.
116 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
into transactions beyond his financial depth, he may be
called npon to deposit immediately with the Clearing
House a check sufficiently large to protect the Clearing
House against the fluctuations of the market; and, if he
fails to do this, the Clearing House may close out all his
transactions. In the event of failure to carry out a con-
tract, his seat may be sold and he may be excluded from
the privileges of the Exchange. The Clearing House finds
it all the more necessary to make stringent rules and regu-
lations regarding the conduct of its members since any
failure of a member to carry out a contract must be made
good by the Clearing House itself.
XXVI. The Wheat Pit
One of the most interesting sights in Winnipeg, under
normal trading conditions, is the wheat pit in the Grain
Exchange. The pit is in direct telegraphic communica-
tion with all the leading markets of the world, and the
changes of prices at Chicago, Minneapolis, Liverpool, etc.,
are kept posted up on raised blackboards. Overhead
sounders which tick out messages in the Morse Code, keep
the men at the blackboards constantly in touch with the
trading in Winnipeg and other centers; and, during trad-
ing hours, the blackboard men scarcely have a moment's
rest. When I visited the Exchange in November, 1916,
trading was very active and the excitement was great, for
wheat was selling at a higher price than any that had been
known since the American Civil War. December wheat
was selling at $1.94 and November wheat at $1.99. Some
eighty or a hundred traders were in the pit which, from the
gallery where I was ensconced, seemed like pandemonium
let loose. All seemed confusion. The hubbub was con-
tinuous. A number of the traders were shouting at the
top of their voices, flinging up their hands, gesticulating
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA HT
with their fingers, springing up and down, seizing one an-
other by the shoulders, making notes of sales, and sending
off telegrams ; but, for a long time, not one coherent word
reached my ears and I could never tell whether a man was
selling flax, oats, barley, or wheat. The members of the
Exchange were evidently communicating with one another
in an unknown language. Telegraph boys were rushing
from the traders in the pit to the adjacent telegraph office
which stretches from one end of the trading room to the
other. Here the ticking never ceased for an instant, and
more than twenty clerks behind a long counter were busily
employed dispatching messages. The boy in charge of the
numerous telephone stations summoned traders who had
been called, by crying their names through a speaking
trumpet, for that was the only means of making a summons
heard above the din of the wheat-pit. I particularly no-
ticed one man who appeared desperately anxious to buy
May oats, for he jumped up and down as fast as he could
more than twenty times in succession, and yelled again and
again at the top of his voice : ^' Sell May oats ! Sell ]\Iay
oats ! Sell May oats ! " Whether or not he obtained what
he wanted, I am not sure, for after the most prodigal ex-
penditure of physical energy he subsided, possibly from
exhaustion, and I lost sight of him in the crowd. High
above the long stretch of blackboards at one end of the
trading room where the blackboard men were continuously
rubbing out old figures and chalking in new ones, was a
large dial, something like the face of a clock. Upon it,
in letters made red with electric light, stood out the syllable
Dec. which stands for December wheat, i. e., wheat that
must be delivered in December. And above this was the
figure 3 which, by reference to the blackboard, could be
understood as standing for the 3 in the price of $1.93.
Then around the edge of the dial was the price of Decem-
118 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
ber wheat in eighths of one cent. If the price was $1.93
and /8, the Ys was lighted up with red, if $1.93 and %,
then the % was lighted up, and so forth, so that one could
read off the price at which December wheat had just been
sold. The wheat-clock is manipulated by the recorder, a
grave man who sits at a high desk overlooking the wheat-
pit, and who, with the help of two assistants, keeps an
accurate account of what trading is done by the often
frantic men down below. He it is who interprets the un-
known language of which I have spoken, who by electric
switches records the fluctuations in the price of sales on the
wheat-clock, and who provides the trading statistics for the
reports of the Exchange.
XXVII. The Effect of the War on the Grain Trade
The influence of the war upon the grain trade of Canada
and the United States has been profound. Indeed, it has
resulted in nothing less than a revolution in the normal
methods of marketing grain. This subject has been dealt
with at some length by the three last Presidents of the
Winnipeg Grain Exchange in their annual addresses, and
these addresses have formed the chief source of the writer's
information for what follows.
The outstanding feature of the marketing of grain in
!N'orth America during the years of peace was the develop-
ment of the grain exchanges. Their organization was due
to commercial evolution and they were not created by gov-
ernments. They supplied an economic want. It was the
grain exchanges that found the way to collect grain at
country points, assemble it in vast quantities at the ter-
minal points, and distribute it among the mills of this
continent and the mills of Europe; and it was the grain
exchanges that developed the system of insurance against
fluctuation in prices known as future trading, that made
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 119
possible the financing of grain by the banks without in-
curring undue risks, and that in time developed the most
complete machinery for taking the grain from the pro-
ducer and putting it into the hands of the consumer at the
lowest possible cost.^^
The machinery of the grain trade, created as it was by
commercial evolution in times of peace, is well adapted to
peace conditions but is liable to be thrown out of gear by
such a war as that now happily being brought to a con-
clusion. The effects of the war on this machinery at first
were not very marked, but they gradually increased in im-
portance until, in the end, the whole system of marketing
grain in North America was revolutionized to a degree
which in ante-bellum days would have been considered im-
possible and almost inconceivable.
Soon after the war broke out, ocean tonnage for carry-
ing grain became scarcer owing to the demands made on
shipping for transporting troops and munitions. At the
same time, there was a stiffening in ocean freight rates
and marine insurance, and a considerable disturbance in
the international rates of exchange. Under these condi-
tions, the exporting of wheat from N^orth America became
a most difficult matter.
About the 28th of November, 1915, just before the close
of navigation on the Great Lakes, the Dominion Govern-
ment, through its Department of Trade and Commerce,
commandeered all the wheat at the head of the lakes. This
action, the first of its kind in the British Empire, came so
suddenly, so unexpectedly, and at such a critical time of
the year that it almost caused a panic among the grain
traders, and it was found necessary to close the Winnipeg
Grain Exchange for twenty-four hours. Owing to the
50 J. C. Gage, The President's Address, Ninth Annual Report of
the Winnipeg Grain Exchange, Sept. 12, 1917, p. 35.
120 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
interference with contracts that resulted from the Gov-
ernment's action, losses were caused both to members of
the Exchange and to farmers; but it was recognized that
the financial sacrifices involved were being made as the
result of a war measure which had been taken in good faith
with a view to assisting the British Empire and the Allies
in their great struggle for the cause of liberty. ^^
The rising prices of bread in the United Kingdom, as
in other European countries, soon forced the British Gov-
ernment to consider ways and means of protecting the con-
sumer, and the British Government decided to create an
agency upon this continent for the purchase of wheat. The
result was that a company — the Wheat Export Company
— was named at Winnipeg in 1916 and authorized to pur-
chase wheat for the United Kingdom. At a later date, this
Company was entrusted with the buying of all the wheat
for the Allies in Europe, especially for Great Britain,
Erance, and Italy. When this stage was reached, the ex-
porters of wheat in Canada found themselves deprived for
the time being of their business, and an important section
of the grain trade was thus made to feel the full conse-
quences of the war.^^
The Company that purchased for the European Allies
made use of the machinery of the grain exchanges. It
bought for future delivery in the ordinary commercial
way; but, representing as it did the treasuries of Great
Britain, Erance, and Italy, its operations were upon an
enormous scale. During the times of peace in which the
grain exchanges had been developed and had taken care of
the wheat of the continent of North America, no company
had ever appeared which had behind it such immense re-
sources, which had furnished to it orders for such tre-
51 W. E. Milner, The President's Address, Eighth Annual Keport
of the Winnipeg Grain Exchange, Sept. 13, 1916, p. 25.
62 J. C. Gage, loc. cit., p. 36.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 121
meudous quantities of grain, and which, consequently had
such a predominating place in the exchange markets. ^^
The representatives of the Wheat Export Company were
buying through the winter and spring months of 1916-17
for May and July delivery ; and, of course, they were not
the only buyers, as the Canadian mills were doing the
same. A situation then arose which, as the month of
May, 1917, approached, brought to a head the accumu-
lating effects of the war upon the grain business of Can-
ada. The gatherers of grain at country points had hedged
their holdings in the usual way. Much of the grain so
hedged did not come up to the contract grades; and the
result was that, as the month of May approached, there was
heavy bidding for the contract grades, and prices went
skyrocketing. On Saturday, April 28, 1917, May wheat
opened on the Winnipeg Grain Exchange at $2.71.
Within two minutes, and at the first trade, the price was
$2.82 ; and in 23 minutes, and at the fifteenth trade, it was
$2.86.^^ The maximum closing price for May wheat,
namely, $3 per bushel, was attained on each of the two
days, May 11 and May 12.^^ Had the holders of May
and July wheat stood out for their pound of flesh, they
would have brought about a disaster to the Canadian grain
trade and, as it appeared later, to the grain trade of the
whole North American continent, unparalleled in com-
mercial history. To avoid this, the Winnipeg Grain Ex-
change took hold of the situation and the result was the
next profound effect of the war upon the grain trade.^^
The rising prices of wheat, accompanied as they were by
parallel increases in the cost of flour, produced a clamor
amongst the consumers of the country, and, as usual, this
53 Ihid.
54 Ninth Annual Report of the Winnipeg Grain Exchange, p. 66.
85 Ihid., p. 120.
56 J. C. Gage, loc. cit., p. 37.
122 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
clamor was very largely directed against wliat is popularly
called speculating or gambling in the bread of the people.
The Winnipeg Grain Exchange, on April 28, 1917, there-
fore appointed a Censoring Committee whose duty it was
to ascertain accurately the extent and character, if any,
of illegitimate speculating in wheat. Very little of such
business was found by the Committee. The appointment
of the Committee created considerable surprise and re-
sulted in a fall of prices ; but this fall was only temporary
and soon prices began to mount skyward again.
Shortly after hearing the Report of the Censoring Com-
mittee on May 3, 1917, the Winnipeg Grain Exchange
decided upon the fateful step that took away the facilities
for future trading in wheat in the Winnipeg Grain Ex-
change, and proceeded to take all the other steps rendered
necessary thereby.^^ The last closing price was taken as
a basis of closing trades in the Clearing House ; and, after
a great deal of trouble, the May and July accounts were
all cleared as satisfactorily as it was possible to clear them
to the various interests involved. Negotiations took place
with the longs and the shorts, with the scalpers and the
spreaders, and with the agencies that were gathering the
grain throughout the country. The Wheat Export Com-
pany met the Exchange in a generous way ; and the agencies
which were collecting the grain in the country, guaranteed
to sell 90 per cent, of all the wheat they controlled for the
balance of the crop year to the Export Company. Many
members of the Exchange were financially injured, yet all
the members were dominated by one spirit, the spirit of
give and take, and of doing the best in the interests of the
country during the period of the war.^^
57 The Ninth Annual Report of the Winnipeg Grain Exchange,
Sept. 12, 1917, The Council's Report, pp. 64-73.
58 Cf. J. C. Gage, loc. cit., pp. 38-39.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 123
The major causes of the crisis at the Grain Exchange
which resulted in the withdrawal of the facilities for fu-
ture trading were war causes, although the intensity of
the crisis was increased by the fact that much of the hedged
grain did not come up to the contract grades. These war
causes, as summarized by Gage,^® may now be discussed.
To begin with, there was a loudly proclaimed shortage of
the supply of available wheat. This shortage was empha-
sized in the speeches of some of the most prominent men in
the British Empire and also in the United States. Minis-
ters of the Imperial Government, high officials in both
countries, and hundreds of newspaper editors laid stress
on the fact that the surplus wheat in Russia was locked up
by the war, that the surpluses in such countries as India
and Australia were not available through conditions of
transportation, and that Argentina had no surplus at all.
They proclaimed the dependence of the European allies,
so far as wheat is concerned, upon the continent of Xorth
America, and they devised ways and means of eliminating
waste, of husbanding their resources, and of persuading or
coercing their peoples to use substitutes for the white bread
to which they had become accustomed.
INext, there was the imperious need of the allied peo-
ples for Canadian wheat at a time when their men in uni-
form had been withdrawn from productive work, thus caus-
ing a labor shortage in agriculture as in other interests
on the one hand, and on the other increasing the normal
consumption of bread. The soldiers at the front must be
fed and well fed ; the workers in the United Kingdom were
demanding and receiving higher wages; the ranks of the
workers had been increased by thousands and hundreds of
thousands of women workers, so that the masses of the
59 Ibid., pp. 39-40.
124 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
people in the United Kingdom had more money to spend
than for some years previously.
Next the war had affected profoundly the money situ-
ation, and, in so far as currency had been inflated or in-
creased in any of its forms, higher prices were inevitable.
Lastly, it must be noted that the concentration of the
buying for the European allies had been only slowly carried
out and imperfectly at best. For example, in the Winni-
peg market there were some who bought wheat for the Bel-
gian Kelief Commission; there were others who bought
wheat for France ; others again who bought wheat for the
United Kingdom, and these were buying in open compe-
tition with one another. Further, these agencies were
buying not only in competition with one another, but also
in competition with Canadian millers and American mill-
ers, who themselves were buying wheat to fill flour sales
to the same Allied Governments.
It was inevitable that a crisis should develop under such
conditions as these, and the only wonder is that it was not
worse.
The action of the Winnipeg Grain Exchange in taking
away the facilities for future trading in wheat did not at
first commend itself to the other grain exchanges of J^orth
America; indeed, the tendency in the exchanges of the
United States was to question the wisdom of the steps
taken in Winnipeg. It soon appeared, however, that the
whole grain trade of this continent had been swept within
the area of trouble, and within a very few days the leading
exchanges of the United States were forced to take steps
almost identical with those taken at Winnipeg.^^
The price of wheat soared upwards on the grain ex-
changes of the United States just as it did at Winnipeg.
At Chicago, the highest price for cash wheat, namely $3.43
60 md., p. 40.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 125
per bushel,®^ was attained on May 12, 1917 ; whilst, on the
same day, at Minneapolis, the price of One Hard wheat
ranged from $3.49 to $3.54 per bushel.^^
The Winnipeg Exchange was the first in North America
seriously to investigate the question as to whether or not
there was any illegitimate gambling going on in wheat in
war time; it was the first to take steps to prevent prices
going higher still ; and it was also the first to work out and
apply the remedy to the situation, the only remedy at its
disposal. By virtue of its actions during the crisis, the
Winnipeg Grain Exchange gained in the esteem of the
general public. Eesponsible men in all lines of business
gave expression to their opinion that the Exchange had
acted wisely and well under very difficult circumstances,
and it dawned upon the public in general that the men en-
gaged in the grain trade might be just as conscientious and
just as patriotic as the men engaged in any other lines of
business in the world. Certainly, the action taken by the
Exchange contributed largely to the fact that the Govern-
ment at Ottawa was prepared to give a sympathetic hearing
to the representatives of the Exchange on the whole matter
of the marketing of grain during war time.^*
The next great effect of the war upon the grain trade
of I^orth America was the beginning of government regu-
lation of the grain business. Every European country
engaged in the war had found it necessary to undertake
the regulation of grain supplies, grain distribution, and
grain prices. Thus the period of state regulation was in-
augurated in the warring countries of Europe one after
another, and the mounting prices of bread upon this con-
61 The Board of Trade of Chicago, Sixtieth Annual Report for the
year ending Dec. 31, 1917, p. 64.
62 Minneapolis Chamber of Commerce, Thirty-fifth Annual Report
for the year ending Dec, 1917, p. 71.
63 J. C. Gage, loc. cit., p. 41.
126 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
tinent and the action of the grain exchanges compelled the
governments of the United States and Canada to consider
what thej could do under the circumstances. In the
United States, a food controller, Mr. Herbert Hoover, was
appointed and the Food Control Bill tabled, with the result
that there was created the United States Grain Corporation
which was put in charge of the most gigantic wheat mo-
nopoly the world has ever seen.
The United States Grain Corporation became the only
buyer of wheat at the great terminal markets and the only
seller and distributor of wheat from these markets to the
American mills, the European allies, and the neutral coun-
tries. In the United States the exporters were first thrown
out of business. Then it was decided to create the Grain
Corporation. Then, by a Commission appointed by the
President, prices were fixed at which the Corporation was
to buy all the wheat. Then future trading was prohibited.
And, finally, the mixing of the grades of grain at the great
terminal markets was made impossible. If there is added
to this the fact — although this was not due to the war —
that the United States Government had taken over the
matter of the inspection of grain, had standardized the
grade, and had taken the inspection out of the hands of the
different state legislatures, boards of trade and grain ex-
changes, it is not difficult to realize that the war has abso-
lutely revolutionized the whole grain business of the United
States. In the spring of 1914, no one could have imagined
that, as the result of a European war, the United States
Government would purchase all the wheat in the United
States ; that a government body would fix the prices ; that
the government would prohibit future trading; and that
the government would prevent mixing of the grades, which
was the very foundation of the great sample markets of the
United States. Yet this is what actually happened.^*
6* J. C. Gage, loc.cit., pp. 42-43.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 127
In Canada a different course was followed. The Gov-
ernment of Canada took into conference representatives
of the producers and also of the trade, and especially of the
Grain Exchange. The Government heard all that the
most experienced members of the Exchange had to say
about the marketing of grain, and, as a result of these ne-
gotiations, the Government of Canada, on June 11, 1917,
created a body called the Board of Grain Supervisors for
Canada, and clothed it with certain authority by an Order-
in-Council under the Defense of the Kealm Act. The
Board, on the one hand, is not a great buying corporation
like the United States Grain Corporation and, on the other
hand, it does not usurp the functions proper of the Board
of Grain Commissioners. It is a regulating body not an
operating body. Its primary functions are : ( 1 ) to regu-
late the price at which grain shall be bought and sold dur-
ing the period of its existence, and (2) to regulate the
distribution of grain so that the grain will go to the Ca-
nadian people and the Allied powers. It has sometimes
been said that the Board has power to commandeer all the
grain in Canada. It has no such power : it cannot go to
the farm, for example, and commandeer the wheat there,
and its power to commandeer at elevators is a power to
enforce the price it has set. If the owner of the grain
that is in an elevator refuses to sell at the price set, the
Board has power then to take the grain at that price.^®
The Board of Grain Supervisors at first consisted of
eleven members but now consists of twelve. Six of these
twelve members are not members of the Winnipeg Grain
Exchange. Of these six, one is the President of the Ca-
nadian Council of Agriculture, one a member of the Board
of Grain Cormnissioners, one is the representative of the
unorganized farmers, two represent labor organizations in
65 ihid., p. 43.
128 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
eastern Canada, and the sixth represents the remaining
body of eastern consumers. Of the six members of the
Board who are also members of the Winnipeg Grain Ex-
change, one is the General Manager of the Saskatchewan
Co-operative Elevator Company, one is the President of
the ^Vlieat Export Company which buys for the Allies, and
one represents the flour milling interests.
In accordance with its authority, the Board of Grain
Supervisors has fixed the price of wheat from time to time.
On July 20, 1917, the Board by its first Order fixed the
maximum price of wheat, on the basis of One l^orthern in
store at Fort William, at $2.40 per bushel, the order be-
coming effective on August 1, 1917.^^ The Board then
issued Orders that trading in wheat for future delivery
should cease in the Grain Exchanges of Canada on Sep-
tember 1, 1917, and that the price of wheat on that date,
on the basis of One ISTorthern in store at Fort William,
should not exceed and not be less than $2.40 per bushel.^"^
On September 12, 1917, the Board of Grain Super-
visors fixed the price of wheat to accord with the fixed
prices in the United States as follows : ^^
Fixed Prices of Wheat per Bushel from September 12, 1917,
Until August 31, 1918, Inclusive
Canada ^^.^^^ ^^^^^^
(basis Fort William and Port ^^^^^^^ ^^^ Minneapolis)
Arthur) ^
1 Manitoba Northern.. $2.21 1 Dark Northern $2.21
2 Manitoba Northern.. $2.18 2 Dark Northern $2.18
3 Manitoba Northern.. $2.15 3 Dark Northern $2.15
1 Alberta Eed Winter. . $2.21 1 Dark Hard Winter. . $2.21
2 Alberta Eed Winter. . $2.18 2 Dark Hard Winter. . $2.18
3 Alberta Red Winter.. $2.15 3 Dark Hard Winter.. $2.15
66 Memoranda of the Board of Grain Supervisors of Canada, Order
No. 1, issued at Winnipeg, July 20, 1917.
67 lUd. Order No. 3 and Order No. 4, both issued August 17, 1917.
68 Hid. Order No. 5, issued September 12, 1917.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 129
The fixed prices of wheat were slightly increased for
the 1918 crop both in Canada and the United States. In
Canada the fixed prices for the three first grades for the
crop year 1918-19 have been fixed as follows:
1 Manitoba Northern $2,241/2
2 Manitoba Northern $2,211/2
3 Manitoba Northern $2,171/2
In addition to fixing the prices of wheat, the Board of
Grain Supervisors, in conjunction with Mr. Hoover's de-
partment, put into effect the regulation of the export of
wheat between Canada and the United States.
By an Order-in-Council on September 5, 1918, the Do-
minion Government took over the control of the marketing
and handling of grain within the Dominion. The Order-
in-Council vests authority in the Board of Grain Super-
visors in regard to grain consumed in Canada and grain
exported to the Allies. It provides that the agent for the
Allied Governments must negotiate with the Board in re-
gard to exported grain, and the Board can specify the place
at which the Allied Governments shall accept delivery, the
prices, and the terms. It also increases the power of the
Board of Grain Supervisors with regard to grain con-
sumed in Canadian mills, and, in a word, through the
Board of Grain Supervisors the Government of Canada
in the Order-in-Council takes control of the whole move-
ment of grain. ^^
Sooner or later it seems certain that the grain trade
will return to the condition in which it was before the war
when the prices of wheat were not fixed but fluctuated in
accordance with demand and supply.
69 W. E. Bawlf, The President's Address, Tenth Annual Keport
of the Winnipeg Grain Exchange, Sept. 11, 1917, p. 43.
130 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
XXVIII. Financing the Crop Movement
The grain which a farmer raises in western Canada, rep-
resents a very large part of his yearly revenue, and it is
therefore most important that he should be able to sell it
for cash soon after it has been threshed. Money is the
universal medium of exchange ; and the farmer requires it
to pay those who assist him in his work, to buy horses,
cattle, implements, machinery, etc., to erect farm build-
ings, and to purchase all the necessities requisite for the
existence and comfort of himself and his family. ''^^
The farmer naturally desires to be supplied with money
as he requires it, and the problem of giving him cash for
his wheat, whenever he wants it, is a considerable one.
The ultimate consumer, as represented by the miller, does
not buy at once all the wheat he can make use of for a
whole year, because, if he did, he could not store it all
and could not pay for it all in cash. If the ultimate con-
sumer were to pay the farmer for his grain, the farmer
would be badly inconvenienced in his farming operations
by the necessity of waiting for deferred payments.
Months would elapse between the delivery of the grain to
a country elevator or into a box-car and the receipt of the
money which would be owing to him. It is therefore clear
that some agency must step in between the farmer and the
consumer, which will give the farmer cash for his wheat
as he requires it and carry the grain until the consumer
uses it and pays for it. This agency, acting indirectly, is
the bank.
The amount of credit used to move the grain crop of
70 C. B. Piper has discussed the principles involved in financing
the crop movement in his Principles of the Grain Trade of West-
ern Canada (pp. 183-191) and his discussion has been of consider-
able assistance to the author in writing this Section.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 131
western Canada each year is -usually about $100,000,000.
This vast sum is required for seasonal use only and could
not therefore be provided profitably by the grain trade.
It costs from $7,000 to $12,000 to build a country ele-
vator which will hold 30,000 bushels of wheat. If the
price of wheat in the country were T5 cents per bushel, it
would require $22,500 to pay for enough to fill a single
elevator. Moreover, an elevator usually is filled for a
part of the year only. If an elevator company were obliged
to maintain a fund of $22,500 per elevator all the year
round, so as to fill each elevator for part of a year only,
this capital would be badly employed and would yield a
very poor rate of interest : it could be more profitably spent
in some other business. Similarly, commission merchants
and track buyers cannot afford to keep capital in large
sums available for mere seasonal use. It is therefore ob-
vious that the grain trade is unable to finance the crop
movement without external aid.
Credit is the commodity of banks, and the business of
providing credit for financing the crops therefore naturally
falls to these institutions. The banks collect small de-
posits from a large number of people and then lend out the
money so accumulated to those who require it for carrying
on trade and commerce. The depositors receive from the
banks a certain rate of interest and the borrowers are
charged by the banks a higher rate of interest. The sum
gained by the difference in rates of interest serves to pay
the expenses of the banks and to ensure a profit upon their
operations. At the same time, the money which the banks
handle, is made to work both for the depositors and the
borrowers. When the money is needed to buy the grain
as it leaves the farms, the banks make temporary loans to
the elevator companies, the commission merchants, and the
132 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
track buyers, who pay interest for it. When the money
is repaid to the banks, the banks use it again elsewhere in
other seasonal businesses.
The financial business of forwarding the grain of west-
ern Canada to the miller is split into four sections: (1)
from the farm to Fort William and Port Arthur, (2) from
Fort William and Port Arthur to the seaboard or domes-
tic miller, (3) from the seaboard to the foreign grain ex-
change, and (4) from the foreign grain exchange to the
foreign miller. The banks of Canada, through their west-
ern branches, so far as the crop movement is concerned,
practically confine themselves to financing the crop from
the farm to the head of the lakes.
When the movement of the grain from the farms has
once begun and the use of credit has become extensive, it
is very important that the grain shouhl be kept moving
to the lake front as fast as possible. The quicker the
grain can be moved to the lake front and sold for cash, the
shorter is the time during which the money required to
move the grain is employed, and the sooner is this money
available for other purposes. It is thercf ire to the ad-
vantage of every one connected with the grain trade, both
grain dealers and transportation companies, to keep the
grain moving as fast as possible and thus keep credit turn-
ing over. The principle of finance here involved is called
velocity of credit.'^'^ The faster dollars are turned over,
the more work do they perform in a given time and the
greater are their earning powers. Instead of attempting
to finance the western Canadian crop to the seaboard or to
foreign grain exchanges, the Western Canadian bankers
keep their dollars busily engaged in providing for the
financial requirements of trade and commerce within their
own territory.
71 Vide C. B. Piper, loc. cit., pp. 185-180.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 133
Occasionally it happens that the banks have not at their
disposal the whole of the huge sum necessary to finance the
crop movement from the farms to the head of the lakes. It
is then necessary for the banks to seek outside help by bor-
rowing credit from the Government or from some other
source. If, for any reason, the banks did not make credit
available in sufficient quantity to those who buy wheat
from the farmers, the purchasing power of the buyers
would be naturally restricted, the farmers would tend to
sacrifice their grain for unduly low prices, and the whole
machinery of the grain trade would be seriously affected.
It is thus seen that the normal functioning of the banks
is of the very highest importance both to the grain growers
and the grain buyers.
When an elevator company buys grain in the country,
it pays cash to the farmer, using money borrowed from
the bank; and it then immediately re-sells the wheat at a
slightly higher price on the Winnipeg Grain Exchange as
a future, i. e., for delivery in some future month at Fort
William or Port Arthur. This operation is known as
hedging. The immediate re-selling of the grain as a future
protects the elevator company against loss by a possible
fall in the market during the weeks or months that the
grain is en route to the head of the lakes, enables the
company to make a definite small profit on each transac-
tion, and, at the same time, protects the bank from which
credit has been borrowed. The selling of cash grain as
futures serves as a means of eliminating speculation from
the business of the elevator companies ; and one of the
most important and beneficial functions of the Grain
Exchange is that of providing the machinery by which
such selling is accomplished. Were this machinery not
always available, the banks could not afford to lend their
money for moving the grain as cheaply as they do, and
134 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
the grain growers in consequence would obtain less for
their wheat.
XXIX. The Flour Mills of Western Canada
The flour mills of western Canada, as elsewhere, are
situated where power is cheap and shipping facilities are
most favorable. These strategic points are to be found
at Fort William on Lake Superior, at Keewatin and
Kenora on the Lake of the Woods, at Winnipeg, and at
various other localities on the trunk lines of railways.
The mills at Keewatin and Kenora are driven directly by
water power, whilst those at Fort William and Winnipeg
are driven by electric power derived from waterfalls.
It is interesting to note that the three mills at Medicine
Hat obtain their power from natural gas which is used
to drive electric motors.
In the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta,
and British Columbia, there are 148 flour mills having a
daily capacity of 36,000 barrels; and, in addition, there
are nine mills having a daily capacity of 3,200 barrels,
which produce rolled oats and oatmeal. "^^ By provinces
the statistics for the flour mills are as follows:
Number Capacity
of in barrels
mills per day
Manitoba 35 15,000
Saskatchewan 61 9,110
Aberta 49 10,950
British Columbia 3 700
Totals 148 35,760
Fort William, Keewatin, and Kenora are situated in
the Province of Ontario but to the west of the Great Lakes
72 As fixed by law, one barrel of flour contains 196 pounds standard
weight of flour. Two bags make one barrel, and a bag of flour there-
fore contains 98 pounds.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 135
and in the Western Grain Inspection Division. The mills
which they contain, although belonging to an eastern
province, are therefore western for all practical purposes.
A considerable number of the mills of western Canada
are known as Midget mills. The Midget mill is con-
structed bj the manufacturer of a standard size. When a
mill is ordered, the parts are shipped to the buyer and,
upon arriving at their destination, are rapidly put to-
gether, so that the mill may be operated at once. On the
other hand, western Canada also possesses some of the
largest, the most modern, and the most highly efficient
mills in the world. Among these may be mentioned the
plants of the Lake of the Woods Milling Company at
Keewatin, which consist of two units capable of grinding
9,000 barrels of flour every day. The Ogilvie Flour Mills
Company Limited — the pioneer company — has plants
at Fort William, Winnipeg, and Medicine Hat, which to-
gether have a capacity of 8,500 barrels daily. This com-
pany also grinds western wheat at Montreal where its
mills have a combined capacity of 8,000 barrels per day.
The Western Canada Flour Mills Company Limited has a
very large mill at Winnipeg with a daily capacity of 5,500
barrels ; and, in addition, it has smaller mills at Brandon
and Calgary. The Maple Leaf Milling Company Limited
has mills at Kenora, Brandon, and Medicine Hat with a
combined daily capacity of 5,000 barrels. The Maple
Leaf Company also grinds western wheat at its great mill
at Port Colborne on Lake Erie in Ontario, this mill having
a daily capacity of 9,000 barrels. The milling system of
all the great roller mills which have here been mentioned,
is known as American as distinguished from the English
system.
Eif ty per cent, of the output of western Canadian flour
mills is exported to other countries, Great Britain being
136 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
by far the largest customer. The rest of the flour is dis-
tributed throughout Canada for domestic consumption.
The total number of flour mills in all Canada is 710
with a daily capacity of 125,000 barrels of flour, of which
in the four provinces of western Canada, as we have seen,
there are 148 mills with a daily capacity of 36,000 bar-
rels. During the food crisis in the crop year 1917-18,
Canada supplied to the Allies in the great war 10,000,000
barrels of much needed flour in addition to her exports
of wheat.*^^
At the entry to the office of the Lake of the Woods
Milling Company, at Winnipeg, stands a quern which was
brought to western Canada from Eussia by the Doukabors
about twenty years ago. As one looks upon it for the
first time, one straightway compares it in the mind's eye
with the great modern roller mill which the Company
owns at Keewatin. How curious and striking is the con-
trast! The quern consists of two stones set one on the
top of the other in a solid wooden stand. The stand rests
on four stout legs and its top is thereby raised about two
and a half feet from the ground. The upper stone which
is pivoted upon the lower one, is flat above and below,
and is cylindrical in form. It measures fifteen inches in
diameter, is about five inches thick, and weighs upwards
of sixty pounds. In its center is a hole into which hand-
fuls of wheat used to be put so that the grain might pass
downwards between the stones. The upper stone was re-
volved by hand with the aid of a short handle ; and, as a
trial proved, a considerable amount of physical energy
must have been expended by the man or woman who
turned it. The flour produced by the grinding came out
laterally between the stones and passed down a groove in
73 For the statistical information given above, I am indebted to the
Northwestern Miller.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 137
the wooden stand into some receptacle provided to collect
it. The quern is now naught but a relic of the past and
reminds one of the fossils of extinct animals which add
so much fascination to the pages of the great book of
the geological record. Since the hey-day of the quern
several centuries ago, the milling industry has been sub-
jected to progressive evolution and, did not history tell
us of its details, we should find it almost as difficult to
realize that the modern roller mill has developed from the
old hand-stone as it is to realize that the swallow and the
seagull have sprung from a cold and slowly creeping
reptile. In contrast with the quern, how complex and
wonderful seems the great Lake of the Woods mill at
Keewatin, with its mighty elevator for storing wheat, its
great warehouse filled with bags and barrels for holding
the mill's end-products, its loading and unloading facili-
ties, its turbine for tapping the giant strength of the river,
its power house, its driving belts, its appliances for clean-
ing and preparing the grain, and above all, in the mill
proper, its automatic machinery which, ever humming at
its work, seems to enjoy its task of reducing the grain into
the finest flour. So continuously, so delicately, so gradu-
ally,^ and yet withal so irresistibly is the reduction process
carried out, and so many are its stages, that one is in-
voluntarily reminded of the reduction and assimilation of
food that goes on in the digestive tract of one of the
higher animals. As one observes the succession of cor-
rugated chilled-iron rollers for breaking open the wheat
berry, the gyrating boxes or plansifters for sifting the
break flour, the dunst, the middlings, and the semolina from
the broken wheat and bran, the purifiers in which the
breath of the mill removes the fine branny particles from
the middlings, the silk bolting cloth of finer and ever finer
mesh for grading the middlings, the smooth rollers, pair
138 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
after pair, for crushing the middlings into flour, the worm
conveyers, the bran collector, the offal grader, the stock-
ings for removing the mill dust, and much else ; and, when
one reflects that the mill works continuously night and
day, week in and week out, with so little manual labor
spent upon its guidance, and yet with thousands of barrels
of flour turned out every day, one cannot help admiring
the ingenuity of man and rejoicing at such evidence of
his mastery over the forces of nature. I^ot small indeed
is the debt of gratitude which Canada owes to the great
inventors of the past who have made her present develop-
ment possible.
XXX. Recent Improvements in the Conditions of
Farm Life
The conditions of farm life on the prairie have been
steadily improved in the last few years owing to the in-
troduction of various conveniences. Farming implements,
such as plows, binders, and threshing machines, have un-
dergone progressive evolution, so that the actual work
of tilling the fields, gathering the crops, and threshing
the grain, has become much more scientific and efficient
than it was. Light metal-frame wind-mills have been
erected on many farms as a source of power for pumping
water but are now being largely replaced by engines burn-
ing liquid fuel.
The gasolene or kerosene engine has been a particularly
welcome addition to the farm and is now much used to
save both time and manual labor. "^^ Smaller engines are
employed for pumping water, and for operating the milk-
ing machine (with which several cows may be milked at
one and the same time), the cream-separator, the churn,
74 Kerosene, on account of its cheapness and efficiency in producing
power, is now becoming a popular substitute for gasolene.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 139
the washing machine, the grindstone, and the fanning
mill for cleaning grain intended for seed. Larger engines
are employed for chopping roots and grinding grain for
feed, for cutting wood, and for running the threshing ma-
chine.
The tractor, which is essentially a gasolene or kerosene
locomotive, is now beginning to replace the horse in the
work of plowing and of transporting heavy loads of grain
to the elevators, etc. It is also used, where it is available,
instead of the stationary gasolene or kerosene engine, to
drive the larger threshing machines.
One of the most recently perfected conveniences is the
isolated farm lighting plant which has already been in-
stalled on many large farms. The gasolene or kerosene
engine and the electric generator may be combined in one
fixture or be separate so that the engine is movable. The
electricity produced in the generator is usually conducted
to storage batteries, and these can be sufficiently charged
in a few hours to serve the lighting system for a week.
The current may also be taken directly from the generator
and be employed either for giving light or, through the
medium of a motor, for driving the various machines in
the home. The electric lighting system is used for illum-
inating not merely the farm house but also the barns, the
stables, the yards, and even the chicken houses, with a
consequent falling into disuse of the time-honored but
troublesome coal-oil lamp and lantern, and a correspond-
ing diminution in the risk of fire.
Sanitation has been improved by the proper installa-
tion of mangers, stalls, and floors in horse and cattle
stables. Owing to this change, the work of tending live-
stock has become much more pleasant and healthful than
it was. Many farms are now equipped with an aseptic
tank and a running-water system which give conveniences
140 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
in the lavatory and kitchen of the same nature as those
common] J enjoyed in a city home.
Millions of trees supplied from the Dominion Arbore-
tum at Indian Head and from other centers, have been
planted on the farms where they act as v^ind-breaks, pro-
vide wood-lots for the supply of firewood and small tim-
ber, give relief to the unbroken sky line, and add a note of
distinction and attractiveness to the home. Here, too,
may be mentioned the phonograph. Before its introduc-
tion, in many an isolated farm house, the sound of musical
instruments and the voice of song were rarely or never
heard; but now, with the assistance of the phonograph,
the spare hours may be pleasantly beguiled with reproduc-
tions of the best that the musical world can provide.
The telephone of which there is a web of wires in most
rural communities, and the motor car which is now ex-
ceedingly popular with the farmer and his wife, have
drawn the farms together and have done much to annihilate
the great spaces of the prairie. In cases of childbirth or
of sudden illness, it is now much more easy than it was
to summon and obtain medical assistance. The motor
car permits of increased social intercourse between the
families of neighboring farms, and the telephone keeps
the farmer in touch with the world's markets. One of
the amenities of life made possible by the introduction
of the telephone is the playing of interf arm chess matches
during the long winter evenings.
It is probable that in the near future wireless telegra-
phy will be used to connect the pioneers of outlying set-
tlements, survey parties, and explorers with older com-
munities, and that the aeroplane will find employment in
hastening the transportation of rural mails, of postal
packets, and possibly even of agriculturalists. The car-
riage of freight by dirigibles or other flying machines
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 141
has not yet been placed on a commercial basis ; but, should
that happen in the near or distant future, it might well
have a very important effect not only upon farm life but
upon the whole course of the grain business.
XXXI. The Agrarian Movement
For the purpose of advancing their social and economic
interests, the farmers of the West have organized them-
selves into associations in each of the three Prairie Pro-
vinces. The movement began in 1901 at Indian Head and
spread rapidly, with the result that there are now in exist-
ence: in Manitoba, The Manitoba Grain Growers Associa-
tion; in Saskatchewan, The Saskatchewan Grain Growers
Association ; and, in Alberta, The United Farmers of Al-
berta. Each of these associations has its local units scat-
tered throughout its own province. For the last few years,
therefore, the farmers of the West have had an opportunity
of realizing the power and the benefits that accrue from
organization. The latest phase of this activity is the
adoption of a political platform which may lead to legis-
lation of great importance not only to all grain growers but
to the whole of the Dominion of Canada.
To advance their business interests, the farmers of the
West have organized two great trading companies in which
there are already 65,000 shareholders. These companies
are: United Grain Growers Limited, and The Sashatche-
luan Co-operative Elevator Company. The former car-
ries on a general grain business through its country ele-
vators scattered throughout the three provinces and, by
means of oars consigned by farmers, handles live-stock on
commission, and supplies farmers with machinery and
general commodities. The latter handles grain through
its elevators or on consignment, but, as yet, has not en-
142 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
tered the live-stock business and does not deal in macliinery
or supplies. The Saskatchewan Grain Growers Associa-
tion, through its central office at Regina, has undertaken
trading activities in farm implements and other farm
needs.
Shortly after the Grain Growers Grain Company "^^ be-
gan its grain business in 1906, it was found that the or-
ganized farmers of the Prairie Provinces needed a pub-
lication that would be free to speak out frankly on ques-
tions in which the farmers were interested. The Grain
Growers Guide was therefore established for this pur-
pose; and it began its issues at Winnipeg in 1908. It is
the official organ of the associations in each of the three
provinces, and now has a circulation of 51,000 copies
per week — the largest circulation of any farm paper in
the West.
The farmers' trading companies control over 600 coun-
try elevators and also have at their disposal immense stor-
age space in terminal elevators at Port William and Port
Arthur. United Grain Growers Limited own a house
at Port Arthur with a capacity of 600,000 bushels, and
have also leased from the Canadian Pacific Railway Com-
pany at Port William a terminal elevator that holds
2,500,000 bushels. The Saskatchewan Co-operative Ele-
vator Company has a 2,500,000-bushel elevator at Port
Arthur, so that the total storage capacity of the farmers'
75 The Grain Growers Grain Company was the first of the farmers'
trading companies and was organized in 1906 without Government
aid. It was interprovincial in character. In 1913, The Alberta
Farmers Co-operative Elevator Company was organized for the prov-
ince of Alberta with Government aid. In 1917, the Grain Growers
Grain Company and the Alberta Farmers' Co-operative Elevator Com-
pany amalgamated their interests, so as to form United Grain Grow-
ers Limited. The Saskatchewan Co-operative Elevator Company was
organized in 1911 on a strictly provincial basis and received GpV'
ernment assistance.
WHEAT IN WESTERN CANADA 143
terminal elevators at the water front of Lake Superior is
5,600,000 bushels. Before the war, The Grain Growers
Export Company, a subsidiary company of United Grain
Growers Limited, was also doing an immense export busi-
ness from New York. Two years ago, however, its full
office equipment was turned over to the British Govern-
ment for the benefit of the Allies in the war.
As bearing upon the progress and power of the farmers'
companies, it is interesting to note that, following the big
crop of 1915, these companies actually handled for the
farmers close upon 100,000,000 bushels of grain ; and also
that, in the year ending August 31, 1018, the value of
the machinery and supplies sold to farmers by the farm-
ers' companies amounted to about $8,000,000.
CHAPTEE III
The Discoveky and Inteoduction of Marquis
Wheat
I. Introduction
Mabquis Wheat is a household word in western
Canada, for it is the chief variety of wheat grown in Al-
berta and Manitoba, while in Saskatchewan it forms about
90 per cent, of the crop. Moreover, its cultivation has
increased the wealth of western Canada by many millions
of dollars a year. It is therefore well worth while to in-
quire how Marquis wheat came into existence and to
whom the credit is due for supplying it to the farmers
in the first place.
The history of Marquis wheat is by no means so well
known as it deserves to be, and various more or less
erroneous ideas are current concerning it. In the in-
terests of truth, therefore, as well as with a view to sup-
plying information which should be a source of satisfac-
tion to every patriotic Canadian, the writer here records
the results of his own inquiry into the matter. The facts
with regard to the origin of Marquis, about to be com-
municated, were obtained in part by the consultation of
documents but, in the main, by interviewing Dr. Charles
E. Saunders, who isolated Marquis more than a decade
ago and whose modesty is only equaled by his skill and
devotion as Dominion Cerealist.
II. Dr. William Saunders and His Assistants
Dr. William Saunders, the organizer and first Director
of the Dominion Experimental Farms, conceived the idea
144
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 145
of improving plants by breeding; and in this work he
employed the services of several men, including his two
sons, C. E. Saunders (now Dominion Cerealist) and
A. P. Saunders. Before becoming Director of the Ex-
perimental Earms, Dr. William Saunders devoted him-
self to producing new and better fruits by cross-breeding.
Special attention was paid to raspberries, currants, goose-
berries, and grapes, and with these he achieved consider-
able success. One of his grapes, Emerald, obtained an
award at the Indian and Colonial Exhibition in 1886;
and even to-day two of his gooseberries. Pearl and Josselyn
(his Red Jacket), are well known, and two of his black
currants. Climax and Saunders, are considered excellent.
After becoming Director in 1886, Dr. Saunders continued
his work on fruits with especial reference to hardy apples
for the Canadian Korth-West.^ However, he also struck
out in new directions. In particular, he focussed his at-
tention upon wheat and began a long series of observa-
tions and experiments directed toward the improvement
of the varieties then being grown in Canada.^
Eed Eife became the standard variety of wheat in
western Canada in the early eighties of the last century.
It was not only very productive but possessed excellent
milling and baking qualities, so that it was prized by
1 Mr. W. T. Macoim, the Dominion Horticulturalist, is continuing
the work of Dr. Saunders on hardy apples. Vide W. T. Macoun,
The Apple in Canada, Its Cultivation and Improvement, Bulletin
No. 86, Dominion of Canada Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Horti-
culture, Ottawa, 1917.
For a historical sketch of the work of Dr. Saunders in improving
the currant, gooseberry, and raspberry, vide Bulletin No. 56 on
"Bush Fruits" bv W. T. Macoun, 1907, pp. 62-64. Dr. Saunders'
first crosses were made with gooseberries in 1868.
2 Vide Experimental Farms Reports and Bulletins from 1888 on-
wards; also Dr. W. Saunders' Review of the Work with Wheat at
the Experimental Farms in the Experimental Farms Reports for
1903, pp. 13-15.
146 ESSAYS ON" WHEAT
millers and bakers alike; and its first grade, Manitoba
No, 1 Hard, fetched the highest price in the British market
and became famous throughout the world. Unfortu-
nately, however, in years with early frosts, Red Fife was
often frozen in the fields; and, when this happened, the
farmers cried out for a variety of wheat which would
mature a few days earlier in the season. In the hope of
meeting this demand. Dr. William Saunders imported a
considerable number of varieties of wheat from many
different countries, grew them alongside of Red Fife at
the various Experimental Farms, and thus made a large
number of comparative observations on their time of ripen-
ing and their yield. Some of these wheats were brought
from the colder districts of northern Russia, verging on
the Arctic circle, some from other countries in northern
parts of Europe, others from different altitudes in the
Himalaya Mountains of India — from 500 feet to as high
as 11,000 feet which is about the limit for wheat grow-
ing in that range — and yet others from the United States
of America, from Australia, and from Japan. Most of
these wheats, such as those from the north-western parts of
the United States and from Australia, proved to be as
late in ripening as, or even later than. Red Fife, but the
Russian and Indian wheats usually ripened earlier. How-
ever, some of the earlier sorts were inferior in their milling
and baking qualities, and others gave such small crops
that the growing of most of them had to be abandoned.
For a time Dr. Saunders thought that Ladoga, a hard
red Russian wheat which grows in latitude 60 near
Lake Ladoga, north of Petrograd, and by latitude 600
miles north of Winnipeg, would solve the problem with
which he was confronted, for it was found to ripen its
grains over the whole Dominion about ten days earlier than
Red Fife and also to give a good yield. After being tested
Fig. 21. The late Dr. William Saunders, the father of Dr. Charles
Saunders, the first Director of the Dominion Experimental Farms, and
the originator of Preston and Huron wheats.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 147
at the Experimental Farms, therefore, it was sent out to
several hundreds of farmers in the North-West, a large
number of whom reported favorably upon it.^ Thirty
years ago, however, it was impossible to make satisfactory
milling and baking tests, as is done now, with a few pounds
of wheat only, and some hundreds of bushels were needed
for this purpose. It was therefore necessary to wait
several years before enough Ladoga could be procured
to find out what qualities its flour really had. At length
Messrs. McLauchlin and Moore of the Eoyal Flour Mills,
Toronto, agreed to make a thorough test if a car-load
of Ladoga wheat could be supplied them. In 1892, there-
fore, the required car-load was obtained by Mr. Angus
McKay of Indian Head from the Prince Albert district
in Saskatchewan and conveyed to Toronto. Here the
milling test was carried out by the Royal Flour Mills and
the baking tests by several of the leading bakers of the
city. The results of these tests were sadly disappoint-
ing, for Ladoga flour proved to be deficient in strength
and produced bread which was very yellow in color and
of a coarse texture. Thus the hope of replacing Red
Fife by the earlier-ripening Ladoga, for export purposes,
was completely shattered.^
Whilst making his vain search for a foreign early-
ripening variety of wheat which should possess, in addi-
tion to marked earliness, the high productiveness and
the excellent milling and baking qualities of Red Fife,
Dr. William Saunders was also endeavoring to obtain the
ideal wheat by combining the good qualities of two or
3 Ladoga Wheat ; Part I by Wm. Saunders ; Part II, Report on the
Chemical Composition and Physical Characters of Ladoga, Red Fife
and other varieties of wheat by F. T. Shutt, Bulletin No. 4, Cen-
tral Experimental F'arm, Ottawa, 1889.
4 William Saunders, Ladoga Wheat, Bulletin No. 18, Central Ex-
perimental Farm, Ottawa, 1893.
148 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
more varieties. The method employed was that of cross-
breeding, and the first crosses were made at the Central
Experimental Farm at Ottawa on July 19, 1888. The
pollen was taken from the flower of one kind of wheat
and placed on the stigma of another kind from which the
stamens had been removed; and the cross-bred kernel re-
sulting was saved as seed for the next year.^ Many hun-
dreds of crosses were made in this way, particularly be-
tween Ked Fife or White Fife as one parent and an early-
ripening wheat, such as Ladoga or one of the Indian
wheats, as the other. Dr. William Saunders himself made
many of these crosses at Ottawa but a large number of
others were made by Dr. A. P. Saunders, Dr. C. E. Saund-
ers, and Mr. W. T. Macoun, and a few by Mr. J. L.
McMurray, all of whom acted as his assistants.® In 1892,
Dr. A. P. Saunders was sent to the Experimental Farms
at Brandon in Manitoba, at Indian Head in Saskatche-
wan, and at Agassiz in British Columbia for the purpose
of making further crosses ; "^ and the cross-bred kernels
which had been produced in the West, or their progeny,
were subsequently transferred to Ottawa where the chief
work of selection was carried out. As a result of these
selections, a considerable number of wholly or partially
purified new varieties of wheat were gradually isolated.
