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The aim of the writer of the present work is to furnish a
means of ready reference, to the professional and general
reader, on the treatment and prevention of horse diseases.
The call for such a production appears to be indicated on
several grounds. Never greater, or more urgent than at
the present moment, have been the demands for the services
of the horse in ministering to the various wants in human
industry ; while we are also practically convinced of a
large augmentation to his former monetary value : for

probably at no other epoch has the nation’s wealth in this
department amounted to such enormous proportions —
exceeding, as they do, the present estimated total value
of the horned stock, sheep, and swine of the United
Kingdom. With such advance there has arisen a greater
desire for the proper conservation of this colossal wealth ;
thus, opportunities for extended observation have been per-
mitted, and, during late years, progress in the study of
equine diseases — leading up to the entire subversion of
former errors, discovery of new truths, and confirmation
of others already held as tenable — has been remarkable,
and with the gratifying result that Veterinary Science in
Britain was never in such an advanced position.

Impelled by conclusions arising from a consideration of

the foregoing facts, an attempt has been made to arrange

and present 'an outline; off the most important information
on the subject, and' as 'far -as c possible, in. ' keeping with the
present state of progress', the ycterinary Art ; but how
far that has been accomplished, the reader will decide.

In the genera r arrangement' of treatise, the same form

has been adopted which was used in Every Ma7i his Own
Cattle Doctor^ to which the present is designed as a com-
panion volume ; in addition, the publishers having become
the proprietors of the copyright of Blaine's Outlines of the
Veterinary Art, have deemed it expedient to embody what-
ever was valuable in that work with the present ; and, thus
constituted, it is sent forth, with the earnest hope that it will
be found a simple yet serviceable aid to the horse pro-
prietor and breeder, &c., on the various subjects of which
it treats.

November, ‘1877.

CONTENTS.

Preface . y

List of Illustrations xiii

SECTION I.

The Blood. — Circulation — Heart — Capillaries — Arteries — Veins —
Colour — Density — Blood Discs — Coagulation — Liquor sanguinis
— Temperature — Blood in health — The pulse — Where felt —
Difference in animals — How influenced — The pulse in disease — Cha-
racters and variations — Venous pulse — General treatment of the
patient — Staible accommodation — Warm clothing — Diet — Bran —
Linseed — Barley — Carrots — Swedes — Parsnips — Green forage — Hay-
tea — Simple or common fever — Nature — Definition — Causes — Symp-
toms— Treatment — Sympathetic or symptomatic fever — Symptoms — ■
Nature and causes — Treatment— Inflammation — Nature and defini-
tion— Buffy coat — Symptoms — Causes — Termination — Treatment —
Abstraction of blood 1 — 58

SECTION II.

Blood Diseases. — Introduction — Plethora — Anaemia— Rheumatism —
Uraemia — Apnoea — Purpura haemorrhagica — Azoturia — Malignant
sore throat — Enzootic typhoid catarrh — Influenza — Enzootic pleurisy
— Scarlatina — Scarlatina sbnpiex — Scarlatina angmosa — Strangles
— Febra pyogenica — Pyogenic fever — Etrangler — Etranguillion —
Gourme strujna — External scrofula — Steaming the nostrils — Spongio-
piline — Is the disease contagious.^ — Inoculation — Results — Is the
disease scrofulous.? — Suppurative catarrh — Morbus glandulosus —
Bastard strangles — Strumous adenitis — Pyaemia — Farcy and glanders
— Spread — Inoculation — Use of the “budding iron” — Efficacy of
blisters — Caution as to the employment of diuretics — Preventive mea-
sures— Erroneous principles enjoined by the Act of 1869 — Value of
sulphurous acid gas — Chlorine gas — Creasote, carbolic acid, cresyllic
acid— Chloride of lime — McDougall’s disinfecting powder — Ventila-
tion— Improved valve — Legislation in reference to farcy and glanders
— Penalties . 59 — 158

Contents,

SECTION III.

Sporadic or General Diseases. — General peculiarities — Arrangement
— Diseases of the Respiratory Organs.— Catarrh — Laryngitis or
sore throat — Congestion of the lungs— Auscultation and percussion —
Bronchitis — Pneumonia, or inflammation of the lungs — Abscess —
Pleuritis, or pleurisy — Hydrothorax, or water in the chest — Paracentesis
thoracis, or tapping the chest — Vesicular and interlobular emphysema —
Asthma, or broken wind — Roaring, whistling, and grunting — Muscular
paralysis of the larynx — Obstructions by false membranes — Distortion
by the bearing-vein — The healthy larynx — Polypus in the nostril — Pus
in the guttural pouches — Fracture and malformation of the windpipe —
The bellans,” or “ bellones” — Abscission of the arytenoid cartilages
— Causes of temporary grunting and whistling— Chronic cough — Its
varieties — Chronic nasal catarrh, gleet, ozaena — Rey’s tube — Pus in the
frontal sinuses — The trephine — Accumulations in the guttural pouches
— Hyo-vertebrotomy — Caries and abscess of the bones — Spasm of the
diaphragm — Rupture, its varieties and consequences . . 159 — 212

SECTION IV.

Diseases of the Organs of Circulation. — Arteries and absorbents —
Nature and functions — Insuperable difficulties in prosecuting the study
of heart diseases among animals — Anaemic palpitation — Dyspeptic
palpi^aflon — Ruptures of the heart — The larger arteries — The counte-
nance expressive of pain— Cyanosis, or the blue disease — Foramejt
ovale — Blood circulation in foetal life — Carditis, or inflammation of the
heart — Hypertrophy — Atrophy — F atty degeneration — Pericarditis —
The fainting fit — Endocarditis — Bruit de soufflet — Danger of bleeding
— Diseases of the valves — Embolism — Iliac vessels — Arteries of the
hind-leg, outside — The same on the inner aspect — Aneurism, presence
of wo; ms in — Phlebitis, local and general forms — Thrombus — Admis-
sion of air into the veins — Varicose veins— Vein-stones, or phlebolites
— Megrims, vertigo, or venous obstruction — Facts to be remembered —
Diseases of the absorbents — Lymphangitis, or Lymphangeitis — Weed
— Thick leg — Shot or shewt of grease — The shake — Water-farcy —
Dropsy — Monday morning or holiday disease — Elephantiasis 213 — 249

SECTION V.

Diseases of the Organs of Digestion — Their rarity under good
management — Arrangement — Injuries and diseases of the mouth —
Wounds of the lips and cheeks— How to secure the jaws — Professor
Dick’s white lotion — How to apply it — Lacerated wounds — Tumour
and abscess — False practices of breakers — Burning and cutting for the
“ lampas” — Paralysis of the lower lips — Probable causes — The nerves of
the face — Sporadic aphthae, or thrush — Mutilation and paralysis of the
tongue — Glossitis — Action of caustic fluids — Ulcer — Injuries to, and
diseases of, the jaws — Fractures of the inferior maxillary bone —
Injuries to the articulation — Partial anchylosis — Tumour of bone —
Deformities and irregularities of the teeth — Parrot mouth — Quidding
the food — Wolfs teeth — Buck teeth — How to apply the mouth gag —
The tooth rasp — Rasps for upper and lower molars — Securing the horse

Contents.

for the operation — Pharyngeal polypi — Choking — Practices of knowing
grooms — Passing the probang — Wooden gag — Forceps — Opening the
oesophagus — Diseases of, and injuries to, the gullet — Dilatation —
Laceration — Structure — Vomiting — Peristaltic and antiperistaltic
actions — Why the horse rarely vomits — Stomach of the horse, dog,
and pig contrasted — Folds of mucous membrane at the cardiac orihce
— Necessary conditions for the act of vomition — Veterinary records —
Strangulated inguinal hernia — (Esophagus ventriculosis, or saccular
dilatation of the gullet — Dyspepsia, or chronic indigestion — Poisonous
action of iron — Acute indigestion, or impaction of the stomach —
Erroneous opinions in reference to nutritious food — Frenzy — Coma —
Paralysis — Rupture of the stomach — Constipation — Colic — Spasmodic
colic — Nausea — Flatulent colic — Remedies — Value of purgatives —
The colon the usual seat of flatulence — Hyposulphite of soda as a
remedy — Question of work after colic — Impacted colon and caecum —
Opinions on the use of aloes — Rupture of the colon — Enteritis, or in-
flammation of the bowels — Gastro-enteritis, or inflammation of the
stomach and bowels — Rarity of the disease — False teaching in relation
to it -Peritonitis — Thetraumaticand idiopathic forms — Volvulus — Ileus
— Intussusception, or invagination of the bowels — Strangulation — Cal-
culi— Intestinal concretions, or stones in the intestines — Peculiarity of
constitution, form, and integral arrangement — Effects of intestinal
motion-— Chemical composition — Origin — Nucleus, or centre — Oat-
hair, and mixed calculi, dust-balls, &c. — Diarrhoea — Washy horses —
Superpurgation— Cautions — Dysentery — Colitis, or bloody flux — Con-
trast in cattle — Imperforate anus and rectum — Ruptured rectum —
Haemorrhoids, or piles — Inversion, or prolapsus of the rectum — Para-
sites of the stomach — (Estris equi — History — Habits — Grave conse-
quences— I ntestinal parasites — A scaris megalocephala — SO'ongylus
Tape- worm — TcEuia plicata, Tcenia perfoliata, and TcBuia
mafnmillana — Symptoms of worms — Hernia, or rupture — Various forms
— Formation of hernia — Strangulation — Navel hernia — The truss —
The clams — Ligature — Inguinal hernia — Operation — Scrotal hernia —
Ventral hernia — Other varieties — Ascites, or dropsy of the abdomen —
Paracentesis abdo7uinis — Diseases of the liver — Congestion — Inflam-
mation— Softening and rupture — Jaundice, icterus, or the yellows —
Diseases of the spleen and pancreas — Crib-biting and wind-sucking
— Opinions on the nature of — The crib-biter’s teeth . 251 — 385

SECTION VI.

Diseases of the Urinary Organs. — Peculiarities of the urinary
secretion — Density of the urine — Method of testing the specific gravity
— Temperature — Constitution — Fluid and solid constituents — Che-
mical composition — Physical characters and changes — Functional
disorders — Profuse urination, or Oi. ’'^tes insipidus, diuresis, polyuria,
profuse staling, &c. — Obstructions to the flow of urine — Ischury,
dysury, straiigiuy — Retention of urine — How to evacuate the bladder —
Preputial calculi — Incontinence of urine — Oxaluria — Crystals from the
urine— Simple, or idiopathic albuminuria — Structural derangement of
the kidneys — Traumatic albuminuria — Albuminous nephritis, Bright’s
disease, Granular degeneration of the kidneys— Examination of the
urine — Characters of the albumen — Tests,&c. — Nephritis, or inflamma-
tion of the kidneys — Morbid constituents of the urine — Results of the

Contents.

disease — Haematuria, or blood in the urine — Urethral calculi — Cystitis,
or inflammation of the bladder — Inversion — Lithiasis, gravel, and
calculus — Origin of earthy matters — Composition of urinary deposit —
Sabulous matter — Urinary calculi— Removal of stone from the bladder
of the mare — Of the horse — Removal of sabulous matter — Means for
prevention and cure 387—426

SECTION VII.

Diseases of the Organs of Generation.— Order— Diseases of the
male organs — Urethritis — Inflammation of the urethra — Phimosis —
Paraphimosis — Opinions of Percivall and D’Arboval — Cruelties in
coal-mines — Frauds by Yorkshire dealers — Amputation of the penis —
Castration, and its results — Suitable age for the performance of the
operation — Descent of the testicles — Influences on the temperament,
as well as outward form and development, &c. — Selection of proper
season, weather, &c. — Precautions — Securing the colt — Cauterisation
— Torsion — Ligature — Covered operation — Caustic, and other clams
— Results of castration, abscess, scirrhous cord, &c. — Diseases of the
female organs— Abortion, and premature labour — Period of gestation
in the mare — Limitation of -the terms — Causes — Stages of the morbid
process — Signs — Results — Retention of the membranes — Disposal of
remains — Difficult parturition, arising from malpresentation of the
foetus — The natural act described — Anterior presentations — Head
only — Head and one foot — Fore-limbs crossed over the head — Head
and knees presented— Head presented ; fore-legs stretched backwards
— Fore-limbs presented ; head downwards, four varieties — Fore-feet
presented ; head turned backwards — Third form, with head turned
upwards and backwards — Head and all the feet presented — Head and
ears only — Posterior presentations — Hind-feet — Other forms — Hocks
— Breech, croup, and thighs — Transverse, or cross presentations —
The back, in its various forms — Abdomen and feet — Multiple concep-
tion— Its various forms and modifications — General considerations —
Danger of delay — Value of mechanical skill — Use of emollient fluids
— Internal remedies — Use of cords, hooks, knives, and saw, &c. —
Decapitation — Amputation — Detruncation — Evisceration — Diseases
incidental to parturition — Flooding — Inversion and rupture of the
uterus — Inflammation of the womb — Dropsy — Hernia — Rupture of
the abdominal muscles — Vaginitis — Leucorrhoea . . 427 — 520

SECTION VIII.

Diseases of the Eyes and their Appendages. — Ophthalmia-
Conjunctivitis — Stationary pupil — Opacity of the cornea — Nebula,
albugo, and leucoma — Specific ophthalmia — Cataract — Staphyloma —
Glaucoma — Amaurosis — Squinting — Diseases of the appendages —
Ectropium — Entropium — Laceration of the eyelids — Removing the
haw — Fungus haematodes 521 — 541

SECTION IX.

Diseases of the Nervous System. — Inflammation of the brain —
Cerebritis — Epilepsy — Chorea — Coma, sleepy staggers, co7na sojmto-
lentum, ii7i7nobilite — Shivering — Softening of the brain— Cerebral

Contents,

apoplexy — Diseases of the spinal cord and its coverings — Paralysis
— Paraplegia, or hemiplegia — Inflammation of the spinal cord and its
coverings, spinitis, or myelitis— Illustrative case — Tetanus, trismus, or
locked-jaw, and its forms, opisthotonos, emprosthotonos, and pleuros-
thotonos, or tetanus lateralis — Rabies — Hysteria , • 542— 574

SECTION X.

Diseases of the Skin and its Appendages.— Classification —
Erythema, simple and chronic — Erythema paratrimma — Erysipelas —
Urticaria, or nettle rash — Lichen, or papulous erythema — Prurigo —
Eczema, simple and chronic — Psoriasis, or rat-tails — Bullous eruptions
— Herpes — Herpes phlyctenodes — Herpescircinatus— Impetigo, or pus-
tular inflammation of the skin — Impetigo of the face and lips — Impetigo
colli — Inflamed heels — Impetigo erisypelatodes,or grease — Grapes and
fissures — Sarcoptes hippopodus— Furuncule, boils or carbuncles —
Sitfasts — Diseases of the appendages of the skin — Laminitis — Changes
in structure— Broad’s treatment — Coronitis — Carbuncle of the coronet
— False quarter — Sandcrack — Thrush — Canker — Horn tumours —
Seedy toe — Corns — Parasitic diseases of the skin — Animal parasites
— Scabies, or mange — Sarcoptes^ dermatodectes, and symbiotes equi —
Lice — Poultry lousiness — Dermanyssus avium — Ticks and maggots
— Ixodes ricmus — Vegetable parasites — Favus, or honeycomb— Ring-
worm— Tinea tonsurans, or true ringworm . . . 575 — 634

SECTION XL

Local Injuries, Lameness, &c.— Incised wounds— Twisted, interrupted,
and other sutures — Lacerated wounds — Many-tailed bandage — Con-
tused wounds — Use of spongio-pilhte — Punctured wounds — Pricks in
shoeing and gathered nails — The “ drawn nail” — The “ bind” — Punc-
tures of the feet — Punctures of the coffin or navicular joint — Bruising
or contusion with abscess — Poll evil — Wound of the scalp — Fistulae of
the withers — Speedy cut, cutting, brushing, and banging — Quittor —
Broken knees — Anchylosis — Wounds of arteries and veins — Haemor-
rhage— Use of styptics — Fractures, their varieties — Splints and ban-
dages— Particular fractures — Cranial bones — O ccipital crest — V ertebrae
— Sacral bone — Bones of the tail — Pelvic bones —Bones of the extre-
mities— Scapula, humerus, radius, bones of the knee — Metacarpal, pas-
tern, coronet, sesamoid, navicular, and coffin bones— Fractures of the
bones of the hind extremities, the femur, tibia, and os calcis, &c.—
Fractures of the ribs — Diseases of bones due to ostitis — Sore shin—
Splints — Periosteotomy — Sprain of the elbow — Emphysema of the
elbow — Capped elbow — Sprain of the muscles of the forearm — Knee-
joint lameness — Sprain of the back sinews — Tenotomy — Sprain of the
suspensory ligament — Break-down — Sprain of the fetlock-joint— Ring-
bones, true and false ; high and low — Their hereditary nature — Lame-
ness in the hip — Lameness in the stifle-joint — Luxation of the patella
— Sprain of the flexor metatarsi — Hock-joint lameness — Bone spavin
— Bog spavin — Blood spavin — Thorough pin — Broad’s truss — Capped
hock — Curb — Navicular disease, or grogginess — Neurotomy — Disease
of the coffin bone — Injury of pyramidal process — Side-bones — Anti-
septic treatment of wounds 635 — 745

Xll

Contents.

SECTION XII.

Operations. — Casting, or throwing — The hobbles — How to put them on
— Side-straps — Leg-rope — The bed — The side-line — The twitch —
M or allies en bois — M or allies en fer — Leg-strap — The trevis, or stocks
— Use of ansesthetics — Firing — Firing-irons — Docking — Slinging —
Tracheotomy — (Esophagotomy — Balling — Manner of holding the
bolus — Various instruments employed — Drenching — Method of hold-
ing the horse — Enemas, lavements, or clysters — The endermic method,
or subutaneous injection 747 — 777

Poisons. — Frequency of poisoning — Noxious substances — Simple irri-
tants— Chemical, or corrosive irritants — Nervine poisons — Subdivisions
— Empirical poisoning — Accidental poisoning — Wilful and malicious
poisoning — Symptoms of poisoning — Treatment . . 779 — 785

SECTION XIII.

SECTION XIV.

The Dispensatory

787— 813

Glossary .

Index

815—820

821—830

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Pa^e

1. Plan of circulation .... 4

2. Blood discs magnified ... 6

3. Circulating blood .... 9

4. Blood in inflammation ... 30

5< Single many-tailed bandage . 42

6. Seton, needle, and handle. . 47

7 & 8. Two ways of securing the

seton 48

9. Veins terminating in the right

side of the heart . . . . 51

10. Veins of head and face . . . 52

11. Lancet for bleeding , • • . 53

12. The fleam 54

13. Blood-stick 54

14. Twisted suture 55

1 5. Pin pointer 56

16. Carotid artery 57

17. The bones of the knee-joint . 69

18. The knee-joint after chronic

rheumatism 69

19. Purpura hgemorrhagica . . . 79

20. Head of horse affected with

the same 80

21. Malignant sore throat ... 90

22. Influenza 106

23. Enzootic pleurisy . . . .117

24. Water returning by the nostrils 127

25. Strangles 128

26. Steaming the nostrils . . .131

27. Manner of dressing the ab-

scesses of strangles . . .132

28. Suppurative catarrh . . .137

29. The budding iron .... 144

30. Apparatus for producing sul-

phurous acid 147

31. Ditto for producing chlorine gas 149

32. Ditto do. in solu-

tion 149

33. Spray distributor 150

34. Brick valve for ventilation . . 155

35. Congestion of the lungs . .167

36. Arteries of the fore-leg . . .168

37. Bronchitis 173

38. Pneumonia 176

39. Pulmonary abscess . . . .180

Page

40. Transverse section of chest . 181

41. Pleurisy 183

42. Hydrothorax, last stage . .185

43. Preparations for tapping the

chest 188

44. Trocar and canula . . . .188

45. Emphysema of the lungs . .189

46. Asthma, or broken wind . .193

47. The greedy-feeder muzzled . 194

48. Muscular paralysis of larynx,

causing roaring . . . .197

49. The larynx obstmcted by false

membranes 197

50. The windpipe distorted by the

use of the bearing-rein . . 198

51. The healthy larynx .... 198

52. Polypus in the nostril . . . 198

53. Rey’s nostril-tube .... 205

54. Place for opening frontal sinus 206

55. The trephine 207

56. Abscess of turbinated bone . 210

57. Diaphragm 21 1

58. The heart, arteries, lungs, and

stomach 224

59. The haggard expression of

countenance 225

60. The fainting fit 228

61. Iliac vessels 234

62. Arteries outside of hind-leg . 235

63. Ditto inside of ditto .... 236

64. Lymphangitis 246

65. Elephantiasis 248

66. The jaws secured against move-

ment 255

67. Wound in the cheek, com-

municating with interior of
mouth f . 257

68. Paralysis of lower lip . . . 259

69. Nerves of the face .... 260

70. Paralysis of tongue .... 263

71. Situation of fracture in lower

jaw 265

72. Partial anchylosis of maxillary

joint 267

73. The tight head collar . . . 268

XIV

List of Illustrations.

Page

74. Disease of upper jaw, dis-

placing incisor teeth . . 269

75. Parrot-mouth 269

76. Toothache 271

77. Iron gag 272

7k Tooth-rasp 272

79. Ditto for upper molars . .273

80. Do. for lower do 273

81. Extempore hook for remov-

ing obstructions from back
of mouth 278

82. Wooden gag 281

83. Forceps for withdrawing

pieces of root from the
gullet 282

84. Laceration of the gullet . . 285

85. Dilatation and stricture of the

gullet 287

86. Stomach of the horse . . .291

87. Interior of the stomach of the

horse 292

88. Stomach of the dog . . - 293

89. Ditto of pig 293

90. Mucous membrane closing

cardiac oi'ifice of gullet . 293

91. Saccular dilatation of ditto . 303

92. Chronic indigestion . . . 305

93. Impaction of the stomach . 31 1

94. Stomach laid open . . .313

95. Nausea 318

96. .Gastro-enteritis 328

97. ' Reflections of the peritoneum 330

9k Invagination of bowel . . 332

99. Small intestinal calculus . . 334

100. Large do. section 334

101. Do. do. do. 334

102. Oat-hair calculus .... 335

103. Superpurgation 340

104. Bots clinging to internal coat

of the stomach .... 350

105. Intestine forming a hernia . 357

106. Haggard expression of the

countenance 357

107. Death from strangulation. . 358

108. Truss for navel hernia . . 360

109. Wooden clams for ditto . . 362

no. Iron sci'ew ditto .... 362

111. Inguinal hernia 364

112. Scrotal ditto 367

1 1 3. Ascites, or dropsy of abdo-

men 370

1 14. The fainting fit . . . . .377

1 1 5. Teeth of the crib-biter. . . 382

1 1 6. llrinometer 391

1 1 7. Flexible, or male, catheter . 401
]i8. Female catheter .... 401

119. Male urethra 403

120. Crystals of oxalate of lime . 406

Page

12 1. Acute albuminuria . . , .410

122. Chronic do 410

123. Nephritis 413

124. 125, & 126. Urinary calculi . 422

127. Extraction of stone from blad-

der of mare 424

128. Extraction of stone from blad-

der of horse 425

129. Glass syringe 430

130. Phimosis 430

131. Paraphimosis 432

1 32. Colt secured for castration . 438

133. Burgess and Willows’ clams . 440

134. Parallel adjustment do . . 440

135. Caustic clams 441

13k The mare uneasy .... 449

137. Do. as she lies previous

to abortion 450

138. Natural presentation of foetus 456

139. Approaching delivery . . .457

140. The recumbent position . . 458

141. Head only presented . . . 460

142. Do. and one foot . . . .461

143. Legs crossed over the neck . 461

144. Fore-legs flexed ; head and

knees presented .... 462

145. Fore-legs back; head only

presented 462

146. Fore -legs only presented;

head downwards .... 463

147. Fore -legs only presented;

head back 464

148. Fore -legs only presented;

head turned upwards and
and backwards 466

149. Head and fore-legs presented ; ‘

hind-feet also advanced . 467

150. Head and ears presented . . 469

151. Single traction hook . . . 470

152. Double do. ... 471

153. Hind-feet presented . . .471

154. Hocks do. . . . 473

155. Breech and thigh presenta-'

tion 475

156. Concealed knife 477

157. Back presented; transverse

position 478

158. Back presented ; vertical posi-

tion 478

159. Back presented ; vertical posi-

tion 479

160. Abdomen and feet presented . 480

161. Double gestation .... 482

162. Traction rope 488

163. Head rope 489

164. Porte-coid, or cord-carrier . 490

165. Position of fingers when ad-

vancing to the uterus . . 490

List of Illustrations,

170.

171.

172.
173-
174.

175

166. Mackinder’s hooks . ,

167. Therepeller. . . .

168. Ring scalpel ....

169. Concealed embryotom

Embryotom hook . ,

Saw

Spatula . . . . ,

Leather truss . .

Rope truss ....
Wooden pessary

176. The eyeball . . .

177. Muscles of the eye .

178. Forceps ....

179. Tenaculum .

180. Pupil dilated . . .

18 1. Do. contracted. .

182. Opacity of cornea .

183. Eye predisposed to specific

ophthalmia

184. Partial cataract

185. Complete do.

186. Staphyloma .

187. Amaurosis .

188. Ectropium .

189. Entropium .

The haw partially cove

the eyeball . . .

Fungus hoematodes. .
Phrenitis, comatose stage
The shiverer ....

194. Tetanus

195. The eye in tetanus . .

196. Rat-tails

197. Vesicular ringworm

198. Crust or scab of do.

199. Confirmed grease .

190.

191.

192.

193-

200. Sarcoptes hippopodus .

201. Pumice foot ....

202. Hoof wrinkled by diseas

203. Coffin bone, healthy .

204. Do. diseased .

205. False quarter . . .

206. Sandcrack at the quarter

207. Do. toe .

208. Cross firing for sandcrac

209. Clamping-iron . . .

210. The clamp and forceps

21 1. Circular and triangular firing 617

212. Horn tumours 622

213. Do. invading coffin bone . 622

214. Seedy toe 622

215. Coffin bone diseased

corns 624

216. Sarcoptes equi 626

217. Dermatodectes do 627

218. Symbiotes do 628

219. Dermanyssus avium, female . 630

220. Do. do. male . 630

Pa^e

491

492

493
493

493

494

507

508

523

526

527

528

533

534

535

536

537

538

540

541
546
555

569

570
588

590

595

596

603

604
604

611

612
612

615

616
616

Page

221. Ixodes ricinus, common tick . 631

222. True ringworm 633

223. Twisted suture 638

224. Interrupted do 638

225. Uninterrupted do 639

226. Suture needle ..... 639

227. Quilled suture 639

228. Many-tailed bandage . . . 641

229. Position of the head in poll

evil 647

230. Fistulae of withers .... 649

231. Quittor 651

232. Knee-joint, front view . . 654

233. Do. back do. . .654

234. Do. anchylosed . . 654

235 & 236. Fractures . . . .657

237. Pelvis, side view .... 667

238. Do. seen from below . . 668

239.

240.

241.

242.
243-
244.
245-

246.

247.

248.

249.

250.

251.

252.
253-
254.
255-

256.

257.

Scapular 671

Humerus 671

Radius and ulna . . , .672

Metacarpal bone .... 674
Os suffraginis, or pastern . . 674

Sessamoid bones, back view . 675
Do. articular sur-
face 675

Navicular bone 676

Lower bones of the limb . .676

Femur 680

Tibia 68 1

Bones of the hock .... 682
Sore shin” 687

Simple form of splint . . . 688

Extensive do. . . . 689

Periosteotomy knife . . .691

Congenital muscular atony . 697

Do. do. . 698

Anchylosis of shoulder -joint . 703

258. Muscles of inside of shoulder-

blade . - 704

259. Muscles of outer side of shoul-

der-blade 705

260. Muscles of inside of humerus . 706

261. Ligaments of elbow-joint .

262. Anchylosis of do. . .

263. Capped elbow

264. Muscles of back of humerus .

265. Section of bones and ligaments

of knee 713

266. Ligaments of back of leg . . 715

267. Upper ringbone 720

268. Lower do 720

269. Stifle-joint, back view . . 723

270. Do. front do. . . . 723

271. Muscles of thigh, inside . . 724

272. Dislocation of patella . . . 725

273. Muscles of hind-leg . . . 727

274. Bones of the hock .... 728

708

709

710

XVI

List of Illustrations.

Page

275. Bone spavin 730

276. Eburnation of astragalus . . 730

277. Thorough pin and bog-spavin 731;

278. Broad’s truss. . - . . . 735

279. Seat of curb 737

280. Side-bones 743

281. Do. 744

282. Do. 744

283. The hobbles 750

284. Do. on the horse. . 751

285. Screw hook for securing do. . 752

286. Side-line 755

287. Wooden nose-twitch . . . 756

288. Iron do. ... 756

289. 290, & 291. Firing irons 760, 761

292. Docking knife 762

293. Position of the windpipe . . 764

Page

294. Tracheotomy tube .... 765

295. Manner of holding the bolus . 767

296. Iron gag, or balling-iron . . 768

297. Regulating balling-iron . . 768

298. Improved folding pocket ball-

ing-iron, open .... 768

299. Improved folding pocket ball-

ing-iron, closed .... 768

300. Wood bali'ng probang . . 769

301. Balling pi tol 769

302. Balling forceps 769

303. Drenching norn 771

304. Do. bottle . . . .771

305. Gamgee’s enema funnel . .774

306. Reid’s syringe 774

307. Smoke enema 775

308. Endermic syringe and needle 776

PLATES.

I. Section of Horse’s Head facing page 80

II. Contents OF THE Thorax „ 176

III. Abdomen laid Open „ 224

IV. Intestines of the Horse „ 320

V. Strangulation of the Small Intestines

— Coloured F7'ontispiece

VI. Calculus in Small Intestine— . facing page

VII. Uterus of the Mare „ 481

VIII. Base of’the Brain „ 545

IX. Section of the Head „ 560

X. Structures of the Foot „ 608

XI. The Skeleton „ 657

XII. Superficial Layer of Muscles „ 704

XIII. Deeper Layer of Muscles „ 737

SECTION I.

THE BLOOD.

The blood is the coloured fluid that circulates through the
whole of the body by means of appropriate vessels carrying
nourishment, which it derives from certain processes exerted
upon the food taken into the digestive organs. The pro-
perties and functions of the blood may be briefly enumerated
as follow : —

The Circulatio7i or Movement is designed as an effective
means whereby the necessary materials are properly con-
veyed to all parts, in order to nourish the various tissues,
and provide for their regular growth and maintenance. It
also admits of the return to the proper centre of all the
effete or useless materials which find their way into the
blood — Substances the result of an incessant change or decav
of the different tissues. The blood, therefore, not only co
tains the elements necessary for the building up of the bod
but also substances which are of no farther service, wi
others incapable of being utilised ; and the flow or circula-
tion proves equally important in the distribution of the first,
as in promoting the exit of the rest from the body.

The heart is the great organ of propulsion. It receives
constant supplies of blood by means of a special cavity
called a ventricle, on the right side, and by forcible contrac-
tion distributes it through the lungs, where, by the influence
of the atmosphere in respiration, it becomes charged with
oxygen, assumes a brighter colour, and is purified. From

1—2

The Blood.

thence the blood returns to the ventricle on the left side of
the heart, and by the usual contraction is distributed over
the body by means of special tubes or vessels, called arteries.
These arteries, as they are extended to the farther portions
of the body and various organs, break down, or undergo a
series of division and subdivision into smaller and yet
smaller branches, and ultimately are so
diminutive, that they have been termed 4
capillaries, or hair-like tubes. They are
the seat of some of the most important
vital and chemical changes which are
incessantly going on within the blood,
and likewise certain mechanical opera-
tions which determine the movement
and direction of the various elements.
These changes consist in, principally,
the selection of, and distribution to, cer-
tain parts and organs, the required ele-
ments of nutrition, receiving the worn-
out, useless, and unsuitable particles,
and determining their passage onwards ;
the union of various substances in che-
mical combination develops animal heat
or temperature, and the change of colour
from a bright scarlet to a darker or
Modena red is apparent. Gradually the
capillaries disappear, and in their place
larger and fewer vessels are seen, which
by repeated union with each other become common trunks
in each part or limb, and these finally joining one large
vessel, terminate at the heart. The arrangement of vessels
conveying pure or scarlet blood is known as the arterial
system, and that confined to the return flow of blood — the
impure having the Modena colour — is named the Venous

Ftg. I. — Plan of the
Circulatio7i.

1. Capillaries of the lungs.

2. Pulmonary veins,

3. ,, artery.

4. Left auricle

5. ,, ventricle of the

6. Right auricle heart.

7. ,, ventricle

8. & 9. Branches to the head

and neck.

10. Posterior aorta.

11. ,, cava.

12. Capillaries of the general

surface, &c.

The Blood.

System, distinctions which, i -emembered, will materially
assist the reader in his progre. through the work.

Density of the Blood. — The specific weight or gravity of
the blood, as compared with water, varies from i’052 to
1*057. This property is derived from the different com-
pounds that enter into its composition. The following
diagram shows the condition of the blood under two aspects—
circulation and coagulation : —

Circulating

Blood

Liquor "j Serum and
Sanguinis | Fibrine

Coagulated

h Clot

Blood

Globules

Blood.

In further elucidation the following remarks are necessary :
If a minute drop of blood is examined under the magnifying
power of a microscope, it will be found to consist of two
portions — one, a solid, or apparently solid, floating in the
second, a clear fluid. Under closer inspection it is ob-
served that the solid portion is made up of a number
of separate particles — blood globules, blood discs, red
globules, &c. These vary in size in different animals, being
about 4^ of an inch in diameter in the ox or horse ; in the
dog they vary from 3^ to ^ ; in the elephant, 2A5 i
musk deer, ; dromedary, ^ ; goat, ^ ; reptiles

from to ; fishes, ^ to ytu I birds, to
The thickness is about one-fourth of their width ; and in
shape they are flat and circular, with some exceptions in
mammals — hence their name blood discs (Fig. 2). Among
the lower animals they are oval, and in reptiles each disc or
globule contains within itself a nucleus, or secondary cell, for
the purpose of reproduction. Besides the coloured discs
there are others — colourless globules, smaller in size, and

The Blood.

much less numerous, being in the proportion of about one
to thirty of the former.

Fig. 2. — Blood-discs or Red Glolmles.

Enlarged View, Natural size about i-4oooth of an inch in diameter.

The clear fluid in which the globules float is called liquor
sanguinis, or blood liquid ; it has a mucilaginous consistence,
a yellow colour, and, outside the body, is separable into two
portions — serum and fibrine, the latter of which undergoes a
process of solidification known as coagulation, and, by sur-
rounding the blood discs, carries them down with it. Blood,
which has been suffered to remain at rest some little time
after being collected in a glass vessel, then appears to consist
of two parts, the clot or crassamentum at the bottom, and
over which is a clear straw-coloured fluid, the serum — the
whole constituting coagulated blood. It is not our intention
to discuss here the various arguments relative to the cause
and process of the coagulation of the blood. The fact of
such an inevitable result being common to healthy blood,
possesses an important significance — it not only points to
the effect of external causes when removed from the living
body, but also explains some of the morbid conditions which
take place within the circulation, consequent upon disease.
The causes of coagulation of the blood appear to have their
origin in vital as well as chemical influences. These are^

The Blood.

absence or removal of the power and effects of living tissues,
and propelling action of the heart and bloodvessels, as well
as the want of the power of maintenance, which is conferred
upon the blood within the body ; contact with foreign bodies
or tissues rendered inanimate or temporarily devitalised by
injury, and multiplication of such points of contact ; rest, as
favouring a physical separation of the heavier particles from
the lighter ; and, lastly, attraction of the blood globules and
their adhesion with each other.

The liquor sanguinis, besides containing fibrine, also con-
tains a principle called albumen, with water and various
salts, fatty and other adventitious matters, certain gases, &c.
The proportions are : of water from 730 to 8 1 5 parts in 1000 ;
of fats, in accordance with the mode of feeding, i to 2 parts
in 1000 in the horse. Of the various salts and organic
principles great variation is observed, their presence depend-
ing greatly upon the mode of life, kind and quality of food,
activity of functions, &c.

In all the higher animals blood is warm, having a tempe-
rature which varies in accordance with the kind of animal, as
well as from the vigour of vital forces within. The origin
of heat is due to chemical changes taking place in the blood
actuated by the presence of suitable agents which have the
power of, and affinity for, union with each other. Such
agents are doubtless both chemical and vital, and being
brought together in contact with, and under the influence of,
vital powers, combination ensues, new compounds are formed,
and heat is given out exactly as is observed in the simple
experiment of adding cold water to oil of vitriol, and in the
percussion-cap after being exploded by a blow. The tem-
perature of the blood is a safe guide to the state of the
system in general. It is communicated to the tissues, as
the blood flows through them, and the whole body is warmed.
Decline of function, whether it arises as a result of disease.

The Blood.

starvation, &c., is inevitably shown by decline of temperature
of the blood, and, therefore, by the body as a whole. It
points to an obstruction to proper nutrition — the incomplete
passage of the elements of food into the blood ; to an arrest
of chemical and vital action ; to impregnation of the blood
with poisonous materials ; to a want of maintaining or
' purifying power on the part of the blood, or certain organs,
&c. A proper elevation of temperature is consistent and
correlative with healthy function ; and the influences of cer-
tain disease and other actions within the organism, also bring
about certain elevations and fluctuations known as “ diurnal
variations,” a knowledge of which proves of very essential
service to the Veterinary Surgeon.

The temperature of animals in health and disease is
doubtless influenced by surrounding conditions : thus those
of the former kept under close confinement, although fed
liberally, have been found to exhibit a lower reading by the
thermometer, than when taken to work, or allowed the quiet
run of a pasture ; likewise animals suffering from identical
diseases will indicate variations of temperature dependent on
the state to which they are subjected — the close atmosphere
of buildings having the opposite of the invigorating effects
of the open air of the field. We have elsewhere recorded
some useful observations on this subject, to which the reader
is referred for minute details."^

The maintenance of a proper circulation of the blood, and
propagation of animal temperature, is of vast importance in
insuring a healthy condition. Circulation and temperature
bear a certain, but by no means an invariable, relation to
each other, and, therefore, a knowledge of the essential
characters of the blood, and its connexion with such vital

* “The Thermometer as an Aid to Diagnosis.” London: H. Kimpton,
82, High Holborn. Edinburgh ; Maclachlan and Stewart. Price u.

The Blood.

forces as are contained within itself, becomes of paramount
importance to all who desire to clearly understand and treat
properly the diseases of the animal body. It is, however,
impossible to attempt more than an epitome of these in a
work not exclusively devoted to the subject of animal phy-
siology ; as the various maladies are brought under discus-
sion, further references will be made to the conditions which
are recognised as leading agencies in the morbid processes
known as disease.

In the circulation of blood through the vessels in health,
the current is very accurately regulated by various means :
the elastic nature of the arteries, pressure and movement of
surrounding tissues, force of the heart’s action from behind,
and an aspiratory or drawing power in front, capillary attrac-

Fig. 3. — Circulating Blood.

tion, consistence of the blood itself, being essential and
instrumental to proper performance. In the accompanying
diagram (Fig. 3), the state of healthy blood circulation is

The Blood,

shown. The current is indicated by arrows \ a a the
walls of the bloodvessel \ b b b, surrounding tissue, from
its form and composition being termed cellular ; c c, the
red globules, maintaining a steady and uniform current
through the centre of the tube. Upon their outside is
shown a number of white or colourless globules, moving
at a slower rate. The clear space surrounding the stream
of red globules is occupied by the fluid portion of the blood
— liqiior sanguinis ; indeed, it is the fluid in which all the
particles of the blood are floating.

Tile Pulse.

The flow of blood is constant and rapid. In order to
prove this fact, certain substances of a chemical character,
and remarkable for being easily detected, have been injected
within the jugular vein of one side, and after the lapse of a
given time, blood has been drawn from the opposite vein for
testing. It is thus certain that the blood has traversed the
whole of the body, and the results of various investigations
have proved that the time occupied in the horse and ox is
about 20 seconds; dog, 15 ; goat, 12; and in the rabbit
6 or 7 seconds.

The great agent of the circulation, as we have already
said, is the heart. It is a large, hollow, muscular organ,
divided into several compartments for the reception of the
blood ; and by alternate dilatations and contractions, assisted
by valves, the fluid is confined to one direction. The
arteries receive the blood as it leaves the heart, and the
impulse arising from the pressure of an extra quantity forced
into them, is communicated first to the column already
within the tube, and next to the elastic walls, causing them
to expand rapidly, immediately, however, contracting to their
former calibre. Such alternate expansions and contractions

The Pulse.

1 1

are continuous, entirely in accordance with the action of the
heart, and constitute what we term the “pulse.” Without
the contractions of the heart, there can be no pulse. The
alternate swelling and subsidence of the artery under pres-
sure of the finger exhibit certain modifications according to
circumstances, and recognised conditions plainly indicate
the state of the heart and circulation generally. The arteries
in all parts of the body afford similar evidences, but those
far removed, as in the limbs, do not as a rule expand imme-
diately on the contraction of the heart, as in larger trunks,
and those nearer that organ. A perceptible time elapses,
and the impulse is also diminished. There is no pulse in
the veins, except in an instance to be referred to. After
the blood has passed through the capillaries, the current
is equalised by obstructions of various kinds, the pulse is
lost, and the return by the veins is slow and uninter-
rupted.

The pulse is conveniently felt at the jaw. At this part
the submaxillary artery comes from the inner side, and
winding along passes over the lower edge of the bone, and
mounts upwards on the outside of the face. Here the artery
of the left side is readily felt by means of the first and second
fingers of the right hand, which are pressed upon it towards
the inner side of the bone, while the thumb is placed out-
side, in order to maintain a firm position. The artery of
the right side also may be conveniently examined, when the
left hand must be used, the right being placed over the nose
of the animal to secure stillness. When the animal is mas-
ticating, the pulse may be examined at another part. The
brachial artery may be felt at a point on the inside of the
forearm, below the shoulder, and nearly on a line with the
elbow-joint, but in advance of it. A little practice is
required to detect the vessel at this part, but if the situation
of the joint be noticed, and the vertical ridge of the arm-

The Blood.

bone (radius) is selected as a centre, the fingers need not
wander far to discover the pulse.

Other parts also conveniently offer the means of
examining the pulse, as the fetlock-joint, where the meta-
carpal arteries are present ; the facial artery may also be
found a little higher than the point at which the submaxillary
is felt at the jaw, below the eye, and behind the angle of the
mouth. In some cases it is necessary for the practitioner
to pass his hand up the rectum — anus, or fundament — in
order to examine the condition of the large abdominal and
iliac arteries. Any difference in the calibre of, or obstruc-
tion to' the flow of blood in, these vessels are significant
tokens of damage to the hind parts.

It is not necessary to exert a great amount of pressure on
the vessel under examination. When two fingers are
employed, the artery should be included in the hollow
existing between them when held together, and thus the
liability to roll or move is lessened. Pressure should be
moderate and well regulated, when the impulse will be
communicated with precision and certainty.

The number of pulsations in health varies in different
animals. Thus between the large and coarser breeds of
horses, and the smaller ponies, there is probably a difference
of six or eight beats in the space of one minute, the highest
number being, of course, observed in the lesser and more
active animal. In adult horses the average numbers, ac-
cording to breeding, will range from thirty-five to forty ; in
the colt at the period of birth it will be as high as sixty ;
but as time advances a gradual diminution will take place
until the adult standard is reached.

The pulse is influenced in health by various conditions,
for which careful allowances have to be made when appealing
to it as an aid to the investigation of disease. Temperament
exerts powerful effects upon the circulation. This must be

a lengthered discussion of,'" the various theories adopted r
garding the nature and definition of inflammation, nor is it
strictly within our province ; sufficient for all practical pur-
poses will be gathered hyvA the following remarks.

By a reference to Fig? 4, page 30, it will be observed that
in circulating blood the. central line of the current is composed
of red globules, or blopd-discs, moving freely upon and over
each other. There is no disposition to assume awkward
shapes, or block up the vessels ; on the contrary, they are
perfectly elastic, and with the utmost willingness become
wider or longer, or are pressed into smaller space, to enter a
smaller vessel. The influence of living tissue, as derived
from the nervous system, appears most probably a predo-
minant and essential condition ; but when, from whatever
cause that influence is withdrawn, the order, precision, and

certainty of the flow is disturbed, or totally arrested. The
bloodvessels relax, and no longer maintain their controlling
power. The blood globules have lost their disposition to flow
on harmoniously together, regardless alike of pressure from
behind or from each other, size of vessels, or the peculiarities
of shape which their neighbours choose to assume. They
now throw aside their discoidal or circular form, peculiar to
man and the lower animals, become elongated, attract each
other, and resolve to assist in a general obstruction. Their
sides present surfaces by which they adhere to each other, or
to the walls of the vessels, and the appearances presented
are after the form given in Fig. 4.

Inflammation, from whatever cause, is essentially the same,
neither does locality or nature of tissue bring about any
specific kind. The effects or results, however, are various.
The constituents of the blood undergo an alteration during
the inflammatory process ; this is particularly noted in re-
ference to fibrine and the red and white corpuscles. Doubt-
less the influence exerted by the original cause upon the

.crvous system has much to do with the augmentation, by
accelerating the assimilative process, as we find that an
increase of general temperature, tl\e result of an augmented
combustion, is always present. Blood drawn from patients

Fig. 4. — Blood in a state of Inflammation.

The appearances presented under the microscope.

suffering from extensive inflammation has, therefore, a
peculiar property of firmly coagulating. The contraction is
also greater than in health, and this causes the whole to sepa-
rate into two unequal parts, the solid portion being in excess
of the fluid. In addition, also, from excess the solid parts,
particularly fibrine, assume a huffy appearance upon the
upper surface, which is somewhat cupped or hollow — con-
ditions pre-eminently due to the power and amount of con-
tractility which the mass possesses. The cupped appearance
of coagulated blood is closely represented by solid fats,
which have been melted and poured into earthern vessels.
If the surface is examined when the mass has cooled, it will
be found that the centre portion is lowest, and highest round
the edges, or at the circumference of the vessel, where the

takes place in the middle.

The bujfy coat, then, is jihe yellowish colour presented by

the upper s : cause, which

involves a firmer coagulation than that which is seen in the
blood of healthy anim/als. These are viewed by some as
inhillible signs of the 'presence of extensive inflammation,
and erroneous practices have been founded on the belief ;
really, however, they are tests of the presence of an unusual
amount of fibrine, which we now have determined may arise
from other causes, as will be shown farther on. Inflamma-
tion, as regards its position, is of two kinds — viz., local, and
general or diffuse. In the first we recognise the action as
being confined to the vessels of one particular and small
part of the animal body ; the second is understood to com-
prise acute febrile action, the result of inflammation in large
and important organs, as the lungs, bowels, womb, &c.,
including, of course, the process within those organs.

As to character, inflammation is also regarded under two
aspects — acute or sthenic, and chronic or asthenic. In the
former we observe the tendency to progress with great
activity and vigour ; the nature of soft parts, as muscle, &c.,
from its elaborate organisation, being eminently favourable
.to the process. Chronic or asthenic inflammation, on the
other hand, is slow and tardy, by which much destruction of
tissue invariably occurs, reparation of parts being attended
with some difficulty, and sometimes totally impossible.

Inflammation, according to the locality or tissues affected,
and tie unvarying results which follow, is known under
several subordinate terms ; thus the rheumatic or scrofulous
forms are called specific. When only the ordinary phenomena
are observed it is called common ; if the disposition is locally
to form tumours and abscesses, the term phlegmonous is

an unusual

appearance ot

applied , while another form, having not that tendency,
but affecting the skin and subjacent tissues, is known as the
erysipelatous inflammation. \

Symptoms of Inflammation. — Tl\e physical appearances of
inflammation are heat, pain, redness,^ and swelling, or tume-
factmi. These are, for the most (part, less easily demon-
strated in the lower animals than man. A few brief
remarks under the several heads are ^^ecessary.

Heat. — Of the various signs that characterise the process
of inflammation, probably none are so remarkable as heat —
animal temperature. Whether the morbid action is confined
to a small circumscribed area, or it is general, an elevation
of temperature in the affected part is the inevitable result ;
and it is rare that the whole system does not exhibit a
similar condition. The source of increased heat in these
cases is exactly the same as under healthy conditions of the
system, the process being accelerated generally by wide-
spread influence upon the assimilative functions, through
the nervous system, and locally by the same process upon
the circulation of the part affected. We have thus increased
blood formation, increased quantity of blood in the part, and,
as a result, increased combustion or production of animal
heat. During the existence of inflammatory action, of
whatever kind or character, the thermometer proves a safe
guide as to the intensity, rise, or decline, which is demon-,
strated by placing it upon the part, if externally situated, or
within the rectum.* Constant reference will be made to
this as we proceed.

Pain is the result of pressure. Under the effects of an
increased quantity of blood in the part, bloodvessels are
distended, and the nerves, already rendered acutely sensitive
through influences of a morbid character, are laid under

Op. cit.

Venous Pulse.

and the effect must be proportionately exerted upon the sur-
rounding tissues whenever an obstruction arises. If the
fingers are tightly pressed upon the vessel tow'ards the lower
part of the neck, it will be observed to fill gradually from
the seat of pressure until the whole course to the angle of
the jaw is in outline. When fully charged, imitate a tilting
action by the fingers that are stopping the flow, and the
whole column will be seen to move, which, in effect, is
simply agitating the charged vessel from one end to the
other. Identical states are to be seen when from the agency
of similar causes interruptions in the flow are produced. If
we notice a horse or cow grazing or eating from the ground,
the characters of the venous pulse are seen in all their force ;
when these animals are quietly at rest in a recumbent posi-
tion after the stomach has been filled, the same phenomena
are to be observed, and we have no difficulty in ascribing
the cause to the action of the valves preventing a return
towards the head in the first instance, while from the posi-
tion of the vein being reversed, the blood cannot escape until
the vessel is filled to the upper end. In the second, while
the veins act as before, there is some obstruction to the flow
of blood towards the heart, arising from pressure, all the
organs of the chest and abdomen being shifted as the animal
lies and limiting the capacity of the heart ; and in both cases
the ^jtion of the muscles of the neck, together with the pul-
sation of the carotid artery, which runs in company with the
jugular vein, momentarily retard the flow. An abrupt or
imperfect closure of the tricuspid valves in the right auriculo-
ventricular opening of the heart also exerts a similar effect ;
the result in each case, therefore, is precisely the same : the
weight of the column of blood is exerted on the walls of the
vein, at one end of which the blood is constantly entering,
and at the opposite the escape is intermittent ; the walls
expand and vibrate, and the motion being always towards

The Blood.

the head, in the direction of the supply, thus are developed
the signs which have led to much confusion and have been
so frequently pronounced as the result of some occult dis-
eased action.

There are, however, instances in which disease exists in
the heart and large vessels connected with it, together with
emphysema of the lungs, in which the blood circulates with
extreme sluggishness, and the venous pulse is characteristic
as well as continuous ; but other signs are always present.
Such states will receive their share of attention in the proper
place.

General Treatment of the Patient.

In the management of sick animals, that department
entirely non-medical, which comprehends his diet and
nursing, is of the utmost importance — indeed, the services
of the veterinary surgeon are of little aid, and all his art
and scientific skill dwindle into uselessness if the domestic
attentions are incomplete or withheld. Just as there are
general signs by which internal disturbance is betokened, so
are there general rules for the treatment and restoration of
the invalid. These we propose to deal with briefly before
passing on to the consideration of separate maladies, under
which the more precise and special instructions will be
given.

Stable A ccommodatiGiL-— There are few instances in which
it is not advisable, but rather imperative, that the sick
animal should be removed to a separate building, a well-
lighted, ventilated, drained, and comfortable loose box being
the most desirable. An abundance of pure air is a valuable
aid to the cure of disease, and this cannot be obtained in
places where numbers of animals are collected, particularly
where cleanliness is not observed as much as it should be.
On the other hand, where this recommendation is ignored.

General 7 reatnient of the Patient.

or from irremovable causes it cannot be adopted, disease in
one or more animals among a number not unfrequently
terminates in a fatal typhoid or malignant form, which
medicine fails to arrest, and large proprietors of working
horses have had reasons, more than once, for testing the
truth of this assertion during the prevalence of those recent
periodic attacks of influenza, by which thousands of victims
have fallen under its ravages. A simple shed as a protection
from the sun and rain, even in cold weather, would be
preferable to many town stables, and draughts may be fairly
dealt with by hanging up large waterproof sheets where
necessary. We have frequently improvised such a hospital
box in a town yard, and in fields miles from a house, and,
when other domestic attention has been fairly carried out,
the end has invariably justified the means.

Warm clothing and zvoollen bandages, when necessary,
amply make up for the warmth of the usual stable ; but
it must be remembered that warmth acquired under usual
stable rules is but of an artificial kind, whereas the pure air
of an open space or roomy box furnishes the natural means
of warmth — oxygen, for the aeration of the blood, and by
which healthy processes are more likely to be established
and maintained.

The Diet of sick animals should be carefully selected and
judiciously administered. It is by far the too common
practice of putting anything, or everything, that happens to
be near at hand before the patient, which he may take or
refuse. If he partakes of it awkward results follow, and if
he refuses, the mess is allowed to remain and spoil under his
nose. This is the very worst of domestic management, and
from which many animals are lost, particularly in the stables
of farmers and others who grudge the time of a man or boy
to afford the needful attention. There is one recommenda-
tion which should become a stereotyped rule in every horse-

Y— 2

The Blood.

keeper’s mind ; it is this : prepare small quantities of various
easily digested artieles of food, and offer them at suitable
intervals in clean vessels ; approach the sick animal quietly,
a7id speak softly and soothingly ; if he partakes of the food, do
not interrupt by withdraiving or spoiling it by the absurd
practice of mixmg and stirring ivith the hands ; if he refuses
the offering, let it be removed entirely, and do not prese7it the
sa77ie mixtiLi'e a second time. It must be remembered that in
many forms of disease the absence of appetite is conducive
to recovery ; to load the stomach would be equal to doing
so much mischief In these cases the animal is not inclined
to eat, and, moreover, eating will not prevent him dying,
but may probably hasten his end. In some cases the animal
would like to feed, but is unable to do so from various
obstructions ; here, then, it is clearly our duty to assist him
to receive suitable nourishment, being directed by the
peculiar circumstances at the time. Injudicious feeding
must always be avoided in sickness ; inattention to this has
carried thousands of animals beyond the power of medicine
to restore, and we have reason to believe the right person
has seldom received his share of the credit in the matter.

There are a number of useful articles which prove service-
able and tempting to the sick horse, such as bra7i, Imseed,
oatmeal, barley, malt, carrots, turiiips, parsnips, potatoes, fruit,
gree7t forage, hay -tea, zvater, gruel, &c.

In Bran we recognise a most useful agent in treating the
ailments of horses. It - is laxative, and when green food
and roots cannot be readily obtained, their place is usefully
supplied by it. The usual form in which it is offered is
that of mash, warm or cold, but we think more useful when
made with warm water, and in this state, having less
stimulative qualities than other kinds of food, being light
and of easy digestion, its passage through the bowels tends
to allay fever, and produces a feeling of comfort in disease

General Treatine^it of the Patient. 21

which grain and the leguminous seeds would not. Certain
medicines in powder are conveniently given in a bran mash,
and it very properly takes the place of the usual food before
the administration of purgative medicine, or performance of
particular operations. In catarrhal affections, bran, over
which boiling water has been poured, and placed in a bag-
held over the nostrils, proves useful in relieving the charged
vessels and membranes, the steam being disengaged more
profusely and beneficially than from water alone. Another
purpose for which bran is applied, is with hot or cold water
as a poultice, when parts are to be influenced by heat, or
cold, and moisture, and additional properties are conferred
by the use of certain medicinal agents.

It is a mistake to make use of bran too extensively as a
sick animal’s diet. It contains but little nutrition, and there-
fore cannot sustain life in vigour. As it speedily undergoes
fermentation after being moistened with water, it is advisable
to supply it to the animal in a separate vessel, rather than
the manger which cannot be washed out with so little
trouble.

Linseed is a highly nutritious article of diet ; being muci-
laginous, acting gently on the kidneys and bowels, it proves
very useful in certain forms of disease affecting those organs.
It is simply prepared by mixing with water, in the propor-
tion of a pound to a gallon, and allowing it to digest about
twelve hours, being occasionally stirred, when the whole has
become a thick mucilaginous fluid. Half a pint or more of
this added to bran, a mixture of grain, or water for drink-
ing, renders the whole palatable and refreshing. Linseed
meal, or ground linseed cake, is frequently used in the place
of, or added to, bran as a poultice. It has the property of
maintaining heat longer than bran alone, and, probably from
the presence of a small quantity of oil, soothes and softens
the parts to which it is applied. Bran poultices are thought

The Blood,

to be improved by the addition of linseed meal, a more
plastic mass being- produced than bran alone furnishes. Oat-
meal forms a valuable article of diet, when it is desirable to
introduce a larger amount of nutrition in small bulk, and in
a form to be easily digested. It is very suitable for enrich-
ing other articles, in order to coax the appetite, but the
most common use is in the form of gruel, or added to water
and thoroughly mixed, when a most nutritious, refreshing, and
agreeable drink is produced, suitable alike for the healthy
horse and invalid. In the forms just mentioned, oatmeal is
employed as a clyster when nourishment cannot be taken by
the mouth.

Barley is highly nutritious and digestible, and may use-
fully be alternated with other articles of diet in the sick-
stable and for convalescent animals. For this purpose it is
boiled until the grains burst by swelling, and after the water
has been poured off, oatmeal or linseed mucilage may be
added ; or the grain alone, when sufficiently cooled, can be
offered in suitable vessels. Malt advantageously enters the
list of the sick dietary, and is often partaken of when other
articles are refused. It is usually prepared by adding boil-
ing water in sufficient quantity to make a moist mass, and
given when cool. Ground malt is useful to flavour drinking-
water, and is often preferred.

In carrots y szoedcs, and parsnips ^ are articles almost indis-
pensable among sick horses. They possess the remarkable
properties of furnishing to the blood essential saline materials,
which promote its fluidity, and preserve its normal condition.
Besides, they coax the appetite, allay fever, promote a lax
state of the bowels, furnish necessary elements of nutrition,
and it may be truthfully stated, in many cases, their judicious
use will frequently set aside the need for certain medicinal
agents. Other roots and tubers may be employed, as the
mangold, kohl-rabiy and even potatoes, under variable circum-

General Treatment of the Patient. 23

stances, with like benefit, it being understood that in every
instance they should be carefully washed ; and sometimes, as
when the digestion is feeble and strength low, it is desirable
to remove all hard outer skin or peel. To guard against
choking, mincing, pulping, or chopping into small diamonds
is requisite, sufficient quantity being prepared as called for.
In addition to the roots and tubers, or when they could not
be obtained conveniently, and valuable lives are in jeopardy,
the garden has been taxed in order to contribute its fruits,
apples, pears, &c., doing good service, and well repaying cost
and trouble expended in their provision.

Gree7i Forage, by which is implied clover, the grasses,
tares, &c., are not by any means valuable as nutritious
articles of diet, but nevertheless accomplish much good by
means of properties which they possess in common with
roots. A fresh tuft of grass, clover, and the like, will often
tempt the most fastidious appetite, and lead the way to a
consumption of more nutritious articles, while beneficial
effects ensue in the allaying of febrile states, and keeping
up a laxative condition of the bowels, with less cost to the
system than when drugs are employed.

Hay-tea. — There is probably no other preparation or
article in the sick dietary which has been known to yield so
much comfort and benefit, as a simple remedy, which costs
so little, and requires so little trouble in its preparation. A
handful of the sweetest hay is selected, and, being first
twisted into a circular roll, is placed at the bottom of a clean
p lil, and covered with boiling water. A cloth or sack is
then thrown over the pail, and the whole allowed to stand a
quarter of an hour or longer, when cold water may be added
to reduce the temperature suitably for drinking. Thus made
there is an agreeable fragrance, which the sick patient is not
slow to appreciate, and seldom refusing to drink a little, even
when water has been declined for some time. Oatmeal and

The Blood.

ground malt may also be added to hay-tea, if preferred, but
as a rule we have found the simple preparation by far the
best. Besides hay-tea, let us not omit to include cold water
in our list. It is Nature’s beverage, provided for^dT ammaT
creation, and, simple as it is, a vast amount of good arises to
the sick creature by availing himself of frequent sips from
constant fresh supplies, whereby the parched tongue is
moistened and cooled, and by that which, even in limited
quantities, finds its way to the stomach and intestines, the
most useful medicinal and beneficial effects are broueht
about. We have often to regret that grooms and others
are so niggardly in their supply of cold water to the sick
horse, and here venture an appeal on his behalf that, when
illness overtakes him and he is feverish and oppressed, he
may have at least sufficient with which to moisten his mouth,
and, in the absence of hay-tea, &c., a judicious allowance for
drinking.

FEVER.

Simple or Common Fever.

This is a condition, often so slight as to occasion no
apparent inconvenience or give rise to significant outward
signs, that its existence has been frequently denied. To the
practised eye of the intelligent practitioner in distributing
his attention over a number of animals, there are unmistak-
able evidences of the existence of a state, the reverse of per-
fect health, and which merit the term given above.

Nature and Definition. — Simple fever is not to be regarded
as the undoubted manifestation of internal disease or serious
organic changes. It is purely of a transient character — a
disturbance per se, and in consequence has been emphatically
named ephemeral fever. The term “ fever,” unassociated with
necessary qualifications, is so generally understood to convey

Simple or Common Fever. 25

an idea of extensive mischief or protracted disease, that,
doubtless, a dislike for the term has arisen, and with it an
objection to use it, except as a note of alarm.

Simple or ephemeral fever is common to man and all
domesticated animals, indeed to all in proportion as they
are removed from their usual habits. It may be defined
as a general disturbance of the general functions of the
body, a disarrangement in their order and regularity,
rapidly produced, of very short duration, and hence escapes
notice.

Causes. — Inactivity, combined with a highly nutritious and
stimulating food, particularly after a change from green
forage or a laxative diet has been made, a heated atmosphere
in crowded and ill-ventilated buildings, &c., a peculiar idio-
syncrasy or habit of body which creates a susceptibility to
the causes named ; lastly, long journeys by>o4d or rail,
without due regard to food and comfort. Any or all of
these, exerting their effects upon the nervous system and
circulation, accelerate the assimilative functions by which
an increase of temperature is produced. An unusual
activity of blood flow in the skin will temporarily arrest
the exhalations from it, and thus the animal heat is also
increased.

Other functions are disturbed from similar causes, and
the resulting secretions are checked.

Symptoms. — The pulse is more frequent, and somewhiat
larger and harder than in health. The ears, extremities, and
skin generally are warm.er than natural. The mouth is hot,
partially dry, and the fingers are more or less tainted after
being passed between the lips. The lining membranes of
the eyes, and nostrils, hereafter described as the visible
mucous membranes — see Glossary — exhibit an increased
colour ; the urine is deficient, skin dry, and probably harsh
under the hand, bowels costive, and the thermometer placed

The Blood.

in the rectum registers 102° F. or 103^ F. Sometimes the
animals are thirsty and even reject a meal ; but after a few
hours the symptoms have entirely disappeared.

Treatment must be adopted in accordance with the causes.
When irregularities attending the mode of feeding, housing,
&c., are discovered, they should be suppressed ; usually re-
moval from the exciting cause is sufficient. Highly stimu-
lating food should be used sparingly with inactive animals,
and long periods of rest should always be attended with a
less nutritious and more laxative diet. Linseed tea, bran
with the food, or as a mash at intervals, the roots and tubers,
will obviate constipation as a cause ; and when the organs of
respiration are unduly stimulated, the skin may be sponged
with cold water followed by friction. Medicines are not
necessarily called for unless the conditions recur at frequent
intervals, when advice should be sought in order to avoid in-
convenience arising from the transition of disorder into dis-
ease. Over-stimulation will induce disease of important
organs, and in all cases such is foretold by continued attacks
of simple or ephemeral disorder. Well-ordered domestic
management, with suitable alteration of diet to suit the various
changes of outward circumstances, will be of untold impor-
tance in the state under discussion, and profitably take the
place of drugs ; but when, as we have already pointed out,
medicines are called for, let the most simple remedies be
selected. We have a strong aversion to useless drugging, for
we believe that each dose represents the loss of so much
vigour of constitution, known as “ condition,” the production
of which is costly, and not within an hour’s call. Half an
ounce of saltpetre may be dissolved in the drinking-water,
or placed among the manger food in the form of powder.
The same quantity of carbonate of soda or potash may be
substituted, if preferred, or a dose of aloes, one-half or two-
thirds’ strength may be given. Enemas or clysters are of

Sympathetic or Symptomatic Fever. 27

great value, and with linseed or bran mashes may suitably
replace aloes for opening the bowels.

Sympathetic or Symptomatic Fever.

To an ordinary observer the signs of this and the preced-
ing affection are analogous, and even by close attention in
the earliest stages he may fail to pronounce correctly as to
the termination. The important distinction is the persistence
of the signs. They are liable to aggravation in proportion to
their duration. The horse consumes his evening meal in
apparent good health, although the earlier signs of fever are
upon him, which have either been altogether unobserved, or,
if seen, estimated as nothing, and on the following morning
he is labouring under acute suffering.

The symptoms are those already given under “ Simple
Fever,” being, however, of greater continuance and intensity,
while acute suffering is apparent more or less in accordance
with the exciting cause.

Nature and Causes. — As its name implies, sympathetic
or symptomatic fever is to all purposes a condition which
betokens the existence of other more serious states,
by a series of unvarying Signs constant in their prevalence,
and terminating only with the disease which gives rise to
them. Thus a horse receives a puncture in his foot, abdomen,
&c., by which pain is evinced in the part by appropriate and
special signs, and, proportionately with the extent of the in-
jury, there is disturbance of the respiration, in the form of
rapid breathing ; of the circulation of blood, by a frequent
and hard pulse ; of the skin, by increased heat, and probably
perspiration also ; of the kidneys, by suppression of the urine;
of the bowels, by the passage of few small hard pellets of
dung, the anus being tightly contracted, and the visible
mucous membranes are deeply reddened by increased blood

The Blood.

determination. Symptomatic fever, then, exists pari passu
in company with other diseases ; it is an evidence by which
their presence, progress, and intensity are judged ; it is always
significant of alarming conditions, and rightly calls for the
exercise of prompt and well-directed measures.

Treatment. — The suppression of this disease is entirely
dependent upon the removal of that which gives rise to or
is, in other words, the cause of it. To direct our attention
to it alone would be only treating signs and leaving un-
touched the disease. Whenever symptomatic fever is present
we must at once look out for the cause, and, removing that,
the effects cease. Full and complete instructions will be in-
cluded in the directions given under the various headings
throughout the work.

INFLAMMATION.

Every part of the body known as organised material — f.^.,
having special sources of nutrition, nervous sensation, &c.,
as determined by presence of bloodvessels and nerves within
its substance — is liable to the process known as “ inflamma-
tion.” Hoof, horn, hair, teeth, feathers, wool, down, claws,
nails, &c., are excluded from this category ; they are organic
products, but not organised structures.

Nature and Definition. — These are points not yet de-
finitely settled ; opinions are by no means unanimous re-
garding them. Although by a comprehensive acquaintance
with the laws of physiology we may arrive at a satisfactory
conclusion, and also successfully combat the ravages of in-
flammation by a suggested course of medical treatment, yet
the many points from which it may be viewed afford as many
reasons for special deductions ; hence the great diversity of
opinion and wide discrepancies, which, however, become as
one in the hands of the practitioner. We have not space for

Inflammation.

greater pressure and irritation. The sensation of an inflamed
part is doubly acute, as is evident upon the slightest touch
in some animals, and continues to the end of the morbid
process. Coarser-bred animals exhibit this in a somewhat
lessened degree.

Redness. — From the great amount of covering which the
skin of the horse possesses, increase of colour is not always
visible ; and even were that removed, the natural pigment
would often obscure it. In general inflammation, however,
the visible mucous membranes exhibit the character to the
fullest extent, and which is taken as a close approximation
of what is going on within. The hue spoken of, is that
which the blood exhibits when viewed in mass. During the
distension of bloodvessels under inflammation, the increased
quantity they contain is plainly visible through the walls,
now become thin and transparent from internal pressure and
stretching. Redness of inflammation, then, is due to the
colour of the blood as seen through semi-transparent mem-
branes forming the affected tissues.

Swelling. — This phenomenon is not always observed :
when internal organs are affected it is impossible, except
under few conditions, and, when situated locally, it may be
altogether hidden by the nature of the part affected or the
covering it possesses. Thus, when ligament, tendon, or bone
is involved, swelling is rarely observed at the time ; and
when the feet are suffering from inflammation, the hoofs
effectually bind down the internal structures, and prevent
our observing it. Whenever it can be detected, swelling is
a most incontrovertible sign, and furnishes evidences of a
reliable character. The nature and cause of the swelling of
inflammation has led to as much controversy as that of the
morbid process itself. It was at one time believed to be
due to the distension of the bloodvessels ; later it was
discovered that a large amount of lymph always existed in

The Blood.

inflamed parts. The question then appeared to be fully
decided. As to the origin of the lymph all are not agreed.
One teaches that it results from the distension of the blood-
vessels, when their stretched walls would favour the
exudation or passage of fluid outwards. As somewhat
opposed to this view, we must point out another, and in
every way a reasonable one. There are a number of vessels
extensively distributed over the entire system, keeping
company with the bloodvessels, whose offlce is to take up
and convey to proper receptacles — the circulation generally^
that substance called fibrine existing largely in the fluid
called lymph, which is conveyed to the various parts of the
body by the capillaries for their nutrition. Such vessels are
called lymphatics — lymph-vessels and absorbents, and are
employed to collect the excess of nutritious material, and
prevent waste by conveying it where it can be ernployed in
its proper time. During inflammation the formation of
lymph is going on largely, particularly in and around
inflamed structures. After a time the offices of the absor-
bents are suspended by reason of the morbid process, they
cease to take up the fibrine or lymph, which goes on
accumulating and spreading itself throughout the tissues,
giving rise to the enlargement under consideration, and
known as the swelling or tumescence of inflammation. The
presence of lymph is characteristic of inflammation, and
by it tissues are thickened and structures obliterated, signs
which should not be overlooked in judging of internal
organs affected. Congestion, extravasation, ecchymosis, &c.,
are frequently mistaken for inflammation — a most unpardon-
able error, but quite common among the illiterate and
pretenders.

Causes of Inflammation. — It is doubtless unquestionable
that the agency of the nervous system is the main source
from which all tissues derive that complex principle called

Injlmmnation. 35

life, and through it alone is the circulation of the blood
controlled and preserved in harmony and obedience to
general as well as special laws. We may, therefore, infer as
a natural sequence, that all forces, actions, or agencies which
interfere with, disturb, or destroy the harmony of nature in
the animal body, do so through the nervous system ; and as
far as they are concerned in such disturbance which con-
stitutes inflammation, they are to be regarded as causes.
For the sake of clearness in distinction such have been
termed mechanical, chemical, and vital. Under the first we
include blows, friction, pressure, cuts, tears, bruises, &c., all
of which destroy or disturb the nervous power of the part,
and by its withdrawal living tissues become as dead animal
matter. Blood can no longer circulate through tubes of
such character, nor with any other result than if a tube of
lead or india-rubber, &c., were substituted. Chemical agents,
as strong acids, caustics generally, and the hot iron destroy or
devitalise the part, and the same results are brought about ;
and under the more complex causes termed vital, we must
likewise recognise the same effects — viz., a withdrawal of
the controlling and harmonising nervous power, mostly under
the operation of some profound and occult agency, probably
some disturbance of other organs or functions, but we must
refrain from precise and decisive statements as to their modus
opcrandi. Cold, we are well aware, depresses, and, by long
continuance, destroys the tone of nervous power ; poisons
generally, we believe, do the same ; a want of sufficient pure
air for respiration brings about a long train of diseased
conditions which we usually include under one term —
asphyxia. It is a matter of little difficulty for the senses to
accept and even comprehend the existence of these laws,
but it is altogether another, and insurmountable, to express
in words the method by which such changes are produced.
Life may be viewed as a collection of harmonious functions

3—2

The Blood.

working with and for each other ; and all and every agency
which destroys or temporarily interferes with that harmony,
immediately issues a warning proportionate to the extent
and power exerted. The most common result is inflamma-
tion, local, and it may be slight, or it may be general or
diffuse — so extensive that the whole of the functions of life
are eventually destroyed and life can no longer remain.
Both are processes essentially the same, differing only in the
extent and operation of the disturbance.

Termination of Inflaniniation. — The results of inflam-
mation are variously described as Resolution, Effusion,
Suppuration, Uleeration,^ Interstitial Deposition, and Morti-
tieation.

Resolution. — By this term we understand a gradual decline
of the morbid process within an aftected part, followed by a
restoration to original health and condition. Thus an eye is
inflamed in consequence of a blow, or entrance of some
foreign body, but after the institution of proper measures,
and, if possible, the removal of the cause, the active signs,
as heat, pain, and intolerance of light, disappear, and the
organ is useful as before.

By Effusion we comprehend the accumulation of large
quantities of fluid-serum — within closed cavities^ as the
abdomen, chest, and even beneath the skin, the common
result of turgid vessels, the walls of which are stretched,
and admit of the passage outwards of the thin or watery
parts of the blood.

Suppuration is the removal of the solid products of in-
flammation by change of constitution, the result being a
creamy-looking fluid termed pus or matter. Membranes
affected by inflammation at a certain stage discharge pus
from their external surfaces ; but when the substance of
glands, muscles, organs, &c., are seized by the process, the
formation of pus commences in the centre of the mass of

Inflammation. 37

inflammatory products — the lymph before alluded to — and
this we term an abscess.

Ulceration may be defined as the loss of substance at a
particular part, occasioned by inflammation at the circum-
ference cutting off nutrition. Such a condition has been
termed itnhealthyy in contradistinction to the regular form of
inflammation ; but why use that which may lead to the
wrong conclusion, that the latter is a healthy rather than
what it is — viz., a morbid process ? It is more correct to
regard ulceration as the result of an asthenic form of inflam-
mation, for it is a common result when the system has been
reduced by previous disease and devitalising influences, the
parts surrounding points of irritation, inflammation, or abscess,
become involved in a slow or tardy form also, which has the
effect of cutting off the supply of blood to the interior ; no
reparation can take place, the required support for the
restoration of parts under disease cannot reach them, death
is the result, and they are gradually removed in the form of
a thin sanious discharge. Sloughing is an extended form of
the same process, by which whole parts and masses are
detached without undergoing slow solution.

Interstitial Deposition is the enlargement or augmentation
of tissues, as the result of inflammation. The addition, how-
ever, is not of the nature of the tissue in which it has been
placed ; thus, when muscles have been torn asunder, the
lost substance is replaced by an unyielding and insensible,
non-contractile material, called condensed tissue. The
muscle has, therefore, lost its power of action, more or less.
When the substance of the lungs has been inflamed, the
products invade and obliterate the air-cells, and the sub-
stance assumes a state called hepatisation ; and when the
outer surfaces inflame, they unite with the sides of the chest,
the lymph of inflammation being the medium in both cases.
When the liver is inflamed, the same lymph takes the place

The Blood.

of the bile-cells, and the partitions or septcB of the organ
enlarge by the addition ; this state is then known as scirrhus
or induration.

Mortification. — This is a term implying death of a part.
It is an example of sloughing on the most extensive scale ;
while the latter implies the removal of parts from within
each other, mortification denotes the cutting off from the
circulation and nutrition of whole parts or limbs. When the
bloodvessels going to a particular locality are destroyed, or
the flow of blood is permanently arrested by other means,
the part beyond the point of obstruction gradually dies, and
separation is effected where the nutrition is first cut off.

Treatment of Inflammation. — The means employed are
regulated in accordance with the form presented, as well
as other peculiar and surrounding circumstances. Local or
circumscribed inflammation usually presents but compara-
tively feeble powers of resistance, and retires before ordinary
remedies, as cold or evaporating lotions. The object of their
use is to restore the tone or contractile power of the vessels,
and induce a return of the normal circulation. With such a
result, the accompanying signs, as heat, pain, redness, and
swelling, disappear, and resolution is said to take place.
Cooling and evaporating lotions are thus constituted : —

Recipe No. i.

Take of Goulard’s extract 4 fl. oz.

Dilute acetic acid 2 „

Distilled water i qt.

Mix together. The parts affected should be surrounded
by a linen bandage, if possible, or covered loosely by layers
of rag, kept continually wet with the mixture.

Recipe No. 2.

Take of muriate of ammonia i oz.

Muriatic acid — pure \ fl. dr.

Water i pt.

Mix, and apply as already directed.

Inflammation, 39

Recipe No. 3.

Take of muriate of ammonia in powder i oz.

Dilute acetic acid 4 „

Spirits of wine 4 „

Water i pint.

Dissolve the ammonia in acetic acid, then add the spirits
and water, and use immediately as an ablution to the part.

Recipe No. 4.

Take of muriate of ammonia in powder 2 oz.

Nitrate of potash in powder 2 „

Spirits of wine 8 „

Water i qt.

Mix the spirits and water together, and add quickly the
salts. The parts are then to be kept constantly wet with
the lotion as long as it lasts, or the necessity of the case
requires.

Recipe No. 5.

Take of the solution of the acetate of ammonia, and

spirits of wine, each 4 oz.

Water i pint.

Mix and apply as stated under No. 4.

There is one great disadvantage attending the use of cold
applications ; if they are not continuous or incessant, they
do more harm than good. Their first effect is to constringe
the vessels, and reduce the quantity of blood within them ;
but if that effect is not continued, the secondary result is
reactio7i^ in which the vessels dilate, and accommodate an
increased quantity of blood. The disease is thus aggravated
instead of being diminished. Cold applications are most
suited to sprains of ligament and tendon, and such parts of
low organisation as are common to the legs.

When soft parts are implicated, as whole tracts of muscle,
fomentations are of great service in softening and relaxing
the substance, removing pressure, and restoring the cir-
culation ; but even t^ ,..e must be persistent. No good will

The Blood.

result from periodical fomentation. Reaction as readily
sets in after the effects of heat have passed away, as after
spasmodic attempts in the use of cold applications ; there-
fore, when a fomentation is needed, the temperature of
water should be constant, and the supply unremitting. The
following particulars should be carried out in a scrupulous
manner : —

If the injury is severe and affected parts extensive,
arrangements should be made for a plentiful supply of hot
water. Woollen coverings may be employed in the mean-
time to protect the surfaces from the atmosphere, particularly
in very cold weather. The animal being conveniently
placed, one man undertakes the sole duty of applying the
remedy. This is to be accomplished by first placing over
the injured parts three, four, five, or six thicknesses of
woollen, according to its substance, after being saturated
with hot water. A pail or tub is to be placed near at hand,
that the water used may fall into it, if it can be so arranged.
An assistant gives his entire attention to the animal, so as to
preserve a position most favourable to the proceedings ; and
a second is to be employed in keeping up a constant supply
of hot water in regular proportions, as called for by the
operator, who should see that the quantity in the pail or tub
never falls below 110° F., or rises higher than 118° F. By
means of a suitable small vessel, such as a small tin bowl, pint
can, or earthenware cup, the water is to be carried to the
highest point of the coverings, and so regularly that a con-
tinuous stream is produced, flowing over the skin beneath
the covering into the pail or tub below. T/ie time for such
an a'p'plication zvill vary from one to six, eight, or ten hours,
after which the parts should be dried by soft cloths, or moderate
friction, if possible, and subsequently well protected from cold
and cooling from evaporation by thick warm and dry coverings,
caref ully adjusted.

Inflammation.

Poultices are sometimes required, and when under proper
supervision are especially serviceable in promoting suppu- •
ration and the formation of abscesses. They may be com-
posed of bran, linseed meal, or a combination of the two ;
and fine sawdust will answer quite well for the feet, the
efficacy of each being the respective capabilities of main-
taining heat or cold, as the case may be, with moisture. The
method of applying poultices is variable, and arranged in
accordance with the part affected. The feet and lower
parts of the extremities are conveniently placed in bags, the
mixture being afterwards packed all round by the hand.
Upper portions of the limbs, as the knees and hocks, are best
enveloped in the leg of a worsted stocking, or similar case
made from some stout material, which is first drawn over the
foot upwards to the seat of disease. In each sufficient
additional space should be allowed for the introduction of
the necessary poultice, and, when properly packed, the
whole is to be secured by several turns of a bandage at the
upper and lower portions. Strings and twisted tapes should
be avoided as much as possible, as they compress the parts
under swelling, and occasion much irritation. f-Bq^-ring this
in mind when applying poultices to the knee or hock, we
have found it best to secure the lower end of the stocking or
case first, and before the poultice is packed in by means of
one half of the bandage ; then to put in the bran, &c., as
required, and finally to carry the remainder of the bandage
as the figure 8 over the whole, finishing at the top. To
other parts the single and double many-tailed bandage is of
great service (Fig. 5).

Poultices, as commonly made and applied, are frequently
very obstructive to the desired ends. When too large and
heavy, great discomfort is caused in weakly animals ; when
applied beneath, or to the side of parts affected, even slight
motion and ordinary weight cause them to get out of posi-

The Blood.

tion — they hang away from the skin, and, by admitting air,
rapid and hurtful cooling ensues. The much to be desired
maturation of abscesses is thus seriously retarded, and chronic
forms of disease, together with fatal systemic complications,
may be the result. Under all circumstances, the application
of poultices should be effective and perfect, the temperature
and moisture constantly maintained, and all such beastly
concoctions as cow-dung, human excrement, &c., the sugges-
tion of filthy minds, scrupulously avoided, if successful results
are desired.

There is now to be obtained in every town a substance
known as spongio-piliae — a sheet of waterproof material
covered on one side by a thickness of wool. When this is
cut to the proper size, dipped in hot water, and applied to
the part, it retains the heat and moisture for a great length
of time besides being much lighter and more comfortable
than an ordinary poultice. It may be secured in position
by the common many-tailed bandage (Fig, 5), according to
circumstances.

Fig. 5. — Mai^y-tailed Bandage.

Take a stout piece of calico or pack-sheet, in length
sufficient to encompass the parts one and a half times ; the
width must be formed according to circumstances. At each
end cut a number of slits at equal distances, thus forming
corresponding bands or tails. The central part is to hold
the application, and the bands or tails of opposite ends

Inflammation. 43

are to be tied to each other, after the whole has been pro-
perly adjusted on the parts.

Coimter-irritaiits. — These comprise blisters, setons, rowels,
and the actual cautejy or firing-iron. In veterinary practice
the first and second are mainly employed ; the third is
discarded as antiquated, unscientific, and barbarous ; the
last is only occasionally required.

Blisters, variously constituted, are to be obtained at the
shops of all dealers in drugs, and, not uncommonly, more or
less disappointment is experienced from^ the action of a
curious admixture, unless they are made up after some
authentic formula. Chemists and druggists are very useful
men in their way, and, behind their counter, perform very
essential and important functions ; but they cannot be ex-
pected to know much about the nature and treatment of the
maladies of live stock, and anything they may be inclined
to recommend as remedies cannot be warranted on the score of
their medical experience. It is always safer, therefore, to rely
on the advice of a veterinary surgeon as to the selection of a
remedy, calling in the aid of the chemist to make up the
compound according to a form which he may give. For all
ordinary purposes, blisters are merely admixtures of pow-
dered cantharides — the Spanish fly — and lard ; but as there
is much temptation to pass off proprietary preparations, there
is often reason to doubt the suitability of such to all animals
and at all seasons. The action of cantharides is sometimes
supplemented by other agents, in accordance with the require-
ments of the case, forms of which immediately follow. A
new vesicatory insect — the Mylabris Cichorii — has been intro-
duced in late years, which we have found to answer remark-
ably well under certain conditions hereafter to be described,
particularly in high-bred animals, in which the skin partakes
of an unusual sensitiveness. Such compounds as savin,
euphorbium, corrosive sublimate, arsenic, &c., ought never to

The Blood.

enter into the composition of a blister for the horse ; but
there are grave reasons for believing that ignorant pretenders
have done more damage than absolute good by their employ-
ment. Turpentine and croton oil are likewise resorted to ;
and although their use may be sanctioned occasionally, we
would offer a word of caution to our readers, by advising
them not to admit such agents without the knowledge of the
attendant practitioner. The following are reliable forms of
blisters, arranged according to strength or power of irritation :

Recipe No. 6.

A MILD OINTMENT.

Take of powdered cantharides i oz.

Hog’s lard* 8 „

Put the whole into a water bath, or, what answers quite as
well, a clean glue kettle, such as is used by the carpenter.
Let hot water be placed in the outer vessel, and kept at a
point a little below boiling for eight hours, occasionally stir-
ring the ingredients ; then remove, and strain through a
coarse cloth by means of pressure, and set aside to cool in a
covered earthen vessel.

Recipe No. 7.

Second degree of strength.

Take of powdered cantharides i oz.

Hog’s lard 4 »

Resin powdered i »

Mix, and prepare as No. i.

Recipe No. 8.
Third degree of sU'ength.

Take of powdered cantharides i oz.

Resin powdered i »

Hog’s lard v

Oil of thyme i fl- oz.

Mix, and prepare as No. i, excepting the oil of thyme,

* In all cases the lard must be perfectly free from salt.

Inflammation. 45

which is to be added after the ointment has been strained
and set to cool.

Recipe No. 9.

TINCTURE of CANTHARIDES, OR LIQUID BLISTER.

Take of powdered cantharides 2 oz. ^

Powdered euphorbium 2 dr.

Proof spirits of wine 40 fl. oz.

Mix, and set aside to digest seven days.

This is the “ Sweating Blister,” so called — a very useful
preparation, which may be repeated without first> removing
the hair, or fear being entertained as to blemishes.

Recipe No. 10.

OIL BLISTER.

Take of powdered cantharides 3 oz.

Olive oil I pint.

Oil of thyme 2 oz.

Mix the oil and flies together, and digest in the water bath -
six hours, occasionally stirring ingredients ; afterwards strain
through a coarse cloth, add the oil of thyme, and preserve in
a well-stoppered bottle.

The application of blisters should always be attended with
smart friction, and a large surface covered when the object
is to overcome extensive internal inflammation. It must be
borne in mind, however, that all preparations of cantharides
are slow but powerful, and on account of the first peculiarity
they are unsuited for the treatment of those affections which
run their course rapidly, as enteritis, when not only powerful
but prompt remedies are needed. In such instances, oil of
turpentine, alone or with spirits of ammonia — hartshorn, and
at times boiling water, are used with greater effect. In order
to hasten the action of ordinary blistering ointment, oil of
turpentine, &c., is sometimes added ; likewise powdered
euphorbium, croton oil, and even sulphuric acid ; they are,
however, dangerous remedies in the horse, which is very

The Blood.

susceptible of their action. Even cantharides will produce
alarming conditions in some animals by absorption, acting
on the kidneys and bladder ; the addition of turpentine
would then of course aggravate the case to a serious extent.
Where such consequences are anticipated, it is well to em-
ploy other agents, as mustard, or substitute the mylabris for
the cantharides in the same proportions, this agent having
no tendency whatever to affect the urinary organs.

Blisters, we believe, are more useful in subsequent stages
of acute disease than in the first, during which an unusual
amount of nervous excitement is present. In our experience
we have found it to be a highly beneficial plan to first com-
bat the action of severe constitutional disease by well-known
powerful remedies, with the decline of which the attendant
nervous excitement will also diminish. A blister applied
after such results have been achieved will accomplish a far
better derivative effect ; indeed, to blister during the first
stages of acute suffering is an aggravation of the complaint,
and a fruitful cause of that untoward result — fatal engorge-
ment of the lungs, as indicated by the insensibility of the
skin to the action of the remedy. “ The blister has not
risen and as far as it has been concerned in the treatment,
nothing would have been better.

It is not advisable to apply blisters immediately over the
affected part when the object of treatment is to overcome or
remove the inflammation within it. If ointments are em-
ployed, a large surface at some distance should be selected,
and the hair clipped off ; the “ sweating” and oil blister may
be used without removing the hair at any time. When, how-
ever, the object of applying a blister is to promote the
formation of pus — suppuration — in a part, a spot over the
centre of the affection should be chosen, light friction being
used there, and a thick layer of ointment left upon it at the
close.

Inflammation.

The surface to which blisters have been applied should be
kept soft by means of a suitable application, otherwise hard
encrustations are apt to form, and pus confined beneath,
from which unsightly blemishes may be expected. Simple
olive oil forms a good agent for this purpose, and it may be
greatly improved by adding a preparation of lead in the pro-
portions as follow : —

Recipe No. ii.

LEAD LINIMENT.

Take of olive oil 6 fl. oz.

Goulard’s extract i „

Mix, and agitate until a thick creamy fluid is obtained,
which may be applied in small quantity daily to the blis-
tered surfaces, by means of a soft paint-brush.

Setons. — These consist of pieces of tape, passed by the
aid of a proper needle (Fig. 6) beneath the skin from one

Fig. 6. — Seton Needle {armed with Tape) and Handle for use
wheti force is required.

point to another, in order to set up an amount of irritation
to counteract some deeper-seated inflammation, or to drain
off the contents of an abscess, or cyst, &c.

As the tape thus passed under the skin would shortly

The Blood.

“work” its way out, by reason of the moving of the muscles,
&c., in the vicinity, and acts of the animal, it is secured in
two ways : one, as in Fig. 7, in which both ends of the tape

are brought together and tied in a double knot ; the second,
as in Fig. 8, each end being secured to a piece of wood
about two inches long, and hollowed in the centre ; tying is
effected to obviate the danger of slipping off. When animals
are loose, the first form is apt to be caught by hooks or
other projecting bodies and torn out ; the second is gene-
rally secure against such an accident. The tape or seton is
usually smeared with blister ointment, after being inserted,
to augment the irritant action. Setons as a rule are slow
agents, and cannot take the place of a blister when activity
and greater promptitude are required. In order to facilitate
the discharge of pus from the wounds of the seton, the tape
may be gently drawn upwards and downwards every morn-
ing and evening ; a fomentation, or washing with hot water,

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

Inflammation.

is also occasionally called for, as accumulations and needless
irritation are avoided, and to prevent the likelihood of
blemishes in the course pursued by the pus down and over
the skin, the parts should be smeared regularly with the
lead liniment, recipe No. ii, p. 47.

The Actual Cautery. — Happily, the use of this instrument
of barbarity is fast disappearing in the treatment of the dis-
eases of the horse. For many years, and there are yet
evidences of the cruel torture being inflicted, the actual
cautery, or firing-iron, was a most prominent remedy, and^
in consequence, there was scarcely a working horse to be
seen which did not exhibit the fantastic lines of some skilful
operator. The remedy consists of an instrument not unlike
a hatchet in form, which, after being raised to a red heat in
the fire, is drawn over the skin in various directions, the
object being to set up an amount of irritation more ex-
tensive, and deeper seated, than a simple blister will accom-
plish, and thus remove or overcome an already existing
internal malady. We deal with the actual cautery here as
one among the many counter-irritants employed in the sup-
pression of inflammation, but the suh’^ct will receive a full
share of attention under the head of “ Firing.” The object
for which counter-irritants are employed is, as already stated,
an endeavour to set up in another part a second form of disease
— inflammation, which in power or intensity is greater than
the first or original disease, but having such position and
characters as to render it more manageable and easily con-
trolled, and by its existence to draw away or overcome that
which is inferior to it. The practice is founded on the
assumption that two diseases of equal intensity cannot exist
at the same time ; and also, that when the healing action is
fully established in such parts wherein disease has been artifi-
cially induced, an equal and contemporaneous recovery takes
place in the parts or organs originally diseased. Successful

The Blood.

applications of the various remedies are attended with all
the signs of local inflammation being produced ; but when
blisters do ‘ not rise, and setons fail to produce a discharge,
the original disease is then understood to be intense, un-
manageable, and fatal.

The treatment of inflammation is also accomplished by
the use of medicines, which, like counter-irritants, effect all
their good by means of a derivative action : thus, sedatives
are used to lower or depress the heart’s action ; purgatives
to divert the flow of blood to the intestines, by diuretics to
the kidneys, and by diaphoretics to the skin ; besides special
agents which materially alter the constitution of the blood
itself, and deprive it of the means of supporting the inflam-
matory action. See also “ Enemas or Injections.”

Abstraction of Blood. — Bleeding, or as it is variously
known as venesection and phlebotomy^ at one time consti-
tuted the only reputable remedy for the cure of inflamma-
tion. At the present time it is usefully replaced by other
remedies, and is resorted to only on rare occasions. The
locality formerly selected for the operation was also as
various as the diseases for which it was proposed, and
scarcely a part of the Body of an aged animal could be
found which had not been seized upon for puncture. Later
experience has determined that, if bloodletting is necessary,
it should be practised in the course of the jugular vein, by
which a more abundant and rapid flow is obtained, and
reliable depression of the heart’s action, effects that are
recognised as the desiderata^ and only means of good in the
operation.

Bleeding from the Jugidar Vein. — A few particulars rela-
tive to the situation of this important vessel will be ser-
viceable to those who find it necessary to perform the
operation of abstracting blood from it. In the horse two
vessels bearing this name are to be found, a right and left,

Inflammation.

passing from the chest beneath a mass of muscles at the
lower portion of the neck, where the division is effected from
a large vessel called the anterior cava (Fig. 9). They are

Fig. 9. — The Terminatiotis of the Cavas m the Heart; right side.

a. The anterior cava.

b. The jugular.

C. The vertebral.

d. The axillary.

e. The internal pectoral.

f. The external pectoral.

g. The dorso cervical.

h. The anterior intercostal.

i. The inferior cervical.

j. The vena azygos.

k. The posterior vena cava, divested of its

covering of pleura.

l. The phrenic sinuses.

named right fftid left, from the course they pursue, one on
each side of the neck upwards in company with the wind-
pipe, trachea, and carotid artery. {See also Plate II.)
About the middle of the neck it emerges from beneath the
thicker layer of muscles, and becomes more superficial ; a
little behind the angle of the lower jaw divides into two
portions, and is shortly lost to the view. If the fingers
are placed upon the vein at the bottom of the neck, the
longitudinal hollow being the guide to its situation, and
moderate pressure be applied, the vessel will rapidly fill
from below upwards until the whole course is plainly
marked out. The course of the vein in the upper portion
of the neck will be better understood by a reference to Fig. 10.
Two kinds of instruments are made use of for opening the

4 — 2

The Blood.

jugular vein — the lancet and fleam, the first being employed
for simple puncture, while the second is held in one hand
and struck by the other, or by a clumsy instrument

Fig. io. — The Veins of the Head and Face.

The jugular. f. The sinus, or pouch, within the masseter

b. The submaxillary. muscle.

c. The labial. g. The posterior masseter.

d. The facial. h. I'he parotideal.

e. The temporal. z. The auricular.

j. The occipital.

called a blood-stick. Few veterinary practitioners now use
the fleam, the lancet being preferred as superior in every
respect. The part usually selected for opening the vein is
about three inches below the division at the upper portion.
It may, however, be punctured with safety three or four
inches lower, and in some cases it may be requisite to
operate above or below the first-named point — such, for
instance, when the vein has previously been opened — as it is
always advisable to avoid an old scar, because there is
greater difficulty of piercing the consequent enlargement.
There are to be observed also at certain equal distances
from each other in the course of the vein small elevations

Inflammation. 53

or knots across it These are the situations of the valves
with which the jugular vein is provided, and we need to
avoid these important agents when operating. Setting
aside, therefore, the first kind of exceptions to our rule, vve
may broadly recommend that from two inches below the
division already named to a point about six or seven inches
lower down the neck the vessel may be opened, always first
observing to fill it up by pressure below, by which a correct
outline of the course will be obtained. The results of
opening too low are often serious ; inflammation of muscle,
and probably also of the vein itself {See Phlebitis), with
ultimate obliteration or loss, and infiltration of blood within
the cellular tissue, terminating in abscess.

Previous to operating, the hair over the spot may be
smoothed downwards by means of a wet sponge. Next
apply the needful pressure on the vessel below with the left
hand, at the same time keeping the
parts somewhat tense and steady by
drawing downwards. The lancet (Fig
I i) is held 'between the thumb and two
forefingers of the right hand, the point
of which is directed to the centre of the
vein, and in a longitudinal direction,
not across, as some ignorant persons
have actually attempted, when suffi-
cient pressure must be exerted to pene- Lancet for

Bleeding.

trate the skin, thin layer of muscle,

and, lastly, the vein itself ; and before withdrawing the
instrument it is to be directed forwards and upwards, still
in the direction of the vein, so as to enlarge the opening
as the lancet leaves the wound. At this stage the operator
requires to study his attitude and position as well as move-
ment of the wrist. If dexterously accomplished, the stream

The Blood.

of blood will shoot out beneath his hand, and pass his right
side, all danger of having the clothes, &c., soiled being
entirely prevented. In the above outline we have repre-
sented the operator as standing on the right hand or off side
of the animal, and puncturing the right jugular vein ; but
when the operator is left-handed he may select the other

side with advantage. In bleeding
from the right side one important
object is thought to be obtained —
the protection of the mane, which
hides the resulting scar from in-
tending purchasers and others, who
might form an unfavourable opinion
as to the general health and sound-
ness of the animal. In the hands
of unpractised persons the fleam
(Fig. 1 2) is undoubtedly the safest
in bleeding from the jugular vein ;
and barbarous as the method may
be, if horses are to be bled by such,
we decidedly give it preference
rather than have to deal with the results of frequent and
futile punctures with a lancet. When the fleam is to be
used, the left jugular is usually selected, and the
animal held by an assistant, who covers the
eye of the same side with his hand while the
blow is being struck by the operator. The hair
is smoothed as before, and the open fleam is
held between the thumb and forefingers of the
left hand, the tips of those unemployed pressing
on the vein to obstruct the flow of blood. The
right hand holds the blood-stick (Fig. 1 3), and

„ the arm is elevated to strike the blow, the time

Fig. 13. ’ ^

Blood-stick, for which will be ascertained by a full vein and

Fig. 12. — The Fleam,

Inflammation, 55

the point of the fleam nicely placed on the centre of the
swollen part. The stroke, which should be rapid and devoid
of clumsiness, at once opens the vein, and blood flows
freely as long as pressure is applied, which is best accom-
plished by holding the can used to receive and measure
the blood closely up to the neck with moderate firmness.
As soon as the prescribed quantity of blood has been
obtained the can is removed, and the vein is to be closed.
This is an affair of much greater importance than many
suppose. The sides or lips of the wound are to be
brought in direct apposition, all pulling and pinching being
carefully avoided ; and a small pin, the point of which has
been previously prepared to insure easy passage, is then
caused to penetrate both, the direction being
across at the centre of the orifice. The
next step is to pass some very soft string
or tow in form of the figure 8, as shown
in the accompanying illustration (Fig. 14), Fig 14. — Twisted
which constitutes the twisted suture. Lastly,
snip off the free end of the pin when it has been pressed
down to the head, and the operation is completed.

It is not always an easy accomplishment to pass ordinary
pins through the skin of animals, and if any difficulty occurs
when the wound produced in bleeding is to be closed, there
are ten chances to one that the pulling and tugging which
always accompanies the endeavour, will give rise to awkward
consequences. It is, therefore, particularly desirable to close
the wound quickly, effectually, and with as little alteration
in the position of parts as possible. If the pin will pass
rapidly through, requiring but little pressure, the success of
the affair is more complete, but common pins will rarely do
this. This difficulty, with many allied to it where the use
of pins is resorted to, having been experienced by the writer,
his attention was devoted to the question, and he shortly

The Blood.

succeeded in adopting a pian by which suitable materials
may be readily prepared, leaving little to be desired. It
consists of placing the point of a pin within one of the
triangular grooves formed in block of steel, technically known
as a stake,” as shown in Fig. 15, and striking it with a

Fig. 15. — Instrunie^it for giving triangular points to Pins used
in closing wounds after Bleeding.^ &^c.

hammer. By repeated turning and striking, the hammer
produces one plane or face, while the blow drives the
substance of the pin into the groove which imparts its shape,
thus furnishing two other planes, with three cutting edges,
constituting a triangular point capable of passing through
the skin with the greatest ease.

Simple as the operation of bleeding from the jugular
vein is reputed to be, and competent as all connected with
horses believe themselves to be to perform it, there are
nevertheless serious accidents occasionally arising from
puncture of the carotid artery which runs in company with
the vein, as will be explained by a reference to the accom-
panying illustration, Fig. 16.

The results of this accident are failure to arrest, by
ordinary closing of the wound, the flow of blood, which is
distinguished by the florid red colour and pulsatory stream.
The best plan is to apply a plug and pressure, or put the
finger to the bottom of the wound and retain it there an
hour or two until a coagulum is formed which acts as a

Inflammation 57

natural plug and eventually closes the wound. {See Wounds
of Arteries and Veins.)

Fig. 16. — The Thorax^ divided to display the branching of the
Anterior Aorta.

I. The anterior aorta.

2, 2. The arteria innominata.

3. The interior intercostal.

4. The dorsal.

5. The posterior cervical.

6. The vertebral.

7. The axillary.

8. The common carotid,

g. The inferior cervical.

10. The external pectoral.

11. The internal pectoral.

a. The left carotid.

b. The right carotid.

c. The submaxillary.

d. The inferior labial.

e. The coronary labial.
fl. The superior labial.

The buccinator.

h. The facial.

i. The false nostril.

j. The posterior masseter.

k. The temporal.

It is sometimes the practice of grooms and others to
bleed from other parts of the body, as the arm or thigh,
palate, &c., the value of which is at least questionable.
Bleeding from the toe is probably of greater use as in

The Blood.

founder, &c., and is readily effected by first paring the hoof
very thin at the junction of wall and sole, at the toe or
front of the latter, and finally plunging a lancet into the
artery and vein which run in company there. To facilitate
the flow, the foot is placed in hot water, and at the close
simple pressure by means of a little tow dipped in carbolic
acid and laid over the part, the whole covered by a piece of
leather pressed under the shoe after it is tacked on.

SECTION II.

BLOOD DISEASES.

Under this head we have to consider a class of diseases,
the existence and peculiarity of which depend upon certain
changes in the constitution of the blood, having their origin
in various causes, and giving rise to special manifestations
— local as well as general — which form their distinctive
characters.

It will be apparent to the reader after careful attention to
the foregoing remarks on the blood, that the circulation is
the essential channel for conveying to all parts of the
system the necessary materials by which it is built up and
kept in repair from time to time ; and, at the same time,
performs an equally important function in being the great
highway along which all the elements of broken-down and
decayed animal tissues, materials no longer useful, those
which if retained would prove hurtful, others unsuited to
the wants, and many supplied in excess of the requirements,
pursue their way, and,^being directed to appropriate organs,
are separated and eliminated from the system. In absolute
health this kind of flow and return, change and interchange,
is ever present, but when from any cause interference with
the functions of one or more of the organs necessary to the
purifying or separating process takes place, there is a
corresponding accumulation of elements which sooner or
later materially affect the well-being and constitution of the
blood. It is not necessary to look upon these materials in

Blood Diseases,

the character of poisons, but their presence alone in undue
quantity may in certain instances be conducive towards a
state of blood disease. Again, a deficiency of the natural
constituents of the blood, as caused by imperfect assimila-
tion, digestion, &c., will bring about effects of an opposite
nature, and a blood disease ensues — the system cannot be
nourished — and death is as certain as described in the
preceding illustration.

A third form of blood disease consists of the presence of
certain foreign elements, animal products, the result of some
morbid process or secretion, inducing within the same system
peculiar actions and special forms of disturbance, and a
poisoned condition is evident by outward eruptions confined
to the skin, mucous membranes, &c., or both. There are
yet other varieties ; one in which the poisonous condition of
the blood is such as to propagate the same disease in the
same or other species of animals by simple inoculation with
it, or the secretions from mucous surfaces ; and, lastly, those
depending upon an acknowledged blood poison, but which
do not communicate the same disease to other animals,
inoculation with the blood, serum, mucus, &c., giving rise to
a septic or putrid fever in man and almost all other animals.

In order to present the various blood diseases before the
reader in a simple form, and arranged in accordance with
their leading characteristics, the following classification has
been adopted : —

I. A. — Blood diseases having their origin in an excess,
inordinate, impaired, or arrest of function,
sporadic and non-contagious — viz.. Plethora ;
Anaemia ; Rheumatism ; Uraemia.

B. — Blood diseases of similar origin, sporadic and
septic in character ; Purpura Haemorrhagica ;
Azoturia ; Malignant Sore Throat.

Blood Diseases.

IL Blood diseases of similar origin, non-contagious and
Enzootic ; Enzootic typhoid Catarrh ; Enzootic
Pleurisy.

III. Blood diseases having their origin in an unknown

animal poison, attended with eruptive fevers
or intumescence ; Enzootic and of septic
characters ; Scarlatina, Strangles, Suppurative
Catarrh.

IV. Blood diseases also arising from an unknown animal

poison ; Enzootic, highly contagious, and
capable of producing the same disease in other
animals of the same species by inoculation ;
Glanders ; Farcy.

I. .4. — BLOOD DISEASES HAVING THEIR
ORIGIN IN AN EXCESS, INORDINATE,
IMPAIRED, OR ARREST OF FUNCTION,
NON - CONTAGIOUS AND CHIEFLY
SPORADIC.

1. Plethora.

2. Anemia.

3. Rheumatism.

4. Uraemia.

Plethora.

By this term we indicate such a condition of the blood
in which the essential elements are present in excess. The
term “ fulness,” as frequently applied to this affection, should
be understood to refer only to the “ quality” of the blood,
for it is not sufficiently obvious that there is an undue
quantity. It is a state common to many horses subjected
to quiet living and little exercise, while good food in
abundance is supplied. Growing colts exhibit at times a
fast thriving propensity, and in both varieties of animals
there may be in addition vigorous digestive as well as
assimilative powers, which combined, and, by the assistance
of collateral agencies, are productive of so much pabulum
to the blood in excess of the natural requirements of the
system, and beyond its powers to appropriate.

Sympto7ns. — General health perfectly good, and evidences
of rapid improvement in condition, combined with unusual
cheerfulness. Close observation will enable the attendant to
detect from time to time the evidences of simple fever, which

A ncemia.

recur at intervals as the causes are suffered to operate, when
at length some special form of disease sets in, and not un-
commonly proves fatal. If such animals are bled, the fluid
almost immediately forms a coagulated mass, having little
serum, and presenting all the characters already described
under the head “ buff coat” and “ cupped appearance” of
the blood. Bloodletting does not appear to weaken, but
rather to refresh them, and they will sustain the loss to an
extent quite marvellous : their whole vascular system is

inordinately charged with an over-nutritious blood, which, in
certain instances, not only predisposes the animal to disease,
but also may assume all the characters of absolute disease
itself.

Treatment is sufficiently indicated by the foregoing facts.
If more work or exercise cannot be undertaken, the diet
allowed may be reduced in its nutritious elements, blood
may be abstracted and a purgative administered, or occa-
sional doses of salines should be mixed with the food.
Suitable directions will be found under “ Purgatives” and
“ Diuretics,” among the list of remedies given at the end of
this work.

Anemia.

When animals suffer a continued loss of blood by slow
haemorrhage, or bleeding is practised at short intervals ;
when the use of purgatives and diuretics is persisted in, and
females are allowed to continue too long under lactation, by
which the system is drained of its nutritious elements ; and
when, in addition to any of these, food of proper quality is
withheld, or that which is supplied falls far below a proper
standard of nutritive value, or the subject has continued long
in suffering from some debilitating disease, making little or no
progress towards recovery, a condition of anaemia is contracted,
which is otherwise known as the bloodless state. It may assist

Blood Diseases.

the reader to comprehend more our meaning if we observe
that, just as plethora is essentially due to <?^7^r~nutritious blood,
anaemia, on the other hand, represents a direct contrast, inas-
much as the nutritious elements of the blood are almost absent.
The blood corpuscles are very deficient, and the solid consti-
tuents are likewise wanting ; the blood itself is thin and watery,
and when drawn into a vessel rarely or slowly coagulates.
The bloodvessels contain a fair quantity of fluid, but the
watery elements predominate, and to this may be added a
feeble circulation, which allows the vessels to become dis-
tended, and by stretching under internal pressure together
from a want of nervous tone, the walls finally admit of the
infiltration of fluids, from which the closed cavities — as the
abdomen, chest, &c., as well as the spaces between muscles,
and beneath the skin, assume dropsical conditions. Other
complications are usually present in long-standing cases — e.g.,
intractable congestion of the lungs, partial paralysis, farcy,
and even glanders.

Symptoms. — Gradual and general wasting of the whole
body ; visible mucous membranes are pale, sometimes in-
tensely so ; the pulsations are exceedingly weak and vibrat-
ing, the calibre of the artery being unusually small, and
strange thumping sounds are heard in the vicinity of the
heart ; there is an evidence of increasing weakness and pros-
tration, aggravated by attendant conditions, as well as a defi-
cient or very capricious appetite. Animals thus affected, if
caused to move quickly are attacked with giddiness — vertigo ;
and fainting is not uncommon. Respiration is performed slowly
and with difficulty ; the bowels are extremely irregular, and
a rumbling noise, called borborygmus, is constantly proceed-
ing from them, while flatus passes from the anus, which is in
a semi-relaxed condition. In walking, the creature makes
awkward attempts, the limbs cross each other and occasionally
fall, in which he is apparently helpless. Such cases speedily

Anmnia. 67

lapse into hectic states, and death puts an end to further
sufferings.

Treatment. — It is obviously of little use doing anything
to such animals as are exhibiting complications of disease
with anaemia, except by way of reducing suffering. In many
instances the most humane plan is to put them out of their
misery as soon as it is sufficiently understood that fatal
terminations are inevitable. Immediate cases of anaemia,
however, are very different, and the remedies must be selected
in accordance with the cause ; as, for instance, open veins or
arteries must be stopped by suture, ligature, plugging, &c-
{See Wounds of Arteries, &c.) Injudicious systems of drug-
ging must be discontinued, and nutritious food carefully sup-
plied in the place of inferior kinds. Young growing colts
suffering as a result of defective keep, &c., during a previous
winter, should receive great attention, particularly as to diet ;
richer food must be cautiously introduced, while at the same
time tonics, as gentian, and nitric ether as a stimulant may
be given in order to restore the balance of lost functions. In
those instances where constipation is present, strychnia or
nux vomica may be very advantageously employed with the
foregoing remedies, in order to stimulate the nervous system
and rouse the digestive organs. In adult animals, the periods
when the coat is being changed, and hard work as well as
the vicissitudes of weather during the spring and autumn
months, often create great mischief ; in some stables where
ventilation is not as it ought to be, and horses are allowed
to retain long coats, by which they are caused to perspire,
seldom having a dry surface, they become anaemic and drop-
sical, for which rest and careful domestic treatment, combined
with the use of nitre and gentian, &c., as medicines, are spe-
cially required ; and in the latter cases clipping is urgently
called for.

5 — 2

Blood Diseases.

Rheumatism — Rheumatic Fever.

Nature. — A specific condition of the blood, or constitu- .
tional disturbance, in which the whole system participates,
while local manifestations take place in particular structures
of the body, as in tendons, ligaments, coverings of joints
and muscles, also membranes of the heart, lungs, &c. A
special character of the inflammation which seizes the struc-
tures named is its disposition to move rapidly from one joint
or organ to another, without any appreciable cause, some-
times producing large hard swellings, while in other in-
stances enlargement is not apparent

Causes. — Continued exposure to cold and damp, by which,
together with other causes not exactly made out, some
alteration or interference with the assimilative functions
takes place, producing the characteristic poison of the dis-
ease. It is often the sequel of other diseases, as influenza,
epizootic pleurisy, &c., creating much disappointment when
the animal is thought to be recovering.

Rheumatism assumes two forms, the acute and chronic.

Symptoms. — General uneasiness and stiffness, or sudden
lameness, sometimes without any swelling of parts, but
usually the hock, fetlock, or stifle is affected, or one of the
flexor tendons, which is found to be swollen, hard, and
sensitive ; at other times the loins or quarters are seized,
or the sides of the chest are implicated — pleurodynia, when
the power of turning will be seriously interfered with. The
usual signs of fever are generally present, but the attack
may commence without any significant indications of dis-
order, ^d in a few hours v/e may observe an entire removal
of the disease to one or more regions of the body previously
not affected. The pulse is hard, frequent and unyielding ;
membranes slightly injected ; mouth hot and dry ; bowels
constipated ; the urine scanty and deeper in colour, and in

Rheumatis7n — Rhetimatic Fever, 69

place of its healthy alkaline reaction, it has become either
neutral or acid. The blood is found to possess an excess
of fibrine, as exhibited by firm and excessive coagulation
after being drawn, the watery portions being proportion-
ately less. Suppuration rarely ensues from the swelling of
acute rheumatism.

In the chronic form of rheumatism there is less tendency
to metastasis and attendant fever. A joint that has become
affected continues to be the locality of serious disease, and
consequent changes of structure, ending probably in the
formation of a bony tumour or excrescence, which in time
entirely surrounds and fixes it immovably. This unto-
ward condition will be better understood by comparison of
the accompanying figures, one illustrating a healthy joint,
the other as affected by rheumatism (Figs. 17 & 18).

Fig. 17. — Knee-joint. Fig. 18. — Knee-joint^ after Chro7iic

Front View. Rheumatism, Front View.

Treatme7it. — It is a most .useful proceeding to administer
first a laxative dose of aloes, by which, not only will the

Blood Diseases.

bowels be moved, but the attendant fever will probably
suffer a check, and the process of assimilation altered in
character, and not be without ulterior good effects on the
blood. Some practitioners combine opium with the aloes,
continue it in doses of half a dram or more twice during the
day, while pain is excessive. Others, first observing the
' bowels have entirely recovered from the action of the aloes,
combine calomel with the opium, to prevent its liability to
constipation. The following is the preparation : —

Recipe No. 12*

MERCURIAL BALL.

Take of powdered opium 3 drs.

Calomel 3 „

Common mass 6 „

Rub the opium and calomel together first, and, when
thoroughly incorporated, add the mass, all of which should
be worked for five minutes, and afterwards divided into six
balls ; one to be given morning and night, avoiding their
use as soon as the pain subsides, and before signs of sali-
vation appear.

As there is considerable danger to be apprehended from
the use of mercurial preparations in the hands of those
unacquainted with drugs, and their actions on the system,
we have usually recommended a substitute in the subjoined
forms : —

Recipe No. 13

Take of solution of acetate of ammonia 2 oz.

Tincture of aconite — Fleming’s 10 drops.

Nitrate of potash, powdered 2 drs.

^ Water | pt.

Mix, and administer as soon as the potash has been dis-
solved. The dose may be repeated in ten or twelve hours ;

See the introductory remarks on the doses of medicine. Section XIV. The
Dispensatory.

Rheumatism — Rheumatic Fever.

afterwards the aconite must be reduced to one half, and not
repeated after the fourth dose without a break of twenty-
fours at least, during which the other ingredients may be
given alone.

If the form of ball is preferred to that of drench, it may
be prepared as given in —

Recipe No. 14.

Take of nitrate of potash, powdered 2 to 4 drs.

Aconite 10 drops.

Common mass 2 or 3 drs.

Mix the nitrate of potash and mass together, and when
incorporated drop in the aconite. Give this dose morning
and night, observing the cautions given with the drench.
No. 13.

When the aconite is withdrawn, powdered colchicum may
usefully take its place, in doses of half a dram or a dram,
according to size and constitution, when debility is not par-
ticularly great. Moderate bloodletting may be practised at
the outset in young and robust animals.

Local Treatment. — When the joints, &c., are swollen and
painful, blisters are often very useful in promoting a free
elimination, it is supposed, of the virus or poison of rheuma-
tism, and thus greatly avoiding the tendency for the affection
to become located in the heart, &c. The blister should be
severe, and after a full effect has been produced, linseed meal
poultices may be applied, in order to maintain a lengthened
discharge from the skin, and lesson the liability for the
disease to attack the interior of the joint and synovial fringes.
With the same object in view, the “ endermic method”
of treatment — which see — has been adopted with some
success.

In those cases attended with less pain and swelling of the
joints, blisters may be set aside, and strong liniment substi-
tuted, the form of which is here given : —

72 Blood Diseases,

Recipe No. 15.

Take of olive oil 10 fl. oz.

Liquor ammonia i

Spirits of turpentine 2 „

Mix, and shake until a white liniment is produced, with
which the affected parts may be rubbed morning and
i evening until the skin shows signs of inflammation by a
dewy moisture among the hair, which now stands erect, and
tenderness under the touch. In later stages, and when the
external tenderness has subsided, the following will be found
useful towards reducing swelling, and creating absorption of
the products of the inflammatory process : —

Recipe No. 16.

Take of soap liniment 4 oz.

Tincture of iodine 3 „

„ opium 2 „

Mix, and apply with moderate friction.

In the treatment of these cases the patient must be induced
to lie down as much as possible, and thus relieve the in-
flamed limbs, &c., and ample protection from cold currents
of air secured. If the body is not in any way implicated, do
not omit the essential brushing of the skin, which keeps it
active as an excretory organ, and make use of warm light
clothing. The food should be light, easily digested, and
offered temptingly {see Diet, page 19). Green forage,
roots, &c., with small quantities of boiled corn, with bran or
linseed for keeping the bowels open, are suggested, with water
cold or chilled, hay or linseed tea, as the patient prefers,
as drink. In the administration of medicines use no un-
necessary force, and let no gruel or other preparation of food
be horned down the throat.

Happily this affection is not so prevalent among horses
as in horned stock, but whenever it does occur there are grave
reasons always for expecting a return, each time with worse

Urmnia.

results. In an ox, a stiff joint may prove of little con-
sequence, as life is only preserved so long as to enable the
owner to make meat of him, if possible ; but such a ter-
mination of disease at once renders the horse valueless.
Enlargement of joints by the formation of osseous matter
will, therefore, enable the practitioner and owner to decide on
what may be done without unnecessarily increasing a need-
less outlay of time, trouble, and expense.

Uremia.

By this term is understood a saturation of the system
with urine, which having no means of discharge by reason of
some cause leading to retention, is absorbed and dispersed
over the body. It is a state of blood poisoning {see
“Retention of Urine”).

Symptoms. — In addition to other signs which are indi-
cative of some aggravated condition of the urinary organs,
we may observe an unusual dulness and heaviness of ex-
pression in the countenance ; the appetite is absent ; mouth
clammy, or slimy and foetid ; bowels costive, and the eva-
cuations scanty, hard, and offensive ; pulse and respiration
slow and tardy ; pupils dilated ; and a strong and sickly
odour of urine is largely eliminated from the surface of the
skin, the hair of which stares, is harsh under the hand, and
has lost its bright and glossy appearance ; general tem-
perature is low, and rapidly declining ; and shortly the
animal becomes comatose, and dies during insensibility.

Treatment. — As uraemia is not a disease per se, but rather
a collection of signs distinctive of several other serious
maladies, essential treatment is obviously to be directed
towards their removal. We can only urge here the necessity
for evacuating the bladder as soon as possible when full, or
promoting the usual action of the kidneys when such are

Blood Diseases.

suspended. All the essential details will be described under
the various affections of urinary organs in Section V.

APNGEA.

A form of blood poisoning dependent on an arrest or
obstruction to the action of the skin. The common integu-
ments of the body are required to perform wonderful and
elaborate functions, besides acting as a mere envelope to bind
and keep together all that have been placed within it. If
the skin is covered by any substance which proves impervious
to air and moisture, a condition of blood poisoning ensues of
a similar nature to uraemia, and, if continued, death will
inevitably take place in a like manner. All such excretory
organs as the skin, kidneys, &c., may assume under certain
conditions a vicarious action — in other words, they may
perform some of the functions of other organs that are
unable to act by reason of disease ; but they are totally
unsuited for doing this constantly and entirely, or in the
same way as the appropriate organs would accomplish it.
For a time, therefore, the functions of life appear to be
regularly carried on, although some special and indispensable
organ is entirely laid by. The skin can throw off much of
the elements of urine in a gaseous form, but the remainder
go round and round the circulation until at length they
prevent the nutrition of the nervous centres, and, indeed, of
the whole body. The kidneys may also for a time eradicate
from the system much that should go off by the skin, but
they likewise fail to draw all to them, and hence similar
toxic effects are the result. All organs have special func-
tions assigned to them, and while some of the more sub-
ordinate actions may be delegated to or taken up by others,
the first they cannot give up. The result is, then, if such
special functions are not performed by the organs to which

Apnoca. 75

they have been assigned, they are not performed by any
other.

Death by apnoea inthe horse chiefly occurs through accident,
when the supply of air is from some obstruction to respira-
tion cut off, in which it is known as the immediate cause.
But there is one condition to which he is often subjected,
’ regardless of consequences in which a state of apnoea is
ignorantly engendered, and, although it is not the cause of
death in a direct manner, it is so frequently occasioned that
a very great susceptibility to disease is contracted, and
untimely death is the end of it — we allude to the' practice
of working horses with thick, heavy coats in the autumn and
early winter months, whereby they perspire so freely that
the hair afterwards seldom gets dry or clean, and as such
proves an impediment to the proper process of excretion.
It may not in all cases be advisable to clip horses, and we
do not desire to lay down a hard-and-fast line of action ;
but, as a large experience has demonstrated that the major
proportion of the cases of influenza arise, from this cause
alone, and disappear immediately after the coat has been
removed, we feel bound to utter a protest and warning in
the interest of an animal for which we have the fondest
attachment, and on behalf also of those for whom these
pages are specially written.

Apnoea, or difficult breathing, in the sense as applied to
the cases we are considering, gives rise to no acute dis-
tressing signs, and, for the difficult breathing, the non-
professional reader would examine in vain. The term does
not apply to outward and unequivocal signs of agony and
suffocation, but to an internal non-aerating or non-purifying
of the blood slowly and gradually going on, failing to
nourish tissues or appropriate the elements of nutrition which
the food supplies. The circulation of blood, charged with
such principles constantly accumulating from various sources

Blood Diseases.

by reason of the arrest of, or interference with, the function
of the only organ which can eliminate them, becomes slow
and tardy in proportion as it ceases to nourish the nervous
centres, especially in the lungs, where it should exchange
its carbon for life-giving oxygen. As the outlet by the skin
is retarded, the lungs experience greater difficulty in bring-
ing up the relays of blood, and at length congestion arises,
when, in conjunction with other organs which suffer in the
general disturbance, a category of signs appear, and we lose
sight of the primary complaint in the existence of another ;
probably losing ourselves also in a maze of speculation as to
the wide-spread nature of an evil which has befallen our
quadrupeds, finding that we are setting contagion against
non-contagion, and, without deciding, abandon the point as
soon as the horse has been clipped, to renew the contest
probably at the next and succeeding seasons. We shall have
much to advance on other causes of disease, but we cannot
deal with them as apnoea is presented to us. As a distinct
affection, it has no existence ; but as a powerful and im-
portant indication of a mine of mischief it requires our
greatest and most immediate attention. As we regard it, so
must it be treated in a medical aspect. What are the
causes } Take these out of the way, and, in obedience to
natural laws, the effects will cease.

I. — BLOOD DISEASES HAVING THEIR
ORIGIN IN AN EXCESS, INORDINATE,
IMPAIRED, OR ARREST OF FUNCTION,
SPORADIC AND NON-CONTAGIOUS, BUT
SEPTIC* IN CHARACTER.

Purpura HiEMORRHACiCA.

Azoturia.

Malignant Sore Throat.

Purpura Hemorrhagica.

Nature, — A specific blood disease, in which local mani-
festations are confined in major part to the skin, and next
to analogous tissues, as mucous membranes, cellular tissue,
certain portions of organs, as the parenchyma of the
lungs and kidneys, and spaces between the coats of the
intestines. It is the “Malignant Epidemic Fever,” or Typhus
gravior of Blaine. There is unquestionably such a grave
alteration in the characters of blood pabulum in this com-
plaint, that we can no longer doubt the existence of a septic
poison, and, from this point of view, it might be regarded as
belonging to the following category of diseases. We must,
however, bear in mind that, although the septic state is
admitted as entering into the nature of purpura, there are
yet strong reasons for retaining it under the present head.
As a blood poison, it is no other than a sporadic disease,
attacking animals here and there, and, as far as we know.

* Non-contagious in a strict sense, but producing by inoculation putrid fever
in other animals. These affections are the analogues of charbon in cattle.

Blood Diseases.

never assuming enzootic characters. This view is clearly
strengthened, we believe, by a consideration of the many
different conditions essential to its production.

Causes. — By far the greater portion of animals attacked .
by purpura are those which have recently suffered from
enzootic typhoid catarrh, or other equally distressing and
debilitating affections ; in certain instances, it will appear in
animals occupying the same stable as those suffering from
the enzootic referred to, although themselves have been, as
far as is known, quite free from it. Again, it arises inde-
pendently of these known causes, and there is little difficulty
in associating it with defective ventilation and want of
proper cleanliness, when there are corresponding irregula-
rities in the system of feeding and work ; but these cases
are by no means so frequent as we might suppose, seeing
that such causes tend, as a rule, to produce other affections
which naturally precede purpura. Lastly, there are cogent
reasons for believing that, through various agencies, the
essential septic poison may gain admittance to the blood of
a susceptible animal as by means of drinking-water, &c.,
when portions of the carcases of others slaughtered or dying
from debilitating diseases are carelessly left about to putrefy
and contaminate buildings, land, pools, &c. &c. We have
frequently had cause for remonstrating with farmers and
others upon the careless way in which post-mortem examina-
tions are conducted, and disposal of the offal and resulting
debris. When the latter, such as blood, pieces of flesh,
excretions, &c., are suffered to lie exposed and dry in the
sun, portions assume light and imponderable characters, and
are carried by the wind in every direction, some finding
their way into food, thence to the stomach, or by the respi-
ration to the lungs. Thus we may not hesitate to affirm,
that the causes of purpura do occasionally consist of certain
septic products imbibed from without, the operation of

Purpura Hcemorrhagica, 79

which are greatly insured by a want of proper ventilation ;
and, in other instances, it arises from morbid changes within
the blood of the subject, and probably an unusual degenera-
tion of tissue consequent upon the existence of previous
debilitating disease.

Symptoms. — This disease is particularly characterised by
an extreme amount of debility and indisposition to move,
with the presence of variable diffused swellings upon every
part of the body, by which the skin is elevated. These are
to be observed especially about the head, lips, breast, abdomen,
between the legs, &c. (Fig. 19). Petechice^ or mulberry-coloured

Fig. 19. — Purpitra HcBmorrhagica.

spots, are present over the surface of the visible mucous
membranes, and not unfrequently haemorrhage takes place
from their surfaces, the blood being of a dark colour, and
having a foetid smell. The legs swell also as a result of the
general extravasation of blood beneath the skin, and within
the cellular tissue ; and, besid s, small vesicles shortly appear
low down on the surface, which burst, and together with
cracks or fissures, forming at the same, time in flexures or
bend of the joints, pour out an amber or purple-coloured

Blood Diseases.

fluid, which irritates as it flows over the skin, and gives rise
to much uneasiness. Swelling of the face, eyes, nostrils, and lips
is sometimes very severe, closing the eyes, and so seriously

Y\(^. 20.— Head of the Horse as exhibit little tendency to heal

gular, indicative of the flagging of the neutral powers. Con-
stipation is usually present, but the bowels are strangely sus-
ceptible to the action of medicines, for purgation is very easily
set up, and under ordinary circumstances the faeces are often
covered with black blood, and internal pains are evident. A
coffee-coloured fluid escapes from the nostrils, and probably n
hoarse and hollow cough causes the sufferer much uneasiness.
At times the tongue is implicated in the swelling, having the
characteristic vesicles and their offensive discharge ; and on
the surface of the mucous membranes sloughings of the
petechice take place and discharge a similar fluid, which
hangs about the air-passages and disturbs the breathing,
giving rise to a constant snuffling noise. The urine has a
high colour, an offensive, strong, ammoniacal odour being
apparent, and from the great amount of solid constituents
present, decomposition sets in very shortly. In some cases,
the bowels suddenly become excited, and severe colicky
pains ensue, when blood is rapidly distributed throughout
the intestines, and in such large quantities that death imme-
diately follows.

interfering with breathing as to

the jaws cannot be opened, al-
though the animal has a desire
to eat. Eventually the skin over
the swollen parts sloughs off, and
leaves large open sores, which
give out a disagreeable fluid, and

cause suffocation (Fig. 20) ; while

the first, becomes small and irre-

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I.

“ THE LEFT DIVISION OF THE HEAD, SEPARATED BEFORE
THE MESIAN LINE IS ATTAINED.

The superior turbinated bone, covered with the
Schneiderian membrane and its ramifying vessels ; the
inferior turbinated bone in the like condition ; c, the mouth
and gums of the lower jaw ; d, the facial and frontal sinuses ;
c, the ethmoid cells ; /, the ethmoid sinuses ; g, the cavity of
the skull, deprived of the brain and its membranes ; //, the
portion of the bony triquatrum which separates the cerebrum
and the cerebellum [see Plate IX.) ; i, the bars upon the
roof of the mouth ; y, the guttural pouch, formed of merely
mucous membrane, which shows the various adjacent
structures through its sides ; k, the opening into the fauces
of the guttural pouches ; /, the soft palate {see f also
Plate IX.); m, a portion of the lacerated submaxillary gland ;
71, the opening of the nostril into the fauces ; o, the spinal
canal ; p, tissues disarranged in dissection. Owing to the
division of the muscles, the pharynx has fallen down and
concealed the larynx.”

Purpura Hcsmorrhagica.

Post-mortem Appearances. — Beneath all the swollen parts
the cellular tissue is filled with a reddish-yellow fluid, having
a feeble power of coagulation, in which purple-black blood
freely admixes, and similar conditions are to be observed
between the coats of the intestines and most secreting organs.
The blood within the circulating system is very dark, fluid,
and, like the exuded portions, has little tendency to
coagulate ; the colouring matter, however, soon finds its
way into the substance of membranes, &c., whereby they are
saturated and dyed a dark red, sometimes mistaken for
inflammation. Upon the surface of muscles and membranes
generally there are petechial spots, those in the former pene-
trating some distance, which become black on exposure to the
air. The fluid in the pericardium is increased in quantity, and
the heart is invested by patches of imperfectly coagulated
masses similar to those already referred to. The various glands
are usually congested, swollen, and readily broken down ;
the abdominal organs suffer equally, being either congested,
swollen, softened, or charged with dark-coloured blood ; and
the lungs are enlarged, heavily charged with the prevailing
exudation, which finds its way into the air-passages. The
brain and nervous system exhibit the petechial spots, and their
bloodvessels contain the usual dark-coloured and fluid blood.

Duration^ Prognosis, &c. — Fatal cases in the acute stages
succumb as early as the second day after the attack has
become pronounced, but generally go on to the third or
fourth. The disease does not observe an evanescent course,
but rather assumes such a tendency to fluctuate, that it
becomes very difficult to estimate what the next few hours
may develop ; animals appear to be improving satisfactorily,
and next day are dead ; others also, apparently progressing
towards convalescence, suddenly cease to feed, emaciation
and debility supervene in a marvellously rapid manner, so
that the creature cannot rise if he falls or lies down. In

Blood Diseases.

some instances extensive sloughing takes place in all the
swollen parts, but the reparatory process is so tardy that
it may almost be said to be absent. Such cases live
on from day to day, exhibiting the most variable pro-
gress, and after some time, ranging from two to six weeks,
death takes place from hectic, gangrene of the lungs,
glanders, or farcy. The hopeful cases are those in which
the swellings and congestions are slight, and important
organs as the lungs are able to carry on their functions.
Improvement may be looked for on the third or fourth day,
and all the care and watchfulness that can be given will be
required, not so much with the view of being ready to do
something, as, on the contrary, to avoid doing too much, for
life is here but like a flickering light ; slight interference, with
ever so good an object, may serve to snuff it out altogether.

T^'eatmeiit. — Pure air, perfect cleanliness, and ventilation
are of essential import in the first attempts to suppress the
malady. Unless these are attended to, and the sufferer is still
in contact with tlie effluviae of stables in which disease and dirt
prevail, we had better not do anything, which in the end will
prove a saving of time, medicines, and money. Moderate
bloodletting in the first stages is likely to prove beneficial, if
debility is not great ; the pulse must be the guide. In
later stages, to bleed is to kill. After these conditions are
provided, the next step is to employ such remedies as are
known to be efficient in overcoming the tendency to extrava-
sation of the blood ; these are, turpentine, perchloride of
iron, &c. Of the first, about an ounce may be given three
times in the day, beaten up with eggs or thick gruel, observing
great care so as to withdraw the medicine as soon as there
are any signs of irritation of the kidneys. In order to avoid
this, some practitioners use alternate doses of turpentine
and perchloride of iron, or after using two doses of the first,
two of the latter are given at the prescribed times — one, say,
every eight hours. The iron medicine is thus prepared : —

Purpura Hcemorrhagica.

Recipe No. 17.

Take of perchloride of iron i or 2 fl. dr.

Spirits of nitric ether 2 fl. oz.

Infusion of quassia 6 „

Mix, and administer as carefully as possible. The acid
nature of the perchloride of iron has a great tendency in
some animals to produce irritation of the bowels and
diarrhoea ; on this account its use must be carefully watched,
for while it is desirable to preserve a lax state of the bowels
as conducive to eliminating the poisonous elements from the
blood, absolute diarrhoea and purgation may be hurtful and
dangerous. At the outset, some practitioners always com-
mence their treatment of these cases by giving an oleaginous
purge ; when constipation is present, such a proceeding is com-
mendable. The following is the form usually prescribed : —

Recipe No. 18.

Take of linseed oil 8 oz.

Sulphuric ether or spirits of nitric ether i or 2 fl. oz.

Mix.

Besides the foregoing, the mineral acids have been found
useful in dram doses, given frequently ; such are the sul-
phuric, nitric, or hydrochloric, combined as in the subjoined
prescription : —

Recipe No. 19.

Take, say, of sulphuric acid i dr.

Infusion of quassia, gentian, or Colombo 6 fl. oz.

Nitric ether 1 or 2 fl. oz.

Mix.

Professor Williams, in his admirable work,* advocates
strongly the use of chlorate of potash in purpura, stating the
marked results achieved by it. We can endorse the opinions
expressed, and trust that other practitioners will make an
extended use of the salt, and report the results. Other

Principles and Practice of Veterinary Medicine.

6 — 2

Blood Diseases.

remedies are rarely called for ; indeed, it is unwise to extend
the number beyond those already given ; besides which, we
must caution the reader against using large doses at any
time. It is far better to depend upon small quantities,
frequently administered, by which there is greater likelihood
of keeping the system under a coiitiniied influence — a state
too little understood and appreciated in the treatment of
disease. Ammonia is a dangerous remedy in this affection,
and should not be prescribed, as the system already contains
too much, and from which the urine assumes a thick
mucilaginous state.

Let the food be of the most nutritious and digestible kind,
offered frequently, and in small quantities — above all, select-
ing green forage, or the roots, &c., which produce salutary
conditions of the blood. As convalescence is established —
which in all cases is extremely slow — food may be allowed
more liberally, and a little exercise given when stiffness is
passing off The time to decrease or leave off the foregoing
acid medicines will be indicated by the decline of swelling
and external effusion, together with the return of natural
functions in the various organs, as the bowels, kidneys, &c.
P"or a time it may be useful to continue the nitric ether and
gentian only, and, in somewhat later stages, to commence a
course of mineral tonics such as the following : —

Recipe No. 20.

Take of sulphate of iron in fine powder 3 oz.

Carbonate of soda „ oz.

Coriander seeds, finely ground 3 oz.

Mix thoroughly, and divide into 24 powders, one to be
given night and morning in the corn.

Local TreaUnent. — Carefully sponge the nostrils frequently
to prevent irritation from accumulating discharges, but
beyond this, for a time at least, nothing further of the kind
appears to be called for. If the breathing at the outset is

Azoturia.

inclined to be difficult on account of the nasal swelling, lose
no time in opening t he windpipe {see Tracheotomy) — as in
every hour afterwards the act of respiration is impeded more
and more, and plenty of fresh air means so much life to the
sufferer. In constipation of the bowels, clysters — which see —
are of great benefit towards promoting the action of laxative
medicine ; it may also be advisable to remove the contents
of the bladder {see Catheter), and thus assist in promoting
comfort by removing that which often causes much irritation,
especially when it is retained on account of excessive debility.

Azoturia, Nitrogenous Urine (Williams); Enzootic Hcema-
turia (Gamgel) ; Hysteria (MoORE and Haycock) ;
Albuminuria ; “ Schwarze Hamiwindd' of the Germans.

Nature. — A blood disease dependent upon the presence
of an unusual amount of nitrogenous material, producing
impairment of the nervous system, convulsions, and death
within a few hours. The disease has been noticed by a few
persons, and English text-books have been unusually silent
with regard to it. In Germany and on the Continent of
Europe it appears as an Enzootic disease, but in Britain it is
not seen as such, being common to both horses and mares,
sporadic, and terminating with the essential characters of a
septic or putrid disease. It is only during late years that it
has been made out to be due to a blood poison, alterations
in the system of feeding having doubtless much influence in
its production, whereby an extended observation has been
given to it. The late Professor Dick, in describing the
malady before his class, named it “ Sprain of the Psoae
Muscles.”

Symptoms. — The attack always commences very suddenly,
affecting animals in apparently the best of health and
condition. At first the animal is observed to be restless.

Blood Diseases.

frequently shifting his position, and perspiration, often of a
profuse character, comes on ; colicky pains set in, and he
attempts to lie down ; the pulse and respiration are
accelerated, and blowing is not at all unfrequent, aggravated
by violent contraction of the muscular system, especially
over the loins, and inability to discharge urine. Unless
relieved, the spasms increase rapidly ; large and firm swellings
take place over the hips and loins, severe stiffness seizes
the limbs, the countenance bears an anxious expression, the
visible mucous membranes grow deeper in colour, perspiration
is intense ; the breathing is difficult, paralysis affects the
hind-quarters, from which the animal falls and cannot rise
again ; convulsions are frequent, and quickly followed by coma
and death.

If urine is discharged during the attack it is thick and
ropy, having a disagreeable odour and deep colour, very
much resembling boiled linseed oil. Such is the nature of
the fluid, that decomposition commences after a short time
if kept in open vessels.

Recovery is denoted by copious discharge of urine and
faeces, cessation of sweating and abdominal pain, as well as
falling of pulse and respiration.

P ost-mortem examination reveals no specific lesion of the
spinal cord, as believed by some. Any redness that may be
present is to be regarded as a sign rather than the disease
itself. The blood is dark-coloured, and possesses a smell of
ammonia ; the heart contains blood clots, and the lungs are
congested. The bladder contains a large quantity, and is
sometimes full of dark-coloured viscid and offensive urine,
and its coats are occasionally reddened as a result of the
irritating action of ammonia developed in the fluid. If the
urine is allowed to stand exposed to the air, ammonia is
also largely formed in the rapid decomposition which ensues ;
other tests identify the nitrogenous character of the urine as

A zottiria.

associated with the disease. When boiled, it loses its viscidity
and becomes a thin fluid, giving off freely a large amount of
ammoniacal gas, a proof that albumen in the usual form is
not present, as is often said to be. If nitric acid is added,
violent effervescence results from the presence of carbonates
and liberation of carbonic acid, and afterwards the urine
becomes lighter in colour and a copious precipitate of brown
scales falls to the bottom ; these are the crystals of urea, the
nitrogenous principle of the urine, which in excess as
derived from the abundance of food has been the direct
cause of the mischief.

The disease is traced to animals having too little to do,
and supplied with an abundance of rich food. Among farm
horses, it is known to arise at those times when, after rather
severe work and when living on good food, frost, &c., puts
a stop to the ploughing, &c., and they are suddenly confined
to the stable for some days'. Horses in low condition,
belonging to farmers who are noted for a defective system
of feeding, are not victims to this disease.

Treatment. — If we fully bear in mind the causes of the
disease, and the fact that the blood already contains such an
excess of nutritious matter as to be literally poisoned by it
— that nervous power has been reduced thereby, and excre-
ting organs, as the kidneys and bowels, are inactive as a
direct result, both probably charged with the effete matters
which they are employed to expel — we shall not hesitate,
indeed no time must be lost, before we decide what should
be done. The bowels must be caused to act, and the follow-
ing purgative draught is to be prepared, and immediately
administered : —

Recipe No. 21.

Take of solution of Barbadoes aloes (prop, i dr. to oz.) 8 fl. oz.

Croton oil i or 2 drops.

Spirits of nitric ether 2 fl. oz.

Mix.

Blood Diseases.

During the time the above draught is being prepared, if
warm water can be obtained, make a solution of soap quickly,
and throw it up the rectum by the enema funnel or syringe.

In some instances we have found that impediments to the
discharge of urine existed in the shape of spasm at the neck
of the bladder, when the animal makes frequent and ineffec-
tual attempts to urinate. It is then required to pass the
catheter and draw off the contents of the bladder, particularly
when the animal is lying down. The practice is not useless
if no urine is obtained, as we are thereby assured of the
exact state of the bladder, and no fear need be entertained
of rupture, which might take place as when distended during
the violent struggles of the animal. Place him in a well-
littered and roomy box ; allow hay-tea or water to drink
while thirst is present,' and keep up the use of enemas for
several hours as may be needed.

If all goes well, further medicines will not be required for
some time, or at least until the first dose has proved to be
of no effect, which rarely happens. Make the animal as
comfortable as possible by keeping a dry bed beneath him,
especially if he cannot rise, placing bolsters of straw between
him and the wall, &c., to prevent injury to the limbs or
body. During the time he is compelled to lie, he must be
turned from time to time, as he becomes tired of his position,
or at least two or three times during the day ; and ounce doses
of nitrous ether may be given morning, noon, and night, to
overcome the tendency to depression and weakness. At the
end of three days he should be assisted to rise if he cannot
do so by himself, for which purpose the slings may be used.
The first attempt will, in all probability, prove a failure, as
far as his standing is concerned ; yet good will be done if
care is exercised, and the animal will have greater confidence
when the second effort is made. As soon as he is on his
feet, employ hand-rubbing to restore warmth to limbs, and

Azoturia.

remove stiffness ; let him remain in the slings a few days,
and watch him carefully when first allowed to lie down, that
he may be helped to rise if unable to do so alone.

During the first eight or twelve hours of the attack, no
harm will ensue from a total absence of appetite, and after-
wards for a day or two the supplies should consist of bran
mashes or sloppy food, with a large share of bran, linseed,
&c., in it. As soon as better food is required, let it be light
and nutritive ; barley or oats, swollen and cracked by boiling,
answer best ; avoiding large meals, as the stomach is weak ;
and errors of this kind often kill at these stages, instead of
proving a cure. As a medicine, give gentian along with
nitrous ether, as recommended in recipe No. 27 ; or, if
desirable to recruit the powers of the nervous system in a
more direct manner, give the following draught : —

Recipe No. 22.

Take of nitrous ether i fl. oz.

Tincture of cardamoms | „

Nux vomica ^ dr.

Water 8 fl. oz.

Some practitioners prefer to use a solution of strychnia,
and pass it directly beneath the skin {see Endermic Method) ;
but there is no great advantage to be gained by the plan in
this case, as the animal can swallow readily, and other medi-
cines are required with which either strychnia or nux vomica
may be combined.

At later stages, exercise must be taken as the patient can
bear it, and a gradual return to the usual food insured in
proportion to the amount taken ; and as soon as he is able
to perform labour, let care be exercised so as to avoid over-
work and over-loading. In order to prevent the occurrence
of the disease in future, send all idle and resting horses that
have been feeding highly for a few miles’ walking exercise
daily, and reduce the corn to one half, making up the bulk by
an addition of bran and chaff.

Blood Diseases.

In the medical treatment of azoturia, we caution the
reader against the use of ammonia internally, and of blisters,
oils, or liniments externally. The system is already charged
with the first, and will only do more harm in larger quan-
tities ; the latter are not required, and are usefully substituted
by gentle friction and wisping at occasional intervals.

Malignant Sore Throat — (Edema Glottidis, Cynanche
Maligna; Typhus^ PiUrid Sore Throat, or Laryngitis
Maligna of Percivall.

Nature. — Malignant sore throat consists of an extensive
inflammation, attended with rapid effusion in and around the
various tissues and organs situate at the back of the mouth
and entrance to the windpipe and gullet. Considerable
fever of a typhoid character accompanies the disease, due to
the presence of a blood poison, as signified by the formation
of petechiae, rapid prostration, early death, and tendency to
gangrene in the affected parts.

dark crimson or bordering upon a purple colour ; the mouth
is offensive, and the tongue is furred, of a dingy colour, and

Fig. 2\.— Malignant Sore Tli7'oat

Symptoms. — In the early
stages the case appears as
one of simple catarrh, but
in a few hours swelling of
the throat is evident (Fig.
2 I ), with enlargement of the
parotid and submaxillary
glands. The pulse is rapid,
out small and compressible,
numbering 90 or 100 per
minute, and weakness al-
ready appears. The mem-
brane of the nostrils is of a

Malignant Sore Throat.

probably swollen. If the mouth can be opened, the tonsils
are seen to be swollen, and often livid in colour. Breathing
becomes difficult in proportion as the throat swells, being
first harsh and whistling, next loud and stertorous, and an
intolerable foetor accompanies each expiration. As the
disease advances, purple spots appear on the tongue, and
shortly give way to the formation of ulcers. The pulse
grows weaker and more frequent, until it becomes almost
imperceptible at the jaw. The countenance betrays great
agony, and if relief is not obtained the animal dies from
suffocation.

Post-mortem Appearances. — The mouth, together with the
tongue, larynx, pharynx, &c., are involved in a general
tumefaction, and their investing membranes are covered by
a copious putrid discharge, mainly the produce of large
ulcerated sores on the surface. The whole of the glands in
the vicinity are immensely swollen by a prolific effusion of
offensive ^ aid throughout their substance, and various parts
of the affected tissues are bordering on a state of gangrene.
The lungs are congested, blood throughout the bloodvessels
black and fluid, and evidences of blood poisoning are
variously present in the internal organs, as ecchymosis or
blood spots, and softening of the liver, &c.

Treatment. — As soreness of the throat is present from the
first, it is not advisable to attempt to give medicine by the
mouth. The sufferer cannot swallow, and liquids poured
down are most likely to pass along the windpipe, causing
death in a few minutes. Solid medicines, as boluses, are
precluded for the same and even stronger reasons. The
only plan we can adopt is, by means of plastic preparations
and washes applied to the mouth, to endeavour to reduce
the pain, swelling, and inflammation at the back of the
throat, and thus assist the animal to swallow. For this
purpose the following wash may be made up : —

Blood Diseases.

Recipe No. 23.

Take of solution of chloralum ^ fl. oz.

Tincture of myrrh i

Cold or tepid water 10 „

Mix. Have the head elevated for a few minutes, and
pour about two or three tablespoonfuls into the mouth
several times a day. This will cause the patient to move
his tongue, and distribute the mixture over the surfaces.

If by elevating the head discomfort is produced, substi-
tute the electuary No. 25, which may be placed on the
tongue or molar teeth without moving the animal. When
the breathing is so bad as to threaten suffocation, no time
should be lost in opening the windpipe {see Tracheotomy),
which will give instant relief, and delay the effects of the
disease until the remedies have had their effect.

During constipation, enemas of soap and water must be
used frequently, and it may be necessary also at conve-
nient times to make use of the rectum as a means of passing
medicines into the system. For this purpose gruel must be
made, with which nitrous or sulphuric ether is mixed in rather
larger proportions than is used for the mouth.

In a few days the swelling of the throat may subside
under the action of the electuary or mouth wash, when
medicines may be swallowed, the nitrous ether being the
most serviceable in doses as already recommended in recipe
No. 27. Provide cold water for drinking, and light and
easily-digested food as soon as he can take it, and otherwise
add to the comfort of the animal in the shape of pure air,
warm clothing, bandages, bedding, &c. These cases require
great patience, and the owner must be content to work with
the complaint, not against it, for a definite course will be
pursued, and the most we can do is to mitigate suffering to
a certain extent, and assist in supporting the system.
Everything beyond this is mere unwarrantable interference

Malignant Sore Throat.

with Nature, and usually productive of adverse results. The
great object is to enable the creature to swallow. He cannot
do this until the disease abates, and for that we must wait,
having adopted all known principles of sustaining the
system until the violence of the disease is exhausted. The
treatment of the animal under states of convalescence has
been already given, and will be repeatedly alluded to
throughout the work.

The dangerous nature of the flesh of animals dying from
malignant sore throat is convincingly set forth in the follow-
ing account, furnished by Mr. Proctor, V.S., Solihull, to Mr.
Percival, and reported by him “ Two shirks were found
dead in a field, or nearly so, with affections of their throats.
The butcher was sent for to dress their carcases. His own
horse partook of some grains mixed with some of the blood
taken from the beasts ; and in less than twenty-four hours
afterwards he died from swelling of the throat, producing
suffocation. A sow and nine pigs ate of the blood and
grains, and were soon afterwards seized with throat affection,
with sonorous breathing, of which all of them died. The
others, after much trouble, eventually recovered.”

* Hippo-pathology, vol. ii. p. 27.

II. — BLOOD DISEASES ARISING FROM AN
EXCESS, INORDINATE, IMPAIRED OR
ARREST OF FUNCTION, NON-CONTA-
GIOUS, AND ENZOOTIC.

Enzootic Typhoid Catarrh.

Enzootic Pleurisy.

Enzootic Typhoid Catarrh ; Panzootic Catarrhal Fever
(Williams) ; Influenza ; The Protean Disease ; Distem-
per; La Grippe of the French.

Histoiy. — The earliest records of reliable authority do not
date prior to the tenth century.^ As a disease alike preva-
lent among mankind and the lower animals, a study of its
history is important and interesting. It prevailed fatally
throughout France in 13 ii, and in 1403 the Law Courts of
Paris were closed from the number of resulting deaths. Later
it prevailed extensively over considerable tracts of land, and
in 1557 assumed the characters of a fatal epidemic through-
out the whole of Europe and northern hemisphere, originating
in Asia and proceeding westward until it reached America,
where its progress terminated. In the eighteenth century
it again appeared, and taking a westward course as far as
the Elbe, passed over the countries intermediate, and fell upon
England, where two streams were produced — one, pursuing
its course across the Atlantic to America, the other, returning
in a south-easterly direction, attacking the inhabitants and

* The Science and Practice of Medicine, by Wm. Aitken, M.D., vol. i. Fifth
Edition.

Enzootic Typhoid Catarrh. 95

animals of France, Spain, and Italy, ultimately disappearing
in the Mediterranean.

It is remarkable how frequently this disease has prevailed
in one country contemporaneously with, or very soon after,
other typhoid diseases, in the same or in one adjoining ; like-
wise how often some peculiar condition of the atmosphere,
or extreme states of temperature, have been present at the
time of its appearance ; and, lastly, electrical or planetary
phenomena and volcanic disturbances have been noticed as
affecting the earth.

In 1782 Spain suffered violently from it, while yellow
fever killed thousands in America, and el voniito negro, or
the “ black vomit,” destroyed others in South America, and
even on board many vessels. Poland, Austria, Siberia, the
Island of Bourbon, Tripoli, Damascus, and Aleppo, also
suffered. Scarlet fever appeared in Edinburgh, and England
was visited by chincough. Miliary fever, or the “ sweating
pestilence,” broke out at the same time, and continued for
seven years to devastate Erance, the Lower Rhine, and
Northern Europe. In 1703 the Thames rose to an unusual
height, and Westminster was inundated. Chili was visited
by an earthquake, and Cadiz suffered from the “ black vomit,”
domesticated animals bemg the first attacked ; poultry,
pigeons, &c., also suffering severely from a dysenteric form
which continued up to i 7 3 8. In i 7 3 i China was shaken by an
earthquake, and Naples from the same cause, many houses
being destroyed, and upwards of 2000 persons were killed.
In 1732 the pestilence visited London, 1500 dying in one
week. The United States of America still suffered from
yellow fever, and in the following year influenza again ap-
peared, Spain and Europe generally suffering in an alarming
degree.

In 1761 influenza appeared in the United States of
America, and declined into a malignant yellow fever. The

Blood Diseases.

same occurred in the West Indies, and after appearing among
the dogs of Madrid, it spread over the whole canine race of
the kingdom of Spain — no other animal suffering from it.

The great fire occurring in Constantinople in 1782, in
which 7000 houses were destroyed, and, a month later, the
destruction of 20,000 more by a similar event, caused the
inhabitants to crowd together ; succeeding which, fever,
famine, and pestilence appeared. Men and animals alike in
various parts of the world suffered, and down to 1786 earth-
quakes occurred in many places, and have left their evidences
in the form of wholesale human destruction, as well as in
the production of some of the finest examples of subter-
ranean movement, exhibited in landslips, fissures, falls of
sea-cliffs, formation of ravines, lakes, waterfalls, and other
changes of a more complicated nature.

In 1803 Britain was again visited by influenza, and other
nations suffered from its ravages in a degenerate form ; and,
for years, unusual phenomena occurred periodically — such as
black and offensive fogs, in one instance lasting several days,
excessive cold and humidity, falls of snow to the extent of
several feet ; frost and fog combined with continued preva-
lence of wind from the east or north-east, which, being also
very high, rendered the cold more intense. These occur-
rences were not without their effect upon the human popula-
tion, the miseries of the poor being aggravated by the want
of fuel, which was dear and scarce. They were denied neces-
sary comforts, and influenza attacked persons of all ages in
London, degenerating into a malignant type, and causing
extreme mortality. Simultaneously yellow fever broke out
at Gibraltar, and created great havoc among the troops en-
garrisoned there. “ It has frequently been observed that
epidemic anginas, catarrhs, measles, &c., generally precede
great and destructive \ estilences — a fact that has been
frequently noticed in our day. The terrible pestilence

Enzootic Typhoid Catarrh. 97

cholera of 1817 and subsequent years, was preceded by
influenza,” &c.*

In 1827, after extensive inundations in Holland,
Belgium, and Lower Germany in the previous year, in-
fluenza broke out, and assumed such alarming characters,
that the Dutch Government were compelled to minister to
the wants of the suffering population in a special manner.
Yellow fever prevailed in the United States, remittent fever
raged in England, and in the Island of St. Thomas a
rheumatic form of epidemic typhoid catarrh seized a popu-
lation of 12,000 people. This peculiar malady, termed
“ dandy fever,” was characterised by formication in the
hands and feet, followed by increasing numbness, which
extended to the whole of the body. Erysipelatous states
also ensued, and eruptions took place over the body. In
some instances the sufferers became permanently deformed,
and others were carried off by cholera, which appeared as
a sequel to the malady.

In 1837 the influences of unusual cold, frost, wet, and
stormy weather, with absolute hurricanes, were again visited
on the population of Great Britain. Influenza broke out, and
countries from the Cape of Good Hope, and even Sydney,
northwards to Russia, Sweden, and Denmark, were devastated.
Yellow fever and epidemic erysipelas also succeeded the
visitation, the former in the West Indies, and the latter in
France. It is also remarkable that, contemporaneous with
these outbreaks, sometimes preceding them, or happening
immediately afterwards, the appearance of some unusual and
peculiar planetary body has taken place. In many instances
one species of vegetation has suffered blight ; and the inha-
bitants of some countries have succumbed to ergotism after
escaping the effects of malignant influenza.

* A History of T^pidemic Pestilences, by Edward Bascome, M.D.

Blood Diseases,

After the existence of an epizootic murrain among oxen,
and to a smaller extent in horses, dogs, and sheep, during
1 846-7, throughout Europe, pleuro-pneumonia, affecting
man and beast, raged in East Lothian, Ayrshire, Aber-
deenshire, and north of Scotland generally ; and rapidly fol-
lowing came influenza, which visited Spain, Valparaiso, New
Zealand, coast of Syria, west coast of Africa, and Hong-
kong. » Later Paris was assailed, when more than five
thousand persons were at one time prostrated by “ la grippe,”
as it was then known. Madrid also suffered to the extent
of more than half its population. At this time also Java
was seized by epidemic diseases ; virulent small-pox and
typhus raged in Ireland and at Prague ; cholera visited
Moscow, St. Petersburg, Cronstadt, and Stockholm ; while
influenza passed on to Copenhagen and Marseilles. In
Ireland the medical profession, to the extent of one-fifteenth
of its community, and Marseilles, had more than 40,000
persons attacked. In the north of Scotland, the latter part
of the month of November was peculiarly remarkable. A
form of influenza succeeded a rainy season, and commencing
at Dundee passed to Kinnaird’s Head, along the coast, thence
westwards to Huntley, Keith, Elgin, and Inverness. The
University and King’s College had to be closed ; greater part
of the students attending Marischal College were ill ; and
the grammar-schools suffered in like manner. At Edinburgh
and Montrose the like also existed ; yellow fever prevailed
at New Orleans, cholera raged at Trebizond, and Constan-
tinople was afflicted by dire pestilence. A famine fatal to
many people, to the extent of 20 per cent, of the popula-
tion, also occurred at Rybensk and Plesg. A committee of
relief, appointed at the time, state that “ hundreds of orphan
children were seen standing beside the corpses of their
parents crying for bread.”* During these two years scarcely

Op. cit.

Enzootic Typhoid Catarrh.

any part of the world escaped an epidemic pestilence ; and
in 1 847, particularly, influenza raged throughout England.
In connexion with this visitation among men the following
particulars are worthy of note : — A great scarcity of potatoes
was experienced, resulting from “ blight,” in consequence of
which the poorer population suffered immensely ; scurvy
developed itself, and the mortality was suddenly increased by
the setting in of typhus. Succeeding these came diarrhoea,
dysentery, and cholera. The Registrar-General, in his report,
says : “ The wind blew from the first week in October
S.S.W. and S.W. The weather was universally warm ; a
brilliant aurora was observed, and shook the magnets,
October 24th. It appeared eight times during the quarter.
On Tuesday, November i6th, there was a remarkable dark-
ness ; the wind changed to N.W., and amidst various changes
still blew from the north over Greenwich at the rate of 160
and 250 miles a day. The mean temperature of the air
suddenly fell from 1 1° above to 10° below the average. On
Sunday it was 54°; Friday 32°; and Friday night 27°.
The earth was frozen : the wind was calm three days ; and
on Saturday evening a dense fog lay over the Thames and
London for the space of five hours. No electricity stirred
the air during the week — all was still, as if Nature held her
breath at the sight of the destroyer, come forth to destroy
her children. On Monday the sky became overcast, the air
damp ; the wind changed in the night to S. by E., and
passed for four days over Greenwich at the rate of two
hundred and three hundred miles a day. The temperature
suddenly rose, and remained from 2° to 9° above the
average throughout the week ending on the 27th November.
Influenza broke out : in the first week in December, 2454
persons died ; the week following, 2416 persons ; and in six
weeks, 11,339. The epidemic in that time carried off 5000
over and above the mortality of the season. The country

7 — 2

100

Blood Diseases,

districts do not appear to have been much affected to any
extent — a fact which shows how much purity of the air has
to do with the outbreak of epidemic diseases.

“ Influenza, it has been observed, is often associated with
other epidemics. It preceded and accompanied the plague,
or ‘ black death,’ in the fourteenth century ; it preceded
the great plague in London, A.D. 1665 ; it followed epi-
demic typhus, A.D. 1803 ; preceded typhus, A.D. 1837 ; and
occurred in the midst of the typhoid epidemic in the year
1 847. Influenza also preceded and followed epidemic
cholera, 1831 to 1833. In short, it may be said that
influenza has from time immemorial pretty generally pre-
ceded and accompanied epidemic pestilence in every quarter
of the globe, as is aoted by the Registrar-General to have
been the same in England, A.D. 1728, 1733, 1758, 1762 ;
five years after, A.D. 1767, 1775, 1782 ; again, A.D. 1788,
1803, 183L and following year, 1833, also

A.D. 1846 and 1847.”*

Thus far we have referred to the chronological order of
the appearances of “influenza” among mankind. History
has a more special object in recording such visitations,
yet, nevertheless, there gleams through it at almost every
point unmistakable evidences of preceding, simultaneous,
or succeeding attacks among the dower animals. Horses
generally have suffered largely, while the signs of the
malady have existed so slightly in ovine, bovine, and
canine animals as to escape notice, or passing into forms
of disease peculiar to each tribe, have been more or less
confounded. Thus sporadic as well as epizootic pleuro-
pneumonia and vesicular aphthae of cattle, sporadic pleuro-
pneumonia of sheep, distemper of dogs and cats, &c. &c., have
been known to exhibit aggravated and unusually extensive
characters ; but before their special signs have become deve-

Op. cit.

Enzootic Typhoid Catarrh.

lOI

loped they have been ushered in by catarrhal or typhoid
symptoms, which, for a time at least, mask or obscure the
terminal affection. Records are preserved in which we find
that with close companionship the influenza of horses has
existed side by side almost with the analogous affection in
man. At times it has succeeded or preceded it almost im-
mediately. Youatt and Gibson assure us of outbreaks in
1714, and almost yearly up to 1732. Professor Brugnone
describes one of 1783 ; Gilbert, one of 1795. Youatt again
particularises its prevalence from 1815 to 1823. Hurtrel
D’Arboval gives an account of its occurrence in Paris in
1825, and men of our own day record outbreaks of 1828 and
1831-2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 40. In 1850-1 and 2, also in
1853 and 1854, it prevailed more or less, and in succeeding
years up to the present time the spring or winter rarely
passes without some manifestation of the disease, usually
partaking of malignant characters, and insuring extensively
fatal results.

Towards the close of 1870 the horses in the metropolis
were seized by enzootic typhoid catarrh, thousands of which
speedily succumbed ; and the disease continued through the
winter and following spring, by which the major part of the
animals working in public vehicles, as cabs, omnibuses, and
tramway-cars, were unable to leave the stables. Horses also
of the heavier breeds were similarly affected, and suffered
greater mortality, the studs of the various railway companies
and carrying agents being fearfully lessened. The disease
continued to the following year, other towns in Britain
suffering likewise ; and at length it was discovered in
America under the name of “American Horse Disease,”
inducing frightful losses, and the stoppage of all public
vehicles. In 1873 it still continued in Britain and America,
and each year up to the time of writing this we have intelli-
gence of the havoc the affection is making, more especially
among the hard-working horses of large towns. Recently

102

Blood Diseases,

however, we have learned that many farm horses in Essex
and Hertfordshire have suffered, and in personal conversation
with several large proprietors we have been assured that
work was completely suspended on several farms in the
commencement of 1876, following the rainy season at the
close of 1875.

Although we have given at some length a history of
enzootic typhoid catarrh, it forms but an epitome of the
legitimate whole, and for more extended information we
refer the reader to Fleming’s admirable book on “ Animal
Plagues,’’ as well as Bascome before referred to.

Nature. — A febrile affection, with which is associated
an unusual amount of prostration of strength, as well as
inflammation of the membrane of the air-passages, giving
rise to sore throat, bronchitis, &c., or combined with disease
of the membrane lining the digestive track. Other com-
plications are also observed, and Professor Hering, with
that deep intelligence which characterises the observers of
the French and German veterinary schools, separates each
under its distinctive head ; thus he enumerates : — catarrho-
rheumatic ; gastric, or bilious rheumatic ; and gastro-erysipe-
latous, in accordance with the kind of tissue affected, as
the lungs, liver ; fibrous and fibro-serous structures, as the
pleura, covering of muscles, ligament, tendon, articula-
tions of joints, connective tissue, &c. There is scarcely any
disease of the lower animals, the nature of which has
admitted of so much speculation and controversy, as
enzootic typhoid catarrh. For a long time its nature has
been undefined, as indicated by the numerous appellations it
has borne, being for many centuries known as “ catarrhus
epidemicus,” because it was recognised to be identical with
disease of the same name in man. Percival,"^ only a recent

* Hippo-pathology, vols. i. and ii.

Enzootic Typhoid Catarrh.

103

writer of no mean talent, alludes to it as “ influenzal bron-
chitis,” and in another part of his work it is specially treated
under the old name alone ; and White confounds “epi-
demic catarrh” with “ vesicular epizootic.”^ We, doubtless,
incur some risk of censure from some who may think
differently for terming the disease “ enzootic.” We do so
for important reasons ; first, although it prevails at times very
extensively, there are, nevertheless, many places where it
never enters ; and second, as its behaviour is such, as in
our estimation does not characterise contagious affections,
to which the term “ epizootic” should be more strictly
applied, we prefer the title given at the commencement,
and which will hereafter be employed to designate the
disease formerly called influenza, &c.

Causes. — To describe these would be a task of great diffi-
culty. As sufficiently indicated under “ history,” it will be
accepted by the reader that certain atmospheric conditions
have no mean part in producing enzootic typhoid catarrh,
but what those conditions are no one at present can tell.
The disease has followed a season of extreme wet, unusual
heat and dryness, fog, and frost ; and yet we have known
such seasons without any appearance of it whatever. It
appears on any kind of soil, in any locality, in all seasons,
and under various temperatures, but the most common time
is during spring and autumn, when the system is heavily
taxed for the process of forming a new coat. As a rule,
horses in country districts escape, or suffer slightly, while
those of large towns die off by scores. Such a fact may not
point to actual causes in town stables, but it certainly sug-
gests one of a predisposing character. There is no evidence
that this disease follows the course of the wind, nor is there
any which favours the theory that ozone in excess produces

White’s Cattle Medicine.

104

Blood Diseases.

it ; food must be left out of the question, and the only
element we can tax is the air. Even there we encounter
difficulties, for we have known stables at opposite angles to
those having sick animals where no cases occur, although
free communications have existed, and by removing the sick
from one to the other, a marked improvement has been
made. The same is known to take place in connexion with
the human subject, for during visitations of the epidemic,
those on one side of a street will suffer acutely, while those of
the other, observing free intercourse, entirely escape.

Although there is much to be said on the subject of
enzootic catarrh being contagious, we have to bear in mind
that it cannot be conveyed by inoculation, or transfusion of
blood ; that it appears suddenly in districts, attacking large
numbers of animals simultaneously, independent of the intro-
auction of diseased animals, or matter, &c. ; and when it
occurs in man, or other domestic animals, it does not always
appear in the horse. Some have endeavoured to account for
the wide-spread character of this disease in the assumption
that it may consist at first of only a sporadic or enzootic
nature, but by propagation from one animal to another
manufacture a poison which acts as the contagium, and con-
veyed “o’er hill and dale,” establishes it as an epizootic or
contagious malady. This, however, is only an assumption,
and fades away on critical examination. If a few animals first
affected manufacture such a large quantity of animal poison,
what a vast amount it must be to seize so many animals
simultaneously in so many districts ; and yet not so large or
so powerful as contagious maladies usually are, or no locality
or animal would escape.

There are, however, predisposing caiLses — e.g., small and
crowded, ill-ventilated, badly-drained, and badly-cleaned
stables. It may not be necessary for all these bad cha-
racters to be present at one time, any one of them, in the

Enzootic Typhoid Catarrh.

105,

sense as understood to be bad, will have full effect, and
animals subjected to such influences are frequently the first
to fall and die, or last to recover. Heavy draught horses,
and others of coarse breeds, having long coats in early
winter, often suffer acutely. Mares and geldings are alike
affected, the young and immature as well as the weak and
senile, perhaps, being the greatest sufferers. While it will
attack the horses of well-kept establishments as well as
those of the poorest owner, yet we have to urge that, what-
ever constitutes neglect or bad management, as innutritious
or deficient food, overwork, exposure to extreme states of
weather, &c., are fruitful predisposing causes, and render the
subjects of such more susceptible in proportion as the defects
are allowed to operate.

We shall consider the disease first in its simple form, and
subsequently in its complications.

Symptoms of Enzootic Typhoid Catarrh.

The Simple or Catarrhal Form. — Usually a fit of sudden
coldness, commonly known as a shivering fit, or rigors, pre-
cedes the manifestation of other signs ; such may, however,
be slight and entirely escape notice. Then follows coldness
of the ears, legs, and nose, with a staring or harsh-looking
coat, and the visible mucous membranes are dry and
unusually red. The thermometer placed within the rectum
shows an elevation of temperature, probably 102° or
103° F. The eyes are half closed, and lids are swollen,
tears freely escaping and running over the face. At first a
watery discharge takes place from the nostrils, and fits of
sneezing occur, usually preceding a hacking short cough.
(Fig. 22.) The discharge shortly becomes viscid and acrid,
causing scalds on the surfaces over which it flows, and in
common with the aggravation of other signs, within a period

io6

Blood Diseases.

of one, two, or three days, it has changed to a thick flaky
fluid, and is increased in quantity. At this period we may
expect an elevation of temperature, ranging from 104° to

Fig. 22. — Catarrhal form of hijluenza.

105° R, together with a deep, painful cough, which, occur-
ring in fits or paroxysms, shakes the whole body, the animal
evincing his distress and irritation by stamping the feet ;
one or both eyes are probably now inflamed, causing opacity
of the cornea and blindness, and the temperature of the
body is variable, one leg being hot and the others cold as
clay. The pulse, which at first was probably of usual ful-
ness, is now small, frequent, and compressible ; the animal
is thirsty, and watches eagerly for water ; the mouth is hot
and clammy, and usually has a disagreeable smell. A great
prostration of strength is perceptible as the. sufferer hangs
his head, and reels to and fro if caused to walk. Soreness
of the throat is a common addition to the list of signs, and
is known by the animal refusing food, or coughing violently
after attempting to swallow, when water returns by the
nostrils, and solids are forced into the nasal chambers, where
they mix with and discolour the discharges. The bowels at
first are constipated, the evacuations being few, hard, small,

107

Enzootic Typhoid Catarrh,

and glazed with mucus, but diarrhoea is easily provoked. The
discharge of urine is small, and it is highly coloured, thick,
and mucilaginous from the presence of albuminous matters,
somewhat resembling linseed oil, a condition which increases
with the waste of the body.

Favourable terminations are marked by gradual decrease
of the frequency of the pulse and animal temperature ; the
cough ceases to be husky and hard, is soft, loose and less
frequent, giving rise to less pain and distress, and the nasal
discharge increases in quantity as well as consistence, being
thick and yellow from the admixture of pus ; the swallowing
of food and water occasions no cough, the appetite increases,
rest is taken, strength returns, discharges abate, swellings
subside, and at the end of twelve or fifteen days the animal
is convalescent.

Complications. — Cases are sometimes retarded by the
extreme amount of debility which ensues, swelling of the
glands under the throat with probable suppuration, and
remarkable loss of flesh. Dropsical swellings also take
place in the legs or beneath the chest and along the whole
abdomen. Notwithstanding, by the exercise of proper care
and attention, domestic and medical, these states are over-
come, and the animal afterwards progresses satisfactorily.
In such stages any wrong or false kind of treatment produces
sad effects. Lung complications set in, which are known by
a fearfully distressing cough, great difficulty of breathing,
pulse rapidly increasing in frequency but losing strength and
volume, being as high as lOO or more per minute, and as the
animal gasps for breath the nostrils spasmodically vibrate in
strong and alternate opening and contraction. In placing
the ear to the sides of the chest or at the bottom of the
windpipe, the practitioner is enabled to decide by the sounds
emitted during inspiration how matters stand within ; inflam-
mation of the bronchial tubes or substance of the lungs has

io8

Blood Diseases,

set in, and gives rise to loud or rasping sounds of various
degrees of intensity, and interferes with the purification of
the blood, which was bad enough to begin with ; but now,
as the body wastes and the products enter the blood, it
literally carries poison to the nervous centres, from which the
animal becomes more or less unconscious. The membranes
become dark or purple in colour, blood mingles with the
nasal discharge, giving it a coffee-coloured appearance ; the
pulse grows weaker and less perceptible, partial sweats with
coldness take place, and the animal gradually sinks towards
the eighth or ninth day.

The second form of complication is that in which the
abdominal organs suffer. As there is not only great
sympathy existing between these and other organs, but also
similarity of structure, it is not unlikely that they participate
in any special kind of irritation to which mucous membranes
or the skin are subjected. There is an extreme tendency
for this in Enzootic typhoid catarrh, and practitioners are
ever on their guard in order to avoid absolute purgation at
any time. The bowels are costive and faeces are scanty,
besides being small, dry, hard, smelling offensively, and
coated with thick mucus ; the animal is tormented by
colicky pains, and he scrapes, turns round in his box, lies
down, quickly rises, puts the nose towards the flanks, and
kicks at the abdomen. Sometimes diarrhoea is present at
the first, which adds to the general prostration of strength.
The liver is congested, and the mucous membranes have a
yellow tinge as well as increased redness, that of the rectum
being more intense probably on account of the straining
which takes place. The mouth is hot and the tongue furred,
dry and foetid ; the urine is similar to that already described^
and thirst is intense.

The third form of complication is the rheumatic ; one of
the most troublesome conditions. Usually it appears at the

Enzootic Typhoid Catarrh, 109

close of simple states, but may be combined with them
at an early stage. The first noticeable signs are cracking of
the joints when the animal moves, with restlessness, alternate
raising of feet ; by-and-by, joints, &c., or tendons swell, the
most common being those of the flexors below the knee,
when the parts are hard, hot and painful, causing lameness,
from which some animals seldom recover.

It is rare for one animal to suffer from a second attack in
the same season, but this must not be understood to imply
that one attack creates an immunity from another. Under
careful treatment mortality is trivial.

Treatmejit. — As the tendency to great prostration of
strength is evident at the outset of this disease, every atten-
tion should be directed towards furnishing ample nutrition
in the form of good and easily-digested food ; and it may
be useful to remark here that an immense advantage is to be
secured by the selection of such kinds as will properly take
the place of medicines. Thus, constipation may be relieved
by bran, linseed, &c., and during diarrhoea these should be
set aside for some of the nutritious kinds of corn. Enemas
also suitably replace purgatives in conjunction with laxative
food. When diarrhoea has set in during the early stages,
it should be at once attended to by administering the follow-
ing draught : —

Recipe No. 24.

Take of linseed oil 10 fl. oz.

Tincture of opium i „

Chloroform i fl. dr.

Mix, and give to a large horse, or reduced proportionately
with size.

After a few hours it will be apparent whether the action
of the bowels have ceased, which in most cases is effected ;
we may then turn our attention to other conditions. If the
throat is sore and swallowing impossible or difficult, make
up the following electuary : —

I lO

Blood Diseases,

Recipe No. 25.

Take of powdered alum

4 oz.

1 „

2 dr.

„ galls

Extract of hyoscyamus
Honey

Sufficient.

Rub the alum and galls together first, afterwards add the
extract, and triturate until it disappears in the powder ;
afterwards add the honey so as to make a semi-solid or
plastic mass, one tablespoonful of which is to be placed on
the tongue five or six times during the day.

To the outside of the throat apply the “sweating blister,”
No. 9 ; not, however, with the intention of actually blistering,
but only to produce a slight irritation without disturbing and
distressing the patient. Ordinary soap liniment will mostly
answer the purpose. If the membranes of the air-passages
are dry, use inhalations of warm vapour in the way known
as “Steaming the Nostrils” {see Fig. 26), but on no account
must this be pursued if the cough is irritated or the animal
teased by it. In most cases such a process proves beneficial
and useful by relieving the cough and promoting discharge.
Nothing farther in the way of medicines must be given until
the throat is better and the animal is able to swallow. Some
persons ignorantly force boluses or draughts down, and
commit an immense amount of mischief at these times.
When the patient begins to take food, which he usually will
after soreness leaves the throat, we may then assist Nature
usefully in combating the prostration of strength, by giving
preparations of ammonia combined with potash, &c., as here
detailed : —

Rub the ammonia and potash to powder separately, after-
wardstriturate with them the gentian, until the whole forms

Recipe No. 26.

Take of carbonate of ammonia

Carbonate of potash

Extract of gentian

Cold water

12 fl. oz.

Enzootic Typhoid Catarrh.

1 1 1

a dry powder, adding flour or powdered gentian if required
to hasten the process. Shake the whole together in a bottle,
and give as a draught three or four times a day.

Sometimes the above draught will occasion slight irritation
of the urinary organs, when the following may be given alter-
nately with it : —

Recipe No. 27.

Take of spirits of nitrous ether 2 fl. oz.

Powdered gentian 4 dr.

Tepid water 6 fl. oz.

Mix.

The value of this course of treatment will be apparent only
in proportion to the extent to which it is adopted, and sup-
ported by contemporaneous nursing and care. The action
of the skin should be insured, by frequent wisping, a wet
sponge being at times previously used, followed by light, warm
clothing. Flannel bandages will be of great use for promo-
• ting warmth in the legs, and a good bed invaluable for rest ;
add to these pure air, a roomy box or shed, and entire re-
moval from the close atmosphere of crowded and ill-adapted
stables. Place cold water or hay-tea within reach of the
patient, and carry selected and tempting morsels of boiled
corn, a lock of sweet hay, sainfoin, green forage, &c., or an
occasional root, apple, &c., from time to time, and on no
account force anything of the kind down the throat. Food
thus passed into the stomach does no good, but often much
harm ; and, for a time, we need feel no concern about the
want of appetite when it has been removed under such cir-
cumstances.

We now proceed to notice the treatment required in cer-
tain complications.

In some cases, which unfortunately are not of very rare
occurrence, the laryngeal affection or sore throat assumes a
serious aspect. The lining membrane and tissues at the bend
of the neck are involved in an extensive tumefaction, which

I 12

Blood Diseases.

limits the breathing powers, bordering on suffocation. The
animal stands with the nose straight out, nostrils dilated, the
eyes protrude, and inspiration is performed with a loud roar.
He must now be relieved, or suffocation soon takes place,
and the most suitable plan is by opening the windpipe {see
Tracheotomy) ; and the subsequent treatment consists of
using the electuary No. 25, and following the directions
given therewith.

In that form of complication which involves the abdominal
organs, often described as the “ bilious” or “catarrho-bilious,” a
little modification is required in the way of treatment The
yellow tinge which characterises the mucous membranes is
an indication of congestion of the liver, further supported
by the constipation, scanty and offensive faeces, while the
urine is thick, mucilaginous, and highly coloured. All that
is necessary here is to administer an oleaginous purgative: —
Recipe No. 28.

Take of linseed oil i pint.

Carbonate of soda or potash 2 dr.

Water 2 fl. oz.

Dissolve the soda or potash in the water, and add to the
oil afterwards, shaking until a creamy fluid is formed.

Enemas of warm water may be used also to supplement
the oil.

Sometimes acidity of the stomach causes the animal some
uneasiness, when he will lick the walls and various objects
near. For this purpose give soda or potash in the doses
stated above each day, with water as a drench, or dissolved
in the water allowed for drinking.

When colicky pains come on, use enemas of warm water,
and administer the following as a draught from the bottle : —

Recipe No. 29.

Take of linseed oil i pint.

Spirits of nitrous ether 2 fl. oz.

Mix.

Enzootic Typhoid Catarrh, 113

Such a draught usually accomplishes all that is needed ;
but if the pain continues during any lengthened time, and
the bowels have not responded to the action of the remedy,
give one ounce of chloric ether in cold water.

Having succeeded in suppressing the violence of the spe-
cial signs of the disease, and the animal approaches conva-
lescence, we must prepare to take him from his box for a
short walk. First let him be carefully dressed over, the
clothing and bandages being removed for the purpose, and
replaced afterwards. A few minutes will suffice the first
time, and afterwards he may take extended walks as strength
returns. In proportion to the increased desire for food the
supply must be regulated, always bearing in mind that over-
loading the stomach will oppose a speedy cure. A little
at each time, and those times frequent, will form the safest
rule to observe ; and when the animal is taken to work, he
should not have too long or too hard journeys at first.

From the time he is able to take regular exercise, he may
receive some powders in his food, night and morning, for ten
or twelve days : —

Recipe No. 30.

Take of sulphate of iron, powdered 3 oz.

Coriander seeds, ground 3 „

Locust bean „ 3 „

Mix, and divide into twelve powders, to be given as
directed.

The attention of the reader is next directed to the neces-
sity of removing, if possible, all known predisposing causes.
Having succeeded in restoring a useful animal to his wonted
place, and gaining some experience of the various conditions
that aid in rendering him unfit for service, it will be found
a profitable undertaking to place his habitation on as high a
scale as possible, whereby he will receive a fair share of pure
atmosphere, as well as ample shelter. On the score of

Blood Diseases.

114

economy horses are sadly crowded together in our large
towns, many proprietors having in the end unwillingly to
pay dearly for the principle.

In the treatment of animals of the heavier and coarser
breeds, in whom the disease has appeared late in the autumn
or early winter, after unusual demands have been made on
the system in the production of a fresh coat, and when the
skin is invested with- a covering long and thick, the question
of clipping deserves consideration ; while we regard the long
coat as having a part in the production of enzootic typhoid
catarrh, associated as it always is with great perspiration,
and becoming a great obstruction to proper exhalation from
the skin, yet we can only accept it as one of the predisposing
causes ; doubtless hastening the attack, and contributing
much towards prolonging it. In all probability the animal
will take the disease if he has no long and heavy coat, and
we know those of the lighter and finer breeds are frequently
attacked ; but they exhibit the least susceptibility as com-
pared with the former, and the attacks, as a rule, are lighter,
less fatal, and more quickly passed over. Our experience is,
that the clipping of such animals as described, which are
employed in fast work, is a radical means of cutting short
attacks of this protracted malady, and we never hesitate to i
delay the operation, providing that every care is observed to |
supply an abundant clothing, and avoid undue exposure after- J
wards. Now that the various machines are made use of,
three or four men may do all that is required in a very short
space of time ; and thus within the first twelve hours an
important step be gained in the work of arresting the pro-
gress of an insidious foe. In large studs of horses, we have
found it a profitable plan to employ hands whose special
work was that of removing the coats of the working horses,
not merely on the score of ease in cleaning, but as conducing
to their more complete comfort, and especially as diminishing

Enzootic Pleurisy. 1 15

the susceptibility towards typhoid catarrh, as well as being
an undoubted means of cure in those already affected.

We have devoted more than usual space to the consi-
deration of enzootic typhoid catarrh, on account of its
importance and wide-spread destructive characters. The
principles laid down will form a sure guide to the manage-
ment of animals labouring under typhoid disease generally,
while the same information will prove eminently useful in
assisting the reader to a conclusion as to the relative cha-
racters of those maladies supposed or pronounced to be
contagious or non-contagious.

Enzootic Pleurisy ; Epizootic Pleuritis.

Nature. — Under the latter term. Professor Williams
describes an affection which we believe has not been suffi-
ciently recognised as of independent existence, being
hitherto considered as “influenza,” or one of its complica-
tions. It is essentially an inflammatory condition of the
pleura or lining membrane of the chest, and its extension
over the lungs, heart, &c., associated with great debility,
together with implication of the substance of the lungs ;
and from this circumstance it has been mistaken for the
rheumatic form of influenza. Later experience has shown
that it is decidedly of distinct nature and characters, being
a disease of the serous and fibro-serous structures : while
influenza is confined to the mucous membranes and similar
tissues.

Like enzootic typhoid catarrh, enzootic pleurisy attacks
large numbers of animals. It rages during some seasons to
an alarming and fatal extent, and has been known to cause
many proprietors to relinquish the keeping of horses alto-
gether, preferring to hire rather than incur the risk conse-
quent upon such attacks.

8 — 2

ii6

Blood Diseases,

Causes, — We believe none are so powerful as alternations
of extreme temperature, such as are prevailing in the early
months of spring, when the sun shines v'ith great brilliancy,
and possesses unusual powers of heat ; while east and north-
east winds prevail, with alternate clouds and dulness of
sky. Animals are peculiarly susceptible of changes at this
season from the delicate sensibility of the skin in producing
its usual covering of hair, and hence we find numbers are
attacked almost simultaneously, and in some seasons with
greater fatality. Under these circumstances, considerable
heat of controversy has been expended for and against
contagion; but, without entering into it here, we may briefly
state that, as far as our experience has led us over the many
opportunities for observation during upwards of a quarter of
a century, we cannot subscribe to the contagious view of the
malady ; hence our reason for giving it a place side by side
with “ influenza,” so called. Without seeking to depreciate
even to the extent of a hair’s-breadth the authenticated views
of Professor Williams, we prefer, however, as our conclusions
tend, to regard it as enzootic pleurisy, rather than as an
epizootic affection, a point — the only one — upon which in
all probability we shall mutually agree to differ, yet lose no
part of our desire to prove practically useful to those who
seek our counsel and assistance.

Besides the causes of atmospheric nature, we must not
omit to state, that whatever tends to weaken the system
creates a susceptibility to enzootic pleurisy, and probably
none so prolific as the common practice of using aloes,
nitre, &c., by dealers and grooms.

Symptoms. — The early signs are rarely more than dulness
and lassitude, with more or less evidence of weakness at
work, and tendency to perspiration. Somewhat later the
pulse and temperature are elevated, the first being smaller
than usual, somewhat harder and frequent, numbering 6o,

Enzootic Pleurisy.

117

70, or 80 per minute ; and the latter ranging as high
as 103° or 104° F. ; while the general temperature is
variable, as exhibited by the staring coat, occasional rigors,
and alternate heat and cold of the ears and extremities.
There is rarely any cough at the outset, but after a few days
one of a hacking and convulsive character ensues, which
causes great pain ; and to guard against it the sufferer gathers
himself “ of a heap,” it has been said. The appetite is now
absent, and he does not lie down. The mouth is hot, dry,
and foul, and the membrane sometimes implicated in an
eruption, other mucous membranes being reddened, dry,
and rough. As he stands the abdomen is drawn upwards,
described as being (Fig. 23) “tucked up,” and the breathing

Fig. 23. — Enzootic Pleurisy,

movements are in the main apparently performed by its
muscles ; while a long line or ridge of constriction is per-
ceived to exist parallel with the cartilages of the ribs,
extending from the fore limb to the flank ; the elbows are
turned outwards, and by these means Nature’s efforts are
directed towards limiting the movement of the ribs to pre-
vent friction between surfaces now diseased, which in health

ii8

Blood Diseases.

moved freely over each other. He now obstinately refuses
to move, and may sometimes resist forcible pulling by the
halter ; but when he stirs a grunt is heard, and pressure or
percussion on the sides of the chest will produce the same.
This symptom is of much importance, and during the very
early stages, or in slight attacks even, we have noticed that
it exists in a Tnarked degree, when ordinary observers would
detect nothing otherwise wrong with the animal. It is well
to remember this when purchasing horses, that a more
minute examination may be made, and, if needs be, special
terms agreed upon. In addition to the grunt, we may
observe short and catching breathing, and, by placing the
ear to the sides, a creaking sound is heard on one, or both
in certain, though not common cases. {See Pleurisy.)
We may now expect a further addition to the symptoms,
indicating implication with disease of the lungs or heart.
The pulse is still increased in frequency and hardness, and
breathing is hurried, and sounds are detected by the ear
which denote an extension of the inflammation to the
investing membranes of the organs named, as well as sub-
stance of the lungs. {See Pneumonia and Carditis.) After
a time the sounds are absent, and signs are mitigated,
relief being gained by effusion of serum within the chest,
which the practised ear of the veterinarian will discover
in the usual way. Recovery from these states often takes
place, but there is danger of aggravation ; colicky pains
come on, the breathing suddenly becomes hurried, distress is
evident, and he attempts to lie down. After a time these
signs abate, the swollen legs become fine and gain warmth,
the animal persists in standing, the neck is outstretched,
nostrils dilated, and flapping of the sides takes place. The
pulse is small and imperceptible at the jaw, the ear detects
no sounds in respiration, and shortly the creature falls and
dies from absolute internal drowning.

Enzootic Plettrisy,

119

Post-mortem Appearances. — Death arises from several
causes : effusion, or the formation of large quantities of
fluid within the chest, causing suffocation by pressure on the
lungs ; by obliterating the structure of the lungs, effusion of
lymph having taken place within it, and thus destroying the
air-cells ; failure of the heart’s action by impediments pro-
duced from inflammation, as bands of lymph, effusion of
serum, &c., within the pericardium, &c. In addition to
these conditions, the lungs will be united to the ribs by
similar adventitious formations, thus creating a secondary
cause. That they are new, and of recent formation, we
shall have no difficulty in deciding, for they are soft, friable,
easily detached, and torn. Old adhesions are firm, require
cutting, and bloodvessels are found in their substance.
These facts may be useful to our readers in deciding on
cases in which dispute of liability has taken place.

In more protracted forms, abscess, and even gan-
grene of the lungs, will be discovered, and sometimes a
thick foetid fluid nearly fills the chest ; not an uncommon
sequel when animals have been badly treated and neg-
lected.

Treattnent. — No possible good will come of any treatment
unless the animal is taken off work, and placed in a warm,
comfortable place, where entire freedom from cold and
other exciting causes can be secured. When neglect of
these precautions has prevailed, the sufferers stagger from
their work, and die on reaching the stable.

Ample warm clothing and suitable flannel bandages
should be used to maintain the circulation, and the patient
must be preserved in the utmost quiet. Let him have
access to cold water, hay-tea, &c., and supply moderate
portions of boiled grain, bran mashes, when needed as
laxatives, and roots, hay, grass, &c., as can be obtained. If
the extremities, ears, &c., are cold, or shivering is observed,

120

Blood Diseases,

administer at once nitrous ether, as advised in recipe
No. 27, or the following : —

Recipe No. 31.

Take of aromatic spirits of ammonia 4 fl. dr.

Tincture of cardamoms ; 4 „

W ater, cold 8 fl. oz.

Mix.

Such medicines counteract the tendency to depression,
which is very common in this and allied diseases, and may
be continued two or three times a day until a change of
signs warrant their withdrawal ; or if continued, it may be
necessary, on account of the chest affection, to administer
between moderate doses of nitrate of potash, say two drams
three times a day, until the signs abate. Some practitioners
give a ball, composed as follows : —

Recipe No. 32

Take of carbonate of ammonia

Nitrate of potash

Common mass.

Rub the ammonia and potash to powder, and add the
mass to make up a bolus to weigh 6 or 7 drams, and give
one every eight hours.

When the symptoms run high, and appear more acute,
the pulse being hard and pleuritic complications severe, let
aconite in one of the subjoined forms be given : —

Recipe No. 33.

Take of nitrate of potash, powdered 2 dr.

Common mass 2 „

Tincture of aconite (Fleming’s) 10 drops.

Make into a ball, to be given every eight hours ; or,
Recipe No. 34.

Nitrate of potash 2 dr.

Tepid water 6 fl. oz.

Tincture of aconite (Fleming’s) 10 drops.

2 dr.

'•Enzootic Pleurisy, 1 2 1

Mix, and administer every eight hours. If debility is
marked, the nitrous ether may be given at times four hours
after one of the above.

Local Applications. — We have to warn the reader against
the use of blisters or strong counter-irritants to the sides ;
we estimate their employment as so much maltreatment,
and have strong reasons for stating many deaths have been
due to them alone. Greater benefit, we believe, is to be
derived from the use of a mild embrocation, soap lini-
ment, &c., which produces no systemic disturbance, but
simply rouses the circulation in the parts to which they are
applied. The following is a simple and useful form : —

Recipe No. 35.

Take of liquor ammonia

Oil of thyme

Water

I fl oz.

I »

I pint.

Mix the first and second together, afterwards add the
water, and use with moderate friction.

When the reduction of acute signs are effected, as known
by the fall of the pulse and temperature, and the appetite
has increased, it may be advisable to add vegetable tonics
to the ether, as directed in recipe No. 27, or the following
may be substituted : —

Recipe No. 36.

Take of powdered gentian 2 dr.

Powdered ginger 2 „

Honey, or treacle Sufficient.

Mix the gentian and ginger together, afterwards make up
a bolus with the honey, and give three daily.

Should there be still swellings of the legs, &c., two drams
of the nitrate of potash may be added ; and when the
appetite is fully established, the balls may be discontinued
for powders, as given in recipe No. 20. Further treatment
is to be pursued, as recommiended for enzootic typhoid
catarrh.

III.— BLOOD DISEASES HAVING THEIR ORIGIN
IN AN UNKNOWN ANIMAL POISON, AND
ATTENDED WITH ERUPTIVE FEVER, OR
INTUMESCENCE, SPORADIC, ENZOOTIC,
AND OCCASIONALLY OF SEPTIC CHA-
RACTERS.

Scarlatina.

Strangles.

Suppurative Catarrh.

Scarlatina — Scarlet Fever.

Nature. — A specific febrile blood disease, attended with
eruptions on the surface of the skin, scarlet spots or
petechiae on the mucous membrane of the nostrils, sore
throat, and, under certain conditions, also with the formation
of abscesses in various parts of the body. It usually appears
as a sporadic disease, confined to one or two horses among
a number, and at those times when some among them are
suffering from enzootic typhoid catarrh, or other similar
affection. In the usual sense of the word it is non-
contagious ; but there are reasons for believing that by
inoculating other animals with the blood, diseased pro-
ducts, &c., a putrid fever is established, as described under
malignant sore throat. Two kinds are observed in the
horse — the simple, scarlatina simplex ; and the complicated,
scarlatina anginosa. A third has been described, but autho-
rities are somewhat agreed that it is but purpura.

123

Syimptoms of Scarlatina.

Scarlatina Simplex. — Simple scarlatina usually makes
its appearance after an attack of “ influenza,” so called, has
existed some days, or it may appear in an animal hitherto
apparently free from the disease named. It consists of a
number of “ blotches,” affecting the skin of body, face, neck,
and legs, which give rise to scarcely any swelling, but cause
the hairs upon them to stand erect and staring. Those
parts covered with loose, thin skin, and having little hair, are
usually the best places for seeing the true nature of the
“ blotches,” which there appear as rounded pimples, and may
be distinctly felt as well as seen. The legs swell, and cause
stiffness in some instances, but they are not always affected.
The nasal membrane is likewise studded with scarlet spots,
having no uniformity in size, which shortly give rise to a
thin serous discharge, subsequently changing to a yellow or
brownish colour. Occasionally these are confined to one
nostril only ; and they may constitute the whole of the
outward signs, neither eruption nor swelling of the limbs
being present. Soreness of the throat is evident, which
sometimes creates inconvenience by causing the animal to
leave off feeding. The scarlet spots — petechiae — gradually
fade, and disappear after a few days ; and the skin eruption
also declines, and the cuticle, or scarf skin, peels off in large
quantities, by which the coat becomes very scurfy, and causes
much trouble in cleaning for a long time afterwards.

Scarlatina Anginosa appears as an aggravated condition
of the simple form. In it the limbs swell rapidly, and pit
under pressure of the fingers at first, but suddenly form cir-
cumscribed tumefactions, hot and tender, which may unite to
form large swellings, some of them rapidly declining, while
others appear in distinct and separate parts, at a later period
becoming moist on the surface, by reason of the discharge

124

Blood Diseases,

of a thin yellowish fluid. Smaller swellings or pimples
occupy the rest of the surface of the skin, which are similar
in character to those described under the simple form ; the
spots on the nasal membrane likewise enlarge, and fre-
quently run into each other, forming large blotches, or one
entirely covering the membrane, having a deep scarlet
colour, sometimes merging into a purple. The throat is
involved greatly, the irritation which the soreness gives rise
to producing a frequent noisy cough, in which abundant
discharges of mucus, having various shades of red and
yellow, are forced from the mouth. Respiration is inter-
fered with, the inspirations partaking of a “roaring” kind of
sound, with snuffling through the nostrils, signs of diminu-
tion by swelling in the usual calibre of the air-passages.
Swellings take place beneath the jaws, sometimes also under
the shoulder, and in other places, the formation of pus being
slow and tardy, and rarely developed until the severity of
other signs has passed off. Symptomatic fever usually runs
high in proportion to the amount of eruption and soreness
of the throat ; the pulse is weak, small, compressible, and
frequent, numbering 6o or 70 beats in the less severe
cases, and probably 100 in the most intense ; respiration is
rapid, and increased as the lungs become congested ; the
bowels are constipated, but acutely sensitive to all irritating
agents, diarrhoea being readily induced ; the urine is defi-
cient, being thick and mucilaginous, of a brown colour,
having an offensive odour and tendency to rapid decompo-
sition ; animal temperature is high, and surface heat, apart
from the tumefactions, variable.

In the most favourable cases, the throat affection disap-
pears almost side by side with the eruption on or about the
fifth day, and occasionally the latter declines some days
before the throat recovers, but generally both are absent by
the tenth or eleventh day after attack, when we have to deal

Sympto7ns of Scarlatina, 1 25

with an animal weak and emaciated, having decidedly an
unpromising appearance, foul skin and swollen legs, which
signs for a time apparently resist all attempts to remove
them, or establish even the beginning of health. Farcy or
glanders is not an uncommon termination.

Treatment. — The principal directions are the same as
already detailed under malignant sore throat, p. 90, for the
severe forms of the disease using the electuary No. 25,
p. 1 10, or mouth-wash No. 23, p. 92 ; under the effects of
rapid swelling the breathing may be so difficult as to
threaten suffocation, when tracheotomy must be performed
without delay. {See Tracheotomy.) A light hood may be
put on, thick spongio-piliiie, first dipped in hot water, being
applied to the outer swollen parts of the throat, and held
m situ by the usual strings. We have found great benefit also
from using dry thick spongio-piline (as shown in Fig. 27,
and referred to under Strangles), closely applied, as favour-
ing warmth and promoting suppuration, having none of the
cooling and retarding properties of moisture. Some prac-
titioners employ poultices or hot fomentations — which
see. The discharges from the eyes and nostrils should be
cleared away regularly, and gently moistened with a sponge
previously dipped in a weak solution of chloralum or
perchloride of iron, one fluid ounce of either being mixed
with a pint of water. Clear the bowels by enemas, but do not
give any medicine by the mouth unless the throat will allow
it. Combat the prostration by using nitrous ether, recipe
No. 27, p. Ill ; and use linseed oil as a laxative when consti-
pation exists, and the patient can swallow ; and febrile
states may be met by the use of nitrate or chlorate of potash
given in the drinking-water, or administered as a drench.
Open abscesses as soon as maturation is complete, and keep
the parts clean, afterwards using the astringent lotion to the
surfaces. Support the .system by light nutritious food, in

126

Blood Diseases,

small and repeated quantities. Substitute ammonia, re-
cipe No. 32, p. 120, for the nitrous ether after fever has
abated, and follow after a few days with mineral tonics
recipe No. 30, p. 1 13 ; let the animal be carefully exercised
over short distances occasionally — too much exertion may
prove injurious by retarding recovery ; and avoid work com-
pletely until health has been entirely restored. Fatal cases
are those in which, by aggravation of the disease, it de-
generates into purpura, the post-mortem evidences being
identical, having, in addition, the diseased condition of the
throat.

Strangles; Febra Pyogenica — Pyogenic Fever; Adenitis
Scrofula Equorum, or External Scrofula of Gamgee ;
Specific Adenitis. G our me Struma^ Etrangler^ and

Etranguillion of the French.

Under the above titles we have a disease incidental to
young horses, dependent upon some undefined specific
condition of the blood, characterised by acute glandular
swellings and remarkable tendency to suppuration. Vague
estimates of its contagious as well as scrofulous nature
have been frequently hazarded, and as yet the affection
has not found a definite place in our classification of diseases.
We have given it here in accordance with conclusions drawn
from a careful consideration of its special characters. We
regard it as a non-contagious, eruptive, febrile blood disease,
incidental to youth only; and considering the importance of
the malady, we propose to notice its peculiarities at some
length.

Symptoms. — Strangles appears at first as an ordinary mild
catarrhal affection, gradually assuming severe characters
until relief is obtained by maturation of abscesses, or
prolific discharge from the nasal membrane, or elsewhere.

Strangles,

127

Usually a shivering fit betokens the commencement of
fever, but this may be so slight as to excite no observation
among those in attendance ; dulness shortly succeeds, and
the food is untouched ; the coat begins to stand erect
or to “ stare surface heat is low, and the legs and ears are
cold ; a cough is present in a few hours, and soreness of the
throat is plainly evident (Fig. 24) when the animal attempts

Fig. 24. — Swelling of the Throat causes the fluid to return
by the Nostrils.

to drink, as loud and violent gulping takes place, but the
fluid mainly returns by the nostrils, and generally occasions
a severe fit of coughing. On the second day, perhaps, a
hard, hot, and painful swelling is discovered in the hollow
space between the jaws, and not infrequently extends up
one or both sides, involving the parotid or salivary glands as
far as the ear. The animal has now refused food altogether,
and the third day will find him standing fixed and immov-
able, with the head depressed but “ poked” forwards (Fig. 25),
the neck being straightened, and, if the sufferer is caused to
move, the head and neck are carried as if they were one
unyielding portion. The tumours beneath the jaws are now
considerably enlarged ; in a day or two hair is removed from

128

Blood Diseases,

Fig. 25. — Sira?igles.

the centre, and a half serous and half pustular fluid oozes
from the skin at that part, and increased heat and tenderness

are evident ; a dis-
charge more or less pu-
rulent issues from the
nostrils ; the breathing
is interfered with by
the swelling around
the head of the wind-
pipe, giving rise to a
harsh snuffling noise
during inspiration ; the
mouth is closed and
the lips compressed,
and when the latter are separated a thick, viscid, and
copious flow of saliva takes place, the parts within being
much hotter than natural. In some instances the swelling
is confined principally to the back of the throat (Plates I.
and IX.), when there is less of it seen outwardly, but gene-
rally the obstruction to respiration is greater, with liability
to suffocation. At first the pulse is full, soft, and some-
what increased ; as local tumefaction proceeds, it becomes
harder and more frequent, still maintaining its volume, and
soon declines after abscesses are open and discharge is
obtained. In proportion as the breathing is interfered with,
the lungs will become congested (Plate II.), and the pulse
then loses its volume and strength, and acquires greater
frequency, numbering 80 or 100 ; the beats aie not easily
recognised, and even slight pressure stops the flow — it is
then known as the oppressed pulse. If relief is not obtained
death may take place in the more benign states, from
implication of the lungs, and in those characterised by large
tumefactions from absolute suffocation.

Favourable cases are those in which the abscesses at the

Strangles,

129

jaws gradually mature in two or three days, and either
naturally or by surgical means discharge the contained pus,
after which the animal resumes his appetite ; other signs of
disturbance quietly subside, and by the eighth or ninth day
the animal is convalescent.

Adverse states are betokened by slow and tardy swelling,
having less pain and tenderness, scanty discharge from the
nostrils, much constitutional disturbance for a time, irregular
bowels, continuance of cough, which becomes hollow and
harsh ; appearance of swellings in other parts of the body,
as at the shoulder, groin, flank, &c. ; partial suppuration of
abscesses, or total disappearance of the swelling ; loss of
condition ; resumption of severe constitutional disturbance,
difficult breathing, rapid emaciation, painful cough, colicky
pains, languor, depression, sudden death. This may ap-
propriately be termed the degenerate form of the disease.
Protracted cases, especially when treated by reducing
measures, terminate in farcy or glanders. {^See Suppurative
Catarrh.)

The symptoms of strangles do not always show them-
selves in the way or order just described. Pathologists
recognise the mild or benignant form, the acute, and pro-
tracted. In the first the animal suffers little, and speedily
recovers ; in the second the signs are severe, and danger
from suffocation not uncommon ; in the third, the disease
apparently makes little progress, and the tendency to diffuse
abscess, pyaemia, and death is great.

Post-mortem Appearances. — The lungs are congested,
heavy, and sink in water, and when cut across dark-coloured
blood oozes from the substance, and probably large clots
slip out from some of the larger vessels. The right side of
the heart is full of blood, and the body generally shows
indications of an impure, or rather a non-purified, blood
having run the round of the circulation, which is incapable of

130

Blood Diseases,

nourishing the tissues. The parts about the throat are
swollen by infiltration and inflammation, the glands par-
ticularly being involved, the products of inflammation
undergoing the usual process of pus formation. Excepting
the congestion above named, other parts are free from
disease. Such are the principal states witnessed in those
animals dying from inability to breathe by reason of the
swelling.

In those of a tardy nature, the whole of the glands of the
body are frequently swollen and contain matter ; those of
the abdomen, situate in the folds of the membrane con-
necting the intestines, known as mesenteric glands, some-
times are greatly implicated, one or more having burst, the
contents being distributed over the organs ; in other instances,
a tumefied gland near the chest maturates and also discharges
the products among the lungs, with which a considerable
quantity of water may also be present. The lungs are
congested or partly inflamed, and abscesses are found in
their substance ; the liver is softened, and the parts about
the throat originally affected are inflamed and infiltrated
without any pus being present. Rapid decomposition sets
in if the body is exposed to the air.

Treatment, — Good nursing at the outset is far more
valuable than any kind of medicines. The great object is
to secure free maturation and discharge of the abscesses
beneath the jaws, and it must be borne in mind that every
agency which retards that process, or causes it to recede, is
to be regarded as so much influence towards producing
adverse states, and probably death. Bleeding and purgation,
with the use of saltpetre and diuretics generally, are to be
strictly avoided as the veritable agents just alluded to.
Place the animal in a cool shed or open place, where he will
obtain plenty of fresh air without being exposed to dangerous
currents ; clothe the body loosely, merely to avoid determina-

Strangles, 131

tion of blood to internal organs during weak and sensitive
conditions. Rub the blister ointment, No. 7, page 44, into
the swollen glands, having first clipped off the hair, and
conclude the operation by leaving a layer on the surface
thus prepared, which should be larger than the affected 'parts
in order to increase the inflammation and hasten pus
formation. It is a common and useful practice to secure a
nosebag on the head, the bottom of which has been charged
with bran and boiling water,
the vapour arising therefrom
having a powerful tendency
to promote discharge from the
nostrils (Fig. 26). Sawdust
will answer quite as well, also
hay or straw cut into chaff,
and the “ flyers” or outer husk
of grain removed in the pro-
cess of threshing, when bran
cannot be had, as we have had
many times to experience at
lone stables a mile or two from
the main establishment. All
or any of these may be used, and the vapour action be sus-
tained by pouring hot water from a kettle through a slit
or hole in the side of the bag. We have a decided objection
to poultices in this disease, as they annoy and exhaust the
weak animal, and often by their weight defy all attempts to
keep them sufficiently close to the swollen glands ; thus
evaporation, rapid cooling, and retarding the abscess is safe
to follow. In place of poultices we take a piece of spongio-
piline, half an inch or more in thickness, about a foot square ;
this we dip in hot water, and afterwards press out the excess,
applying the woollen side towards the glands, curving the
ends up each side the jaws outside and backwards on each

9—2

Fig. 26. — Steaming the Nostrils.

132

Blood Diseases.

side of the throat, securing it there by means of a tightly-
fitting hood or tailed bandage (Fig. 27). It is well to have

stitute is dry cotton wool or very soft tow, covered by oiled
silk or gutta-percha sheeting.

The ripening of the abscess is known by the discharge
which oozes from a bare spot of skin in the centre or most
prominent part of the swelling, and by being soft and
yielding to the touch of the finger ; a sensation being ex-
perienced which at once assures the inquirer that a fluid, and
no longer a solid, is present. The nose is then to be
elevated by an assistant, and the operator, by means of the
lancet or sharp-pointed bistoury, punctures the skin at the
softest point, and in withdrawing the instrument lengthens
the cut in order to secure complete evacuation, and prevent
premature closing by healing. The nosebag may now
probably be dispensed with, and all that remains to be done
in the way of treating the wounds is to keep them clean,
and nothing better can be adopted than by continuing the
application of the spongio-piline for a few days. The
nostrils also should be kept clean by using the sponge and
tepid water, to which a little chloralum solution has been
added. As the appetite returns allow nutritious food, roots,

Fig. 27. — Dressings applied for the
Abscesses of Strangles.

a second piece in readi-
ness to apply to the parts
the moment the first is
removed, which will avoid
the danger of cooling as
already alluded to. Some
persons have endeavour-
ed to substitute several
thicknesses of woollen
rug, but that is as objec-
tionable as the poultice
we discard ; the best sub-

Strangles.

133

grass, &c. &c., In moderate quantities ; let the patient take
a little exercise daily, and if the bowels are constipated,
regulate their action by the addition of linseed, bran, or
both, with grass, roots, &c., in accordance, not omitting first
to throw up enemas of warm soap solution, repeating the
operation, if necessary, two or three times during the day.
If cough continues use liquid blister. No. 9 or 10, page 45,
round the throat from ear to ear, and put repeated doses of the
electuary, No. 25, page no, upon the tongue or molar teeth.
To promote the return of strength, and create greater
powers of assimilation, use the tonic powders. No. 30, page
1 1 3, night and morning, in the food for a week or ten
days, at the end of which time no further treatment will
* be needed. In adverse states proceed as directed for
scarlatina.

Is the disease contagious ? — It is usually advanced as a
proof of contagion when a number of animals are attacked
by it ; but the assertion loses its importance when we con-
sider that in all the simple forms of enzootic diseases there
is a remarkable rapidity of transmission, and simultdneous-
ness of attack. Thus, by common cold, influenza, &c., hun-
dreds of animals in a district will be seized within a few
hours, the whole area probably representing many miles ;
these are special characters of non-contagious diseases, and
entirely different from the behaviour of contagious maladies.
Strangles appears suddenly, and is communicated rapidly,
all the young animals becoming affected, or very few escap-
ing. Now glanders and farcy, which are highly contagious
diseases, are communicated slowly, and depend upon the
transmission of the direct poison from one animal to the
other ; hence we find that a diseased horse may remain on
certain premises for months without our ever hearing that
the poison of glanders or farcy have been blown into the
stables of the adjoining buildings. If such a mild disease as

134

Blood Diseases,

strangles be really contagious, and its poison is carried over
hill and dale to other animals, then glanders and farcy ought
to be propagated similarly, for their poison is by far more
subtle and powerful. Again, if strangles is contagious, it
should be capable of transmission by inoculation. This has
been for a long time a vexatious question, and, to determine
the matter, we had recourse to many experiments.

At the time when the inquiry was instituted, we had about
thirty animals under care suffering from the disease ; and, in
order to test its propagative powers, or, in other words, its
contagious nature, if possible, the contents of an abscess
situate beneath the jaws, having matured properly and opened
with due care, were collected and used as follows : —

I. A pony, eighteen years old, in excellent health and con-
dition, was selected; placed in a roomy box, and supplied
with plenty of green food. By means of rowelling forceps
an incision was made in the submaxillary space, into which
matter from the abscess referred to was introduced.

1st day. — No swelling ; wound closing with slight scabs,
but is rather tender.

2nd day. — Further improvement.

6th day. — Healed. No further result followed for six

weeks, at which time he was sold, but continued under
observation for some months, remaining in perfect health.

II. An aged horse was similarly treated, and placed in
the same box with the subject of the first experiment. No
disease followed.

III. A pony, nine and a half hands high, three years old,
one of a new purchase ; has a cough, but at present no sub-
maxillary swelling. Matter from the abscess was freely
brushed over the nasal membrane three days in succession.
No effects followed.

IV. Pony, five years old ; has slight enlargement of sub-
maxillary glands. Pus inserted beneath the skin, near the

Strangles,

glands ; six days afterwards the wounds were perfectly
healed. No other effects followed.

V. A number of young animals were suffering from
strangles, and others were repeatedly introduced, some of
which gradually became affected. Of those not affected
several were inoculated, and at once isolated. All were sub-
jected to the same liberal feeding and treatment ; but the
disease assumed a slow and tardy form, owing, it was be-
lieved, to the very ungenial weather which prevailed at the
time and low condition of the animals at purchase, several
deaths occurring in those not inoculated.

Several of the animals subjected to inoculation like the
others, became slowly and gradually affected, but exhibited
no difference whatever in the origin or progress of the ma-
lady ; two died, the rest going through the disease tardily,
while as many did not take the disease at all.

Although the experiments might have been carried further,
yet we think sufficient was obtained to establish the non-
contagious nature of strangles by inoculation. The test was
in every respect a crucial one. Older animals were subjected
to the experiment as well as young ones ; and the young
animals which had resisted the power of inoculation were
afterwards placed with those suffering from the disease, that
they might become infected, if possible ; yet they remained
perfectly free. The conclusion we arrive at is, that “ Strangles,"’
so called, is a febrile blood disease, incidental to youth, non-
contagious, dependent probably upon the operation of ex-
ternal causes upon the systemic functions, which, at that
period of life, are susceptible of influences that either operate
differently, or have no effect whatever in later life. In this
respect it resembles measles in the human subject. Apart
from complications, “ Strangles,” so called, is not a fatal
disease.

Taking these points into consideration, we are led to an-'

Blood Diseases.

Other conclusion, which is borne out by experience : — It is
essential that the disease should be gone through during the
youth of the animal, as in later life those that escape the
malady, or those in which it appears in a tardy form and
afterwards recedes, are likely to become subject to a variety
of blood disease, to be described hereafter, known among
horsemen as “ bastard strangles.” We are prepared to admit
there are exceptions to this rule, and proof may sometimes
be wanting in consequence of animals being lost sight of ;
but we do not hazard an opinion on mere surmise. It has
been our experience, and other veterinarians can support the
statement, that animals escaping strangles in their youth, or
having the disease imperfectly, are not so safe. Further re-
marks will appear under Suppurative Catarrh.

Is the disease of a scrofulous nature f — This question may
be set at rest briefly by placing side by side the prin-
cipal features of scrofula and strangles under the subjoined
arrangement : —

Scrofula. Strangles.

Is hereditary, depending upon a Is not hereditary,
cachexy, or particular depraved
state of the body.

Appears frequently during the
lifetime of the patient, the seeds or
germs of which always remain in
the system, often increasing in se-
verity.

Tuberculous from the beginning,
affecting the whole system, and, in
the end, vital organs.

The maturation and discharge
of abscesses do not terminate the
disease.

Appears but once in the lifetime
of the animal, if the usual condi-
tions are fulfilled.

Is not tuberculous, or every horse
must be in an unsound state from
birth ; but tuberculous states may
be produced by maltreatment or
non-fulfilment of essential condi-
tions— z>., degeneration of disease.

The opening, naturally or arti-
ficially, of abscesses when well
matured terminates the disease
successfully. .

137

Suppurative Catarrh: Morbus Glandulosus ; Bastard
Strangles ; Strumous Adenitis ; (erroneouslf) Pycemia,

NaUtre. — A blood disease characterised by subacute
catarrhal febrile symptoms, accompanied with general tume-
faction and suppuration of the lymphatic glands. Common
to animals of all ages.

Symptoms. — The usual appearances of a common cold at
first are presented — e.g.y discharges from the eyes and nose,
shivering fits, cough, &c. The animal, having suffered a
day or two, becomes stiff and disinclined to move. The
cough is harsh and frequent, surface heat irregular at first,
and later the legs and ears are cold, and the coat rough
and dead in appearance. The bowels are irregular, and
faeces smell offensively ; the mouth is hot and slimy, but
when the throat is sore large collections of viscid saliva
escape on opening the lips. The pulse is rapid, somewhat
hard, but does not possess large volume. The appetite is
often absent from the first, more particularly when the throat
suffers. Animal heat runs high, 103° or 104° F. being
not uncommon, and the lungs are liable to be implicated
from various causes.

For some time the disease makes little progress one way
or the other, and while the signs already named only
prevail, it is difficult to pronounce correctly not only as to
the real nature of the affection, but also as to its termination.
By-and-by, however, the glands
beneath the throat grow hot, ten-
der, and are observed to enlarge
somewhat suddenly ; and if at this
time the system is supported by
good food, when the patient can

take it, or stimulative tonic medi-

, , , Fig. 28. — St ppurative

cine, the malady may come to a Catarrh.

138

Blood Diseases,

speedy termination with the discharge of pus from the ab-
scesses which form (Fig. 28). Animals in low condition and
of coarse lymphatic temperament generally exhibit a more
tardy form of the complaint, and contemporaneous with the
submaxillary swelling others appear at the shoulder, in the
groin, round the anus, and also in the glands of the abdomen.
As long as suppuration can be confined to the external parts,
there is generally little to fear ; but when these form slowly,
partially recede or disappear from one part, and others take
on swelling, we have reason for not being altogether satisfied,
for these are signs most frequently to be regarded as indi-
cative of internal abscesses, from which death will take
place sooner or later. Horses so affected will sometimes
apparently recover for a time, but do not work satisfactorily
or improve much in condition. Frequent attacks of colic
come on with alternate diarrhoea, and death puts an end to
the sufferings at variable periods, probably in one of the
attacks of even usual severity.

Post-mortem Appearances. — These are intensified in ac-
cordance with the duration of the disease. Generally the
lungs are congested, but in old-standing cases the suppura-
tive action has extended to their substance, as well as to
the glands in the neighbourhood, and possibly one or more
have discharged their contents into the cavity of the chest.
In the abdomen the glands of the mesentery are tumefied,
with probable discharge of matter from one of them ; and
the liver and kidneys are softened, also having pus in their
interior, the immediate cause of death being usually the
discharge of an abscess in either the chest or abdomen, or
interference with organic functions from the presence of pus
within important structures, a complication constituting what
is known as pyaemia.

Treatment. — Support the animal by good and easily-
digested food. While the early signs of catarrh are present,

Suppurative Catarrh. 139

stimulate the nostrils by hot vapour to promote discharge
(see Fig. 26). Blister tumefied glands, and develope suppu-
ration as quickly as possible, insuring free discharge by
opening abscesses freely at the earliest period. Rouse the
bowels by enemas only, and give frequent doses of nitrous
ether and gentian as given in recipe No. 27, p. 1 1 1, or use
alternately with it the following : —

Recipe No. 37.

Take of aromatic spirits of ammonia i fl. oz.

Tincture of cardamoms i „

„ gentian 2 „

Cold water 8 „

Mix.

As strength returns and febrile symptoms decline with
the decreasing discharge from abscesses, the tonic powders
(No. 30, p. 1 13) will be of service, or the following : —

Recipe No. 38.

Take of sulphate of iron, powdered 3 oz.

N itrate of potash „ 3 „

Carbonate of soda „ 12 drs.

Locust bean „ 6 oz.

Mix, and divide into twelve powders. One to be given
in the manger food morning and night. Some animals, but
rarely, refuse to eat food in which medicines have been
placed. Whenever this occurs we may be required to give
it in the form of bolus. For the above the subjoined
formula may be adopted : —

Recipe No. 39.

Take of sulphate of iron, powdered 3 oz.

Nitrate of potash 3 „

Common mass, a sufficiency.

Mix, and divide into twelve boluses, one to be given
morning and evening.

Let the animal have a roomy box, plenty of fresh air, and

140

Blood Diseases,

good food, with changes of roots, &c., as may be obtained ;
promote comfort by clothing, grooming, cleanliness, and
good beds ; send out for regular exercise as soon as he
can take it, beginning by small distances at first, taking
care that no work is enforced until health is sufficiently
established.

IV.—BLOOD DISEASES ARISING FROM AN
ANIMAL POISON— HIGHLY CONTAGIOUS,
AND PRODUCING THE SAME DISEASE BY
INOCULATION,

Farcy.

Glanders.

Farcy and Glanders.

Nature. — A highly contagious and malignant form of
disease, due to the presence of an animal poison, which in-
volves the whole system, and manifested by swellings and
ulcers on the skin, erosions of the Schneiderian mucous
membrane, enlarged lymphatic glands and their ducts, with
ultimate abscess and ulcers of the lungs. The poison of
farcy and glanders is capable of transmission from horses
to the ass tribe and mankind, and of re-transmission to man
also.

Farcy is but the preceding or milder form of glanders,
into which it often merges. Nevertheless, the two forms of
disease exist totally separate and distinct, remaining as
such for months, or even longer ; and from this circum-
stance it has been found necessary to view the various states
of each as acute and chronic. Farcy and glanders appear
as common diseases in temperate climates, being rare in
very cold and totally unknown in very hot ones ; capable
of spontaneous development, but, as a rule, the active spread
of these diseases may be distinctly traced to contagion. In

142

Blood Diseases,

the first instance they may be said to be sporadic, in the
latter epizootic.

Causes. — Want of proper cleanliness and ventilation, pro-
ducing a vitiated state of the blood, by introducing within
the system some degenerating or decomposing principle or
animal poison from without ; by interfering with the due
elimination of useless and hurtful matters, and by developing
within the system the poison itself The disease is rife
among the animals of many badly-managed coal mines, as a
result of deficient ventilation, overwork, and want of clean-
liness ; on board ship, when from continued stress of weather
the hatches are kept closed ; in the stables of some large
establishments, as a result of similar causes, aided probably
also by inoculation.. Many years ago it was the bane of the
British army, and destroyed as many horses at home during
peace as fell in many wars ; and even at this day it follows
the movement of belligerent forces, who necessarily impose
hardships on their horses, and correspondingly reduce the
comforts. The extended or habitual use of purgatives and
salines in health, but more especially in low forms of disease,
are prolific causes ; while both farcy and glanders often
prove the termination of many such complaints, even with
an opposite kind of treatment. Although the diseases exist
independently of each other, yet animals now aVid then are
seen in which they are undoubtedly combined. Farcy
usually precedes glanders ; but it may succeed it, and
vice versa. r

There are other phases also on which we might dilate to
a great extent, but that would be beyond our present object,
and of little interest to the reader ; we therefore confine our
remarks to the diseases as they appear under general cir-
cumstances, in order to furnish the evidences*-* by which a
certain decision may be arrived at, treatment being of
secondary importance.

Farcy and Glanders, 143

Symptoms of Farcy. — The chronic form of farcy is cha-
racterised by a series of corded swellings in one or more
parts of the body, as along the sides of the neck, inside of
the legs, &c. ; and situate upon them, at variable distances,
small round tumours or swellings exist, generally in the
neighbourhood of a wound, congregating round it, 'or spread-
ing from it These may exist some time without the
evidence of much constitutional disturbance ; but at length
the tumefactions enlarge by additional inflammation, and it
is known as a “ farcy bud,” shortly bursting, and discharging
first pus, afterwards a sanious fluid, and refusing to heal.
Such appearances go on for weeks, and even months, and
merging into glanders, kill the animal. Acute farcy is
known by the above signs being ushered in by those of fever,
as shivering followed by heat of body, a frequent and hard
pulse, dulness, accelerated respiration, rapid elevation of
animal temperature, &c. Such attacks may kill the animal
attacked in a week or ten days, the origin being doubtless
due to inoculation — a common occurrence in stables where
farcy or glanders are suffered to exist.

Symptoms of Glanders. — In the acute form, as in acute
farcy, the first signs are those of fever, as there described, to
which succeeds dulness and heavy appearance of the
countenance. A discharge, at first watery and afterwards
purulent, flows from one or both nostrils, and the subm.axillary
glands beneath are correspondingly affected, being enlarged,
hard, and solid, and adhering firmly to the bone. The
nostrils sometimes swell, and the discharge “glues” them
together, 'while a foetid odour is emitted, and it changes to
a thin or sanious fluid. Such signs will lead to the opening
of the nostrils, when pustules and ulcers may be seen on the
Schneidermn membrane, occasionally in the chronic cases,
perforating the nasal septum, or partition between the two
passages. Chronic glanders is that variety in which the

144

Blood Diseases,

discharge from the nostrils, together with ulceration, exist
without much fever ; the animal continues at work, but the
appetite is somewhat capricious, and the ear applied to the
sides of the chest detects the absence of respiratory murmur
in some parts, while others convey louder sounds, indi-
cative of the formation of abscesses and surrounding inflam-
mation. Such cases gradually affect the animal’s appetite,
and wasting of the body goes on rapidly ; urine is discharged
in large quantities — polyuria ; breathing becomes difficult ;
weakness and general anaemia follows ; and the animal dies
in a state of hectic. In acute cases, blood poisoning takes
place, causing stupor, coma, offensive secretions and rapid
death, the causes of which are direct inoculation from one
animal to another. .

Treatment of Favi,y. — As this loathsome disease has its
origin in causes which produce a low, vitiated state of the
blood and system generally, by which tissues are not
nourished as they should be, it is clear that our plan should
be that of effecting a removal of the blood poison, and resto-
ration of the assimilative powers, that they may minister
properly to the direct wants of the system. The treatment
must be of two kinds, local and general ; the buds must be
dispersed, and ulcers caused to heal. To those that are
situate on the lower parts of the extremities, especially if the
wound is greatly inflamed, poultices may be applied for a
day or two ; afterwards they may be treated in the same
way as the others, by caustics or blisters. Of the first,
some choose the actual cautery or budding iron (Fig. 29),

Fig. 29. — The Budding Iron,, with hollow handle.

which is heated to redness, and after being properly cleaned,
to remove scales, &c., the point is inserted in the centre of

Farcy and Glanders,

145

each bud, and open wounds are likewise stimulated ; bearing
in mind that it is not necessary to make the application so
severe as to destroy tissues, the reparative powers being
already far below the usual standard. Nitrate of silver, or
lunar caustic, is a valuable remedy ; caustic potass, or
potassae fusa, equally powerful, either of which may be used
in the stick or pencil form. Blisters are very much approved
of by some veterinarians, being applied round the buds
after the caustics already named have been employed, and
the plan is decidedly very effective. This constitutes the
local treatment.

The general or systemic plan of treatment consists of sup-
porting the system by the allowance of good beans, peas,
and oats, &c., while the assimilative functions are stimulated
by tonics. Of the medicines made choice of there are many
kinds, the principal being arsenic, quinine, cantharides, the
sulphates of copper and iron, &c. &c. As a rule, we have
found iron to answer very well, being made up into powders or
boluses as required, and combined with some agent, such as
potash or resin, in order to excite the action of the kidneys,
and carry off the morbid matters from the blood. Such a
combination will be found in the following directions : —

Recipe No. 40.

Take of sulphate of iron, powdered 6 oz.

Nitrate of potash or resin ,, 6 „

Gentian and ginger, of each „ 3 „

Mix, and divide into twelve powders ; one to be given
morning and night.

To smaller animals the form given in No. 38 may be
adopted, or the above doses may be reduced one-third or
one-half as needed.

From the day succeeding the application of the caustics to
the wounds, some antiseptic fluid should be regularly made
use of, that the contagious properties of the discharge may

146

Blood Diseases,

be destroyed, as well as to stimulate the parts to healthy
action ; for this purpose, solutions of carbolic acid, Condy’s
permanganate of potash, chloralum, chlorine water, chloride
of zinc, 8z;c., will be found to be all that is required.

A caution is needed in reference to the use of diuretics ;
they must not be persisted in too long, as irritation of the
kidneys may supervene, or effects of the tonic medicine
will be interfered with. After the quantity recommended
(No. 30) has been exhausted — viz., at the end of six days —
the nitre or resin may be omitted ; afterwards an occasional
laxative ball will be required, to obviate the constipation
produced by the iron, the diuretics being given about once
in five or six days. Much may be done by the use of lin-
seed or bran in the food, together with a regular or occa-
sional allowance of roots ; indeed, it is better to act on the
bowels in this way rather than use purgative medicine too
freely. Clysters are likewise of valuable assistance in sup-
plementing the action of a laxative diet, and should not be
forgotten in the li.st of remedies.

Preventive Measures.

In all stables and buildings where farcy or glanders have
appeared, especially if other animals are there, certain opera-
tions for the prevention of the disease must be rigorously
carried out. The usual plan, and it is that insisted upon by
the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act, 1869, is to allow all
animals to remain in contact with the one diseased, forbidding
their removal under penalties, thus insuring a certain propa-
gation of the malady. A second, and, we think, an equally
erroneous plan is, to move the affected animal rather than
the healthy ones, so that if they escape direct infection from
the diseased animal, they will in all probability receive it
from something he has left behind. As all contagious dis-
eases are characterised by a period of latency or incubation,

Preventive Measures

147

there is every probability that the removal of all apparently
healthy animals, immediately on the earliest intimation of
the existence of such in any one of them, will most success-
fully prevent its extension. This, from experience, we find
to be the best plan, especially if the additional process of
individual segregation can be carried out. We know very
well this cannot always be done by the owners of stock, but
when Government professes to watch over the interest of
proprietors in preventing the spread of contagious maladies,
it should also provide for the wants of the community in
this respect Animals apparently healthy, nay, even in-
fected, or those in whom the disease may be in a latent or
incubative stage, may be moved with impunity ; therefore,
we would thus endeavour to limit the spread of glanders and
farcy, and at the same time, of course, save the lives of
valuable animals.

First then we would, if possible, remove all not actually
diseased, putting them under proper care and surveillance,
and subject the affected animal to suitable treatment within
the only building at present contaminated. At the same
time, every attention should be paid to-
wards purifying the air of the place and
keeping it pure, by means of disinfectants ;
the burning of small quantities of sulphur
will readily accomplish what ventilation
i fails to do, without inconvenience to the
II inmates, if carried out properly. The
; benefits derived are, owing to the action
of the resulting gas, sulphurous acid, which
has a powerful action on all miasmata ; a
simple arrangement for its production is
shown in the adjoining woodcut (Fig. 30).

A small tin bowl, having the capacity
, of half a small tea-cup, is supported on

Fig. 30. — Arrange-
7nent for disengag-
ing Sulphurous
Acid Gas.

10—2

148

Blood Diseases.

three pillars or legs of the same material, and joined
near the bottom by a circular plate, on which a spirit-lamp
is placed. Less than half a teaspoonful of sulphur is placed
in the bowl, and the lamp ignited ; gas is quickly disen-
gaged, the quantity being easily regulated by the size of
the flame. After the removal of animals and all metallic
articles, harness, &c., the disinfection of buildings may be
accomplished by sulphurous acid very effectually as follows :
— A few hot coals are placed between several bricks laid on
the floor, covered by a plate of iron reaching across from the
bricks of one side to those of the opposite. A handful of
the flowers of sulphur is placed on the iron plate, and
shortly ignites, burning with a beautiful blue flame, disen-
gaging powerful, (deadly fumes in large quantities, until the
whole is consumed. The building should be closed entirely,
excepting some convenient place for retreat, and the gas
confined to the interior for some hours, after which doors and
windows may be opened from without, to clear the place
before any one enters. We have reason to believe this
plan to be the most efficacious of any for the purpose of
disinfection.

Chlorine Gas is occasionally used for the purification of
stables. It is generated in the following manner : — A quantity
of the black oxide of manganese is placed at the bottom of
a glass flask — an ordinary Florence or salad oil flask answers
the purpose — and covered with muriatic acid. The arrange-
ment is completed by fixing the flask, thus charged, in a
proper stand, as shown in the engraving Fig. 31, and heating
the whole by the flame of a spirit-lamp. A yellowish green
gas is rapidly evolved and pervades the building, the action
of which should be assisted by having previously closed all
doors, windows, &c,, and arranged also to withdraw as soon
as the process has been put into action. A more simple
arrangement consists of placing the ingredients in a shallow

Preventive Measures.

149

dish, set on an iron plate, beneath which a fire of coals has
been made. In these cases it must be understood no
animals must be allowed to re-
main, for the process will be
required to act some hours, the
lamp or fire being charged to
last the prescribed time. Chlo-
rine gas may be liberated in a
gentle manner by mixing care-
fully one part of common salt,
one part of the black oxide of
manganese, and two parts of
strong oil of vitriol together in a
saucer or shallow dish. No heat
is necessary, but the ingredients
must be frequently agitated. For
many ordinary purposes this an-
swers well, as animals may re-
main in their stalls during its

use ; but the vessel must be placed at a great height if the
air of the place is to be purified, as the gas, being heavier
than atmospheric air,
falls to the floor, and
in still states forms a
low stratum. Solu-
tions of chlorine gas
are very useful agents
for washingwoodwork
and floors. It is made
by passing the gas
as it is evolved from
the mixtures already
given by the aid of

heat, through water. Fig. 32.

Fig. 31. — Apparatus for gene-
j'ating Chlo7'ine Gas as a puri-
fier of Buildings.

ISO

Blood Diseases.

as shown in Fig. 32. Nearly all the compounds into which
chlorine enters are good disinfectants, and are usefully applied
in solution to the floors, animal matter, wounds, &c., when pro-
perly diluted. These are Chloride of Zinc — Sir Edward Bur-
nett’s Disinfecting Fluid ; Perchloride of Iron — Ellerman’s
Fluid ; Hypochlorite of Potash — Eau de Javelle ; Hypo-
chlorite of Soda — Labaraque’s Liquid ; and last, but pro-
bably the best of all, the new agent — Chloralum, in the form
of powder as well as solution. These, with the exception
of Ellerman’s Fluid and Chloralum, may be obtained in the
solid or crystal form, and, dissolved in water, are ready for
use ; the more convenient way, however, will be for the
reader to purchase that which he selects direct from the
maker or chemist, and ready for use, along with which are
suitable directions. -

Creasote, Carbolic and Cresyllic Acids are useful for
fumigation on a small scale during the presence of animals,
and offer many advantages when alternated with sulphurous
acid. Being volatile, they may be placed upon an earthen-
ware plate, and laid over a
vessel in which water is kept
up to the boiling-point, when
the air is quickly impregnated
with the vapour, and con-
tagious miasma eflectually de-
stroyed.

Probably the most effectual
method is to use the spray-
distributor, one form of which
is given in the accompanying
engraving (Fig. 33). The
agent is here used in solution,
being put into the bottle which is held in one hand, the
other being occupied in forcing the air through the tube by

Fig. 33. — The Hand-ball
Spray-distributor.

Preventive Measures.

151

compressing the india-rubber ball at the opposite end.
Solutions of chlorine or sulphurous acid gases, the mineral
acids and acid salts, the various disinfecting fluids, chlo-
ralum, &c., are equally available, and may be thus employed
to purify the atmosphere of buildings occupied by diseased
animals. A more effective plan consists of driving steam
instead of common air through the india-rubber tube, water
being heated in a suitable vessel by means of a spirit-lamp,
by which a tiresome process is avoided, and larger quantities
of the required agent are produced.

Fluid Carbolic A cid. — An impure solution of carbolic acid
is now sold at about the rate of '^s. 6d. per gallon, which
suggests an extended use as an efflcient disinfectant. Poured
from the rose of a common watering-can, it may be used to
the floors of buildings after dilution with an equal weight
of water. Rugs, cloths, sacks, harness, and stable tools,
woodwork and ironwork, &c., may be washed with a soapy
solution of the fluid. One pound of soft soap is boiled in a
gallon of water, to which two pounds of fluid carbolic acid
are added, and after being thoroughly incorporated is ready
for use. It is of great importance to note that temperature
has much to do with the decomposition of organic matter ;
therefore, when the carbolic solution is to be used, it should
be as near boiling-point as possible — poured over the floors,
brushed over wood and ironwork, &c., the rugs and harness
being immersed in it, and afterwards scrubbed. This
solution diluted answers excellently for cleaning surfaces
over which discharges from diseased parts are flowing. The
purulent secretions from the eyes and nose in contagious
diseases are constantly emitting the poison, and it should be
the duty of an attendant to clear them away regularly. An
equal bulk of water should be added for this purpose, and
used by means of a rag or sponge. McDougall's Dis-
infecting Powder is probably one of the cheapest, simplest,

152

Blood Diseases.

and most effectual agents for the purification of buildings
where cattle are kept. The cost is about ten shillings per
cwt, and as a fine powder is conveniently distributed by
means of a dredger. Being a compound of lime, carbolic
and sulphurous acids, its power of decomposing contagious
matter is unsurpassed. The emanations from dung and
urine are immediately arrested, and the manure is caused to
retain a high percentage of ammoniacal compounds, which
under present systems are not only entirely lost, but allowed
to execute inestimable injury to the health and constitution
of animals. This compound should be used in every stable :
the end would be, that when animals are healthy they would
be preserved much longer in health ; and when disease is
present, its ravages would be considerably diminished, and
curative means greatly assisted.

The powder may be mixed with whitewash or water,
the former being brushed over the walls, while the latter
answers for throwing down drains, brushing over coarse
woodwork, &c. Ample directions are given with the
preparation.

Chloride of Lime, so called, is an efficient remedy for the
disinfection of urine, faeces, &c. It should be thrown over
the floor and excrement, &c., to be purified, by means of a
large dredger, and, after lying some little time, the whole is
carefully swept together, treated with a further addition of
the disinfectant ' thoroughly mixed, and removed to a proper
receptacle. Chloride of lime possesses one great disadvan-
tage— a strong suffocating odour, which often renders its
employment among diseased animals highly injurious, parti-
cularly in affections of the respiratory organs. On a large
scale, and where constant and complete disinfection is re-
quired in buildings where animals are confined, chloride of
lime is objectionable. In empty buildings it may be used
with great benefit. It may be purchased wholesale at about

V mtilation. 1 53

20S. or 2 IS. per cwt, and in small quantities from the nearest
chemist or oilman at 2d. or ^d. per pound.

Then there are the permanganates of potash, “ Condy’s
Fluid,” which are renowned as antiseptics and disinfectants,
and purchasers will find in them all that is desired, either as
solutions for purifying the air by means of the spray-pro-
ducer or for cleaning wounds and decomposing the contagious
nature of discharges and excretions.

Ventilation.

Besides cleanliness and disinfection, ventilation is of abso-
lute importance where sick animals are. A want of pure air
vitiates the system through the respiration, and converts
healthy animals into weak, ill-favoured, and diseased ones,
while the malady, whatever it may be, is always retarded
and aggravated. Efficient ventilation cannot be secured in
dark, dreary stables, where the sunlight cannot enter. The
want of light admits of dark corners and heaps of dirt in
them out of sight ; the latter moulder and decompose, emit-
ting offensive smells which shut out good and fresh air. We
should always endeavour to have large windows so as to
admit plenty of light, especially direct sunlight, which is the
best purifier we know ; added to these, arrangements should
be made for securing a free current of air through the stable
when unoccupied, and air-shafts should pierce the ceiling and
chambers above, going direct to the roof, the openings there
being guarded by valves to prevent down-currents of air.
Valves of similar construction likewise should be placed in
every wall, immediately below the ceiling, that in whatever
direction the wind may be no obstruction may arise to pre-
vent the passage outwards of foul, heated air. As difficulties
often present themselves by reason of position of buildings,
the various plans must be modified, or adopted in accordance

154

Blood Diseases.

therewith ; and, if due consideration is given to the question,
we have no hesitation in affirming that any building may be
ventilated, no matter what are the peculiarities. Isolated
stables present no difficulties, as a rule ; and here we have
found one or more central air-shafts, as already named, from
the ceiling upwards, beneath which the necessary gaslights
are placed, to be thoroughly efficient ; or when such could
not be made use of, then a few brick valves in the walls may
answer the same purpose. The following is a description of
one which we have adopted : —

''Improved Valve for Ventilating Stables and other
Buildings!^

" We have had an opportunity of examining an improved
ventilating valve for stables, cow-houses, &c., and other build-
ings where animals are confined. The apparatus is designed
by Mr. G. Armatage, formerly connected with the teaching
of veterinary science in the colleges at London and Glasgow,
and may be manufactured in wrought or cast iron.

“ Upon the question of ventilation as closely connected
with the welfare of domestic animals, Mr. Armatage, we be-
lieve, has spent much time and thought, and the result of his
labour and study is, that he has produced an apparatus which
seems likely to do its work well.

“ The great object in ventilation is to secure a proper re-
gulation of currents of air through a building. Holes may
be made anywhere, but to insure the passage outwards of
heated and impure air, is another matter. The common
plan of inserting grates or air bricks in stables over the
horse’s head, is a constant source of annoyance in two ways.
If foul air ascends in that direction, the animal breathes it ;

From the Farytier^ May 15, 1871.

Ventilation.

155

and if the brick ceases to be an outlet for impure gases, a
common enough occurrence, it then becomes an inlet for a
weighty column of cold air, which causes nasal catarrh,
cough, sore throat, influenza, and even more serious events.
Chronic cough, and even roaring, has been successfully traced
to the presence of common air bricks and grates over the
mangers. Such a position is condemned for the common
apparatus, and while it is not recommended for the improved
valve, the evils may be greatly neutralised. The sides or
ends away from the animal’s head are selected as near the
hind-quarters as possible, and in the proximity of gaslights.
When animals are tied up to the middle of buildings, or
allowed to run loose, no particular choice of locality is needed,
as long as a free outlet occurs at the outside, and a gaslight,
when in use, burns beneath on the inside.

“ The design and action of the valve will be best under-
stood by a reference to the engraving. The proper size is
that of an ordinary brick ; the valve is composed of cast iron. '
In front a movable plate
is fixed by a screw at each
corner {see elevation) , and
is perforated by a number
of elongated apertures. Be-
hind this plate, an oblique

diaphragm is fixed {see section), being cast with the outer
frame. This is perforated like the front plate, in order to
admit of the free passage of air. Behind the front plate
sufficient space is left to inclose between it and the upper
portion of the diaphragm, a sheet of very thin india-rubber {see
section), which forms a hanging valve, and constitutes a
sensitive means of preventing sudden gusts of air in an
opposite direction. The diaphragm is arranged, in the form,
described, to prevent the valve from passing too far out-
wards and becoming fixed. When in position, the front

Fig. 34.

Blood Diseases.

156

plate is placed on a level with the inner surface of the
building, and the situation and movement of the india-
rubber valve perfectly insures the stoppage of cold currents
of air inwards, while the gentle pressure of warm air from
within pushes it backwards and passes outwards.

“ In stormy weather the use of the valve is most apparent.
The wind blowing in one direction closes the valves on that
side of the building effectually, while those on the opposite
side — unacted upon from without — are left free to the action
of warm air within. By these means, we understand, many
places have been successfully ventilated, and in those where
their application was impossible, the same principle, under
modification of form, has succeeded admirably. When our
enthusiastic admirers of pure air in buildings are informed
that the valve has been supplied at the low cost of half-a-
crown, we do not think many will allow their stables and
cow-houses to remain long without such an apparently useful
agent in maintaining the health of animals.”

Legislation in Reference to Farcy and
Glanders.

We must remind our readers that farcy and glanders,
being diseases of a dangerous nature, highly contagious, and
rapidly communicated by inoculation to mankind as well as
other animals of the same species, regulations for limiting
its spread are provided by the Contagious Disease (Animals)
Act, 1869. Owners of horses affected with the diseases in
question are forbidden under a penalty from moving such
animals from the place where they are, employing them in
work, &c., on any public highway ; and it is required that,
as soon as the owner is aware of the existence of farcy
or glanders in his horses, he shall with all diligence inform
a police constable, who will provide the attendance of some

Legislation on Farcy and Glanders, 157

duly-appointed veterinary inspector, under whose advice the
animal will be destroyed, and the premises thoroughly dis-
infected. A penalty will be likewise enforced if the owner
fails to give prompt notice to the police of the existence of
the disease. The following is the construction of the Act
referred to : —

“ If any animal (including a horse) is affected with cattle
plague, pleuro-pneumonia, foot and mouth disease, sheep-
pox, sheep-scab, or glanders, the owner or person in charge
is, as far as is practicable, to keep it separate from animals
not so affected, and is with all practical speed to give notice
to a police constable.

“ It is illegal —

“ To expose such horse or animal in a market or fair,
or other public places where horses or animals are
commonly exposed for sale :

“To expose it for sale in any sale yard, whether public
or private :

“To place it in a lair or other place adjacent thereto,
or connected with, a market or fair, or where horses
or animals are commonly placed before exposure for
sale :

“ To send or cause it to be carried on a railway, or on
a canal, river, or other inland navigation, or on a
coasting vessel :

“To carry, lead, drive it, or cause it to be carried, led,
or driven on a highway or thoroughfare.

“ To keep or place it on any common or uninclosed
land, or in any field or other place insufficiently
fenced, or on the side of a highway.”^

* Section i. art. lo, Handbook of Laws and Regulations relating to Contagious
and Infectious Diseases among Animals. Prepared by the Veterinary Depart-
ment of the Privy Council, 1869.

158

Blood Diseases.

“ All horses or animals that have died, or been slaughtered
in consequence of being affected with glanders, are to be
buried or destroyed under the inspection of the local autho-
rity when so authorised by the Privy Council.

“ The premises in which the horse or animal affected
with glanders has been kept must be cleansed and disin-
fected. Articles which have been in contact with such
horse or animal must be destroyed, but may, under certain
conditions, be moved from such premises for the purpose of
destruction under the licence of an inspector.”*

The sections of the Act relating to glanders, and epito-
mised in the foregoing extracts, are 57, 58, 60, and 61.

Op. cil., Sect. iv.

SECTION III.

SPORADIC OR GENERAL DISEASES.

DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY
ORGANS.

SPORADIC OR GENERAL
DISEASES.

We now arrive at another stage of discussion, in which we
take up a class of diseases — totally distinct from those which
have occupied previous sections — named sporadic, so desig-
nated from the fact that they do not arise from wide-spread
causes, as a rule rarely affecting above one or a few animals
in a place, or whole district, but, on the contrary, are owing
to the operation of local causes — something exerting an in-
fluence upon one or a few animals only. Such diseases are
neither infectious nor contagious ; although in one instance,
shortly to be pointed out, appearances may sometimes prompt
the conclusion, which is not unlikely when rare exceptions
to the common rule take place.

In this and following sections the various diseases to be
described will be grouped in accordance with the class of
organ affected. As they have no specific characters, in
which respect they differ entirely from blood diseases, this
appears to be the simplest form and arrangement. The
symptoms are mainly constituted by a morbid physiology —
a vicarious or excessive action and function of organs, and
various combinations, which do not take place in health ;
they are readily understood by all who are fully acquainted
with the normal or healthy functions, a study of which forms
the essential qualification of the veterinary practitioner.

1 62 sporadic or General Diseases.

The following will be the order of the classes under
which the diseases will be discussed : —

1. Respiratory Organs.

2. Circulatory ditto.

3. Digestive ditto.

4. Urinary ditto.

5. Organs of Generation.

6. The Nervous System.

7. The Organs of Vision.

8. Organs of Locomotion.

9. Skin and its Appendages,

10. Parasitic Diseases.

11. Local Injuries.

DISEASES OF RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
Catarrh — Cold — Coryza.

Nature. — Catarrh consists of an inflammation of the
lining membrane of the nostrils and sinuses of the head
{see Plate I.). By unmitigated exposure to the prevailing
causes it may, and does frequently, extend to the eyes,
throat, and air-passages.

Causes. — Sudden alternations of temperature ; defective
ventilation of stables ; exposure to wet and cold ; occupation
of stables recently whitewashed, being damp ; excessive use
of saline and purgative medicines. A want of properly
nourishing food, and the state of system at the time of pro-
viding the new coat of hair, are strong predisposing causes.,

Symptoms. — Simple catarrh is characterised by first
redness of the mucous membranes of the nose and eyes,
quickly followed by a thin, transparent watery discharge,
which soon becomes opaque, turbid, thick, of a creamy
colour, and eventually profuse. Symptomatic fever is asso-

Catarrh — Cold — Coryza.

163

dated with thes.e signs in proportion to the severity of the
attack ; dulness and debility are likewise combined. These
signs are generally preceded by a shivering fit, or rigors of
greater or less intensity ; but apart from complications, it
is usually slight, and as such attracts no attention.

Treatment. — This is a simple matter if promptly insti-
tuted. Simple laxative food, as bran mashes or linseed, hay
or green forage, are necessary. The animal should be placed
in a cool, well-ventilated box, and the body clothed in cold
weather. If the animal is detected in the shivering stage,
give at once the following : —

Recipe No. 41.

Take of nitrous ether 2 fl. oz.

Tincture of ginger ^ „

Water 8 „

Mix. ,

Or the following : — '

Recipe No. 42.

Take of aromatic spirits of ammonia i fl. oz.

Tincture of cardamoms i „

Mix with half a pint of cold water.

When the membranes are congested and dry, the fore-
going must be omitted. Inhalations of steam will now be
found serviceable ; a simple plan, and one most commonly
adopted, is that of the nose-bag, as shown in Fig. 26, and
referred to under “ Strangles,” at page i 3 i. Another method
consists of holding a pail of hot water beneath the nose, and
distributing the vapour by agitating with a bundle of twigs
or wisp of hay. These operations have the object of pro-
moting discharge from the mucous membrane, for the relief
of distended vessels. The following ball may be given : —
Recipe No. 43.

Take of nitrate of potash 4 drs.

Tincture of aconite 5 drops.

Common mass Sufficient.

Mix.

11—2

164 sporadic or General Diseases.

If the animal is still taking food, the following powder
may be given in it, taking the place of the ball : —

Recipe No. 44.

Take of nitrate of potash, powdered ... 4 drs.

Ground locust beans ) r ,

. , j ( of each i oz.

„ coriander seeds )

Mix, and incorporate with food made slightly damp with
water, or linseed-tea, &c.

Continue the food as recommended, and give the powder
again the second and third day, if required by urgency of
symptoms ; but if debility ensues, substitute the draught
No. 26 or 27. Clothe comfortably, and use friction to the
skin, bandages to the legs, and put a hood and neckcloth
on. On no account use purgative medicines ; if the bowels
are constipated, throw up enemas, allow roots, linseed, green
forage, &c., ad libitum^ or administer the draught here
given : —

Recipe No. 45.

Take of linseed oil 8, 10, or 12 fl. oz.

Nitrous ether i „

Mix.

As soon as the symptoms of fever abate, a little gentian
may be added to the nitre in the following doses : —

Recipe No. 46.

Take of nitrate of potash, powdered 2 drs.

Ground gentian 4 „

Mix ; to be given daily in the food for two or three
days ; if debility comes on at this stage, substitute iron for
the gentian, or give it in addition in two dram doses. Follow
with good food, gentle exercise ; gradually remove cloth-
ing and bandages, and bring the animal quietly and easily
into work.

Laryngitis; Laryngo-Pharyngitis ; Angina;

Sore Throat.

Nature. — An acute inflammation of the lining membrane
of the larynx, gradually extending to both muscles and tissues
surrounding it, sometimes including the pharynx.

Symptoms. — The earliest signs are loss of appetite, a
hard, dry, and frequent cough, thirst, a difficulty in swallow-
ing, solids are usually rejected or are expelled into the
nares, and fluids wholly return by the nostrils {see Fig. 24) ;
the throat is tender under pressure, and external swelling is
frequently visible, involving the whole of the parotid gland
upwards to the ear ; mucous membranes are red, pulse fre-
quent, breathing quick and not uncommonly difficult from
the first. Symptomatic fever runs high in proportion to the
^ amount of effusion within the muscles, and swelling of the
membranes. The cough becomes less hard and frequent as
the swelling advances, and the inspiration is performed with
difficulty, often producing a loud, prolonged, harsh sound,
followed by a short, rapid expiration. A discharge, at first
thin and clear, afterwards purulent, flows from the nostrils,
and when the jaws are separated a viscid saliva flows, having
accumulated largely at the back of the mouth.

Laryngitis sometimes terminates in bronchitis or pneu-
monia, chronic cough, and roaring.

Causes. — The same as detailed under catarrh. Young
horses are often seized, when first put to work, especially if
kept in heated stables, having too little ventilation. High
feeding under these circumstances creates a greater degree
of susceptibility. Horses coming from dealers’ stables are
common subjects of the disease.

Treatment. — Some practitioners put nitre in the animal’s
drinking-water. We, however, consider it an unsafe and
uncertain method, as when the power of swallowing is so

1 66 Sporadic or General Diseases,

difficult, the water is refused, and consequently no medicine
is taken ; and when we find the pail empty, it is a diffi-
cult matter to learn correctly whether the water has been
drunk or not. We prefer an electuary of the following
composition : —

Recipe No. 47.

Take of nitrate of potash 4 oz.

Camphor i „

Extract of belladonna 4 drs.

Reduce the potash and camphor separately to powder ;
mix, then add the belladonna, rubbing until it disappears
among the powders. Add four ounces of linseed meal,
and make up into a soft mass with treacle, a dessert-
spoonful of which is to be placed on the tongue five or six
times a day.

If the bowels are constipated, throw up enemas fre-
quently, and let the first food that he takes be composed ot
bran and boiled or steeped linseed. Balls must not be
given, nor any attempt made to hold up the head to force
gruel or fluid medicines over the throat.

As soon as the acute symptoms subside, the following
change in the electuary may be made : —

Recipe No. 48.

Take of common alum 4 oz.

Tannic acid 2 drs.

Ground gentian 4 oz.

Mix, and add treacle to make up to the required consis-
tence, and use as directed for No. 47.

The liquid blisters. No. 9 or 10, may be used to the out-
side of the throat ; some practitioners advocate fomenta-
tions used for a long time. Poultices are also recommended.
When the swelling and effusion are excessive, the breathing
passage is more or less closed, and respiration is difficult,
often threatening suffocation ; in such cases, no delay should
take place in affording relief by opening the windpipe. (See

Congestion of the Lungs. 167

Tracheotomy.) With the restoration of normal respiration
and circulation, decrease of fever, &c., the treatment must be
adopted which will promote the return of appetite and
strength, as already given under Catarrh.

Congestion of the Lungs; Pulmonary Apoplexy;

Mecha7iical Engorgement.

Nature. — Stasis or settling of the blood within the lungs,
originating first in an irregularity of the flow or circulation,
ultimately ending in engorgement.

Causes. — Reckless driving and riding, particularly if pro-
longed ; very common among horses “ not in condition”
for the road, field, or course, and arises also in all kinds and
breeds of horses as a result of continued irritation which
induces high symptomatic fever.

Syinpioms. — These are indicative of intense agony and
constitutional disturbance. The animal exhibits a great
want of power to breathe properly by standing with the
head held low (Fig. 35), legs wide apart, nose out, nostrils

Fig. 35. — Congestion of the Lungs.

dilated, eyes bold and prominent, panting, heaving at the
flanks, with general uneasiness ; the pulse cannot be felt at

1 68 Sporadic or General Diseases.

the jaw, and therefore we search for it in the inside of the
arm at the brachial artery (Fig. 36), where it is found to be

a. The axillary. _ i. Branches to the flexor brachii.

b. The humeral thoracic. j. The spiral.

c. The internal thoracic. k. The ulnars.

d. The dorsalis scapulae. I, The radial or brachial.

e. The subscapularis. m. The radial medullary.

f. The external thoracic. n. The small metacarpal.

g. The humeral. o. The large metacarpal.

h. Branches to the triceps extensor

brachii.

small, weak, and compressible, numbering 80, 90, or 100
beats, and the sounds of the heart’s action are audible as a
violent or tumultuous beating. Discharges of blood appear

Congestion of the Lungs.

169

in some cases at the nostrils, due to the rupture of minute
vessels in the air-cells. Pain is known by the animal
grunting and being restless, partial sweats, &c. The legs
and ears are cold, and the mouth is dry, hot, and fcetid.
Bloodletting is unsatisfactory, as only a very imperfect flow
can be obtained, the blood being black, and, it is said, it
resembles tar, having no power of coagulation. Pulmonary
congestion not unfrequently proves fatal in a few hours,
when due to excessive or hard running in the hunting-field.
It rarely merges into such inflammatory diseases as bron-
chitis or inflammation of the lungs, the powers of life
being too prostrate, death arising from interference with the
functions of the nervous centres from the non-aeration of
the blood.

Post-mortem Appearances. — The whole ramifications of the
pulmonary vessels are engorged with blood, and in many
parts ruptured, by which the contents are distributed
throughout the substance of the lungs. In this condition
the organs resemble in appearance the natural structure
of the spleen ; hence the term “ splenification,” commonly
used to denote the state in contradistinction to “hepatisa-
tion,” which we shall refer to hereafter. The exact nature
will be at once apparent if we divide the lungs across. The
colour is that of a very dark purple, and the open vessels
permit the flow of blood from within, which is very dark or
black, and having the consistence of thin tar ; sometimes
there is also an admixture of clot or coagula, and through-
out the substance of the lungs there are dark-looking or
black patches. These mark the places where rupture of the
vessels has taken place, followed by extravasation of the
blood material. Notwithstanding this state, in which the
lungs are heavier than in health, they will usually float
when put into water, a circumstance owing probably to the
large admixture of frothy serum, and forming a good test of

lyo

Sporadic or General Diseases.

distinction from the state of the hepatisation of pneumonia.
Splenification is the usual terminal condition of pulmonary-
congestion, a disease of a few hours only ; while hepatisation
is the corresponding one of pneumonia, telling of disease
which may have happened months back. The fact is useful
in a legal point of view. The heart on the right side, both
auricle and ventricle, is filled with black blood, and the
left side also contains a portion ; and the large pulmonary
veins are fully charged also, the blood being of the same
kind as already noticed.

We must caution the reader against the risk of con-
founding a very common condition of the lungs after death
Avith that we have been considering. Owing to the gravi-
tation of blood, as. the dead body lies on one side, one of
the lungs — that which is lowest, of course — becomes charged
with blood, while the upper one is brighter-looking, and
considerably lighter. This, known as hypostatic congestion,
differs essentially from pulmonary congestion, there being
but one organ affected, and a total absence of extravasation
and engorgement of the heart and vessels ; besides which,
the special manifestation of other diseases will be present to
add additional confirmation.

Testing the Lungs. — During life it is possible to obtain
a very correct state of the lungs by two useful methods
— viz., auscultation and percussion. The first consists of
applying the ear directly to the sides of the chest, or inter-
posing an instrument named a stethoscope. In either way
the medical practitioner detects a peculiar rattling sound
called a crepitus, not unlike that produced by crumpling
tissue paper in the hands or rubbing hair between the
fingers near the ear. The position of the sounds indicates
the seat of disease. By percussion, we mean rapping with
the knuckles or a suitable instrument the sides of the chest,
when the absence of a hollow sound — dulness and deadness

Congestion of the Lungs. 1 7 1

being in place of it — declares the extent to which the lungs
are affected.

Treatment. — In the majority of cases no help is at hand
when the animal first shows signs of this disease, and he may
even have to travel some distance to a farm or stable ; thus
the early stages are past before the veterinarian can be
summoned, when different treatment will be required. Some
practitioners bleed when the attack first commences, and
afterwards administer a strong stimulant, such as nitrous
or sulphuric ether, aromatic spirits of ammonia, chloroform,
&c., or the forms already given in recipes No. 26, 31, 37,
and 41. In the absence of any of these, a tumbler of
brandy, whisky, or gin, with moderately warm water, may
suffice to generalise the flow of blood.

The body should now be actively but carefully wisped
over, legs rubbed, and clothing and bandages put on,
providing also that plenty of fresh air is allowed, and all cold
draughts avoided. In order to give an impetus to the circu-
lation, the legs may be first rubbed with some stimulating
fluid, the sides of the chest likewise ; but we do not see the
necessity to torment by the use of blisters. Such an appli-
cation as the following : —

Recipe No. 49.

Take of liquor ammonia 2 fl. oz.

Tincture of arnica 2 „

Water i pint.

Mix.

As soon as the pulse shows signs of fulness and greater
strength, either of the following may be given twice or thrice
in the day : —

Recipe No. 50.

Take of solution of acetate of ammonia 2 fl. oz.

Nitrous ether i

Mix with water, and administer from the bottle.

172 sporadic or General Diseases.

Recipe No. 51.

Take of nitrate of potash, powdered 4 drs.

Tincture of cardamoms i fl. oz.

Water 10 „

Mix the potash and water, and when a clear solution is
formed add the tincture, and give from the bottle twice or
thrice in twenty-four hours.

There is a possibility that bronchitis or pneumonia may
follow pulmonary congestion, therefore some amount of
care and discrimination is needed, particularly if the usual
signs have been rapidly dispersed ; it will be necessary
under these circumstances to watch the pulse and tempera-
ture while the above treatment is carried out, that at any
moment the stimulants may be withdrawn and necessary
substitutions or additions be made. With the return of
strength and appetite, observe the usual cautions as to
food, &c., which have been already given.