By the year 1901, fifty-eight of these varieties which had
undergone plot tests, had received names, and a statement
5 W. Saunders, How Varieties of Cross-Bred and Hybrid Grains
Are Produced, Experimental Farms Reports for 1896, pp. 21-22.
The illustrations were drawn by C. E. Saunders. For a minute de-
scription of the method of cross-pollination employed by C. E.
Saunders twelve years later, vide Experimental Farms Reports for
1908, p. 212.
6 C/. Experimental Farms Reports: for 1896, p. 20; for 1897,
pp. 16-17; for 1898, p. 27; for 1900, pp. 14-15; and for 1901, pp.
15-17.
7 Experimental Farms Report: for 1892, p. 234; for 1893, p. 336.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 149
had been issued for each as to its parentage, the year
the cross was made, the place where the cross was made,
and the name of the cross-breeder who made the cross. ^
Some of these named varieties were distributed to the
farmers of the West ; and among the most noteworthy of
them were : Preston and Stanley, each derived from a cross
between Red Fife and Ladoga, and Huron and Perry, each
derived from a cross between White "Fife and Ladoga.
The four crosses from which these four cross-bred wheats
originated, were all made at the Central Experimental
Farm at Ottawa, the first two by Dr. William Saunders
himself and the last two by his son, Dr. A. P. Saunders.
These four wheats all ripen a few days earlier than Red
Fife but have various defects, especially in regard to their
milling and baking qualities. This makes them unde-
sirable for export from western Canada, and in conse-
quence they have only been grovm there on a relatively
small scale; but a considerable amount of Preston, some-
times under other names, is still grown in the great central
spring-wheat region of the United States.^
8 Experimental Farms Report: for 1896, p. 20; for 1897, pp. 16-17;
for 1898, p. 27; for 1900, pp. 14-15; and for 1901, pp. 15-17.
9 The Preston originated by William Saunders was grown at the
Minnesota Agricultural Station in 1895 as Minnesota No. 188 and
was distributed under this number. The seed soon appeared for
sale imder various new names ; and in a few years it could scarcely
be found under its real name in the U. S. A. By the boards of
trade of Minneapolis and Chicago, it was wrongly called Velvet
Chaff, for it has a hairless chaff; and on the farms it was called
Early Java, South Dakota Climax, Bearded Fife, Red Fife, Min-
nesota No. 188, and Velvet Chaff. Under one or other of these
names Preston has given good yields in central and eastern South
Dakota and is rather widely grovm there. It is found commonly
also in eastern North Dakota and in parts of Minnesota. Selec-
tions of Preston have been given a series of Cereal Investigation
numbers. These facts are stated by C. R. Ball in Varieties of Hard
Spring Wheat, Farmers' Bulletin No. 680, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, 1915, pp. 15-16.
150 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
Crossing two kinds of wheat is a relatively simple op-
eration, the technique of which it is not difficult to ac-
quire. However, new varieties are not obtained in one
generation only; for a cross-bred kernel, in succeeding
generations, always gives rise to a large number of plant
types which differ from one another in one or more char-
acters — such as length and strength of straw, length,
compactness, and uprightness of the heads, the color and
hairiness of the chaff, presence or absence of awns, color,
shape, size, and milling qualities of the grains, liability of
the grains to shell, earliness in maturing, resistance to dis-
eases, baking qualities of the flour, and so forth — and
most careful selection through a series of years is neces-
sary in order to isolate the best of its progeny. For this
laborious work. Dr. William Saunders soon came to lack
the necessary leisure. Owing to the great demands which
the ever-growing general work of the Experimental Farms
made upon his time and energies, the task of producing
new wheats suited for the Canadian West had not pro-
ceeded very far before its prosecution came to a stand-
still. Dr. Saunders became so busy that, in the end, he
was unable to exercise even a reasonable supervision of
the wheat-breeding experiments. The result was that for
several years no fresh experiments were undertaken, and
almost all that happened was that the different kinds of
grain were planted out upon the experimental plots and
the little harvests duly gathered in. In this way various
strains of wheat were kept in existence. At length, in
1903, Dr. Charles E. Saunders was appointed by the Gov-
ernment to take up the work of wheat-breeding; and he
thus inherited the whole mass of material which had been
brought together at the Central Experimental Farm. Dr.
William Saunders, after a long and faithful service to
the Dominion, retired in 1911 and passed away in his
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 151
home at London, Ontario, on September 13, 1914, at the
ripe old age of 78. The most important of all the lines of
endeavor which he initiated at Ottawa, undoubtedly, was
the raising of new cereals ; and it is its highly successful
continuation by his third son Charles that we shall now at-
tempt to follow.
III. The Selection of Marquis hy Dr. Charles E. Saunders
Dr. Charles E. Saunders, on becoming the Cerealist for
the Dominion of Canada, took up his quarters at the Cen-
tral Experimental Farm at Ottawa and there carefully
re-selected all the more or less mixed wheats which came
into his hands. The result of this work was that in 1904
he discovered Marquis Wheat. By reference to the ex-
perimental records, proof was obtained that this particular
strain had been produced from one of the crossings made
in 1892 by his brother. Dr. A. P. Saunders, during the
period when Dr. William Saunders and his two sons were
working together. ^^ The male parent of the cross was
Red Fife and the female an early ripening Indian wheat
known as Hard Red Calcutta. It is to be noted, however,
that Hard Red Calcutta is a trade expression, not for one
particular variety of wheat but for a mixture of several
varieties. There must, therefore, always be a certain
amount of doubt as to the exact type which served as
10 Dr. Arthur Percy Saunders took his degree of Ph. D. at Johns
Hopkins University, and is now Professor of Chemistry at Hamilton
College, Clinton, New York State, U. S. A. His father needed
some one with trained fingers to make some cereal crosses, and
Dr. A. P. Saunders therefore undertook this work during one or
two of his summer vacations. Thus his connection with agricul-
ture in the larger sense of the term was of a very temporary nature.
However, the influence of his early years spent at the Experimental
Farm remains with him yet; for, although by profession a chemist,
he is also an enthusiastic amateur florist and a breeder of peonies,
etc.
152 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
the female parent when the cross was made. The result
of the cross, in a few generations, was a mixture of types
including Marquis. Marquis, therefore, remained mixed
with other sorts of wheat until it was discovered in 1904
by Dr. Saunders, in the course of his systematic work of
re-selection of all the mixed wheats which previously had
been produced by cross-breeding at Ottawa. ^^
The work of re-selecting the cross-bred varieties of
wheat which resulted in the discovery of Marquis was no
mean task ; for, altogether, there were nearly one hundred
of these varieties, and each variety (whether recorded un-
der a name or under a numberj contained several strains.
The strains within a single variety often presented radical
11 Cf. C. E. Saunders, Report of the Dominion Cerealist for the
year 1911-1912 in the Annual Report on Experimental Farms,
Ottawa, 1913, pp. 118-119; also, by the same author: Marquis
Wheat, Census and Statistics Monthly, Ottawa, 1911, p. 332. Dr.
Saunders once wrote a brief article on Marquis for the Saskatche-
wan Phoenix; but this I have not seen.
Dr. Saimders, in reference to the cross from which Marquis
originated, says : " The cross was made on one of the branch
experimental farms and the cross-bred seeds, or their progeny, were
subsequently transferred to Ottawa. Here some selection was done,
but the work was not carried far enough to separate out simple
fixed tyj)es. It was therefore a mixture, lacking in uniformity, which
came into the possession of the writer when he took charge of the
Cereal Division. By a careful study of individual plants selected
from the plot, and especially by applying the chewing test to
ascertain the gluten strength and probable bread-making value,
radical differences in quality were found, and a few of the most
promising plants were used as a foundation of the new strains.
These strains were propagated (each separately) for some years
until they had been sufficiently studied to ascertain which was the
best. The best strain was named Marquis." Cereal Breeding in
the Dominion Experimental Farms during the Past Decade, Transac-
tions of the Royal Society of Canada, Third Series, Vol. VII, Section
IV, 1913, p. 152. The branch farms which Dr. A. P. Saunders
visited in 1892 were Brandon, Indian Head, and Agassiz. It is
not certain at which of these farms the cross was made, but Dr.
Charles Saunders thinks it was probably Agassiz,
Fig. 22. A head of
Marquis Wheat. Natural
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 153
differences. Dr. Saunders worked steadily through all
that material, studying head after head and selecting
out as many different and promising ones as he could find.
Each selected strain was then propagated in pure condi-
tion either from a single head or from two or more heads
of a single plant. In subsequent years, those strains
which proved unsatisfactory were rejected and destroyed,
with the result that to-day only a small fraction of the
strains originally selected remain in existence; but this is
as it should be, for good experimental work in plant breed-
ing, by its very nature, always involves an extremely high
percentage of failures. In addition to selecting the best
strains from the cross-bred varieties, Dr. Saunders also re-
selected a considerable number of commercial wheats. All
this work which was carried out systematically year after
year in the faith that something of importance would
result from it, demanded much patience, care, and good
judgment. But the reward was great; for, from among
the hundreds of strains investigated for their various quali-
ties. Marquis finally emerged; and as in successive years
it proved its excellence, first in plot tests, then in fields
upon isolated farms, and finally upon vast stretches of
the sea-wide prairie-land in both Canada and the United
States, Dr. Saunders was given the satisfaction of real-
izing that his bright dream of one day helping the farm-
ers of the Golden West had at last come true.
At first there were only a few grains of the precious
Marquis, all obtained from a single head picked by Dr.
Charles E. Saunders in the summer of 1903 ; but how
great were their potentialities ! These grains were
planted out in the spring of 1904 in a tiny plot in the
experimental garden. Soon they began to sprout, and at
length there was a small patch of green containing only
twelve plants in all. In August the little harvest was
154 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
reaped. The yield was much less than a single pound of
grain; and the first crop of the wheat that was destined
within a dozen years to overtax the mightiest elevators in
the land, was stored away in the winter of 1904-05 in
a paper packet no larger than an envelope. But just as
a few sparks are endowed with tremendous destructive
possibilities, so that, by starting a conflagration, they may
bring red ruin to an ancient city, reducing its treasures
to blackened heaps; so, in happy contrast therewith, the
little collection of grains in the Marquis packet embodied
vast constructive possibilities which, having been for-
tunately realized with the passage of time, have been a
potent factor in the uprearing of many a snug farmhouse
and many a stately civic building. In very deed, that
first handful of Marquis grains has brought naught but
increased prosperity in its wake and by its influence has
made farming on the broad prairie-land a more attractive
industry.
IV. The New Wheat is Named
Dr. Saunders christened his new wheat Marquis for
the simple purpose of distinguishing it from other wheats
of which he already had many kinds in his laboratory;
and up to the present even the most extreme socialist has
never objected to this title.
V. The Qualities of Marquis are Investigated
Dr. Saunders then set to work to investigate the quali-
ties of Marquis. In the first place he observed that it be-
longed to the early group of wheats, i. e., that it ripened
its grains in summer earlier than most of the common
wheats of Canada. Earliness, of course, is a very im-
portant quality, for the sooner the grain ripens, the less
DISCOVEEY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 155
danger is there of its being injured or destroyed by Kust or
early frosts. But another good quality made its appear-
ance as the study of the annual harvests continued, namely,
yield. Marquis was found to give an excellent yield, this
being in part due to the marked plumpness of the grains.
Evidently, therefore, the new wheat behaved well in the
field. But besides good field qualities, it is necessary for
a successful wheat to have good baking and milling quali-
ties. It was essential, therefore, to investigate these lat-
ter also. In the winter of 1903-04, Dr. Saunders did
not possess a well-equipped laboratoiy and had at his
disposal neither a mill to grind wheat into flour nor
an oven to bake bread. But, at that time, even if mills
and ovens had been available, it would have been im-
possible to use them for testing the milling and baking
qualities of Marquis, owing to the fact that the number
of grains with which the tests might be made was limited
to the few that could be spared from the single head of
wheat selected in 1903 for seed purposes. The clew to the
milling and baking qualities of Marquis was therefore ob-
tained by chewing the grains. It was found that on
taking a few grains of the Marquis wheat and chewing
them as if one were chewing chewing-gum, an elastic mass
was obtained which was of good color, i. e., not too yellow
but pale cream or whitish. The color is of importance,
for the lighter it is, the lighter, and therefore more at-
tractive-looking, will be the flour produced from the wheat
in a mill. The light color of the elastic mass, when taken
from the mouth, was therefore all in favor of the Marquis
wheat so far as the miller is concerned. The elasticity
of the mass gave an indication of the way the wheat would
behave as to baking qualities. The elasticity of the mass
produced by chewing a few grains of wheat of different
varieties varies greatly; but, as a rule, the more elastic
156 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
or rubber-like the mass, the bigger the loaf that can be
made from the flour, or, in other words, the better the
baking qualities. The elasticity is due to the quality of
the gluten, a mixture of complex proteins which are present
in the grains along with the starch. Dr. Saunders found
that a few grains of the Marquis wheat, when chewed in
the mouth, produced an elastic mass which was rubber-
like in a high degree, and therefore concluded that Mar-
quis wheat had an excellent quality of gluten and would
make large and palatable loaves. Thus, then, by a care-
ful series of observations extending over three years.
Dr. Saunders discovered that Marquis wheat behaved well
in plot tests in respect to the early ripening of its grains
and in having a good yield, and that it possessed milling
and baking qualities of tb.e most desirable kind.
Dr. Saunders propagated his new wheat from 1904 to
1906, so that it gradually increased in quantity. The few
ounces of grain collected in August, 1904, in successive
harvests increased in amount in geometrical progression,
and, by the autumn of 1906, about two-thirds of a bushel
were available. The chewing tests for milling and baking
qualities were carried out systematically for three years,
in 1904, 1905, and 1906. Toward the close of this period,
a small flour mill, a fermenting-cupboard designed by Dr.
Saunders himself, and an oven, were set up in the cereal
laboratory; and with this apparatus many experiments
were made with different wheats with a view to obtaining
an accurate knowledge of the best methods of carrying out
milling and baking tests. By the year 1906, the crop of
Marquis wheat had at last increased sufficiently to permit
of some of it being made into flour by grinding the grains
in the mill, and of loaves being made by baking in the
oven. Rigorous tests for the milling and baking qualities
of Marquis, made with the new apparatus in the winter
1
W§-^^^^^^^^^K^^^r'
1 ^i ... •^;v'>'"?^lM^^^^^^^^^BI
*lr 'l^^BHri^fll^B^T''^ MB *«'
'1
1
1 ^MyflpHj^^^^^K
1 WM
: ,^^^S%i9Ef^Ml^BIIPi^HPR^^^
i^^^H
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 157
of 1906-07 and the following years, fully confirmed the
original estimates which had been arrived at by using
the teeth as grindstones and the mouth as a substitute for
an oven.
VI. The Introduction of Marquis into Western Canada
In the spring of 1907, all the seed that could be spared,
about 23 lbs., was sent from Ottawa to the Indian Head
Experimental Farm in Saskatchewan, and there the grain
was sown on two plots, one of one-fortieth of an acre and
the other of one-fifth of an acre. In 1908, further tests
were made not only at Indian Head but also at the Brandon
Experimental Farm in Manitoba. The seasons of 1907
and 1908 were somewhat unfavorable for wheat in gen-
eral, and, under these conditions. Marquis did astonish-
ingly well, far better than Eed Fife which had always
been regarded as the best wheat and with which it was
compared in the experimental plots. In the spring of
1909 the distribution of Marquis to the public began.
Four hundred samples were sent out and the farmers who
received them sowed the new wheat in many scattered
places in western Canada. Marquis thus spread from
Saskatchewan to Manitoba on the east and Alberta on
the west But this is not all, for it disregarded the in-
ternational boundary line and peacefully penetrated into
the United States, where it now covers vast areas, more
especially in INTorth Dakota, South Dakota and Minnesota.
Furthermore, it is now much grown in eastern Canada,
especially in Ontario and Quebec; and it has found its
way into the Kamloops district of British Columbia. In
the Maritime Provinces, however, it does not usually do
so well. Its fame has attracted universal attention, and
it is now being tested in almost every wheat-growing
country in the world. Recently it was greatly in demand
158 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
for seed purposes in France but could not be shipped
in the quantity required.
Since the spring of 1909 when farmers began to sow
Marquis for the first time, the growing of this wheat in
Canada has spread enormously, and Marquis is now by far
the chief wheat grown in the West. Practical experience
with Marquis by tens of thousands of farmers on millions
of acres has completely justified the original estimate of
the wheat made by Dr. Saunders in the quiet of his
laboratory. The introduction of Marquis wheat is one of
the greatest practical triumphs that Canada has ever had,
one that is perennially fruitful, not impoverishing but
ever increasing the wealth of our country and making it
a better land to live in. But this is not all, for Marquis
extends its blessings far beyond the bounds of this coun-
try, not merely to the United States of America where
it is also grown on a large scale, but to the Old World.
Especially in Europe, to which it is borne by a great fleet
of ships across the broad Atlantic, it adds to the quantity
and improves the quality of the daily bread of millions of
toilers who have never heard its name.
YII. The Introduction of Marquis into the United States
of America
The invasion of the United States of America by Mar-
quis was rapidly accomplished, and took place in the fol-
lowing manner. After Marquis had been grown in the
Prairie Provinces for a year or two, from 1909 onwards,
farmers in North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, and
neighboring States, soon learned the news of its won-
derful success from their Canadian friends. The result
was that individual farmers in these States imported a
certain amount of the new wheat for seed purposes. The
favorable harvests which they obtained, attracted the at-
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 159
tention of other farmers who also hecame anxious to
give the new wheat a trial. To meet this demand, several
car-loads of additional seed were imported by various
seed firms in N^orth Dakota in 1912. ^¥lien Marquis be-
gan to arrive at the big flour mills of Minneapolis, the
millers immediately recognized its fine milling and baking
qualities; and they became enthusiastic advocates of its
introduction into the N"orthwestern States. Tor example,
the Eussell, Miller Milling Company of Minneapolis, in
the fall of 1913, made arrangements with the Angus
McKay Farm Seed Company of Indian Head for the
importation of nearly 100,000 bushels of Marquis from
the Indian Head and Eegina regions; and they supplied
this seed to the farmers of I^orth Dakota, Minnesota, etc.,
at cost. In order to make certain that this large amount
of seed should be of first-class quality, the Russell, Miller
Milling Company communicated with Professor H. L.
Bolley, the Seed Commissioner for E'orth Dakota, and re-
quested him to inspect the fields from which the seed was
to come. Professor Bolley, who had long been convinced
of the importance of bringing into the United States seed-
wheat of high quality and who had perceived the good
qualities of Marquis when grown on his experimental plots
at Fargo, gladly undertook the mission; and the 100,000
bushels of Marquis duly arrived at its destination in ex-
cellent condition. ^^ A further 37,000 bushels were im-
12 The above facts were obtained by personal inquiry from Pro-
fessor H. L. Bolley at Fargo, and from Mr. H. S. Helm of the
Russell, Miller Milling Co., at Minneapolis. Mr. D. G. Mackay, of
the Angus Mackay Farm Seed Co., gave the following additional
information. The first two bushels exported by the Angus Mackay
Farm Seed Co. were sent to the Northrup, King Co., of Minneapolis
in 1910. This Company sent the two bushels to a farmer who
lived near Grand Forks, N. D., in the Red River Valley; and the
farmer contracted to increase it in amount for the Company. By
the autumn of 1912, the crop had already become large and it was
shipped as a car lot to the Russell, Miller Milling Co., at Minneapolis,
160 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
ported for seed purposes and supplied to the farmers at cost
by the Andrews Grain Company, also of Minneapolis.^^
Other firms made similar importations on a smaller scale,
so that, altogether, about 200,000 bushels of Marquis
were brought across the Line and made available for seed
in the spring of 1913. In 1914 still more Canadian
Marquis was brought in. Most of the imported seed was
sold in Minnesota, North Dakota, and Montana, and small
quantities in Iowa, Nebraska, South Dakota, and Wash-
ington. The importations for 1913 and 1914, together
with the seed grown at home in 1913, sufficed to sow about
haH a million acres in 1914. The total crop of Marquis
in the United States, in the fall of 1914, was probably
about 7,000,000 bushels and of this 6,360,000 bushels were
produced in Minnesota and the two Dakotas.^* This crop
gave a large supply of home-grown seed and in conse-
quence importations of further seed from Canada prac-
tically ceased.^®
This firm's analyst immediately recognized the high gluten con-
tents of the new wheat with the result that the Russell, Miller Milling
Co. made further enquiries about Marquis and initiated their cam-
paign for its introduction into the Northwestern States.
13 From the records of the Andrews Grain Company. The in-
formation was kindly supplied to me by Mr. Godfrey at an in-
terview in the office of the firm.
14 C. R. Ball and J. A. Clark, Experiments with Marquis Wheat,
Bulletin No. 400, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Oct., 1916, p. 4.
15 The following are the firms which purchased Marquis seed
from the Angus McKay Farm Seed Co., or through it, during the
first distribution of the seed in the United States, and the number
of bushels of seed which each bought:
Firms Locality Bushels
Russell, Miller Milling Co Minneapolis 111,552
Andrews Grain Co Minneapolis 40,620
Northrup Grain Co Minneapolis 11,000
D. B. Shaw Tower City, N. D 6,400
Harvey Milling Co Harvey, N. D 2,500
Crookston Milling Co Crookston, Minn 2,500
DISCOVEKY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 161
The result of importing and growing the seed of Mar-
quis on a large scale was that this wheat made very rapid
strides in the Northwestern States. Thus in North
Dakota, by 1915 — a year when this State is reported
to have produced 152,000,000 bushels of wheat ^^ — a
very large percentage of the crop, at least 25 per cent., con-
sisted of Marquis; ^'^ and now (1918) Marquis is the chief
bread-wheat grown there, forming perhaps 75 per cent,
of the whole crop.^^
In North Dakota, owing to general farming operations,
particularly the uninterrupted wheat culture on the same
land year after year, the wheat in that State, previously
to the introduction of Marquis, had become very gener-
ally mixed through additions made by volunteer wheats,
etc. One of the evil consequences of this was that the
ripening of the grain in the fields was irregular : the heads
did not all mature at the same time and farmers found
themselves in difficulty in deciding the time of cutting.
Firms Locality Bushels
W. J. Jennison Co Minneapolis 2,500
Baldwin Flour Mills Moorhead, Minn 2,000
McGill and Co Fargo, N". D 1,100
L. L. May and Co St. Paul, Minn 1,000
Hanson and Barson Thief River Falls 1,000
Total 182,172
The direct importers of a large portion of these lots of wheat was
the 0. J. Barnes Co., of Grand Forks, N. D. ; and this firm there-
fore played an important part in introducing Marquis into the
United States. Information supplied by the Angus Mackay Farm
Seed Co.
16 Year Book of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for 1915,
p. 422.
17 This estimate is lower than that made for me by Professor
Bolley of the North Dakota Agricultural College and by Mr.
H. S. Helm of the Russell, Miller Milling Co., but is in accord
with the Table given further within this Section.
18 Estimate made by Professor H. L. Bolley of the North Dakota
Agricultural College.
162 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
And when the crop was harvested and sent to the mills,
analysis showed that samples of what was nominally a
single kind of wheat, such as Bluestem, contained all sorts
of kernels, and were very unequal with respect to gluten
contents. The want of uniformity in the crops of Pres-
ton and Bluestem which were once the principal wheats
grown in North Dakota, was one of the chief business
difficulties with which millers had to contend, l^ow Mar-
quis, in 1913, was a fresh stock of wheat of uniform
variety. It came to North Dakota just when the need of
more uniform seed was most felt ; and by replacing mixed
wheats, apart from its good qualities of high yield, earli-
ness, etc., it proved a great boon to farmers and millers
alike and gave a new impetus to wheat culture.
In Minnesota, Marquis constitutes more than one-half
and approaching three-quarters of the crop of spring
wheat. ^^ Of the acreage in this rich State devoted to
wheat this year, 1918, only 80,000 acres (chiefly in the
extreme south) were sown with winter wheat, whereas
about 4,000,000 acres were sown with spring wheat.^*^
Now if we take one-half of this 4,000,000, namely 2,000,-
000 acres, as having been sown with Marquis; and, fur-
ther, if we assume that the average number of bushels
of wheat per acre will be the same as it was for spring
wheat in 1917, namely 17.5 ; ^i then the yield of Mar-
quis in Minnesota this year will be approximately 35,000,-
000 bushels. If, however, we assume, as seems almost
certain, that at least 65 per cent, of the total crop will be
Marquis, and that the total crop of spring wheat in Min-
nesota this year will be as estimated on September 1,
19 Facts supplied by Professor Andrew Boss of the Agronomy De-
partment of the University of Minnesota.
20 Ibid.
21 Year Book of the United States Department of Agriculture for
1917, p. 617.
DISCOVEKY OF MARQUIS WHEAT
163
1918, namely 72,417,000 bushels,^^ then to this crop
Marquis will contribute approximately 47,000,000 bushels.
These estimates are sufficient to indicate to how great an
extent Marquis must have replaced other grains such as
Preston and Bluestem in Minnesota in the short period
of five years which began in 1913 when it was first in-
troduced from Canada on a large scale. But the end is
not yet ; for Marquis is becoming more and more favored
Fig. 28. Reference map for the United States.
by the farmers owing to its excellent yield, its plump,
heavy, rich red-colored, highly uniform grains, its earli-
ness, and its value to millers, and it appears destined in
the very near future still further to strengthen its posi-
tion as the dominant spring wheat of Minnesota.
One of the maps in the excellent Geography of the
World's Agriculture, recently published at Washington,
shows the distribution of spring wheat in the United
22 Monthly Crop Report, October, 1918, Bureau of Crop Estimates,
Washington.
164 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
States.^^ A single black dot, in any locality, indicates
a crop from 5,000 acres. A glance at the map shows that
the dots are most densely aggregated in Xorth Dakota,
South Dakota, and Minnesota ; and thus, by a pictorial set-
ting forth of statistical data, one at once becomes con-
vinced that these three States are the chief of those that
grow spring wheat. A further study of the map reveals
the fact that spring wheat is also largely grown in Mon-
tana as well as in a belt of States surrounding those al-
ready named, and in scattered districts elsewhere. N^ow
Marquis is a spring wheat, and on this account its dis-
tribution is of necessity confined to the spring-wheat States
where of course it has to compete with other spring wheats
of which the chief are Velvet Chaff (Preston), Fife (also
called Red Fife, Scotch Fife, etc.), and Bluestem. The
first four States in order of importance, so far as Marquis
is concerned, are: Xorth Dakota, Minnesota, South Da-
kota, and Montana ; but Marquis is also grown, although
in much smaller quantities: to the south, in western 'Ne-
braska; to the west, at certain altitudes in Colorado, in
Wyoming, at altitudes between 800 and 4,500 feet in
Idaho, and in the State of Washington ; and to the east,
in Iowa, Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and K'ew
York.^* In the spring of this year, 1918, in order to in-
crease the supply of bread for the Allies in the Great War,
the farmers of the six last-mentioned easterly States con-
siderably extended their spring-wheat area, so that it be-
came much greater than it had been in 1917. To provide
seed for the additional land. Marquis was made available
23 Finch and Baker, Geography of the World's Agriculture, U. S.
Department of Agriculture, Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton, 1917.
24 For this geographical information I am indebted to Mr. C. R.
Ball of Washington, Dr. E. K. Stakman of St. Paul, and to Dr.
Charles E. Saunders.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 165
in large quantities at Minneapolis, Buffalo, and at other
places, so that it is probable that this year one-half the
spring wheat in the six States under discussion has con-
sisted of this variety.^^
Marquis was first grown in the Pacific ISTorthwest in
considerable quantities during the season 1914. The in-
crease was sold for seed, and by 1916 Marquis began to
be shipped away. Some of it found its way to the mark-
ets of the Central States; and this led Professor C. IT.
Bailey to make a careful investigation of its qualities.
He visited the so-called Inland Empire and found that the
greater part of the Marquis wheat was being raised : in the
Palouse district near Pullman (Washington) and Mos-
cow (Idaho), in the Xez Perce district, particularly
around Genesee and Lewiston (Idaho), and on the Camas
Prairie between Eeubens and Grangeville (Idaho). Pro-
fessor Bailey collected samples of the wheat in all these
districts, tested them in his laboratory at the University
of Minnesota, and came to the conclusion that the soft red
and white wheats of the Inland Empire districts, such as
Jones Winter Fife, Little Cliib, Red Russian, and Forty-
fold, are generally inferior in baking qualities to Marquis
and Turkey wheat grown in the same localities.^^
To what extent, in the end. Marquis will establish itself
in the Pacific Northwest, is as yet uncertain. It appears
to be particularly well adapted to the higher altitudes of
the Camas Prairie, since it matures there sufficiently early
to escape the frost of late summer.^''' Moreover, as we
have seen, Pacific Northwest Marquis has come off with
25 From information sent in a letter by Mr. C. K. Ball, of the
Office of Cereal Investigations, Washington.
26 C. H. Bailey, The Quality of Western-grown Spring Wheat,
Journal of the American Society of Agronomy, Vol. 9, 1917, pp.
155-161.
27 C. H. Bailey, loc. cit., p. 156.
166 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
flving colors in the baking tests ; but there is another fact
of importance to consider, namely, yield. Messrs. Ball
and Clark have come to the conclusion that while in the
great central spring-wheat States Marquis out-yields the
other Common spring-wheats, yet west of the Rocky Moun-
tains, at various stations, Marquis is out-yielded by the
standard varieties of soft white spring wheats and by sev-
eral other varieties newly introduced.^^ Marquis must
therefore be considered as still on trial in the Pacific
Northwest, and a few more years must pass before its
exact position in respect to other wheats has there become
a settled one.
In Montana, Marquis formed 45 per cent, of the wheat
crop in 1917, as against 40 per cent, for winter wheat
and 8 per cent, for Durum. Marquis out-yielded Durum,
but was itself out-yielded by winter wheat to the extent
of 3.2 bushels per acre.^^ However, winter wheat in
Montana is not a uniform success; for, in the principal
spring-wheat sections of this State, early in the spring
of 1916, a thaw followed by a frost killed most of the fall-
sown Turkey wheat. In consequence of this, a large part
of the Turkey-wheat acreage was reseeded to Marquis,
which thus made a proportionate gain over its competi-
tors.3o
In order to realize the bcftter with what speed Marquis
has increased its cultivation in the four chief spring-wheat
States, and to perceive the effect which Marquis has had
upon other kinds of wheat in the vast struggle for varietal
predominance upon the western plains, we shall now turn
our attention to certain data recently published by the
28 C. R. Ball and J. Allen Clark, Experiments with. Marquis wheat,
Bulletin No. 400, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, October, 1916, pp. 27, 35, 40, etc.
29 For these data, see the table which follows.
30 C. H. Bailey, loc. cit., p. 158.
Fig. 29. Spike of Marquis wheat compared with spikes of Minnesota standard
varieties. A, Minnesota No. 163 or Glyndon Fife; B, Marquis; C, Minnesota
No. 160 or Haynes' Bluestem; D, Velvet Chaff (Preston). Natural size. From
Bulletin No. 137 on Marquis Wheat by A. C. Arnv and C. H. Bailev. Courtesy of
the United States Department of Agriculture.
•••••MM*
••••M*^«*
Fig. 3U. Kernels of Marquis wheat compared with kernels of Minne-
sota standard varieties. A, Minnesota Xo. 169 or Haynes' Bluestem;
B, Marquis; C, Minnesota No. 163 or Glyndon Fife; D, Velvet Chaff
(Preston). Twice natural size. From Bulletin No. 137 on Marquis
Wheat by A. C. Arny and C. H. Bailey. Courtesy of the United States
Department of Agriculture.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 167
Bureau of Crop Estimates at Washington.^^ These data,
reproduced below in their original tabular form, provide
us with the estimated percentage which each important
variety of wheat contributed to the crop of wheat in Min-
nesota and the two Dakotas in each of the years 1914, 1916
and 1917, and similar figures for Montana in 1917. For
1915, however, the estimates are lacking except for Durum.
Velvet Chaff is another name for Preston.
Percentages of the Total Crop for the Chief Wheat Varieties
MINNE-
SOTA
1917 ...
1916 ...
1915 ....
1914 ...
NORTH
DAKOTA
1917
1916
1915
1914
SOUTH
DAKOTA
1917
1916
1915
1914
MON-
TANA
1917
Mar-
quis
Per
cent.
46.0
30.7
3.0
43.0
38.3
5.0
43.0
22.5
3.0
45.0
Velvet
Chaff
Per
cent.
26.0
28.9
30.0
10.0
12.2
11.0
20.0
28.4
31.0
1.0
Blue-
stem
Per
cent.
18.0
30.8
52.0
12.0
14.1
45.0
11.0
22.8
30.0
3.0
Du-
rum
Per
cent.
3.0
2.2
1.9
2.0
25.0
18.5
14.5
13.0
20.0
12.0
22.7
21.0
8.0
Fife
Per
cent.
3.0
3.8
7.0
8.0
15.9
21.0
3.0
2.6
11.0
2.0
Win-
ter
Per
cent.
3.0
3.3
2.0
1.0
0.5
3.0
11.5
3.0
40.0
Other
Per
cent.
1.0
0.3
98.1
4.0
1.0
0.5
85.5
4.0
.0
0.2
77.3
i.O
1.0
31 Monthly Crop Report for August, 1918, Bureau of Crop Esti-
mates, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, August, 1918,
p. 95.
168 ESSAYS ON" WHEAT
An inspection of the Table shows us that the percentage
of the total wheat crop contributed by Marquis increased
from 1914 to 1917: in Minnesota from 3 to 46 per cent. ; in
N"orth Dakota from 5 to 43 per cent. ; in South Dakota
from 3 to 43 per cent. ; and in Montana from some small
unrecorded amount to 45 per cent. Stated more generally,
the figures indicate that Marquis increased in popularity
in the great central spring-wheat region to such an extent
that, although it formed less than 5 per cent, of the total
crop in 1914, by 1917 it had come to form nearly one-
half the total crop. But even this does not mark the final
triumph of Marquis over its competitors, for it was again
sown last spring in Minnesota, North and South Dakota,
and Montana, in greatly increased measure. The actual
figures for 1918 will not be available for some months,
but Mr. C. R. Ball, of the Ofiice of Cereal Investigations
at Washington, has informed the writer that he believes
that Marquis this year will contribute at least 65 per cent,
to the total wheat crop of these four States, and possibly
a little more.
It is interesting to note how the other varieties of wheat
have withstood the onslaught of the invader from the north
in the struggle for supremacy. Velvet Chaff (Preston)
has about maintained its position in North Dakota but has
decreased in Minnesota by 13 per cent, of its original
amount in 1914, and in South Dakota by 35 per cent.
Bluestem and Fife (Bed Fife, Scotch Fife, etc.), have
suffered disastrously. Bluestem, which in 1914 was facile
princeps among the wheat sorts of Minnesota and North
Dakota, and which shared an equal rule with Velvet Chaff
in South Dakota, has decreased its crop since 1914: in
Minnesota by 65 per cent., in North Dakota by 73 per
cent., and in South Dakota by 63 per cent. It is evident
that Marquis is rapidly replacing Bluestem in these States
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 1^'^
and that already in the space of four seasons it has cut
down the cultivation of the older variety to one-third of
what it was originally. Fife had much less ground to
give up than Bluestem but, nevertheless, since 1914, its
crop has decreased : in Minnesota by 57 per cent. ; in North
Dakota by 62 per cent, and in South Dakota by 73 per
cent.
Durum wheat, from which macaroni is made, as its
name indicates, has very hard kernels, and it differs in
various respects from the so-called Common Wheats such
as Velvet Chaff, Bluestem and Fife.^^ Like Marquis, as
the figures in the Table show, it is increasing in popularity
in Minnesota and North Dakota, although not nearly so
fast ; but in South Dakota it is merely holding its place.
On account of climatic conditions. Winter wheat can-
not be grown with much success in Minnesota and the two
Dakotas, and is therefore never likely to be a serious com-
petitor of Marquis in these States. In 1917 Winter wheat
contributed only three per cent, to the total crop in Min-
nesota and South Dakota, and only 1 per cent, in North
Dakota.
It is a remarkable tribute to the worth of Marquis that,
notwithstanding its quite recent crossing of the Inter-
national Boundary Line, it should have already thoroughly
established itself as the leading kind of wheat in the chief
spring-wheat States, and that it should now be cultivated,
to some extent at least, in a continuous zone of States
stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. The
spring-wheat lands of Minnesota, the two Dakotas, and
Montana pass by insensible gradations into the Canadian
spring-wheat Provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and
32 Much Durum wheat is ground into flour at Minneapolis, and the
flour, after being mixed with other sorts of flour, is used for
making bread.
ITO ESSAYS ON WHEAT
Alberta. In this vast territory, in the spring of 1918,
Canadian and American farmers sowed Marquis upon
about 20,000,000 acres ; and, if one were to travel in sum-
mertime from the most southerly point in N^ebraska where
Marquis is grown, due northwards, through South Dakota
and !North Dakota, to the most northerly point in Sas-
katchewan where Marquis is grown, one would pass fields
of Marquis for a distance of 800 miles. When one reflects
that the thousands of millions of Marquis wheat-plants
which turned from green to gold under the summer sun
of this year, 1918, all had their origin in a single grain
of wheat planted at Ottawa so recently as the spring of
1903, one cannot help feeling that one is here presented
with one of the most extraordinary examples of vegetable
increase that our planet has ever seen. This increase,
which is probably a record for Flowering Plants, has been
made possible: firstly, by the wonderful means of com-
munication and transportation which are now everywhere
available and, secondly, by the highly advantageous co-
operation of the cerealists, seedsmen, grain merchants,
millers, and farmers of two friendly nations. There are
no more pleasant and mutually profitable invasions than
those which are accomplished by battalions of wheat-plants
from the Xorth, and battalions of corn-plants from the
South. May this delightful warfare long continue !
VIII. General Description of Marquis
Marquis is one of the hard red spring wheats and is
classed among the beardless varieties, although, in common
with Red Fife, White Fife, Glyndon, Haynes' Bluestem,
etc., it carries a few short avms at the tip of the head.
The head is of medium length and somewhat pointed at the
tip. The chaff is smooth and of a straw-yellow color.
The straw is somewhat shorter and less liable to lodge than
V « # «
®A
m^m ^
• «
V • # #
#^
m m m f^;
•^
Fig. 31. Cross-sections of Wheat Kernels. Marquis compared with Min-
nesota standard varieties. A, Minnesota No. 169 or Haynes' Bluestem;
B, Marquis; C, Minnesota No. 163 or Glyndon Fife; D, Velvet ChatT (Pres-
ton). Three times natural size. From Bulletin No. 137 on Marquis Wheat
by A. C. Arny and C. H. Bailey. Courtesy of the United States Department
of Agriculture.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 171
that of most other varieties. The kernels are rather
short, very plump, and of a particularly rich red color,
qualities which make the wheat pleasing to the eye and
admirable for exhibition purposes. The flour produced
in the mill is of a pale cream-yellow color, similar to that
of the old standard varieties. Red Fife and Bluestem ; and,
for the production of loaves of large volume, it is fully
equal to, if not better than, that of the older sorts.
Messrs. Ball and Clark, of the Office of Cereal Investiga-
tions at Washington, have described Marquis, as grown
in the United States, as follows :
'^ In all important characters Marquis closely resembles
the wheats of the Fife group, so commonly gro^vn in the
northern Great Plains States. It is therefore included
in the Fife group. It will be remembered that the Red
Fife was the male parent of Marquis and that it doubt-
less was selected for Fife characters.
" The Marquis is a beardless spring wheat, with white
glabrous glumes and broad and short hard red kernels.
In general it differs from the true Fife varieties in its
shorter straw, shorter spike, shorter glumes, and shorter,
broader kernel.
" The plants are of only medium height, ranging from
28 to 48 inches, according to season. They generally are
2 to 4 inches shorter than those of the Glyndon and
Power wheats. The straw is stiff and stands up well
under unfavorable weather conditions. The spikes are
short, varying from 2.5 to 4 inches in length. They aver-
age one-half to 1 inch shorter than those of other varieties
of the Fife group. Two or three awns usually are found
at the tip of the head, as in other beardless wheats.
" The glumes of the Marquis variety are short and
broad. The variety usually can be recognized, even before
the seed is ripe, by this character and by its lower stature.
1T2 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
In spite of the short glumes the seed is held firmly and
does not shatter.
" The kernels of other Fife wheats are short and broad,
hut those of the Marquis are even more so. They vary
from 4.5 to 6 millimeters in length, averaging 5.2 milli-
meters, or nearly 1 millimeter shorter than the kernels
of Fife and Bluestem wheats. The crease also is broader
and deeper.
" The Marquis is an early variety, ripening from 98
to 135 days after sowing, varying with the season and
locality. The average length of its growing period in
the northern Great Plains is about 115 days. This makes
it three or four days earlier than most of the other Fife
varieties. Because of its earliness it escapes to some
extent the drought of dry years, the rust and fall rains of
wet seasons, and also the early fall frosts. These are
the characters which have made it especially valuable in
the Prairie Provinces of Canada.
" The growing season lengthens as one passes south-
ward into the United States, and earliness is no longer
so great an advantage." ^^
IX. Prizes Awarded to Marquis
The late James J. Hill, of the Great Northern Eailway
Company, offered a gold cup to the value of $1,000 for the
best bushel of hard spring wheat grown in the United
States. Sir Thomas Shaughnessy challenged him to open
the competition for the prize to Canada, but Mr. Hill was
unwilling to do this. Sir Thomas, therefore, on behalf
of the Canadian Pacific Railway Company, offered a new
prize of $1,000 in gold for the best bushel of hard spring
33 C. R. Ball and J. A. Clark, Experiments with Marquis Wheat,
Bulletin Xo. 400, United States Department of Agriculture, Wash-
ington, 19 IG, pp. 4-6.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 1T3
wheat grown on the continent of iN'orth America. In
1911 the international competition was held under the
auspices of the E'ew York Land Show and the prize was
won by Mr. Seager Wheeler of Kosthern, Saskatchewan.^"^
Mr. Seager Wheeler, to whose Red Bobs further refer-
ence will be made in a later section, won the international
prize in 1911 with a sample of Marquis wheat. From 5
lbs. of seed sent to him by Dr. Saunders from Ottawa in
1910, he obtained 250 lbs. of wheat and two sheaves which
were not threshed but which were estimated to contain
at least 5 lbs. of grain each. This extraordinary yield
was obtained on a strip of land measuring 15 by 155 feet,
equal to about one-nineteenth of an acre and probably con-
stitutes a world's record for spring wheat. ^^ The crop
from the plot furnished part of the seed with which Mr.
Wheeler won his first prize.
In 1912, Mr. Holmes of Raymond, Alberta, won the
international prize, the competition being held under the
auspices of the International Dry-farming Congress; and
a similar honor came to Mr. Paul Garlach of Allan,
Saskatchewan, in 1913. In both these competitions it
was Marquis which brought success.
In 1914 and 1915 Mr. Seager Wheeler again won the
international prize with Marquis wheat; and in 1916 he
repeated his success ; but this time he showed his new
variety which he selected from Marquis and which he
has called Kitchener.
In the competition held in 1917 at the Twelfth Inter-
34 I am indebted to the Grain Growers Guide for the above par-
ticulars and for the names of the winners of the international
prize.
35 For the facts concerning Mr. Wheeler's achievement, see the
Report of the Dominion Cerealist in the Annual Report on Ex-
perimental Farms for 1911-12, Ottawa, 1913, p. 119. A calcula^
tion shows that the yield per acre was 81 bushels.
174 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
national Soil Products Exposition, the international prize
was again won with Marquis; and the winner was Mr.
Samuel Larcombe of Birtle, Manitoba.
In the most recent competition, held in October of the
present year, 1918, under the auspices of the Thirteenth
International Soil Products Exposition at Kansas City,
Mr. Wheeler was again the successful competitor. He
showed samples both of Marquis and Red Bobs. Unfor-
tunately, owing to some misunderstanding, no exact record
was made as to which of these two varieties won the prize.
Attempts made by the author to clear up this uncertainty
have proved abortive. Owing to his having won the In-
ternational prize five times, Mr. Seager Wheeler's name
has been brought prominently before the public as that of
one of the most successful grain growers on this con-
tinent.
Erom the above, we can draw the interesting conclusion
that Marquis, or a derivative of Marquis, has won the in-
ternational prize for a sample of the best hard spring wheat
against all competitors from 1911 to 1917 inclusive, dur-
ing a period of seven successive years.
X. Long-Period Tests for Earliness and Yield
To show the practical advantage of growing Marquis
wheat in respect to earliness and yield, some exact data
will be cited. In plot tests on summer fallow land at
Indian Head, Saskatchewan, in a series of eleven years,
1907-17 inclusive. Marquis showed an average increase
of almost 40 per cent, over Red Eife and ripened its
grains six days earlier than the older variety.^^ In simi-
36 This percentage is either in pounds weight or bushels. Sixty
pounds weight make one standard bushel of wheat according to
law. The wheat is often weighed on the farm as it is being threshed
and always weighed at the elevator when it is about to be stored;
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 17
lar tests at Brandon, Manitoba, for the series of ten
years 1908-17 inclusive, Marquis had an advantage over
Eed Fife of upwards of 20 per cent, and, just as at In-
dian Head, was six days earlier in ripening.'^ These
facts may be set out in tabular form as follows:
Indian Head: 1907-17 inclusive
Days from Seeding to Ripening Yield in Ihs. per acre
Marquis 122 3,084
Eed Eife 128 2,210
Brandon: 1908-17 inclusive
Marquis 107 2,594
Red Eife 113 2,148
The earliness of Marquis, as compared with Red Fife,
Bluestem, etc., brings with it a number of solid advan-
tages ; and these we shall now proceed to discuss.
XI. Earliness and the Gain of Worhing-Time
Owing to the fact that Marquis ripens its grains a full
six days sooner than Eed Fife, the farmer who grows
the former variety of wheat is given almost an extra
week between harvest and freeze-up for the preparation
of his land for the next year. In the Prairie Provinces,
and the number of bushels is calculated from the weight in lbs. by
dividing by 60. At an elevator, after the number of bushels of
wheat in a delivery has been estimated in this way, the weight of
the wheat contained in a bushel measure is found by testing a
sample. If the weight should be less than 60 lbs., the grading is
affected adversely. No. 1 Manitoba Hard and No. 1 Northern must
weigh at least 60 lbs., and No. 2 Northern at least 58 lbs. Poor
wheat may weigh as low as 55 lbs. to the measured bushel while
good wheat often weighs 64 lbs.
37 Vide Reports of Superintendents of Experimental Farms at
Indian Head and Brandon, 1908 and following years. The data in the
Tables were kindly compiled for the writer by the Dominion Cereal-
ist.
1T6 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
where at best only a few weeks intervene between the gath-
ering of the crops and the hard frost of winter, the prac-
tical advantage of the six-day gain is often very consider-
able.
XII. Earliness and Storms
The early ripening habit of Marquis is prized in Min-
nesota, as well as in some other parts of the spring-wheat
belt, because it lessens the time during which the standing
crops must be exposed to the dangers of inclement weather.
In that State, when it has become evident that there is
going to be a fine yield and the wheat kernels are in the
dough stage or ripening, and when it is yet a little too early
to begin cutting, the sight of storm-clouds looming up upon
the horizon makes the farmers very apprehensive ; for the
heavier the stand and the greater the prospective yield, the
greater is the danger of severe lodging by rain and wind,
and of destruction by hail. Every day that the uncut
grain is exposed in the fields, the risk of damage is
lengthened ; and the harvesting of the crop a week sooner
owing to the early ripening habit of Marquis, often pre-
vents serious disaster.
XIII. Earliness and Rust
Another great advantage connected with earliness in
Marquis is the diminished risk of loss from Black Stem
Rust. The disease is caused by a parasitic fungus known
as Puccinia graminis which settles in the form of micro-
scopic spores upon the leaves and haulms of the wheat-
plant, penetrates through the epidermis when the weather
is moist and warm, appropriates for its own uses much of
the sugar manufactured by the leaves, and thus inter-
feres with the passage of this important substance to the
grains where normally it is destined to be converted into
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 177
starcli. When the fimgiis has been growing within the
tissues of the wheat-plant for about a week, red powdery
pustules break out, particularly upon the leaf-sheaths and
stems. These may become gradually larger and more con-
spicuous, and their number may increase as the infec-
tion spreads ; but, sooner or later, they pass away and are
replaced by black pustules which persist on the straw
through the winter. Both the red and the black pustules
consist of spores which resemble in function the seeds of
Flowering Plants, for they serve to reproduce the parasite
and permit of its continuing its life-cycle. The action of
the Rust-fungus upon the wheat-plant causes a greater
or lesser shriveling of the grains. The consequence of
an attack of Eust to the farmer, therefore, is a greater or
lesser diminution of the yield of wheat at harvest time.
Kow, during the great Rust epidemic ^^ of 1916, it was
observed in many localities that the fields of wheat which
ripened earliest, suffered least from the disease. This is
easily explicable if one realizes: that the Rust-fungus
is a plant, that it therefore requires food for its growth,
and that it naturally flourishes best in wheat-plants which
are richest in sugars and proteins. When the fungus at-
tacks a younger wheat-plant, with its grains only in the
milk or in the dough stage, the straw is still rich in all those
substances which enable the parasite to vegetate luxuri-
antly, for these have not yet been transferred to the heads.
On the other hand, when the fungus attacks an older
wheat-plant, with its grains ripening, the straw is well ad-
vanced toward exhaustion, for a considerable volume of
its sugars and proteins has already passed up into the
grains which in consequence have become partially filled.