Bronchitis.

Nature and Causes. — Inflammation of the bronchial or
smaller air-tubes, the terminal twigs of the windpipe, within
the lungs. Like catarrh and laryngitis, this disease some-
times appears as an enzootic, attacking animals throughout
a district. The causes are thus wide-spread, due no doubt
to an unusual cold and prevailing high wind, with wet, in
exposed situations. Winter and spring are the more
common seasons for its appearance generally, when we look
for the cause in alternations of extreme temperature at
periods when the system is more susceptible to such
influences. Heated stables, accumulations of foul air, com-
bined with cold and wet out of doots, are among the
common causes. It also results as a sequel to catarrh,
laryngitis, and pulmonary congestion.

Symptoms. — Signs of catarrh and laryngitis are not un-

Bronchitis.

commonly present from the first, and with those of fever,
short, hacking, frequent, and painful cough, disturbed
respiration, we are led to examine the respiratory organs.
The pulse is full, hard, and frequent, breathing quicker than
usual, mucous membranes inflamed, ears and legs cold, and
the animal stands fixed, the spine being rigid in order to
oppose movement ; great thirst is present, but he will not
take food, and is dull and listless (Fig. 37). The bowels are

i Fig. 37. — Bronchitis

! constipated, but diarrhoea may readily be established, and is
sometimes present from the first ; the urine is deficient as
the disease proceeds.

The process of respiration requires earnest attention. It
is accelerated, numbering 30 or 50 per minute ; the ex-
j pirations are short and easy, but the inspirations are
I prolonged, difficult, and painful, while an audible sound or
“roar” may be heard during its performance, which is due to
the reduced calibre of the air-tubes, as well as rigidity of
their walls, the result of inflammation of the mucous lining
j and submucous tissufes. The roar or abnormal inspiratory
I sound is heard to greatest advantage if the ear is applied to

I the windpipe at the bottom of the neck, and at the part

where it enters the chest. Here it will be discovered that

174

Sporadic or General Diseases.

the accumulation of viscid mucus from and on the surface of
the lining membranes has much to do with the reduction
in the size of the air-tubes, as well as forming obstructions
to the passage of air, as proved by the diminution of the
roar or rhonchus after a fit of coughing. The cough of the
first stages throws up a thin watery and frothy fluid, but as
the disease advances it becomes viscid, opaque, and pro-
gressively purulent, having large solid masses of mucus, &c.,
dislodged from some part where it has been causing no little
irritation and difficulty in respiration. In proportion as the
discharge is poured out, relief is afforded, and it is expelled
more readily as the cough becomes stronger, and is less
frequent than at first. Occasionally the disease assumes a
chronic form, and the muco purulent discharge, drawn in by
forcible inspirations,' forms accretions in certain parts, giving
rise to coliapse of the cells, loss of function, and probably
in the end abscess of the lungs. Another termination, and
which is more common, is that of thickening of the membrane
of the cells and tubes with eventual or partial obliteration,
accompanied with emphysema, giving rise to a state of
difficult breathing known as “ thick wind.” Bronchitis also
occasionally terminates in death, which is due to a want
of blood purification, and suffocation — apnoea. Bronchitis

has a variable period of duration. The crisis usually is
reached on the third or fourth day, and convalescence is
established on the eighth or ninth, but chronic forms continue
some weeks.

Treatment. — It is not advisable to bleed in this affection,
as the tendency to prostration is already too apparent.
Great good may result from the use of inhalations of steam
impregnated with camphor or even common turpentine. In
the way of medicine, let the following draught be given
during the stage of acute fever : —

Pneumonia.

175

Recipe No. 52.

Take of solution of acetate of ammonia 2 fl. oz.

Chlorofoim i fl. dr.

Tincture of aconite 10 drops.

Mix, and administer in half a pint of cold water every
eight hours, until the pulse is affected and respiration
subdued. In all probability three doses may be sufficient,
when the aconite may be withdrawn, the remainder being
continued one or two days, or the forms No. 49 and 50 may
be substituted. If the cough proves troublesome the sub-
joined form of draught may be used : —

Recipe No. 53.

Take of solution of acetate of ammonia 2 fl. oz.

Chloroform i fl. dr.

Tincture of belladonna ^ fl. oz.

Syrup of squills i „

Mix with water, and administer as No. 52. During con-
stipation throw up enemas, and apply a strong liniment to the
front and sides of the chest, or the solution. No. 49, page 171,
but we do not advocate blisters in the common sense of that
term. Allow plenty of fresh air, throwing open doors and
windows, but avoid draughts ; clothe warmly and use friction
to the skin, with bandages to the legs as needed. About
the sixth or eighth day, when all acute signs have passed
away, the pulse and temperature have declined, tonics may
be prescribed as for catarrh, No. 46, page 164, exercise and
work being enforced as progress and other circumstances
allow.

Pneumonia ; Peripneumonia ; Inflammation of the
L ungs.

This disease is common to all our domesticated animals,
and in the horse it occurs more frequently than bronchitis,
especially in the younger and more vigorous animals, and

176 sporadic or General Diseases.

with tendencies to relapse. The causes are the same as
noticed under Catarrh, Laryngitis, Bronchitis, &c.

Symptoms. — In most cases the earliest sign consists of a
shivering fit of more or less intensity, being regulated accord-
ing to the severity of the attack. The body, ears, and ex-
tremities are first cold, but afterwards are hot ; the visible
mucous membranes are red and dry, mouth hot, and an ex-
pression of anxiety is seen in the face ; breathing short and
frequent, the greater action being performed by the walls of
the abdomen, and numbering perhaps 40 in the minute. The
pulse rapidly rises to 60 or 70, and is full, large, and vigorous,
but shortly oppressed. The disease gives rise to a dull, dry,
and harsh cough, and animal temperature is considerably
increased, the thermometer showing a reading of 103° or
even 105° F. The animal is often restless, moving about as
if in search of something ; but as the disease acquires seve-
rity and breathing becomes more difficult, he will maintain a

fixed position, with legs apart, back rigid, and the chest set
to avoid motion as much as possible (Fig. 38). The bowels

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II.

“ THE CONTENTS OF THE THORAX.

the trachea ; B B, the right lung ; C C, the left lung,
both lungs being deprived of their mediastinums ; Dy the
heart ; a, the oesophagus, or gullet ; by the common carotid
artery, dividing into the right and left carotids ; c, the right
vertebral artery ; dy the recurrent nerve of the right side ;
6y the par vagum and sympathetic nerves of the right side,
journeying in company down the neck. The enlargement
perceptible upon the nerves, marks the situation of the
cervical ganglion on the sympathetic ; f fy the anterior lobes
of the right and left lung ; g gy the posterior lobes of the
right and left lung ; //, the small extra lobe of the right lung.
The portion of lung occupies the space between the inferior
mediastinum and the posterior cava ; i i, &c., the first seven
of the costae, or true ribs, divided ; j /, the remaining ribs ;
where the letters are placed would be the posterior lobes of
the lungs ; ky the cartilages of a few of the ribs, and of the
sternum sawn through to expose the contents of the chest ;
ly the ensiform cartilage of the sternum ; niy the skin dis-
sected back ; Uy the coronary artery of the heart which has
been deprived of the outer layer of pericardium.”

Pneumonia.

>77

are constipated, urine highly coloured and in deficient quan-
tity ; skin harsh, dry, and tight on the body.

The aspect of affairs is more accurately discovered by
auscultation. As the ear passes over various parts of the
sides and front of the chest, we detect the absence or in-
crease of respiratory murmur. Sometimes only one lung is
affected, at others both are seized. There is more or less
bronchitis present, and this gives rise to increased sounds in
the normal parts of the lung ; while those that are diseased
give no sound whatever. The breathed air is hotter than in
health, and greater difficulty in respiration occurs as the dis-
ease makes progress ; a distressing, though occasional cough,
produces excitement, from which partial sweating appears,
while the legs are cold, and the pulse becomes small, weak,
and indistinct. Greater suffering from difficult breathing
arises, and consolidation of both lungs is now rapidly going-
on, death putting an end to the sufferings of the animal from
the twelfth to the fourteenth day.

Post-mortem Appearances, — The lungs or portions of them
are involved in a state known as hepatisation, so called from
the liver-like appearance presented. Such parts are charged
with an exudation of lymph with more or less admixture of
blood materials, which gives rise to a dark-red or brown
colour ; they are also circumscribed, the surrounding tissues
being either free, or undergoing transition from disease to a
healthy state. When this disease arises from the accidental
passage of medicine down the windpipe, there may be found
in addition to the signs already named, certain insoluble
matters adhering to the lining membrane. If the medicines
were wholly fluid — i,e.y perfect solutions, then such evidences
will be absent ; but, nevertheless, the resulting signs of bron-
chitic lesions and consolidation of the lungs in their lowest
parts, leaves little doubt as to the cause. As absorption
from the bronchial membrane is very rapid and effectual, we

J78 sporadic or General Diseases.

must not expect to find always the actual presence of the
fluid administered.

Treatment. — We would not counsel the reader to resort to
bleeding, except in the very earliest stages, while the pulse is
full and strong ; then only to abstract a moderate quantity to
relieve the breathing, and not to create debility, which will
appear soon enough. Open the bowels when constipated by
a dose of oil, and continued enemas ; rub the legs and apply
bandages ; stimulate the skin by gentle brushing or wisping,
and clothe immediately with warm but light extra coverings,
giving the animal all the pure, cool air possible, without sub-
jecting him to any unnecessary cold or draughts. Next pre-
pare the draught No. 52, and administer as recommended at
page 175 for bronchitis, the object of which is to reduce the
fever as soon as possible, substituting No. 53 rather than use
the aconite too long. With regard to the use of counter-
irritants, we prefer at least to defer them until the desired
effect has been produced on the circulation by medicine,
when we believe a greater result is achieved. Mustard, or
the blisters (9 and 10) may be used as preferred. Professor
Gamgee recommends the following, much used by Danish
veterinarians : — •

Recipe No. 54.

Croton oil i part.

Sulphuric ether 10 parts.

Spirits of wine 10 „

Mix, and rub well into the skin, and after a full effect has
been produced, the application is to be carefully washed off.
We must also caution the reader against the insertion of
setons and rowels ; we have no faith in them as remedies in
pneumonia, being too slow and tardy in their action, besides
being cruel means, giving rise to an unnecessary amount of
pain, and securing no corresponding good. As the fever
subsides, in all probability the animal will prove to be weak,
and even prostrate, when stimulants will be needed, but they

Abscess or Suppuration of the Lung. 179

must be cautiously administered : nitrous ether will then be
of great service. The treatment from that stage in which
reduction of the pulse and fever has been accomplished, to
the termination of the case, may be followed on the plan as
already laid down for catarrh, laryngitis, and bronchitis, to
which one especial injunction must be added — let the tonics
made use of be of the vegetable kind, avoiding iron
altogether.

Abscess or Suppuration of the Lung.

Horses that recover tardily from protracted attacks of
bronchitis or pneumonia, are liable to the formation of abscess
or suppuration within the substance of the lungs. One or
more portions having undergone the process of inflammation,
and containing the resulting exuded materials, have suffered
such changes in structure that the process of resolution is not
established ; these portions are involved in the condition
termed hepatisation, and contain such elements as are capable
of forming pus, that being the only action the system can
adopt by way of eliminating the residual particles of disease.
All other parts of the lung have become clear and healthy,
their functions being for the most part restored as in health ;
but the veritable spot of grey hepatisation takes on the process
of gradual softening in the centre, and, by enlarging, including
the products of inflammation as it extends, at length forms
a larger or smaller cavity, which is filled with a thick opaque
creamy-looking fluid — pus, and which, by a subsequent pro-
cess of ulceration of lung tissue, a communication is esta-
blished between another abscess or a bronchial tube, when, by
constant coughing, portions of offensively-smelling discharge
are expelled. In some instances, of a rarer occurrence, the
abscess bursts outwardly, and the discharge of pus is poured
into the cavity of the chest, where it collects and gives rise
to great irritation — a state known as empyema.

12—2

i8o Sporadic or General Diseases.

The presence of an abscess within the lung is known by
continual wasting of the body, and anaemia, frequent and
feeble pulse, foetid breath, a constant, moist, rattling and
feeble cough, and discharge of offensive pus, and even por-
tions of lung (Fig. 39). The appetite is capricious, and a

sound called the “cavernous rale!' caused by the air passing
in and out of the abscess during respiration, is heard when
the ear is placed over the ribs near the spot. Such animals
are apt to linger long, and present pitiable conditions ; at
length found dead, hectic fever being established at the con-
clusion of the illness.

Treatment is frequently tedious, and not always successful.
The animal requires fresh air and opportunities for gentle
exercise, good food, prepared by boiling, and alternated with
roots, green forage, &c., as convenient. Linseed cake, and
the oil in small and repeated doses, are very useful ; beef-
tea has been used with great benefit. Sti-mulants and tonics,
both vegetable and mineral, should not be forgotten, as the
draughts No. 27, page iii ; No. 31, p. 120 ; No. 37, page
139 ; or No. 39, page 139. The following will be valuable,

Fig. 39. — Pulmonary Abscess.

Abscess or Suppuration of the Lung, i8i

as combining the properties of a stimulant as well as
mineral tonic.

Recipe No. 55.

Take of nitrous ether i fl. oz.

Tincture of muriate of iron 2 fl. drs.

Water 10 fl. oz.

Mix, and administer with great care three times during
the first and second days ; afterwards only twice. If the
bowels are acted on, the evacuations being black and fluid,
withhold the tincture of iron for several days, and substitute
ground gentian in half or ounce doses. Some practitioners
blister over the affected parts. We have little faith in the
proceeding, only as an additional torment to the suffering
animal.

Fig. 40. — Transverse Section of the Tho7'ax or Chest.

(The dark substance outside represents the flesh or muscles, the white body at the top
is the vertebra.)

A. Azygos vein. L, L Lungs.

R, R. The ribs. H. Heart.

E. Sternum and cartilages of the ribs. P. Pericardium.

P. C. Pleura costalis. F. Fibrous layer of the pericardium.

P. L. Pleura pulmonalis.

1 82 sporadic or General Diseases.

Pleurisy or Pleuritis.

By the term pleurisy we understand the process of in-
flammation going on in the serous membrane termed the
“ pleura,” or covering of the lungs and heart, as well as
lining of the whole of the cavity of the chest. Pleurisy is
observed as an independent affection, and is apt to recur as
a result of rheumatic diseases, when the heart and its ap-
pendages suffer extensively. More generally, however, and
apart from rheumatism, it is associated more or less with
pneumonia, when the compound term, pleuro-pneumonia is
made use of. In such a form it may appear as a sporadic
disease, or from the prevalence of easterly winds, an enzootic
form is recognised, which has already been described at
page 1 1 5. Horses -of a lean or spare habit of body, com-
bining vigour of temperament, are common subjects of
pleurisy. The disease attacks one or both sides of the chest,
but in general both sides are affected.

The Causes are such as produce other diseases of the re-
spiratory organs, particularly alternations of extreme tem-
perature. Pleurisy may follow clipping, and injuries to the
thorax.

Symptoms. — Sympathetic fever is present at the outset,
commencing with rigors of some intensity. The pulse is
smaller than natural, and is also firm and wiry, the beats
being accelerated to fifty or sixty per minute. The coat
stares, and the surface of the body is cold ; and not un-
commonly the animal is restless, pawing and scraping ; and
colicky pains are manifested by lying down and rolling,
succeeded by a rapid and general stiffness and soreness of
the body, movement or pressure, and even fright causing the
animal to groan (Fig. 41). He is now fixed, and declines
to move ; the breathing is abdominal, and the act in ex-
piration, as well as in inspiration, is imperfectly accom-

Pleurisy or Pleuritis. 183

plished, owing to the rigid state in which the ribs and walls
generally of the thorax are held, as denoted by a long line,

Fig. 41. — Pleurisy.

or furrow, existing on the side of the chest, and extending
from the fore limb backwards and upwards to the point of
the hip, and by the elbows being turned outwards ; the in-
spiration is short, catching, and interrupted ; the expiration
easier, freer, and prolonged. Sometimes the muscles of the
side may be seen to quiver, and pressure on the spaces
between the ribs immediately behind the fore-arm, will give
intense pain, causing the sufferer to grunt. The head is
held low, and stretched, or “ poked” forward ; the ears
droop, and the eyes are half closed, while anxiety is de-
picted on the countenance. The animal sneezes or coughs,
which causes much disturbance, and each paroxysm is
evidently dreaded by him ; the flanks are hollow and tucked
up ; the appetite is lost ; mouth hot : bowels costive ;
urinary secretion restrained ; and the ears, nose, and ex-
tremities are cold. When the ribs are struck, the sounds
produced are resonant and clear, denoting a healthy state
of the lungs ; but when the ear is applied, it is found such

184 sporadic or General Diseases

is not the case with the pleura that covers them. The
surfaces which, in health, glide smoothly over each other,
emitting no sound whatever, now are thickened, opaque,
painful, and rough, and two of these, in close apposition,
move uneasily and irregularly, giving rise to a grating or
friction sound not unlike that produced in the bending of
thick leather. The lungs are further proved to be not in-
cluded in the mischief by the respiratory murmur which is
heard over all their surface.

Pleurisy terminates in resolution, or effusion — hydro-
thorax.

Resolution. — -By this term we denote a gradual decline of
all signs of the disease, which takes place on or about the
fourth or fifth day, and a general but progressive resumption
of the whole of the functions is contemporaneous with it.

Effusion or Hydrothorax. — Horses dying from pleurisy of
the later stages exhibit the condition known under this
name. As a result of the inflamed condition of large
surfaces, effusion of serum within the cavity of the chest is
always to be expected more or less ; in one case it is slight,
or poured out in such quantities that it may be readily
absorbed, and the case goes on to resolution, but in another
instance the effusion is abundant, increasing beyond the
power of the absorbents to take it up, and the result is that
the chest is filled, pressure on the lungs follows, and death
ensues from suffocation or internal drowning.

When effusion takes place, there is relief given, and the
major part of the symptoms abate, giving place to others
as the quantity of fluid increases. Re.spiration now be-
comes longer and deeper, the abdomen drops, swelling of
the legs disappears, the pulse is soft and more distinct, but
continues frequent, with variab’ ‘ * ’ ; of infrequency,

and notwithstanding there is ar improvement of

symptoms, with little or no pair derable degree of

Pleurisy or Phuritis.

7 O

anxiety still is exhibited by the face of the animal. After
a few hours the breathing is laboured, muscular quiverings
and twitchings occur, and a flapping of the nostrils accom-
panies the respiratory acts. Sometimes the legs commence
again to swell, and dropsical conditions are seen in front of
the chest, extending backwards between the fore-legs along
the abdomen to the sheath or mammary gland, both of which’
are implicated in the general swelling. The breathing is
short and laboured, especially during inspiration, and on
auscultation the respiratory murmur cannot be detected in
the lower regions; percussion gives a dull sound as high as
the fluid has accumulated, and above this both methods
prove the resonant and free state of the lungs. Weakness
and distress follows, the animal stands propping, the legs
being wide apart, head low, or resting on some object, with
neck outstretched, nostrils flapping, eyes staring, and heaving

respiration. The pulse is more frequent, small, irregular,
fluttering, and finally indistinct or imperceptible ; the ears,
nose and legs are cold, rattling sounds are heard in respira-

i86 Sporadic or General Diseases.

tion, the animal totters, weakness rapidly increases, and , at
length, in periods varying from one to several weeks, he falls,
to rise no more.

Tj'eatincnt of Pleurisy. — In all cases of true pleurisy, or
those in which no actual pneumonia is present, we may
accomplish much in the first stages by the administration of
a purgative draught, constituted as here directed : —

Recipe No. 56.

Take of solution of Barbadoes aloes • 8 fl. oz.

Tincture of aconite 15 drops.

Mix, and after it has been given throw up enemas. Let
the legs be hand-rubbed and covered with bandages, the
body gently wisped and clothed, allow plenty of cold water
to allay thirst, and after making the animal comfortable,
leave him for a time.

In five or six hours the state of the pulse must be taken,
and if it is not rnuch reduced give the draught No. 13,
page 70, or the ball No. 14, page 71, which should be
continued every four hours. When four has been given, a
marked change for the better is usually apparent, and the
animal progresses towards recovery, when the treatment
must be that suitable to the stages leading to convalescence
as already repeated.

Ti'eatment of Hydrothorax.— Th.Q great principle of treat-
ment here is the use of diuretics and laxatives, in order to
carry off the effused fluid by the various organs ; in these
cases diuretics are particularly valuable. For this purpose
it is good practice to alternate the remedies rather than give
too much or too frequent doses of one kind. The draught
No. 51, page 172, may be given every six or eight hours
during the first day, and substituted on the second by the
draught No. 50, page 171. The following preparations will
also prove of great service, given singly or alternated with
each other : —

Pleurisy or Pleuritis.

187

Recipe No. 57.

Take of nitrate of potash -g oz.

Camphor, powdered 2 drs.

Nitrous ether 2 fl. oz.

Water i pint.

Dissolve the camphor in the nitrous ether, and the potash
in the water, then mix and give as directed.

Recipe No. 58.

Take of digitalis g dr.

Nitrate of potash powdered g oz.

Linseed meal 2 drs.

Common turpentine sufficient.

Let the first, second, and third ingredients be carefully
triturated, then add the turpentine to make up a ball. This
dose to be given every four hours.

Recipe No. 59.

Take of powdered cantharides 20 grs.

„ digitalis i dr.

Linseed meal i „

Soft soap sufficient.

Make into a ball, and give every eight hours until three
have been used.

Great attention must be paid towards securing every
comfort for the animal by way of clothing, bandages, fresh
air, small quantities of suitably prepared food, roots, &c.,
and when the kidneys are caused to act as desired by one or
more of the above remedies, a change may be necessary.
Doubtless much weakness will be present ; we can then
resort to tonics as directed in the succeeding prescription : —

Recipe No. 60.

Take of sulphate of iron powdered 2 drs.

Common alum 2 „

Ground gentian 2 „

Treacle sufficient.

Make into a ball, and give one every eight hours during two
days, afterwards, as the case progresses, one every 12 hours.

1 88 Sporadic or General Diseases.

Besides the administration of remedies by which the
removal of the accumulated fluid may be effected, an

skin over the ribs is

Y\G. Method of drawing the Skin into Hrawn info folrI<?
folds prior to making the primary incision. ^ ’

shown in the annexed

figure (Fig. 43) ; the space between the eighth and ninth

rib is then selected, and a small vertical incision is made,

either by plunging a lancet through the skin only, or by

means of a common scalpel or dissecting knife, near to the

front border of the ninth rib. A small trocar and canula, as

the muscle ; and immediately the
Fig. — The Trocar and its . , , , , . , , ,,

pushed inwards, while the pointed stilette is being withdrawn.
The fluid then flows at once from the tube* and a small
whalebone probe must be in readiness to remove small plugs
of lymph which pass into the tube and obstruct the flow.

As the removal of fluid produces no little effect upon the
animal, stimulants as the ethers, ammonia, &c., are required,
followed by a generous diet, with mineral and vegetable
tonics.

operation is sometimes
resorted to, known as
paracentesis thoracis^ or
tapping the chest. It
is performed in the fol-
lowing manner : The

shown in the engraving (Fig. 44),
is then carefully passed through

^outer case, the Canula. P^int has entered the chest, the
outer case, or canula, is gently

Emphysema of the Lungs.

Although we regard this condition more in the light of a
symptom of disease than as a distinct affection, it, never-
theless, merits a place in this section as an important form

Emphysema of the Ltmgs. 189

of derangement of the lungs. In adopting this arrange-
ment, we shall merely refer to it by name in other parts of
the work.

Nature. — A chronic disease of the lungs, in which there
are dilatations of the air-cells, and probably also artificial
cells or cavities formed within the connective tissue, and
beneath the investing membrane — the pleura, containing
gases, which interfere greatly with the functions of the
organs. Thus there are two forms, the vesicular and inter-
lobular. The vesicular is that in which the air cells are
concerned. Some are merely dilated, and others are rup-
tured, two or more coalescing to form other cavities of
larger dimensions. The second or interlobular form is
probably due also to the rupture of the cells, and, from the
constant motion of the lungs, air is passed into the substance,
causing the meshes of the tissue to separate and form cavi-
ties here and there. By a succession of such ruptured air-cells
we have resulting a number of interlobular cavities always
containing air, and, as the elasticity and contractility of the
organs are thus destroyed — for the cavities thus formed have

Fig. 45. — Section of the Lungs.,

Showing the enlarged or ruptured air-cells, and large cavities formed by coalescence with each
other, as well as the appearance caused by an elevation of the pleura or investing membrane.

rigid, unyielding walls — they are never emptied, but by slow
absorption their contents are lessened ; while the natural
action of the lungs under certain forms of obstruction tend

1 90 Sporadic or General Diseases.

to force in more air, and produce the formation of other
cavities. The appearances of emphysematous states of the
lungs are shown in Fig. 45.

Causes. — Emphysema results from bronchitis, and remote
causes exist in the various forms of questionable feeding and
work. In the horse it is a sign of “broken wind.” From
repeated attacks of bronchitis there arises a degeneration of
the tissues previously diseased, doubtless due to obliteration
of the nutrient vessels ; in addition, when obstructions to
free respiration take place, and under severe efforts to distend
the lungs, the weakest parts give way, as shown by rupture.
Tightly-fitting harness or saddle girths and severe exertion,
especially when the stomach is too full, are able causes
of emphysema. Besides these there may be also constitu-
tional tendencies resident in some nervous defect, as well
as imperfect condition of organs, and when such are pre-
sent the disease will originate imperceptibly, and progress
moderately even under the most favourable and unexcep-
tionable kinds of management. Further remarks will be
continued under the head of asthma.

Asthma — Broken Wind.

Like the preceding affection, asthma is to be regarded
more correctly as a symptom of disease, and for similar
reasons we have included it in the class which refers to the
organs mainly implicated.

Nature. — Asthma is not an inflammatory disease, but
essentially a chronic affection, indicated by peculiar and diffi-
cult breathing and remarkable cough, all of which are often
painfully aggravated by errors of diet and work.

Causes.- — From numerous observations made upon animals
for the purpose of investigating the troublesome malady, it
is now understood that the causes are generally of a plural

Asthma — Broken Wind.

191

character. In those instances where it appears to have
arisen spontaneously, as already referred to, there are some
defects of the digestive system with impairment of the func-
tion of the pneumogastric nerve ; probably disease also of
the diaphragmatic nerve arises. These naturally lead to a
deficient power and imperfect function in their respective
organs, when they are more readily deranged and injured
under severe strain, as produced by rapid work, hard gallops,
&c., when the stomach is replete with food.

In other cases we may trace the cause to repeated attacks
of bronchitis, pneumonia, &c., or continuations of a low form
of inflammation of the lesser bronchial tubes and air cells ;
enlargement of the stomach and digestive organs generally,
as arising from indigestion and constant over-feeding, or
consumption of large quantities of inferior kinds of food —
bulimia, by which undue pressure is always exerted on the
lungs, limiting their expansion ; hepatisation and induration
of portions of one or both lungs. These causes act partially
in a mechanical manner, for whatever limits the action of
the lungs at the same time raises the liability to injury of
some portions of them during forcible respiration ; the sus-
ceptibility also towards asthma is efficiently increased by
disease, which limits the breathing spaces, and engenders a
degeneration of tissue from a want of due nourishment, and
by thickening of membranes by interstitial deposition, the
result of previous inflammation. We must not omit to
direct the attention of the reader to the fact also, that there
are minute muscles surrounding the smaller bronchial tubes,
which are designed to produce a proper expulsion of air
from the lungs during expiration ; they may be regarded as
supplemental agents to the ordinary muscles of respiration,
and in asthma they are materially affected. From a minute
consideration of the pathology of asthma, it appears to be
now generally decided that the bronchial muscles are affected

sporadic or General Diseases.

192

in two distinct ways — viz., in the more recent stages they are
subject to spasm, due to irritation of the vagus nerve, arising
from dyspepsia, &c. ; and, in the later stages, to paralysis,
or inability of action. Peculiarity of formation has somewhat
to do with the origin of asthma. It has long been known
that horses having round, shallow chests possess a greater
aptitude for laying on of flesh and becoming fat, than given
to acts of swift progression, and are common subjects of i
broken wind. The explanation of the question is simply this :
there is a deficiency of chest space, and under severe exer- ‘
tions the lungs suffer from an inability to expand — air is
forcibly drawn in, and, as a result of the limits thus placed
upon the lungs, the air cells are injured. In addition, we
must not forget that in such animals the irritation from
dyspepsia is present, often in a great degree.

Post-mortem Appearances. — Horses rarely die from asthma.
Death is usually due to accident or other diseases for
which asthma in all probability has created a susceptibility.

In the most recent cases no morbid lesion of structure can j
be recognised by the unaided eye ; in those more advanced
an enlargement of the stomach is a common sign, and it is ‘
usually impacted. In confirmed cases emphysema of the
lungs is more or less marked with one or other of the fol- :
lowing — Hepatisation and hardening of one or both lungs,
thickening of the mucous lining of the bronchial tubes, dila-
tation of the air cells with atrophy, anaemia, and degenera-
tion, as well as rupture of their walls, general anaemia of
the lung tissue, and thickening — hypertrophy, of the riglit
side of the heart. Sometimes the heart is considerably
altered in structure throughout.

Symptoms. — Respiration is wholly altered. The lungs
are inflated with tolerable ease, but the act of expiration is
performed in two stages or efforts, and, when these are
executed, the relaxation of muscles usually called into plav 1

Asthma — Broken Wind.

193

is accomplished suddenly, as with a Jerk, the flanks exhibit-
ing this phenomena very remarkably. There is also present
a cough, which is equally peculiar. It is weak, aspiratory,
and prolonged, being more like a grunt, modified by the
open mouth and fauces, &c. There is also another very
niarked sign of asthma, the almost entire absence of the
respiratory murmur, or it is w’eakened to such an extent
that it cannot be heard unless the animal is put through
some exercise previously ; but wheezing or bubbling sounds
may be detected in various parts of the chest proportionate
with the amount of emphysema present. In percussion we
find the chest fuller and rounder (Fig. 46) than natural, and

Fig. 46. — Asthma or Broken Wind.

the sounds emitted are resonant, loud, and hollow. The
movements of the ribs are very slight, but those of the
abdominal walls are great and spasmodic, especially during
the paroxysms. The animal is worse after feeding and
^ 'hen at work, but as the stomach is relieved comparative

194 Sporadic or General Diseases.

ease is obtained until the animal feeds again. Tympany of
the stomach and bowels is common, arising from a weak
and impaired digestion, in which much flatus is discharged
by the anus, and greatly to the annoyance of all who sit
behind the sufferer when being driven. A general state of
harshness of the coat is apparent, said to be unthrifty, the
belly is pendulous, and disorder and want of condition and
aptitude for work are evident almost to those least knowing
in horse matters.

Treatment. — The most scrupulous attention to diet should
be given, without which no good can possibly be gained
from any kind of treatment. Let the quantity of food be
regulated carefully, and limit the use to that of the best ;
feed frequently, and by small quantities ; take away the
rack, and supply the hay as cut into chaff ; put a muzzle
(Fig. 47) upon all greedy feeders, especially those which con-

Fig. 47. — The Greedy Feeder muzzled.

sume their bedding ; avoid letting horses stand long in the
stables without exercise, and when they are taken out after
feeding drive carefully. Promote regular action of the bowels
by means of linseed or linseed oil in the food, bran, and bran
mashes, with occasional purgatives. The cough may be
greatly relieved, and with chances of greater success in the
more recent cases, by the use of calmative medicines. Pro-
fessor Dicks’s famous “ broken-wind balls” were composed of

Asthma — Broken Wind.

195

digitalis, opium, camphor, and calomel, which, however, have
been improved, we have thought, by omitting the calomel
entirely. A more favourite compound, and one which we
have used largely with uniform success, is the following : —

Recipe No. 61.

Take of carbonate of ammonia 2 drs.

Powdered squills 2 „

Extract of belladonna „

Oxymel squills sufficient.

Powder the ammonia and triturate together the re-
mainder, adding the oxymel as required, to make up a
mass for a bolus. Let this quantity be given morning and
night. Care must be exercised in order to make the animal
swallow the bolus, for if he succeeds in getting it between
his teeth the mouth will be blistered severely, causing pro-
fuse ropy salivation, swollen tongue, and loss of appetite.
When we have had occasion to leave such preparations in
the hands of grooms and horsekeepers who were not experts
in giving a ball, we also left a bottle containing the follow-
ing wash or lotion for the mouth, to be used in case of such
an accident as we have alluded to, by which the suffering
of the animal is almost at once set at rest, and appetite
resumed : —

Recipe No. 62.

Take of solution of chloralum 2 fl. oz.

Tincture of myrrh i ,,

» opium I „

Water i pint.

Mix the chloralum and water together, then add the
remainder. A few tablespoonfuls to be poured into the
mouth, the head being held up for a short time.

In addition to the above medicines, nux vomica, strychnia,
arsenic, vegetable and mineral tonics are used by various
practitioners with variable success.

Roguish horse dealers practise various means for the de-

13—2

196 sporadic or General Diseases.

ception of purchasers. By experience they have learned
that an empty stomach is conducive to easy breathing, and
they not only keep the animal without food, often for long
periods when sales are not brisk, but cause him to swallow
shot, lard, opium, gunpowder, &c., in order to produce an extra
quieting effect. To the practised veterinarian these frauds
are well known, and the disease is not thereby hidden. In-
tending purchasers would always do well to secure the
services of a well-known veterinarian, if they seek to avoid
being victimised with animals rendered worthless by con-
firmed asthma, more especially when they are brought into
contact with strangers. The neglect of this precaution has
cost thousands of pounds.

Roaring, Whistling, Grunting, &c.

We have now to' notice several conditions, temporary, or
permanent, and for the most part chronic in their nature,
usually symptomatic, and dependent upon present or pre-
existing disease of one or other of the respiratory organs.
The first which will claim our attention are the *abnormal
sounds developed under various circumstances, and which
destroy the utility, and impair the value of the animal in
which they are produced.

Roaring. — Whatever diminishes, and, at the same time,
deforms the opening in the larynx, gives rise to a loud bay-
ing kind of sound during inspiration, and is known among
horsemen as “ roaring.” In the acute form of laryngitis it is
often (Plate IX.) present, consequent upon the pressure due
to inflammatory swelling in the mucous membrane and sub-
jacent tissues. This is, of course, temporary, and gradually
declines with the disease, as it was generated by it. The
chronic form is permanent, slight, or altogether absent during
comparative rest, but loud, severe, and distressing when

F IG. 48. — Muscular Pa-
ralysis of Larynx^
causing roaring.

^ Roaring, Whistling, Grunting, &c, 197

developed from fright and in accelerated
respiration. The causes are various ;
dyspepsia, acting through the nervous
system, and pulmonary diseases, acting
through the same influence, appear to
interfere or destroy the nutrition of cer-
tain muscles of one side of the larynx,
by which paralysis also ensues (Fig. 48) ;
the antagonist muscles then produce a
contraction and alteration of the size
and form of the air-passage, and this
gives rise, during inspiration, to the
sound referred to.

Besides the causes named, roaring is
sometimes due to the formation of false
membranes within the glottis or opening of the larynx
(Fig. 49) ; thickening of the vocal chords and consequent
contraction, with deformity of the passage ; tumours within the
opening ; ossification of the cartilages. Roaring, as a rule, is
gradual in its development, and progresses
in direct ratio to the disease which occa-
sions it. Some horses are predisposed to
it by an arched form of the neck, small
space at the throat, and great tendency to
suffer from sore throat, even under very
simple circumstances. The “ bearing-rein,”
as a useless and senseless adoption has
been, up to the present (Fig. 50), a prolific
cause of the disease among carriage and
harness horses generally, and should be
discarded by all proprietors who have suf-
ficient moral courage not to allow their fig. 49.- rfe

coachmen and grooms to have everything ing of the Larynx
. . . . -^11 obstructed by false

their own way in connexion with the membranes.

198 sporadic or General Diseases,

animals under their care (Fig. 50). The disease is often here-
ditary, and from present malformation, or susceptibility, the

Fit5. 50. — The Windpipe distorted
by the bear mg rein.

Fig. 51. — The Healthy
Larynx.

operation of the ordinary causes of cold need only be exercised
slightly, and but a few times to produce it. Hot, foul, and
ill-ventilated stables often produce it, by combined influences
on the air-passages, digestive organs, and nervous system.
We have, within our recollection, seen many such stables, in
which every horse doomed to spend two or three weeks
inevitably became a roarer. Generally then, roaring is due to
a mal-condition of the larynx, but there are modified sounds,
also understood to be within the meaning of the word, which

are produced from some
impediment of the nasal
passages — e.g., bony tu-
mours, nasal polypi (Fig.
52), or fleshy tumours ;
fracture and depression of
the bony walls ; softening
and enlargement of the
bones ; thickening of the
Fig. ^2.— Polypus in the Nostril. lining membrane ; tumours

Roaring, Whistling, Grunting, &c. 199

on the false palate, which at times fall into the laryngeal
opening, and occasion paroxysms of roaring and difficult
breathing ; enlargement and induration of the glands near
the larynx ; abscess or accumulation of pus within the gut-
tural pouches {see Plates I. and IX.) ; fracture and malforma-
tion of some of the cartilaginous rings of the windpipe.

The situation and cause of roaring is made out by apply-
ing the ear to the course of the air- passages, but in general
the cause is so apparent that little difficulty is experienced
in pointing out the seat of disease, even from a distance, by
practised hands. In Yorkshire, a horse given to loud roar-
ing, from whatever cause, is said to have the “ bellans,” or
“ bellones.” Entire horses that are roarers always beget
offspring which at one time of their life become similarly
affected, and this holds good in all breeds. Mares, except
when hereditary taint is peculiarly strong, rarely are affected,
and small ponies, although liable to sore throat, strangles,
&c. &c., as well as the larger breeds, enjoy a strange immu-
nity. The only animal of this kind that we remember to
have seen as guilty of roaring, was a Welshman, of eleven
hands, used as a harness pony. The noise gradually became
a perfect nuisance, and we were consulted as to its cure.
During rest the sounds were not heard, and as the creature
stood all was silent. In an examination of the nasal
passages, we discovered an encysted tumour in the false
nostrils, which almost completely closed the opening. The
animal was at once cast, and the tumour dissected out, and
with its removal there was an end of the complaint.

Roaring is a prolonged sound, emitted only when air is
being breathed inwards or inspired, and such animals when
tested usually indicate the existence of a cough which is dry,
harsh, loud, hollow, and short. The usual plans of detecting
a roarer are often rude and cruel. As the suspected animal
stands unconsciously in the stable, or by the side of a

200 Sporadic or General Diseases.

wall, &c., some one rushes violently up to him, and kicks or
strikes him in the flank, or the whip is laid unmercifully
upon him, when by sudden inspiration the sounds are
produced. The more perfect plan is to ride or drive the
animal over various kinds of road, and at different speeds, or
if he be one of the heavier kinds, place a load behind him
and cause him to draw it up hill, when the faults, if present,
will soon be discovered.

Treatment. — Mechanical causes, such as tumours, may in
most instances be removed by operation, but the progressive
form of disease resident in the deformity of the larynx, is
one which has hitherto admitted of very little opportunity
for cure. Blisters, setons, and firing have variously been
tried, but failure has met almost every attempt. Continental
veterinarians have succeeded in removing it by abscising the
arytenoid cartilage of the affected side — a small triangular-
shaped body situate at the opening of the larynx or glottis
(Figs. 48, 50 and 51), which during the disease hangs down,
and is drawn within the opening in the act of inspiration.
The operation has succeeded in the hands of British veteri-
narians also in a few instances, and in others, such an
amount of enlargement and permanent thickening eventually
followed as to induce another form of roaring, differing from
the first only in pitch or sound.

In performing this operation, the horse is cast in the usual
way, propped on his back, and the head secured in a perfect
line with the body. By means of a proper knife, an incision
is made in the throat over the larynx, and the principal
ligament divided, which at once admits of the affected parts
being seen. Forceps or suitable hooks are passed forwards,
and the arytenoid cartilage laid hold of firmly and securely,
when a curved knife is used to cut it off. As soon as the
portion is detached, the operator requires to be very careful
not to let it fall off, or it may be drawn into the windpipe

Roaring, Whistling, Grunting, &c, 201

by sudden inspiration, and set up violent pain and irri-
tation.

Grunting. — This propensity usually accompanies roaring,
and is but a less severe indication of chronic states which
give rise to that disease. The sound is heard when the
animal is suddenly frightened, kicked, struck, turned sharply
round, or put backwards. When associated with the
permanent causes of roaring, it is mostly incurable, and, as
will be already understood, constitutes unsoundness. Yet
there are temporary causes of grunting, such as pleurisy and
pleurodynia, resulting therefrom, as well as from enzootic,
typhoid catarrh, enzootic pleurisy, &c., when the chest is
sore ; then among heavier breeds of horses, particularly
gross-feeders, grunting is not uncommon. Whenever the
sound is heard, the tests for roaring should be employed, as
well as examination for recent causes, which, as a rule, are
readily made out.

Whistling. — Causes which do not produce such extreme
diminution, malformation, or constriction of the laryngeal
opening, may give rise to a prolonged shrill note of high
pitch,' known as “ whistling,” which exists slightly during
expiration, but loudest during inspiration. Thickening of
the lining membrane, vocal chords, or trachea, with some
other abnormal conditions of the tube, with tight reining, &c.,
are the usual causes, permanent in their nature, irremovable,
incurable, and constituting unsoundness. Temporary states
are present in and dependent upon sore throat — laryngitis,
and apart from hereditary predisposition, are removed with
the subsidence of the disease. It is of great consequence,
therefore, that sore throat should always be attended to
promptly, and energetic measures instituted to avoid the
ulterior liability to whistling which may take place.

202

Sporadic or General Diseases.

Chronic Cough.

By this term, we can hardly expect to convey to the
reader what is actually implied. Chronic cough means
simply a cough long standing, dependent upon some existing
disease, and as permanent as the cause. We have already
alluded to the weak, prolonged, and aspiratory cough of
asthma, and in that we present as good an example of
chronic cough as the reader may expect ; but in the estima-
tion of the horseman that is a “ broken-winded cough,” and
therefore not chronic cough. Then, again, we have the soft
hollow cough of horses suffering from derangement of the lungs,
as well as the dry, harsh, hollow, loud and short cough of
the roarer. We fear any description of what constitutes the
disease in question will only be vague at the best, and the
real test by which it can be truly known and recognised is
that of experience. There are, however, certain signs and
tests by which we distinguish what we generally understand
to be the chronic cough, about which much difference of
opinion exists, and is not an uncommon cause of endless
disputes in law courts. A hard, dry, short cough generally
exists as one of the signs' of laryngeal irritation, but it
recedes with the disease ; such a cough may remain after the
disease has passed away, owing to permanent thickening of
some of the structures of the bronchial tubes, trachea, or
larynx, and its constant presence under all circumstances
proves an interminable nuisance. The animal coughs in the
stable, out of doors, at rest, at work, when feeding, or when
hungry ; in short, there is never a period when he is never
free from a paroxysm. It may be aggravated by cold and
causes of catarrh generally, but the animal can cough as
well in his comparative health as others do in acute disease.
Usually, chronic cough is hard, dry, short, and frequent,
being also firm, hollow, as a rule, dissociated from acute form

Chronic Nasal Catarrh.

203

of laryngitis, bronchitis, pneumonia, and all appearances of
symptomatic fever. As already remarked, its long con-
tinuance after the subsidence of one or other of the
foregoing diseases, is of itself sufficient to stamp its real
nature. Chronic cough rarely gives way to the action of
remedies. From this circumstance horses often prove a
source of great inconvenience and disappointment after
purchase, when this disease is upon them. We therefore
mainly rely upon the usual wind tests, which, if properly
conducted, will fairly demonstrate the existence of chronic
cough, and, if the veterinarian withholds his opinion for a
few hours, while the subject of it is fed, housed, and left at
rest, he will obtain farther confirmation by hearing it
repeatedly, while there is a remarkable absence of elevated
temperature, pulse, or respiration. There may be difficulties
in the way when the horse has a sore throat, but even then
we would counsel thorough auscultation, and if any doubt
exists, let the animal be put back into the hands of the
present owner until the active signs are past, when all
difficulty will be at an end.

Chronic Nasal Catarrh-^Nasal Gleet — Oz^ena.

Nature. — A discharge of purulent matter from one or both
nostrils, remaining after the period of decline from simple
catarrh. A common kind is observed as a result of chronic
states of the nasal membrane (Plates I. and IX.), in which a
tendency towards excessive secretion has been set up ; and a
second form depends upon the existence of some organic
lesion or obstruction within the passages, sinuses, or guttural
pouches.

I. Simple Nasal Gleet is characterised by a muco-purulent
discharge from one or both nostrils, variable in quantity, but
constant. The glands beneath the jaws are sometimes
enlarged, but this is not an invariable sign ; and they are

204 sporadic or General Diseases,

not adherent to the bones as in more chronic states, or, in
glanders. The mucous membrane is of a pale pink hue ; a
general want of condition is soon manifested ; the coat
stares ; precarious appetite ; dulness and inaptitude at work,
with more or less of a moist, and som^^times rattling cough.

Treatment, — The practitioner will ascertain correctly the
absence of actual lung or bronchial disease in connexion
with the case, before instituting remedial measures ; and being
fully satisfied of the local nature of the complaint, will pro-
ceed to the task of altering the condition of the secreting
membrane. This will be accomplished by local as well as
constitutional means. The mucous membrane is powerfully
acted upon by turpentines, and for this purpose we have found
tonic powders, after the subjoined form, of great service : —

Recipe No. 63.

Take of sulphate of iron, powdered 4 drs.

Powdered resin 4 „

Arsenious acid 5 grs.

Ground locust beans 4 drs.

„ gentian 2 „

Make up into a powder ; one to be given every night and
morning for four or five days ; then omitting two or three
days, resume the doses during a similar period, and so on
until a change is effected.

The nostrils should be attended to, and fluid remedies
are most serviceable, being sometimes forced up by means
of an ordinary syringe, which is, however, a very imperfect
plan, as the various nasal chambers are not reached by it.
A second plan is to hold up the head, and pour the liquid
into the nostrils ; but this method is as uncertain and in-
efficacious as the last. The last, and certainly the most
superior plan, consists of using an appropriate tube, by which
one of the nasal passages, together with the sinuses on that
side, are flooded with the lotion. The tube in question

Chronic Nasal Catarrh.

205

(Fig. 53) is the invention of Professor Rey, and is of the
following dimensions : in length about fifteen inches, and one
and a half in diameter, forming a funnel at
the top, which is about an inch wider than the
tube itself. At the lower end it turns at a
somewhat acute angle, and decreases rapidly
in diameter to about half an inch or five-eighths
at the outlet. The short arm from the bend
is about five inches, and upon this is placed a
piece of leather, fitting tightly, which, with a
bundle of tow, is pressed against the false nos-
trils to close the opening during the operation,
which is performed as follows : — All being in
readiness, the animal being either blindfolded ^^{stril Tube!
or twitched at the ear, if likely to be unruly,
the short arm of the tube is passed up the nostril until
the leather is in contact with the opening, when wet tow
is placed on the outside, and firmly held by the hands
to prevent the escape of fluid. The tube is held by the
operator, who also pours the lotion to be used into the
funnel part until it flows freely from the opposite nostril, the
arrangement being continued for a time, in order to allow
the lotion to act upon the diseased structures ; after which,
the other nostril is to be dressed in the same manner.

The lotion to be used may be thus made : —

Recipe No. 64.

Take of sulphate of zinc or copper i dr.

Tincture of myrrh and aloes | fl. oz.

Water 12 „

Reduce the first to powder, and dissolve in the water,
then add the tincture, and use daily. In cold weather, it is
advisable to warm the lotion, by which it will be tolerated
more readily by the animal.

While the administration of arsenic is being administered,

Fig. 53.

2o6 sporadic or General Diseases.

the most watchful attention is needed, as it is apt to cause
derangement of the bowels, having a specific action on
mucous membranes ; when such takes
place, or irritation of the Schneiderian
membrane is observed, the remedy
must be withdrawn at once. If the
medicine is given as directed, with the
intermissions, these untoward states
will probably be avoided, and a ten-
dency to constipation will be the result,
which must be met from time to time
by a common laxative ball.

II. The second variety of nasal
a. Place for opening the frontal prleet arises from ail accumula-

siniis. °

within the frontal sinuses
(Plate l.d, Fig. 54), which have a

on the left. ' • . • • i i • i a

communication with the nostrils. As
these cavities are filled to overflowing, the excess passes
away by the nostrils, giving rise to an offensive smell as well
as appearance. The pressure of pus in the frontal sinuses is
detected by a dull, dead sound, on percussion. Sometimes,
also, swelling of the bones is present, or only one is affected,
when the contrast will be readily observed.

Treatment. — The use of Key’s tube will not always
answer in these cases, and an operation of an extended
surgical character will be required. It consists of opening
the sinuses from the front, removing the collections, and
applying lotions for the arrest of discharges, and is per-
formed in the following manner : —

The horse is cast in the usual way, and if only one side is
affected, that must be uppermost. The point of opening
will be decided by observing an imaginary line drawn from
the orbital arch of one side to that on the opposite, and
noting the centre of the space between the orbit and a line
drawn down the middle of the face, as shown in Fig. 54,

Fig. 54.— A/j- 071 the
Fro7ital Stilus.

Chronic Nasal Catarrh.

207

below the first line. The hair is first closely clipped, or
shaved off, and a crucial incision made through the skin by a
scalpel ; the portions are then dissected off
the bone, and laid back ; and by means of
an instrument called a trephine (Fig. 55), or
circular saw, a piece of the bone is removed,
and the foetid pus escapes from the sinus
probably, also, hard or concrete portions
will also be present, which have had some-
thing to do with the persistent discharge.

It is usual also to open the maxillary sinus
of the same side (Fig. 54, b), and pass a
tape, or seton, from one opening to the circular Saw.
other, to facilitate discharge, maintain free
communication, and admit of the cavities being washed out
daily with an astringent lotion, as given in No. 64, page 205.
Besides this operation the powders, as recommended in
No. 63, page 204, will be required, when the cautions there
given must also be regarded.

III. Nasal Gleet arising from Accimiidations 'within the
Guttural Pouches. — The situation of these cavities 'will be
understood by a reference to Plate I. j. On each side are
the parotid glands, outwardly and below are the pharynx
and larynx, and by having such a position assigned to them
it appears their functions, or at least one of them, is to admit
of the organs named having suitable space for action — rising
and falling during swallowing. Their close proximity to
glands, &c., naturally causes them to be involved in inflam-
mation and abscess during severe strangles or catarrh ; and
as evacuation is not always readily effected, the pus dries up
into hard masses which remain some time, giving rise to
irritation and prolonged discharge. One or both pouches
maybe affected.

The symptoms are usually interpreted readily. The sub-
maxillary glands are swollen, but free and mobile. The dis-

Fig. 55.

2o8 sporadic or General Diseases,

charge is not regular, but intermittent, and always observed
when the animal feeds from the ground, when at work, or
when drinking from a pail. Movement of the jaws and mus-
cles of the vicinity \^^en the head is held downwards greatly
facilitates the flow, when nothing is observed if the animal
feeds from the rack or manger. The discharge does not
always take place from both nostrils when both pouches are
affected ; plugging of the Eustachian tube of one side is not
an uncommon occurrence, which prevents escape, and favours
concretion into hardened masses. Then pus largely accu-
mulates, the parotid glands are sometimes swollen, and an
abscess points at the angle of the jaw ; sometimes the dis-
charge takes place in the pharynx, and suffocation has been
the result. Old-standing cases are recognised by swelling of
the throat and neck, roaring, general unthriftiness, capricious
appetite, &c., and the animal is generally regarded most sus-
piciously as having contracted glanders.

Tj'eatment. — The guttural pouches have a natural commu-
nication with the pharynx, and when the head is held down,
as in grazing, accumulations of pus may obtain an easy dis-
charge ; for this purpose an essential plan of treatment con-
sists of causing the patient to feed from a vessel placed on
the ground, or when a run at grass can be obtained, that will
answer the desired end. When there is any fear of the dis-
ease becoming chronic, it will be advisable also to institute
a course of tonics as well, such as already prescribed for nasal
gleet. No. 63, page 204. These may also be advantageously
given when the animal is at grass, being mixed with a quan-
tity of corn, cut grass, &c. In long-neglected cases, an ope-
ration must be performed, by which the guttural pouches are
opened from the side of the neck, behind the jaw, and at the
top or thereabouts of the parotid gland.

An opening is also made below the throat, near the angle
of the jaw, also communicating with the guttural pouch ; this

Chronic Nasal Catarrh.

209

admits of a seton being passed through the upper orifice and
guttural pouch, and, emerging from below, to maintain a
constant discharge, and is also useful for washing out the
cavities daily with an astringent lotion. ' After the operation,
the animal should be fed from the ground.

The evacuation of the guttural pouches is by no means an
easy matter ; the operation, which is known as hyo-verte-
brotomy, is not unattended with risk, and must not, therefore,
be attempted by any but skilful hands, well acquainted with
the anatomy of the parts. About three weeks will suffice for
most cases, at the end of which the seton may be withdrawn,
and, by keeping the parts clean, also injecting an astringent
lotion, the wounds gradually close, and the animal is cured.
Exceptions to this rule occur now and then, from the accu-
mulation and non-removal of hardened masses.

We are sometimes called upon to pronounce upon other
cases of nasal discharge, and effect a removal, in which the
causes are totally different from those we have already consi-
dered. These are caries and abscess of bone.

I. Caries usually take place in the facial, nasal, turbinated,
and superior maxillary bones, arising from long-continued
inflammation and pustular discharges, due to the presence of
foreign bodies, or, as a common occurrence, a projecting
molar tooth in the lower jaw grinding its way through its
antagonist and bones of the upper. Sometimes the cause
has existed in the presence of a piece of straw or splinter of
wood lodged in the sinuses in a fit of coughing, which, owing
to the formation of the cavities, cannot pass out with the
discharges.

The symptoms are, foetid and occasionally bloody discharge
from one side only, enlargement, but mobility of the sub-
maxillary gland ; whole or partial absence of passing air in
the nasal passage. Examination of the mouth discloses a
diseased tooth in the upper jaw, which is worn and broken

210 Sporadic or General Diseases.

down by an opposite one in the lower, which, growing
rapidly, at length advances on the bones themselves.

The treatment consists of removal of projecting portions of
sound teeth, and, if possible, of carious ones also, together
with such parts of bone as are implicated in the ulcerative
process. The use of astringent lotions, by means of Key’s
tube, will also be of great benefit.

II. Abscess. — The turbinated bone is the most common
seat of this affection, and, as a rule, present only on one side
of the head. Young animals are the chief subjects, after
attacks of simple catarrh, &c., when the lining membrane
swells and chokes up the passage, giving rise to much dis-
turbance and difficult breathing, and, after some time, swell-
ing outwardly of the bones of the face, as shown in the
annexed engraving (Fig. 56).

The discharge is by no means regular.
An important distinguishing sign consists in
an abundant flow after the head has been
elevated — entirely different from what occurs
in disease of the guttural pouches — and is
owing to the situation of the opening of the
turbinated bone, which is above, preventing
the escape of pus until the cavity is full, or,
as already explained, when the head is sud-
denly thrown upwards, the fluid is emptied
Fig. 56. into the posterior part of the nostrils or pha-
giving rise to a cough, and forcible
expulsion of a large quantity.

Treatment,— Kxs. essential principle in the restoration of
these cases to health, is to cause a natural evacuation of
matter by feeding the animal entirely for a time from a high
rack. Sometimes the bone at the side must be trephined
(Fig. 54 b), and even portions of the turbinated structure
removed. Before the severer operation is attempted, it may

Spasm of the Diaphragm, 2 1 1

be advisable to wait the result of the proposed method of
rack-feeding, and the use of astringent lotions by means of
Key’s tube.

Spasm of the Diaphragm.

The diaphragm is the musculo-membranous partition
between the thorax and abdomen, shown in Fig. 57, an
important agent in respiration, and singularly liable to a
spasmodic attack after severe runs or rapid harness work,
&c. It is also witnessed in tetanus.

The principal symptom is a rapid jerking or convulsive
movement of the whole body, attended with a dull, heavy,
and tolerably regular thumping sound, evidently arising
from within or near the abdomen, and totally distinct from
the pulsations of the heart and circulation ; frequently the
action of the heart is in-
distinct or imperceptible,
and the pulse is small and
extremely weak ; respira-
tion is also disturbed and
often difficult, especially
as by the irregular action
of the diaphragm, con-
gestion of the lungs is
not an unfrequent accom-
paniment.

Fig. 57. — The Diaphragm.

1, i» I. The cordiform, or tendinous por-

tion.

2, 2, 2. The great muscle.

3. The left crus.

4. The right crus.

5. The aorta, piercing the left or

superior opening.

6. The oesophagus, coming through

the middle opening.

7. The inferior, or right foramen,

for the vena cava to pass

through,

8. The sacro-lumbalis muscle.

212

Sporadic or General Diseases,

Treatment. — These cases are, generally speaking, easily
managed, and nothing answers so rapidly and so well as the
following draught, if given immediately : —

Recipe No. 65.

Take of chloric ether 2 fl. oz.

Tincture of cardamoms i

Water i pint.

Mix, and administer at once, and with all the ease and

quietness possible.

Put on warm clothing and bandages, to aid in restoring
the circulation ; and if congestion of the lungs supervenes,
abstract a small quantity of blood, and repeat the stimulant
in three or four hours. The animal will require some days
of rest, and when put to work, he must not be pushed so
fast. It may be well also to see that he is in fitting condi-
tion for severe running, an absence of which may have had
much to do with the disease.

Rupture of the Diaphragm.

The major portion of the cases reported as rupture of the
diaphragm, and as being the cause of death, have been dis-
covered to be the result of distension of the abdomen by
gases, after death, when the muscular portion is softened,
and considerably less yielding than the tendinous portions.
Rupture during life generally takes place in the latter, by
reason of the intense contraction of the former in severe
paroxysms ; and when the muscular portion is the seat, the
presence of blood extravasation will distinguish the case
from a post-mortem condition, the wound of which is clean.
Rupture of the diaphragm is fatal, and no known remedies for
relief exist Death is usually sudden, owing to severe dyspnoea,
but in slight cases is delayed some hours, and there are
evidences of internal pain, pawing, uneasiness, and a running-
down pulse. Beyond these, the cases are not well marked.

SECTION IV.

DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF
CIRCULATION.

'‘Arteries and Absorbents.

“ The arteries are canals originating from the ventricles of
the heart by two trunks, the aorta and the pulmonic, whose
subdivisions are destined to supply the whole body with
blood. Considered generally, arteries are long tubes ; which
I by reason of their numerous bifurcations become smaller
as they proceed to the extreme parts. However, the extre-
mities of the arteries, though so much smaller than the
original trunk, nevertheless, if put altogether, w'ould contain
ten times as much as the parent vessels. In their course an
especial regard is observed towards their safety ; hence they
are mostly deep seated, and invariably pass on the inner
sides of the limbs, or on the side that is flexed. They
appear equally guarded against accidental pressure or ten-
sion, by passing over the bending surface of a joint ; and
where they are situated in soft parts, liable to extension, as
in the tongue, the arteries pursue a serpentine or very
crooked course. Their being thus convoluted, however,
answers another end than saving them from being stretched ;
as the arteries, before entering the brain and the testicles,
are to be seen winding about in various directions ; the
intention of which construction is to prevent the blood from

2 1 6 Diseases of the Organs of Circttlation,

being urged too violently upon such important organs. All
arteries are composed of three different coats or coverings,
united to form one elastic tube : the external coat is of
condensed cellular tissue, whose elastic powers are so con-
siderable as to preserve the cylindrical form of the principal
canals when empty. The middle coat consists chiefly of
yellow elastic tissue, and the internal coat is serous tissue,
or similar to synovial membrane. By their elastic power
the arteries are capable of being distended : by this likewise
they can adapt themselves to a smaller quantity of fluid
than usual. It is by this elasticity, which operates longi-
tudinally as well as circularly, that, in cases of injury, the
divided ends of an artery retreat within the cellular sub-
stance around, and thus close its orifices. When this con-
traction is prevented by a partial division only, the haemor-
rhage continues ; _but even the entire division of the
punctured vessel is not generally effective in arteries of the
first, second, or third magnitude. The elastic powers appear
in dissimilar proportions in different horses, as in different
men ; from which arises some constitutional phenomena in
the individuals of each species ; giving to some a greater
disposition to haemorrhage and inflammation, which is called
a sanguineous temperament. The elastic coat appears to
exist in greater proportion in the horse than in the human
being. To this cause it is probably owing, that acute in-
flammations of the vital organs, in the horse, run through
their stages so much quicker, than similar affections in our
own race. To this power it is to be attributed, that a horse
can bear the division of a much larger artery without danger
than a man.

“ Arteries, in their different courses, send out branches,
which freely join with other branches sent out by other
arteries ; in consequence of this circumstance we are able
to deprive the horse of large and essential vessels ; the small

A rt cries and A bsorbents.

217

arteries which have united with others then enlarging, and
thus carrying on the circulation. Most arteries terminate by
means of their capillary branches in veins ; we know this,
because we can empty the arteries, by drawing the blood
from the venal trunks ; and because injection forced into the
arteries, in many instances enters the veins, but is prevented
from so doing if the fluid used be of a coarse description.
A more scarce termination of arteries is in cells, from which
veins arise to take it up again, as in the spleen, &c. Dif-
ferent parts are more or less plentifully supplied with arteries
according to their nature : secreting organs have usually
large trunks, as the kidneys, spleen, &c. Arteries are like-
wise themselves furnished with arterial and venal branches,
for the nourishment of their tubes. They are chiefly sup-
plied with nervous energy by the sympathetic system of
nerves, which accounts for their being little endowed with
feeling. It also renders easy of explanation their being pos-
sessed of eccentric powers, such as directing more blood to
the face, as in blushing, and driving more blood to a part, as
in local inflammation, while their action in neither case can
be controlled by the will.

“ The evident use of the arteries is to convey the blood
from the heart to the different parts of the body, thus
keeping up the vital principle in these parts, by being the
bearers of nutriment and heat. An intimate knowledge of
their functions, and a well-grounded acquaintance with their
situation, is therefore essentially necessary to the veterinary
surgeon.

“ As the use of the arteries is to convey the blood from
the heart, so the heart itself appears to be the first, but not
the only agent exerted in its propulsion through the vessels.
And as the force of the heart decreases with distance, so
there is, at la.st, a column pressed on in almost a continuous
stream, by the force from behind : thus, when a very small

2 18 Diseases of the Organs of Circulation.

artery is divided, there is a regular flow, with scarcely any
jet ; this, however, only takes place in their minutest
branches. We thus see why there is no pulsation in the
veins, they receive the blood from the arteries in one equa-
ble stream. Pulsation is a certain sensation caused by the
artery, which, from various experiments, is found to arise
from its being alternately in a state of distension and relaxa-
tion. It appears that, when the ventricles contract, and
force the blood into the arteries, the pressure of the fluid
occasions a distension of their coats ; when the ventricles
cease to act, and become contracted, the impetus against the
sides of the vessels ceases, and now the coats of the artery
contract also, and lessen its size.

“ Absorbents are distributed to every part of the body ;
it is true we cannot see them, neither are they to be traced,
save by the very finest of liquid injections ; but their exis-
tence is known with certainty, because their effects are per-
ceived. Thus the hardest part of bone is removed by a
natural process, or absorbed. Inorganised cartilage is like-
wise taken away, to allow the arteries and veins to enter,
and bone to be deposited when ossification ensues.

“ Absorbents are very minute, thin-coated, transparent
vessels, having numerous valves, like to veins ; they are
spoken of as deep-seated and superficial ; but as the diffe-
rence of position is accompanied by no difference of struc-
ture, we shall here regard them as of one kind. Every
absorbent conveys the materials it takes away from various
parts into the blood, with which their contents mingle, and
ultimately become blood ; or they are emitted with the ex-
cretions. In starvation it is by means of the absorbents that
the marrow is carried out of bones ; and the fatty matter
from other places in the body, and emptied into the blood ;
which in this manner helps to support, or keep alive, the
subject starved. It is thus that it is accounted for why a fat

A rteries and A bsorbents.

219

animal is longer dying from’ starvation than one that is
thin.

“ Certain absorbents, which take up the nutritive portion
from the food within the intestines, are called lacteals ; be-
cause the substance they abstract is at first white, like to
milk ; otherwise they are the same as common absorbents ;
all of which enter and pass through one or more of the
little reddish bodies, called absorbent glands. Of what use
these glands are remains to be discovered ; but they doubt-
less promote some change in the fluid contents of the absor-
bent vessels ; they also serve to mingle what the vessels
contain ; for if two or three absorbent branches enter a gland,
only one is seen to leave it ; which one must convey away
the materials the others brought ; as the glands themselves
do not appropriate, or enlarge, or fatten upon the contents
of these vessels.

The functional effects of this system are abundantly
active in the constitution at large ; we are certain that the
various organs of the body are continually changing, wholly
or partially. It appears to be the office of the arteries to
build up new parts, and to repair the waste of others ; but
the old ones must be first of all pulled down and removed
by absorption ; which is least active at youth ; equal with
the arteries in middle life ; and predominates in age. By
this wonderful power the roots of the temporary teeth are
absorbed ; that their crowns may give way : by this also the
gubernaculum testis, having fulfilled its office, is absorbed ;
and the thymus gland is likewise removed : it is thus carti-
lage is taken up, to make room for a bony deposit when
the animal approaches maturity. By the absorbents the
fluids as well as solids are continually changing ; being taken
up and carried back, but always in a fluid state, into the
mass of blood. It is by them that the dead parts are sepa-
rated from the living in sloughing and ulceration. By the

220 Diseases of the Organs of Circulation.

superficial absorbents, even gases are received from without ;
the water held in suspension by the atmosphere is thus taken
in ; hence grazing horses require little or no water ; more
especially if not exposed to the heat of the sun, whereby
evaporation or exhalation is promoted. The functional office
of the absorbents is most important also in the preservation
of life under casualties. Long fasting is thus borne ; their
capability of displacing the animal oil or marrow from the
bones, and the fat from the body generally, is here employed
to make up the want. Hybernating animals live during
their torpidity by a slow absorption of the adipose matter ;
thus it is found in the instance of the torpid bear, that,
however fat he may enter his seclusion, he returns lean and
emaciated.

“To our acquaintance with the power of the absorbents
the practice of medicine is greatly indebted ; and although
we own few means of lessening absorption, we fortunately
have many of increasing it. Mechanical friction is the most
active and universal agent in stimulating the absorbents ; as
the hand-rubbing of horses sufficiently proves. Pressure
also increases their action ; thus we bandage the swollen
legs ; we girth the bodies of our horses, to promote absorp-
tion of the interstitial fluid. Exercise, by swelling the muscles,
produces pressure ; and thus exercise will remove swelled
legs, and promote absorption generally. Blisters likewise
exercise an influence over absorption. A still stronger stimu-
lant is iodine ; which is especially useful in enlargement of
the glands. Purgatives and diuretics, and whatever tends
to lower the pulse, promotes internal absorption ; for, by
offering an impediment to the circulation, removing the
contents of the intestinal canal, and increasing the urinary
secretion, an absence is caused in the materials for building
up, which the absorbents endeavour to repair by removing
other parts.”

Ancemic Palpitation, 221

Diseases of the circulatory system have not met with the
attention they deserve by writers on veterinary medicine.
Until almost recently the text-books available to the student
have been almost silent regarding them, and while it has
been admitted that such diseases are neither rare nor unim-
portant, we have been placed under great disadvantages in
pronouncing correctly regarding them. The difficulties have
been great, and the profound acquirements in the sciences of
anatomy and animal physiology do not yet clear them away.
Peculiarities of formation in the lower animals will for ever
stand as an insuperable difficulty against prosecuting cor-
rectly, as in man, an investigation of heart diseases. In
him the organ is exposed, and the practitioner has little dif-
ficulty in obtaining a fair idea of its condition under all
circumstances ; but amcng the lower animals it is covered,
first, by the lungs on each side, next, a mass of muscle as
well as the ribs, and, lastly, the ponderous bones and muscles
of the shoulder, and these militate exceedingly against the
forming of such accurate conclusions as may be arrived at in
man. Nevertheless, by means of careful observation and
intimate acquaintance with the health, habits and conditions,
of animals, aided by correct anatomical and physiological
knowledge, there is now no longer the same mystery. The
subject of heart diseases is being more widely understood,
and their signs more perfectly interpreted ; and when we
take into consideration the state of our knowledge in refe-
rence to some other affections — such as those of the liver,
spleen, and pancreas, &c. — we may indeed feel confident that
great has been the progress during the past quarter of a
century.

Anemic Pi^LPiTATioN.

We have already referred to certain abnormal heart sounds
heard in the bloodless state, anaemia, at p. 65 : we have now

222 Diseases of the Organs of Circttlation^.

to notice it in connexion with the heart as due to other causes.
Anaemia, as will already be understood, is not a disease of the
heart, but may be confounded with such states as are decided
heart disease. The cause of anaemia rests with the attenu-
ated and watery condition of the blood, in which it readily
admits of the production of sound, when different portions
or columns are forcibly brought into contact within the
bloodvessels by powerful muscular effort such as is common
to the heart. A heavy or dense fluid like healthy blood is
incapable of giving rise to such sounds, by reason of its
consistence and property of being elastic. Loud and well-
marked sound from concussion is, therefore, next to im-
possible ; but fluids of less density, as water or blood of
similar density, do not possess the quality of being elastic,
and thus by different currents meeting each other — particu-
larly in channels like those of the heart and bloodvessels
leading from it — at once give rise to the development of
sounds characteristic of their unyielding nature. Such are
louder than the sounds arising from heart disease, and more-
over, are removable by a tonic plan of treatment, a generous
diet, and proper exercise, although in some instances they
return as depending on some remote incurable disease. In
the course of the jugular vein a continuous kind of hum is
heard — a result of anaemia — distinguished between the heart-
beats, and as it were connecting the sound of one pulsation
with the succeeding one. It is due to the state of the blood,
wLich readily conveys the sounds arising from the union of
many currents, their contact with the walls or valves of
vessels, particularly at those parts also where the latter split,
break up, or branch off, and the current is divided into many
others.

The liability of animals to dyspeptic palpitation has not
been generally recognised among the lower animals ; there
is, however, little doubt that such does occur, but slightly,

223

R2ij)tures of the Heart, &c,

and therefore attracts no observation. In other states, as
in purpura and blood-poisoning generally, debility, &c., the
blood acquires the suitable thin and watery condition, and
while nervous derangement contributes to irregular action,
the blood furnishes the quality necessary for the sounds.
Anaemic palpitations are irregular and intermittent actions of
the heart, accompanied with blood sounds of an unusual
character, due to the condition of the blood and functional
derangement of the heart.

Ruptures of the Heart, &c.

Occasionally we meet with instances of rupture of the
heart and large vessels in the neighbourhood, due to very
severe running or drawing of heavy loads over hilly roads,
&c. ; and several instances are in our recollection which have
occurred in horses when drawing manure over heavy ground
to the fields, when the wheels become imbedded deeply ; also
among horses used by builders when taking their immense
and heavy loads of earth and bricks, &c., to and from the
foundations, no suitable road being in existence, and when
the utmost exertions have to be made.

The place of rupture is not always the same. Sometimes
the union of the aorta with the left ventricle (Fig. 58, i) is
the seat ; at others, the right auricle, as it joins the ventricle
(Fig. 9, p. 51). Such lesions are, fortunately, not fre-
quent, and the fact points to a bountiful provision of Nature ;
while the modus operandi of their occurrence are, to say the
least, interesting in a physiological point of view, indicating
on one hand what an amount of strain and even injury may
be sustained by other structures, placing ruptures of the heart
far behind among the isolated instances of extreme violent
action ; and, on the other, showing that similar influences
exerted upon the walls of the chest produce their -effects, not

224 Diseases of the Organs of Circulation.

upon the structures first acted upon, but upon the heart.
Professor Gamgee refers to an instance where a girl was

Fig. 58. — The length of the Posterior Aorta exposed.

1. The aorta.

2. The pulmonary artery.

3. The left coronary.

4. The posterior aorta.

5. The left bronchial.

6. The oesophageal.

7. The interrostals.
k The left phrenic.

9. The coeliac.

a. The splenic.

b. The gastric.

c. Arteries derived from the gastric.

d. The hepatic.

e. The anterior mesenteric.

f. The renal.

g, g. The spermatics.

h. The posterior mesenteric.

i. The lumbar arteries.

j. The left external iliac.

k. The left internal iliac.

/. The right external iliac.

m. The circumflex artery of the ilium.

n. The profunda femoris.

o. The epigastric.

suddenly killed by being run over by a cart, the wheel
passing over the chest, and, instead of the ribs being injured,
“ the heart was literally smashed.”*'' This entirely coincides
with what we have observed in horses which have been
crushed between laden stone or coal waggons running on
metals, and in ponies crushed between the coal tubs in coal
mines. Sudden death arising from such injuries appears to
arise from the momentary violent pressure placed on the
pulmonary artery (Fig. 58, 2) obstructing the flow of blood,
the heart at the same time acting with redoubled vigour

Domesticated Animals in Health and Disease.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE III.

“THE ABDOMEN, DEPRIVED OF THE INTESTINES.

‘M, the posterior aorta, near its termination ; B, the pos-
terior cava ; C C, the ureters ; D D, the kidneys ; E, the
renal artery ; F, the renal vein ; Gy the stomach ; Hy the
duodenum tied ; /, the splenic artery ; y, the liver ; Ky the
anterior mesenteric, artery.”

Cyanosis — Blue Disease.

225

under the stimulus of shock, by
which it is also reduced in tonicity
or power, and rupture consequently
takes place at the weakest point.

Such cases are, of course, fatal,
death ensuing at periods propor-
tionate with the injury and escape
of blood (Fig. 59)* the animal Fig. 59. — The Countena7ice

lives some little time after such an serious internal states.
injury, the principal signs are a

peculiarly haggard expression of the countenance, difficult
breathing, pallor of mucous membranes, feeble and indistinct,
or running-down pulse.

Cyanosis — Blue Disease.

In consequence of the imperfect or non-closure at birth of
the opening in the middle wall of the heart, known as the
foramen ovale, the blood of each side mixes and circulates
indiscriminately through the system. The heart, most per-
sons know, is composed of four compartments — two upon
each side communicating with each other, but those on
different sides being entirely independent of lateral con-
nexions.* The cavities of one — the right side — are engaged
in receiving and propelling venous blood, and the opposite
are concerned in the distribution of arterial or purified
blood. Previous to birth, the upper cavities or auricles com-
municate, in order to admit of a perfect flow of blood which
is supplied direct from the mother, and needs no separation
as in after life, when purification is performed within the
system. When the opening alluded to is pervious after
birth, it leads to peculiar results — anaemia, venous pulse,
anaemic palpitations ; the skin and mucous membranes
assume a deep blue tinge, and the body becomes puny^

226 Diseases of the Organs of CircMlation,

emaciated, and cold. Moderate exertion gives rise to ex-
treme exhaustion, and the animal sinks and dies.

This state is mostly confined to very young animals which
do not long survive their birth ; but it may happen that, the
opening being small, the progress of the disease is delayed to
the time of domestication, when the animal becomes sickly and
an annoyance, and he is probably destroyed in consequence.

Carditis — Inflammation of the Heart.

It does not appear that this affection exists but as a com-
plication with other diseases, as pericarditis, endocarditis, &c.^
and even under those circumstances the inflammatory action
is never general, but confined to portions only of the sub-
stance : it is circumscribed. Fortunately, general or diffused
inflammation - of the heart does not exist, or fatal con-
sequences would immediately arise from interference or arrest
of function. Such partial states of disease occasion no
special signs during life, and being the result of diseased
states of contiguous structures, as will be expected, the out-
ward and physical manifestations are those of the organs or
tissues principally affected.

The heart is, however, liable to certain organic changes,
which interfere with the well-being of animals, and are
chiefly confined to enlargement of various kinds, with dege-
neration of structure.

The various alterations of size are known as hypertrophy,
or enlargement ; and atrophy, or wasting.

I. Hypertrophy may occur in three ways : —

a. Simple, as when the muscular walls are enlarged or

thickened, the cavities remaining the same.

b. Eccentric, in which enlargement of the walls is com-

bined with an increase in the size of the cavities.

c. Concentric, or when the walls are enlarged, and the

cavities diminished.

Pericarditis.

227

The causes exist in some obstruction to the circulation,
such as long-standing disease in the lungs or large vessels,
and are manifested during life by palpitation and blood
sounds, with increased force of the pulsations. The treat-
ment must be directed to the cause, strict attention being
paid to the diet.

More common forms of organic change of heart structure
are those known as atrophy, and fatty degeneration. Aged
animals, fed and pampered, having much to eat and too
little exercise — killed by kindness — are common subjects ;
and those which have previously suffered from purpura,
scarlatina, pericarditis, azoturia, &c., also may become victims,
as shown during life by a progressive debility of the general
circulation, irregularity of the pulse, with diminished force of
the beats, swelling of sheath, legs, &c., and want of power to
perform the simplest acts of exertion. The appetite is
capricious, and a peculiar expression of anxiety is seen in
the face, increased blood sounds are heard, while the pulse
even becomes more feeble and irregular. The appearances
after death exhibit the structure of the heart throughout
of a clay-yellow, or fawn colour, soft, and easily rubbed
down, and in numerous parts the muscular fibre is totally
replaced by fatty matter.

Treatment is of no avail in confirmed states.

Pericarditis.

Inflammation of the pericardium, or covering of the
heart — the heart-bag — occurs in two forms ; first, as a primary
or idiopathic disease ; and second, as a complication with
rheumatism and enzootic typhoid diseases. The causes of
the first are cold, extreme alternations of temperature ;
indeed, such as are known to induce diseases of the re-
spiratory organs generally.

15-2

228 Diseases of the Organs of Circtilation,

Symptoms. — The usual signs of fever are present, usually
ushered in by a violent shivering fit ; after which, the fever
itself runs very high ; the respiration is quickened and
laboured ; nostrils dilated ; a peculiar hardness and irri-
tability characterises the pulsations, which are short or
quick ; and the heart’s action extremely irregular, at one
time feeble and fluttering, succeeded by a period of violent
bounding. The animal temperature is increased, and the
nose, ears, and extremities are cold. Tw’itching, spasms, or
cramps of the muscles over the neck, breast, and hind-
quarters, legs, &c., take place, and these parts are sometimes
violently affected. Friction sounds are heard, not unlike the
action of a rasp, keeping time with the movements of the
heart, gradually becoming obscure, and even absent, as the
effusion of fluid increases within the sac. It is, however
replaced by another, which has been compared to a churning
sound, due to the presence of fluid effusion and an exuda-
tion of lymph. The friction or rasping sound is merely hid

for a time, for as soon as the fluid is absorbed, and in pro-
portion to the decrease, it reappears. Sometimes the in-
flammatory action extends to the endocardium {see Endo-

Pericarditis,

229

carditis), when the heart sounds are increased by a blowing
or bellows sound. The breathing becomes difficult, and there
is a tendency to faint (Fig. 60) when the head is elevated.
The legs, breast, and abdomen are swollen from infiltration
of fluid — dropsy. The pulse gradually becomes smaller and
more feeble, besides being irregular and intermittent ; and
death takes place in three or four days from the commence-
ment of the attack. Animals living beyond the sixth day
usually recover.

Post-inortc7n Appearances. — The disease is seldom un-
attended with effusion within the chest, which escapes as
soon as the walls are divided ; and the quantity is very large
when pleurisy has existed in conjunction. Independent of
this affection, the heart-bag in pericarditis is full and dis-
tended, opaque and thickened, and, when cut open, a fluid
more or less opaque flows out, and the lining membrane, as
well as that covering the heart itself, is roughened, having an
outer layer or exudation of a reddish-yellow colour, which
unites the pericardium more or less to the heart. The
substance of the heart beneath the membrane is rarely
affected except in circumscribed portions, or a small abscess
may exist towards the end of the case.

Treatment. — The first essential consists in allaying pain
and irritability of the heart and its inflamed membrane.
For this purpose opium is prescribed by some practitioners,
in repeated doses. Under watchful care, we believe greatly
in the efficacy of aconite in either of the subjoined com-
binations : —

Recipe No. 66.

Take of nitrate of potash i oz.

Tincture of aconite 10 or 15 drops.

Water i pint.

Mix, and dissolve ; or the ingredients may be made up
into a ball.

230 Diseases of the Organs of Circulation,

Recipe No. 67.

Take of solution of acetate of ammonia 3 or 4 oz.

Tincture of aconite 10 or 15 drops.

Water 12 fl. oz.

Mix.

After one of the above forms have been administered,
proceed to make the animal comfortable by bandages and
clothing ; allow plenty of fresh air and cold water, and leave
him at rest for a time, taking occasional observations to
learn the effects of the medicines before they are repeated.
If the signs are not materially lessened at the end of four
hours, give draught No. 67, taking care to reduce the
aconite at least five drops, and at the end of eight hours it
may be repeated ; and afterwards the aconite may be left
out altogether.

Relieve constipation by moderate doses of aloes in solu-
tion, or oil, and fail not to use enemas conjointly. When
the urgent signs are suppressed, give nitre and digitalis as
prescribed in recipe No. 58, page 187 ; and if debility
supervenes, let the draught No. 57, page 187, be given.
Bleeding rarely does any good, and blisters we generally
dispense with in the first stages, resorting to them, or sti-
mulating embrocation, when the case shows signs of recovery,
in order to promote a more speedy absorption of the effusion,
with which tonics and diuretics are used internally. No. 30,
page 1 1 3.

When rheumatic complications are present, colchicum will
be of service, the general treatment being pursued as laid
down for Rheumatism at page 68.

Endocarditis.

Inflammation of the lining membrane of the heart is not
known as a primary or idiopathic affection. It arises as a

Endocarditis.

231

sequel to rheumatism, and is also complicated with peri-
carditis.

Symptoms. — Acute irritative fever, with the development
of signs of interference with the heart’s action, manifested
by irregular contractions, combined with vigour and vibratory
sensation. This insures an unequal beat or strength of the
pulse ; its regularity is degenerated into an intermittent
form, in which three or four beats follow each other at
variable intervals, and these are followed by a pause also of
variable duration. It is therefore said to be irregular as to
force and time, and intermittent as to the duration of time
between the pulsations. One of the most distinguishable
features of endocarditis, even apart from its association with
rheumatism, is the peculiar smallness of the pulse as con-
trasted with pericarditis — an effect of the inability of the
heart to contract upon a large quantity of blood. A peculiar
sound is also heard during contraction, known as the bruit
de souffle, or sound of bellows-blowing, occasioned by the
action and passage of blood over the roughened and in-
flamed surfaces. Such states greatly interfere with the action
of the auriculo-ventricular valves, by which the descent of
blood from auricle to ventricle is obstructed. This form of
impediment is perhaps more readily observed in connexion
with the right side, inasmuch as the presence of the venous
pulse is due to it, and conjointly the difficulty of breathing
is increased. Spasm of the various muscles, as already
described under pericarditis, is present, with greater tendency
to fainting on elevation of the head, which must be borne in
mind during the attempts to administer fluid medicines
(Fig. 60). Endocarditis is probably the most fatal of all
diseases of the heart, by reason of the various serious condi-
tions with which it is often associated, such as blood diseases,
tendency to fibrinous depositions which adhere to the valves
and cause death by impeding the circulation, or, carried by

232 Diseases of the Organs of Circulation.

the blood in small particles, they plug the vessels in various
parts of the body, and, destroying nutrition, produce para-
lysis {see Embolism), softening, abscess, and sudden death,
or by a slow process of blood poisoning which ensues on
subsequent degradation.

Post-mortem Appearanees. — Considerable thickening of the
lining membrane has taken place, and its surface and that
of the valves is freely covered with fibrinous exudation, not
unlike warts or excrescences of variable dimensions. Some-
times an abscess is found in the substance of the heart, and
by ulceration an opening is made between the cavities. The
valves also are liable to perforation from similar action.

Treatment. — This is essentially the same as prescribed for
pericarditis, with, however, one or two exceptions. The use
of aconite may not be dispensed with, but it must be at-
tended with extreme caution, and in small and repeated doses,
say five drops, in combination with the nitrate of potash.
The heart is in such a condition, as well as the circulation
generally, which favours the formation of fibrinous deposit,
and the more we promote debility or feebleness of circulation
the greater the tendency becomes for such untoward states.
We have used the following ball with benefit : —

Recipe No. 68.

Take of carbonate of ammonia i or 2 drs.

Iodide of potassium 2 drs.

Tincture of aconite 3 to 5 drops.

Common mass Sufficient.

Mix, and give one every four or six hours until a visible
effect has been produced on the action of the heart and
circulation.

Avoid bleeding and blisters as agencies of undoubted
deadly tendencies in this disease. The results of endo-
carditis, as already alluded to, are ultimate disease of the
valves of the heart, which have, more or less, the effect of

Embolism.

233

inducing other diseases, as pulmonary apoplexy, &c., embo-
lism, and ultimately sudden death.

Diseases of the Valves.

From the great tendency to the formation of lymph
masses within the heart in endocarditis, great obstructions
arise and interfere with the heart’s action. The valves are
frequently the seat. Morbid growths take place, and prevent
the close approximation during contractions of the organ.
By shrinking of these morbid growths the valves are drawn
out of shape, and cannot properly defend the opening against
the pressure of blood. Ulceration leads to perforation, and
thus a constant communication is established between auricle
and ventricle ; and besides these, there are large deposits
which ultimately become permanent tumours within the
ventricles. The result in each case is that the valves do
not effectually guard the opening, and blood returns in part
from the ventricle to the auricle, and gives rise to the venous
pulse in the jugular vein ; the animal suffers from vertigo or
megrims, with swelling of the legs, belly, and sheath,
together with certain sounds of the heart, which can only
be detected by the acute ear of an experienced veterinarian.
Such cases are chronic in nature, and animals suffering
therefrom are not expected to recover ; they are only suitable
for light and slow work, and sooner or later are liable to
frequent attacks of difficult breathing, and eventually sudden
death.

Embolism.

The result of fibrinous formations within the heart is not
confined to the attachment of morbid growths to the walls
or valves : certain portions or flakes of lymph obtain free
egress with the stream of blood, and find their way to the
pulmonary artery, where, setting up an obstruction, lead to

234 Diseases of the Organs of Circitlation.

congestion of the lungs ; besides this, other arteries are liable
to be plugged, as the iliacs d and i, and the femoral k
(Fig. 6 1, &c.), giving rise to paralysis of one or both limbs,

of the Aorta in the two Iliacs, with the
spring from those vessels within the

Fig. 6 1. — The Termination
numerous branches that
trunk.

a. The abdominal aorta.

b. The spermatics.

c. The posterior mesenteric.

d. The external iliac.

e. The circumflex of the ilium.

f. The profunda femoris.

g. The epigastric.

h. The femoral.

i. The internal iliac,

j. The arteries of the bulb.

k. The remains of the foetal umbilical arteries.
/. The obturator.

m. The arteria innominata.

n. The gluteal.

o. The lateral sacral.

p. The peroneal.

q. A branch to the back of the thigh,

r. A gluteal branch.

s. Continuation of the lateral sacral.

t. The middle sacral.

Embolism,

235

with paleness, and wasting of the muscles after a time. In
recent cases a false kind of movement is established, which

Fig. 62. — The Outside of the Hind Leg.

a. Gluteal branches. c. The anterior tibial.

b. The arteria innominata. d. The metacarpal.

may be mistaken for fracture of the hip bones, rupture of
ligament, &c. Professor Gamgee records a case in which it
may be concluded the cause existed in the absorption of pus
from the abscess of strangles. In order to arrive at a correct
conclusion of the case, the previous history of the animal
and his ailments must be known.

236 Diseases of the Organs of Circtdation.

Symptoms. — Plugging of an artery gives rise to special
indications in the part to which the blood is carried by virtue

a. The external iliac.

b. The profunda femoris.

c. The epigastric.

d. The femoral.

e. The inguinal.

f. Large branch to the stifle.

g. Branch to the triceps abductor femoris.

h. Branch to the posterior border of the

gastrocnemius.

i. Popliteal branches.

j. Anterior tibial.

k. Posterior tibial.

l. The obturator.

m. The arteria innominata.

n. The pubic.

o. The ischiatic.

p. The internal pudic.

of the loss of nutrition which ensues ; these are, coldness of
the whole locality or limb beyond the point of obstruction,
weakness of the muscles, which, as movement is persisted in,
becomes more decided, and eventually degenerates into
absolute inability to raise or carry the limb, while wasting of

Aneurism,

237

I the muscles goes on somewhat rapidly. When the artery is
I examined, per rectum, as in case of the iliacs (Fig. 61), the

I absence of pulsation is diagnostic of the disease. If the

animal is kept at rest, the smaller branches of arterial twigs
are able to maintain almost a sufficient supply of blood ; but
■f when both arteries are plugged, or when exercise is per-
sisted in, the signs of paralysis of a part or whole of the hind-
quarters becomes evident. The large supply of blood sent
to the hind extremities may be estimated, first by the
; abdominal vessels shown in Fig. 61, and further understood
by a reference to Fig. 62, which shows those on the outside
I of the limb ; and by Fig, 63, showing the course of the
I arteries along the inner aspect.

; ‘ Enlargement of an artery at one particular point, either

by means of general dilatation of the whole of the coats or

I by rupture of one which leads to a bladder-like swelling,
is not an uncommon occurrence in the horse. In some
instances the disease may be seen in a superficial vessel,
when it will be detected by the pulsation within, correspond-
ing to the contractions of the heart ; but in most instances
one or other of the deep-seated arteries, as the aorta
(Plate III., Figs. 58 and 61), the mesenteric arteries (Figs. 58
• and 61), or the iliacs, (Fig. 61), &c., are affected when the

• disease is not made out so early ; and even if it be sus-

Ipected, the locality may be too far away to be felt when the
hand is passed up the rectum. Other signs are usually
obscure, and consist chiefly of loss of flesh and spirits ; weak-
ness and dulness at work, dragging of the hind limbs pro-
bably ; cramps ; paralysis of a temporary character ; com-
plications with other diseases, &c. In several cases we
have found parasites — worms of the kind known as the

238 Diseases of the Organs of Circulation.

Strongylus — with aneurismal tumour of the mesenteric
artery, after death ; no evidence particularly pointing to
such a condition being positive during life.

Phlebitis.

By this term is understood inflammation of a vein or
veins. The most common form is that witnessed after
bleeding at the jugular, when the operation has been per-
formed in a clumsy manner, such as repeated puncture, the
use of a blunt or rusty instrument, or one not properly
cleaned after previous use. It may arise even after the most
careful treatment, when the cause is not sufficiently apparent —
probably some predisposition to inflammation — or by the
animal being able to rub the neck, and also when a thrombus
has formed.

Symptoms. — Considerable local tumefaction takes place,
accompanied with great heat, pain, and tenderness ; some-
times the neck also swells, and the head may be in-
volved. Severe constitutional irritation succeeds, and a
discharge issues from the original wound beneath the pin and
suture ; if we remove the pin a quantity of pus is found,
after the discharge of which an angry, red-looking wound
is formed. In some instances a flow of blood — haemorrhage —
takes place, but generally the circulation within the vessel
has been stopped by a coagulum, which eventually causes
the vein from the point of injury upwards to the angle of
the jaw to assume the form of a cord, the clot becoming
organised, and for ever afterwards rendering the vein
useless.

Treatment. — In the first instance, or during the early
stages, the pin need not be removed, but a strong dose of
sedative medicine should be given at once, such as recom-
mended in No 33, page 120. Some practitioners give a dose

Phlebitis,

239

of aloes. Hot fomentations are extremely useful, providing
they are carried on incessantly and the parts are carefully
protected afterwards. A smart blister is preferable, when
placed over the course of the vein, and is available whether
the disease is in the first or second stages, the head being
tied up to prevent the animal rubbing the parts. When
abscesses form they should be opened as soon as possible,
as absorption of pus may take place, or, what is more likely,
it may find its way direct into the circulation, and cause
death. If the above line of treatment is energetically carried
out during the first stages the circulation may be restored,
and no evil consequences arise ; but when treatment is
delayed, the vein is said to be “ lost,” and animals having
suffered to this extent from phlebitis should not be turned
out to grass, as the remaining vein of the opposite side is
not able to return the whole of the blood from the head
when held to the ground, and thereby much swelling of the
face, lips, cheeks, nostrils, &c., arises, which in some cases
interferes with mastication, and even breathing. From
similar causes, and when the veins of both sides have been
operated upon, phlebitis takes place, which terminates in
their obliteration, when the animal becomes worthless. A
diffuse or general form of phlebitis arises in some animals
from a peculiar constitutional tendency to inflammation and
suppuration, as already referred to, when wounds have been
inflicted upon or near one or more vessels at the same time.
When horses are injured by coal waggons, or by running
away, blows, punctures, lacerations, &c., an abscess often
speedily follows, and by the process of invasion, or ulcera-
tion, the veins are opened, and the contents of such abscesses
pass into the circulation. Previous to this, the injured
vessels become inflamed along their lining membranes, which
results in fibrinous clots being formed, the heart and many
vessels becoming involved ; while the lungs, liver, and even

240 Diseases of the Orga^ts of Circulation,

the joints partake of the disorder, and exhibit the formation
of abscesses. The treatment is essentially the same as in
the traumatic or circumscribed form of phlebitis, while pre-
vention is to be mainly secured by ample and efficient
treatment of wounds, and injuries of every kind, in their
early states.

Thrombus.

When sufficient care is not observed in the manner of
closing the wound after bleeding, a condition known as
thrombus is not an uncommon result. A swelling arises
over the seat of puncture, which is due to the infiltration of
blood within the cellular tissue, and originating when the orifice
has been too small, by drawing the skin too far away while
the pin is being inserted, or, if the vessel rolls during punc-
ture, and other tissues are divided instead of the walls of the
v^ein. Thrombus is not a serious matter, if attended to at
once. The head must be elevated by tying to the rack all

food withheld, and cold-water effusions applied at short in-
tervals. Usually this is all that is required, but when the
causes have been aggravated, the result is phlebitis. Fortu-
nately, in the present time, thrombus and traumatic phlebitis
are rare occurrences, owing to the disuse of phlebotomy in
the cure of diseases among the lower animals.

Admission of Air into the Veins.

The consequences of the entrance of atmospheric air into
the veins are more or less serious, in proportion to the
amount. Small quantities taken in slowly causes very dis-
tressing symptoms, and if large, and injected with rapidity,
sudden death results. Usually the admission of air is acci-
dental, as in bleeding from the jugular, particularly when a
large opening has been made low down in the neck, or
within the space through which the suction or aspiratory

Admission of Air into the Veins, 241

force is acting. As soon as the pressure is removed from
below the bleeding orifice, a gurgling sound is heard, and, as
already stated, proportionate with the amount of air taken in,
the animal exhibits signs of syncope or fainting ; he falls, and
endures difficulty of breathing, while loud sounds are emitted
in the heart’s action, which is nevertheless very feeble, and
the animal either becomes unconscious and dies, or his end
is preceded by severe convulsions.

When but a small amount of air has passed down the
animal may recover, particularly if an arrest to further admis-
sion be made by pressing the finger on the course of the
vein, as when blood is being drawn, and closing the orifice
immediately. Stimulants also should be given at once when
signs of fainting come on, and if the animal is down, the
head should be placed a little lower than the body ; friction
applied to the legs and body, and depletive medicines given
if signs of inflammation of the lungs subsequently arise.

In consequence of the known results of the passage of air
into the veins, it has been the practice of veterinarians for a
long period to introduce it purposely, when old and worn-
out horses are to be put to death without suffering much
agony. The mode in which death ensues is somewhat as
follows : — An admixture of blood and air assumes a frothy
state, and in this form is incapable of free circulation. The
action of the heart insures this. Passing from the right side
of the heart, it next traverses the pulmonary artery to the
lungs, and is distributed through the capillaries there, where
a stoppage ensues, and by which the vessels leading from
the heart become filled. These conditions are progressive,
and being carried on for some time result in gradually dimi-
nishing the flow of blood through the lungs ; from this no
purification takes place, the brain lacks nourishment and
stimulus, and ceases to regulate the supply of nervous force,
causing syncope, unconsciousness, and death, the heart at

242 Diseases of the Organs of Circulation,

last receiving no blood. In order to avoid these results»
when abstracting blood from the jugular vein, the necessary
pressure for insuring the flow should be removed slowly and
carefully, and the orifice closed as soon as possible by the
twisted suture (Fig. 14, p. 5 5)> directed. Attention must
likewise be given to the choice of place for puncture, in
order to avoid the locality through which the aspiratory force
is capable of acting, particulars of which have already been
given at p. 52.

Varicose Veins.

When veins exhibit tumour-like enlargements along their
course, or at one spot only, they are said to be varicose.
Such knotty protuberances sometimes assume large dimen-
sions in the jugular, or vena saphena of the hind-leg, the
enlargement or dilatation being due to rupture or attenua-
tion of the walls of the vessel, probably also the formation
of a clot or coagula from inflammation, and complete arrest
of the flow. Varix, as applied to a vein, is a similar condi-
tion to aneurism, as referring to an artery. The causes are
sometimes due to bleeding oft repeated, by which the jugular
vein is weakened and attenuated, and in the vena saphena,
as well as other superficial vessels, the same results may be
brought about by pressure, direct injury, or, conjointly with
these, internal pressure from the column of blood. In cer-
tain instances, the sac can be emptied by pressure directed
in the course of the current, by which no doubt will be
entertained of its nature, a sure test of distinction from bog
spasm, when varix occurs upon the hock-joint. When the
current has been arrested by internal coagula the test can-
not be applied with such certainty, but, as sometimes happens,
though rarely, suppuration is established, and discloses the
disease of the vessel.

The usual treatment consists of passing a needle or liga-

V nil Stones — Phlebolites.

243

ture beneath the vessel above and below the dilatation, and
thus effectually consolidate that part which is diseased ; but
when abscess has formed, the sac must be first opened, and
a blister applied to the surface of the skin. In minor con-
ditions of unimportant vessels, simple pressure by bandages,
good food, and internal tonic treatment are necessary.

Vein Stones — Phlebolites.

In addition to the various conditions which have been
already described as affecting the veins, there are occasional
instances in which enlargement and obstruction arises from
the presence of hardened concretions, to which the above-
named terms have been given. The first notice of these in
England was given to the profession by Professor Morton, in
I 844, in his valuable essay on “ Calculous Concretions,” but
practitioners of human medicine here, and veterinarians
abroad, have given great attention to the subject, by reason
of more frequent opportunities coming before them. The
jugular vein is an occasional locale of phlebolites, but when
seen in a superficial vessel, the inference is that others are
present in other veins, and sooner or later obstructions arise
which prove fatal. The suggestions as to their origin and
formation are various, and even speculative, and we need not
go into them here. Their composition, as stated by Mr.
Morton, is as follows : —

“Animal matter 27*5

Phosphate of lime 5 3 '5

Carbonate of lime I5'5

Magnesia and loss 3*5

I00‘0”

Their presence is undoubtedly due to some peculiar dis-
position on the part of the system, in which numerous par-

16—2

244 Diseases of the Organs of Circ^tlation,

tides are formed within the circulation, capable of passing
from a fibrinous to a calcareous stage, and, by gradual in-
crease of size, are arrested at various parts of the circulation,
most likely in some of the most important organs, where
they set up irritation and obstruction. The rarity of these
occurrences have not enabled us to record any reliable or
constant signs. Lameness has been known to arise in one
leg, due to the implication of the nutrient vessels and
synovial cavities, and derangement of some internal organ is
evident by negative signs. After death, venous obstructions
are found, together with abscess of organs, softening, and
haemorrhage.

Megrims — Vertigo — Venous Obstruction.

As a result of pressure upon the jugular veins induced by
badly-fitting collars, especially when any peculiar conformation
exists, horses are subject to a disorder to which the terms
megrims and vertigo have been given. The case assumes
greater intensity when both jugulars are pressed upon, if the
day is hot and the road hilly, the effects being an obstruc-
tion to the return of blood from the head.

Symptoms. — There are indications of uneasiness, as shown
by twitching of the ears and shaking of the head ; the eyes
are staring and bloodshot, and shortly the animal assumes a
wild kind of frenzy in darting forward in a blind condition,
and either throwing himself forwards, falling over something,
or dropping head foremost, and lying in violent convulsions
for some time. In such a state, the horse cannot be held by
human strength, and when the fit comes on during a drive
there is scarcely any warning before the occupants of the
vehicle are prostrate in all directions, and probably injured
seriously. Besides pressure from the collar, the heat of the
sun has, doubtless, a part in the production of megrims, so
far as it has a tendency to promote congestion of the brain ;

Lymphangitis,

245

and the certainty of the disease is greater when one or both
jugulars are obstructed as a result of previous phlebitis.
Owing to the few instances now in which horses are bled,
phlebitis is a rare disease, and thereby the tendency to
megrims is likewise materially lessened.

Treatment. — Immediately on witnessing the first signs of
uneasiness, especially if the animal stops suddenly, the driver
should quickly dismount, and push forivard the collar, suf-
ficient time being allowed before the journey is resumed.
The bearing and pressure of the collar may be easily altered,
so as to prevent a recurrence of the attack, by securing a
roll formed by a towel, &c., beneath the front of the collar
on the breast, and afterwards seeing to the permanent im-
provement of the seat. Cold water may be dashed over the
head at the moment, and a wet rag or sponge, covered by
oiled silk, &c., has been found useful.

Such horses are not really safe for driving, as in hot weather
they are liable to lose condition, and a well-fitting collar ceases
to be such when the objectionable disease is produced. Under
the saddle they lose none of their usefulness, or when draw-
ing with a breast collar.

DISEASES OF THE ABSORBENTS.
Lymphangitis;, or Lymphangeitis.

This affection, arranged as to cause, might more properly
come under the head of “ diseases due to errors of diet but
for reasons already explained we place it in connexion with
the maladies of the circulatory organs.

Lymphangitis, or inflammation of the lymphatics, is known
by various synonyms in different parts of the country : thus,
in Scotland it is termed “ Weed in England we term it
Thick-leg,” “ Shot or Shewt of Grease,” the Shake,”
“ Water-farcy/’ “ Dropsy,” and, emphatically, the “ Monday-

246 Diseases of the Organs of Circiilation,

morning, or Holiday Disease.” The last, although probably
the least scientific, certainly hints very pointedh'- towards the
generally accepted cause.

Nature. — Lymphangitis consists of inflammation of the
lymphatics, or absorbents of one hind-leg, attended with a
great amount of tumefaction and lameness. Occasionally
both hind-legs are involved, and still more rarely one of the
fore-limbs. As a rule, the off hind-limb is the one affected,
and after the animal has once been attacked, subsequent
seizures, with increasing permanent enlargement and corre-
sponding stifthess, must be looked for.

Symptoms. — The animal, left perfectly well and hearty on
the previous evening — which almost invariably happens to
be that of Sunday or other rest day — is discovered on the
following morning (Fig. 64) either suffering from extreme

Fig. 64. — Lymphatigitis .

irritative fever and restlessi.css, to which rapidly succeeds the
immense swelling of the limb, or, the febrile stage having
more or less subsided, he is immovable from the latter cause.
The commencement of the malady is betokened by a severe
fit of shivers or rigors, which may extend over several hours,
the intensity of the fit characterising accurately the severity
of the attack. The shivering gives way to reaction, when
the animal blows heavily, the skin becomes hot, and he at
length sweats profusely. The pulse is hard, full, frequent,

f \

Lymphangitis. 247

and strong : visible mucous membranes reddened ; urine
high-coloured, scanty, and containing large quantities of urea
and hippurates, the proceeds of the destruction of nitrogenous
compounds derived from the food and system ; the bowels
are constipated ; the leg is immensely swollen, and if the
hand is passed, even with only moderate pressure over the
course of the enlarged absorbents, or the superfices of the
inner side of the thigh, the animal experiences much pain ;
the neighbouring glands are also tumefied and painful. The
swelling commences above and extends downwards, giving
the leg a distended and almost cylindrical appearance, form-
ing at the heels a number of rolls and creases, with redness
of the skin where the hair is thin and light. Lameness is
intense, and the leg is held up from pain, while the animal
frequently looks round with an expression of anxiety de-
picted on his countenance. With the increase of swelling the
pain and lameness usually subside. The disease does not,
as a rule, run on to suppuration ; protracted cases, in which
the glands of the groin, &c., are involved in chronic inflam-
mation, may do so, when the swelling extends along the
abdomen, &c,, and constitutes a state of infiltration, abscess
being the exception.

Causes. — Excess of nitrogenous or fibrinous material in
the blood, in almost every case due to over-feeding at a time
when the animal is set aside for rest, particularly when the
duties are unusually heavy. Draught-horses, and others of large
visceral capacity, are the common subjects of the disease.
Under these circumstances, there is a large manufacturing
power, ample material of the richest quality, and no demand
for it ; hence the absorbents, whose office is to carry it for-
ward, are irritated and inflamed by the excess and over-
stimulation. Sometimes the disease follows an attack of
indigestion, colic, or diarrhoea, consequent upon a full allow-
ance of green food.

248 Diseases of the Organs of Circulation,

Lymphangitis is also seen in certain debilitating affections,
as influenza, &c., when, by reason of the rapid destruction
or change of tissue, the system is surcharged with the pro-
ceeds, and irritation of the absorbent system follows, as
described ; excepting, however, that the disease assumes
probably a less violent form, and the fore-leg is often the
seat.

Lymphangitis is liable to terminate in per-
manent thickening of the leg, due to succes-
sive attacks, and hypertrophy of the areolar or
subcutaneous tissue ; and the condition termed
Elephantiasis has been given to it (Fig. 65).

Treatment. — During the attack of rigors,
nothing answers so well as persistent fomen-
tations regulated as directed under that head
Dispensatory — Fomentations), the leg being
enveloped in several thicknesses of woollen material. The
body should be clothed or “ strapped” to produce warmth,
and if the coldness be great, notwithstanding these measures,
a dose of nitric ether may be given, or the following : —

Recipf No. 69.

Take of solution of aloes 8 or 10 fi. 02.

Nitric ether 2 fl. oz.

Tincture of aconite 10 drops.

Mix, and give from the bottle.

Throw up enemas of tepid water, and allow plenty of the
cold fluid for drinking.

Some practitioners bleed ; but after some considerable
thought on the propriety of the proceeding, we abandoned
it in favour of the treatment just described, depending upon
the action of a purgative, administered as soon as possible,
in combination with aconite to prevent severe reaction ; and
in the second stages, after the purgative has been given, to
ollow with repeated doses of the neutral salts in combination

Fig. 65.
Eiephantiasis.

Lymphangitis. 249

with aconite, as required. At first, the diet must be cooling
and laxative, and when the pain and swelling are reduced
the animal may be sent to gentle work and exercise, the
attention of those in charge being directed to the observance
of care in feeding, especially on rest days. The prevention
of the disease may be secured by substituting bran mashes
for the Saturday evening meal, walking the animal out a mile
or two on the following morning, and giving a dose of neutral
salt in the food at this time.

In the debilitating form, the treatment will be regulated
according to the original complaint which produced lymphan-
gitis. For the dissipation of the swelling we have found
an infusion of digitalis, rendered alkaline by carbonate of
potash or soda, a valuable remedy, when poured on warm,
the leg being covered by woollen bandages, &c.

SECTION V.

DISEASES OF THE ORGANS
OF DIGESTION.

DISEASES OE THE ORGANS
OF DIGESTION.

It is a fact worthy of particular note, that diseases of
the digestive organs in the horse are of rare occurrence
under circumstances which secure good management, and it
is equally important to bear in mind that the great majority
of diseases, not only of the digestive organs, but those
incidental to the urinary system, are the outcome of errors
in diet. Indeed, to a larger extent than is usually conceded,
we may also trace to the same causes everything needful for
the production of maladies in connexion with the circulatory,
respiratory, and even nervous systems.

It is not our intention to enter into a lengthened and
elaborate detail, and array of conclusions, in reference to the
physiology of digestion ; indeed, in a work like the present,
essentially treating of the diseases incidental to the horse,
we should be trespassing on the time and patience of the
reader. The subject has been fully treated in a separate
work, to which reference may be profitably made with the
view of prevention.^

Keeping before us the lengthened catalogue of what may
be correctly termed dietetic diseases and disorders — in other
words, diseases fairly ascribed to errors of diet, and primary
disorders and diseases of the digestive organs — it becomes a

* The Horseowner and Stableman’s Companion. London : F. Wame & Co.

2 54 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

matter of no small difficulty in giving each malady its
proper place and classification ; we shall find, for instance,
that certain diseases arising from disorder of the alimentary
canal are known by their effects on the kidneys or urinary
organs generally, and therefore have been usually described
as diseases of those structures. We have to admit such a
course is not warranted by a close observance of causes, but
in a work like the present, believe it to be the most simple,
and of easy reference to the non-professional reader. We
shall therefore pursue the plan as originally adopted in
“ The Cattle Doctor,”^ grouping the diseases according to
the organs affected, endeavouring faithfully to furnish all
information as to known causes ; and we believe that course
will demonstrate more perfectly than words how complex
the classification might become, while some must be dealt
with in a miscellaneous way in order to give them a place
under any circumstances. With the professional reader the
question assumes altogether a different aspect.

INJURIES AND DISEASES OF THE MOUTH, &c.
Wounds of the Lips and Cheeks.

The lips and cheeks are occasionally wounded by sharp
instruments, or bruised by bits, &c., and considerable in-
convenience in mastication is the result. The wounds are
of several kinds : incised, lacerated, or contused. They are
treated on the general principles laid down for wounds in
succeeding pages, with such exceptions or additions as
nature of the part calls for. One thing is to be particularly
observed — viz., that the animal cannot lose any part of the
lips, cheeks, or tongue, without becoming more or less worth-
less, and therefore we must not resort to the use of the

Clater’s Cattle Doctor. London : F. Wame & Co.

Wounds of the Lips and Cheeks, 255

knife for removing portions until we are assured that the
hope of reunion is lost, or that gangrene is present.
When the lips, cheeks, &c., are divided by a sharp instru-
ment, the parts are to be brought together by sutures, and
our endeavours should be directed towards securing rest to
the parts, or such absence of motion
as will conduce towards reunion,
thus avoiding loss or tearing out of
the pins. This may be accomplished
in most instances by putting on a
head gear such as is shown in the
annexed figure (Fig. 66). If it is
desirable to keep the jaws effec-
tually closed, the broad strap
should be employed ; and when the
lips are required to be quiescent, and, in addition, dressings
applied, the lower part or muzzle may be attached — see cut.

Of the various preparations for promoting the healing
process, one or other of the following may be selected : —

Fig. 66. — The jaws secured
against movement.

Recipe No. 70.

Take of solution of chloralum 2 fl. drs.

Tincture of myrrh 2 fl. oz.

Water i pint

Mix, and apply several times daily.

Recipe No. 71.

Take of sulphate of zinc i oz.

Tincture of myrrh and aloes 4 fl. oz.

Water i quart.

Mix.

A very efficacious remedy recommended by the late
Professor Dick, consisted of preparations of lead and zinc as
follows : —

Recipe No. 72.

1 oz.

I »

I quart.

Take of acetate of lead

Sulphate of /me

Water

256 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

This was the famed “white lotion.” It is kept for use
in a small long-necked bottle, such as contains anchovy
or Worcester sauce, and when it is to be applied, the fore-
finger, being held over the orifice, is momentarily raised
as the vessel is quickly dashed towards the wound, when
sufficient is thrown without waste or disturbing the sutures,
coagulum, &c. Further instructions will be found under the
head of Wounds.

Lacerated wounds are occasionally inflicted by means of
nails, hooks, &c., against which the parts have gone in
violent contact. Sutures cannot always be used here, and
union is only imperfectly accomplished. Such wounds are
apt to slough, and require dressings as tincture of arnica, or
tincture of aloes and myrrh.

Occasionally a large tumour is seen on the lip, or side of
the face a little behind the angle of the mouth, and it is
hot, tender, and enlarging. The one on the lip probably
bursts inwardly, and thus disappears without any treatment ;
the other does not generally prove so simple in its termina-
tion. The causes are — entrance of foreign bodies which
have been mixed with the food, and these are liberated if the
abscess is opened artificially ; sometimes they have been
discovered in the manger after the tumour has naturally
discharged the contents. We have found thorns, sharp
pieces of iron and steel — as nails, points of penknife blades,
and file tangs, &c. — firmly imbedded in the substance of the
lips and cheeks ; and when the latter has been wounded, a
large opening may be eventually established by abscess,
from the outside to the interior of the mouth, allowing the
food to pass out during mastication, the tumour previously
greatly interfering with the process (Fig. 67). Abscess in
the cheek also occurs in consequence of ill-usage in breaking.
We remember a colt-breaker whose treatment of the animals
placed under his care gave rise to a number of such cases.

l^l^oimds of the Lips and Cheeks, 257

large and heavy bits being used, and, we
believe, associated with much brutality.

Injuries to the lips and cheeks also arise
from some sharp substance becoming
wedged between the teeth, causing great
pain, insalivation, and loss of appetite. yig. 67. — Wound in

The treatment oi these cases is usually the Cheek, the result

of A bscess, commum-

of a simple character. Swellings of the catmg with the inte-
parts should be examined for foreign of the mouth.

objects, which are to be extracted. Abscesses already
pointing must be opened with the lancet, and afterwards
kept clean. When openings have been made through
the cheek, the animal should be fed on sloppy food for a
time, and dressings applied to hasten the closure of the
orifice. In several cases which have come beneath our
notice, the edges of the wound have been healed and
hardened, and a permanent orifice has been left, through
which the animal lost much of the food supplied. Union in
each instance was successfully attained by the use of the
actual cautery (Fig. 29) to the cicatrised borders of the
wound, and a small blister on the outside, the first having
the effect of producing granulating raw surfaces, while the
resulting swelling maintained by the blister brought the
edges together, and finally healed them in four or five days.

A great amount of harm ensues from the use of improper
bits, especially in colts, a general impression being abroad
that a good mouth can be produced only in proportion to
the amount of laceration it has undergone. When prudence
and discretion guide the breaker, animals generally go well
in common snaffle bits, and we have known careful men who
could ride their broken colts by means of a packthread ; but
we fear the competition of the present day rather militates
against the expenditure of so much time as is needed for
that state of perfection, while the love of intoxicatinsf drink

258 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

annihilates both patience and gentleness, and the resulting
want of money hastens the return of the animal, probably
but imperfectly handled.

The lining or bnccal membrane of the mouth greatly
sympathises in the general disorder of the system, and
swelling is observed, as well as an increased colour or red-
ness. Besides this, the bars or rugose folds of the palate
and the papillae of the various glands are enlarged and red,
and the animal is probably “ a little off his feed,” and
feverish. Stupid persons then fly off to the veterinary sur-

geon, who is desired to cut or burn out the “ lampas,”
“ barbs,” or “ paps and if the practitioner refuses, all he
may say on the score of humanity will have no avail, for in
all probability some blacksmith, farmer, or cow-leech will be
found who will assume the responsibility of “ curing” the
animal, or the groom will do it himself. We have seen an
animal nearly bled to death by incisions carelessly made in
the palate by ignorant people, and disease of the jaws from
frequent burning and pricking the parts. When horses
take a simple cold, or the stomach and bowels are dis-
ordered, or the process of dentition is going on, such states
as we have described are not uncommon, and are really of
such little consequence that they need not occasion any
alarm, unless the loss of appetite accompanies the state,
when a simple dose of mild cathartic medicines, salines, &c.,
will effectually remove the whole, more especially when
assisted by a simple mouth wash, as given in No. 23, p. 92.

Paralysis of the Lips.

This is a common affection among the heavier breeds of
horses, to which it is not entirely confined, as others occa-
sionally suffer. It is indicated by a hanging and flabby state of
the lower lip principally, which swings with the motions of the

259

Paralysis of the Lips.

head, and exposes the lining membrane. The animal has

no power to raise it to the proper position, and hence a

continual flow of saliva is present (Fig.

68) ; neither can he employ the lips

in eating or drinking, for in gathering

food the teeth only are used, and in

drinking he plunges his head nearly to

the eyes. Such a horse feeds badly at

grass, and under all circumstances a

continual waste of food is going on

during mastication, owing to the ab-

r , 1 • c L.^ Fig. 68. — Paralysis of

sence of the necessary covering of the Lower Lip.

lips.

The causes are believed to be various, some ascribing
the paralysis to chronic conditions of the nerves arising from
indigestion ; others believe it to be due to the infliction of
blows, and Professor Williams says his experience leads him
to conclude that it results from heavy and tightly-fitting
bridles.* We entirely agree with him, and at the same time
urge our conviction that blcTws have a fair share in the pro-
duction of the disease. It is very common among the
horses and ponies used in coal-mines, where only a simple
light head-stall without winkers is used ; and we remember
being considerably concerned at one time to account rightly
for it, and after a time finding that the drivers made a
regular practice of striking the animal on the side of the
face. We also have vivid recollections of a whole stud of
farm-horses, numbering twenty-two, being affected with this
disease on the left side principally. In the latter case we
are not so certain that brutal treatment was the cause, as no
opportunity for discovery could be obtained, and the wearing
of heavy bridles might be accepted as sufficient ; but the

Principles and Practice of Veterinary Surgery.

17—2

26o Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

frequent occurrence of the disease arg-ues strongly in favour of
the operation of additional powerful causes, and as a further
aid to the conclusion, we need only to be reminded that men
and boy drivers are usually armed with a whip or stick ;
besides, they invariably walk on the left side of the animal,
and are very liable to punish the horse about the face and
head — the left side, of course, presenting itself without their
going out of the way to inflict the blows. Such treatment
readily produces inflammation, and the nerves are impli-
cated ; the exudation consequent on that morbid process
gives rise first to pressure, and afterwards to a destruction
of nerve function.

Treatment. — Under this head we might recommend first
of all “ watch for the infliction of injury, and bring the
offender before the nearest magistrate for, happily, there is
law by which real cruelty to animals may be arrested and

Fig. 69. — Nerves of the Face.

the culprit punished. In recent cases only can we hope for
good from medical treament. The animal should be al-
lowed to run loose in a box when at rest, and the food,
selected for its nutritious and digestible qualities, placed in

Affectio7ts of the Tongue. 261

a deep box or manger, from which he cannot turn it out to
waste. According to circumstances, sedatives or purgatives
may be used internally, cooling and sedative lotions to the
side of the face, particularly over the large flat muscle
(Fig. 69) named the masseter, on the surface of which the
nerves have been doubtless injured. Incessant fomentations
may be used with great advantage, and at a later stage a
blister of biniodide of mercury, with the internal adminis-
tration of iodine salts. In older standing cases setons, and
even the actual cautery, have been used when the previously
named agents have failed.

Sporadic Appith/E — Thrush.

An eruption of small vesicles or bladders appearing on
the lining membrane of the mouth, as well as on the tongue,
is known by the above names. Sometimes the insides of the
lips are implicated, and, after a few hours, the clear, limpid
fluid of the vesicles changes into pus, and as they burst a
somewhat angry-looking ulcer is left behind. In mild cases
a few days sufflce to see the end of the malady, but occa-
sionally a more severe and even fatal form is witnessed,
which gives rise to much constitutional disturbance, foetor of
breath, and derangement of the bowels by extension of the
eruption. The causes are derangement of the digestive
organs, inducing faulty assimilation ; and in the aggravated
form the blood is implicated.

Treatment. — Administer chlorate of potash internally, and
wash the mouth with solutions of alum and zinc, as already
recommended.

Affections of the Tongue.

These are due to disease and injury. Under the first
term are included glossitis^ or inflammation of the tongue,
and ulcer ; under the second, mutilation and paralysis.

262 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

Glossitis.

The simplest form of inflammation of the tongue is
witnessed after the careless administration of hot fluids,
caustic medicines, &c. In those places where it continues the
practice to give cooked food, portions are sometimes served
“ scalding hot” to hungry horses, and the tongue usually
suffers. We have seen thirsty animals obtain access to
a vessel containing a caustic fluid, as black ashes in solution,
and strong solutions of ammonia have frequently been
given without sufficient dilution. When boluses contain-
ing ammonia are left to the grooms for administration,
they are apt to perform the operation carelessly ; the animal
does not swallow the bolus, but gets it between his teeth,
holding it and chewing it alternately, and shortly the whole
train of symptoms are set up. When hot liquids or sub-
stances have been given, the tongue is red and swollen,
filling the mouth ; the cheeks are also involved, and a
copious stream of saliva flows when the lips are separated in
the sipping action, which the creature persists in performing.
When caustic alkalies liave been used the tongue is peeled,
red and swollen, and if grasped by the hand it has a soapy
feel, and usually slips away, leaving much of the buccal
membrane on the fingers. The saliva is very copious in
quantity and ropy in consistence, and food is altogether re-
fused, while the animal suffers from irritative fever.

Ulcer.

This usually depends upon the pre-existence of sporadic
aphthae, arising from constitutional causes. But there are
also other causes, as bruises from bits, punctures from nails,
thorns, &c., scratches from irregular teeth, all of which may
set up first an abscess, the parts giving way to a low form

Mutilation of the Tongue. 263

of inflammation ; and the result is a spreading sore, causing
much inconvenience by loss of appetite and condition.

Mutilation of the Tongue.

It is a common practice, when using only a halter in
riding, to pass the rope through the mouth, to act as a means
of restraint in the absence of the usual bit “ Putting the
cavil into the mouth” frequently means winding the rope
round the jaw, and including the tongue in a gradually
tightening noose ; and at the end of the journey some care-
less persons tie up the animal, leaving the rope in the
same position. If the horse “ hangs back,” the tongue or
jaw suffers ; and considering the many instances in which
these acts are perpetrated, we are puzzled to account for the
small number of accidents. Then, some sensitive persons
feel they have been grossly insulted by the animal, and at
once punish' him by running the noose of a sharp, small
cord over the tongue, and lead him about, occasionally
jerking the cord ; or else tie him up to a fence, thus secured
during such time as their honours deem sufficient. Others
deliberately cut and otherwise wound the organ by various
instruments, in spite towards the owner. The action of the
halter and cord is to bruise or strangulate the tongue, and
besides the usual inflammation, loss of one
half by sloughing is not unlikely. Jerking
of the cord, and running back when tied
to some fixed object, secures a state of
paralysis, and the tongue hangs loosely
from the mouth a perfectly useless member
(Fig. 70). In some instances it is pulled
out entirely. Some persons, when giving
medicines, pull out the tongue too far, or draw it aside
between the molar teeth, which closing upon it, repeatedly

264 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

cut, tear, and bruise it severely. The tongue has been pulled
right out in the operation of “ balling” a horse. Lastly,
paralysis of the tongue may arise from disease of the brain,
by which nervous power is withdrawn.

Treatment. — In all cases of inflammation and injury to
the tongue cooling and astringent lotions are invariably
useful. Alum, zinc, vinegar, and the mineral acids are
useful, not only on account of their constringent action, but in
addition to their neutralising effect upon the caustic alkalies,
when they have been the cause of injury. Electuaries, also
made up with mineral and vegetable astringents, are ueed by
some practitioners. When portions have been partially
separated, every effort should be made towards saving the
organ from sloughing and loss by diligent treatment, local
and general : mouth washes or electuaries, and chlorate of
potash internally. Paralysis is a difficult condition to deal
with, and leaves little chance of useful results. The only
plan which suggests itself is to return the member to the
mouth, and maintain it by means of bandages, and treat
the animal constitutionally. The loss of a part of the
-tongue renders the animal a faulty feeder ; and although he
may preserve a fair amount of condition, he nevertheless
requires much care and attention, and is valueless in the
market. Gangrene of the tongue arises from being tightly
compressed under the rope, or cord, and sometimes also from
inflammation. Abscission can only be warranted in these
cases, and it should be performed as soon as possible ; or by
the absorption of the products blood poison results, and the
animal quickly dies.

Injuries to, and Diseases of, the Jaws, &c.

The bones of the face and jaws, as forming agents in
mastication, are occasionally the seat of injury and disease.

Injuries tc

seases of, the Jaws, &c. 265

Whenever su< ice the case needs especial care and

surgical atter as can only be given by an ex-
perienced pr; the following remarks will there-
fore be inten aish such information and assistance

as will enal ider to find out the nature of the

morbid condi : than providing the means of cure.

Surgical case e undertaken by amateurs with profit

or advantag< y may mitigate suffering, and avoid

much aggravation m existing conditions, by possessing a
certain amount of information relative thereto ; and to this
end we shall direct the reader.

Fractures of the Inferior Maxillary
Bone. — The lower jaw bone is liable
to injury from falling, when the animal
strikes the ground with the front of his
mouth, when the fracture may be longi-
tudinal— i.e., from before backwards,
along the median line (Fig. a a'), by
which the incisor teeth are displaced ;
oblique, as from b to a\ and transversey
or across one or both branches, imme-
diately behind the point of union (Fig.

71, d). In some rare cases the bone

may be fractured a little below the
articulation, or joint. Other causes of
hvcture of this bone are kicks from
other horses, blows inflicted by iron
instruments in sheer brutality by those
having the care of horses, punching out
of teeth by improper instruments, in the
hands of incompetent operators, and
the use of too powerful bits and curbs.

Fractures are detected by such symptoms as the fol-
lowing ; — Drivelling of saliva ; inability to gather and

a, a'. The median line of union,

or symphysis,

b, a'. Line of oblique, fracture.

b, b'. Line of transverse fracture.

c, c'. ,, „ ,,

266 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

masticate food, while it is evident the an'mal desires to eat.;
slight or extreme deformity of the jaw ; looseness of incisor
teeth ; dislike to have the mouth examined ; and, added to
so me or all the above, when a compound fracture exists, the
saliva will be mixed with blood, or peihaps haemorrhage
will be profuse ; a piece or pieces of bone may protrude
through a wound in the fleshy coverings, and the lining
membrane of the mouth will show the result of bruises
and laceration in sundry patches of swelling and inflam-
mation.

The treatment is conducted on various plans in accordance
with the locality of the fracture. • One method consists of
first uniting the divided bones, and maintaining them by
means of wooden splints and bandages, with wire passed
round the teeth. We refer to fractures of the neck or
middle line of the .bone. The next procedure is to pre-
vent the motion of the jaws, which leads to displacement,
and this is best accomplished by using a head-stall, having a
broad band, as shown in Fig. 66, p. 255, which is tightened
as required underneath by several straps and corresponding
buckles.

Another plan, probably more effective, but requiring much
time and patience to effect a proper adjustment of the
appliances, consists of moulding gutta-percha when softened
by hot water to the form of the jaws, beneath and upon
each side, thus to form a counterpart or bed in which the
damaged parts may lie ; while being strapped down, union
takes place without much liability to displacement. Plaster
of Paris has been used in a similar manner with good effect.
The third agency is a piece of wood hollowed to fit and
receive the lower jaw, the concavity being made large
enough to receive a bedding of soft tow or cotton wool, by
which a more perfect mould or adaptation to the form of the
injured parts can be obtained. Above these the head-stall,

Injuries to, ami

Vise

ises of, the Jaws, &c. 267

already referred t<^ >> uut on, and the use of wire passed
round one or mor ,• r- .y be adopted in addition towards
keeping on the arrangemeni;. ' The animal will need nourish-
ing, but constantly a fluid or semifluid diet, which he can
draw through a small space between the teeth ; and when
a compound or comminuted fracture exists, portions of bone
may need removal, and the external wound requires great
care and attention. In the latter instances there will be a
discharge of pus, and provision must be made for its free
escape, or serious consequences will be the result. In such
cases applications of carbolic acid, known as the antiseptic
treatment, are the most valuable and safe, as promoting the
healing process by simple or adhesive inflammation, and
arresting the formation of pus. Fractures of the second
variety are even more difficult in management. Side splints
and bandages are needed, together with perfect stillness of
the jaws until union is perfectly secured, the same principles,
modified according to the locality, being adopted.

Injuries to the Articulation. — The infliction of blows on
the side of the face by heavy instruments sometimes do
more immediate damage than
producing inflammation of the
nerves and resulting paralysis
of the lips, which is exhibited
in fracture of the zygomatic
portion of the temporal bone
(Fig. 72), involving injury to
the joint, with probable ulce-
ration and the flow of synovia,
or joint oil. These are unsatis-
factory cases as a rule, for,
notwithstanding the flow of
synovia may be arrested, and the orifice by which it escaped
has been healed, the bones continue to participate in the

Fig. 72. — Partial Anchylosis of the
M axillary Ai'ticulation or Joint.

268 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

inflammatory process by which bony matter is thrown out,
in the end locking or setting fast the joint, and completely
preventing mastication. The animal eventually dies of
starvation or lock-jaw — tetanus — and sometimes blood
poisoning from purulent inflammation carries him off long
before that can be accomplished.

Treatme7it. — The jaws must be kept at perfect rest, as
.shown in Fig. 66, by means of the head-stall, and closure of
the orifice should be attempted, using the actual cautery to
the inner surfaces and a blister outside. The antiseptic
treatment proves very useful. In successful ca.ses the wound
may be closed in about ten or twelve days.

Disease of the Bones. — In consequence of blows, or the
use of a tight curb or head-stall (Fig. 73, a), severe bit, &c.,

confined to the front portion of the upper and lower jaws,
around the incisor teeth, resulting in abscess, great enlarge-
ment, displacement of teeth, inability to masticate food, a
fungoid condition of the soft parts, intolerable foetor, wasting
of the animal, and, in the end, d^ath. Such cases as these
are somewhat rare, depending, in addition to the actual
cause, upon a peculiar state of constitution at the time, and
from the delay usually attending before assistance is sought

Fig. 73. — The Tight Strap is shown at a.

inflammation of the
bone structure arises,
and a large tumour
forms, giving an un-
sightly appearance to
the usual contour of
the jaws. Such are
irremediable, and are
the least severe in na-
ture ; but occasionally
there arises a variety
of disease which is

Injuries to, and Diseases of, the Jaws, &c. 269

Fig. 74. — Disease of Upper Jaw-bone,
displacing Incisor Teeth.

a cure is impossible. Several animals thus affected have
come beneath our immediate notice, in one only of which
the disease was con-
fined to the upper
jaw, as shown in Fig.

74 ; in the others
the lower jaws were
affected.

Deformities and
Irregularities of the
Teeth. — These are of
such common occurrence under various forms that they need
a short notice. They give rise to interference with mastica-
tion more or less, and therefore also to loss of condition,
and even starvation, amidst the most luxuriant pastures.
The conditions we have named are chiefly due to deviation
in growth, by which incisor teeth, instead of meeting in
actual contact, probably pass each other aside and grow
beyond, whereby the projecting ones, being
brought under no wear, are continually
growing longer. A good example is seen
in Fig. 75, a state known as parrot moiUh,
and which entirely interferes'with the power
of grazing or gathering food. Occasionally
the teeth curl inwards, or on one side, and
call for extraction ; otherwise in later life a
condition as bad as that just described may be induced, in
which the whole mouth may be twisted or turned on one
side. If temporary teeth are observed to grow irregularly,
they should be removed at once, when in all probability the
permanent one following will rise from the gum in a more
direct manner. The incisor teeth are sometimes broken,
and even loosened, calling for immediate removal in the
latter instance. As fractured teeth are allowed to grow.

Fig. 75.
Parrot Mouth.

270 Diseases of the Orgaiis of Digestion,

they may assume a deformed or irregular position, and thus
require extraction, but as a rule the deformity disappears
with age. Considerable deformity of the incisors is often
seen in connexion with indigestion, when the animal wears
away the front portions, as in cribbiting, to which further
reference will be made hereafter.

The molar teeth are subject also to irregularities of growth,
and caries or decay. We have already had occasion to
allude to these under nasal gleet and ulceration of the
tongue. In the first condition, some are out of the proper
line, and give rise to much pain and irritation during
mastication, wounding and lacerating the tongue. During
ordinary growth even, the edges become so sharp and worn
up to numerous points or spiculae, that similar results are
produced ; the animal exhibits difficulty in mastication, and
sometimes refuses food altogether, and portions of food, half
masticated and rolled into pellets, are found between the
molars and cheeks as well as in the manger. The animal
is then said to “ quid his food.” For this state, the remedy
is the tooth-rasp, by which the inner edges of the lower
teeth and the outer sides of the upper are to be levelled,
after which the process of mastication is usually resumed.
Occasionally, however, the previous injury to the tongue
prevents this, when an astringent mouth wash, No. 23, page
92, or the electuary. No. 47, page 166, maybe used with
benefit. In a few days afterwards tonics may be employed
to restore the lost condition ; a suitable form of powder is
given in No. 20, page 84.

Occasionally, small shelly supernumerary molar teeth are
found ; usually one is present in front of both upper or lower
rows.* When called to examine animals thus possessed.

* Various “ auld wife’s” fables attach to these wonder-working powers in the pro-
duction of disease, especially in the eye, which hitherto we have failed to discover.

Injtiries to, and Diseases of, the Jaws, &c, 271

the only nuisance the supernumerary teeth appear to be
is the production of irritation by being loose, sharp, and
projecting, which readily passes away on their removal.
These have been termed “ wolf-teeth,” and similar pro-
ductions among the incisors, or those growing obliquely
from the usual line, are known as “ buck-teeth.” In the
removal of such from the horse’s jaws, let the proprietor
forbid any interference by non-experienced persons. The
hammer and chisel are rarely of use in these cases, and
likely to fracture the bones at the tooth sockets, i^ more
formidable states are not produced.

Occasionally deposits are observed to take place round
the lower part of the teeth, forming large tumours. They
are similar in construction to the tooth substance, and are
readily removed by punching.

Carious teeth give rise to imperfect mastication, foetor of
the breath, and toothache is evidently causing the animal
much suffering, for the head is depressed, the eyes closed,
and tears find their way down the face (Fig. 76), and at
other times the head rests on the
manger, stall partition, or other con-
venient object, and relief is only
obtained by a removal of the offend-
ing object. A carious tooth, when
allowed to remain, suffers an amount
of softening and disintegration, by
which an opposing surface to the
corresponding tooth in the other jaw
is removed. The first breaks down
under the wear of the sound one, which grows rapidly, and
eventually injures the bones, causing inflammation and abscess,
and chronic discharges. {See Nasal Gleet.) Such teeth call
for early removal, and as the opposite tooth grows it should
be cut down, in order to avoid the results already named.

272 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

In order to examine the mouth without endangering the
hands, an iron gag, like the one shown in the engraving
(Fig. 77), is used. It is known as a balling-iron, because
originally it was designed to keep open
the jaws while balls are being passed
by the hand to the back cf the throat.
Care is required in placing it, as the
animal may be rendered shy and
awkward if the iron is rudely knocked
against the teeth, or caused to bruise
the membrane of the mouth. The
left hand first is passed into the
mouth, between the incisors and
moiars on the right side, as the operator stands ii? front of
the horse, and seizes the tongue ; the balling-iron being held
in the right hand is' placed sideways in the mouth, and as the
animal separates the jaws, the iron is turned in a vertical
direction, and there held by the left hand, the tongue being
now set at liberty, while with the right hand the cavity of
the mouth is examined. The mouth-rasp, used for level-
ling the molar teeth, is shown in the annexed engraving
(Fig. 78) ; the blade portion is hollow, and the edges are

Fig. 78. — The Tooth Rasp.

usually mounted with a raised bead on each to act as a
guard, or preventive against slipping off and wounding the
mouth in the operation. The handle is about eighteen
inches long, and mounted with a wooden handhold, by which
the instrument can be more easily directed. The bend
or direction of the rasp blade has much to do with the
effectual performance of the operation, and we have found it

F IG. 77. — Iron Gag or
Ballmg-h'on.

Injuries to, and Diseases of, the Jaws, &c. 273

advisable in practice always to have two moiith-rasps in use
at one timey the value of which will be apparent after a con-
sideration of the fact that teeth of the upper and lower jaws
are presented to the operator in different ways. The teeth
of the upper rows represent almost a horizontal line, gene-
rally above the level of the practitioner’s hands, which com-
pletely prevents the possibility of using the whole of the
surface of the rasp. With such an instrument as represented
in Fig. 78, the operator will find the point wears away
rapidly, because it is the only part which can be used. If
then the same is employed to reduce the lower rows, the
heel only acts, while the point, being turned somewhat up-
wards, is constantly striking violently against the upper
rows, and the chances are the operation is only partially
successful. The object should be to cause the whole of the
rasp surface to traverse the molars, and this can be accom-

Fig. 79. — Rasp fo7' the Upper Molars.

Fig. Zo.—Rasp for the Lower Molars.

plished only when two instruments are used, each having a
different bend, as shown in the annexed engravings (Figs.
79 and 80).

We must now refer to the method of securing the animal
for the operation. Two assistants generally only are neces-
sary. One stands on the off or right-hand side of the
animal, holding the ear by the left hand, the right being
placed flat over the nose, six inches above the opening of
the nostrils, by which the head may be held tolerably steady.
Assistant No. 2 holds the left ear in his right hand, and the
tongue in his left. The operator then directs his attention

274 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

to the upper and lower rows of the right side of the mouth ;
afterwards the assistants exchange the duties of one hand
only, No. i taking the tongue from the right side of the
mouth, and No. 2 placing his left hand on the nose from
which No. I had just removed his right. The tongue must
only be held, not pulled out of the moiUh^ the requirements
being that the animal be not allowed to interfere with the
motion of the rasp by the powerful acts of the tongue, by
which also serious wounds might be inflicted if it were at
liberty. The hand directed to be laid on the nose must hold
by the bones entirely. Some assistants think that, in order
to hold a horse, they need to seize and compress the nostrils,
thus stopping his breathing, and, doubtless, they are some-
what surprised because he becomes restive, not unfrequently
being actuated to inflict worse punishment. In a lengthened
practice we have found the simple plan as here described
generally effective, having operated upon scores of animals
without even the use of the twitch.

Pharyngeal Polypi.

These are simply pendulous tumours which hang from
the false palate, and by enlargement are sufficient to block
up the passage when drawn backwards in the natural act of
swallowing. Their presence is denoted by frequent attempts
*to swallow, coughing, and relief when the head is held down-
wards, a position favourable to the falling forwards of the
tumour. Such tumours also interfere with the process of
respiration, for with each inspiration the body is drawn into
the opening to the windpipe, giving rise to loud, stertorous
sounds, and partial suffocation.

The removal of pharyngeal polypi is comparatively easy
and simple. The mouth is gagged by means of the balling-
iron (Fig. 77), and the operator seizes the tumour with one

CJwking,

275

hand and twists it upon its neck until separation is
effected ; should there be any difficulty in this, suitable
forceps are used, which may be manipulated by both hands
outside of the mouth. The operator may find it necessary
to cast the horse, which should be managed as quietly as
possible, as in sudden and violent inspiration the tumour
might be detached and drawn into the windpipe. The pro-
priety of this step will of course be carefully weighed before
it is adopted.

Choking.

Obstructions within the gullet of the horse, leading to
choking, originate in several ways. Voracious or greedy
feeders, bolting dry and only partially-masticated food, im-
perfectly insalivated, are common victims : other animals by
no means greedy are known to suffer from choking after
returning from long journeys, and equally long fasts, tired
and hungry, when the digestive organs lack necessary tone,
and eagerly partaking of food swallow it too quickly, and
without being softened and moistened with a due quantity of
saliva. A portion is arrested on its way, from which irrita-
tion and spasmodic contraction arises, holding the pellet fast,
while other portions follow and block up the gullet. At
other times, a piece of turnip or carrot may be the cause ;
balls also when too large, wrapped in coarse paper, or when
delivered across the throat instead of longitudinally, more
particularly in cases of illness and weakness arising from it.
It was much more the practice formerly than at the present
time for grooms, and others “ knowing about horses,” to admi-
nister an egg whole, with the view of promoting fine condition,
and not uncommonly the object would pass down the gullet
to that portion within the chest, away from observation, giving
rise to obstruction and serious states, which could hardly be
accounted for at the time, and the guilty party professing

18—2

276 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

entire ignorance. Many valuable horses have been lost from
this cause, and when the secret has oozed out, we have felt
not a little surprise and inability to account for the fact that
such men usually object to administer balls, because they are
afraid of injuring their hands or choking the animal ; yet
they can manage to convey an egg unbroken to the back of
the throat, by which such mischief is perpetrated in a few
minutes that may defy all the art of man to rectify.

Besides these causes, there are certain conditions which prove
favourable to choking, and in comparative health act as a pre-
disposing cause, even when we can attach no blame to the
kind or quality of the food, or want of insalivation. The
throat or gullet may be inflamed or ulcerated, and in these
states morbid irritation is speedily set up. Then there may
be injuries, obstructions, or disease of the salivary apparatus ;
irregularities of the ‘teeth, leading to imperfect mastication
and moisture with saliva. Again, there may be organic dis-
eases of the gullet itself, whereby certain parte are constricted
or narrowed, at which points accumulations of partially-
masticated food are liable to be detained.

The symptoms of choking vary somewhat in accordance
with the locality of the obstruction ; hence we observe a set
of signs common to choking generally, and others which
belong to the various stages of the passage to the stomach.
The most common and general signs are inability to swallow,
and when liquids are poured down they are speedily ejected
through the nostrils ; violent coughing, dififlcult breathing,
continuous action of the jaws, and drivelling of saliva, with
attempts to regurgitate or force upwards the obstruction ;
general uneasiness prevails, and the animal often in violent
impatience scrapes and beats with his fore-feet.

In addition to the foregoing symptoms, the special indi-
cations are manifested by the position and size of the obstruc-
tion. Pharyngeal obstruction gives rise to much distress

Choking,

277

from difficult breathing, violent coughing, and spasmodic
contraction of the muscles of the neck, and ejectment of
fluids. The position of the mass may be detected by the
hand through the mouth, or by pressure upon each side of
the throat.

If the accumulation is in the cervical or neck portion of
the gullet, swelling will be observed on the left side in the
course of the oesophagus, proportionate with the amount of
ingesta accumulated, and the animal appears with depressed
head, anxious countenance, trembling, partial sweats, occa-
sional uneasiness and violence, difficult breathing, coughing,
and finally exhaustion.

When the substance is located within the thoracic portion
■ — that is, within the chest — the urgent symptoms are absent,
excepting when fluids are swallowed which give rise to
violent retching in order to clear the passage, and their re-
turn by the nostrils. This form of choking is rendered more
intense and serious when the gullet is filled throughout. In
most instances there is accompanying tympany of the
stomach and bowels, as indicated by an unnatural roundness ;
and, as in the latter cases, which sometimes extend over
several days, there will be constipation of the bowels, loss of
appetite, depression, and further aggravations are denoted
by bloodshot eyes, the head is carried low, and exhaustion
speedily follows.

Treatment. — The first important principle consists of first
obtaining a clear knowledge of the exact locality of the
obstruction. Being certain of this, various methods of pro-
cedure may be adopted.

Pharyngeal Obstniction. — The hand must be passed to the
back of the mouth, and if the offending substance can be
grasped, it may be also drawn forwards, and eventually out of
the mouth altogether ; failing this, forceps may be used.
If the cause be a polypus, its removal must be effected as

278 Diseases of the Orgatis of Digestion,

already explained at page 274. In all probability, the offend-
ing mass will be a portion of root, or an accumulation of
hay, chaff, or mixture of food partially masticated, dry and
impacted. Its removal will therefore be difficult, as the
i fingers may not be able to seize it : the tongue should be
drawn out, and an assistant manipulate upwards by pressure
on the outer sides of the pharynx. Much time and patience
will be required ; but eventually removal of the impaction will
be accomplished. Solid substances may be removed by the
forceps when the fingers cannot retain the hold ; and some
practitioners have relieved even desperate cases of choking by
means of an improvised hook, made by
twisting several strands of wire together,
and bending them into a loop hook,
which is passed beyond the substance,
gentle traction sufficing to bring it into
the mouth. The form of such a hook is
given in the figure annexed (Fig. 81).

It would be well to add to the Anna-
mentarium chiriirgicinn of the veteri-
narian a simple permanent instrument of
this kind, to be kept in the same case
with the stomach-pump and probang,
with smaller ones for the sheep, dog, &c.
back ofthemoitth. relieving such cases of choking, we

must caution the reader against using
violence ; in all the acts required, the operator cannot be
too gentle, always bearing in mind that living tissues are at
stake, and bruises, lacerations, &c., are readily produced,
which may at any time prove fatal.

Cervical Obstruction. — When the obstruction is too far
back in the throat, or midway down the oesophagean canal,
the attendant operator must endeavour to remove it by means
of gentle pressure, and rubbing upwards and downwards, &c.,

Choking.

279

over the course of the g-iillet. An impacted mass may thus be
caused slowly to break up and pass downwards, especially if
occasional small draughts of gruel, water, oil, &c., are given.
We have frequently been enabled to disperse such by patient
working, and the use of the following draught, especially
when choking has occurred in tired animals : —

Recipe No. 73.

Take of linseed oil ^ pint.

Chloric, or sulphuric ether oz.

Mix, and administer in small and repeated doses.

If the offending body be an egg, on no account attempt to
fracture the shell by inflicting blows on the outside with the
fist, &c., as the gullet will in all probability be ruptured in-
stead. The crushing may be more readily accomplished if
an exploring needle is first passed through the tissues, and
caused to enter the shell, by which the contents will escape.
The flat hand then laid upon the swelling, administering
gentle but firm and gradually-increasing pressure, will not
fail to do all that is needed. Sometimes the probang is
passed, and the stilette, armed with a sharp point, being
caused to strike the egg, the shell is evacuated, and the whole
readily descend to the stomach. It is always advisable first
to work patiently with the oil and ether, conjointly with the
hand-rubbing, before the needle or probang are used ; but
on no account to allow the animal to become faint and
exhausted before they are resorted to. If the obstruction is
a piece of root, it is most likely that the probang will be
required, more especially if it be large ; but, under all cir-
cumstances, the attempts as described should be first made.

Thoi'acic Obstructions. — The offending body having passed
along the gullet beyond the neck into that portion within
the thorax, we can form no conception of its true nature,
and must rely upon the information obtainable from the
attendants, which may not be great or satisfactory. A

28o Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

negative mode of cross-examination, however, is sometimes
successful in aiding the practitioner to form useful conclu-
sions, and even eliciting truth. As the symptoms in these
cases are not urgent unless the whole course of the canal be
filled, the operator must rely solely for a time upon the use
of the draught No. 73, p. 279, observing that not more than
the quantity of oil there prescribed is to be given to a horse.
The further administration of fluids must consist of water,
gruel, &c., which may contain the dose of ether if required.
The object is to soften the mass by moisture, and relieve
spasm by the ether, a proceeding very generally successful if
practised early and persistently.

Failing to remove whatever may be the obstruction after
due use of fluids, recourse may be had to the probang ; and
here we must again utter a word of warning in order to
avoid certain mistakes, and even fatal consequences, which
may ensue without the necessary information on such matters.
Solid obstructions, as pieces of turnip, carrot, &c., are usually
pressed downwards with little difficulty, and an egg may be
evacuated, crushed, and caused to descend with ease by
means of the probang ; but impactions of dry and half-masti-
cated food are liable to become harder and more solid by
the application of force from above. We therefore urge
ample trial of the oil and fluid draughts first, and if these do
not sufficiently soften and remove the mass, they will at
least leave little for the probang to do, and involve less pain
to the animal as well as damage to the gullet.

Passing the Probang. — Formerly common, sticks, whip-
handles, &c., were much in use to relieve choking in cattle,
which in them is a much more common occurrence, than
in the horse, and fortunately attended with less danger as a
rule ; but modern science has produced a more appropriate
and useful instrument, known as the probang, which we now
describe.

Choking.

281

The substance and strength of this instrument is derived
from a coil of stout wire covered with leather or gutta-
percha, the centre being open to act as a tube, through
which a small rod or stilette is passed when occasion requires>
or withdrawn to admit the escape of gas from the stomach.
Upon each end a mount of lead or brass is fixed, one being
cup-shaped, the other a bulb. The whole when complete
measures about six feet, and in diameter the tube is about
one inch, the bulbs one inch and a half. A size somewhat
smaller is best for horses, and one smaller still for ponies.

When the instrument is to be used, the animal is cast by
some practitioners ; others succeed while he stands. We will
describe the method in both instances. The animal being
prostrate on his right side on a straw bed, the balling iron
(Fig. 77) is placed in the mouth, held by one of two assis-
tants, who secure the head, and at the same time stretch out
the nose in a line with the neck, so as to form a straight
passage from the mouth to
the stomach. A more suit-
able instrument which we
have adopted, and may be
obtained from Messrs. Bur-
gess, Willows, and Francis,

10 1, High Holborn, at a low
cost, is shown in Fig. 82 ; it is
known as the wooden mouth
gag, and when properly
placed in the required posi-
tion is easily maintained
there by the strap or rope
which is passed over the
head. The tongue is held by

one assistant, and the operator passes the instrument through
the hole in the gag cautiously along the upper surface of

282 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

the tongue backwards to the throat, where a slight opposi-
tion is met with, and the animal often struggles violently,
during which the operator must rest, but he need not always
withdraw the probang. During quietness it is advanced
beyond the pharynx with great caution, and must now be
felt for in the depression on the left side of the throat ;
indeed, if it has entered the gullet, the enlarged end may be
seen to elevate the tissues as it goes onward. If the pro-
bang cannot be felt after a sufficient length has been deli-
vered to extend beyond the throat, it is likely to have
entered the windpipe ; it must therefore be instantly with-
drawn with care, and again presented at the pharynx, and
advanced until it is known to be within the gullet, when it is
gently pressed home to the seat of the obstruction. As
soon as the substance has been reached, the sensation of
striking something .will be at once imparted to the hands of
the operator, as well as the resistance to its further progress,
and thus, being doubly sure that all hands are at their posts,
firm and constant pressure is exerted until the substance is
dislodged and moved into the stomach. The instrument is
then carefully withdrawn, and, before the animal is allowed
to rise, a dose of ether may be given to allay irritation and
spasm. In this operation of drenching the head must not
be raised more than a few inches from the ground, and small

F IG. 83. — Forceps for withdrawing pieces of Timiip^ &^c. groin the Gullet.

quantities only poured into the mouth. The best probangs
are fitted to the stomach-pump, and by this aid medicines
can be injected perfectly and rapidly at once into the

Choking,

283

stomach before the instrument is withdrawn. A form of
probang, having a pair of claws or forceps at the extremity,
is used by some practitioners for the purpose of extracting
pieces of turnip, carrot, &c., an illustration of which is given
in Fig. 83.

VVe have performed the operation with the animal standing
in the following manner : — The horse is first reversed in the
stall, and several assistants are told off to special positions.
A twitch is put on the nose and held by No. i, who stands
a little to one side and rather in front of the operator.
No. 2 holds the right ear in his left hand, depressing the
head, and at the same time elevating the chin by his right
hand being placed underneath. No. 3 stands on the left
side, and performs similar duties with, however, different
hands. No. 4. straps up a fore-leg, and holds on by it.

The wooden gag being inserted between the jaw.s, the
probang is to be passed as already described, every precau-
tion being taken to avoid accident, as the animal is apt to
rear and plunge forwards, especially when the obstruction is
moved ; indeed, some animals arch, twist, and contract their
necks so as to render the operation impossible as he stands ;
and when this is attempted, it is best to cast him at once
and save time, as well as avoid risk from his violent
actions.

The continuance of such symptoms as retching, arching of
the neck, &c., sometimes causes annoyance, and the belief
that the offending body has not been removed ; indeed,
choking will in all probability recur in a day or two if due
care is not exercised. The signs of uneasiness are owing to
the irritation of the gullet, caused by the removal of the
substance from between the contracted walls, and dry solid
food would rapidly accumulate. The fact that fluid medi-
cines are swallowed, water, &c., drank, sufficiently negatives
the ideaof an obstruction remaining, and supported farther by

284 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

a gradual decline of the symptoms after ether alone, or in con-
junction with laudanum, belladonna, &c., have been given.
Nothing but soft or sloppy food should be allowed for several
days, and when a ravenous appetite continues the purgative
draught No. 21, p. 87, may be given. Wherever disease of
the gullet exists extra care in feeding is called for.

Opening the CEsophagns. — As a last resource, when other
means have failed, the obstruction being firmly imbedded,
and probably the impaction from dry food extending through-
out the greater part of the gullet, relief is to be obtained by
the use of the knife. After the animal is properly secured,
an incision is made along the course of the swelling ;
first through the superficial tissues, dissecting carefully down
to the gullet, which is opened last, the mass being abstracted
in successive portions. This operation is more usually per-
formed in the horse for the purpose of passing the probang
direct to the seat of thoracic obstruction, when greater power
can be exerted for its removal after failure in other ways.
The surgical operation, together with the closing and after
treatment, require great care, and can only be performed by
an experienced practitioner, to whom the case must be
entrusted.

Diseases of, and Injuries to, the Gullet.

We now arrive at the stage when a brief consideration
of the diseases and injuries to which the oesophagean canal
is liable, and which give rise to frequent choking, &c.

Dilatation of the Gullet.

A condition of the gullet, known scientifically as (Eso-
phagus ventriculosuSy consisting of a dilatation or enlarge-
ment of its calibre at some particular part, attended with
attenuation and weakness, is not uncommonly seen in the

Laceration of the Gullet.

285

horse. Sometimes the dilatation exists almost throughout
the gullet ; but, as a rule, the chief seat is at its union with
the stomach. Food and liquids distend the part, and con-
tinual regurgitation goes on while the animal feeds, and for
some time after, the swelling in some instances being small,
and in others assuming rather large and alarming propor-
tions. The only remedies that can be applied are — ist, an
operation termed “ oesophagotomy,” or opening the gullet,
and after taking out a portion of the walls, in order to
diminish the calibre, the lips of the wound are brought to-
ge:her for healing ; 2nd, pressure. These can only be
applied when the seat of the disease is in the neck. The
results of dilatation of the gullet will be referred to under
Vomiting.

Laceration of the Gullet.

In the efforts to relieve an animal suffering from an
obstruction in the gullet, the movement of the substance
may produce a rupture of the walls, even-
tually giving rise to a pouch, or dilatation,
as shown in Fig. 84, annexed.

This is one of the untoward results which
the practitioner has to fear, the violence of
the animal probably being the greatest
cause. The offending substance appears
to move before the probang, when in reality
it has passed on one side within the pouch.

Swelling and inflammation follow. There
is also danger of abscess and discharge
of pus within the cavity of the thorax when The (Esophagus

injury occurs at a point low down in the ^
neck. If unrelieved, further accumulation takes place,
choking, and death.

286 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

Accident sometimes gives rise to laceration of the gullet,
as the following case will show : —

A foal was left in a stable during the long absence of the
dam, and it was noticed that great uneasiness prevailed, and
frequent attempts were made to jump through a large square
hole, which existed as an apology for a window. The
creature lacking the natural food (the mother’s milk) and
becoming hungry, eagerly devoured some green forage,
which produced an obstruction in the cervical portion of the
gullet, with all the violent symptoms of choking. The
writer was summoned in haste, and found a large diffuse
swelling in the neck, extending from the throat to the chest
on the left side, which left the impressions of the fingers.
The creature stood almost pulseless, breathing hurriedly,
nostrils dilated, membranes reddened, eyes bloodshot, &c. ;
partial sweats were- present over the body, and the legs and
ears were cold. The owner was informed that the animal
could not recover ; that the gullet was ruptured, and the
swelling was due to extravasation of mastieated food within
the tissues around. Nothing would satisfy him but having
the probang passed, and he was hardly convinced when the
instrument was caused to go by the swelling to the stomach.
Bearing in mind the information given at the outset -of the
case, that the creature had been jumping up to the window,
and discovering a long wide scratch on the swelling, with
removal of hair, we directed our attention to the former, and
projecting from a piece of wood, which did the duty of
window-sill, was a large spike, on which harness was usually
hung, the head of which was covered with hair from the
foal. The solution of the question appears to be this :
the gullet, being distended during choking, when the
creature jumped against the nail, suffered rupture, and
allowed the escape of the food among the muscles of the
neck, as a natural consequence ; the canal being then re-

stricture of the Gullet.

287

lieved, no obstruction would be offered to the passage of
the probang. As the animal was evidently sinking no
further treatment was adopted, and we proposed to make a
further journey, and call on our return. After the lapse of
four hours he was much worse, and the owner promising to
send information of his death, we left. On the following
morning a messenger informed us of his death during the
night ; and we attended to make a post-mortem examination,
which revealed the conditions exactly as they have been
described.

Stricture of the Gullet.

In consequence of some injury, or other cause, which
induces inflammation of the walls of the oesophagus, a con-
traction or stricture may result ; the canal is narrowed and
the walls approximate closely, only small portions of aliment
being able to pass. Stricture is often associated with dila-
tation (Fig. 85), for as food is retained in
the gullet above the contracted spot, the
coats are likely to suffer from strain, weak-
ness, and at length attenuation, giving rise
to enlargement of the canal. The worst
forms of choking exist in these cases, and
in the end usually rupture of the gullet
and death. The animal swallows with
difficulty, and food as well as liquids are
regurgitated — that is, they are seen to
pass upwards and downwards in the gullet, yig. Dilatation

and are sometimes ejected from the nos- Stricture, b,

. . of the CEsophagus.

trils. The swelling is observed to exist

above a certain point, which forms the stricture, some-
times being considerable, and giving rise to all the urgent
signs of cervical choking. When the stricture is within the
chest the swelling can only be seen, and the true state of

288 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

affairs is known when the probang is being passed — the
obstacle cannot be moved, and pressure gives rise to a
great amount of suffering.

Stricture is ordinarily caused by injury, or is the result of
operations, and occasionally it arises from cancer, melanosis,
or other diseases, which set up thickening of the coats of the
gullet.

Treatment is not likely to do much good. The animal
should be fed on semi-fluid food ; and if the owner has no
objection to an operation, the knife may be used. This, of
course, can only apply to cases of cervical stricture of the
gullet.

Vomiting.

The act of vomition in Various animals is the natural
means by which the stomach is relieved of hurtful and in-
digestible substances, and it is induced readily by medicinal
agents, a knowledge of which enables the practitioner to
take advantage of the reducing effects which always follow,
as a means of combating disease in the human subject, and
in certain lower animals, as dogs, cats, &c. In each of
these a peculiar susceptibility for the act always exists ; but
in the horse, as far as is at present known, no agent will
produce it. It is not natural for the horse to vomit, and he
cannot perform it in health ; we must therefore regard the
subject of vomition in him as a morbid condition, arising
from one or more of several causes, to a consideration of
which the present chapter will be devoted.

We have always regarded the subject as one replete with
very great interest, and have given it some amount of atten-
tion, not only with the view of clearly comprehending why
the horse rarely vomits, but also with the desire to be
acquainted with the causes which prompt the act under the
various conditions in which it is observed.

Previous to entering upon a consideration of the questions
just alluded to, we will first direct the attention of the reader
to the signs which characterise the phenomenon in other
animals, to which it is natural. The chest is first expanded
and the lungs inflated, which has the effect of maintaining a
fixed position of the ribs, an essential preparation for the action
of the diaphragm (Figs. 57 and 97, pages 21 1 and 330), as
the anterior boundary of the cavity of the abdomen. The
muscles of the legs become rigid, and the feet are firmly set
on the ground ; the neck is shortened, the muscles are
rigid and contracted, the head depressed and nose ele-
vated, in order to produce a straight line from the stomach.
Antiperistaltic action, or regurgitation, takes place in the
gullet, as seen in the repeated enlargement and contraction,
with passage of ingesta upwards and downwards ; the
muscles of the abdominal walls also contract violently at the
same time, and quantities of froth, fluid, with half-digested
or indigestible matters, are ejected through the mouth. It
may serve a useful purpose hereafter if we here briefly refer
to the antiperistaltic action of the gullet and digestive canal
generally, as by it we may account for the facility with which
the contents of the stomach are expelled. Under ordinary
circumstances and the control of the nervous system, the
action or contraction and worm-like movements of these
organs are directed towards conveying alimentary sub-
sta es from the mouth towards the stomach, thence through
t'.e intestines, to be expelled as faeces from the rectum.
This is known as the peristaltic, vermicular, or worm-like
action of healthy digestion. In the act of vomition, there
is first a nervous susceptibility to irritation from the presence
of foreign substances within the stomach or circulatory
system, and that leads to a perversion of the nervous in-
fluence, manifested by the movements of the digestive canal
being reversed, and are then known as <2/^/fperistaltic.

Without this vomition could not take place. The usual
preparatory efforts, together with muscular contraction of the
abdominal walls, would be in vain, and the stomach might
suffer rupture without its contents being evacuated through
the oesophagus. Antiperistaltic action is therefore an
essential agency in the act of vomition, and is not confined
to the stomach or gullet, but often extends to a distance
along the intestines. A knowledge of this fact enables us
to account for the presence of various substances within the
stomach after death, which are common only to the large or
small intestines in health or disease ; or, as sometimes
happens, they are ejected by the mouth in vomition.

We will now turn our attention to the consideration of the
fact why the horse rarely vomits.

The question has occupied the attention of physiologists
from a remote period, and some of the erroneous conclusions
they arrived at were the following: — i. The existence of a
sphincter or circular muscle at the entrance of the gullet to
the stomach. 2. A spiral valve guarding the opening within
the stomach. 3. Isolated situation of the stomach. 4. In-
susceptibility to the action of nauseating medicines, &c.
Later observation has demonstrated truthfully that no such
sphincter muscle exists at the lower end of the gullet, nor
indeed is there any trace of a spiral valve within ; and
although the stomach of the horse may be said to occupy an
isolated position among the abdominal organs, it neverthe-
less is acted upon most powerfully by the abdominal walls,
and, as we shall shortly learn, they are by no means insigni-
ficant agents in the act of vomition. With regard to the
fourth proposition, it is now definitely acknowledged that
the equine animals are not so susceptible of the action of
some nauseants as others, yet they know what it is to be
“ sick as a horse,” apart from the act of vomition. Any
one who has observed the effects of hellebore, aloes, &c..

Vomiting,

291

upon the horse will readily understand this. The stomach
of the horse is comparatively small, when we take into
account the size of his
body and the length of the
intestines. At the most
it will not accommodate
more than fifteen quarts
and when replete with a
solid mass of food, it does
not hold more than thirty
pounds weight, excepting
when it is immoderately
enlarged as a result of over-
feeding, the use of soft,
bulky food, &c. Annexed
we give an illustration of
the external form of the
organ (Fig. 86).

The stomach of the
horse is a hollow musculo-
membranous bag or pouch, forming as it were a dilatation of
the alimentary canal, and, for the purposes to which it is
applied, is supplied with bloodvessels, nerves, and muscular
tissue, &c. (Fig. 5 8). The outer covering is derived from the
peritoneum, a highly sensitive membrane, which invests the
organs generally of the abdomen, and lines its walls on all
sides (Fig, 97). The next beneath is the muscular coat,
composed of several layers, arranged in different directions,
by which the movements of the organ are varied, and
rendered appropriate to the functions of digestion, tritu-
ration, and movement of the aliment acted upon. The
internal coat is formed of mucous membrane, which ex-
hibits certain characters worthy of notice in our study of
the act of vomition. The arrangement of this membrane

19—2

Fig. 86. — Stomach of the Horse.

a. The gullet.

b. Cardiac entrance.

c. Pylorus.

d. Duodenum or small intestine.

292 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

engraving (Fig. 87). (^See also

The stomach of the horse is
said to be divided into two parts
or sacs — right and left — the line
of demarcation being that which
defines the sudden transition of
the mucous membrane from the
white and leathery-looking cuti-
cular extension of the true oeso-
phageal lining, to the rugose,
thick, reddish-brown, highly vas-
cular, spongy-looking, and secret-
ing layer. Outwardly this line is
also visible near the centre, as shown in Fig. 86, where a
contraction occurs, and thus the division is complete. The
wrinkled membrane of the right sac secretes the true gastric
juice, or solvent fluid, while that on the left secretes, like the
oesophagus, a thick viscid mucus, which coats every sub-
stance, and facilitates its passage onwards. We return to this
immediately. There are two openings leading to the interior :
the oesophageal or gullet, known as the cardiac, on account
of it being towards the heart ; and the duodenal or pyloric,
at which commences the duodenum, or first part of the small
intestines. The latter is guarded by a powerful sphincter,
which, when closed, effectually arrests the passage of all mat-
ters from the stomach until they are sufficiently changed by
the process of digestion. At the cardiac or oesophageal
opening no such valve exists, but the mucous membrane has
the appearance of being too large for the sac which it lines,
and is therefore drawn into folds, which are disposed at the
entrance of the gullet, thus permanently closing it to all
matters within the stomach. The gullet here also as it
enters becomes much narrower in calibre ; it does not widen

is shown in the annexed
Fig. 94.)

Vomiting. 293

funnel-shaped as in other animals Figs. 88 and 89), but
viewed from the surface of the membrane it is perfectly shut,

Fig. 88. — Stomach of the Dog.

a. Gullet. b. Duodenum.

the folds apparently risin

and radiating from a sma

centre (Fig. 90).

Having pursued thus far, Fig. 90. — Mucous Membrane closing
1,1 1 1 X. • £! j the cardiac orifice of the oesophagus

although but briefly and withm the stomach.

simply, the anatomy of the

horse’s stomach, we will now see how these provisions in-
terfere with the process of vomition. The conditions neces-
sary for the act are — ist. Inordinate distension of the
stomach, by which the muscular fibres are more or less
paralysed. 2nd. Dilatation of the cardiac or lower end of
the oesophagus, and obliteration of the folds of mucous
membrane. 3rd. Complete obstruction by contraction of, or
external pressure upon, the pylorus. 4th. Rupture of the
stomach ; and, lastly, ulceration of the mucous membrane,
or disease which impairs the contractility of the organ.

We will take up a further illustration of these points, but
at this stage the reader must be informed that the first

294 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

second, and third conditions are usually associated ; the
first and second always, and in some cases the whole are
present.

I St. Inordinate Distension. — This arises from feeding largely
and greedily on nutritious, heavy, or bulky food, when, from
causes not always readily explained, the digestive process is
arrested, and, in the absence of the antiseptic gastric juice,
fermentation proceeds, gases are evolved, the organ is further
distended, and paralysis ensues. The muscular coat has now
ceased to act ; it is relaxed and flaccid, the organ is consi-
derably enlarged, and this at once draws out the mucous
membrane, obliterating the folds at the entrance of the gullet,
leaving an open free passage. Nausea arises as a result of
indigestion, and reflex action is instituted, as shown by the
action of the abdominal 'walls and ejection of the food
through the nostrils — a result always observed in the horse,
passage by the mouth being interfered with by the length of
the false palate. {See Plates I. and IX.) From among the
numerous instances of vomition in the horse which have come
beneath notice, we select the following extract from a
communication furnished by the writer to a professional
journal.*

“ It is a common practice among the farmers of South
Yorkshire to send their horses considerable distances for the
purpose of carting lime from the Derbyshire kilns for agricul-
tural use, when two nights and a day are occupied upon the
journey. The animals are fed upon the principle of plenty ;
a large meal of hay or chaff, with corn, forming a dry mix-
ture, is given before starting, and repeated at intervals
throughout the journey, when the cold lime-water from the
springs of Derbyshire being given, produces all the effects
desirable for a case of colic.

Veterinary Records : Edinburgh Veterinary Review^ vol. vi. p. 643. 1864.

P^omiting.

295

" Three horses, owned by one person, had reached a
distance of sixteen miles from home on one of these
journeys, and were put into a stable at a road-side public-
house, when symptoms of colic soon manifested themselves.
A horse was borrowed, and ridden in haste to apprise the
owner, who called upon me to accompany him to the place.
Two animals had recovered under native remedies — gin,
blitter, and soot ; the third, although free from pain, looked
‘ sick as a horse’ — countenance haggard, pulse weak and
accelerated, and there existed evidences of great depression
to a very great extent. Around the nostrils were attached
portions of dry hardened egesta, and a sour smell continued
to be detected. The ears and legs were cold, and all food
refused ; borborygmus continued, but the bowels had not
acted. My attention was next directed to the straw and
floor of the box, and I discovered a quantity of chaff, beans,
bran, &c., which had constituted the food of the morning at
home and on the journey, mixed with mucus and froth,
leaving no doubt of the truth of the statement of the
attendants, that the horse had spewed. Upon further inquiry,
I found the animal had suffered great pain, and rolled very
much during the paroxysms, the vomiting occurring when he
had risen from the ground, from which considerable relief
appeared to be derived. Spt. ammon. aromat. were given
after a dose of cathartic medicine, warm rugs to the body,
bandages were applied to the legs, and a man left to stay
with him the few hours that remained of night. I saw him
again after a short rest, and found him considerably improved,
when the other animals were despatched to their destination
for lime, my patient to resume his journey homewards
when they returned. Nothing further took place worth
record, save that the horse was alive and well two or three
years afterwards, but I never heard of his being guilty of
emesis.

296 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

“ Similar cases have occurred on several occasions among
heavy horses, to which my attention has been directed for
an attack of colic, most of which were gross feeders and
animals of great capacity and visceral development.

“ Mr. Thomas Thompson, M.R.C.V.S., Sunderland, gave
me the following particulars of a case of emesis in the
horse : —

‘‘ On July 9, 1864, he was called to see a grey colt, three
years old, which was said to be suffering from gripes and
sickness. When he arrived, the animal was lying and
rolling in pain, frequently rising as in colic ; tympanitis
present ; pulse slow, weak, small, and irregular ; temperature
natural. The animal was made to rise, and when he had
done so retchings came on, and with very little preparatory
effort vomited through the nostrils as much matter, composed
of grass, mucus, and froth, as could be held in both hands
together. Spt. eth. nit, eth. sulph., spt ammon. aromat,
tr. aconit., tr. zingib., and tr. opii., were used, but the animal
continued to vomit, at periods of fifteen minutes, upwards of
an hour. Quiescence was gradually restored in four hours,
since which time the horse has continued well and healthy.

“ The long-continued drought of 1864 had deteriorated
pasturage, and rendered the small quantity of grass which
remained dry and innutritions, no doubt causing the extreme
symptoms of indigestion. Although not ascertained, I have
no doubt the large intestines were considerably impacted, as
well as the stomach ; in fact, Mr. Thompson asserts, stercoral
matters were brought up towards the close of the case.

“ Mr. Luke Scott, M.R.C.V.S., describes a case of vomiting
in an aged mare used for farming purposes, which had
exhibited symptoms of impaction of the stomach from a
full meal of oats which had been swallowed very greedily.
There was no disposition to roll or lie down, as all symptoms
were speedily developed. Vomiting had commenced before

Vomiting.

297

he arrived, about a pint of matter being ejected from the
nostrils each time, which occurred at intervals of ten or
fifteen minutes if the animal was left quiet and alone. If
the head was raised from the very low position in which it
was held, vomition came on instantly. She recovered with-
out treatment.”

2nd. Pyloric Obstruction. — It is not improbable that,
independent of contraction of the pyloric sphincter, pressure
derived from the abdominal walls will impel the organs
against the duodenum, and thus greatly assist in closing the
passage, while the intestines may also be impacted, thus
adding to the pressure. Seeing this, we may probably
explain why towards the end of the case the contents of the
intestines have found their way into the stomach and after-
wards being ejected by the nostrils, the pressure being
mitigated on account of the emptiness of the stomach, the
paralysis remaining and relaxation of the pyloric sphincter
ensuing from depression. We quote again from the com-
munication before referred to.'*

“ Any one who has hitherto described a case of vomiting
in the horse, has not failed to take cognisance of the utter
prostration which results.

“ A young brown mare, after suffering from repeated attacks
of colic, at length presented symptoms of approaching disso-
lution ; emesis being accomplished before death, which cer-
tainly and with great rapidity accelerated the termination of
affairs. Three large fibrous tumours were found attached to
the mucous surface of the ilium by a pedicle ; inflammation
had taken place, and consequent upon the action of the
viscus, dislodgment of one of the smaller ones — the fourth —
which was found near the stomach, doubtless having been
forced on its way there by antiperistaltic action.

■Veterinary Record : Edinburgh Veterinary Review^ vol. vi. p. 648, 1864.

298 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

‘*A pony, used in one of the coal-mines of the Mar-
chioness of Londonderry, died, after much suffering, indi-
cative of some serious affection of the bowels, accompanied
by retchings ; and in the small intestines was found a
calculus, surrounded by diseased tissue, in which ulceration
had been set up, allowing the stone to be partly evacuated.
In the stomach a second was found, no doubt also carried
there by the reverse action of the intestine.”

4th. RupUtre of the Stomach. — It seems a most incredible
statement that horses with ruptured stomach, and imme-
diately before death, are capable of vomiting. The fact
confirms the belief that the stomach itself takes litttle or no
part in vomition ; and strengthens the assertion, that the
absence of the mucous folds at the cardiac opening, together
with the loss of muscular contractility in the organ, are in-
dispensable to the act. As having an important bearing on
this position of the subject, the following paper, by the
writer, is transcribed from the pages of the journal in which
it appeared.''*’

“ I am indebted to Mr. A. Mann, sen., Lambton, for
the morbid specimen which accompanies this report. The
case possesses features of peculiar interest, and I think it
is worthy of a place in our Veterinary Records.

“ The subject of this notice was a brown horse, seventeen
hands high, and about fourteen or fifteen years of age, used
on the collieries of the Earl of Durham, principally as a
crab-horse — that is, he was employed in a kind of windlass,
by which the workmen are lowered or raised during their
examination and repair of the pumps, &c., of the shafts of
coal-pits. Such an occupation is often long-continued,
necessitating an exposure frequently to most inclement
weather ; but when men only are to be lowered, the work

* Strangulated Inguinal Hernia and Rupture of the Stomach in a Horse :
Edinburgh Veterinary Review, vol. i. p. ■234. New Series.

V vniting, 299

is not considered laborious, nor was he found to suffer from
it in any way whatever.

‘‘ On one occasion, six years ago, when drawing coal-
waggons on a slight gradient, he stumbled and fell, and was
pushed along the rails a distance of about thirty yards, re-
ceiving extensive bruises about the haunch and loins, which
appeared to be superficial, however, and were quite well in the
space of a month, the animal being again put to the crab
work, none the worse to all appearance. From this time to
December last he continued to work well, maintained his
strength and condition, yet appeared somewhat dull, but
never required medical assistance. On the I2th of that
month he was seized with slight colic, for which Mr. Mann
prescribed an anodyne mixture, and he returned to his
work in half an hour.

“Nothing further took place until the 2nd of the present
month — March — when the driver again brought the animal,
now in extremis. Symptoms were urgent and speedily de-
veloped, consisting of hurried respiration, cold perspiration
over the whole body, which, in the first instance, broke out
abruptly on each side of the thorax behind the shoulder.
As he walked he reeled, and when allowed to stand trembled
much, and with difficulty escaped falling. The hind-legs
were placed widely apart, and he constantly attempted to
urinate, succeeding in passing only a few drops of normal-
looking fluid. The eyeballs protruded in the extreme, the
neck arched, and muscles strongly contracted, drawing the
nose in close approximation to the chest, where it was re-
tained. The tongue was black and hung from the mouth,
which was tightly closed, allowing, however, of white froth
to be discharged in great quantities. Mucus and froth, of
a dirty colour, also came from the nostrils profusely. The
conjunctiva was of a pale yellow colour, with its network of
vessels finely injected.

“ As nothing had passed the bowels for some time, it was

300 Diseases oj the Organs of Digestion,

attempted to introduce the hand ; but this could not be
attempted on account of extreme spasm. At times he would
attempt to lie down, and continued thus, experiencing no
relief from treatment, from lo A.M. to 3 P.M., when he sud-
denly dropped dead.

“ From the first the pulse was imperceptible at the jaw
and radius, accompanied with extreme coldness of the ears
and extremities.

“ A post~morte7n examination was commenced on the morn-
ing of the 3rd inst On opening the abdomen, a considerable
amount of fat adhered to the intestines ; and about four
gallons of red serum escaped from the opening made in the
walls. About half the quantity also came away by the
rectum, when the carcass was moved in the act of flaying.
The transverse colon exhibited a patch of peritoneal inflam-
mation, six or eight inches in area ; but all other tissues were
blanched and flaccid. Food was distributed throughout the
cavity, and extended to the pelvis. The intestines were next
turned aside, and found to contain fluid only ; but in the
omental sac was a large mass of half-masticated hay and
oats, with whole beans, occupying a space equal to double
the quantity found in any stomach during health. The small
intestines were traced, when a portion was found to form an
inguinal hernia, with adhesions ; at the pyloric end it was
free. The oesophagus was divided, when the stomach on
being raised was discovered to be extensively lacerated along
the greater curvature, and the lacerations extended to the
pyloric half.

“ When this case was first related to me, and special refe-
rence made to the apparent absence ol much of the tissue
composing the coats of the stomach, I fancied it might be
one of ulceration and perforation ; but on carefully examining
the parts, and ascertaining some of the facts, I can glean
that the horse was first seized with symptoms of severe and

Vomiting. 301

immovable obstruction of the bowels. The tenesmus, violent
contraction of the rectum on the arm being forced up, the
partial sweats bedewing the body, indicate, with the aid of
the information derived from a post-mortem examination, that
the animal had a strangulated inguinal hernia. This is so
rare in geldings, that its having been overlooked need not
astonish us, especially as the symptoms were very decidedly
those of ruptured stomach.

“ On examining the omentum and stomach at my leisure,
I have found that the particles of undigested food still adher-
ing to the omentum indicate that the gastric laceration must
have occurred shortly after the ingestion of a quantity of food.
As is usual in these cases, the over-distended organ had be-
come lacerated along the great curvature by tearing of the
peritoneal coat first, then of the muscular, which had receded
so as to deceive one as to the amount of destruction the
stomach had sustained, and the mucous membrane was soft
and irregularly torn, and in a condition as if it had suffered
somewhat from the action of the gastric juice.

“ This case is replete with interest, and it shows how care-
ful we should be in diagnosing cases which appear at first
sight trivial and unimportant. Who thinks of examining the
inguinal region of a gelding, though he may be suffering
from some extraordinary and unaccountable obstruction ? It
is very important to make a close examination in all cases
in which injections cannot be given or retained in the rectum.
The strangulation in the case above related cannot have
occurred before the horse had taken the full meal which ren-
dered possible the rupture of the stomach ; and I am disposed
to believe that the animal was fresh and well until he took
his last feed, after which the strangulation supervened, and
this indirectly led, through the horse knocking himself about,
&c., to the coats of the stomach giving way.

“ When I say the horse was perfectly well before the

302 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

attack which ended in his death, I do not wish it to be un-
derstood that he was entirely free from inguinal hernia, as
few will doubt that, in all probability, the inguinal hernia,
with its adhesions, had existed for some time, and at last
led to the horse’s sudden destruction through one of the
many causes which are capable of producing hernial strangu-
lation.”

QSsophagus ventriculosus, or saccular dilatation, favours the
expulsion of food from the stomach, two cases of which came
under notice almost at the same time, about sixteen years
ago, the particulars of which are as follow : —

“ A grey colt, five years old, bred from a Suffolk mare by
a thorough-bred horse, the property of Sir George Dashwood,
Bart., Kirtlington Park, Oxford, was the subject of repeated
attacks of colic, with violent attempts to belch, as expressed
by the messenger. Usually the attacks came on after the
morning meal, when probably the food supplied the night
previous still to a great extent occupied the intestines. The
animal was a good feeder, but not considered a ravenous one,
and scarcely ever known to be affected but at the times
stated.

“ The attacks were ushered in by restlessness, pawing with
the fore-feet, attempts to urinate, &c., symptoms which would
gradually increase in their intensity, and assume a violent
form. Next, attempts to eructate would be made, the nose
being brought into contact with the breast repeatedly, and a
spasmodic effort at the same time made by the muscles of
the neck, chest, and abdomen, until vomition was effected.
The pulse seldom assumed any irregularity of movement, and
during these paroxysms the colt rarely lay down or rolled —
a fact which first attracted my attention, and induced me to
attribute the affection to some interior part, as the stomach,
pylorus, or duodenum. In watching carefully, however, I
observed large pellets of food repeatedly pass as high up-

Vomiting.

303

wards within the gullet as the bifurcation of the jugular vein
during slight retching, and slide down again. This I saw
on several occasions for half an hour after medicine had been
administered, when the action gradually ceased. During
attacks of colic this action was most severe, and could always
be detected when the animal had eaten too much. He was
afterwards sold from the neighbourhood, and lost sight of
“ Another case, but of less intensity than the first, came
under my notice about the same time — viz., 1861, in a cob
horse about 14-2 high, of the Welsh breed, belonging to a
farmer near Islip. In this instance no symptoms of colic
appeared, the pellets of food after a full meal passed upwards
and downwards with regularity, but which admitted of some
aggravation amounting to excessive preparatory exertion, re-
sulting in the end to forcing matter from the stomach.”*

The condition of saccular dilatation of the gullet will be
best understood by a refe-
rence to the annexed illus-
tration (Fig. 91). The gul-
let, at its entrance to the
stomach, has suffered lacera-
tion of its coats, by which
a pouch or diverticulum has
been formed, and into this
the folds of mucous mem-
brane are disposed by inter-
nal pressure from food, thus
leaving the passage of the
gullet free and open to the
entrance of food during con-
tractions of the stomach.

* Author’s paper previously quoted : Edinburgh Vetermary Review^ vol. vi,
p. 645-

Fig. 9 I . — Saccular Dilatation of
the Cardiac Portion of the
Gullet (Colin).

304 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

This state favours the repeated practice of vomition ; it also
explains why horses may vomit frequently, and obtain relief,
after unusual distension of the stomach.

The treatment of habitual vomition in the horse will be
anticipated by the reader. In such dilatations of the
oesophagus as that shown in the illustration, no operation
can of course be adopted, and the owner must fall back
upon the only remedy for prevention — viz., careful feeding.
The animal should receive frequent and small quantities of
food, and he must not be allowed to slake intense thirst
wdth large draughts of cold water. It is much better to
allow all animals free access of w^ater, by which they drink
less, and thereby avoid the risk which ensues when the
stomach is full.

Dyspepsia — Chronic Indigestion.

From various causes the horse is liable to derangements
of the digestive organs, which, although unattended with struc-
tural lesion, nevertheless prove inconvenient after existing some
time, and lead to the establishment of incurable states. In
young animals the process of dentition greatly interferes with
the natural and healthy functions, and in older ones diseases
and irregularities of the teeth, which prevent proper reduc-
tion of the food ; long fasts are a prolific source of the evil,
as the animal becomes very hungry, and, contemporaneous
with exhaustion succeeding a long day, the stomach is
weakened, and less able to contend with the large quantity
of food greedily swallowed. Lastly, we may name the prac-
tice, which some persons habitually follow, of constantly
dosing the horse with all kinds of remedies.

Symptoms. — The condition is at first denoted by an un-
certain and irregular appetite, and as the disease advances
good food is refused, the sufferer resorting to licking the
walls, or even manifests an inordinate desire for filthy water,

Dyspepsia — Chronic Indigestion,

soil, and rubbish generally. The mouth is slimy and sour,
and on these signs supervene general want of condition, as
shown by tucked-up
belly (Fig. 92), harsh-
looking skin, which
is fast on the body,
and defies oi;e to
grasp a handful as in
the healthy horse ; it
is in addition scurfy
and intolerably dirty ;
the bowels are irre-
gular and full of wind,
and a constant discharge of foetid flatus takes place from the
rectum ; the faeces are composed of imperfectly-masticated
food, and griping pains are periodically present. While at
work the sufferer is weak and unwilling to encounter stiff
exertion ; diarrhoea invariably alternates with constipation, and
the colour of the faeces is generally that of the food on which
the animal subsists, indicating the absence of digestive action,
and solvent fluids necessary to it. In some cases there is an
attendant cough, sometimes dry, but usually short and moist
or rattling, a sign of imperfect action of the fiver, by which
the lungs are excited to secretion. A moderate purgative,
repeated if necessary, usually proves sufficient to remove it
Although the urine may not be altered in colour, nor contain
any abnormal ingredient in any quantity sufficient to stamp
it as a diseased product, it will become such if the signs we
have enumerated are not mitigated. Indigestion in the horse
is fertile in producing diseases of the urinary organs and
their secretions, some of which will be found in the section
devoted to a consideration of that class.

Treatment. — Remove all loose, diseased, and supernu-
merary teeth which militate against proper grinding of the

Fig. 92. — Chronic Indigestion.

Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

food ; institute special inquiry into the plan of feeding, and
carefully note the kind and quality of food allowed in order
to correct irregularities, and insure proper and timely allow-
ances of good and wholesome provender ; avoid long hours
of fast, over-work, unnecessary exposure, and neglect of do-
mestic attention in the stable. Regulate the bowels by
moderate doses of aloes when costiveness is present, and
gently restore the balance of action in diarrhoea by means of
a draught composed as follows : —

Recipe No. 74.

Take of linseed oil ^ pint.

Tincture of opium ^ fl. oz.

Carbonate of potash 2 drs.

Water 2 fl. oz.

Dissolve the potash in the water, and shake it up with the
oil in a bottle, after which add the laudanum, and administer
in the usual way.

Having obtained a more regular action of the bowels,
make up powders after the following formula : —

Recipe No. 75.

Take of carbonate of soda 2 drs.

Powdered gentian 2 „

Nux vomica \ „

Mix. A powder containing the above doses to be given in
the food, morning and night, for six or eight days, and
during the succeeding week make the following change : —

Recipe No. 76.

Common salt 2 drs.

Powdered gentian 2 „

,, ginger i „

„ locust bean 4 „

Mix. A powder containing these doses to be given as
No. 75. If, however, the appetite is not sufficiently good to
warrant the mixing of the powders with the food, make up
the active ingredients into a bolus, and administer, morning

Acute Indigestiofi.

and evening, until the appetite returns, when the powders
may be substituted.

We would caution the reader against giving many medi-
cines, and their constant use, as indescribable harm re-
sults. Avoid the salts of iron, for, notwithstanding they are
tonics, they act more like poisons in dyspepsia, the horse
especially being strangely susceptible of their effects during
the prevalence of the disorder. Provide roots, green food,
and even fruit and vegetables, as soon as possible, turning
the animal into a loose box, and allow him the run of a
yard or paddock if he cannot be indulged with a run at
grass. In the absence of the latter give regular light exer-
cise, and if the animal possesses a long coat, the attack seizing
him in the winter, let him be speedily clipped, and undergo
a daily thorough cleaning and damp wisping, providing suit-
able artificial clothing.

Cases of indigestion are liable to assume a chronic state,
and cause an endless amount of trouble, if not combated
early ; and when a disordered appetite degenerates farther
into a ravenous one, or the use of boiled and sloppy or
bulky and indigestible food is unsparingly allowed, con-
jointly with long fasts and irregular work, the stomach en-
larges to unnatural proportions, the muscular fibres are
weakened and degenerated, paralysis more or less ensues,
the ability to vomit becomes general, and, sooner or later, in
one of the repeated attacks of colic which then frequently
happen, rupture of the stomach takes place, speedily ending
in death.

Acute Indigestion — Impaction of the Stomach.

This form of indigestion is sometimes witnessed in a num-
ber of animals in a district at the same time, in consequence
of some change in diet, as, for instance, during the hay-
making season, animals are apt to feed voraciously on the

20—2

3o8 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

new fodder, others gain access to the growing wheat, or at
other times they indulge at a heap of grain when the barn-
door has been inadvertently left open. In isolated instances,
horses break loose and find the corn chest invitingly open,
and, as in each preceding case, fill the stomach to repletion.
Horses returning hungry, after long fasts and equally long
and tiring journeys, are apt to devour their food greedily and
in large quantities, without due mastication and admixture
with the salivary secretion. In those establishments in the
North of England, and likewise in Scotland, where boiled
or cooked food is given, cases of acute indigestion are com-
mon; impaction arising in an organ already enlarged and weak-
ened from continual chronic indigestion, perhaps, and in each
instance to which we have alluded great risk of death from
rupture of the stomach is always to be apprehended.

With regard to the nature of certain kinds of food, parti-
cularly those which stand high in the scale of nutritive value,
it is usual to condemn them as hurtful on that account, and
hence we find men of decided genius falling into the error of
advocating entirely the avoidance of barley and wheat,
urging their specific tendencies to produce indigestion, lami-
nitis, or death, &c. What is to be said then to the fact, that
during the past year (1876) we have been assured by num-
bers of farmers in the Home Counties, that, as wheat was
making such a fearfully low price, they have given it largely
to their horses, and sold their oats and beans, &c. ; and that
year does not stand alone, for we have experience of the
fact having been practised in other years, and some farmers
have adopted it with safety and success, because, as in other
agricultural matters —

“ It was my father’s custom.

And so it shall be mine.”

It is remarkable, also, that in reply to our numerous in-
quiries, we have not learned that such general consumption

A atte Indigestion,

309

of wheat has induced an enzootic visitation of acute indiges-
tion in the farm horses to which it has been supplied.
Besides, we can assert that for years we have used barley for
working horses, and in many instances it has formed the
bulk of their food ; and yet, again, we have made sudden
changes from oats to beans or peas, to barley and back to
oats, yet none of these fearful states have resulted. In large
studs of horses it becomes a necessary study which arti-
cles of food shall be supplied, which affording the greatest
amount of nutrition shall at the same time be supplied at
the smallest rate of expenditure. With the constant fluctua-
tions of the markets, such changes are absolutely necessary
to insure economy ; and we can confidently assert, that when
these principles of science are unfettered by a directorate or
the red-tape of grandeeism, the health and stamina of the
horses are unquestionable, and acute indigestion is never
known. Why, then, these apparent discrepancies ? They
arise from a total misapprehension of facts. Wheat and
barley are not essentially dangerous because they are nutri-
tious, but because they are devoured in unnatural quantities,
in an unnatural way. If we but tax our memories, we shall
find that the whole train of symptoms and consequences
from too large and too hasty feeding on oats, green food,
&c., which form the constant article of diet, are due to an
excess of food, and not the quality. The rational use of a
nutritious food must not be condemned because it is capable
of producing harm in excess. The reader is referred to
“ The Horseowner and Stableman’s Companion”* for further
information on this subject.

Symptoms, — The first signs of impaction of the stomach
are — constipation, uneasiness, staring eyes, suspension of the
appetite, hot mouth, slightly accelerated pulse, colicky pains

London : F. Warne & Co.

3 1 o Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

scraping with the fore-feet, constant lifting of the hind-legs,
crouching, curling the tail, lying down, rolling, &c.

The disease is liable to be confounded with two other dis-
tinct affections, in consequence of the similarity of the signs
which are developed during later stages : these are phrenitis,
or inflammation of the brain, sometimes called mad-staggers;
and coma, or sleepy-staggers, a chronic disease of the brain.
An experienced practitioner, however, readily distinguishes
between each, one particular feature in the history of the case
being almost sufficient — viz., the violence and coma of im-
paction are recent, and rapidly brought on ; while in each
of the other diseases they are gradual, extending over days.

As the disease advances, signs of nausea are evident, eruc-
tation of wind takes place, and attempts to vomit are made ;
tremors of the superficial muscles, with partial sweats, are
peculiarly marked, and at this stage we may expect some
form of aggravation to the symptoms.

Impaction with Frenzy. — The muscular tremors increase,
the pulse is full, hard, and bounding, but becomes smaller
and wiry ; breathing hurried and oppressed ; visible mucous
membranes are inflamed, and occasionally tinged with yellow ;
periods of calmness alternate with acts of violence ; the
animal thrusts his head against the wall, kicks out with the
hind-legs, scrapes madly with the fore-legs, looks about wildly,
stamps, rears and drops with his fore-feet in the manger,
rushes back and breaks loose ; a short period of quiescence
takes place, and the fits are resumed with former severity,
rendering the administration of remedies a difficult and dan-
gerous process. If he rolls he throws himself down violently,
uttering a loud sigh, and prefers to lie on the back, the legs
being doubled on the abdomen ; shortly he strikes out and
rises to resume his former acts of violence, in which he even-
tually falls exhausted by convulsions, or the stomach rup-
tures, and death speedily follows.

Acute Indigestion.

311

Impaction with Unconsciousness. — The comatose form of
indigestion is equally rapid in development. The full and
bounding pulse becomes soft and slower ; the animal is list-
less and indifferent to all around ; the legs are stiff and
placed widely apart (Fig. 93) ; breathing slow and rather

Fig. 93. — Impaction of the Stomach.

difficult, gradually becoming stertorous ; the head is held
low, eyes closed, and sight is impaired ; finally he becomes
blind, even deaf and delirious, and, falling in convulsions,
dies. Some animals recover, even after blindness has set in ;
but they do not regain the power of vision.

Impaction succeeded by Paralysis. — This is another form in
which acute indigestion may terminate. The animal exhibits
a loose, straggling kind of walk, reels when turned or put
back, and sometimes falls ; on this account the disease has
been known as vertigo, megrims, &c., but erroneously. The
animal is sometimes unable to rise after dropping in pain
from colic, when the symptoms become aggravated ; and he
dies after suffering from tremors, delirium, and convulsions.

Treatment. — The principle of action must be laid out for
unloading the stomach as soon as possible, as no hope of

3 1 2 Diseases of the Organs oj

success can be entertained without that
A large dose of aloes should be given, a

lished.
two of

croton oil may be judiciously added; : r- Id be

thrown up constantly, and, if the anin • water,

there may be some probability of softeni . g the

contents. A little salt may be dissolved ; " ■ - :o ex-
cite thirst, and induce him to take m< : vould

otherwise do. We have not found bleed ' ■ . ctical

value. When the stomach and intestine ■ ;d by

gas, two ounces of the hyposulphite of soda may be dissolved
in a pint of water, and administered at intervals of one hour,
by which the action of the aloes will be expedited. When
the brain is affected, the head may be bathed with cold water,
and every means to cause perspiration should be employed,
as the application of warm rugs, covering with straw and
sacks, together with friction to the loins and extremities.
Mustard embrocation, turpentine liniment, &c., will be found
useful in the paralytic form, being applied over the loins.

It will be sufficiently apparent to the reader from what
has already been written, that rupture of the stomach can
only be regarded as a result of a prior affection, inordinate
distension by food being the chief cause, hastened by the for-
mation of gas as a result of fermentation of the contents, as
well as the violent acts to which the sufferer gives way under
a sense of acute pain. The symptoms are — tremors of the
superficial muscles and fore-extremities, profuse perspiration,
heavy breathing, staggering gait, anxious countenance, and
at length vomition, sudden prostration of strength, running-
down fluttering pulse, continued nausea, convulsions and
retching, even in the agony of death.

It has been contended that vomition, as a sign of ruptured

Rupture of the Stomach.

Rupture of the Stomach. 3 1 3

stomach, is not so valuable and unerring as supposed by
some, because the act has been accomplished by animals
suffering from rupture of one or other of the intestines, and
is common, as we have seen, in cases of saccular dilatation
of the oesophagus. We, however, maintain that its diagnostic
value is not in the least lessened, because in dilatation of the
oesophagus, unassociated with other diseases, there are no
signs of speedy dissolution, death immediately succeeding
the act, as in rupture of the stomach ; and in rupture of the
colon, presence of calculi, there are generally special signs or
information of a negative character, which deny the existence
of stomach affection ; besides which, the act is never so
complete as in rupture of that organ ; nausea and incomplete
attempts to vomit are common in strangulated hernia and
most severe affections of the bowels ; and therefore, bearing
this in mind, we feel strengthened in holding up the com-
plete act, associated with dissolution, as a valuable aid to

Fig. 94. — The Stomach of the Horse ^ laid open.

C, C. The cuticular portion of the lining K. The cardiac opening to the stomach,

mucous membrane. with the oesophagus.

V, V. The villous portion of the mem- P. The pyloric opening from the stomach,

brane.

the identification of rupture of the stomach from other dis-
eases. But vomition may take place apart from rupture, and
when no saccular dilatation of the gullet is present, when it
is not associated with dissolution, or any of the foregoing

314 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

symptoms. We have already pointed out that a paralysed
condition of the muscular coat is followed by enlargement of
the viscus, which, drawing the mucous membrane with it,
obliterates the folds which block up the entrance of the
gullet These conditions may be attended with severe signs
(Fig. 93) ; but the pulse continues strong, the vital powers
are not prostrated, nor are the ears, extremities, or surface of
the body reduced in temperature, as in rupture.

In aged animals, rupture may arise from weakness, attenua-
tion, and degeneration of the walls of the stomach, and, in
some few instances, the work of ulceration may facilitate its
occurrence. In both instances there is the inability to en-
dure the strain arising from an inordinate quantity of food,
and distension consequent on its fermentation and swelling.

Treatment is of no service. The means of prevention
consist in the exercise of judicious management in feeding
and work, which reduce the liability to this and all other
diseases.

Constipation.

Inaction of the bowels arises from several causes: — 1st.
Natural torpidity, or want of activity ; 2nd. As a result of
serious and latent diseases ; 3rd. Debility or weakness ; 4th.
Paralysis. In those animals naturally prone to constipation,
nothing is required beyond an occasional bran mash, or the
use of linseed, roots, &c., and, as long as health is maintained,
all remedies of a medicinal character are not to be recom-
mended. Enemas may supplement the action of bran or
linseed, and a change of diet should be made when the pre-
sent form is known to give rise to the disorder.

When debility is the cause, prescribe a course of tonics,
particularly the vegetable bitters, and give the animal gentle
exercise only for a time. Nux vomica proves highly useful.

As a symptom of other diseases, constipation must be

Colic.

315

dealt with accordingly. It is advisable to remove it as soon
as possible in all cases, the original disease being more or less
influenced ; but care is particularly required when it occurs
in connexion with influenza (so called) and catarrhal diseases
generally — a caution which is repeated under all the various
affections throughout the work.

Paralysis of the bowels causing constipation ensues after
violent colic, &c., and is known by the absence of intestinal
murmurs, with an open, dry, and flaccid condition of the
rectum in some cases ; depression and listlessness, small and
frequent pulse, gradual prostration and death. Medicines, in
the shape of purgatives, then act as so much poison, and
enemas are retained almost definitely, excess of fluid’ only
being discharged in a passive or spontaneous stream, without
any anal disturbance. The best remedies are — vegetable
tonics and bitters, nux vomica being included, and occasional
enemas containing ammonia or turpentine.

Colic.

This is a common cause of severe and extensive mortality
among the working horses of the country. Colic is the term
used by veterinary practitioners to denote the pain and dis-
turbance arising in the bowels from a variety of conditions.
PMch locality almost has its various synonyms or equivalents,
and hence it is known as gripes, inflammation, bellyache,
stoppage, spasms, wind, fret, &c. The veterinarian recog-
nises two kinds — viz., spasmodic colic and flatulent colic.

Nature. — Intestinal indigestion, arising from the presence
of a quantity of food, sometimes amounting to impaction,
causing spasm of the muscular coat of the intestines, forming
the first kind ; and irritation due to similar causes, as well
as the presence of large quantities of gases evolved from the
food undergoing fermentation. Colic, of both kinds, is, per se,

3i6 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

a spasmodic affection, due to some influence which disturbs
the natural peristaltic action of the intestines, and also arrests
the secretions necessary for the proper digestion of the food.
In the former, the intestines forcibly contract around the
irritant at various points, which gives rise to pain ; in the
latter, they are distended by gases almost entirely throughout
a particular part, the loss of the secretion as an agent capable
of arresting fermentation being the direct cause, and mus-
cular spasm is thus greatly extended.

Colic is not an inflammatory disease, and, as far as we
know, never runs on to inflammation, notwithstanding the
many assertions that have been made from high quarters to
the contrary. Some of the post-mortem appearances gene-
rally set down to inflammation supervening on colic we shall
have occasion to notice hereafter.

Causes. — As an original affection, colic is due to improper
systems of feeding ; long fasts, and indulgence of a morbid
appetite afterwards ; constipation, neglected and aggravated
by the consumption of large quantities of food ; sudden
changes of diet without due caution in the supply ; food
swallowed without necessary mastication and insalivation,
the most familiar example of which is the trashy boiled or
cooked food of the North, which kills sometimes to the ex-
tent of 50 per cent. ; inferior food or highly nutritious food
in large quantity, and more especially when, in addition,
exhaustion is added. These induce what has been termed
the ti'ue form of colic, being purely intestinal disturbance.
Besides these there are other causes, such as disorders of the
liver, the presence of calculi, parasites, invagination of the
bowels, herniae, abscesses in the mesentery, diseases of the
kidneys, liver, pleura, peritoneum, &c. These give rise to
what is termed false colic. Amongst the general causes of
colic cold water is set down, and doubtless, under certain
conditions, it has a baneful effect. When the animal is

Colic.

317

heated by exercise, and large draughts are allowed, particu-
larly of an unusual kind, such as hard or mineral waters, as
already illustrated by the case cited at page 294, violent colic
is produced ; indeed, as resident for some time on the borders
of Derbyshire, where such water prevails, we can testify to
the number of cases and deaths arising from it, more parti-
cularly to those animals from a distance not accustomed to
it, and having, in addition to other susceptibilities, a full
stomach or intestines. Apart from these we do not know
of cold water producing colic, even when taken in unusually
large quantities ; where there are already diseased conditions
of the bowels, &c., such have been known to aggravate and
give rise to colicky pains. Intestinal calculi, mesenteric
abscesses, certain diseases of the bowels, &c., give rise to re-
lapsing colic ; while irritant poisons produce not only colic,
but inflammation. {See Enteritis — Poisons.)

Symptoms of Spasmodic Colic. — These are indicative of
abdominal pain. The animal scrapes with the fore-feet, kicks
at the belly, shifts about, turns round, smells the floor,
crouches, puts the nose to the flanks, lies down, rolls, remains
for a time on the back, and breathes heavily throughout ;
gradually he slips over on the side, stretches out the legs,
when the signs abate as suddenly as they began ; he then
rises, shakes himself, and the termination of the paroxysm is
known by his looking about for food. In the ordinarily
severe cases the paroxysms follow each other rapidly, be-
tween each of which the pulse acquires its natural fulness
and frequency, being only accelerated during the suffering
and excitement, when are added fulness of the eyes, which
confer a look of staring, and sometimes of anguish. At
times the animal assumes a listless state. During ease at
the commencement or termination of each paroxysm a dis-
charge of faeces takes place, sometimes of a semifluid nature,
or they are composed of hard pellets accompanied with

3 1 8 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

fluid, but never in a large amount at once. The sufferer
attempts to urinate frequently, discharging only a small quan-
tity, although by passing the hand up the rectum the bladder
is found to be full, retained there in consequence of sympa-
thetic spasm of the neck. A full and copious discharge of
urine indicates removal of spasm, and is therefore regarded
as a critical and favourable sign. Previous supplies of grass,
potatoes, roots generally, wheat or barley, especially when
these are diseased, unripe, or given suddenly and in too large
quantities, usually give rise to looseness or diarrhoea, when
considerable discharges of flatus also take place. In addi-
tion to intestinal derangement, the stomach may be also
overloaded, when signs of vomition are produced, and occa-
sionally the act is effectually accomplished, as already de-
scribed at page 295. In slight cases the paroxysms do not
recur very rapidly, or continue long, and a favourable sign
consists of their gradual decline both in frequency and inten-
sity. In aggravated forms the attacks are frequent, and
increase in severity ; the pulse becomes hard and frequent ;
the pain is continuous and agonising, causing the sufferer to
dash himself wildly about. Intense anguish is depicted
in the countenance ; the eyes are staring and blood-
shot, nostrils dilated, breathing loud and heavy ; he rolls

violently, turns on the back, and
drops or doubles the limbs, find-
ing ease thereby ; when he walks
the motion is unsteady and reel-
ing, owing to sympathetic disorder
of the brain ; cold sweats bedew
the body, and the ears and ex-
YiG, Nausea. tremities are also cold ; the mus-

cles of the body quiver and twitch
violently, and nausea is signified by curling upwards of the
top lip, exposing the teeth (Fig. 95). Under the violence

Colic.

319

of these continued signs the animal is exhausted ; the pulse
becomes small, weak, and imperceptible ; paralysis of the
bowels occasionally sets in, the brain participates strongly,
and the animal dies.

Flatulent Colic. — When tympanitis is superadded to spas-
modic colic, it becomes a most dangerous complication. It
is not necessary that engorgement of the stomach or intes-
tines be present to cause windy or flatulent colic. Small
quantities of unsuitable food, as brewer’s grains, especially if
old and sour, diseased roots and tubers, rank grasses, changes
of food even of nutritious kinds, &c., besides the inci-
dental causes already named under spasmodic colic, are
amongst the principal agencies which give rise to it. There
is this especial difference in the manifestation of pain — it is
continuous, although it may not be so violent, and the
abdomen is distended, sometimes so tightly that percussion
produces a loud resonant sound, the bowels are constipated,
but occasionally discharge flatus. The brain is apt to par-
ticipate early in this form, and signs of weakness and ex-
haustion rapidly develop, when the acute symptoms detailed
under spasmodic colic appear, and death arises from rupture
of some portion of the intestines, or absorption of the gases
give rise to blood poisoning ; or the extreme pressure from
the distended bowels so effectually arrest the portal circulation
by which the flow of blood from the intestines is completely
stopped, resulting in wide-spread extravasation of blood
throughout their walls, a condition sometimes mistaken for
strangulation and inflammation.

Post-mortem Appearances. — Rupture of any part of the
digestive track is sufficiently obvious on opening the abdo-
men from the abundant distribution of food, and, on turning-
the intestines aside, the stomach or colon is found to be
lacerated. Local stricture of one or more portions of intes-
tine, calculi or parasites, may be present ; worms also in

320 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

large qualities are found, pointing a cause for derangement ;
and in the flatulent form the extensive extravasation already
alluded to is a common condition.

Treatment. — As the cause of spasmodic colic is due to the
presence of some irritant in the shape of aliment within the
stomach, or small or large intestines, it appears most rea-
sonable that such should be removed as soon as possible, and
for this purpose a dose of aloes is generally prescribed, 4, 6,
8, or even 10 drams being administered to large and power-
ful horses. More generally, however, the majority of practi-
tioners prefer fluid forms known as colic draughts, some of
which are useful on account of their cathartic qualities, and
others for their antispasmodic properties. Illustrations of
each are subjoined.

PURGATIVE COLIC DRAUGHTS.

Recipe No. 77.

Take of solution of aloes 6 to 10 fl. oz.

Aromatic spirits of ammonia i fl. oz.

Mix. The addition of half a pint of water is useful in
order to mitigate the local action of the ammonia.

Recipe No. 78.

Take of solution of aloes 6 to 10 fl. oz.

Sulphuric ether i fl. oz.

Mix.

Recipe No. 79.

Take of solution of aloes 6 to 10 fl. oz.

Chloric ether 2 fl. oz.

Mix.

Recipe No. 80.

Take of linseed oil i pint.

Nitric, sulphuric, or chloric ether i oz.

Croton oil 2 to 5 drops.

Mix.

The draughts No. 78, 79, and 80 need no admixture.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IV.

“THE ABDOMEN LAID OPEN.

“An incision has been made through the linea alba and
the walls of the cavity reflected back ; thereby affording a
full view of the intestines. Of course this proceeding has
slightly changed their exact relative situations ; but they are
still sufficiently true to enable the reader to form a tolerably
accurate idea of their positions when undisturbed.

Ay The crncum, having its blind extremity pointing
downward ; B, the colon originating and terminating in the
right hypochondriac region ; Cy the rectum, showing one of
its two muscular bands, and the cell-like structure of this
intestine also being prominently exhibited ; By the small
intestines, occupying the upper and posterior portion of the
cavity. Only a few of these last come into this view.”

M 71V

Colic.

321

ANTISPASMODIC COLIC DRAUGHTS.

Recipe No. 81.

Take of linseed oil | pint.

Tincture of opium 2 fl. oz.

Mix.

Recipe No. 82.

Take of tincture of opium i fl. oz.

Sulphuric ether i „

Water | pint.

Mix.

Recipe No. 83.

Take of extract of henbane, hyoscyamus, or belladonna i dr.

Sulphuric ether i fl. oz.

Water | pint.

Reduce the extract to an emulsion by means of a portion
of the water ; afterwards add the remainder with the ether.

Recipe No. 84.

Take of linseed oil

Oil of turpentine

Tincture of opium

Mix.

Recipe No. 85.

Take of linseed oil

Sulphuric ether

Camphor

Essence of ginger

i pint.
I fl. oz.

I pint.

1 fl. oz.

2 drs.

2 fl. drs.

Dissolve the camphor in the ether, then add the oil and
shake ; afterwards add the essence. It may also be advi-
sable to dilute with a cupful of cold water, to reduce the
local effects of the camphor and essence.

Recipe No. 86.

Take of tincture of opium i fl. oz.

Oil of turpentine i „

Mix, and give in gruel or oatmeal and water.

When purgatives are employed, they should be given in
sufficient doses according to the state of the bowels at the
first, as it is unwise to give repeated doses which have the

322 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

effect of nauseating and depressing the animal ; and if the
pain continues, subsequent medicines should be those of an
antispasmodic character.

Enemas should be constantly employed until a cessation
of pain takes place and the action of the bowels is esta-
blished, as betokened by the discharge of faeces or audible
evidence of intestinal murmurs. The animal should be
made as comfortable as possible by means of straw, and
when he rolls large trusses may in tied with cords so as to
keep them together, and placed singly or in numbers
between him and the wall to prevent injury ; hay-tea or
tepid water may be allowed if he will drink. The bladder
should be examined at the outset, and if found to be filled
with urine, the catheter is to be passed without delay, in
order to draw off the fluid, as rupture of the organ may
result from the rolling and violent acts during spasms.

The question of using cathartics only as opposed to anti-
spasmodics has been debated for some time, and likewise
the use of aloes in the solid as against the fluid form. We
cannot enter into a minute examination of these at the
present, but may be allowed to state that, as a rule, we have
found the administration of aloes to be the safest plan, and
that the solid form has certain advantages over the fluid^
especially in impaction of the stomach. The practitioner,
however, finds occasionally the need of departing from fixed
rules, and accordingly adopts at the time such forms and
remedies as he conceives suitable.

Treatment of Flatulent Colic. — The dose of aloes will be
especially needful here, as an irritant requires removal. In
addition, the enemas are to be used persistently, and some
practitioners prefer gaseous ones {see Enemas), to the value
of which we can abundantly testify. Following the aloes,
other remedies for arresting, dissipating, or neutralising the
gases are to be given, Umally, however, if the actions and

Colic.

323

secretions of the intestines are restored, which ensues on the
reduction of spasm, the further formation of gases also
ceases. Under these circumstances, we have found the
following draught very useful : —

Recipe No. 87.

Take of solution of aloes 6 to 10 fl. oz.

Aromatic spirits of ammonia 2 fl oz.

Water ^ pint.

Mix, and administer. If the pain continues, at the end
of an hour, repeat the ammonia and water only.

When the distension by gases appears to be very great,
and danger threatened, the following draught may succeed
the aloes : —

Recipe No. 88.

Take of hyposulphite of soda 2 or 3 oz.

Water i pint.

Mix, and dissolve. If it is desirable also to add a stimu-
lant, the aromatic spirits of ammonia may be used without
fear of decomposing the hy^posulphite.

As the colon is the usual seat of flatulence in this form of
colic, continental veterinarians have recommended that it
should be punctured by means of a trocar and canula
through the floor of the abdomen. The operation has not
been favourably received and adopted in this country, the
ordinary course of internal treatment being found to be
more generally successful.

The question of working horses immediately after attacks
of colic has had much to do with varying the plan of treat-
ment. Many persons ignorantly suppose that after such the
animal is as well as ever, forgetting that violent spasm pro-
duces soreness, stiffness, and weakness, and these alone are
sometimes sufficient to pave the way to subsequent attacks,
or lay the foundation of other diseases, when aggravated by
too early return to work. In addition, the animal has so

21—2

324 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

much medicine within his digestive organs ; and if it be
aloes, severe work or exercise may induce superpurgation
and death. On this account, in the treatment of colic prac-
titioners have descended to the use of opiates and antispas-
modics alone ; and we question very much the practice of
owners sending their horses to work even after this method
has been adopted. Although there may be no fear of
superpurgation, the non-removal of the original cause, we
have found, is productive of equally awkward results, as
impaction, relapsing colic, and even rupture. When the
practitioner has to deal with the patients of those who
cannot, or will not, allow due rest after such illness, we
would advise him to give only a moderate dose only of
aloes, with more frequent stimulants, as ammonia or the
ethers, and to utter a word of caution to the owner against
the risk of working horses after such active treatment.

Treatment of Impacted Colon and Ccecum. — In addition to
the signs of abdominal pain, as already given, colie, arising
from impaction of the large intestines {see Plate IV.), the
colon and caecum, the animal exhibits a tendency to go
backwards, and apparently experiences relief by pressing the
hind -quarters against the wall, sometimes even sitting dov/n
on the manger, or other convenient object. Besides this, we
find there is some difficulty in passing the hand up the
rectum, and the lining membrane is somewhat injected ; the
abdomen is distended and hard, and the engorged intestine
may be felt in some cases, when exploring through the
rectum. When these conditions are clearly identified, the
propriety of using aloes — and more particularly if the
stomach is known to be filled — becomes a question of
importance. To force on an additional mass to the already
engorged intestines, it would seem, is a proceeding which
cannot fail to make matters worse. But writers on Veterinary
Materia Medica urge that aloes need only to be absorbed,

Colic.

325

and their effects are produced only upon the posterior in
testines — the rectum. Similar action is reported of croton

oil ; and in order to avoid the consequences of administra-
tion of such remedies by the mouth during impaction of the
rectum, we have injected the oil beneath the skin, but have
failed to observe the action referred to. The most rational
plan we believe to consist of the incessant use of medicated
enemas, as aloes in solution, and even admixtures of croton
oil ; while as internal agents, given by the mouth, nothing
answers so well as stimulants and antispasmodics, with
which strychnia is usefully combined.

Recipe No. 89.

Take of aromatic spirits of ammonia 2 fl. oz.

Nux vomica | dr.

Water i pint.

Mix.

After the foregoing draught has been given, sufficient time
should be allowed to elapse before another is given, and the
nux vomica must be omitted. If pain continues, it may be
advisable to repeat the stimulant each hour, alternating^
with, or substituting for, the ammonia one of the ethers.

Rupture of the colon and caecum may arise from the
presence of calculi, one or more of which block up the
passage at the narrowest part. In other cases a liability to
rupture exists in the degeneration of the muscular walls,
arising from repeated previous impaction in aged animals.
The untoward event is known by the sudden decline of
spasm, and, of course, also of pain ; relaxation of the rectum,
by which enemata are retained ; an anxious expression of
the countenance (Fig. 59) ; running-down pulse ; and rapid
sinking and exhaustion. Sometimes death is instantaneous,
but it has been known to be delayed for hours, or a day or
two, when peritonitis is set up, which speedily ends the

case.

326 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

Enteritis — Inflammation of the Intestines ;
Gastro-enteritis — Inflammation of the Stomach
AND Intestines.

Inflammation of the bowels in the horse is a rare disease,
and, as usually witnessed, is due to some irritant posion, as
large doses of active medicines, or caustic and corrosive
fluids, &c., accidentally swallowed by the animal ; substances
purposely administered, the action of which may not be
generally known, or for malicious purposes. Horses have
•obtained access to arsenical solutions, or grooms give the
solid form of arsenic in powder, as a remedy for producing
a fine coat ; calomel and tartar-emetic are also used for
similar purposes, and occasionally poisoning is seen.
Chemical solutions of various kinds, as caustic soda, black
ashes, caustic potash, various acids in which brass goods
have been cleaned, oxalic acid, &c., are often left carelessly
about in the yards of manufacturers, and thirsty horses
snatch a drink. Ordinary medicines, as purgatives, &c., in
large doses, do not produce the enteritis we are about to
describe ; they may irritate the mucous surfaces, but an
effect really of a curative nature is produced — the unload-
ing of distended bloodvessels, and exciting a free and
copious secretion. True enteritis consists of an inflamma-
tion of the muscular, vascular, and mucous coats of the
bowels, accompanied with thickening due to the presence of
plastic exudation. It is scarcely possible to distinguish
gastritis or inflammation of the stomach in the horse from
enteritis, as when one part of the digestive tube is inflamed
the other is generally affected. Medicines or poisons pro-
ducing the disease in the bowels must first pass the
stomach, and there set up their effects ; besides which, the
mouth and gullet may exhibit traces of them.

Symptoms. — We remember in our student days being

Enteritis.

3^1

crammed with supposed valuable diagnostic symptoms of
enteritis in the horse, such as aggravated, intense, and con-
tinuous colic, and a particular desire of the horse to roll and
remain upon his back, while fury and absolute madness
characterises his movements when on his legs. We re-
member too, very vividly, how we had to discard these signs
as misleading, when carcass after carcass, said to exhibit
the morbid appearances of enteritis, was examined, that we
could detect nothing of the kind ; that congestion and
extravasation of blood from an arrest of circulation, pro-
ducing deep red, almost black, patches over the bowels, did
exist ; and seeing this, it is but a perversion of the truth,
we feel, to call it inflammation.

In fact, abdominal pain in enteritis or gastro-enteritis
is not the prominent or early symptom. As will be expected
from the fact that, a large tract of tissue engaged in one of
the most important functions necessary to life being inflamed,
not contracted by spasm or distended by gas, a great
amount of severe constitutional disturbance will be pro-
duced. The urine is scanty, and of a deep colour. Colicky
pains do not appear until later, and they are by no means
severe. The pulse is small, frequent, hard, and strong from
the first, and, as the vital processes are more interfered with,
it becomes irregular, weak, and indistinct, running-down, and
imperceptible. The temperature is increased at once, and
suffers such diurnal variations as are not or cannot be seen in
colic. The visible mucous membranes are deeply congested,
that of the rectum probably protruding from straining due to
internal irritation, especially if diarrhoea is present. The
mouth is hot and clammy, skin tight. The appetite is
entirely absent, but thirst is intolerable. The animal stands
dejected, with anxious countenance, short and rapid breathing.
Usually constipation is present, owing to the stoppage of
secretion and peristaltic action. The abdomen is tender

328 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

upon pressure, flanks tucked up, and colicky pains present
themselves from time to time. The sufferer moves stiffly,
avoiding all motion in the abdomen and loins ; he gradually

Fig. 96. — JEnteritis — Gasti'o-entcritis.

becomes listless and exhausted, and at length lies down, half
rising, and looking towards the flanks (Fig. 96) ; he now
sinks rapidly, and is incapable of rising ; the brain sympa-
thises, convulsions ensue, and the animal dies in periods
varying from one day to six, or even seven, depending upon
the nature of the cause and severity of the symptoms.
Favourable progress is betokened by gradual decline of the
constitutional symptoms, restoration of the action of the
bowels, absence of pain, animated countenance, fulness and
strength of pulse, decline of temperature, equal warmth of
surface and limbs, cool mouth, soft and moist skin, &c.

Post-mortem Appear aiices. — The general tumefaction pre-
vails over a large extent of surface. Redness first seen
through the peritoneum is continuous throughout all the
coats of the bowels to the mucous surfaces, which are dark,
turgid, and tumefied, having solid particles of the poison
adhering if such have been used, while in places removal of
the epithelium or erosion may be seen. Within the muscular
coats plastic exudation exists, and the substance of the whole
is considerably thickened.

Peritonitis.

329

Treatment. — When substances of a poisonous nature have
been administered, it is clear the first attempts should be
directed towards neutralising their effects, appropriate anti-
dotes being used {see Poisons). The propriety of using a
purgative in inflammation of the stomach and bowels has
been very much questioned. We, however, contend that, as
the action of purgatives is curative by promoting secretion,
and thereby affording relief, that it is advisable to open the
bowels, after which the systemic disturbance should be met
by aconite, belladonna, hyoscyamus, &c., and large quanti-
ties of mucilage, linseed-tea, &c., being allowed the animal
to drink. Bleeding may be advisable if the strength and
condition will warrant it, but, as a rule, aconite may be
caused to accomplish all that is needed. Hot fomentations
to the abdomen, or active counter-irritants, are used by some ;
the latter, however, we think often do more harm than good.

Peritonitis.

Inflammation of the membrane lining the cavity of the
abdomen, and investing the organs within it (Fig. 97).

Causes. — These are chiefly injuries, or operations by which
the membrane is wounded. In the horse a great suscepti-
bility to this form of inflammation exists. Such constitutes
what is known as traumatic peritonitis, and arises occasion-
ally from castration, abdominal wounds, &c. Among the
latter we have seen it follow punctures by a stable fork, or
the horns of infuriated cattle. As an independent affection,
it may succeed undue exposure to cold and wet, and it may
be involved in inflammation with other organs.

Symptoms. — Signs of severe constitutional disturbance are
exhibited. The pulse is frequent, hard, quick, and wiry ; the
breathing hurried, ears and extremities cold, the nostrils are
dilated, and the countenance anxious and dejected ; the
animal turns the nose to the flank (Fig. 96), and further

330 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

indicates the presence of abdominal pain by pawing, crouch-
ing, and slight colicky symptoms. The bowels are usually
constipated, and the abdomen tucked up and tense ; the
discharge of urine small, and it has a high colour ; exhaus-
tion and sinking is rapid, and death follows at variable
periods, the animal being sometimes insensible, racked by
convulsions, or paralytic.

Fig. 97. — The Refiections of Peritoneum.

By tracing the white lines the student may learn the reflections of peritoneum, and ascertain
the existence and precise situations of the lesser and larger cavity.

LP. The larger cavity of the peritoneum.
SP. The smaller cavity of the peritoneum.
D. The diaphragm.

L. The liver.

SS. The stomach and spleen.

C. The colon, supported by MC, the meso-
colon.

I. The ilium, supported by the mesentery,
formed of two layers of peritoneum.

R. The rectum, supported by the mesocolon.
Q. That portion of the rectum which is co-
vered only by condensed cellular tissue.
B. The bladder.

O. The omentum, formed by the union of

the two peritoneums.

P. The oesophagus indicated. The lower P

represents the investiture of the hepatic
duct, which goes to the duodenum.

Post-mortem Appearances. — Passive haemorrhages within
the bowels and stomach often occur shortly before death,
giving rise to the presence of a fluid resembling coffee-
grounds. The surface of the peritoneum exhibits a spotted
appearance — ecchymosis, more or less blood-poisoning having
taken place ; at other parts the bowels are united by plastic
exudation, and bands of lymph stretch from one bowel to

V jlvitlits or Ileus.

331

others at a little distance. Sometimes a straw-coloured, but
more commonly a reddish-coloured, thin serum is present,
containing flakes of lymph, the quantity of the former vary-
ing in accordance with the duration of the disease, from, a
few quarts to as many gallons. The seat of injury is charac-
terised by a diffused red or dark red colour, which spreads
away from it on all sides, involving the parts in acute in-
flammation and plastic exudation, causing union with the
walls of the abdomen and adjacent organs.

Treatment. — In some cases there is no time for this, the
disease terminating fatally in a few hours. On the other
hand, we have seen a horse suffering from a wound in the
side of the abdomen, caused by a puncture by the horn of a
bull, live on for a week, and apparently pass the critical
stage, and then sink and die in twelve hours. Although
something has been said denouncing purgatives in this
disease, yet we think they are useful if carefully exhibited.
Strong doses of nitre or the acetate of ammonia and aconite
draughts. No. 13, p. 70, and 34, p. 120, properly succeed
such measures. Enemas maybe used, and if the animal will
take food, it must be soft and laxative, as bran, linseed-
tea, &c. &c.

Volvulus or Ileus, and Intussusception or
Invagination of the Bowels.

The intestines of the horse are liable to displacement, by
which pressure or strangulation ensues, resulting in a fatal
termination.

Volvulus or Ileus denotes a twisting or turning round of a
portion of the intestine on itself ; usually a part of the ileum
or small bowel, but the colon has been known to be affected.
At the part where the twist occurs the circulation is arrested,
pain is evinced by colic often of the severest kind, violent
straining of the rectum is seen, enemas are not retained, and

332 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

F IG. 98. — hivagination^ or pas-
sage of one part of the Intes-
tines within another.

no relief is afforded by treatment, the animal often dying
under twenty-four hours.

Intussusception, or Invaginatio7i of the bowels, consists of the
passage of one portion within another, as shown in the figure

annexed (Fig. 98). By this pro-
cess pressure is induced, the outer
gut contracting forcibly upon the
inner, giving rise to strangulation,
and equally fatal results with the
above.

The causes of volvulus are
generally attributed to the rolling
of the animal, when one loaded portion of the intestine
moves more rapidly than another which is empty, c.nd slips
between others, and subsequent movements fail to restore,
but rather prevent, its return. Invagination is often due
to the action of violent medicines, and even poisons, and
occasionally the true form is seen after death in horses
slaughtered for dissection ; in dogs, on account of the greater
muscular power, it is a common occurrence as a post-7nortem
condition. In these latter cases there is the total absence
of strangulation and blackening from blood extravasation.
Sometimes gangrene and sphacelus may mark the true cases
of strangulation. Invagination chiefly takes place in the
small intestines, but rarely the ileum may pass into the
caecum. In occasional instances the portion of small intes-
tine, having intruded within -another, is strangulated, dies,
and by the process of ulceration is thrown off. The dead
portion passes away by the intestines ; adhesion at the point
of strangulation takes place, and the animal recovers. —
Gamgee — Williams.

Ti'catmcnt. — Continental veterinarians recommend the
opening of the abdomen, replacing the intestine, and closing
the outer wound in the usual way ; but the remedy is so for-

Calculi,

midable that it does not appear to have been tried in this
country. As both these conditions appear likely to occur
on an attack of colic, it is clear that means intended to
relieve spasm will be most likely to prevent their occurrence.
For this reason the treatment of colic should be prompt and
energetic.

These conditions are not readily defined during life ; we
may, however, conjecture, assuming one or other to be pre-
sent, as the severe and continuous colic is generally asso-
ciated with violent retching and attempts to vomit, together
with violent spasm of the rectum, and non-retention of
enemas.

Another form of strangulation of the small intestines
occasionally arises from constriction derived from a portion
of the mesentery becoming elongated, at the end of which a
fatty or other kind of tumour has formed. During the
movements of the intestines, the tumour slips and passes, or
is drawn between the bowels, while the cord becomes tightly
fixed over a portion of the bowel. Strangulation, inflamma-
tion, together with all the symptoms of incurable colic, pre-
sent themselves, as already cited, as peculiar to these forms
of disease ; and the animal dies without any mitigation of
pain or relief from treatment. i^See Frontispiece.)

Calculi — Intestinal Concretions, or Stones in
THE Intestines.

Obstructions in the form of calculi, or stones, are found in
the several parts of the digestive canal. In the majority of
instances they are met with in the large intestines, sometimes
in the small, and occasionally, but rarely, in the stomach.
When they have been found in the stomach, the supposition
is that at one time they belonged to the small intestines,
and may have been carried thither by antiperistaltic action.

Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

We have found as many as seven in the ’ large intestines,

weighing in all upwards of twenty pounds ; at other times

three or four are distributed over as many parts of the canal.

A professional friend showed us a single stone, which he

took from the caecum of a miller’s horse, which died from

colic, having the enormous weight of twenty-four pounds ;

and in another instance we saw in the caecum of a horse at

least a gallon of small triangular-shaped stones, each of

which had four faces and four points,

so that wherever they fell a point was

uppermost (Fig. 99). This shape was

given by the motion of the bowels,

causing them to rub and wear against

each other ; and when found among

Fig. 99. — Small hitestmal semi-fluid ingesta they appeared

Calculus. ^ . 1 • 1 1

to fit very conveniently with each

other. After removal, and being washed free from dirt,
they were put into a glass jar, where they also fell re-
markably into place, each presenting their flat sides fitting

Fig. 1 00. — Section of a Spherical
Calculus from the intestines,
showing the concentric layers
of deposit.

Fig. ioi. — Intestinal Calculus,
showing mode of wear by con-
tact with others. Internal
structure la7ninated in cir-
cular layers, as in No. 100.

is noticed among larger
constant attrition
produced ; but single

very closely together. The same
stones when more than one are found ; by
against each other flat surfaces are

Calculi,

335

stones are generally spherical. Outwardly they are covered
by an encrustation of carbonate of lime, but internally they
are composed of the phosphate and ammonio-phosphate of
lime in large proportion, exhibiting a concentric or ring-like
arrangement, as shown in the annexed figures (Figs. loo
and lOi).

The centre of these calculi or stones is generally formed
of a piece of granite, stone, a nail, piece of wood, &c., any
one of which being taken with the food is detained in the
bowels. Owing to derangement of the digestive process,
the ordinary constituents of the
food — the phosphates — are not
dissolved and appropriated, and
the presence of such a foreign
body as one of the above-named
articles proves a useful nucleus,
around which the phosphates ac-
cumulate. Another variety (Fig.

102), but much lighter, is made Vxo. ^o2.-Oat-hair Cakulus.
up of the beard or hair of the oat,

barley, &c., and an admixture of phosphates and carbonates.
It is known as the oat-hair calculus.

Mixed calculi are sometimes known as dust-balls, as con-
taining a large amount of small dusty material when dried,
as faecal matters, with a small proportion of phosphates and
carbonates. Occasionally this kind of calculus assumes the
form of a ring, the faecal matters first adhering to the interior
of the bowel by means of some unusual secretion of mucus,
eventually extending all round, a hole being left in the
middle through which the faeces pass. Among the horses
and ponies employed in coal-mines, where long fasts are
observed, the presence of dust-balls are very common, some
attaining large dimensions, but weighing very light. The
cause we found to exist in the fact that severe hunger was

336 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

induced in the animals, and in place of food they devoured
the coals to appease it. When this was pointed out, we
remember having received a severe rebuke for daring to pro-
fess any knowledge of such matters in the presence of a
chief viewer, and were informed that the composition of such
stones was due to the drinking of water containing lime.
How lime-water could be metamorphosed into coals was a
mystery to us, or that water containing but a small portion
of lime inevitably produced calculi of any kind. Long resi-
dence in lime districts had furnished the experience, that
phosphatic calculi are not even as common as among the
horses and ponies of coal-mines ; and, further, that both
phosphatic calculi, and more generally mixed or the dust-
ball kind, are very prevalent in those pits, and even districts
above ground, where no lime-water whatever can be obtained.
The food furnishes ample material under disordered states for
phosphatic calculi ; and when gross mismanagement keeps
horses so many hours without food, the swallowing of dirt
and rubbish is acquired as a result of diseased conditions of
the stomach being previously brought about.

Indications of the presence of these stones are merely
conjectural. Severe or relapsing colic, and at length irre-
mediable, takes place, and kills the animal ; but we know of
no special sign by which their presence is insured. We
give an illustration of one of the dust-balls which was found
imbedded within a mass of tissue in the small intestines of
a pony, which died in one of the coal-mines of the county of
Durham, belonging to the Marchioness of Londonderry,
already referred to at page 298. This creature continued
for two days in great agony ; medicines gave no relief The
rectum was occasionally affected with severe spasm, but he
did not roll much after the first few hours of the attack ;
gradual listnessness came on, and he sank exhausted and deli-
rious, dying in convulsions and severe retchings. {See Plate VI.)

PLATE VI.

CALCULUS IN SMALL INTESTINES.

Diarrhoea.

337

Occasionally one or more calculi are passed from the
rectum during life with the faeces ; several of these have
occurred in the practice of the writer, as well as among
liorses of his own.

Diarrhcea.

In the majority of instances diarrhoea is to be regarded as
an indication or a result of the existence of other diseases.
Its appearance during health is not infrequent, being then
Nature’s process for carrying away irritant or obnoxious
substances, and consists of increased action of the bowels,
with discharge of liquid faeces, independent of any inflam-
matory action whatever. Indigestible food, sudden changes
of diet, particularly from dry grain and forage to grass,
roots, &c., are common causes ; work and copious draughts
of water often aggravate these states. Medicines of various
kinds will sometimes suddenly produce it, contrary to ex-
pectation, owing to some obscure cause acting in unison.
The presence of worms is occasionally indicated by diarrhoea ;
derangement of the liver gives rise to it ; and many badly-
formed animals — generally known as “washy horses” —
being long and loosely coupled, having flat sides, hollow
flanks, narrow loins, and besides having an excitable tem-
perament, are peculiarly liable to looseness of the bowels,
which suddenly comes on during a journey, and by it they
never acquire any degree of what is known as high condi-
tion, but, on the contrary, are predisposed to other states of
disorder as well as disease.

Diarrhcea appears as a sequel of many diseases, as blood
poisoning, pleuro-pneumonia, affections of the liver, intes-
tines, &c., being the means by which life at the last is rapidly
dissipated.

Symptoms. — Simple diarrhoea consists of frequent evacua-
tion of fluid excrement, which usually partakes of the colour

338 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

of the food that gives rise to it, and particles of irritating
substances will be found among it ; thus grass, &c., will
impart a green colour ; new wheat and other grain will be
found among the ejections ; and iron, given as medicines,
will cause them to become black. As a rule, simple diarrhoea
is unattended with foetor. There is always more or less
straining, and occasionally colicky pains are present, the
appetite is impaired, and the secretion of urine diminished.
Diarrhoea attendant upon diseases, as influenza and fevers
generally, exhibits an amount of foetor ; and that of blood
poisoning, as well as the form which terminates many
diseases in which “breaking up of the system” is very
conspicuous, the odour of the evacuations is simply un-
bearable.

Simple diarrhoea seldom kills the animal. In such rare
instances local irritation may be indicated in places by a
slight turgid condition of the bloodvessels, and these are
confined solely to the spot where an irritant has adhered ;
otherwise no signs of inflammation exist, but, on the con-
trary, the pallor of the membranes point to a powerful
draining effect. Thickening, together with exudation, as
results of inflammation, are not observed. Fatal diarrhoea,
as a result of disease, exhibits no difference in these respects,
but the cause is distinctly traced to organic and structural
changes which lead to a degeneration of blood, and inability
to support life.

Treatment. — In simple states little is called for beyond
keeping the animal perfectly quiet, warm, and comfortable,
removing the cause, whether food, water, medicines, &c.
Professor Gamgee recommends clysters of warm water to
aid in removing irritants ; and we can recommend his plan
from successful experience. It is also advisable to restrict
the allowance of drinking-water for a short time. When
any known irritant exists, and is keeping up the morbid

Diarrhcea.

339

action of the bowels, a mild aperient may be given, such as
the following: —

Recipe No. 90.

Take of linseed oil i pint

Laudanum i fl. oz.

Mix. Or the following : —

Recipe No. 91.

Take of sulphuric or nitric ether i fl. oz.

Laudanum i „

Solution of aloes 4 „

Mix.

It is rare that anything beyond these are required if the
changes of diet have been properly carried out ; but in the
other forms astringents will be called for. We allude to
those attacks of diarrhoea which from neglect may assume
a chronic condition, the secreting follicles of the intestines
having been so long under excitement that their tendency
to secrete abundantly is not easily arrested, particularly
when an amount of debility is present. The following pre-
parations may be found necessary : —

Recipe No. 92.

Take of laudanum i fl. oz.

Sulphuric ether i „

Mix.

Recipe No. 93.

Take of tannic acid | dr.

Powdered ginger | oz.

Water or gruel 4 fl. oz.

Mix.

When the ejections are offensive, chlorinated lime, or the
hyposulphite of soda, may be given in small and repeated
doses, as well as being used as enemata ; and if the fore-
going remedies are proved to be non-successful, recourse
must be had to more powerful astringents, as catechu, kino,
tannic acid in larger doses, mineral acids, &c. {See Dis-
pensatory.)

22—2

340 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

Superpur'gatio7i. — This is a form of diarrhoea resulting from
either an excessive dose of purgative medicine, or the
operation of conditions unnoticed or beyond control at the
time. Some animals are peculiarly susceptible of the
action of aloes, and on receiving only a moderate dose will
purge violently ; if, in addition, the weather be cold, and
sufficient care is not taken in order to protect the animal
from its effects, or copious draughts of cold water are
allowed ; if the animal is taken to work or exercise too
soon, the consequences are alarming. Similar results follow
the administration of moderate or full doses of aloes in cases
of catarrh, influenza, and indeed in all instances where any
excitement of the mucous surfaces exist. We have also
seen superpurgation follow a draught of ice-cold water, given
to animals heated during work, and even after an ordinary
dose of linseed oil in catarrh. Care is therefore always
required in judging of the state of the animal before a
purgative is administered.

The sy7nptoms of superpurgation are — forcible and frequent
evacuations of fluid faeces, accompanied with straining, un-

Fig. 103. — Stcperp2irgatio7t.

easiness, colicky pains, accelerated respiration and circula-'
tion, loss of appetite, nausea, unequal surface temperature,
weakness, complication with disease of the feet, known as

Dysentery — Colitis — Bloody Fhtx. 341

founder, laminitis, and fever in the feet, or with pneumonia,
or congestion of the lungs, sinking, and death.

Superpurgation must not be suddenly arrested. The
consequences of such are the complications referred to, doubt-
less owing to degeneration of the blood, by which circulation
is impaired, and local engorgement the inevitable result.
The remedies in the first instance should be cautiously in-
troduced, as recommended for diarrhoea ; food and water
restricted ; gruel, composed of starch, allowed for drink, as
well as being used as enemas. Before resorting to powerful
astringents trial should be given of the opium and ether
draught. No. 92, page 339, by which the pain and uneasiness
will be allayed, while no obstacle is thrown in the way of
the efforts to discharge the irritants from the intestinal canal,
the ether contributing to support the system against the
inroads which rapidly ensuing weakness may make.

Violent purgation often follows the use of certain com-
pounds of aloes, &c., without setting up that condition we
have been considering. As long as the circulation and
respiration are not disturbed, and the appetite remains good,
nothing need be feared, as an early return to ordinary food,
scarcity of water, warmth, and general comfort will speedily
restore the normal action of the bowels.

Dysentery — Colitis — Bloody Flux.

This is, fortunately, a rare disease in the horse. Dysen-
tery consists of an inflammation of the mucous membrane of
the intestines, principally the large ; hence the term colitis,
from colon, which constitute the greater portion. Ulceration
and haemorrhage form a prominent feature. Cattle are
more disposed to this disease, and we find the causes
which induce it among them give rise to superpurgation and
an acute form of diarrhoea in the horse. Again, while

342 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

diarrhcea in the horse forms the last stage in most wasting
diseases, blood poisons, &c., the same in cattle are closed by
dysentery.

Causes. — Bad food, especially the grasses of marshy and
other land which does not receive a proper share of cultiva-
tion. As this is not so common as formerly, a great cause
of dysentery has been removed. Want of drainage, giving
rise to a manurial poisoning of land and herbage, once a
prolific cause, has also to some extent undergone modi-
fication. Impure or putrid water from ponds receiving all
the filth from manure heaps, cesspools, house drains, &c.,
which first set up a state of blood poisoning, is a powerful
agent ; and, we may add, all the principles of defective
management which induce low condition, debility, blood
derangement, &c., especially when exposure to cold and wet
weather, &c., are combined. The form usually seen in the
horse is the acute, or that which supervenes on the entrance
of some poison or ferment by means of food or water.

Symptoms. — Signs of constitutional disturbance, such as
shivering, variable temperature of the body, dulness, insa-
tiable thirst, increased frequency of circulation and respira-
tion, stiffness in movement, particularly in turning ; the back
is arched (Fig. 103), the coat stares, the skin is tight on the
body, and in horses coming from grass it is also generally
full of vermin, and emaciation rapidly proceeds ; the bowels
are inordinately excited, and violent straining takes place at
intervals, in which a thin and offensive fluid excrement con-
taining a large quantity of mucus, and also blood, is dis-
charged in variable quantity. During the paroxysms the
rectum is everted, and the lining membrane is observed to
be inflamed and sore. Colicky pains are sometimes severe,
and the abdomen is tender under pressure ; tympanitis also
affects the bowels more or less, and adds to the distress of
breathing. The mouth is clammy, the tongue furred, and in

Dysentery — Colitis — Bloody Flux. 343

a day or two the epithelium peels off, leaving unhealthy
sores or ulcers, a condition which indicates pretty clearly
what is going on inside. Unless relief is afforded very soon
the disease increases in severity, and death puts an end
to the sufferings about the end of three or four days, or
at the most a week, after the discharges of blood are
established.

P ost-mortem Appearances. — The substance of the intesti-
nal walls of the caecum, colon, and rectum is infiltrated with
fluid, and in places a lymph exudation is present, which
gives the appearance of jelly. The lining membrane is
inflamed, red, and marked in places with ulcers of variable
size, in some instances having caused perforation of the walls.
Abscesses occur here and there beneath the membrane, and
the peritoneal surface exhibits the characteristic ecchymoses
or spots of blood extravasation, indicating the existence of
blood poisoning during life. The small intestines are

distended, and the lining membrane is reddened. When
punctured an escape of extremely foetid gas takes place ; the
bladder contains a small quantity of highly-coloured urine,
rich in urea, the representative principle of tissues undergoing
rapid decay.

Treatment. — Bleeding has been recommended by Percivall
and others when the state of the system will admit of it.
Great good will be derived from the use of an oleaginous
purge, in order to carry off any local irritant.

Recipe No. 94.

Take of linseed oil i pint.

Tincture of opium i fl. oz.

Chloroform | fl. dr.

Mix.

The action of the bowels being mitigated by the above,
moderate doses of opium with potash will be found service-
able.

344 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

Recipe No. 95.

Take of powdered opium 20 grs.

Carbonate of potash 2 drs.

Tincture of cantharides 2 fl. drs.

Mix, and give in half a pint of gruel.

The thirst may be allayed by allowing thick starch water
to drink.

When these measures do not appear to produce an abate-
ment of the symptoms, an attempt to mitigate and finally
arrest the blood discharges may be made by one or other of
the following : —

Recipe No. 96.

Take of oil of turpentine 2 fl. oz.

Milk I pint.

Mix.

Recipe No. 97.

Take of tannic acid i dr.

Powdered gentian 4 drs.

Mix, and give in half a pint of gruel.

Recipe No. 98.

Take of terchloride of iron 2 drs.

Water ^ pint

Mix.

When debility is great, the above form may be modified

as follows : — - .

Recipe No. 99.

Take of terchloride of iron 2 fl. drs.

Nitric ether i fl. oz.

Infusion of quassia or gentian | pint.

Mix.

Recipe No. ioo.

Take of powdered alum 2 drs.

Sulphuric acid 10 to 15 drops.

Infusion of quassia or gentian i pint.

Mix.

Recipe No. ioi.

Take of solution of chloralum 2 fl. drs.

Infusion of quassia h pi^C

Mix.

Dysentery — Colitis — Bloody Flux. 345

One or other of the foregoing may be given every four,
six, or eight hours, according to the urgency of the case and
symptoms. When the faeces prove so intolerably offensive,
they should be dredged over with McDougall’s disinfecting
powder, chlorinated lime, or solution of chloralum may be
sprinkled on the top, and afterwards swept clean away ; and,
in order to correct the foetor of the secretions within the
bowels, the following draughts may be given at proper
intervals : —

Recipe No. 102. (Gamgee.)

Take of chlorinated lime 2 drs.

Tincture of arnica 2 „

Nitric ether i oz.”

This may be given in cold water twice or thrice a day.

Recipe No. 103.

Take of hyposulphite of soda i oz.

Infusion of quassia or gentian pint.

Dissolve, and give as the above.

Besides the use of the foregoing as draughts, they may be
advantageously employed as enemas, and thus an additional
antiseptic effect will be produced.

The reader must bear in mind the directions already given
in the treatment of diarrhoea, which relate to the sudden
arrestment of the intestinal flux. As long as the signs
suffer a gradual decline, the pulse gaining power and volume,
&c., the treatment may be steadily pursued ; but if, on the
other hand, the pain and flux suddenly cease, while the
pulse becomes weaker, smaller, and more frequent, together
with an increase of animal temperature, the worst results may
be expected. Large doses of medicine are to be avoided,
and, while the utmost watchfulness is needed in order to
keep the system under the constant influence of ordinary
remedies, given in moderate or small and repeated doses,
every care must also be exercised by which to provide the

346 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

greatest amount of comfort, warmth, nourishment, &c. ; and
although the animal may not have lost the appetite, never-
theless the desire for food must not be satisfied with anything
or everything. Flour, starch, and oatmeal gruel made by
boiling may be allowed for drink. Boiled oats and malt
mash, as food, in small quantities at once. Use gentle
friction to the skin, which may be first moistened with a wet
sponge, and afterwards rubbed dry ; clothe the body, and
apply bandages to the legs.

Imperforate Anus and Rectum.

Occasional instances are met with in foals wherein severe
abdominal pains arise, in consequence of the absence of an
outlet for the faeces^ At the usual place for the anal
opening a small depression is present at birth, and as the
faeces accumulate in the rectum a bulging is noticed beneath
the tail, the covering being a thin reflection of skin. Simple
division of this leads to a discharge of faeces and suppression
of pain.

Another form of imperforate condition occasionally met
with occurs in the rectum. At some distance within the
intestine a membrane is thrown across, completely cutting
off the communication, and arresting all faecal matters,
giving rise to abdominal pain and irritation. Clysters are
not retained, and purgatives aggravate the malady. The
absence of intestinal discharges, together with the colicky
symptoms in young foals, indicates some abnormal condition
of the rectum. The remedy consists in dividing the septum
by means of a proper surgical knife, by which the incon-
venience is removed.

A third variety consists of a well-formed anal opening,
but the rectum does not extend to the other bowels. Other
conditions are met with in rare instances, but admit of no
relief by operation.

Hce^norr holds or Piles,

347

Ruptured Rectum.

This lesion occurs in two forms : one near the anus, and
therefore within the pelvis, the other in the abdomen.

We have met with the first named in mares, arising at
the time of parturition, in consequence of the passage of a
foot or feet of the foal through the walls of the vagina,
and protruding through the anus. Sometimes the walls
are lacerated without being divided. The second variety
arises from abscess, cancer, melanosis, &c., and is fatal ; for
as soon as the walls are pierced, the contents escape into
the abdomen and cause death by peritonitis.

The treatment of rupture within the pelvis consists of
uniting the wounds by means of metallic sutures, applying
healing fluids to the vaginal side, and by means of the hand
keeping the rectum clear of faeces until the parts have
united. The animal should be allowed easily-digested food
of a sloppy nature only. When the walls have been
lacerated without division, we have merely used injections
of tincture of arnica lotion, observing to keep the rectum
clear of faeces, and to supply the kind of food as directed,
and the animals have done well.

Hemorrhoids or Piles.

In consequence of habitual constipation arising from a
torpid state of the liver and intestines, an accumulation of
hardened faeces takes place within the rectum, and during
severe straining to expel them injury to the rectum and
haemorrhoidal vessels is the result. Dilatations with vari-
cosities at first commence, and at length these form large
vascular tumours within the rectum, which are lacerated
with every expulsion of faeces, and bleeding is sometimes
severe. The animal strains violently, switches the tail and
stamps, and suffers from some amount of constitutional

348 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

disturbance. The disease is somewhat rare in the horse,
but nevertheless occurs now and then in the course of a life-
long practice.

Treatment consists in keeping the bowels free and open
by means of soft and laxative food, with occasional purga-
tive doses of medicines. Aloes must be avoided, and oil
used instead. Local treatment is comprised in crushing the
internal tumours when they are not large, and applying
ointments containing opium and astringents ; solutions of
carbolic acid in glycerine or linseed oil are of great value ;
the rectum must' be unloaded regularly by means of clysters,
or by the hand if necessary, as sometimes the animal cannot
effect this unaided in consequence of the thickening of the
coats of the rectum, and loss of muscular tissue from
inflammation long continued.

Inversion of the Rectum,

Variously known as prolapsus ani and exania, occurs from
several causes. The rectum is forced outwards, exposing
the mucous membrane, which soon becomes red and swollen,
and, if not liberated, strangulation and gangrene result.
Constipation, parturition long delayed, diarrhoea, and worms,
are fruitful causes, as giving rise to severe straining.
Professor Gamgee, quoting Hertwig, says there are three
forms — viz., “ istly, the rectum protrudes through the
sphincter, and hangs behind the anus ; 2ndly, the anus
drops forward, and there is eversion of its mucous mem-
brane ; 3rdly, there may be only a portion of mucous
membrane on one side protruding. In the first form there
is a decided eversion, and a red swollen intestine is observed
to hang through the anus to the extent of an inch, five or
six inches, or even a foot and a half There is great
difficulty in replacing it, or pushing the finger through the

Parasites of the Stomach — Bots. 349

opening. In the second form the eversion is deeper ; and
in the third, there is a chance of confusion with rectal
polypi.”

Treatment. — Whatever may be the cause of prolapsus it
must be first overcome, otherwise if the return be affected
it will not be permanent ; and as soon as straining again
commences, the eversion becomes as bad as before. In
parturition the foetus must be removed : in diarrhoea, con-
stipation, irritation from worms, &c., the excitement in the
bowels must be first quelled by the appropriate remedies.
A strong dose of opium is usually given to allay spasm,
and the protruded organ is lubricated with a mixture of oil
and laudanum ; and by gentle pressure exerted on all sides,
gradually curling the membrane inwards towards the centre,
in which the thumbs are particularly active, the mass recedes
within the abdomen. In order to maintain the rectum
within its place metallic sutures are sometimes passed
through the anus, or a truss is worn ; but these are not
always successful, as there is a great tendency to become
displaced. The difficulty of returning the gut is always
great, but it is not exceeded by that which attends the
efforts to prevent its protrusion. In some instances stran-
gulation has proceeded so far, by contraction of the sphincter
ani, that hope of success can only be gained by an operation,
in which the sphacelated mass is amputated completely, and
the divided edges are sewn to the borders of the anus by
means of a metallic wire.

Parasites of the Stomach — Bots.

The only parasite which occupies the stomach as its
natural habitat or dwelling-place is the common horse-bot,
or CEstrus equi. There are doubtless others which undergo
a process of development within the contents of the

350 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

stomach, and we know also that many are carried into it by
a reverse or antiperistaltic action of the intestines ; besides,
others occupy positions within the tissue forming the walls
of the stomach, but beyond this they will not occupy our
attention under this head. The history of the horse-bot
has been fully studied in this country by Bracy Clark,
Professor Gamgee, sen., and Professor Cobbold, and as a
result of their researches we are enabled to lay before the
reader the following brief account of it.

Two or three varieties of the gadfly, or family of CE strides,
attach their eggs to the hairs on the knees, breast, nose,
sides, mane, &c., of the horse, where they give rise to an
amount of irritation which causes the animal to lick the
parts. The moisture thus derived, together with the
external temperature of the summer season, are sufficient
to hatch the eggs, from which a small maggot escapes in

Fig. \o\—Bots clinging to the internal coat of the Stomach.

about three weeks from the time of their being first
deposited. Some of these fall to the ground and perish ; a
few are carried by the tongue, by which they are detached,
to the mouth, and eventually to the stomach, to the mucous

Parasites of the Stomach — Bots. 351

membrane of which they attach themselves by means of a
pair of booklets, and others are destroyed between the teeth
during mastication. Notwithstanding the loss of so many,
we sometimes find the internal coat of the horse covered by
a number of the larvae, known as “bots” (Fig. 104),
crowding together to a degree most astonishing. In this
situation they remain for a period of eight months or there-
abouts, when they leave their hold, and dropping off, pass
along the alimentary canal, and are voided with the faeces.
The larva or grub then makes its way to the soil, where it
undergoes further changes of development, and finally in the
hot summer months becomes a gadfly, having comparatively
an ephemeral existence, living only to mature and lay its
eggs, and afterwards die. In the passage of the bot through
the bowels, one variety attaches itself to the mucous mem-
brane of the rectum, and gives rise to no little pain and
irritation.

The presence of bots within the stomach has been a sub-
ject of grave consideration for many years, some authorities
asserting they prove of great service in promoting the
animal’s appetite and condition generally ; but later investi-
gation has shown unmistakably that their absence would
prove an incalculable boon to the horse. Cases are on
record, by which it is apparent that tetanus has resulted
from their presence, and the duodenum has been perforated
by them. We have seen, in several instances, irritation and
weakening of the stomach as a result of their attachment to
its walls ; in one particular case, the booklets penetrated
very deeply, a number of semi-transparent pinholes in
appearance being exhibited when the affected portion of the
stomach was held up to the light. In this case rupture of
the stomach had taken place, the laceration following the
direction of the perforations.

Many attempts have been made to dislodge the “ bot”

352 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion

from its dwelling-place, but every remedy made use of has
proved far more injurious to the horse. Their presence in
great numbers doubtless give rise to an amount of dyspepsia,
loss of condition, emaciation, and hide-bound appearance, and
no relief appears to be possible until their discharge has taken
place. The only way in which we can hope to escape their
introduction to the stomach of the horse is by avoiding the
occasional turning to grass, which some proprietors deem of
so much importance.

Intestinal Parasites.

Three forms of intestinal worms are found in the horse :
1st, the common round worm, or, technically, Ascaris megalo-
cephala ; 2nd, the common needle or whip-worm, the Stron-
gylus armatus ; and, 3rd, the tape-worm.

The Ascaris megalocephala is most frequently known as
the lumhrici, on account of its resemblance to the common
earth-worm in both size and form. They are generally
found in the small intestines, rarely in the stomach, but may
also migrate to the large intestines, where we have found
them in large numbers ; occasionally they are seen in the
rectum, on their way to be expelled. The male is not so
long as the female worm, which sometimes attains the
length of twelve or even fifteen inches. The presence of a
few does not appear to produce any inconvenience, but
whea large numbers accumulate the process of digestion is
interrupted. After death these creatures are observed to
form large balls, numbers being coiled up and interlaced
with each other, a condition probably due to the suspension
of the processes which furnish the secretions from which
they derive their sustenance.

The Strongylus armatus, generally but erroneously known
as ascaridcs, and called also oxynris (g), is a small, white, semi-
transparent worm, about an inch in length, inhabiting the

Intestinal Parasites.

353

flexures, the caecum, and colon, often congregating in large
numbers within the blind pouch of the former. They like-
wise migrate to the rectum, where they occasion great irrita-
tion, causing the animal to set his hind-parts against the
wall or other stationary object and violently rub, greatly
disfiguring them, as well as the tail, in the act. Occasionally
they are voided largely with the excrement.

The tape-worm occurs in three forms — viz., Tcenia pli-
catUy TcBuia perfoliata^ and Tcenia maniillana — though so
rarely in the horse that their presence is not denoted by
specific signs.

Symptoms of Worms in the Intestines. — It is only when
large numbers of intestinal worms are congregated that
signs of disturbance are exhibited. The appetite becomes
capricious or voracious, the skin is dull, the hair being harsh or
erect, besides being full of dirt and scurf in old-standing cases,
accompanied also with irregularity of the bowels, griping or
colicky pains, and loss of condition. A common sign consists
of an impaired or morbid appetite, which causes the animal
to lick the walls, eat lime or rubbish, and frequently rub the
nose against the wall. When Strongyli are present, the
animal rubs his tail violently against the nearest object, to
allay the irritation of the anus and rectum, and to whisk it
about in an excitable manner, often in the form of a circle.
On the outer part of the anus, and along the perinaeum
beneath, a number of small, yellowish-white-looking bodies
will be found attached to the skin and fine hair of the
locality. These are the eggs of the parasite, undergoing the
process of incubation.

The rubbing of the tail from worms must not be confounded
with a similar act which arises from an accumulation of dirt
among the hairs at the upper part. Under all circumstances,
the presence of the parasites in the faeces is the only safe
means of judging of their presence, and when the symptoms

354 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

which we have enumerated are observed, the attention should
be directed to the faeces before a system of drug administra-
tion is commenced.

Treatment. — A brisk purge, composed of aloes, to which
one or two drops of croton oil have been added, will some-
times answer by clearing out the intestines, and removing a
large quantity of worms. The aloes may be given in the
form of bolus, or in solution, as follows : —

Recipe No. 104.

Take of solution of aloes 4 to 10 fl. oz.

Croton oil i or 2 drops.

Mix, and agitate before giving.

Turpentine is a powerful and valuable remedy in destroy-
ing worms, and may be given in one of the subjoined
forms : —

Recipe No. 105.

Take of linseed oil i pint.

Oil of turpentine 2 fl. oz.

Aromatic spirits of ammonia „

Mix the oil and ammonia first, and agitate ; afterwards
add the turpentine, and agitate until a uniform mixture is
obtained.

Recipe No. 106.

Oil of turpentine 2 fl. oz.

Strong linseed mucilage \ pint.

Mix, and agitate; afterwards add sufficient water to render
the mixture sufficiently fluid for easy passage down the

throat. An aloetic purge should follow this draught at the
expiration of a few hours.

When the presence of worms is accompanied with an
amount of low condition and debility, a course of tonics will
be advisable after the operation of the turpentine draught.
No. 105. Experience seems to point out that low condition
is not always dependent upon the presence of worms, but
rather, on the contrary, that worms are retained because of

Intestinal Parasites.

355

the production of morbid secretions which low condition
gives rise to ; and, further, that as soon as the digestion and
tone of the system are improved, worms cease to be nourished
by the body. The course of treatment, therefore, is obvious.
We give the draught constituted as directed, the oil of tur-
pentine acting as a direct poison to the parasites, the linseed
oil expelling them in the act of purgation with less depres-
sion than results from other purgatives. On the following
day, the tonic powders may be commenced : —

Recipe No. 107.

Take of sulphate of iron 4 drs.

Carbonate of soda i „

Powdered gentian i „

» ginger i „

Make up twelve powders, each containing the above
quantities, and give one each morning and night in the
food.

Professor Gamgee recommends the following : —

Recipe No. 108.

‘‘ Take of sulphur 12 oz.

Arsenic i dr.

Bruised coriander seed 6 oz.

“ Divide into twelve powders, and give one daily for twelve
days. This is a very sure remedy in cases in which the
Ascaris megalocephala is abundant.”

The feeding of the patient must be carefully conducted,
the allowances of food being moderate and timely, in order
to avoid overloading the organs ; while the quality should
also be good, that proper nourishment be derived from it.
Bran and linseed should be freely allowed, and regular
exercise given, in order to overcome the tendency to consti-
pation, which arises when iron tonics are used. Fresh water
should also be at hand continually. The skin must be
attended to ; the use of a brush, together with the applica-

23—2

35^ Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

of a wet sponge, and subsequent dry wisping, will be found
highly conducive towards a cure.

Hernia or Rupture.

The term hernia is commonly used to denote the dis-
placement of any part of the bowels, or other internal
organ of the abdomen, and its passage by means of an
unnatural opening, or rupture, into a cavity distinct from its
natural position. In medical language an extended use is
made of the term, as it is applied to the displacement of
other organs, or parts of them, from their proper locality ;
here, however, we apply it to protruding organs of the
abdomen only.