38 Plant pathologists in North America are now discarding the
term epidemic as applied to plant diseases and are using the term
epiphytotic instead. To avoid misunderstanding, I have not adopted
this innovation here.
ITS ESSAYS ON WHEAT
Whereas, therefore, the younger wheat-plant forms a
highly suitable medium for the parasite, enabling it to
flourish for a long time, the older one forms a relatively
poor medium within which the growth of the parasite soon
comes to an end. It follows from this, and from the fact
that a Rust epidemic, when it comes at all, usually comes
late in the growing season, that the earlier wheat is planted,
the less likely is it to suffer severely from Black Stem
Rust. But the hastening of the maturing process may be
obtained by growing early-maturing varieties such as Mar-
quis. In 1916, where Marquis and Red Fife were sown
at the same time, Marquis withstood the attack of the
Rust disease far better than Red Fife owing to its six-
day earlier ripening habit. This was noted, for example,
in the plot tests at the University of Saskatchewan at
Saskatoon by Professor John Bracken who, in his Lessons
from the Rust Epidemic of 1916, recommends the planting
of early-maturing varieties of wheat as one means of com-
bating the Rust disease.^^
Marquis, while to a certain extent rust-escaping owing
to its earliness, is not rust-resistant. If it could be made
rust-resistant by replacing its rust-susceptible character by
a rust-resistant one (much in the same way as one may
remove a single bad brick from a building and replace it by
a sound one), it would be considerably improved. Possi-
bly, some day, our farmers may be provided with a wheat
as good as Marquis which resists most of the fungus dis-
eases which now diminish the yield, such as Rust, Smut,
Wheat Scab, and Root-rots. In any case, a serious at-
tempt must be made to breed such an ideal plant, however
long and difficult may be the task. Already in England,
39 J. Bracken, Lessons from the Rust Epidemic of 1916, Bull.
No. 50, Dept. of Agriculture for Saskatchewan, Regina, 1917, pp.
11, 15.
DISCOVEKY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 1T9
the yearly toll taken by Yelloiu Stripe Bust (a disease not
occurring in Canada) has been reduced by the breeding of
a rust-resistant wheat by Professor K. H, Biffen of Cam-
bridge University. The new wheat is called Little Joss
and originated from a cross between the rust-susceptible
Square Head's Master, one of the most widely cultivated
English wheats, and a rust-resisting Ghurka wheat from
Eussia.^^ Professor Biffen's success in obtaining Little
Joss was largely due to the fact that his efforts were guided
by the light of Mendel's principles of inheritance. These
celebrated principles Avere working out from a study of the
effects of crossing varieties of the Eating Pea, in a cloister
garden, by Gregor Mendel, a monk, in 1873 ; and their ap-
plication by Professor Biffen in the task of producing a
rust-resistant wheat suited to English soil, affords an-
other remarkable instance of the way in which Pure Sci-
ence provides Applied Science with her tools. The latest
report shows that Biffen's rust-resistant Little Joss is now
the chief wheat grown in the Eastern Counties of Eng-
land, that it is spreading rapidly over other parts of the
country, and that owing to its resistance to Yellow Stripe
Bust which attacks other wheats year after year, it has a
yield of 40 bushels to the acre instead of 36 as given by
Square Head's Master, as the average for a seven-year
period in test plots.'* ^ These significant facts have been
noted both in the United States and in Canada. At the
present time. Professor Stakman, Dr. Hayes and others
at the University of Minnesota are engaged in a campaign
to breed first-class bread-wheats which are resistant to
Black Stem Rust ; and, at the University of Saskatchewan,
40 R, H. Biffen, Systematized Plant-Breeding, an essay in Science
and the Nation, edited by A. C. Seward, Cambridge, 1917, p. 157.
^■Llhid., pp. 157, 158. Each bushel was 63 lbs. On farms, away
from the Experimental Station, Little Joss yielded 5 to 10 per cent,
per season more than Square Head's Master.
180 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
Professor W. P. Thompson is studying the problem of
rust-resistance with a view to a solution of it for this
country in the near or distant future. Up to the present,
however, the greatest contribution to the task of combating
Pust in Canada has been made by Dr. Saunders through
the introduction of early-maturing Marquis wheat. The
losses to the wheat crop through Black Stem Pust in the
year 1916 were about 100,000,000 bushels in Canada ^^
and 140,000,000 in the United States ; ^^ and, doubtless,
they would have been considerably greater, had not Mar-
quis with its early ripening habit already by that time so
largely supplanted later-maturing varieties such as Ped
Fife and Bluestem.^*
XIV. Earliness and Frost
Owing to its earliness, Marquis is less liable than Ped
Pife, etc., to be injured by early frosts in the colder sec-
tions of the wheat-growing area. In the greater part
of the southern and central prairie region of Alberta,
Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, the iirst destructive frost
usually occurs between September 6 and September 12.
In this rei>ion, Marquis, and usually also Ped Fife, ripen
their grains sufficiently early to escape this frost. Fur-
ther north, the first destructive frost frequently occurs
from August 27 to September 2. In this region. Marquis
usually ripens early enough to escape the frost, but Ped
Fife often suffers from it very severely. Still further
to the north, and in less favored districts, the first de-
structive frost comes from August 20 to August 26. This
42 Estimate made by the writer from a study of data collected
by the Secretary of the Winnipeg Grain Exchange.
43 Estimate kindly sent to the writer in a letter by M. A. Carle-
ton, cerealist for the U. S. Department of Agriculture.
44 Bluestem ripens later than Red Fife, and is therefore very
little grown in Canada, though well known in the U. S. A.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 181
very early coming on of cold weather usually prevents Ked
Fife from ripening at all, and even seriously affects
Marquis.
There can be no question that the early-ripening habit
of Marquis is a most valuable character so far as escap-
ing early frosts is concerned, and that it has already
brought about in Canada a saving of great quantities of
wheat which in its absence would have been spoiled.
The farther north man makes his abode and seeks his
sustenance, the more necessary is it for him to grow
early-maturing wheats. Dr. William Saunders, many
years ago, introduced Ladoga, which ripens about ten days
earlier than Red Fife, into the Peace River valley. At
Dunvegan and at Fort Vermilion, 414 miles and 591
miles by latitude due north of Winnipeg respectively, this
wheat has been raised in good condition, so that it weighed
per bushel 64 lbs. at the former place and 60 lbs. at the
latter. Mr. J. M. Macoun, after making investigations
on the spot, reported that in 1903 about 7,500 bushels of
wheat had been raised in the neighborhood of Vermilion
and that one of the settlers there had obtained 40 bushels
per acre from 50 acres. Even at Fort Simpson, which is
situated on the Mackenzie River, 818 miles by latitude
north of Winnipeg and only 324 miles south of the Arctic
Circle, the early-maturing Ladoga has been successfully
raised, so that it weighed 62"!^ lbs. to the bushel. In this
instance, however, a small percentage of the grain was in-
jured by frost.^^
45 Experimental Farms Report for 1903, p. 11. The Hudson's Bay
Company long had a roller mill at Vermilion. In 1903 it had a
capacity of 20 barrels a day. At that time the Company was giv-
ing $1.50 per bushel for all wheat grown in the vicinity with the
object of supplying all their northern posts with Vermilion flour.
Recently Vermilion became connected with Edmonton by means of
the Edmonton, Dunvegan, and British Columbia Railway and by
steamship service. Flour is now taken northwards to Vermilion
182 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
The nearer one approaches to the Arctic Circle in sum-
mer, the longer are the days and, other things being-
equal, the greater is the amount of light to which wheat-
plants are subjected during the growing season. Dr. Wil-
liam Saunders found that the same kind of wheat grown
at Ottawa took on an average of three years 106 days
to ripen but grown at Vermilion only 101 days, and he
ascribed this difference to the difference in the amount
of sunlight in the two places. It is possible, however,
that differences in the amount of available moisture and
heat were also important factors in bringing about the
result. In support of his view Dr. William Saunders
recalled the work of a Russian investigator named Ko-
walewski. Kowalewski grew spring wheat and oats in
different parts of Russia, from the north at Arkangelsk to
the southern province of Kherson, and made careful ob-
servations on the time of ripening. He found that in
higher latitudes the grain ripens in a shorter period than
in the more southern districts, the difference varying at
different points from 12 to 35 days. Kowalewski at-
tributed the earlier ripening in the north largely to the
influence of light during the long summer days, but he
also believed that the short seasons of quick growth had
brought about in these cereals an early-ripening habit.
Dr. William Saunders, however, regarded this habit as a
fixed one which cereals continue to manifest when grown
in localities where the summer season is longer.^^ What-
ever may be the exact reason for the hastening of the
maturation of one and the same spring wheat when grown
in higher latitudes, the fact remains that this hasten-
ing must be of distinct advantage in lessening the danger
from early frosts.
by this route and the Hudson's Bay Company, in consequence, has
ceased to operate its Vermilion mill.
46 ihid.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 183
At Fort Vermilion, in 1909, 35,000 bushels of wheat
were grown with an average yield of 24 bushels per acre.
The wheat varieties with which this success was obtained
were all more or less early ones and included Ladoga,
Preston, Early Riga, and Riga.^*^
In the spring of 191Y, 9,000 bushels of wheat were
shipped from Fort Vermilion to Fort William by Mr.
Sheridan Lawrence from his own farm. The wheat was
transported upon the steamship D. A. Thomas 280
miles up the Peace River, then 311 by the Edmonton,
Dunvegan and British Columbia Railway to Edmonton,
and finally 1,446 miles by rail from Edmonton to Fort
William, the total distance being 2,037 miles. The long
haul and high freight rates were overcome by the high
price for wheat prevailing at that time. This, however,
is not a normal condition and, until railway facilities are
provided for shipping the grain, the Fort Vermilion dis-
trict must find its markets nearer home. Upon his farm
Mr. Sheridan Lawrence has operated a stone flour mill
for over twenty years and recently has had a roller mill
installed.^* These facts indicate some of the possibili-
ties of the Northland.
XV. Marquis, Ruhy, and Prelude
To meet the exigencies due to short seasons in the
northern parts of the Prairie Provinces, Dr. Saunders has
striven to produce new kinds of wheat which, in addition
to having a high yield and the excellent baking and milling
qualities of Marquis, ripen even earlier than this variety.
One of these wheats, an approximation to his ideal, which
4T Experimental Farms Reports for 1909, p. 7.
48 F. H. Kitto, The Peace River District, its Resources and Oppor-
tunities, Department of the Interior, Natural Resources Intelligence
Branch, Ottawa, 1918, p. 41.
184 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
was introduced a few years ago and is being successfully
grown in various districts where the season is short, he has
called Prelude *^ because it ripens at the very beginning
of the wheat harvest, some two weeks sooner than Marquis.
With the coming into existence of such wheats as Marquis
and Prelude, it has been made possible to extend the profit-
able wheat-growing area of Canada much farther toward
the Xorth where the seasons are shorter. It may be added
that the name Prelude naturally suggested itself to Dr.
Saunders as appropriate owing to his love of music. Pre-
lude is a musical term for a preliminary air.^^
The breeding of Prelude has by no means ended the
attempts of Dr. Saunders to develop varieties of wheat
suited to the short seasons of the ITorth. His most recent
introduction he has called Ruby Wheat on account of the
reddish hue of its ripe kernels. As compared with Pre-
49 C. E. Saunders, Prelude Wheat, Experimental Farms Reports for
1911-12, Ottawa, 1013, pp. 117-118.
50 The particular districts for which Prelude is recommended are
Northern Saskatchewan and Northern and Central Alberta; and it
is in these that this variety of wheat ripens two weeks earlier than
Marquis. There is less difference in the time of ripening in districts
where the summer is warmer. Prelude is now grown, sometimes on
a considerable scale, at rather high altitudes in Alberta and at
northern latitudes in Saskatchewan. It has been ripened in Dawson
City in the Yukon. At present it is impossible to say with certainty
how much farther North one variety can be grown than another,
owing to the incompleteness of the tests which have been made
hitherto. In attempting to make comparisons, the variation in the
seasons becomes a complicating factor. Even late-maturing wheats
can be grown in favorable spots and in favorable seasons in high
latitudes, although such successes do not by any means represent
the average for a number of consecutive seasons. Thus Red Fife
sometimes ripens on the farm where tests are made for the Domin-
ion Government at Fort Vermilion on the Peace River, 650 miles north
of the International Boundary-line; but this is quite exceptional,
and Red Fife is not at all suitable for the Peace River country as a
whole, year in and year out. Marquis and other early -maturing
wheats do much better in this far distant region of the North.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 185
lude, Kuby does not shatter so readily, has longer straw,
has a larger yield, is beardless instead of being bearded,
but is a few days later in ripening its grains. It is now
being rapidly tested in the West. It may supplant Pre-
lude to a greater or lesser degree but is not expected to
replace Marquis in those more southerly districts where
the latter does so well.
Marquis ripens about one week earlier than Red Fife,
Ruby about two weeks and a half earlier, and Prelude
more than three weeks earlier. ^^ The length of straw and
the yield vary inversely as the earliness. Thus Prelude,
the earliest of the three wheats, has the shortest straw and
the least yield ; Ruby, which is intermediate in earliness,
has straw of intermediate length and has an intermediate
yield ; while Marquis, the least early of the three wheats,
has the longest straw and the best yield.
It is evidently not an easy matter to combine extreme
earliness with a very high yield ; and this is not surpris-
ing, for the earlier a wheat is, the shorter is its growing
period, and the less is the time at its disposal for manu-
facturing the starch and proteins which are required to
fill the grains. Other things being equal, extreme earli-
ness and high yield are mutually antagonistic qualities.
It is unthinkable that wheat should ever be introduced
which would ripen in seventy days and yield from thirty
to fifty bushels per acre, nor does it seem at all likely
that cereal breeders will ever succeed in producing a wheat
which combines the extreme earliness of Prelude w^ith the
very high productivity of Marquis. Beyond a certain
point increased earliness can only be selected at the ex-
pense of high yield, and vice versa.
51 At the Indian Head Experimental Farm, in 1918, Ruby was sev-
eral days earlier in ripening than Mr. Seager Wheeler's Red Bobs.
Observations of the Superintendent of the Farm and of the author.
186 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
Marquis, Ruby and Prelude were all produced by cross-
breeding. Marquis resulted from a single cross, Ruby
from two successive crosses, and Prelude from three suc-
cessive crosses. Their respective genealogical trees may
be represented as follows :
Parentage of Marquis
Hard Red Calcutta (f.) X Red Fife (m.) A. P. Saunders, 1892
\ /
Marquis
Parentage of Ruby
Gehun (f.) X Onega (m.) W. T. Macoun, 1891
\ /
Downy Riga (f.) X I^ed Fife (m.) C. E. Saunders, 1905
\ /
Ruby
Parentage of Prelude ^2
Ladoga (f.) X White Fife (m.) A. P. Saunders, 1888
\ /
Alpha (f.) X Hard Red Calcutta (m.) • -A. P. Saunders, 1892
\ /
Fraser (m.) X (downy) Gehun (f.) . C. E. Saunders, 1903
\ /
Prelude
Hard Red Calcutta and Gehun were brought to Canada
from India, and Ladoga and Onega from northern Russia.
Red Fife came from central Europe (probably Galicia)
via, the ports of Danzig and Glasgow; and White Pife is
believed to be one of its derivatives.^^ Marquis, Ruby,
52 C. E. Saunders, Experimental Farm Reports for 1911-12, Ot-
tawa, 1913, p. 118.
53 W. Saunders, Ladoga Wheat, Central Experimental Farm, Bul-
letin No. 4, 1889, p. 4; also C. E. Saunders, Evidence before the
Select Standing Committee on Agriculture and Colonization, Ot-
tawa, 1905.
Red Fife is named after David Fife upon whose farm Red Fife orig-
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 187
and Prelude have therefore had a somewhat complex
origin. However, each of them, in a greater or lesser de-
gree, embodies the earliness of its Indian or Russian an-
cestors with the good milling and baking qualities of
Canadian Eed Fife or White Fife. The production of
such cross-bred wheats to meet the requirements of agri-
culture is one of the most remarkable developments of
modern botany.
XVI. The Advance Toward the North of the Belts of
Wheat and Com
The pushing up of the wheat-belt in Canada toward
the ^North, owing to the discovery and introduction of
new early-maturing varieties, finds an interesting parallel
in the northerly advance of the belt of Indian corn in the
United States. The original corn-belt was situated in
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and ]N"ebraska; but now
corn culture is undertaken on a considerable scale in Min-
nesota, South Dakota, and ISTorth Dakota. The northerly
extension of the corn-belt by several hundreds of miles
was accomplished by the introduction of new varieties of
corn with early-ripening characteristics, two of the chief
ones being known as Minnesota No. 13 and Minnesota
No. 23. The former is a uniform Yellow Dent, and the
latter a white-capped Yellow Dent. Minnesota No. 13
was discovered by Professor Andrew Boss of the Uni-
versity of Minnesota. Professor Boss in 1890 obtained
two bushels of Yellow Dent from De Cow and Company,
seedsmen of St. Paul, planted the grains at the University
inated in 1841 from a sample of wheat which was obtained by a friend
from a cargo of wheat which had arrived at the pert of Glasgow
from Danzig on the Baltic coast. Dr. C. E. Saunders has shown
that it is identical with a wheat still grown in Galicia. Vide
Section XXIII on The Origin of Red Fife.
188 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
Farm, and made selections for earliness. He thus origin-
ated a strain which became known as Minnesota No. IS
and which, instead of taking 120 to 125 days to ripen like
the Yellow Dent variety then most grown, matured in
from 100 to 110 days. The development of Minnesota
No. 13 made it possible to grow corn much farther north-
ward from the southern boundary of Minnesota than had
previously been the case. But another great step in the
pushing northward of the corn-belt was soon to follow
through the introduction of Minnesota No. 23, which was
even more remarkable than Minnesota No. 13 in its early-
maturing properties. Minnesota No. 23 was discovered
by Professor Boss on a farm at Mentor, near Hendrum,
in Norman County, Minnesota, only 120 miles south of
the International Boundary-line. It was being grown by
a farmer named Jacob Berg, but how it came into his
possession is not known. Professor Boss noticed its un-
usual earliness, obtained a sample of it in 1893, and
propagated it at the Minnesota Experimental Station. A
selection of it, made by Professor C. P. Bull in 1905, was
increased in quantity and finally distributed as seed. The
new Minnesota No. 23 was found to ripen in the very brief
period of about 90 days, and this led to its being grown
as far north as the upper boundary of Minnesota and
in North Dakota.^* Just as the profitable corn-belt in
North America was thus pushed northwards in two steps
by the successive introduction of Yellow Dent Minnesota
No. 13 and Yellow Dent Minnesota No. 23, so, too, in more
recent years, has the profitable wheat-belt been pushed
northwards by the successive introduction of Marquis and
Prelude.
The northward advance of the corn-belt has made a
54 The facts in this paragraph concerning corn were kindly sup-
plied by Professor Boss.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT
189
profound difference to Minnesota, for in that State about
25 years ago a farmer was considered a gambler who at-
tempted to grow Dent Corn north of the southern third of
the State (above the so-called St. Cloud Line) ; but now all
this is changed, for there is actually more corn raised to-
day in Kittson, the north-west corner county of Minnesota,
than used to be raised a generation ago at Houston, the
south-east corner county of the State.^^ At the present
time, when one travels through Minnesota by rail in the
summer, one observes scattered everywhere, from north to
south and from east to west, rich fields of dark-greem
corn; and silos for the fermentation and storing of corn
ensilage for feeding stock have become a characteristic
feature of the landscape.^^ Further evidence of the ag-
ricultural importance of the early-ripening Yellow Dent
varieties is afforded by the fact that Minnesota in 1917
produced 90,000,000 bushels of corn and ^N'orth Dakota
in 1916, 13,500,000 bushels.^^ Manitoba is not within
the corn-belt, for corn, as a rule, does not ripen in
that Province owing to the shortness of the growing sea-
son. Nevertheless, when corn is sown in the warmer
districts about the middle of May, it grows rapidly during
the long bright days, attains a height of from 6 to 8
feet, and yields often as much as 10 to 15 tons of green
fodder to the acre. This is made into ensilage or stocked
in the fields until required for feeding. '"^^ It proves to
55 Communicated by Professor Boss.
56 Ensilage is the most economical method of treating corn for
feeding animals. Both stalks and green leaves are run through
the cutter. After fermentation the ensilage can be kept with safety
all through the winter.
57 Year Book of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for 1917, p.
608.
58 Cf. A Handbook to Winnipeg and the Province of Manitoba,
prepared for the Winnipeg meeting of the British Association for
the Advancement of Science, article on Agriculture by R. P. Roblin
and W. J. Black, 1909, Winnipeg, pp. 72, 73.
190 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
be excellent for fattening cattle and is one of the best
foods for milch cows. The pushing northward of the
corn-belt has therefore directly affected agriculture in the
Prairie Provinces. The story of the northward advance
of the corn-belt seems to warrant the belief that eventually
vast tracts of land in northern Canada which have not yet
been plowed, will one day be made to raise early-ripening
varieties of wheat such as those which Dr. Saunders is
now perfecting. ^^
XVII. The Yield of Marquis in Western Canada
In the greater part of Saskatchewan, on summer fallow,
one is safe in saying that the yield of Marquis over Red
Fife is at least 20 per cent. The situation in Central and
^N'orthem Manitoba is about the same as in Saskatchewan.
In Alberta the climatic conditions are more complex than
in Saskatchewan and Manitoba, so that for that province it
is difficult to make exact statements of the yield of Marquis
compared with that of other varieties.
On stuhhle land Marquis often appears to be no better
than, or about the same as, Red Fife, provided that the
59 In Manitoba, the chief variety of corn now grown is North-
western Dent, the next variety in importance being Minnesota No.
13. The cobs ripen in this Province only in exceptional seasons. In
1914, when the mean shade temperature for July was 70° F., the cobs
of certain Flint varieties (Quebec No. 28 and Free Press) ripened
well, while the cobs of the Dent varieties ripened only partially.
There are about 100 silos in Manitoba. Information supplied by
Mr. Allan Campbell at the Brandon Experimental Farm,
Northwestern Dent is a variety of Red Dent corn that is not re-
lated in any way to either Minnesota No. 13 or Minnesota No. 23.
It has been grown to a considerable extent in the two Dakotas,
Montana, and Minnesota, and to some extent in northern Michigan
and Wisconsin. There is no authentic history of this variety, and
no one appears to know where or how it originated. Information
supplied by Professor Andrew Boss of the University of Minnesota.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 191
season is long enough to ripen both sorts. Where the sea-
son is very short, Marquis, even on stubble, etc., has the
advantage because it ripens its grains earlier than Red
Fife.
The yield of Marquis in the field in v^estem Canada is
often very high and a few of the more noteworthy crops
may be mentioned. In 1909 a field of 4% acres at Bran-
don gave 52/4 bushels per acre. In 1910 a field of 5%
acres at Indian Head gave a little over 53 bushels per
acre. But these records were surpassed in 1911 at the
Experimental Station at Rosthern, Saskatchewan, when a
/4o-acre plot yielded at the rate of TO bushels per acre.
It was in this same year that Mr. Seager Wheeler ^^ on
a %9-acre plot at Rosthern, obtained a yield at the rate
of 81 bushels per acre.^^
Mr. C. S. Noble, who is operating a 15,000-^acre farm
in Alberta, purchased a limited supply of Mr. Seager
Wheeler's registered Marquis seed wheat in 1913, From
this, by propagation, he obtained a sufiicicnt supply of
grain to seed 1,000 acres in 1916. From this 1,000-acre
60 For all of the above data vide Report of the Dominion Cereal-
ist in Report on Experimental Farms for 1911-12, Ottawa, 1912,
p, 119. The nature of ]Mr. Wheeler's plot and yield is given in
Section IX on Prizes aicarded to Marquis. The field crops cited
for Brandon and Indian Head excelled the plot records at both
the Brandon and Indian Head Experimental Farms.
61 Record Yield of Wheat — According to the United States
Monthly Crop Report of July, 1918, the largest yield per acre of
wheat ever recorded is, so far as ascertained by the Bureau of Crop
Estimates, 117.2 bushels. It was produced in 1895 in Island County,
Washington, on a field of 18 acres. The farm on which this crop
was grown consisted of a clearing of 85 acres of black sandy loam
with a clay subsoil. It has been farmed for over 30 years, is not
irrigated, but is well diversified. No fertilizer has ever been used
on this farm. The variety of wheat sown was Australian Club.
The field that produced the record yield was in pasture for cattle
and sheep for several years, and for three years prior to producing
the yield of wheat was seeded to potatoes.
192 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
field he threshed 54,395 bushels of wheat which gives a
rate of 54% bushels per acre.^^
XVIII. The Yield of Marquis in the United States
The yield of Marquis in the United States has been care-
fully studied by a number of observers. The first Bulletin
dealing with this subject was published by Professor A.
C. Arny of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion early in 1914,^^ and another by Messrs. C. E. Ball
and J. A. Clark in 1916.^^ In the more recent Bulletin,
which is very comprehensive, reports on yield have been
brought together from 23 stations scattered in 13 differ-
ent States. The area of observation stretched from Iowa
and Minnesota on the east to California and Oregon on
the west, and included all the intervening States except
Washington. In this great expanse of territory, the con-
ditions of climate and soil vary greatly; and it was only
to be expected that the relative yield of Marquis would
vary considerably with local conditions. Messrs. Ball
and Clark concluded from their data which provided yields
for three years, that, in the Northern Prairie States and
in the Great Plains area, Marquis gives a higher yield than
other Common spring wheats but that, west of the Rocky
Mountains, it is outyielded by the standard varieties of
soft w^hite spring wheat and by several newly introduced
varieties. They also found that, under in-igation. Mar-
quis had done fairly well in limited experiments east of
the Rocky Mountains but not at two stations to the west
62 Better Seed Book, The Grain Growers' Guide, Winnipeg, 1917-
18, p. 4.
63 A. C. Amy, Marquis Wheat ; I, History and Culture, Minne-
sota Wheat Investigations, Bulletin No. 137, Series II, Feb., 1914,
64 c. R. Ball and J. A. Clark, Experiments with Marquis Wheat,
Bulletin No. 400, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Oct., 1916, pp. 1-40.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT
193
of this range. In what follows we shall concern ourselves
solely with the States of Minnesota, North Dakota, South
Dakota, and Montana, where most of the spring wheat is
grown.
In the great spring-wheat region of the United States,
Marquis gives an excellent yield, as is evident from the
following Table reproduced from a Monthly Crop Report
recently published at Washington.^^ The Table gives the
estimated number of bushels per acre for each important
variety of wheat in Minnesota and the two Dakotas in the
years 1914, 1916, and 1917, and similar figures for Mon-
tana in 1917. The data for the abnormally large crop
year of 1915, unfortunately, are not included. Here
again. Velvet Chaff is another name for Preston.
Yield of Wheat Varieties
in Bushels per
Acre
Mar-
quis
Velvet
Chaff
Blue-
stem
Durum
Fife
Winter
Other
MINNE-
SOTA
1917
1916
1914
NORTH
DAKOTA
1917
1916
1914
SOUTH
DAKOTA
1917
1916
1914
MON-
TANA
1917
Bush.
17.2
11.0
12.8
8.0
6.0
14.9
15.3
7.9
11.2
9.3
Bush.
16,0
7.4
11.6
7.5
5.2
12.1
13.1
6.2
9.3
7.5
Bush.
14.0
5.5
9.8
7.2
3.8
10.3
11.1
5.0
7.5
6.5
Bush.
15.5
8.5
12.3
9.0
7.3
13.9
15.6
8.2
11.2
9.0
Bush.
15.0
6.9
10.3
7.0
4.5
10.9
• 10.0
5.0
9.3
7.5
Bush.
20.0
14.0
19.5
8.5
11.9
13.7
14.0
18.5
14.0
12.5
Bush.
14.0
11.0
6.8
5.0
10.8
8.7
7.5
«5 Monthly Crop Report, August, 1918, Washington, p. 95.
194 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
While looking through the Table, the reader should bear
in mind the relative contribution which each variety of
wheat makes to the total crop. This has already been
pointed out in a previous Section.^^ The reader will re-
member that most of the wheat produced in the four chief
spring-wheat States consists of spring varieties of Common
Wheat, i. e., Marquis, Velvet Chaff, Bluestem and Fife ;
that Durum wheat in 1917 formed 25 per cent, of the total
wheat crop in N'orth Dakota, 20 per cent, in South Da-
kota, 8 per cent, in Montana, and 3 per cent, in Minne-
sota; and that Winter wheat in 1917 formed 40 per cent,
of the total crop in Montana, but only 3 per cent, in Minne-
sota and South Dakota, and only 1 per cent, in !N'orth
Dakota.
The most important conclusion to be drawn from the
Table is that in each of the four great spring-wheat States,
Minnesota, ^N'orth Dakota, South Dakota, and Montana,
Marquis has ouiyielded every other spring variety of Corn-
man Wheat, i. e., Velvet Chaff, Bluestem, and "Fife. Vel-
vet Chaff was outyi elded by from 0.5 to 3.6, Bluestem by
0.8 to 5.5, and Fife by 1.0 to 5.3 bushels per acre.
Marquis, on the average for all the years given in the
Table and throughout the whole spring-wheat region of
Minnesota, the two Dakotas, and Montana, has outyielded
Velvet Chaff by 1.8, Fife by 2.7, and Bluestem by 3.3
bushels per acre.
It is not without interest to observe how Marquis has
fared, on an average of three years, in each of the three
chief spring-wheat States taken individually.
In Minnesota, Marquis has outyielded Velvet Chaff by
2, Fife by 2.9, and Bluestem by 3.9 bushels per acre.
In ISTorth Dakota, Marquis has outyielded Velvet Chaff
86 Section VTI on The Introduction of Marquis into the United
States.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 196
by 1.4, Fife by 2.2, and Bluestem by 2.5 bushels per acre.
In South Dakota, Marquis has outyielded Velvet Chaff
by 1.9, Fife by 3.7, and Bluestem by 3.6 bushels per acre.
In Montana, where we have data for one year only. Mar-
quis has outyielded Velvet Chaff by 1.8, Fife also by 1.8,
and Bluestem by 2.8 bushels per acre.
So far as Durum is concerned. Marquis has outyielded
this variety in Minnesota by 1.6, and in Montana by 0.3
bushels per acre; but Durum has outyielded Marquis in
^orth Dakota by 0.4, and in South Dakota by 0.2 bushels
per acre.
Winter wheat, on the relatively few acres where it has
been grown successfully, has outyielded Marquis in each
of the four States : in Minnesota by 4.2, in North Dakota
by 1.7, in South Dakota by 4, and in Montana by 3.2
bushels per acre.
From the point of view of the three older spring varie-
ties of Common Wheat, we can make the following state-
ments :
Bluestem was outyielded by Marquis : in Minnesota by
3.9, in Korth Dakota by 2.5, in South Dakota by 3.6, and
in Montana by 2.8 bushels per acre. In other words. Mar-
quis outyielded Bluestem, on the average throughout the
spring-wheat region, by from 2.5 to 3.9, or more exactly
by 3.3 bushels per acre.
Fife was outyielded by Marquis: in Minnesota by 2.9,
in North Dakota by 2.2, in South Dakota by 3.7, and in
Montana by 1.8 bushels per acre. In other words Marquis
outyielded Fife, on the average throughout the spring-
wheat region, by from 1.8 to 3.7, or more exactly by 2.7
bushels per acre.
Velvet Chaff was outyielded by Marquis : in Minnesota
by 2, in North Dakota by 1.4, in South Dakota by 1.9, and
in Montana by 1.8 bushels per acre. In other words, Mar-
196 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
qiiis outjielded Velvet Chaff, on tKe average throughout
the spring- wheat region, by from 1.4 to 2, or more exactly
by 1.8 bushels per acre.
The superior productiveness of Marquis entails in-
creased farm values of the wheat crop. A recognition of
this fact, no doubt, has been largely responsible for the
rapid rise of the new variety into favor with farmers dur-
ing the past four years, and for the corresponding diminu-
tion in the cultivation of Velvet Chaff, Bluestem, and Fife.
In concluding this Section, we may compare the rela-
tive yields of Marquis and Fife in the United States and
Canada. It will be remembered that it was found in long-
period tests that Marquis outyielded Red Fife: at Indian
Head in Saskatchewan by almost 40 per cent., and at
Brandon in Manitoba by over 20 per cent.®"^ A calcula-
tion made from the Table shows that, as an average for
three years. Marquis outyielded Fife : in South Dakota by
41 per cent., in ITorth Dakota by 29 per cent., in Montana
by 24 per cent., and in Minnesota by 13 per cent. It thus
becomes obvious that the advantage of replacing Red Fife
by Marquis is nearly equal in the two countries.
XIX. The Favorable Grading of Marquis
As a rule, but especially in unfavorable seasons, the
increased yield of Marquis over Red Fife on summer
fallow is associated with a higher weight per measured
bushel and a greater plumpness of kernel. Consequently
Marquis tends to obtain a higher grade than Red Fife.
This often results in a considerable difference in price
apart from the difference in yield. If, for instance, Red
Fife were to produce 20 bushels to the acre grading TsTo. 4
and Marquis 25 bushels grading No. 2, the difference in
value would be greater than 25 per cent, in favor of Mar-
fi7 Vide Section X on Long-period Tests for Ecvrliness and Yield.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 197
quis by reason of the higher price paid for the higher
grade. Of course the higher grading of ^Marquis rela-
tively to the higher yield is but a small matter ; but sup-
posing 80,000,000 bushels of Marquis, on account of
higher grading, were to fetch on the average 3 cents per
bushel more than a similar quantity of Red Fife, the gain
due to the more favorable gTading would be $2,400,000,
a sum with a purchasing power by no means to be despised.
XX. Resistance to Shelling
Marquis does not shell, i. e., drop a certain proportion
of its grains just before it is cut like Bluestem, Red Fife,
Preston, and certain other kinds of wheat. But this ad-
vantage which has been especially noted in North Dakota
upon the windy prairie and in some parts of Saskatchewan,
Alberta and Manitoba, brings with it a disadvantage, for
Marquis requires extra power in threshing. A thresher
must take care that his machine is accurately set, otherwise
much of the wheat may be lost as the straw is run through
into the straw stack. The loss due to shelling in Bluestem
in North Dakota often amounts to a bushel per acre and
possibly more in years of rapid ripening. In some years,
when Bluestem is harvested, the ground is littered with the
grains shattered out of their glumes by the wind and the
harvesting machinery. The amount of grain left upon
the ground, and therefore irrecoverable, not infrequently
appears to be equal to the amount originally used as seed.^^
Red Fife does not shell so badly as Bluestem but, never-
theless, is far from equaling Marquis in the retention of
its grains. Resistance to shelling by Marquis is undoubt-
edly one of the several factors which favor a high yield
from this variety of wheat.
68 The facts concerning the shelling of Bluestem in North Dakota
were kindly supplied to me by Professor H, L. Bolley.
198 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
XXI. Milling and Baking Qualities
It is very important that western Canada should con-
tinue to raise wheat which, like Red Fife, possesses very
high milling and baking qualities; for it is upon these
qualities that the intrinsic value of wheat chiefly depends.
The grading of wheat for sale is based as closely as pos-
sible upon the value that the cereal will have for the miller
and the baker; and those wheats which most nearly ap-
proach their ideal, are placed in the highest grades and
command the best prices in the open market.
Quality in wheat is a very complex thing ; and, when it
is necessary to measure it, a number of more or less inde-
pendent factors must be considered. These factors were
discussed by Dr. Charles Saunders in a very exhaustive
and masterly manner in a Central Experimental Farm
bulletin ^^ published in the year 1907, and they have re-
cently been summarized by Professor C. H. Bailey, who
is a cereal technologist, as follows : '^^
(1) Relative 'plumpness of the hemels, which influences
the yield or percentage of flour which can be produced from
the grain.
(2) Density of the Jcemels, which also affects the yield
of flour, since, other things being equal, a larger propor-
tion of the endosperm or " floury " portion of the kernel
can be separated as flour when it is hard or vitreous in tex-
ture rather than soft or " starchy.''
(3) Moisture content of the grain,, which affects its
keeping qualities, ease of milling, and losses which occur
through evaporation during the process of milling.
69 Charles E. Saunders, Quality in Wheat, Bulletin No. 57, Cen-
tral Experimental Farm, Ottawa, pp. 6-28.
70 C. H. Bailey, Marquis Wheat; IT, Milliner Quality, Bulletin
No. 137, Minnesota Wheat Investigations, Series II, University Farm,
St. Paul, 1914, p. 10.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 199
(4) Soundness of the grain, as indicating its freedom
from fermentative changes.
(5) Baking strength of the flour, or its ability to pro-
duce a large, well-raised loaf of bread. The relative
strength of flour is influenced by at least two groups of
factors: (a) The percentage and physical properties of
the two principal proteins of wheat flour, known collec-
tively as gluten, and (b) the quantity and nature of the
yeast food originally present in the flour and formed dur-
ing the process of fermentation.
(6) Absorption, or percentage of water necessary to
make a dough of proper consistency from the flour in bread-
making, since the more water that can be employed per
unit of flour, the greater the weight of bread which can be
produced from it.
(7) The color of the flour, the demand being for a very
white product. "^^
Factors (3) and (4), the moisture content and the
soundness of the grain, are controlled almost entirely by
the method of curing and handling the grain after it is
harvested and are not affected by varietal characteristics.
When Dr. Saunders was re-selecting all the mixed wheats
which came into his hands at Ottawa and the progeny of
numerous crosses which he made in 1903 and in subse-
quent years, he had to pay particular attention to the
plumpness and hardness of the kernels as influencing the
flour yield, and to the gluten content and general baking
qualities of the flour, including baking strength, absorp-
71 Professor Bailey also points out that the quality of any wheat
is influenced not only by its varietal characteristics but also by the
soil and climatic conditions under which it is grown. Thus the
protein content and baking strength will almost invariably be
lower when the wheat is grown in a moist soil than when it is
produced under arid conditions. On the other hand, unfavorable
conditions, such as drought, rust, and hot winds, will result in
more or less shriveled grain giving lower flour yields when milled.
200 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
tion and color. In doing this, his University training in
chemistry stood him in good stead. One of the most re-
markable features of the work of Dr. Saunders is that he
not only crosses wheats, selects their progeny, propagates
the selections on plots and in fields, and records all their
field characteristics such as yield and earliness, but that
he also carries out all the needful baking and milling tests
himself in his own laboratory.
British millers demand from Canada hard red spring
wheat which shall produce flour which shall not only be
white and have good absorption but which shall have the
highest possible baking strength. The strong Canadian
flour is perhaps not the best for making loaves with di-
rectly, so far as the consumer is concerned, but it is in-
valuable for mixing purposes. The British miller has
plenty of soft wheat at his disposal and thus can readily
obtain an abundance of flour which is relatively weak.
He therefore mixes the strong Canadian flour with the
weaker flour from soft wheats and thus produces a stand-
ard flour of his own design. On account of there being
much more soft wheat for sale than hard wheat, the latter,
in accordance with the law of supply and demand, natu-
rally fetches the higher price. There is, therefore, a very
good reason why the Red Fife and Marquis wheat of west-
ern Canada, which produce flour of the very highest bak-
ing strength, should be so much sought for in the British
market.
From the first, when selecting new wheats, Dr. Saun-
ders bore the requirements of the British market in mind ;
and he determined never to send out from Ottawa to the
farmers of the West, for general cultivation, any new va-
riety of wheat which would be inferior to Red Fife in its
milling and baking qualities. This, of course, led to
scores of rejections of otherwise promising varieties, and
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DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 201
no one of his selections to which he attaches any value has
failed to pass the most rigorous milling and baking tests.
That Marquis gives so much satisfaction to millers and
bakers is therefore not due to any accident but to the
careful work of Dr. Saunders who, as the first miller and
the first baker of the new wheat, appreciated the good
qualities of its flour several years before it became an ar-
ticle of commerce.
When beginning the task of re-selecting all the more or
less mixed wheats assembled at Ottawa in 1903, which led
to the discovery of Marquis, Dr. Saunders had not a mill,
or a fermenting cupboard, or an oven in his laboratory;
and, in the absence of this apparatus, he judged the quality
of the wheat flour from his different wheat plants by
means of the chewing test. In the art of applying this
test he soon became a veritable master, and thereby con-
siderably hastened the work of selection. It had long
been known to practical wheat buyers that some rough
idea of the baking strength of flour can be obtained by
chewing for about four or five minutes a few kernels of
the wheat from which the flour is to be made, and by then
examining in the fingers the elasticity of the little pellet of
gluten taken from the mouth. Dr. Saunders, after carry-
ing out this simple test for a large number of times, found
that it was thereby possible to acquire considerable facil-
ity for judging flour quality, and since then he has used
the test extensively. To obtain sufficient gluten for a test,
he usually chewed about ten or a dozen kernels from the
crop of each individual plant which was being considered
as a possible progenitor of a new variety of wheat. He
found it to be a general rule that the strongest flour is ob-
tained from those wheats which produce gluten having the
greatest ability to recover its shape. "^^
72 Charles E. Saunders, loc. oit., p. 9.
202 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
In discussing the chewing test, Dr. Saunders says:
" The variations in the quality of the gluten observed in
different plants of the same pedigree are often very great,
and it is not claiming too much to say that this simple and
apparently inefficient method of testing enables one to se-
lect with a fair degree of certainty a few of the best plants
each season, and this enormously reduces the labor which
would otherwise be involved in multiplying a large num-
ber of strains, most of which would ultimately be rejected.
That this crude method of testing is infallible, one cannot
maintain. The writer has shown, however, by actual bak-
ing trials that it possesses sufficient accuracy to be worthy
of the very serious attention of all wheat-breeders, although
an investigator may have to perform the test several hun-
dreds of times before acquiring any proficiency in it. It is
not really a very difficult matter to judge in this way, as
a rule with fair accuracy, both the gluten strength and
the color of the flour which would be produced from the
wheat in question ; and, if time were taken to weigh the
wheat used and the globule of gluten produced, it would
certainly be possible to form a rough estimate of the pro-
portion of gluten which the wheat would yield. The
writer does not know whether this method of judging the
quality of individual plants has been used by other investi-
gators or not, but he would strongly recommend it as im-
peratively necessary for any one attempting to breed wheat
for high quality. It requires some patience and a fairly
good set of teeth, but these two attributes can be consid-
ered essential to all breeders of wheat. A study of the
later sections of this bulletin will make it clear to any one
that the usual observations on the color and hardness of
the kernels are almost useless for estimating flour strength
in breeding new wheats. The chewing test is certainly of
great value although it should always be confirmed by
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 203
actual baking trials as soon as sufficient wheat is obtainable
for that purpose."
Dr. Saunders' application of the chewing test has a
definite historical importance, for he thereby obtained the
clew to the excellent milling and baking qualities of Mar-
quis wheat. He selected the first head of Marquis in
1903 because, in addition to having other good qualities,
it passed this test. The progeny of the first head of Mar-
quis successfully withstood the chewing test in 1904 and
1905 ; and it was not until the close of this period that,
having set up a small experimental mill, a fermenting
cupboard, and an oven in his laboratory, Dr. Saunders
was able to grind the wheat into flour and bake the dough
into bread in the usual manner. Rigorous milling and
baking tests made with the new apparatus completely con-
firmed the judgment of Marquis which he had made three
seasons previously from the examination of the little glu-
ten pellets taken from his mouth.
Marquis wheat, since being generally introduced into
Canada and the United States, has been subjected to a
great number of tests for its milling and baking qualities
in the laboratories of cerealists and millers; and every-
where it has been pronounced to be, as regards these quali-
ties, a first-class wheat.
Comparative milling and baking experiments made with
Marquis and other standard varieties of hard spring wheat
were carried out by Professor Ladd "^^ of the North Da-
kota Agricultural Experiment Station in the years 1913
and 1914, and by Professor Bailey ^^ of the Minnesota
73 E. F. Ladd, Chemical and Physical Constants for Wheat and
Mill Products, N. Dakota Agr. Exp. Sta., Bulletin No. 114, 1916,
pp. 273-297.
74 C. H. Bailey, Marquis Wheat, II, The Milling Quality of
Marquis Wheat, Minn. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bulletin No. 137, 1914,
pp. 9-14.
204 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
Agricultural Experimental Station in 1913, and the re-
sults have been summarized by Messrs. Ball and Clark "^^
as follows :
" The published data show that the Marquis wheat sam-
ples tested were equal or slightly superior in most re-
spects to the samples of Fife, Bluestem, and Preston (Vel-
vet Chaff) wheats raised under similar conditions. A
higher total yield of flour was obtained from the Marquis.
The percentage of bran was less, while that of shorts was
greater from the Marquis than from the three standard
groups of spring common wheats. Compared with durum
wheat, the Marquis is slightly lower in yield of flour and
shorts but higher in yield of bran.
" The baking quality of Marquis flour is high. It con-
tains more crude protein than the flours of the three prin-
cipal groups of spring common wheat. The amount of
water absorbed by the Marquis flour in dough making also
is high. These are important features in determining
the expansive quality of the flour or its gluten. The loaf
volume of the Marquis exceeds that of the other hard
spring common wheats. There is comparatively little dif-
ference in the color, texture, and crumb of the Marquis
•and of the other spring common wheats.
" In short the data show the Marquis to be a first-class
milling wheat."
XXII. The Origin of Hard Red Calcutta
Hard Eed Calcutta, the female parent of Marquis, is a
wheat which was imported into Canada by Dr. William
Saunders some thirty years ago for experimental pur-
poses. It was grown in plots at the Central Experimen-
!l ' '
75 C. R. Ball and J. A. Clark, Exrieriments with Marquis Wheat.
Bulletin No. 400, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington, 1916, p. 40.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 205
tal Farm and at the branch farms, and a certain number
of samples were sent out for trial to farmers and experi-
mentalists in various places. Twenty-seven such samples
were distributed from Ottawa in 1892/^ but for various
reasons, particularly on account of its small yield and very
short straw, the Indian wheat has not proved a success
under Canadian conditions.'^^
Hard Red Calcutta, when grown in Canada, was found
to ripen exceedingly early in the season, some two or three
weeks earlier than Red Fife; but, unfortunately, linked
with this very desirable character were others which were
very undesirable, the chief being a poor yield, very short
straw, the shattering of the grains from their glumes when
ripe, and the bearded condition of the heads.
The newly imported Indian wheat was crossed with
Bed Fife in 1892 with the hope of obtaining a wheat like
Red Fife but which would ripen much earlier in the sea-
son than the standard variety. "^^ The progeny of the cross
included types with short straw, with long straw, and with
medium straw; types with short heads, long heads and
intermediate heads; types with the early-ripening habit,
the late-ripening habit; and so forth. From all these
types were selected a few which most nearly resembled
Red Fife in general appearance but which possessed the
early-ripening habit ; and it was the best one of these few
which was subsequently named and introduced as Marquis.
Under what circumstances Hard Red Calcutta came
into existence in India is unknown to the writer. It is
very probable that its origin, like that of so many other
76 Experimental Farms Reports for 1902, p. 14.
77 S. A. Bedford in a report on wheats grown at Brandon Experi-
mental Farm in 1891, Experimental Farms Reports for 1901, p.
249.
78 See Section II on : The Selection of Marquis hy Dr. Charles E.
Saunders.
206 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
cereals, has never been accurately recorded. Hard Ked
Calcutta, as already pointed out in an earlier Section,^^
is a commercial expression and includes several different
types of wheat. Thus, for instance, there is Hard Ked
Calcutta with white chaff. Hard Eed Calcutta with brown
chaff, and Hard Ked Calcutta with black chaff, these types
breeding true and being quite distinct from one another.
All these types originated in India but how and where are
not known. One of them, but which one is also not known,
was chosen as the female parent in the cross from which
Marquis originated.
XXIII. The Origin of Red Fife
The story of the introduction of the celebrated wheat
generally known as Red Fife or Scotch Fife into I^orth
America, is fraught with the elements of romance and has
exercised the mythopoeic faculty of those who have handed
it down to us. To relate it here harmonizes well with our
main theme, for, as we have seen, Ked Fife is the male
parent of Marquis.
Ked Fife is called Red because its grains, when typi-
cally developed, are of a good red color, and Fife after
David Fife, an Ontario farmer, who was the first to raise
Ked Fife on this side of the Atlantic, and who introduced
this variety into Canadian agriculture almost eighty years
ago.
J. W. Clarke, a Wisconsin farmer, had an excellent crop
of Ked Fife upon his farm in the year 1860. His yield
averaged 36 bushels per acre, and so pleased was he with
his harvest that he wrote a letter to the Country Gentle-
man and Cultivator telling of his experiences and recom-
mending the new variety of wheat to agriculturists in gen-
eral. Incidentally, he referred to the originator of Ked
79 Section II.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 207
Fife as being David Fife of Otonabee in what was then
called Canada West but now Ontario.^^
Clarke's letter naturally attracted attention in Canada,
and in March, 1861, it was reproduced in the Canadian
Agriculturalist. Accompanying the first letter, however,
was a second, written by George Essen, in which the main
facts relating to the introduction of Red Fife in Canada
were recorded for the first time and by an eye-witness.
George Essen was one of David Fife's neighbors. More-
over, the Fifes and Essens had both come from the Kin-
cardine parish of Tullyallen in Scotland, and, as pioneers,
had settled together at Otonabee, Peterborough County,
Ontario. It is very evident, therefore, that George Essen
was in a particularly good position to know the true facts
concerning the introduction of the new wheat which was
becoming so famous. Essen's letter Avas as follows :
" About the year 1842 David Fife of the township of
Otonabee, Canada West (now Ontario), procured through
a friend in Glasgow, Scotland, a quantity of wheat which
had been obtained from a cargo direct from Danzig. As
it came to hand just before spring seed-time, and not know-
ing whether it was a fall or spring variety, Mr. Fife con-
cluded to sow part of it that spring and wait for the result.
It proved to be a fall wheat as it never ripened, except
three ears which grew apparently from a single grain.
These were preserved, and although sown the next year
under very unfavorable circumstances, being quite late
and in a shady place, it proved at harvest entirely free from
rust, when all the wheat in the neighborhood was badly
rusted. The produce of this was carefully preserved, and
from it sprang the variety of wheat known over Canada
and the Northern States by the different names of Fife,
Scotch, and Glasgow. As the facts occurred in my imme-
80 The Country Gentleman and Cultivator, October, 1860.
208 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
diate neighborhood and being intimately acquainted, not
only with the introducer, but with the circumstances, I can
vouch for the correctness of the statement and, if neces-
sary, produce incontestible proof." ^^
This letter seems to afford conclusive evidence that the
wheat from which Red Fife sprang was formerly grown
in central or eastern Europe, that it was conveyed by ship
from the port of Danzig to the port of Glasgow, and that at
the latter place a sample of it was procured from the cargo
and sent to David Fife in Ontario. There is therefore
no reason whatever to suppose that Red Fife, as its syno-
nyms Scotch Fife and Glasgow seem to suggest, was ever
grown in Scotland.
There were some who were inclined to believe that Red
Fife originated as a sport from David Fife's imported
seed and therefore that it constituted a new variety which
first came into existence in Ontario. This hypothesis,
which was never very satisfactory, has now been shown by
Dr. Saunders to be superfluous, for he has demonstrated
by exact comparison that Red Fife is identical with a cen-
tral European variety of wheat known as Galician.
In his evidence, given as Dominion Cerealist before the
Committee on Agriculture at Ottawa in 1905, Dr. Charles
Saunders, after quoting George Essen's letter, made the
following statements : " This account has given rise to
the idea that Red Fife is a Canadian wheat, that it origi-
nated with Mr. Fife in some wholly unaccountable man-
ner, or as a sport from a European variety. It always
seemed to me probable that the kernel which Mr. Fife
obtained was merely a seed of some common European va-
riety which had found its way into the wheat from Danzig.
81 The Canadian Agriculturalist, March, 1861, p. 167. The letters
of Clarke and Essen are here cited from an article Canadian Wheat
History prepared by C. C. James and published in the Orain Grow-
ers' Guide, June 7, 1916, p. 36.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 209
Last season, among our newly-imported European varie-
ties, was one under the name of ^ Galician/ obtained from
a seedsman in Germany. Now, Galicia lies about 300
miles inland from Danzig. This imported Galician wheat
struck me at once as being very much like Red Fife, and I
therefore sowed it last spring alongside Red Fife, and
watched them both very carefully throughout the season.
They proved to be identical at all stages of their growth
as well as when the grain was harvested. A larger plot of
Galician wheat furnished grain for milling purposes.
This was ground, analyzed and baked. Red Fife from
a plot in the same field was similarly treated. The two
samples of flour were found to be alike in all respects, and
thus the absolute identity of the two wheats was estab-
lished. The firm from which the seed of the Galician
wheat was obtained, informed me that the variety was
procured by them many years ago from a farmer in Ga-
licia. It seems, therefore, quite clear that the kernel of
wheat which came into the hands of Mr. Fife, was a kernel
of this Galician spring wheat, accidentally present in the
cargo of winter wheat from Danzig, of which he obtained
a portion. It is interesting to be able to throw this light
on the subject of the origin of Red Fife, which has hitherto
seemed very dark. There is no doubt that this variety is
still grown in Europe, and so far as our tests have gone, it
seems to be of the same quality there as it is here." ^^
It therefore seems certain : that Red Fife was originally
grown in mid-Europe ; that one of its kernels was con-
veyed in a cargo of winter wheat, via the Baltic and the
N'orth Sea, from Danzig to Glasgow; that a sample of the
cargo containing the kernel in question was procured by
82 The Origin of Red Fife Wheat, Evidence of Dr. Charles E.
Saunders before the Select Standing Committee on Agriculture and
Colonization, Ottawa, 1905, pp. 216-217.
210 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
some one at the Scottish port; that this sample was sent
to David Fife at his farm in Ontario about the year 1842 ;
that this single kernel germinated and produced a plant
with three heads; that the kernels of these three heads,
when sown the next year, gave rise to the wheat which be-
came known as Red Fife; and that Ked Fife is identical
with a wheat known as Galician which was recently in
cultivation in Galicia.
George Essen's letter was but little noticed at the time
it was written and soon passed into oblivion. As Red
Fife grew in importance with the passage of years, the
story of its origin became a tradition which, as it passed
from mouth to mouth, gradually assumed varied and color-
ful forms. Some of these traditions which deal chiefly
with the manner in which the original sample of grain
was first procured, will now be told.
A contributor ^^ to the Manitoba Daily Free Press,
writing in 1883 in reference to Eed Fife, says: "The
first wheat grown in Canada was on a farm owned by a
person by the name of Fyfe in the township of Otonabee,
County of Peterborough. Mr. Fyfe hired a Scotchman as
a farm laborer. When his time expired with Mr. Fyfe, he
decided on returning to his native country. Mr. Fyfe re-
quested him to send a Scotch bonnet from Glasgow. When
there a vessel from the Black Sea was unloading wheat at
one of the docks.^^ He procured the full of the bonnet
and sent it on the first opportunity to Mr. Fyfe. I have
many times been on the same farm.''
Another tradition, current at Peterborough at the pres-
ent day, also includes the incident of the cap but with dif-
ferent details. It is as follows : " David Fife did not
83 M. Colquhoun of Mansfield, Ontario, in the Manitoba Daily Free
Press, Feb. 24, 1883, p. 8.
84 In this story the Black Sea is substituted for Danzig on the
Baltic. This is doubtless an error due to imperfect memory.
DISCOVEKY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 211
send for the seed. An acquaintance, strolling along the
dock at Glasgow, found men unloading wheat. He knew
that Fife had emigrated to Canada, and he also knew of
a mutual friend who proposed to go out to the new coun-
try presently. The thought struck him to take a sample
of the wheat which to his observation looked very good,
and send it to Fife. He had nothing in which to hold
the wheat, but there was a hole in the lining of his cap.
He opened the lining at the hole, filled in a handful, and
afterwards wrapped it up in paper. Fife received the
seed and planted it. It all grew but rusted badly, except
five heads, all from one stalk or root. Two of these heads
were eaten by oxen leaving only three heads. The great
probability is that the single grain from which the three
heads grew was an accidental hybrid." ^^
The incident about the oxen has been connected with
David Fife's wife and in this form is told as follows:
" Mrs. Fife is entitled to share in her husband's honor,
for, discovering the family cow contentedly making a meal
of the growing clump of grain, she was in time to rescue a
portion of it before it was too late." ^^ It may be added
that a photograph of Mr. and Mrs. Fife was taken when
they were very advanced in years and was reproduced in
several newspapers.
Another tradition ^^ introduces a sack : David Fife
" having by experiment found that the Scotch Danzig
wheat was a spring and not a winter variety, the sack in
which the wheat had been contained was looked up and a
85 This tradition was told to Mr. F. H. Dobbin of Peterborough,
who kindly wrote it down and sent it to me in August, 1918. Mr.
Dobbin, in his letter to the author stated that he was assured by
one who knew all the circumstances that this tradition is the cor-
rect one as opposed to another about to be related.
86 C. C. James, Canadian Wheat History, Grain Growers^ Guide,
June 7, 1916, p. 36.
8T Ibid.
212 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
handful of the grain was sown in the succeeding year/' If
this story were true, and the writer, in view of George
Essen's letter is not prepared to accept it as such, we
should be obliged to regard Red Fife as having sprung not
from a single plant but from many scores of plants, thus
having a multiple origin.
In the first two of the traditions which have been re-
lated so far, David Fife is represented as not sending for
the wheat but as receiving it as an unexpected present from
a friend in Scotland. Another tradition which is told at
much greater length and with many details not appearing
elsewhere, and which is regarded by Mr. F. H. Dobbin, the
present town-clerk of Peterborough, as authentic, has a
very different complexion, for it represents Fife as a man
who was anxious to raise a better kind of wheat than was
locally available and who therefore sent to Scotland on
two occasions for foreign seed-wheat for experimental pur-
poses. The story ^^ told by Mr. Dobbin is as follows :
" The locality in which the celebrated Fife Wheat was
first propagated, is that which is now known as the Mid-
land District of Ontario. This part of the province lies
midway between Toronto and Kingston, skirts Lake On-
tario, extends back from the Lake for a distance of forty
miles, and comprises in part the counties of Durham,
Northumberland, Peterborough, and Hastings.
" The township of Otonabee, in which the Fife family
lived, forms the most southern part of the county of Peter-
borough, and is bounded on the west by the river Otonabee,
on the south by Rice Lake, on the north by the townships
immediately adjoining, and on the east by the county of
Hastings. At the time of which we are speaking, all this
section of the country was comprised in what was known
88 This story was kindly sent to me in August, 1918, by Mr. Dob-
bin, to whom I applied for information.
DISCOVEEY OF MARQUIS WHEAT
213
as the Colborne District, and was represented as a munici-
pal unit in tlie Old House of Assembly of Upper Canada.
The Township of Otonabee was one of the first to be set-
tled, men going into its forests as early as 1816. So, when
the Fife family reached Canada and directed their steps
to Otonabee as their future home, settlers were already in
possession of faim lands and many locations had been
procured from the Crown. The Fife farm is situated
about seven miles from the city of Peterborough.
" The late David Fife, the subject of this memoir, set-
tled in Otonabee in the early thirties of the last century.
For several years after that time, the wheat in general
sowing in the locality was a fall wheat of a brand known
as Siberian. This had come into favor largely owing to
the fact that those who sold it as seed claimed that it was
particularly fitted to survive the rigors of a Canadian win-
ter. However, Siberian was found to exhibit a weakness
in that it often became rusted badly with a consequent
diminution in the crop. Fife, being desirous of obtaining
improved seed, sent to Glasgow for samples. These were
forwarded, but arriving in Canada late in the season, were
held in storage at Smith's Creek on the lake front until the
following spring. Smith's Creek is now known as Port
Hope. The samples cost, in money as now we count it,
about three dollars per bushel and a considerable sum for
storage. The seed was sown but never sprouted.^^
" In 1841 Fife again became interested in importing
seed-wheat and wrote to a personal friend named Strothers
who was a clerk in a grain store in Glasgow, asking that
samples of a well-recommended Russian wheat be pro-
cured and forwarded. Mr. Strothers selected a new kind,
89 According to Essen's letter the fall wheat germinated but did
not ripen. The earlier account written in 1861 is probably the
correct one.
214 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
brought from Danzig by ship, and sent it on, saying that
from what he had learned from the importers the seed
would answer Fife's requirements. Two lots of wheat
were sent, one for fall and one for spring sowing.
" The second shipment was held at Cobourg during the
fall and winter, as before. Both lots of wheat were sown
in the following spring but the fall wheat never germi-
nated. The spring wheat grew, developed, and ripened.
In growth and appearance it proved to be superior to any
other wheat in the neighborhood, but only three heads were
saved. It is known that the seed was not sown until all
the other kinds of grain were above the ground, as Fife
was ill and wished to watch the sowing and the cultivation
himself. The new variety, to the surprise of all, was
absolutely free from rust.*^^
" The crop was gathered by Mr. Fife and carefully
stored. A pint of seed was realized which, on being sown
early the next year, produced a half-bushel at harvest time.
From this limited quantity of seed the neighborhood was
supplied with samples for trial, and so successful was the
result that the district benefited largely from the Fife
wheat.
" The spring following, this would be about 1843, a
man named Henderson bought from Fife one bushel and
from this as seed reaped nearly three hundred bushels,^ ^
90 Red Fife wheat is not rust-resistant but often rusts badly.
Essen's and Dobbin's accounts agree in stating that the first crop
was free from rust when the other wheat suffered severely from
the disease. This may be due to the fact that the seed was sown
in a protected place and not in an open field. Essen says the seed
was sown " quite late and in a shady place."
91 As a story is told, errors are apt to be introduced where figures
are quoted. It takes more than a bushel to sow a single acre, and
50 bushels to an acre is an excellent crop. No one ever yet obtained
300 bushels to an acre, so that Mr. Dobbin's figures here must be
fallacious. Such a crop might have come from ten bushels of seed
DISCOVEEY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 215
a part of which he disposed of at $3.00 per bushel, errone-
ously naming it Glasgotv Wheat. The parent seed never
grew in Scotland but was imported from one of the Rus-
sian districts by ship. Efforts made to locate the terri-
tory from which the seed was derived were never success-
ful, and the origin of the new wheat was looked upon
as an accidental occurrence. From these small beginnings
came the wheat that has so largely contributed to the ag-
ricultural reputation of this section of Ontario, and which
has made the crops desirable to millers all over Canada."
Such, then, are the traditions of Red Fife which have
come down to us. All of them doubtless contain some
truth, but to what extent certain of the more picturesque
details have been unconsciously invented it is at present
difficult or impossible to say. It may be that David Fife's
correspondence with his friend in Scotland and with his
neighbors is still in the possession of his descendants. If
it could be found it would doubtless throw a new and very
interesting light upon the history of the wheat with which
the family name of Fife is so honorably associated.
In Ontario, about the year 18Y0, spring wheat formed
about 60 per cent, of the total crop, and the chief variety
of spring wheat grown was Red Fife.^^ Red Fife, after
its successful introduction in Ontario, soon passed into the
United States; and, as we have seen, an excellent crop
of it was raised by a Wisconsin farmer in 1860. With
the development of the wheat lands in the Great Plains
region. Red Fife was introduced into Minnesota and the
two Dakotas.
but not from one. In the preceding paragraph a pint of seed is
said to have been realized from the three heads. This is another
impossibility. Possibly the original statement was " less than a
pint."
92 Spring Wheat in Ontario, Manitoba Daily Free Press, March 16,
1883, p. 7.
216 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
Exactly when Eed Fife was first sown in western Can-
ada is unknown; but a certain small amount was doubt-
less being grown in Manitoba as early as about 1870.
This seems to follow from the fact that in 1876 nearly
one thousand bushels of Red Fife were exported from
Manitoba to Ontario to re-seed the very province in which
this variety of wheat had originated. The account of this
remarkable transaction is related by C. C. James ®^ as
follows: "In 1876 spring wheat failed in Ontario, the
old reliable Red Fife apparently had run out, it had lost
its vigor — perhaps the fault lay in the soil rather than
in the grain. The Red River Fife wheat had made a repu-
tation, and so in the fall of the year the late R. C. Steele
of Steele Brothers, Toronto, started for Manitoba. He
traveled by rail to St. Paul and thence to Fisher's Land-
ing, where, doubtful of the river navigation so late in the
year, he took a lumber wagon and made the 150 miles
to Winnipeg in 30 hours of continuous going. He wished
to bring back 5,000 bushels, but all that he was able to
secure at Winnipeg was 857 bushels, which he bought at
85 cents a bushel. This wheat came down to Toronto by
steamer from Winnipeg to Fisher's Landing where he
secured some additional United States wheat, thence by
rail to Duluth, by vessel from Duluth to Sarnia, and by
rail from Sarnia to Toronto. This was the first wheat
exported from Manitoba to the East. It was in the latter
part of 1876. Mr. Steele paid 85 cents per bushel for this
wheat on October 12, 1876."
In Manitoba, up to about the year 1882, the amount of
wheat grown in the province had been scarcely more than
sufficient to supply the local market. However, with the
93 C. C. James, Canadian Wheat History, Grain Growers' Guide,
Winnipeg, June 7, 1916, p. 36.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 217
opening of the first railway in the province in 1878 giving
direct access to St. Paul from St. Boniface, and with the
prospect of the completion of the Canadian Pacific Rail-
way which would connect the prairie with eastern ocean
ports, grain dealers, farmers, and railway men became con-
vinced that a great export trade in wheat would soon be
developed in the Canadian West. In 1883, therefore, by
which time the introduction of the purifier into flour mills
had greatly enhanced the value of hard spring wheats, an
effort was made to improve the quality of the crops. To
this end a large amount of Red Fife was brought into
Manitoba from Minnesota.
In 1882, James Hartney imported into Manitoba from
Minnesota a car-load of Red Pife. He sowed it on vir-
gin land and it produced a splendid crop. Some of the
grain was shov^n at an exhibition held in the fall of the
year at Winnipeg, and it carried off the prizes of the Cana-
dian Pacific Railway Company and of the Hudson's Bay
Company for the best ten bushels of wheat. At that time
the Canadian Pacific Railway Company was hard at work
constructing its great line of steel across the continent, and,
with a view to future business, was anxious to demonstrate
the agricultural possibilities of the West. About 1882,
therefore, the Company began to make a series of experi-
mental farms all along the line from Winnipeg to Calgary.
Horses and plows, accompanied by laborers, were conveyed
by train; and, at intervals along the line, whenever there
was found a piece of open, level, promising-looking land,
plows, horses and men were detrained and the virgin soil
was turned up ; and in the autumn the land was back-set.
The Company sowed all these new farms with Red Fife
purchased from Hartney in the winters of 1882 and 1883,
with the result that the amount of Red Fife available for
218 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
seed rapidly increased. The Company supplied the new
seed to the settlers, with whom it was in great demand.^'*
In 1883 the firm of Traill, Maulson and Clark arranged
for the importation into Manitoba from Minnesota of
10,000 bushels of Red Fife. The government, for the pur-
pose of assisting in the improvement of the wheat crop,
allowed this and other consignments of Red Fife intended
for seed purposes to come into the country duty free ; and
the Canadian Pacific Railway Company, with the same
object in view, held out a special inducement to importers
by offering to bring in seed wheat of this variety free of
charge. ^^
The outcome of the efforts at improvement just de-
scribed was that after 1882 Red Fife soon replaced the
softer wheats, such as Club, Golden Drop, and White Rus-
sian, so that in the early eighties it became the standard
variety of wheat in western Canada.
Red Fife was, and still is, a first-class cereal; and it
will always be interesting historically, not only for the
fact that it established the reputation of the Dominion for
the production of high-grade wheat with excellent milling
and baking qualities, but also because it was the male par-
ent first of Preston and subsequently of Marquis. It has
•been justified not merely by its own achievements but by
its children.
XXIV. Marquis as the Off-spring of Bed Fife and
Hard Bed Calcutta
The rudimentary plant or embryo present in every seed
arises in the first instance from a fertilized egg; and it is
9* The above facts concerning the introduction of Red Fife into
western Canada by James Hartney and the Canadian Pacific Rail-
way Company, were kindly related to me by Mr. William Sharman of
Winnipeg, who himself sowed Red Fife in Manitoba in 1883.
95 Red Fife Wheat, Manitoba Daily Free Press, Feb. 24, 1883, p. 8.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 219
no more possible for an unfertilized wheat egg to develop
into a wheat plant, or an oak egg to develop into an oak-
tree, than it is for an unfertilized fowl's egg to develop
into a chicken, or an unfertilized human egg into a child.
That plants and animals alike spring from fertilized eggs
is one of the most fundamentally important and wonderful
of all biological discoveries.
Exactly how the egg which gave rise in succeeding gen-
erations to the plants from which Marquis was selected,
came to be fertilized is for us a matter of no little interest,
and an elucidation of it will now be attempted. There-
after we shall discuss the influence of the parents of Mar-
quis upon their off-spring.
The original kernel from which all the Marquis plants
in the world have been derived, came into existence, as we
have seen, from an artificial cross between Eed Pife and
Hard Red Calcutta. Pollen dust from some stamens re-
moved with forceps from a few flowers of the former va-
riety, was placed on the two feathery stigmas of a flower
of the latter variety. The pollen grains germinated, each
grain producing a single pollen tube. The pollen tubes,
which were exceedingly delicate cylindrical structures,
grew down the stigmas and made their way, by elongating
at their apices, into the ovary below. This ovary was a
tiny chamber containing a single ovule or potential seed
attached laterally to its wall. One of the pollen tubes,
guided by chemotropic stimuli, directed its course toward
the ovule, entered it at its mouth or micropyle, and pene-
trated into its interior as far as the ovum or egg-cell.
The egg-cell having been reached, the wall at the tip of the
pollen tube liquefied and broke down, and from the open-
ing so produced there were emitted two exceedingly minute
dense rounded masses of gelatinous protoplasm known as
male nuclei. One of these nuclei, carried by forces as yet
220 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
not perfectly understood, advanced through the general
protoplasm of the egg-cell toward the female nucleus situ-
ated in its center. The male and the female nuclei, after
coming into contact, brought their affinity for one another
to a climax by mingling together and forming one whole ;
and this nuclear fusion, this formation of a single nucleus
from two others of opposite sex, marked the completion of
the act of fertilization. We thus see that the train of
events which received its impetus from cross-pollination,
inevitably led to the production of a cross-fertilized egg-
cell. Without fertilization, the egg-cell would have re-
mained just as sterile as an unfertilized fowFs egg, and
in the end it would have withered and died; but, its
fertilization having been accomplished, a most extraordi-
nary future was opened to it. Further development be-
came irresistible, with the result that, in the course of a
few years, its products became in numbers like the stars
on a clear night or the grains of yellow sand upon a sea
beach.
The fertilized egg-cell resulting from the physical union
of the protoplasm of the Hard Red Calcutta and Red Fife
parents could not lie dormant, but, immediately, by cell-
division accompanied by nuclear division, began to swell
up and become differentiated into distinct parts. Soon it
became converted into a definite embryo or rudimentary
plant, with a distinct root and a little shoot, lying hidden
inside the enlarging ovule and ovary which were now be-
coming rapidly converted into a grain of wheat. The
tiny embryo, as it grew to its full size, came to be situated
on one side of the basal end of the grain. Meanwhile,
starch, produced from sugar sent from the leaves, and pro-
teins manufactured from nitrogenous compounds, were
accumulating in the floury part of the grain which finally
came to compose about twenty-four twenty-fifths of its
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 221
mass, the other twenty-fifth part being occupied by the
embryo. The floury part of a grain in which the starch
and proteins are stored is known technically as the endo-
sperm and consists of about a quarter of a million cells.
To protect the embryo and the food-laden endosperm of
the kernel under discussion, two coats were developed, one
from the skin of the ovule and the other from the wall of
the ovarial chamber. The former, known as the testa or
seed-coat, soon came to press tightly against the latter,
known as the pericarp, so that in the end, a single com-
pound horny layer came into existence on the exterior of
the grain. Since this layer was red, the grain, when
viewed from without, was found to possess the red color
which is so much preferred to white for the hard wheats
of Canada.
When the cross-bred kernel was planted in the spring,
the embryonic plant within rapidly increased in size and
soon pushed several roots down into the soil. It then
forced its shoot upwards into the sunlight where it ex-
panded its first green leaf. Thus the embryo grew into
a seedling. All this early development was accomplished
at the expense of the starch and proteins, the reserve food
materials which had been stored up in the endosperm or
floury part of the kernel in the preceding summer. These
substances, when germination began, became converted
into soluble compounds, the starch breaking up into sugar
and the proteins into simpler nitrogenous bodies. The
sugar and nitrogenous bodies, after becoming dissolved in
water, were then gradually absorbed by the enlargin<r em-
bryo, the organ of absorption or cotyledon being a shield-
shaped structure attached to the axis of the embryo at the
place of union of the shoot and the first root. In the
course of about 115 days, the embryo grew into a seedling
and the seedling into a mature plant. The green leaves
222 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
unfolded themselves to the sunlight one by one, and the
slender stem, elongating ever more rapidly, ceased from
its upward strivings neither night nor day until it had
raised to the full height its precious burden — the spike of
flowers. Each flower, left to itself, underwent self-pollina-
tion: the pollen dust of the three stamens fell upon the
two stigmas of the same flower when the glumes opened,
and, as a consequence, the so-called self-fertilization of
the ovules which normally takes place in all wheat flowers,
was accomplished. Finally, the flowering spike developed
into a head of ripe kernels, after which the whole plant,
with the exception of the kernels, gradually lost its vitality
and died. Thus the life-cycle of the plant which began
with the fertilized egg-cell, came to an end with the pro-
duction of reproductive bodies which provided for the con-
tinuance of the species in the next year.
The plants which grew from the seeds of the original
cross-bred plant were very variable. No full record was
kept of this variability, but it is probable that the descend-
ants of the original cross-bred plant became differentiated
into several scores of distinct types. It was a single head
of a single plant of one of these types, which was finally se-
lected by Dr. Saunders in 1903 to provide the seeds from
which Marquis originated.
Since the nucleus of the fertilized egg-cell from which
sprang the plant which gave rise to Marquis, originated
from the union of a male nucleus from a Red Fife plant
and a female nucleus from a Hard Red Calcutta plant, and
since all the millions of nuclei in the millions of cells which
make up every Marquis plant have all been derived from
that original nucleus, it is not surprising to find that Mar-
quis exhibits characters of both its original parents.
Hard Red Calcutta is a very early-ripening wheat with
short straw and short bearded heads. Its grains are very
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 223
hard, red, and fairly plump, but shatter readily even when
the straw is green. From Hard Red Calcutta, its female
parent, Marquis has inherited its early-ripening habit.
Marquis also has straw which is a few inches shorter and
heads which are somewhat smaller than those of Eed Fife,
and here again the maternal influence of Hard Red Cal-
cutta can be traced.
Marquis is exceedingly like its male parent. Red Fife,
in general appearance. Thus it is not bearded like Hard
Red Calcutta but, like Red Fife, has a few short awns at
the tip of its head. Also its straw is not nearly as short
as that of Hard Red Calcutta but, while shorter than
that of Red Fife, is of good length. When Marquis and
Red Fife are growing in adjacent fields before the ripening
of the grains, even experts find it difficult to tell off-spring
and parent from one another. However, careful com-
parison shows that Marquis is a few days earlier in its
development, is not quite so tall, and has glumes enclosing
the young grains which are somewhat broader and shorter.
It thus appears that Marquis stands in a more or less
intermediate position between its two parents in respect
to length of straw, length of head, and earliness in ripen-
ing. In one character, however, it is not intermediate,
namely, in resistance to the shattering of its ripe grains.
While Hard Red Calcutta shatters readily, and Red Fife
shatters to some extent, Marquis resists shattering in a
high degree.
XXV. The Future of Marquis
There is no reason to believe that plant breeders have
already obtained the utmost possible in their endeavors to
improve the varieties of wheat now grown, for the wheat-
plant is a plastic thing and the limits of its variability have
not yet been ascertained. Moreover, the number of plant
224 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
breeders who have devoted themselves to the production of
new wheats has been very limited until recently, while the
number of kinds of wheat in the world, the properties of
which require to be investigated and with which experi-
ments could be made, is very great. The wheat population
in a field of any common kind of wheat is usually a mixed
one and consists of a number of elementary varieties differ-
ing slightly from one another.^® Some of these are better
than the average and some worse. By careful selection ^'^
of the best of them, any particular kind of wheat such as
Red Fife, Bluestem, or Marquis, can often be consider-
ably improved; and it was by the employment of this
method, either consciously or unconsciously, that the older
workers, Le Couteur, Shirreff, and Hallett in England,
Rimpau in Germany, !N'ilsson in Sweden, and others, ob-
tained their many successes; and it was also by the em-
plo;)Tnent of this method that Dawson of Ontario isolated
his Golden Chaff,^® Haynes of I^orth Dakota his Haynes
9« Every kind of wheat seems to have a tendency to break up
spontaneously in the course of time into these elementary varieties;
but what the cause of this may be, we do not know.
97 For an interesting discussion of the selection method as used by
the older improvers of cereals, see Hugo de Vries, Plant Breeding,
Chicago, 1907, pp. 29-90.
98 According to Professor Zavitz of the Ontario Agricultural Col-
lege the wheat known as Dawson's Golden Chaflf originated as fol-
lows: Robert Dawson, a farmer living near Paris, Ontario, had
a field of the White Clawson winter wheat in the year 1881, which
was badly lodged. In walking over the field, Mr. Dawson ob-
served a plant standing upright in the midst of the lodged grain.
He carefully saved this one plant and sowed the seed in the autumn.
In a comparatively short time he had sufficient seed, not only for
his own requirements, but also for sale to his neighbors. The
Dawson's Golden Chaff variety of winter wheat, which possesses
very stiff straw, has been grown more extensively throughout On-
tario than any other variety (Wheat and Rye, Bulletin No. 261,
Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto, 1918, p. 10). Plot
tests at Guelph with fourteen varieties of winter wheat for 22
years showed that Dawson's Golden Chaff gave an annual average
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 225
Bluestem,^^ Dr. Charles Saunders of Ottawa his Early
Red Fife/ Professor W. P. Thompson of the University
of Saskatchewan his remarkable Dwarf Marquis,^ and
yield of grain of exactly three bushels per acre over the next highest
yielding variety {ibid., p. 7).
99 Bluestem was being grown in 1855 in some Eastern States of the
U. S. A. as a red winter wheat. It was then taken west and
grown in the spring-wheat States as a spring wheat, where ap-
parently it became harder. Haynes began to grow it in 1882 but
found it mixed with some soft and bearded wheats. In 1884 he
therefore planted in his garden the grains " from two good heads,
having three kernels abreast, hoeing it as it grew." From the
progeny of the two heads he selected only the best and earliest for
the next sowing. He was then spurred on by hearing of Major
Hallett's selection work in England. Eleven years of careful and
continuous head selection of Bluestem resulted " in increasing the
number of kernels abreast of the spikelet from three to four, with
the fifth kernel beginning to make its appearance." Further, says
Haynes " The length of the heads is increased about one-third,
and the berry is much improved in uniformity of color and hard-
ness. Another important feature is in the earlier maturity by
five days more than formerly." L. H. Haynes, private pamphlet,
^Vs by 5% inches, 11 pages, Fargo, North Dakota, published about
1895. For a typewritten copy of this pamphlet I am indebted to Dr.
H. K. Hayes, in charge of Plant Breeding at the Minnesota Experi-
ment Station, St. Paul.
1 Saunders' strain of Early Red Fife was obtained from a single
early-ripening plant occurring in a plot of Red Fife. It is just
like Red Fife in appearance but ripens a few days earlier (C. E.
Saunders, Methods of Selection, Experimental Farms Reports for
19'09, pp. 202-203).
2 Dwarf Marquis, which with Professor Thompson's permission is
here mentioned in cereal literature for the first time, has heads
of the same length as those of Marquis but straw which is only
one-quarter of the usual length or even less. It arose from a single
dwarf plant which came to perfection in a plot of pure-line Marquis
at the University of Saskatchewan, and it has bred true for several
years without any signs of breaking up. It never gives rise to tall
plants; the progeny of each year are all dwarfs. Dwarf Marquis,
owing to its excessively short straw is, of course, of no commercial
importance but it is of high interest as bearing on the genetics of
wheat. The writer in 1918 saw Dwarf Marquis at Saskatoon grow-
ing in one of Professor Thompson's plots and it presented a very
striking contrast with Marquis. An interesting parallel is afforded
226 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
Mr. Seager Wheeler of Kosthern his Kitchener and his
Eed Bobs.^ But of late years another method of improv-
ing cereals, that of cross-breeding, has been perfected and
already its application has led to the introduction of Mar-
quis and Prelude into the great spring-wheat region of
ISTorth America and of the rust-resistant Little Joss into
England.^ These cross-bred wheats combine the most de-
sirable characteristics of both their parents. Every year
now sees the advent of new varieties of wheat obtained by
one or the other of the two methods just described. Tak-
ing all these facts into consideration it seems not only quite
possible, but even likely, that at some time in the future
Marquis will be replaced by some other variety of wheat,
or perhaps by a succession of varieties, which will be su-
perior to it in one or more characteristics such as earliness,
yield, resistance to disease,^ and so forth. Indeed, it is to
by the dwarf Evening Primrose, Oenothera nanella, which arose
in one of de Vries's plots at Amsterdam and which is only one-third,
of the height of its tall parent Oenothera Lamarckiana.
3 Kitchener originated in 1911 from a single plant of Marquis
which to Mr. Wheeler's eye stood out from its fellows as a distinct
type. Red Bobs was selected from Bobs. In all probability, Daw-
son's Golden Chaff, Early Red Fife, Dwarf Marquis, and Kitchener
all came into existence in the first instance as mutations or sports
from a single parent. The writer is convinced, however, that Red
Bobs originated from the progeny of a natural cross, accidentally
occurring in Mr. Wheeler's plots, between Bobs and either Preston
or Early Red Fife. The evidence upon which this view is based,
is given in the Chapter on Red Bobs.
4 The pioneer producer of wheat hybrids in North America ap-
pears to have been C. G. Pringle of Charlotte, Vermont. He began
his work in 1877 and several varieties have received his name, some
of which have become standards. (P. T. Dondlinger, The Book of
Wheat, New York, 1912, p. 44.) Dr. William Saunders of Ottawa
began to cross wheats in 1888,
5 The wheat crops of the world suffer enormous diminution in
yield every year through such diseases as Rust, Smut, Wheat Scab,
and Root-rots. The attempt to produce disease-resisting cereals has
only just begun.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 227
be hoped that such a change as that indicated will actually
take place ; for wheat is merely a convenient means of pro-
viding the most civilized countries of the earth with food,
and every real improvement in the varieties grown brings
with it economy of labor in a task which by its very nature
man can never shirk — the task of procuring his daily
bread.
In the early eighties of last century and until the in-
troduction of Marquis in 1909, a period of twenty-five
years, Red Fife (Scotch Fife) was regarded by many as
the incomparable spring wheat destined to maintain its
sway in a large part of Xorth America forever. In 1883,
in an issue of the Manitoba Daily Free Press it was cor-
rectly described as then being ^' unsurpassed." But just
as Red Fife replaced Golden Drop, White Russian, Red
Chaff, Ladoga, Club, and other varieties in Manitoba, so,
in its turn, it has been replaced over vast areas by Mar-
quis. Already, however, in certain of the more northerly
parts of the Canadian wheat-belt, Prelude has replaced
Marquis ; and the new Ruby, should it prove successful in
its present trials in the field, ma}^ possibly replace Prelude.
Red Bobs is also a very fine wheat and has entered the
competition for premier honors in the great spring-wheat
region. What its future may be time alone will show.
At present there are only a few acres of this wheat in
existence, but where it has been grown it has shown great
promise. The hope built upon it may possibly be justi-
fied within a few years; but it is well not to forget that
there is a considerable difference between a promising new
variety grown in a few fields and that same variety cover-
ing enormous stretches of the prairie and yielding, as Mar-
quis actually does, from 200,000,000 ' to 300,000,000
bushels of wheat a year. It seems certain, for mechanical
reasons alone, that Marquis cannot be dislodged from its
228 ESSAYS OiS^ WHEAT
position as the dominant spring wheat in western Canada
within five years ; and it is probable that it will still hold
the lead over large tracts of country ten or twenty years
hence.
Marquis, even if it retains its great place for only ten
or even five years more, will have been of enormous prac-
tical advantage to the world during the most critical stage
of its history, for some hundreds of millions of bushels of
it have been conveyed to Europe during the past four
years of the Great War to feed the soldiers of the Allies
in the field and to sustain the civilian populations of the
British Isles, France, Italy, Belgium and Greece at home.
In a very real sense Marquis has done much to strengthen
the sinews of war of those fighting for the great cause of
liberty, and therefore has been no small factor in making,
victory possible. It is certain that had Marquis not re-
placed Red Fife in the great spring-wheat area of North
America, the world's supply of wheat during the late food
crisis would have been many millions of bushels less than
it actually was.
XXYI. Saunders and Burhanh
Were there in existence a book recording the services of
all those who have deserved the gratitude of their fellow-
men for the improvements they have brought about in cul-
tivated plants, its pages would be many and its roll of
honor a very lengthy one. Some day, perhaps, the tri-
umphs of the plant breeder will be set down in the history
of a nation as of no less importance than the valorous deeds
of brave men performed amid blood and mud and the
thunder of great guns upon the field of battle; but this
can scarcely be hoped for until the world has entered upon
its future development in the spirit of a united family.
Only very few of the names of the leaders in the science
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT
229
of plant breeding are widely known. Of Gregor Mendel,
the Austro-Silesian monk who, by experiments upon the
edible Pea, discovered the now famous Meiidelian Laws of
Inheritance, and of the Dutchman, Hugo de Vries, who, by
his Mutation Theory of Evolution, has also contributed
much to plant breeding on its theoretical side, many have
heard; but, so far as the practice of plant breeding is con-
cerned, only one name is generally known to the public,
that of Luther Burbank. He, indeed, may be said to have
acquired universal fame. By means of books, of maga-
zines, and of newspapers, the story of his achievements
has been blowni, as it were, upon the wind, so that at the
present time there is scarcely an intelligent man whose
ear it has not reached. Who has not heard of Burbank^s
potato, of Burbank's plums, of Burbank's berries, of Bur-
bank's spineless cacti, and of Burbank's Shasta Daisy ; and
who does not know that these are but a few only of the
many novelties that have issued from the celebrated garden
of Santa Rosa ? Who has not been impressed by the skill-
ful way in which Burbank has chosen the best variations
from plots of thousands or tens of thousands of plants in
which to the ordinary eye all the individuals look alike?
And, finally, who has not felt astonishment at the often
surprising products which have issued from his hybridiz-
ing experiments ? Many are the delights which Burbank
has contributed to the garden and the orchard. By his
hard work, his persistency, his skill, his excellent judg-
ment, and his many successes he has truly deserved the
reputation he has acquired, and he will leave behind him
a heritage of plants which will keep his memory green for
many generations. On the other hand, the names of the
other masters in the realm of plant breeding, whose new
kinds of wheat, barley, oats, Indian com, potatoes, flax,
grapes, melons, fruit-trees, etc., have had, and are having,
230 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
an immense influence upon human history, remain un-
known to the general public; and among them is that of
Dr. Charles E. Saunders whose Marquis wheat is the
theme of this essay. Of farmers and others who handle
grain in western Canada the writer has often asked the
question : who discovered and introduced Marquis wheat ?
and not so many as one in ten have been able to give a
correct answer. The name of Charles E. Saunders has
received no advertisement: neither book nor magazine ar-
ticle has ever been written about his labors and his achieve-
ments; but it may safely be said that the economic im-
portance of Marquis which he discovered and gave to the
world, by far outweighs at the present moment that of all
Burbank's novelties put together. The writer does not
wish in any way to minimize the great interest and value
of Burbank's work in stating that Bur'bank's efforts at im-
provements have not been chiefly concerned with the lead-
ing food-plant. One's delight in beautiful flowers is en-
tirely aesthetic, and one does not live on spineless cacti,
upon plums, cherries, raspberries, or walnuts, and com-
paratively few eat the Burbank potato ; but bread is truly
the staff of life for the most progressive part of the popu-
lation of the globe. The eating of wheaten bread, like the
using of soap, is a mark of civilization; and a great im-
provement in the king of cereals is therefore of the utmost
importance to everybody.
This year, 1918, upon the prairies of western Canada
and in the Great Plains region of the United States of
America, there have been produced more than 300,000,000
bushels of Marquis, a mass of wheat sufficient to provide
for a whole year the normal bread and other wheat re-
quirements of a population of 50,000,000 people. The
average selling price for the 1918 wheat crop has been
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 231
fixed at about two dollars a bushel.^ Taking two dollars
a bushel as the average price, it is obvious that the crop
value of Marquis wheat for the year 1918 is upwards of
$600,000,000. This sum by far exceeds in amount the
whole fruit-growing industry in California which for the
year 1917 has been estimated by Mr. E. E. Kaufman at
$107,000,000."^ About a dozen years ago the California
fruit-growing industry was smaller than it is to-day and
it was then considered to be worth $60,000,000 per an-
num.^ Of this amount de Vries, in 1907, estimated that
Burbank's contribution was scarcely one per cent.,^ but
there can be no doubt that this contribution has grown
considerably since then as more of the fruit-trees have
« From data supplied by Mr. Irvine, the Assistant Secretary of the
Winnipeg Grain Exchange.
7 For data concerning the value of the California fruit-crop I am
indebted to Mr. E. E. Kaufman, Field Agent of the Bureau of Crop
Estimates of the United States Department of Agriculture, and to
Mr. Howard C. Rowley, publisher of the California Fruit News.
Mr. Kaufman's estimates of the value of the fruit crop to the
growers for 1917 is made up as follows:
Apples $ 6,431,000 Brought forward. . .$ 84,843,000
Peaches 14,151,000 Figs 1,600,000
Pears 3,523,000 Plums 3,000,000
Oranges 23,738,000 Cherries 600,000
Lemons 2,500,000 Grapes (table) 7,000,000
Paisins 16,000,000 Grapes (wine) 6,800,000
Prunes 12,500,000 Olives 1,000,000
Apricots 6,000,000 Berries of all kinds 1,000,000
Other fruits 1,000,000
Carried forward . . $84,843,000
Total $106,843,000
Using a somewhat different basis of calculation and including the
cost for boxing and packing of oranges and lemons, etc., and
adding $10,000,000 for nuts, Mr. Rowley has calculated that the
value of the California fruit crop for 1917 was not less than $150,-
000,000 and was probably between this sum and $175,000,000.
8 Hugo de Vries, Plant Breeding, Comments on the Experiments
of Nilsson and Burbank, Chicago, 1907, p. 178.
9 Ibid.
232 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
come into bearing. From inquiries made by the author,
it seems probable that Burbank's contribution to the total
fruit crop of California in 1917 did not exceed three per
cent, or, in round figures, $3,000,000.^** Burbank's po-
tato has a higher crop value than his fruits. After its
general introduction it was stated by the United States
Department of Agriculture that it was ^adding to the agri-
cultural productivity of the country an annual sum of
$17,000,000.11 If to this $17,000,000 for potatoes we
10 Of the total California fruit crop, peaches, citrus fruits, prunes,
apricots, and European grapes form a very important part, and Bur-
bank, as I am informed by Mr. J. C. Corbett, Horticulturalist in
charge of cultural and pomological investigations for the United
States Department of Agriculture, has contributed very little to the
variety list of this group of fruits. Burbank's chief contribution to
the fruits of California is to be found in his plums and cherries
which, e. g., the Wickson plum and the Burbank plum, are shipped
away from the State in great quantities. However, the total value
to the growers in 1917 of California plums was only $3,000,000 and
of cherries only $600,000, and there are many other plums grown
in the State beside those originated by Burbank. It is therefore
very doubtful whether Burbank's plums and cherries represent half
of the $3,600,000 here given. In his circular called 1918 Offerings of
Twentieth Century Fruits, etc., Burbank states that 1,092,256 crates
of his plums and cherries had been shipped away out of the State of
California in the season of 1918 before November 15, besides other
shipments made by one large shipping firm which could not make a
varietal report. Supposing we take the total of crates at 1,200,000
and reckon the fruit that was put in them as being worth to the
grower (exclusive of boxing and packing) as much as one dollar a
crate, then the value to the grower of all the fruit in the crates
would be $1,200,000. In arriving at the figure of $3,000,000 for Bur-
bank's contribution to the fruits of California given in the text, I
have added to this $1,200,000 the large sum of $1,800,000, so as to
allow for other fruits, contingencies possibly overlooked, and so as
to err on the generous side of the account.
11 Hugo de Vries, loc cit., p. 104.
Mr. William Stuart, Horticulturalist engaged in cultural and
pomological investigations for the United States Department of Ag-
riculture and a well-known authority on the potato, has kindly in-
formed me that the Burbank potato at present: is confined very
largely to the northwestern portion of the United States; that it is
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT
233
add $3,000,000 for fruit, we obtain $20,000,000 which
we may consider to be a rough estimate of Biirbank's total
contribution to the annual crop values of the United
States. This sum is only an approximation to the truth ;
it may be too small and it may be too large ; but even if
we v^ere to multiply it by ten, it would still fall far short
of the $600,000,000 which is the estimated crop value of
Marquis wheat for the year 1918.
XXVII. Burban¥s Quality Wheat as a Possible Comr
petit or of Marquis
Having heard that Luther Burbank was introducing
some new varieties of wheat, I wrote to the great plant
breeder for particulars concerning them. Mr. Burbank,
in reply, kindly informed me that he had added my name
to the sixty-five thousand others v^ho receive his catalogues
and circulars, and called attention to what he described
as "my best wheat" to which he has given the name
Quality. He also communicated to me the interesting in-
formation that Quality '' is a derivative of Prize Marquis "
and that it was '' secured by many years' selections for
certain qualities in which our California wheats are lack-
ing." It is worthy of note that Marquis which was orig-
inally selected by Dr. Saunders at Ottawa should have been
grown to a slight extent in Wisconsin, Nebraska, and Colorado, the
Russet type prevailing in Nebraska and Colorado; that it is chiefly
grown in the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys of California and
in some portions of Oregon and Washington; and that probably it
does not exceed 5 per cent, of the total potato crop of the United
States. Mr. Burbank himself in his 1918 New Creations and
Special New Selections states that more than 500,000,000 bushels
of the Burbank potato have been raised during the past forty years.
This is a magnificent total, but assuming that the average price has
been as much as 80 cents per bushel, the crop value of the 500,000,000
bushels of Burbank potatoes to the growers has been $400,000,000,
or two-thirds of $600,000,000, the estimated crop value for Marquis
wheat for the single year 1918.
234 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
so long studied and made the basis of further selections by
Mr. Burbank in so distant a State as California.
In a circular called Burbank' s 1918 New Standard
Grains, issued from his Experimental Farms at Santa
Rosa, Burbank, under the head of: A New Productive
White Wheat — " Quality/' makes the following state-
ments : " This season I offer a superior, early, hard
white wheat suited to all climates wherever wheat can be
grown ; as a Summer wheat in cold far Northern climates
and as a Winter crop in the United States and most wheat-
growing countries. It is specially adapted also to short
seasons, arid soils, and dry climates. A superior milling
wheat which makes the best light sweet nutritious bread
and pastry. . . . This early hardy Quality wheat which
I offer this season will not yield as much as some of the
coarse macaroni wheats in some warm, dry sections, but
for general culture, with its unusual hardiness and extreme
earliness, uniformity, superior milling and baking quali-
ties, it stands alone. It most resembles in all these re-
spects the hard Northern Prize Marquis but has a vitreous
white berry of quite different appearance and quality and
of about the same specific gravity as of granite." Quality
is offered to the public at $5 per pound or $45 for 10
pounds, i. e., at the rate of $270 per bushel, so that it is
doubtless the most expensive wheat in the world. Only
as its price goes down can farmers hope to purchase a suf-
ficient quantity of seed to cultivate it on a large scale and
thus make it an article of commerce so far as the miller
and baker are concerned. ^^
12 In his Burhank's 1918 New Standard Grains, Mr. Burbank
advertises for sale two other varieties of wheat in addition to Qual-
ity: Quantity offered in 1918 for the first time and Super first
offered in 1917. Quantity is on sale at the same prices as Quality,
1. e., $2.75 for 0.5 poimd, $5 for 1 pound, $23 for 5 pounds, $45 for
10 pounds, $1 for 10 sample heads, and 60 cents for 5 sample heads.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 235
Mr. Burbank, in support of the claims which he makes
for Quality, publishes the results of a chemical analysis
and of a baking test of the flour, and for the rest leaves
us to rely upon his reputation for producing new and use-
ful plants. But Mr. Burbank is only just beginning his
work as an introducer of new wheats and the writer can-
not help feeling that in penning his advertisement of
Quality he allowed his enthusiasm for his new cereal to
be mixed a little too freely with his ink. Every one knows
that Marquis is a hard wheat, but when Mr. Burbank tells
us that Quality which has been selected from it, has ker-
nels " with about the same specific gravity as granite,"
surely he is addressing us in the language of hyperbole.
Of two equal-sized sacks, one filled with Quality wheat
and the other with crushed granite, which would the reader
prefer to carry, were he obliged to make a choice ?
Mr. Burbank tells us that Quality is '^ suited for all
climates wherever wheat can be grown, as a Summer wheat
in cold far Northern climates and as a Winter crop in
the United States and most wheat growing countries " ;
and all this we are supposed to accept on Mr. Burbank's
unsupported ipse dixit. He is silent in regard to the
Quantity is thus described : " It is a tremendous yielder, having
long, drooping, well-filled heads laden with extra large, fat, light-
colored berries. My small field of Quantity has been the wonder and
surprise of the season. It has a stiff four-foot straw which stands
up bravely with its long, heavy, well-filled heads averaging on ordi-
nary soils five to six and sometimes seven inches in length. No
good wheat yields more than Quantity. It is remarkably true to
type and yields nearly twice as much as the ordinary wheats.
Quantity is medium early and will prove its tremendous yielding
abilities in any except the most Northern latitude." This brief
description contains no statement as to whether Quantity is hard or
soft, a spring variety or a fall one, and it contains no reference to
milling and baking qualities, shelling, disease resistance, and so
forth. Super wheat was offered this year at $3 for 1 pound, $18 for
10 pounds, etc. ; but no more seed is just now available as the stock
which was on hand has all been sold.
236 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
exact data of his field tests and affords us no evidence that
Quality has ever been compared with Eed Fife, Marquis,
Bobs, Prelude, Preston, and Bluestem, etc., outside of
California in the great spring-wheat region of the United
States and Canada or with the various winter wheats east
of the Rocky Mountains where the climate is mild enough
to permit of their cultivation. Such comparisons may
have actually been made under varied climatic conditions
all over Canada and the United States; but, if so, the
writer has not heard of them. Is it not possible that Mr.