Herniae are recognised as being of different kinds, in
accordance with their situation or the organs which form
them, as will be understood from the following details.
They are also further separated into divisions — viz., reducible
and irreducible. Reducible herniae are those which admit of
the protruding organ being returned to its proper position ;
they do not always acquire any great size, or produce incon-
venience, and therefore seldom call for interference. Irre-
ducible herniae, on the other hand, are those kinds of pro-
trusion which* present obstacles against the return of the
organ except by a special operation or interference. Re-
ducible hernia may by continuance or aggravation of the
causes assume the irreducible form, and incur the serious
liability to strangidation^ a condition which arises in the
following manner : — A portion of intestine passes through
an unnatural opening, and may be accompanied by the
omentum or caul. In some instances another portion of
intestine also descends with it, facilitated by the natural
vermicular action with which these organs are endowed, as
well as by the weight of their contents. In other cases the

Hernia or Rupture,

rupture or opening is small, and by inflammation set up the
edges are thickened, making the orifice much less, and union
by false membrane probably takes place with the bowel,
and thus its movements are limited. As the animal moves
under severe exertion further portions are pressed in, and the
accumulation of faecal matters within the confined bowel is
almost a certainty. It must be
understood that a fold, loop,
or double portion of intestine
forms the hernial tumour, so
that faecal m.atters within the
bowel must first pass through
the ruptured opening in the
abdominal walls into the outer
cavity by a stream which doubt-
less completely fills the opening
(Fig. 105). Accumulation in-
evitably takes place in the loop
of intestine as the outward
stream is arrested, the result
being distension, pressure, stop-
page of circulation, intense pain and agony, inflammation,
and, if not relieved, gangrene and death.

Strangulation of the bowels produces very acute signs of
suffering in the form of colicky pains, an anxious, dejected look
(Fig. 106), partial then general and
profuse perspiration, scraping with
the fore-feet, accelerated circulation
and respiration, violent rolling, strain-
ing and protrusion of the anus, which
will not admit of the introduction of
the hand or retention of clysters, a7id

110 relief is experienced from the ad- Countenance

^ ^ expressive of pain and

ministration of the most powerful serious internal states.

Fig. 105. — Diagram illustrating
the process by which a knuckle
of Intestine becomes strangu-
lated when forming a Hernia.

a. The hernial sac, formed by

b. The skin outwardly, and

c. The internal or muscular walls of the

abdomen.

d. The imprisoned bowel becoming black

from pressure at the opening, e.

iseases of the Organs of Digestion.

drugs. The pulse is at first full, hard, and frequent, but on
aggravation of the conditions it becomes small and wiry, at
length being imperceptible towards the close ; the mouth is
hot, and the visible mucous membranes are injected. After
suffering for a number of hours the pain suddenly ceases,
respiration is calm, but the pulse cannot now be felt, and
the animal seeks food ; he takes a little, and ceases mas-
tication, holding portions between the teeth ; dulness and
delirium rapidly ensue; he staggers (Fig. 107), the legs

double, and he drops, violent retchings take place, and
he dies in convulsions. A typiqal case of strangulation has
been given at page 298. After death a tumour upon
some part of the abdominal walls is discovered, having
escaped observation before, and on being opened the cause
is fully apparent. A portion of intestine, and it may be
also of other viscera, have protruded through a rent in the
muscles, being confined outwardly by the skin ; by com-
pression they have become purple or black in colour, and
probably portions are preparing for removal by sloughing.

In all cases of colic or abdominal pains in the horse a
careful examinatio should be made, in order to be satisfied

Umbilical or Navel Hernia.

359

of the non-existence of hernia, before medicines are ad-
ministered. When drugs — especially those of a purgative
nature — are given, and hernia remains undiscovered, the
causes are considerably aggravated, the animal endures
more intense agony, and probably suffers in addition from
a species of poisoning.

The various kinds of hernise are as hereafter described.

Umbilical or Navel Hernia — Exomphalus.

Hernia at the navel or umbilicus is usually of the most
simple kind, and in the majority of instances exists at birth,
when it is distinguished as congenital hernia. As such it is
often the result of hereditary defects, and is transmitted from
parent to offspring with great certainty. Some years ago
we observed an entire horse travelling the district having a
tolerably-sized hernia of this kind. He was a great
favourite with the farmers, and numerous foals were produced
by him ; but in every instance they were born with the
hernia at the navel, for which an operation had to be per-
formed. In those animals suffered to go too long they
were disfigured by the usual tumour, and rendered unsaleable
as sound animals. In later life this form of hernia does not
occur, as the orifice at the navel closes a few months after
birth. Accidental rupture, or reopening of the navel, is
therefore of very rare occurrence.

The symptoms consist of a soft, fluctuating tumour, of
variable size, at that part of the abdomen known as the
navel. When pressure is applied upon all sides by the
fingers as the animal stands, or when he is turned on his
back, the tumour disappears, and an opening is detected in
the walls. A significant test of the nature of the tumour,
when irreducible, consists of grasping it in the hand, while
an assistant “ coughs” the animal ; this has the effect

360 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

of causing the tumour to enlarge suddenly, and as quickly
to decrease.

This form rarely becomes strangulated. In most cases
the omentum forms the major portion of the contents, par-
ticularly if the opening is small. In some animals it
produces no inconvenience throughout some time ; and as
the growth of the omentum is not progressive with that of
the animal generally, the abdomen descends, and the orifice
recedes, the omentum being really too short to reach the
orifice.

Treatment. — Young animals only are treated, except
when the hernia becomes strangulated, and the proper
measures should be instituted as early as possible. In
simple cases the most appropriate remedy is a kind of truss
or bandage in the form of harness, which provides a
compress at the proper part. Ordinary pressure appears to
be all that is required, for when the skin is held constantly

a. The collar. d. Loin straps.

b. Body strap or surcingle. e. Pad for the hernia.

c. Loop for the tail.

up to the orifice the omentum or viscera are not allowed to
fall through, and by their weight keep open and make it
wider ; besides, the skin unites to the subjacent tissues, and
acts as a natural bandage, and these combined means admit
of the effectual closing of the orifice in the usual manner.
The contrivance already named is shown in Fig. 108. It

Umbilical or Navel Hernia.

361

is particularly suitable in this form of hernia affecting
valuable animals, in which it is not desirable to resort to
the risk of casting for operations about to be described.
We have treated young blood stock thus on many occasions,
and the results have been all that could be desired. The
arrangement consists of a light strap for a collar, and a
surcingle to pass round the chest in the usual manner,
these being connected at the top by a strap, which
passes along the spine to the tail, where it forms the
usual loop or crupper. A narrow strap, having a runner
which receives the top or back strap, passes round the
abdomen, and at the situation of the navel a circular pad is
stitched on, which is to be applied. A strap connects the
pad underneath with the surcingle and the collar, and one on
each side passes from above downwards, and these having
buckles, can be tightened when placed in the required
position.

Animals thus treated should not be turned to grass, as
the bowels are apt to become distended and overloaded, and
thus operate against the cure. Light food and the run of a
yard or paddock should be allowed in preference, where the
eye of the owner, stud-groom, &c., will be frequently
available in directing alteration, removal, or readjustment of
the truss when required.

Among animals of inferior breeds, the common method of
treatment, and one of a summary character, is that of opera-
tion. Two kinds are pursued, which are as follow : — The
first consists of placing the animal on his back by means of
a rope, as in castration, and attaching an instrument called
a clamp or clams, which, taking up a fold of the skin, excites
adhesive inflammation beneath and union to the edges of
the opening, and thus prevents the return of the bowel, &c.,
while the same action tends also to hasten the closure of the
opening itself The clamp in use is of two kinds — one of

362 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

wood, suitable on account of its lightness, is shown in Fig.
109, but objectionable because the nature of the joint does

not admit of equal pressure
throughout. For small tumours
they may answer, being closed at
the opposite end by several turns
of fine cord, finally secured by
Fig. io^ — Woode7i Clams. being drawn through the slit. The

iron clamp is more effectual, as
pressure may be regulated by means of the screws with
which it is provided. As shown in Fig. no, one half is

grooved throughout, and
on the corresponding side
a piece of wire is riveted
on, somewhat smaller
than the groove which re-
ceives it ; by this agency
the grip is more com-
wo.— Iron Screw Clams. plete, and loss or dis-

placement by slipping off
avoided. The clamp is applied in the following manner : —
As the animal lies on the back the contents of the hernial
tumour slip back into the abdominal cavity ; but in order
to remove all doubt on this head, the operator takes up
a fold of skin over the orifice and manipulates it in dif-
ferent ways, afterwards exploring the parts by means of
the fore-finger to ascertain that the opening is free. The
skin is next raised in a longitudinal flat fold — from
before backwards, and the clamp is then put on, as near the
abdomen as possible, and the screws tightened to the re-
quired extent. The pressure must not be too severe, or the
part thus compressed will separate too early and drop off with
the clamp — a most undesirable condition, and which might
be attended with escape of the intestines. The object

Umbilical or Navel Hernia. 363

is to apply only such pressure as will result in setting up an
adhesive inflammation and thickening by deposit of the
usual products in the skin and around the navel ; and if this
is carefully accomplished, the clamp drops off in about a
week or ten days, the tumour having disappeared never to
return.

The second operation is chiefly resorted to by empirics,
castrators, and others. The animal is cast, and the skin
over the orifice of the navel is grasped in the left hand, and
two needles, skewers, or large carpet pins are inserted, cross-
ing each other, and close to the abdomen ; a piece of strong
twine is then wound round above the needles and caused to
compress the skin. The operation is modified in some dis-
tricts by inserting two skewers parallel with each other, one
on each side of the opening, afterwards putting on the
ligature as described, a greater advantage being attained by
inclosing a larger fold of skin than can be accomplished by
inserting them in a crucial manner. Some practitioners
grasp the skin over the hernia as the animal stands, then
press the contents into the abdomen, and pass the ligature
round the mass above the hand. Care is especially required
in these operations in order to avoid including the intestines
— an event which has taken place on several occasions when
skewers have been used by those ignorant of the anatomy of
the parts. Whether ligature or clams are used the pressure
at first must be moderate, and the operator should see the
animal almost each day in order to insure the operation pro-
ceeding satisfactorily, and to regulate and increase the pressure
as the shrinking of the parts require. When the parts are
not sufficiently compressed they are hot and tender to the
touch ; and when, on the contrary, the circulation has been
sufficiently arrested, the incarcerated skin is cold and damp.
Clams an(J ligatures should be allowed to drop off ; any in-
terference in their removal may be hurtful. In all cases.

364 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

before the operation is performed the animal should be kept
short of food and water for twelve hours at least.

Inguinal Hernia.

Fig. II I. — Inguinal Hernia. —
Girard.

a\ a', Portion of the colon continuous with 3, h,
which is fixed in the inguinal canal ; c,c, the neck
of the peritoneal sheath, which is enlarged from
the passage into it of the intestine ; d, d, tumefied
portion of the spermatic cord. — Gamgee,

This is a form more com-
mon to stallions and young
uncastrated animals than to
the mare or gelding, and
therefore is not so commonly
seen in Britain as in India,
and other countries where
entire horses are generally
employed. To this there
are occasional exceptions, as
the case cited at page 298
fully shows, the passage called
the inguinal canal having
but partially and imperfectly
closed after castration.

The inguinal canal is a
passage or opening connect-
ing the abdomen with the
scrotum or purse, and it is
along this the testicle is di-
rected in its journey from the
abdomen to its proper locality
in the pouch-shaped cavity,
the scrotum, which hangs
between the hind-legs in
males. At birth the testicles
are within the abdomen, and
afterwards they may be found
in the scrotum, their return

Inguinal Hernia.

365

being prevented by closure of the canal through which they
descended ; but, as we have seen, the natural course is not
always carried out, and when that is the case hernia may
take place. Castration may sometimes assist in closing the
canal by the amount of inflammatory deposit and thickening
which is the result, the covered operation being devised pur-
posely to secure this end by uniting the peritoneum with the
cord, which in subsequent retraction within the abdomen
effectually shuts up the internal abdominal ring, or entrance
to the canal. Inguinal hernia usually consists of a descent of
the small intestines, or sometimes also of the omentum, the
nature of which will be understood by a reference to Fig. 1 1 1.

Symptoms. — The presence of inguinal hernia is seldom
observed until the intestines are compressed in strangulation,
when the animal is affected with colicky pains of an increas-
ing and severe character, the animal obtaining relief by lying
on the back, the hind-legs being doubled and relaxed forwards
— a position favourable to the descent of the bowel into the
abdomen. Entire horses thus affected should be carefully
examined, and, as the presence of a tumour cannot be in-
sured, the hand must be passed up the rectum after being
cleared by enemas, and on reaching the internal abdominal
ring the imprisoned bowel will be felt. For this purpose the
finger-nails must be cut short, to avoid scratching the mem-
branes. Special signs of this form of hernia are — frequent
retraction and descent of the testicle on the affected side ;
parts of the body are bathed in cold perspiration, particularly
around the scrotum and on the inner sides of the thighs ;
violent straining of the rectum, which opposes the introduc-
tion of the hand, as well as the throwing up of enemas ;
and the animal looks _ anxiously round to the flanks. The
pulse is full and hard, and frequent at first ; but as strangu-
lation proceeds it becomes small, wiry, and at last impercep-
tible, and if unrelieved the animal dies.

366 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

Treatment. — A recent hernia not far advanced in strangu-
lation may be reduced as the animal stands ; the operator
having one hand up the rectum, gently draws the intestine
upwards, while an assistant manipulates the locality of the
canal below the abdomen in the groin. When this is not
successful, the attempt must be made as the animal lies on
his back, having been cast and secured for the purpose,
when there is greater probability of the intestine slipping
by its own weight, assisted by gentle manipulation, within
the abdomen. In the event of return of the bowel being
impossible by these means, the practitioner will have re-
course to an operation, which consists of opening the inguinal
canal by the knife, and dividing the stricture ; when it is
usual also to castrate the stallion by means of the covered
operation, and thus prevent a recurrence of the hernia.

A full dose of opium or chloroform should be given early
in the case to overcome the powerful spasms which oppose
the efforts to afford relief.

Scrotal Hernia'

This form is confined to stallions, as a rule, and consists of
a descent of intestine to the scrotum or purse, which is
swollen considerably. It may but rarely happen in a gelding,
when, as in entire horses, closure of the inguinal canal has not
been effected, and enlargement has been secured by constant
passage of the intestines or omentum into it.

The symptoms are analogous to those of inguinal hernia,
having the addition of the swollen scrotum during strangu-
lation ; but in young colts the condition may not be ob-
served until castration has to be performed, when the covered
operation is imperatively called for. Fig. 1 1 2 shows the
relative position of the objects in this form of hernia.

Treatment. — The return of the imprisoned bowel must

Scrotal Hernia.

367

first be attempted in the ways directed for inguinal hernia,
or by surgical means, after which castration is to be per-
formed by means of the covered operation.

Fig. 1 1 2. — Scrotal Hernia. — Girard.

a, a. Fold of intestine in the scrotum ; c, c, is the wall of the hernial sac : e, represents the
elevation of the tunica vaginalis produced by the testicle. — Gamgee.

Professor Gamgee^ describes a case in which a gelding was
attacked by colic, and gaining no relief under the adminis-
tration of drugs by a practitioner, his advice was sought.
On examination a large scrotal hernia was found, and it was

Our Domestic Animals in Health and Disease.

368 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

not until after the animal was relieved by a return of the
intestine that it was discovered he was castrated.

Ventral Hernia.

This form of hernia is generally due to violence or acci-
dent, and consists of an artificial opening in some part of
the abdominal walls through which the intestine protrudes,
and is confined in a sac formed by the skin on the outer
side. It is known by the presence of a tumour of variable
size, which is soft and fluctuating, reducible, and rarely
serious. After the contents have been pressed, into the
abdomen, the opening through the muscles, &c., may be
plainly felt by the Angers {see Fig. 105). Unless atten-
tion is directed to the rupture immediately it has occurred a
radical cure is not likely to be effected, as the opening as
well as the sac have become enlarged, and the edges of the
former have healed ; therefore union cannot be effected
between them without they are pared, which it is not very
desirable to adopt. When seen early, the usual plan is to
cast the animal, divide the skin over the tumour, and open
the sac sufficiently to ascertain the exact state of the internal
wound, &c., through the edges of which strong metallic
sutures are inserted, so as to draw and keep them together
and insure union. The opening in the skin is next closed
in a similar manner, provision being made for the ends of the
internal sutures to hang outside, in order that they may be
withdrawn when perfect adhesion has been secured. We
have seen, as well as having been informed by practitioners,
even extensive lacerations of the abdominal walls producing
large hernise treated in this way, and recover satisfactorily.
After the operation the bowels should be kept open by soft and
easily-digested food, the animal being kept exceeding!}/ quiet,
under watchful care, to guard against sudden fright, &c..

Ascites, or Dropsy of the A bdomen. 369

which might result in reopening the wound, and allow of
the escape of the intestines.

One of the adverse results of wounds of the abdominal
walls is peritonitis, with effusion — ascites.

Small ruptures require no interference, as in many cases
they do not enlarge or assume serious conditions when
situate on the sides of the abdomen ; if they are present
beneath, the risk of enlargement and strangulation is
increased : but even then the worst does not inevitably
follow. Three other kinds of herniae are observed, and
known as —

A. Phrenic or diaphragmatic hernia, in which a portion
of intestines slip through a rupture in the diaphragm or
midriff into the chest ;

B. Omental hernia ; and

C. Mesenteric hernia ; which are respectively ruptures of
the omentum and mesentery, through which a fold or knuckle
of intestine passes, and, becoming strangulated, gives rise to
the signs already described under volvulus, from which they
are not distinguished during life.

Ascites, or Dropsy of the Abdomen.

Nature and Causes. — A collection of fluid within the
abdomen, usually arising from inflammation of the peri-
toneum, when that disease has assumed a chronic condition.
It is, however, a rare disease in that form, and is seen more
frequently as a result of injuries to the abdominal walls
when the peritoneum has been subjected to violence, and
associated with local inflammation of the muscular tissues,
from which effusion cannot be directed outwards. We have
seen it arise from obstruction of the portal circulation caused
by disease of the liver, lungs, or heart, in which the blood-
vessels of the abdomen, whose office is to convey the blood

370 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

direct to the liver, are enormously distended and their walls
stretched, admitting the fluid portions of the blood to
exude, probably facilitated by a poor state due to exhausting
diseases, or deficient food and subsistence on badly drained
moor or marshy land containing scanty and innutritions
food. The character of the fluid varies in the different states
of disease. Ascites, the result of peritonitis, furnishes a simply
pale straw-coloured fluid ; in some cases it is turbid, contain-
ing flakes of lymph, and may be confined to particular parts
by means of a large formation of false membranes. When
local injuries are the cause, the fluid is reddened by admix-
ture with blood, and in more advanced cases pus also is
found. When it arises from interruption of the circulation
the effused fluid is clear, but after death the colouring matter
of the blood is soon imparted to it.

Symptoms. — Gradual enlargement of the abdomen, to-
gether with local dropsy or swellings of the sheath, legs,
breast, belly, &c., and interference with the process of respi-
ration (Fig. I 13). In the chronic states the progress is slow^,
gradually passing from the original disease into com-

Fig. 1 1 3. — Dropsy of the Abdomen.

plete obstruction to the general functions of life. When
local injuries are the cause, the enlargement may not pro-
ceed far, as internal haemorrhage, shock to the system, &c ,
greatly add to the serious conditions, and cause exhaustion,

Congestion, 37 1

sinking, and rapid death, after which the fluid doubtless
increases rapidly.

Treatment. — For ascites following diseases of the organs
essential to life there is no cure, neither for that form de-
pendent on local injuries. When it is known to depend on
bad food or deficiency of plastic material within the blood,
then we may prescribe the salts of iron with vegetable
bitters, and allow good food, as boiled barley, &c., using-
occasional laxatives and diuretics.

An operation termed paraeentesis abdominis, or tapping
the abdomen, is recommended and performed by some prac-
titioners, which in some instances affords a temporary
relief. It is almost needless to state that, unless the ori-
ginal disease is removed, the mere drawing off of the fluid
will not have a permanent curative eflect.

DISEASES OF THE LIVER.
Congestion.

Nature. — Congestion, or hyperaemia, of the liver consists
of an overloaded condition of the venous bloodvessels,
amounting to more or less of complete stagnation, extending
to the veins of the digestive system, and, as a natural
consequence, interfering with the ordinary functions of the
whole.

Causes. — Obstructions to the venous circulation, such as
functional disorders of the heart, or diseases of that organ,
the lungs, &c., all of which prevent a due flow^ of blood
from the liver ; highly-stimulating food and too little
exercise, from which the liver becomes charged with foreign
material as well as excess of substances, the separation of
vvFich improperly falls to the action of this organ, just as
takes place in the human subject from too luxurious living,

21—2

372 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

as well as indulgence in intoxicating liquors ; the presence
of parasites, concretions, &c., inflammation and thickening of
the mucous membranes of the bile-ducts, which prevent the
natural flow of the biliary secretion. Hot weather has a
powerful effect, especially in conjunction with other causes,
in producing congestion of the liver.

Symptoms. — These are rarely well-marked during life,
consisting only of slight dulness, with occasional languor,
and capriciousness or temporary loss of appetite. Congestion
of the liver, depending upon repeated or continued presence
of the exciting causes producing an active form, may
proceed for months, and, as in some of the heavier breeds
of horses doing only very slow work, and consuming a large
quantity of highly-stimulating food, attract no special
attention ; the animal appears in the best of condition, as
some people imagine ; at length, however, a few signs of
'internal disturbance are exhibited, and he drops down dead.

Occasionally during ordinary congestion of the liver the
following signs are apparent : — Slight colicky pains, which
cause the animal to look round to the right side ; constipa-
tion of the bowels, the faeces being small, hard, thickly
coated with mucus, foetid, and probably of a light or clay
colour ; the urine has also a brown colour and strong odour ;
the mouth is slimy, sour, and offensive ; a disordered state of
the digestive process is shown by the desire to lick the walls
and consume dirt and rubbish ; and sometimes we may more
directly conclude the liver is at fault from the yellowness of
the visible mucous membranes. In several cases we have
noticed decided lameness of the right shoulder, which, how-
ever, subsided and reappeared with the varying intensity of
the disorder.

Treatment. — Brisk purgation is necessary, and even
bleeding when the pulse exhibits volume and strength ;
these should be followed by the administration of the

373

Inflammation of the Liver.

sulphate or nitrate of potash, sulphate of magnesia, &c.,
and, which is of paramount importance, total amelioration
of the system of feeding. It is delusive to rest on the
belief that large, unwieldy, and obese animals are the
examples of health and condition, .and it is high time that
the results of the feeding which produces such states are
better understood. Health and endurance are the inevitable
qualifications and endowments of a proper system of feeding
and management ; that system which produces a large
development and an abundance of fat is undoubtedly an
erroneous one, and a prolific source of unmanageable and
fatal disease.

The purgative which will be found of service in con-
gestion of the liver may be compounded as follows : —
Recipe No. 109.

Take of Barbadoes aloes 3 to 7 drs.

Carbonate of potash 2 drs.

Soft soap Sufficient.

Reduce the aloes and potash to fine powder, then add
the soap in successive quantities during trituration, until a
semi-solid mass is formed, which roll into bolus shape and
administer. During the operation of the medicine the usual
restrictions as to dry food and cold water, &c., must be
observed {see Cathartics) ; and comfort and warmth, with
every needful attention, must be supplied. When the action
of the purgative has subsided, the following powders may
be given, morning and evening, for a week : —

Recipe No. it^.

Take of sulphate of potash, powdered i oz.

Powdered gentian ^ „

Mix.

Inflammation of the Liver — Hepatitis.

True inflammation of the h’ver is undoubtedly a rare
disease in the horse, the signs of derangement observed in

374 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

connexion with this organ, and pronounced as hepatitis,
being most probably congestion only. However, in opening
the carcases of aged animals especially, there are at times
evidences of the work of inflammation in the form of
abscesses, plastic effusion, and organisation or ossification of
the same. The most common form in which inflammation
is met with involves the capsule of the liver, giving rise to
thickening and union with the diaphragm or other organs
by means of false membranes, and, distinguished by the
term perihepatitis ^ in all probability forms one of the
complications of enzootic typhoid catarrh, enzootic
pleurisy, &c., to which the horse is peculiarly liable. The
inflammatory action may be confined to a small portion,
when it is said to be 'circumscribed ; or it may be diffuse —
i.e. involving the whole or greater portion of the glandular
structure. In the first form the tendency to abscess is
great, or otherwise the spots are marked by the formation
of white fibrous tissue, which invade the substance of the
organ ; in the diffuse form, softening or degeneration of the
glandular structure may arise with atrophy or wasting, or it
becomes indurated, a condition in which hard and non-
secreting tissue takes the place of that which performs the
functions of the organ, when it may assume the enormous
weight of 40 or 50 pounds. — Gamgee.

Symptoms. — Inflammation of the liver is not readily dis-
tinguished, as the chief tendency is to assume the chronic
form. The animal becomes dull, refuses his food, and hangs
the head ; the eye has none of the usual brilliancy, but is
half-closed and appears to lack the usual moisture. Although
there are no signs of acute pain, yet there are evidences of
internal disturbance, for the sufferer looks round to the side
and is uneasy. The bowels are constipated, the faeces hard
and covered with a thick slime, and in proportion to the
arrest of the secretion of bile they assume a clay-yellow

htflammation of the Liver . 37 5

colour, and are very offensive. Absorption of the secretion
usually occurs in the earlier stages, when the visible mucous
membranes are of a deep yellow ; and indeed the skin, urine,
and serum of the blood assume the same tinge. The
animal will not lie down ; fever runs high, the mouth being
offensive and dry ; the tongue furred and dirty ; the pulse
small, frequent, and irregular, but when the absorption of
the bile is extensive, it becomes slow. The pain is more
distinguishable as the outer covering and peritoneum are
implicated. Tenderness is evident on pressure being
exerted, or when the animal is caused to turn round
he winces and grunts. Relief is gained by effusion, when
the abdomen swells, wasting of the body rapidly ensues, and
the animal dies in six or eight days. Mr. Percivall lays
particular stress on the appearance of lameness in one fore
leg as a result of hepatitis. Professor Williamst concludes
that it “ is more particularly symptomatic of the existence
of abscesses, or foreign bodies in the gland. We have
observed it in connexion with phlebitis or inflammation of
the portal vein, leading to obstruction of that vessel and
wasting of the liver.

Treatment. — Acute symptoms are to be met by purgatives
with aconite in the first instance. For the former aloes are
preferred, and may be given in either fluid or solid forms, as
follow : —

Rub the aloes and nitre to fine powder, add the aconite,
and triturate with the soap to make up a mass.

Recipe No. in.

Take of Barbadoes aloes

Nitrate of potash

Aconite

Soft soap

lo drops.
Sufficient.

* Hippo-pathology, vol. ii.

t Practice of Veterinary Medicine.

37^ Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

Recipe No. 112.

Take of solution of aloes 3 to 10 fl. oz.

Nitrate of potash i oz.

Tincture of aconite 10 or 15 drops.

Mix, and give as a drench.

Frequent enemas should be thrown into the rectum to
assist the action of the purgative, and when that subsides
frequent doses of salines should follow.

Recipe No. 113.

Take of nitrate of potash, powdered | oz.

Gentian, powdered | „

Treacle Sufficient.

Make up into a bolus, and give one each morning and night.
If preferred, the following electuary may be used instead : —

Recipe No. 114.

Take of nitrate of potash, powdered 4 oz.

Gentian, powdered 4 „

Treacle Sufficient.

Mix so as to form a thin paste, a tablespoonful of which
is to be placed on the tongue every six hours, until the
symptoms of urgency are abated. The usual precautions
as to diet are to be observed, avoiding all stimulating kinds,
and supplying those of a laxative tendency, while the
comfort of the animal is to be secured by every means.
Friction to the skin, especially damp wisping, or the Roman
bath, will be of immense service.

Hepatitis assuming the chronic form may run on to
induration or scirrhus, in which the true secreting portion is
replaced by white fibrous tissue. The gland is covered on
the outside by a thick and opaque membrane, which is
roughened by the results of inflammation, while the interior
is hard, tough, and unyielding. Such a state resembles the
condition observed in the human subject as a result of the
use of ardent spirits, and like it leads, sooner or later, to a
fatal termination.

377

Softening and Rupture of the Liver.

This untoward condition is a result of repeated or long-
continued congestion of the liver. Softening does not in-
evitably give rise to marked symptoms during life, and
therefore fatal terminations from rupture and haemorrhage
may suddenly take place. At other times the signs of
hyperaemia arise and subside, leaving the animal in apparent
health between the repeated attacks, when at length a return
of the congestion takes place, more severe than formerly,
and terminates fatally. Degeneration of the gland structure
proceeds throughout each attack, and finally gives way to
the pressure of blood, when haemorrhage, partial or general,
follows. In the partial states the blood may be confined
within small spaces of degenerated tissue, or may escape
through small openings in the capsule of the organ, and
later a larger rent in the membrane takes place, and a dis-
charge of several gallons of blood within the abdomen puts
an end to the sufferings of the animal.

Symptoms. — The animal breathes heavily, abdominal pains
are severe, and he looks round to the side ; the membranes

suddenly become pale, and the pulse is running-down ; the
mouth and body generally are cold, and the pupils are widely

378 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

dilated. Increasing weakness is shown by the animal seek-
ing support by leaning on the nearest fixed object, the legs
are wide apart, and the head mostly pushed against the wall.
If attempts are made to move him, and especially when the
head is raised, he falls backward in a fainting condition
(Fig. 1 14), and speedily dies when the rupture and haemor-
rhage are great. Such symptoms supervening on jaundice,
together with urine loaded with bile, and offensive faeces of
a clay-yellow colour, can scarcely be mistaken in rupture
of the liver leading to fatal haemorrhage.

There is no treatment for the disease. The only useful
measures are those which relate to diet, &c., and by which it
may be avoided.

Jaundice — Icterus, or the Yellows.

Although this affection may and does often exist in com
bination with diseases of the liver, it nevertheless very fre-
quently is present independently of disease altogether, and
therefore, in the majority of instances, it is to be regarded as
a symptom only of other conditions of disorder of the liver,
arising from abnormal states of other organs. We cannot
here go into the details of the great question concerning the
part which the liver takes in the production of bile ; it is a
profound and important subject, and would require greater
scope than we can give to it, and more than would answer
our purpose ; let it suffice, therefore, to enumerate the fol-
lowing propositions : — From careful conclusions, arrived at
only after mature consideration of all the circumstances and
conditions present, it is now adnutted that jaundice may
arise from suppressed secretion, non-elimination, or from
reabsorption.

Jaundice consists of a yellowness of the visible mucous
membranes and the skin, and may be observed to such an

Jaundice — Icterus, or the Yellows, 379

extent that all the tissues of the body, as well as the excre-
tions, are deeply dyed and impregnated by the presence of
the colouring matter of the bile. Whether the cause lies
with non-secretion, non-elimination, or reabsorption, the
colour is the same, although the causes producing the state
may be various, thus : — When the secretion is suppressed,
the colouring matter only is present, which is due to the failure
of organs to send the bile out of the body, it therefore
remains and impregnates the system ; owing to other causes,
as obstruction to the passage of bile from the liver to
the duodenum, it is then reabsorbed or taken direct into the
system, producing the characteristic colour within the tissues.
The presence of the bile acids within the urine must be
looked for, in order to decide which of the conditions we
have named are existing, before any useful plan of treatment
can be adopted.

Symptoms. — The visible mucous membranes, together
with the skin, are tinged a deep yellow ; the bowels are
constipated, faeces hard, small, and invested in slimy mucus ;
the urine contains the colouring matter of bile, and paper
dipped into it and afterwards dried is permanently stained ;
the appetite is capricious or absent, and the digestive organs
are irregular ; the mouth and tongue are slimy, furred, dirty,
and offensive, and if these signs are not relieved, or by con-
stant reappearance at variable periods the animal eventually
loses his appetite, the temperature of the body declines and
is very low, the blood is impoverished, and anaemic and
dropsical conditions are established. Such attacks result
in disorganisation of the liver and incurable disease.

Treatment. — The principles of medical treatment must be
considered in accordance with the cause. If suppression of
the secretion of bile depend on congestion or inflammation
of the liver, the removal of those conditions by the appro-
priate measures, as already detailed, will effect a dissipation

380 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion,

of the jaundice. When, however, the secretion is suppressed
or arrested, as a result of deficient nervous power or sympa-
thetic disturbance with other organs, acknowledged liver
stimulants, as aloes, with calomel, iodide of potassium,
muriate of ammonia, podophyllin, &c., with the mineral acids,
particularly the nitro-muriatic, and even ox-gall are called for.
In long-standing cases the suppression may depend on
scirrhus, when removal is impossible.

The absorption of bile and consequent dyeing of the
mucous membranes, &c., is often present in the so-called
influenza, constituting the bilious form, and depends upon
catarrhal inflammation of the walls of the bile-ducts, by
which their calibre is diminished ; indeed, the walls may be
thus caused to approximate and retard, diminish, or arrest the
flow oi bile which is retained by, and absorbed from, the liver.
In such cases the animal cannot withstand the purgation which
is so effective at other times in the removal of jaundice {see
Enzootic Typhoid Catarrh) ; and therefore those measures
must be modified to suit the existing states. Linseed oil
or the neutral purgative salts will be found to answer best in
small daily doses, especially as having a direct effect on the
original disease, the decline of which of course removes
the cause of jaundice. Suppression or non-secretion from
deficient nervous power, alternating with sudden excessive
secretion, giving rise to unexpected looseness, or diarrhoea, in
which the evacuations are dark, or coffee-coloured, as distin-
guished from the former, in which they are highly offensive,
and of a light or clay-yellow colour, are common conditions
in enzootic typhoid catarrh, only to be overcome by restoring
the tone of the whole system, for which quinine, cinchona,
bark, gentian, taraxacum, the mineral acids, and especially
the phosphate or sulphate of iron, are the needful remedies,
some of which may be given in combination, or alternated
with each other ; while additional assistance is to be derived

Crib-biting and JVind-sucking. 381

from a carefully selected, well-regulated, and generous system
of diet.

Jaundice is also observed in connexion with dyspepsia,
bulimia, non-secretion, &c., being due to the sympathetic
disorder of the stomach, and should be met by alkalies, as
the carbonates of potash, soda, or magnesia, and even lime-
water, the system of diet being carefully attended to in order
to mitigate the causes of the original disease. Besides
these, jaundice may be due to the presence of concretions, as
gall-stones, flukes, abscess, tubercle, cancer, &c., for which no
special system of treatment can be usefully adopted, as in
the majority of instances their presence have not been
distinctly made out during life.

Diseases of the Spleen and Pancreas.

It is somewhat unfortunate that thus far the science of
veterinary medicine has not furnished any code of signs by
which diseases of these organs are readily made out. The
effect of this confession is, however, greatly counterbalanced
by the fact that disease in either the spleen or pancreas is
very rare, and chiefly consists of cancer, enlargement or
wasting tubercle, ossification, the presence of hydatids, &c.
Professor Williams names also a disease called lymphade-
noma, as occurring to the spleen. Increase in the number
of white globules in the blood is an evidence usually accepted
of disease of the spleen, and the presence of large quantities
of fatty matters in the faeces is indicative of the absence of
secretion of the pancreas, the principal office of which is to
emulsify those substances, and thus prepare them for passing
direct to the blood.

Crib-biting and Wind-sucking.

These are vices which are acknowledged as unsoundness^
because such animals are supposed to be continually liable

382 Diseases of the Orga^is of Digestion,

to colic and recurrent indigestion. The crib-biter is guilty of
seizing the manger or other fixed and suitable ol^ect with
the incisor teeth, which, in consequence, become very much
worn (Fig. 115) ; then arching the neck, performs a kind of
belching, during which, according to some,
air is swallowed in large quantities, so as
to distend the stomach and produce en-
largement of the abdomen generally. The
wind-suckcr, likewise, is said to swallow air
in large quantity, as supported by the fol-
lowing signs : — He smacks the lips in the
attempt to confine air within the mouth,
which is then closed, and with the lower
jaw, probably placed upon some fixed object, he arches the
neck, places the feet near together, and with a belching
action inflates the stomach. Indigestion is said to arise in
this instance more frequently, and from certain complica-
tions is pronounced to be worse than from crib-biting. .

The earlier editions of Blaine’s “ Veterinary Art”* contain
the following, in reference to these vices : —

“ This peculiar action is very generally, but, in my opinion,
erroneously, supposed to arise from a small quantity of air
drawn into the stomach ; and is hence called sucking the
zvind. But I believe this idea of it to be very incorrect ;
and that, on the contrary, it consists in a simple eructation
or forcing out of a small quantity of gas let loose from the
morbid combinations within the stomach, which, as it proves
a source of irritation, to aid its expulsion the horse applies
his teeth to a fixed point, by which he gains the help of
some of the muscles of the fauces to open and straighten the
oesophagus, while, at the same time, by means of the abdo-
minal muscles, he presses on the stomach and forces out a

Fig. 1 15.

Incisor Teeth of the
Ci'ib-biter.

Fifth Edition. London : 1841.

Crib-biting and tVing-sucking. 383

little of the irritating air. To prevent the action, it is
common to place a tight strap around the throat, which
prevents the horse from attempting the dilatation of the
pharynx. Exactly the same process takes place in ourselves,
except that we have no occasion, from the peculiar shape
of our pharyngeal opening, to gain a fixed point for the
teeth ; but in every other respect human eructation in
dyspepsia is conducted in the same manner.

“ It is considered a vice, a habit acquired, &c. ; but I
believe that it always commences in dyspepsia, the conse-
quence of long living on dry food, &c. I never knew an
instance of its being contracted at grass ; but turning out
to indifferent keep in a straw-yard is a very common cause.
It may be traced to a course of chaff-feeding, bad hay,
musty oats, and long confinement during frosts. Crib-biters
rarely carry much flesh ; but it can never be supposed that
the mere action of crib-biting, were it either a vice or an
amusement, could deprive them of flesh. The faulty diges-
tion at once keeps them thin, and makes them prone to
assume this dyspeptic condition, which, once acquired, is
lasting from habit, even although we could remove the
original cause. Under this view, we recommend that the
habit be attended to only as far as regards the consequences
which are likely to ensue from the w'ear of his teeth ; to say
nothing of mangers, &c. To suppose that the stopping
of the action will do more, is fallacious ; for, however we
may succeed in this, the horse remains as he was in flesh.
To prevent the crib-biting, nothing more is necessary than
to place a strap two and a half inches broad around the
throat, tightened only to the degree necessary to prevent
the action, which it does by rendering it painful to distend
the neck and straighten the pharynx, confining the auxiliary
muscles.”

We are much inclined to believe that Blaine was in the

384 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion.

major part perfectly right when he wrote the foregoing.
The symptoms described as crib-biting and wind-sucking at
the commencement of our remarks, are certainly more of the
character of retching and “ belching out,” or expelling air by
encouraging antiperistaltic action of the oesophagus, than of
swallowing it. The post-mortem conditions described by
Mr. Steele, the editor of the last edition of Blaine,* as results
of crib-biting, appear to us the very causes which facilitate the
action. Since we have learned so much of the nature and
causes of vomiting in the horse, we may now regard wind-
sucking and crib-biting as efforts to vomit air rather than
to swallow it, the tympanitis favouring the conditions for
effecting an escape at the cardiac entrance of the stomach.
As Mayhew, the editor of the fifth edition of Blaine,f justly
observes : —

“ The first symptom of crib-biting is usually the licking of
the manger, which habit the horse will indulge in for hours
together. If taken at this point, and a piece of rock-salt
placed before him, the animal will apply his tongue to it ;
this usually prevents him from becoming a cribber, by giving
him employment and strengthening his stomach.”

In our belief, very few hard-working horses ever become
wind-suckers or cribbers ; indeed, we have never known an
instance ; but among pampered, idle animals, confined to
heated stables and stereotyped rules which interfere with
Nature’s laws, the vice is common. Professor Morton says
it arises from the presence of calculi in the stomach, in
certain instances ;J thus showing its origin in dyspepsia — the
cause of the concretions.

Although it may not be possible to reduce all the pheno-
mena observed in the process of so-called wind-sucking to a
stateof harmony with the conclusions to which we have arrived.

Seventh Edition, 1865.

t 1854.

Calculous Concretions.

Crib-biting and JVind-suckmg, 385

we do not conceive that they are the less tenable. Further
observation is required, and when due care and attention is
bestowed, we shall doubtless be able to add to our sympto-
matology of gastric disorders that of “ eructation,” by which
we seek to convey an idea of confirmed dyspepsia, giving rise
to constant rapid fermentation within the stomach and
bowels, banishing the terms now in use as misleading and
incorrect.

SECTION VI.

DISEASES OF THE URINARY
ORGANS.

25—2

DISEASES OF THE URINARY
ORGANS.

Next to affections of the digestive organs, those of the
urinary apparatus may be taken as an example of an
important class. The organs of both classes are so closely
allied in function, that it becomes a question for considera-
tion why certain diseases known to be dependent upon
functional derangement of these organs should not be
viewed as belonging to, and even classed among, the dis-
orders of the alimentary track, seeing that the cause is
undoubtedly concentrated in the process of digestion or
assimilation. Diseases of the urinary system in the horse
are not so numerous as in the higher animal. He is not
the subject of mental emotions, nor is he called upon
by surrounding circumstances to cope with conditions
which in man so greatly disturb the control of nervous
power ; nor is he the victim of such baneful practices
as indulgence in alcoholic stimulants, or gluttony —
the first he would never like from choice, nor commit the
latter while strictly healthy functions are carried out.
Having these important facts before us, we are at once
supplied with grave reasons by which to account for the
comparatively short list ; but were we to follow, what we
believe would be the most proper course of classification,
the category might be further reduced. As it is, we have
only slightly attempted that here, believing that the non-

390 Diseases of the Urinary Organs.

professional reader will be more assisted by the arrange-
ment generally of diseases according to the organs they
affect, rather than taking the cause as the guide.

The kidneys, which form the principal organs of the
urinary apparatus, are unlike many others of the body.
They are not engaged in the formation or elaboration of
any fluid or material which plays some important part in
the building up of the body, but, on the contrary, are
exclusively engaged in the separation of compounds from
the blood, which, if retained, would prove highly injurious.
Their office is entirely one of secernation, or purifying, by
separating the deleterious, waste, and worn-out portions of
the body from the blood.

The constitution of urine in health is one of the subjects
that afford to the pathologist great assistance in his estimate
of disease or disorder of the urinary organs. When the
functions of digestion and assimilation are active and
properly performed, the urine exhibits a tolerably uniform
condition both in colour and constitution ; but as soon as
the stomach and intestines allow of the passage of com-
pounds into the blood which are unsuited to the wants of
the body, the kidneys are rapidly called into action to
separate and eliminate them. In this way the urine is
caused to contain foreign or unnatural ingredients ; and if
the manufacture of such by the stomach, or their presence
by other means within the blood is constant, the kidneys
become unduly exercised, and disorder or disease may
result. Apart from either, however, the condition of urine
thus charged, being carefully examined, affords a valuable
means of arriving at important conclusions as to the cause
of disease. By the process just pointed out, substances
which under ordinary conditions maintain a perfect solubility
in the blood are brought into contact with unlike bodies in
the urine, and, entering into chemical combination, form a

The Density of Urine.

391

third and totally different one, probably altogether insoluble.
The kidneys or bladder thus become charged with sabulous
matter, portions of which are voided in urination ; or these
small particles may aggregate around some other insoluble
crystal, &c., and form a hard mass or concretion, known as

Its

a urinary calculus, the presence of which in the bladder,
kidney, urethra, &c., may cause not only awkward symptoms
but even death.

The density of urine is one of the means by which
nature and constitution are arrived at. By
density we mean relative weight ; thus, a
given measure of water, we will suppose,
weighs thirty grains, while another fluid taken
in exactly the same quantity will weigh thirty-
five grains. The density of fluids and solids
is known as specific gravity, and as such is
spoken of generally when investigating the
nature of urine. The comparison of the fluid
is made with water as the standard of fluids,
and for the purpose a graduated and very
delicate, as well as fragile instrument of glass,
called the urinometer or urogravimeter, is em-
ployed, such as is shown in Fig. 1 1 6. It
consists of two bulbs and a stem. In the
lower bulb a counterpoise of quicksilver is
placed, in order that the vertical position may
be preserved when in use. The second or
larger and elongated bulb contains air only,
and is the means of keeping the instrument
buoyant in the fluid to be tested. Inside the
stem is a scale, graduated from o to 60, and
by this the exact density of fluids heavier
than water can be ascertained. If the instrument is plunged
into water it will sink to o on the scale, a point which

392 Diseases of the Urinary Organs.

is understood to mean looo ; but when put into other
fluids it does not sink so low, therefore a different reading
of the scale would be observed ; thus, if the top of the
fluid is level with the figure lO on the scale, we should
then state the density to be loio ; if in a line with 25,
then the density would be 1025, and so on.

The temperature of the urine has a tendency to influence
the readings of the scale of the urinometer ; the practitioner
therefore takes care to secure that the fluid to be examined
has a uniform heat — that of 60° F. being the most proper.

The eonstitiition of urine, we have said, alters in
accordance with the function of digestion ; it will therefore
be understood that in ordinary conditions the secretion will
vary in different animals. Food of different kinds possess
totally different properties, and when animals, as the
carnivora and herbivora, subsist entirely upon one variety,
the organs and functions of digestion are specially adapted
to it, and the secretion of healthy urine therefore partakes
of special characters. The urine of the horse, cattle, and
sheep in health is alkaline, that of the dog and man is acid ;
such characters being the result of peculiar and appropriate
changes in the special kinds of food within the system.

These are known as the reactions of urine, and are
generally detected by the use of coloured papers, which,
when saturated by the fluid, change the colour or reduce
it to a different shade, according to the intensity of the
action. Two kinds of paper, specially prepared, are in use ;
one, litmus, or blue^ which on being dipped in urine having
an acid character instantly becomes red, but is unaffected
by alkaline urine. The second, yellozv^ is changed to a
brown by alkaline urine, but is unaffected by an acid fluid.*
The employment of papers dyed by vegetable fugitive
colours, which are altered by acids or alkalies, are the tests

* Mr. L. Cassella, 23, Hatton Garden, London, has supplied me with a very
suitable case, containing urinometer, thermometer, test-papers, &c. &c.

The Constitution of Urine,

393

by which the reactions are known, and by these we are
enabled to recognise both natural conditions or chemical
changes of importance, and the urinometer points out the
density, two important points to be learned relative to
decisions on abnormal urine.

In health, the urine of the horse has a density ranging
from 1030 to 1050. Urine constantly exhibiting a density
above or below these registrations is said to be morb’d.
When the density is great, it contains an excess of su!; stances
which are foreign to a state of health ; and when it is below
the standard the quantity of water is increased. Such changes,
however, may be observed only as a temporary effect ot
diet, &c., without being in themselves positive signs of disease.

An increase of water in the urine may arise from some
cause of irritation within the kidneys, but previously derived
from the food ; certain salts, as nitre, and plants in herbage,
are also productive of a profuse watery secretion. Among
the constituents which increase the density of the urine are
certain compounds derived from the system, consisting of
salts and organic products. In the healthy urine of the
horse, the proportion of water in 1000 parts is found to
range from 880 to 930 parts, and of the solid constituents
76 to 87 parts. More minutely the analysis, as given by
Von Bibra, is as follows : —

II.

Water

885-09 . .

912-84

Solid constituents

114-91 • .

87-16

Urea

12-44 . .

8-36

Hippuric acid

I2-6o . .

1-23

Mucus

0*05 . .

0-06

Alcoholic extract

25-50 . .

18-26

Watery „

21-32 . .

19-25

Soluble salts

23-40')

Insoluble „ ....

18-80) ‘ ’

40-00

394 Diseases of the Urinary Organs.

We have said the density of the urine is liable to increase
in disease, or as a result of some alteration in diet, such a
change being decided by the presence of a greater quantity
of the solid constituents named in the analysis, as urea,
soluble and insoluble salts, &c. The practitioner, when
called to minister to the diseases of animals, derives much
information by inquiries into the nature of the urinary
secretion. Scanty urine is mostly of a deep colour, in
consequence of its holding more salts and colouring matter
in solution. The water here is deficient, but the solid
constituents may not be increased, if the urine voided during
twenty-four hours is estimated. Acute diseases, inflamma-
tion of important organs, &c., limit the quantity of the
urinary secretion by diverting the blood in another direction
from the kidneys.

The presence of other compounds also gives rise to
peculiar characters of the urine, and from these also
important facts are gleaned. The colour may be con-
siderably deepened by the presence of blood in various
forms ; a degree of viscidity is conferred by a quantity of
albumen, or rapid decomposition is the result of an abnormal
quantity of urea ; the bladder may secrete pus, mucus, &c.,
in large quantities, and thus facilitate decomposition as well
as aggravate disease. Various plants consumed in food
confer characteristic colour and odour ; the colouring matter
of the bile finds its way sometimes in large quantities into the
urine, and permanently stains paper when dipped into it.
Many medicines are voided by the kidneys, even some of
the most insoluble kinds, as mercury, arsenic, &c., and may
be detected in it. Soluble salts are readily passed.

The foregoing outline, although brief, will at least afford
some assistance in arriving at the conclusion — viz., that the
functions of the kidneys bear a close relation to that of
digestion, and prepare the way to the fact, that whatever

Profuse Urination, or Diabetes Insipidus. 395

influences or interferes with the latter, will produce a cor-
responding alteration in the quantity and constitution of the
urine, and, in addition, may possibly give rise to functional
disorders, or structural diseases of the kidneys, or other of
the urinary organs. We shall have occasion to refer to the
more precise condition of the urine as we proceed in our con-
sideration of the various diseases to which the organs of this
system are liable.

FUNCTIONAL DISORDERS.

These are entirely dependent upon remote causes, and
consist of a morbid action or excess of functional activity ;
but in cases of long continuance, aggravation of causes, &c.,
they may degenerate into such chronic states that lead to
structural changes and incurable conditions.

Profuse Urination, or Diabetes Insipidus.

Nature and Causes. — This affection is variously known as
diuresis., polyuria, diabetes insipidus, profuse staling, &c. It
is characterised by excessive thirst, with a corresponding
discharge of urine, and is associated with unusual and rapid
decline of strength, and wasting of the whole of the body.
In a simple form it arises from some defect in the quality or
quantity of food, causing derangement of the assimilative
functions ; and, as a complicated form, it depends upon
wasting diseases, and often ushers in those terrible scourges,
farcy and glanders, being indicative of the general decay of
tissues, or, in other words, a breaking-up of the system.
Diabetes may be sometimes observed as an enzootic, when
the same causes which produce the sporadic form are largely
present ; it therefore may be traced to a bad time of
harvest, when grain has been imperfectly gathered and dried.
Hay and corn thus deteriorated become musty, and besides
undergo such changes that they prove hurtful, from their

3q6 Diseases of the Urinary Organs,

irritating effects upon the kidneys ; or from their inability to
contribute necessary materials to the blood that fluid is
impoverished ; and by more or less interference with the
assimilative functions the nutritive principles of food are
not sufficiently elaborated for the purposes of the system.
Irregular feeding, particularly when associated with pecu-
liarity of constitution, will produce this disease. We have
seen it prevail largely among Iceland ponies used in coal-
mines, doubtless caused by the long fasts inducing in-
digestion.

Symptoms. — The prominent sign is excessive thirst, the
animal being capable of consuming several pails of water in
succession, and in a short time discharging large quantities
of pale and watery urine. The appetite is capricious and
depraved ; the animal will lick the walls, floor, &c., and
pick up the very excrement he has voided ; the mouth is
clammy and has a sour smell ; an amount of debility and
stiffness is present ; the coat stares, and is harsh, dry, dirty,
and unhealthy in appearance ; the visible mucous membranes
are pale, or sometimes of a rusty yellow colour ; the bowels
are costive, and faeces scanty ; the pulse slower than
natural, but with increasing debility is accelerated, and in
both instances lacks strength and firmness. The urine con-
tains free acetic acid, and the density is lowered to that ot
water, or is so slightly in excess that the difference can
only be detected by a delicate instrument, water being taken
at 1000 ; the urine of this disorder only registers 1003.
Lassaigne has studied this subject, and found the urine to
contain water gS'O ; urea, benzoate of soda, acetate of
potash, acetate of lime, chloride of sodium, and free acetic
acid, altogether amounting to only 1*5, mucus and sulphate
of lime, 0*5. There are no earthy carbonates in this kind
of urine, and it is further remarkable by the total absence of
sugar, which characterises the disease in the human subject.

Profuse Urination, or Diabetes Insipidus. 397

The duration of the affection varies in accordance with
the amount of debility and emaciation which is going on,
death taking place from exhaustion and failure of nutrition
in a week or two, or it may be delayed to several months.
When it assumes the chronic form the discharge of urine is
much diminished, and the thirst is not so excessive.

Post-mortem A'ppearances. — Mucous membranes, the
various organs and system generally, are pale, bloodless,
soft, and flabby.

Treatment. — Rouse the bowels to energetic action by a
moderate dose of aloes, allowing a bran diet during the
operation of the aperient. Carefully investigate the quality
of food and system of feeding, and institute a total change
if found defective ; allow the animal water to appease his
thirst, at frequent intervals, having always dissolved in it
some carbonate of soda or potash. In this some care is
required, in order not to supply the nitrate or nitre, which
will prove highly injurious. The following ball may be
given daily : —

Recipe No. 115.

Take of iodide of potassium 2 drs.

Common mass Sufficient.

Reduce the first to powder, and afterwards add the mass
in such proportions needful to make up into a ball. Or,

Recipe No. 116.

Take of iodine 2 drs.

Common mass Sufficient.

Make into a bolus as directed for No. 1 1 5. Creasote, iron,
tincture of cantharides, &c., are likewise variously employed,
and linseed mucilage offers as a suitable drink.

When the disease arises as a complication with farcy or
glanders, the wisest course is to put the animal out of
existence, for as long as he lives he remains a source of
extreme danger to every human being and to other horses
in contact with him.

398 Diseases of the Urinary Organs,

Obstructions to the Flow of Urine.

Various technical terms are applied to the forms of
obstructed urinary discharge. When the secretion and flow
are suppressed, the affection is known as ischury ; a limited
discharge, attended with painful attempts, is termed dysury ;
and lastly, when but a few drops can be passed, the condition
is known as strangury. These states are recognised as
signs of importance, and indicative of even serious disorder,
which in many instances become very urgent. Examples
which immediately follow will illustrate these points more
clearly.

In nephritis, and probably also in other diseases, the
secretion of urine is arrested by the progress of disease
within the kidneys, or by febrile action generally ; the
quantity is then small, and it becomes very acrid, producing
irritation upon the mucous membrane of the bladder and
urinary passages, which leads to its being discharged in
drops. The effects of certain medicines, as cantharides and
strong diuretics, given by the mouth, or absorbed through
the skin, may not only cause an increased secretion, but also
limit the flow by producing spasm at the neck of the
bladder. The presence of a calculus or stone in the bladder,
or the urethra, its canal, may also induce similar symptoms ;
and want of muscular tone in the bladder, giving rise to
an accumulation of urine, and passive flow in small quan-
tities or mere drops, in the absence of a correct knowledge
of the parts, are frequently confounded with each other,
and under the effects of a false line of treatment suggested
under the circumstances terminate fatally. The causes are
frequently remote, and it should be the duty of all who
wait upon animals to afford every information calculated to
throw any light upon them. The practitioner values many
simple facts as important, and none should be withheld,

Retention of Urine.

399

however insignificant they may appear, if they have any
connexion whatever with the malady or its production.
When suppression of the urine occurs, a state of blood
poisoning — already described at page 73 as Uraemia —
immediately follows, and if relief is not afforded death is
rapid.

Retention of Urine.

The affection known under this head consists of an accu-
mulation of urine within the bladder without any means of
discharge. The functions of the kidneys may be properly
performed ; but if they are excited to undue action and
secretion, the case becomes very urgent. The causes are
various, and may be enumerated as follows : — Medicines
acting mainly on the kidneys and neck of the bladder at
the same time, thus creating an abnormal secretion as well
as arresting the discharge from the bladder by spasmodically
closing its outlet ; inflammation of the neck of the bladder,
or at any part of the urethral canal, which also closes the
passage ; paralysis or want of muscular tone in the bladder
itself ; calculi blocking up some part of the canal ; inversion
of the rectum or impaction from faeces within it, inducing
local pressure and constriction ; and in mares inversion of
the vagina or uterus, or when unable to rise from pressure
of the contents of the abdomen, especially during pregnancy.
Retention of urine is seen in males more commonly than in
females, doubtless owing to the more complicated arrange-
ment in the form.er of the discharging apparatus. This affec-
tion, as a rule, is to be regarded rather as a symptom of other
diseases than constituting disease itself ; it is always urgent
in its nature, and calls for immediate attention. During
its continuance the bladder is endangered by probable
rupture, or in apparently less severe cases the kidneys
may participate, leading to suppression of urine, and

400 Diseases of the Urinary Organs,

uraemia, from the non-elimination of the waste products of
the body.

Sympioms. — Retention of urine is denoted by repeated
but abortive attempts to urinate. The animal is uneasy ; he
paws and stamps with the fore and hind feet respectively,
whisks the tail impatiently ; the countenance is expressive of
pain and anxiety, the nose is repeatedly turned to the flank,
he moves stiffly and crouches, and as the disease advances is
disinclined to move ; the pulse is accelerated, and becomes
hard and wiry ; and if the disease proceeds under slight
mitigation of the symptoms, the wasting of flesh is rapid.
When cantharides or croton oil have been used, the results
vary in accordance with the mode of introduction to the
system. If they have passed by the mouth, irritation of the
tongue, throat, &c., will be observed, as shown by frequent
attempts to swallow and vomit. When these agents have
been absorbed from the skin, as in blistering, then the urino-
genital organs alone are affected, causing the symptoms
already given, with an apparent sexual excitement. In acute
cases death takes place speedily, from rupture of the bladder,
if treatment is not successful and prompt. We have seen
animals suffering from disease of the urethra, in which a
partial discharge of urine was permitted, live on for a week,
emitting a most offensive odour from the skin and breath
from the blood-poisoning of uraemia, and at length becoming
unconscious. The distended bladder may be felt in males
by passing the hand up the rectum, and in females through
the vagina.

Retention of the urine is often confounded with colic or
spasm of the intestines, as in the latter disease removal of
the spasm, in which the neck of the bladder always
participates more or less, is denoted by a full discharge of
urine ; it, however, is distinguished from retention by the
ability to discharge even small quantities of urine throughout
the attack.

Retention of Urine.

401

Treatment. — First ascertain the exact cause, and proceed
to its removal. If the rectum is impacted with faeces, throw
up enemas of warm water to soften and remove them ; solu-
tions of opium, belladonna, hyoscyamus, injected into the
rectum or vagina, will allay spasm at the neck of the bladder,
or they may be passed beneath the skin. Sometimes the
prostate glands cause pressure on the urethra by enlarge-
ment, in which case the urine must be re-
moved daily, and iodine prescribed externally
as well as internally. When the bladder is
distended the contents should be removed
artificially, especially when eversion of organs
has taken place, as delay may be dangerous,
and no hope of effectually returning them
can be entertained as long as the irritation
from a distended bladder exists.

The rem.oval of the urine is effected by
means of an instrument termed the catheter ;
one is a flexible tube, about two feet six
inches long, provided with a stilette (Fig.

I I 7), and is specially adapted for the horse ;
the other is a curved hollow tube of German
silver, about thirteen inches long, bulbous,
and closed at one extremity, but pierced at
the sides for the escape of urine, and about
five sixteenths of an inch in diameter (Fig.

1 1 8). This is the female catheter, and when

Fig. — Catheter for removing the Urine.

retention occurs it is passed along the floor
of the vagina in mares, preceded by the index

402 Diseases of the Urinary 0rga7is,

finger of the left hand, which carefully raises the thin deli-
cate valve guarding the urethral opening ; it then enters the
bladder, and urine at once flows readily. This precaution
should be observed in all animals confined to a recumbent
position, as untoward results may arise from pressure of
the abdominal contents obstructing the flow of urine.

The male catheter is not so readily passed into the bladder,
owing to the greater length of the urethral canal, which
extends from the bladder to the end of the penis. Usually,
however, the operation is not difficult if the ordinary pre-
cautions are observed, and spasm of the neck of the bladder
is not too violent. When that occurs, the injection of opium,
&c., as already named, may induce a partial relaxation if
applied first. In most cases the penis is relaxed, and
hanging flabby and pendulous from nervous exhaustion, and
therefore is readily seized ; when it is contracted by strong
spasm within the sheath, as sometimes happens, there is
difficulty in drawing it down, especially if the interior of the
sheath is lined by an accumulation of black and offensiv^e
secretion, when washing by soap and water will be neces-
sary. On the hand being passed up, the back only should
be greased, the fingers being previously dried, a simple
proceeding which will enable the operator to hold the penis
more firmly, and maintain gentle traction, while the other
hand softly rubs down the perinaeum to hasten relaxation.

The penis being withdrawn from the sheath, the end must
be examined for mechanical obstructions at the preputial
opening, which often exist in the form of accumulations of
sabulous or fine gritty paste, sometimes hardened, and by
growth press upon the urethral opening and close it effectually
against the passage of urine. These accumulations some-
times acquire such proportions and hardness as to merit the
name of preputial calculi. They are readily removed by
pressing the thumb-nail beneath from one side.

403

Retention of Urine.

These preliminaries being arranged, the flexible catheter
is passed in the following manner : — An assistant having
rubbed it over with oil, and placed the stilette inside, the end
is put within the urethra, and the whole tube follows in a
straight line until it reaches the notch or turn at the ischium
(Fig. 1 19), when the stilette is withdrawn ; the tube is then

Fig. 1 19. — The Male Urethra.

a. Rectum.

b. Bladder.

c. Sphincter ani or muscle of the funda-

ment.

d. Ischlatic notch.

e. Penis.

ftftf- Urethral canal.

g. Flexible catheter passed into the bladder.

pushed gently on as it rounds the bone, the operator using
the left hand to direct it forwards, when it readily enters the
bladder, and urine follows with a gurgling sound. In some
instances it may be needful to allow the catheter to remain,
as in paralysis or atony of the muscular coat of the bladder,
induced by long-continued distension, an occurrence not
altogether rare, as following a long journey, during which
the animal has not had an opportunity of urinating.

In some rare instances we have been required to open the
urethra in the horse at the ischiatic notch, and from thence
pass the female catheter. The urine is discharged for some
days through the artificial opening, but eventually the

26—2

404 Diseases of the Urinary Organs.

wound closes, and the flow passes through the natural
channel.

Incontinence of Urine.

This disease, usually known as enuresis in medical lan-
guage, consists of an inability to retain the urine within the
bladder, and arises from various causes. Two forms of the
affection are observed : one in the adult animal, due to" para-
lysis of the bladder, in conjunction with ordinary paralysis
affecting the hind-quarters ; or, in other cases, it may arise
from sabulous matter or a calculus. The second form affects
foals immediately after birth, and consists of a constant
trickling of urine from the navel, the opening of which has
not properly closed ; the remedy for which is a ligature, or
the insertion of sutures of silver wire, dressings of burnt
alum, sulphates of copper, zinc, &c.

When this affection occurs as a result of weakness or
atony of the bladder, as sometimes seen in aged animals, or
those which have been neglected through the winter, &c.,
iron tonics, with carefully regulated doses of cantharides, are
the most useful remedies. Various other forms may also be
compounded, in which nux vomica, strychnine, gentian,
quassia, columbo, &c., may enter. Galvanism may be tried.
In those cases resulting from general paralysis, treatment
must be directed for that disease alone. Some years ago
we were called upon' to treat a colt for incontinence of urine,
which proved altogether incurable. He had been out all the
winter at a distance from home, and nothing decisive could
be learned of the history of the case ; we concluded there-
fore that cold in all probability had been the chief cause.
The animal came up in low condition in the month of April,
and was being broken for farm work, when the continual
dropping and spurting of urine from the pendulous penis
proved a great nuisance. We found the tail was paralysed.

Oxaluria.

405

the penis could be only partially retracted, and a pustular
fluid came away from the bladder by means of the catheter
after the urine had been drawn off. This occurred on each
occasion for several days, when it gradually stopped. The
usual treatment was continued for some time, and at length
abandoned, for neither bladder, tail, nor penis recovered
their muscular power, and the animal remained what he was
— a disagreeable nuisance — unsaleable as he was unsightly;
at length he was lost sight of.

Oxaluria.

NatiLve and Causes. — A derangement of the renal secre-
tion dependent upon defective digestion and assimilation
of food, resulting in the production of dulness, languor,
debility, emaciation, and urine loaded with oxalates. It is a
disease commonly seen among horses subjected to an irre-
gular and defective system of feeding and management
generally, when food supplied is not always of a sufficiently
nutritious quality, neither given at regular intervals ; espe-
cially when, combined with this, they are also compelled to
undergo protracted and fatiguing exertion, after long inter-
vals of inactivity, when the animal is not in proper condi-
tion. Similar conditions of dyspepsia, however, will arise from
other causes — e.g.y food unusually rich in saccharine matters,
supplied after a diet of inferior kinds ; perverted conditions
of the mucous membrane of the digestive track consequent
upon catarrhal conditions, especially those of a typhoid
or debilitating character ; from a superabundance of food
during inactivity, and all causes which combine towards
weakening the process of digestion. It is common among
the horses and ponies of coal-mines, where work is hard,
* long-continued, and /ceding times occur at long intervals.
Hunters are said to be also liable to it. Owing to the fact

4o6 Diseases of the Urinary Organs.

that greater attention is paid to the feeding and working of
horses now than heretofore, there are probably not so many
cases witnessed, except in certain localities and establish-
ments ; for, like other diseases due to mal-assimilation and
digestion, it has disappeared where good management has
been introduced.

Syitiptonis. — The animal first attracts attention by signs
of dyspepsia, a capricious appetite, irregular bowels, alter-
nated with constipation ; he licks the walls, is dull, stiff in
his movements, and disinclined for exertion ; the skin is
dry, harsh, and fast, commonly called hide-bound, and the
hair is loaded with a bran-coloured scurf ; the mouth is
sour, offensive, and tongue furred, and the discharge of urine
is frequent, giving rise to uneasiness or irritation of the
passages during the act, such as crouching, turning round,
whisking the tail, &c.

The quantity of urine discharged in each attempt is not
large, having a deep straw or amber colour, and to test-

paper it generally ma-
nifests an acid reac-
tion, and to this latter
property is most pro-
bably due the irrita-
tion already mentioned
as being productive of
so much uneasiness.
This, however, is not
always the case, as the
urine is sometimes neu-
tral— that is, it shows
neither acid nor alka-
line reaction. A drop
of the urine examined
beneath the micro-

Fig. 120. — Crystals of Oxalate of L ime,
as seen under the microscope.

Oxaluria.

407

scope generally exhibits, when recent, crystals of the oxalates ;
but occasionally, when the oxalic acid is discharged in a free
state, its combination forms are not recognised until after
the lapse of a day or two. The usual presence of lime in
the diet of the horse at once furnishes a ready means for
the formation of a peculiar salt — the oxalate of lime, the
crystals of which, as seen under the microscope, are ex-
hibited in Fig. 120.

Treatment. — The processes of digestion and assimilation
being at fault, the obvious course will be to attempt to
remove the state of derangement by the action of a pur-
gative, especially when constipation of the bowels exists,
the dose of which must, of course, be regulated to suit the
condition in which they are found. The system of diet
must undergo a change, every article of a stimulating kind,
and especially those containing sugar or large quantities of
nitrogenous elements, being scrupulously withdrawn ; there-
fore the roots, peas, beans, &c., will be excluded, together
with condimental foods, as locust beans, and the various
ingredients which are united with them to make up those
wonder-working properties which farmers and others will
persist in paying so enormously for. Good oats with bran,
and sweet clover chaff, will form a suitable diet, the quan-
tities allowed being moderate, and at regular times. Care
must be observed also in enforcing a daily amount of exer-
cise, proportionate to the ability of the patient, for, without
this, it will be impossible to work the desired change in the
digestive action. The skin must be thoroughly cleaned, the
brush being freely used for the combined purposes of remov-
ing the scurf, and by friction stimulating the skin. Damp
wisping will prove of great service, and, when convenient,
the Roman bath, especially in protracted cases. As medi-
cine, the following may be prescribed : —

4c8 Diseases of the Urinary Organs,

Recipe No. 117.

Take of nitro-hydrochloric acid i fl. dr.

Infusion of quassia, gentian, or columbo i pint.

Mix, and administer morning and evening.

When the debility and loss of flesh is great, one ounce of
nitric ether may be added to the above draught.

If the alleviation of the symptoms does not take place in a
reasonable time, a change of medicine may be necessary,
and in place of the above iron tonics, as the sulphate of iron
combined with gentian, as follows : —

Recipe No. 118.

Take of sulphate of iron, powdered 3 ozs.

Powdered gentian 3 „

Mix, and divide into twelve powders ; one to be mixed
with the manger food morning and evening. If further
changes are needed, let the phosphate of iron, phosphate
of soda, ammonio-citrate, or ammonio-tartrate of iron be
tried.

Simple or Idiopathic Albuminuria.

Nature and Causes. — The presence of albumen, more or
less, in the urine, is the result of acute or chronic indigestion,
overwork, or irritation of the spinal cord, and it may exist in
combination with a diuresis. As a rule, it is symptomatic
of other diseases.

Symptoms. — Dulness ; languor ; incapacity for ordinary
exertion, as shown in the animal flagging when at work ; the
appetite and condition suffer, and there is a tendency to con-
stipation of the bowels. In ordinary cases the disease will
terminate with a removal of the common causes by appro-
priate treatment ; but there are instances in which some
amount of irritation of the bladder, and the muscle at its
neck, may exist, producing strangury.

Treatment, — Administer a brisk purge in all cases where

Traumatic A Ibummuria,

409

the disease appears without appreciable cause, and follow
this up by the use of mineral acids, No, 19 and 1 1 7, for a few
days ; afterwards give iron tonics. No. 107 ; and from the first
let the diet be simple, of easy digestion, and supplied in
moderate quantities, while every attention is paid to the
amount of daily exercise and grooming.

This affection may assume a persistent condition, when
structural changes of the kidneys will be present ; as such it
will again be referred to.

STRUCTURAL DERANGEMENT OF THE
KIDNEYS.

Traumatic Albuminuria.

This disease is variously known di's. Albuminous Nephritis ;
Bright's Disease; Albuminuria; Granular Degeneration of the
Kidneys, &c.

Nature and Causes. — The urine sometimes copious, at
others scanty, but always loaded with albumen, giving it the
consistence of a thick mucilage. Morbid irritation of the
kidneys, attended with enlargement, softening, or atrophy of
some portion of the secreting substance, generally traceable
to an injury from carrying or drawing too heavy weights,
severe galloping or jumping ; the absorption of cantharides
when largely used as a blister in other severe diseases ; and,
lastly, such causes, when long continued, as produce the
simple form of albuminuria.

Symptoms. — When an injury has been inflicted on the
loins, spinal column, or the kidneys are affected by action of
cantharides, the animal usually stands with the back arched,
back and feet drawn together ; being very much disinclined
to move, and, when caused to do so, exhibiting great stiff-
ness and even signs of pain (Fig. 121); the respiration is
disturbed, and the pulse accelerated ; the bowels are consti-

410 Diseases of the Urinary Organs.

Fig. I2T. — Acute Albutnimiria.

pated, and surface heat is irregular ; all of which may suffer
extreme aggravation when the absorption of the cantharides

principle has been
extensive ; added to
which, strangury
causes further tor-
ture.

In those instances
where the disease
makes slow and
quiet progress, the
animal lacks vigour,

and is not capable of severe work, or, if pushed, becomes
rapidly worse, and loses condition. As a rule, however, the
subjects of this form, which arises from continued indi-
gestion, brought on by an abundance of food and inactivity,
do not exhibit much loss of condition or general health,
beyond what we have already detailed (Fig. 122). A con-
stant sign consists of
standingwith the back
hollowed or arched
downwards, the fore-
legs in advance and
the hinder ones
stretched backwards,
as if preparing tc uri-
nate. We remember
a carriage-horse, thus affected, which continued a number of
years to do light work, while the disease made no apparent
progress. On the death of the owner he, with two others,
were destroyed and buried, according to the wishes of the
deceased, without any post-mortem examination. Had the
animal passed into other hands, where different treatment and
heavier work were inflicted, it is very probable he would have
readily succumbed. This animal never lay down, and, after

Fig. 122. — Chronic fo7'm of Albuminuria.

Traumatic A Ibuminiiria.

411

standing some time, appeared stiff in the preliminary move-
ments— signs which we have seen confirmed by subsequent
cases.

The kidneys are found to be variously affected. In some
cases the organs are large, pale, and flabby, the interior
showing an increase of the cortical substance, the central
being softened ; in others the kidney is smaller than natural,
but firm and of a deep red colour, outwardly rough, and the
capsule firmly united to the glandular structures by inter-
stitial deposit. The urine is generally copious with this
condition of kidney, and, doubtless, arising from the irritation
caused by numerous cysts which are present in the interior.
In the former state, the secretion of urine is small.

Treatment. — In the acute form the bowels should be
rapidly moved, and the urine drawn away. {See Strangury.)
Blistered surfaces, to which cantharides have been applied,
should be poulticed, or dressings applied to promote dis-
charge. The catheter perhaps should not be removed, as
strangury may recur. Antispasmodic injections may be
used to the rectum, or passed beneath the skin. {See
Endermic Method.) The spasm may likewise be treated by
opium given by the mouth, and the animal should be allowed
plenty of linseed-tea for drink, or portions may be given as
draughts, in which opium and carbonate of potash or soda
have been mixed.

When the acute signs have been allayed, treat by mineral
acids. No. 19 and 1 1 7, and mineral tonics. No. 1 1 8, as already
recommended for oxaluria, paying strict attention to the
diet, exercise, and comfort of the animal. In those cases
not traceable to an injury, &c., but of recent origin, com-
mence by regulating the bowels by means of a purgative,
check excessive urination by opium or tannic acid, and follow
with the order of treatment by acids, &c., as detailed above.
When albuminuria appears as a direct result of other dis-
eases, the attention must be devoted entirely to their re-

4 1 2 Diseases of the Urinary Organs.

moval, the decline of this affection being alone dependent
upon that course of action.

Examination of the Urine. — In advanced cases, minute
granulated cylinders, or casts of the uriniferous tubes of the
kidney, are found in the urine, when examined under the
microscope, the fluid being pale, and probably of low density.
In the more recent stages the presence of albumen is greater,
and may be detected by the following chemical tests : — The
urine is thick and mucilaginous, and, with the ordinary re-
agents, certain differences are met with which may mislead
and perplex the inquirer. It must be remembered, the albu-
men here found is often of a very low form, and behaves
rather differently with the usual tests. Heat frequently fails
to coagulate it ; strong mineral acids produce a clear, thin
fluid ; but white precipitates are obtained with tincture of
galls, solution of bichloride of mercury, and alcohol ; solution
of ferro-cyanide of potassium acidulated with acetic acid throws
down a white precipitate after being heated ; and solution
of sub-nitrate of mercury yields a flesh-coloured precipitate.

Nephritis — Inflammation of the Kidneys.

Inflammation is not usually confined to one part or struc-
ture of the kidneys, as takes place in the human subject.
Originating at one spot, generally the mucous membrane of
the uriniferous tubes, it spreads in every direction, involving
the parenchyma and cortical substance alike, at length, and
according to the cause, terminating either in resolution,
throwing off desquamation of the epithelial lining of the
tubes, softening and degeneration of the secreting portions,
and occasionally, when calculus is present, in suppuration.
Gangrene is seldom observed.

Causes. — Too long-continued use of powerful diuretic me-
dicines ; absorption of cantharides from blistered surfaces ;

Nephritis.

413

acrid plants ; appHcation of continued cold to the loins ;
croton oil when used injudiciously ; and probably from the
indirect effects of local injuries.

Symptoms. — There is always an amount of attendant fever,
associated with disturbance of the digestive organs, mani-
fested in sharp colicky pains, the bowels being constipated.
The pulse is frequent, hard, and unyielding, and respiration
is short and hurried ; the mouth is hot and clammy, and the
animal endures a constant thirst. In some instances the
animal is disinclined to move, or walks with the hind-legs
widely apart (Fig. 123), and there may be stiffness and
tenderness of the loins,
with arched back. We
may rely more certainly
on a very scanty, or indeed
a total suppression, of the
secretion of urine, with fre-
quent and painful but vain
attempts to urinate, as
shown in the animal re-
peatedly stretching himself

as in the natural act. The nature of the case is in a mea-
sure decided by the empty bladder, and when urine can
be obtained, by the presence of albumen, as indicated by its
coagulation under the effects of heat, and nitric acid.

Three points are prominently brought out in this list of
signs, and by them nephritis is clearly identified. Fever and
colic are associated. An empty bladder, very little, or more
frequently, no urine is passed, and the desire and attempts
to urinate are very frequent. The urine is highly albu-
minous, and by the usual tests readily discovered. Besides this,
casts of the uriniferous tubes, blood globules, epithelial and
even pus cells, may be found.

Usually only one kidney is affected, and the hind-leg of

41 4 Diseases of the Urinary Organs.

the side sometimes indicates paralysis or lameness ; occasion-
ally both organs may be inflamed. If suppression of urine
continues, symptoms of blood poisoning {see Ursemia) arise.
The faeces and skin give off an offensive ammoniacal or
uriniferous odour, the breath is likewise foetid, and the bowels
constipated ; during this stage the bowels also become tym-
panitic, or full of gases, and, as colic is present, the animal
perspires, rendering the uriniferous odour even more powerful
and offensive.

Post-mortem Appear anees. — The diseased organ is generally
enlarged, and upon its surface an amount of plastic exuda-
tion is thrown out. Internally it is of a dark-red colour, or
variously marked in spots or wavy lines, indicating the con-
gested state of the cortical part in which are the Malpighian
tufts. In some instances only one part of the organ is
involved, when it is softened, easily lacerated, and when cut
open a dark-coloured fluid escapes, which will be found to
contain the products of inflammation and even pus cells.

Treatment. — Although there is much to be said in favour
of clearing out the bowels by means of purgatives, yet there
is need of some caution in their use, as violent purgation
may aggravate the disorder. If, however, it is desired to
give aloes, let warm water injections be used frequently in
order to render a moderate dose of that drug more effective.
The propriety of abstracting blood must be determined by
the state of the pulse and stage of the malady ; if the pulse
is full and strong and case recent, depletion will retard the
possibility of uraemia setting in. The next step will consist
of administering sedatives to counteract the inflammation,
for which the following form is recommended : —

Recipe No. 119.

Take of solution of the acetate of ammonia 3 fl. ozs.

Fleming’s tincture of aconite 20 drops.

Linseed mucilage I pint.

Nephritis,

415

Mix, and administer at once. The succeeding draughts
may follow at the end of eight, twelve, and twenty-four
hours, observing to reduce the aconite five drops each time.
The loins may be stimulated by simple mustard embroca-
tions, all and every other kind of blistering agent being
avoided.

Instead of the above draught, opium may be substituted,
if the pain continues.

Recipe No. 120.

Take of powdered opium f dr.

Linseed mucilage ^ pint.

Mix, and administer every eight hours. Professor Wil-
liams recommends a poultice or decoction of digitalis to the
loins, which must be removed as soon as the kidneys begin
to act.

Linseed-tea should be supplied liberally as a drink
throughout the case ; and as recovery goes on care must be
observed not to allow the bowels to become overloaded, or
anything to be taken by which the kidneys would be ex-
cited ; roots and stimulating condiments, salines, &c., must
therefore be excluded from the dietary.

The result of inflammation of the kidney may be dege-
neration and atrophy, or wasting of the gland. The con-
dition is very marked when one only has been affected : it
becomes small and flabby, being little more than a bag oi
areolar tissue, its substance being removed, and the tube
which conveyed the urine entirely closed. The opposite
organ is hypertrophied, enlarged to near twice its original
size, rarely exhibiting any structural alteration, although it
has had the work of two organs to perform. The con-
dition of these glands may sometimes be detected by the
practitioner during life, the hand being passed up the rectum
in exploration.

4i6 Diseases of the Urmary Organs,

Hematuria — Blood in the Urine.

The presence of blood in the urine may be due to several
circumstances — e.g., congestion, softening, and degeneration
of the kidney, succeeding to nephritis, calculi within the
pelvis, cancer, &c. A traumatic form of haematuria is recog-
nised as being caused by severe strains and unusual efforts
required in drawing heavy loads, extraordinary jumping, &c.

Symptoms. — Traumatic haematuria is indicated by pain
and stiffness in movement, severe febrile excitement, occa-
sional paralysis, and the separation of blood clots from the
urine after discharge. Such conditions are not always re-
moved, as the affected kidney may take on inflammation,
or be involved in degeneration, softening, and change of
structure.

Treatment. — The sufferer must be kept as still as pos-
sible, and cold water may be thrown up the rectum, in
order to constringe the bleeding vessels. Internal remedies
consist of powerful astringents and styptics, which exert
their effects through the medium of the blood. Various
forms of administration are as follow : —

Recipe No. 121.

Take of tincture of perchloride of iron 2 fl. drs.

Water i pint.

Mix.

Recipe No. 122.

Take of tannic acid ^ dr.

Powdered catechu or kino 2 drs.

Mix, and make up a bolus with treacle.

Recipe No. 123.

Take of solution of chloralum i fl. dr.

Water i pint.

Mix.

Inflammation of the Bladder,

417

Recipe No. 124.

Take of tannic acid i dr.

Powdered catechu 2 drs.

„ opium I dr.

Mix, and make up a bolus with common mass or treacle.

The boluses may be administered morning and evening,
or, like the draughts, two, three, or four times at intervals of
eight, ten, or twelve hours, as the urgency of the case may
require.

When calculi are present in the kidney the urine will
contain a large proportion of earthy matters, and the
discharge of blood may be intermittent, occasioned by work
and exercise, and accompanied by colic. In these cases
hard water should be avoided for drinking, unless it has
been treated with carbonate of potash or soda, to pre-
cipitate the earthy salts. The diet should consist of oats
principally, with linseed-tea frequently supplied for drinking,
and muriatic acid may be given internally, as a means of
dissolving the sediment in the urine, and probably also
reducing the stone itself Calculi lead to suppuration or
abscess, degeneration of the kidney, and death. When
there are several smaller ones, partial passage along the
ureters may take place, and there being obstructed entirely
stop the passage, giving rise to great agony, probably
rupture of the tube, and death from irritation, due to the
escape of the contents within the peritoneal cavity. Stones
in the ureters are termed ureteral calculi ; their presence
may be detected by the hand in the rectum, the tube being
distended with urine, forming a soft, fluctuating tumour.

Cystitis — Inflammation of the Bladder.

This is by no means a common disease in the horse, and
when it has taken place the cause has been traced to the
absorption of cantharkies or croton oil, which have been
' ’ 27

4i8 Diseases of the Urinary Organs,

used externally as blisters, or to cantharides administered
internally by persons ignorant of their effects.

Symptoms. — Excitement and great uneasiness, attended
by prostration of strength and much febrile disturbance,
colicky pains, efforts to vomit, frequent and painful attempts
to pass urine, faeces covered with mucus and blood. When
strangury accompanies the disease the signs are intensified,
and there is danger of the bladder bursting. When can-
tharides have been given in solution by the mouth the
buccal membrane will be reddened and excoriated, and
swallowing performed with difficulty, while an apparent
sexual excitement will be produced. If no relief is afforded
by treatment, death takes place in two or three days.

Post-mortem Appearances. — The whole course of the
alimentary canal, from the mouth to the fauces, gullet,
stomach, and intestines, is actively congested or inflamed,
as indicated by effusion and thickening between the coats.
Sometimes the kidneys are also inflamed ; but in all cases
the lining membrane of the bladder is acutely affected, and
ulceration or erosions are found upon the mucous membrane
of the intestinal canal.

Treatment. — Purge the animal, but avoid oil, which, by
dissolving the active principle of cantharides, would produce
greater destruction. Give large quantities of linseed muci-
lage with the medicines ; throw up enemas, and evacuate
the contents of the bladder if distended ; apply mustard
embrocations to the loins, and combat the inflammation by
draught No. 1 19, and proceed generally as for nephritis.

Inversion of the Bladder.

Prolapsus vesicse, or inversion of the bladder, is seen
only in female animals ; it is always an untoward occurrence,
and not unfrequently ends in a fatal manner. Usually it

Lithiasis — Gravel — Calculus.

419

attends difficult labour, or arises from the effects of violent
straining afterwards. We have seen it in adult animals,
which, when affected with colic, have been dosed with large
quantities of saltpetre ; also as a result of pressure when
mares being put into slings hang heavily, “ and will not find
their legs.” On one occasion it occurred in a yearling
filly, which for a fractured leg was put into slings. The
animal was very excitable, and after reduction the bladder
repeatedly returned, which at length was injured, and the
creature was destroyed. It is during violent straining that
the vagina is lacerated, and the bladder appears at the
opening as a bright red, fluctuating tumour, containing fluid.
From the direction which the bladder is compelled to take
under these circumstances — viz., the upper part of the body
being forced upwards, backwards, and outwards — pressure
being exerted at its fundus, the natural outlet to the vagina
is closed, and evacuation of the contents impossible without
being first reduced or put back to its proper position ; there-
fore, if the organ is not relieved, and the original causes
neutralised, the constant accumulation of urine leads to
inevitable rupture. The bladder should be returned as
quickly as possible— an operation which requires some tact,
and further skill to maintain it there. The original wound
in the vagina must be closed by metallic sutures, and some
practitioners pass one or two others across the lips of the
vagina as well ; others put on a truss, or improvise an appa-
ratus as well as they are able by means of the harness or
leather straps which are at hand. Powerful antispasmodics
and opiates are required to overcome the disposition to
straining.

Lithiasis — Gravel — Calculus.

Owing to peculiar normal changes in the constitution of
the urine, often mainly dependent upon perverted function of

27—2

420 Diseases of the Urhiary Organs.

digestion and assimilation, and assisted by local aberrations
of the functions of the urinary organs themselves, the solid
or insoluble constituents are greatly increased, and they are
deposited in various forms. Sometimes a large quantity of
sediment, in the form of fine powder or coarse crystalline
grains, passes with the urine, large quantities being retained
in the kidneys, bladder, or urinary passages ; in other cases
these solid constituents are aggregated in the form of stones
or hard concretions, termed calculi. In the form of fine
powder, known as sabulous deposit, the disease known as
lithiasis is not uncommon among equine animals — more
frequently perhaps in mares ; while male animals exhibit a
liability to the hard form of calculus or stone. Gravel, as
understood in the above distinction, is not so common, being
seen more frequently in bovine and ovine animals.

The origin of the constituents of such deposits or calculi
is the food, which is rich in the elements necessary for their
formation, as the following analysis will show :* —

Red

Potash

Oats.

12*3

Peas.

. . 35*20 . .

Hay.

30*09 . .

Clover.

16*10

Soda

—

10*32

—

4071

Magnesia ....

6*91 . .

4*o8 . .

8*28

Lime

. . 2*70 . .

9*12 . .

2 1*91

Phosphoric acid .

i4’9

. . 34*01 . .

12*03 • •

4*12

Sulphuric acid

. . 4*28 . .

379 • •

I *o6

Silica

53‘3

. . 0*29 . .

24*17 . .

2.60

Peroxide of iron .

1-3

. . 1*94 . .

1*55 . .

0*46

Chloride of sodium .

—

2*56 . .

570 . .

4*73

Chloride of potassium

1*0

—

9-48

—

We may further trace these solid constituents first in the
blood, arid separated from thence by the kidneys, a great
proportion is found in the urine, the rest being conveyed

Liebig’s Chemistry of Agriculture.

Lithiasis — Gravel — Calculus, 42 1

away by the faeces. Von Bibra found in lOO parts of the
solid residue of the urine of the horse : —

Carbonate of lime .

12-50 . .

31-00

Carbonate of magnesia .

9-46 . .

13-07

Carbonate of potash .

46-09)

40-33

Carbonate of soda

10-335

Sulphate of potash

13-04 . .

9*02

Chloride of sodium . .

6-94 . .

5-60

Silica

0-5 5 1

093

Loss

1-09}

The preponderance of earthy carbonates in the urine of
herbivora is remarkable. Although we may find a pro-
portion in the blood, yet we search in vain for them in the
food, at least in anything like appreciable quantity ; but
their origin we are able to conclude is in the decomposition
of vegetable acids — as the oxalic, citric, racemic — all of which
contain the elements of carbonic acid, and which under the
process of assimilation or secondary digestion enter into
chemical union, not only to form carbonic acid, but also
carbonates, by taking up the alkaline and earthy salts as
potash, soda, lime, and magnesia, and these in healthy
urine are more or less in solution, rendering the fluid
alkaline.

To insure the formation of a sabulous deposit or calculi,
we must have certain conditions present : — first, perverted
digestion and assimilation, by which the earthy salts are
not sufficiently elaborated for the purposes of the economy — •
viz., the building up of the system ; second, they may be in
excess of healthy requirements ; and lastly, from some
morbid condition of the mucous membrane of the urinary
passages or organs, the secretion from the surfaces, acting as
a kind of ferment, may cause the deposition of these salts
from solution. The locality of these concretions may be

422 Diseases of the Urinary Organs.

the kidneys, ureters, bladder, or urethra, where irritation and
inconvenience will result proportionate with growth and
interference with functions. In most cases a central nucleus
or point is present in each stone, such as mucus and
epithelial scales from the lining membrane, a crystal of
insoluble phosphate of lime, &c. In some instances foreign
substances have been found in calculi extracted from the
bladder of mares, such as a piece of straw, wood, or iron
wire, doubtless having been passed thither by malicious

Fig. 125.

Calculi from the Urinary Passages.

Various forms in which the Ammonio-magnesian Phosphatic Calculi are found. Fig, 124 is whole ;
125 and 126 are sections showing the internal concentric and radiating lamellar structures.

persons, and around this the earthy matters are laminated,
often exhibiting internally a beautiful concentric arrange-
ment, as well as variety of colour (Figs. 124, 125, and 126).

Symptoms of Cystic Calculi. — The animal is constantly
evincing a desire to urinate, by the usual acts of stretching
and wide separation of the fore and hind limbs, descent of
the penis, &c., without any discharge. Stiffness in move-
ment may exist to some extent, and uneasiness with
witching of the tail are usually combined. In a subsequent
attempt the urine flows at once and with ease, but suddenly
stops ; the calculus has been carried to the outlet, where it

Lithiasis — Gravel — Calculus.

423

blocks up the passage. The animal remains for some time
in the attitude described, making further attempts to
evacuate the bladder, but at length gives way under pain ;
he kicks at the belly, groans, sighs, and lies down in a
careful manner. Occasionally the urine drops awa}^ {see
Incontinence of Urine), and as the animal moves about the
thighs and legs are wet, and, eventually, the skin suffers
from irritation, becoming sore and emitting a most un-
pleasant odour. This condition is common in the mare,
and when sabulous matter is present in either males or
females, incontinence is said to be more generally observed.
The urine has mostly a light colour, being white, or whitey
brown, and v/ithin a few minutes after being collected in a
glass vessel a thick sediment falls to the bottom. Besides
this, such urine is ammonlacal in many instances, and soon
enters into rapid decomposition.

To confirm an opinion formed by a consideration of these
sym^ptoms, an examination per rectum must be made after
it has been emptied by means of enemas. If the bladder
is full, it may be emptied by moderate pressure of the hand,
or, in the event of failure, by the catheter, a proceeding
which must always be observed, otherwise the presence of
either a stone or sabulous matter may be undiscovered.
The bladder, now contracted and empty, is retracted within
the pelvis, and is there within easy reach of the exploring
hand of the operator.

Treatment. — The presence of a calculus being no longer
a matter of doubt, steps may now be taken for its removal,
the details being as follows : —

In the Mare the affair assumes no aspect of difficulty, as
a rule, and is easily accomplished if the stone has not
acquired very large dimensions. The hand, first lubricated,
with oil, is passed along the floor of the vagina (Fig. 127)
and by means of a finger the valve of the urethra is raised.

424 Diseases of the Urinary Orga^ts.

The closed forceps are then carried under the hand, which
serves to guide them towards the orifice — meatus urinarius —
finally entering with care to avoid wounding. The operator

Fig. 127.

a. Rectum. b. Womb. c. Bladder.

then proceeds to dilate the opening by frequent separation
of the blades of the forceps, the hand being still retained to
govern the attempts. Having sufficiently widened the
orifice, the instrument may be carried further and caused to
strike the stone. The hand is now removed from the
vagina and transferred to the rectum,- in order to direct the
stone into the blades of the forceps, which when fully
accomplished, and a firm hold be obtained with a longitudinal
direction if possible, by means of gentle traction, rotatory
movement, and assisted by the second hand, now removed
from the rectum, the stone may be withdrawn. Although
the urethra in the mare will admit of great dilatation and
thus allow of the extraction of a large calculus, there are
instances where the stone must be effectually broken and
extracted piecemeal.

Lithiasis — Gravel — Calculus.

425

It will be obvious from the preceding observations that
the removal of the calculus in the mare is accomplished
with the animal standing, of course being properly secured
if necessary.

In the Horse. — The removal of a stone from the bladder
of the horse is often a matter of some difficulty and calls
for an operation, which is performed as follows : — The
animal must be cast, and for greater convenience he should
lie on the off or right side (see Casting). The penis is then
to be seized and withdrawn by an assistant, as already
described at page 402 ; after which he will pass the catheter
as far as the ischiatic notch (Figs. 119 and 237), and with-
out removing the instrument withdraw the stilette ; the
operator, by means of one hand in the rectum and the other
at the notch, will direct the catheter along the urethra to
the bladder. An incision is then made along the raphce or
raised line of the perinaeum over the urethra at the ischiatic
notch, exposing the catheter, and sufficiently large to admit

Fig. 128.

a. Rectum. c. Penis.

b. Bladder. d. Urethral canal.

the forceps to be employed ; the catheter may then be with-
drawn. The forceps, being first warmed and oiled, are
passed carefully along the urethra, gently but firmly opposing

426 Diseases of the Urinary Organs.

the contractions of the sphincter muscle of the bladder, and
having entered that organ, the hand is again put into the
rectum, as already described for the mare, in order to guide
the stone into the forceps for withdrawal (Fig. 128). This
operation is termed lithotomy^ or cutting for the stone.
When the calculus is too large for withdrawal, it must be
broken by means of appropriate instruments and removed
piece by piece ; and to facilitate the removal of these or the
whole calculus, it may be necessary to turn the animal on
his back, after which the bladder must be v/ashed out
thoroughly with tepid water, as any fragments remaining
will form nuclei for the formation of other stones.

The treatment of the wound is simple. The insertion of
metallic or the twisted suture to close the lips, and applica-
tion of tincture of myrrh, benzoin, compound tincture of
aloes, or the healing fluids given in Nos. 70, 71, and 72
will be necessary. Any remaining spasm or fever must be
treated by appropriate measures, and the bowels are to be
regulated by enemas and aperients.

Accumulation of sabulous matter in the bladder of the
horse requires first an opening in the urethra as just detailed,
after which the contents are to be removed in successive
portions by the forceps or a suitable spoon, assisted by
occasional streams of tepid water conveyed by the catheter
(Fig. 1 1 7), united to the usual form of Reid’s combined
stomach-pump and enema apparatus {see Enemas).

With the view of preventing, or at least mitigating, the
tendency to future formation of sabulous deposits, the
practitioner directs the administration of regular doses of
hydrochloric acid, which may be given in the drinking-water
daily ; this is a valuable remedy, not only as an agert for
dissolving the earthy carbonates, but as promoting the
action of the liver and digestion generally {see Hydrochloric
Acid).

SECTION VII.

DISEASES OF THE ORGANS
OF GENERATION.

The abnormal conditions to be included in this section are
somewhat numerous, more especially in the mare, on which
the propagation of the species so much depends. The
diseases will be subdivided as follows : — I. Diseases inci-
dental to the generative organs of the male ; and II. Those
common to the mare.

I. DISEASES OF THE MALE ORGANS OF
GENERATION.

Inflammation of the Urethra — Urethritis.

Nature.- — Common to the gelding and entire horse, and
consists of a catarrhal state of the lining mucous membrane.

Causes. — Considerable diligence has been exercised in
searching for the causes of this affection in the action of
cantharides or croton oil, when employed in excess or
otherwise as medicines. In the stallion it is thought to
arise from too frequent copulation, when the system is out of
order and susceptible of the effects of local irritation. It is
not improbable that local injuries received during the act, or,
as sometimes seen in geldings, mischievous or malicious
tampering with the organ, are the more frequent causes.

Symptoms. — Frequent and difficult or vain efforts to pa.ss

430 Diseases of the Organs of Generation,

Fig. 129.

urine ; pustular discharge from the canal of the penis, with
almost constant erection, sometimes swelling of the glans
(Fig. 1 1 9, p. 403), and ulceration of the surfaces surround-
ing the opening. Swelling and thickening of the lining
membrane approximates the walls of the tube, and spasms
of the accelerator urinse muscles, which completes the
closure, are usual morbid conditions.

Treatment. — Allay any febrile excitement by
the use of sedative medicines, or the treatment
may properly commence by giving a dose of
aperient medicine. Inject mild astringent
lotions into the urethra by means of a glass
syringe (Fig. 129).

Recipe No. 125.

Take of sulphate of zinc 100 grs.

Water i pint.

Mix, and when dissolved it is ready for use.
Recipe No. 126.

Take of the solution of chloralum I fl. dr.

Water i pint.

Mix.

Allow linseed-tea for drinking, and a light
diet with bran, in which the carbonates of soda
or potash may be given daily.

In chronic stages the animal may need to
be cast, and the penis examined for ulcerated
sores, which should be stimulated by nitrate of
silver.

Phimosis.

Nature. — A con-
striction of the pre-
puce or sheath at its
extremity, which may not only con-
fine the penis within it entirely, but

Fig. 130.

Paraphimosis, 431

also may greatly interfere with, or totally obstruct the passage
of, urine (Fig. 130).

Causes. — Blows, wounds, &c., inflicted on the sheath,
irritation from accumulation of the sebaceous secretion, or
whatever cause inducing inflammation, which results in
permanent thickening and contraction. It is also occasioned
by swelling of the sheath by reason of neighbouring inflam-
mation, as in castration ; we have seen it arise from the
oedema occasioned by heart disease, influenza, want of
exercise, ventral hernia when the descent of the bowels
took place within the sheath, and it may be occasioned by
the sting of venomous insects.

Treatment. — An operation is rarely required, as scarifica-
tions, purgatives, &c., are usually productive of reduction : if,
however, it is needful to relieve by the knife, all that is
called for is the division of the constricting prepuce, just so
far only as to allow of the escape of the penis and free uri-
nation. When simple cedema is the cause, use exercise,
fomentations, hand friction, diuretics ; and when debility is
present combine tonics with the latter, and allow good
food.

Paraphimosis.

Nature. — Percivall laconically says this disease “is the
opposite to phimosis.” The penis is protruded from the
sheath, hanging a large, swollen, and pendulous mass, which,
from constriction of the prepuce, the animal is unable to
retract. The swelling of the penis may not be the primary
cause, as in some instances the prepuce is inflamed and
thickened, aud this by the pressure induced may not only
prevent the return of the organ, but also insure its tume-
faction.

Causes. — D’Arboval, quoted by Percivall, says : “ In the
horse paraphymosis may be the result of accident, or of an

432 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

operation or of castration. In the stallion it may have its
rise from excessive venereal action ; from long-continued
friction, before coitus, against the female ; from strokes with
a whip or stick upon the yard while in a state of erection ;
from kicks upon the part, which the male renders himself
subject to in attempts to cover a vicious mare ; from the in-
troduction of the penis into the anus of the mare ; from
negligence or mal-addresse of the groom in directing the
penis into the vagina ; from vain attempts to cover a ringed
mare (jumct bouclc'e) ; from introduction of irritating substances
into the prepuce with a view of inducing staling ; from the
penis becoming loaded with warts, or scirrhous or other ex-
crescences. Chabert saw a stallion with an enormous
paraphymosis, and having involuntary discharges of semen
occasioned by fretting and harassing himself during the
night after other horses.

“The penis (Fig. 131) paraphymosed appears with its
glans evolved out of its sheath to the extent of about half a
foot, swollen to the size, perhaps, of a
man’s thigh, evidently the consequence
of effusion into the cellular tissue of its
envelopes, curved in the form of an arc,
and knotted from partial circular con-
tractions, which when excessive are pro-
ductive of coldness of the organ. Its
glandular extremity, the part most tume-
fied, turns of a red brown. Violent in-
flammation accompanies all this, and the
pain consequent on this is extreme. For all there is so
much swelling, however, in general the urine works a pas-
sage. Still, should the inflammation run very high, and
spread over the body of the penis, gangrene is not unlikely
to be the result.”

We have seen it in geldings, being caused by acts of

/ (

Paraphimosis. 433

mischief and malice. In one instance, a boy in charge of a
horse in a coal-mine deliberately plunged a pointed stick into
the organ as it was retracted after the act of urinating ; and
in another, a boy tied a sharp cord tightly round the penis,
left the animal in the stable after the horsekeeper had
retired for the night, where the creature remained in great
agony until the morning.

In this country the disease is principally confined to
geldings, and is by no means a common affection ; this arises
from obvious reasons. We do not use entire horses to the
same extent as on the Continent, and in geldings the organ
has suffered great diminution since castration. Old and
debilitated animals are mostly the subjects of the disease in
a spontaneous form, which arises from constitutional debility
and oedema or paralysis. Some of the Yorkshire low horse-
dealers have been known to disguise paralysis of the penis by
placing it within the sheath, and prevent its descent by
stitches passed across the opening, a deception which can
hardly fail to attract an efficient observer’s attention.

Treatment. — When it is known to arise from debility, iron
tonics with diuretics are the best remedies. Should the
swelling of the sheath be great and produce a tight con-
striction over the penis, it may be desirable to make a few
incisions across the detaining band by means of a sharp-
pointed bistoury ; and when the penis is much tumefied and
inflamed, it may be scarified on the top and lateral surfaces,
and suspensory bandages applied to support the organ, or to
favour the application of poultices. In these cases fomenta-
tions will be found serviceable if applied previous to the
poultice, and purgatives, sedatives, &c., as internal remedies.
When possible the animal should have exercise, which will
greatly assist in the reduction of the swelling.

434 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

Amiutation of the Penis.

This operation does not prove so formidable as is generally
supposed. Various practitioners in this country have removed
large portions after having applied a ligature above the part,
subsequently cauterising or putting ligatures on the principal
arteries. In order to prevent closure of the urethra in the
general cicatrix a tube or catheter is first passed, and allowed
to remain for some time after the amputation. In other
cases this has not been done, the urine itself keeping the
canal open. Subsequent haemorrhage may be expected,
especially in stallions or half-castrated animals, in conse-
quence of erection which proceeds from irritation of the
wound ; it may, however, be controlled by cold water, or,
what is better, pledgets of cotton-wool steeped in solution of
hloralum.

Castration and its Results.

The propriety of castrating our horses has been a settled
question from remote periods. The greater uses to which
they are put, together with the number of animals required
Britain, are, doubtless, important reasons for the opera-
i : it is more desirable that the horse should be rendered
ile, softer and milder in his character, qualities only to be
obtained at the expense of his bold and determined mascu-
line peculiarities.

The great question in reference to the matter is, at what
age should the operation be performed t The reply must
be regulated by the operation of certain circumstances. For
instance, the testicles, the organs which are removed in the
operation, observe a period of early but temporary occupa-
tion of the scrotum, and are again drawn away for a time.
The first descent occurs soon after birth, remaining merely
as structural parts only, having no influence on the form or

435

Castration and its Results.

desires of the creature. At a variable period, extending
from the fourth to the sixth month, or even later, the glands
are taken up into the inguinal canal, where they may be
found as late as the tenth or eleventh month, after which
time, or thereabouts, they again descend to the scrotum, and
take up their permanent location. The operation therefore
cannot be performed during four months of the first year of
the animal’s life, and it is a matter for consideration whether
it shall take place during the first or second period of
descent. The question is decided by means of keeping in
view the present character of the foal, and what is desired of
him. When the testicles have descended the second time,
they have become possessed of higher powers — they are
endowed with the function of secretion, by which propaga-
tion of the species may be effected, and as such are capable
of influencing the body through the sensorium, by which the
form may be determined. These facts being well known,
have led many breeders to defer the operation until two years
or later, by which time the colt assumes a more masculine
development, particularly as regards the neck and fore-
quarters. Colts light in this respect are therefore thought
to improve by the delay, while operations performed at
earlier periods have a tendency to prevent this development.
The temperament also is materially influenced by late cas-
tration, as is shown in the fire and animation often displayed
by animals thus treated. As a common rule, farmers prefer
to castrate about the latter end of April or beginning of
May, the weather being favourable, and the time when the
colt is about a year old, this season usually being propitious
by the absence of flies, and a mild, genial temperature.
Some persons scruple to operate in hot weather solely on
account of the flies, and we had observed this precaution for
a number of years ; but being called to reside in a border
town of Oxon and Bucks, were surprised on being requested

28—2

436 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

to perform on numbers of colts during the leisure time be-
tween hay and corn harvest, the proprietors alleging that the
irritation of the flies kept the colts moving, and promoted
the success of the operation. For the moment we felt
puzzled, but with consideration came the knowledge that we
had always enjoined an amount of exercise after the operation,
and it became a matter of little moment whether it was
effected by human aid or in the manner described. The
farmer took the affair into consideration entirely as a ques-
tion of cost, and sought to utilise the industry of the flies in
one direction and that of his labourers in another. We
yielded to what appeared to be a general custom, and had
no occasion to regret it. There may, however, be an excep-
tion to this rule, and one which we as practitioners should
never fail to point out to our clients — \ ‘z., when typhoid or
contagious diseases are prevailing in the neighbourhood,
as flies are known to carry from one animal to another
the products of secretion, and may effect irreparable mis-
chief.

The usual precautions to be observed are as follow : —

1 . Avoid seasons of cold and wet, especially when easterly
winds prevail.

2. Delay the operation when colts are weak, sickly, debi-
litated, labouring under any disease, when the old coat has
not been shed, or is not undergoing the healthy process of
removal ; also, when they are just brought from poor pas-
tures, or overcrowded and ill-ventilated, and otherwise defec-
tive buildings.

3. Recommend an allowance of good corn for some weeks
before the operation, with outdoor liberty.

4. Avoid the operation if contagious or septic diseases
have been or are prevailing on the farm, or in the immediate
neighbourhood, particularly if flies are prevailing.

5. All instruments must be perfectly clean.

Castration and its y>6 r. 437

examination should be mi ■ I:: order to learn
er hernia already exists, and decide accordingly.

.1 and last. The animal should be prepared by being
/ed only light food, and not too much water the even-
previous. Allow no hay, grass or straw, chaff, &c., only
n, as the stomach and intestines need to be free from the
essure of food when the animal is under restraint. An
uld animal should receive a dose of purgative medicine, and
be taken off work, but suffer no withdrawal of proper allow- j
ance of corn. Serious mistakes arise on this head, and
animals have been lost from a want of stamina to with-
stand the shock of the operation.

The common subjects for castration are young and un-
broken colts, which have never yet been haltered or handled,
and a difficulty is sometimes experienced in bringing them
under the necessarv subiection. Some may be enticed by a

ter cunningly passed
The most commc
iy old horse, and d

stable or shed, Avhen the colt is certain to prureci nimselt by
rushing to the farther side of his companion. Being thus
confined, a halter is taken, having a long rope attached to
the shank, the slipping or jaw-noose being relaxed or opened
very wide, and standing on the outer side of the older horse,
the operator or assistant quickly commences to carry the
halter towards the withers of the colt, playing there some
time, and gradually advancing upwards over the neck, the
jaw-noose being foremost. At length the colt suffers it to
approach his ears, and submits to be rubbed by the rope ;
he has now lost all fear of its presence, and by a quick
movement of the hand the loop is passed over the ears,
which being large falls over the nose, the top resting on the
front, the lower falling below the lips, and the headpiece
retained by the ears. The shank is then to be drawn, and

Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

the halter secures the animal effectually. Two or tin
men now hold the long rope or shank of the halter, wl ‘
the older horse is led or driven outside, the young one i
following; but finding himself under restraint, commences
rear and knock himself about ; this he may be allowed to
do for some time, by which his strength will be exhausted,"^
and the subsequent proceedings facilitated.

Being led to the place for operating, he is now to be cast,
which is accomplished in the following manner: — Some prac-
titioners, but very few we believe, use the ordinary hobbles ;
generally, a simple rope is the most suitable for young
animals, owing to the great difficulty of approaching them.
A cart-rope is commonly selected, but we always preferred
our own rope, specially made, thick and soft, and which
never caused sores in slipping or tightening, as is the case
sometimes with a hard and small cart-rope. Such a rope

then is first doubled, and a noose tied at the closed end,
large enough to slip over the head to the bottom of the
neck, the knot resting in front of the breast, and the long
ends carried backwards between the fore and hind legs ;

Castration and its Results.

439

next, each is carried round over the hock outside, forward to
the collar and passed through. The men stand firm at the
halter-rope, at which the animal pulls strongly ; two or
three men take one of the ends of the rope from the collar
and stand at some distance away from the side of the colt,
the other rope being carried heland (Fig. 132), and in a line
with his body. By means of a hooked stick the operator
drops the rope, which is slackened for the purpose, from the
hocks to the fetlocks, when, all pulling in concert, the animal
is brought to the ground on his side. This being effected,
the ropes are tightened singly, and hitched two or three
times round the hind fetlocks, the colt being turned to secure
the lower leg.

The practitioner operates on the animal as he lies on the
side, or otherwise turns him on the back, and props up the
sides with trusses of straw. Having made choice of the
position, and the operator satisfied as to the non-existence
of hernia, he now proceeds to the removal of the testicles,
which is effected in several ways, each of which will be
briefly described.

Cauterisation. — The testicle of one side is gathered by
means of both hands, and firmly secured by the left, the
wrist curved, and points of the thumb and fingers turned
towards the operator, as he is placed behind the animal.
By means of ‘the scalpel or a hot iron, such as is used for the
purpose of firing, only thinner and sharper on the edge, an
incision is carried from the front of the scrotum to the hinder
part, in a line wit! '■he central mark or raphse, at least three

inches long ; wh
a small quanti^
When adhesior
ruptured by t’
The testi
violently, a

the testicle escapes, and with it
J, the secretion of the scrotum,
sent, they must be dissected out or
of the scalpel or finger,
liberated, the animal often struggles
time an incredible force is exerted by

440 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

the cremaster muscle in drawing the gland towards the
abdomen ; for this the operator must be prepared, and while
retaining a firm hold he must refrain from pulling at the
testicle. Suitable clams are now put on the cord above the

Fig. 133. — The Castrating Clams of Messrs. Butgess, Willows, Co.

testicle, which is then turned to hang over the right plate or
blade, and by means of a highly-heated iron the cord is
severed three-quarters of an inch above the clams, and freely

cauterised by applying the flat side of the iron, which has
previously been cleared of scales, &c. After this the clams
are gently relaxed, in order to see whether blood flows from
the divided cord, and the end may be rubbed by the fingers
to test the condition more effectually, when if the arrest is
certain the cord may be liberated and allowed to enter the
scrotum. The second testicle is removed in the same
manner, and a little resin ointment, being warmed, is usually
poured inside each cavity.

Torsion. — The testicle is first liberated, as already de-

Castration and its Results.

441

scribed, and clams are put on the cord close to the abdomen
as before. By means of a knife the cord is divided, except
at that part where the bloodvessels are situate, and close
to the clams ; torsion forceps are now applied above the
incision in the cord, and these are slowly turned, twisting
the bloodvessels round and round until they are structurally
destroyed, which renders bleeding impossible.

Ligature. — This consists in placing a sharp cord tightly
round the artery of the cord, the testicle being either removed
at the time by means of the scalpel, or allowed to drop off
when death has taken place. We cannot recommend this
variety of operation, as experience proves it is not so safe as
others.

The Covered Operation. — This is the form of emasculation
practised in France, and known there as “ a testicule convert,’^
as the gland is not exposed, but covered by the expansion
of muscle known as the dartos, lining the scrotum, as well
as a covering derived from the peritoneum-, called the tunica
vaginalis.

The operator holds the scrotum and
testicle in the left hand, and by means
of a sharp scalpel divides only the skin
of the scrotum, and this at once exposes
a yellowish-white substratum of tissue —
the dartos. As the testicle is still firmly
held in the left hand, dissection is ef-
fected on both sides, the pressure ex-
erted gradually forcing the testicle and
its coverings upwards through the orifice
in the skin, at length entirely freeing
it, as well as a portion of the cord.

The caustic clams (Fig. 135) are now
put on the cord close to the abdomen,
avoiding to include any part of the

Fig. 135. — Caustic
Clams.

a. Open, showing groove for

caustic.

b. Closed by a few turns of

twine.

442 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

scrotum. Both testicles being exposed and treated in this
way, the animal is allowed to rise, the clams being retained
until they drop off, or are removed when the testicles are
dead, dry, and withered.

The object of this operation is to unite the dartos, tunica
vaginalis, and spermatic cord together in the subsequent
healing process, and thus effectually close up the orifice
against the descent of intestines. When hernia of the

scrotum or inguinal canal is present before castration, this
variety of operation must be adopted for safety, the bowels
being returned previously. As to the superiority of one
form of operation over another we have not much to say.
In a practice of over a quarter of a century we have operated
upon some hundreds of animals by cauterisation, ligature,
torsion, covered operation, and scraping, without having lost
a single animal ; the success of which we believe to be due
to the previous as well as subsequent treatment.

Professor Williams recommends, instead of the covered
operation for hernia, that the whole scrotum be included in
a common wooden clam, without any caustic whatever, which
is allowed to remain until it drops off.

Results of Castration. — In favourable cases the swelling
is variable in different subjects ; but as long as the orifices
in the scrotum discharge pus and the animal eats well, any
general swelling of the abdomen, sheath, &c., will be mostly
of a dropsical nature, which will be removed by a few
punctures with the lancet, and the animal is quite well at the
end of a fortnight or three weeks.

Unfavoitrable results comprise haemorrhage, abscess,
scirrhous cord, peritonitis, tetanus, gangrene, glanders, farcy,
amaurosis, &c. Haemorrhage ought never to take place if
the parts are healthy, and cauterisation of the cord is pro-
perly performed. There will be a considerable quantity
sometimes fall from the scrotum when the animal rises, but

Castration and its Results.

443

it need occasion no alarm. It is merely that which has
escaped from the incised scrotum, and will cease to flow in a
short time. Arterial haemorrhage flows in a pulsating or
spurting stream ; and when it proceeds from the artery of
the cord, the animal must be recast, the cord taken up and
artery secured, which sometimes is a very difficult affair ;
in consequence of which another incision may have to be
made higher up towards the groin, so as to seize the cord
there.

Abscess. — This sometimes is located in the scrotum, at
other times in the groin, and may extend downwards on the
inner side of one thigh, forming a very large and hard
tumour, interfering greatly with locomotion, and producing
much irritative fever. The colt stands by himself in some
remote part of the pasture with sunken head, back somewhat
arched, and as if he were fixed to the spot ; the flanks are
hollow, breathing quickened, and pulse full and hard; mouth
hot, bowels constipated, and the countenance is indicative
of much suffering ; the urine is scanty, sheath swollen, and
probably the breast, abdomen, and hind-legs are involved in
a dropsical condition. This untoward state may arise from
being turned alone too soon in the pasture, when the weather
suddenly becomes wet and cold, or when the animal was
previously not in sufficiently good health or condition.
Occasionally the disea.se assumes a chronic condition ; the
hardness and swelling continue, and after a time a succession
of small abscesses form, which keep up much weakness,
cause a straddling gait, and prove a great hindrance to
growth and development. Usually, however, the swelling
points at one particular part, fluctuation is present, and then
is the time for making a free incision, and evacuating the
fluid, which not unfrequently amounts to several pints.
When there is a disposition to swell in the manner described,
and maturation goes on slowly, the ’ * )uld receive

444 Diseases of the Orgaiis of Geiteration,

some good oats, be placed in comfortable quarters, and fomen-
tations, poultices, or blisters applied, so as to hasten the for-
mation of pus. As soon as the abscess is opened and fluid
evacuated, the animal becomes cheerful, and resumes his
appetite with vigour.

Scin'Jious Cord. — This is the champigno7i of the French,
anil is also known as sarcocele, or a fleshy enlargement.
This condition is evident by the presence of a discharge,
generally of a sero-purulent kind, constantly issuing from the
open scrotum ; and in addition a tumour, which by gradual
enlargement at length hangs from the orifice, raw, bleeding,
and discharging pus or a sanious fluid. The cord above is
thickened, hard and tender, being adherent to the scrotum,
which is also swollen, hot, and painful. The tumour has
formed at the end of the cord, and gives rise to general
symptoms similar to those enumerated under abscess, ex-
cepting urgent irritative fever.

Scirrhous cord occasionally arises when the cord has been
left too long ; when scales from the hot iron have become
adherent to the cord in cauterisation ; when the caustic
clams used in the covered operation have not been removed
at the proper period, or when diseased portions of flesh have
been allowed to remain, all of which induce morbid irritation
and inflammation.

Treatment consists in casting the animal, and after dis-
secting away the adhesions existing between the scrotum
and cord, to place the clams moderately tight on the cord
above the diseased mass, and removing it by torsion or
excision and subsequent cauterisation, the caustic clams or
ligature. The second is, we believe, preferable to the other
plan in every degree. After the mass has been removed,
observe proper care and attention in avoiding exposure to
wind, wet, and cold ; rather enjoin hand exercise than
subject the colt to the uncertain conditions of a distant

Abortion a

mature Labour. 445

pasture. Conjointly wiui decrease of untoward signs,
let the food be improved in quality, and continue the
allowance even when sent to grass, at least for some time.

Peritonitis has already been described at page 329 ;
tetanus will be found in the section devoted to diseases of
the nervous system ; glanders and farcy have been treated
under blood diseases, page 14 1 ; amaurosis will be described
in Section IX., devoted to affections of the eyes ; and
gangrene has been alluded to at page 38, as one of the
terminations of inflammation.

II. DISEASES OF THE FEMALE ORGANS
OF GENERATION.

Abortion and Premature Labour.

The signification of these terms has hitherto been more
frequently represented under that of abortion alone, and
further confusion has arisen in consequence of the employ-
ment of other names, more or less useless or deceptive,
coined in various districts, and caused to stand for abortion,
premature labour, or for birth. Such vernacular titles are
variously — miscarriage, slipping or picking the foal, slinking,
sauntering, &c.

The limitations of the terms are of importance, and are
determined by periods in the time of gestation ; thus, the
mare goes with foal eleven calendar months, or 334 days,
or, what amounts to the same thing, twelve lunar months,
or 336 days,^* and at any part of that time she is greatly

* This is further explained as follows : — “Calculating the mare foals in April,
and spends a month barren with the foal, taking the horse again in May, there are
intervening four months — ^June, September, November, and April — which have
thirty days each, or a total of 120 ; six having thirty-one — July, August, October,
December, January, and March — giving a total of 186 ; and one — February —
having only twenty-eight ; a cast of the whole being 334. Twelve lunar months

446 Diseases of the Orga7ts of Generatmi.

susceptible of influences which may cause an expulsion of
the contents of the uterus or womb. When the usual
process of gestation is interrupted by an expulsion of the ovum,
or foetus itself, before it is endowed with the powers of a
separate and independent existence, being incomplete, un-
finished, untimely, or fruitless, the act is known as abortion.
The period during which this condition is acknowledged to
belong, ranges from the time of conception to about the
300th day — that is, a few days under ten months ; after that
time the power of life and locomotion, &c., being given to
the foetus, and, on the part of the mother, greater prepara-
tion being made for the approaching parturition, or natural
delivery, expulsion will partake more of the characters of
that proceeding, and it is therefore termed premature labour.
The mare is very liable to both forms of disease, more
especially abortion, which generally happens during the
early period of pregnancy, when little or no appreciable
signs of disturbance take place. During later periods it
becomes a more serious affair, for not only is the loss of the
young certain, but the life of the mother may be imperilled
or sacrificed. In abortion the young creature is usually
dead when expelled, or survives but a very short time ; and
in premature labour the animal may prove to be sickly,
weak, and unprofitable ; or, although immature, it may thrive
tolerably well ; but in some instances the case assumes
grave aspects from malpresentation of the foetus, which
renders delivery difficult and protracted, or, in addition, it
may be impossible, when both mother and young are
sacrificed.

Abortion and premature labour may be either sporadic or

of only twenty-eight days each gives the total 336. ” — See Author’s Prize Essay on
“Abortion and Premature Labour,” published in the Transactions of the High-
land and Agricultural Society of Scotland. Vol. iv. Fourth Series. 1872. Also
reprinted by permission in Clater’s Cattle Doctor. London : F. Warne & Co.

^Oortio7t mtd Premature Labour, 447

enzootic. When of the first kind, only a case here and there
is heard of, being probably due to accident or simple causes ;
but when they assume enzootic characters, the animals
scattered over a wide extent of country are affected, which
entail severe losses, and greatly interrupt the ordinary course
of breeding operations as well as paralyse the agricultural
interest. In certain cases abortion has been confined to one
farm, on which for several years the mares have aborted
regularly, the cause being one doubtless due to some local
influences, and which disappear on the establishment of
rigorous principles of management.

Causes. — These are numerous. Exposure to cold and
Vv'et, particularly when there are alternate periods of heat ;
indigestible and inferior food, producing first disorder of the
digestive organs, pressure on the uterus by fermentation and
collection of gases, and congestion or inflammation of the
uterus or placental connexions, whereby loss of nutrition
ensues ; colic arising from the" previous causes, and inducing
the mare to roll ; irritation of the skin, giving rise to the
same ; putrid or frozen water ; certain plants, as savin and
rue ; cantharides ; poisonous effects of medicines, as opium,
digitalis, large quantities of the various salts ; ergotised
plants, especially rye-grass in this condition ; purgatives in
powerful doses ; severe exertion in harness or under the
saddle ; fright and excitement in operations, or from being
cast for such, and when accidentally thrown in the stable ;
blows on the abdomen ; being gored by oxen ; access of the
male, particularly if continued ; diseases attacking the
mother, more especially with reference to blood diseases ; a
violent cough has frequently proved a mischievous source ;
disease of the ovaries, uterus, &c. ; and lastly, congestion or
inflammation of the foetus itself, together with local
aberrations of form, as a result of special structural
changes, &c. &c.

448 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

When the disease assumes the enzootic form, which,
however, is somewhat rare among equine animals in this
country,'^ we find the causes are the same principally which
produce the sporadic form — viz., changes of temperature
with excess of dryness, humidity, &c., together with all
influences which produce an ergotism of grasses or
plants, &c., over a wide area of country ; likewise affecting
the character of food generally in relation to its digestibility
and nutrition. According to the Veterinary Joimial
(vol. i. p. 422), an outbreak of this kind occurred in New
Zealand in 1875. Prior to the introduction of rye-grass,
the disease had been very rare indeed, but since then it has
proved very common from the ergotism to which the plant
is very liable. In the same journal (vol. ii. p. 51), records
are given of the prevalence of abortion among mares in
Germany, caused by the red rust {Trichobasis rubigo) of
straw used for fodder.

Symptoms. — These are variable, and depend greatly upon
the period of gestation at which abortion takes place ; some-
times the evidences are so slight as to attract no notice
whatever, and in others they are of a very serious character.
In the early periods of pregnancy, the expulsion of the
foetus, together with the membranes, is accomplished with
little effort, and without any previous indications of dis-
turbance ; in many instances the animal, being apparently
well and hearty at night, is found to have aborted when the
attendants arrive in the morning, the foetus, invested by its
membranes, lying at a distance, and the mother evincing no
regard for it whatever. In somewhat later stages the mem-
branes are ruptured first, birth partially takes place, and the
foetus recedes, no further effort being made for some hours,

* A mass of valuable information on this subject, as it has been noticed on the
Continent, will be found in “Animal Plagues,” by George Fleming. London:
Chapman & Hall.

Abortion and Premature Labour. 449

when the act is accomplished, but the membranes are
retained, occasioning some disturbance probably.

In still later stages, when the foetus has attained a consi-
derable degree of growth, the symptoms are generally more
pronounced, particularly when, added to other conditions, the
position of the foetus is not favourable for delivery. Even
when such is not the case abortion is not so readily per-
formed, from the simple fact that the necessary relaxation of
the hips, together with the harmony of function so necessary
at this time, have not taken place : there is, indeed, nothing
ready but the uterus itself, acting in obedience to an un-
natural nervous stimulus. Under these circumstances also
birth may be partial, but owing to debility of the mother
the act is not accomplished ; the efforts cease and the
animal becomes tranquil, but in a few hours they are re-
sumed, and the fcetus is expelled with or without the mem-
branes. At times human aid is required to bring away the
young. Such instances are generally due to external inju-
ries, which have produced a separation of womb and mem-
branes, and probably also death of the foetus.

450 Diseases of the Organs of Generation,

The animal appears dull, dejected, and is constantly
moving about, and the efforts of the foetus are likewise
active, gradually being enfeebled as it ceases to exist. The
mare exhibits her distress (Fig. 136) by plaintively neighing,
scraping with the fore-feet, and exhibiting colicky pains ; the
pulse as well as respiration are hurried, the former becoming
small and weak; the countenance is haggard (Fig. 137) >

the nose is turned frequently towards the flanks ; partial
sweats bedew the body ; she lies down and rises almost
immediately, and the tail is kept in a violent switching
motion ; the abdomen drops, losing its round form, and
becomes deeper ; the udder, if in milk, becomes soft and
flabby, but enlarges and becomes turgid if no milk has been
secreted ; the vulva becomes red, swollen, and turgid, and a
thick mucous, or sometimes a thin red, fluid escapes ; if the
foetus is dead, the discharge assumes more or less a foetid
and offensive nature in proportion to the length of time that
has elapsed since it succumbed.

Abortion an.

There are instances in
sudden and acute charact
is, as already described, in
and the foetus is likewise
becomes exhausted by c
and soon passes into a cri
source of difficulty exists
uterus, which has not assu
dental to normal parturiti
the foetus, the neck is
abortion it is long, muscular
is contracted, forming a long
this must be overcome in order t
rition, and the process of relaxati
the symptoms in progress ; if to
of the foetus, the difficulties are ofte
surmountable.

Results of Abortion and Prernatn
aspect we view these untoward states
the least being probably the loss on^
as a rule the mare suffers but little,
on her part — loss of time, loss of
mean money, and there is always t
may seal the tendency to abort in fut
remains in an excited condition,
interferes with condition and gentle
form of hysteria may follow, which
insecure ; she is a positive nuisanc

Haemorrhage is an occasional
Flooding.) Rupture of the ute
nation ; or there may be prolap
even rectum, and retention of
is not the least of the various
abortion a serious obstruction to

of Generation,

of two kinds — viz., pre-
end and carry out the
s must be made with a
evils of indigestion by
nia, by good food ; that
a less stimulating diet ;
e of laxative food and
nerative organs, by appro-

:*st a matter of certainty, but
:ed, or membranes ruptured,
delayed until the usual time
nodynes, antispasmodics, &c. —
chloral hydrate, camphor and
the womb is thus caused to retain
is to be made comfortable with good
stable or box, and supplied with
uel, hay, or linseed-tea for drink ;
a few days, are essentially neces-
issue.

kably commenced, as shown by the
.he membranes, the object of inter-
ired, must be that of aiding the
possible. In many instances the
')gressive throes and stages, and the
ependently of human aid ; and we
against premature meddling,
properly situated and progress
effect delivery quietly and alone,
protracted, or cease after the
*d, and the mare is exhausted,
be made. Clear out the rectum
nd well oiled, nails well pared,
dilated by gradual insertion of

Abortion and Premature Labour. 453

the fingers, until the hand can be passed into the womb ;
after which, the position of the foetus being ascertained and
arranged, if needed, it is removed in the usual manner.
Sometimes the os uteri remains obstinately closed, firmly
resisting the entrance of even the fingers, in which case the
parts internally may be smeared with an ointment of opium
or belladonna, or a sponge saturated with a solution of
either may be left in contact with the os uteri until relaxa-
tion occurs. We have found the internal administration of
chloroform exceedingly useful for this purpose. Belladonna,
opium, chloral hydrate, &c., may be likewise used for the
same ; and when the animal is exhausted, strong stimulants,
as ammonia, will be required, in conjunction with gruel, milk,
and even beef-tea, &c.

Retention of the Membranes. — When the water-bags or
membranes are retained after abortion or parturition of the
normal kind, the occurrence is due to debility on the part
of the animal ; and if they remain any length of time, the
process of decomposition being set up may give rise to
absorption and blood poisoning. The hand may be passed
into the uterus, and, without any pulling or tearing, but with
gentle force, the attachments should be broken through ; as,
however, it often happens in abortion the placental con-
nexions are very firm, and will not admit of rupture without
extreme pain to the animal, the operation must be aban-
doned for a time, and, after twisting the band of membranes,
all outside the uterus may be cut off. In the meantime,
stimulants and vegetable tonics may be given to the mare,
and, after the lapse of twelve or twenty-four hours, the
attempt to remove the membranes must be again made, at
which time success is generally obtained ; indeed, on the
second or third day they will generally fall away sponta-
neously, from rupture of the placental adhesions.

The mare that has suffered from abortion should be well

454 Diseases of the Organs of Generation,

attended to. The food requires to be nutritious, highly
digestible, and supplied at regular intervals in suitably small
quantities. Every facility for rest, warmth, and comfort
should be given for some time ; and the owner will take into
his serious consideration the propriety of not allowing the
mare to conceive again.

Before we leave this subject, we must caution the reader
with regard to the disposal of the dead foetus and mem-
branes. It is not a safe measure merely to throw these
products on a dunghill, and there leave them. Such are
only effectually dealt with by being burned in a fire, or
buried somewhat deeply. We have a fear that this proce-
dure is too frequently disregarded, and occasionally evidences
are subsequently offered by the appearance of certain forms
of blood disease, which for a time are not traced to any satis-
factory source.