Burbank has confined his experiments to the one State of
California and that in claiming that Quality is suited for
all climates, is in reality simply expressing a pious hope
which, while it may some day be fulfilled, has not as yet
been justified by a series of critical tests ?
Burbank's Quality is a white wheat. However, the de-
mand in the British market, so far as Canada is concerned,
is for wheat having a good red color; and there is there-
fore a sound commercial reason for encouraging the pro-
duction of such red wheats as Marquis and Red Fife in
the west of Canada rather than white wheats. It is there-
fore certain that, even if Quality were suited to the cli-
mate of the Prairie Provinces, there would be considerable
opposition to its introduction into this area on the part of
grain merchants, millers, and farmers alike.
That Mr. Burbank, with his forty years of experience
in successful plant breeding should, sooner or later, intro-
duce some very desirable new varieties of wheat is only
what one is justified in expecting of him; and doubtless
Quality is an improvement on the wheat grown in various
localities, particularly in California. However, there
does not at present appear to be any good reason for be-
lieving that Quality will ever replace Marquis either in
Fig. 30. Dr. Charles Saunders in a field of Marquis wheal.
August, 1918.
Ottawi
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 237
the Prairie Provinces of Canada or in the north-central
spring-wheat region of the United States.
XXVIII. Biographical Sketch of the Discoverer of
Marquis
Dr. Charles E. Saunders, the discoverer of Marquis
wheat, was born at London, Ontario, in the year 1867 ; and
he is therefore a Canadian by birth. He received his early
education at the London Collegiate Institute, and from
there proceeded to the University of Toronto, where he
graduated as a Bachelor of Arts, with Honors in Science,
in 1888. He then studied for three further years at the
Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore, where he earned
his doctorate by taking the degree of Ph.D. in 1891. This
record shows that Dr. Saunders received a first-class scien-
tific education. In 1892, Dr. Saunders married Miss
Mary Blackwell of Deer Park, Ontario. Prom 1892 to
1893 he was a Professor at the Central University in Ken-
tucky. In addition to his attraction toward science, Dr.
Saunders had, and still has, a great love of music ; and he
became a masterly player on the flute and took a keen
pleasure in song. There was danger that music and not
science would claim him for his life's work. For some
years he devoted his entire attention to voice culture and
to this end studied both in New York and in London, Eng-
land. He became musical instructor at Havergal College,
Toronto, and then at the St. Margaret's Ladies College in
the same city. Subsequently he led the choir at the Do-
minion Methodist Church at Ottawa; and it was during
this period that he assisted his father in the work of im-
proving wheats. This return to applied science resulted
in Dr. Saunders being appointed Dominion Cerealist in
1903.
238 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
There may be some who have been inclined to suppose
that the discovery of Marquis was nothing more than a
lucky accident; but such a supposition is entirely errone-
ous. The details of the career of Dr. Saunders, as out-
lined above, show us that the discoverer of Marquis was a
man who had had a thorough preparation for his work by
studying for several years at two of the best universities
on this continent. His training had given him the neces-
sary insight into the problem of wheat-breeding, mastery
of method, resource for difficulties, and unfailing patience.
In the winter of 1903-04 when he was making the chewing
tests which led to the discovery of Marquis, Dr. Saunders
was no mere boy, for he was 36 years old. His salary at
that time was indeed small — only $100 per month —
but he was rich in the possession of faculties which had
been taught to do his bidding and endowed with the cour-
age and determination of a man in the prime of life. How
well he employed those faculties is now a matter of history.
In his own domain of breeding cereals he has won the
place of a king.
XXIX. Governing Bodies and Scientific Research
When the Universities of Toronto and Johns Hopkins
were giving instruction to Dr. Saunders, they little thought
that, in the course of a few years, the work of one of their
quietest and least obtrusive students would lead to the pro-
duction of increased wealth in North America more than
sufficient to defray the annual cost of their growth and
maintenance; but, by training men of the stamp of Dr.
Saunders, those institutions have fully justified their exist-
ence; and, in return, they need not hesitate to claim the
heartiest support of the public. In the story of the dis-
covery of Marquis wheat, governing bodies everywhere
may find a striking illustration of the wisdom of giving
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 239
adequate financial and moral support to investigations di-
rected toward the welfare of the State. The starvation
of scientific research is truly the worst economy of which
a statesman can be guilty.
XXX. Other Work of Dr. Saunders
In addition to his work upon wheat, Dr. Saunders, as
Dominion Cerealist, has been engaged in making selections
of, and in breeding, new types of other cereals and of peas.
From Mensury barley (of supposed Manchurian origin)
Dr. Saunders made a selection called Manchurian which
is a fine six-rowed bearded variety with an excellent yield.
It has been grown successfully on a large scale in various
parts of Canada. Another selection known as 0. A. C.
No. 21 was made by Professor C. A. Zavitz at the Ontario
Agricultural College from a barley which he obtained
under the name of Mandscheuri. These two varieties
have added much to the productivity of barley in this
country. ^^
13 Mandscheuri barley was imported from Russia by the Ontario
Agricultural College in the spring of 1889. It was found to be more
productive than any of the other six-rowed barleys tested: it gave
an average yield of 9.3 bushels per acre per annum over the Common
Six-rowed barley as an average for fifteen years ; and it was therefore
introduced into general cultivation in Ontario. In 1905, Professor
'Zavitz pointed out that barley production in Ontario had risen from
24.85 bushels for the ten-year period 1885-94 inclusive to 29.3
bushels per acre for the ten-year period 1895-1904 inclusive; and
he attributed the general rise in productivity of 41/3 bushels per
acre to the substitution of Mandscheuri barley for lesser yielding
varieties. After calculating the increased value which was accruing
to the Ontario barley crop through the raising of Mandscheuri, he
asked of the public and the legislators, without whose intelligent sup-
port the work of agricultural colleges cannot properly be carried on,
the following very pertinent question: "From these results, does
it not appear as though the introduction of Mandscheuri barley by
the Ontario Agricultural College has been worth to the Province of
Ontario within the past ten years an annual money value equal to
240 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
Dr. Saunders is now studying a large number of hul-
less and hooded (beardless) types of barley, most of wbicb
have been cross-bred. He is endeavoring to produce a
first-class barley with the hull attached but free from awns.
Hulless barley is already being raised to a certain extent
in Alberta for the feeding of pigs, but Dr. Saunders ex-
pects that some of his new sorts will prove superior to the
varieties now in cultivation. If hulless barley were
raised in sufficient quantity, it would obviously be of con-
siderable value for human food, for it would not require
so lengthy a preparation as the hulled varieties at present
employed for this purpose. Another interesting barley
which Dr. Saunders is now introducing is called Albert.
It is of cross-bred origin and extremely early in ripening.
It will not be of general utility where a very high yield
is a first consideration but may become valuable where
the growing season is a short one.
Dr. Saunders has originated a new hulless oat which
he has called the Liberty Oat. It threshes out free from
the hard and tough glimies which enclose the grains of
every common kind of oat, and will therefore probably
be much appreciated for feeding chickens and young pigs.
It also makes oatmeal of very fine quality, and Dr. Saun-
ders believes that it has a richer flavor than any of the
commercial oatmeal products which he has tasted.
The Arthur pea and the Machay pea were produced
many years ago under the direction of Dr. Saunders' fa-
ther. The Arthur is now making good headway among
growers. It is one of the earliest field peas and is, there-
fore, advantageous for many districts in Canada where
earliness is a desideratum. The Mackay was named by
Dr. Saunders' father after Mr. Angus Mackay who for
more than fifteen times the entire cost of the College ? " Tide C. A.
Zavitz, The Results of Field Experiments with Farm Crops, Ontario
Agricultural College, Bulletin No. 140, 1905, p. 7.
Fig. 39. Dr. Charles Saunders crossing wheats at the Central Ex-
perimental Farm, Ottawa. After pollination the heads are wound
Avith cheese-cloth and then tied loosely to sticks.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 241
many years was the Superintendent of the Dominion Ex-
perimental Farm at Indian Head. It is somewhat later
than the Arthur pea but is still more productive. It has
been grown at the experimental farms for several years and
has been recently re-selected with a view to its being sent
out to the public. In addition to studying the Arthur and
the Mackay peas originated by his father, Dr. Saunders
is selecting a considerable number of pea types of his own
breeding. It is to be expected that at least some of them
will eventually prove of sufficient value for introduction to
growers; but the work of selecting and testing them for
their yield and other qualities has not yet been brought to
a conclusion.
From what has been already said in the foregoing pages
in respect to cereals and peas only, it is evident that there
is still very much to be done by the Department of Agri-
culture and by provincial institutions, in adapting culti-
vated plants to the diverse soils and climates of the broad
Dominion. Judging by the experience of the past, there
is every reason to believe that Canada will be well repaid
for any future expenditures of time, money, energy, and
brain power, which she may make in carrying out this
work.
Dr. Saunders has influenced agriculture not only di-
rectly through the new cereals which he has introduced but
also indirectly, through his Eeports and Bulletins pub-
lished by the Department of Agriculture, and through his
scientific papers. Other cerealists in Canada, the United
States, England, Australia, etc., have read these contribu-
tions to science, and have been stimulated in their work
accordingly. Some of Dr. Saunders' research methods
have now been adopted by other investigators.
The following is a list of publications on cereals made
by Dr. Charles E. Saunders :
242 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
Reports on Cereals in the Annual Keports of the Dominion Ex-
perimental Farms, 1903 to 1917.
Bulletins issued by the Dominion Experimental Farms : ^*
No. 45. Emmer and Spelt.
No. 50. The Grades of Wheat. Crop of 190^.
No. 57. Quality in Wheat.
No. 60. The Grades of Wheat. Crop of 1907.
Circular, issued by the Dominion Experimental Farms:
Preston and Other Early -ripening Wheats. (March, 1908.)
Papers read before the American Breeders' Association, and
„ published at Washington, D. C, in the Proceedings:
A Natural Hybrid in Wheat in Vol. I, 1905.
The Cross-fertilizing of Cereals in Vol. II, 1908.
Papers read before the Canadian Seed Growers' Association,
and published at Ottawa by the Dominion Government:
Quality in Wheat (Third Annual Meeting), 1906.
The Production of Improved Varieties of Cereals (Fifth
Annual Meeting), 1909.
Distribution of Seed at Experimental Farms (Eighth Annual
Meeting), 1912.
Difficulties Encountered in the Propagation of Pure Seed
(Tenth Annual Meeting), 1914.
The Inheritance of Strength in Wheat, Journal of Agricul-
tural Science, 1909, page 218.
Wheat Breeding in Canada, read before the British Association
for the Advancement of Science at Winnipeg, Manitoba,
1909.
The Inheritance of Awns in Wheat, published in the Report of
the Third International Conference on Genetics, London,
1906. (Published by the Royal Horticultural Society.)
Production de Varieties de Ble de haute valeur boulangere, pub-
lished in the Report of the Fourth International Conference
on Genetics, Paris, 1911.
Cereal Breeding on the Dominion Experimental Farms during
the past Decade, Transactions of the Royal Society of Can-
ada for 1913.
14 The second sections of Nos. 50, 57, and 60 were written by Dr.
Frank T. Shutt, the Dominion chemist.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 243
XXXI. The Crop Values of Marquis in Canada and the
United States
In Canada the crop value of Marquis for the years 1917
and 1918 can be calculated roughly without much diffi-
culty. In both these years at least 80 per cent, of the
wheat produced in the Prairie Provinces was Marquis, ^^
and the average price received by farmers for the crop of
both years was, is, and will be almost exactly two dollars
a bushel. ^^ The data for the required calculations to-
gether with the results are embodied in the following
Table: 1^
Crop Values of Marquis Wheat in Canada
Year
Total crop
of wheat
in the three
Prairie
Provinces
in bushels
Per-
cen-
tage
of
Mar-
quis
Amount
of
Marquis
in bushels
Price
per
bushel
Crop
values
of
Marquis
1917
1918
212,000,000 80
162,000,000 1 80
169,600,000
129,600,000
$2.00 $339,200,000
$2.00 $259,200,000
To the total given in the last column several millions of
dollars should be added for the crop value of Marquis
grown in Ontario, Quebec, etc.
From the data at our disposal we may safely draw the
conclusion that the crop value of Marquis for the whole
15 Information kindly supplied by Mr. George Serls, the chief Grain
Inspector for the Dominion of Canada.
16 Information kindly supplied by Mr. Irvine, Assistant Secretary
of the \Yinnipeg Grain Exchange.
17 The total crop of wheat in the Prairie Provinces for 1917 is that
given in the Bulletin of Agricultural Statistics, Ottawa, Jan., 1918,
and the crop for 1918 as estimated in September, 1918, at Winnipeg.
244
ESSAYS ON WHEAT
of Canada was in 1917 at least $340,000,000, and in 1918
at least $260,000,000.
Let us now attempt to estimate the crop value of Mar-
quis in the United States for the year 1917. The data
for estimating the crop value of Marquis, in 1917, for
the four chief spring- wheat States, together with the re-
sults of the calculations, are given in the following
Table: i«
Crop Y allies of Marquis Wheat in the Four Spring -Wheat
States in 1917
Total crop
of wheat
in bushels
Per-
cen-
tage
of
Mar-
quis
Amount
of
Marquis
in bushels
Price
per
bush-
el
Crop
value
of
Marquis
Minnesota
N. Dakota
S. Dakota
Montana .
57,965,000
56,000,000
52,024,000
17,963,000
46
43
43
45
26,663,900
24,080,000
22,370,320
8,083,350
$2
$2
$2
$2
$53,327,800
$48,160,000
$44,740,640
$16,166,700
Totals . .
183,952,000
81,197,570
$162,395,140
From the foregoing Table, it is clear that the crop value
of Marquis for the year 1917, in the four chief spring-
wheat States alone, amounted to the large sum of $162,-
000,000. But Marquis in 1917 was also grown on many
acres in several other States. Making allowance for this,
the crop value of Marquis for the United States as a whole,
in 1917, was upwards of $170,000,000.
18 The totals of the crops of wheat in the four States are as given
in the December ]Monthly Crop Report, Washington, 1917, p. 121.
The percentages of the whole crop contributed by Marquis is given
in the August Monthly Crop Report, 1918, p. 95. The exact prices
per bushel, which vary about $2, are given in the December Monthly
Crop Report, 1917.
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 245
Let us now turn to the present year, 1918. On Sep-
tember 1, the spring-wheat crop was forecasted at 342,-
855,000 bushels of which about 257,000,000 bushels were
forecasted for Minnesota, the two Dakotas and Montana. ^^
These four States were also estimated to produce 15,050,-
000 bushels of winter wheat ^^ making with the spring
wheat a grand total of 272,000,000 bushels. It has been
estimated, however, that at least 65 per cent, of the total
wheat crop of these four States consists of Marquis.^^
The amount of Marquis produced in the four chief spring-
wheat States, therefore, is about 177,000,000 bushels.
At the average fixed price of $2.00 a bushel, the crop value
of this mass of wheat amounts to $354,000,000. But,
this year, spring wheat has been grown in other States to
the extent of 86,000,000 bushels; and of this wheat a very
large proportion has been Marquis, probably one-half.
Making allowance for this, it appears safe to say that the
crop value of Marquis for the United States as a whole,
in 1918, is upwards of $370,000,000.
One further calculation only remains to be made,
namely, the crop value of Marquis in the whole spring-
wheat region of ^orth America for the years 1917 and
1918. To make this calculation, all we need to do is to
add the totals already obtained for Canada and the United
States. The following Table contains these totals and
their summations :
Crop Value of Marquis in North A
merica
Canada
United States
Total Value
1917
1918
$339,200,000
$259,200,000
$170,000,000
$370,000,000
$509,200,000
$629,200,000
19 October Monthly Crop Report, Washington, 1918.
20 August Monthly Crop Report, Washington, 1918.
21 Estimate sent to the writer by Mr. Carleton R. Ball, of the
Office of Cereal Investigation, Washington.
246 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
From the Table it becomes evident that the total crop
value of Marquis wheat in North America was upwards
of $500,000,000 in 191Y and upwards of $600,000,000
in 1918. It is to be doubted whether any other single
variety of wheat ever had such a high crop value as this.
Marquis wheat, as we have seen, originated in Canada
and was first grown there on a large scale. It is inter-
esting to note, however, that this year, 1918, more Mar-
quis has been grown in the United States than in Canada.
Whereas the Canadian crop of Marquis, owing to adverse
weather conditions, was only about 130,000,000 bushels,
that of the United States was upwards of 180,000,000
bushels. As a consequence, the crop value of Marquis in
the United States will this year, for the first time, con-
siderably exceed that in Canada.
The years 1917 and 1918 are war years, and the price
of wheat is abnormally high. Soon after peace is de-
clared, there can be little doubt that the price of wheat
will decline and the yearly crop value of Marquis suffer
accordingly. However, Marquis is still increasing in
popularity with American farmers, and the acreage de-
voted to spring wheat in North America is still being con-
siderably extended. Even should pre-war prices again
come to prevail, the annual crop value of Marquis will
probably not fall below an average of $300,000,000 a year
for some years at least.
XXXII. The Increased Wealth Brought hy Marquis to
the United States
We shall now endeavor to make an estimate of the in-
creased wealth which has accrued to the United States
through the replacement of the older lesser-yielding varie-
ties of wheat, such as Bluestem, Fife, and Velvet Chaff,
by the newer variety from Canada.
DISCOVEEY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 247
Let us first consider the year 1917 and limit our in-
quiry to the single State of Minnesota. To what extent
did Minnesota benefit financially in 1917 through grow-
ing Marquis wheat ? The answer to this question can be
obtained from the following data for which we are in-
debted to the Bureau of Crop Estimates of the United
States Department of Agriculture;
DATA FOR MINNESOTA
Total crop of wheat in 1917 57,965,000 bushels.22
Average price of wheat per bushel 2 dollars.^^
Percentages of the Total Crop for the Chief Wheat Varieties ^^
Mar-
quis
Per
cent.
Vel-
vet
Chaff
Per
cent.
Blue-
stem
Per
cent.
Du-
rum
Per
cent.
Fife
Per
cent.
Win-\
ter \
Per
cent.
Other
Per
cent.
1917
1914
46.0
3.0
26.0
30.0
18.0
52.0
3.0
2.0
3.0
7.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
4.0
Yield of the Chief Wheat Varieties in
Bushels
per Acre -^
Mar-
quis
Bush.
Vel-
vet
Chaff
Bush.
Blue-
stem
Bush.
Du-
rum
Bush.
Fife
Bush.
Win-
ter
Bush.
Other
Bush.
1917
17.2
16.0
14.0
15.5
15.0
20.0
14.0
Let us now proceed with our calculation. Since 46 per
cent, of the 57,965,000 bushels of wheat produced in Min-
nesota in 1917 was Marquis, Marquis contributed to the
total wheat crop of the State 26,663,900 bushels.
'Now let us suppose that the percentages which each
22 and -3 December Monthly Crop Report, 1917, Washington, p. 121.
24 and 25 August Monthly Crop Report, 1918, Washington, p. 95.
248
ESSAYS ON WHEAT
variety of wheat contributed to the crop of Minnesota in
1917 was the same as it was in 1914, i. e., at the time when
Marquis had only just made its advent in the State, and
let us distribute the 26,663,900 bushels which Marquis
produced in 1917 among all these varieties in accordance
with these 1914 percentages. Then of the 26,663,900
bushels :
Marquis taking 3 per cent, will receive 799,917 bushels
Velvet Chaff. . .taking 30 per cent, will receive 7,999,170 bushels
Bluestem taking 52 per cent, will receive 13,865,228 bushels
Durum taking 2 per cent, will receive 533,278 bushels
Fife taking 7 per cent, will receive 1,866,473 bushels
Winter Wheat, .taking 2 per cent, will receive 533,278 bushels
Other Wheat. . .taking 4 per cent, will receive 1,066,556 bushels
Total 26,663,900 bushels
These masses of wheat, however, were produced by Mar-
quis wheat-plants which had a yield in 1917 of 17.2 bushels
per acre. Had equivalent masses of wheat been produced
by Bluestem, Fife, etc., these masses would have been
smaller, because these varieties in 1917 yielded less than
Wheat
Yields
Adjust-
assigned
in 1917
ments
Remarks
Bushels
Bushels
per acre
Bushels
Marquis ....
799,917
17.2
799,917
no change
Velvet Chaff.
7,999,170
16.0
7,441,088
decrease
Bluestem . . .
13,865,228
14.0
11,285,651
decrease
Durum
533,278
15.5
480,570
decrease
Fife
1,866,473
15.0
1,627,738
decrease
Winter wheat
533,278
20.0
620,091
increase
Other wheat.
1,066,556
14.0
868,127
decrease
Totals ....
26,663,900
23,123,182
decrease
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT
249
Marquis. Let us find out, therefore, what the masses of
wheat just distributed among the various varieties would
have been, had they been actually yielded in 1917 by the
varieties to which they have been assigned (vide Table).
The difference between the totals just given is 3,540,718
bushels. We thus see that if, in 1917, the 26,663,900
bushels of Marquis had been replaced by wheat from the
various varieties in the proportions in which they were
grown in 1914, the Minnesota wheat crop of 1917 would
have been reduced by 3,540,718 bushels. Instead of its
being 57,965,000 bushels, it would have been 54,424,282
bushels.
Summing up the results of the foregoing calculation, we
may say that the increase in the raising of Marquis wheat
in Minnesota in the last three seasons has resulted in a
gain in the 1917 crop of 3,541,000 bushels. Taking two
dollars per bushel as the average price, we are justified
in concluding that the introduction of Ma^rquis wheat into
Minnesota hrougJit about a gain in wealth in 1917 of up-
wards of 1,000,000 dollars.
By making use of the appropriate crop statistics,^^ and
by employing the method of investigation just explained,
gains corresponding to that just found for Minnesota, can
be found for the two Dakotas.
So far as Montana is concerned, the statistics for the
relative contributions of the different wheat varieties to
the total crop of 1914 are not available. However, we
know that Montana in 1917 produced 17,963,000 bushels
of wheat, of which 45 per cent, or 8,083,000 bushels was
Marquis; and we also know that the estimated yields of
the spring-wheat varieties in bushels per acre in 1917 were
as follows: Marquis 9.3, Velvet Chaff 7.5, Bluestem 6.5,
Durum 9, and Fife 7.5.2^ This allows us to conclude
26 and 27 Loo. oit.
250
ESSAYS ON WHEAT
that had Velvet Chaff, Bluestem, and Fife heen grown
in Montana in 1917 instead of Marquis, the yield of spring
wheat would have been lessened by about 1,500,000 bush-
els. Taking this into consideration, we may assume that
the increase in the growing of Marquis in Montana since
1914 caused an increase in the 1917 crop of, let us say, at
least 1,100,000 bushels.
Let us now summarize the estimated wealth gained in
the four chief spring-wheat States, in 1917, through the
increased cultivation of Marquis since 1914.
Gains in Wealth hy Growing Marquis in the Four Chief
Spring-wheat States
Financial
Total
Gain by
gain by
crop
growing
Price
growing
for 1917
Marquis
per
Marquis,
in bushels
in bushels
bushel
in dollars
Minnesota
57,965,000
3,540,718
$2
$7,081,436
N.Dakota..
56,000,000
1,619,380
$2
$3,238,760
S. Dakota. .
52,024,000
3,755,396
$2
$7,510,792
Montana . .
17,963,000
1,100,000
$2
$2,200,000
Totals . .
183,952,000
10,015,494
$2
$20,030,988
We thus perceive that, through increasing the amount
of Marquis grown, from about 4 per cent, in 1914 to about
44 per cent, in 1917, the gain of wealth in the four chief
spring-wheat States in 1917 was upwards of 10,000,000
bushels of wheat valued at 20,000,000 dollars. The great
campaign which was carried on by American millers and
seedsmen in the years 1913 and 1914 for the rapid intro-
duction of Marquis into the spring-wheat region of the
United States, has therefore soon borne financial fruit;
but it has had a consequence of still greater importance : it
resulted in making at least 10,000,000 more bushels of
American wheat available for the Allies in the Great War
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 251
at tlie very moment when the late food crisis attained its
climax.
The increased wealth accruing to the United States this
year, 1918, through the increase in the sowing of Mar-
quis since 1914, cannot be exactly calculated as the neces-
sary statistics will not be available for some months.
However, Mr. Carleton E. Ball, of the Office of Cereal
Investigation at Washington, has estimated that Marquis
this year will form 65 per cent, of the wheat crop in the
chief spring-wheat States and possibly a little more.^^
We thus see that Marquis is making a gain of about 50 per
cent, over 1917 by increased sowing. It is also estimated
that this year the United States will produce about 90,-
000,000 more bushels of spring-wheat than in 1917.^^
It is certain that a great proportion of these extra bushels
will consist of Marquis. Taking all these facts into con-
sideration, one appears to be justified in estimating the
gain in wealth in the four chief spring-wheat States in
1918, obtained by increasing the cultivation of Marquis
since 1914, at upwards of 15,000,000 bushels valued at
30,000,000 dollars.
Any calculation of the full monetary worth of Marquis
to the United States should include an allowance for the
4 per cent, of Marquis already grown in the chief spring-
wheat States in 1914 and another allowance for Marquis
grown in States other than Minnesota, the two Dakotas,
and Montana. These gains should be added on to those
already recorded. However, they cannot be calculated as
the necessary data concerning them are not available.
We shall therefore ignore them and content ourselves with
the following conclusion which surely must be a conserva-
tive one. Through the replacement of lesser-yielding va-
28 Estimate in a letter to the writer.
29 Monthly Crop Report, Washington, August, 1918, p. 87.
252 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
rieties of wheat, siicli as Bluestem, Fife, and Preston, by
Marquis, the wealth of the United States has been in-
creased: in 1917 by upwards of 10,000,000 bushels of
wheat valued at $20,000,000, and in 1918 by upwards of
15,000,000 bushels of wheat valued at $30,000,000.
XXXIII. The Increased Wealth Brought hy Marquis to
Canada
In order to obtain a general statement of the increased
wealth which has been added to western Canada by the in-
troduction of Marquis, we may begin by assuming that the
wheat grown on summer fallow (or similarly prepared
land) represents half the total yield. ^^ It seems that
30 The phrase similarly prepared land includes ( 1 ) new breaking
and (2) land on which hoed crops, i.e., potatoes, Indian corn and
roots, were raised the previous year. The proportion of summer fal-
low or its equivalent is greatest in the districts which produce the
most wheat, i. e., central and southern Manitoba, central and south-
ern Saskatchewan, and southern Alberta. In those same areas Mar-
quis is grown almost exclusively and in many of the districts it
would now be almost impossible to purchase a single car-load of
Red Fife. In districts like central Alberta (often called northern,
but central on the map) where the rainfall is heavier, summer fal-
lowing is much less general but there is a considerable amount of
new breaking.
Very generally in western Canada the farm is divided into three
sections one of which is sown on sununer fallow, another on stubble,
while the third is summer fallowed. Thus for all purposes 33.3 per
cent, of the land is fallow and 66.6 is available for sowing. There-
fore half the acreage sown is on summer fallow. On summer fallow
the crop is usually from 50 to 100 per cent, greater than that on
stubble, or, in other words, about three-quarters of the crop is pro-
duced on summer fallow. From the above considerations it is ob-
vious that the assumption given in the text that the wheat groivn
on summer fallow {or similarly prepared land) represents half the
total yield is a conservative one.
Since summer fallowing is not usually practiced in North Dakota,
South Dakota, and Minnesota to the same extent that it is in west-
ern Canada, it may be of interest to remark that summer fallowing
is found to be advantageous in western Canada for the following
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT
253
about 80 per cent, of the wheat grown on snmmer fallow
in the West is Marquis,^^ and that on summer fallow Mar-
quis yields at least 20 per cent, more wheat in bushels
than Ked Fife which it has replaced.^^ ^^^ let ns sup-
pose that we are dealing with a crop of 200,000,000
bushels, which, as a matter of fact, is less than the aver-
age for the last five years.^^ One half of this, i.e.,
reasons- (1) There is insufficient rainfall to produce a maximum
crop with the rain of the current season only. Summer fallowing
by preventing weeds from growing and exhausting the moisture, and
by keeping the surface of the ground pulverized and thereby check-
ing evaporation, largely conserves the moisture of the one season
and carries it over to the next. (2) The weeds are controlled. On
summer fallow the weed seeds at the surface of the soil germinate
and then the weeds are killed by cultivation. In this way summer
fallowing, in a normal season, practically insures a good crop. On
the other hand, sowing on stubble land is somewhat precarious. It
costs relatively little to sow on stubble, for such land is easily pre-
pared, whereas summer fallow requires to be worked the whole sea-
son Therefore in good seasons, even if the yield is reduced as com-
pared with summer fallow, stubble sowing is very profitable, if not
the most profitable method of farming. However, in bad seasons,
stubble farming is sometimes a total failure.
31 Mr. George Serls, the Chief Grain Inspector for the Dominion of
Canada, has kindly informed me that, from estimates made during
inspections, Marquis forms at least 80 per cent, of the wheat crop of
the West. It is therefore only reasonable to conclude that at least
80 per cent, of the wheat crop grown on summer fallow, where Mar-
quis does so well, is ISIarquis.
S2 This is a conservative estimate. Cf. data given in Section X on
Long-period Tests for Earliness and Yield.
33 The average annual wheat crop for western Canada (Manitoba,
Saskatchewan, and Alberta) during the last five years has been
2.33,000,000 bushels and for the whole of Canada 256,000,000 bushels ;
but the wheat area for the whole country has increased from 11,-
015,000 acres in 1913 to 16,080,800 acres in 1918 and is still being
extended, so that it is to be expected that during the next five years
the average annual wheat crop will show a considerable increase over
that for the last five years. The area seeded to wheat in western
Canada in 1918 was stated by the Dominion Bureau of Statistics on
June 12 to be 15,196,300 acres. The rest of Canada, therefore, this
year has only 884,500 acres under wheat. The following are the
254 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
100,000,000, will be on summer fallow. Eighty per cent,
of this will consist of Marquis, i. e., the Marquis wheat
will be represented by 80,000,000 bushels. If we take
20 per cent, of this as the increase in the crop due to grow-
ing Marquis instead of Red Pife, the wealth added to the
country owing to the introduction of Marquis would be
16,000,000 bushels. In unfavorable seasons, when Rust
or early frost do much damage, the advantage of the more
quickly ripening Marquis over the later ripening Red
Fife would be even greater. In the year 1915 the wheat
crop attained a record for this country. The final figures,
according to Mr. Milner, a former president of the Winni-
peg Grain Exchange, were 376,448,400 bushels.^* Using
the same basis of calculation as before, the additional har-
vest due to growing Marquis instead of Red Fife in 1915,
had Marquis been as widely grown then as now, would
have been upwards of 30,000,000 bushels. As a matter
of fact it was probably quite 20,000,000 bushels. It seems
safe to suppose that, from now onwards, the additional
harvest, due to growing Marquis instead of other wheats
which it has replaced, will be on the average from 16,-
000,000 to 25,000,000 bushels per annum.^^
oflBcial figures for the wheat crop for the last five years given in
bushels :
Western Canada All Canada
1913 209,262,000 231,717,000
1914 140,958,000 161,280,000
1915 360,187,000 393,542,600
1916 242,314,000 262,781,000
1917 211,953,100 233,742,850
Vide Canada Year Book, Department of Trade and Commerce, Ot-
tawa, 1915, pp. 162-165; 1916-17, pp. 192-193; and the Monthly
Bulletin of Agricultural Statistics, Department of Trade and Com-
merce, Census and Statistics Office, Ottawa, Jan., 1918, pp. 4, 10-12.
34 W. E. Milner, The President's Address, Eighth Annual Re-
port (new series) of the Winnipeg Grain Exchange, presented to the
Annual Meeting held September 13, 1916. p. 24.
35 There can be little doubt that the replacement of Red Fife by
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 255
Canada, according to the Hon. W. J. Hanna, formerly
Food Controller of the Dominion, is the most extravagant
consumer of wheat of all the countries of the world. The
consumption per capita for every man, woman, and child
for food purposes of all sorts, including the feeding of
animals, has been 9 bushels per annima.^^ It is therefore
clear that the addition to our wheat crop of from 16,000,-
000 to 25,000,000 bushels per annum, owing to the dis-
covery and introduction of Marquis, would provide all the
bread and other wheat requirements for an additional
population in Canada of upwards of 2,000,000 people.
The price of wheat, as every one knows, has varied much
in the last ten years but, taking the value of wheat as only
70 cents a bushel, the wealth being added to western Can-
ada through the replacement of other wheats by Marquis
is from $11,200,000 to $17,500,000 per annum; ^^ and
just now, under war conditions, this sum must be multi-
plied by three.^^ Within a few decades, at this rate, Mar-
Marquis which, owing to its earliness in ripening and its high yield,
is more suited to conditions in western Canada than its predecessor,
has done much to encourage the breaking of new land on farms al-
ready established and also to increase the number of new farms by
stimulating the immigration of experienced farmers. This effect of
Marquis is imponderable and cannot be expressed in bushels or dollars
per annum; but if it could be, no doubt it would add considerably
to the statistical estimate of the value of Marquis to this country.
36 The Canadian Food Bulletin, No. 9, Jan. 26, 1918, p. 2. An
endeavor is now being made to reduce the human consumption of
wheat to 5.4 bushels per capita per annum.
37 The crop in western Canada for the year 1918 has been esti-
mated at 162,000,000 bushels, i.e., 71,000,000 bushels below the
average for the five previous years. The increment due to the re-
placement of Red Fife by Marquis has been only 13,000,000 bushels;
but, as the price of wheat now averages about $2.00 per bushel, this
mass of wheat is worth $26,000,000. In 1917 the increment was
upwards of 16,000,000 bushels valued at $32,000,000.
38 The average price per bushel received by Canadian farmers for
the crops each year from 1910 onwards was as follows:
256 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
quis wheat will put into our farmers' pockets an extra
gain of hundreds of millions of dollars, an amount of
money which would be more than sufficient to pay for all
the education given in the Public Schools, the High
Schools, the Agricultural Colleges, and the Universities
of the whole of western Canada. Even if we take the
very conservative estimate of $15,000,000 per annum as
the increased wealth Marquis is bringing into Canada,
and disregard every other consideration, we obtain suffi-
cient evidence to convince ourselves of the amazing success
of the Canadian Government in its wheat-breeding ex-
periments. Well may this country be proud of its achieve-
ments in this direction and especially proud of Dr. Charles
E. Saunders, whose skill and patience triumphed over all
the difficulties that presented themselves and who, in a
remarkably short time after his appointment as Dominion
Cerealist, gave to the farmer the great gift of Marquis
wheat. There are but few men in Canada who can look
the whole world in the face and honestly say that by their
efforts they have enriched their country by at least $15,-
Crops prod/uoed in
Price
Crops produced in
Price
1910
. $0.75
1914
. $1.30
1911
. $0.65
1915
. $0.90
1912
. $0.65
1916
. $1.25
1913
. $0.70
1917
. $2.00
By an order of the Board of Grain Supervisors of Canada, the price
of wheat for the 1917 crop was fixed as follows:
for No. 1 Northern $2.21
for No. 2 Northern $2.18
for No. 3 Northern $2.15
This information was kindly supplied to the writer by Mr. Irvine,
Assistant Secretary of the Winnipeg Grain Exchange.
By another order of the Board of Grain Supervisors of Canada, the
price of wheat for the 1918 crop (August 26, 1918, until August 31,
1919) was fixed as follows:
for No. 1 Northern $2,241/2
for No. 2 Northern $2,211/2
for No. 3 Northern $2.l7i/2
DISCOVERY OF MARQUIS WHEAT 257
000,000 a year. But such a man is Dr. Saunders, whose
labors exemplify public service at its best. Long may
he live to continue his work for the good of Canada and
of humanity.
XXXIV. Summary
The following are some of the more important conclu-
sions which may be drawn from the foregoing pages :
1. Marquis wheat was discovered and introduced by Dr.
Charles E. Saunders of the Central Experimental Eann,
Ottawa.
2. Marquis is a hard red spring wheat with excellent
milling and baking qualities. As compared with Red
Eife, it gives a higher yield and on the average is six days
earlier in ripening.
3. Marquis was discovered in 1903, first distributed to
farmers in western Canada in 1909, and is now, 1918, the
dominant spring wheat in both Canada and the United
States.
4. In North America the yield of Marquis was: in
1917, upwards of 250,000,000 bushels having a crop value
of 500,000,000 dollars; and, in 1918, upwards of 300,-
000,000 bushels having a crop value of 600,000,000
dollars.
5. In 1917, through the replacement of Red Eife by
Marquis, Canada made a gain in wealth of upwards of
16,000,000 bushels of wheat valued at 32,000,000 dollars.
6. In 1917, through the replacement of Bluestem, Eife
and Velvet Chaff by Marquis, the United States made a
gain in wealth of upwards of 10,000,000 bushels of wheat
valued at 20,000,000 dollars.
7. In 1917, through the replacement of other lesser-
yielding wheat varieties by Marquis, North America made
a gain in wealth of upwards of 26,000,000 bushels of
268 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
wheat valued at 52,000,000 dollars. During the food
crisis of 1917-1918, this mass of wheat was of very-
great assistance to the Allies in their prosecution of the
war.
8. The Government of the Dominion of Canada pre-
pared the way for the discovery of Marquis wheat by
establishing the Experimental Farms system in 1886,
by encouraging cereal research, and by appointing Dr.
Charles E. Saunders, a well-trained scientific man, as
Dominion Cerealist in 1903.
9. Marquis wheat was discovered as the result of the
application of biological and chemical principles to the
problem of breeding a new variety of wheat better adapted
than Red Fife for cultivation in the Prairie Provinces of
western Canada.
10. The great success of Marquis wheat in the world
affords an excellent instance of the benefits which have
already been derived from the encouragement given by re-
sponsible governments to scientific research.
CHAPTER IV
The Origin of Red Bobs and Kitchenkr
I. Introduction
One of the most promising competitors of Marquis is
Red Bohs which was selected by Mr. Seager Wheeler at
Rosthern, Saskatchewan, in 1910, from an Australian
wheat called Bobs. Since Red Bobs is now being widely
distributed among the farmers of western Canada and is
being tested at various experimental farms and stations, a
history of its origin is well worth recording.
II. Origin of Bohs
William Farrer ^ was a leading wheat-breeder in Aus-
1 The following quotation from an article by A. E. V. Richardson,
the Agricultural Superintendent of the Victoria Department of Ag-
riculture, is of interest in throwing light upon Farrer's work:
" The outstanding feature in wheat-breeding work in Australia is
the remarkable success achieved by that patient and retiring genius,
the late William Farrer, of New South Wales, in every branch of
wheat improvement.
" A man who could set out as clearly and comprehensively as
Farrer (Farrer, The making and improvement of new varieties of
wheat for Australian conditions. Agricultural Gazette, N. S. W.,
Feb., 1898 ) , both as regards the goal toward which he was striving
in his work of wheat improvement, and the methods whereby he
hoped to reach that goal, and in less than a decade flood the market
with varieties like Federation — the most prolific and popular farm-
er's wheat in the Commonwealth; Bohs and Comeback — of imsur-
passed milling excellence; Florence and Genoa — bunt-resisting va-
rieties; and a host of others enjoying a widespread popularity, such
as Bunyip, Thew, Bayah, Warren, Genoa, Firhank, Cleveland, Cedar,
Jonathan, etc., must have possessed in an unusual degree the insight
of genius. It is no exaggeration to say that Farrer has added mil-
259
260 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
tralia and did mucli to improve the varieties grown in his
native country. By cross-breeding and selection he ob-
tained a fine new wheat with white kernels, which he
introduced under the name of Bobs ; and he sent about a
teaspoonful of the seed to Dr. Charles Saunders, the
Cerealist for the Dominion of Canada. Dr. Saunders
tested Bobs at Ottawa and then sent some of it to the In-
dian Head Experimental Farm in Saskatchewan where it
was grown in plots for some years. It was found to be
a little earlier ^ than Marquis but less productive.^ On
account of this lesser productivity and the unfavorable
color of its kernels, it was at length discarded.
III. Importance of the Color of Wheat Kernels
Even had Dr. Saunders found Bobs to be superior to
Marquis in productivity, the white color of its grains
would have been fatal to its introduction into western
Canada. This is a matter that requires a little explana-
tion. Australia is famed in the British markets for its
white wheats but Canada for its red wheats. Now the
British buyers are conservative men and suspicious of
changes in wheat colors. Hence it has been found advis-
lions sterling to the national exchequer by the creation of Feder-
ation wheat. Dr. Cherry estimates the cash value of Farrer's work
to Victoria alone during the 1909 season at £250,000. Since that
estimate was framed, the area sown with this popular variety in
Victoria has greatly increased, and the benefits have become com-
mensurately greater. Farrer's work was continued by G. L. Sutton,
late Wheat Experimentalist of New South Wales, who did a great
deal to popularize the Farrer varieties amongst farmers." Wheat
Breeding, The Journal of Heredity, March, 1915, pp. 124-125.
2 Dominion of Canada Experimental Farms Report for 1915, p.
877; for 1912, p. 123; for 1911, pp. 144-145; for 1910, p. 172. Bobs
ripened 1 day earlier than Marquis in 1910, 3 days earlier in 1911,
7 days earlier in 1915, and on the same day as Marquis in 1912.
3 Dominion of Canada Experimental Farms Reports: for 1910, p.
172; for 1911, p. 140; for 1915, p. 877.
THE ORIGIN OF RED BOBS 261
able in Canada to produce wheats for export wliicli are
as red as possible, and the grading regulations have been
framed in such a way as to discourage the raising of
white wheats.
The color of the red and white wheats is due to the
color of the bran layer on the exterior of the kernels and
not to that of the flour-making mass which the bran layer
encloses. There is absolutely no correlation between the
color of the bran and the quality of the grain in respect to
bread-making. So-called white wheats have a pale yel-
lowish bran layer while red wheats have a darker reddish
bran layer. ISTow the bran layer upon a kernel is more
or less translucent, so that the appearance of a grain as
a whole is affected by the whiteness or translucency of
the interior mass. If the kernel inside the bran layer is
horny and translucent, as it is when it contains much
gluten, the wheat appears to be relatively dark; but, if
the interior is starchy and white, i. e. soft, the wheat
has a paler appearance. Both white and red wheats may
have the hard homy or the soft starchy interior and thus
may appear darker or paler. The difference of shade de-
pending on the difference of the interior only, is signifi-
cant and important, because starchy wheats are of in-
ferior value for bread-making. In considering a red
and a white kind of wheat we may therefore have four
possible kinds of grains:
(1) hard red grains which are the darkest of all,
(2) soft red grains which are pale reddish because
the interior is white and the whiteness is
seen through the translucent reddish bran
layer,
(3) hard white grains, in reality a dark yellow,
which have a horny interior like hard red
grains,
262 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
(4) soft white grains which are very white and
which, like soft red grains, have a starchy
interior.
'Now hard white grains (3) may be confused with soft
red grains (2), although they are radically different.
Hence it is that buyers in Great Britain hesitate to pur-
chase white wheat from Canada. They are used to re-
ceiving red wheat from this source and, when white
wheat samples come into their hands, they are naturally
suspicious that they are being offered soft red wheats
which are very inferior for bread-making purposes. From
these considerations it is clear that the policy of Dr.
Saunders in refusing to introduce white wheats into
western Canada is thoroughly justified.
IV. The Discovery of Red Bohs hy Mr. Seager Wheeler
The facts about to be related concerning the origin
of Tied Bobs were obtained by the writer during an in-
terview with Mr. Seager Wheeler at his farm at Eosthern
during the summer of 1918.
Mr. Wheeler of Rosthern, Saskatchewan, who was an
active member of the Canadian Seed Growers' Associa-
tion and who was engaged in making selections from Dr.
Saunders' strain of Early Red Fife and of Preston, heard
of Bobs, and, during the winter of 1907-08, secured a
ten-pound sample of it from the Experimental Farm at
Indian Head. This sample he seeded in the spring of
1908 on one of his special plots by the side of his other
varieties of wheat; and, as the Bobs plants grew, he ob-
served that they showed great uniformity and appeared to
be free from all admixture. In the autumn the plot
gave a yield at the rate of 60 bushels to the acre.
In 1909 Mr. Wheeler seeded: (1) a small head-row
plot, each row of seeds having been obtained from a single
Fig. 41. iypical heads of Red Bobs wheat, front and side vie
Natural size. Courtesy of the Grain Growers^ Guide.
THE ORIGIN OF RED BOBS 263
selected head, (2) a H-acre plot, the seeds for which were
obtained by mass selection, i. e., from a number of picked
heads threshed together, and (3) an increase plot of two or
three acres. It is important to note, on account of what
follows, that side by side with all these plots of Bobs
were similar plots of Early Red Fife and of Preston,
and that these three wheats were the only kinds grown by
Mr. Wheeler in 1909. Again the Bobs plants appeared
to be quite uniform in character.
In 1910, Mr. Wheeler again seeded Bobs in: (1) a
head-row plot, (2) a %-acre plot seeded as in the previous
year from hand-selected heads, and in (3) an increase
plot of several acres. The heads for seeding the ^-acre
plot were obtained from the ^/4-acre plot and also from
the head-row plot of 1909 ; and the increase plot of 2-3
acres was seeded from the seed resulting from the thresh-
ing of the %-acre plot of 1909. Mr. Wheeler examined
all the plants in the %-acre plot as carefully as he could
with the result that he discovered that a few of them, less
than a dozen, had red grains in all their heads instead
of white. Subsequently he detected a few red kernels
in the grain threshed from the large increase plot of
several acres. This was the very first appearance of any
marked variability which Mr. Wheeler had been able
to detect since the beginning of his study of Bobs. For
the sake of convenience, we shall now call the original
Bobs variety White Bohs and the red selection from it Red
Bobs. Red Bobs, as we have just seen, was selected
from White Bobs in 1910.
In 1911, Mr. Wheeler planted out the seeds obtained
from the red-seeded heads of 1910 in head-rows, each
head-row containing the seeds of a single head. The
plants which came up from these first red seeds at once
exhibited a remarkable amount of variability: some were
264 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
awnless like White Bobs, but some were beardy, having
short awns at the tip of the head like Eed Fife, while
others were fully bearded; some were tall growers, some
short, and some intermediate; some had open heads and
others fairly dense heads; while, in respect to maturity,
some were early in ripening and some late. All the
grains produced, however, appeared to be red and no
white ones were observed. Mr. Wheeler carefully selected
heads of each type of plant to serve as seed for the next
year.
In 1912 the seed selected in 1911 was planted out in
head-rows, and the plants arising from them showed
some further variability especially in respect to seed
color. All the plants in some head-rows produced noth-
ing but red grains, while, in a few head-rows, some of the
plants produced red grains only and some red and white
grains mixed. Mr. Wheeler now be,2:an to use the name
of Red Bobs for the red-grained selection which he wished
to multiply.
V. R'ed Bobs the Product of a Natural Cross
The occurrence of a few plants with red grains in-
stead of white in the ^4-acre plot of 1910, and the extraordi-
nary variability of the plants produced from them in
1911, strongly suggests that the red-grained plants of
1910 were cross-bred, -and that Eed Eobs owes its origin
to a natural cross which took place in 1909 between White
Bobs and one or other of the red wheats Eed Fife and
Preston which, as we have seen, were grown side by
side with White Bobs in all the plots in that year. It
is well known that when two varieties of wheat are
crossed artificially, the grains resulting from the cross de-
velop into plants which often differ but little from, or
are identical with, one or the other parent, but that in
THE ORIGIN OF RED BOBS 265
the next year the grains produced from the hybrids give
rise to a large nnmber of distinct types. The red-seeded
Red Bobs plants of 1910, which apparently differed only
in their seed color from White Bobs, correspond to the
cross-bred plants or first filial generation in an artificial
cross ; and the numerous types which were obtained from
these red grains in 1911, correspond exactly to the numer-
ous types one frequently obtains in the second filial gen-
eration of an artificial cross.
That such natural crosses as that suggested for the origin
of Red Bobs do actually occur occasionally under plot con-
ditions, although flower self-fertilization is the rule, has
now been sufficiently established by the observations of a
number of cerealists. Dr. Charles Saunders was the first
on this continent to record such a cross. In 1907, in a
Bulletin on the Quality of Wheat, in order to show the
value of the chewing test for indicating the gluten value
of wheat types, he says : " Some years ago an experi-
ment was tried in order to obtain if possible a natural
cross between two varieties of wheat. Red Fife (beard-
less) and Rio Grande (bearded) were sown mixed in a
small plot. When the grain was ripe a few heads of
Red Fife, which were borne on rather short straw, were
selected, and from these the next season about 200 kernels
were sown. Among the plants produced from these seeds,
one was found on which the awns were somewhat better
developed than is usual in true Red Fife. When some of
the seeds of this plant were chewed, it was found that
the gluten quality was altogether distinct from, and de-
cidedly inferior to that of Red Fife. In this way it was
proved that the plant was a cross, the pollen from the
Rio Grande having fallen on the head of Red Fife during
the blossoming period in the year previous. As this
proof, however, would not perhaps be accepted by other
^^Q ESSAYS ON WHEAT
observers without confirmation, the seeds from the cross-
bred plant were sown the following year. They produced
mixed types, bearded, partly bearded, and beardless. The
seeds as well as the heads showed the influence of the
Rio Grande, being, in many cases, larger than those of
Red Fife. These observations, of course, completed the
proof of the cross-bred nature of the parent plant, and
demonstrated the value of the chewing test as a means
of disting-uishing similar varieties of wheat." ^ ^N'ilsson-
Ehle ^ has shown by experiment that some varieties of
wheat are much more liable to natural cross-pollination
than others. Smith ^ found eight natural hybrids in 96
rows of Turkey winter wheat. Leighty,''^ in 1915, de-
scribed four cases of natural crosses between wheat and
rye. In 1917 Hayes ^ recorded that three plants out of
fifty taken from nursery plots of Bluestem were natural
crosses, as proved from studying their progeny, and that
two plants out of 47 selections of Marquis gave progeny
with both red and white kernels indicating that they were
first generation crosses. The writer visited Dr. Hayes at
the University Farm at St. Paul in July, 1918, and saw
4 C. E. Saunders, Quality in Wheat, Bulletin No. 57, Central
Experimental Farm, Ottawa, 1907, pp. 9-10. Of., by the same author,
A Natural Hybrid in Wheat, Proc. American Breeders' Association,
Vol. I, 1905, pp. 137-138.
5 H. Nilsson-Ehle, Gibt es erbliche Weizenrassen mit mehr oder
weniger Selbstbefruchtung? Zeitschrift f. Pflanzenzucht, Bd. Ill,
1915, pp. 1-6.
6 L. H. Smith, Occurrence of Natural Hybrids in Wheat, Proo.
Amer. Breeders' Association, Vol. V, 1912, pp. 412-414.
7 C. E. Leigh ty, Natural Wheat-Rye Hybrids, Journal of the Ameri-
can Society of Agronomy, Vol. 7, 1915, pp. 209-216.
8 H. K. Hayes, Natural Cross-pollination in Wheat, Journal of
American Society of Agronomy, Vol. 10, 1918, pp. 120-122. The
citations for Nilsson-Ehle, Smith, and Leighty have been made from
this paper.
THE ORIGIN" OF RED BOBS 267
for himsielf several of the natural hybrids and their
progeny growing in the plots. He particularly noticed
a cross-bred plant produced by a natural cross between
Marquis and Bluestem which possessed intermediate char-
acters in the head and straw. In view of the known oc-
currence of natural crosses between different varieties of
wheat when grown side by side in small plots, and in view
of facts known in connection with Mr. Wheeler's plots,
the author has no hesitation in expressing his belief that
Red Bohs owes its origin to a natural cross between
White Bohs and Saunders strain of Early Bed Fife or
between White Bohs and Preston, one or other of the red
wheats having been the male parent.
Professor W. P. Thompson of the University of
Saskatchewan has crossed White Bobs with Preston and
White Bobs with Eed Fife, and he has informed the writer
that the first generation plants resulting from the cross-
bred grains in each of the two crosses have heads which
cannot be distinguished in general appearance from those
of White Bobs, except in the color of the grains which
are red instead of white. This fits in very well with the
supposition that the few red-grained plants which Mr.
Wheeler found in his White Bobs plots in 1910 were ac-
tually derived from cross-bred kernels such as those Pro-
fessor Thompson has produced artificially in the manner
described.
Preston is a fully bearded wheat, whereas Early Ked
Fife is bald except for a few awns at the top of the head.
White Bobs and Red Bobs are quite awnless. Since
bearded forms appeared after the natural cross in the
second generation, it might be supposed that the male
parent of Red Bobs was the bearded Preston and not the
almost bald Early Red Fife; but such an opinion may
268 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
well be erroneous, for it has been observed by Dr. Charles
Saunders ^ that, when two practically awnless wheats have
been artificially crossed, bearded types often occur in
the second and later generations. Mr. Wheeler was un-
able to suggest to the vta*iter which of the two wheats,
Early Eed Fife or Preston, had supplied the foreign pollen.
Perhaps, however, the matter might be decided by making
two crosses, one between White Bobs and Early Red Fife
and another between White Bobs and Preston, and com-
paring the progeny in the second and third generations
with those observed by Mr. Wheeler as the result of the
natural crossing. It so happens, as we have seen, that
Professor Thompson has already made crosses between
White Bobs and Red Fife and White Bobs and Preston.
Perhaps, when his studies of these crosses are complete,
he will be able to solve the problem of the exact male
parentage of Red Bobs with which we are confronted.
VI. The Selection, Multiplication, and Distribution of
Red Bobs
In 1913, Mr. Wheeler sowed seeds of about 60 differ-
ent types of Red Bobs. A severe hailstorm, on July 28,
partially destroyed his crop but served to reveal the
fact that some of the types were much better than others
in strength of straw.
In 1914, Mr. Wheeler cut down his types to three or
four which, except for seed color, most closely resembled
the original White Bobs. These mixed strains on a /4-
acre plot yielded at the rate of 50 bushels to the acre,
» Charles E. Saunders, Wheat Breeding in Canada, Reports of
the Winnipeg Meeting of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, 1909 ; also Dominion of Canada Experimental Farms
Reports for 1910, p. 166.
THE ORIGIN OF RED BOBS
269
whereas Marquis, on a similar plot and under similar
conditions, yielded at the rate of 43 bushels to the acre.
In 1915, the seed of Ked Bobs, containing three strains,
was again sown on a ^/i-acre plot. A certain number of
heads of the three types were selected by hand to seed
head-row plots the next year and then the rest of the
plants were threshed together.
In 1916, Mr. Wheeler again sowed his usual sets of
plots with Red Bobs, but unfortunately a severe hailstorm
completely destroyed his plants. However, he still
possessed about 10 bushels of seed, a sheaf or two, and
a few heads which had been held over from the harvest
of 1915, and all this was available for seed the next year.
The chief result of the destruction wrought by the hail
was a loss of a whole year in the multiplication of the
seed.
In 1917, Mr. Wheeler sowed a five-acre field with Bed
Bobs containing three types obtained from a bulk thresh-
ing. The harvest consisted of 200 bushels of seed and was
disposed of to the Grain Growers' Guide, This company
has distributed the seed to those who subscribe to its paper
in 10, 20, 40, and 60 pound samples, and it is now
(1918) being grown by about 500 farmers on about 75
acres of land. Its test under diverse conditions is, there-
fore, only just beginning to be made.
This year, 1918, Mr. Wheeler is continuing the study
of his three strains of Red Bobs, and it is possible that he
may eventually select one only for ultimate distribution.
The author visited Mr. Wheeler at his farm on the 23rd of
August and spent a whole day with him looking over the
plots, collecting the data of the history of his selections,
and in discussing his methods of work. The standing
crops had a very fine appearance and, in the ^4-acre plots
2'rO ESSAYS ON WHEAT
of Eed Bobs, Marquis, and Kitchener (his selection froin
Marquis), the first-named certainly appeared by its yel-
lower color to be some days earlier than the other two.
VII. Red Bohs at the University of Saskatchewan
After selecting Eed Bobs in 1910, Mr. Wheeler sold
some of his White Bobs to Mr. George Harvey, a neigh-
boring farmer, who showed a sample of the harvest which
it yielded at the Eosthern Seed Fair in the winter of
1912-13. The exhibit won a first prize. Professor
Bracken, of the Field Husbandry Department of the
University of Saskatchewan, who was acting as a judge
at the Fair, took home a sample of the prize White Bobs
and sowed it in one of the University plots in the spring
of 1913. When the harvest had been secured, he searched
the bulk threshing and found a few red kernels like those
obtained by Mr. Wheeler in 1910. These red kernels
were planted out in 1914 in foundation plots, and they
gave rise to various wheat-plant types, some of which were
bald, some bearded, etc., resembling those which had been
obtained by Mr. Wheeler from his first red grains in 1911.
Since 1914, Professor Bracken has been engaged in select-
ing the most desirable of the types and in discarding those
which are not fixed. In 1915 he sowed centgener plots,
each little square of ground being seeded with the seed
obtained from the heads of a single plant of the previous
year. The harvest of each centgener plot was subjected
to a bulk threshing, and the grain resulting was sown
in 1916 in a multiplier plot. Each multiplier plot con-
sisted of two rows, 100 links long, equal to an area of %oo-
acre. The harvest of each multiplier plot was subjected
to a bulk threshing, and the grain resulting was sown in
1917 upon a Hoo-acre plot. The grain obtained from
THE ORIGIN OF RED BOBS 271
each Moo-acre plot was again sown in 1918 upon a
Koo-acre plot, and plots of this size are to be continued
for five years so that for each strain being tested reliable
results may be obtained in respect to yield, earliness, mill-
ing and baking qualities, etc.
T'rom single plants grown in 1914 from red grains.
Professor Bracken has now selected twelve strains for
further study. From the records which he kindly showed
to the writer, it appears that some of these strains ripen
their grains about the same time as Marquis, some later
than Marquis and some as much as ten days earlier. Four
of the strains yielded less than Marquis per acre and eight
more than Marquis. Elaborate milling and baking tests
were carried out in 1917, and some of the strains passed
these tests in a very satisfactory manner.
In 1918, increase plots of %-acre were sown in order
to obtain enough seed to make tests upon various types of
soil in different parts of the Province of Saskatchewan.
In the winter of 1914-15, Mr. Wheeler gave to Pro-
fessor Bracken's Department of Field Husbandry about
40 strains of his Red Bobs, and these were sown at the
University Farm in 1915. None of these strains were
sown in 1916, two in 1917 and seven in 1918. Some of
Mr. Wheeler's strains of Red Bobs are therefore now
being tested alongside of Professor Bracken's red-seeded
strains of White Bobs. Professor Bracken has now
about 100,000 red-seeded plants in his plots, and it seems
very likely that one or more new wheats of considerable
value to agriculture will ultimately be derived from them.
There can be no question but that all the various tests to
which they are being subjected are being carried out in
the most exact and thorough manner.
272 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
VIII. Description of Red Bohs
Red Bobs is a hard red spring wheat. Its heads are
absolutely awnless and of a compact type, the spikelets
in a good year being well filled with grains from the
bottom to the top of each head. The heads are very up-
right with little or no tendency to lean, and the straw
is very strong, upright, and yellow. The chaff is white
or light yellow, lighter than that of Marquis. The up-
right tendency allows the heads to lie closely in the sheaf
with little or no waste. On the average, on Mr. Wheel-
er's farm, Eed Bobs has been a week earlier in ripening
than Marquis since 1912 inclusive, and it has yielded
a little more than Marquis each year. In 1917 Marquis
yielded 40 bushels to the acre and Red Bobs 53. This,
however, is an extreme difference in the yield of the two
varieties. The grains are of a good red color, short
and rounded, and they give a good weight per measured
bushel. Their baking and milling qualities are about
equal to those of Marquis. The most remarkable point
about Red Bobs, as grown on Mr. Wheeler's farm, is the
combination of earliness and yield. Mr. Wheeler feels
that this new variety, owing to its combination of earliness,
high yield, high baking and milling qualities, and the
characters of its head and straw, has no equal. An ab-
solute decision of its merits, however, can only be arrived
at after it has been tested under diverse conditions for a
series of years.
IX. A Visit to Mr. Wheelers Farm
A brief note may here be added of a personal nature.
The author, as already remarked, visited Mr. Seager
Wheeler at his farm on August 23, 1918 ; and there spent
a very happy day in his company, looking over his plots,
THE ORIGIN OF RED BOBS 273
collecting the data of the history of his selections, and in
discussing his methods of work. The crops were in the
most interesting condition, fast ripening and some ready
to cut. The three chief kinds of wheat in the head-row
plots and the only ones in the /4-acre plots were Marquis,
Kitchener, and Eed Bohs, and it was upon these that Mr.
Wheeler was evidently concentrating his chief attention;
but he was also testing three winter wheats, namely Kanred
which originally came from Kansas, a selection of his own
of Turhey Eed, and ^y inter-Spring, a wheat which orig-
inated on his farm in an uncertain manner. Mr. Wheeler
was not confining his attention to wheat only, for he was
making selections of oats, barley, potatoes, clovers, al-
falfa, brome-grass, and western rye-grass ; and in his
plots were to be seen rows of soy-beans and com which,
however, do not as a rule grow well so far north and were
this year a partial failure. His smaller plots, in the
garden by the side of his house, were protected by trees
and hedges of Russian poplar, etc., which had been
planted in rows so as to form wind screens.
Mr. Wheeler proved an admirable guide and, withal,
unassuming, courteous, ready to answer all the numerous
questions of his visitor, and also eager to receive any
information bearing upon his own work. As he passed
from plot to plot, pointing out the qualities of the plants
in each, it became evident that he was whole-heartedly ab-
sorbed in the task of raising new and improved cereals;
and, quite unconsciously, in his conversation and manner,
he exhibited an otherworldliness to a degree not often
met with in such practical men as farmers. The writer
could not help but feel that there was uppermost in Mr.
Wheeler's mind not the thought of monetary reward but
the hope of originating something of high value to west-
em agriculture.
274 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
X. A Biographical Note
Mr. Seager Wheeler was born in the Isle of Wight.
His father and uncles were fishermen at Black Gang, a
place once famous for the smuggling that went on there.
He attended the I^ational School at Ventnor which he
left when eleven years old after passing through all the
grades. He then worked at the W. H. Smith bookstall at
Ventnor Station. A few years later, in 1885, he crossed
the ocean and came out to Saskatoon where he worked on
his uncle's farm for three years. In 1888 he took up a
homestead a few miles north of Saskatoon, and in 1897,
Queen Victoria's Jubilee Year, removed to his present
farm at Eosthern. Mr. Wheeler has thus been associated
with western Canada for 33 years.
Mr. Wheeler began to make selections of cereals and
potatoes on his own initiative about the year 1900 but not
in a very systematic manner. In 1904, he became an
active member of the Canadian Seed Growers' Associa-
tion, and then undertook the selection of seed according
to definite rules. At the same time, he commenced to
study individual plants in small seed-plots and to sow
head-rows. At first he made selections from Preston, a
wheat still grown on many farms at Eosthern, and then
selections from Dr. Saunders' strain of Early Eed Fife.
He procured a sample of White Bobs for sowing in 1908,
and a sample of Marquis for sowing in 1911.
In 1911 he won his first international prize for the
best bushel of hard red spring wheat at the 'New York
Land Show with Marquis; and he won similar prizes
with Marquis in 1914 and 1915. In 1916 he also won the
international prize but, on this occasion, not with Marquis
but with Kitchener, a selection from Marquis. In 1918,
for the fifth time, he carried off the international prize,
THE ORIGIN OF RED BOBS 275
but whether he won it with Marquis or Ked Bobs is uncer-
tain. ^^ He selected Red Bobs from White Bobs in 1910,
and Kitchener from Marquis in 1911. As an active
member of the Canadian Seed Growers' Association, he
has supplied to other farmers a considerable amoimt of
pure seed of Marquis, Kitchener, and Red Bobs. He has
also been much in demand as a judge at Seed Fairs and
in standing crop competitions. His stimulating influence
has done much to forward the best interests of agriculture
in western Canada. When one considers the very small
amount of schooling which Mr. Wheeler received as a
boy, one cannot help feeling surprise at the successes which
he has achieved in the difficult task of plant-breeding.
However, he is a born observer, and has remarkable
natural ability in distinguishing slight differences in
cereals and other plants. There can be no doubt that his
selection of Red Bobs from White Bobs was a fine piece
of work, such as would be highly creditable to any plant
breeder ; and the reputation which he has thereby achieved
has been well merited.
XI. Kitchener
Kitchener is a selection from Marquis made by Mr.
Seager Wheeler in 1911. The year 1911 was the first
in which Mr. Wheeler grew Marquis and he naturally
paid a considerable amount of attention to it. One plant
in a plot of Marquis stood out from all the others as a dis-
tinct type. He therefore pulled it up by the roots and
stored it until winter. Each of the four or five heads
was then rubbed out in the hand separately, and the
gTains from each head were sown in head-rows in a plot
in 1912. The year 1912 was verj wet, so much so that
10 Vide Chapter III, Section IX, on Prizes Won hy Marquis.
276 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
the grains of some of Mr. Wlieeler's wheats sprouted from
the heads standing in the fields ; but Kitchener did not do
this. In that year, Kitchener gave a better result than
the other strains of llarquis in point of uniformity, in
the color, shape, and size of the grains, and in apparent
yield. In 1913 a hailstorm destroyed many of Mr.
Wheeler's plants. All the sof t-strawed and bearded wheats
such as bearded strains of Red Bobs, Preston, and some
other wheats, were dashed to the ground. Kitchener, how-
ever, stood the test well, even better than Marquis.
Kitchener, Mr. Wheeler feels, has the finest straw of any
wheat, for it is not only strong but also very elastic.
It ripens about the same time as Marquis, occasionally
perhaps a little later, and is later than Eed Bobs, Euby,
and Prelude. In 1914 a sheaf of it won an international
prize at Denver, Colorado; and in 1915 a quarter of an
acre hand-selected seed plot yielded at the rate of 80
bushels to the acre, at about the same rate as the yield
of Marquis on Mr. Wheeler's farm in 1911. In 1916
Kitchener won the sweep-stake for the best wheat at the
International Soils Products Exposition at El Paso, Texas.
In 1917, one field plot yielded 63 bushels to the acre and
another 50 bushels. It is evident that the yielding quali-
ties of Kitchener under field conditions at Eosthern are
very high. Kitchener is now distributed to a number
of farmers in the three western provinces, and it has also
been grown in Ontario where its yield has been excellent.
In the south and southwest parts of the Prairie Provinces,
where it is dry, and where Eed Fife is grown in preference
to Marquis on account of its longer straw. Kitchener prob-
ably has a future owing to superiority in length and
strength of straw. It will doubtless have its day for a
little while at least in some places.
Kitchener, like Marquis, is not absolutely awnless, and
THE ORIGIN OF RED BOBS 277
it has a solid compact head, and strong straight straw.
Its grains as compared with those of Marqni's nre slightly
larger and smoother. The grains are the smoothest known
to Mr. Wheeler.
CHAPTEE Y
The Wild Wheat of Palesthste
I. The Importance and Antiquity of Agriculture
For some hundreds of thousands of years primitive
man was a hunter who knew nothing of either cultivated
plants or domesticated animals. Towards the end of the
long Stone Age, the way to civilization was opened through
the introduction of agriculture and through the taming
of the dog, the ox, the sheep, the pig, the horse, and other
denizens of the woods and plains.
The cultivation of plants and the breeding of animals
for food greatly diminished the danger of starvation, and
enabled primitive man to give iip his nomadic habits and
to live in villages. The grouping of families together in
settled communities led to the development of an ever more
complex social existence and consciousness with the re-
sult that there have been differentiated such remarkable
social organisms as those represented by France, Italy,
the United States, and Great Britain, with their dense
populations, their innumerable towns and cities, their
complex civic life, their public buildings, their literatures,
their laws, their art, their science, their music, their manu-
facturing machinery, and their wonderful means of com-
munication and transportation. Without the discovery
and introduction of agriculture by primitive man it is
certain that not one of the world's great cities, nor even
a town of one thousand inhabitants, could ever have come
into existence.
278
THE WILD WHEAT OF PALESTINE 279
Settled communities based on agriculture, as we know
from ancient records, were already established many
thousands of years ago. A glimpse into the life of one
such community is given us by an inscription upon an
obelisk set up by Mannichtousan, King of Sis, who lived
near Susa about one hundred miles north of the mouth of
the Euphrates. The obelisk in question was set up be-
tween 4000 B. c. and 3500 b. c, and the inscription
upon it records the price of a sale of land. The price of
the land was fixed by the value of the crop. The king
bound himself to nourish, clothe, and protect the serfs
and slaves who were attached to the estate and who were
obliged to cultivate it. Near the place where the obelisk
was discovered, the accumulated refuse was found to be
fifty feet deep. The King of Sis evidently ruled over a
community which had advanced a long way in the cultiva-
tion of the soil and in general civilization.^
II. The Antiquity and Origin of Wheat
Archaeologists have discovered wheat in the rubbish
heaps of the lake dwellings of both Switzerland and Italy,
so that we have the clearest evidence that this cereal was
cultivated by prehistoric man. Unger found wheat in a
brick of the pyramid of Dashur in Egypt, to which he
assigned the date 3359 b. c. ; and the Chinese grew wheat
as long ago as 2700 b. c.^ The ancient civilizations of
Babylonia, Egypt, Crete, Greece, and Rome were un-
doubtedly based on wheat as one of the principal food
plants.
Wheat has been found in the sarcophagi of ancient
iG. F. Scott Elliott, Prehistoric Man and His Story, London,
1915, p. 216.
2 Alphonse de Candolle, Origin of Cultivated Plants, London, 1884,
p. 355.
280 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
Egyptian munmiies. It is still currently reported that
this mammy wheat, after being sown, has been observed
to germinate ; but there is no truth whatever in this story.
Careful experiment has demonstrated that all real mummy
wheat has entirely lost its vitality. The oldest tombs
containing wheat belong to the First Dynasty and are
about 6,000 years old.
The ancients, who knew nothing of the evolution of
man and of his slow passage to civilization through the
Age of Stone and the Age of Bronze, attributed the origin
of wheat to supernatural agency. The Chinese regarded
wheat as a direct gift of heaven. The Egyptians believed
its introduction to have been due to Osiris, and the Greeks
to Demeter and Tryptolemus.
According to Grecian mythology, Persephone, the
daughter of the goddess Demeter, was carried off by
Hades; whereupon Demeter visited the earth and sought
her child far and wide. On the tenth day of her search,
she learned the truth from the all-seeing Sun ; and so angry
did she become with Zeus for having permitted the out-
rage that, in her wrath, she made the earth barren, so
that the mortals living upon it were threatened with de-
struction by famine. At last a compromise was effected
and it was arranged that Persephone should spend two-
thirds of the year with her mother and one-third with her
husband. On returning to Olympus, Demeter left to
mankind the gifts of wheat and of agriculture, as a token
of her grateful recollection for the generous treatment
she had received upon the earth. She then sent Tryptole-
mus the Eleusinian round the world in her serpent-
drawn chariot to diffuse the knowledge of agriculture and
of the blessings which accompany it, such as the settlement
of fixed places of abode, civil order, and wedlock. Tem-
ples were raised to Demeter who was henceforth regarded
THE WILD WHEAT OF PALESTINE 281
Fig. 43, Demeter enthroned. From a painting found at Pompeii, Naples.
as the goddess of agriculture; and the most ancient seats
of her worship were Athens and Elousis where the Rharian
ESSAYS ON WHEAT
plain was solemnly plowed every year in memory of
the first sowing of wheat. Among the offerings dedicated
to her by her votaries were fruit and honey-comb, the
cow and the sow, the latter as emblems of productivity.
Among her attributes were ears of wheat.
At Eome in b. c. 496 there was a drought. The
Sibylline Books were therefore consulted and, as a result,
the cult of Demeter was introduced into Italy. The
Greek name Demeter was changed by the Romans to
Ceres,^ and a temple was raised to the goddess on one
of the seven hills of Rome in b. c. 490. The worshipers
of Ceres in Italy were almost entirely plebeian, and they
annually celebrated the festival of the Cerealia or games
introduced at the founding of the temple. One festival
was held in April and another was held in August. At
the latter, after fasting for nine days, the women, clothed
in white and adorned with crowns of ripe ears of wheat,
offered to the goddess the first-fruits of the harvest. The
worship of Ceres was maintained in its purest form in
the country. Here the people of the soil, before the be-
ginning of harvest, offered to the goddess of agriculture a
sow (porca prsecidanea) and dedicated to her the first cut-
tings of the wheat fields (prsemetium).
At Pompeii, the City of the Dead, which was buried in
ashes during the eruption of Vesuvius in a. d. 79, there
have been preserved to us some of the world's greatest
treasures in art and archseology, and among them are two
mural paintings of the goddess of agriculture. In one of
them (Figure 43), the artist has represented her as full of
3 Ceres may have been originally a native Italian deity whose name
came from creare, to create, and who presided over or represented the
generative powers of nature. If so, she was replaced by Demeter
when the cult of the Greek goddess was introduced into Italy. Gf.
W. W. Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic,
London, 1908, pp. 73, 181.
THE WILD WHEAT OF PALESTINE 283
dignity seated upon a throne : lier head is crowned with a
wheaten garland ; in her right hand she bears a torch ; upon
her left arm reclines a sheaf of wheat, while her relation to
the cereal she is supposed to have introduced is further em-
phasized by a basket of wheat which stands on the ground
at her feet. In the other painting, the goddess is repre-
sented to us in a standing posture; but again she wears
a wheaten crown, while she bears a torch in her right hand
and ears of wheat in her left.*
The people of ancient Italy, notwithstanding their
prayers to Ceres, found that their wheat and other cereal
crops were often affected by Rust; and mention of the
disease is made in the writings of Aristotle, Theophrastus,
Strabo, Varro, Columella, Ovid, and Pliny. Pliny states
that it was " the gTcatest pest of the crops.'' The
Romans believed in a Rust-god whom they called Robigus,
and they held that he had power to ward off the rust
disease. On the twenty-fifth of April, therefore, at the
time in each year when the rust usually attacked the
wheat, they celebrated a feast called the Robigalia with
the object of propitiating Robigus. The Quirinal flamen
presided over the ceremony, and the procession marched
out from Rome to the lucus Rohigi, situated at the fiith
milestone along the Claudian Way. There, in the sacred
grove, before a crowd clad in white togas, the priest offered
up a prayer to the stern Rust-god, imploring him to spare
the crops of Ceres, a libation of wine was poured upon the
altar, incense was thrown into the flames, and the en-
trails of a sheep and of a dog were placed upon the altar
and burnt. The dog was reddish, this color being sym-
bolical of the pest to be avoided. Ovid, once, when re-
4 C/. W. H. Roscher, article on Ceres, Lexicon, Leipzig; also H. T.
Peck, articles on Demeter and Ceres in Harper's Dictionary of Classi-
cal Literature and Antiquities, New York, 1896.
284 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
turning to the capital from the neighboring town of
JSTomentum, met the Robigalian procession by chance, and
it is to his pen that we are indebted for an account of the
rites which were performed by the priest.^
Wheat, rye, barley, oats, millet, rice, and maize are
collectively designated as cereals. It is of interest to
note that the word cereal originally meant something per-
taining to Ceres, the goddess of agriculture. It is thus
clear that when we speak of cereals, we employ a term
which was brought into being and shaped into usefulness
by the worshipers of the gods and goddesses of Italy some
2,500 years ago.
The besom of science has swept away many of the
superstitions of the past, even stretching to high Olympus
and removing the gods and goddesses from their seats.
When considering the origin of wheat, we no longer think
of Osiris and Ceres but seek to guide our steps into the
way of truth with light from the lamp of the now thor-
oughly well established doctrine of evolution. Our pres-
ent biological knowledge leads us to believe that the
wheat now in cultivation was formerly derived from one or
more species of wild grass-plants which grew somewhere
in Asia, and that the first wheat-grower was a man or
woman who lived toward the end of the long Stone Age.
The Palaeolithic Period or Older Stone Age was co-
incident with the Great Ice Age, and there is no reason
to believe that palaeolithic man knew anything of agri-
culture. The much shorter Neolithic Period or ]^ewer
Stone Age was passed through subsequently to the dis-
appearance of the ice. The remains of neolithic man seem
to prove that the growing of wheat was associated with
his development. Mr. Scott Elliott after discussing the
5 Gf. A. H. R. Buller, The Fungus Lore of the Greeks and Romans,
Transactions of the British Mycologieal Society, 1914, pp. 30-31.
THE WILD WHEAT OF PALESTINE
285
archaeological evidence upon which his conclusion is based,
states that " the best guess as to the date of the first harvest
is perhaps between 15,000 b. c. and 10,000 b. c." ^
III. The Prototypes of Cereals
Certain wild species of barley, oats, and rye are known,
which may reasonably be considered as the prototypes or
ancestors of their cultivated relatives. Thus Eordeum
spontaneum, a wild barley, is regarded as the wild form of
Eordeum disticlion, the two-rowed barley ; and it is further
believed that from this species have been derived Eordeum
vulgare, the common six-rowed square-headed barley, and
Eordeum hexasticlion, the true six-rowed barley. 8ecale
montanum, a wild rye, has been considered to be the
prototype of 8ecale cereale, the cultivated rye; while
A vena fatua, a wild oat, or some other species of wild
Avena, is believed to be the progenitor of cultivated oats.
However, until recently, no one knew anything about
the original wild form of wheat and most botanists were in-
clined to believe that it had become extinct. In 1899, the
Count of Solms-Laubach declared that the genealogical
record of wheat had been lost forever and that the history
of its development could only be written from theoretical
considerations. Even whilst the Count was publishing
his views, there was a small group of botanists who not
only believed that the wild ancestor of wheat would one
day be found but that a single head of it was already
known. Chief among these men was Komicke who de-
voted some forty years to the study of cereals."^
6 G. F. Scott Elliott, loc. cit., p. 217.
7 Cf. A. Aaronsohn, Agricultural and Botanical Explorations in
Palestine, Bulletin No. 180, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States
Department of Agriculture, Washington, 1910, pp. 37-38.
286 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
IV. ^Kornickes Discovery in a Herbarium
Komicke published his great work on cereals in the
year 1885. In 1873, when he was preparing the notes
for his manuscript, he was looking through the pressed
specimens of grasses preserved in the herbarium of the
National Museum at Vienna. On examining a sheet of
wild barley (Hordeum spontaneum) which Kotschy had
gathered in 1855 at Rasheyya, on the northwestern side
of Mount Hermon in Palestine, his eye was attracted to the
ear of a graminiferous plant which he at once recognized
as a species of wild wheat closely resembling the cultivated
wheat known as emmer. Curiously enough, he forgot to
mention the wild wheat in his book on cereals published
twelve years later; and it was not until 1889, at a meeting
of the Society of the Lower Rhine and Westphalia, that
he- reported his discovery to the scientific world. He
then named Kotschy's plant Triticum vulgare dicoccoides
and declared that it was the prototype of our cultivated
wheat. For some years afterwards he repeatedly referred
to the wild Triticum and urged botanists who went to the
region of Mount Hermon to seek for it. He even en-
deavored to induce the scientific academies of Vienna
and Berlin to organize an expedition to Palestine to find
the plant which he felt to be of so much interest ; but his
efforts were all in vain.^
V. Rediscovery of the Wild Wheat hy Aaronsohn
In 1902, Aaron Aaronsohn, Director of the Jewish
Agricultural Experiment Station at Haifa in Palestine,
made a visit to Berlin and whilst there Professors Ascher-
son, Schweinfurth, and Warburg called his attention to
the importance, from a theoretical point of view, of finding
8 A. Aaronsohn, loc. cit., p. 37.
THE WILD WHEAT OF PALESTINE 287
the wild wheat. In 1904, therefore, Aaronsohn visited
the foot of Mount Hermon and began his search. How-
ever, he had but little hope of success, for two other
botanists, Post and Bornmiiller, had previously botanized
in the neighborhood of Rasheyya, the locality on Mount
Hermon where Kotschy^s original specimen was sup-
posed to have been gathered, and yet in their two Floras
of Syria and Palestine they had failed to report finding
any species of Triticum. Aaronsohn, therefore, did not
long persist in his search and concluded that there had
been some mistake in the record of the locality from
which Kotschy's wild wheat had come.
In 1905, Aaronsohn was again in Berlin and was
urged by the botanists there to renew his search. Stim-
ulated anew, he returned to Palestine, and in June, 1906,
took a long trip to Upper Galilee with the intention of
going as far as Mount Hermon and of spending as much
time as possible in looking for the wild wheat. This
time his effort was crowned with success and even sooner
than he had anticipated. Whilst on the way to Mount
Hermon, he had the good fortune to rediscover the species
for which he had sought and thus to bring to light one of
the most interesting plants in the world. His own ac-
count of the event, which is contained in a Bulletin of the
United States Department of Agriculture, will now be
quoted :
" On June 18, I was walking with my friend, the
agronomist Mr. M. Bermann, in the vineyard of the Jew-
ish Agricultural Colony at Rosh Pinar, at the foot of
Jebel Safed, and was trying to demonstrate to him the
Eocene origin of the ground. Suddenly I noticed in a
crevice of a rock of nummulitic limestone an isolated
plant which at first sight looked like a stool of barley, but
which on closer inspection proved to be a wheat, the ripe
288 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
spikelets of which could be detached from the brittle
rachis bj the slightest shake. I could hardly believe that
it was really the plant for which I was looking. The
development of the head and grains was so perfect — so
nearly like the forms produced under cultivation at the
present day — that I could scarcely believe that this was
their wild prototype, though, to be sure, if it had not
been so well developed, primitive man would not have
noticed it, or at least would not have appreciated the im-
portance of its cultivation to such an extent as he did.
" I could not at that time remain longer at Kosh Pinar,
and so left the next day for the north. On the way from
Eosh Pinar to Easheyya (three days on horseback), I
looked for wild wheat, but could not find any. At
Rasheyya, too, I spent a great deal of time botanizing
in the vineyards in the hope of finding the Triticum there,
but also without success. But when I began to extend
my search to uncultivated lands, along the edges of roads
and in the crevices of rocks, I found a few stools of
the wild Triticum. Later I came across it in great abun-
dance, and the most astonishing thing about it was the
large number of forms it displayed. The sample speci-
men of Posh Pinar, however, was the finest one. This
plant had made a very vigorous growth and bore heads of
which the stiff, rugose awns (beards) were nearly or quite
6 inches long. At the foot of Mount Hermon the stems
were longer but fewer. Instead of being 2 feet high, as
at Posh Pinar, this wild wheat at Pasheyya was more than
40 inches high.
" I ascended Mount Hermon and went around to the
other side. I intend at some future time to describe this
trip, as its botanical and geological results may interest the
scientific world; but here I shall speak only of the Tri-
ticum. In descendins: from the summit of Mount Hermon
^sl^^^.
Fig. 44. \'ie\v ul Mejdel esh ibclieius, uu the alopes ul Aiuimt Hermon,
where Wild Wheat was found. From A. Aaronsohn's Agricultural and
Botanical Explorations in Palestine. Courtesy of the United States De-
partment of Agriculture.
Fig. 45. Heads of an ordinary form of the Wild Wheat of Palestine as
grown at Bard, California. Natural size. From O. F. Cook's Wild Wheat
of Palestine. Courtesy of the United States Department of Agriculture.
THE WILD WHEAT OF PALESTINE
289
(9,498 feet in altitude) towards Arny, a little village on its
eastern slope, I found innumerable forms of this wild
Triticum growing in abundance at an altitude of 5,250
feet and less. In some cases the whole ear was black ; in
others only the glumes or part of the glumes; in still
others the awns alone were black. Sometimes the glumes
were completely glabrous, sometimes very hirsute; in
some the form of the glume resembled that of Triticum
durum (durum wheat), in others the development of the
secondary nerve was similar to that of T. monococcum
(einkorn). I had discovered so many forms that no at-
tempt at determination could be made. Among these was
even T. monococcum aegilipoides, a form I had not at all
expected to find. I could therefore only gather specimens,
noting their habitat, associations, etc.
'^ As soon as I got home I wrote the good news to my
friends in Berlin. A short notice of the results of this
trip and an article by Professor Schweinfurth on the im-
portance of this discovery and on the possibilities which it
opened up were published.
" My trip in 1906 merely established the native habitat
of Triticum dicoccum dicoccoides. It was still necessary
to find out the extent of the distribution, its habit of
growth, etc., and I made another trip for this purpose in
1907. . . . On this trip I was able to show conclusively
that Triticum dicoccum dicoccoides is indigenous to the
regions of Mount Hermon and the northern part of the
Trans-Jordan. The idea that it is a plant escaped from
cultivation can not be entertained for a moment. In the
first place Triticum dicoccum (emmer) is not cultivated
anywhere in Syria or Palestine. I have not been able to
discover any hybrid or mongrel between this wild wheat
and the cultivated forms. Second — and this is the im-
portant point — our Triticum dicoccum dicoccoides rarely
290 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
appears on soils which have been cultivated for any pur-
pose. It grows only upon the slopes of the most arid
and rocky hills and in places exposed to the hottest rays
of the oriental sun." (Figure 44.)
Aaronsohn's observations have been confirmed by O. F.
Cook of the United States Department of Agriculture, who
visited the Holy Land in 1910, found the wild wheat,
and carried out an independent investigation upon its
characteristics. Cook reports in his well illustrated
Bulletin that the wild Triticum is widely distributed on
the slopes of the Anti-Lebanon range of mountains in
northern Palestine and Syria, and that it behaves in
every way as a truly indigenous plant; and he further
points out that it is especially abundant on limestone
formations where it often appears to be the dominant
species. His illustrations show the wild wheat in tufts
growing on the arid slopes of hills among stones and
bowlders much in the same manner as its distant relatives
the Couch-grass or False Wheat (Agropyron repeiis) and
the Slender Wheat-grass {A. tenerum) now grow from
the cracks and crevices of the glaciated rocky hummocks
which make up so much of the land surface at Kenora
and other places on the Lake of the Woods.
The scientific name of the wild wheat used by Aaron-
sohn is Triticum dicoccum dicoccoides and was chosen be-
cause the name of the cultivated wheat to which in Aaron-
sohn's opinion the wild wheat is most closely related (Em-
mer), is Triticum dicoccum. The triple name Triticum
dicoccum^ dicoccoides^ however, is cumbersome and tauto-
logical, and it makes the wild wheat a variety of a culti-
vated wheat. Moreover, Cook has doubts based on morpho-
logical grounds as to the propriety of associating the wild
wheat so closely with Emmer. Cook has therefore sug-
gested that the name Triticum dicoccum dicoccoides should
Fig. 46. Wheat Kernels. A, Wild Wheat showing usual size; B,
large-seeded variation of Wild Wheat; C, Sonora wheat commonly
grown in the same locality at Bard, California. x\ll natural size. The
weight of the individual kernels in A, B, C averaged respectively, 0.032
gram, 0.071 gram, and 0.038 gram. From O. F. Cook's Wild Wheat of
Palestine. Courtesy of the United States Department of Agriculture.
Fig. 47. Classes of Wheat. From left to right: Wheat (Triticum
vulgare — Marquis); Durum wheat {Triticum durum — Kubanka) ;
Club wheat {Triticum compact um) . Courtesy of Professor John
Bracken.
THE WILD WHEAT OF PALESTINE 291
be discarded and tliat it should be replaced by Triticum
hermonis. This proposed change in nomenclature not
only gives to wild wheat the status of an independent
species which is its just due, but also serves to commemo-
rate the spot — Mount Hermon — where the first ear was
collected. In future, therefore, we shall refer to the
wild wheat as Triticum hermonis.
Specimens of Triticum hermonis were brought from
Palestine to the United States by Aaronsohn, with the
result that at various experimental stations in that coun-
try plots of ground are now sown annually with the new
cereal. The wild wheat has also found its way to west-
ern Canada and has been grown by Professor Harrison
at the Agi'icultural College at Winnipeg and by Professor
W. P. Thompson on the campus of the University of
Saskatchewan at Saskatoon. I visited Professor Thomp-
son in the summer of 1918 in order to become acquainted
with the nature of his cereal investigations and, of course,
was shown his little plot of Triticum hermonis. With
what interest and delight did he and I examine the new-
comer from Palestine, noting its grass-like habit, its rela-
tively short straw, and its bending long-bearded heads,
with their primitive and admirable arrangements for
scattering the grains ; and with what wonder did we reflect
upon the possibility that there, at last, before our own
eyes, was the very species from which had sprung all the
Marquis and Ked Fife which, all over the West, even
then, was ripening unto harvest. Evidently we were in
the presence of a virile vegetable, not dependent for its
propagation, as are our cultivated wheats, upon the pam-
pering attentions of mankind, but well fitted by its struc-
ture and functions to maintain itself in its native habitat
from generation to generation in open competition with
the rest of the plant world.
292 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
VI. The Botanical Classification of Wheats
In order to appreciate why it is that the wild wheat
of Palestine has been considered to be the prototype of our
cultivated wheats, it is necessary to understand how cul-
tivated wheats have been classified. Eight distinct kinds
of wheat have been recognized as follows :
1. Einkorn. 5. Wheat.
2. Polish Wheat. 6. Club Wheat.
3. Emmer. 7. Poulard Wheat.
4. Spelt. 8. Hard or Durum Wheat.
In the great central spring-wheat region of l^orth Ameri-
ca, No. 5 or wheat is by far the most important kind, for it
includes Ked Fife, Marquis, Preston, and Bluestem. No.
8 or durum wheat is also grown in the dryer localities;
but few farmers in the West are acquainted with either
einkorn, Polish wheat, emmer, spelt, club wheat, or Pou-
lard wheat. The following classification is based upon
the studies of Kornicke and Hackel :
Triticum
Section Eutriticum
I. Triticum monococcum . einkorn.
II. Triticum polonicum Polish wheat.
III. Triticum sativum a collective species.
1. Triticum dicoccum emmer.
2. Triticum spelta spelt.
3. Triticum tenax common wheats.
a. Triticum vulgar e (Triticum cestivum) .. .wheat.
b. Triticum compactum club wheat,
c. Triticum turgiduin Poulard wheat.
d. Triticum durum durum wheat.
We thus see that in the section Eutriticum of the genus
Triticum there are three species: Triticum monococcum,
THE WILD WHEAT OF PALESTINE 293
T. polonicum, and T. sativum. Triticum sativum is a
collective species and contains three small species: T.
dicoccum, T. spelta, and T. tenax. Triticum tenax is-
in turn subdivided into subspecies: T. vulgare, T. com-
padum, T. turgidum, and T. durum.
This classification is essentially artificial and the dis-
tinctions between the ojoups are not always clear. Thus
Kornicke found it almost impossible to distinguish between
some forms of Triticum durum (durum wheat) and
Triticum dicoccum (emmer).
Triticum monococcum holds a place distinct from the
other kinds of wheat because when crossed with them it
does not produce fertile hybrids. All the other kinds of
wheat can be crossed without difficulty. Moreover, a wild
prototype of Triticum monococcum has been known for a
long time and Aaronsohn found a wild form of T. mono-
coccum in Palestine, which is only very slightly different
from cultivated einkorn. All the species of cultivated
wheats except einkorn pass so gradually into one another
that it seems reasonable to suppose that they really belong
to one species and have had a common origin.
Aaronsohn definitely regards Triticum hermonis which
he found in Palestine as the wild prototype or ancestral
species of all our cultivated wheats except Triticum mono-
coccum, the einkorn. In the following paragraphs the
argument which he adduces in support of his view, will be
quoted verbatim.
VII. The Brittle Rachis of the Primitive Cereals
" What," says Aaronsohn, " can we suppose the proto-
type of wheat to have been, and by what characters can
it be recognized ? A fragile rachis was undoubtedly one
of the characters of this wild prototype.^ All who have
9 The rachis of the head of wheat is the main axial rod or stalk
294 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
studied the question agree as to this. All agronomists
and all botanists regard a rigid rachis as an acquired
characteristic, developed by man under cultivation and
having a tendency to destroy the plant's natural capacity
for dissemination.
" All of the genera and species related to wheat, as
Aegilops, Agropyron, etc., have the fragile rachis, a neces-
sity in order that the grain be assured a wide dissemina-
tion. It is also needful that the grain remain fixed in
its glumes as a general protection against premature
germination, decay and destruction by enemies. But this
characteristic, so useful to the plant itself, was a draw-
back to its use by man. Wheat with a brittle rachis re-
quires to be harvested before complete maturity and is
difficult to handle. Moreover, grains that are held too
closely in the glumes can not be thrashed with flails,
but a special system of mills must be used. In Egyptian
tombs 6,000 years old have been found heaps of emmer
hulls, a careful inspection of which clearly indicates that
they were thrashed by such mills, so that their use must
date from the most ancient times.
" Wild wheat, the same as wild oats and wild barley,
must have been provided with the means for ready dis-
semination. Man, however, naturally wished to develop
forms which are not so difficult for him to handle, and
along this line he has succeeded in obtaining a rigid rachis
which bears the spikelets. Hordeum juhatum, the Wild Barley,
Squirrel-tail Grass or Skunk-tail Grass of the prairies, has such a
brittle rachis. As soon as the head is ripe, the rachis breaks up
into some twenty or more joints to each one of which are attached
three little spikelets, the center one containing a single grain.
Every one knows what a successful weed Wild Barley is. It is its
brittle rachis, however, which makes its dissemination possible.
Were its rachis to become rigid, as in our cultivated wheats and bar-
leys, the scattering of its grains would be prevented and no doubt it
would quickly cease to be noxious. A. H. R. B.
THE WILD WHEAT OF PALESTINE 295
in barley as well as in wheat. An important difference
between the cultivated two-rowed barley (Hordeum di-
stichon) and the wild barley (Hordeum spontaneum) is
the fragile rachis of the latter. But more than this has
been accomplished with wheat. Forms have been de-
veloped in which the grains are very readily removed
from the glumes. In barley and oats this has not been
done to the same extent. We have, it is true, naked
varieties of these two cereals, but these varieties have not
been extensively cultivated, doubtless on account of their
relatively smaller yield, and until a comparatively recent
date their cultivation has been confined to the Orient. In
wheat, on the contrary, naked grains and a rigid rachis
are the general rule, these two characteristics differentiat-
ing the cultivated forms from the primitive type and
making the former incapable of perpetuating itself with-
out the intervention of man.
VIII. Cultivated Wheats with a Brittle Rachis
"Among the known cultivated wheats there are three
that still retain the brittle rachis: Einkorn (Triticum
7nonococcum) J emmer (Triticum dicoccum) and spelt
( Triticum spelta ) .
" It is known that the cultivation as grain crops of
einkorn, emmer, and spelt is steadily decreasing. An at-
tempt has been made in comparatively recent times both
in this country and in Russia to cultivate einkorn and
emmer as forage plants. It is interesting to note that,
except for these attempts, these wheats are cultivated to-
day only by the Basques, ^^ the primitive Swabians,^^ the
10 The Basques live on both sides of the Pyrenees in Spain and
France. A. H. R. B.
11 The Swabians live in the old Kingdom of Wiirttemberg, in Hesse,
and in the western part of Bavaria. A. H. R. B.
296 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
Serbes and that peculiar people the Bactrians of Persia.
" The cultivated wheats with a rigid rachis are there-
fore derived from the wheats with a brittle rachis. But
of the three species which have this common character,
which one shall we select as the prototype and why make
this selection to the exclusion of others ?
IX. Einkorn and Its Prototype Distinct from other
Wheats
^^ More than fifty years ago Balansa discovered Triticum
monococcum cegilipoides in the wild state. This differs
from the cultivated Triticum monococcum, (Einkorn) only
in minute characters and is without doubt its prototype.
Balansa believed that he had found the progenitor of the
cultivated wheats, an opinion that Haussknecht also ac-
cepted at the time. But experiments in crossing under-
taken more than fifty years ago by Vilmorin led him to
assert that whereas all the other species of wheats crossed
with each other perfectly and gave mongrels, or fertile off-
spring, he had never succeeded in crossing Triticum
monococcum with any other wheat. Later, Beyerinck
succeeded in producing the cross, but the products were
strict hybrids; that is, they were all sterile. More re-
cently still, Professor von Tschermak, who took up Vil-
morin's experiments, met with the same failure. He has
succeeded in crossing Triticum monococcum with Triticum
ovatum which, as we have seen, may in turn be crossed
with Triticum cestivum; but neither he nor any one else
has succeeded in crossing Triticum monococcum with any
other wheat.
'^ Let us note, however, that in the case of Triticum
polonicum there was difficulty in crossing, because of the
peculiar form of its glumes, until a particular operative
technique had been worked out. In view of this we may
THE WILD WHEAT OF PALESTINE 297
question whether the failure with einkorn was not also
caused by a faulty technique. We may remark in this
connection that, as Doctor Trabut observed, ^^ no one
has ever succeeded in crossing the two varieties of Anagal-
lis arvensis, coerulea and phwnicia^ although the only
difference between the two is that the former has blue
and the latter pink flowers. But we can not on this
account class them as distinct species.
" In so far, therefore, as the lack of sexual affinity
between two related forais justifies us in recognizing
in them two distinct species, Triticum monococcum must
be considered as standing alone, and it cannot be regarded
as the progenitor of the cultivated wheats.
" From the historical point of view, also, we may re-
ject einkorn as the progenitor of wheat. Its cultivation
can not have gone back to very ancient times, since the
cultivated form diifers so little from the wild one. The
only evidence that we possess of any antiquity is that
Schliemann discovered it in his celebrated excavations of
ancient Troy, showing that it was cultivated there. ^^ But
the other cultivated wheats are traced back for thousands
of years before this.
'^ Spelt and emmer, then, are the only two forms re-
maining to be considered, but we have no ancient remains
of the cultivation of spelt, nor is there any mention of it
in literature until toward the beginning of the Christian
era.
12 Bulletin de la Societe Botanique de France, Vol. 68, p. 182.
13 This evidence for the antiquity of einkorn has turned out to be
worthless, for Aaronsohn now reports that the supposed einkorn
found at Troy was afterwards identified by Wittmach as barley on
the basis of a microscopical examination. Vide O. F. Cook, Wild
Wheat in Palestine, Bulletin No. 274, U. S. Department of Agri-
culture, 1913, p. 26. A. H. R. B.
298 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
X. Emmer the Only Possible Prototype of True Wheat
" The species of grain of the cultivation of which we
have the oldest records is emmer. It is true that durum
wheat has been found in Egypt in some tombs of the first
dynasty — that is four thousand years before the Christian
era — but emmer is found both in far greater abundance
and in all of the tombs. It is not at the present time cul-
tivated anywhere in Egypt, durum wheat having since
historic times taken its place.
^' Emmer has been found in the lake dwellings of
Wangen and Eobenhausen, which date back to the end
of the neolithic epoch, a little before the bronze age.
This, therefore, is the only species which has been cul-
tivated from the very beginning of civilization, and we are
justified in asserting it to be the progenitor of our culti-
vated wheats. This explains why it was so desirable to
find the wild form.''