Difficult Parturition arising from Mal-

PRESENTATION OF THE FCETUS.

We have now to deal with the act of parturition as it
takes place at the usual expiration of gestation, and modi-
fied or rendered difficult by peculiar false presentations of
the foetus. The subject has occupied the attention of many
scientific veterinarians on the Continent, who have written
ably and copiously upon it ; and it has likewise attracted
considerable notice in this country, by reason of the great
destruction of profits and hindrance to agricultural pursuits
which have arisen in consequence.

Before going into the subject of difficult parturition, we
will devote a short space to a description of the act and
position of the foetus as observed under normal condi-
tions. The approach of labour in the mare is revealed by
rapid enlargement of the mammae or milk gland, more

Difficult Parturition.

455

generally known as the udder or bag : blood no longer
required for the foetus in utero is transmitted thither for the
formation of milk, and in some instances the enlargement
resembles oedema, as it results from an injury, extending
forward along the abdomen, and backwards between the
thighs as far as the vulva. Somewhat later a thin trans-
parent fluid may be obtained from the teat by pressure,
portions of which have previously oozed from the orifice, and
closed it by forming a concretion or crust ; at a still later
stage the contained fluid has assumed a higher degree of
development and elaboration, and the first that appears is
known as the “ colostrum,” the subsequent secretion being
familiarly known as milk.

Contemporaneous with the mammary engorgement the
vulva becomes tumefied, the opening is enlarged, the l.'ning
membrane is reddened, the lips of the vagina are enlarged,
soft, and flaccid, and a thick viscid mucus is secreted from
within, which is Nature’s plan for lubricating the surfaces
over which the foetus is shortly to glide. The hips fall, the
croup and flanks become hollow, owing to relaxation of
the broad ligaments ; the abdomen falls or sinks nearer the
ground, the haunches are separated to a wider extent than is
usual, and the spine appears to droop ; the animal prefers to
be isolated, and walks loosely and sluggishly away to seek
rest and quiet alone, and occasionally the hind-legs become
oedematous. As the hour of delivery draws near the mare
becomes restless ; when eating or grazing she suddenly stops,
and appears to look round for something, and is startled by
peculiar internal sensations, which eventually ripen into essen-
tial uterine action for the expulsion of the foetus ; she switches
the tail, appears uneasy, or suffering from abdominal pain,
lies down, quickly rises again, and, if at liberty, seeks retire-
ment in some remote place to effect delivery. The os uteri,
or mouth to the womb, is gradually opening, and at length

45^ Diseases of the Organs of Generation,

the cavity of the vagina and womb are continuous as one ;
uneasiness increases, and abdominal pain becomes more
intense ; the skin, at first hot, is covered by a profuse per-
spiration ; the countenance indicates anxiety and suffering; the
pulse increases in frequency, and is hard ; the abdomen
becomes tense and hard from muscular contraction, and
urine or faeces are passed. A short time of rest ensues, say
ten or fifteen minutes, and the uterine contractions again
commence, and follow at shorter intervals until they appear
almost continuous, during which the membranes or water-
bags appear between the lips of the vulva, gradually protru-
ding, and shortly bursting from pressure ; and the foetus, a
short way behind, occupies the neck and opening of the
uterus — the fore-limbs (Fig. 138), between which are the

Fig. 138. — Nahiral Presentation.

nose and head, being presented, causing the os uteri to dilate
to its fullest extent, thus forming a complete and con-
tinuous passage from the vulva outwardly to the womb
internally.

The efforts are now frequent, more vigorous and constant,
while the aid of powerful auxiliary muscles, as those of the
abdomen, the diaphragm, &c., are brought into requisition to

Difficult Parturition.

457

supplement contractions of the uterus (Fig. 139). If the
animal is standing, the fore and hind feet are brought to-
gether beneath the body ; the back is arched, tail elevated and

Fig. 139. — Approaching Delivery.

waving ; the chest is expanded by a deep inspiration, and by
successive actions of this kind, which are termed throes^ the
foetus is gradually forced onwards from the uterus, through
the os uteri, vagina, and at length, falling on the hocks of the
mare, reaches the grohnd, followed by membranes loaded
with fluid. The standing position is by no means constant,
for the mare may be exhausted by previous effort, or even
independent of this she may assume the recumbent position
from the first, and rise only when delivery has been com-
pleted (Fig. 140). In this position the fore-legs are doubled
or flexed under the sides of the chest, the weight of the
animal’s fore-part resting on the sternum ; the hind-legs are
beneath the abdomen, or one is more outwardly than the
other, and the mare rests on the opposite quarter. As each
throe comes on she arches the back, the hind-quarters are
raised upwards and forwards with the contractions, falling
again at the termination. Among young animals — primi-

458 Diseases of the Organs of Generation,

parae, or those which are giving birth the first time — the act
of delivery occasions greater pain than older animals expe-
rience ; and not unfrequently, as the convulsive efforts are

made, a plaintive cry or subdued scream is emitted, the eye is
suddenly animated, and the facial muscles being drawn into
sharp outline, a peculiar expression of anguish is produced,
which can only be understood when witnessed in the suffer-
ing animal.

From this hasty review of the principal characteristics of
normal parturition, we will now turn to consider those
differences or aberrations from natural conditions which
occasionally are met with, together with the means usually
employed to overcome them in the endeavour to promote
successful delivery.

The mare, among all quadrupeds, probably gives birth to
the young most readily under natural circumstances ; but, on
the other hand, when mal-presentation takes place the case
is marked by peculiar urgency, absolute danger, and in

Difficult Parturition.

numerous cases with very little prospect of being able
afford the necessary relief. The vitality of the foal is reac
lost in mal-presentation, and the mare withstands injuiy
exhaustion very badly ; hence in these conditions it n
unfrequently happens that both mother and foal are sacri-
ficed. The practitioner is frequently placed under very
peculiar and trying circumstances, and when exercising the
most careful and unremitting attention, as well as bringing
the best tact and surgical skill to bear upon the case before
him, he is unsuccessful. This is sufficient, one would think,
even to render him more thoughtful, if it be possible, to say
nothing of the anxiety which he endures, but in by far too many
instances he receives unmerited blame and calumny. Difficul-
ties, and even impossible delivery, may exist from the first ;
indeed, they are mostly of this character in the mare, and,
while it is of the utmost importance that animals should be
attended to early, or much earlier than they are usually, it is
also useful to bear in mind that it is unfair to expect the
veterinarian can cope with the same difficulties during the
prostration stage as readily as when the animal was in a
better condition to help herself While we deprecate
unwarranted interference, we nevertheless consider it would
be far more advantageous to breeders to employ the pro-
fessional man to watch at least the case, and assist Nature.
The custom of selecting those having no physiological or
anatomical knowledge for the treatment of valuable animals
in this country is very baneful in its tendencies ; an exten-
sion of the contract system to whole districts would prove
a great boon to the breeder and agriculturist generally,
affording at the same time valuable opportunities for obser-
vation, improvement in skill, as well as progress in scientific
knowledge.

In pursuing the subject of difficult or abnormal parturi-
tion, we shall place the various positions of the foetus under

heads — viz., anterior presentations, posterior, and
sverse ; these will admit of further subdivision, which
1 be dealt with as we proceed.

Anterior Presentation.

In this form several varieties are met with : —

I. The fore-limbs are 7iot in advance of the head as they
shoidd be. — The head is too low, and between the limbs,
which are separated too widely at the elbows to admit of
easy birth. Beiny slight departure only from natural

mating the elbows to the sides of the chest ; then bring up
the nose within the pelvis, and, waiting the throes of the
mother, employ traction at the cords, still directing the
course of the head, and delivery will be speedily effected.

The cords most useful in these cases are the ordinary
plough-lines, gradually tapering from one end to the other,
and having a loop at the smaller worked in by the maker.
The loop is put over the pastern, and the opposite thicker
end affords ample substance to the large hands of labourers
for the purpose of traction.

2. Presentation of head and one foot only. — In this position
the head must be pushed back to the inlet of the pelvis, the

delivery, the normal
position is quickly
obtained (Fig. 141).
First cord the pro-
truding feet ; next

Fig. 141.

push back the head
into the inlet of the
pelvis, and apply mo-
derate traction to both
cords, which will have
the effect of approxi-

Difficult Parturition.

461

Fig. 142.

protruding foot being corded as before (Fig. 142). The
absent limb must be sought for beneath the foetus, first
bringing up the fore-arm,
and passing the hand down
the shank bone the foot
may be reached ; this must
be carefully covered by the
hand to avoid wounding
the uterus, and, by gradually
raising it, the limb is flexed
sufficiently to admit of it
being brought into the pas-
sage, and a cord placed

upon it. The head is then brought into position, and directed
in its course as gentle traction is exerted on the limbs during
uterine contractions.

3. One or both fore-limbs may be crossed over the neck
(Fig. 143). — If only one leg is thus fixed the difficulty is
not great. All that is re-
quired is to seize the limb
at*‘ or above the fetlock
joint, raise and push it
backwards, at the same
time passing it over to its
proper side. This is rea-
dily accomplished even
when the nose has en-
tered the pelvis, and de-
livery proceeds either na-
turally or by force if
required. When both legs are crossed and with the head
block the pelvis, first cord the legs, push the head back,
cross the ropes and pull gently to the proper sides, at the
same time guiding the nose towards the passage. Traction

Fig. 143.

462 Diseases of the Organs of Generation,

will adjust the limbs, and delivery will follow naturally or
by assistance.

4. ForeMinbs flexed ; knees and head presented (Fig. 144). —
This is a difficult case when the head has advanced far into

the pelvis. The feet
are to be sought
after separately as
directed under No. 2,
and the limb is to
be raised altogether,
the knee passing up-
wards on the side of
the neck, when the
foot will be brought

Fig. 144. ^ of the pel-

vie brim and thence

into the birth-passage. Both hands must be employed, the
right for the left leg of the foetus, and the left hand for the

right leg. After ad-
justment cords may be
applied, and traction
employed, or Nature
may effect delivery un-
aided.

5. Both fore-legs re-
tained or stretched back-
wards.— In this form
of presentation the head
only appears. The first
object is to reach the
feet, but the head is in
the way (Fig. 145), and
in order not to lose it, a head collar should be improvised
by means of flat webbing or small cord, and carefully

Difficult Parturition. 463

adjusted ; the head may then be pushed back into the
uterine cavity. Bring up the legs as already detailed,
using a long blunt hook, or hook on a cord to aid in
reaching the fore-arm or shank, &c. If the mare is not
exhausted, an expert operator will generally effect a speedy
adjustment and delivery. If only one leg is retained, the
presented limb may be used for pushing back the foetus
while the absent limb is being sought for.

6. Fore-limbs presented ; head downwards. — The head is
liable to several forms of deviation in this presentation.
A. The nose of the foetus is pressed in front of the pubis or
pelvic bones ; B, the
forehead may occupy
that position, and dur-
ing the violent throes
of the animal ; C, the
head falls entirely be-
low the pelvis ; D, one
foot only presented, the
head is downwards and
one leg flexed back-
wards (Fig. 146).

When limbs are presented they form admirable levers by
which the body can be pushed back and space obtained to
adjust the head. The retained foot is to be seized according
to instructions given under No. 2, and the head may be
turned in the proper direction by hooking the fingers in the
angle of the mouth or using blunt hooks to raise it, after
which it can be directed into the pelvis while traction is
employed, or, when the animal is strong enough, she may
be able to expel the foetus alone.

When delay in seeking assistance has arisen, the contrac-
tions of the uterus often very materially alter the position of
the foetus, and increase the difficulty of delivery by causing it

464 Diseases of the Organs of Generation,

to be forced tightly within the pelvis, the nape of the neck
occupying the space above the limbs. It will materially
assist the operation if the fore-legs are used to push back
the foetus in order to admit the hand, which must be passed
under the head and neck, now between the fore-arms and
under the chest ; the nose must be seized and drawn towards
the pelvis, and then, using the thumb and fingers as hooks
in the nostrils, the head is directed into the birth-passage,
while by traction or natural throes of the mother delivery is
completed. If the state of the mother becomes critical, no
hesitation should be made, as by attempting reduction her
life may be lost, therefore amputate the fore-legs of the
foetus at the shoulder, which will allow ample room for
further operations and eventual delivery.

7. Fore-feet presented ; head turned backzvards. — Some-
times the head is merely turned back on the shoulder ; in
more difficult states it is turned towards the abdomen. In
each case the issue is rendered more doubtful by delay, as
the neck becomes wedged in the pelvic inlet as the throes
proceed.

When the head is merely turned back towards the
shoulder, the operator passes the hand along the vagina into

the uterus (Fig. 147),
downwards below the head
of the foetus, and seizing
the nose in the palm,
brings it upwards into the
pelvic inlet. Should any
difficulty arise, the fore-
legs must be used as
levers, by which to push
back the foetus in order
to give room for turning the head as directed. When the
nose is brought into the birth-passage, it may be held by

Difficult Parturition.

465

the thumb and index finger hooked in the nostrils, and as
delivery proceeds or traction is employed, the head is directed
in progress.

After delay has taken place the head is pressed farther
backwards towards the abdomen, and the neck doubled on
itself is presented, indeed fairly wedged in the pelvis by the
violent throes of the mother, so that no room exists for
readjustment. Nevertheless delivery has been effected, but
the foal is always sacrificed, and not unfrequently the mother
also. This has often been our experience when called too
late. In a typical case of this kind, which occurred in 1862,
parturition had been going on through the night, and
assistance was not sought before noon next day. Ten miles
had to be traversed, first by the messenger on a slow farm
horse, and the same distance by the writer. On arrival the
two fore-limbs were presented as far as the arms, and a large
mass which proved to be the doubled neck ; owing to the
violent contractions of the uterus and agony of the mare,
readjustment was impossible, and no time was to be lost, for
strength was evidently on the wane. Stimulants were given
at once, and we proceeded to amputate the neck, which
allowed of the removal of the head ; the limbs were corded,
and hooks inserted in the flap of skin, which was doubled
for strength, and delivery was accomplished in about twenty
minutes. The mare died next day from injuries to the
vaginal passage, caused by the long retention of the foetus
in false position.

In some cases, although the hand may reach the nose, it
is impossible to bring it up in position, as probably the
bones of the neck are deformed and contraction has resulted,
due to some cause inducing mal-position prior to parturition.
The foal is usually dead, which will be ascertained by loose-
ness of the hair ; but be this as it may, in such a difficulty

j lose must be reached and brought up by a hook and

466 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

cord, or long blunt hook and handle, either of which may be
first inserted in the nostrils or angle of the mouth, traction
being employed to pull the head into position as the hand
of the operator guides it towards the pelvic inlet and birth-
passage. As a rule, the long neck of the foal admits of the
nose being too far to be reached by the hand, therefore,
traction with a view to readjustment by means of the blunt
hook, or even a cord round the neck, will be of great service.
Nevertheless, readjustment may not be effected by these
means, and owing to the condition of the animal it is
perhaps considered unwise to submit to farther delay ;
amputation of one of the limbs must be proceeded with,
the removal of which will give greater space for action. In
some cases time may be saved by removing both, using the
flaps of skin for traction, that the hand may reach the nose
and raise it to position, where it should be held until farther
secured, as it is liable to slip rapidly back again owing to
the contraction of the neck.

8. Fore-legs presented ; head turned upwards and backwards
(Fig. 148). — This is a very rare complication. We have seen
only one case, that of a mare pony, in which the mal-
position caused very
violent action, and
finally rupture of the
womb. When a post-
mortem examination
was made the dead
foetus was found in the
cavity of the abdomen,
the rent in the uterus
being large. Deformity
and permanent contraction of the neck had evidently
existed some time, but death of the foetus was reoent.

The difficulty of the case arises from the foetus being

Difficult Parturition.

467

packed tightly towards the pelvic inlet, the breast opposing
the entrance of the hand, while the neck being curved
upwards and backwards approximates the lower jaw of the
foetus with the sacrum of the mother, the nose being too far
to be reached by the hand. The legs may be used for
pushing back the foetus, or a suitable rod planted in the
breast can be used for this purpose with greater advantage
during the quietness of the mare. The foetus being lowered
in position, the head may drop into place, if no permanent
deformity has arisen ; otherwise hooks or cords may be
employed — as already pointed out ; and having accomplished
turning, delivery will be effected very shortly. If deformity
is suspected, amputation of the fore-limbs will allow the
animal to drop in the uterus, when the head may be seized,
and adjustment effected in the manner already described.

9. Head and fore-limbs presented ; hind-feet also advanced
(Fig. 149). — In this position the foetus makes no progress; the
delay is for some time
unaccounted for ; vio-
lent action of the mo-
ther wedges the foetus
tightly within the pel-
vis ; the mare suffers
from exhaustion, and
probablysuccumbs from
rupture of the womb,
vagina, or rectum. Usu-
ally the foal perishes
early, and the efforts
must be directed to-
wards saving the mare. Delivery is effected in various
ways.

The ^^^’tion of the limbs being ascertained, the

hind-feet i returned to the uterus as soon as pos-

30—2

468 Diseases of the Organs of Generation,

sible, and in order to effect this quickly the fore-limbs may
be employed to push the foetus into the womb, or the rod-
repeller may be used to the breast at the same time that the
hands guard the hoofs in their passage. Once fairly in the
uterus the hind-limbs will fall into suitable position, and
birth may be secured while the foal lives, in numerous cases,
if the operator is called early.

The difficulties of this form of presentation are increased
by the positions assumed by the hind-feet. Sometimes one
or both may be found under the neck or head ; at others,
one is outside the fore-legs or head, or one or both may be
pointing upwards on each side, and above the head. The
success of delivery, even of a dead foal, depends greatly upon
the progress made by the hind-limbs ; sometimes they are
advanced so far that the hocks are fairly in the birth-passage,
and to push the limbs back is simply impossible ; added to
which, the vagina is so blocked up that the hand cannot be
introduced without extreme difficulty. The method re-
commended under these circumstances consists of cording the
hind-feet, if possible, and by traction pulling them straight
under the body, and when sufficiently advanced to ampu-
tate at the hocks, when the foetus may be pushed back into
the uterus. This is not always effected. Others draw at
the fore-legs in preference, and when the abdomen of the
foetus is presented the contents are removed, by which the
hind-limbs obtain room, and delivery is speedily obtained.
A more systematic procedure we think consists of facilitating
birth by the head and fore-limbs as far as possible, and then
making a circular incision through the skin over the withers
downwards on each side of the chest behind the shoulders,
taking care to dissect this back as near the loins as possible.
Next amputate the spine, cutting through the abdomen at
the point to which the integuments have been reflected, and
cover the parts by the skin, to prevent injury. Cords having

Difficult Partttritio7t,

469

been put on the hind pasterns at the commencement, are
held by assistants, while the operator pushes the hind-
quarters back into the uterus, and traction employed at the
cords then causes the parts so treated to roll over themselves
backwards within the womb, and to follow the hind-limbs in
subsequent delivery.

In this mode of practice the operator needs time and great
patience ; the efforts are most fatiguing, and whatever may
be done in the way of saving the mare, it must not be
forgotten that she may sustain great injury mainly by the
violence of her own actions, which mightily aggravate the
already unfavourable conditions prevailing at the time she
was discovered.

10. Head and cars 07ily presentmg (Fig. 150). — The foetus
will be found lying on its back, the back of the head — occi-
put— with the ears only
to be felt. By further ex-
ploration, the nose is dis-
covered to be turned up-
wards towards the loins
of the mother, and the
fore and hind legs are
flexed upon the abdo-
men. This position is
somewhat rare in equine
females, but neverthe-
less now and then occurs, and in order to secure delivery
the foetus must be turned, which is to be attempted as fol-
lows : — The fore-limbs are sought for, and cords put on
the pasterns ; the loop of another cord is put into the
mouth over the upper jaw, and after pushing at the head to
lower the foetus in the womb, further action is to be taken
as now to be directed. The cords attached to the fore-limbs
must pass on the left side of the foetus — that is, between the

470 Diseases of the Organs of Generation,

left wall of the birth-passage and the head of the foal — one
going to the left pastern, the other to the right in front of
the chest ; they are now to be drawn parallel and twisted,
or that applied to the right foot may be first used alone.
The operator inserts the hand beneath the foetus as far as
the withers, which are seized ; then all the ropes are to be
pulled steadily, the operator lifting the foetus at the same
time upwards towards the right flank of the mare. The effect
of this concerted action generally is to turn or rotate the
foetus until the back is uppermost, while the fore-limbs and
head are at the same time brought into direct natural posi-
tion, delivery being then easily accomplished. As in all the
various presentations of the foetus in the mare, the operator
dias to contend against muscular action, which is often most
violent, rendering the best efforts entirely fruitless ; it is
thus when rotation of the foetus cannot be effected, in place
of which the foetus, if alive, must be sacrificed. The fore-
iimbs are drawn forward and amputated at the shoulder,
separately, which will furnish greater space for working, and
remove two impediments to rotation. Cords may now be
attached to the skin of the fore-legs and jaw as before. The
hand of the operator again is passed to the withers, while
assistants pull steadily to signal at the ropes attached to the
skin of the right fore-leg and head only, and in this way
turning may be effected. If the head can be brought into
the vaginal canal, lower jaw uppermost, before the preceding
movements are made, an iron hook, having a X handle
(Fig. I 5 i), may be passed to the back of the throat and fixed

there, when the operator will possess one of the most useful and
powerful means of turning the foetus into the required posi-

Posterior Presentations.

471

tion, observing first to push back the whole body into the
uterus, and to gradually turn it as the assistants pull at the
ropes. Another form of instrument, known as the double
hook, is very useful for seizing the orbits (Fig. 152), and

directing the head into the passage ; besides, the form of
handle confers great power in the many required movements
for speedy delivery.

All attempts at turning having failed, the foetus may be
extracted as it lies. It must, however, be remembered that
this is a most unfavourable position, as being exactly the
reverse of natural, the movement of the spine of the foetus
^not conforming to that of the curve of the birth-passage.
The process will be slow and tedious, but the life of the
mare may be saved.

Posterior Presentations.

These comprise the hind-feet and legs, the hocks, the
breech, the loins, &c. with certain modifications.

I. Hind - feet pre-
sented (Fig. I 5 3). — De-
livery may occasionally
be accomplished by
the mare without any
assistance, but, under
all circumstances, the
process is slow, and
the foal frequently pe-
rishes. Delay may in a

F1G.153.

472 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

measure arise from the obstruction caused by the direction of
the hair as it lies on the foetus. The process of delivery
should be hastened in the mare as soon as it appears to be
delayed from actual causes, cords being placed on the hind
pasterns, and traction carefully and judiciously employed.
The position of the foetus is briefly this : — The hind-feet
first protrude ; the back is uppermost, towards the loins of
the mother ; head and fore-feet being forwards, and at the
lowest part of the uterus and floor of the abdomen.

A second form or modification of the foregoing is met
with, which is exactly the reverse. The foetus lies on the
back and loins, which approximate the floor of the abdo-
men, the croup sometimes blocking up the inlet to the
pelvis, the abdomen and feet being turned towards the spine
and loins of the mother. Occasionally the foal lies with the
feet in the pelvis or protrude at the vulva, and its back
towards the ilium or hipbone of the opposite side, the breech
presenting at the inlet of the pelvis.

In each instance the procedure consists of drawing the
hind-feet into the passage, and carefully guarding the hoofs
by the hand, to prevent injury to the mare ; for it must be
borne in mind such positions are unfavourable to the curve
of the pelvic and vaginal passages. Cords are then placed
on the pasterns, and traction must be upwards, in order to
raise the hocks and croup above the brim of the pelvis at
the pelvic inlet ; the hand of the operator being in the
vagina may greatly assist in primary entrance of the hocks.
By further traction, during the throes of the mare, birth is
slowly but safely performed in most instances. Occasionally
the foetus will rotate or turn itself, back upwards, as force is
applied ; some practitioners make the attempt to rotate at
the first, but cases in practice appear to decide the course
we have pointed out first as preferable, and more advan-
tageous in every respect.

Posterior Presentations.

473

2. Hocks presented (Fig. 154),. — The foetus occupies a
position nearly like that described under No. i, with this
exception — the hind-limbs
are not extended, the feet
being under the abdomen,
while the hocks rest on
the pelvic inlet, and the
croup is pressed upwards
against the sacrum of the
mother. In subsequent
contractions of the uterus
the foal descends, and at
length the breech and
hocks are wedged tightly
in the birth-passage. In order to insure successful delivery,
assistance should be afforded before this stage is reached,
as the foal quickly perishes under the extreme pressure.
Delivery is sometimes accomplished even while the foetus
remains in this position, but we would not recommend the
attempt, as serious injury to the mare is almost certain to
arise.

The method of procedure is as follows : — The foetus must
be pushed as far into the uterus as possible, at the same
time efforts are to be made towards raising the hind-quar-
ters towards the sacrum of the mother ; the hind-feet are
then to be seized by the hand and brought up separately,
the hoofs being covered by the palm ; and when both are
properly within the birth-passage, traction can be used by
means of cords. If the feet are too far from the reach of
the hand, a blunt hook or cord should be passed round the
hocks, which are to be pulled by assistants, while the opera-
tor directs, and at the same time raises upwards, and
pushes forwards into the uterus, the hind-quarters ; when
sufficiently advanced, the hock is to be grasped by the

Fig. 154.

474 Diseases of the Organs of Generation,

hand, and the leg is to be pressed close up to the thigh ; the
hand glides along the cannon-bone to the fetlock, and finally
the front of the foot, which has been brought much nearer
than before. The hoof is to be covered by the palm and
firmly grasped, and then flexing or doubling the fetlock back
on the cannon-bone ; and by a powerful effort, assisted if
required by a cord previously looped upon it, the foot is
brought into the birth- passage. The same directions also
apply to the other foot, and when both are properly adjusted
delivery proceeds as before described. In some instances
the hocks are pressing upwards on the sacrum of the mother,
and one or both feet are wedging against the brim of the
pelvis. Delivery is to be effected by first bringing up
the absent foot, cording both pasterns, and applying gentle
traction while the operator pushes the hocks farther into the
womb. It may also happen that daring the efforts to im-
prove the position of the foetus that it may fall over in the
uterus, by which the fore-limbs and head will be reached,
and delivery effected as in the anterior presentation, adjust-
ment of the limbs, &c., being of course required.

After some delay in these presentations, we find the
foetus firmly wedged in the birth-passage with the hocks
beneath the abdomen, and all attempts to readjust the posi-
tion are vain. It must therefore be presumed, at least, that
the creature is dead, and if not, it is very doubtful if it can
survive delivery ; amputation may be resorted to in order to
expedite the process, and relieve the mother. The removal
of the limbs will neutralise the greatest obstructions to the
passage of the foetus, as most likely they are not situated
conveniently, the stifles probably being more or less twisted or
bulging outwardly against the sides of the birth-passage. The
hocks, stifle, or hip-joints may be disarticulated when drawn into
the birth-passage by means of a cord, or as it is sometimes
done when they are caused to protrude outside the vulva.

Posterior Presentations.

475

3. The breech or croup and thighs presented (Fig. 15 5)- —
This a modification of the foregoing, the croup being fairly
in the birth-passage, with
more or less of the thighs,
the hind-legs being ex-
tended under the abdo-
men, and feet too far for-
wards to be reached by
the hand. The foetus is,
as it may be described to
be, sitting on the brim
of the pelvis — a position
not unfrequently occurring in mares having a large and
deep abdomen. Further modifications of this position are
sometimes met with — eg., the "foetus is on its back, the
loins being on the brim of the pelvis, and the hind-legs
extended over the abdomen, and in contact with the sacrum
of the mother ; occasionally the foal lies upon one side, the
limbs being towards the flank of the mare. All who have
had anything to do with veterinary obstetricy agree that this
position is the most unmanageable, and not only does the
foal succumb, but in the majority of cases the mother dies
also before delivery can be effected ; or if the birth of a foal
is accomplished by means of surgical assistance, the strain
and shock are more than the system can bear. It not unfre-
quently happens, as we have found in the majority of cases,
that this untoward presentation of the foetus is witnessed
among mares having their first foal ; otherwise, also, when the
birth-passage is preternaturally small, or the foetus is inordi-
nately large. Under all circumstances delay renders the
chance of delivery less hopeful, when in addition, as is often
the case, futile attempts have been made, and the genital
organs maltreated and injured thereby. The foetus after a
time becomes immovable, and by the violent contractions of

476 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

the uterus it is wedged into the pelvis, from whence it defies
all attempts to push it forwards. Delivery in early stages
entirely depends upon the power of moving the foetus and
drawing up the hind-feet as in hock presentations, but this is
impossible after even a short tim.e, as the foetus has ad-
vanced too far into the pelvis already ; therefore two courses
are open to the practitioner — viz., removal as it remains
without attempting readjustment, or cutting up the foetus —
embryotomy. The mare may be cast and turned on the
back, or, standing or lying, may have the hind-parts raised,
as means of facilitating an alteration of position and removal
of the foal. After having tried all these methods with a
view of obtaining room only for using the knife, we have
been disappointed ; hours occupied in unwearied exertion
have passed, and the mother, exhausted, as well as all who
have taken part, gradually sinks, and humanity suggests the
most proper course of putting her out of farther suffering.
A careful post-7nortem examination reveals the unmistakable
fact that, even if life were prolonged indefinitely, the extrac-
tion of the foetus entire could not be accomplished. In order
to attempt removal, cords may be passed round each thigh ;
sometimes one only is used, but it is safer to have one upon
each, as traction thus aids in keeping the foetus in a more
direct line, especially if both cords are twisted round each
other, and the whole manual force exerted upon them ; the
operator while superintending these movements directs
the passage of the limbs, and prevents the rolling-up of the
membranes and vaginal walls, which sometimes prove power-
fully obstructive. At the best, this often is a dangerous
course for the mother, although there are instances on record
where the foal has been extracted alive.

The difficulty in dismembering or eviscerating the body is
often equally as great as the preceding. We have succeeded
in removing the foetus by cutting and tearing the muscles

Transverse or Cross Presentations. 477

over the hip-joint, bringing away one leg piecemeal ; after-
wards the other, and finally the foetus by means of hooks
inserted in the front of the pelvis, a most tedious process
even when successful. It is a great assistance also at this
stage to remove the contents of the abdomen ; the foetus
being partially delivered may still resist total extraction.
If this can be accomplished as the foetus lies in the uterus, so
much the better.

In the modifications of this form of presentation the
methods to be adopted are of a similar character. The
joints may be divided probably with a little less difficulty
when the foetus is on its back, but otherwise the operator will
find he has to cope with the same hindrances, as want of
room to work efficiently, power of moving the foetus, &c.,
and therefore he must rely upon the general rules here laid
down, modifying them as circumstances require. Great care
will be needed in order to avoid wounds and injuries to the
birth-passage, &c., of the mare by the instruments, broken
bones, &c. Hooks are liable to slip from insecure hold, and
commit severe lacerations ; bones
that are exposed, and especially
when broken, should be protected
by the hand as much as possible, i^f^.-Concealed Knife.

and knives when used internally

should be only those of an improved kind ; the concealed
knife (Fig. 156) being very safe and useful.

Transverse or Cross Presentations.

We have now to notice a few forms of foetal presentations,
which fortunately are of rare occurrence, but nevertheless
from different circumstances occur now and then in the life-
time of the veterinary practitioner. These are the so-called
transverse positions, in which the foetus lies on one side, the

478 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

back, or otherwise, the abdomen and feet being presented.
Four positions of this kind are observed, depending upon
which side the creature is lying. A fifth form is also re-
cognised, in which the back is presented, the head or neck
is upwards, near the sacrum of the mother, and the foetus is
sitting on his haunches above the udder of the mother.
This is strictly a vertical position, but across the inlet of the
pelvis. In a sixth form, the foetus lying partially or wholly
on one side, presents the head and all four feet ; and in the
seventh variety the head is forward in the uterus, but all the
feet are back in the pelvic inlet, or birth-passage. The
removal of the foetus is to be accomplished according to the
special details now to be enumerated.

I. Back presentation. — This form is of three kinds, and is
determined in two of them by the position of the head, as

Fig. 157. — As seen from above. Fig. 158,

being in the right or left flank of the mother (Fig. i 5 7), the legs
and feet being directed towards the chest; the third form being

Transverse or Cross Presentations. 479

that in which the head approximates the spine of the mare —
the vertical position. In each of these the hand of the operator
meets with nothing
but the back, which
blocks up the opening
to the pelvis (Fig. i 5 8),
while severe muscular
contractions maintain
the foetus almost, if
not altogether, im-
movably, causing de-
livery to be very pro-
. longed, fatal to the
mare, or impossible (Fig. 159).

The obvious procedure is to attempt an alteration of posi-
tion : the foetus must be turned, and an easier presentation
induced, some practitioners converting it into the anterior,
and others the posterior position. We are of the opinion,
that instead of working for one special form it is best to
obtain the most favourable under existing circumstances.
If the hind-quarters are nearest, let us have them. Are the
fore-legs most favourable ? then we will secure them with
the head. If these can be obtained delivery will soon be
complete ; the difficulty, as before remarked, lies in altering
the first position of the foetus. The hand or the repeller — a
smooth broom-handle has often done good service — may be
used to push the foetus forwards, while the operator lifts or
moves the creature. All the attempts must be made

between the throes of the mother, and much time and
patience will be required. Old practitioners tell of instances
such as these we are alluding to, as well as other difficult
forms of presentation, in which the foetus under manipulation
suddenly makes vigorous efforts, during which the position
is favourably altered, and birth speedily follows with slight

480 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

assistance. More frequently, however, the foetus neec
turning, and often delivery is impossible from the time that
has been suffered to elapse.

As there is seldom any likelihood of saving the foal —
indeed, the only conclusion often to be arrived at is that it
is dead already — the position may be altered by traction.
The operator will sometimes find a sharp hook of service
when inserted first into the neck, by which the foetus can be
pulled downwards, or to one side, &c., as may be needed, a
fresh hole being made in the cheek, orbit, or angle of the
mouth, &c. The repeller may also be used to push the
lower part of the body at the same time, and thus the
difficulty of an existing position may be reduced by con-
verting it into one available for delivery ; or at the least such
alteration may be effected as will enable the operator to

perform embryotomy, amputa-
tion, &c. &c., as the circum-
stances of the case may call
for or admit.

2. Abdomen and feet present-
ing (Fig, 160). — In this form
many varieties occur. Thefoetus
lying on one side, the head
approaches the anterior or
front part of the womb, the
fore-limbs are extended back-
wards in company with the
hind, and when the hand of
the operator enters the womb

in exploration it encounters
Fig. i(>o.-Asseenfromabove. together.

The conclusion may be drawn that two foals are present,
but the question is readily decided if the hands are passed
along the limbs. Occasionally only two feet are presented,

MtiUiple Conception. 481

a hind and fore, and these must be carefully identified before
operations are commenced for extraction. The first steps
are to seek the missing hind-foot, and h' ve it brought up
into the birth-passage, the fore-limb being pushed back to
make room for it, and thus reduce the presentation to one
of the simple posterior kind, in preference to the anterior, as
the difficulty is much less, and the absence of the head is
looked upon as an advantage. The hind-feet being brought
together they are to be corded, and traction employed
cautiously, along with such means as are likely to cause the
head and fore-limbs to occupy a more forward position. To
secure this the fore-legs may be used as levers, or a re-
peller may be employed under careful direction. If, how-
ever, the throes of the mother are too violent to admit of
this procedure, and particularly if all the limbs are becoming
wedged more closely in the vagina, or when the head also
accompanies them, cords should be put on the fore-pasterns
also, and by force the limbs may be brought out one by one,
and amputated at the elbow or shoulder. This will allow
of room for more efficient working, when the head and fore-
quarters can be pushed forwards, and delivery effected by
the hind-legs alone.

Multiple Conception.

The presence of twin foetuses within the womb of the
mare, although such may not come within the category of
mal-presentation, nevertheless sometimes prove harassing to
the practitioner ; and, ere we close that part of our subject
which specially belongs to difficult parturition, that of
multiparity of foetuses must be briefly considered.

Almost the first obstacle which presents itself to the
operator, supposing the birth to be somewhat delayed, is
the presentation of several different parts, and these prove
very likely to mislead, if not highly perplexing. Under

482. Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

favourable circumstances, when two foals are present, they
may occupy each cornua or horn, or one may be in one of the
cornua, and the other in the body of the uterus (Plate VII.);
and with regard to position, one may be in the anterior pre-
sentation, the second in the posterior, or both may be in
the anterior form ; but under whatever conditions, it is
clear that both cannot pass outwards at the same time,
notwithstanding the surprising amount of muscular force
exercised by the mother upon them. Space for one only
exists in the birth-passage at the same time, and when qach
is favourably situated delivery is easy, and accomplished
by the animal alone. With regard to this question, some
practitioners assert, from ample experience, that birth is very
frequently easier in double than in single births, seeing that
the period of gestation may not be prolonged to the full
time, and therefore the foetuses are not fully developed ;
usually twins are not so large in proportion, and it may
likewise happen that one is prepared for birth some hours

before the other. In the mare, the birth of the second foal
is not usually delayed long when circumstances are favour-
able ; therefore we are justified in being acquainted with anv

483

Multiple Conception.

of these, which may be the precursor of abnormal condi-
tions. Delay in the second birth occurs from mal-pre-
sentation, as a rule, the foetus rarely being alive after
the second day. In such cases, one foal having been born
in the usual favourable manner, the delivery of the second
must be proceeded with in accordance with the directions
already given for the particular form, just as if but one
foetus only had been present from the first. The question
now before us is the delivery of twin foals, when difficulty
arises from an equally advanced state of both ; or, in other
words, when the contractions of the uterus have carried
both foetuses together within the pelvic inlet or birth-
passage (Fig. 1 61).

The hand of the operator being passed into the vagina, &c.,
in exploration, he discovers one of the following forms of
presentation : — A. Four feet, all belonging to the hind-
limbs ; E. Four feet, but connected with the anterior or
front legs ; c. Two hind and two fore legs ; D. The head
of one foetus and fore-limbs of the other ; E. The head of
one and hind-limbs of the second ; F. Probably only two
feet, sometimes four, or even six ; G. The head of one and
tail of the second. The causes of such diversity are the
same that produce malposition of the single foetus — viz.,
vigorous action on the part of the foetuses, and violent exercise
or rolling, &c., on the part of the mare.

Under these circumstances the operator will find himself
face to face with stupendous difficulties, and be required to
regard the aspect before him calmly and soundly before
manual exertion is employed or any action decided upon.
He is first to satisfy himself as to the actual presence of
twin foals, and having done this he must be further satisfied
of the position of each, and able to distinguish the limbi
or parts presented which belong to them ; and having
mastered these details he will proceed to deliver the first

31—2

484 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

and most favourably situated, whether it be a front or hind
presentation, having- first carefully rejected the presenting
members of the second for subsequent treatment.

Occasionally, not a slight difficulty arises when the fore-
limbs of one foal are presented with the head of the other ;
such positions are apt to mislead any one who sees the case
after some time has elapsed, and the foals are forced some
way into the birth-passage. However, let the operator
carefully weigh the various conditions in his mind as he
minutely explores the interior, and when he can clearly
make out the existence of twins, the sooner he can separate
them the better, that birth of one may be effected before
active contractions wedge them more tightly in the pelvis.
It is advisable to cord the pasterns of the foetus most
favourably situated, and, if possible, pass a loop or halter
round the head also, the long ends of which may be twisted
and held by assistants, who are to pull according to directions,
or to hold with moderate firmness while the operator pushes
forwards into the uterus the second foal, and when fully
clear, traction is employed to the first and the operation is
soon completed. If the hind-limbs are presented, they are
to be corded in like manner before the other foal is returned
to the womb ; and it may be worth remembering that some-
times small cords may be usefully placed on the presenting
limbs of the second foetus, by which they can be brought
readily forward after the first birth, and save trouble in
subsequent exploration. If the cords are less in thickness
than a cedar pencil, their presence in the vagina during the
extraction of the first foal may not give rise to any in-
convenience, but rather prove a mighty advantage in recover-
ing the limbs of the second, which often suffers a great or
even unfavourable position after the withdrawal of its fellow.

We need only add, that after one birth has been effected,
the position of the second foal must be carefully considered.

General Considerations,

485

as not unlikely it has been from the first unfavourably
situated. This being fully ascertained, the usual appliances
at hand, and willing workers ready, the proceedings must be
regulated by the principles already enumerated for the form,
of whatever kind it may be.

General Considerations.

In addition to the brief details which have been given
under the various special forms of malposition of the foetus,
there are yet a few general principles which the operator
will recognise as worthy of being remembered, for at no
time in the practice of the veterinarian are his energies and
skill put to such a severe test as when brought in contact
with the difficulties attending wrong presentations of the
foetus in domestic animals. As each case appears by the
representations and descriptive detail given in this section of
the work, it is apparently deprived of its terrors ; its diffi-
culties, it may be, are described away, and the young
aspirant may allow himself to be lured into the belief that
his part is very smooth sailing, and, in the practice of
veterinary obstetricy, honour and glory are readily won. It
is very easy to write what has already been expressed, but
those who enter the lists against the conditions for which
the various plans and principles are pointed out, will find, as
all our respected veterans have to their cost, that no other
part of their practice takes up so much of their time, taxes
their patience, and offers so little opportunity for success,
proportionate to the number of cases or the efforts called
forth. It is true that men are very clever in this line, and
they have acquired just and honourable fame by their
method of procedure, yet, nevertheless, the success which
might be attained as a mutual benefit to both owner and
practitioner is too frequently rendered impossible by un-
warrantable delay, as well as aggravated by officious inter-

486 Diseases of the Organs of Generation,

ference from those who are incompetent in such matters.
Efficiency in this department, as in every other, comes only
after repeated trial and with absolute patience, guided by a
careful estimate of all the conditions — anatomical, physio-
logical, mechanical, &c. — which are known to bear upon it.
As skill and mature judgment are readily supplied in the
veterinary operator, the owner should be disposed to furnish
timely information of his need of both, and the mutual
results would be more highly valued and enjoyed. These
remarks apply most particularly to the mare. As a rule,
the foetus soon dies under severe muscular pressure and mal-
position, and very frequently death of the foal means loss of
the mother as well.

Those who are constantly engaged in practice among
breeding animals, find it to their advantage to possess a
number of portable instruments collected in a case, that,
whenever called upon, so far, the means are at hand. We
shall have occasion to refer somewhat in brief detail to
these appliances subsequently. Whatever may be the ad-
vantage of instruments, we cannot overlook certain essential
qualifications which belong to the efficient obstetrical
practitioner, — the length of arm, which requires to be
powerful, having a small hand, and fingers long enough to
grasp a foot or pastern, and maintain a firm hold, even
under continued pressure from the organs. These are
available in many instances where the best instruments fail
to be of the least service ; and we can abundantly testify to
their wonderful adaptability and power in reducing some of
those peculiar adverse conditions which appear almost
insurmountable. Instruments and all other appliances are
only intended to supplement the operations by the hands of
the practitioner, or second the muscular efforts of the mother ;
they cannot take the place or assume the functions of which
the trained hands are capable, therefore their use is sub-
prdinate and limited. It is of great importance that the

General Consider at io7is.

487

finger-nails be short and pared round, that wounds may not
be inflicted on the mucous membrane of the maternal genital
organs. For the same reason, rings should be removed from
the fingers. As it invariably happens that the membranes
have appeared, or become ruptured, and discharged their
fluid contents outwardly, the various surfaces become dry or
covered with a tenacious secretion, sometimes heated and
swollen by officious interference, the use of emollient and
lubricating fluids — as soap and water, oil, glycerine, linseed,
mucilage, flour and water, or simple water — will prove very
serviceable, being, however, warmed before they are applied.
In the correction of false positions, one, or some of these,
cannot be dispensed with, the movement of the foetus over
almost dry surfaces being a matter of absolute impossibility.
They may be applied in various ways. When it is desirable
to convey them into the uterus, a piece of india-rubber
tubing will answer very well, the fluid being poured through
a funnel fitted on the free end ; the common syringe or
stomach-pump will prove more efficient instruments, or, in
their absence, the hand alone may answer.

In some instances the violent efforts to strain when the
hand is exploring the parts proves obstructive and embarrass-
ing, and the proper adjustment of the foetus for delivery is
impossible ; we have then found a dose of chloroform highly
useful, or, what is perhaps more readily dispensed from home,
chloric ether, which may be given in linseed-tea or a little
flour and water. To obtain at least a mitigation of those
mighty muscular contractions which call for superhuman
efforts to withstand, is a welcome relief, during which the
energies should be exerted to the utmost in order to obtain
a favourable position for delivery. When exhaustion is
evident after protracted labour, and the throes of the mother
are declining in strength and frequency, diffusible stimulants,
as ammonia, are particularly valuable.

In the use of coras the operator will find powerful means

488 Diseases of the Organs of Generation,

of action. Not only are they applicable to the traction of
the foetus through the genital canal, but they may be largely
employed in modifying or correcting the position of the
foetus within the uterus. When the feet of two foals are pre-
sented, or all the feet of one, as described at pp. 467 and 480,
they are eminently useful in being applied to those parts to

be pushed forwards into the uterus, and by which the limbs

•

are readily found and brought again into position after other
parts are delivered. We have preferred a hempen rope,
made exactly after the pattern of the ploughman’s driving-
line, having an eye or loop worked in at the small end, where
in diameter it is not more than three-eighths of an inch, from
which it gradually thickens until, having acquired the length
of about twelve feet, it assumes the thickness of nearly one
inch. Such a cord carried on the fingers is readily passed
over a foot, and holds tightly, while the opposite ends afford
ample substance for being grasped (Fig. 162), especially as

it suitably increases in thickness in the direction calculated
to resist slipping through the hands.*"' It is advisable
always to lubricate about three feet of the cord as well as
the hand before carrying it into the vagina, and the process
is facilitated by passing one or two fingers through the loop.

* The usefulness of the rope in this particular may be considerably increased if
an extra strand is worked in throughout six feet of the end used for pulling, and
at intervals forms a knot.

General Considerations.

489

using the whole formed like a cone by uniting the ends, the
free hand meanwhile holding up the outer portion of the
rope to prevent dragging along the passage and irritation to
the membrane. An additional rope may sometimes be
useful, having a loop at one end, the other being worked
upon a piece of hard wood, by which a firm hold is criven
during traction.

Cords may be applied to the pasterns, knees, or hocks,
and when limbs have been amputated the skin may be
secured in a loop and used as effectively for traction as the
limb itself. The head also may be secured, by which a great
advantage will be gained in delivery. For this purpose the
rope should not be large and cumbersome, three-eighths or
half an inch in thickness being ample. To secure the head
the rope is doubled, and a small leather ring is passed
along over the shut end, through which a smaller cord is
passed, also double (Fig. 163); the free or open ends of these

a. Loop for the head. b. Loop for the nose.

c. Ring of leather to move at will.

are to be used for traction when the others are in position.
The operator carries the thickest rope over his fingers, as
already explained, into the cavity, and passes the loop,
over the head behind the ears, the rope passing down each
side of the jaw to meet that from the other side beneath ;
the small loop, b, is then passed over the nose, and the
leather ring pushed beneath the lower jaw, and the whole
are then tightened before the hand is withdrawn. By this

490 Diseases of the Organs of Generation,

arrangement the head is kept in the straight line, and, with
additional help at the legs, delivery is often very greatly
accelerated.

The carrying of a rope to any part of the foetus within
the uterus is not always a rapid or easy task by means of
the hand alone, and human ingenuity has designed an instru-
ment, known as a porte-cord, or cord carrier, which has the
advantage of doing the work very efficiently. It consists of
a simple rod of iron, about three-eighths of an inch in
diameter, having an eye at one end, and mounted with a
handle at the other ; such is Ae straight porte-cord (Fig. 1 64) ;

Fig. 164. — The Porte-cord,, or Cord Carrier, stt'aight and curved.

but in order to reach less accessible parts — such as the neck
or thigh — another, the curved porte-cord, is used. It differs
from the first only in having the eye end curved in a circle
of about three inches. These instruments are used as fol-
low : — The cord to be used being furnished with a knot or
ring to prevent its slipping, is first passed through the eye
of the porte-cord, and when drawn up to the ring or knot,
lies parallel with the rod. The operator having smeared

both with some lubricating ma-
terial, holds them in the left
hand, the right taking the eye

Fig. j6s.— Manner of arrang- within the palm (Fig. 165), and,

ing the ptgers when advanc- 3 advance as a

mg to the Uterus. °

cone, pursues the way to the

desired part ; the right hand then passes to the other

side of the limb, &c., and seizes the ring or knot, drawing it

General Considerations.

491

along, and, finally bringing it out of the vagina, places both
ends together, the opposite end encircling the part to which
traction is to be applied. Another use to which the straight
porte-cord is put is equally valuable. Suppose it is desired
to put a noose upon the lower jaw, over a foot, or upon the
head, the loop is first formed on the rope, and the free end
drawn through the eye of the carrier until the noose only
remains in advance of it. This is carried by means of the
right hand, as before described, to the precise spot, and the
loop passed over it ; the hand only is then withdrawn and
takes the handle of the instrument, the rope being held by
the left hand, and, by a few thrusts of the instrument, the
noose is effectually tightened.

Hooks of various kinds are suggested, and doubtless may
be very effectual. As a rule, we have found such as given
in Figs. 15 1 and 152 sufficiently ample with cords, porte-
cords, and a repeller. Forceps also of every conceivable
pattern are suggested, and prove very valuable agents in
holding parts which cannot otherwise be secured ; and here
the previous remark again applies.

Mr. Mackinder, of Pe-
terborough, has furnished
to Messrs. Burgess and
Willows a very valuable
and yet simple instru-
ment, shown in Fig. 166
—small traction hooks,
for use in adjusting the

foetus, and also in deli- — Mackindeds Traction Hooks.

very. When properly

fixed the power exerted on the cord increases the hold, and
effectually prevents slipping or danger therefrom.

The repeller (Fig. 167) consists of a straight rod of round
iron, furnished with a handle for more efficient use, the oppo-

492 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

site end being formed like a rose or chisel-head, for pressing
against the breast, buttocks, &c., in pushing the foetus into

Fig. \6j.— -The Repeller or Crutch^ with handle.

a, b, c and d, are the forms of different kinds in use ; a, open ; b, closed.

the uterus. Other varieties of the free end are used, having
for their object the prevention of slipping ; in some the end
is sharp, and a collar is fitted on about half an inch from
the point, intended to enter and hold by the skin ; in others,
a pair of arms are jointed on, and so arranged as to close
together while being carried to the spot, when they are
opened and applied. In cases of emergency, we have found
a small brush-handle answer every purpose under careful
management.

Cutting Instruments are sometimes imperatively called
for in dismembering or eviscerating the foetus to expedite
delivery. Formerly, the old straight scalpel was the only in-
strument available ; 'but
modern inventions have
admirably superseded so
dangerous an agent. The
ring scalpel, or embryo-
tom of Gunther* (Fig.
1 68), is one of the most

Fig. 1 68. — Ring Scalpel, or Embry otom.

valuable. Fitted to the middle finger, the blade rests securely
below, while the outside fingers are brought parallel with it

Lerbuch der Practischen Veterinar-Gerburtshlilfe. Hanover ; 1830.

General Considerations,

493

upon each side, and thus it is carried to the required spot
where the skin is to be divided. Two forms of blade are
in use — one almost straight, and the other curved (Fig. i68),
at the heel of which an eye is formed to receive a small
cord, by which an assistant pulls as the operator directs the
blade along the skin. This method often proves very help-
ful when the operator’s hands are becoming tired and para-
lysed from the excessive contractions of the uterus. Another
form of scalpel knife or embryotom, useful for opening the
abdomen, chest, &c., is shown at Fig. 156, page 477 ; but
an improved form may now be had (Fig. 169), the blade

Fig. 169. — Concealed Embryotom.

having only one cutting edge, and * being less likely to be
broken. When such parts as the hips are to be cut up, or
the bones of the chest, head, &c., separated, the knife takes
the form of a long hook (Fig. 170), and is then capable of

Fig. 170.

Fig. 171.

very efficient work, division being performed by a pulling
action. When bones of some size and solidity have to be
divided, a saw (Fig. 171) will be of great service.

In amputating a limb, the skin requires to be separated
from the tissues and bones beneath, and this is usually

494 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

effected by pushing the fingers between and rupturing the
attachments — an operation which often inflicts considerable
pain, and even lacerations, besides being slowly and badly
performed when the hands are weak and tired from inces-
sant pressure and work. To perform this more efficiently
and rapidly, an instrument is used named a spatula (Fig. 172),

Fig. 172. — Spatula.

being simply a shovel-shaped blade, one side of which is
hollowed in a longitudinal direction, at the extremity of a
shaft having a handle at the opposite end. In full length
it is about two feet.

The operator having satisfied himself that the removal of
the foetus cannot be accomplished entire with safety to the
mare, proceeds at once to effect a reduction by such opera-
tions as decapitation, amputation, evisceration, &c. ; and,
having the necessary instruments at hand, carries out his
plans somewhat as follow : —

Decapitation.

Removal of the h^ad entirely is an operation which is not
so frequently resorted to as amputation of the limbs ; occa-
sionally, however, decapitation is called for, the most common
cases being those in which the head is found alone properly
presented, and far advanced into the birth-passage ; and,
again, when doubled back on the shoulder the neck protrudes
at the vulva. To remove the head, in the first instance, the
operator thus proceeds : — Cords, hooks, or other appliances
are fixed on the lower jaw, and assistants pull the head free
of the vulva ; the skin is then divided by a knife in a cir-
cular incision, made either round the forehead and jaws, or,

A mpiitation.

495

farther back, immediately behind the ears. The next
process consists of separating the skin from the tissues
backwards, as far as possible, all round the neck, by means
of the fingers or spatula ; afterwards, by free use of a large
knife, the muscles are divided entirely to the bones, the
occipito-atloidal articulation being selected ; the assistants
then by twisting their ropes turn the head, which sever the
ligamentous connexions of the joint, and the head falls off.

In the second form the operation is not so easily accom-
plished. If a cord can be passed round the neck to draw it
out farther, it may be done carefully. The operator then
makes an incision from above downwards on the side of the
neck, first through the skin, which must be dissected back-
wards as before ; then by means of the knife the muscles are
to be divided as far back as possible down to the bones,
which must be sawn through or broken up. Next, by further
careful cutting the remaining half of the neck and skin are
to be divided, when the head can be pulled away by hooks
inserted into it.

In each of these cases the fore-legs are not presented,
therefore, when the head is removed, they are to be sought
for after the foetus has been pushed back ; cords are then
put on the pasterns, and delivery accomplished by traction,
the operator’s hand being placed over the divided bones to
guard against injury, and guide the neck into the proper
passage.

Amputation.

This operation is called for when the head lies back and
the fore-limbs are presented, and the former cannot by any
means be reached, or brought into the birth-passage. Some-
times the hind-limbs require removal also.

To remove the fore-limhs the following course is adopted: —
The operator puts on the ring scalpel, having the cord

4q6 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

attached, and pursues his way to the side of the shoulder as
far as the withers, if possible, assistants employing traction
if necessary. The point of the blade is caused to pierce the
skin, and at a given signal the assistant steadily pulls the
knife-cord while the operator judiciously maintains a direct
line along the limb to the hocks, knees, or pasterns, where
a circular incision is to be made. The spatula is now called
into requisition, to divide the attachments of the skin all
the way up to the shoulder and breast, which is only the
work of a few minutes. Some practitioners also divide the
sternal muscles at the elbow as well by means of the con-
cealed knife, but this is not absolutely necessary, although
we must state our belief in the wisdom of the procedure.
At this stage the operator directs the assistants to pull at
the limb, when a crackling sound announces the giving way
of the muscles which unite the scapula to the sides of the
chest, and finally the limb comes away entire. The long
incision may be confined to the inside of the leg only, by
which less danger to the mother is thought to be likely, but
for more effective purposes we have always preferred the
outer method. The opposite limb is removed in like manner,
the only difference to be observed being the employment of
the other hand of the operator, as in one position of the
foetus both hands are not equally effective in a cutting
operation.

Amputation of the hind-limbs. — When removal of the hind-
legs from the trunk is called for, the operator finds himself
engaged in a long and fatiguing process. The skin is thick
and strong over the croup where the incision is required, and
the muscles are large and numerous, besides which liga-
mentous attachments are present here which do not obtain
in the shoulder. More frequently amputation at the hocks
only will answer the required ends. However, as removal
of the limbs by the more difficult process is sometimes abso-

Detru7ication.

497

lutely necessary, we give the outline of procedure. Such
is called for in those cases where the hind-quarters are
unusually large, the pelvis of the mare contracted, or when
deformity of the foetus occurs ; sometimes the hind-quarters
are double. The hind-feet being presented, cords are at-
tached, and traction employed to expose the hips. A half-
circular incision is carried round the haunch over the hip-
joint, dividing the muscles entirely to the head of the femur;
a longitudinal incision is then carried down the leg to the
hock, terminated by a circular cut, and the skin is next
separated by the spatula, after which powerful traction tears
away the limb. The other limb being removed in like
manner, hooks can be inserted in the pelvic bones and the
foetus extracted. An additional advantage will be gained
by sawing through the pelvis at the symphysis, when the
divided bones will overlap each other, and reduce the size of
the foetal hind-quarters.

In hock presentations, when the croup is wedged immov-
ably in the pelvis, or at least so firmly as to resist all power
to deliver the foetus, the usual plan is to amputate at the
hock-joints, which is performed as follows : — Cords are
fixed on the hocks, by which they are drawn outside the
vulva, when, by means of a running noose, each bone above
the hock is to be secured. The tendons — hamstring — of the
gastrocnemii muscles are then divided, together with the
skin and ligaments proper of the hock, the lower part of the
leg being then removed. The opposite limb being similarly
operated upon, and traction exerted on the leg bones by
the ropes, delivery may be effected.

Detruncation.

In consequence of the deformity of the hind-quarters, par-
tial delivery being effected, further progress is impossible

498 Diseases of the Organs of Generatmi.

without reduction of the foetus, and division of the body is
called for. Even when birth has not progressed so far, and
such deformity is suspected or proved, it is advisable to pro-
cure partial delivery, by means of cords and traction, to the
desired point. The operator then proceeds to make a cir-
cular incision three or four inches in front of the vulva of
the mare, first through the skin, and next through the
muscles of the foetus ; he next dissects back the skin as far
as possible, and then the ligaments of the vertebra, muscles of
the ribs, sternum, &c., as the case may be, are divided, when
a few twists of the ropes ruptures the attachments, the head,
fore-limbs, and part of the trunk falling to the ground. The
contents of the abdomen are thus got rid of, and the flap of
skin being turned -over the exposed bones, pressure is
applied to return the mass into the uterus, when the hind-
limbs are to be sought for and corded, and delivery will be
obtained. Division of the symphysis may be performed pre-
viously, as a means of reducing the difficulty of delivery
after the hind-legs are corded.

In some instances the hind-feet are presented under the
body, and delivery is obstructed by the hips of the foetus
blocking against the sides of the pelvis of the mare. When
this is the case, cords should be placed on the hind-pasterns
before detruncation is performed, and after that operation
the hind-quarters are to be pushed forwards into the uterus,
and delivery effected by traction applied to the cords.

Evisceration.

From preternatural enlargement, deformity, disease, or
monstrosity, the chest or abdomen may prevent the delivery
of the foetus ; we therefore proceed to enumerate the usual
means for reducing their bulk, and remove the obstacle to
the relief of the mare.

The Thorax. — In order to enter the chest, one of the

Evisceration.

499

fore-limbs, and even the head, may be first removed, those
parts, it is presumed, having already been delivered. A
deep incision is then made in front of the chest, so as to
expose the opening between the two first ribs, when the
hand is passed inside, by which the heart, lungs, &c., are
torn from their attachments and brought away ; the chest
then collapses, but if not in sufficient degree the diaphragm
should be divided, and the contents of the abdomen removed
through the opening.

The Abdomen. — It is not always possible to remove the
contents of the abdomen in the way just described ; for in-
stance, in those cases where only the limbs are presented,
and the foetus lies wholly within the uterus. Having de-
cided that the enlarged condition of the abdomen will not
admit of easy and safe delivery, removal of the contents
must be obtained within the uterus. For this purpose the
operator makes use of the concealed knife (Figs. 156 and
169), which is carried to the farthest point of the abdomen,
when the blade is exposed, plunged through the skin and
muscles, and caused to divide the walls along the floor from
the symphysis pubis to the sternum. The hand is next
employed to tear away the organs from their points of
attachment, and, if needs be, those of the chest may be
removed through an incision made in the diaphragm. It is
scarcely necessary to state that, as the operation of eviscera-
tion proceeds, the organs, &c., are to be carefully removed
from the uterus and disposed of by subsequent burial.

Thus far we have briefly considered the various sources of
difficulty arising from peculiar conditions or positions of the
foetus, which are met with during parturition in the mare.
It is now required that the reader should be informed that
other difficulties also arise on the part of the mare, which
sometimes equally retard or render the process of delivery

500 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

impossible ; such are malformations of the pelvic bones,
congenital, or due to injury, fracture, &c. ; the first produce
contraction and deformity of the genital canal, while fractures
are sometimes attended with large bony deposits over the
seat of injury. Still more rarely diseases of the soft parts
interfere, as tumours, malignant and non-malignant, which
call for special surgical treatment ; or when the value of the
foal is great, and delivery is precluded in the natural
method by any of the above-named conditions being irre-
movable or irremediable, it may be removed from the
uterus by an opening made in the flank of the mother ; an
operation known as gastro-hysterotomy, or the Caesarian
operation — a most formidable course to adopt in such a large
animal, and which has yet been only partially successful.

Diseases, &c., incidental to Parturition.

Although parturition may have apparently terminated
successfully in some instances, yet subsequently the well-
being of mare and foal are seriously jeopardised by certain
morbid states arising in the former ; occasionally, also,
certain of these may occur before parturition, and lead to a
fatal result. Under this head we have to notice : — Flooding ;
Inversion and Rupture of the Uterus ; Inflammation of the
Womb ; Dropsy of the Womb ; Hernia of the Womb ;
Vaginitis.

Flooding.

Flooding or haemorrhage from the womb, known also as
post-partum haemorrhage, metrorrhagia, &c., occasionally is
seen in the mare, and is always to be regarded as a serious
result of parturition.

The causes are — rapid removal of the foetus without neces-
sary contraction of the uterus when the foetal membranes
are hastily severed from their connexions ; removal of the

Floodt7ig. 501

placenta from the mare too soon when retained after par-
turition ; inversion of the uterus, &c.

Symptoms. — When no escape of blood from the external
genital organs is noticed, the possibility of haemorrhage
within is not always suspected at once. In some instances
the fact is apparent by periodical straining, and evacuation
of large quantities of partially coagulated blood ; these are,
however, more rare. In the absence of either of the above
patent signs the observer will detect a running-down pulse,
blanched mucous membranes, staggering gait, accompanied
by rapid increase of weakness and general prostration of
strength ; throbbing action of the heart, general coldness
of the skin and extremities, peculiar haggard expression of
countenance, followed by partial sweats, to which succeeds
inability to stand, convulsions, insensibility, and death.

Treatment. — If the membranes have not been removed,
it may be advisable to effect their separation as carefully and
as soon as possible. Should the membranes be already
removed, the hand and arm may be passed far into the
uterus, and carefully brought into contact with the sides of
the organ, which is often sufficient to cause contraction, and
of course the bleeding also. Injections of cold water, weak
solutions of perchloride of iron, or chloralum, are valuable ; or
a long cloth, the end of which has been steeped in one of
these solutions, may be carried into the uterus, being drawn
out and renewed from time to time. If these means are
insufficient, tannic acid, acetate of lead, perchloride of iron,
chloralum, and tincture of the ergot of rye may be given in-
ternally, and mustard embrocations applied to the loins. It
must be remarked that no time is to be lost in these
cases, as the mare quickly succumbs under the loss of
blood.

If the uterus has been everted it must be returned quickly,
and the treatment already directed must be carried out.

502 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

Inversion of the Uterus — Prolapsus Uteri.

This most untoward sequel to parturition is observed in
two forms, partial and complete. It is said to be partial
when the inverted fundus protrudes through the os uteri and
vagina, appearing as a reddened tumour of variable dimen-
sions outside the vulva ; and complete when it hangs, turned
inside out, as low perhaps as the thighs, or even the hocks,
forming a prodigious tumour. In the partial form prolapsus
may not be discovered without exploration, the inverted por-
tion having passed a slight distance through the os into the
vagina. The complete form also varies in the appearance or
shape of the tumour, depending upon the parts inverted,
whether they be the body, one or both cornuae, or the whole.
Inversion of one cornua gives the appearance of a cone-shaped
bag, pointing to one side, the right or left, as the case may
be ; and when both are inverted two cones are observed.
When the cornuae are only partially inverted they present a
cylindrical shape, the lower end of which terminates in a
blind pouch. Prolapsus uteri may be simple or complicated.

Causes. — Many suggestions as to the real cause of in-
version have been made, yet on this point some doubt still
exists. Fortunately, it does not take place so frequently in
the mare as in the cow and other animals, anatomical con-
formation, in all probability, interfering in the absence of
powerful causes. As the accident nearly always succeeds
parturition, attempts have been made to establish its con-
nexion with, and dependence upon, the effects of mal-
position, difficult and assisted labour ; although it may, and
even does follow such, yet we have the experience that many
vigorous animals, in whom birth has been quite natural and
easy throughout, have without any previous indication of
mischief suddenly exhibited the worst form of inversion.
Doubtless also there are many — quite as many, if not more —

503

Inversion of the Uterus.

cases in which delivery has been very difficult and laborious,
and attended with much violent human action, yet inversion
has not taken place ; and, keeping this and many other
circumstances in view, the best minds have concluded that
certain predisposing conditions are necessary — such as a
placid non-contracting uterus, relaxation of the broad liga-
ments, flaccidity, weakness and dilatation of the os uteri — con-
ditions which are immensely aggravated by want of tone
generally in the system, as the result of previous exposure,
hardships, bad food, various debilitating diseases, &c. The
pressure of the abdominal muscles being brought to bear
upon an organ in the passive state described, naturally
carries it towards the outlet ; and judging that antiperistaltic
motion is set up from irritation induced internally, it is not
difficult to perceive how easily one portion is inverted, and
quickly succeeded by others.

The retention of the foetal membranes is often a cause of
irritation, and congestion of the mucous internal surface, as a
result of debility, may likewise act as an exciting cause.

Symptoms. — Whatever may be the cause of inversion in
the mare, we find that usually the body of the uterus is first
to protrude in the vagina, and being associated with much
pain and uneasiness, other parts are quickly involved in the
nervous excitement, particularly the abdominal muscles,
inducing involuntary and spasmodic contractions, which end
at length in the organ being turned inside out, and expelled
from the interior of the body, finally by its own weight
falling a considerable length, and forming an immense
tumour, sometimes pear-shaped, or variably having one or
two cone-shaped terminations. In this condition the mucous
lining has become the outer covering ; at first it is simply
reddened, but by exposure to the air, by its own gravity
and infiltration of fluids, it becomes larger, tumefied, and
thickened ; the colour assumes a violet, and eventually a

504 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

mahogany-brown ; circulation is impeded, and the engorge-
ment induces even a darker colour, so that, under these com-
bined conditions, the organ cannot be replaced. Ulceration
or gangrene sets in, and the end of the animal quickly
succeeds. Even before external signs of displacement are
visible the animal evinces great uneasiness by frequent
pawing with the fore-feet, stamping with the hind, and re-
peatedly changing position, lying down, quickly rising and
switching the tail, going backwards, all the time straining,
and gradually forcing the organ outwards : the tumour, at
first small, slightly protrudes ; then, by repeated advances, a
larger portion, until the parts gaining weight suddenly fall,
and the animal, exasperated, endeavours to apply the teeth
to it, or kicks at it 'with the hind-legs. From the simple
form the case, under such acts, passes to the complicated —
injuries arise from violence, dragging on the ground, &c.,
and the engorgement leads to strangulation.

During the earlier stages of the malady the animal expe-
riences variable periods of relief or cessation from pain, and
signs of fever are not associated. She seeks after food, and
ministers to the wants of her offspring ; but recurring spasm
speedily develops a powerful obstruction to the circulation
as well as excitant to the nervous system, and the pulse is
frequent and somewhat hard, gradually becoming small,
wiry, and, finally, running-dozvn ; the breathing is hurried,
and accompanied with sighing ; the temperature is elevated,
and the body is at length bedewed with perspiration ; the
straining proceeds violently, and the organ is fully everted ;
prostration quickly follows, and the animal prefers to lie,
when from the influence of the combined causes she becomes
insensible, and probably dies in convulsions. Sometimes
before death the mare is giddy, and reels to and fro, owing
to the assumed position, of the uterus accommodating a
larger quantity of blood, and limiting the supply to the

Inversion of the Uterus, 505

brain ; the effect is sometimes such as to cause the animal to
drop as if shot

The event is always to be viewed as alarming, calling for
active, prompt, and efficient measures, and even then death
is most likely to result ; for notwithstanding the uterus may
have escaped outward violence, there are nevertheless in-
ternal lesions to be suspected, such as rupture of the lateral
ligaments, or rupture of the bladder from inability to eva-
cuate it. In some rare instances eversion of the rectum or
bladder may be associated with prolapsus, that of the vagina
nearly always being present more or less.

Treatment. — The first care is to have the uterus cleansed
from all adhering substances by careful washing in tepid
water, or milk and water ; or it may be advisable to use
cold water, astringent or opiate lotions to reduce congestion,
and relieve nervous excitement The flagging powers of
the sufferer should be recruited by stimulants, as ammonia j
and violent straining opposed by chloroform, belladonna,
opium, &c.

In order to restore the organ to the abdomen, the animal
must be caused to stand ; but when debility is too great to
admit of this, the hind-quarters may be raised by bundles of
straw, or, as practised by some veterinarians, by cords
attached to the hind-pasterns, and drawn over a beam. If
the mare stands, the twitch, and probably the hobbles and
side lines, may be required, and pinching the back will form
another means of attracting the attention. A moistened
sheet having been placed beneath the uterus, the ends of
which are held by assistants, the whole is to be raised to a
level with the vulva, and, supposing the organ to be either
not wholly everted or swollen to any great extent, the
closed fist is to be placed against the central portion, and
steady, careful pressure exerted in carrying the mass through
the vaginal passage, and eventually into the abdomen. If

5o6 Diseases of the Organs of Generation,

much straining occurs, the operator must remain merely
passive during the throes, advancing only during the
moments of cessation ; neglect of this precaution has caused
rupture of the organ. If, on the other hand, the organ is
wholly everted, and probably swollen, the return must be
attempted by pressure on the sides near the vulva, the use of
the closed fist being withheld until the major part of the
organ has been returned, when the operator proceeds as first
described. Reduction of the swelling in the uterus may be
greatly accomplished by the use of cold water, more particu-
larly if the organ is held somewhat higher than the level of
the vulva ; while Continental veterinarians enhance the pro-
cess by applying also compression by means of long towels
or pieces of linen passed round and gradually tightened,
after which the return of the uterus is accomplished with
considerable less difficulty.

The next step is to avoid the expulsion of the organ, and
one of the most common yet effectual means consists of
retaining the hand within it for some time, in order to stimu-
late the walls to contract, after which the straining gradually
ceases ; in addition, ether, chloroform, chloral, &c., may be
employed to combat the tendency, and very robust animals
may sustain a moderate blood-letting. Tincture of opium or
belladonna may be injected into the womb ; enemas of opium
or chloral hydrate can be thrown into the rectum, or morphia
may be administered by the endemic method. The hind-
quarters should be raised in the stall by litter, and a strap or
surcingle should be tightly buckled round the middle of the
body. The bowels should receive attention, and the food
allowed be sloppy and nutritious.

The after-retention of the womb is often a matter of much
concern to the practitioner, and for this purpose all manner
of straps, harness, &c., have been adopted. Continental
veterinarians are partial to the use of pads or pessaries,

507

Inversion of the Utertis.

which are held in contact with the os uteri, and so constructed
that the animal may urinate without difficulty, and, as the
accident of inversion of the uterus is often unlooked-for
and sudden, when preparations have not been thought of,
various extemporaneous plans have from time to time been
adopted, and often proved successful.

Of the many forms of truss we have generally selected the
most simple that could be devised at the time, and from the
materials available. For this purpose we have cut up an
old breech-band, giving the leather a form as shown in
Fig. 173 ; and, in order to secure it to the proper place,
ropes are passed through the holes on each side, top and

bottom, and secured to a surcingle and neck collar. Occa-
sionally the rope alone is used, as first practised by Conti-
nental veterinarians, forming a noose and knot (Fig. 174),

which is placed on the vulva, the loose ends being
carried over the back and beneath the abdomen to be
secured to the neck collar. An iron ring of three inches
diameter will sometimes answer the same purpose, and on
this many improvements have been made, in which iron
frames of different shapes are made use of, all taking the

5o8 . Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

place of the leather plate already described. In securing
these appliances by means of ropes the practitioner will
pack them at all prominent parts by means of rags, towels,
wisps of hay, &c., and thus avoid chafing.

Stitches are sometimes used by veterinarians, being passed
from the lips of the vulva of one side to the other ; but
these are apt to cause irritation, and are now wisely dis-
carded in favour of the truss plate of leather or iron.

Besides the truss, a contrivance, termed a plug or pessary,
is used to prevent the return of the uterus, being placed
inside the vagina, and in close contact with the os uteri.
Many are the kinds also of this contrivance, a glass bottle
and the inflated bladder of an ox or pig being the most
common, while many devices of iron and india-rubber have
been constructed after their model. The ordinary bladder
and caoutchouc bag are placed in situ, and afterwards
inflated, and generally answer pretty well, a staff of wood of
moderate strength being connected therewith, and which is
secured to the truss on the outside ; the glass bottle has
the disadvantage of being liable to fracture, and in place of
this, the common wooden potato mash, of similar shape and
small size, having a handle which comes in very usefully as
an agent whereby it may be secured, has frequently done
good service. We give an illustration of the instrument

(Fig. 175), and do not
see why an inexpensive
article of this kind,
turned in various sizes

Fig. 175.- Wooden Pessary.

kept ready for use. This, with a leather or metallic truss plate
for the vulva, should be comprised in the list of surgical
instruments of every practitioner who resides in a breeding
district.

509

Rupture of the Uterus.

Rupture of the womb may occur during parturition, when
the animal is straining violently to expel the foetus. It may
arise spontaneously from the weight and action of twin foetuses
before parturition, and when attempts are being made to
return the organ after inversion following parturition.

Sympto7us. — When animals during parturition are excited
to violent straining, and the acts suddenly cease, especially
when are added an indifference to surrounding things,
exhaustion, and peculiar haggard expression of countenance,
the reasonable inference is that rupture has taken place.
The mare speedily lies down, if already standing, and no
inducements succeed in making her rise ; the foetus, which
may have been making fair progress, now slips back into the
uterus, and, if the rent is large, as the organ contracts the
foal is found entirely within the cavity of the abdomen —
among the bowels.

The animal becomes cold, a clammy perspiration settles
over the body, she sighs distressingly, breathes with difficulty
and gasps ; the pulse runs down, and under extreme pros-
tration she lies at full length on the side, and often quietly
expires. We have remarked a number of such cases among
animals subjected to empirical means for delivery, which
have not first secured a proper adjustment of the foetus
under malposition, as well as in other instances where no
interference whatever has been attempted.

Profuse haemorrhage is frequently associated with rupture
of the uterus during pregnancy, the escape of blood within
the abdomen giving rise to peritonitis. When the rent in
the uterus is small, as sometimes happens along with
eversion, the wound may be closed by the continuous suture,
the ends being left on the inner side, when the organ may
be returned. Such cases sometimes do well.

510 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

Treatment. — Although the prospects of saving the life of
the mother are so shadowy as to be considered absent, yet
it may be desirable to attempt to save the foetus. The
course is to remove it from the uterus by means of the
Caesarian operation, previous to which the mare is destroyed
by “ pithing or, first being cast with hobbles, the abdomen
is opened, next the uterus, and the foal removed ; the mare
is then killed by severing the abdominal aorta (Plate IIP),
which is readily reached after the cavity has been opened
and foal extracted.

Rupture of the Abdominal Muscles.

This untoward event may occur as a result of the extreme
weight of twin foals during the violent throes of parturition.
In our experience it took place in Clementina, dam of Bay
Middleton, the property of the (fifth) Earl of Jersey, and in
connexion with dropsy of the womb, about ten gallons of
fluid occupying the interior, together with two fine colt foals
by Orlando. The enormous weight of these caused the
abdominal walls to give way, and the intestines fell to the
ground, upon which the unfortunate creature was destroyed.

Other practitioners refer to hernia of the womb, in which
the skin alone remains uninjured after rupture of the
abdominal walls, and forming a monstrous tumour, which
proves equally fatal.

Vaginitis.

Inflammation of the vagina is generally a subordinate
affection to ordinary metritis and metro-peritonitis, by which
it ceases to call for special notice and treatment ; but it
occurs independent of those diseases, and chiefly from the
effects of bruises, lacerations, &c., inflicted during difficult
parturition by instruments, or the passage of an unusually
large foetus, and from other causes which give rise to pro-
longed irritation.

V aginitis.

511

Symptoms. — The vulva is swollen and the labia are
pendulous. The mucous membrane is dry, reddened deeply,
or perhaps studded with a few patches of vesicles clustered
closely, and an adhesive but scanty discharge glues the
surfaces together. There may be also abrasions of the
membrane, patches of congestion, and the general hue
turning to a brown or dark purple. As the animal urinates
pain is evident, and she whisks the tail, stamps the hind-feet,
and endeavours to rub the parts against the stall or some
other object. The walls of the canal are hot and painful,
the thermometer indicating a local elevation of temperature,
and in some instances also constitutionally, together with
collateral signs of fever, constipation, &c. At first the dis-
charge is thin, being simply an increased mucous secretion,
but as the inflammation proceeds pus is mingled together
with streaks of blood, and as the fluid drops on the hocks
and thighs its irritating effects are productive of the loss of
hair on the surfaces over which it flows.

Vaginitis per se is a simple disease of short duration,
often subsiding within a few days, especially under ap-
propriate treatment. When under certain aggravated or
complicated conditions it is associated with extensive con-
gestions, gangrene, sloughing, &c., special treatment is called
for, which will be alluded to under metro-peritonitis.

Treatment. — The passage should first be well cleaned by
means of warm solutions of carbolic acid, and a dose of
saline administered internally.

Recipe No. 127.

Take of solution of acetate of ammonia 2 fl. oz.

Nitrate of potash 2 drs.

Infusion of quassia i pint.

Mix, and administer three such doses at intervals of
twelve hours.

512 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

The vagina may then be syringed daily, the following
forms of solution being used : —

Recipe No. 128.

Take of sulphate of zinc 60 grs.

Carbolic acid j

Glycerine 1 oz.

^Vater i pj^t.

Mix ; when the salt is dissolved the solution is ready for
use. Inject twice daily.

- Recipe No. 129.

Take of solution of chloralum ... i dr.

Glycerine i oz.

Laudanum i

Water i pint.

Mix, and inject twice daily.

When febrile signs run high, and are evidently persistent
or increasing, the attention of the practitioner will be par-
ticularly needed to be on the alert for putrid infection, when
the grave conditions of metritis or metro-peritonitis may
supervene.

Leucorrhcea.

Leucorrhoea, or the whites, consists of a discharge of a
white, glutinous fluid, having no odour, which takes place
from the lining membrane of the vagina, as a result of a
chronic condition following neglected vaginitis, the acute
signs of which have disappeared, and the surfaces are under
some morbid excitement to excessive secretion. The fluid
is generally nothing more than mucus, sometimes regular, at
others intermittent, appearing only when the animal lies
down, moves, or urinates ; more rarely it assumes an acid
odour, and may become purulent and dark-coloured. If
the disease proceeds without treatment or mitigation the
os uteri may participate, and with it the whole generative
organs are roused to an unusual excitement, which takes

Leucorrho&a,

513

the form of oestrum, but recurs so frequently that the animal
may not become pregnant by sexual intercourse ; or, if she
conceives, the full time is not reached. It is highly necessary
then to remove these signs of disturbance in order to secure
successful gestation.

When the affection involves the os uteri it will be found
dilated, and the uterus also not sufficiently contracted,
while the discharge may become thinner than when the
vagina alone is affected. To detect these conditions the
practitioner will make an exploration with the hand passed
through the vagina.

Treatment. — As there is seldom any attendant fever, but
rather debility of constitution, the necessary course is to
bring about a healthy state of organs and secretions. For
this purpose the bowels may be opened by means of enemas
and the following draught : —

Recipe No. 130.

Take of linseed oil 8 oz.

Solution of aloes 3 „

Tincture of gentian 2 „

Mix, and administer after a fast of several hours.

Allow good and easily digested food, of which oats, the
roots, &c., form the bulk, and give the following powders in
the food morning and night : —

Recipe No. 131.

Take of sulphate of iron 3 oz.

Carbonate of soda i „

Ground gentian 3 „

„ ginger 3 „

Mix, and form twelve powders.

As a dressing for the vagina make up the following : —
Recipe No. 132.

Take of tannic acid 2 drs.

Spirits of wine i oz.

Laudanum ^ „

Water i pint.

514 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

This may be used by means of the ordinary syringe, an
india-rubber tube, or, if the os uteri is affected, by means of
a small sponge carried to the part by the hand. It may
also be quite necessary to wash out the uterus thoroughly,
using tepid solutions of the mixture already given, and
pumping the organ full as indicated by a return of the fluid
from the vagina. Twice or even thrice daily this may be
required, when the disease has existed for some time. The
animal should receive regular gentle exercise, and occupy a
well-ventilated building, every means being adopted to confer
quiet and comfort.

Inflammation of the Womb.

As a result of parturition in the mare the womb is liable
to inflammation, partaking of several characters by reason
of the particular tissues or layers involved. Where the sub-
stance of the womb itself only is affected, the disease is
known as metritis and endometritis ; and when in addition the
peritoneal investment is Involved, the term mett'o-peritonitis
is given to it. It is also remarkable that, during the develop-
ment of this malady, a great tendency exists for the animal
to contract a septic or poisoned condition of the blood,
either as a result of the inflammation itself, or from the
absorption of putrid fluids in contact with abraded or
wounded surfaces of the genital organs. From this
characteristic feature of the complaint it is likely to prove
serious and frequently fatal. The forms are acute, subacute,
and chronic.

Sympto^ns, — Among the various females of domestic
animals there appears a variable period in which the disease
is developed ; in the mare it is delayed often longer than in
other females, and in proportion as it may be retarded after
parturition, it is usually estimated to assume less severity
and liability to fatal termination.

515

htjlammation of the Womb,

The mare after delivery, even when unassisted, for a time
apparently progresses favourably ; the young is nourished
by a plentiful supply of milk, the functions of nature are
performed properly, and there is no disturbance to create
suspicion of non-recovery from the effects of the act of par-
turition. In a day or two the animal temperature has risen
considerably, and the external genital organs are swollen.
Occasional shivering fits are observed, and the hair is erect
on the skin ; the pulse is accelerated, small and hard, num-
bering from 90 to 100 per minute; the legs and ears are
cold ; the appetite is diminished, and shortly absent alto-
gether ; the secretion of milk is lessened, and at length
ceases, the udder becoming soft, small, and flaccid ; the
mouth is hot and dry, or the membrane is covered with a
thick secretion ; the visible mucous membranes are injected,
and the respiration becomes hurried and short ; colicky
pains appear, and cause the animal to scrape, stamp, and kick
at the abdomen, occasionally lying down, but quickly rising
again, whisking the tail, and turning the nose to the flank.
Sometimes lameness accompanies the disease, and from this
cause, as well as the original disease, the animal refuses to
lie down after a time, remaining in a standing posture, with
back arched and legs fixed in a manner opposed to all
movement. The vulva appears now much more swollen, and
the lips are separated, from between which issues a fluid, first
thin, yellow, and transparent, then reddish or chocolate, or
ultimately thick, pustular, grumous, or foetid. The internal
cavity is hot and tender, and sometimes ulcers, together
with a copious inflammatory exudate of a croupous nature,
cover the surface of the membrane. If the peritoneum is
involved, the cavity of the abdomen enlarges from the accu-
mulation of serum, and the symptoms acquire greater in-
tensity, death terminating the sufferings in three, four, five,
or six days, proportionate to the severity of the attack, and

33—2

5i6 Diseases of the Gi^gans of Generation,

usually in violent convulsions or a profound coma, which
has appeared somewhat rapidly.

In some instances the signs, probably intimating the
worst, suddenly disappear, and the attendants find the
animal bright and cheerful some hours after being left in
apparently a hopeless condition. When this happens, care-
ful domestic treatment hastens recovery in a marked
manner. On the other hand, the disease may assume
chronic states ; the uterus has contracted at the neck, but
the secretion of copious fluids is by no means diminished,
and these accumulating sometimes cause an enlargement of
the abdomen, but at long intervals are discharged in large
quantities, either when the animal lies down, during the
passage of faeces, or in straining in the occasional fits of
colic which are now present. The external conditions are
also remarkable, as' the animal becomes poor, weak, and
unhealthy-looking ; the skin is dirty and clings to the
bones, and she is constantly desiring access to the male ;
emaciation proceeds, febrile conditions are frequent, and
death follows from pyaemia.

Post-mortem Appearances. — These partake of essential
characters, depending upon the presence or absence of
putrid blood poisoning, in conjunction with the disease, a
combination known as septiccemia. In true metro-perito-
nitis the evidences of disease are confined to the organs of
generation and peritoneum ; but when blood infection has
taken place the body swells from generation of gases within
the abdomen — meteorism — and decomposition ensues at an
early period. The surfaces of membranes are marked by
blood spots — ecchymosis — and the natural colour of all the
organs and tissues is destroyed, being replaced by a dark
green, merging into dark or mahogany-brown, and even
black patches ; a foetid gas escaping, not only when cut into,
but also from their surface when intact. The mucous mem-

517

Inflmnmation of the Wojnb,

brane of the vagina and uterus is studded with ulcers of a
dark or dirty-green hue, the membrane itself being swollen,
of a dark-red colour, and covered by a series of exudative
layers, other parts being swollen and thickened from sub-
total infiltration. The internal cavity of the uterus contains
a large quantity of fluid, grey or chocolate, being a com-
bination of disintegrated blood elements, mucous secretions,
and retained portions of foetal membranes, all of which are
undergoing rapid decomposition, as betokened by the offen-
sive odour given off. This fluid often amounts to many
gallons, and contains, besides the above-named component
parts, bacteria, the usual low organisation of animalcules at-
tendant on septic conditions, epithelial debris, fat globules,
&c. — characters which render it at once a dangerous agent to
be exposed to the air in the neighbourhood of animal life.
When the peritoneum has become inflamed, the abdominal
cavity contains a large quantity of serum of a reddish colour
and turbid consistence, in which flakes of lymph are often
somewhat abundant. Throughout the cavity, but particu-
larly over the uterus, the membrane is inflamed, and false
membranes having formed, they become the means of
union between the various organs of the cavity. Occa-
sionally this inflammation may be localised over the uterus
and pelvic viscera, which may be involved in a general state
of substratal phlegmonous inflammation, from which pro-
ceeds extensive infiltration, and even abscess. In some
closely observed cases, inflammation of the veins of the
womb (uterine phlebitis) appears, resulting from damage
done to the vessels during difficult and protracted parturi-
tion ; indeed, such may be the nature of the lesion that
numerous thrombi form, and this may lead to purulent in-
fection, and by the passage of fluids within the circulation
lead to serious and fatal consequence.s.

When the disease becomes chronic, and apart from septic

5i8 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

infection, or peritoneal inflammation, the uterus contains a
large quantity of fluid of a grey colour, opaque, muco-puru-
lent, and often highly offensive. The lining membrane has
become thickened or indurated, and of a grey colour ; some-
times portions have become spongy, softened, and infil-
trated— states which are occasionally continued throughout
the vagina also.

TreaUnent. — This must be prompt and decisive to be sucv
cessful, even when commenced early ; but, as is too often
the case, delay in seeking assistance renders the probability
of any good from the use of remedies very doubtful. The
bowels should be immediately cleared by a brisk purga-
tive ; as bleeding cannot be well withstood in this disease,
the bowels may be usefully converted into a valuable
channel by which the poisonous ingredients are exhausted
from the blood under septic conditions, while the action will
prove equally serviceable under the ordinary forms of in-
flammation. In the first, where there is great tendency to
depression, the following mixture may be given ; —

Recipe No. 133.

Take of solution of aloes 6 to 10 fl. oz.

Tincture of aconite 10 to 20 drops.

Nitric ether, or 2 fl. oz.

Aromatic spirits of ammonia i „

Mix. If the ammonia is selected in preference to the
ether, a pint of cold water must be added.

When the case is believed to be free from blood poison-
ing, the ether and ammonia are to be omitted.

The next course is to wash out the vagina, and examine
the membrane for ulcers, to which a free dressing of solu-
tions of carbolic acid, or Condy’s fluid, are to be applied J
indeed, these fluids require to be injected periodically, in
order to destroy the action of decomposing fluids in contact
with the membranes.

519

Inflammation of the Womb.

The bowels having shown signs of action, the neutral
salts may be given, at the same time great attention must
be paid to the state of the pulse and temperature. As anti-
septic salts, the sulphites of soda and potash may be given,
alternated with the carbonate or nitrate.

Recipe No. 134.

Take of sulphite of soda or potash 2 oz.

Aromatic spirits of ammonia i fl. oz.

Water i pint.

Dissolve the salt in the water and add the ammonia, and
give morning and night.

Sulphurous, carbolic, and cresyllic acids are variously em-
ployed as constitutional remedies for destroying the effects
of septic matters in the blood, and when these fail to accom-
plish the desired action sufficiently early in critical cases, it
has been recommended to pass these agents, together with
'iodine or ammonia as required, at once into the general
circulation. For this purpose the jugular vein is opened,
and the fluids are introduced by means of appropriate funnel-
shaped instruments, provided with a stilette or stopcock, in
order to regulate the flow.

The precautions necessary are — the small ivory mount
which terminates the india-rubber tube is inserted downwards
in the vein after the funnel is charged with the medicine ;
the fluid must be a perfect solution, of the temperature of
the blood in health (99° F.), dilute, and administered in small
quantities.

In chronic states, evacuate the uterus by means of a suit-
able tube or the syringe, promote contraction by doses of
ergot of rye, and attend to the general condition of the patient
by supporting with stimulants and tonics.

Recipe No. 135.

Take of sulphate of iron, powdered 3 oz.

Nitrate of potash „ 3 „

Ground gentian 6 „

520 Diseases of the Organs of Generation.

Take of nitric ether
Gentian, powdered..
Water

2 fl. oz.
4 drs.

I pint.

Mix, and give daily at noon.

To the uterus and vagina apply dilute solutions of carbolic
acid and the various antiseptics, and proceed as stated under
Leucorrhoea.

Prevention. — The prevention of this disease consists of
disposing carefully by prompt and effectual interment of all
parts of animals dying of putrid or other diseases on the
premises where pregnant mares are confined. Men who
have assisted at the delivery of cows or mares, or have
removed the retained membranes, and otherwise assisted
animals under difficult parturition, should not go direct to
others in labour without first washing and disinfecting.
Instruments, ropes, &c., should always be well cleansed
and disinfected also before being employed on a second case,
strong and hot solutions of carbolic acid and soap being
made up for the purpose. When an animal dies of this
disease, all others pregnant should be removed to a separate
building as soon as possible, as the danger of putrid infection
is great.

The reader who is desirous of studying the subject of dif-
ficult parturition, with its attendant consequences, more fully,
will do well to consult the work entitled “A Text-book
on Veterinary Obstetrics,” by George Fleming, M.R.C.V.S.,
containing much valuable matter com^piled from Continental
and other sources, which will form a useful reference for
the practitioner, and handy book on a subject so inti-
mately connected with the welfare of all our domesticated
animals.

SECTION VIII.

DISEASES OE THE EYES AND
THEIR APPENDAGES.

DISEASES OF THE EYES AND
THEIR APPENDAGES.

Figs. 176 and 177. — Sectioiis of tne Eyeball.

a. Conjunctiva or outer mem-
brane.

h. Cornea.

c. Iris.

d. The opening called the

pupil.

e. Crystalline lens.
y. Central artery.
g. Vitreous humour.

%. Ciliary muscle, the agent
which regulates or ad-
justs the eye in vision.

i. Sclerotic or outer coat.

k. Choroid or vascular coat.

1. The retina — nervous mem-
brane—an expansion of
the optic nerve, on the
soundness of which sight
depends.

7n. Hyaloid membrane invest-
ing the vitreous humour.

n. Optic nerve communicat-

ing with brain.

o. Anterior chamber.

p. Posterior ,,

q. Canal of petit, or space

surrounding the crystal-
line lens.

a. Superior oblique muscle.

b. ,, straight

c. Retractor muscle, which

draws the eyeball back-
wards.

d. External straight muscle.

e. Inferior ,, ,,

f. ,, oblique ,,

g. Cornea, showing the iris

and pupillary opening.

h. The sclerotic or outer coat.

Ophthalmia.

By this term is implied inflammation of those structures of
the eye which are essential to vision ; but in order to convey
a more distinct idea of the exact seat of the various forms of
disease affecting special parts or single structures, the generic
term is laid aside, and subordinate ones are made use of.
Thus, we have simple ophthalmia ; periodic ophthalmia ;

524 Diseases of Eyes and Appendages,

retinitis ; iritis, &c. The several structures of which the eye
is composed, together with their situation, will be best under-
stood by a reference to Figs. 176 and 177, which are placed
at the head of this chapter. Although by making this
anatomical distinction, and recognising special functions in
each part, it is possible to trace the existence of disease
localised in any one of them, yet it is not uncommonly found
that few cases are observed in which the whole, or greater
part of the structures, are not involved more or less ; and,
further, that after repeated attacks, especially under the
operation of constantly prevailing causes, blindness is almost
certain to follow, in consequence of the extension of the
inflammatory process to the whole of the tissues of the eye
proper.

Simple Ophthalmia — Conjunctivitis.

Simple ophthalmia is a term employed to denote a condi-
tion totally distinct from another form, to be noticed sub-
sequently— viz., specific ophthalmia ; it is likewise known as
superficial ophthalmia, by way of further distinction ; as con-
junctivitis, inflammation of the conjunctiva ; as corneitis, or
inflammation of the cornea ; and, in consequence of the fre-
quency with which it is known to arise from external causes,
it is called traumatic ophthalmia.

The causes are — external violence, as blows, the stroke of
a whip ; effects of cold, insinuation of foreign bodies, as the
eyelashes being turned inwards, grit, oat-flyers, &c. The
parts generally implicated in the disease are the cornea, or
convex portion of the eyeball, which forms the most promi-
nent visible portion, and is covered externally by a fine,
delicate membrane — the conjunctiva — a reflection of that
which lines the eyelids, and an elaborated form of the skin
itself ; these being involved in inflammation, give rise to the
terms corneitis and conjunctivitis. Their approximation

525

Simple Ophthalmia.

will scarcely admit of any freedom from participation in
morbid action affecting one of them : when one is attacked
the other is attacked also, as the conjunctiva acts as one of
the means of nutrition by its bloodvessels, which pass to the
cornea beneath.

Symptoms. — Constitutional disturbance always accompanies
derangement of the structures of the eye, but varies in inten-
sity with the amount of inflammation present and extent of
tissue involved. Injurious effects are usually confined to one
eye only ; but, as a result of cold, the disease may affect both.
The pulse is accelerated, more or less full and hard ; the mouth
is hot, and the animal has sometimes lost his appetite. The
eyelids are closed, occasionally swollen, and as they are seen
to twitch, copious tears escape from the commissures, and
shortly a track is formed down the face, along which the hair
is eventually removed. The animal resists an attempt to
examine the interior, and presses the eyelids together, at the
same time retracting the eyeball, and throwing the haw, or
membrana nictitans, completely over the front. The eye
must be exposed, which is done by placing the finger and
thumb respectively upon the upper and lower lids, separating
and everting them, when the cornea will be observed to pos-
sess a bluish-grey colour, from the infiltration of inflamma-
tory products among the several layers of its composition ;
and the conjunctiva lining the eyelids is red and injected,
exhibiting a number of red streaks, commonly expressed as
being bloodshot. Occasionally, over the white portion of the
eyeball — sclerotic coat — also will be seen the same red
streaky condition.

The results of external violence may sometimes be de-
tected in an intense opaque spot on the cornea, or patch of
extravasation — ecchymosis — upon the inner surface of the
eyelids. The presence of foreign bodies is usually appa-
rent upon examination in the manner pointed out.

526 Diseases of Eyes and Appendages.

Treatment. — Remove foreign bodies at once by means of

forceps (Fig. 178) — an operation which will often call for

the restraint of the nose-twitch

and holding up a fore-leg. We

have even been compelled to cast

Fig. iy%.— Forceps for seizmg the patient before succeeding. The
foi'eign bodies in the Eye. 1 • -i 1 • 1

power which the animal possesses

over the membrana nictitans often proves very obstructive to

the efforts of the operator in seizing the foreign body. It

may therefore be necessary to transfix the haw by means of

a proper hook — tenaculum (Fig. 1 79) — or needle and thread,

Fig. 179. — The Tejiaculum.

and thus draw it away from the foreign object. When that is
removed but little more is required beyond placing the animal
in a dark but well-ventilated stable, using frequent hot fomen-
tations by means of a decoction of poppy-heads, or water
containing laudanum, tincture of belladonna, &c. Afterwards
the eye may be covered by a light cloth fixed to the head-
stall, and saturated with one or other of the following
lotions : —

Recipe No. 137.

Take of solution of acetate of ammonia 6 fl. oz.

Spirits of wine 2 „

Water i pint.

Mix, and keep in a tightly corked bottle for use as

required.

Recipe No. 138.

Take of tincture of opium 4 fl. oz.

Water i quart.

Mix.

Recipe No. 139.

Take of tincture of opium 4 A* oz.

Solution of Goulard’s extract of lead 2 „

Water i quart.

Mix.

Simple Ophthalmia, 527

Internally, the administration of a mild laxative will be of
service ; or a powder composed of the following may be
given, morning and night, in the food: —

Recipe No. 140

Take of nitrate of potash, powdered 4 drs.

Coriander seeds, powdered 2 „

Mix.

The employment of belladonna or hyoscyamus in the form
of extract to the outer parts, as the eyebrows, &c., will be
found invaluable, especially when, by reason of the iris
becoming involved in the process of inflammation, adhesions
are probable. Such remedies have the power of causing the
iris to contract, and thus break down any attachments that
may have already formed by that process. Some practi-
tioners use a solution of atropine instead.

Recipe No. 141.

Take of solution of the sulphate of atropia 3 or 4 grs.

Distilled water i fl. oz.

Mix and dissolve. A few drops to be placed within the
eyelids, morning and evening.

Adhesions, by the formation of false membranes, &c.,
within the iris, prevent its contraction, by which the pupil is

Fig. t8o. Fig. 181. — The Pupil contracted.

diminished. A^ stationary iris (Fig. 180) is known by the
wide and open pupil, and inability to contract as in health
(Fig. 1 81).

528 Diseases of Eyes and Appendages,

Opacity of the Cornea.

One of the attendant signs of simple ophthalmia is the
spreading of a white opaque film over the cornea, which
gives rise to partial or total blindness as long as it remains.

This opacity arises in two
ways (Fig. 182) ; if the in-
flammatory action is due
to a blow, the effects of
which are localised in a
particular spot on the cor-
nea, the opacity spreads or
radiates from that point,
eventually covering the
whole of the cornea ; but
when the ophthalmia is the
result of cold or constitutional causes the film then com-
mences from the outer side, and continues to spread and close
in until the whole surface is involved. The reason of the
opacity is simply this : the process of inflammation insures
the infiltration of dense fluid within the layers or scales
of which the cornea is composed, and by this they are
swollen and thickened, an effect which at once destroys
the natural transparency. It is not, therefore, due to an
outer film or covering, as often erroneously supposed, but
an internal adventitious or interstitial deposit of coagulable
fluid, which even of itself is sufficient to cause blindness by
opacity.

Treatment. — There need be no hurry to have this opacity
removed. First, let all the energies and attention be directed
towards reducing the actual inflammation of the local disease,
as already directed ; when that is decidedly accomplished, and
fears of returning febrile symptoms are no longer entertained,
one of the following preparations may be made use of : —

Fig. 182. — Opacity of the Cornea.

Nebula — Albugo — Leucoma. 529

Recipe No. 142.

Take of solution of chloralum ‘ i fl. dr.

Water i pint.

Mix.

Recipe No. 143.

Take of sulphate of zinc, powdered i dr.

Water i pint.

Mix, and dissolve. Either of the above may be used to
wet the outer part of the eyes several times a day, a piece
of soft rag or a sponge being a useful agent ; a few drops of
the solution may be allowed to enter the eyelids also.

Recipe No. 144.

Take of iodide of potassium 4 grs.

Water, distilled i fl. oz.

Mix ; a few drops to be placed upon the opaque surfaces
by means of a feather or camel-hair pencil, while the eyelids
are separated for the purpose.

Nebula — Albugo — Leucoma.

Sometimes, after the subsidence of all other signs of
simple ophthalmia, the general opacity or milky-looking
cloud gradually contracts towards one particular spot, and
there gives indications of remaining. One or more of these
spots may be present, having a bluish colour, and as such are
known as nebulce ; during later stages the blue cast dis-
appears, and the speck assumes a pearly-white colour, the
edges being sharp and more accurately defined, and is then
termed albugo. Under some circumstances a further con-
dition is observed : there is loss of substance in the centre of
a patch of opacity, or a small ulcer has formed, generally
traceable to malnutrition, debility, and weakness of the
patient. Such a state, fortunately not so commonly seen
in the horse as in the dog, is distinguished by the term
leucoma.

530 Diseases of Eyes and Appe7^dages,

Treatment. — The white or bluish-white specks are
cicatrices — spots of healing and contraction of the effused
material — and often become permanent blemishes ; therefore
are an unsoundness in proportion as they are large, and
interfere with vision. When they are small, situate at the
outer edge of the cornea, and away from the pupillary
opening, and known to be old-standing, they need not form
an objection to purchase. When recent, they may be stimu-
lated by a solution of nitrate of silver, or the iodide of
potassium. No. 144, page 529.

Specific or Periodic Ophthalmia.

This disease has been variously styled specific ophthalmia,
from the peculiar constitutional conditions which give rise to,
or are associated with it ; and periodic, from the certainty
with which it recurs in the same individual after the first
attack. It has also been termed “ moon blindness,” in con-
sequence of an original and erroneous belief that it was
influenced by the changes of the moon.

Nature. — Periodic ophthalmia consists of inflammation of
the whole of the structures of the eye, intermittent in
character, due to some constitutional peculiarity, known as
diathesis or cachexia (see Glossary), and terminating in an
opacity of the crystalline lens, called cataract.

Symptoms. — One eye only is, as a rule, affected, and the
attack frequently comes on during the night, so that in the
morning the animal is seen with lids closed, and scalding
tears profusely coursing down the cheeks. The eye alto-
gether is smaller than the sound one, being drawn within
the orbit, and covered by the haw, to shield it from the
painful effects of light. The sufferer is very averse to an
examination, but by care this may be effected, when the
cornea will be found to possess a hazy appearance, with a

specific or Periodic Ophthahnia. 531

tinge of amber, probably due to the general inflammation of
internal structures ; the dulness proceeding from the outside
towards the centre of the cornea, until the whole assumes a
grey hue, and entirely obscures the vision, as well as prevents
the iris, pupil, &c., being seen from without The internal
humours become turbid, the pupil contracts, and as the con-
junctiva becomes turgid with blood, vessels are observed to
come into sight over the surface of the cornea ; the formation
of pus may take place in the anterior chamber, and in rare
instances be discharged along with the contents of the eye-
ball through an ulcerated opening in the cornea. The more
common termination, as already said, is cataract or opacity
of the crystalline lens.

Under ordinary circumstances the inflammation subsides
in a few days ; the haziness gradually passing off permits the
observer to notice the lens being altered, and having a
deposit on its surface ; or the pupil may be dilated and fixed
by adhesions from inflammatory deposit, the iris also being
changed in colour from the same cause ; and the eye has
considerably diminished in size, while wrinkles are seen in
the skin on the brows. Sometimes, when the signs have
been gradually subsiding, they reappear, and continue in
great intensity for several days ; or having disappeared
entirely, the animal is left free for weeks, or perhaps months,
when subsequent attacks terminate in absolute blindness.
Then the other may be attacked, eventually becoming per-
fectly useless ; but a common course is for one eye to par-
tially recover when the opposite becomes affected, followed
by an apparent restoration of the first, after which they are
alternately attacked, and at length both become permanently
blind. In some severe cases one attack will terminate in
perfect blindness, and, in addition, complete disorganisation
of the entire structures of the eyeball, which are afterwards
liable to recurring inflammation, and giving rise to a constant

34—2

532 Diseases of Eyes and Appendages,

sanious discharge from the orbit Dislocation of the lens is
not an uncommon occurrence, being discovered after the eye
regains its transparency, and in severe cases ossification of
the structures and contents of the globe.

Treatment. — We can suggest or recommend nothing
beyond that prescribed for the simple form of ophthalmia.
All the measures hitherto adopted have proved useless in
the way of successful treatment. At one time, many years
ago, when the subject of ventilation was not considered of
so much importance, periodic ophthalmia, farcy, and glanders
strode side by side, and in their march through the stables
where large studs were confined, carried off many victims ;
those which escaped death from the second and third, lived
to go blind from the first. These diseases were formerly
the bane of the British army, and until the results of
crowding great nurnbers of animals together were more
closely studied, the public exchequer had to record thousands
of losses which a simple change might have totally averted.
Similar states existed among private studs ; mares and
entire horses alike were continually “ going stone blind,” and
the inevitable results were the breeding of animals either
strongly predisposed to the disease, or in some rare cases
they entered the world already blind. Thus for a long
period the equine stock of Britain was sadly reduced in
value, and until attention was directed to the necessity for
a change, by introducing sound animals, the disease suffered
no mitigation. In the present day breeders rightly reject
animals having small eyes, especially when they are “ odd
eyes,” and the skin above is wrinkled or corrugated ; and the
result is, specific ophthalmia is under all circumstances a
rare disease in comparison with its former prevalence. In
examining the eyes of horses with a view to purchase, there
are a few additional cautions to bear in mind if we would
avoid taking into possession one which may have either

:^pecific or Periodic Ophthalmia, 533

already suffered from an attack, or possessing a strong pre-
disposition towards contracting it. Besides the wrinkled
and furrowed state of the eyebrow, there is an unusual
prominence of the membrana nictitans ; the eye is altogether
sunken and not so brilliant as
the other ; the pupil is gene-
rally smaller (Fig. 183), the
cornea hazy, with a cloud or
milky wreath on the outer
margin ; the iris is discoloured
by streaks or spots of inflam-
matory deposit, and its edges

are sometimes ragged and un- Big. The Eye predisposed

, . , to Specific Ophthalmia.

even ; the conjunctiva is vas-
cular, ^and a constant watery state of the eye is present ;
sometimes a speck of white is already seen in the centre of
the pupil, which decides the presence of incipient cataract.

The reader, in making an examination, will be careful to
observe that a white shirt-front or necktie has often led
persons astray by- the reflection produced, and in order to
obviate such an. occurrence, the animal should be examined
within the stable or other suitable building, the head being
towards the door, and the coat of the examiner buttoned
over any white article of dress. The safest method consists
of placing a lighted candle behind the eye, the examiner
using an instrument known as the ophthalmoscope, the
examination being conducted in a dark building. Another
method is also practised : if the pupil is small, and sensitive
to light, the animal is put into a dark stable and the skin
around the eye dressed with belladonna, which dilates the
pupil for the needful examination. A lighted candle is then
held in front of the eye, and when free from cataract the
organ reflects three images of the flame — two perpendicular
or erect, and one, a smaller, inverted ; one, erect, is seen on

534 Diseases of Eyes and Appendages.

the surface of the cornea ; and the second, also erect, will
be produced on the anterior surface of. the crystalline lens,
both of which move in the same direction as the candle.
The third is an inverted image reflected from the posterior
surface of the crystalline lens, and moves in the contrary
direction to the light. When cataract is present the last of
these phenomena is not observed.

Cataract.

By this term is understood a deposit of inflammatory
products on the surface of the crystalline lens, its capsule,
or upon both, by which the transmission of light through
the pupil is obstructed in proportion to the size of the
deposit A cataract may exist as a mere bluish-white
speck (Fig. 184) ; when larger it partially occludes the

Fig. iZui,— Partial Cataract. Fig. \^^.—Co7nplete Cataract.

pupillary opening, and, when complete (Fig. 185), appears
as a pearly, glistening, and opaque surface behind the pupil,
which is larger than natural, and totally insensible to the
action of the strongest light.

Removal of cataract is frequently practised by the human
surgeon, but the operation is inadmissible in the horse, for
obvious reasons.

Glaucoma.

535

Staphyloma.

In this disease a whitish or bluish-white opaque tumour
forms on the cornea, and from its resemblance to a grape
the term staphyloma has been given to it.

Natitre. — After repeated attacks of ophthalmia, especially
when associated with debilitating diseases, ulceration of the
cornea may follow, when the external
surface, being weakened at that part,
the pressure of internal fluids cause the
inner and more elastic portion to bulge
forwards (Fig. i86). It is a rare dis-
ease in the horse, only one case having
come before us, and perfect blindness
existed.

Treatine7it. — Astringent lotions are
the best applications, but there are few or bulging of the Cornea.
recommendations for pursuing length-
ened treatment in confirmed cases. It will be obvious that
remedial measures are most likely to be successful during
the stage of ulceration, when local applications of nitrate of
silver and iron tonics internally are of benefit.

Glaucoma.

Nature. — A disease of the vitreous humour in which the
hyaloid membrane is said to be absent from absorption,
allowing the contents to become intermingled, giving rise
to blue or bluish-green colour. Blindness is always the
result ; and not unfrequently the disease is associated with
cataract or amaurosis. Professor Williams states he has met
with cases in which the vitreous humour had lost its fluidity,
and totally altered into a semi-cartilaginous or calcareous,
and of course a solid mass. Although the affection may be
said to depend upon previously existing disease, yet there

536 Diseases of Eyes and Appendages.

are undoubted instances in which it has taken place without
such having been observed.

Treatment has not been found of any service.

\MAUROSIS.

Nature. — Amaurosis, sometimes called gutta-serenay glass-
eyey &c., is observed in two forms — one as a result of disease
of the digestive or other organs, poisoning, &c., inducing
serious brain disturbance, and is of course symptomatic ;
and the second as a direct disease of the optic nerve and its
expansion — the retina — over the inner and posterior surface
of the eyeball. In the first condition recovery sometimes
takes place ; in the second never.

Symptoms. — The pupil is extremely dilated, rounded, and
perfectly motionless under the stimulus of strong light, and

the interior presents a
similar appearance to
that observed in looking
into a mass of crystal
when partially surround-
ed by a dark covering
(Fig. 187). The eyelids
are drawn wide apart,
and the aspect of a
broad stare is given.
Fig, 18.7. — Amaurosis. while the evidence of

total blindness is com-
plete in the high-stepping and feeling or cautious kind of
gait, together with the rapid motion of the ears.

Sometimes only one eye is diseased, and it is then not
difficult to decide that disease of one portion of a hemisphere
of the brain is present ; but it more commonly follows
ophthalmia of the periodic kind. As a symptom of other

Ectropium, 537

diseases it will be found under the various subjects, and the
proper treatment for which is also given ; as a disease per se
it is incurable.

Squinting — Strabismus.

Among the lower animals this condition is never observed
but as a result of disease. The irregular action of the
muscles of the eyes, inducing an inward direction of the
pupils — that is, one or both are turned towards the nose — is
always due to some serious state of the brain, such as that
caused by blood poisoning, lead poisoning, acute indigestion,
inflammation of the brain, softening, tetanus, &c.

Diseases of the Appendages of the Eyes.

These are confined to the eyelids, brows, &c.

Ectropium.

l'h«s consists of eversion or turning outwards of the edges
of the eyelids or eyelashes, by which the lining membrane is
exposed, and the cornea (Fig. i88)
is subject to irritation from atmo-
spheric stimulation, giving rise to
a copious flow of tears, conjunc-
tivitis, and even specks and ulce-
ra:tion, a rare disease in the horse ;
we do not remerriber having seen a
case. Professor Williams saw one

Treatment. — The affected lid is
to be withdrawn as far as prac-
ticable, and everted completely,
when nitrate of silver is to be
applied along the conjunctival membrane parallel with
the eyelash ; the parts being carefully wiped afterwards,

538 Diseases of Eyes and Appendages.

to prevent any action on the eyeball. If the surface to
which the caustic was applied is touched with a feather or
pencil dipped in olive-oil, the possibility of danger will be
lessened, if not entirely arrested. If this treatment, repeated
at intervals of four or five days, does not succeed, it may be
necessary to excise an elliptical portion from the conjunctival
surface of sufficient size to cause the requisite contraction.

Entropium.

This is the opposite condition to ectropium, the edges of
the eyelids being turned inwards, rubbing against the eye-
ball (Fig. 189), and producing a great
amount of irritation and profuse lachry-
mation. The condition of the eyelids
may be said to consist of the inner
surface being too short, by which the
outer skin is caused to bulge outwards,
and the edges to be drawn inwards.
It is occasionally seen in horses ; more
commonly in dogs of certain breeds.

Treatment. — We have operated in
several cases as follows : — The usual
precautions being observed, an elliptical portion is excised
from the relaxed portion of the lid, which is at that part
where the skin is very thin, and should be executed as
near the margin of the lid as consistent with safety, and
insertion of sutures subsequently. The animal’s head must
be secured afterwards, or he may rub the parts, and commit
irreparable damage before the parts are healed. A solution
of pure carbolic acid will be found the best application,
applied with a feather, or dropped upon a small piece of
lint held by the sutures over the wound.

Occasionally the eyelashes only are observed to grow m-

Fig. 189. — Eiitropium.

Removing Haw — Cutting out Hacks. 539

wards, and create much irritation, the remedy, for which is
the treatment just given.

Laceration of the Eyelids.

These should be seen to at once, as by delay the portion
hanging down may lose its vitality, and healing or union
thus rendered quite impossible. Recent wounds may be
readily closed by using fine pins, wire, or silk ; after which
heal the wound, and secure the animal as directed under the
preceding paragraph.

Warts occasionally are present, sometimes diffused over
the surface entirely, giving the animal an unpleasant appear-
ance. As such they are difficult to remove ; but when single
and pedunculated, they are easily got rid of by ligatures
placed round the neck or stalk, excision by the knife or
actual cautery. Nitrate of silver, strong acetics, or the
mineral acids, are used in dispersing the former kind.

Removing the Haw — Cutting out the Hacks.

After repeated attacks of inflammation the membrana
nictitans or haw becomes enlarged and thickened, but beyond
being somewhat limited in extent of its movements nothing
worse is likely to ensue. It is, however, remarkable that in
this enlightened nineteenth century there are owners of
horses who are so considerate for the welfare of their animals,
and men so eager to perform operations for supposed dis-
eases, that considerable practice is done in some districts by
men who hardly ever allow an animal to escape them.

It is commonly supposed by those not conversant with
anatomy that the membrana nictitans, or haw, is at least a
useless piece of mechanism, if not a morbid growth. In
addition, being observed to participate more or less in inflam-
mation of the eye, and mistaking its use in passing over the

540 Diseases of Eyes and Appendages.

front to wipe away foreign bodies in the absence of fingers,
it is considered to be a cause of the disease, and is therefore
doomed to removal by the knife.

The reader who happens to be ignorant of the absurdity
of this practice is hereby informed that the haw is a cartila-
ginous or gristly body, placed in the inner angle of the eye
in a bed of fat, which is continued to the back of the orbit.
A muscle, called the “ retractor” (Fig. 177, c), pulls the eyeball
backwards when required, and this pressing on the mass of
fat pushes it forwards on the inner side, and carries before it

the haw (Fig. 190). By its
peculiarity of shape, being
triangular and concave on one
side, it fits the eyeball accu-
rately, while the other con-
forms by its convexity to the
concavity of the lids, which
guide it easily over the sur-
Fig. 190. — The Eyeball pa7'tially CO- face of the cornea. No one
or Haw. lower animals

attempt to remove foreign
bodies from the eye as the human subject does, and, in
the absence of the higher ability and intelligence, such a
contrivance as we have described is at onc-e the most unique
and applicable. When men propose to remove such a
necessary appendage on the strength of excuses that have
no reasonable foundation, the proceeding is an imposture,
and deserves to be treated in a summary manner ; and
when they have tortured an animal by the performance of
the operation, those cognisant of it should immediately
acquaint the Secretary of the Royal Society for the Preven-
tion of Cruelty to Animals, Jermyn Street, St. James’s, W.,
who would at once put a stop to any future attempts.

541

Fungus H^matodes.

Blood fungus or bleeding eaneer consists of a dark-coloured,
bloody-looking, or vascular fungoid tumour protruding from
any part of the body, growing with a rapidity most sur-
prising, and bleeding profusely, even to the great danger of
the animal, upon the slightest disturbance. Although some-
what rare in the horse, it occasionally makes its appearance
in the orbit, first as a small vascular
tumour (Fig, 19 1), and by gradual en-
largement pushes aside the eyeball, which,
together with the bones around, are in-
cluded in the morbid process. Death
results in delayed cases from emaciation
and hectic, the result of interference with
natural functions as well as blood poi-
soning.

Treatment. — In order to get rid of the
malignant mass everything contained
within the orbit must be removed by the knife, the raw
surfaces being freely cauterised by the heated iron, a pro-
ceeding not only called for on account of the profuse
haemorrhage, but also to destroy the chances of the future
development of the tumour. Constitutional remedies will be
called for on account of the attendant fever, and must be
prescribed as the symptoms indicate.

Fig. 191.— Fungus
Hamatodes.

S**'

SECTION IX.

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VIII.

“THE BASE OF THE BRAIN, SHOWING ITS NERVES AND

ARTERIES.

Fig. I. — The Brain^ showing the origin of the nerves. —
A, A, the hemispheres of the cerebrum ; i, i, the first
pair, or olfactory nerves, which confer the faculty of smell ;
a, the sinus, or cavity within the olfactory nerve, exposed ;
2, the second pair, or optic nerves, upon the healthy state of
which vision is dependent ; the decussation, or rather
junction, of the optic nerves ; c, the corpus albicantium, or
pituitary gland ; d, the infundibulum, leading to and joining
the corpus albicantium at the base of the brain ; e, the
crura cerebri ; 3, the third pair, or motores oculorum, which
go exclusively to the eye for motion ; 4, the fourth pair, or
pathetic nerves, which chiefly proceed to the superior oblique
of the eye for motion ; /, the pons Varolii ; 5, 5, 5, 5, the
fifth pair of nerves, or the first pair of mixed nerves, being
distributed principally about the head for motion and
sensation ; although from these spring the gustatory nerves,
or nerves of special sense. The subject from which this
brain was taken had the fifth pair of nerves unusually de-
veloped ; 6, 6, the sixth pair, or abducens, proceeding prin-
cipally to the abductor muscle of the eye for motion ; 7, 7,
7, 7, the seventh pair, or auditory nerves ; being the second
nerves of a mixed character which have originated from the
base of the brain. This pair, however, are only motor and
special ; and do not include the sentient, as did the fifth

Description of Plate VIII.

pair. They consist of two distinct branches. The portio
mollis goes to the internal ear, for the special sense of
hearing ; the portio dura supplies the muscles of the face
with motion ; and hence is spoken of as the facial nerve.
8, 8, a third nerve of a mixed character, named the pneumo-
gastric, principally connecting the brain with the functions
of organic life, presided over by a distinct set of nerves,
called the sympathetic. It divides into three branches : —
(i) the glosso-pharyngeus, proceeding to the tongue and
pharynx ; (2) the pneumogastric, distributed to the larynx,
thorax, and abdomen ; and (3) the spinal accessory (the
small nerve seen to join it coming from the spinal marrow),
which ramifies upon the neck ; 9, 9, the lingual, conferring
motion upon the tongue ; 10, 10, those which are called
the tenth pair do not belong to the cranial nerves, but really
are the first spinal ; the medulla oblongata ; k, h, the
anterior lobes of the cerebrum ; i, f, the posterior lobes of
the cerebrum ; j, j\ the small middle lobes of the cerebrum ;
ky ky the cerebellum.

Fig. 2. — The Arteries of the Brain. — i, i, the vertebrals ;
2, the inferior spinal about to become a single vessel ; 3, 3,
the basilar, giving off transverse branches on either side ;
4, 4, the posterior cerebellar ; 5,5, the anterior cerebellar ;
6, 6, right and left communicating arteries, connecting the
basilar with the circulus arteriosis ; 7, the middle communi-
cating artery, connecting the basilar with the posterior trans-
verse artery ; 8, 8, internal carotids ; 9, 9, the ophthalmics ;
10, 10, the posterior cerebral ; ii, ii, the middle cerebral ;
12, the anterior cerebral, dividing into, 13, 13, the right
and left anterior cerebral ; by Cy dy represents the circulus
arteriosis, or circle of Willis ; formed by the carotids, which
divide into, the posterior transverse ; by the anterior
transverse ; g the left lateral ; and dy the right lateral com-
municating arteries.”

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM.

The category of diseases which can be included under
the above title is by no means an extended one. As far as
the horse is concerned they are few, and for the most part
not easily defined. Although he is gifted with mental
powers of a high order as compared with some animals, yet
he possesses not the least of those which operate with such
potency in mankind ; and on this account he is doubtless
spared much suffering. Nervous affections are also as a
rule few, probably the most frequent being tetanus and
inflammation of the spine.

PiiRENiTis — Inflammation of the Brain.

Synonyms. — Mad-staggers, frenzy, cerebro-meningitis,
encephalitis, inflammation of the brain and its coverings.

We have already referred to this as a symptomatic affec-
tion in conjunction with impaction of the stomach, at
page 307 ; it will now be considered as it arises from other
causes.

Nature. — Phrenitis consists of an inflamed condition of
the brain and its membranous envelopes, giving rise to
effusion within the ventricles and spaces between the brain
and membranes, together with exudation of lymph upon the
brain itself. Phrenitis in its most common form is witnessed

546 Diseases of the Nervo^ls System,

occasionally as an enzootic disease, resulting from overfeeding
upon particular kinds of green food, of which rye-grass
appears to be the most baneful.

Symptoms. — The attack is usually commenced by stupor
and listnessness. As the animal slowly eats his food he
becomes drowsy, nods, and sleeps with portions of his meal
within the lips or teeth, the breathing being slower and

louder, or snoring, than
natural (Fig. 192.) The
circulation is also slow, the
pulse rarely numbering
more than twenty-five or
thirty beats ; but it pos-
sesses volume. If during
this stage of somnolence
the animal is roused by
loud or strange sounds, he
stares round about him
affrighted, but soon re-
sumes the sleepy condition if left to himself, and seeks to
thrust his head against the wall or manger. Occasionally
such attacks are succeeded by rearing up, hanging back,
breaking loose, tearing with the fore-feet at the rack and
manger. Somewhat later the visible mucous membranes
are injected, and at times of a yellow colour ; temperature
of the body is variable, at one time cold, and shortly the
skin is bathed in perspiration ; the superficial muscles are
observed to twitch violently, and general convulsions seize
the frame, giving rise to peculiar and hard breathing, the
animal exhibiting the characters of tetanus or lock-jaw ;
the eyes are wide and staring, but he is now quite blind ;
urine is discharged voluntarily, and the pulse assumes a
hard and wiry sensation under the finger. Debility succeeds
•each attack, from which the sufferer totters, falls, and struggles

Fig. 192.

Phrenitis — The sleepy stage.

Inflammation of the Brain,

547

in convulsive action for some time ; after which quiescence
and consciousness partially return, and upon rising he seeks for
food, but from his movements and liability to run against
everything it is plain that blindness has become quite
developed. In some instances the eyelids droop and cover
the organ, the lips and tongue are paralysed, and hang
flaccid and useless, and the animal is more or less dull and
unconscious from first to last ; while other cases are marked
by a series of alternate fits of madness and stupor. When
the attack seizes the animal at grass, he is generally
found thrusting his head firmly against some stationary
object for support, the limbs being subject to peculiar con-
tortions.

The bowels are obstinately constipated ; the urine is very
scanty, having a deep brown colour ; and, in consequence of
arrestment being placed on the function of the liver, absorp-
tion of bile is shown by the yellow colour of all the tissues.

As the end approaches the attacks of frenzy are more
frequent, but violent and short ; while intervening stages of
coma are likewise prolonged and intensified. Each attack
of convulsions gives rise to greater weakness ; the pulse
becomes small, frequent, and wiry ; the breathing difficult
and snoring ; the legs tremble and bend ; the animal falls,
and he dies sometimes in distressing convulsions, or quietly
passes away in utter insensibility.

Causes. — While experience appears to point to the fact
that isolated cases may depend upon impaction of the
stomach with ordinary food, it is nevertheless highly pro-
bable that other causes exist, and operate largely in the
production of the enzootic form. The disease prevails
perhaps more extensively in Scotland than in any other part
of Great Britain, and is traced to the effects of rye-grass,
which by some authorities is believed to possess narcotic
or toxic properties ; while others trace to the grass the

35—2

548 Diseases of the Nervous System.

existence of peculiar irritant effects in the beard or hair-like
processes growing on the ear. During seasons of scarcity and
unusual dryness we have observed this affection to prevail ;
an occurrence believed to be due to the animals being com-
pelled to consume the harder and coarser kinds of grass,
particularly rye-grass in seed. Besides, it is known that
darnel-grass (the Lolium temiilentuni, or “sturdy”) gives
rise to it, numerous instances being on record of extensive
enzootic attacks among horses being observed on the Con-
tinent, as well as in Britain among other animals. Musty
hay and rusty straw (red-rag, or red-robin, caused by the
fungus Uredo rubigo) have been included among the
number of causes, when, from scarcity of other food and
character of season, animals have little besides for food.

Post-mortem Appearances. — Viewing the origin of phrenitis
as being in some toxic principle of food, the event of impac-
tion of the stomach must not be regarded as material to the
case ; the condition of the mucous lining being reddened and
congested has greater significance, and points to the action
of some local irritant. The organ may be empty, or only
partially filled. The lungs are congested, dark-coloured, and
heavier than natural ; the brain with its coverings are also
congested, and readily lacerated, the substance of the former
being darker than in health ; and when divided by the
knife exhibits the characteristic red points. The lateral
ventricles are filled with a thin fluid, and the network of
vessels — plexus choroides — swollen, engorged with blood,
and may be covered with a film of plastic exudation. When
paralysis has attended the seizure, the spinal cord and
membranes at the loins exhibit states similar to those
common to the brain, to which softening of the substance
may be added. Severe and protracted cases, especially in
aged animals, do not terminate favourably ; those that are
young and vigorous, and in which the symptoms are but

Inflammation of the Brain.

549

slight, usually recover even when paralysis has been present.
When the latter complication exists the animal is liable to
struggle, hurt, and exhaust himself, and by these untoward
conditions retard or prevent recovery.

Treatment. — Full and copious bleeding has a marked
beneficial effect when adopted early, and while the pulse is
full and strong ; beyond this stage it is positively hurtful.
The next course is to administer a strong purgative, at least
ten drams of aloes for a large dray-horse, smaller doses in pro-
portion. Some practitioners substitute one dram of calomel
for two drams of the aloes, thus reducing the latter to eight
drams. The animal must have ample allowances of drinking-
water ; the head kept cool by cold ablutions, wet rags or
evaporating lotions ; and enemas of warm soap and water
thrown up several times daily, in order to expedite the action
of the purgative. The animal requires perfect quiet and
solitude ; and should attacks of violence ensue, the excite-
ment may be combated by the subcutaneous injection of
solution of atropine, or a mixture of tincture of belladonna
and prussic acid. The purgative will not act probably
under sixty hours, but as long as signs are abating, and
return of consciousness is evident, however slow, we must
forbid active interference. In case no response is made after
three days, an additional dose of two or three drams may
be given. Ammonia as a stimulant may be used under
depression or exhaustion, but it will be best to use only
small doses, and so avoid any tendency to excitement.
The iodide and bromide of potassium, with alternate doses
of strychnine, are valuable agents for subsequent use ; the
first to induce reabsorption of exudation and effusion, the
latter to increase nervous tone and power.

Great care must be exercised in the allowance of food,
both as to quantity and quality, throughout the attack ; and
as convalescence proceeds, the caution should also be ob-

550 Diseases of the Nervous System,

served, particularly avoiding such kinds as were known to
give rise to the disorder.

Inflammation of the Substance of the Brain.

Cerebritis or inflammation of the substance of the brain
only is not a common disease, and although its presence
may be suspected, it is not always identified until after
death. The disease is usually associated with strangles in
young horses, or suppurative catarrh in older ones, and
occasionally arises without any evidence of such diseases.

The symptoms are by no means constant or uniform in
every case, the original disease having a tendency to lead
the observer somewhat away from the advent of brain dis-
order ; but at length drowsiness, dragging of the feet and
legs, paralysis of the ear, eyelid, jaw, or lip of one or both
sides, unconsciousness, hard and loud breathing, total blind-
ness, paralysis of portions of the body, one or more limbs,
and eventually death. In some cases, particular or special
signs are present; the sufferer maintains an obstinate practice
of going backwards, forwards, round in a circle, or, if standing,
to keep up some continual movement with one or more
limbs — pawing uneasily with one, stamping with another,
see-sawing with the head, &c. During this time the pulse
is somewhat full and very slow, and for a time the appetite
is good ; and even when paralysis of the lips, &c., has
commenced, he will persevere in the attempt to eat. At
length he becomes weak and exhausted, and falls to the
ground; and if paralysed before that takes place, he struggles
and dies in occasional convulsions, or otherwise in perfect
coma. Urine and faeces are often passed involuntarily during
the disease, or the bowels may be obstinately constipated
until near the termination.

Post-viortem Appearances. — One or more abscesses are

55 >

Epilepsy.

found within the substance of the brain— the medullary
matter — around which the characteristic red points are visible.
The situation of the abscesses vary, but generally are found
near the anterior or front portions. We have found them
occupying entirely the anterior lobes and destroying the
olfactory bulbs, and a single abscess we have noticed situate
between these in the corpus callosum.

Treatment. — Success is very doubtful, and the only
measures needed to be observed are those which insure a
regular state of the bowels at the outset, such as cathar-
tics, &c. In those cases not accompanied by paralysis, it
may be possible to avert the extension of abscess, and
promote resolution. Professor Williams cites an important
case which appears to justify this view, and encourage trial
even when abscess is suspected. On the whole, however,
the prospects are very shadowy.

Epilepsy.

We have already referred to an epileptic form of disease
common to the horse, and described at page 244, as megrims
or vertigo, being caused by a deficiency of blood in the
brain from diminished supply by reason of the pressure of
a tight collar. We have now to notice an affection named
epilepsy — a disease of the brain in some instances, in others
showing no disease whatever of that organ, and probably
owing to some peculiar condition of the blood, or remote
cause producing a diminished supply of blood and nutrition
to the brain. Apart from the presence of abscess, ossifica-
tion, or tumours, &c., affecting the brain, pathologists are of
the opinion that some lesion of that organ always exists in
true epilepsy, and that apparent health is no proof to the
contrary — degeneration of nerve tissue or other occult states
being the cause.

552 Diseases of the Nervous System.

Symptoms. — Epilepsy is apt to be confounded with other
diseases of the nervous system. The prominent and diag-
nostic sign, however, may be accepted to be the suddenness
of attack ; an animal in apparent health stands still in
his stall or during a walk, stares wildly, shakes and throws
up the head, and falls on the ground insensible ; the eyes
are closed, and the whole frame thrown into a succession of
violent convulsive spasms, contractions, and contortions. If
the eyelids are raised the eye itself is observed to be equally
convulsed, and turned inwards — towards the nose — constituting
the appearance of squinting ; occasionally it is fixed. The
urine and faeces are voided without effort, and during the
convulsions the pulse is frequent and hard, or intermittent ;
sudden partial sweats break out over the body, and owing
to the absence of controlling power the breathing becomes
what is known as stertorous. Epilepsy, as distinct from
megrims or vertigo, may take place in the stable, at pasture,
when at rest under any condition, as well as during work ;
but moving the collar forward, or doing away with it
altogether, does not cause the disease to disappear. Some
horses habitually shake the head, being irritated by ill-fitting
or heavy bridles and head-stalls, but the cause of such will
be so readily apparent that the movement can hardly be
confounded with the first signs of epilepsy. Recovery from
the attack is speedy.

Treatment. — If worms are suspected to be present, or any
other irritant known to be lodged in the bowels, the appro-
priate remedies {see Worms) are to be administered. If
young animals are affected, let the mouth be examined,
shell-teeth removed, and swollen gums lanced to hasten the
eruption of permanent teeth. When congestion of the
brain or medulla oblongata is believed to be present, repeated
doses of the extracts of belladonna or hyoscyamus with
nitrate of potash will be useful. A moderate purgative is

Coma. 553

always beneficial, and after some time iron tonics may be
prescribed.

Chorea.

The most common and harmless, form of this affection
in the horse is known as “ stringhalt,” characterised by a
remarkably quick movement of the hind-limbs during pro-
gression, the fetlock being suddenly jerked upwards, almost,
nay often, touching the abdomen. In extended and aggra-
vated forms it may be seen to affect the muscles of the face,
neck, or fore-limbs. The affection of the hind-limb is not
always constant, but variable during movement. In turning
round, the limb is suddenly caught up and returned to the
ground with violence ; sometimes this may not be noticed.
In starting, the twitching may be violent for come distance,
or it comes on only after a few steps ; sometimes it may be
uniform and constant, but not violent, throughout work.

The causes are various. Rheumatism of the locality,
affections of the nerve going to the part, as inflammation,
or congestion ; sometimes these arise from irritation as the
result of bone spavin. Melanotic tumours have been known
to cause stringhalt, when involving the crural nerve.

Other forms of chorea are known — as coma^ shivering^ &c. —
which we proceed to notice.

Coma,

More generally known as sleepy staggers, coma somnolentum —
immohilite of the French.

Symptoms. — The animal is particularly dull and sluggish at
work and rest. As he eats he appears to fall asleep with food
between the teeth ; the breathing is heavy, slow, and deep ;
the pulse full, and rarely numbering more than twenty-four
beats in the minute. In later stages of the disease the animal

554 Diseases of the Nervous System.

becomes acutely sensitive to loud sharp noises, the crack of
a whip causing him. to start and fall upon his knees. When
caused to turn round suddenly, he drops on the ground ; or
he proves so ungainly by the hind-limbs being singly raised
an unusual height, thrown round, and planted awkwardly
at a long distance from each other, in which position the
animal becomes for a time fixed and imrnovable. Sometimes
the legs are crossed, or otherwise far in advance of or behind
the body, and the position is maintained for some time ; the
hind-quarters swing from side to side, indicating a great
want of nervous controlling power. Animals thus affected
are known amongst grooms and horse-dealers as being
“kinked in the back,” “jerked,” &c. ; they are also called
“ kidney-droppers.” The cause is probably degeneration of
nervous tissue — that'of the spinal cord most likely ; but the
brain is sometimes likewise affected, and these lead to
irregular muscular action ; it may be disease of the muscles
also.

Shivering.

Shivering or trembling is a remarkable condition. The
animal, when suddenly frightened or caused to go backwards,
immediately falls into a violent paroxysm of nervous con-
tortions. The hind-legs are alternately raised high and
rapidly spread widely apart, and returned to the ground with
force. The feet are brought under the abdomen, almost
close to the fore ones, which are much in advance of the
body ; this causes the hocks to approximate the ground and
give the animal the appearance of sitting on his haunches,
the whole body and limbs being convulsed ; the head is also
raised, the nose pointing upwards, the eyeball retracted as in
tetanus (Fig. 193), while the lips, ears, and neck are corre-
spondingly convulsed. The tail moves rapidly upwards and
downwards during the paroxysm, which gradually subsides

Shivering. 555

if the animal be not disturbed. The writer has a vivid
recollection of a mare thus affected, which exhibited these
signs most intensely when undergoing the operation of being
shod. When but a youth, but having formed a desire^, to
understand the ailments of domestic animals, he was doubt-

less often, though unintentionally, wearisome to the shoeing-
smiths by his numerous questions and observations. One
day the mare under notice was in the forge, standing quietly
enough, when one of the men suggested something wrong in
one of the fore-feet which would be worth observing. As
soon as the leg was touched all the limbs shot out violently,
and together with the whole frame was alarmingly convulsed,
the inquirer being thrown to the ground by a severe blow of
the hind-foot. This mare it was proved came from stock
similarly affected ; and a foal she bred, although the sire
was sound, exhibited corresponding signs at four years old.
Another case was accidentally brought under the writer’s
notice in 1852. The signs had perplexed several persons,

55^ Diseases of the Nervous System.

and the owner, far from being satisfied, determined to have
the mare shot. For this purpose she was being led away,
and as we saw her an attack had commenced, at the
termination of which we expressed an opinion as to the
cause. After death the head was obtained and we took out
the brain, in the lateral ventricles of which two pyriform
tumours existed, attached to the choroid plexuses, exactly
confirming the conjecture made when consulted by the
owner. Since that time at least half a dozen cases have
come before us, and we have in each discovered the presence
of similar tumours. We have reason, however, to believe
that some peculiar form of nerve tissue degeneration may
equally give rise to the phenomena of the disease.

Treatment. — Nothing of efficacy has been suggested be-
yond avoiding the known causes of excitement.

Softening of the Brain.

When, from disease of the nutrient vessels of the brain,
the blood supply is limited, inflammation of the substance
assumes a chronic form, or congestion is protracted and
more or less constant, softening sometimes follows. The
brain in some particular part loses its firmness and white
colour, becomes dark, soft, and gelatinous.

The symptoms are shown in the loss of power, generally
of one side of the head and face, and extending to the
larynx produces roaring and difficulty of breathing. Thus it
is confined to one half of the brain ; when both are affected,
corresponding organs of both sides are then paralysed, and
perhaps, in addition, some part of the body also. An aged
horse, the subject of previous attacks of acute indigestion —
impaction of the stomach — with cerebral complications, be-
came affected with suspected softening of the brain. He
constantly waved the head from side to side ; the eyelids

Cerebral Apoplexy.

557

sunk and the ears drooped, but for some time nothing fur-
ther was noticed. At length he was seized with indigestion
again, which gave way to convulsions, in which he died.
The brain was softened anteriorly at the olfactory bulbs,
involving a considerable portion of the substance.

It is remarked that, in most cases of chronic disease of
the cerebral substance, there is an accompanying ravenous
appetite ; and enlargement of the heart too is observed, with
atrophy of the walls and valvular insufficiency, which lead
to oedema of the legs, sheath, and abdomen, and blood
changes, as seen in the spots of ecchymosis after death. (See
the illustrative case described hereafter under “ Spinitis.”)

Cerebral Apoplexy.

In consequence, it may be, of some peculiar and occult
disease of brain tissue or of the nutrient vessels, pressure
arising from sudden determination of blood cannot be
endured without seriously affecting the nervous functions.
Occasionally the bloodvessels are so degenerated that rup-
ture takes place under an increased supply and pressure of
blood, and extravasation ensues with more or less fatal
consequences.

Symptoms. — There are, in some few cases only, such pre-
monitory signs as dulness, want of co-ordinate power, reeling
gait, restlessness, &c., but under ordinary circumstances the
attacks are sudden and without any warning : a horse, appa-
rently well and consuming his daily allowance of food, falls
helpless, insensible, and paralysed ; there is no sensation in
the skin, or power of motion ; the heart and lungs only con-
tinue to perform their functions ; the eyes are wide open and
staring, but the animal is blind — amaurosis. The breathing
is long, loud, and deep — stertorous ; and owing to the
obstruction thus placed on the circulation the pulse is

558 Diseases of the Nervous System.

usually small, and inclined to be thready ; the mouth is
open and contains much frothy saliva, and from the relaxed
condition of the sphincter muscles urine and faeces pass
away without effort on the part of the animal ; the legs are
not rigid but mobile, and the muscles are flaccid. When
consciousness is partially retained the animal is likely to do
himself much damage from severe struggling and fighting
during convulsive attacks, during which the head and croup
are drawn backwards, causing the spine to form an arch in
that direction — opisthotonos — the hind-limbs being extended
backwards as far as possible ; the .eyeballs are spasmodically
affected, pupils alternately contracted or dilated, sometimes
fixed in one of these conditions ; or one only may be affected,
and sometimes they may not be otherwise than natural
in appearance. The respiratory movements are likewise
affected spasmodically, alternately loud, or sighing as if in
pain. These signs continue to reciprocate with periods of
quiescence, when from renewed pressure or extravasation the
disease becomes augmented, the animal is exhausted, and he
dies in a state of unconsciousness — coma.

Treatment is usually hopeless. Bleeding during the
comatose state has proved beneficial in some cases by reliev-
ing brain pressure, but must not be practised in any other
stage. The timely use of purgatives proves highly service-
able as derivatives, especially when supplemented by strong
liniment applied to the loins and spine ; internally, bella-
donna, to overcome the brain congestion, and afterwards
nux vomica or strychnine, to give tone to the nervous tissue.
Recovery under these means is rarely more than partial and
delusive ; the animal regains apparently his former state,
when ' a second attack lays him prostrate, from which he
never recovers or gains consciousness.

559

DISEASES, &c, OF THE SPINAL CORD AND
ITS COVERINGS.

Paralysis.

We have had occasion to refer to paralysis or loss of
motor power in connexion with other diseases, and depend-
ing upon functional or structural derangement of the brain.
We have now to consider it as an affection due to some
lesion of the spinal cord or nerves given off from it= Loss
of the power of motion is but a sign of some disease or
injury, and as the form of paralysis varies with the locality
of the injury and parts involved, various terms are employed
by which the nature of the disease is more directly alluded
to ; thus, when one-half of the body, including both sides,
such as the hind-quarters, are incapable of motion, the dis-
ease is known as paraplegia ; if one-half or one side of the
body is affected, it is then called hemiplegia. The term para-
lysis is one of general character, and often is applied to the loss
of motor power in a particular part from injury to a single
nerve, as to any member or series of members of the body.

Paralysis generally arises from disease or injury to the
spinal cord, and the loss of power is observed in those parts
to which these nerves are distributed, which are given off
from the cord posterior or behind the seat of disease ; thus
blows, &c., inflicting injury over the sacrum, would produce
paralysis of the tail ; fracture of the spinal column in the
loins would deprive the hind-quarters of motion ; and when
a horse breaks his neck, then the whole body and limbs are
affected ; when an injury occurs to the spinal column close to
the head, and sometimes when pressure arises from too much
blood, that part of the cord known as the medulla oblongata
{see Plate IX.) suffers, and the result is stertorous, or loud and
deep breathing, or perhaps death from suffocation, involving

560 Diseases of the Nervous Sy stein.

the phrenic nerve, which goes to the diaphragm and regu-
lates the act of respiration, and is given off at this part.

Occasionally the bones of the vertebrae are displaced with-
out fracture, and paralysis may arise from pressure. Some-
times both fracture and displacement are present, yet the
animal may not then suffer from loss of power ; but later the
consequences of inflammation, which are set up as the repara-
tive process, induce pressure and paralysis, but as a rule
the disease quickdy follows any serious injury of the verte-
bral column ; paralysis, as usually observed, then results from
disease in, or injury to, or a combination of both, in the
spinal cord and its coverings, the various forms in which loss
of motor power, and sensation probably, being distinguished
by the terms already given.

Spinitis — Myelitis — Acute Paralysis — Spinal
Meningitis — Inelammation of the Spinal Cord
AND ITS Membranes.

Under these terms we now proceed to offer a few obser-
vations on disease of the spinal cord, as it occurs in the
idiopathic form.

Symptoms. — These are by no means uniform. Paralysis
approaches gradually in some cases, in others it is preceded
by cramps, spasms, or convulsions ; and it may arise sud
denly without having given rise to any signs of previous ill-
health. In the latter form of spinitis there is a possibility
of mistaking the cause for fracture or displacement of some
portion of the vertebrae, thus when the hind-quarters are
paralysed — paraplegia — injury of the lumbar vertebrae is sus-
pected ; subsequent study of the case, however, will lead to
the correct conclusion. There is attendant fever, constipa-
tion of the bowels, the secretion of urine diminished, with
general signs of systemic disturbance.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IX.

“ THE RIGHT DIVISION OF THE HEAD A LITTLE TO THE
LEFT OF THE MEDIAN LINE.

“ a, The septum nasi, or cartilaginous wall which separates
the nostrils. The Schneiderian membrane is still upon the
cartilage, consequently the ramifications of the vessels are
faithfully delineated ; b, the cerebrum ; c, the cerebellum ;
d, the frontal and facial sinuses ; g the tongue ; the soft
palate, showing its pendulous condition as well as its incli-
nation backwards ; g, the fauces. The lines crossing this
part denote the courses taken by the food and air as they
enter the stomach or lungs to nourish the body ; showing,
likewise, that these cross each other ; //, the bag of the
pharynx ; A, the opening of the nostrils ; f, the epiglottis ;
y, the larynx ; the oesophagus, or gullet ; /, the trachea ;

the spinal marrow, covered by the arachnoid : part of the
dura mater, or outer covering of the spinal cord, may be seen
immediately above, in a line which waves anteriorly ; the
spinal marrow, in its passage through the foramen magnum,
divested of its coverings ; <?, the tooth-like process, whence
the second cervical vertebra is called the dentata ; /, the
cup of the atlas, into which the process of the dentata fits.”

W Bag'g. ad.aat. del .

Inflammation of the Sfinal Cord. 561

The following record, from the writer’s collection of cases,
as it appeared in the journal of the day,* will afford the
reader a general idea of the character and course of the
malady, as it appears in the more gradual and chronic
forms : —

“ My attention was directed to a young mare, on Sunday,
the 1 6th of April last, by a friend to whom the animal had
been submitted for an examination and opinion, as the case
possessed remarkable features. It may add to the interest
of the reader by entering into the particulars of the history
of the animal from the first.

“ The earliest accounts we have of her are, that while yet
only a little over a year old she was in the hands of a
butcher at Framwellgate, near Durham, who stated he bred
her from a half-bred mare of the Cleveland stamp, by a
horse of similar make with a degree of blood on his side.
There was every indication of the development of great
strength in the animal, being possessed of well-formed parts ;
in fact, unusually so for one of her age, the only apparent
defect in conformation being in the heavy head and jaws.

“ At the time above named, the owner was frequently
observed driving from Newcastle market to his home, a
distance of twelve miles, at a most unwarrantable speed ;
in fact, the young creature was looked upon as a prodiey ;
and the owner, like too many of his class, was often found
stopping a length of time at a public-house on the way,
leaving the mare, covered with perspiration, standing harnessed
to the vehicle at the door.

“ About December last signs of dulness came on, with
tendency to hang the head, &c., and for which Mr. G.
Farrow, M.R.C.V.S., Durham, prescribed. These symptoms
shortly disappeared, but for a short time only, when dropping

* Edinburgh Veterinary Review, vol. i. New Series, p. 569. 1865.

562 Diseases of the Nervous System,

of one ear and eyelid, with hanging of the lip, was observed.
Blisters on the poll and laxative medicines were prescribed
in this instance, and produced slight relief.

“ Matters went on thus, and the owner began to feel dis-
concerted, and at the usual March fair at Durham she was
exposed for sale.

“ Another butcher, living near me, who had entertained a
great desire to possess the mare — but knowing nothing of
her ailment — proceeded to Durham on the information that
the owner had her for sale. The animal, however, had been
disposed of to a horse-coper, and from him my neighbour
purchased her. A few days after the symptoms made their
appearance, and a friend was consulted. Little satisfaction
was gained by the purchase of an animal which had once
appeared so promising ; treatment afforded no relief. When
used in the cart great danger was apprehended, and at length
she was turned aside loose in the stable.

“ At the time I first saw her, on the date named above,
and a little more than a fortnight after the purchase, the
symptoms were aggravated, and somewhat as follows : —

“ The mare was standing reversed in the stall, exhibiting
signs of great uneasiness ; loins arched, and stiffness of all
the extremities ; flanks tucked up, and covered with perspi-
ration ; pulse- 96, and oppressed ; mucous membranes in-
jected ; respiration regular, but long and louder than normal.
Urine and faeces had been passed without difficulty during
the day and preceding night. As she stands she trembles
much, and scrapes with alternate fore-feet, and afterwards
turns round repeatedly in the stall, but with very great diffi-
culty, as nearly in a circle as circumstances will admit,
exhibiting every likelihood of a fall to the ground. The
breathing becomes excited and stertorous, but is described
as not being so bad during these paroxysms as it occurred
a few days ago. The eyes are bright and glistening, and

Inflammatiofi of the Spinal Cord, 563

the ears appear to be active ; but when examined carefully,
and especially when she stands a few seconds, the eyelid,
ear, and lip of the left side hang pendulous, the former
giving the appearance of sleep. As soon, however, as the
usual gyrations are again commenced muscular action takes
place, and they are moved spasmodically, but not freely.
The attendant excitement is evidently increasing, together
with the great tendency to fall ; the feet are raised inordi-
nately high when she moves — there is no proper control
over their action, and she reels very much. A small quan-
tity of dung was passed in my presence, and I noticed the
tail was scarcely raised, and the faecal matter was evacuated
in almost a passive manner. On pinching or pricking the
the skin there was only slight evidence of pain ; the insen-
sibility in the hind-quarters was even more intense.

“ In an hour she had fallen, and was unable to rise. I
destroyed her by taking up the carotid artery of the right
side.

^^Post-mortem examination, Monday, 17th April, at five P.M.
— The animal had bled well, as evinced by the pale condi-
tion of the muscles of the trunk, limbs, &c.

“ The liver was the only diseased portion within the
abdomen. It was of a pale drab colour, easily torn, and
contained no secretion or blood. Upon the posterior surface
of the lobus Spigelii was an emphysematous swelling, about
the size of a crown-piece in area, and raised in the form of
a half sphere, to the extent of one and a half inches. The
substance of the gland was soft and pasty, and of the same
colour as the outside. Structure throughout irrecognisable.
The heart weighed nearly eight pounds. The auricles, espe-
cially that on the right side, were extremely thin and mem-
branous in several places ; the finger inserted beneath could
be plainly seen from the upper side. The right ventricle was
greatly dilated, and flabby. Water poured down the pul-

33—2

564 Diseases of the Nervous System,

monary artery entered the right ventricle without the least
opposition. Water poured down the aorta did not descend
into the left ventricle without obstruction, but eventually did
so, although very slowly. The auriculo-ventricular and semi-
lunar valves were dark-coloured, thickened, and semi-opaque.
Small shreds of reddened fibrine were scattered over the
inner surfaces of the ventricles, adhering to the chordce ten-
dince and valves. Symptoms of blood changes were present
in the shape of black patches beneath the endocardium,
within and outside the organ. In other respects the animal
appeared beautifully healthy.

“ The spinal cord was exposed throughout its entire
length, the whole chain of bones being softened, infiltrated,
and of a deep red colour from the presence of blood within
the cancellated structure. In almost every part the cord
was surrounded by fat, some portions of which were of a
bright yellow colour, and in others darker, with a tinge of
red. Over the points of origin of the first and second dorsal
nerves was a great accumulation of fat, the nerves themselves
being of a dirty violet colour for some distance. From this
part towards the head the cord was enlarged in places, the
dura mater being united to it by adventitious matter thrown
out by the arachnoid membrane. In no portion, however,
did the cord fill the canal ; it exhibited enlargements here
and there, with constrictions, as if a sharp thread had been
tightly tied round it, and altogether atrophied, the mem-
branes surrounding it being filled by a thin reddish-looking
fluid, particularly in the mid-cervical and lumbar regions.
Bloodvessels throughout congested. The brain was con-
gested on the supra-lateral parts of each hemisphere, and
also over the base. The lateral ventricles were normal. The
third ventricle contained a moderate quantity of transparent,
colourless fluid ; the fourth was nearly filled.

“ A stiff, creamy-looking matter was deposited thickly on

Inflammation of the Spinal Cord, 565

the upper surface of the medulla oblongata, covering the
posterior surface of the cerebellum to the extent of three-
eighths of an inch forwards and upwards, and extending
downwards on each side along the base of the brain, as far
as the origin of the optic nerves. The depressions (sulci)
which separate the various objects recognised in this locality
were completely filled by it, particularly the tuber cinereum
and posterior perforated space, and also round the origin of
the second, third, fourth, and fifth pairs of nerves. It also
extended backwards on the medulla to the extent of two
inches ; here it was thick and creamy.

“ The substance of the brain proper, and also cerebellum,
appeared perfectly well developed and healthy.

“ General Remarks. — We need not be at any loss how to
account for the disease in the subject of the above notice.
Work, irregular in its imposition and uncertain in its duration,
produces effects of the most pernicious nature, even in sea-
soned animals, and will recur with double effect on the
young and immature. At times the animal was employed
in carting work — drawing stones, &c., for builders, material
for the repair of roads, or coals from the neighbouring col-
lieries ; and at others, as we have seen, doing her fourteen
miles an hour, with three or four roystering fellows in a
heavy vehicle, which is erroneously called a ‘ light cart.’
At twelve months old the bit was put into her mouth, and in
three weeks, or thereabouts, she was put to work as we have
described, being considered fully broken in, and possessing a
very docile spirit, soon was denominated ‘ a favourite but
taking into account the treatment inflicted, I cannot for my
part understand the term.

“Throughout the succeeding twelve or fourteen months
this treatment was regularly imposed, and the young creature
was considered to be a promising specimen of great speed
and bodily strength. From the mode of usage several

566 Diseases of the Nervous System.

attacks of influenza supervened, which in each, save one,
domestic treatment was allowed to sufflce. There may have
existed an inherent predisposition towards the cerebral and
meningeal affection by natural capacity and other causes,
depending upon unusual heaviness and unsymmetrical form
of the head and upper part of the neck, which would favour
the existence or prolong the action of disease in the locality.
The appetite was stated to be always ‘ first rate,’ and, taking
into account the ignorance which prevails as to the recogni-
tion of a healthy consumption and a ravenous craving, we
may not inaptly conclude that evidences are not wanting to,
establish the fact that the desire for food was inordinate.
The last owner stated she was always ready for food, and
would ‘ eat anything.’ The attacks of influenza are also
stated to have generally affected the head, the prevailing
symptoms being dulness, prostration, and tendency to coma,
with sore throat, &c. The rational conclusions to be arrived
at in the case are also materially assisted by the knowledge
that the creature was only a little over two years old when
an end was put to her existence.”

In addition to the category of signs which have been detailed
in connexion with the foregoing record, it not uncommonly
happens that the animal crosses the legs very awkwardly in
walking, and, notwithstanding the extreme loss of motor
power, the skin sometimes is affected with hyperaesthesia, or
unusual sensitiveness, so much so that the animal dreads being
touched, or even the movement of a hair. Such indications
point to the inflamed state of the coverings of the spinal cord.

Further post-mortem revelations exist in softening of the
substance of the cord, thickening of the membranes from
interstitial deposit, and presence of an exudate or sero-puru-
lent or reddish-coloured serum in the subarachnoid spaces.
In idiopathic spinitis the membranes do not adhere to the
bones by adventitious tissue, thus furnishing a distinctive

Tetanus — Trismus — Locked-jaw, 567

feature between this form and that arising from fracture and
injury to the bones. The disease may be associated with
rheumatism, and Professor Williams produces forcible testi-
mony in favour of the hereditary tendency of the disease.*

Treatment. — The acute form of the affection should be
treated by bloodletting, purgatives, and the neutral salts,
aconite, &c.. Nos. 13, 14, 43, 44, 51, 52, i 10. The extracts
of hyoscyamus or belladonna may be advantageously combined
with the purgative medicine, as calculated to afford a sooth-
ing effect on the already excited and congested state of the
spinal cord and membranes. After the subsidence of the
active signs, the object will be to reduce the cause of irrita-
tion which maintains the spasms, &c., that cause being the
exuded and effused fluids within the spaces. The iodide
and bromide of potassium, with nitrate of potash, and later
with gentian, will be appropriate remedies. As the tendency
to weakness and prostration is very great, the practi-
tioner will avoid the excess of depletion at the outset.
The bladder must be evacuated regularly by means of the
catheter, the rectum by enemas, and the comfort of the
animal promoted by frequent turning and alteration of
position, clean bedding, clothing, easily digested food,
roots, &c.

TET AN U S T RISM U S L OCKED- J AW.

The horse is peculiarly liable to this form of nervous
disease, two forms of which are observed — traumatic and
idiopathic — each differing in the mode of origin.

Traumatic tetanus, as the word implies, arises from wounds
received accidentally, or which have been specially produced,
as in surgical operations ; when docking and nicking were
practised more extensively than at the present tetanus was

Principles and Practice of Veterinary Surgery, p. 232. First Edition.

568 Diseases of the Nervous System.

much more common ; it follows wounds, punctures, &c. of
the feet, joints, and tendons ; fractures of bones ; various
diseases, as strangles ; operations, as firing, blistering, and
castration ; and a common cause exists in the insinuation
of particles of dirt in a wound, or use of rusty knives,
punctures by rusty nails, or presence of broken portions of
iron points or steel instruments.

Idiopathic tetanus arises from no obvious cause ; that is,
we cannot detect the origin or first impulse, and thus bring
it clearly to the account of any one cause in particular.
The effects of cold on newly-clipped horses are often seen in
the production of tetanus ; it is seen also in aged animals
exposed to severe weather, and it follows acute derange-
ment of the bowels in some animals. Professor Williams
has observed this disease prevail as an enzootic.^'

On account of the prolonged character of the spasms
observed in tetanus they are termed tonic, in contradis-
tinction to those common to various forms of spasm or
clonic convulsive contractions which depend upon disease of
the brain, spinal cord, &c. When the affection is confined
to the jaws, it is known as trismus ; sometimes another form
is witnessed, characterised by the spine being arched down-
wards, the head and tail being directed upwards, as occurs
in poisoning from strychnine, which is termed opisthotonos ;
an exactly opposite condition may, though rarely, occur,
which is defined as emprosthototios ; and another equally
rare form may sometimes be seen, in which the spine is
curved to one side, which is distinguished as tetanus lateralis
or pleurosthotonos. The term tetanus is general, and may
be employed to denote one or all the foregoing.

Symptoms. — Stiffness in the part originally the seat of
injury, which gradually develops into difficulty of motion.

Principles and Practice of Veterinary Surgery, p. 450. First Edition.

Tetanus — Trismus — Locked-jaw. 569

successively extending to other parts untn the whole system
is involved. In the idiopathic form (Fig. 194) the stiffness
commences usually in that part which ultimately is most
powerfully affected. The jaws are generally spasmodically
contracted from the first, the animal grinds his teeth,
champs and discharges saliva from an inability to swallow ;

Fig. 194. — Teta7ius.

the muscles of the face and neck twitch ; the pulse is fre-
quent, hard, and incompressible ; respiration accelerated,
nostrils dilated ; the head gradually becomes more and more
erect, and the nose protrudes ; the muscles of the legs cause
them to become fixed and rigid ; the tail is drawn upwards,
and continually quivers ; the anus is tightly contracted, and
appears smaller than usual. The jaws become gradually
fixed, and when the lips are separated saliva flows abun-
dantly ; the eyes are firmly drawn backwards by the re-
tractor muscle, and through this agency and the fatty pad
behind, the haw, or membrana nictitans, is brought over the
greater surface of the eyeball (Fig. 195) ; the animal
swallows with great difficulty ; the bowels are inactive from

570 Diseases of the Nervous System.

the spasm which likewise seizes them, inducing the most
obstinate constipation ; the bladder is similarly involved,
the abdomen is drawn up, and the walls of the chest are
rigid from the same general muscular spasm. The form of

the neck, as induced by con-
• traction, gave rise in previous
years to the terms “ ewe-neck”
and “ stag-evil.” Notwith-
standing the general tonic
kind of spasm which affects
the muscular system, there are
intervals in which the clonic

fig. m.-The Eye in Tetanm.

sufferer remains quiet and in
the dark, he is in a measure under diminished effects ; but if
he is surrounded by troublesome persons, or annoyed by
unusual, or even trivial noises, he becomes excited, and
undergoes alarming exacerbations of intermittent spasms.

We know little, or next to nothing, of the real nature or
pathology of tetanus. Occasionally the healing of a wound
may be found to involve thickening of some divided nerve, or a
small portion of dirt or foreign substance may be discovered
within the granulations ; but when tetanus arises from no
obvious cause, it has been thought there exists an increased
exaltation of nervous force or polarity. While the effects of
cold are supposed to produce tetanus in a marked degree, it
has been observed that in warm, unhealthy climates the
disease is seen much more frequently, thus favouring the
supposition that the condition of the blood has something to
do with its production. Animals occupying crowded and ill-
ventilated buildings, particularly if exposed to unusually
severe and irregular work, &c., are predisposed to the
affection.

Treatmeiit. — The obscurity which hangs over the real

Tetanus — Trismus — Locked-jaw, 57 1

nature or pathology of tetanus is no greater than the
mystery which belongs to the treatment. Practitioners have
found, after repeated trials, that bitter disappointment has
opposed them on every side, and successful issues have been
permitted even from the most opposite kinds of medical
treatment. The intrinsic powers of nature are the most
undoubted authors of good in all the recoveries from tetanus ;
what man can do is but to alleviate or mitigate, and even
these are frequently denied to him. Perfect quietude, a
dark stable, or loose box, freedom from noises, nutritious
drinks, free ventilation without draughty currents of air, and
comfortable clothing, are the required means. Professor Dick,
as we have repeatedly heard in his lectures, recommended
the stable door to be locked, and the key to be kept by the
veterinary surgeon.

It is now generally admitted, that if the jaws are not
too far closed a strong dose of cathartic medicine should
be given at the outset, and it is useful to combine with it a
full dose of the extract of hyoscyamus, belladonna, stra-
monium, cannabis indica, &c. Existing wounds should be
poulticed or fomented ; sometimes it may be necessary to
remove dead or destroyed portions of tissue from them, and
the poultice should be medicated with one of the extracts
already named. The injection beneath the skin, or within
the rectum, of prussic acid, in combination with solution of
atropine, &c., has proved useful in relaxing the jaws, permit-
ting the administration of purgative medicine ; or the extracts
may be used in the form of electuary for the mouth.

In the Veterinary Journal for June, 1877, A- Lawson,
of Manchester, records a case of tetanus successfully treated
by the subcutaneous injection of the nitrate of amyl, in doses
of forty-five minims. If the signs are developed in their
intensity at an early period, the case is likely to terminate
rapidly and fatally ; if, however, the animal be not of an

572 Diseases of the Nervous System.

excitable temperament, and the course of the disease is slow,
paroxysms not severe or frequent, and, living over the ninth
or tenth day, he may be expected to recover.

It not unfrequently happens that when the animal makes
rapid progress in amendment, the appetite being satisfied by
the anxious attendant, much harm arises. Nothing is easier
than to reproduce tetanus, and nothing more likely than by
allowing the sufferer to consume much dry food. The first
beneficial effects usually date from a certain lax state of the
bowels, and if this is arrested by large quantities of hay, the
effects are fatal. We have seen this in many instances, and
desire to utter our protest against the fault. The animal
may have a liberal allowance of good food, but it should be
specially prepared with a view to being easily digested, and
promoting the open, state of the bowels — linseed-tea, gruel,
boiled corn, grass, roots, &c., being variously allowed as the
case progresses. The owner must resign the case entirely
to the practitioner, and be content if in successful cases he
may be allowed to use his animal in two months after the
commencement of the attack.

Post-mortem Appearances. — These are by no means satis-
factory in accounting for the long train and intensity of the
symptoms. The brain and spinal cord are sometimes
congested, a wound may include some dirt, or other foreign
substance, or an inflamed and wounded nerve may be hyper-
trophied at the seat of injury ; but tetanus arises without
any of these being present — a fact which confirms what
has already been stated regarding the pathology of the
disease.

Rabies.

Rabies, erroneously styled hydrophobia, in the horse,
arises from inoculation with the poison of the disease, as
occurs in bites by dogs or cats affected.

Hysteria.

573

The symptoms are somewhat variable in their commence-
ment and progress ; sometimes the animal is very restless,
afterwards suffers from great distress, perspiration, frantic
pawing and stamping, seizing everything with the teeth ;
exhibition of strong sexual feelings in entire animals ; the
vision is impaired, and he sees small objects as being much
magnified, a piece of flying paper is always regarded with
great fear ; the pupils become dilated, and the eyes eventually
are amaurotic ; cramps and convulsions appear in paroxysms ;
the animal savagely bites the cicatrix of the original wound ;
the power of swallowing is very much interfered with, and he
neighs in a tone of voice altogether unlike the usual kind.
The hind-quarters gradually lose their power, paralysis
supervenes, convulsions recur from time to time, and the
animal dies from exhaustion. In some instances the cases
are marked by an absence of frenzy ; the animal seems to
be mainly actuated to bite the part originally wounded, and
then to subside into a partial comatose condition, and at
somewhat later stages to suffer from paralysis, in which he
dies.

Treatment is of no avail.

Hysteria.

Th is affection is common to some females of equine
animals, partaking of remarkable characters, and in many
cases rendering the creatures absolutely useless and dan-
gerous. The common subjects of the disease are those of a
highly nervous temperament, and which even under ordinary
circumstances often exhibit signs of extreme irritability oi
temper, being apt to kick, strike, bite, and otherwise assume
an unmanageable state. These animals, concurrent with the
period of oestrum, become strangely excited when the hands
or any portions of harness are laid upon them : the back is
suddenly arched, limbs contracted, the weight of the hind-

574 Diseases of the Nervous System.

quarters being sustained on the toes of the posterior ex-
tremities ; the tail is erect, and the vulva being rapidly
dilated and contracted, eventually projects a quantity of
viscid fluid. These signs are also supplemented by others in
some animals. The whole muscular system is violently
contracted and rigid, and shortly this gives way to a fit of
convulsive spasms, in which the creature stamps, scrapes,
rears, and krikes or kicks so violently that all efforts fail
to control her. We have seen many of these animals baffle
every attempt to put on new shoes, when at any other time
they w'ere tractable and gentle ; indeed the violence has
been such that the attacks have at length ended in complete
prostration, the discharges of fluid from the vagina being
copious, spasmodic, always actuated by the sensation of
touch, and attended- with a cry or scream of irritability, in
some cases the whole system becoming rigid and convulsed.
These attacks subside gradually if the animal is not dis-
turbed ; but the same phenomena are suddenly developed
by the touch of another animal or human being.

The cause appears to be existing in an extreme sensitive-
ness and excitability consequent upon the period of oestrum,
for the removal of which the only remedy is to allow the
animal to have access to the male.

SECTION X.

DISEASES OF THE SKIN AND
ITS APPENDAGES.

Until within recent years skin diseases in the lower
animals have been somewhat neglected, and the available
works on veterinary subjects have been either silent as to
any useful form of classification, or the diseases have been
grouped under various unmeaning or useless terms ; or, even
worse, all have been included under the general one — “mange.”
The category may indeed be rendered a lengthy one,
but having the desire to place before the reader the list
under the most simple arrangement, we shall adopt the idea
that a close relationship exists between each ; that funda-
mentally diseases of the tissues of the skin consist of the
usual form of simple inflammation, which by reason of cer-
tain conditions is modified ; and according to these, whether
they be idiosyncrasy, nature of causes, &c., such is convertible
into one or other of the various kinds as hereafter described.
The arrangement we shall pursue will be the following : —

I. Erythema {redness or efflorescence). Simple vascular
engorgement, or congestion.

II. Lichen {roughness). Tumefaction of the follicles, &c.,
constituting papulae, or pimples.

III. Eczema, a. {boiling or seething). Inflammation
attended with the formation of small vesicles, or
blisters.

B. Bullous Eruptions. Larger vesicles —
blebs, or blisters.

578 Diseases of Skin a7id Appendages.

IV. Impetigo. Inflammation, succeeded by pustules.

V. Furunculus {a boil). Inflammation of a local or
circumscribed nature, accompanied by a loss of
vitality in some part of the diseased structures.

VI. Diseases of the Appendages.

I. Erythema.

Under the head oi erythema^ or exanthema^ we have several
diseases characterised by inflammation and redness of the
skin, circumscribed or diffuse, produced by local or constitu-
tional causes. The local causes are wet, cold, dirt, pressure,
or friction, as seen when animals are recklessly exposed after
the coat has been removed ; when the skin is not properly
cleansed, or by the use of ill-fitting and dirty harness.
Plethora and poverty are examples of constitutional causes.

In the lower animals redness of the skin is a sign not well
observed, the presence of hair and pigmentary hue of the
cuticle often counteracting the vascular blush which is so
apparent in man. Those parts covered with white hair are
the only situations where the condition is satisfactorily
observed.

Simple Erythema, or erythema intertrigo, is the most
common form of dermatitis or inflammation of the skin, and
consists of an increased redness of the superficial parts of
the corium or true skin, due to local irritation. It is acute,
and usually appears as a bright and uniform redness in the
skin, but at other times is irregular, presenting various out-
lines of shape or extent and variety in colour ; this, of course,
can only be well observed in the skin of white animals,
white parts, or those having very fine or thin coats of hair.
Pressure applied to the parts causes the red colour to dis-
appear for a short time, gradually returning as the pressure
is removed. The outer margin or limit of the inflammation

Erythema.

579

is not well marked, the blush or efflorescence gradually
diminishing and disappearing in the hue of health. Swelling
is not excessive, but may usually be detected by passing the
hand flat over the part ; or a raised surface is indicated by
the hair, which is in a partially erect condition. Exudation
is pmetimes apparent in a gelatinous fluid which glues the
hair together, or small vesicles may form which are confluent
or scattered. Extension or continuance of the process
results in a deeper colour being established, with exudation
of a purulent fluid, ulceration, or sloughing. We have seen
this form very frequently in pit animals, arising from the
practice of the drivers as they sit behind the animal always
beating on the same part with the whip or stick. Resolution
is marked by peeling of the epithelium in the form of scales
of greater or less fineness, the skin beneath gradually assu-
ming the original degree of evenness and healthy colour.
After death the redness and inflammation are confined
to the outer layer of the skin (corium), as seen in transverse
sections, the deeper portions being pale, and infiltrated only
when the process has been intensely acute. The cellular
tissue is also unaffected, or slightly infiltrated. This form of
disease is seen as a result of chafing when one part of the
skin rubs against another ; of friction, arising from loose or
ill-fitting parts of harness ; of blows, when the swelling
takes the form of weals or shape of the instrument by
which they were inflicted ; of wounds in clipping ; irritation
due to discharges flowing over the skin, as tears, urine,
pus, &c.

A common example of erythema as it appears in an
acute form is observed in the legs of horses, particularly
hunters, during seasons of wet weather. At one time it was
thought to be confined to this class only, but repeated
observation has discovered the fallacy of such a conclusion ;
it was also considered to be due to the lime or clay soils

37—2

580 Diseases of Skin and Appendages.

over which the horses travelled ; hence it was called “ mud
fever,” and accordingly greater efforts in the way of cleanli-
ness were adopted when the animal reached home. Not
only are the legs, particufarly the hind, involved, but the
hair is often remxoved from the whole of the inferior surface
of the abdomen, breast, &c. We have seen whole studs of
town horses in this state, having swollen legs, much stiffness
in the gait, unwillingness to lie down, and even suffering
from some degree of constitutional disturbance. In every
instance it was traced to washing, and when that process
was discontinued “ mud fever” disappeared. The value of
cleanliness is too great to be treated derisively, but in all
earnestness we would certainly utter our belief that under
rather excessive rules the efforts to secure it are often
pushed too far. We know that animals rest better when
clean, but we would ask. Is there no other plan by which a
tired horse can be freed of dirt and made comfortable without
submitting him to a long and tedious process of washing }
Any other may not be welcomed or even listened to, but the
fact remains the same ; valuable horses are suffering, and,
be it remembered, from what may be termed an excessive
amount of attention, and this should encourage inquiry into
the matter. The necessity for washing dirty horses is not
equally urgent in all cases ; for instance, when they reach
the stable warm and dry, why should they be douched with
water, when by a good brushing all the dirt may be removed,
or at least so much as will render the animal free from
discomfort, and enable him to obtain rest sooner ? Then
when washing is called for by reason of the legs being wet
and muddy, why extend the washing to the abdomen, chest,
&c. } Repeated observation teaches that water should never
pass higher than a bandage can be safely kept on — viz., the
knees and hocks ; and further, that “ mud fever” is not
known where, as we have pointed out, the brush and that

Chronic Erythema. 581

peculiar honest principle “ elbow-grease” are combined and
judiciously exerted.

Erythema Paratrimma.

When the ill-fitting harness produces great local pressure
rather than friction, the results are somewhat diflerent.
Examples are observed when horses are confined to slings
for any length of time ; in what are known as saddle-galls or
shoulder-galls. The skin becomes hot, swollen, and tender,
and in some instances an abscess forms, or the skin assumes
a hard or indurated condition ; in a third form the skin is
loose and flabby, having a smooth, leathery appearance,
hanging upon each shoulder like bags partially distended
with gelatinous fluid. The last form is common to coal-
mines, where the animal is worked with any collar that may
be seized, which consequently does not fit, and induces
extreme pressure and irritation, giving rise to a hideous
deformity proportionate to the size, which sometimes is so
very great as to involve the whole of the collar space on
each shoulder.

Chronic Erythema.

Owing to the long-continued and combined effects of wet
and cold with dirt, a form of chronic erythema is observed in
the heels of horses, in which the swelling and inflammation
degenerate into cracks and fissures, or sloughing ulcers. A
common cause is clipping the legs, the effects of which are
considerably intensified when is added washing with cold
water, and when the animal after being in the wet at work
is allowed to stand in a draught of cold air. If the legs are
to be washed, they should be protected by bandages until
dry ; it is useless to expect they will be always rubbed dry,
and such a covering amply obviates the inconvenience
arising irom this troublesome complaint.

582 Diseases of Skin and Appendages.

Treatment of Erythema.

Hot water fomentations, poultices, and even cold water
applications are effectual in all recent cases of erythema.
Evaporating, arnica or astringent lotions, also are variously
employed ; and when there are accompanying signs of fever,
purgatives, the neutral salts, or bloodletting may be required.
Glycerine forms a useful remedy, and may be improved by
adding laudanum, carbolic acid, or solutions of lead ; oil
also serves to mitigate friction, but rest should be given if
possible, and the causes removed before putting the animal
to work.

Erysipelas.

Nature. — Erysipelas, as seen in the horse, consists of a
diffused inflammation of the true skin, sometimes also involv-
ing the cellular tissue beneath, and attended with great pain
and irritative fever. Erysipelas is sometimes termed “ the
rose,” and “ Saint Anthony’s Fire” {Ignis sacer), &c., and
appears in two forms — the cedeniatous and phlegmonous.

(Edematous Erysipelas. — This is the milder and more
common form, and is generally the result of wounds and
injuries inflicted on the legs, &c., of young and immature, or
hard-worked and badly-fed horses ; and it appears at times
in those in which the system is devitalised by animal poisons
— as those of farcy, glanders, &c.

Symptoms. — In several days after the infliction of an injury
— probably on about the fourth — the disease manifests itself
by swelling of the skin, which also becomes tense, hot,
extremely sensitive, and glistening or shining on the affected
surface. These signs are more readily developed if the injury
happens to be in a dependent part — that is, one below the
body — as in the legs, beneath the breast, abdomen, &c. The
tumefaction of the skin first commences at the point of

Erysipelas.

injury, and is gradually spread or diffused outwards and
away from the wound, until, as happens in some instances, a
whole part or limb is involved in the morbid action ; at
those parts where the cellular tissue is abundant, pitting is
observed — in other words, the impress of the fingers is left
after they have been applied with moderate firmness ; but
when the parts are covered by little besides the skin, very
slight or no pitting occurs, but the parts are firm, hard, hot,
and very tender. Occasionally a crop of vesicles appears,
but by no means must this be recognised as a regular indi-
cation ; after such have developed, desquamation, or peeling
off in scales, marks the decline of the disease, particularly at
the back of the joints. When the leg is affected conside-
rable lameness is present, and the constitutional disturbance
is great, not unfrequently running on to rigors or shivering
fits, accelerated respiration, circulation, &c. &c., as described
under Symptomatic Fever, page 27.

Phlegmonous Erysipelas. — This is the more severe form of
the disease, and is attended with violent rigors and irritative
fever ; the subjacent tissues — as muscles and the fascia
covering them, together with ligament, tendon, subcutaneous
tissue — are involved, as well as the skin throughout a large
area, eventually assuming the pustular form ; and when dis-
charges take place the fluid is watery, and often contains a
number of shreds or strings obtained from the various tissues
which are involved in a process of disintegration. The
tendency to invade surrounding parts is so great that neigh-
bouring articulations are often penetrated, combining open
joint with the already alarming state of the case ; and in
debilitated animals the affair may assume a still worse aspect
by the development of farcy or glanders, or both.

5^4 JJiseases of Skin and Appendages,

Treatment of Erysipelas.

The attendant constipation of the bowels' must at once be
overcome by a brisk cathartic, proportionate to the animal
and nature of the attack. The essential character of the
treatment is the same for both forms, the only difference
' requisite to be observed is the necessity for more energetic
measures in the phlegmonous kind. Active fever should be
treated by the neutral salts, Nos. 43, 44, and iio ; or the
draughts, Nos. 13, 34, and 50; or boluses. Nos. 14, 33, and
43. Fomentations of hot water, applied as directed at
page 39, are almost indispensable, and care must be ob-
served in either applying a hot poultice immediately after-
wards, or covering the parts with suitable bandages, &c., as
convenient. The tendency to extreme debility which follows
must be counteracted by repeated doses of iron and ether,
as given in No. 55, page 181, the tincture of iron being
increased to half-ounce doses if necessary, and given once
every four hours, until the pulse indicates the effect by gain-
ing strength and volume.

The following lotion is useful for diminishing the local
pain and irritation : —

Recipe No. 145.

Take of Goulard’s extract 2 fl. oz.

Carbonate of ammonia i dr.

Laudanum 2 fl. oz.

Mix, and apply by means of a piece of soft rag or sponge.

An application of lard alone, or extract of belladonna,
may be substituted.

Abscesses should be opened only when sufficiently ma-
tured, as the early use of the knife may aggravate the
erysipelas.

The prevention of erysipelas is insured by the treatment
of surgical and other wounds by the antiseptic method when

Lichen, or Papulous Erythema. 585

applicable, combating attendant fever by means of the neutral
salts.

Urticaria — Nettle Rash.

This disease is manifested by a sudden appearance of
elevations of the skin, varying in size from a sixpence to
several inches in extent, accompanied by heat, intolerable
itching, but not always affecting the general health. The
most common subjects are plethoric animals, which are
affected chiefly in hot weather, probably as a result of
checked perspiration, change of diet, colic, diarrhoea, and
disorders generally of the digestive organs. This disease
constitutes the true “surfeit” when it assumes a general
form. Sometimes the swellings are localised, in others dif-
fused over the body, and may terminate in abscess, with
subsequent incrustation, attended with more or less fever.
Animals badly fed in winter, or put upon rich food in the
summer, are apt to engender the disease, and in them the
general form is more likely to be present.

Treatment. — The bowels should be opened by a moderate
purge, after which neutral salts. Nos. 44, 46, and 1 10.

The local swellings may be dressed several times daily
with the following lotion : —

Recipe No. 146.

Take of laudanum 2 fl. oz.

Glycerine i „

Carbonate of soda ^ oz.

Water i quart.

Mix.

II. Lichen, or Papulous Erythema.

Under the above name we observe a form of inflammation
of the skin, giving rise to the formation of numerous papulae,
or pimples, which are enlargements of the hair follicles,
attended with considerable irritation; and as the disease

586 Diseases of Skin and Appendages.

declines the cuticle peels off, leaving the parts denuded of
hair. The form commonly seen in horses is known as

Prurigo.

This disease is sometimes termed “pruritus,” from the
continued itching which attends it. The skin is also hot,
and occasionally becomes thickened and indurated, rough
and scaly ; the system is frequently involved in some
amount of febrile disturbance, and the animal cannot be put
to w'ork on account of the uneasiness as well as irritable
state of the skin. The term “surfeit” has also been given
to this affection, owing to the fact that it originates in
animals that are well fed — i.e.^ pampered, and worked but
little. The surfaces likely to be affected are those covered
by the hot lining of the harness, where patches of pimples
arise, and to allay the irritation which follows the animal
bites himself in a violent manner, occasionally inflicting
wounds with the teeth. An unwelcome feature of the affec-
tion is the tendency to recur frequently, or become constant
and defy ordinary measures for its suppression. The causes
are generally to be ascribed to a liberal use of the most
nutritious kinds of food — as beans and oats, and other forms
of injudicious feeding ; together with heated and ill-ventilated
stables, and want of due exercise or work.

Treatment. — In this, as in other skin affections, the use of
the hot-air bath is of great importance. As internal reme-
dies, purgatives and the neutral salts are required ; and the
animal may be benefited by a moderate bloodletting, espe-
cially if he be fat.

Notwithstanding the efficacy of the foregoing remedies,
and the assiduity of the practitioner, he is not unfrequently
disappointed in finding his patient “ not one whit the
better.” The next course which remains to him is, if pos-

587

Simple Eczema,

sible, to get the horse into his own stable, where he can be
certain his orders as to food, &c., are strictly carried out,
and the administration of arsenic (No. 108), in doses of from
three to five grains daily, conjointly carried out with the
sweating-bath and regularly enforced exercise.

III. A. — Eczema.

Under the above term veterinarians recognise a form of
erythema or skin inflammation, characterised by vesicles or
small bladders, containing a thin fluid forming or clustering
in patches, giving rise to much irritation, and bursting on
the application of slight force, leaving behind a raw surface.
Two forms are observed— -the simple and chronic.

Simple Eczema.

^ ■'

Simple Eczema [Eczema simplex), or “humid tetter,” has
frequently been mistaken for mange. It is attended with
intolerable itching, the parts usually affected being the
shoulders, back, thighs, &c., rarely associated with febrile
disturbance, but always with the formation of a luxuriant;
crop of vesicles, which succeed each other at different parts
and moisten the skin and hairs with their contents, appa-
rently creating fresh irritation thereby. As the animal rubs
or bites himself, the hairs are removed together with the
eruption, and the skin is exposed raw, reddened, and irrita-
ble. Patches of vesicles form and succeed each other for
some days, thus maintaining a degree of irritation which
prevents the animal from obtaining rest. As the disease
declines the vesicles burst and dry up, the hair being agglu-
tinated by the discharge over the surface, and when this
covering is removed the cuticle peels off like so many
scales.

588 Diseases of Skin and Appendages.

Chronic Eczema — Psoriasis — Rat-tails.

This form of inflammation is due to neglect of simple
eczema, by which that disease is liable to degenerate into an
obstinate condition, manifested by permanent thickening of
the skin and formation of ugly cracks or chasms, from
which flows an abundant half-purulent, half-ichorous fluid.
Upon the thickened portions of the skin is found a great

increase of the epidermic
scales, shooting up in al-
most perpendicular strata,
the hairs growing from
the parts being glued to-
gether by the secretion.
Vulgarly these are called
“ rat-tails,” from the great
resemblance they bear
(Fig. 196). The parts
thus affected are the legs
chiefly, one, two, or all
of which are included.
We have seen horses
turned to grass after being fired and blistered, others exposed
to wet ground, clay or chalky soils, sorely afflicted with this
disease.

Treatment. — The bowels should be opened at once, and
afterwards the neutral salts (Nos. 44, 46, and iio) may be
employed internally. Fomentations and even poultices
will be useful to localised forms of the disease, and local
applications, as already given (Nos. 145, 146), must be
used. It will generally be found that arsenic (No. 108)
internally will be required. In some instances, the disease
is confined to the back of the knees and front of the hocks,
when it is known as “ mallenders” and “ sallenders” respec-

589

Herpes Phlyctenodes.

tively. In addition to the treatment already given, the oint-
ments of lead, zinc, creasote, or iodine, solution of carbolic
acid in glycerine, &c., will be found to answer.

III. B. — Bullous Eruptions.

Herpes.

Herpes is another form of vesicular erythema, in which
the bladders or vesicles are larger than in eczema, and some-
times differently arranged. Two forms of herpes will be
described. A third is also known, but rarely seen among
horses, which consists of still larger vesicles, distinguished by
the term “ bullae” — blebs or blisters. The herpetic forms
of eruption are herpes phly etenodes and herpes circinatus.

Herpes Phlyctenodes.

The more common term for this disease is phlyctenoid
tetter, the characteristic features of which are the formation
of agglomerate vesicles within a circumscribed area on the
skin, which speedily disappean Among the mass will be
found one or more much larger than the rest, usually attain-
ing the size of a pea, and somewhat elongated. These may
be seen on the lips (crusta labialis), face, and other parts of
the body, the Schneiderian membrane occasionally being the
seat, and giving rise to suspicions of the existence of glan-
ders. When it is located on the upper margin of the hoofs
round the coronet, it is then known as “ crown scab” —
herpes coronalis. Owing to the presence of hair, the dis-
ease may be overlooked in the first stage, the attention
being directed to erect patches which will not be caused to
lie in the usual manner. In those parts where the hair is
fine and in small quantity, the eruption may be more readily
detected ; otherwise there is nothing for a time to account

590 Diseases of Skin and Appendages.

for the irritation ; but subsequently the hairs over the parts
are observed to be held by scabs, both of which fall off
together, exposing raw, red, and irritable surfaces, which,
however, generally heal readily, but sometimes are liable to
ulceration.

Herpes Circinatus — Vesicular Ringworm..

Herpes cireinatus (a creeping circle) — vesicular or false
ringworm — is common among horses, and on this account
must not be confused with favus or true ringworm of con-
tagious properties. Herpes circinatus is a benignant form of
vesicular or bullous erythema, in which the bullae agglome-
rate in a circle, and gradually spread outwards for a time,
running their course in a week or ten days, declining into
brownish scales, the redness of the skin beneath also fading
gradually. A chronic form is occasionally observed, in
which the patches may be numerous, producing constitu-
tional disturbance, with, however, but slight irritation, which
is soothed by gentle friction. The form in which the bullae
are arranged will be best understood by a reference to Fig.
197, which represents them in the characteristic circular

Fig. 197. Fig. 198.

agglomeration, gradually enlarging and invading fresh por-
tions of skin and hair. Fig. 198 shows the denuded sur-
face, and as it appears after the vesicles have burst or
evaporated, leaving the crust or scab.

Pustular Injlam^nation of the Skin. 591

Irish horses are said to be affected when brought over to
this country as a result of the sea-voyage. (WILLIAMS.)

Treatment. — When the constitutional symptoms are slight,
nothing more need be done than merely dressing the affected
parts with the applications already given (No. 146, p. 585),
or the following : —

Recipe No. 147.

Take of olive oil 8 fl. oz.

Goulard’s extract of lead i „

Laudanum i „

Mix, and shake until thoroughly incorporated. One or
two doses of the neutral salts may also be given in the food,
as directed for Nos. 44, 46, 1 10. When the vesicles are large,
and the skin inflamed round their base, with much irritation
and constitutional disturbance, the bowels should be first
moved, and the salts be given regularly afterwards for some
days ; should the denuded parts indicate a tendency to
ulceration, they may be touched with the pencil of nitrate of
silver, or a lotion or ointment may be m.ade up, containing
ten grains to the ounce. If there is any tendency to de-
bility, which may occur in young animals, or others pre-
viously subjected to injudicious management, good and
easily- digested food, with tonic medicines, will be required.

IV. Impetigo, or Pustular Inflammation of
THE Skin.

We have, under the above name, another form of inflam-
mation of the skin, which is characterised by intense inflam-
mation and the formation of pustules on the surface, but
beneath the epidermis or cuticle. These are of two kinds —
one, small, not unfrequently irregularly circumscribed, slightly
raising the epidermis, and after being matured drying up, leav-
ing a flat or laminated scab; the other is larger, surrounded by
intense inflammation, forming a vivid red circular base, and

592 Diseases of Skin and Appendages,

which at its termination is characterised by a thick, hard,
dark brown, or red-coloured scab. These are respectively
impetigo and ecthyma. The latter is rarely seen or imper-
fectly observed in the horse ; of the former, the following
are the more common : —

’ Impetigo of the Face and Lips.

This affection is said to be peculiar to animals having
white faces and legs, but Professor Williams asserts — and
we can support the opinion — that it is not confined to
these, as he has witnessed it in others having no white hairs
upon them. When it is confined to the lips, it is known as
crusta labialis. The causes appear to be due to the irrita-
ting effects of certain kinds of clovers upon which the
animals are allowed to graze, and not upon any constitu-
tional disorder, as it only appears on those parts with which
the plants have contact.

The parts affected are covered with an eruption of small
pustules, which are speedily converted into yellow crusts or
scales, under which the skin is thickened and inflamed.

Treatment. — First remove the animals from the pasture
on which they have contracted the disease, and dress the
parts with the applications Nos. 145, 146, or 147 ; ad-
minister a dose or two of the neutral salts. Nos. 44, 46, or
1 10; or if there be much irritation and constitutional dis-
turbance, first purge, and apply lotions containing laudanum,
belladonna, prussic acid, &c.

Impetigo of the Neck — Impetigo Colli.

This form is characterised by the appearance of pustules,
isolated and large, upon either side of the neck, at the junc-
tion with the mane, accompanied with inflammation round
their base, and eventually, on exposure to the air, drying up

593

Impetigo of the Legs.

into yellow or yellowish-brown scabs, including the hairs
within them. Such are the result of tightly fitting collars,
irritation from dirt, &c. Occasionally also similar pustules
and incrustations appear on the root of the tail in con-
sequence of imperfect cleaning, and which never appear
where the animals receive proper attention. The use of
soap and warm water is a sure preventive ; and a speedy
cure is also obtained by the treatment recommended under
the preceding form of impetigo.

Impetigo of the Legs — Inflamed Heels.

This disease has been wholly attributed to neglect of
cleanliness, and while we are not inclined to deny the part
that dirt may take in its production, yet we feel certain that
it also largely occurs where animals are scrupulously attended
to in the way of mistaken management or kindness. It is a
common practice to closely clip the legs of working horses,
and thus remove Nature’s well-designed protection ; and
when the parts are dirty soap and water are used ad libitum,
the legs in all probability being only half dried, or not dried
at all, and left to the influences of cold air. All these are
bad in their effects. If horses’ legs are to be liberally
washed they should be covered by suitable bandages ; but
the better plan is to avoid washing if the legs are warm and
dry, using a brush to remove the uppermost dirt, and
finishing next morning, when the surface stains can be taken
off by means of a damp sponge. {See Erythema — Mud
Fever.)

In consequence of the causes named the heels are
observed to swell, become hot and tender ; the skin shortly
exhibits a deep red colour, and here and there large pustules
form, burst, and do not heal, but expose angry-looking
sores, which grow larger and deeper by ulceration. As such

594 Diseases of Skin and Appendages.

they are readily cured by poultices during a day or two,
which reduce the soreness and lameness ; and succeeding
these a mild dose of physic, or the neutral salts. After the
poultice or hot fomentations, the limb should be covered with
powdered oxide of zinc, flour, or starch ; and in later stages
lead or mild astringent lotions used.

A horse thus affected walks stiffly, with the hind-legs
somewhat wide apart ; and if the latter are to be examined,
those who attempt it must be aware that as the animal
raises the foot in the experience of pain he throws the limb
outwards and jerks it upwards, often sufficiently sudden to
throw any one down if not on the alert.

In wet seasons the disease proves very troublesome,
especially among horses working in public conveyances ; and
when permitted to .continue, or only partially treated while
the animal continues at work, it is likely to assume a chronic
and obstinate form, in which large fissures or chasms are
developed, having hard scaly edges, while sloughing goes
on at the bottom, and a discharge of ichorous fluid takes
place. Grease is a common termination.

Impetigo Erysipelatodes — Grease.

Pustular erysipelas of the heels, commonly called grease,
is a troublesome, and at length becomes a loathsome,
complaint. It consists of an inflammation of the skin of
the heels, pastern, and fetlock-joints at their back parts, on
which pustules form, the discharge from which is purulent
and offensive, and with it is often associated a high state of
fever. The pustules at first contain a limpid fluid, which
shortly becomes turbid, and after discharge irritates the
parts over which it is allowed to flow. The hind-legs are
most commonly affected, generally on the back parts, from
the heels upwards some considerable distance, in a primary

Grease.

595

tumefaction, or swelling, which causes much pain, stiffness,
and lameness, the hocks being sometimes involved. The
lymph of the pustules in their earlier stage has been proved
to be capable of preventing attacks of small-pox in those
who have not previously been subject to its effects on the
system. As the discharge flows the hair is denuded, and
fresh clusters of pustules form and burst, and the parts lose
their usual pliancy, becoming hard, rigid, and oedematous ; the
skin cracks and forms deep and large fissures, from which
issue a foetid ichorous discharge ; while ulceration goes on
beneath, and fungoid granulations sprout up in all directions
upon the surface, or are intermingled with large prominences
— enlarged papillae — having incrus-
tations of hardened cuticle upon
their summits (Fig. 199). These
are the so-called “ grapes” of the
farriers. The limb is no longer
hot and painful, but swollen and
constantly moist with the foetid exu-
dation which flows over it, and by
exposure becomes dry, mats the hairs
together, and -forms large solid
scabs. Slight irritation will remove
these incrustations, when a raw,
bleeding, fungus-looking surface is
exposed, and in this state the dis-
ease may go on for some time, until the constitution is
tainted by it ; the lymphatics take up the absorption of
the matter, swell, inflame, and give rise to abscesses in
various parts of the legs and thighs ; and it may terminate
in farcy. In occasional instances the internal structures of
the frog and sole are involved ; and in addition to the
original malady the case is one of complication with canker.
Professor Hering has discovered the presence of acari in

38—2

Fig. 199.

Confirmed Grease, showmg
grapes and fissures.

59^ / of Skifi undr A pfeudu^os ^

the legs of horses affected with
chronic grease (Fig. 200), which he
has named sarcoptes hippopodus.
Professor Williams has also wit-
nessed the same.

Causes of Grease. — Breeding has
undoubtedly much to do with the
origin of this disease, as it is much
more common and more readily
produced in coarse, low-bred ani-
mals than in any other. White legs,
or those having white hair upon
them, are more susceptible than
those having dark or black hair ;
and the combined effects of wet
and dirt — especially the wet and
dirt of the stable — are powerful
causes. Bad feeding, and defective
management generally, greatly predispose the animal to the
disease ; and those affected, when used for breeding, unques-
tionably produce offspring very liable to contract it on the
first exposure to the actual causes. The lymph of grease,
when of the acknowledged specific kind, will produce the
disease in healthy animals (Gamgee) ; therefore, under certain
conditions, the malady may be estimated as contagious — a
characteristic which, carrying weight, should cause every pro-
prietor to exercise the greatest caution when the disease is
present. Either from this cause more or less, or from the
wide-spread nature of others known to produce it, grease
sometimes appears as an enzootic disease, and gives rise to
great inconvenience by the number of animals incapacitated
for work.

Treatment. — Poultices are valuable agents at the outset,
or for the removal of the scales, to soften the skin and

Fig. 200. — Sarcoptes Hippo-
podus (Hering).

Grease.

597

stimulate a healthy discharge ; after which, solutions of carbolic
acid, the sulphate or chloride of zinc, sulphate of copper, &c.,
may be variously applied. Greater advantage is obtained by
the alternate use of external remedies than by the continued
application of one ; for, however good it may be, it cannot
be dignified with the name of a “ specific” for this disease.
Of the applications which may be used for grease we give
the following : —

Recipe No. 148.

Take of sulphate of zinc 4 oz.

Tincture of myrrh i fl. oz.

Glycerine 2 „

Water i quart.

Mix sulphate of zinc and water together, and when dis-
solved add the remainder.

Recipe No. 149.

Take of sulphate of zinc 4 oz.

Acetate of lead 4 „

Water 2 quarts.

Mix, and dissolve.

Recipe No. 150.

Take of sulphate of copper, powdered 4 oz.

Sulphuric acid 2 fl. oz.

Water 2 quarts.

Mix the copper with the water, and add the acid. The
mixture is ready for use when a clear solution is obtained.

Recipe No. 151.

Take of carbolic acid, brown solution i pint.

Glycerine i pint.

Water i gallon.

Mix.

Recipe No. 152.

Take of chloride of zinc i oz.

Glycerine 2 „

Water i quart.

Mix, and dissolve.

598 Diseases of Skin and Appendages,

These remedies must be assiduously applied at regular
times — say twice or thrice during the day, after poultices
have been used — a piece of rag tied upon the end of a
short stick being useful. When the grapes are large and
abundant they may be touched with caustic potash, strong
solution or solid form of chloride of zinc, mineral acids ; or
what perhaps is better than any, the hot iron, the animal
being secured standing, or properl)/ cast, and the grapes
literally shorn off.

By this method the disease is more quickly arrested, a
healthy healing action induced, and much trouble and
annoyance saved ; as the parts dry and heal, zinc ointment
may be substituted for the astringent lotions.

Internal remedies are of vital importance. Upon no
account whatever can they be dispensed with, and they
require watchful care. If outward applications alone are
used, especially those which have the tendency to reduce
the discharge and promote the healing process, just at a
time when the animal appears to be making decided progress,
he succumbs suddenly to blood poisoning, farcy, or glanders.
Chronic grease is attended with more or less debility of the
system, and while the outward discharge is being reduced
the various excretory organs should be roused to carry off
the morbid elements which find their way into the blood ;
therefore occasional purgatives will be required, and in the
intervals the following powders should be given : —

Recipe No. 153.

Take of sulphate of iron, powdered 3 oz.

Carbonate of soda, powdered 12 drs.

Powdered resin 6 oz.

Gentian, powdered 3 „

Ginger „ 3

Mix, and divide into twelve powders, one to be given
every morning or night ; or, if necessary, each morning and

Boils — Carbuncles.

599

evening. The animal should be kept scrupulously clean,
the process of grooming being carried out each day with
regularity and effectiveness ; and as a change of medicine
may be made with benefit after the powders are finished, it
will be advisable to give arsenic for a few weeks before
returning again to them. Fowler’s solution of arsenic is the
most available form, which may be sprinkled over the food
in half-ounce doses twice a day, or given in the drinking-
water. The solid form (No. io8) also may be employed —
white arsenic — in doses of three grains, morning and evening,
along with iron and soda, but it is not so certain or con-
trollable in this form.

V. Furuncule — Boils — Carbuncles.

A form of local and circumscribed inflammation of the
skin known by the above term, and from its similarity to a
condition which arises from anthrax poison, being in fact
included in the same category, we proceed to give the
physical characters of each.

Furunculoid inflammation — boils or carbuncles — consists
of inflammation located in the deepest layer of the corium,
as well as cellular tissue beneath, the interspaces of which
are filled by it. Externally at first appears a circumscribed
swelling, probably not larger than a pea, around which a
wide halo of inflammation exists, and is attended with great
tension and pain. Within the interspaces of the corium
accumulate the plastic exudation, the products of inflamma-
tion, from which a reactionary inflammation ensues ; pus is
formed, the central part dies and is thrown out, forming
what is vulgarly known as the “ core.”

In simple furuncule only one core is formed, but in
anthrax furuncule there are several, which are in close
contiguity. When the diseased mass of anthrax is cut

6oo Diseases of Skin and Appendages,

across, the fresh surfaces exhibit a uniformly red, spongy,
and reticulated tissue, the interspaces of which are filled
with the products of inflammation, each of which forms a
core. At the period when suppuration is being established
each core is surrounded by a jelly-like substance, and when
the process is fully complete they are detached from the
surrounding tissues, which are eventually destroyed. Cavities
of variable size are thus formed, containing the purulent
fluids of suppuration, and in which the cores are sometimes
able to float ; and lastly, the surface of the skin exhibits a
number of openings, each of which communicates with one
of the cavities already named, the whole involving a deeper
and greater extent of skin than simple furunculoid, and the
pain is more intense and excruciating.

The treatment of furuncule consists of the application of
fomentations or poultices, and general attention to the diet.
As it depends upon a morbid condition of the blood, the
use of mild purgatives may be called for, followed by
stimulants and tonics, with the use of the knife and resin
ointment externally.

SiTFASTS.

A sitfast is understood to be a portion of the tissue of
skin which has become devitalised by pressure — i.e.^ gan-
grenous— and undergoing a slow and tedious separation from
the healthy and living. Originally an inflamed part is
produced and a tumour forms, which receives more direct
pressure than the surrounding skin, the result being that
nourishment is more or less cut off from the central part,
which dries up, becomes hard and horny, and is surrounded
by an inflammatory circle, and an angry-looking wound
Avhich discharges a sero-purulent fluid. At the lower part
this horny mass is firmly connected with the subcutaneous
tissue, from which it derives a small amount of nourishment,

6oi

Inflmnmation of the Feet,

and, on account of the difficulty which attends its removal
or detachment, the above name has been given to it.

Treatment. — Careful dissection of the horny mass is the
most certain method of removal ; but occasionally caustics
are employed, which char, blacken, and destroy it, but
occupy a long time in its entire removal, giving rise to
continual punishment. An old plan consists of dressing
the wound with resin or verdigris ointment, by which further
suppuration is induced, and at the end of a period — we know
not how long — the “ sitfast” is removed. By the knife as much
can be done in one minute, and with one ten-thousandth
part of the pain, as will be effected in twelve months by the
other methods.

Other conditions which induce diseases of the skin — as
purpura haemorrhagica, scarlatina, &c. — will be found referred
to under the respective forms of blood disease at pp. 77
and 122 respectively.

VI. Diseases of the Appendages of the Skin.

Under this head we propose to consider the following
diseases of the feet and horn-secreting structures, reserving
others, the result of direct injury, for their proper place
under the head of Local Injuries.

Laminitis — Inflammation of the Feet.

Nature. — Laminitis — variously termed Founder, Fever,
or InJiammatio7i in the Feet — consists, as the name implies,

Laminitis.

CORONITIS.

Sandcrack.

Thrush.

Canker.
Seedy Toe.
Keratoma.
Corns.

6o2 Diseases of Skin and Appendages,

of an inflamed condition of the sensitive laminae (Fig. 4, h,
Plate X.) which surround the coffin bone and effect a
union between it and the hoof ; in addition, the sensitive
sole (Fig. 3, Plate X.) is implicated, and in an extended form
of the malady the os pedis (Plate X., Fig. i, d)^ or coffin
bone, is also included.

The disease of the first, or simple form, is characterised, as
we have said, by inflammation of the sensitive laminae and
sensitive sole, and from the fact of these structures being
covered by an unyielding horny case the usual attendant
swelling and relief by free exudation are not permitted, and
therefore the pain from pressure is agonising and extreme.
Exudation occurs upon the external surfaces of the sensitive
laminae, and in consequence of the front or toe being the
most vascular part the greatest accumulation is found there.
This favours destruction of the attachments between the
horny and sensitive laminae, producing the characteristic
phenomena of laminitis, convexity of horny sole, and
interference with natural gait or persistent lameness. The
results are even more marked when the bone is involved, as
exudation is then thrown out beneath the sensitive laminae
and periosteum, or covering of the bone, severing their
connexions, as well as pervading the substance of the osseous
structure, obstructing blood circulation, and favouring such
changes as necrosis, sloughing, 8tc. Laminitis of the simple
form frequently passes off without leaving many indications
of structural change ; such happens when the exudation has
been slight and rapidly absorbed after early subsidence of
the inflammatory action. This is resolution. In other
cases the disease appears to have been principally confined
to one part of the foot, probably the toe or one quarter, as
examination after a time discloses an empty cavity occupying
a perpendicular position ; or it may be filled with a quantity
of powdery meal or seedy-looking horn, which crumbles

Inflammation of the fleet.

603

Fig. 201. — Descent of the
Pedal or Coffin Bone,
and production of Pu-
tnice Foot.

away on the slightest touch. This state will receive further
attention under the term “ Seedy Toe.”

The most serious states are dependent on prolonged
severe inflammation, which provides a copious exudation,
and as it gradually invades the con-
necting structures and breaks down
the attachments, favours the descent
of the point of the coffin bone, at the
same time affording greater space be-
tween it and the hoof (Fig. 2 01, <2), where
the exudation occupies the space, ac-
cumulates, hardens, and adds to the
deformity by further displacement of

bone and horn, the first being pushed downwards at the toe,
the latter upwards, producing, as already alluded to, the
appearance of convex sole, or “pumice foot.”

Further changes are also producTed. Inflammation having
invaded the secreting structures of the sole, the power of
horn formation is greatly reduced, and for ever afterwards
the horny sole is thin and weak, partaking of a spongy or
even cheesy nature, incapable of sustaining weight or afford-
ing protection as before. Although the coronary cushion
(Fig. I, a, and Fig. 4, k, Plate X.) is
not actually participating in the inflam-
matory process, yet by repeated or in-
termittent stimulus from the adjacent
disordered conditions it is urged to
irregular, and probably inordinate, ac-
tion, results which are evident in the
irregularly wrinkled, furrowed, or rib-
bed appearance of the hoof, as exhibited in the engraving
(Fig. 202).

The coffin bone — os pedis — also undergoes a remarkable
change. This will be better understood by a comparison of

Fig. 202.

The Hoof ribbed or
'wrinkled by disease.

6o4 Diseases of Skin and Appendages,

Figs. 203 and 204 ; the first being a drawing of the healthy
bone, the second the subject of diseased alteration from

Fig. 203. — The Coffin Bone. FiG. 204. — The Coffin Bone

afte7' Laminitis.

laminitis. The nutrient canals having been blocked up
by deposit of ossific matter, nourishment is no longer carried
except in very insufficient quantity, and removal by absorp-
tion of its substance (Fig. 204, a a a) goes on at almost
every point. Besides these, suppuration may exist and
detach the upper part of the wall at the coronet, or between
the horny sole and frog and their respective secreting
structures, and produce a separation there also.

Causes of Laminitis. — One of the principal, and probably
most frequent, causes of this disease is concussion, derived
directly from the hard nature of our roads, or greatly assisted
by the maltreatment to which horses are regularly submitted
in what some people erroneously denominate “ the art of
shoeing.’-’ We are serious when we state that, more properly
in many quarters it should be called “ the intent of ruin,” as
so many ignorant men still persist in believing horses’ feet
are intended to be reduced at every shoeing, while they never
acquire the art of moulding the shoe to the foot. What if
the human bootmaker were to adopt the screw and press in
order to alter the shape of the purchasers’ feet to the cover-
ing and defence he provides 1 The result we will leave for
the reader to imagine. Lamdnitis from concussion is, as a
rule, confined to the fore-feet ; but laminitis from metastasis

6o5

Inflammation of the Feet.

SO called — or, more properly, from sympathy — arises from
disease or disorder of analogous structures of the body
Probably in no other disease is this peculiar condition so well
marked as in connexion with laminitis ; indeed, the occur-
rence forms an interesting study to the scientific veterina-
rian. In this affection the hair of the mane and tail are
readily thrown off ; wounds of the jugular vein often refuse
to heal in the ordinary way, but go on to suppuration —
phlebitis. Similar phenomena are observed in certain other
diseases, thus : when the mucous surfaces of the intes-
tines, air-passages, or uterus, are inflamed or disordered, it is
not rare to witness eruptions of the skin — erythema ; or of
the buccal membrane — eczema. These facts establish an

intimate connexion between the different structures, and
show that such diseases are prone to spread to similarly
constituted tissues, however distant. In the minute nature
of the tissues of the feet there are analogous characteristics
to those of the skin, mucous membranes, &c., and these are
admirably united in sympathy by an appropriate and special
nervous system — the sympathetic — which insures that when
one of them is prostrate under serious morbid states, the rest
in the category are liable to sympathise or become associated
in the same disease and suffering. By this brief illustration
we hope the reader will perceive with what readiness this
disease follows an attack of pneumonia, influenza, superpur-
gation, &c., engorgement of the stomach by wheat, barley,
or even ordinary food.

Symptoms. — One, two, or all four feet may be affected.
If one is diseased, it generally arises from continued pressure
in taking the weight of the body in order to relieve the
opposite limb, which has been injured or diseased. In this
case the animal is seen to transfer his weight to the originally
diseased leg, and rest that which is thought to be sound,
holding it up, and enduring much febrile disturbance.

6o6 Diseases of Skin and Appendages,

When both fore-feet are diseased lameness is severe and
distressing, so much that the horse can scarcely be induced
to move from the spot. He stands with the hind-legs drawn
forwards beneath the body, which take the weight ; while the
fore are advanced, and he uses the hind-feet as a pivot, on
which he turns or swings his body round from one spot to
another, touching the ground with the heels only of the fore-
feet. Movement causes great pain, and he groans and per-
spires in the attempt. The pulse is full, strong, and frequent,
characters which are maintained far into late periods of
the case. Sometimes the animal will lie on his broad
side, and in this condition greatly facilitate the crisis and
recovery ; but when he stands obstinately, he thus adds
intensity to the disease. The nature of the case is clearly
made out by pushing the animal backwards, when the pecu-
liar swinging pivot motion and approximation of the heels of
the fore-feet to the ground will be seen.

Laminitis of the Hind-feet. — The animal now stands with
all the feet under the body, the fore supporting the greater
part of the weight, and in this position he is quite immovable,
enduring great distress and pain, while he literally blows ;
the nostrils are dilated ; flanks heaving, pulse full and bound-
ing, strong, and frequent ; countenance indicative of anxiety,
and he is sweating profusely. The affected feet are alter-
nately raised in a nervous, irritable manner, and when he
changes his position the toes of the hind-feet are brought to
the ground, and he makes a kind of leap, after which he
trembles and blows more violently. The suffering animal is
often compelled, from pain and exhaustion, to lie down, and
when in that position he experiences great mitigation of all
the signs.

Sometimes all the feet are affected, when the pain and
distress, together with other manifestations of the disease, are
greatly intensified. The difficulty of standing is much

6o7

Inflammation of the Feet.

greater ; he is of course more uneasy, and appears ready to
fall ; is constantly lifting the feet, endeavouring to seek a
more favourable position ; he blows, groans, and perspires, and
at length lies or falls down from extreme pain and exhaustion.

In all cases the feet are hot, the plantar arteries throb ; a
single foot cannot be raised, and the taps of a hammer are
productive of agony. From this cause the shoes often
cannot be removed while the animal stands.

Treatment. — The usual plan is to remove the shoes as
soon as possible, which may be readily accomplished in the
very early stages of the disease ; otherwise, if the animal lies
down, the hobbles should be put on that he may be confined
to the recumbent position on a good bed, being frequently
turned ; then the shoes may be removed, and poultices, hot
or cold, as the practitioner may select, can be applied. If a
plentiful supply of hot water can be obtained, fomentations
may be used ; but in the absence of that, it may be wiser to
remain content with the simple moisture of a poultice.
Some practitioners bleed generally — i,e.y from the jugular ;
others prefer the local plan of scarifying the coronet, from
which the congestion is often quickly relieved. The next
step is to open the bowels ; but as there is some liability
during the disease of unduly exciting their action, the dose
is recommended to be a moderate one ; and as the circula-
tion needs controlling, and fever generally reducing rapidly^
it is a good practice to use aloes in solution and in combi-
nation with aconite in the following form ; —

Recipe No. 154.

Take of solution of aloes 5 to 8 fl. oz.

Tincture of aconite 20 drops.

Water 5 to 8 fl. oz.

Mix.

After the above has been given, warm water enemas may
be thrown up, and the animal left to the care of an at-

6o8 Diseases of Skin and Appendages,

tendant, who will keep the bedding beneath him, and other-
wise see to the necessary wants. If he does not urinate, the
catheter must be passed from time to time, as some animals
object to evacuate the bladder when lying.

Instead of casting the patient if he is found standing, he
may be put into slings : but should he prove fretful and
uneasy, it will be advisable to remove them after a time, and
trust to his lying down, when the hobbles may be put on.
Some animals do not even require these, as they will lie per-
sistently throughout the severity of the attack ; but these
are rare.

In four hours fifteen drops of aconite may be given with
the acetate of ammonia, as in No. 34, page 120 ; at the
end of eight, ten drops ; at the end of twelve hours, five; at
or even before which the pulse will have suffered a great
reduction, and the febrile symptoms generally much relieved ;
but the above rules may require some modification, which
must be based on the condition of the patient, to be deter-
mined by the mature judgment of the practitioner. As we
are prescribing in all cases for strong, large, and vigorous
animals, he will perceive the absolute necessity for cutting
down the doses as required.

The bowels being opened, pulse reduced, and other signs
relieved, the hobbles may be removed if the patient is
quiet, and the medicine may be changed for the neutral salts,
combined with hyoscyamus or belladonna ; and after a few
days the doses should be reduced one half.

Mr. Broad, M.R.C.V.S., Bath, recommends a bar-shoe,
deeply seated, having a broad web and thin heels, to be
applied as soon as possible, and as long as the congestive
stage lasts to compel the animal to take exercise during half
an hour or more three times a day. He uses purgatives inter-
nally, and states he has seen the most surprising and satis-
factory results. We have not tried the method, but from

PLATE

■ i

W. Bagg. JQa’.dcl.

H Adlard sc.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE X.

“THE VARIOUS STRUCTURES OF THE FOOT.

Fig. I. — The Pastern and Foot divided throitgh the centre,
— a, The cannon bone ; b, the large pastern bone ; c, the small
pastern bone ; d, the pedal bone ; e, the navicular bone ;
f, the insertion of the extensor pedis tendon into the coro-
nary process of the pedal bone ; g, the insertion of the flexor
pedis perforans, passing under the navicular bone, to gain
insertion into the sole of the pedal bone ; h^ the elastic frog ;
iy the horny frog ; /, the hoof ; k, the coronet.

Fig. 2. — The Hoof saw7i off beloiv the coronet. — a^ The elastic
frog ; b, b^ the posterior portion of the lateral cartilages ; g c,
the anterior portion of the lateral cartilages cut through ; d,
the flexor pedis perforans tendon, running under the navi-
cular bone, but above the elastic frog ; e, the navicular bone,
the anterior portion of which has been divided ; f^ the supe-
rior surface of the pedal bone, showing the indentations for
the reception of the prominences at the inferior extremity of
the small pastern bone ; g^ in the separation of the hoof a
removal has taken place of the coronary process, which con-
sequently projects above the horny box in the living subject ;
//, the interweaving of the sensitive and of the horny or in-
sensitive laminae ; the dark lines representing the sensitive
laminae, and the white the horny laminae, which form the
inner wall of the crust ; /, the outer wall of the crust, con-
sisting of dark horn.

Fig. 3. — The Sensitive Parts exposed — the sole of the foot

Description of Plate X,

shown after the horn has been removed. — a^ The sensitive
frog ; b, the sensitive bars ; the white line between the bars
and frog representing the part of the foot which secretes the
horny commissure that unites the bars and frog ; the
sensitive sole ; the heels ; e, the fissure of the frog ; f f
the reflection of the sensitive laminae forming the bars ; g,
the reflection of the coronet forming the frog. The spongy
substance, represented to the left of the spectator, be-
tween ^ and by show that the subject whence this drawing
was taken was only saved by death from an attack of
canker.

Fig. 4. — The Sefisitive Lamince exposed by removal of the
hortiy box. — The secreting coronet ; by the sensitive
laminae ; e, the reflection of the coronet going to form the
sensitive frog ; dy the reflection of the sensitive laminae
going to form the sensitive bars ; Oy the toe ; f, the quarters ;
gy the heels.”

Coronitis,

609

the earnest, well-known truthful character of Mr. Broad,
have confidence in his statements. The method we have
detailed has yielded satisfactory results in our hands, in most
instances having enabled the animal to resume slow work in
a few weeks, the feet being shod with strong and seated
shoes when any amount of convexity has taken place, pres-
sure being generally applied as the feet are able to bear it.

There are other remedies, variously employed — as blisters,
setons, &c. ; but as we have not witnessed the good expected
from them, the more successful treatment only has been
detailed.

Coronitis.

Coronitis, villitis, or inflammation of the coronet or coro-
nary substance (Figs, i and 4, Plate X,), is a disease common
to heavy town horses, but is sometimes observed in those of
lighter and better breeds.

Symptoms. — Augmented heat and tenderness of the
coronet, with evident increase of size in some oases. The
animal exhibits a peculiar gait- — shuffling or advancing the
feet in a gingerly manner when both fore ones are affected,
the heels being put as gently on the ground as possible.
Scales are seen on the coronary substance, and a separation
^is effected between it and the hoof, while the latter becomes
thin, harsh, and brittle from diminished seeretion ; and
stripes are seen along the external surface. The bulging of
the coronet is often a remarkable indication, which then forms
a safe distinction between this disease and laminitis.

T^'eatment. — Remove the shoes in all cases, but more par-
ticularly those having calkins, and apply lead lotions, as
No. I 39, page 5 26; astringents, as Nos. 1 2 5, 126, 128, and 129 ;
or those containing laudanum. No. 139, by means of wet
rags tied over the pasterns. A few doses of neutral salts.
No. 44, the ball. No. 14, or draught. No. 13, will be useful in

6io Diseases of Skin and Appe^idages.

allaying fever, and reducing the heat and tenderness of the
coronet. After a few days put on old flat shoes, turn the horse
into a level loose box, and supply a laxative diet. When
the inflammation has fully subsided, use the following lini-
ment twice daily : —

Recipe No. 155.

Take of camphorated soap liniment (opodeldoc) 6 fl. oz.

Aromatic spirits of ammonia i „

Laudanum 2 „

Mix, and apply with friction to the coronet.

Mild blisters are sometimes used to promote more rapid
growth of hoof. Use a little tar ointment externally, and when
the animal is shod in future, forbid the unnecessary use of
the rasp above the clenches, and knife to the frog and sole.

Furuncule, or Carbuncle of the Coronet.

Having already described the pathological characters of
carbuncle, we need only refer here to its special location in the
coronary substance. Generally it occurs of the simple kind ;
but there are instances when it appears to be of the anthra-
coid form, being doubtless due to some poisonous influence,
probably punctures from dirty stable-forks, knives, &c., when
some animal virus is present. Animals of gross constitutions,
kept in ill-drained, dirty, and ill-ventilated buildings, are
common subjects, and our experience goes to show that
more cases arise in Scotland than elsewhere among horses
of the heavier breeds.

Symptoms. — The coronet is affected at one spot, which
assumes a circumscribed oval swelling, hard and painful,
gradually extending until other parts exhibit the same cha-
racters, when great lameness, pain, and fever are manifested.
After a few days, suppuration is established, and the dis-
charge brings away detached portions — cores — when several
openings are established in the same spot, or tumour, which

False Oiiarter.

6ii

form angry-looking sores, from which escape pus, ichor, and
blood ; these enlarge by ulceration, and often destroy much
of the substance of the coronet, and endanger the hoof secre-
tion at that part. The leg is sometimes involved as high as
the pastern, and occasionally to the knee or hock — abscesses
I forming, succeeded by extensive sloughing and exposure of
1 ligament, tendon, and even bone — producing such severe
constitutional symptoms, and even blood poisoning, that death
may result.

Treatment. — Poultice freely, using resin or turpentine to
promote free discharge. Stimulate the wounds with nitrate
of silver or caustic potash, and occasional dressings of car-
bolic acid. When a healthy action has been established, use
lotions Nos. 70, 71, and 72.

Fever medicines, laxatives, &c., may also be required ; and
during stages of debility, stimulants and iron tonics.

Destruction of the coronary secreting substance produces
the state known as

' False Quarter,

Which consists of a hollow, flattened, or shelly state of hoof,
i having vertical ribs and furrows (Fig. 205), being much
thinner than at any other part, extending
from above downwards, and generally in-
: capable of supporting weight. As the
coronary substance secretes the horn, it
therefore follows that injury or destruc-
tion of that organ insures little or no

I formation of hoof — hence the state known Quarter.

as false quarter. Treads, injuries of va-
rious kinds, quittor, abscesses, &c., are the usual causes,
1 besides carbuncle, the rapid cure of which proves the pre-
ventive of false quarter.

When the state is fully developed, the animal should wear

39—2

6i2 Diseases of Skin and Appendages,

a bar-shoe, by which the pressure may be removed from the
weak part, and distributed to the frog and sounder portions.

Horse-dealers of a questionable reputation seek to cover
these defects by plugs of soap, gutta-percha, &c., and after-
wards tramping the animal through mud and dirt. The way
to avoid such fraud is obvious : never purchase of unknown
or untried horse-dealers, nor even of any one without first
having the animal, and particularly the feet, examined by a
competent veterinary surgeon.

Sandcrack.

Sandcrack consists of a fissure, crack, or division in the
substance of the wall of the foot, commencing at the secre-
tory substance — the coronet (Fig. 206) — and ultimately ex-

Fig. 206. — Sandcrack at Fig. 207. — Sandcrack at

the Quarter'. the Toe.

tending to the lower or ground surface. Although no part
of the hoof wall is exempt from sandcrack, yet generally it
is found to be located at the inner quarters of the fore, and
toes of the hind, feet (Fig. 207).

Causes. — Defect in the secretion of the elements of horn
structure, due generally to external causes. Sandcrack,
therefore, is of slow formation ; but as it may arise from
some unnatural strain, in consequence of a false step, &c.,
then we may presume it occurs at once. Even here we

Sa7idcrack.

613

may assume that defective secretion has something to do
with its formation, as strong and perfectly healthy hoofs do
not contract the disease ; although it may arise during severe
strains and unnatural exertion, these must not be accounted
as the true, but only an exciting cause, operating on a con-
dition already favourable to the development of the disease.

Horn, or hoof, consists of a series of hair-like fibres or
tubes, arranged in a longitudinal direction, and firmly held
together by an intertubular or interfibrous substance. The
first are secreted by a corresponding number of small
eminences or papillae, and the latter is provided by the sur-
face of the coronary substance between the papillae (Fig. 4, a,
Plate X.). The natural function of the coronary substance
being the secretion or formation of the horn fibres, and the
intertubular cell-like substance to unite and bind them toge-
ther in a firm common substance, called horn, it is necessary
that the coronary secretory organ be in perfect health and
order if true horn is to be secreted, and anything which in-
terrupts or arrests this process prevents the formation of
hoof material ; hence injuries of various kinds and causes,
even of an occult character, which lead to a perverted secre-
tion, are prolific sources of sandcrack. One fertile cause is
the absurd paring of the sole and rasping the outer wall, by
which the hoof is weakened in its integrity, and unfitted to
bear jar or concussion : it becomes hard, brittle, and weak —
no longer the elastic, strong, weight-bearing, and protecting
substance originally designed by Nature ; and from this alone
the secretory organ at the top is disturbed and disarranged.
Hence defective secretion occurs, and an unnatural strain —
indeed, any strain becomes so when the foot is unable to
perform its functions — severs the connexion between the
fibres at the weakest part. It is not a disease of the hoof,
as that substance cannot take upon itself disease ; it is rather
a diseased secretion. Hoof is secreted — formed — a result of

6i4 Diseases of Skin and Appendages.

organic action, but possesses no life or organic action of
its own.

Symptoms. — Gradually increasing lameness as the crack
develops and tissues at the top inflame. At first the crack
is small, almost invisible, existing on the outer surface only,
but at length extends throughout the substance of the wall
to the internal laminated structures ; and, finally, in the
motions of the animal the hoof gives way at this part, which
admits of the crack opening and closing, the sensitive parts
being included, which gives rise to haemorrhage, pain, and
lameness ; and with further irritation from the insinuation of
dirt, grit, moisture, &c., the disease is aggravated, the animal
dreading to put the foot to the ground and bear any weight
upon it. The conditions are intensified when the fissure
exists at the toe. The coronary substance swells, and in-
flammation seizes the soft parts in contact with the crack,
and often much irritative fever prevails.

Treatment. — Reduce local pain by poultices, the shoe
being first removed, and allay febrile disturbance by appro-
priate internal remedies, as draught No. 13, or bolus No. 14 ;
laxatives, No. 56 ; neutral salts, No. 44.

When these have been fulfilled, there are several plans
adopted with the view of insuring a growth of sound horn,
which, briefly, are as follows : —

I. Put on a bar-shoe, having relieved the affected part
from all pressure, causing the weight to be distributed upon
the frog, sole, and sound parts of the wall. Widen the
crack from top to bottom by means of the knife, and also
separate the top of the hoof from the coronet at the junc-
tion with the crack, removing the horn upon each side at
least one inch, the space produced being required for the new
growth of horn. A mild blister may now be applied over
the part, and repeated in a week or ten days, and at suit-
able intervals afterwards, to promote a quicker and stronger
secretion.

Sandcrack,

615

2. Prepare the foot for the bar-shoe as recommended in
the first plan ; then pass the heated firing-iron across the
crack (Fig. 2D 8), about half an inch be-
low die junction with the coronet, rub-
bing it freely into the horn until the
animal winces from pain ; this will divide
the upper portion from the lower, and

allow of new horn growing without inter- ^^^■'^.oZ.—Cross firing

fior Sandcrack.

ference, as a rule ; but if the latter should
accumulate so fast as to press upon the old horn at a later
stage, the knife may be employed to cut so much away as
will make room for its descent. A mild blister should be
put on the coronet, and the animal’s head tied up, rest being
given until lameness has passed off. As a means of con-
ferring a necessary amount of elasticity, keeping out mois-
ture, and promoting the growth of horn, a strap should be
put upon the foot to hold tow dipped in Stockholm tar in
application to the top of the crack. In five or six weeks
the crack will grow down soundly, and care must be exer-
cised in shoeing.

3. Clasping. — This is performed in several ways. A.
Before the shoe is replaced a nail is driven through the toe,
and caused to pass out on one side of the crack, about
an inch above the ground surface. A hole is punched in
the shoe corresponding to a similar position on the other
side of the crack, and when the shoe is put on a nail is
driven so as to emerge about the same height ; a piece of
wire is then twisted round both nails, their points turned
down, and the wire finally tightened, so as to bring the edges
of the hoof close together. The whole of the nails are then
driven to secure the shoe, and, as preferred, either of plans
Nos. I and 2 may be adopted in addition. This method is
specially adopted for toe sandcrack.

B. General clasping is thus performed : — The outer dense
glazed surface of the hoof is first rasped slightly away about

6i6 Diseases of Skin and Appendages.

the middle of the crack, and upon each side ; afterwards, by
means of a suitable boring instrument, a hole is made in the
substance of the hoof, commencing at the crack and termi-
nating an inch or thereabouts from it. This is done on
each side, when a piece of tough iron, of somewhat smaller
substance than the shank of an ordinary horse-nail, is passed
through each hole, or rather from one to the other, the ends
being turned towards each other, and by subsequent pres-
sure derived from a proper pair of pincers the crack is
closed, and the clip or clasp tightened.

4. Strong waxed twine is wound round the foot near
the coronet several times, and at length fixed by a firm
knot, the crack being filled with gutta-percha or shoe-
maker’s wax.

5. An effective dosing of the crack is performed in the
following manner : — By means of an instrument, having two
points sufficiently far apart to include the crack, and pre-
viously heated, depressions are made, one on each side
(Fig. 209). A clamp (Fig. 210, of tough iron, having

each end turned down in the form of hooks, is inserted into
the depressions by means of forceps (Fig. 210, and by
subsequent pressure caused to penetrate the hoof and draw
the sides of the crack together. One or more of these can
be inserted with far less trouble than the clasps named in
No. 3, B.

Fig. 209. — The Clmnping
Iro7i.

Fig. 210. — The Clamps a, and
Sandcrack Farceps^ b.

Sandcrack.

617

In all cases, we believe, the cure is hastened by a blister
to the coronet, and in order not to encourage the subse-
quent tendency to sandcrack, we would counsel the reader
against the absurd and injurious practice of rasping the out-
side of the hoof, paring of the sole and frog, &c., and all
means .which lessen the integrity and natural strength of the
hoof, and combine to pervert the secretion of horn.

6. Stripping. — In this operation the heated iron is em-
ployed to make two incisions in the horn, commencing at
the crack about two inches below the coronet, each going
upwards and spreading outwards in the shape of the letter
V- The burning is carried through the horn to the sensi-
tive parts, so as to cut off the portion included between the
fissures thus formed. The horse is then cast, and, by means
of appropriate instruments, the portion of hoof is dissected
or torn off, and the parts treated as an ordinary wound, while
the growth of new horn is promoted by blisters or stimula-
ting liniment, &c.

7. Other forms of Fir mg. — One plan, which originally was
practised by Mr. Read, V.S., of Crediton, many years ago,
consists of making a half-circle from one point of the coro-
net, including the crack, and returning to the coronet on the
opposite side {see Fig. 21 1).

We have already named the simple
cross line of firing (Fig. 208), and it
only requires that we should state that
a compound form has been adopted —
that is, the V shape (Fig. 211) with
Mr. Read’s plan. The simple cross line Fig. 2\\. —Showing the

of firing has been very successful in ZTtrianftrZfng
our hands, and recommends itself as for Satidcrack.
ready and effective.

6i8 Diseases of Skin and Appendages,

Thrush.

This consists of the discharge of a foetid inky fluid from
the cleft or fissure of the frog, sometimes associated with
burrowing under the whole surface, and detachment of the
horn in ragged, spongy, and half-decomposed portions.
Horses which stand in their excrement in the stable are
very prone to them. The use of cowdung as stopping to
the fore-feet is a common cause ; and when horses are
turned upon damp pastures, or into wet strawyards, they are
certain to contract thrush. The disease depends upon
contact with filth and decomposing material, and the pre-
vention is fully effected by avoiding these. The horny frog,
by constant maceration and reduction — effects which are
mainly due to the presence of potash salts in the dung and
urine — becomes softened and reduced ; it is no longer the
protecting cushion which Nature originally designed it — the
sensitive parts are exposed and irritated, inflamed, and
a discharge arises, being impregnated with horn pigment and
decomposing material, which confer the characteristic colour
and odour. In some instances we have found thrush asso-
ciated with a small shrivelled frog and hollow foot, or sole,
and high heels, due to the pernicious effects of paring away
in shoeing ; and in these we have usually attributed the
occurrence to the loss of function, especially when the frog
is further removed from the ground by high calkins or
thick shoes.

Treatment. — If the animal is at rest take off the shoes,
lower the heels, and bring the frogs to the ground, which
should be kept as dry as possible. The fissure of the frog
may be packed daily with a small quantity of tow, first
moistened in dilute hydrochloric acid, and afterwards charged
with the following powder : —

Thrush.

619

Recipe No. 156.

Take of common alum i dr.

Calomel i „

Mix.

Or the following mixtures may be employed : —

Recipe No. 157.

Take of sulphate of zinc 2 drs.

Acetate of lead 2 „

Nitric acid 2 „

Mix, and stir with a glass rod.

Recipe No. 158.

Take of sulphate of copper 2 drs.

Stockholm tar 2 „

Sulphuric acid 2 ,,

Dissolve the copper in the acid, and add the tar.

Recipe No. 159.

Take of strong solution of chloralum oz.

Tincture of myrrh ^ „

Mix.

The three foregoing mixtures to be applied by means of
tow, packed in the fissures by means of a knife or flat stick,
and repeated on alternate days.

If the animal is at work, pressure should be put on the
frog, as soon as it can be borne, by means of a bar-shoe,
or leather soles and packing. When the frog is much
shrivelled, and far from pressure by the bar-shoe, even when
the heels have been lowered, it may be readily effected by
securing several thicknesses of leather to the bar of the shoe
by means of a nail, for which a hole has been punched
in it.

To prevent thrush, avoid paring the frog and sole in
shoeing, and there will be no call for cowdung or other kind
of stopping, as the feet, when not reduced, preserve their own
moisture. If the hind-feet are the seat of the malady, the

620 Diseases of Skin and Appejtdages,

horse should wear movable leather soles in the stable, to
prevent contact with the dung and urine. When horses are
turned to grass, high and dry pastures should be selected in
preference to others ; and strawyards that are low and wet
rejected as positively ruinous to the feet in a variety of
ways.

Canker.

This disease sometimes follows neglected thrush, and is
seen as an acute affection conjointly with an attack of
grease. Occasionally it commences in other parts of the
foot, following pricks of nails and various injuries ; but as a
rule it commences at the frog, and rapidly extends until the
whole of the ground surface of the foot is involved. Canker
is an intractable disease simulating grease, and is common to
the same class of animals, often existing a long time, making
variable progress — sometimes not at all — and at length
becoming doubly aggravated, the system being charged with
blood poison.

Symptoms. — The affected surfaces assume a spongy
fungoid form of excrescence, the horn being degenerated and
gradually removed by the enlargement from beneath. Thus
constituted, the frog and sole are sometimes indistinguishable
from each other ; while the fungoid surface bleeds on the
slightest touch, and discharges ordinarily a most offensive
fluid, among which are masses of a cheesy consistence, com-
posed of the debris of horn-cells undergoing degeneration, the
smell arising from the chemical alteration, which changes the
contained sulphur into sulphuretted hydrogen. The hind-
feet are most commonly affected, but only one or two may
be seized ; sometimes the whole are affected. When only
one or two feet are implicated the rest possess an intensely
offensive odour, and the general conclusion is warranted
that the disease is constitutional ; indeed, it mostly appears

Horn Tumours,

621

that this is the case, local causes thereby operating with
greater power, and producing in heavy coarse animals a disease
almost unknown in the lighter and improved breeds.

Treatment. — All kinds of treatment have been known to
fail ; that which has proved successful in one case has had
no effect in another of similar nature. The usual plan
consists of clearing away the horn of both frog and sole
effectually, either by paring or stripping, and afterwards
applying the various dressings (Nos. 156, 157, and 158), as
recommended for thrush.

Tar and the various acids, burnt alum, sulphate of copper,
chloride and sulphate of zinc, corrosive sublimate, &c., have
likewise been used alone, or in combination with tar, as an
excipient ; also the mineral acids, perchloride of iron, &c.,
alone. But the greatest success has been derived from a
constant change of these, keeping the feet dry, packing up
with dry tow, and causing pressure to the whole of the
diseased surface.

During the application of these remedies, laxatives and
diuretics, with tonics, are called for, and should be given
regularly, as the state of the system seems to indicate.

In long-standing cases the bones of the feet become
diseased ; swelling of the legs, and even intractable grease,
farcy, or glanders may ensue.

Horn Tumours — Keratoma.

In consequence of pressure derived — it may be from the
clip of the shoe being hammered too tightly by the smith
in shoeing, and also from abscess and injury inflicted at
other parts of the foot — an accumulation of horn takes place
at the junction of the sole and wall of the hoof on the
internal surface (Fig. 212); and as it grows, invasion of
the coffln bone occurs (Fig. 213); and the accommodation

622 Diseases of Skin and Appendages,

thus afforded in many instances prevents the appearance of
lameness. Keratoma arises at the toe and sides of the feet,
in» consequence of the pressure of clips at those points ; but

Fig. 212. — Section of Hoof , Fig. 213. — Invasion of the

shoiuing Ho?'n Tuinom's Coffin Bone by Horn Tu~

at the Toe and Quarter's. mours of the Hoof

occasionally it is seen as a result of long-standing corns,
pricks, and other injuries.

Treatment. — Stripping the crust or wall of the hoof is
sometimes recommended, but as the operation is attended
with some danger, it is now generally acceded that if lame-
ness does not arise they are best left alone ; but as lameness
is often a characteristic of their presence, and treatment is
called for, it has been equally decided that a system of shoeing
should be adopted to suit the case ; avoiding clips at the
diseased points, and being careful not to produce pressure
and strain, giving the sole and frog their due share of
weight.

Seedy Toe.

Seedy toe consists of a separation of

the horny wall from the horny laminae at

the lower border of the os pedis, the cavity

(Fig. 214) being filled with a grey, mealy

T- o ^ powder, the result of a perverted secretion

Fig. 214. — Section of ^ ^ ^

Hoof showing se- of horn at that point.

paratwnattheToe. causes are attributed to inflamma-

tion— laminitis — or injury from pressure of a clip. If the
wall over the part, is tapped with a hammer a hollow sound
is emitted, and after the case has existed some time the wall

Corns.

623

bulges outwards. Although the term may mislead one to
suppose the disease is located at the toe, it will be found
at various parts ; and when not associated with the causes
named, it will be obvious that pressure from defective shoeing,
especially paring — producing weakness, and alteration of the
weight-bearing surfaces — have much, if not all, to do with its
origin.

Seedy toe is liable to spread, and to cause lameness from
the insinuation of sand, gravel, dirt, &c.

Treatment. — Remove the affected part- from pressure by
the application of the bar-shoe ; avoid the paring of sole and
frog ; remove clips to other parts, and let them be only
slightly hammered down. The veterinary surgeon will
remove all the diseased parts before the shoe is applied, and
at stated periods promote a new growth of horn by means
of blisters to the coronet, &c.

Corns.

There is no analogy whatever between corns in the feet of
horses and the condition known by the same name in the
human subject. Corns in horses are the result of a bruise
or injury to the sensitive sole, and are exhibited in the form
of blood extravasation in the horny structures situated at the
heels in the angle formed by the wall or outer crust of
the hoof, and its inflexions — the bars. As a rule, corns
appear in the fore-feet and on the inner sides, but they are
also seen on the outer sides, and sometimes, but rarely, in
the hind-feet. The rationale of the eaiises of corns will be
best understood by referring their existence first to those
causes which weaken and destroy the integrity of the hoof,
pervert the secretion of horn, and reduce its substance.
Thus, paring of the sole destroys its office as a weight-
bearer ; rasping of the wall first weakens it, causes it to
drv and brittle from evaporation, and the two con-

624 Diseases of Skin and Appendages.

Jointly produce an inefficient hoof, liable to bend, and strain,
and incapable of resisting local pressure, as from a stone or
particular part of an unequal shoe. Such a hoof, compared
with the natural healthy horny box, is as tissue-paper — a
condition which the mischief of man has mainly been active
in producing. When the art of shoeing is practised more in
accordance with the laws of anatomy and physiology, the
diseases of the feet will be reduced to a minimum.

A corn originally is a simple bruise of the sensitive sole>
arising from local pressure derived from the coffin bone
above and the horny sole below, attended with blood extra-
vasation, the result of rupture of bloodvessels in the injured
part Slight cases are readily dispersed, but more serious
ones are liable to run on to suppuration ; and in long-
continued or neglected cases, especially those accompanied
by maltreatment and constant exposure to the exciting
causes, much lameness exists, and the animal is compara-
tively useless. Further changes of structure have taken
place ; the coffin bone — os pedis — has become involved in
inflammation and absorption, formation
of ossific points — spiculae — on the under
surface (Fig. 2 i 5), or necrosis ; and some-
times ossification of the processes, called
alae, or wings, goes on conjointly with
absorption of animal matter, which ren-
ders the part brittle from excess of calca-
reous substance, and fracture arises ; in

^ ^ ^ r. other cases a horn tumour (Fig. 212) —

Coffin Bone ^

{tinder suffiace) dis- keratoma — forms at the lower margin of

^of^Corns coffin bone, and this acts as a similar

cause of persistent lameness. Corns, like

all other diseases, are unsoundness ; but temporary ones are

readily got rid of by proper treatment and shoeing.

Treatnie7it. — The first procedure is to remove the shoe,

Scabies or Mange.

625

and by poultices and general treatment reduce the existing
inflammation. If pus has formed, it must be evacuated
through the sole ; and if portions of bone are detached from
the edges of the coffin bone, they are to be removed. If the
animal can be spared after lameness has disappeared, let
him run barefoot on a dry floor, the outer edges of the hoof
being rasped round to prevent fracture ; blister the coronets
at intervals to promote sound horn in weak feet, and avoid
the use of the knife to the frog and sole. Put on a bar-shoe
for a time after going to work, but eventually return to
a plain one which bears equally on sole and wall. Discard
stoppings” of all kinds ; avoid moisture whenever practi-
cable— that is, forced moisture — as the foot is best preserved
by all means which render it strong, thick, and apparently
hard and unyielding, under Avhich conditions it is the most
elastic and the best — the natural protection.

Parasitic Diseases of the Skin.

These consist of — I. Animal Parasites, and II. Vegetable
Parasites, viz. : —

I. Animal Parasites.

Scabies or Mange.

Poultry Lousiness.

Ticks and Maggots.

II. Vegetable Parasites.

Favus.

Tinea Tonsurans — True Ringworm.

I. Diseases arising from Animal Parasites.
Scabies or Mange.

This disease is known under various names, as it affects
1 the different species of animal. It is contagious, depending

626 Diseases of Skin and A ppendages,

upon the presence of animal parasites which burrow beneath
the epidermis, or pierce it in search of their natural subsistence.
As it affects mankind it is called itch ; in sheep it is known
as scab ; and in the horse and cattle it is called simply
mange ; medically, in all these cases, it is termed scabies.

According to various observers, it has been demonstrated
that the parasites which specially belong to each animal
producing mange, are capable of being transferred to man,
and in certain cases to other animals of different species, and
in each produce the identical forms of mange ; but that their
period of devastation is exerted only as long as they live,
but are incapable of propagating their species when so
removed.

There are several kinds of mange insect, or acarus, common
to the horse, which we shall briefly describe.

I. Sar copies EquL — This insect (shown in Fig. 216) is
visible to the naked eye. The body is marked by alternate

furrows and lines, running in a semi-
circular manner across the body.
The back is studded with small tu-
bercles and stiff hairs. The females
are longer than the males, and far
more numerous ; and both are pro-
vided by several pairs of sucking
discs, with which they pierce the epi-
dermis, under which the female de-
posits her eggs. At these points a
small elevation is produced, in which
a passage is formed, the acarus oc-
cupying the farther extremity, giving
rise to an exudation and softening
of the epidermis, and this afterwards
dries up, together with the cuticle, forming a series of scales,
which gradually fall off.

Fig. 216. — Sarcoptes
Equi (Gerlach).

Scabies or Mange

627

2. Dermatodectes Equi. — This variety of acarus does not
live, like the Sarcoptes Equi, on the skin of man and other
animals ; if removed thither its term of existence is speedily
determined, without producing the characteristic disturbance
common to the horse, in which it is the true mange insect
(Fig. 217).

Fig. 217. — Derinatodectes Eqtii (Gerlach).

3. Symbiotes Equi. — Like the latter insect, it is specially
confined to the horse, -"'being readily found beneath the scales
(Fig. 218).

Symptoms of Mange. — Great uneasiness of the animal and
desire to rub against fixed objects, arising from an intolerable
itching of the skin, which is most severe at night. The

40—2

628 Diseases of Skin and Appendages.

skin is affected by unusual scaliness, hair is rubbed off in
places, and the epidermis exhibits an elevated, as well as

hollow or detached appearance. The
presence of the acarus, together
with the transmission of the disease
to other animals, determines the
case.

Treatment. — Separate the af-

fected animals from those healthy,
and purify clothing, harness, &c.,
with which they have been in con-
tact. For washing the mangers,
stall-posts, and sprinkling over the
floors, and all unpainted objects, use
one pound of black ashes with a
gallon of boiling water, and apply

when hot by means of an old brush.
Eqm (Gerlach). ^

If the black ashes cannot be ob-
tained, try the following : —

Recipe No. i6o.

Take of crude carbolic acid i\ pound.

Soft soap I „

Boiling water i gallon.

Pour the water upon the soft soap, and when dissolved
add the carbolic acid, and stir until a thick creamy mixture
is produced. This may be used in the same way as the
black ashes, and it will be found exceedingly useful for
washing the rugs, rollers, bandages, and harness. Those
articles which are of a woollen or cotton fabric may be
steeped in the fluid for an hour or two. The residue should
be liberally sprinkled over the floors, and thrown down
the channels, drains, &c. The same solution, used when
tepid, will also answer remarkably well for destroying the
acari on the skin. It may be applied by means of a

Lice. 629

brush. In ordinary cases the following ointment may be
used : —

Recipe No. 161.

Take of flowers of sulphur 2 oz.

Hog’s lard, pure 8 „

Rub these together by successive additions of the sulphur,
until a perfect mixture is obtained, and apply with friction
to the affected parts two or three days ; then wash with soap
and water, or the carbolic acid mixture, and apply again
when the parts are dry.

An effectual remedy is found in the ointment of stavesacre,
which is constituted as follows : —

Recipe No. 162.

Take of stavesacre seeds, finely powdered 2 oz.

Hog’s lard, pure 8 „

Olive oil I „

The whole to be mixed and digested in a water bath for
an hour ; afterwards strain and set aside to cool, when it is fit
for use.

Lice.

These parasites differ from the last, as they do not burrow,
but infest the outer surface, giving rise to much irritation,
and affect aged animals and those suffering from debility and
starvation.

The course of treatment to be pursued consists of isolating
the animal, clipping off long hair, and applying the carbolic
acid mixture, sulphur ointment, or a decoction of stavesacre.
The latter is made as follows : —

Recipe No. 163.

Take of stavesacre seeds, powdered 4 oz.

Boiling water 4 pints.

Let the mixture stand until cool, when it may be applied
by m.eans of a brush to the affected surfaces ; after which, tie

630 Diseases of Skin and Appendages,

up the animal’s head until the skin has become perfectly
dry. In addition to the local treatment, the animal will
require good food, with tonic medicines.

Poultry Lousiness

This form of parasitic disease, denominated Phthiriasis
Eqiti, is common to horses when stabled with fowls, or when
their roosting-places adjoin the stables. It is due to the
ravages of a species of mite, described by Alt as the
Dermanyssus Avium, common to the ordinary fowl and
caged birds generally (Figs. 219 and 220). The affection
was first described in 1851 by Professor Bouley, whose
observations have been since confirmed by veterinari'^ns. at
home.

Fig. 219. — Dermanyssus Avitwt. Fig. 220. — Dermanyssus Avzum.

Fowl Louse {Female). Fowl Louse (Male).

Symptoms. — The attack is very sudden. Without any
previous signs of uneasiness the animal begins to rub and
scratch himself, moving from side to side, stamping violently,
striking his belly, and continues for hours in this unusual
state of excitement ; night only adding to his torment by in-
creased irritation, which causes him even to tear the skin with
his teeth. An eruption of very small vesicles arises, solitary

Ticks and Maggots.

631

or agglomerate, the latter sometimes covering a large extent
of surface, succeeded by peeling of the cuticle, which is
accompanied by the hair also, leaving a bare patch varying
from the size of a small pea to a threepenny-piece. In a
few days after the attack the skin will be covered by such
patches, and later the animal may be partially denuded of
hair.

The attack seems to confine itself generally to the local
manifestations, the system rarely suffering constitutionally
unless the irritation is continued, when loss of appetite,
condition, and natural power is observed.

Treatment. — Remove the animal to temporary quarters,
and dress with the stavesacre decoction. No. 163, page 629 ;
next do away with the hen-house, and prevent fowls roosting
near the horses ; after thorough cleansing by carbolic acid
solution, and whitewashing of the stables, throw open to the
air .for a week before the animals are taken back again.

Ticks and Maggots.

Ticks are occasionally found imbedding themselves in the
skin of horses, giving rise to much irritation. By means of
special suckers, or other appliances,
they fasten so firmly that force ap-
plied will either tear the animalcule
in two, leaving the head in the
skin ; or a portion of the skin is
drawn away if the tick comes off
entire (Fig. 221). The best way

of exterminating them is to divide

Fig. 221. — Ixodes Ricinus.
The common Tick.

the body by means of scissors,
drop olive oil or oil of turpentine
upon them by means of a feather.

Maggots are found in large numbers in the various kinds
of wounds during very hot weather. They are the larvae of

632 Diseases of Skin and Appendages,

the common blow-fly, hatched from the eggs which have been
deposited in the raw surfaces, and by burrowing add to the
soreness and irritation. Wounds of the feet are very liable
to this parasite ; to destroy which oil and turpentine, in the
proportion of one of the latter to three of the former, will
be found effective.

II. Vegetable Parasites.

Two varieties of vegetable parasites are observed among
horses — Favus and Tinea tonsurans.

Favus — Honeycomb Ringworm —

Depends upon a cryptogamous fungus, which has its primary
seat in the hair follicles, giving rise to itching and an eruption,
which subsequently dry up, leaving a crust or scab of a
circular form, and having a yellow appearance. Such patches
are numerous, and by age become lighter in colour, soft, and
friable, being easily reduced to a state of powder, and a
peculiar smell of mice is said to be generated. It is a
common disease among children, in whom it is known as
“ scald-head.” Among horses it is rare.

Treatment. — Applications of iodine ointment, or prepara-
tions of corrosive sublimate, are the most useful.

As the disease is transmitted from mice to cats, the latter
animals may convey it to horses.

Tinea Tonsurans — True Ringworm.

This is the most common form of parasitic fungus in
the skin of the horse, being seen among animals of every
condition. Like favus, it is a disease of the hair follicles,
involving a variable extent of surface in a circular form,
within which a fungoid crust forms, causing the hairs to
break off and become stumpy; the crust assuming a whitish

True Ringworm,

633

appearance, and eventually breaking down into'a bran powdery
condition. Erythematous inflammation, with itching and
irritation, are accompaniments. There are no vesicles, as in
Herpes eircinatiis^ in which there is no scurf or scales ; and
hairs which may be plucked out by the roots in vesicular
ringworm, break off in this disease, sometimes close to the
skin or within the follicle itself The particular fungus
giving rise to this affection has been named TricoRiytes
tonsurans, and is readily transferred to mankind and the
ox tribe, being highly contagious.

The parts affected are those covered, or partially covered,
with hair ; and in horses it is found on the face, sides of the
neck, back, and quarters — parts that are most likely to be
brought into contact with the means by which the disease
is propagated (Fig. 222).

Treatment. — This consists of destroying the fungus
which forms beneath the cuticle. The crusts are to be
softened by the application of lard, glycerine, or warm
water, when they may be removed ; and to the surfaces
beneath the ointment of iodine is to be applied. The
mineral acids diluted, perchloride of iron, solution of corrosive
sublimate, are all very efflcacious.

The clothing of the animal should be boiled or soaked in

Fig. 222.— True Rl7igworm {^Herpes Tonmrans).

634 Diseases of Skin and Appendages.

the carbolic solution, No. 160, page 628, when boiling ; the
padding of collars and harness need thorough cleansing and
dressing with soap and warm water, the carbolic acid solution,
and when dry treated with a solution of corrosive sublimate,
to destroy any traces of the adhering fungus. The building
likewise should be thoroughly cleansed.

SECTION XL

LOCAL INJURIES, LAMENESS,

ETC.

LOCAL INJURIES, LAMENESS,

ETC.

Local inj'uries comprise wounds and bruises of the skin,
and deeper-seated tissues ; fractures of bones, sprains of
ligament and tendon, dislocations, and certain diseases of the
articulations. This class of affections is somewhat large
and varied, and, in a work like the present, we can scarcely
do more than give a brief notice of them ; their importance
is such that an entire volume might be devoted to each
department of the subject.

In this Section will be included a number of states which
scarcely merit a place under any of the foregoing divisions.

Wounds.

Four different kinds are recognised in veterinary practice :
these are the incised^ laceratedy contused, and punctured. Their
nature, and the treatment required, we give as follows : —

Incised Wounds. — These are produced by some cutting
instrument, which divides the skin evenly and smoothly, and
without loss of any part of its substance. Surgical wounds
are of this class. A great difference exists in the subsequent
healing of a wound as decided by its extent ; thus, if small,
it unites by what is known as the first intention, or adhesive
inflammation ; but large wounds are sometimes attended by
extensive suppuration. It does not appear, however, that
suppuration is necessary to the proper healing of a wound.

638

Local Injuries,

as the researches of Dr. Hervieux, in 1850, and Professor
Lister, within the past ten years, have conclusively shown.
We shall refer to this subsequently (see Antiseptic Treat-
ment). Profuse haemorrhage is not an infrequent accompani-
ment of wounds of this character when accidentally inflicted.

Treatment. — When haemorrhage (which see) is profuse,
the first attention should be devoted to arresting it ; if small,
simple closure of the wound is sufficient.

Incised wounds, excepting when they occur in the extre-
mities from falling upon sharp broken stones, &c., are
usually free from dirt and foreign matters ; but if such are
present, or blood-clots, &c., they should be carefully re-
moved by the forceps, the fingers, or handle of a scalpel ;
if they are firmly imbedded in the wound, poultices or
fomentations may be required. With this exception, never
allow an indsed wound to be washed^ poidticedy or fomented ;
as Nature’s coagulum, which is thrown out for the proper
union of the parts, is removed, and often
an unsightly wound, and subsequent ex-
tensive blemish, are produced. The lips are
to be approximated and held by sutures, of

Fig. 223. Twisted ^yhich several kinds are employed. The first
Suture.

is the twisted suture., which consists of pass-
ing a pin through the lips of the wound, and drawing them
together with soft twine, twisted in the form of the figure 8,
and shown in the engraving (Fig. 223).

The interrupted suture consists in passing thread, silk, or

silver wire, &c., through the lips of the wound — i. e., from

one to the other — when the two

ends are brought together and

tied ; or in the case of wire being

used, the ends are twisted round

eachother. The latterisalso called
Fig. 224. — Interrupted Sutures. . ... .

Thread or silk. b. Metallic wire. the metallic SUturC (Fig. 2 2 4)

Wotmds.

639

Fig. 225. — Unmterrupted Suture.

The uninterrupted suture is formed by passing the thread
or silk continuously from one side to the opposite, until the
lips from one end of the wound
to the other are brought into
close and even approximation.

It is only suitable for small
wounds (Fig. 225).

The quilled suture. — This is particularly adapted for large
wounds, and those where internal pressure is likely to prove
antagonistic to the process of healing, as in the abdomen,
flank, &c. A cylindrical piece of wood, of suitable length,
is selected — say three-quarters of an inch in diameter, or
thicker if required — and a number of slits are cut round it,
corresponding to the number of stitches that are to be in-
serted, which may be about an inch apart. This being done,
the wood is split up the middle, producing identical halves,
and all sharp edges are slightly rounded off. The whole of
the stitches are next inserted — thread, twine, or wire being
used — by means of a suitable needle, having a triangular
point, and more or less curve (Fig. 226), sufifleient length
for tying being left upon each side after being cut off The
sticks are next placed flat side downwards, upon each lip of

Fig. 226. — Suture Needle.

Fig. 227. — Quilled Suture.

the wound within the line of threads, &c., which are brought
together over the slits in the sticks, and tied together or
twisted (Fig. 227). Suitable dressings, for after use, are cold
water, lotions of lead, zinc, arnica, spirits and water, tincture
of benzoin, tincture of myrrh, &c. {See Dispensatory.)

In some instances, where large wounds have been inflicted,
signs of severe constitutional disturbance arise {see Irritative

640

Local Injuries.

Fever, page 27), when the various sedative preparations — as
acetate of ammonia, aconite, neutral salts, opium, belladonna,
calomel, &c. — will be required, various forms of which are
given in Nos. 13, 14, 33, 34, 44 ; and further particulars of
the remedies themselves will be found in the Dispensatory,
at the conclusion of the work. Perfect rest also may be
required, particularly when the wounds are situate in movable
and important parts ; and the slings may be called into requi-
sition, in order to prevent the animal lying down.

Lacerated Wounds. — In this variety separation of the
integument is effected in an uneven and irregular manner.
The causes are violent blows with rough and knotty sticks, or
by being torn with hooks, nails, and projecting ironwork; kicks,
bites, and attacks in which the horns of cattle are used. There
is seldom danger from bleeding, as arteries, when torn, usually
contract sufficiently to prevent the flow of blood.

Wounds of the abdomen, when the muscles are divided,
are frequently fatal, not only from the collection of serum,
blood, pus, &c., within the abdomen, but also from the great
liability which exists in the horse to become complicated
with peritonitis. Sometimes permanent ventral hernia
ensues from tearing of the muscles beneath, but in which
the skin receives no injury ; these are mostly the result of
being gored by cattle, and seldom call for other treatment
than simple pressure, if observed at the time.

Treatment. — Remove all foreign bodies by the forceps, or
gentle fomentations, poultices, &c., as required ; afterwards,
and particularly in all clean wounds, draw the edges to-
gether by means of sutures. This, however, cannot always
be done, as the vitality of the parts is too much destroyed,
in which case the many-tailed bandage, as shown in
Fig. 228, will prove the most serviceable. This consists of
two parts, each being of stout canvas or pack-sheet, one side
of which is glued upon the skin and hair, the other being

Wounds.

641

slit up into an equal number of tails. One half of the
bandage is glued upon one side of the wound, to correspond

Fig. 228. — Many-tailed Bandage for large Lacerated and other
Open Wounds.

to the similar situation of the other ; and when the glue is
firmly dried, the tails are brought together over the wound
and tied. This has the effect of bringing the edges together ;
and a further improvement consists in placing “ flat quills”
beneath, in order to press down the parts as desired. The
spaces between the tails readily permit the application of
suitable dressings from time to time.

The animal must be kept very quiet, and food of a laxa-
tive nature should be given ; scarifications may be needed
to reduce local tumefaction, and probably stimulating appli-
cations to prevent gangrene. If the system affords evidence
of shock, stimulants will be necessary, as well as close atten-
tion generally.

Contused Wounds. — These exhibit a wide difference
from either of the preceding. Division of surface or sub-
jacent tissues may have occurred ; and, in addition, there is
frequently a considerable loss of vitality in the parts impli-
cated, which becomes a special feature, particularly as
sloughing generally follows, and recovery is slow. Kicks,
blows, and falls are common causes, and they are frequently

642

Local Injuries.

seen as a result of paralysis or other inability to rise, when
the animal bruises himself in the attempts to regain his feet.
When partial hanging has occurred, sometimes the worst
forms of contusions are developed ; and the like are also seen
after animals have fallen into ditches, holes, &c., and cannot
extricate themselves.

T^'eatmcnt. — Incessant fomentations for several hours,
water being supplied at a temperature of 115° to 120° F.,
the parts being covered by spongio-piline, or several layers of
woollen rags {see “ Fomentations” in the Dispensatory).
Liniments of camphor, turpentine, or ammonia are useful to
expedite a restoration of vascular action, and scarifications
also may be called for to liberate turgescence and give exit
to subcellular effusion. Internally, sedatives may be re-
quired, as acetate of ammonia, aconite, the neutral salts,
&c., as indicated by the force and fulness of the pulse ; but
when contrary states are present, as shown by the decrease
of strength and volume of the circulatory current, sloughing
of the parts may be expected, particularly if they are cold
and insensible. Stimulants must then be diligently em-

ployed, as ammonia ; and tonics, as iron or quinine ; the
external parts are to be dressed with stimulative embroca-
tions, and, as the appetite returns, good food in ample variety
must be allowed.

Contused wounds are often associated with laceration, and
hence assume a compound form. Under these circum-
stances, the injury to parts may be very extensive, and the
consequences fatal. Horses are thrown dowm when drawing
heavy loads down hill, working coal-waggons on metals, or
fall from a height, &c., and are dragged, pushed, or roll over
a great extent of rough ground, when the prominent parts of
the body are torn and bruised to a frightful extent ; again,
horses are kicked, and the blow is inflicted in the neigh-
bourhood of a joint, and much pain is produced, but in

Wounds.