Every one will admit that the wild wheat of Palestine
possesses all the characters that specialists expected to
find in the primitive ancestor or prototype of our cultivated
common wheats; but such characters, as Cook has pointed
out, might be expected to occur in any wild relative of these
wheats. These characters, therefore, do not afford abso-
lute proof of the parental position of Triticum hermonis
in respect to our cultivated wheats. It is possible that
other wild Wheats still remain to be discovered in Pales-
tine or in neighboring countries which are much less well-
known botanically, and that one such species may be found
to stand still nearer to our cultivated wheats than does
Triticum hermonis. Cook ^^ has suggested that the real
prototype may be a wild species growing somewhere in
Arabia or elsewhere in western Asia which has heads with
14 0. F. Cook, loc. cit., p. 26.
F\g. 50. Head of a large-
seeded variation of the Wild
Wheat [Triticnm hermonis) with
the spikelets fallino: apart.
From O. F. Cook's Wild Wheat
of Palestine. Courtesy of the
United States Department of
Agriculture.
THE WILD WHEAT OF PALESTINE 299
a non-brittle rachis and which is therefore so like our cul-
tivated wheats that it differs from them in scarcely any-
thing except that it grows wild and maintains itself from
generation to generation without the aid of man. How-
ever, it may be urged against the likelihood of finding such
a wild wheat that our cultivated wheats, although grown
on such diverse soils, in such varied parts of the world,
and so extensively, have nowhere succeeded in escaping
from cultivation and maintaining themselves in the wild
state. It is also possible that the primitive wild ancestor
of our cultivated wheats has become extinct leaving be-
hind only close relatives such as Triticum hermonis.
However, the writer is inclined, tentatively at least, to
accept Aaronsohn's conclusion. At any rate there can be
no doubt that the wild wheat of Palestine has a better claim
to be considered the ancestor of our cultivated wheats
than any other known species. Even if, with the progress
of botanical knowledge, Triticum hermonis should prove
not to be the prototype we are seeking, this species will
doubtless be found to be extremely similar to that proto-
type. It must therefore continue to be one of the most
interesting of all plants.
XI. Cross-Fertilization
The wild wheat of Palestine differs from our common
cultivated wheats in that it is well adapted for cross-pol-
lination. Some of the flowers, says Cook,^^ have their
anthers pushed out beyond the glumes before the shedding
of the pollen, and, conversely, in some flowers the glumes
spread apart so that the pollen is admitted before the
anthers mature. The pushing outwards of the anthers
beyond the tips of the glumes allows the pollen to be scat-
is 0. F. Cook, loc. cit., p. 51.
300 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
tered by the wind, and the spreading of the glumes permits
wind-blown pollen to fall upon the stigmas. The two
glumes of a flower, when opening occurs, separate at an
angle of from 30° to 40° so as to form a broad tube or
funnel with the expanded stigmas at the bottom. Al-
though well protected on all sides, the stigmas can be seen
in the open flower by looking in from above. ^^
Cook, when studying pollination in the wild wheat,
found indications of sexual dimorphism, ^^ i. e., that there
are two forms of flowers regarded sexually. In some
plants which he examined, the flowers were proterogijnous,
the stigmas being exposed before the adjacent anthers
had matured, whilst in other plants the flowers appeared
to be ptvterandrous, the anthers being exserted at a time
when the stigmas were still only partly developed. Seed
was also found to be produced in some heads that had not
emerged from their sheaths, from which we may con-
clude that some forms of Triticum hermonis are capable of
self-fertilizing their own flowers. Cook^s observations go
to show that in the wild wheat of Palestine the usual
mode of pollination is cross-pollination.
The Grass Family or Graminese, as a group, possesses
flowers with floral mechanisms adapted to secure cross-
pollination ; and, for grasses in general, we must look
upon this mode of pollination as primitive and ancestral.
The wild wheat of Palestine, which is a wild grass, there-
fore resembles most other grass species in having cross-
pollinated flowers. In our cultivated wheats, on the other
hand, self-pollination is the rule, although cross-pollina-
tion may and does take place occasionally.^^ We may
^elhid., p. 15.
17 Ibid.
18 Vide Chapter IV, Section V, on Red Bohs the Product of a Natu-
ral Cross.
THE WILD WHEAT OF PALESTINE 301
therefore regard our cultivated wheats as sexually degen-
erate. Since the wild wheat of Palestine has cross-fer-
tilized flowers, there seems good reason for supposing that
in our cultivated wheats self-pollination came to replace
cross-pollination under conditions of domestication.
An attempt will now be made to summarize some of the
chief observations which have been made upon the open-
ing of the flowers and mode of pollination of our common
wheats.
The results of careful observation by botanists and
cerealists upon the pollination of cultivated wheats seem
to show: (1) that in cooler northern regions, such as
northern Europe, the northern part of the United States,
and Canada, self-pollination is the rule but that cross-
pollination may and does take place occasionally, (2) that
in warmer regions cross-pollination is more frequent, and
(3) that in hot dry localities, such as the canal colonies
of the Punjab where the crop can only be grown by means
of irrigation, cross-pollination is quite common. ^^
Delphino observed that at flowering time the glumes
diverge rapidly and suddenly. At the same time, the an-
thers project laterally, open, and empty about one-third
of their pollen on the stigmas of the same flower, while
the rest of the pollen is scattered in the air. This happens
in about one minute and, after a quarter of an hour, the
glumes close again. Delphino made experiments which
prove that automatic self-pollination results in the setting
of good fruits.^*^
Delphino and Kornicke found that a single wheat flower
19 A. Howard, Gabrielle L. C. Howard, and Rahman Abdur, The
Economic Significance of Natural Cross-fertilization in India, Me-
moirs of the Department of Agriculture in India, botanical series,
Vol. Ill, October, 1906.
20 Vide P. Knuth, Handbook of Flower Pollination, translated by
J. R. A. Davis, Oxford, Vol. Ill, 1909, p. 529.
302 ESSAYS 0:Nr WHEAT
remains open for only about a quarter of an hour but tbat
the flowering period for a whole head has a duration of
four days, so that only a small number of flowers are found
open at any one time.^^ It has been noticed by many-
observers that, in a single head, the first flowers to open
are the median ones and that flowering proceeds upwards
and downwards in the head, the last flowers to open being
those in the spikelets at the head's extreme ends.
Kirchner's observations support those of Delphino, and
are as follows: The flowers which are homogamous,
gradually open so widely that the tips of the glumes are
about 4 mm (% inch) apart. As a flower opens, the an-
thers of the stamens dehisce apically and about one-third
of the pollen falls into the flower. After this the anthers
come to project outside the glumes so that they scatter
their pollen into the air. Self-pollination therefore takes
place regularly but cross-pollination by means of the wind
is not excluded. Kirchner also observed that the flowering
period for a single head was four days in length.^^
Godron found that the flowers open in the early morn-
ing and that the extent of their opening depends upon
weather conditions. His observations were as follows:
At 16°C. (61°F.) the flowers open at 4.30 a. m. and close
again at 6.30 to 7 a. m. If, when the flower opens, the
anthers tip over the ends of the glumes quickly, the
stigmas of the flowers as a rule are not dusted with pollen.
Under less favorable circumstances, the flower opens more
slowly and the stigmas do not project until they have been
dusted with pollen from the same flower. At a low tem-
perature, 12°-13°C. (54°-56°r.), or after several days'
rain, the flowers remain closed and fertilization takes
21 Ihid.
22 Ihid.
THE WILD WHEAT OF PALESTINE 303
place without the flowers opening (pseudo-cleistogamous
fertilization). 2^
Eimpau has also observed the effects of temperature on
the opening of wheat flowers. He states that at 12°-13°C.
(54°-56°F.) the glumes do open a little but that com-
plete opening does not take place under 16 °C. (61°F.).
He found that the opening of the glumes is not limited
entirely to the morning hours but may take place at any
hour of the day or even in the evening. The length of
time during which the flowers are open depends on the
temperature and the dryness of the air: at 23°C. (73°r.)
the flowers closed again in 15-20 minutes, but at lower
temperatures closing took a much longer time. Rimpau
observed that the anthers dehisce before they have reached
the upper margins of the glumes by elongation, so that
automatic self-pollination is regularly effected in every
flower.^'*
Rimpau removed the anthers from 85 wheat flowers and
yet 50 of them set fruit. He therefore concluded that if
self-pollination were not to take place, pollination by
crossing would still ensure the production of seed. He
found that crossing, as judged by the average number of
haulms formed, gave rise to a more vigorous off-spring
than self-pollination, the result being seen even in the
fourth generation. 2^
The flowers of wheat only open once and for a very short
time. The actual opening which results in the divergence
of the glumes and the exposure of the sexual organs, is
effected by two small scales known as lodicules which lie at
the base of the flower between the ovary and the outer
glume. As a flower opens, the lodicules become fleshy and
23 Ibid.
24 lUd.
25 Ibid.
304 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
succulent and more or less spheroidally swollen at the
base. By swelling up in this way, they overcome the
resistance of the elastic outer glume and move it out-
wards. After a short time the lodicules shrivel up again
into small thin scales thus allowing the outer glume to
resume its former position and close the flower again.
The action of the lodicules in opening the flowers of
grasses was first investigated in 1880 by Haeckel, and his
observations were confirmed by Rimpau in 1883. When
a flower opens, the filaments of the three stamens grow
very rapidly in length, and it is this rapid growth which
causes the anthers to be pushed out of the flower over
the ends of the glumes. This observation was first made
by Arkenasy and afterwards confirmed by Rimpau.^^
Kerner states that the most favorable conditions for
pollination in most Grasses prevail in the early morn-
ing, at an hour when there is still some dew lying in the
meadows, when the first rays of sunshine fall obliquely
upon the flowers, when the temperature is rising gently,
and when a light breeze sets the spikes and pannicles in
motion. ^' Under such conditions as these the phenomena
of flowering and pollination are accomplished with as-
tonishing rapidity. In some Grasses an observer may
see the glumes relax and spring open, the stamens grow
out, the anthers open, and the pollen scattered, all in the
space of a few minutes.'' ^"^ Wheat is only a glorified
grass and although its flowers open early in the morning
there are other grasses which, under mid-European con-
ditions, open their flowers just as early or even earlier.
The time at which the flowers of wheat open relatively
to those of other grass species is indicated by Kerner in
26 p. Knuth, loc. cit., p. 515.
27 Anton Kerner von Marilaun, The Natural History of Plants,
translated by F. W. Oliver, London, Vol. II, 1895, pp. 141-142.
THE WILD WHEAT OF PALESTINE 305
the following statement. " The earliest discharge of pol-
len (in the Graminetp) begins in the height of summer
between 4 and 5 a. m. and the plants which take part in it
thus early are the Meadow-grass (Poa), Koeleria, and
Avena elatior. A little later between 5 and 6 o'clock
comes the turn of the Quaking-grass (Briza media) and
Aira ccespitosa, and of Wheat and Barley (Triticum,
Hordeum). Between 6 and 7 pollination occurs in Eye
and in a great number of different Grasses which grow
in meadows, such as Cock's-foot-grass (Dactylis), Andro-
pogon, the Brome-grasses (Bracliy podium) and many
species of Fescue (Festuca). Between 7 and 8 o'clock
the pollen is liberated from Oats of the Trisetum group,
from the Fox-tail-grass {Alopecurus), Timothy Grass
(Phleum) and the Sweet Vernal Grass (Anthoxanthum) .
An interval now intervenes, at least among the indigenous
Grasses. Of exotic species which are cultivated in gar-
dens the following discharge their pollen in the course of
the forenoon, viz., the Millets (Panicum miUiaceum and
Sorghum) between 8 and 9 o'clock; Setaria Italica and
the Brazilian Pampas-grass (Gynerium argent eum) be-
tween 9 and 10 o'clock. Toward noon indigenous
Grasses come again into play. About 11 o'clock pollina-
tion takes place in most species of the Bent-grass genus
(Agrostis) and between 12 and 1 in Melic-grass (Melica),
Molinia, Mat-grass (Nardus), Ehjmus, Sclerodiloa, and
several species of Calarnogrostis. In the course of the
afternoon the process takes place in a few isolated species
as, for instance, in some Brome-grasses at 2 o'clock, in
a few species of Oat (Avena) at 3, in Agropyrum at 4,
and in Aira flexuosa between 5 and 6. It is worthy of
note that Soft-grass (IIolcus), under favorable atmos-
pheric conditions, opens its glumes, pushes forth its
anthers, and liberates pollen twice a day, once in the
306 ESSAYS ON WHEAT
morning about 6 o'clock and a second time in the even-
ning at about 7 — provided always that the temperature
of the air is not less than 14°C. (57°F.). The entire
process lasts in most cases from fifteen to twenty minutes
for each flower." ^^
XII. Conclusion
Here the writer must bring to a conclusion his re-
marks upon Wheat — the cereal which is and has been
of such vast importance to the world, which was the
chief basis of the ancient civilization of the lands of
the Mediterranean^ and which is still the main source
of food for the civilization of modem Europe, of a large
part of Asia, of ^N'orth and South America, and of Aus-
tralia. If there had been no wheat upon the earth dur-
ing the last 25,000 years or if wheat had been present
but primitive man had not succeeded in domesticating
it, it is certain that the course of man's evolution would
have been greatly retarded and that the I^ew World,
where these pages have been penned, would wear to-day
a very different aspect to that with which we are familiar.
That bread-eaters should desire to know more about the
origin and history of the cereal which sustains them is
most natural. If this curiosity should be satisfied to
some extent by what has been gathered together in this
book, the author will feel that his labor has been well
rewarded.
28/&td, p. 142.
THE END
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
INDEX
Aaronsohn, A., brought wild
wheat to the United States,
291 ; on the origin of wheat,
285; rediscovery of wild wheat
by, 286-291; regards Triticum
hermonis as the wild proto-
type of cultivated wheats, 293-
299.
Abdur, Rahman, on natural
crossing of wheats in India,
301.
Admixtures of wheat, 70-71; in
North Dakota, 161.
Advance toward the north of the
belts of wheat and corn, 187-
190.
Agassiz, and Marquis wheat,
152; wheats crossed at, 148.
Agrarian movement, the, 141-
143.
Agriculture, goddess of, 280^
283 ; its importance and an-
tiquity, 278-279.
Agropyron repens and A. tene-
rum at Kenora, 290,
Agropyrum, time of pollination
of, 305.
Agrostis, time of pollination of,
305.
Aira caespitosa and A. flexuosa,
time of pollination of, 305.
Albert barley, C. E. Saunders
and, 240.
Alberta, durum wheat in, 42;
and hulless barley, 240; and
Prelude wheat, 184; and the
shelling of wheat, 197; and
the Survey Board, 97; and
the agrarian movement, 141
and the yield of Marquis wheat
190; export of grain from, 5
flour mills of, 134; introduc
tion of Marquis into, 157
Marquis wins prize from, 173
spring and winter wheat in,
35-36; wheat sent through
Panama Canal, 52-53 ; yield of
Marquis on C. S. Noble's farm,
191-192.
Alcock, A. W., and the Dominion
Grain Research Laboratory,
102-104; and the Panama
Canal, 52-53.
Allied governments, negotiate
with Board of Grain Super-
visors, 129.
Allies, and Canadian flour, 136;
flour purchases for, 124; pur-
chase of wheat for, 120.
Alpha wheat and parentage of
Prelude, 186.
Alopecurus, time of pollination
of, 305.
Amoeba histolytica, as cause of
the Bloody Flux, 27.
Anagallis, difiiculty of crossing,
297.
Andrews Grain Company, and
Marquis wheat, 160.
Andropogon, time of pollination
of, 305.
Angus Mackay Farm Seed Com-
pany, 159, 160.
Anthoxanthnm, time of pollina-
tion of, 305.
307
308
INDEX
Apples, hardy, for the North-
west, 145.
Arabia, a wild wheat possibly
grows in, 298.
Arctic circle, wheat-growing
near, 181-182.
Argentina, wheat crop of, 38, 39,
40; lack of wheat surplus, 123.
Aristotle, mentions rust disease,
283.
Arkangelsk, and wheat-growing,
182.
Arkenasy, on elongation of stam-
inal filaments of wheat, 304.
Arny, A. C, comparison of Min-
nesota wheats by ( Figs. 29, 30,
31), 166, 170, 171; on yield of
Marquis, 192.
Arny, wild wheat found at, 289.
Arthur pea, 240-241.
Ascherson, Professor, and the
wild wheat, 286.
Athens and agriculture, 281.
Atlantic Ocean, and Marquis
wheat, 158; and the Panama
Canal, 53.
Australia, and white wheats,
260; export of wheat from,
hindered during war, 123;
Farrer's wheat-breeding work
in, 259-260; wheat eaten in,
306; wheat exported in bags
from, 52 ; wheat varieties from,
146.
Avena elatior, time of pollination
of, 305.
Awns, of Marquis wheat, 223; of
wild wheat, 288.
B
Babylonia, wheat of, 279.
Bactrians, cultivated einkorn
and emmer, 296.
Bailey, C. H., comparison of
Minnesota wheat by (Figs. 29,
30, 31), 166, 170, 171; milling
and baking tests, 203; on Mar-
quis in Montana, 166; on Mar-
quis in the Pacific North-west,
165; on quality in wheat, 198-
199.
Baking oven, electric, for experi-
ments, 103.
Baking strength of flour, 199-
200.
Balansa, discovered wild einkorn,
296.
Baldwin Flour Mills and Mar-
quis wheat, 161.
Ball, C. R., on percentage of
Marquis in the wheat crop,
251.
Ball, C. R. and J. A. Clark, de-
scribe Marquis wheat, 171-
172; experiments with Mar-
quis, 203-204 ; on geography of
Marquis, 164; on increase of
Marquis, 168; on Marquis
crops, 160; on Marquis west of
the Rocky Mountains, 166;
on Preston wheat 149; on
yield of Marquis, 204.
Baltimore, export of wheat from,
50-51.
Banks, and grain exchanges,
119; finance crop movements,
130-134; importance of, 133.
Barley, and a distillery, 18; evo-
lution of, 294-295;" found at
Troy, 297 ; improvements of,
239-240; in 1813 in Selkirk
settlement, 4; in 1822, in cen-
sus, 16; origin of, 285; time
of pollination of, 305; sown
in 1816, 7; wild species in
Manitoba, dissemination of,
294; wild species in Palestine,
286.
INDEX
309
Barnes and Company, 0. J., and
Marquis wheat, 161.
Basques, cultivate einkorn and
emmer, 295.
Bawlf, W. R., on Dominion con-
trol of grain trade, 129,
Bayah wheat, in Australia, 259.
Bearded Fife wheat, 149.
Beef, price of, in 1826, 19.
Belgian Relief Commisson, pur-
chase of wheat for, 124,
Belgium, and Marquis wheat,
228.
Bell, C. N., on Passenger pig-
eons in Manitoba, 4-5; on
weeds introduced with seed-
wheat in 1820, 13.
Berg, Jacob, and origin of Min-
nesota No, 23 corn, 188.
Berlin, and the wild wheat, 286,
287, 289.
Bermann, M., and the wild
wheat, 287.
Beyerinck, wheat hybrids of, 296.
Biffin, R. H., on rust-resisting
wheats in England, 179.
Birchard, F. J., and the Domin-
ion Grain Research Labora-
tory, 102-104; and the Pan-
ama Canal, 52-53.
Birds, injury of crops by, 4.
Birtle, and Marquis wheat, 174.
Black Sea, and Red Fife wheat,
210,
Black, W. J., on corn grown in
Manitoba, 189.
Bloody Flux disease, 26-27.
Bluestem wheat, and Marquis in
U. S. A., 104; and natural
crossing with, 266-267; and
Quality wheat, 236; and rust
disease, 180; and shelling,
167; and time of ripening,
175; classification of, 292; im-
provement of, by Haynes, 224-
225; in Canada, 180; in Min-
nesota, 163; mixed in North
Dakota, 162; percentage in
crop, 167-169; replacement by
Marquis in Minnesota, 246-
248; yield of, in the United
States, 193-196,
Board of Grain Commissioners,
and Board of Grain Supervis-
ors, 127; and Dominion Grain
Research Laboratory, 102; and
rules of Winnipeg Survey
Board, 97; and weighing grain,
100; appoints Grain Standards
Board, 104; when created, 68.
Board of Grain Supervisors, con-
stitution of, 127-128; func-
tions of, 127; prices fixed by,
92; regulates export of wheat,
129.
Boats, number of, in Selkirk set-
tlement in 1849, 27.
Bobs wheat, origin of, 259-260;
sold by Seager Wheeler, 270;
studied by John Bracken, 270-
271.
Bolley, H. L., estimate of Mar-
quis wheat grown in North
Dakota, 161; inspects Cana-
dian fields of Marquis, 159; on
the shelling of Bluestem wheat,
197.
Bornmiiller, failed to find wild
wheat, 287.
Boss, Andrew, discovers early-
ripening corn varieties, 187-
188; on Marquis wheat, 162;
on Northwestern Dent corn,
190.
Boston, export of wheat from,
50-51.
Box-cars, for transporting wheat,
57-59; emptying of, at termi-
nal elevators, 52 ; how contents
are known, 83; numbers upon,
310
INDEX
82; overfilling of, 86-87; plug-
ging of, 86; samples taken
from, 79-81,
Brachypodium, time of pollina-
tion of, 305.
Bracken, John, his red-seeded se-
lections from Bobs wheat, 270-
271; illustrations supplied by,
157; 200, 291, 294, 295; on the
rust disease, 178-179; on
wheat growing, 41.
Bran layer, color of, 261-262.
Brandon, Experimental Farm at,
26; flour mills at, 135; Mar-
quis wheat introduced at, 157;
Marquis tests at, 175; wheat-
crossing at, 148; wheat
crosses made at, 152; yield of
Marquis at, 191, 196.
Bread, and civilization, 230; and
Quality wheat, 234; eaters of,
and the history of wheat, 306;
from Marquis wheat, 158;
making of, and wheat color,
262.
British Columbia, flour mills of,
134; Marquis wheat in, 157;
wheats crossed in, 148.
British Government, and the
Wheat Export Company, 120.
British Isles, and Marquis wheat,
228.
British market, and wheat color,
260-261.
British miller, 200.
British public, assists Red River
settlement, 28.
Briza media, time of pollination
of, 305.
Brown-Duvel moisture-tester, de-
scription of, 89.
Bryce, G., on history of Selkirk
settlers, 2, 13, 32.
Buenos Ayres, and the Winnipeg
Grain Exchange, 105.
Buffalo, as a source of food, 8,
11, 14, 18, 23.
Buffalo, seed Marquis made
available at, 164-165; wheat
traffic through, 49-50.
Bulk wheat, shipment through
Panama Canal, 52, 103.
Bull, C. P., a corn selection
made by, 188.
Bunyip wheat, in Australia, 259.
Burbank, Luther, and C. E,
Saunders, 228-233 ; apprecia-
tion of, as a plant-breeder,
228-232; his potato and
plums, 232 ; his Quality wheat,
233-237.
Buying and selling of wheat, at
the Grain Exchange, 111-118;
war competition for, 124.
C alamo grostis, time of pollina-
tion of, 305.
Calgary, cars inspected at, 91;
flour mill at, 135; government
elevator at, 64, 102; inspection
of grain at, 78.
California, and Burbank's new
wheats, 233-237 ; fruit-grow-
ing industry of, 231-232; yield
of Marquis wheat in, 192.
Camas Prairie, Marquis wheat
at, 165.
Campbell, Allan, on ripening of
corn in Manitoba, 190.
Canada, debt owed by, to in-
ventors, 138; increased wealth
brought to, by Marquis, 252-
257 ; the granary of the British
Empire, 34.
Canada Grain Act, chief features
of, 68; weighing provisions of,
99.
INDEX
311
Canadian Agriculturist, The, and
the origin of Red Fife wheat,
207.
Canadian Council of Agriculture,
127.
Canadian Northern Railway, and
the wheat funnel, 49 ; terminal
elevator of, 102.
Canadian Pacific Railway, and
the wheat funnel, 49; building
. of the, 33-34 ; encouraged
wheat-growing, 217-218; leased
in elevator, 142; prizes of-
fered by, 172; record haulage
of cars on, 66; terminal ele-
vator of, 102; Transcona ele-
vator of, 64.
Canadian Seed Growers Associa-
tion, 262, 274, 275.
Canadians, and Marquis wheat,
144.
Canoes, number of, in 1849, 27.
Carleton, M. A., estimate of loss
due to rust, 180.
Cars of grain, number inspected,
91.
Carts, number of, in 1849, 27.
Cary, Captain, his experimental
farm, 25.
Cattle, and corn, 189-190; num-
ber of, in 1849, 27.
Cedar wheat, in Australia, 259.
Census of Red River settlement,
in 1822, 16; in 1849, 27.
Central Experimental Farm,
Hard Red Calcutta wheat at,
204-205; organized by W.
Saunders, 144; wheat crosses
made at, 149.
Cereals, prototypes of, 285-286.
Ceres and the cerealia, 282-283,
Certificate of grade, 96,
Cherry, Dr., on value of Farrer's
wheat-breeding work, 260.
Chess matches on farms, 140.
Chewing test, for gluten contents
of wheat, 155, 201-203, 265-
266.
Chicago, and Velvet Chaff wheat,
149; highest price of wheat at,
124; prices posted at Winnipeg
Grain Exchange, 105, 116.
Chinese, and origin of wheat,
280; wheat grown by, in early
times, 279.
Chopping roots, engine for, 139.
Churches, number of, in Red
River settlement in 1849, 27.
Churn, how driven, 138.
Cities and agriculture, 33-34;
278-279.
Clark, J. A., vide Ball and
Clark.
Clearing House of the Winnipeg
Grain Exchange, description
of, 109-116; advantage to
traders of, 113, 115.
Cleveland wheat, in Australia,
259.
Climate, and wheat quality, 199;
claim respecting, for Quality
wheat, .234, 236.
Clock, tell prices of wheat, 117-
118.
Club wheat, classification of,
292; replaced by Red Fife, 218,
227.
Cobourg, and Red Fife wheat,
214.
Colborne district of Ontario, 213.
Colorado, Marquis wheat in, 164.
Color, of flour, 199; of gluten of
Marquis wheat, 155; of wheat
grains, 221, 236, 260-262.
Colquhoun, M., on the origin of
Red Fife wheat, 210.
Columella, mentions rust disease,
283.
Comeback wheat, in Australia,
259.
312
INDEX
Commission merchants, at Grain
Exchange, 106; borrow for
banks, 131.
Commission rule, value of, 107.
Consumers, represented on Board
of Grain Commissioners, 128.
Contract grades, of wheat, 111-
112.
Cook, 0. F., investigations on
wild wheat, 290; illustrations
by, 289, 290, 298; on cross-fer-
tilization of wild wheat, 300;
on the origin of wheat, 298-
299.
Corbett, J. C, on Burbank's new
fruits, 232.
Corn, and wheat, battle with,
170; at Rosthern, 273; in 1822,
16; northern advance of, 187-
190.
Council of Assiniboia, 28.
Country elevators, controlled by
farmers, 142; cost of building,
131; definition of, 53; descrip-
tion of, 56-57; shipping grain
from, 57-58; weighing wheat
at, 98-100.
Country Gentleman and Culti-
vator, and Red Fife wheat,
206.
Cream-separator, how driven,
138.
Credit, importance of, 133;
principle of velocity of, 132 ;
use of, in crop movements,
130-131.
Crete, wheat of, 279.
Crookston Milling Company, and
Marquis wheat, 160.
Crops, destruction of by hail,
48; financing movement of,
130-134; statistics of, 35-40;
values of, in Canada, 256; val-
ues of, for Marquis wheat, 243-
246.
Cross, products of, between Red
Fife and Hard Red Calcutta
wheats, 205.
Cross-bred kernels, how pro-
duced, 219-221.
Cross-bred wheats, a remarkable
product of modern botany,
187.
Cross-breeding of wheats, results
of, 226.
Cross-fertilization, in wild wheat
and other grasses, 299-306.
Crossing of wheat, occurs nat-
urally, observed by Rimpau,
303.
Crossing of wheat species, 296.
Crossing wheats, by W. Saunders
and his assistants, 148-150;
failure with einkorn, 293;
genealogical trees of Marquis,
Ruby, and Prelude, 185; Mar-
quis results from, 152; Red
Bobs the product of a natural
cross, 264-268.
Cross-pollination, in cultivated
wheat, 300-301 ; in wild wheat,
300; natural, of wheats, 265-
267 ; of wild grasses, Kerner's
observations on, 304-306.
Cultivation of plants and civili-
zation, 278-279.
Currants, called Climax and
Saunders, 145.
DaotyUs, time of pollination of,
305.
Dakota Climax wheat, 149.
Dakotas, and milling, 31.
Damp wheat, milling value of,
104.
Danzig, and the origin of Red
Fife wheat, 207-209, 214.
Dawson, Robert, and the origin
INDEX
313
of Dawson's Golden Chaff
wheat, 224.
Dawson City, and Prelude wheat,
184.
Dawson's Golden Chaflf wheat, a
mutation, 226.
de Candolle, Alphonse, on the ori-
gin of wheat, 279.
de Cow and Company, and seed
corn, 187.
Delphino, on pollination of wheat
flowers, 301-302.
Demeter, and the origin of wheat,
280-282.
de Meuron soldiers, 19-20.
de Vries, and dwarf Evening
Primrose, 226; and the muta-
tion theory, 229; on Burbank's
contribution to the California
fruit-growing industry, 231;
on Burbank's potato, 232; on
selection of cereals, 224.
Dirigibles, possible future use of,
140.
Disease, resistance to, of wheat,
226.
.Dissemination, of wheat, 294-
295.
Dobbin, F. H,, on the origin of
Red Fife wheat, 211-215.
Dockage, setting of, 82, 88.
Downy Riga wheat, and parent-
age of Ruby, 186.
Drills, for sowing wheat, 45.
Drought, and wheat-growing, 48.
Duluth, and export of Red Fife
in 1876, 30, 216; and Winnipeg
Grain Exchange, 105; cars in-
spected at, 91; grading system
at, 69; inspection of grain at,
78.
Dunvegan, and Ladoga wheat,
181.
Durum wheat, and wild wheat,
289; classification of, 292; in
tombs in Egypt, 298 ; in west-
ern Canada, 42; percentage in
crop of, 107-169; yield of, in
the United States, 193-196.
D\varf Marquis wheat, origin of,
225; a mutation, 226.
Dj'sentery, in the Red River Set-
tlement, 27.
E.
Earliness in wheat, and frost,
180-183; and gain of working-
time, 175-176; and rust, 176-
180; and storms, 176; difficulty
of combining high yield with,
185; of Marquis, 154-155; of
Marquis and Red Fife, 175; of
Marquis and Prelude, 184; of
Red Bobs, Marquis, and
Kitchener, 270.
Early Java wheat, and Preston,
149.
Early Red Fife wheat, a muta-
tion, 226; and parentage of
Red Bobs, 262, 263, 267-268;
grown by Seager Wheeler, 262,
274.
Early Riga wheat at Fort Ver-
milion, 183.
Early-ripening corn varieties,
187-188.
Edgar, W. C, on a revolution in
the milling industry, 31.
Edmonton, Dunvegan, and Brit-
ish Columbia Railway, 181, 183.
Edmonton, wheat shipped
through, 183.
Education, cost of, and Marquis
wheat, 256.
Eggs of wheat-plants, fertiliza-
tion of, 219-220.
Egyptians, and the origin of
wheat, 280.
314
INDEX
Egypt, ancient mills of, 294;
durum wheat in tombs of, 294 ;
wheat and civilization of, 279.
Einkorn, and its prototype dis-
tinct from other wheats, 296-
297; classification of, 292; de-
crease of cultivation of, 295 ;
not the progenitor of common
wheats, 297.
Electric power, used to drive
flour mills, 134.
Electricity, in use on farms, 139.
Elevator companies, borrow
money from banks, 131; buy
and sell wheat, 133.
Elevators, and the Canada Grain
Act, 68; choice of terminal
102; compared with flat ware
houses, 55; country, 56-57
country, cost of building, 131
hospital, 54; kinds of, 54-55
number of, 54; principle of,
53-54; terminal, 60-64.
Elliott, G. F. Scott, on the first
harvest, 285.
Elymus, time of pollination of,
305.
Emmer, classification of, 292; de-
crease in cultivation of, 295;
found in Egyptian tombs and
in lake dwellings, 298; not
grown in Syria and Palestine,
289; the only possible proto-
type of true wheat, 298-299;
milled in ancient Egypt, 294;
wild species of, 286.
England, and Yellow Stripe Rust
disease, 178-179.
Ensilage, corn used for, 189.
Epidemic and epiphytotic dis-
eases, 177.
Essen, George, upon the origin of
Red Fife wheat, 207-209, 210,
212, 213.
Europe, and grain exchanges.
118; receives Marquis wheat,
158.
Evans, Sandford, on east-bound
movement of wheat, 50.
Evolution, of man connected with
wheat, 306; of wheat, 294-296.
Exhibitions, agricultural, and
Marquis wheat, 171, 173-174.
Experimental farms, and W.
Saunders, 144; three, in the
Red River Settlement, 24-26;
various wheats tested at, 146-
147; wheats crossed at, 148.
Experimental Farms Reports,
145, 147, 148, 149, 152, 181,
183, 184, 186, 198, 201, 205,
225, 242.
Exporters of wheat, deprived of
business, 120, 126.
Export of wheat, financing of,
132; from Manitoba in 1876,
216; wheat sorts undesirable
for, 149.
F.
Fallow land, in western Canada
and the United States, 252-
253; summer, principle of, 44.
Fanning mill, how driven, 139.
Fargo, Marquis wheat tested at,
159.
Farm, of Seager Wheeler, 272-
273.
Farmers, agrarian movement of,
141-153; and origin of Mar-
quis wheat, 230; benefits to,
from Marquis, 255-251 ; can
supervise weighing, 99; com-
plaints of, 68-69; need of
money by, 130; own elevators,
142; private scales of, 99-100;
receive grain prices from Win-
nipeg, 105; represented on
Board of Grain Commission-
INDEX
315
ers, 127; terminal elevators of
trading companies of, 102;
tested Hard Red Calcutta
wheat, 205.
Farming, implements of, im-
provements in, 138; mixed, in-
troduction of, 43; use of straw
in, 47.
Farm life, recent improvements
in conditions of, 138-141.
Farms, and flying machines, 140-
141; area under cultivation in
1849, 27; chess matches at,
140; first, in Red River Settle-
ment, 9-10; lighting plant for,
139; music on, 140; position
of, in 1870, 30; sanitation of,
139; telephones of, 140.
Farrer, William, wheat-breeding
work of, in Australia, 259-260.
Federation wheat, in Australia,
value of, 259.
Fermenting cupboard, for bread-
making, 103, 203.
Fertilization of wheat eggs, 218-
220.
Fertilizers on farms, 43.
Festuca, time of pollination of,
305.
Fife, David, and Red Fife wheat,
206-207, 209, 210-212, 213,
214, 215.
Fife wheat, a name for Red Fife,
207 ; percentage of in crops,
167-169; replacement by Mar-
quis in Minnesota, 246-248;
yield of, in the United States,
193-196.
Financial business of forwarding
crops divided, 132.
Financing grain sales, and grain
exchanges, 119; by Wheat
Export Company, 120-121.
Financing the crop movement,
130-134.
Finch, V. C, and 0. E. Baker, on
geography of wheat, 37, 39,
164.
Finlayson, Governor, 23.
Firbank wheat, in Australia, 259.
Fire, diminution in risk of, on
farms, 139.
Fisher's Landing, and Red Fife
wheat, 30, 216.
Fishes, hunger prices for, in
1821, 14.
Fishing tackle, required in Red
River Settlement, 28.
Flail, used in Red River Settle-
ment, 16.
Flat warehouses, description of,
55.
Flax, crop in 1915, 36; questions
respecting grading of, 104.
Flood, in Red River Settlement,
in 1825, 18-19; effect on crops,
20; refuge during, in 1852, 24.
Florence wheat, in Australia,
259.
Flour, amount of bran in, 23;
Canadian, 200-201 ; export of,
135-136; fall in price of, 21;
of Red Fife and Galician
wheats, 209; price of, at Red
River in 1814, 17; price of
Vermilion, 181; purchased in
the United States, 28-29; Red
River, evil nature of, 21-24.
Flour mill, at Vermilion, 181;
description of a modern, 137-
138.
Flour mills, of Minneapolis and
Marquis wheat, 159; of west-
ern Canada, 134-138.
Flower of a wheat-plant, fertil-
ization of the ovules, 219-220,
222; opening and pollination
of, 300-304.
Flying machines, and farms, 140.
Food Control Bill, 126.
316
INDEX
Fort Abercrombie, and transport
of flour, 29.
Fort Simpson, Ladoga wheat
grown at, 181.
Fort Vermilion, amount of wheat
grown at, 183; Ladoga wheat
grown at, 181.
Fort William, and east-bound
wheat traffic, 49-50; and
futures in wheat, 133; and
loading platforms, 54; arrival
at, of wheat from Fort Ver-
milion, 183; clearance of wheat
cargoes, 66-67; farmers' ele-
vators at, 142; financing of
crops to and from, 132; fixed
prices of wheat at, 128-129;
flour mills at, 134, 135; geo-
graphical position of, 108-109;
grain doors removed at, 59;
inspection of grain at, 78; offi-
cial weighing at, 100; over-
fllled cars sent to, 87 ; price of
wheat in store at, 93 ; sample
room at, 69-70; terminal ele-
vators at, description of, 60-
65; trains leaving Winnipeg
for, 84; weighing and dockage,
82; wheat bought stored at,
112-113.
Fortyfold wheat, and Marquis,
165.
France, and Marquis wheat, 112-
113, 228; purchase of wheat
for, 124.
Fraser, J. D., inspector of wheat,
77.
Fraser wheat, and parentage of
Prelude, 186.
Free Press corn, ripening of, 190.
Frost, and early-ripening wheats,
155, 175-176; and wheat-breed-
ing in Canada, 146; danger of,
in early fall to wheat, 43, 48;
dates of, in autumn, 180;
frosted wheat kernels, 71; kills
Turkey wheat, 166.
Fruits, improvement of, 145.
Fur trade, and the Selkirk Settle-
ment, 5; through the Hudson
Bay, 51.
Future, the, of Marquis wheat,
223-228.
Future trading, developed by
grain exchanges, 118; benefits
of, 133.
Future trading in wheat, ex-
planation of, 109-110; facili-
ties for, taken away at Winni-
peg, 122; prohibited in the
United States, 126.
Futures, and the work of elevator
companies, 133.
G.
Gage, J. C, on a crisis at the
Winnipeg Grain Exchange,
122-125; on effect of war on
the grain trade, 120.
Galicia, and origin of Red Fife
wheat, 209.
Galician wheat, resembles Red
Fife, 208-210.
Gallipoli Peninsula, dysentery at,
27.
Gambling on wheat, investiga-
tion of, 121, 125.
Garlach, Paul, wins a prize for
wheat, 173.
Gasolene engine, on the farm,
138-139.
Gehun wheat, and parentage of
Ruby and Prelude, 186.
Genealogical trees of Marquis,
Ruby, and Prelude wheats, 185.
Genesee, INIarquis wheat at, 165.
Genoa wheat, in Australia, 259.
Geographical position of the
INDEX
317
Winnipeg Grain Exchange,
108-109.
Geography of the World's Agri-
culture, 163-164.
Ghurka wheat, a parent of Little
Joss, 179.
Glasgow wheat, 207, 215; and
Red Fife, 207-211, 213.
Glumes, opening of, in flower of
wheat, 301; vary in color in
wild wheat, 289.
Gluten, elasticity of, from Mar-
quis wheat, 155-156; in wheat
flour, 199; quality of, 201-203.
Glyndon Fife wheat, compared
with Marquis, 166, 170-171.
Goddess of agriculture, 280-283.
Godfrey, Mr., of the Andrews
Grain Company, 160.
Godron, on time of opening of
wheat flowers, 302,
Golden Drop wheat, replaced by
Red Fife, 218, 227.
Gooseberries, improved by W.
Sanders, 145.
Governing bodies and scientific
research, 238-239.
Government of Canada, aid to
farmers' elevator companies,
142; great success of its wheat-
breeding experiments, 256 ; and
the crop movement, 133; and
the Winnipeg Grain Exchange,
125; appoints Board of Grain
Commissioners, 127; com-
mandeers wheat, 119; interior
elevators of, 64; supervision
by, at terminal elevators, 101-
102; takes control of grain
business, 129; terminal ele-
vators of, 102.
Grade, certificate of, 90.
Graders, and their work, 82, 87,
89-90.
Grades of wheat, alteration in.
97-98; general description of,
70-75; line, and reinspection,
97-98; mixing of, stopped in
United States, 126; statistics
of, for certain years, 92 ; stored
separately at terminal ele-
vators, 63.
Grading of wheat, description of,
75-93 ; favorable for Marquis,
196-197; importance of, 92-
93; origin of, 69; out of ter-
minal elevators, 95-96; regu-
lations favor red wheats, 261 ;
scientific investigations upon,
103; standard samples for, 87.
Grain doors, 58-59.
Grain exchanges, development
and advantages of, 118-119.
Grain Growers Export Company,
business of, 143.
Grain Growers Grain Companv,
142.
Grain Groicers Guide, and Cana-
dian wheat history, 208, 211;
and Red Bobs wheat, 269; ori-
gin of, 142; yield of Marquis
wheat, 191-192.
Grain Research Laboratory, the
Dominion, description of, 102-
104; and Panama Canal, 52-53.
Grain Standards Board, the
western, and commercial wheat
grades, 104.
Grain wagon, use of, 56.
Gramineffi, and cross-pollination,
300, 304-306.
Grand Forks, and Marquis wheat,
159, 161.
Grand Trunk Pacific Railway,
and the wheat funnel, 49; ter-
minal elevator of, 102.
Grangeville, Marquis wheat at,
165.
Grapes, selected by W. Saunders,
145.
318
INDEX
Grass family and cross-pollina-
tion, 300, 304-306.
Grasshoppers, and locusts, 11;
plagues of, 10, 28.
Great Northern Railway, and J.
J. Hill's wheat prize, 172.
Greece, and Marquis wheat, 228;
ancient, and wheat, 279.
Greeks, and the origin of wheat,
280.
Grinding grain, engine for, 139.
Grindstones, how driven, 139;
teeth used as, 157.
Gunn, Donald, on rival fur com-
panies, 5.
Gynerium argenteum, time of
pollination of, 305.
H.
Hackel, and wheat classification,
292-293; on lodicules of grass
flowers, 304.
Haifa, experiment station at,
286.
Hail, danger of, 48, 49, 176; de-
stroys Seager Wheeler's crops,
268-269 ; insurance against,
48; resistance of wheats to,
276.
Hailstones, as large as hens'
eggs, 48.
Half-breeds, in the Selkirk Set-
tlement, 6, 7, 18.
Halifax, export of wheat from,
50-51.
Halkett, and the Selkirk Settle-
ment, 15.
Hallet, and selections of wheat,
224; stimulates Haynes, 225.
Hanna, W. J., on consumption of
wheat in Canada, 255.
Hanson and Barson, and Marquis
wheat, 161.
Hard and soft wheats, color of,
261-262; mixed by British
millers, 200.
Hard Red Calcutta wheat, and
parentage of Marquis, 151, 186,
218-223; origin of, 204-206.
Hargrave, J. J., on grasshopper
plague, 28-29; on the Red
River Settlement in 1870, 29-
30.
Harrison, T. J., grew wild wheat
at Winnipeg, 291.
Harrowing of crops, 46.
Harrows, number of, in 1849, 27.
Hartney, James, his Red Fife
wheat, 217.
Harvesters, visit western Canada
annually, 47.
Harvesting wheat, and shelling,
197; with a brittle rachis,
294; description of, in western
Canada,
Harvey, George, and White Bobs
wheat, 270.
Harvey Milling Company, and
Marquis wheat, 160.
Haussknecht, on wild einkorn,
296.
Hayes, H. K., and rust-resistance,
179; on natural crosses in
wheat, 266-267; supplies in-
formation on Haynes' Blue-
stem wheat, 225.
Haynes, and his Bluestem wheat,
224.
Haynes' Bluestem wheat, com-
pared with Marquis, 166, 170,
171.
Heating of wheat grains, 71.
Hedged grain, not up to contract
grades, 121.
Hedging of grain, explanation
of, 110, 133.
Helm, H. S., on Marquis wheat,
159.
INDEX
319
Henderson, and Red Fife wheat,
214.
Hendrum, and Minnesota No. 23
corn, 188.
Hewitt, Gordon, on grasshoppers,
11.
Hill, James J., wheat prize of-
fered by, 172.
Himalaya Mountains, wheat
brought from, 146.
Hoe, used for wheat culture, 2,
4, 8, 16.
Holcus, time of pollination of,
305.
Holmes, wins a prize for wheat,
173.
Hoover, Herbert, appointed food
controller, 126; regulates
wheat export, 129.
Hordeum jubatum, its brittle
rachis, 294.
Horses, death of, 18; improve-
ment of breed of, 25 ; number
in 1849, 27.
Hospital elevator, definition of,
54.
Hour-glass, the, in the Red River
Settlement, 14-15.
Houses, number of, in Red River
Settlement in 1849, 27.
Houston county, corn grown in,
189.
Howard, A., G. L. C. Howard and
Rahman Abdur, on natural
crossing of wheat in India,
301.
Hudson Bay, and elevators, 64;
use of, 51.
Hudson Bay railway, 51-52.
Hudson's Bay Company, at Fort
Douglas, 8; change of route
of, 29, 51; gives a prize for
wheat, 217; grant of, to Lord
Selkirk, 1, 3; its roller mill at
Vermilion, 181-182; market
of, 30; purchase of flour, 21;
rival of the North-West Com-
pany, 5; windmill of, 17.
Hulless barley, crossbred by
C. E. Saunders, 240; evolution
of, 295.
Hulless oats, evolution of, 295.
Huron wheat, origin of, 149.
I.
Ice, and close of navigation, 63;
thickness in Red River, 19,
Idaho, Marquis wheat in, 164,
165.
Illinois, and the corn-belt, 187;
Marquis wheat in, 1G4.
India, source of Hard Red Cal-
cutta and Gehun wheats, 186;
wheat exported in bags, 52;
wheat in war-time of, 123;
wheat varieties from, 146.
Indiana, and the corn-belt, 187;
Marquis wheat in, 164.
Indian corn, in census of 1822,
16. Vide corn.
Indian Head, and Angus Mac-
Kay, 147; and the agrarian
movement, 141 ; aboretum at,
140; Marquis wheat at, 157;
Marquis procured from, 159;
Ruby and Red Bobs wheat
tested at, 185; tests for Bobs
wheat at, 260, 262; tests of
Marquis at, 174-175; wheats
crossed at, 148, 152; yield of
Marquis at, 191, 196.
Indians, nickname colonists, 2;
suffer from the Bloody Flux,
26.
Influenza, compared with the
Bloody Flux, 26, 27.
Inland Empire, and Marquis
wheat, 165.
320
INDEX
Inland Revenue Department, and
weighing grain, 99.
Inspection Divisions, for grain,
76.
Inspection of grain, by United
States Government, 126; why-
concentrated at Winnipeg, 78.
Inspection of wheat, at terminal
elevators, 93-96; charge for,
90; chief object of, 93; general
description of, 75-93; space
left above cars for, 58.
Inspector, the Chief, 77, 78, 95,
96.
Inspectors, Deputy, 77; difficul-
ties of, 75-76; of scales,
99.
Interior terminal elevators, 64.
International Dry-Farming Con-
gress, 173.
International Soils Products Ex-
position, 173-174.
Iowa, and the corn-belt, 187;
Marquis wheat in, 164; yield
of Marquis in, 192.
Irvine, J. T., information on
wheat supplied by, 231, 243.
Italy, and Marquis wheat, 228.
J.
Jack River, as a refuge for the
Selkirk settlers, 5, 7, 8.
James, C. C, on Canadian wheat
history, 208, 211, 216.
Japan, wheat varieties from, 146.
Jennison Company, W. J., and
Marquis wheat, 161.
Jewish Agricultural Experiment
Station, 286.
Jonathan wheat, in Australia,
259.
Jones Winter Fife and Marquis
wheats, 165.
Kamloops district, Marquis
wheat in, 157.
Kanred wheat, at Seager Wheel-
er's farm, 273.
Kansas City, and Marquis wheat,
174; and Winnipeg Grain Ex-
change, 105.
Kaufman, E. E., on California
fruit, 231.
Keewatin, flour mills at, 134,
135, 136-138.
Kenora, Couch-grass and Slender
Wheat-grass at, 290; flour
mills at, 134-135.
Kerner von Marilaun, on pollina-
tion of grasses, 304-306,
Kerosene engine, use of, on
farms, 138-139,
Kharkov wheat, grown in Al-
berta, 42.
Kherson, and wheat-growing,
182.
Kincardine parish, home of
David Fife, 207.
Kingston, and Red Fife wheat,
212.
Kirchner, on pollination of wheat
flowers, 302.
Kitchener wheat, a mutation,
226; and hail, 276; earliness
of, 270; its origin, 226, 275-
277; prize w^on with, 173.
Kitto, F. H,, on the Peace River
district, 183.
Kittson county, corn grown in,
189.
Koeleria, time of pollination of,
305.
Kornike, on opening of wheat
flowers, 301-302; on origin of
wheat, 285-286; on wheat
classification, 292-293.
Kotschv, and wild wheat, 286.
INDEX
321
Kowalewski, observations on
wheat and oats by, 182.
L.
Labor organizations, represented
on Board of Grain Commis-
sioners, 127.
Ladd, E. F., milling and baking
experiments of, 203.
Ladoga wheat, in the Peace River
Valley, 181, 183; introduced
and tested by W. Saunders,
146-147; parent of Preston,
Stanley, Huron and Percy,
149; replaced by Red Fife,'
227.
Laidlaw, managed an experimen-
tal farm, 25.
Lake dwellings, emmer found in,
298.
Lake of the Woods, and flour
mills, 134; two wild grasses
at, 290.
Lake of the Woods Milling Com-
pany, 135; its quern and roller
mill described and contrasted,
136-138.
Lake Shippers' Clearance Asso-
ciation, work of, 66-68.
Lake steamers, description of,
65-66.
Lake Winnipeg, and the Selkirk
settlers, 7.
Lamont, Samuel, first mill-
wright at Red River, 17.
Lamps and lanterns, falling into
disuse of, 139.
Larcombe, Samuel, wins a prize
for wheat, 174.
Lawrence, Sheridan, and wheat-
growing in far north, 183.
Le Couteur, and selections of
wheat, 224.
Leighty, C. E., on crosses be-
tween wheat and rye, 266.
Lewiston, Marquis wheat at,
165.
Liberty oat, C. E. Saunders
selects, 240.
Light, and wheat-growing, 182.
Lighting plants, on farms, 139.
Little Club wheat, and Marquis,
165.
Little Joss wheat, and cross-
breeding, 226 ; rust-resistant
in England, 179.
Liverpool, and Winnipeg Grain
Exchange, 105, 116.
Loading platform, and Canada
Grain Act, 68; description of,
54-55.
Loading wheat, speed of, at the
feke front, 64.
Loaves of bread, and Canadian
flour, 200; from rusted wheat,
103.
Lodicules, function of, 303-304.
Logan, his wind-mill, 24.
London, and Panama Canal, 53,
103; and Winnipeg Grain Ex-
change, 105.
Luther, Martin, phrase used by
61.
M.
Machinery, supplied by farmers'
trading companies, 141-143.
Macdonell, Alexander, on grass-
hoppers, 10.
Macoun, John, on Selkirk set-
tlers, 7.
Macoun, J. M., report on wheat
grown in far north, 181.
Macoun, W. T., and parentage
of Ruby wheat, 186; on work
of W. Saunders, 145; wheat
crosses made by, 148; work on
apples of, 145.
322
INDEX
Macdonell, Miles, leads Selkirk
settlers, 1; on harvest of 1813,
2; surrenders himself, 5.
MacDougal, John, quern of, 16.
MacKay, Angus, and MacKay
pea, 240-241; and Marquis
wheat, 159; procures Ladoga
wheat, 147.
MacKay pea, named by W.
Saunders, 240-241.
Mackensie, Donald, describes Red
River colony in 1820, 20-21.
Mackensie River, and wheat, 181.
Magill, Robert, advocated estab-
lishment of Grain Research
Laboratory, 102; on the grad-
ing and inspection of grain,
55, 64, 68, 76, 78, 79-82, 95-
96, 102.
Manchurian barley, originated
by C. E. Saunders, 239.
Mandscheuri barley, importation
of, 239.
Manitoba, and a prize for wheat,
174; and the agrarian move-
ment, 141 ; and the Survey
Board, 97; boundary of, 3;
corn grown in, 189-190; Hud-
son Bay railway in, 51-52;
first export of wheat from,
216; flour mills of, 134; forma-
tion of the Province of, 32;
Marquis wheat introduced into,
157; obtains Red Fife seed-
wheat from Minnesota, 217-
218; shelling of wheat in,
197; tests for Marquis wheat
in, 175; wheats crossed in,
148; yield of Marquis in, 190,
196.
Manitoba Daily Free Press, on
Red Fife wheat, 210, 227; on
spring wheat in Ontario, 215.
Manitoba Grain Growers Asso-
ciation, organization of, 141.
Mannichtousan, king of Sis, obe-
lisk to, 279.
Manure, use of, 43, 44.
Maple Leaf Milling Company
Limited, 135.
Maritime Provinces and Marquis
wheat, 157.
Marketing grain, by sample, 69-
70.
Marquis wheat, and Bobs, 260;
and Burbank's Quality wheat,
233-237; and frost, 180-181;
and hail, 276; and Hard Red
Calcutta, 204-206; and its
parent Red Fife, 218; and
rust, 176-180; and the north-
ward advance of the wheat-
belt, 188; and the War, 228;
as the offspring of Red Fife
and Hard Red Calcutta, 218-
223; beneficial influence of,
154; classification of, 292;
comparative yields of, in
Canada and the United States,
196; compared with Minnesota
standard wheat varieties,
(Figs. 29, 30, 31), 166, 170,
171; compared with Ruby and
Prelude, 183-184; crop values
in Canada and the United
States, 243-246; discovery and
introduction of, 144-257; dis-
covery of, not accidental, 238
does not shell readily, 197
earliness and storms, 176
earliness and yield of, 174-
175; economic value of, 230-
233; extraordinary example of
vegetable increase, 170; favor-
able grading of, 196-197; first
distribution of, 157; first
grinding of, 156; future of,
223-228; genealogical tree of,
185; general description of,
170-172; history of, not well
INDEX
323
known, 144; improvement of,
224; increased wealth brought
by, to Canada and United
States, 246-252; in the United
States, 158-170; introduction
of into western Canada, 157;
investigation of qualities of,
154-157; its blessings to the
world, 158; Kitchener the
product of, 275; milling and
baking qualities of, 198-204;
natural crossing with Blue-
stem, 2G6-267; origin of, little
known to farmers, 230; origin
of name of, 154; percentage of
crop of, 167-109; possible
origin from wdld wheat of
Palestine, 291; prizes awarded
to, 172-174; provision for, in
grades of wheat, 72; selection
of by C. E. Saunders, 151-154; •
sown on 20,000,000 acres, 170;
summary concerning, 257-
258; value to North America
and the world of, 257-258;
why sought in British markets,
200; yield of, in Canada, 190-
192; yield of, in United States,
192-196.
Martin, Chester, on the history
of the Selkirk settlers, 1-2, 6,
7, 9, 13, 21, 29.
May and Company, L. L., and
Marquis wheat, 161.
May wheat, a deal in, 111-113;
highest price of, 121.
McAlister, J. E., quern of, 16.
McDonell, Alexander, the " grass-
hopper governor," his revels, 15.
McGill and Company, and Mar-
quis wheat, 161.
McLauchlin and Moore, test La-
doga flour, 147.
McLeod, John, defends Red River
Settlement, 5-6.
McMurray, J. L., wheat crosses
made by, 148.
Medicine Hat, cars inspected at,
91 ; flour mills and natural
gas, 134, 135.
Mediterranean, civilization of,
and wheat, 300.
Melica, time of pollination of,
305.
Mendel, Gregor, and rust-resist-
ance, 179; laws of inheritance
of, 229.
^Slennonites, settle on open
prairie, 30.
]\Iensury barley, C. E. Saunders'
selection from, 239.
Mentor, and Minnesota No. 23
corn, 188.
Mice, in granaries, 23; plague
of, in 1825, 18.
Michigan, and Northwestern
Dent corn, 190.
Milking machines on farms, 138.
Mill, experimental, of C. E.
Saunders, 150, 203; of Hud-
son's Bay Company at Fort
Vermilion, 181-182; of Sheri-
dan Lawrence at Fort Ver-
milion, 183; one destroyed in
1815, 5.
Mill elevator, definition of,
54.
Miller, foreign, 132; British,
mixes flour, 200.
Millers, at \\innipeg Grain Ex-
change, 106; competitive buy-
ing of, during war, 124; deal
in futures, 109-110.
Milling, and mixed wheat, 162.
Milling and baking qualities, of
Ladoga wheat, 147; of Mar-
quis, 155-157, 198-204; of
Preston, Stanley, Huron, and
Percy, 149; of Quality, 234; of
Red Fife, 218; made by C. E.
324
INDEX
Saunders, 156; supreme test of
wheat, 147.
Milling industry, effect of revolu-
tion in, 30-31.
Milling operations, early history
of, in Red River Settlement,
16-18.
Mills, and Board of Grain Super-
visors, 129; and grain ex-
changes, 118; Egyptian, for
emmer wheat, 294; experimen-
tal, 103; Midget, 135; Min-
neapolis, 159; querns, 16-17,
136-137.
Milner, W. E., on effect of war
on grain trade, 119-120; on
number of cars of wheat pass-
ing through Winnipeg, 49; on
wheat crop of 1915, 35-36,
254; on Winnipeg Grain Ex-
change, 105.
Minneapolis, and introduction of
Marquis wheat, 160; and Win-
nipeg Grain Exchange, 105,
116; and Velvet Chaff wheat,
149; flour mills at, and Mar-
quis wheat, 159; grading sys-
tem at, 69; highest price for
wheat at, 125; seed Marquis
made available at, 164-165.
Minnesota, and earliness of
wheats, 176; and Minnesota
No. 23 corn, 188; and St. Paul
railway, 32; and yields of
several wheat varieties, 193-
196; as source of Red Fife
wheat for seed in Manitoba,
217-218; chief wheat varieties
of, and total crop, 167; corn
culture in, 187-190; crop
value of Marquis wheat in,
244-245; financial benefit to,
from Marquis, 247-249; in-
troduction of Marquis into,
158-165; Marquis in, 157;
Preston wheat in, 149; purifier
introduced into, 30-31.
Minnesota Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, and Marquis
wheat, 192, 203-204; and
Bluestem, 225; and Preston,
149.
Minnesota No. 13 corn and No.
23 corn, origin of, 187-188.
Minnesota No. 188 wheat, name
for Preston, 149.
Minnesota River, and transport
of seed wheat, 13.
Minnesota University, and early-
ripening corn varieties, 187-
188, 190; and rust-resistance,
179; and spring wheat, 162;
Marquis wheat tested at, 165;
natural crosses of wheat at,
266.
Mitchel, a millwright in the Sel-
kirk Settlement, 24.
Moisture, conservation of, in
soil, 43, 44, 45-46; in wheat
grains, 71, 198; in wheat sam-
ples, how estimated, 89.
Moisture-testers, the Brown-
Duvel, 89; other, 103.
Molinia, time of pollination of,
305.
Money, amount received in
Prairie Provinces for grain,
106; inflated currency, 124;
provided by banks, 131-132;
required by farmers, 130.
Montana, and Northwestern Dent
corn, 190; and yield of several
wheat varieties in, 193-196;
chief wheat varieties of, and
total crop, 167; crop value of
Marquis wheat in, 244-245; in-
creased wealth from growing
Marquis in, 249-252; intro-
duction of Marquis into, 160;
Marquis in, 164, 166.
INDEX
325
Montreal, Ogilvie flour mill at,
135; wheat traffic through,
49-50.
Moosejaw, cars inspected at, 01;
elevator, 64, 102; inspection of
grain at, 78.
Moscow, Marquis wheat at, 165.
Mount Hermon, and wild wheat,
140.
Mummy wheat, its vitality lost,
280.
Music, on farms, 140.
N.
Nardus, time of pollination of,
305.
Nebraska, and the corn-belt,
187; introduction of Marquis
wheat into, 160; Marquis in,
164.
Neolithic Period, and wheat,
284-285, 298.
New York, and Hudson Bay
route, 51-52; export of wheat
from, 50-51; farmers' export
business from, 143.
New York State, Marquis wheat
in, 164.
Nilsson-Ehle, H., and wheat se-
lections, 224; on natural
crosses in wheat, 266.
Noble, C. S., and a great yield
of Marquis wheat, 191.
Norman County, and Minnesota
No. 23 corn, "^188.
North, the, and belts of wheat
and corn, 187-190; wheat in
the far, 182, 184.
North Dakota, and Haynes Blue-
stem, 224; and shelling of
wheat, 197; and yields of sev-
eral wheat varieties, 193-196;
chief wheat varieties and total
crop, 167; corn culture in,
187-189; crop value of Mar-
quis in, 244-245 ; increased
wealth from growing ]\[arquia
in, 249-252; introduction of
Marquis into, 158-165; Mar-
quis wheat in, 157.
North Dakota Agricultural Col-
lege, and H. L. Bolley, 161.
North Dakota Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, and E. F.
Ladd, 203.
Northrup Grain Company, and
Marquis wheat, 159, 160.
North-West Company, amalga-
mation with Hudson's Bay
Company, 9; charges against
Lord Selkirk, 9; Fort Douglas
captured and lost by, 7-8;
ruin Red River Settlement in
1815, 5.
Oatmeal, in reserve at Selkirk
Settlement, 14.
Oats, a sale of, in the wheat-pit,
117; as an admixture of
wheat, 88 ; evolution of, 294-
295; new variety of, 240; ori-
gin of, 285 ; wild, in Manitoba,
brittle rachis of, 294; wild,
time of pollination of, 305.
Ogilvie Flour Mill Company
Limited, 16, 135.
O'Donoghue, C. H., on locusts
and grasshoppers, 11.
Ohio, and the corn-belt, 187;
Marquis wheat in, 104.
Onega wheat, and parentage of
Ruby, 186.
Ontario, and Golden Chaff wheat,
224; and origin of Red Fife
wheat, 207, 212, 214, 215;
326
INDEX
cause of improved barley pro-
duction in, 239; export of Red
Fife to, in 1876, 30, 216; flour
mill at Port Colborne, 135;
Marquis wheat in, 157; west-
ern flour mills of, 134-135.
Ontario Agricultural College,
improvement in barley at, and
its economic importance, 239 ;
tests for winter wheat at, 224-
225.
Oregon, and yield of Marquis
wheat, 192.
Osiris, and mythical origin of
wheat, 280.
Otonabee, and Red Fife wheat,
206, 207, 210, 212.
Ottawa, crossed wheats trans-
ferred to, 148; Marquis wheat
selected at, 151-152; Monthly
Bulletin published at, 104.
Ovid, on the rust disease, 283.
Pacific North-West, Marquis
wheat in, 165-166.
Palaeolithic Period, and agricul-
ture, 284.
Palestine, and wild wheat, 286-
291.
Palouse district, and Marquis
wheat, 165.
Panama Canal, and elevators,
64; shipment of bulk wheat
through, 52-53, 64, 103.
Panicum milliaceum, time of
pollination of, 305.
Paris, and Winnipeg Grain Ex-
change, 105.
Passenger pigeons, in Manitoba,
4-5.
Peace River valley, and Ladoga
wheat, 181; and Red Fife, 184.
Peas, in census of 1822, 16; new
sorts of, 240-241.
Pembina, settlers go to, 11.
Percy wheat, origin of, 149.
Persia, and primitive wheats,
296.
Perrigault, inventor of the puri-
fier, 31.
Peterborough, and Red Fife
wheat, 207, 212-213.
Philadelphia, export of wheat
from, 50-51.
Phleum, time of pollination of,
305.
Phonograph, on farms, 140.
Pigeons, Passenger, C. N. Bell
on, 4-5; injury of crops by, 4.
Pigs, number of, in 1849, 27.
Piper, C. B., on financing the
crop movement, 130; on geo-
graphical position of the Win-
nipeg Grain Exchange, 109;
on lake steamers, 65-66; on
prices of contract grades, 111-
112; on relative transporta-
tion costs, 66; on velocity of
credit, 132.
Plant-breeders, and origin of
new wheats, 223-226 ; triumphs
of, 228.
Plant-breeding, much still to be
done in Canada, 241.
Pliny, and the rust disease,
283.
Plows, absence of in Selkirk Set-
tlement, 2, 8; improvement of,
138; number of, in 1849, 27;
yields after plowing in 1824,
16.
Plowing, in western Canada, 43;
tractor for, 139.
Poa, time of pollination of, 305.
Polish wheat, classification of,
292.
Pollination, and origin of Mar-
INDEX
327
quis wheat, 219-220; in wild
wheat, 300.
Pompeii, and Ceres, 282-283.
Population, Lord Selkirk's
prophecy concerning, 9; of the
Red River Settlement in 1822,
16; in 1849, 27; in 1870,
29-30; in village of Winnipeg,
33.
Port Arthur, and east-bound
wheat traffic, 49-50; and fu-
tures, 133; clearance of wheat
cargoes at, 66-67; farmers'
elevators at, 142; financing
of crops to and from, 132;
fixed prices of wheat at, 128-
129; geographical position of,
109-109; government elevator
at, 102; grain doors removed
at, 59; inspection of grain at,
78; official weighing at, 100;
overfilled cars sent to, 87;
price of wheat in store at, 93;
sample room at, 69-70; ter-
minal elevators at, 60, 64;
trains leaving Winnipeg for,
84; wheat bought stored at,
112-113.
Port Colborne, mill at, 135.
Port Hope, and origin of Red
Fife wheat, 213.
Portland, Maine, export of wheat
from, 50-51.
Portland, Oregon, export of
wheat from, 52.
Port Nelson, and export of wheat
from western Canada, 51.
Post, failed to find wild wheat
in Palestine, 287.
Potatoes, in census of 1822, 16;
late-sown in 1822, 20; yield of,
in 1813, 2-4.
Poulard wheat, classification of,
292.
Prairie, breaking of, 42-44 ; free-
dom from trees of, 48; har-
vesting scene upon, 48-49.
Prehistoric man, and agricul-
ture, 278-279.
Prelude wheat, and cross-breed-
ing, 226; and northward ad-
vance of the wheat-belt, 188;
and Quality wheat, 236 ; genea-
logical tree of, 185; general
description of, 183-187; re-
placed Marquis locally, 227.
Preston wheat, admixtures in,
in North Dakota, 162; and
Marquis in the United States,
164; and parentage of Red
Bobs, 262, 263, 267-268; at
Fort Vermilion, 183; compared
with Marquis, 166, 170-171;
grown at Rosthern, 274; in
Minnesota, 163; in United
States, 149; origin of, 149.
Price of wheat, and grading of
Marquis, 197; cause of high
prices of, 124; fixation of, in
Canada, 128-129; fixation of,
in United States, 128; from
which came Red Fife, 213;
highest, at Chicago, 124; high-
est, at Minneapolis, 125; high-
est, at Winnipeg Grain Ex-
change, 121; in wheat-pit at
Winnipeg, 116; of Burbank's
Quality seed, 234; of different
grades, 93; of May wheat. 111;
of Red Fife in 1876 at Winni-
peg, 216; remarks on, 106-
107.
Primitive man, and domestica-
tion of wheat, 306; and wild
wheat, 288, 294-295.
Prince Albert district, Ladoga
wheat procured from, 147.
Pringle, C. G., and wheat hy-
brids, 226.
Prizes for wheat, awarded to
328
INDEX
Marquis, 172-174; awarded to
White Bobs, 270; in 1882 at
Winnipeg, 217; won by Seager
Wheeler, 274-275, 276.
Probe, for sampling grain cars,
construction and use of, 84-
85.
Prosperity, of Red River Settle-
ment in 1822, 20-21.
Puccinia graminis, action of fim-
gus on wheat, 176-180.
Pullman, Marquis wheat at, 165.
Pumping water, how accom-
plished on farms, 138.
Punjab, natural cross-pollination
of wheat in, 301.
Purifier for flour, and hard
spring wheat in Manitoba,
217; introduction into Minne-
apolis of, 30-31.
Q.
Quality, in wheat, 198-200.
Quality wheat, Burbank's, and
Marquis, 233-237.
Quantity wheat, Burbank's, 234-
235.
Quebec, Province of, Marquis
wheat in, 157.
Quebec No. 28 corn, ripening of,
190.
Quern, brought by Doukabors,
description of, 136-137; in
Red River Settlement, 16-17.
R.
Rabbits and mice, periodic in-
crease of, 18.
Rachis of wheat heads, brittle in
certain wheats, 293-295; rigid
derived from brittle, 296.
Railways, all-rail route for
wheat, 63 ; and the wheat fun-
nel, 49; and transportation by
water, 66; conductor's train
list, 83 ; grain trains at Winni-
peg, 78; long haul of wheat
on, 183; procession of grain
trains on, 59; sampling grain
on, 79-81; sealing cars of, 58;
seals of, 83-84; size of box-
cars, 58.
Rain, danger of, to standing
crops, 176; low rain-fall and
fallowing, 44.
Rasheyya, and wild wheat, 286-
288.
Raymond, and Marquis wheat,
173.
Recorder of Winnipeg Grain Ex-
change, presides over wheat-
pit, 118.
Red Bobs wheat, and hail, 276;
at University of Saskatchewan,
270-271; description of, 272;
future of, 227; origin of, 259-
275 ; selection, multiplication,
and distribution of, 268-270;
shown at a show, 174; tests
of, incomplete, 272; the prod-
uct of a natural cross, 264-
268.
Red Chaff wheat, replaced by
Red Fife, 227.
Red Fife wheat, and a natural
cross, 265-266; and Hard Red
Calcutta, 205; and frost, 180;
and Marquis, 257; and Mar-
quis in the United States,
164; and parentage of Mar-
quis, 218-223; and shelling,
197; and Rust disease, 178,
180, 214; a parent of Marquis
and Ruby, 186-187; at Fort
Vermilion, 184; classification
of, 292; compared with Mar-
quis in plot tests, 174-175;
INDEX
exported from Manitoba to
Ontario in 1876, 216; famous
during last century, 145-1-46;
for seed in Manitoba, brought
from Minnesota, 217; grinding
of, 196-197; improvement of,
224; in definition of grades,
72-73 ; introduction into
United States, 215; in western
Canada, 42; milling and bak-
ing qualities of, 198; name
wrongly applied to Preston
wheat, 149; origin of, 206-
218; origin of name of, 206;
outyielded by ^Marquis, 157;
parent of Preston and Stanley,
149; possible origin from wild
wheat of Palestine, 291; price
of, in 1843, 214; replaced by
Marquis, 227, 253-254; the
male parent of Marquis, 151 ;
used in crossing experiments,
148; yield and earliness of,
compared with Marquis, 190,
174-175; why sought in Brit-
ish market, 200.
Red River, as a main highway,
10; ice of, in 1825-26, 19.
Red River carts, number and
use of, 29.
Red River Settlement, history of,
1-33; and Hudson Bay, 51.
Red Russian wheat, and Mar-
quis, 165.
Regina, Marquis seed-wheat for
United States procured from,
159; and Saskatchewan Grain
Growers Association, 142;
publication on rust disease at,
178.
Registration records, for wheat,
101.
Reinspection of wheat, 96-98.
Re-selection of wheats, by C. E.
Saunders, 153-154.
Resistance to disease, by wheat,
179-180, 226.
Reubens, Marquis wheat at, 165.
Richardson, A. E. V., on Far-
rer's wheat-breeding work,
259-260.
Riel, Louis, insurrection of, 32.
Riga wheat, at Fort Vermilion,
183.
Rimpau, and selections of wheat,
224; on elongation of staminal
filaments of wheat, 304; on
lodicules of grass flowers, 304;
on opening of wheat flowers,
303.
Rio Grande wheat, and a natural
cross, 265-266.
Ripening of w^heat, and latitude,
182, 184; comparative, of
Marquis and Red Fife, 175.
Robenhausen, emmer found in
lake dwellings of, 298.
Robertson, Colin, and return of
settlers to Red River, 6.
Robigus, the rust god, 283-284.
Roblin, R. P., on corn grown in
Manitoba, 189.
Rocky Mountains, the, and Mar-
quis wheat, 166, 192; and
Quality wheat, 236.
Rome, and Ceres, 282-283 ; wheat
of, 279.
Root-rot of wheat, and disease-
resistance, 226.
Roscher, W. H., on Ceres, 283.
Rosh Pinar, wild wheat found
at, 287-288.
Ross, Alexander, on Bloody Flux,
26; on census of 1849, 27; on
grasshoppers, 10-12; on mice,
18; on Red River flour, 21-
24; on the hour-glass, 14-15;
on yields of wheat, 20; pos-
sible error in chronology of, 4.
Rosthern, and origin of Red
330
INDEX
Bobs, 259, 262; Preston wheat
grown at, 274; seed fair at,
270; yield of Marquis wheat
at, 191.
Rowley, H. C, on value of Cali-
fornian fruit-growing indus-
try, 231.
Royal Flour Mills, test Ladoga
wheat, 147.
Ruby wheat, genealogical tree of,
185; general account of, 183-
187; may replace Prelude, 227.
Russel, Miller Milling Company,
and Marquis wheat, 159, 160.
Russia, and wheat-growing in
far north, 182; einkorn and
emmer in, 295; Mennonites
came from, 30; source of La-
doga and Onega wheats, 186;
wheat locked up in, 123; wheat
sought from, for seed, 213;
wheat varieties brought from,
146.
Rust disease, and disease-resist-
ance, 226; and earliness in
wheats, 155; and Red Fife
wheat, 207, 211; and Siberian
wheat, 213; and wheat grains,
71; Black Stem, great losses
due to, 180; danger of, in
western Canada, 48; descrip-
tion of, 176-180; in antiquity,
283-284; resistance to, 178;
Yellow Stripe, in England, 179.
Rusted wheat grain, in 1916,
103; special grade for, 74.
Rye, crossed with wheat, 266; in
1813, 4; origin of, 285; time
of pollination of, 305.
S.
St. Boniface, and the St. Paul
railway, 32.
St. Cloud line, and corn culture,
189.
St. John, export of wheat from,
50-51.
St. Lawrence River, and export
of wheat, 50-51.
St. Paul, and Red River carts,
29; building of railway from,
32 ; flour conveyed through, to
succor Red River settlers, 28;
corn obtained from, 187.
St. Paul railway, the, building
of, 32; export of wheat by,
217.
Sample bags, weight of contents
of, 86.
Sample market, the, 69-70, 96.
Sampler or stabber, structure
and use of, 84-86.
Samplers, a gang of, 80.
Samples of wheat, how taken at
a terminal elevator, 94; how
taken on a steamer, 96; how
stored at Winnipeg, 82, 90;
sale of, by Inspection Depart-
ment, 91.
Sampling grain, account of, 79-
81.
Sanitation on farms, improve-
ment of, 139-140.
Sarnia, and Red Fife wheat in
1876, 216.
Saskatchewan, acreage and yield
of wheat in, 35, 36; and La-
doga wheat, 147; and Marquis
wheat prizes, 173; and Pre-
lude wheat, 184; and tests for
Marquis wheat, 174-175; and
the agrarian movement, 141;
and the Survey Board, 97;
durum wheat in, 42; export of
grain from, through Hudson
Bay, 51; flour mills of, 134;
Marquis wheat in, 144; Mar-
quis wheat introduced into.
INDEX
331
157; shelling of wheat in,
197; traffic with Red River in
1870, 29; University of, and
rust-resistance, 179; wheats
crossed in, 148 ; yield of Mar-
quis in, 190, 191^ 19G.
Saskatchewan Cooperative Ele-
vator Company, 128, 141-142.
Saskatchewan Grain Growers
Association, organization of,
141.
Saskatoon, and Dwarf Marquis
wheat, 225; and wild wheat,
291 ; number of cars inspected
at, 91; elevator at, 64, 102;
inspection of grain at, 78.
Saunders, A. P., and parentage
of Marquis and Prelude
wheats, 186; assisted W. Saun-
ders, 145; biographical note
upon, 151; made cross from
which sprang Marquis wheat,
151 ; wheat crosses made by,
148, 149.
Saunders, C. E., and Burbank,
228-233; and the chewing test
for wheat, 155, 201-203; and
the northward advance of the
wheat-belt, 190; and the rust
disease, 180; appointed Domin-
ion cerealist, 150; assisted
W. Saunders, 145; biographi-
cal sketch of, 237-238; ex-
traordinary value of his work,
250-257; his Early Red Fife
wheat, 225; his original esti-
mate of Marquis wheat con-
firmed, 158; his regard for the
British market, 200; investi-
gates qualities of Marquis,
154-157; isolates Marquis,
144; list of publications by,
242; Marquis, Ruby, and Pre-
lude wheats, 183-187; names
Marquis, 154; obtains a wheat
naturally crossed, 265-266 ; on
Bobs wheat, 260; on quality in
wheat, 198 ; on the cross re-
sulting in Marquis, 152; on
the geography of Marquis,
164; on the origin of Red
Fife wheat, 208-209; selects
Marquis, 151-154; the first
miller and baker of Marquis,
201 ; wheat crosses made by,
148; wide range of work as
a cerealist, 200; work upon
barley, oats, and peas, 239-
242.
Saunders, W., and crossing
wheats, 226; and Ladoga
wheat, 181, 186; and Marquis
wheat, 151; and peas, 240; in-
troduced Hard Red Calcutta,
204 ; on effect of sunlight on
wheat, 182; summary of work
of, 144-151.
Scales, in country elevators, 99.
Sclerochloa, time of pollination
of, 305.
Schliemann, on a cereal found at
Troy, 297.
Schools, and Marquis wheat,
256; number of, in 1849, 27.
Schweinfurth, and the wild
wheat, 286, 289.
Science, besom of, sweeps away
superstitions, 284; pure, helps
applied, 179.
Scientific research, and govern-
ing bodies, 238-239; and solu-
tion of grain problems, 103;
value of, illustrated by success
of Marquis wheat, 256-258.
Scotch Danzig wheat, name for
Red Fife, 206, 208, 211.
Scotch Fife wheat, replacement
of, by Marquis, 227.
Scotch wheat, name for Red
Fife, 207.
332
INDEX
Scotland, and Red Fife wheat,
207-208.
Screenings, at country elevators,
56.
Sealing railway cars, after in-
spection, 81, 84; at country
elevators, 58.
Seals of railway cars, breaking
of, 83; construction of, 83;
record of, 100.
Seattle, export of wheat from,
52.
Seed Fairs, Seager Wheeler at,
275.
Seed-testing laboratories, for
wheat, 45.
Seed wheat, highest prices for,
234; of Marquis, first distribu-
tion in western Canada, 157;
of Marquis, Kitchener, and
Red Bobs, supplied by Seager
Wheeler, 275; of Red Bobs,
supplied by Grain Growers
Guide, 269; of Red Fife, 217-
218; preparation and sowing
of, 44-45.
Selection, of new wheat varie-
ties, 224-227.
Self-fertilization, of wheat flow-
ers, 222.
Self-pollination, of wheat flow-
ers, 301-303.
Selkirk, Lord, and the Kildonan
farms, 9-10; bears expense of
seed wheat, 13; belief in ex-
perimental farms justified, 26;
care of colonists by, 14; cost of
experimental farm to, 25;
death of, in France, 9; encour-
aged agriculture in 1815, 9;
force sent by, 8; map showing
his grant of land, 3; refers to
a distillery, 18; remarkable
prophecy of, 8-9; Semple's let-
ter to, 7; sends a wind-mill to
Red River Settlement, 24;
sends out a mill-wright in
1813, 17; sends settlers to
Manitoba, 1; visits Red River
Settlement in 1817, 8-9.
Selkirk Settlement, foundation
of, 1; state of, in 1870, 29-30;
value of, in 1822, 16.
Selkirk settlers, history of, 1-
33; route of, in 1811-1815, 3.
Semple, Robert, calculation by,
of wheat stored at Settlement
in 1815, 6; death of, in fight
at Seven Oaks, 7.
Serbes, cultivate einkorn and
emmer, 296.
Serls, George, as Chief Inspector
of grain, 77; on percentage of
Marquis in western Canadian
wheat crop, 243, 253.
Seven Oaks, fatal fight at, 7.
Shaughnessy, Sir Thomas, wheat
prize offered by, 172-173.
Sheep, number of, in 1849, 27.
Shelling, of Hard Red Calcutta,
205 ; resistance to, by Marquis,
197, 223.
Shipley, J. W., on extraordinary
size of hailstones, 48.
Shipping, facilities for, and posi-
tion of flour mills, 134; of
Marquis wheat across Atlantic,
158; of wheat, by lake ship-
pers, 66-68; of wheat, on
Peace River, 183; shortage of,
during war, 119.
Shirreff, and selections of wheat,
224.
Shutt, F. T., sections of papers
on wheat written by, 242.
Siberian wheat, in Ontario, 213.
Sickle, used by Selkirk settlers,
16.
Sieving, of grain, 82.
Simpson, Governor, encourages
INDEX
333
agriculture, 21; his experi-
mental farm, 25.
Smith, L. H,, on natural hybrids
of wheat, 2G6.
Smith's Creek, and Red Fife
wheat, 213.
Smut disease, and disease-resist-
ance, 226 ; bunt-resisting
wheat, 259 ; in threshed wheat,
71; prevention of, 44-45; re-
sistance to, 178.
Smut-mills, absence of in Selkirk
Settlement, 22.
Social development, and agricul-
ture, 278-279; the agrarian
movement, 141-143.
Soil, fertility of, in 1813-1814,
2; preparation of, for crops,
42-44.
Solms-Laubach, the Count of, on
the origin of wheat, 285.
Sorghum, time of pollination of,
305.
South Dakota, and yields of sev-
eral wheat varieties, 193-196;
chief wheat varieties of, and
total crop, 167; corn culture
in, 187; crop value of ^Marquis
wheat in, 244-245 ; increase in
wealth in, from growing Mar-
quis, 249-252; introduction of
Marquis into, 158-165; Mar-
quis in, 157; Preston wheat in,
149.
Soy-beans, at Rosthern, 273.
Speculating in wheat, investiga-
tion of, 121.
Spelt, classification of, 292; de-
crease in cultivation of, 297 ;
no very ancient remains of,
297.
Spread between wheat prices,
nature of. 93.
Spring wheat and winter wheat,
in Minnesota, 162; in Selkirk
Settlement, 1; in western Can-
ada, 42.
Square Head's ^Master wheat, in
England, 179.
Stabber, for sampling grain,
structure and use of, 84-85.
Stakman, E. K., and rust-resist-
ance, 179; on geography of
Marquis wheat, 164.
Stamens of wheat flowers, rapid
growth of filaments of, 304.
Standard's Board for grain, 74-
75.
Stanley wheat, origin of, 149.
Steele, R. C, takes wheat in
1876 from Manitoba to On-
tario, 216.
Stink-weed, introduction of, into
western Canada, 13.
Stocktaking of grain, at terminal
elevators, 101-102.
Stone Age, and agriculture, 278.
Storage of wheat, in bulk, 93-
94.
Strabo, mentions rust disease,
283.
Straw, length of, for Marquis
wheat, 223; of Kitchener
wheat, 276; waste of, in west-
ern Canada, 46-47.
Strothers, and origin of Red Fife
wheat, 206.
Stuart, William, on Burbank's
potato, 232-233.
Stubble fields, wheat sown on, 43.
♦Super wheat, Burbaiik's, 234-
235.
Supply and demand, law of, af-
fects price of hard wheat, 200.
Swabians, grow einkorn and em-
mer, 295.
Swiss emigrants, at Red River
Settlement, 14, 19-20.
Symes, inspector of wheat at
lake front, 96.
334
INDEX
Syria, flora of, does not include
wild wheat, 287; wild wheat
found in, 290.
T.
Telegrams, at Winnipeg Grain
Exchange, 117; and geographi-
cal position of Winnipeg, 108.
Telegraphy, wireless, possible use
of, 140.
Telephone, and geographical po-
sition of Winnipeg, 108; sum-
moning of wheat traders to,
117; use of, on farms, 140.
Temperature, and opening of
wheat flowers, 302-303, 306.
Terminal elevators, clearance of
cargoes from, 67 ; some con-
trolled by farmers, 142; defini-
tion of, 54; description of, 60-
64; impression made on immi-
grant by, 60-61; inspection at,
93-96 ; weighing wheat at, 98-
100.
Test-plots, of C. E. Saunders at
Ottawa (Figs. 23 and 24), 153,
157; of John Bracken, 270.
Theophrastus, mentions rust dis-
ease, 283.
The Pas, and the Hudson Bay
Railway, 51.
Thew wheat, in Australia, 259.
Threshing machines, engines for,
139; improvement of, 138.
Threshing of wheat, and Mar-
quis, 197; in western Canada,
46-47; on ice-floes in Selkirk
Settlement, 22.
Thompson, W. P., and Dwarf
Marquis wheat, 225 ; and rust-
resistance, 180; crossing ex-
periments of, 267; his plot of
wild wheat, 291.
Times, the, letters concerning
Red River Settlement in, 28.
Toronto, and Red Fife wheat,
212, 216; tests of Ladoga flour
at, 147.
Tough wheat, milling value of,
104.
Trabut, on crossing varieties of
Anagallis, 297.
Tractors, replacing horses on
farms, 139.
Traill, Maulson, and Clark, im-
port Red Fife, 218.
Trains, breaking up of, 94; pro-
cession of grain trains, 59;
view of trains of Canadian
Paciflc Railway (Fig. 10), 57.
Transcona, elevator at, 64.
Trees, planting of, on farms, 140.
Trisetum, time of pollination of,
305.
Triticum, time of pollination
of, 305; subdivisions of, 292,
293.
Triticum dicoccum, and wild
wheat, 290; not grown in
Syria and Palestine, 289.
Triticum dicoccum dicoccoides,
289-291.
Triticum hermonis, conclusion
concerning, 299; Cook's name
for the wild wheat, 290-291.
Triticum mcnococcum, and wheat
hybrids, 293; einkorn, 289.
Triticum monococcum aegili-
poide, found on Mount Her-
mon, 289.
Triticum polonicum, crossing of,
2%.
Triticum, vulgare dicoccoides,
286.
Troy, barley found in ruins of,
297.
Tryptolemus, and the origin of
wheat, 280.
INDEX
335
Tullyalltn, in Scotland, and
David Fife, 207.
Turkey Red wheat, grown in Al-
berta, 42; in Inland Empire,
165; on Seager Wheeler's
farm, 273.
Turnips, in 1813 in Selkirk Set-
tlement, 4.
U.
United Farmers of Alberta, the,
organization of, 141.
United Grain Growers Limited,
organization of, 141-142.
United Kingdom, purchase of
wheat for, 124; rising wages
in, 123.
United States, the, and blessings
of Marquis wheat, 158; and
cross-pollination in wheat,
301; and sample markets, 69;
assists Red River Settlement,
28; crop value of Marquis in,
244-246; fixed prices of wheat
in, 128; food controller of,
126; increased wealth in, due
to introduction of Marquis,
246-252; introduction of Mar-
quis into, 158-170; Marquis
in, 153, 157; Marquis in 1914,
160; Preston wheat in, 149;
reference map of States of,
163; revolution in milling in-
dustry in, 30-31; route to Red
River Settlement through, 51 ;
seed wheat obtained from, in
1820, 12-13; wheat export in
1913, 39; wheat raised in, 40,
41 ; wheat varieties from, test-
ed, 146; wild wheat brought
to, 291.
United States Grain Corporation,
action of, 126.
I'niversity of Minnesota, vide
Minnesota University.
University of Saskatchewan, and
Dwarf Marquis wheat, 225 ;
and rust disease, 178, 179;
crossing wheats at, 267 ; White
Bobs grown at, 270-271; wild
wheat grown at, 291.
University of Toronto, and Mar-
quis wheat, 237, 238.
Universities and schools, cost of,
and Marquis wheat, 256.
Unger, and wheat found in a
pyramid, 279.
V.
Vancouver, and the Panama
Canal, 103; government eleva-
tor at, 102; wheat exported
from, 52.
Varro, mentioned rust disease,
283.
Velocity of credit, principle of,
and crop movements, 132.
Velvet chaff wheat ( Preston ) ,
and Marquis in the United
States, 164; compared with
Marquis (Figs. 29, 30, 31),
166, 170, 171; percentage of
crop of, 167-160; replacement
by Marquis in ^Minnesota, 246-
248; various names for, and
origin, 149; yield of, in United
States, 193-196.
Vermilion, roller mill at, 181.
Vermont, home of C. G. Pringle,
226.
Vienna, discovery in a herbarium
at, 286.
Vilmorin, on the crossing of
wheats, 296.
von Marilaun, Kerner, on polli-
nation of grasses, 304-306.
von Tschermak, wheat hybrids
of, 296.
336
INDEX
W.
Wangen, emmer found in lake
dwellings of, 298.
War, the Great, and part played
by Marquis wheat, 255; and
price of wheat, 255; and the
Grain Growers' Export Com-
pany, 143; effect of peace on
crop value of Marquis, 246 ;
effect on grain trade of, 118-
129; efforts to increase crops
during, 40; export of flour
during, 136; increase of Mar-
quis during, 164.
Warburg, and the wild wheat,
286.
Warehouse receipts, for grain,
100-101.
Warfare, delightful, with wheat
and corn, 170.
Warren wheat, in Australia,
259.
Washing machine, how driven,
139.
Washington, Bureau of Crop Es-
timates at, quoted, 167;
Monthly Crop Reports, 191,
244, 245, 247, 249, 251.
Washington States, and Marquis
wheat, 160, 164, 165, 192.
Water-mills, number of, in 1849.
Water power, and milling, 134.
Wealth increased by introduction
of Marquis wheat, in Canada,
252-257; in North America,
257-258 ; in the United States,
246-252.
Weather, and yield of Marquis
wheat, 196; during harvesting,
48; very cold, in, 1825-1826,
19.
Weeds, chief kinds of, 44; choke
grain in 1813, 5; harrowing to
kill, 46; some introduced with
seed wheat in 1820, 13; on
stubble fields, 43.
Weed seeds in wheat, how esti-
mated, 88; kinds of, 70-71.
Weighing of wheat, at country
elevators, 56; general account
of, 98-100; by graders at
Winnipeg Grain Exchange,
how accomplished, 82, 87-88.
Weighmaster, the Chief, 100.
Weight, of Ladoga wheat in far
north, 181; of wheat in cer-
tain grades, 72-73; of wheat
per bushel, 175.
Western Canada, crop statistics
of, 35-40; effect of revolution
in the milling industry upon,
30-31; value of Marquis to,
256.
Western Canada Flour Mills
Company Limited, 135.
Western Inspection Division, for
cereals, 54, 59, 92.
Wheat, admixtures of, 70-71;
and Hudson Bay railway, 51-
52; and farmers' trading com-
panies, 141-142; and food,
227; and frost, 180-183; and
rust disease, 175-180; and
weather, 175-176; antiquity
and origin of, 279-285, 298 ; as
basis of Winnipeg's prosperity,
33; at terminal elevators, 60-
64; botanical classification of,
292-293; bought and sold at
Winnipeg Grain Exchange,
111-118; bought and sold by
elevator companies, 133; bush-
els raised in various countries,
40; cessation of future trading
in, 122; cleaned for seed, 44
color of kernels of, 260-262
commandeered in 1915, 119
conclusion concerning, 306
contract grades of, 111-112
INDEX
33'
crop of, average in western
Canada, 254; crop of, in 1821,
14; crosses of, with rye, 2GG;
cutting of (Fig. 5), 45; de-
stroyed by hail, 48; east-bound
movement of, 50; effect of ris-
ing price of, 121-122; eli'eet of
war on, 118-129; estimating
moisture in, 89; evolution of,
from wild ancestors, 294-295;
export of, in 1913, 39; export
of, in 1915-1916, 40; famine
price of, in 1826, 19; first ex-
port of, from Manitoba, 30 ;
flowing property of, 53, 57 ;
futures, 109-110; future trad-
ing in, prevented, 126; general
importance of improvement in,
230; gigantic monoply in, 126;
grinding of, for Hudson's Bay
Company, 23; harvesting of,
in western Canada, 46, 47;
heading out of, 46; heated, 71 ;
highest prices at Chicago and
Minneapolis, 124, 125; highest
prices at the Winnipeg Grain
Exchange, 121 ; high yield of
and earliness of, antagonistic
qualities, 185; hoeing of, 2;
how shipped at lake front, 63;
in box-cars, 57-59; in census
of 1822, 16; in country eleva-
tors, 56; in 1813, supposed
high yield of, 4; in flat ware-
houses, 55; in lake steamers,
65-66; in sample markets, 69-
70; in western Canada, 35-
141; inspection of, 75-93; late-
sown in 1.822, 20; milling and
baking properties of, 72; mix-
ing of grades prevented, 126;
moisture in, 71; natural
crosses of, 265-267; new seed
from the United States in
1820, 12-13; not descended
from einkorn, 297; per capita
production and use of, 39 ; pop-
ulation of, in a lield, mixed,
224; price variations of, 106-
107 ; prices of, at grain ex-
changes, 116, 121, 124-125;
prices fixed by Hudson's Bay
Company, 22; prices of dilier-
ent grades, 93; quality of,
198-100; rapid loading of into
steamers, 61; regulation of
price of, 125-129 ; removal
from farms of, 47-48; research
work on qualities of grain,
103; sampling of, 79-81, 84-
87; setting dockage of, 88;
silver watch exchanged for,
14; smutted, 71; sown in
1812 and 1813 at Red River
Settlement, 1 ; sown with
drills, 45; standard samples
of, 87; successful harvest of,
in 1815, 6; the Great Funnel,
49-51; the hour-glass, 14-15;
the wheat clock, 117-118; time
of pollination of, 305; tough
and damp, 104; variations pro-
duced by crossing, 150; want
of uniformity in, 162; winter,
in western Canada, 41-42;
yield per acre in various coim-
tries, 38.
Wheat-breeders, and the chewing
test, 202.
Wheat-breeding, attitude of Sea-
ger Wheeler towards, 273;
success of, in Canada, 250;
work of W. Saunders upon,
144-151.
Wheat Export Company, activity
of, in 1916-1917, 120-122;
origin of the, 120; president of
the, 128.
Wheat-growing, chief difficulties
of, 48; in the far North, 181-
338
INDEX
183 ; general account of, in
western Canada, 41-49.
Wheat kernels, development of,
from ovules, 218-221.
Wheat Pit, the, at Winnipeg
Grain Exchange, description
of, 116-118.
Wheat plants, development of,
221-222; spring from fertil-
ized eggs, 218-221.
Wheat Scab, a disease of vi^heat,
71, 178, 226.
^Vheats, cultivated, with a brittle
rachis, 295.
Wheeler, Seager, and a yield of
Marquis wheat, 191; a visit to
his farm, 269, 272-273; bio-
graphical note upon, 274; hail
destroys crops of, 268, 269 ; his
Red Bobs at Indian Head, 185;
origin of Kitchener and Red
Bobs wheats, 226; origin of
Red Bobs, 259, 262-268; selec-
tion of Kitchener by, 275-277;
sold White Bobs, 270; various
selection work of, 273 ; wins
prizes for wheat, 173-174.
White Bobs wheat, at Rosthern,
263-264.
White Clawson wheat, and Daw-
son's Golden Chaff, 224.
White Fife wheat, a parent of
Huron and Stanley wheats,
149; a parent of Prelude
wheat, 186-187; used for
crossing, 148.
White Horse Plains, death of
Indians on, 26.
White Russian wheat, replaced
by Red Fife, 218, 227.
Wild barley, evolution of, 294-
295; its brittle rachis, 294.
Wild oats, evolution of, 294.
Wild wheat of Palestine, a virile
vegetable, 291; general ac-
count of, 278-299; in United
States and Canada, 291; not
an escape from cultivation,
289 ; rediscovery of, by Aaron-
sohn, 286-291.
Winds, and the shelling of
wheat, 197; drying, and
wheat-raising, 48, 176; hot,
effect on wheat kernels, 199,
Wind-mills, in Selkirk Settle-
ment, 24, 27; metal-frame,
138.
Winnipeg, advantageous geo-
graphical position of, 108-109;
and loading platforms, 54; as
center of grain inspection, 91;
as converging point of the
wheat funnel, 49 ; census of
the village of, in 1870, 32; con-
centration of inspection at, 78;
daily car inspection at, 91;
flour mills at, 134, 135; Grain
Growers' Guide published at,
142; grain prices at, 105;
Grain Research Laboratory at,
102; grain trains passing
through, 59; introduction of
the grading system into, 69;
Red Fife wheat secured at, in
1876, 216; short delay of grain
trains at, 78, 84.
Winnipeg Board of Trade, and
the Survey Board, 97.
Winnipeg Grain Exchange, an
account of, 105-118; and
Board of Grain Supervisors,
128 ; and data upon damage
from the rust disease, 180;
Censoring Committee of, 121;
Clearing House of, 109-116;
closure of, 119; exhibition of
loaves at, 103-104; geographi-
cal position of, 108-109;
highest price of wheat at, 121;
grain inspection at, 78; Re-
INDEX
339
ports of, 35-36, 41, 91, 105,
106, 118-129; site once haunt
of Passenger pigeons, 5 ; stops
future trading in wheat, 122;
wheat pit of, 116-118.
Winnipeg Survey Board, and re-
inspection, 97.
Winnipeg wheat market, compe-
tition of war buyers in, 124.
Winter-spring wheat, at Seagcr
Wheeler's farm, 273.
Winter wheat, and Marquis,
247-248; in Minnesota, 162,
167; in western Canada, 41-
42 ; sown at Red River Settle-
ment in 1812, 1; yield of, in
the United States, 193-196.
Wisconsin, and Northwestern
Dent corn, 190; and Red Fife
wheat, 206; Marquis wheat in,
164; seed wheat from, con-
veyed to Red River Settlement,
13.
Wittmach, on barley found at
Troy, 297.
Wood, cutting of, on farms, 139.
Wood-lots, planting of, 140.
Women, increase ranks of work-
ers, 123; on farms, 140.
Wyoming, Marquis wheat in,
164.
Yellow Dent corn, origin of, 187-
18S.
follow stripe Rust disease, in
Kngland, 179.
Yield of wheat, high, and earli-
ness, 185; high, of Maniuis,
155, 173; of Kitchener, 276;
of Marquis and Red Fife, 175;
of Mar(juis, and shelling, 197;
of Marquis in the United
States, 192-196; of Marquis in
western Canada, 190-192; of
Red Bobs, 272; of Red Fife in
Wisconsin, 206,
Yukon, and Prelude wheat, 184.
Zavitz, C. A., on economic im-
portance of O. A. C. No. 21
barley, 239; on origin of Daw-
son's Golden Chalf wheat, 224.
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