643

neither case probably is the swelling very great. The bones,
in addition, may be inflamed, and because there is the de-
struction of much tissue, sloughing frequently goes on to a
greater extent than can at first be detected, and important
joints are opened, or abscesses form throughout the length
of a bone largely covered by muscles ; all of which tend to
complicate the case and perplex the attendant, the animal
growing worse, and at length dying from blood poison.

Punctured Wounds. — These are frequently dangerous.
Nails, the point of a fork or similar sharp instrument, are the
general causes ; and by the ease with which they penetrate
viscera, important bloodvessels, joints, &c., conditions arise
which sometimes cannot always be estimated, or even antici-
pated. Considerable skill is required in their treatment, but
often death arises from implication of the lungs.

Pricks in Shoeing, and Gathered Nails. — These
are common examples of punctured wounds, and require
notice here. Pricks or punctures in shoeing arise from two
causes — one, in which the nail penetrates and passes through
a portion of the sensitive structures, eventually appearing
at the usual point on the outside of the wall ; the other
consists of simple puncture, when the smith, discovering the
nail is taking the wrong course, withdraws it, having
wounded the sensitive parts. This is known as a “ drawn
nail” by the farrier. Another source of injury exists in the
nail being driven too close to the sensitive parts, and by
causing pressure upon them, pain and inflammation result.
This is called a “bind” in farriers’ language.

“ Gathered nails” are generally picked up on the road,
and are mostly found imbedded in the foot, having entered
one of the commissures of the frog, sometimes penetrating the
navicular joint. Lameness of an increasing character always
identifies injuries of this kind, except, probably, in very cold
weather ; and by tapping round the hoof with a hammer, or

41 — 2

644 Local Lijuries,

exerting pressure by pincers, the locality is generally quickly
discovered.

Treatment. — In all cases the wound should be carefully
examined, in order to discover the presence of foreign bodies,
which should at once be withdrawn. A cool and spare diet
is required, and signs of symptomatic fever should receive
prompt attention. In flesh wounds incision may be required,
together with injection of appropriate remedies, that the
burrowing of matter between fascia may be avoided. In
punctures of the joints, when only small wounds have been
made, the actual cautery, nitrate of silver, chloride of zinc,
generally succeed in closing them ; even larger wounds are
eftectually treated in this manner. In using the actual
cautery care must be exercised, so that tissues may be ex-
cited only to healthy healing action — not to char and destroy
them. The caustics named are employed merely to coagu-
late and form a plug of synovia, and thus block up the
orifice. Rest and fixing of the limb is often necessary
{see Open Joint).

Punctures of the Feet. — During dry weather, simple removal
of the nail in recent cases is often sufficient ; but when the
animal has endured pain for a day or two, or perhaps for a week
or more, suppuration is established, and no cure will be perfect
until the pus is “ let out at the bottom.” Simple percussion
or pressure, as already described, readily detects the locality
of the disease, and the hole of the offending nail should be
widened at once, taking care not to cause haemorrhage by
wounding other parts. Pus having been discharged, horn
under which pus has burrowed should also be removed, and the
foot placed in a poultice for a few days, after which the shoe
may be “tacked” on ; a movable leather sole being slipped
beneath after the surfaces have been dressed with some heal-
ing application, and covered lightly with fine tow. When
the removal of the horny sole has been great, the bar-shoe

Wounds .

645

and a leather sole may be necessary to enable the animal to
work safely and comfortably after due rest, at least until the
next time of being shod.

After simple puncture at the time of shoeing the nail
must be left out, and a drop or two of tincture of myrrh
poured down the orifice. If the prick is not violent, no
further treatment is necessary. We do not advise paring
away of the hoof for the so-called purpose of “ bottoming”
the wound, unless pus is actually present, or suspected.
When, however, pain and lameness is great, and rapidly
increasing from pricks and binds, pus may be suspected,
when we should act on conservative principles as much as
possible, as so much horn pared away means so much
required to grow again, besides the probable production of
an ugly fungus and persistent lameness. Having therefore
removed as little as possible to ascertain the real state of
things, pus not being present, place a few drops of carbolic
acid solution in the wound, cover with dry tow, give fever
medicine, and the case will probably cause no further trouble
(see Antiseptic Treatment).

P tinctures of the Coffin or Navicular Joint, from gathered
nails, are common in some places. We remember numerous
cases occurring during many years’ sojourn in the town of
Sheffield, arising from horses treading on heaps of steel scraps
lying about the yards of steel manufactories, among which
broken files are present ; the handle end, or “ tang,” which is
drawn to a sharp point, being readily “ picked up” by the hoof.
The horse is suddenly lame, goes on three legs, holding up
the affected foot, in which the object is found deeply im-
bedded. Among such common occurrences we were at first
somewhat puzzled how to act : the animal was suffering
from acute fever, exhausted by constant standing, and further
irritated by the discharge of synovia, all of which, particularly
the latter, were aggravated by paring of the hoof and poul-

646 ’ Local Injuries.

tices, but at length succeeded admirably by the following
very simple measures : — As soon as the offending object was
removed, the edge of the heated firing-iron was freely rubbed
into the wound until the animal exhibited signs of slight
pain ; this proceeding sealed the orifice, and excited healing
action in the sensitive parts beneath. Fever medicine was
given as required, and in all cases a successful issue was the
result. In two cases, to which we were called in consulta-
tion, having defied the action of plugs, caustics, injections,
plasters, &c., to stop the flow of synovia, the animals being
in slings and suffering acutely for over ten days, we at once
used the iron, which had such a remarkable effect that the
sufferers resumed their appetite, the slings were removed,
they lay down to rest, and in a fortnight were at work
again.

Bruising or Contusion, with Abscess.

There are several forms in which this combination takes
place: these are — Poll Evil ; Fistula of the Withers; Speedy-
cut ; ordinary Cutting, and Quittor.

Poll Evil.

This disease was formerly more common than in the pre-
sent day, owing to the faulty state of stables, the roof and
doorways being so low that the animals were continually
striking the poll. In some agricultural districts it is still
very prevalent, remaining as a proof of the non-improvement
of farm buildings ; and in other places, where that cause
cannot be said to exist, it is clearly traced to malicious blows,
or tight reining, which injure the muscles by overstretching
or laceration.

Symptoms. — The animal carries the head and neck “as if
they were one piece” (Fig. 229) ; he resists being turned by

Poll Evil,

647

the bridle, rushing away in a wild manner when the state of
acute abscess is being matured. In slight cases of bruise a
serous abscess only may be present
— a sac — the outer walls of which
are formed by the skin, and con-
taining a bloody serum. In more
severe states there is an enlarge-
ment, with pain, surrounding in- Fig. 22()—Stiffness previous

.. to external erlirgement in
nammation, and enlargement 01 the Poll Evil.

lymphatics ; at a later stage the

swelling becomes more circumscribed, soft, and fluctuating,
pus having formed, constituting phlegmonous abscess.

Treatment. — While enlargement only exists and without
severe pain, attempts should be made to disperse it by letting
the animal go free in a roomy box, using purgatives, diuretics,
&c., and cold applications to the poll ; after the pain and
inflammation have subsided, repeated dressings of iodine
ointment will be required.

When pus has formed, it should be evacuated immediately
by a free incision, the cavity being effectually cleared out by
means of injections of tepid water, &c., having the animal
cast for the purpose ; after which it may be plugged with
tow, and saturated in carbolic acid solution, as directed under
antiseptic treatment. In former years we resorted to the
use ©f setons of broad tape, passed from the abscess beneath
the muscles, and brought out upon each side of the neck,
injections of solution of bichloride of mercury, &c., being
regularly employed.

In old-standing cases, disease of the bones, ligamentum
nuchte, &c., produce a fistulous wound of very obstinate cha-
racter. Pieces of bone are detached from time to time, or may
be removed by instruments, while sloughing of the ligament
adds to the foetor of the sore. In such cases permanent
stiflhess of the occipito-atloidean joint ensues, or death arises

648

Local Injuries.

from the ulcerative process opening out the spinal canal, and
inducing pressure on the medulla.

After the abscess of poll evil has been induced to heal,
the bearing-rein must be discontinued ; in fact, to prevent
the disease the absurd appendage should not be tolerated.

Wound of the Scalp.

The portion of skin situate between the ears, and from
which the forelock hangs, is frequently cut, bruised, and
turned backwards, forming a large flap, and exposing an
ugly wound, which makes the animal shy and uneasy when
the head is touched. The causes rest with low stable-doors
and careless persons, who lead out the horse in such a
manner that the animal is not able to protect himself ; being
pulled at, he throws up his head and strikes the sharp edge
of the lintel, the consequence being the form of wound
we have described. In coal-mines this is a very common
occurrence, many animals being laid off work from it ; the
low roofs of the waggon and byways, coupled with the brutal
treatment of the boys who drive the animals, being the
prolific causes.

Treatment. — Simple union by sutures is all that is re-
quired, if the case is attended to at once, followed by rest
and the use of cold lotions, until the animal can bear the
bridle being put on. When the skin has become thickened,
often standing erect as a tumefied mass, the best plan is to
abscise it at once, removing the whole level with the nape
of the neck ; otherwise, by attempting to heal it, the pro-
jecting part forms a source of constant irritation and injury —
the bridle, halter, &c., chafe, and it receives many blows
from stationary objects, which cause great pain and incon-
venience {see Fracture of the Occiput).

Speedy-cut, &c.

649

Fistula of the Withers.

What has been said of poll evil applies for the most part
to this affection. Pressure from ill-fitting saddles, falls,
bruises, &c., especially in horses having high withers, is apt
to induce inflammation of the points of the spinous processes,
eventually slowly ripening to abscess, and degenerating into
a pus-secreting cavity at some depth, giving exit to the
fluid by means of several sinuses or canals having indurated
walls. The bones are likewise liable to disease from

Fig. 230. — Fistula of the Withers.

softening and participation in the continued inflamma-
tion, when portions need removal. The abscesses should
be opened early, in order to obtain successful treatment ;
and old-standing cases require free incisions with the knife,
destruction of the sinuses, and repeated injections of solu-
tions of zinc or bichloride of mercury, the butyr of anti-
mony, &c. In some instances hypertrophy of the cellular
tissue arises, causing the animal to appear as if he had a
natural hump (Fig. 230).

Speedy-CUT, &c.

This term is understood to refer to a bruise inflicted on
the inner side of the leg — in some instances above the knee,
and in others immediately below it— by striking with the foot

650

Local Injuries,

of the opposite leg. High-stepping horses are most liable
to it ; but others, having no defect of conformation, may be
caused to injure themselves thus — by being pushed to the
extent of their speed in galloping. Horses having calf-
knees and turned-in toes, are exceedingly liable to this defect
if their action is high. In all cases speedy-cutting is
dangerous to the rider, as when the blow is struck on the
tender part the horse falls as if shot.

Ordinary OUting is confined to the fetlock-joints, when
abrasion and division of the skin is produced without abscess,
but giving rise to a continual sore, which is opened and
bleeds on each occasion the animal is taken out, particularly
under certain defective formations.

Brushing is understood to imply close contact of one
foot with the opposite fetlock, removing the hair, and giving
rise to some amount of abrasion. Cutting and brushing are
frequently the effects of fatigue, arising from overwork and
weakness. The exercise of care in driving or riding, proper
rest, and a judicious allowance of peas or beans, often cure
both these defects ; otherwise the animal should wear boots,
and the shoeing must be modified to suit the gait of the
animal ; as raising the inside of the foot by means of a thick-
heeled shoe, which throws the fetlock outwards as he stands,
and thus removes it from the line of motion pursued by the
opposite.

Banging. — This is another term for injury to one of the
limbs by the opposite foot, from which considerable swelling
ensues, chiefly on the ‘inside and above the fetlock-joint,
usually ending in serous abscess — a soft, fluctuating swelling
immediately beneath the skin, and containing a reddish-
coloured, thin serum, or watery fluid.

Treat7nent. — Collections of pus or serum are to be
evacuated as soon as possible, and the wounds treated as
wounds generally, or by the antiseptic treatment. Give rest

Quittor.

651

until the parts are properly restored, and avoid pushing the
animal too far and too fast when at work ; if signs of
habitual weakness are present, allow a more liberal diet, and
otherwise promote the animal’s health and condition. Sub-
sequent thickening of the skin or subjacent tissues must be
treated by the iodine ointment, or that of the biniodide of
mercury.

Quittor.

Quittor is a disease of the coronet and foot of a fistulous
character — i.e., consisting of one or more sinuses, having
indurated walls, leading to some deep
or internal source of abscess (Fig.

231). It is often caused by pricks
and binds in shoeing, corns aggra-
vated to suppuration, and by treads
on the coronet. Under the latter it
forms a good illustration of a bruise
or contusion, with abscess.

Symptoms. — Lameness often of a Fig. 22^^— Quittor.
halting nature, and swelling of the

coronet, in which are the openings of one or more sinuses
communicating with the internal part of the foot, and
discharging curdled pus, or a sero-purulent fluid. The
surrounding tumefaction is chronic in character, hard and
tender, but possesses a feeble power of restoration. When
quittor depends upon injury from below, the formation
of abscess at the coronet is due to the accumulation and
working upwards of the matter ; when caused by treads on
the coronet, the pus burrows downwards.

Treatment. — If caused by nails or festered corns, remove
the offending agent, and establish a dependent opening at
the point as soon as possible to evacuate the pus, and put
on poultices after persistent fomentation for an hour or two

652 , Local Injuries.

at least. Reduce fever by the appropriate remedies
(page 27), and after a few days put on a bar-shoe, to
relieve the distressed parts from pressure. A mild blister
may be applied to the coronet, or the sinuses may be
injected with chloride or sulphate of zinc solutions until
healed. When quittor results from treads or bruises of the
coronet from other causes, in which case no communication
exists with the bottom of the foot, the probe is to be inserted
to ascertain the direction which the sinus takes ; after which
the knife is to be inserted, in order to divide the walls from
one end to the other ; after which a solution of bichloride of
mercury is to be injected by means of a glass syringe
(Fig. 129). When the orifice and tube are too small to
admit a knife, the hardened walls may be conveniently
destroyed by mea-ns of the actual cautery, a pointed piece
of iron wire being used for the purpose. Occasionally plugs
of arsenic and corrosive sublimate are used to “ core out”
the sinuses, or “ pipes but this proceeding must be left to
the hands of experienced men, as very serious results may
arise when least expected, and the animal rendered com-
pletely worthless. In simple treads of the coronet, attended
with laceration of the skin aud slight separation from the
hoof before the formation of abscess, the antiseptic treatment
answers very well, internal remedies being also employed to
reduce associated febrile conditions.

Whenever the coronet swells from the causes already
considered, it is necessary to remove the hoof from beneath
the part, and thus avoid irritation and pressure. Horses
suffering from quittor and conjoint lameness should not be
worked ; but when the inflammatory action has subsided,
and the parts are healing satisfactorily, movement may be
permitted.

653

Broken Knees.

Injuries to the knees partake of almost every variety of
damage to the parts, from a simple abrasion of the skin to
severe contusion^ with serous or even purulent abscess ; or they
are merely incised, and at others frightfully lacerated with
contusions and exposure of tendons, articulations, or both. In
the simple forms the treatment for ordinary wounds only is
required, but in the latter open joint is associated, rendering
the conditions severe and serious. When the skin is simply
abraded — i.e., bruised and shorn of hair, the surface appearing
partially raw, having blood spots oozing through the surface —
the animal should not be allowed to lie down for a day or
two, the parts in the meantime being dressed with astringent
lotions, as Nos. 125, 126, 128, and 129, a purgative or neutral
salts being given if the limb swells. The liability to blemish
is not great if this treatment is followed. When simple
incised wounds are inflicted, union of the divided edges
should be as speedily effected as possible ; and for this
purpose we have found it exceedingly useful to put on a
hollow wooden splint, fitting the back of the knee, and by
this means fix the limb for a few days, the wound being
closed by means of a pledget or two saturated in carbolic
acid solution, and maintained by bandages, all foreign bodies
being first removed with care. Small iinen straps are also
useful, being dipped In styptic calloid or shellac paste, and
passed across from side to side, leaving spaces for the usual
dressings, and removal of such parts of dead tissue as may
appear from time to time.

If the tendon is exposed, synovia escapes from the injured
bursa ; the wound is probably large, much tissue being
destroyed, and altogether the prospects appear not to be very
encouraging ; it is, however, very much worse when the
tendon is injured, for in a few days sloughing takes place.

654

Local Injuries.

and the bruised parts come away together with other portions
of tissue, exposing the articulations (Fig. 232) of the knee-
joint, and giving rise to a great amount of febrile disturbance,
from which many animals soon die. Indeed, under such cir-
cumstances the animal is quite worthless for work, as if we

Fig. 232. Fig. 233. Fig. 234.

Bones and Liga- Knee-jomt (Back K^iee-joint Anchylosed.
merits of the Knee- View),

joint {Fi'ont View).

succeed in healing up the wound, the knee-joint is anchylosed
(Fig. 234), or rendered immovable ; and unless the horse be
entire and of great value as such, no good can result from
treatment. Simple opening of the bursa of the tendon is
often managed successfully. The splint should be put upon
the back of the leg, the animal being reversed in his stall ; and
the wound being always exposed, it may be dressed with
solutions of zinc, &c.. Nos. 125, 126, 128, 129; the usual
internal remedies for combating fever should also be given as
required. The antiseptic treatment is eminently useful. If

Wounds of Arteries and Veins. 655

necessary, also, the animal may be assisted by the use of
slings.

Wounds of Arteries Veins — Haemorrhage.

Injuries to the bloodvessels are not of very common
occurrence, if we except that form of phlebitis already
described at page 238, and the instances in which they are
implicated with the various kinds of wounds. It is the latter
form which we now propose to take under consideration.

Division of the skin, together with the deeper-seated
tissues forming the kind of incised wounds, are the most
common instances in which arteries and veins are divided
or opened, from which haemorrhage, or bleeding, more
or less violent and serious, results. The colour of arterial
blood is a bright scarlet, and that from a vein is a dark or
Modena-red colour. The blood from an artery is further
distinguished by the larger volume, which is thrown out
by successive spurts, having a relation to the pulsations of the
heart ; while the flow from a vein is smaller and continuous,
having less force.

Haemorrhage is arrested in various ways. Certain sub-
stances, known as “ styptics” {see Dispensatory), possess the
power of contracting the artery and altering the nature of
the blood, by which a plug is formed, either in the artery
itself or at its open mouth. Mechanical agents, as cotton
wool, tow. German-tinder, &c., also are effective ; the actual
cautery, nitrate of silver, and chemical caustics generally, are
among the best.

Surgical appliances, as the forceps, ligature, &c., are ready
means often employed by the practitioner. An artery is seized
by the forceps (Fig. 178, p. 526), and twisted, or it is drawn
out and secured by a ligature at once near the free extremity.
In some instances an artery requires to be taken up at a
different point some distance from the seat of injury. It is

656

Local Lijuries.

then cut down upon by means of a scalpel, and exposed by
further dissection, when a needle, armed by suitable thread,
silk, &c., is passed beneath, and both ends are tightly tied
together, being left long enough to hang from the external
orifice. The edges of the skin are subsequently secured by
sutures, and treated as an ordinary wound.

Bleeding from an artery is always attended with danger,
particularly when the incision is made longitudinally. In
such cases the vessel may be divided across, when it is more
likely to arrest haemorrhage by retraction within its sheath,
and subsequent closure by contraction. The external
wound may then be closed and pressure applied, or false
aneurism occurs. In the event of this proceeding being
unsuccessful, the artery may.be taken up by ligature.

Bleeding from a vein is not always of a serious nature,
unless a large vessel be the seat. Simple pressure or a
styptic is generally all that is necessary. The colour of
venous blood is generally present in some extensive haemor-
rhages during operations. As arterial blood flows from the
bottom of deep incisions or wounds after extensive slough-
ing, its dark colour, with constant pulsating flow, bewilders
the beholder. The characters of venous and arterial blood
are here combined, but sometimes cannot immediately be
accounted for ; and if the haemorrhage is viewed as from a
vein or veins, and therefore not at all serious, the animal may
be lost in consequence of the belief that spontaneous arrest
will take place. Bleeding ahvays requires attention, and, in
the absence of surgical aid, should be arrested by applying
lumps of tow, cotton-wool, &c. &c., whether it be venous or
arterial in character. It is not always possible for the non-
professional person to distinguish between the two, as, in the
case referred to, arterial blood passing over raw surfaces
absorbs their moisture and impurities, and thus is caused to
assume the colour of venous blood.

PLATE XI

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XI.
THE SKELETON.

“THE HEAD.

A, The skull, face, and upper jaw, in one piece ; B, the
lower jaw ; a, the incisor teeth ; d, the tushes ; c, the molares,
or grinders ; d, the peak formed by the extremities of the
nasal bones ; e, the zygomatic spine, to the bottom of which
the masseter externus takes its origin ; f, the orbit ; the
cavity above the orbital arch ; occipital crest ; 2, the
zygomatic arch ; y,/, the styloid processes for the attach-
ment of the muscles ; k, the joint formed by the upper and
lower jaws ; /, the meatus auditorius, or opening to th
internal ear.

THE NECK. r

Cy Cy marks the extent of the cervical vertebrae ; Dy the
dentata ; My the atlas ; fiy the wing of the atlas ; Oy the
large superior spine of the dentata ; /, the body of the
dentata ; the inferior spine of the dentata ; j, Sy Sy Sy Sy
the superior spines of the five remaining cervical vertebrae ;

Vy Ty Ty Vy the obllque processes of the five last cervical
vertebrae ; Uy Uy tiy Uy Uy the transverse processes of the same
bones ; ty ty ty ty ty the inferior spines of the five last cervical
vertebrae.

THE THORAX.

Vy Vy the cariniform process of the sternum ; Wy Wy Wy Wy
Wy Wy Wy the costae, or true ribs ; j, j/, 7, j/, yy
the ribs as distinguished from the costae ; Xy Xy Xy Xy Xy Xy Xy Xy Xy

Description of Plate XL

the cartilages by means of which the ribs are attached to the
sternum ; z, z, z, z^ z, z, the heads of the ribs ; i, i, i, i, i,
the superior spines of the first five dorsal vertebrae, the
fifth being generally the longest spine in the body ; 2, 2, 2,
2, 2, 2, 2, 2, the superior spines from the sixth to the thir-
teenth, towards which they slope downwards ; the thirteenth
is generally the most upright spine in the dorsal region ;
3) 3) 3» 3» 3y l^st five of the superior of the back spines,
which have an inclination forwards.

THE LOINS, OR LUMBAR REGION.

4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, the superior spines of the lumbar region,
thicker than the dorsal spines, and having a decided inclina-
tion forwards ; 5, 5, 5, 5, the projecting transverse pro-
cesses of the loins.-

THE SACRUM.

6, 6, 6, 6, 6, the superior spines of the sacrum leaning
decidedly backward, thus leaving a large space between the
points of the last lumbar and the first sacral spine, at which

hinge of the back ; 8, 8, 8, 8, the
'tebrae.

THE TAIL.

7. 7. 7. 7. 7. 7. 7. 7. 7. the coccygeal bones.

THE PELVIS.

E, the ossa innominata, consisting of three bones upon
each side ; a, the ilium ; d, the pubis ; c, the ischium : the
three bones unite at the cavity which receives the head of
the thigh bone ; 9, 9, the inferior spines of the ilium ; 10,
the superior spine, which partly covers the first sacral spine ;
Cf Cf the ischiatic spines.

Description of Plate XL

THE THIGH AND STIFLE-JOINT.

F, the femurs ; d, the round head of the bone ; e, the
short neck of the femur ; /, the great trochanter ; g, the
small external trochanter ; h, the small internal trochanter ;
i, i, the sulcus whence the gastrocnemii muscles originate ;
y, y, the posterior condyles of the femur ; ky ky the anterior
trochlea over which the patella glides ; Gy Gy the patellas :
the interarticular cartilages of the stifle-joint, as well as the
cartilages tipping the dorsal lumbar sacral spines, and the
superior margin of the blade-bone or scapula, are necessarily
omitted in this delineation, which is admirably drawn from
a macerated skeleton.

THE TIBIA AND FIBULA, OR LEG BONES, AND THE HOCK-

JOINT.

Hy Hy the tibias ; /, /, the heads of the bones ; m, my the
fibulas ; iiy the inferior head of the tibia ; /, /, the hock-
joint ; Oy Oy the astragalus ; /, /, the calcis forming the point

of the hock.

THE POSTERIOR SHANK BONES.

Ky Ky the cannons, metatarsals, or shank bones ; Z, Z, the
splint bones.

THE BONES OF THE PASTERNS, AND FEET, OF THE
POSTERIOR LIMBS.

My My the sesamoids ; iV, iV, the large pastern bone ;
Oy Oy the smaller pastern bone ; /, /, the pedal bones.

BONES OF THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITY.

Qy the scapula, or blade-bone ; the superior margin
whence the cartilage has been removed ; by the spine of the

Description of Plate XL

scapula ; the anterior fossa of the scapula ; d, the posterior
fossa ; the shallow cup which receives the head of the
humerus : the cartilage, which is situated around the margin
of this cup, and which serves to deepen it, has been de-
stroyed by maceration ; the tuberosity terminating the
spine of the scapula, when the flexor brachii originates.

the humerus, or arm-bone ; gy the head of the bone ;
hy the smooth cartilaginous and synovial pulley over which
the tendon of the flexor brachii plays ; f, the external
trochanter of the humerus ; y, the inferior head of the
humerus ; ky the pit into which the ulna is received ; 5, 5,
the ulna, the top of which is termed the olecranon.

Ty Ty the radius ; /, the head of the bone ; my the inferior
head of the bone.

Uy Uy the carpus, or knee-joint, consisting of two rows of
bones ; Uy the trapezium, which gives security to the great
flexors, and attachment to several of the lesser flexors of the
fore- leg.

Vy Vy the cannon or shank bone ; Oy Oy the head of the
bone receiving the lower row of the bones of the knee ;
Wy Wy the splint bones ; /, the inferior head of the cannon
bone.

Xy Xy the sesamoid bones ; F, F, the large pastern bones;
Zy Zy the small pastern bones ; P, the pedal or coffln bone.”

Fractures.

657

Another method of arresting haemorrhage, particularly in
the limbs, consists of tying a soft rope, towel, or handker-
chief loosely round the members at a point above the injury ;
a stick is then passed half way through, and by twisting it
round pressure is applied, and the current of blood arrested.
This rhay be rendered still more effective if a bundle of tow,
a small pocket-pincushion or pad, &c., is first placed over the
course of the artery.

Fractures.

Bones frequently suffer from injuries in such a manner
that their continuity is destroyed, or — as is expressed in
technical language — they are fractured ; and, in the vernacular,
broken.

A fracture is said to be transverse when the broken surfaces
are at right angles with the bone (Figs. 235 and 236).

Fig. 235. — Transverse Fracture of Bone. Fig. 236. — Oblique Fracture.

It is oblique when the surfaces are caused to observe a
parallel direction from one side to the opposite, terminating
at a point considerably above or below that at which it
originally commenced ; eomminuted, when the bone is re- ,
duced to many small pieces ; and eompound, when the ends
of the bone protrude through wounds in the flesh and skin.

The only manageable kinds of fracture among the lower
animals are the first and second ; although, under certain
circumstances, a compound fracture may sometimes be re-
duced, and ultimately recover. Fractures occurring in the
long bones of the extremities below the elbow and stifle

658

Local Injuries.

may be treated successfully at times ; and when the animal
is valuable for certain purposes, the attempt to reduce them
and set the bones should always be attempted. In other
situations there is not much hope of success, the large mass
of muscle being in the way of useful applications, and
powerful opponents in maintaining proper apposition of the
bones. Sometimes bones in such localities do not become
displaced, or so slightly, that if the animal is at rest union
takes place ; but some deformity — shortening of the limb, or
lameness, with weakness and inability for quick or heavy
work — is certain to be present.

Symptoms. — Fractures are denoted by great lameness,
inability to rest on the limb, intense pain, and tucked-up
appearance, all of which have arisen very suddenly, and
which can be traced to some recent and unusual act of the
animal. Sometimes considerable swelling is seen over the
affected part, and manipulation produces crepitus, or grating
sound ; deformity, shortening, or hanging, and even lengthen-
ing of the limb, may also be present.

Treatment of fractures is not so successful among horses
as we could wish, owing to the extreme difficulty in keeping
the animal sufficiently still, and from which continual dis-
placement occurs. By the aid of stout sheets of gutta-
percha, and starch bandages, &c., a tolerable recovery fre-
quently takes place ; their mode of application being as
follows : —

Gutta-percha Splints. — Strips are first cut from a sheet of
proper substance, corresponding in length to the fractured
bone — say one of the legs. In width they answer to half
the circumference, allowance being made for the wider and
thicker parts above ; they are then placed in hot water, and
when thoroughly softened are bound upon the front and
back respectively of the sound limb, by which a sufficiently
near shape is acquired as they cool. In the meantime all

Fractures,

659

preparations are being made with the affected limb, the
fracture being reduced, and the bones placed in proper
position ; a thin bandage is bound over the parts, and the
gutta-percha splints — which have again been warmed — are
placed over the top, and covered by another roll of bandage.
Constant attention will be required in order to replace them,
as by motion they will be removed from time to time.

Starch bandages consist of the usual strips of cotton,
canvas, &c., about three inches wide, and from two to five
yards long ; these are thoroughly saturated with a stiff solu-
tion of starch, and bound repeatedly over the limb after
being properly set. In a few hours they acquire an amount
of firmness which effectually provides sufficient support in
keeping the parts together ; care is, however, required in
their application, in order not to put them on too tightly, as
by drying they contract, and are liable to produce much
discomfort and pressure, resulting in pain and swelling,
which necessitates their removal.

Plaster of Paris is sometimes used, the parts being well
greased before it is applied. There are objections to its
use. Melted pitch, with tow, are also resorted to occasionally,
but the practitioner of skill will seldom go beyond the first
and second, as being easy and simple in application and
removal, admitting of alteration when chafing or fretting of
the skin, or other sources of discomfort, arise.

After treatment requires to be of a most careful character.
The animal should not be allowed to roam about in search
of food or water, and great attention should be given in the
way of regular and proper feeding. If swelling ensues
attended with uneasiness, which increases, the bandages may
require to be loosened, or even removed, when a careful exa-
mination should follow in order to ascertain the exact con-
dition of parts ; if displacement of the fractured bones has
occurred, they must be readjusted, and the appliances again

4.2 — 2

66o

Local Injuries.

put on. In most cases the animal will need the use of
slings ; and with these and the foregoing means, together
with a comfortable box, after a few days he will generally be
found to appreciate his position, and also taking very great
care of the affected limb.

False Joints. — This, as a rule, is the result of inability to
keep the animal sufficiently quiet during the necessary time
for union to take place. By constant motion the parts are
displaced, the opposing surfaces rub together and become
smooth, inflammation subsides, and the uniting material
being no longer thrown out, union is impossible, and a false
joint is established, which gives rise to a degree of lameness,
and renders the animal useless. Oblique fractures are most
likely to result in this condition, and others may do so when
portions of tissue become interposed between the fractured
ends. In comminuted fractures, death of one of the frag-
ments is the cause ; while constitutional causes, as abscess,
want of vitality, &c., may prove powerful obstacles. Under
all cases food of good quality should be supplied, including
oats, peas, and green food, or the roots in liberal quantity,
as the healing of a fractured bone is very materially deter-
mined by it. Close and overcrowded buildings should be
avoided, as nothing tends to retard progress, by acting
through the constitution, more than an impure atmosphere
and the presence of decomposing animal matter.

Fractures of certain Bones.

As already explained, fractures of bones in the horse are
for the most part unmanageable ; therefore, in the following
observations, we shall direct attention more particularly to
the manifestation of injury, by which the reader will be
enabled to form an opinion as to the cause, referring only to
treatment specially necessary, it being understood the general
principles already laid down are mainly applicable.

Bones of the Cranium.

The bones of the cranium, or skull, forming as they do a
peculiarly constructed box or cavity, in which the brain is
safely lodged, are occasionally the seat of fracture by reason
of falls or heavy blows ; when a horse rears and falls back-
wards, striking the poll or occipital bone, the crest of which
stands prominently upwards between the ears, and the effects
of the fall are transmitted through this part over the various
bones which form the skull. Blows may more immediately
affect the plates of bone which form the anterior or front
portion ; but falls more frequently fracture the occiput
(Plate XL, /i), or the basilar process beneath.

Of the various kinds of fractures none are so immediately
serious or fatal as those which happen to the cranial region
{see Plates I. and IX.). Disturbance of the functions of
the brain is a common result, and this is evident in various
ways. Fracture of bone gives rise to compression of the
brain, from loose portions which are pressed or forced upon
the brain itself ; the brain suffers from concussion or shock ;
and when neither of the foregoing are present, as a result
local inflammation arising from the blow simply, or, con-
jointly with fracture, secondary compression ensues, from the
formation of pus or extravasation of blood on the surface or
base of the brain. With the first and second symptoms of
coma, with insensibility, paralysis of motion and sensation
are present ; in the third, such states only arise afterwards ;
extravasation of blood may not affect the animal for some
hours, and pus may require a day or two for its formation.
In some instances the animal regains consciousness after
concussion and fracture, only to become affected with
inflammation of the brain.

The treatment of fracture of the cranial plates consists of
opening the wound in the skin, and raising the depressed

662

Local Injuries.

plates, and in some instances removing a portion by the
trephine (Fig. 5S)i but when there is no external wound,
although depression may be evident and the brain unaffected,
the practitioner will refrain from an operation. There is no
cure for fracture of the base of the skull if the bones are
comminuted or displaced ; when they are simply fractured,
but without displacement, such cases unattended with brain
disturbance may get well, the exact amount of damage done
being found out only after death.

. Fracture of the Occipital Crest.

This injury arises from the same causes that give rise to
scalp wounds ^ — which see, at page 648. From continual
bruising the ridge or crest of this bone is devitalised and
broken off in small portions, a process in which the constant
soaking in the products of inflammation may act a powerful
part ; and these produce a large gaping and ugly wound, over
which hangs the swollen flap of skin, having no tendency or
power to heal properly.

Treatment. — Nothing can be done without rest. While
the animal works the wound is irritated, and his sufferings
often bring down upon him the worst form of brutal treat-
ment his driver can invent. We have repeatedly witnessed
this among pit animals ; the driver seems to enjoy a kind of
fiendish glee in striking his horse or pony on an affected
part, and thus many simple injuries are aggravated into
severe and fatal ones. The sufferer should be removed to
the surface at once and placed in a loose box, where he is to
remain until the parts are recovered. He may require to be
cast, the wound examined in order to detect and remove all
loose fragments of bone, the injured surface being also
divested of all dead or devitalised portions, and afterwards
stimulated by an application of dilute acid or solution of

Fracture of the V ^rtebrce.

663

nitrate of silver. If the flap is not swollen or the edges
hardened by healing, it may be returned to its place and held
by sutures, cooling lotions being frequently applied, or the
antiseptic treatment may be adopted. In closing the edges
of the wound, sufficient space must be allowed between the
sutures to allow the escape of pus, especially when the
antiseptic treatment is not practised.

In order to prevent this accident, wherever it occurs, the
animal should wear a leather skull-cap beneath the bridle ;
but in order to avoid the effects of accumulating dust and
perspiration, horsekeepers should be warned of the danger
and consequences of neglect in keeping such articles soft and
clean.

Fracture of the Vertebra.

Bones of the Neck. — Fractures of the cervical vertebrae
(Plate XL, c c) are of various kinds, according to the nature
of the cause, producing results also variable. The following
cases, briefly stated, having been witnessed by the writer,
will form suitable illustrations of each : —

I. A large black waggon-horse, employed in “ tipping” the
ballast raised from a large quarry, had to cross a temporary
bridge carried over a road in the course of his repeated
journeys, previous to which he was expected to start the
truck and go at full trot. The bridge was not provided with
rail or parapet, and in the journey which proved his last he
was called by his driver to return before reaching the bridge,
the effect of which was to bewilder the animal by fresh or
unusual associations ; he suddenly stopped, but being on the
side where there was no, room for turning, he was caught by
the laden truck and thrown head foremost over the bridge,
falling a distance of ten feet to the ground below. He fell
unconscious, and scarcely moved afterwards. We saw him
within ten minutes quite dead, and from the statement

664 Local Injuries,

received conjectured fracture of the bones of the neck, giving
rise to pressure on the spinal cord, and probably injury also,
which cut off communication with the lungs and heart. The
bones were found to be broken into fragments, the mem-
branes of the cord lacerated, and the cord itself “ smashed.”

2. A heavy mare of the Flanders breed, used by a farmer
in Buckinghamshire, fell on the road while drawing a moderate
load. After severe struggles she was liberated and assisted
to rise, when the neck was found to be twisted towards the
left side, and exhibited a stiffness in it, so that when she
turned round she moved as if the head and neck were one
rigid mass. As nothing serious appeared to follow this
deformity, the parts were simply rubbed on the rounded or
off-side of the neck, a stimulating embrocation being used,
and the mare continued to work and eat almost as usual.
We estimated the 'case as one of luxation, with probable
fracture of the transverse processes of the neck bones, and
afterwards for two or three months forgot all about the
case ; but on being again called to the same farm, we
inquired for the mare, and was told she became gradually
paralysed, and finally dropped, being unable to rise ; and the
owner, remembering that he had been apprised of such a
liability, had her slaughtered. The neck bones were found
to be fractured, in the union of which pus had formed in the
vertebral canal, and, by pressure on the spine, had caused
the paralysis from which she could not have recovered.

The Bones of the Back (Plate XL, i, 2, 3). — Fracture of
the dorsal vertebrae usually arises from an animal being
thrown down with a load, either in a cart or when “ shunting”
railway waggons ; hunters sustain this injury by dropping
with the hind-legs in a ditch ; and any kind of animal may
break his back by struggling when cast in his stall, or
during operations.

The issue of the case is entirely dependent upon the

Fracture of the Sacral Bone. 665

nature of the injury. The fracture may not be attended
with displacement, and, if so, by rest and quiet the animal
recovers. At first there are symptoms of partial paralysis,
such as staggering gait, plaiting or crossing of the legs in
walking, knuckling over of the fetlock-joints when standing,
but an examination reveals nothing definite ; when broken
back occurs in the hunter, or during the struggles when cast,
a sharp cracking sound may be heard, followed by paralysis,
more or less. If the animal can rise, he should be led away
quietly to a box, where he must be kept perfectly un-
disturbed ; a dose of laxative medicine may be given at
suitable intervals, and fomentations or stimulating embroca-
tions be applied to the loins and back. Upon no account
must he be put into slings, as displacement is safe to occur ;
and he will hang, eventually falling helplessly out of them,
and unable to rise, when the humane course will be to put
him out of further misery.

Fracture of the Sacral Bone.

This bone — os sacrum — forms the central prominence of
the hind-quarters (Plate XL, 6), and is situate between the pos-
terior spinous processes of the ilium (Plate XL, a), to which
it is firmly united by interosseous ligaments. In conse-
quence of severe falls, or during violent struggles, when the
horse is “ cast in the stall,” the side to which the ilium is
attached may be broken off, which gives a flattened appear-
ance to the side affected ; the prominence near the spine is
absent, and deformity of the quarter is the result, which is
apparent by observing it in comparison with the other
quarter in standing behind the animal.

Treatment. — Absolute rest ; slinging the patient, if he is
a quiet, tractable animal ; a blister, or stimulating embroca-
tions, applied periodically to the upper surface; and good food,

666

Local Injuries,

of a laxative and easily-digested nature. Such cases gene-
rally do well, but the flatness of the quarter always remains,
without, however, proving an impediment to ordinary work.

The Bones of the Tail.

The coccygeal bones (Plate XL, 7) are liable to fracture,
particularly in draught horses. We have noticed that such
accidents arise among those used in carts, when, by the care-
lessness of the driver, the tail is allowed to get under the
blades of the body of the cart as it descends upon the shafts, or
beneath the front door or coke board, and in railway horses, by
the tail being crushed between buffers. When simply fractured,
the only treatment required is careful binding up by means
of leather, drawn moderately firm by lacing on a padding of
tow. If the bones are broken into small fragments some
amount of irritation will ensue, and eventually abscess with
sinuses, which will call for the use of the knife in the re-
moval of necrosed portions, and probably amputation, as
gangrene is not an unlikely complication, which in turn may
give rise to a great amount of irritative fever, blood poison-
ing, or tetanus.

The Bones of the Pelvis.

The peculiar shape of these bones (Plate XL, E.), together
with the large mass of muscle attached to them, render
them liable during falls, leaping, rearing, &c. &c., to fracture
in several different parts, as follows : —

Anterior Spinous Proeess. — This prominent portion (Fig.
237, is frequently broken off by a fall, or when singly or in
company with others the horse passes quickly through a
gate or doorway, and violently strikes the pillar, wall, or
jamb. The appearance of the haunch is then considerably
deformed at the front part, the prominence is gone, being

667

The Bones of the Pelvis,

drawn inwards and downwards by the muscles of the abdo-
minal walls attached to it, by which union is prevented, as
much motion exists. The horse is said to have “ a quarter
or a ‘ huggen’ down,” but is rarely unfitted thereby for ordi-
nary work. Occasionally the bone is bruised at the point,
and small portions broken off, when abscess forms, and if
neglected sinuses also.

Gt/ier Fractures. — The pelvic bones are also fractured : — i,
through the acetabulum or cup-joint (Fig. 237, ^ ; 2, the

Fig. 237. — The Pelvis {Side View).

shaft of the ilium (Fig. 237, c) ; 3, the posterior spinous
process {dd) ; 4, the symphysis pubis (Fig. 238, <7) ; 5, the

large oval foramen or opening — foramen ovale (Fig. 238, ;

and 6, the tuberosity of the ischium (Figs. 237 and 238, ^ e).
In the first, second, third, and fifth forms of fracture (Fig.
238), the haunch is flattened and lower on the surface than
that of the opposite side, besides which lameness is present,
proportionate with the amount of displacement. Dragging
of the toe along the ground is a prominent sign. In order
to arrive at a determination of the exact seat of injury, the

668

Local Injuries.

ear may be placed on the side of the haunch as the animal
is made to move gently forwards, when crepitus may be
generally detected ; in addition, the hand is to be passed
up the rectum, by which the exact seat will be discovered

Fig. 238. — The Pelvis (seen f}'om below).

during motion. The first form is the most serious, and is
attended with much pain and lameness, and almost inability
to rise from the recumbent position, even with great help ;
and in standing he bears no weight upon the leg. It is
considerably shorter than the other, and often hangs or
swings ; the foot is turned, toe inwards, towards the opposite,
and he occasionally rests upon it. The whole limb is drawn
up by the powerful muscles of the haunch — the gluteal —
(Plate XII., m), as will be discovered by the situation of the
prominence called the trochanter. This form of fracture is
incurable. If the horse lives, the amount of osseous deposit
accumulating around the joint fixes i^ and renders him per-
fectly useless. In the other forms named, unless great displace-
ment and deformity exist, restoration is generally very complete
by rest, use of an occasional blister, or strong pitch-plasters.

The Bones of the Pelvis,

669

Blisters, as advocated here, it must be understood, are not
advanced as specific means of cure. They have undoubtedly
a good effect in causing an increased determination of blood
to the part, but their main use is that of producing such an
amount of tenderness which will prompt the animal to avoid
motion, and thus hasten union of the fractured ends. From
three to four weeks will be required to effect a permanent
cure, and for some time after the animal must only be put
to light work. The owner will thus be able to decide on
the propriety of keeping or slaughtering him.

In alluding to the great tendency to dragging or striking
of the toe on the ground, as seen in fractures of the bones
of the pelvis. Professor Williams* recommends, when affected
animals have to travel a distance from the scene of acci-
dent, that a rope be looped round the fetlock, by which
the attendant gently lifts forward the limb and places it flat
on the ground at each step. In the absence of such help,
the animal is liable to catch the toe, the fetlock doubles, and
as weight comes down on the limb, which is unable to sup-
port it, nothing can avert a serious fall, and further aggrava-
tion of the already existing injury.

Symphysis Pubis. — In fractures of this part the animal
walks insecurely, with legs wide and straddling, the toes
successively dragging along the ground, and turned out-
wards. Lameness is often very great, and lying down,
rising, &c., attended with pain and difficulty. The causes
are sudden separation of the hind-feet, slipping away or out-
wards from each other, as on ice and frozen surfaces, &c.^
when violent muscular exertion immediately ensues, and
doubtless assists in the injury. Young and valuable horses
only should be treated, as from three to four or more
months will be required to effect a proper union, after which

Principles of Veterinary Surgery.

670

Local Injuries,

much caution will be needed. The seat of injury will be
made known by exploration per rectum.

Tuberosities of Ischium. — When a horse rears and falls on
his haunches behind, or by “ backing” with heavy loads he
slips, the feet suddenly shooting forwards, and he falls
heavily on the buttocks, the prominences of the ischium
(Figs. 237 and 238, e e) may be broken off. If the observer
stands on one side of the animal so as to see the promi-
nences of each buttock, one will be well-defined, while that
fractured will be absent or flattened. Manipulation vail
elicit crepitation and pain, and a variable amount of lame-
ness will be present. Union of the broken parts will take
place by rest, and a strong charge laid upon the outside
may help to keep them still ; a blister may be used with
the same view. Sometimes swelling obscures the flattening
from displacement, but by handling the part all doubt about
the matter will be dispelled.

Fractures of the Bones of the Fore
Extremities.

The scapula, or blade bone (Fig. 239), is probably frac-
tured more frequently than has been admitted. It is in our
recollection that during some years’ residence in various
northern towns of England, especially where hills abound
and heavy loads are moved, the number of fractures of the
scapula were as three to one of any other bone. Animals
with laden carts, falling when descending heavy gradients,
generally fractured this bone. The neck, a a, is the most
common seat of fracture, but instances now and then occur
in which the bone is split across the body. Muscular con-
traction plays an important part in these accidents. The
spine, b, may be broken by blows, and requires removal.
In the foregoing injuries, although union will take place if
there is not displacement, a long time must elapse before

Fractures of the Fore Extremities, 671

the horse can be of any service ; usually, however, there is
very great deformity of the limb, displacement, sloughing,
and little hope of success by treatment.

Fig. 239. — The Scapula^ or
Blade Bone.

Fig. 240. — The Hu merits.

The Hit7nerus.~ —T\\\s bone (Fig. 240) is fractured in falls,
or by extreme muscular action in the efforts of the animal
in slipping, falling, or when “cast” in the stable. From the
oblique position of the bone, together with a large amount
of muscular tissue in connexion with it, the limb is consider-
ably shortened, and the animal cannot rest upon it, the
fractured portion being drawn upwards, giving rise to great
deformity. In addition, also, there is often much swelling,
caused by infxltration of blood derived from ruptured blood-
vessels— as the humeral artery (Fig. 36) or its branches,
which may altogether prevent the sound of crepitus being
heard. Occasionally, one of the condyles or tubercles are

672

Local Injuries.

broken ; but, as in case of fracture of the shaft or body of
the bone, reunion cannot take place, owing to the action of
such a mass of muscle keeping the fractured ends separated
some distance, and the inability to secure complete rest.

The Radius, a, and Ulna, b, with the head of the latter,
the Olecranon, ^ (Fig. 241), are fractured under various cir-
cumstances— as by kicks, blows, falls,
and also by muscular contraction. As a
long bone the radius may be fractured
at the middle, lower, or upper parts,
and either transversely or obliquely.
There may be some difficulty in detect-
ing crepitus after some time has elapsed,
but under manipulation movement of
the separate portions may be definitely
made out ; and the accident is con-
siderably aggravated if the ulna is broken
or torn away from the radius. A trans-
v^erse fracture is the most amenable to
treatment ; but, as a rule, the difficulty
of maintaining a proper position and
necessary rest is very great, and even in-
surmountable. Fractures at the upper
part are liable to involve the articulation ;
the olecranon, also, at this portion — the
beak, d — when broken off, not only in-
volves the joint, but in recovery it is set
fast by the ossific matter thrown out, and
we have the condition known as anchy-
losis, or stiff joint, from which the animal
cannot lie down or execute any kind of work. Brood mares
and stallions only are eligible for treatment, which comprises
the use of bandages, splints, charges, &c. &c., and rest in the
slings. In fracture of the olecranon, c, the detached portion,

Fig. 241.

The Radius and Ulna.

Fractures of the Fore Extremities, 673

being the point of insertion of the triceps muscles, is at once
drawn upwards, and may be sometimes felt several inches
above the original point of the elbow. In young animals,
injury at this part arising from kicks or blows may give rise
to much inflammation; and the epiphysis, or extreme point, c,
which has not then become united to the bone by ossific
matter, is separated after a day or two — a condition equal to
fracture, and equally as unmanageable and incurable. There
is extensive swelling from infiltration, and inability to stand ;
the foot can be carried forward, but there is no power to draw
it backward. In addition to the difficulties already named,
there is a great tendency to the burrowing of pus, which
forms as a result of injury, irritation from fragments of bone,
&c., the joint being invaded and causing awkward complica-
tions. The muscles of this region {see Fig. 258, also Plate XI L),
having much severe strain to encounter, are strongly bound
down by a covering of dense fascia, or strong fibrous mem-
brane, and when pus forms beneath this it can only go
in certain directions, not through the fascia ; and this cir-
cumstance explains why such abscesses prove so tedious and
unmanageable, while so much tissue of the softer kind is
destroyed.

The Bones of the knee (Figs. 232, 233) are fractured by
kicks, but more frequently by falls, when the knees are
broken, with more or less violence to other parts. Such
implication of the joint will render the case at once incu-
rable— i.e., the freedom of the joint will be lost ; and an
animal with a perfectly stifT knee is, or can be, of no service
for work of any kind {see Fig. 234).

The Metacarpal, cannon, or shank hones (Plate XI., VV.,
and Fig. 242) are fractured during a gallop on soft ground,
particularly the sandy beach. When a student at Edinburgh,
I remember a number of cases occurring to horses hired for
a ride on Portobello sands. The fractures are often trans-

674

Local Injuries.

verse, and may involve the fetlock-joint ; yet by careful
adjustment of splints, bandages, freedom from motion and
weight, together with rest in the slings, reco-
very may be so far effected as to enable the
animal to do slow work. Fractures of this
bone are very readily detected, as the ab-
sence of muscles enables the practitioner to
handle it thoroughly ; the inability to stand,
with evidence of a joint in an unusual part
of the bone, with probable crepitus, pain,
and lameness, being reliable signs. It may
happen that the fracture may be oblique
and compound, or comminuted, in either
of which the difficulties in the way of cure

are of course much greater ; nevertheless.
The MetacarpaL or r i • 4. ^ i u j j

Shauh Bone. splints, starch bandages, and

the antiseptic treatment, for the compound

state, animals have been so far restored as to be useful for

breeding, &c.

The Ossa siiffragines^ or pastern bones (Fig. 243, Y,
Plate XL), together with the Ossa coronce — coronet or small
pastern bones (Plate XL, Z.) — are common
subjects of fracture during hard and severe
gallops on stones or heavy ground, the sea-
shore, &c. The former are sometimes split
vertically down the middle, the latter ob-
liquely ; but generally, when the accident
arises from running away with or without
a load in the streets, the fracture is com-
minuted. The animal is suddenly and in-
tensdy lame; he cannot bear any weight
Upon the affected limb, and carries it when
he moves, leaping on the three sound legs, the toe of the foot
only approaching the ground. Crepitus will be most plainly

Fig. 243.

Fractures of the Fore Extremities^ 675

felt m comminuted fractures soon after the accident, when a
similar sensation of handling a bag tightly filled with broken
fragments will be imparted to the hands ; but in simple split-
ting of the bone, the periosteum, together with the surround-
ing ligaments, by their firm binding often prevent this ; in
addition, the quickly succeeding swelling obscures the nature
and extent of the accident. If one bone is broken, and the
fracture is simple or split, and although the division may
implicate one or both joints, the usual result of proper
treatment is that of union and restoration to partial useful-
ness, with or without permanent swelling or deformity.
Little more is required than keeping the animal quiet, and
the limb fixed by means of splints and simple bandages put
on with only moderate tightness, so as to be easily removed ;
gutta-percha moulded to the sides is perhaps the best, which
can be softened and readjusted if required. The shoe, if
possessed of turned-up heels and calkins, should be removed
carefully at the outset ; but if worn flat, it may remain. As
a rule, however, it is best always to take it off, and let the
animal stand upon a thick layer of tan or sawdust, in which
he will eventually find the most suitable position for rest.
The recovery may be effected in about a month ; but when
the corresponding bones of the hind-limbs are fractured, the
time required will probably be longer, the slings being indis-
pensable until the patient can bear his weight fairly.

Fig. 244. — The Sessamoides FiG. 245. — The Sessa7noides

{Back View). {Articular Suj'face).

The Sessamoid bones (Fig. 244, 245), having the attach-
ment of the suspensory ligament (Figs. 265, 266), are liable

43—2

676

Local Injuries,

to a great degree of strain, and sometimes under severe
exertion they give way, a portion separating in connexion
with the ligament.

The effect of such fracture is to allow the back or pad of
the fetlock to come to the ground, and to cause the toe to
point upwards and forwards, as in case of rupture of the
suspensory ligament, commonly called “ break-down.” The
possibility of securing a union of the fractured bones is
believed to be impossible, without at the same time in-
curring anchylosis of the fetlock-joint Besides the usual
appliances of splints and bandages, the greatest attention is
needed, as parts involved in the injury are liable to great
disturbance and displacement ; nevertheless, in cases of valu-
able brood mares or entire horses,
attempts should always be made
when one leg only is affected.

Should both be involved, recovery
is hopeless, especially in the hind-
limbs.

The Navieular bone (Fig. 246) lies
across the space existing between

Fig. 246. — The Navicular Bone

the projecting portions or wings be-
hind the coffin bones, and there acts
as a pulley over which the tendon
Df the flexor pedis muscle plays in
irawing the foot upwards and back-
wards (Fig. 247). Here it is sub-
ject to much strain and pressure,
and under certain circumstances is

Fig. 247. — Lower Bones of
the Extremity.

a. Metacarpal.

b. Sessamoides.

c. Large pastern.

d. Small „

e. Navicular.

f. Coffin bone

Fractures of the Fore Extremities, 677

fractured. One of the most common forms of fracture
occurs in horses which have previously suffered from navi-
cular arthritis, in which the bone becomes diseased, and,
being unable to bear the strain, it cracks across or in
several places. When a horse has been unnerved for this dis-
ease, the removal of pain induces the animal to make more
free use of the lame foot, which in turn aggravates the disease,
and therefore increases the liability to fracture ; in addition,
the tendon becomes involved and weakened at this part,
where, besides fracture of the bone, there is rupture of the
tendon, accompanied by great lameness, dropping of the fet-
lock behind, and turning upwards and forwards of the sole
and toe. Pressure by the thumb in the hollow of the heel
will be a sure test of the locality ©f pain.

Another origin of fracture of the navicular bone is in
puncture by treading upon nails or other sharp-pointed
bodies, which first penetrate the frog, and, besides injuring the
bone, open the synovial joint. It is important to distinguish
between simple open navicular joint and fracture, when com-
bined with it. In both cases the attendant fever is very
severe, pain and lameness also being correspondingly great.
The character of the discharge is the principal guide. In
simple puncture of the articulation the fluid oozing from the
orifice is odourless, thin, straw-coloured, and transparent,
containing a small portion of pus ; but when fracture is
present, although, as just described, for a day or two, it after-
wards becomes mixed with blood and pus, forming a dirty
red or coffee-coloured discharge having an offensive ,odour,
due to the decay of the bone, which has already commenced.
As the animal lives, further complications arise. Swelling
occurs round the coronet, and eventually abscesses form,
while the attendant fever is unmitigated ; and other signs are
aggravated until the animal falls exhausted, and probably
dies from further violence inflicted during vain struggles.

678 Local Injuries.

The treatment of simple open navicular joint has already
been given at p. 645 ; but when that condition is certified
to exist in connexion with fracture of the bone, the most
humane course is to have the animal destroyed, and thus
save him from days of violent suffering and exhaustion.

Th. Coffin bone — os pedis 203 and 247,/). Although

securely enclosed within a strong horny case, this bone is
liable to fracture from several causes. We have already
alluded to the tendency of inflammation {see Laminitis) to
extend itself to the cofifln bone, and leave it porous, brittle,
and no longer fit for its offlces. Concussion then generally
gives rise to fracture. Horses employed about railway
stations sometimes fall, from the heels or toes of their shoes
becoming fast in the grooves of the metals, when from severe
muscular action the horn or hoof is partially torn off, and
the bone fractured in several directions. Heavy weights, as
bars of iron, &c., falling upon the feet, also smash the bone ;
and nails in shoeing may be driven through the edge, or,
by being too near, exert pressure, from which disease and
secondary fracture result.

Mere stripping of the hoof is often recoverable ; but when
associated with fracture or smashing of the bone, the animal
is of no further use. When the accident has arisen in
shoeing, the usual signs attendant upon “pricks or binds”
will be present, probably attended with suppuration, not
only below, but also round the coronet, and severe irritative
fever. As soon as the presence of pus is ascertained, the
sole must be opened at the point ; and this failing to give
relief, will point to the existence of further complications,
such as separation of the sensitive sole with fracture of a
portion from the edge of the bone. No rest or ease will be
given until the portion detached is removed, and this being
effected, poultices, together with the usual means of reducing
fever, should be actively pursued. If the treatment be adopted

Fractures of the Hind Extremities. 679

early, the animal may be restored to his former usefulness in
two or three weeks, but with only the delay of a few hours
his fate may be sealed.

Fractures of the Bones of the Hind Extrektties.

The Femitr or thigJi bone (Fig. 248, and Plate XL, F F),
being situated under very simJlar circumstances to the
humerus — i.e., having a large mass of muscle surrounding it,
and having an oblique direction — fracture is certain to be
attended with much displacement and complications which
render recovery impossible. The neck of the bone is one of
the seats of fracture, and sometimes happens at the same
time as fracture of the acetabulum {see p. 667) ; another form
is seen in fracture, either transverse or oblique, in the shaft
or body of the bone, both of which cause the limb to appear
shorter, and produce a turning inwards of the toe. When
in addition the head of the bone is pushed into the large
opening in the pelvic bones — foramen ovale (Fig. 238, b) —
the toe is then turned outwards, and the limb will have a
longer appearance than that of the opposite side. The
causes are falls, kicks, and violent muscular action in the
efforts of the animal when being accidentally cast in the
stable, or when bound for operations. We have seen it
occur during severe abdominal pain when the feet have
struck the walls of the building. Fracture of the trochanters
are rare, giving rise to very complicated lameness, in which
extension of the pelvis is effected with extreme difficulty.
Motion gives great pain, the leg is raised easily, but in being
carried forwards it is dropped suddenly. Pressure of the
region of the trochanter readily demonstrates the existence
of pain, and even presence of the detached bone. When
the large trochanter (Fig. 248, a) is fractured, the haunch is
deformed ; if the small one (Plate XL, g) is broken off, the

68o

Local Injuries.

side below the haunch will be flattened, the usual protube-
rances in each case being of course absent and displaced.

One of the Condyles (Fig. 248, b)
may be fractured, which will be
discovered by pain on pressure,
crepitus before swelling arises,
great lameness, and distension of
the synovial capsule.

The Patella, or knee-cap (Plate
XL, G G), is liable to fracture from
kicks, blows, and violent muscular
action. It is split into halves ver-
tically or horizontally, and some-
times smashed into fragments.
From the severe strain always
exerted upon it, the broken parts
are liable to be easily separated,
rendering reunion impossible ; but
if it can be ascertained that only
simple splitting has occurred, and
without displacement or separa-
tion, an attempt to unite the por-
tions of bone should be at least
attempted. As fracture of this bone
must involve a large and important
synovial articulation, anchylosis of the joint is the certain result
of treatment of the smashed condition ; inflammation runs
very high, and involves the secreting structure readily. The
usual plan of treatment consists of using the slings, giving
the parts absolute rest by fixing them in a relaxed condition,
and putting on a shoe having heels and toe several inches
long. The external parts are to be dressed with cooling
lotions, and fever medicine employed internally until the
heat and pain are subdued, when a blister may be applied

Fig. 248. — The Femur., or
Thigh Bone.

Fractures of the Hmd Extremities, 68 1

with benefit to rouse the absorbents to action, and reduce
the swelling.

The Tibia or upper leg hone (Fig. 249, Plate XL, H H),
of all the bones of the limbs, is most liable to fracture, the
usual cause being a kick from another
horse taking effect upon the inner side
of the leg, at which place the bone is not
covered by muscle. There is, however, a
dense covering of periosteum and fascia,
together with the skin outwardly ; and
these serve an important office in the pre-
vention of displacementwhen fracture has
taken place. Usually a small skin wound
only is present, but the evidence of great
pain and lameness must be a warning
that absolute rest must be given ; and
indeed slinging should be resorted to if
the animal will endure the restraint.

When this course has been disregarded,
owing to fracture not being suspected,
sudden displacement has arisen, either
during work or in rising from the recum-
bent position, and the animal in many
instances has been rendered hopelessly incurable. Let the
reader bear in mind that a kick on the inside of the tibia is
very liable to be associated with fracture, and the safest plan
is always to treat the animal as if one were known to be
decidedly present. After a short time the course of the
fracture, which is mostly of the oblique kind, will be ren-
dered conspicuous by the presence of the usual provision of
Nature — the swelling of callus — which leaves no doubt of
the wisdom displayed in creation. Subsequent displacement
is often attended with protrusion of the points of the bones
through the skin, thus rendering the case one of great diffi-

Fig. 249. — The Tibia,
or upper Leg Bone.

682 Local Injuries,

culty in treatment. Reduction of such conditions is not
always possible except in very young animals, and the
extreme difficulty of maintaining the position of the broken
bones very discouraging. Suspected fracture should be
treated by splints, bandages, &c., and all means of pro-
curing freedom from motion, the animal not being suffered
to lie down or walk about in the least.

Os Calcis. — This bone forms the prominence of the hock
behind (Fig. 250, and Plate XL, P P), acting as a powerful

lever in propelling the body forward.
Transverse fracture is the most
common form of injury, due to ex-
cessive muscular action, as in rear-
ing, jumping, or when the limb slips,
or is carried too far beneath the
body, the weight of which is sud-
denly thrown upon the muscles at-
tached to the head or point of the
bone. In young horses the accident
is likely to arise before the epi-
physis or point, which is developed
separately from the rest of the bone,
is completely united to it.

The accident is known by com-
parison of the hocks, the injured
one, having lost the angular outline, being rounded ; the
tendon passing upwards from it — the hamstring, or tendo-
AcJiilles, being relaxed, and the fragment of bone detached
from the os calcis still connected with its extremity, lying
in the hollow formed by the upper leg bone in front, and
os calcis behind. The animal is very lame, and exhibits
very great pain and difficulty in extending the foot and
placing it upon the ground.

Treatmeiit. — Successful issues from these kinds of injury

Fractures of the Hind Extremities, 683

are rare, owing to the extreme difficulty in keeping the
fractured portions of bone in direct apposition. Even when
union is effected some deformity must be expected, and
likewise odd action. The plan consists of forming pads or
moulds to fit the hollow upon each side, so as to bolster-up
the broken bone, and keep it in contact with the main part,
and thus secure union. These being first bound in the
required position are covered by starch bandages, carried
from the foot upwards as high as can be safely accomplished,
which, when dry, will keep the limb firm and rigid, and
greatly prevent disturbance of the injured parts. We
should, however, state that a high-heeled shoe will be re-
quired, and the animal placed in slings before the bandaging
is commenced ; and after being thus treated for two months or
upwards, in successful cases, he may be allowed to go free in
a loose box. Very satisfactory results have followed this
plan.

The rest of the bones forming the true hock-joint
(Fig. 250, b, &c. and d) are occasionally the seat of fracture,
usually due to direct violence, as kicks from other horses ;
but owing to the great tendency to rapid swelling, and the
fact that they are strongly bound down by powerful liga-
ments, crepitus in movement of the fragment is not readily
made out, and it is not always possible to state decidedly
that fracture has occurred. Such may be present in the
smaller bones, as the cuneiform and cuboid ; and when un-
associated with external wounds, recovery is uniform and
complete. If, however, the astragalus, b, is broken, the
process of recovery terminates in a stiff joint ; and when
fracture is present with open joint, the animal, excepting
under rare conditions, is scarcely worth treating.

Fractures of tiie Ribs. — Although the number of known
instances of fracture of the ribs is small, yet we have reason
to believe that many cases occur ; but owing to the absence

684 Local Injuries.

of external wounds, and the extraordinary reparative powers
of the system, they are not discovered until after death,
when evidence of the union and enlargement are seen.
This fact is important and valuable to the practitioner, who
will gather from it the advisability in all cases to which he
may be called of reducing all compound iractures of the
ribs to the simple form, giving the required support by
means of belts dr bandages, charges or plasters.

The causes are — falls, blows, and kicks from other horses.
The farrier’s shop has been known to be prolific in these
injuries, when irritable shoeing-smiths brutally strike with
the instruments which they are using. An old Yorkshire
story forcibly illustrates what was once a too common
occurrence, and which now has happily almost died out : — A
quaint old horseman had frequently noticed on the sides of his
horse, on returning from the village smithy, certain marks, at
first of an unintelligible character, but after frequent repeti-
tion he was eventually led to doubt the identity of his
animal, by his being literally covered with raised swellings,
rudely representing the letters X 0> caused by blows
from the hammer and pincers respectively ; and accordingly
led the animal back to the smith, asking him if a mistake
had not been made by sending the wrong horse, as his, he
was quite sure, had no letters marked upon him of the
character referred to.

• Simple fracture of the ribs is not, as a rule, detected, as
under the usual swelling displacement rarely occurs, and
union is safely effected ; but now and then the practitioner
meets with the aggravated form — the compound — in which
the ragged and pointed ends protrude from an ugly wound,
or otherwise pass inwards and lacerate the lungs, giving
rise to pneumonia. Air passes in and out through the
wound as the organs act, and an amount of oppression
ensues from the cavity being opened.

Ostitis.

685

The required course is that of removing all obtainable
loose fragments of bone, to replace those portions bulging
inwards, to close the wound as speedily as possible, and
prevent the admission of air ; and support by means of a
broad belt, together with stiff plasters, the hair being first
clipped closely. The action of atmospheric air upon the
wound has the effect of retarding the process of bone union
and healing generally, a needless amount of suppuration
ensuing, occasioned by microscopical organisms, which float
in the air, having a putrefactive tendency, to allay which
nothing succeeds so well as the antiseptic treatment. Treat-
ment of other complications, as pleurisy and pneumonia,
will be found under the respective headings.

DISEASES OF BONES DUE TO INFLAMMATION.

Ostitis.

Inflammation of bone — ostitis — assumes both the acute
and chronic form, sometimes involving the whole, or
only a part of a bone, and arises as a result of external
injury or concussion, and in rarer cases from hereditary
taint.

In the acute form the outer layer, together with the
investing membrane — the periosteum — are involved, the pro-
cess terminating in an exudation of material which leaves a
permanent thickening or enlargement on the surface, pro-
portionate to the extent and intensity of the inflammation.
Such enlargement is known as exostosis, or bony tumour,
into which the exudate is eventually converted, instances of
which are seen in spavin, splint, ringbone, &c. In other
but less frequent instances, the external deposit may be
reabsorbed after a time, the parts being unaltered in shape,
when the termination is said to be by resolution. When

686 Local Injuries,

bones become inflamed throughout their length and sub-
stance, a decided change of structure also takes place. The
exudation upon the outer surface produces not only a
permanent enlargement, by the conversion of the exudate
into bony matter, but the bone is also permanently changed
in size and shape, while its actual weight or density is
materially altered. In one case it may become hard, dense,
and heavy, assuming an ivory-like appearance from the
consolidation of its substance, due to blocking up of the
nutrient canals in the inflammatory process ; in the other,
the canals of the internal substance are enlarged by absorp-
tion, while the outer surface is thickened by deposition of
new bony matter, and thereby the bone becomes light and
porous. Occasionally absorption goes on contemporaneously
with the deposition upon the outer surface, and this gives
the bone a rough and irregular appearance, having pits or
ulcers interspersed throughout at intervals ; such is witnessed
in the navicular bone in groggy-lameness or navicular
arthritis. The articulations of joints are also liable to this
condition of inflammation as a result of open joint ; and the
general substance of the bone, besides being converted into
a porous or spongy texture, becomes very brittle ; hence we
find that animals having suffered from spavin, or disease of
the navicular or other bones, for any length of time, are
liable to sudden fracture of the diseased parts, which do not
unite readily, but are more likely to form a false joint, while
the animal is rendered positively useless.

In the chronic form of ostitis the changes are slowly
developed, the external exudation being often more circum-
scribed, and occurring in isolated exostoses or small bony
tumours, splints being a familiar example ; while in other
instances it may invest a greater portion of bone in an
uninterrupted layer, sometimes becoming intimately united
with it, or only loosely connected by a spongy intervening

Inflammation of the Ca7tnon Bo7te. 687

layer, liable to frequent inflammatory action and correspond-
ing enlargement from time to time.

of the better breeds, in which the bones are
of a closer texture and more compact nature.

Race-horses, when young and immature, are
called upon to perform exertion which is too
severe for their limbs, the bones of which
contain but little earthy with a preponderance
of animal matter, and being necessarily more
vascular at this period they are liable to severe
inflammation, as a result of the strain and
shock to which they are subjected (Fig. 251).

The disease is more commonly known as “ sore
shin,” being located, as a rule, at the lower
end of the bone ; but occasionally aggravated
cases arise in which the whole of the meta-
carpal bone is involved, and at length to ter-
minate in necrosis.

Symptoms. — Lameness of a gradually increasing character
in one fore-leg — that on which the animal leads in his paces —
or both are affected, when a halting action is observed, and
the animal is unable to stand upon one alone for any length
of time, shifting and advancing them quickly in turn. When
a single leg is affected, the foot is advanced, swelling pro-
portionate with the extent of injury is present, and attendant
fever marks the progress of severe cases. Pressure induces
pain, and the parts are at first tense and elastic, gradually
becoming cedematous and pitting under the finger. In rare
instances death of the bone arises from change in the nature

688 Local Injuries.

and subsequent absorption of the exudation. The ordinary-
termination is that of enlargement and exostosis, in which
the exuded material is convertible into bony material, adding
considerable substance and deformity to the limb.

Treaimeiit. — The acute form requires the free use of the
knife, by which the periosteum is to be divided in order to
allow the escape of the exudation from beneath, neglect of
which endangers the bone by separating the nutrient mem-
brane from it. Hot fomentations and poultices should then
follow, and at later stages, when the inflammatory action has
subsided, a blister may be used to hasten absorption. The
bowels also should be briskly acted upon, and sedative
medicines given afterwards as occasion requires, a low diet
being enjoined, with absolute rest and quiet. For the chronic
form, purgatives and sedatives internally, with cold applica-
tions externally, -and blisters after the inflammation has
subsiaed.

Splints.

Under this term the results of
inflammation of bone are seen in the
formation of bony excrescences, involv-
ing the large and small metacarpals
(Fig. 252). The usual seat of exostosis
is upon the inner side of the fore-leg,
occupying a position independent of
the interosseous ligament which unites
the large and small metacarpal bones,
destroying the motion previously ad-
mitted between them. But varying
with the amount of concussion, these

bony tumours form in other parts and
Fig. 252. — Simple for7n . .

of Splmt. The Tu- assume a variety of shape and size,

mour as shown at a. sometimes involving the outer small

Splints.

689

metacarpal, uniting both across the back or producing de-
formity of them, together with the large metacarpal at both
extremities, and even to the detriment
of the small bones of the knee-joint
(Fig. 253).

A simple splint when small, distant
from the joint, and recent, need not
occasion any alarm, as it may almost
disappear by absorption, and not oc-
casion any kind of lameness ; other
forms are suspicious, as they are at any
time liable to produce lameness, en-
largement, and deformity, by interfering

with the movement of joints, or position ^^?r—Head of Me-

^ tacarpal., showing he

of ligaments or action of tendons. extent to wlv^h exos-
c. ^ ^ r . toses have pr eded.

Splints are the exostoses of circum-

scribed inflammation, due to continued concussion in slower
movements, and forms in other horses the analogues of sore
shins of the racer. Cart-horses are rarely subject to this
form of disease. It is generally believed that some animals
.have hereditary tendencies to the formation of splint, partly
by reason of defective formation of limb, a weak, upright
leg being more liable to concussion, as well as affording less
‘secure attachment for ligament, &c. Defective shoeing, as
causing unusual concussion and alteration of gait, is not an
uncommon cause, although young horses never having been
shod are liable to the disease, even while running barefoot in
the pasture in an unbroken condition.

Symptoms. — Splints do not inevitably produce lameness ;
this is often seen both in unbroken animals as well as in
those of five, six, or seven years of age, even when the
exostosis is so large as to be plainly seen from a distance.
Lameness arises, as a rule, during the stage of formation,
when the osseous deposit beneath the periosteum by enlarge-

6go

Local Injuries.

ment stretches that membrane beyond its capacity of adapta-
tion ; and those animals having a display of high or good
action, by reason of greater liability to concussion, are the
common victims. The formation of a splint does not
always appear contemporaneous with the disease, and, in the
absence of local swelling, the cause may be looked for else-
where in error ; but by bearing in mind the following leading
points the error may be avoided : — A. It is not very likely
that older animals will be troubled with splints — they are
more liable to grogginess and other diseases ; while young
animals, especially when first put to work, may show splints
in contrast. B. The lameness is in the trot, and severe in
comparison with the soundness of the walk. C. Work and
exercise augment the lameness. D. The observer will dis-
cover that stiffness of the knee-joint is remarkable. E. When
the lameness is excessive, the animal stands resting the toe
on the ground, with the limb in a state of semiflexion ;
while great and diffused heat, pain, and swelling, with
symptomatic fever, may be manifest ; but if these signs are
absent, the flat hand should be passed down the limb upon
each side, when localised heat may be detected, and the point
of the thumb in descending along the side of the metacarpal,
in the groove formed by it and the . small bone, will come
upon a small hard swelling, which exhibits tenderness upon
pressure. In some cases these exostoses are developed with
rapidity.

Treatment. — Reasoning upon the assumption that the
pain of splint is due to the gradual extension and stretching
of an unyielding membrane like the periosteum, by the pro-
gressive growth of a deposit beneath it, a plan was recom-
mended by the late Professor Sewell, in which division of
the periosteum over the splint was the special feature. He
named the operation “ subcutaneous periosteotomy,” and
since that time it has been adopted in numerous cases with

Splints, 691

success. It is performed as follows : — The animal being
cast, and the affected limb released from the hobbles, but
secured by a strap-rope on the fetlock-joint, held by assistants,
an incision is made at the lower end of the exostosis, of
such a size only as to admit the blade of a suitable knife
(Fig. 254), which is first used flatwise, to separate the skin
from the splint throughout
its entire length. The blade
is then turned edge down-

wards, and being drawn out- p-je. z^i^-Periosteotomy Knife.
wards, exercising a sufficient

degree of pressure, the periosteum is divided. The blade
may be passed a second time over the course of the splint,
if any doubt exists as to the efficacy of the operation ; and,
lastly, a similar orifice to the first being made at the upper
end of the splint, a seton is carried through, where it is to
remain a week or ten days, after which it may be removed
to allow the wound to heal.

The use of purgatives, sedatives, &c., may be warranted
on account of the amount of febrile disturbance ; but, in
slight cases, simple cooling applications, fomentations, &c.,
conjointly with internal medicines, may answer the desired
ends; or, failing, a blister may be applied. We have used
the firing-iron, drawing a couple of lines, one upon each
side, parallel with the splint, in such cases, with decided
benefit after reduction of the more active inflammation.

Other means of cure for obstinate cases of splint is that
of pyro-puncture, an instrument having a number of small
pins projecting from a disc or oval-shaped plate at the end of
an iron rod, or the sharply pointed budding-iron (Fig. 29)
is heated, and applied with sufficient pressure that the spikes
or point first penetrate the skin and then the deposit ; an
old method consisted of cutting off the splint by means of
a chisel and hammer, but a more surgical remedy exists in

44—2

692 Local Injuries,

the bone forceps, when the deposit is large and likely to
interfere with the action of tendons, or be struck by the
opposite foot. In the latter case, the splint will doubtless
be greatly aggravated, and a blow received in action may
bring the animal to the ground ; the wearing of a boot will
prevent this, and the red ointment of mercury be useful in
reducing the enlargement, while ease in resting may be
greatly afforded by flat shoes and attention to the feet.
Splints on the hind-legs rarely give rise to any incon-
venience.

Open Joint.

Communication with the synovial cavities, joints, or arti-
culations, as they are called, is established in several ways : —
A. By fracture of the component bones ; B. by puncture
or incision ; and C. by sloughing of the soft parts, arising
from injury inflicted in the neighbourhood. Under all cir-
cumstances, the results are extensive pain and inflammation,
and attendant irritative fever ; but the period of the com-
mencement of such is not uniform in each case — for instance,
when fracture of bone has arisen the symptomatic condi-
tions are rapidly developed, while in puncture, incision, or
sloughing, the animal is rarely affected by constitutional dis-
turbance until some hours afterwards. At first the discharge
of synovia is small and trifling, but as the inflammation,
which feeds the supply, progresses, it increases largely, the
flow is mingled with pus, and a large clot of coagulated
synovia accumulates at the opening of the wound. Swelling
of the joint and bones generally proceed, the tissues being
infiltrated, and the exudation goes on to organisation, more
or less, forming a hard and extensive enlargement ; the
wound meanwhile assumes an unhealthy condition, slough-
ing follows, and the discharge is offensive, bloody, and

Op67i Joint,

693

purulent, being supplied by numerous abscesses which form
in the locality. Such cases, when neglected, go on daily
increasing in their serious states of aggravation, and the
animal finally succumbs to the combined irritation, debility,
and exhaustion.

In other instances, the bones entering into the formation
of the joint partake of the inflammation arising from the
admission of air or foreign substance within the cavity, and
shortly the articular surfaces are removed by absorption,
by which the vascular layers of the bones are brought to-
gether, and, union taking place, granulations sprout up from
the bloodvessels, of which an exudation occurs, and by
continuance and ultimate hardening completely fixes the
bones, forming masses of bony matter of variable size, and
constituting the true form of anchylosis, by exostosis or
osteophytes.

Treatment. — In the treatment of open joint, two important
objects are desirable — viz., early closing of the orifice,
and the prevention or arrestment of inflammation, if it has
already attained any degree of intensity. Both local and
constitutional measures are required, and of the latter
often powerful remedies have to be selected. ist. As

to closing the external wound. The measures already
advocated for punctured or incised wounds may be prac-
tised, in accordance as each may be applicable ; but on no
account must any probing or other interference be allowed,
except such as may be needful for the removal of foreign
bodies. In incised wounds, sutures may be employed, and
some practitioners have great success by using a covering of
styptic colloid, solution of shellac, or collodion afterwards.
Seeing the great necessity of reducing, as far as possible, the
tendency to suppuration, we have unbounded confidence in
the antiseptic treatment following the insertion of sutures.
When, on the other hand, the wound is the result of a kick

694 Local Injuries.

from another horse, small, and partaking of the characters of
incision, puncture, &c., we have repeatedly arrested the flow
of synovia, and succeeded in closing the wound, by the
application of the budding-iron (Fig. 29) ; or, in its absence,
the end of a heated kitchen-poker to the orifice, and a small
quantity of cantharidine ointment around. The cautery
must not be applied too hot ; a dull red-heat is sufficient,
the object being not to destroy the tissues by charring them,
but rather the setting-up of the swelling of external inflamma-
tion, which brings the edges of the wound close together, and
arresting the flow by healing of them. The application of a
small amount of blister, extending an inch or two round the
orifice, adds also to the swelling, and thus in a few hours
such cases are reduced to those of minor character.

The animal should, if possible, be put into slings, and
wounds of the knee, hock, fetlock-joints, &c., may be more
successfully managed by putting on a wood or tin splint
behind, or in front, as the case may require. Should the
application of the actual cautery and blister fail to close the
wound, the antiseptic treatment may be tried ; or, in pre-
ference, the joint may be covered by the leg of a worsted
stocking, in which a powder of dry alum and oxide of zinc
and wheat flour, in equal parts, with frequent renewals of
dry portions after dressings by astringent lotions. The plan
originally recommended by Mayhew, of applying a stream of
solution of chloride of zinc over the wound, is successful in
some cases ; but additional good will result from prompt
collateral internal treatment. The bowels should be opened
by a laxative at once, and in a few hours aconite and
neutral salts, as recommended in draught No. 1 3, p. 70^
or the bolus. No. 14, p. 71 ; or, in order to save time at the
outset, the sedative may be combined with the purgative, as
given in No. 56, p. 186.

After the wound has been closed, evaporating or cooling

OpeM Joint. 695

lotions may be employed for some days, but nothing suc-
ceeds so well as a continuous flow of cold water over the
parts, carried by means of a tube attached to a reservoir
elevated above the affected joint, and regulated by a stop-
cock. At later stages, blisters, and even firing, may be
required to overcome the internal inflammation and reduce
the joint to its normal size.

The most troublesome cases of open joint are those
caused by lacerated and contused wounds, in which there
is much subsequent destruction of tissue, and consequent
enlargement of the orifice. If the wound cannot be held
together by sutures, or the adhesive coverings mentioned
under the first form of treatment, it is a good practice to apply
a smart blister over the whole of the joint, a proceeding
which gives rise to swelling, approximates the edges of the
wound, stiffens the joint, and limits motion, and promotes
activity in the granulative or healing process. The plug of
coagulated synovia, which may be observed at the orifice of
the wound, must not be removed, but rather encouraged by
an occasional shower of chloride of zinc solution, thrown
from a bottle or spray-producer (Fig. 33).

Should these measures fail, and the formation of abscess
within be apparent, together with a discharge of blood,
mixed with pus, &c., it is evident the articular cartilages
have been removed, and the process of anchylosis or stiffen-
ing of the joint by ossific deposit has commenced ; and,
depending upon the kind of animal, joint affected, work
required of him, &c., the practitioner will decide as to the pro-
priety of pursuing further treatment. If the animal is valu-
able, the joint not an important one, and he can be used for
slow work, it may be advisable to keep him alive, and pro-
mote the healing action as much as possible.

A spare and cooling diet will be required during the
existence of severe febrile disturbance, but when that has

696

Local Injuries,

subsided a generous allowance of nourishing food will be
required, to compensate for the wasting or emaciation that
has been going on. Roots, green food, &c., are highly useful
throughout the disease.

Further consideration of the subject of anchylosis, exos-
tosis, &c., will be found under appropriate heads in the
following pages devoted to the general causes and nature of
lameness.

DISEASES, LOCAL INJURIES, ETC, GIVING RISE
TO THE ORDINARY FORMS OF LAMENESS.

Having discussed the injuries, &c., common to the limbs and
feet, we now turn to a consideration of other causes of lame-
ness, as well as the various circumstances in which diseases
of the bones or joints form a prominent feature, and more
particularly with reference to the more important parts or
organs of locomotion, and their articulations, with which is
often associated sprain or strain.

Congenital Muscular Atony.

Before taking up the subject in the order given above, the
attention of the reader is directed to a condition in young
animals, giving rise to much lameness of a special kind,
showing how arrested development of muscular fibre may
occasion great inconvenience, and also prove misleading to
those who see such cases for the first time.

Symptoms. — The animals are affected in many cases from
birth ; but in some instances the peculiar symptoms may
be delayed some weeks, or even months. The question
whether this affection is ever congenital is set at rest by the
fact, that we have carefully examined the limbs of foals and
calves taken from the womb after death of the mother, and
thereby demonstrated the existence of the deformity we

Congenital Muscular A tony, 697

have to describe, and arising from the want of development
of the necessary muscular tissues.

That animals do not necessarily exhibit the signs at, or
immediately after birth, is true ; but we need not wait to
establish that fact in order to disprove the connexion of the
malady with certain conditions existing at that time :
although its appearance may be delayed, further particulars
are required before we can decide it is not congenital, or,
more precisely, hereditary.

As the animal stands, there are evidences of great inse-'
curity; the legs and the body shake and tremble, the former
being continually shifted, as if seeking to obtain a firmer
position, and each time the toe is implanted, or dug in the
ground in advance, when the weight of the body descending
upon the incurvated fetlock-joint brings the whole of the
anterior surface of the pastern to the ground, causing the
heels of the hoof to strike the pad at the
back of the fetlock-joint (Fig. 255). The
toe and front of the hoof are thus con-
siderably worn, and the coronet and pas-
tern denuded of hair, but covered with
a thick scaly skin. During vigorous
efforts and rapid movements occasioned
by fright, &c., the symptoms are power-
fully demonstrated ; the whole limb is
spasmodically raised from the shoulder,
the knee and fetlock being arched or
flexed considerably ; it is also advanced
by means of a jerk, and violently brought The Foot flexed under
back to the ground in about half the dis- ^

tance comprised in a natural step, the body
being thrown backwards upon the hind-limbs, while the fore-
legs have the appearance of being considerably in 'front of
the body (Fig. 256). The undue flexion of the fetlock-joint

698 Local Injuries,

and phalanges, as a whole, is a frequent cause of falling,
when the young creature goes head foremost, the limbs

Fig. 256. — The Fore-feet adva7iced in p7'ogression.

doubling up beneath the body, and he lies often some time
making ineffectual efforts to regain his feet, and, when suc-
cessful, stands trembling violently from evident weakness
and excitement. Throughout, the limbs are prone to undue
flexion or doubling up, the weight of the body appearing too
much for them ; and the malady is still worse when the hind-
limbs are affected also. In such cases, the animal falls from
incapacity first of the hind-limbs, and as soon as he has risen,
or perhaps only partially does so, he literally tumbles head
foremost from the defect in the fore extremities.

Nature of the Malady. — When first we were confronted
with these cases, we felt humiliated and at a loss to account
for the conditions, more particularly as in the district such
cases had not been at all uncommon, and so many varied
and confusing, accounts of wonderful treatment having been
performed, in many instances ^-^as strange and nonsensical.
At first we regarded it as an evidence of weaknes.s, and
advised a liberal allowance of good food to the mare, in
order to enrich the milk, of the quality of which we had
some doubt. Ere long other cases were forthcoming and

Congenital Muscular A tony. 699

further observation permitted, when in all cases we discovered
the extensor muscles of the forearms, and the phalangeal
extensors of the hind-limbs, were in a state of flaccidity, as
well as being small and attenuated in a remarkable manner.
When fulfilling the duties of Professor of Anatomy in Glasgow,
we had occasion to examine a calf taken from the womb of
a cow, the carcass of which was laid on the table for dissec-
tion in the college, and finding the phalanges in a state of
extreme flexion, particular attention was directed to the pre-
sumed cause ; and it was found that the extensor muscles of
the forearm were almost absent — a few fibres only existing
in connexion with the tendons. The corresponding muscles
of the hind-limbs were also in the same condition. These
facts fully confirm the observations frequently imade upon
animals affected in life, as well as being borne out by
subsequent opportunities of seeing the same in other uterine
animals.

Treatment. — Although a liberal allowance of good food,
with rest, &c., produced a satisfactory though slow improve-
ment, further measures were suggested by the facts derived
in later examinations. The arrested development of muscle
was treated by the daily application of stimulating liniment,
or mild liquid blister, over the extensor muscles : recovery
was at once decided and rapid. When the mare was found
to be weak or sickly, a generous diet was recommended, with
vegetable tonics, and, if necessary, a mild purgative given pre-
viously, she being confined to a small yard, paddock, or large
box, in order to secure rest and quiet as much as possible.
Gradually the limbs become straighter, the forearm increases
in size and rotundity, weight is borne easily, and locomotion
less and less difficult ; and in periods, varying according to
the extent of the defect — from a few weeks to a few months
— the animal eventually recovers.

Although at the time we could not lay hands on any pub-

700 Local Injuries.

lished records of similar cases, we were far from believinsf
the disease was not known or understood ; in later years,
however, we came upon some extracts from Continental
journals, by which we were informed that animals had been
observed by Bracket walking upon their knees, being unable
to extend the foot sufficiently ; and regarding the case as
being due to rheumatism, consequent upon the overflowing
of the Rhone, for which he performed tenotomy behind the
arm, recovery following. Rossignol, another veterinary sur-
geon, met with a case of similar malformation at birth, but
was undecided whether it arose from inordinate contraction
alone of the flexors, or deficiency of tone and strength in the
extensors. He divided the tendons of the leg — plantar
tenotomy — and the animal recovered in two months. To
the present time we have met with no instance, or heard of
one, in which such a course is warranted. Having regarded
the malady as simply due to want of muscular development,
successful issues have always come out of the plan of treat-
ment which has already been recommended. An account
of this affection, as first observed by the writer, appeared in
the Veterinary Review, vol. vi. p. 730, January, 1864.

Sprain or Strain.

By these terms is implied an injury to soft parts, such as
muscles, ligament, or tendon, due to violent extension or
contraction, sometimes amounting only to inordinate stretch-
ing of the fibres, which alters the course of nutrition and sets
up an inflamed condition ; in other cases, the sheath only is
affected, while the fibres may be ruptured — torn across. In
the first instance, the injury may be only very slight, but pro-
bably repeated, it entails a loss of function and impairment of
nutrition, leading to weakness and want of elasticity, at

sprain or Strain,

701

length being fairly broken down by rupture ; and in the last,
violence being great, the whole structure may be at once
broken through.

Sprains are caused by falls, slipping downwards or back-
wards, violent struggles when the animal is bound and can-
not be relieved ; thus we may have the combined effects of
heavy weight suddenly imposed on the limbs, &c., unpre-
pared to meet it, and sudden violent contraction of muscular
fibre, the results of which will be a probable tearing of the
fibres of either muscle, ligament, or tendon. Ligaments
being attached to bones, assisting in the formation of joints,
are strained or ruptured by over-extension, flexion, &c. ;
while tendons are attached to muscles, and by them move-
ment is conducted in distant parts in the contraction of
muscles, one of which, or both sometimes, being injured, as
affected by the same cause. Swelling, heat, and pain are the
general manifestations of sprain of muscles, and when under
these conditions they are unable to contract — hence the
parts are almost immovable, and resemble an attack of local
paralysis. Such states are very undesirable, as being highly
prejudicial, and even destructive to the future health of the
muscle — as atrophy, or loss of substance, may follow ; the
fibres are replaced by fat, or the surrounding areolar tissue
augments considerably, eventually predominating over the
muscular tissues, which are replaced by a mass of white sub-
stance, non-contractile and useless.

Treatment of Sprain of Muscle. — Reduce the inflammatory
action as quickly as possible, in order to remove or prevent
the exudation of plastic material ; aflbrd perfect rest and
quiet, and use diligent applications of cold and soothing
lotions ; internally use sedatives, purgatives, and the neutral
salts ; and when the violence of the action has abated,
stimulate the absorbents by mild embrocations, gradually

702

Local Injuries.

succeeded by stronger remedies — as blisters. The diet at
first should be spare, cooling, and laxative ; in the later
stages, generous and easily digestible.

Special outlines of treatment, suggested by particular
forms of injury, will be given when needed, as the varieties
of sprain are taken up.

LAMENESS ARISING FROM PARTICULAR
FORMS OF SPRAIN.

Shoulder Lameness.

There are other causes of lameness in the shoulder-joint
than mere sprain of muscle, tendon, or ligament. Reference
has already been made under Strangles, page 129, to the
liability to the formation of abscesses in the glands at the
point of the shoulder. When discussing diseases of the liver
we stated the tendency to lameness of the shoulder, page 372.
Rheumatism and disease of the bones, or articulation, are
also occasional causes, with which it is necessary to avoid
confusion in deciding upon the cause. The affections we
now notice are: — ist. Sprain of the capsular ligament;
2nd. Sprain of scapular and triceps muscles ; and 3rd. Sprain
of the flexor brachii muscle.

Sprain of the Capsular Ligament. — Sprain, or over-exten-
sion of this, the only ligament of the joint, induces inflam-
mation, and by that process thickening as well as wasting
of its structure are produced ; the process is also commu-
nicated to the other structures — as the synovial fringes —
giving rise to increased secretion, and the capsule is dis-
tended by synovia and the products of inflammation ; the
bones participate, when the articular cartilage covering the
ends, which move on each other, is removed, and the end is
a deposit of calcareous matter, and stiffening of the joint by
anchylosis (Fig. 257).

Shoulder Lameness.

703

When rheumatism seizes the joint, although cartilaginous
layers may be removed, the changes are different to the
foregoing ; by closing the
canals in the bone be-
neath by osseous material,
a hard and white enamel
comes to the surface, which
is known as eburnation, or
the porcelainous deposit
(Fig. 276).

Symptoms. — The most
reliable token of shoulder-
joint lameness is the drag-
p-inp; of the toe on the
ground, while the head and
neck are raised, and the
efforts are apparent in
drawing the whole of the
limb at once, and without
flexion. Sometimes this
action will be modified by

swinging the foot round AnchylosiS^'s7oulder Joint.
and outwards. Manipula-
tion discloses pain in flexion, extension, or by pressure, and
the capsular ligament may be found to be distended. By
holding the leg from the ground, and moving it so as to flex
or extend the shoulder, even in slight cases, the animal will
wince, and in severe instances rear up from pain.

Sprain of the Triceps Muscles. — The situation of these
muscles is the triangular space between the scapula behind,
and the humerus and elbow, their upper attachments being to
the posterior border of the scapula, and the lower to the point
of the elbow (Fig. 258). {See also Plates XII. and XIII.).

Under violent extension one or more of these muscles are

704

Local Injuries,

Sprained, giving rise to more or less pain and swelling ;
while the power of drawing the limb backwards is greatly-

interfered with. If the
observer takes the bri-
dle in his hand, and
attempts to back the
animal, he will find he
is unable to lift the leg,
and will draw it flat
along the ground, while
the movement and ac-
tion forwards may not
be much disturbed.

Sprain of the Scapu-
lar Muscles, commonly
known as Shoulder Slip.
— In the absence of liga-
ment, and in order to
accommodate the joint
to more varied and ex-
tensive movements, the
bones, the humerus, and
scapula (Plate XL, Q
and R) are bound to-
gether by muscles, the
antea and postca spina i,
with the teres externns
(Fig. 259), the office of
which is to maintain the
position of the bones
during action, as well as perform the act of lifting the leg
in progression. Sprain of these muscles at once reduces their
power and aptitude for work ; and hence the bones roll in and
out during movement, while lameness is more or less present.

Fig. 258. — Muscles of the inside of
the Scapula.

I, I. The antea spinatus.

2. Subscapularis.

3. Teres internus.

4. Caput magnum of triceps extensor pedis.

5. Scapulo-ulnarius.

6. A distinct muscle, without a name.

7. A portion of the caput medium.

8, 8. Humeralis.

9. Caput parvum.

10. Coraco humeralis.

11. Flexor brachii.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XII.

“ THE SUPERFICIAL LAYER OF MUSCLES OF THE HORSE ;

SHOWN BY REMOVING THE SKIN, AND THE GREATER

PART OF THE PANNICULUS CARNOSUS.

“ I, Levator anglioris ; 2, levator labii superioris ; 3, retrac-
tor labii superioris ; 4, zygomaticus ; 5, caninus ; 6, buccina-
tor ; 7, retractor labii inferioris ; 8, 8, the tracheal portion
of the panniculus carnosus, which, reflected over the masseter
externus muscle, ultimately extends to the mouth, and there
forms the retractor anglioris ; the portions turned back in
the engraving denote whence the thin muscle has been
dissected ; 9, the orbicularis oculi ; i o, the temporalis ;
II, II, the orbicularis oris; 12, 12, 12, the levator
humeri, showing the manner it is .associated with and acts
upon iy the fascia covering the fore-leg; 13, the splenius,
covered by fascia ; 1 4, the parotid gland and the abductor
conchae ; a, the trapezius ; ^ b, the latissimus dorsi ; c, the
postea spinatus ; d, the antea spinati^ ; e, the teres externus ;
f, the scapula ulnarius ; g, the caput magnuik^of the triceps
extensor brachii ; //, the caput medium of the triceps ex-
tensor brachii ; j\ the pectoralis magnus ; k, k, ky k, ky the
serratus magnus ; /, /, the obliquus externus abdominis and
its yellow elastic fascia ; m, the gluteus maximus ; the
gluteus externus, deprived of its fascia, which braces the
gluteus maximus ; Oy 0, o, the three heads of the triceps
abductor tibialis ; /, the biceps retractor tibialis ; the
tensor vagina ; r, the fascia of the hind-leg ; showing how
it is acted upon by the muscles of the haunch.” ,

Shoulder La^neness,

705

The causes are due to the irregular kind of work in
ploughing, the animal being compelled to walk with one
foot in the furrow, and the other
outside. Young animals are more
commonly affected, older ones
having more care of themselves.

Symptoms. — Heat, pain, and
swelling are prominent symp-
toms in the early stages over the
region of the joint and scapular
muscles, but actual lameness may
not be fully developed. In later
stages the muscles are observed to
be wasted, giving the shoulder a
lean and sunken appearance. The
spine of the scapula (Fig. 239, and
Plates XL and XIII.) is plainly in-
dicated as a sharp ridge, running
from above downwards, and from
behind forwards, with a decided
hollow upon each side. Compari-
son of the two shoulders at once
decides a marked difference when only one is affected, but
such a test is of little or no value when both are diseased ;
indeed, under such circumstances it is probable that the
wasting is not confined to the scapular muscles, while those
of the arm, or both arm and scapular, are implicated.
During action the whole shoulder is relaxed, and the limb is
carried with a swing or hanging movement, being elevated
with difficulty in proportion as the arm muscles are affected ;
and during rest, or when the foot is implanted on the
ground, and the weight of the body thrown on the limb, the
head of the humerus bulges outwards considerably.

Apart from disease of the articulation, tendons of the

Fig. 259. — Muscles of the
outer side of the Shoulder.

a. Postea spinatus.

b. Antea spinatus.

c. Triceps.

d. Teres externus.

e. Flexor brachii.

f. Extensors of the forearm.

g. Flexors „ ,,

7o6

Local Injuries,

muscles and capsular ligament, shoulder-slip is usually
manageable.

Treatment. — The usual treatment for local inflammation
during the first stages is applicable, with absolute rest, the
shoes being taken off, and toes properly shortened ; the heat
and tumefaction removed, stimulating liniments or blisters
are indicated. After wasting of the muscles has arisen the
tonicity of the parts must be restored, if possible ; and for
this purpose stimulating embrocations or mild blisters are to
be applied at once, the animal being turned off work com-
pletely, and confined to
a small yard or paddock.
Gentle exercise may be
given daily after a few
weeks have elapsed, the
applications being re-
newed at intervals ; and
when the animal has
recovered, other work
should be found for him.

Sprain of the Flexor
Brachii (Fig. 260, 3). —
This muscle performs an
important office in rais-
ing the forearm, or flex-
ing it upon the shoulder ;
and for the strength re-
quired it is greatly mixed
up with a quantity of
tendinous material, a
large, flat, rope-like por-
tion commencing at its
insertion in the scapula,
and having a cartilagi-

Fig. 260. — Deep-seated Muscles mside
of the Humerus.

1. The coraco-humeralis.

2. Humeralis.

3. Flexor brachii.

4. Caput parvum of the triceps extensor brachii.

5. Minimus.

Lameness of the Elbow.

707

nous surface at the part where it plays over the head of the
humerus, as well as being supplied with a synovial sac. In
its fleshy part much tendinous substance is intermixed, and
its inferior insertion in the radius is also tendinous. Such
functions are arduous as well as important ; and the muscle
is liable to over-extension or laceration of its fibres, by which
it becomes hot, swollen, tender, and prominent in front of
the arm. When the articulation is affected the bursa will be
inflamed and distended, and 'the lameness characterised by
difficulty in raising the foot from the ground. Sometimes the
shoulder-joint is secondarily affected in this form of injury; and
in simple disease of the flexor brachii, the terminations may
be ossification of the fibres of the superior tendon, ulceration
of the cartilage, and caries of the humerus, with probable
anchylosis of the joint. The substance of the muscle is
liable to degeneration, and substitution of condensed non-
contractile tissue for muscular fibre, each of which renders
the animal perfectly useless. Farm horses— especially young

ones — are liable to this form of injury ; and pit animals are
often affected as a consequence of the heavy drawing they
are put to, with the necessity of raising the feet over the
rails and sheaves, &c., in their way. In farm-horses it
mostly appears on the off-side, but among the latter either
shoulder may be affected.

Treatment. — The high-heeled shoe should be put on,
absolute rest allowed, and measures adopted for the reduc-
tion of local inflammation.

Lameness in the Elbow.

Lameness having some connexion with the elbow has
been already detailed under the head of fracture of the beak
of the olecranon (Fig 241, p. 672), and with rupture of the
triceps muscles (Fig. 258, and Plate XIII.), giving rise. to a

45 — 2

7o8 Local hijuries.

difficulty of drawing the foot backwards, the knee being
elevated, and toe resting on the ground.

The lateral ligaments (Fig. 261) are also liable to sprain,
of which the internal is the most commonly affected, when
the limb is held away from the body in a state of semi-
flexion, the foot resting rather behind the sound one, and

Fig. 261. — Ligamaifs of t e
Elbow-joint {Back View).

a, a. Lateral ligament.
l>, b. Ligament of the ulna.

Fig. 262, — Anchylosis pro-
ceeding in Elbow-joint.

Upon the toe. Lameness is excessive, the limb is moved
with difficulty, being literally carried as if in a piece, the
animal dropping low on the sound limb. The injury is
liable to extend to the joint, inducing inflammation with its
train of attendant symptoms, terminating in anchylosis
(Fig. 262).

Treatment, as already detailed for sprains.

Emphysema of the Elbow, &c. — Superficial wounds in the
neighbourhood of the point of the elbow or point of the
olecranon (Fig. 241, Plates XII. and XIIL), are frequently
productive of mischief in horses used for the road or field,

Capped Elbow. 709

consequent upon the great amount of motion of which these
parts are capable, and the rapid absorption of air through
the orifice, which sometimes inflates the skin, not only in the
neighbourhood of the joint, but may extend even to the
shoulder, neck, face, and head. We have seen horses return
from a run or severe journey, having a wound inflicted by
the spur on the part alluded to, and from the pumping action
set up in motion the head and throat have been so swollen
as to endanger respiration, for which tracheotomy had to be
performed as a means of temporary relief. Rest, plugging
of the wound, sutures, &c., with puncture and pressure of the
skin over the nostrils, in some cases, are the means that are
required, as the contained air is rapidly absorbed when all
other functions of the body are promoted.

Capped Elbow.

The condition known by this term is common to the
heavier breeds of horses, but occasionally others are also
rendered unsightly by the gradual appearance of a large and
generally spherical-shaped tumour hanging loosely from the
back of the point of the elbow (Fig. 263). The causes are
pressure derived from the heels of
the shoe, as the animal continues
to rest with those prominences be-
neath the elbow. It has been
alleged that calkins are the entire
cause, but we can affirm that many
horses having no calkins on the
heels, the shoes being simply flat,
have been affected. When the
heels are too long, the tumour will
be produced equally as if calkins
were present, if the animal is prone to rest as we have
stated. The production of a tumour depends on the esta-

Fig. 263. — Capped Elbow —
the tumour.

Local Injuries.

blishment of inflammatory action in the subcellular tissue,
from which hypertrophy ensues, and to such enlargement a
circumbscribed tumour is due. The treatment consists of
absolute removal with the knife by simple dissection, and
subsequent union of the skin by ordinary sutures. After-
wards, the shoe should be kept as short at the heels as
is consistent with natural requirements, and a leather pad
should be strapped over them in addition when the animal

is confined to the stable.

Sprain of the Muscles of the
Forearm. — Both before and be-
hind the arm are placed power-
ful muscles, designed to flex or
extend the metacarpal bone of
the foot. The situation and
origin of these will be under-
stood by a reference to Figs.
259, 260, and 264. In front
are the extensors pedis — meta-
carpi— and suffraginis : behind
are the antagonists — flexors pe-
dis— and metacarpus ; one or all
of which — that is, one or the
whole of a class, flexors or ex-
tensors— may be injured, and
they are detected by the loss of
function, as well as the local
signs of inflammation, the fin-
gers being required to trace out
the origin and course of the
various muscles. In such kinds of
lameness the absence of power
of flexing or extending the knee, foot, &c., are the distinctive
features, and call for special observation in this particular.

Fig. 264. — Deepest-seated Muscles
at the back of the Humerus.

1. The scapulo-humeralis major.

2. Humeralis.

3. Anconeus.

Knee-joint Lameness.

711

Repeated or excessive injury may terminate in ossification
of the tendon of the muscle, or atrophy, with deposition of
non-contractile tissue in the fleshy part.

Knee-joint Lameness. — Apart from broken knees, which
have already been noticed at p. 653, lameness occurs in the
knee-joint from sprain of the ligaments and tendons con-
nected with or passing over it. The radio-carpal ligament,
which passes downwards to become inserted into the tendon
of the flexor pedis perforatus, is an occasional seat of lame-
ness, known by an inability to flex the knee, attended with a
swelling above the joint, also heat, pain, and tenderness.
The synovial bursa through which the tendon passes is also
swollen, constituting what is known as thorough-pin of the
knee ; and in addition the tendons of both the flexors of the
foot are involved, when the swelling, lameness, and stiffness
are very great.

Other tendons of the various muscles in their passage over
the knee are liable to injury from sprain or blows, giving
rise to enlargements, by which the injury is recognised in
addition to the impairment of action ; the synovial sheaths
through which some of these pass are likewise involved in
over-extension, when distension by excessive secretion of
synovia, constituting at various parts about the knee and
fetlock swellings, known as “ windgalls,” from the ancient and
erroneous supposition that wind occupied the interior. Such
swellings may be present without lameness, and occasion no
inconvenience whatever ; but in recent cases the usual topical
manifestations with lameness will be often observed, calling
for active local and general treatment.

The tendon of the extensor metacarpi magnus, as it passes
over the front of the knee, is furnished with a synovial bursa,
which under injury of the tendon from sprain or blows, thorns,
&c., at this part becomes greatly distended, forming a large
fluctuating swelling termed “ capped knee,” remaining perma-

712

Local Injuries,

nently swollen after the lameness has disappeared. Blisters
are employed to reduce the swelling, which, when not suc-
cessful, may be punctured so as to allow the contained fluid
to escape, after which bandages are used to produce pressure,
and cause adhesion of the walls of the sac.

Sprain of the various ligaments of the knee-joint (Figs
232, 233) gives rise to much diffused swelling, stiffness, and
lameness. By continuance and extension of inflammation
the joint may be involved, leading to synovitis, and in the
end anchylosis (Fig. 234).

In some cases inflammation of the knee may arise from
concussion, and, being at first resident in the bones, gives rise
to no external signs, as heat or swelling, &c. ; but in action
the animal proves lame as he is used, coming first out of the
stable with slight difference from sound movement. The
knee is not flexed extensively, and the step is shorter than
usual. Exostosis appears mostly towards the inside of the
joint, and affects principally the bones of the lower row with
the small metacarpal, and more rarely those of the upper
(Figs. 252, 253),

Treatment. — Absolute rest in a loose box, the shoes being
removed, and toes shortened to a proper length ; purgatives,
cooling applications, as a stream of cold water, and general
remedies calculated to reduce inflammation of the parts.

Sprain of the Back Sinews.

As the tendon of the flexor pedis perforans passes down
the back of the cannon bone of the fore and hind legs, it
receives an accessory union of ligaments from the bone
itself, known as the posterior metacarpal, or metacarpal
ligaments, as the fore or hind limbs respectively are indicated
(Fig. 265, <:), and these acting as a check or limit to the
extension of the perforans, are the subject of sprain or

713

Sprain of the Back Sinews.

rupture of their fibres, giving rise to swelling behind the leg,
with heat, pain, and tenderness, while the heels are with
difficulty brought to the ground,
by reason of the shortening due to
exudation within the substance of
the ligaments. The thumb being
used to press upon the ligament,
as the leg is held in one hand, will
readily indicate the situation of the
injury; and if complicated with
sprain of the flexor tendons, e, they
will be found thickened, swollen,
and painful, and in both cases pro-
ducing stiffness and inability to
flex the fetlock-joint, to which is
added stiffness of the knee. When
the injury is inflicted on the hind-
limb, the animal will be observed
to kick or throw his leg behind as
he raises it from the ground in
action, while the fetlock is carried
stiffly or straight as a result of the
imperfect power of flexing the joint in this form of injury.

Treatment. — Rest ; shortening of the toe, and application
of a shoe having a high heel to occasion relaxation of the
affected structures ; cold applications externally, succeeded
by blisters ; purgatives internally, in the first instance, neutral
salts, &c.

In chronic cases, sprain having probably been repeated, or
the effects not removed after the first attack, permanent
shortening takes place and the animal Avalks on the toe. In
slight cases, and for slow work, the animal may go on very
well, but in cases of severe contraction the tendons may be
severed, and after reunion a fair or natural action produced.

Fig. 265. — Section of Bones
and Ligaments at the Knee-
joint.

a. Os magnum.

b. Large metacarpal or cannon bone.

c. Posterior ligament of the knee,

uniting with

d. To form the back sinews, e.
f. Suspensory ligament.

7 1 4 Local Injttries.

Tenotomy, or division of the tendons, is thus performed : —
The animal is first cast, the lame leg, being on the ground, is
loosed from the hobbles, and secured by a rope-strap around
the fetlock held by an assistant. A small wound is then made
about the middle of the leg on the inner side in a longitu-
dinal direction, directly over the groove or depression formed
between the bone and tendons, and the attachment by sub-
cutaneous tissue between the tendons and suspensory liga-
ment also must be cut through as far as the skin below, the
knife being used flatwise. A probe-pointed knife is then
inserted flatwise as far as the skin on the lower side, then
turned edge towards the tendons, when by gradual cutting
they are divided. The existence of old-standing adhesions
about the tendons and fetlock-joint may prevent straightening
of the limb, but if the operator places his knee against the
front of the cannon bone, and by pulling at the foot for-
wards, the obstructions will be broken down. Only one
skin wound is necessary ; two orifices render the recovery
tardy and awkward. Union of the lips is secured by sutures,
and cold water bandages may be applied afterwards, or the
antiseptic treatment followed. The animal may be placed
in slings, and the head tied up, the feet being divested of
shoes, and hoofs trimmed to proper proportions. By degrees
the animal brings the heels to the ground and bears weight
upon the foot, and union is usually effected in two months,
or thereabouts, sufficiently to enable the animal to go to
ordinary work. Such an operation is generally successful in
the fore-leg, but there are instances where excessive contrac-
tion of the deposit thrown out between the divided ends of
the tendons renders the case a failure ; in the hind-legs this
disappointing issue is more common, the animal still
walking on the toe with heels suspended, for which a small
lever is usually welded on the toe of the shoe and to prevent
knuckling over at the fetlock-joint

715

Sprain of the Suspensory Ligament.

The important functions of this ligament render it an
exceedingly powerful agency in maintaining the firm and
erect condition of the leg when the animal is at rest upon
it ; it is placed in a position where it must sustain great
weight and ward off shock from other parts, and under
severe extension it is therefore liable to injury, varying from
a simple stretching to complete rupture.

What we have just written, together with that which
follows, will be more intelligible to the reader if we briefly
illustrate its anatomical situation. The suspensory ligament
is attached above to the upper and back part of the head
of the cannon bone (Fig. 265), where it exists as a strong
and broad flat band of white fibrous tissue, erroneously said
by some to be elastic ; and is continued downwards, lying
in the hollow formed by the small cannon or metacarpal
bones of each side ; when at a point a little above the fetlock-
joint it bifurcates, or splits into two portions, each becoming
inserted into one of the sesamoid bones (Fig. 266), and,

Fig. 266. — Ligaments at the hack of the Leg^from the Knee
downwards.

a. Suspensory ligament.

b. Point of bifurcation, each branch going to the sesamoid bones, c, covered by the pad.

passing downwards, is continued as a smaller band of fibres
round to the front of the pastern bone, where it unites on
each side with the tendon of the extensor pedis (Plates
XII. and XIII.).

The function of this ligament is at once understood by
a simple test practised on the leg of the dead animal. Let

7i6 , Local Injuries.

the foot be planted in the natural position on a flat surface,
the limb being kept upright and some pressure exerted upon
it, and, while in this position, divide the flexor tendons about
half way down the cannon bone. The effect is that of allow-
ing the pad of the fetlock-joint behind to descend a little way
only, proving their office to be decidedly apart from actual
weight-bearing ; next, divide the suspensory ligament, and the
fetlock comes at once to the ground, the toe turns upwards
exposing the sole, accurately displaying the condition known
as “ break-down,” and the weight-bearing office of the liga-
ment ; it performs a function which muscles could not do for
long periods together without great waste and damage ; it
relieves the leg of severe strain and weight, and by supporting
the fetlock in a curved position, neutralises shock and concus-
sion, which deal out such mischief to the column of bones as
well as the delicate structures of the joints ; while it affords
a springing or elastic motion to the limb, giving that grace
and elegance to the step of the animal, and renders the seat
in the saddle easy and agreeable to the horseman.

Sprain, or simple extension of the suspensory ligament,
according to the extent of injury, gives rise to lameness,
swelling along the course of the structures, with heat, pain,
and tenderness on pressure ; while the animal endeavours to
give ease to the part by flexing the fetlock-joint, and resting
or walking on the toe of the foot, the weight being sustained
by the flexor muscles and tendons. When rupture takes
place, it may occur at the broad part above the bifurcation,
across one or both of the branches ; or it may be torn direct
from one or both of its attachments at the sesamoid bones.
Wherever the tendon is ruptured the effects are the same ;
the fetlock descends to the ground, the toe pointing
upwards and the sole forwards. As the ligament is common
to fore and hind legs, any one of them may be the seat of
lameness. As a rule, hunters and race-horses are most
liable to it as arising in the fore-limbs, while other animals

spy am of the Sttspensory Ligament. 717

of the heavier breeds, and especially those put to drawing
heavy loads, exhibit it in the hind-legs.

Under all circumstances, the injury is to be regarded as
one of a very serious nature, requiring a long and absolute
rest ; but, under appropriate remedies, at length recovering so
as to allow the animal to perform reasonable kinds of work
for a long term of years, evidences of the injury being
prominently exhibited in permanent thickening or enlarge-
ment of the course of the ligament, together with an evi-
dent weakness, for which the animal should have every
consideration.

Treatment. — For simple sprain the usual measures are
required — as cold applications externally, with purgatives or
the neutral salts, &c., internally ; and, as an additional aid, a
high-heeled shoe should be applied. In complete break-down
the chief object is to fix the leg in a firm and erect position,
and so far promote the apposition of the divided ends of the
ligament for future union. For this purpose the practitioner
must adopt one or any of the various plans by which he
may have greatest hope of success. Several have been
attended with like benefit. i. Tow, rolled into pads, by
which the fetlock is propped up, being placed in the hollow
of the heel, and maintained by bandages. 2. Tow, saturated
in starch, and packed well under the fetlock, also sustained
by firm bandages, similarly treated and bound over the whole
limb above the knee. 3. Gutta-percha moulds, with similar
packing with soft tow, and dry bandages over the whole.
These moulds are first adapted to the sound limb, by which
the required shape will be nearly obtained, and after being
again softened in warm water are applied to the affected leg
when raised to the proper position. 4. A wooden mould, or
splint, made to fit the back of the leg, and as well as filling
up the hollow behind the heel, rests on the ground and gives
support to the fetlock pad, packing with soft tow being
largely used, and bandages bound over the whole.

7i8

Local Injuries,

It is advisable, in almost every case, to place the animal in
slings, but if he be disposed to take care of the leg he may
be allowed to lie. Extreme swelling must be provided for
in the mode of putting on the bandages, and internal
remedies given as required for the reduction of fever. When
the animal can bear his weight, and the parts are becoming
cool, moderate blisters may be applied at intervals.

Sprain of the Fetlock-joint.

This form of injury is usually confined at first to one of
the lateral ligaments, but by continuance, aggravation, and
extension the synovial membrane becomes involved, giving
rise to inability to flex or bend the joint, or maintain the
weight of the body. The animal hesitates to put the foot
to the ground ; and, after several attempts, finally carries the
limb, and hops on three legs. Heat, pain, and tenderness on
manipulation, in a marked degree, are characteristics of the
injury.

Treatment. — Perfect rest, cooling applications externally ;
purgatives, sedatives, &c., internally. When the active signs
are subdued, stimulating embrocations, or mild blisters may
be used ; afterwards, gentle work for some months.

Sesamoiditis. — This term is applied to an inflammation
of the bursa, or synovial sheath, which is formed at the back
of the sesamoid bones (Fig. 266, e), and through v/hich the
flexor tendons pass, playing over the prominence after the
manner of a rope over a pulley. Sprain of the sesamoid
ligaments above or at the side, or partial rupture of the
branches of the suspensory at their insertions, may give rise
to it by extension. The hind-legs are more commonly
affected than the fore. The horse goes on the toe, and
exhibits great lameness ; the fetlock is often swollen con-
siderably at the back, especially over the bursa and pad, and
the synovial capsule is distended, hot, tense, and hard ; a

Ringbones.

719

common windgall being soft, flabby, cool, fluctuating, and
having no tenderness. This form of lameness is liable to
recur, especially if it has been the seat of the rheumatic form
of inflammation.

The treatment for this is the same as given for the fetlock-
joint, with the addition of the use of a high-heeled shoe, or
suitable preparation of the hoof in lieu of it.

Ringbones.

Repeated and long-continued inflammation of the liga-
mentous structures of the fetlock-joint, as in other similar
parts, often terminates in a local or diffuse inflammation of
bone, manifested by gradual but irregular form of enlarge-
ment from exostosis or osteophytes, known as ringbones,
from their tendency to encircle the phalanges. Ringbones
are true or false. False ringbones are merely exostoses of
the upper and external prominences of the pastern bone — os
suffraginis. These seldom interfere with important parts,
and occasion no lameness, but when very large they may
call for treatment.

Tnce rmgbone in two forms : one, termed the high^

involves the pastern, and even the fetlock-joint also (Fig. 2 67) ;
the other, the lozv form, affects the small pastern and coffin
bone (Fig. 268). As already explained, they are the result
of ostitis, or inflammation of the bones, involving the arti-
culations, and giving rise to anchylosis. The causes are —
extension of inflammation from other diseased structures,
blows, concussion, &c., &c. Signs of lameness usually pre-
cede the visible formation of exostosis ; and from the great
peculiarity in the gait of the animal it is likely to be con-
founded with that produced by laminitis — sandcrack, seedy-
toe, coronitis, &c. ; the fore-foot is brought cautiously to the
ground, the heels being the first to approximate ; the hind-
foot, on the contrary, being put down toe first. The charac-

720 Local Injuries,

teristic heat and pain above the foot will distinguish this kind
of injury from those we have named.

Fig. 267. — Upper Rmgbone. Fig. 268. — Lower Ringbone, also

showing ossification of lateral
cartilages.

The tendency to ringbone is often hereditary, and the
condition may be the result of the rheumatic form of inflam-
mation. We have before us, at the present time, an illus-
trative case, out of many, of the hereditary nature of the
disease : — A fine Suffolk mare, owned by a friend, showed
signs of ringbones when quite young. She has had foals
during the past six years, by different horses, and every one
have been subject to these formations before arriving at two
years old. The dam of the mare had ringbones.

Peculiarity of formation of the limb may predispose
animals to the disease ; those having upright pasterns and
stilty action being most common victims, as a result of con-
cussion. Long pasterns and springy action are more rarely
associated with ringbones ; and when they arise in such
formations, the causes may be sought for in sprain of
ligament, &c.

{

Lameness in the Hip-joint. 721

Treatment. — Externally, cold water in a continued stream,
cold lotions, &c. ; internally, purgatives, sedatives, neutral
salts, &c. ; lower the toe of the fore-feet, and put on a thin-
heeled shoe ; for the hind-feet, raise the heels of the shoe,
and in all cases allow absolute rest on a floor covered with
a layer of sawdust, chaff, &c Horses thus affected are
rarely fit to do other than work on the land.

Lameness in the Hip-joint.

Among a variety of conditions which give rise to lameness
in this region, the most common is sprain of the tendons of
the large muscle of the haunch — the gluteus maxunus —
which are inserted in the large tuberosity termed the tro-
chanter major (Fig. 248, ci), and ridge immediately below.
Pain, swelling, and inflammation of the tendon and synovial
bursa are prominent symptoms, and are readily made out
by comparing the hips. In slight cases the animal stands
on the foot, but in others he holds it in a semiflexed con-
dition ; as he walks, or trots, the toe may be dragged on
the ground, and the whole haunch carried as if one rigid
piece. Wasting of the muscles proceeds, after a time,
giving the haunch a hollow or flattened appearance ; and
disease of the great trochanter may ensue, as a result of the
inflammation, or of falls, inflicting injury direct upon the part.

In the hip-joint itself the ligamentum teres, though
rarely, may be lacerated, giving rise to inflammation and
ulceration of the articular cartilage of both femur and aceta-
bulum, with further extreme results, as suppuration in the
cavity. Young animals are liable to a scrofulous form of
disease, also producing suppuration of the joint ; and older
animals are susceptible of rheumatism, giving rise to ulcera-
tion and subsequent eburnation. Anchylosis does not often
occur at this joint, but, in rare and extreme cases, loss of the

722 Local Injuries.

ligamentum teres takes place, and the cavity is more or
less filled with bony deposit.

Treatment. — Sprain of the tendons of the muscle of the
haunch should be treated early, in order to avoid those struc-
tural changes we have described, and must also be of the
usual kind, local and general. The foot should be dressed
to natural proportions ; a shoe, having high heels, put on ;
absolute rest allowed for some time ; and blisters applied
to the surface, after the active signs are reduced. As the
lameness is apt to recur in horses doing heavy work, the
treatment must be at first decisive ; and the owner must not
be in too great a hurry to put the animal to work.

Lameness in the Stifle-joint.

This is the joint immediately below the hip, and cor-
responds to the knee of man (Fig. 269). It is formed by
the femur above and tibia below, having the patella, or
knee-cap, in front ; and interposed between the first and
second are two fibro-cartilaginous discs, known as the
semilunar cartilages — double convex bodies — which complete
the articular surfaces (Fig. 270). The whole are united by
several ligaments, and these, being liable to sprain, often give
rise to lengthened inflammation, ulceration, and finally
anchylosis of the joint. Two joints are formed by the three
bones — one, the true stifle-joint, by the femur and tibia ; the
other, by the patella and the femur ; and as disease may
be confined to one of these, the signs are somewhat modified.
When the true stifle-joint is affected, the leg throughout is
held, when at rest, in a flexed condition, the toe resting on
the ground ; but as soon as the sufferer moves the limb it is
quickly extended and rigid ; at each step the heels first
touch the ground, the body being elevated greatly, as the
weight is carried over the limb. When the minor joint is

Lameness in the Stifle-joint .

723

diseased, the limb, as in the preceding case, is held, during
rest, in a state of semiflexion ; in movement, the toe drags

F IG. 269. — Stifle-Joint
{Back View).

a. Patella. c. Fibula.

b. Femur. d. Tibia.

Fig. 270. — Stifle-Joint
{Fi'ont View).

a. Patella, or knee-cap.

b. Semilunar cartilages.

c. Ligaments.

on the ground, or is carried round in a swinging form ; and in
the worst cases — probably from extension of the disease —
the action assumes the form last described. Swelling, acute
irritative fever, and intense pain, sometimes mark these cases,
from which the animal dies, or has to be destroyed ; when
laceration of the ligaments, ulceration of cartilage, destruction
of the cartilaginous discs, ostitis, &c., are visible on dissec-
tion, together with rapid progress towards anchylosis. In
old horses it is not uncommon to find eburnation of this
joint, the existence of which may have been suspected by
the enlarged condition of the synovial capsule during life.

Treatment. — Cold applications and active internal re^

46 — 2

724

Local Injuries.

medies, applied early — as already detailed — and succeeded
by blisters, or the actual cautery.

Luxation of the Patella.

Displacement of the patella, or knee-cap, is by no means
a rare occurrence, arising from several causes. Dislocation
in the majority of cases takes place outwardly, being pre-
vented from passing to the inner side by reason of the larger
condyle of the femur. A kick, or blow, as effected by striking
the post of a doorway, laceration of ligament, and relaxation
due to continued strain which ensues from weakness, or con-
finement to pastures on steep hill-sides, are the common

causes. The situation of
the patella, held by its
proper ligaments, will be
understood by a reference
to Fig. 270. In addition,
powerful muscles are
brought into requisition,
for not only are they re-
quired to assist in the
varied functions of move-
ment, progression, &c.,
but contribute largely to-
wards keeping the bones
in their proper position.
In connexion with this
joint the muscles are

VK.^^^.-Tke Inside ofthe Thigh. '^rge, ^nd having their

1. The vastus internus. superlor attachment to

2. The sartorius.

3. The gracilis. the oelvlc bones, are con-

4. ihe caput magnum of the triceps adductor

^ . .u- 1- tinned below to the femur

5. The biceps rotator tibialis.

6. The recti, attached to the patella. ^ t-mcc

7. The femoral artery. and tibia, a large mass>

Luxation of the Patella.

725

known as the recti, being fixed in the upper part of the
patella (Fig. 271). In common therefore with ligaments,
these muscles are liable to suffer from continued strain and
tension, and their functions are less ably performed, and at
such times very likely to become over-stretched or lacerated,
when displacement of parts may follow.

Symptoms. — Inability to draw the limb forward, and com-
plete the usual flexion of the stifle-joint. As the animal
attempts to move forwards, the leg shoots straight out back-
wards (Fig. 272), the fetlock is unduly contracted, and in

Fig. 272. — Dislocatioti of Patella.

attempting to bring the limb forwards the muscles of the
haunch are brought into active co-operation, by which the
side of the body is forcibly lifted up, when the patella may
fly into its natural position, emitting a sharp clicking sound,
and the limb is then planted. Dislocation, however, again
takes place as soon as the actual weight is placed on the
limb, and it flies backwards in the next act of progression.
Where displacement arises from a blow, &c., repeated volun-
tary reduction is not so common as in those cases attended
with debility or laceration of the parts, and the animal fails
to bring the limb into a natural state of flexion.

Treatment. — Reduction must first be accomplished, which

Local Injuries,

726

is attempted as follows : — Place a trusty assistant at the
head, who must not allow the animal to move from the
spot. Secure the fetlock, or pastern, of the affected side by
means of the loop of a rope, which is passed between the
fore-legs and held by two or three strong men. The
operator stations himself at the side, and, with hands on the
dislocated bone, directs the men to pull steadily at the rope,
to elevate the foot as high as the abdomen, when, by forci-
ble pressure, the patella slips into place. Some practitioners
find it advantageous to throw the foot-rope over a beam or
pulley in elevating the foot.

The next course is to put on an ordinary collar, and
secure the foot to it by means of a rope, by which the limb
will be kept extended forwards, and the animal must not be
allowed to lie down. A gentle dose of physic may be
administered, and 'a smart blister laid upon the front and
outside of the joint, by which motion will be limited and
reparation hastened, and in a fortnight the application may
be repeated. Heavy work and turning to grass must be
carefully avoided for some time afterwards.

In some animals reduced by debility, the constant and
alternate luxation of the patellae is very annoying ; we have
noticed this frequently, recovery from the first being but
scarcely effected when the bone of the opposite side has
become displaced. Besides the foregoing treatment, the
practitioner may deem it necessary to recommend less severe
work, and the addition of peas or beans to the food.

Flexor Metatarsi. — By reference to the accompanying
engraving (Fig. 273), the reader will observe this muscle has
an origin by tendon with the extensor pedis (3 and 4),
at the lower end of the femur, as well as to the outer side of
the tibia, being inserted below in the head of the metatarsal
bone. Its office is that of raising the leg upwards and
forwards.

sprain of Flexor Metatarsi. 727

Laceration of the fibres of this muscle, or its tendon,
occurs now and then, giving rise to enlargement in front of
the leg — heat, pain, and
soreness also being pre-
sent in proportion to the
extent of the injury ; and
an additional sign is also
frequently added, that of
sudden drawing up of
the limb in movement,
throwing it backwards
in a rigid state, when
the skin above the point
over the hock is corru-
gated. The loss of func-
tion in the flexor meta-
tarsi muscle is evident in
the extreme action of the
antagonistic muscles —
the extensors of the leg —
which render it perfectly
straight and immovable.

Some cases are remark-
able for the existence of
chronic disease in the

fibres of this muscle, 2. riexor pedis accessorius.

. . 3. Flexor metatarsi magnus.

giving way to degenera- 4- The tendon common both to the flexor metatarsi

and extensor pedis.

tion and loss of sub- groove in which the extensor pedis played.

6. Tendon of the gastrocnemius, or ham-string.

stance, when at length

in sudden action it gives way, and the consequences are as
described.

Treatment. — Recent cases, in young and valuable animals,
make good progress under the application of cooling re-
medies and internal medicines, followed by blisters, &c. ;

728

Local Injuries.

but in old animals, in which degeneration of tissue has in all
probability taken place, the prospects are very uncertain.
Another form of the same kind of lameness arises from
rupture of the insertion of the tendon in the head of the
metatarsal bone, when the point of tumefaction, &c., will be
discovered in front and rather below the hock, instead of the
front and fleshy part immediately below the stifle.

Hock-joint Lameness.

The hock-joint, or tarsus (Plate XL), the analogue of the
ankle-joint in man, is constituted after the same character as
the knee or carpus, having a double row of small bones, one
upon each other (Fig. 274), forming
gliding joints with limited motion ;
and a large hinge-joint above, formed
by the tibia and main bone of the
hock — the astragalus — in which the
greatest movement of the hock-joint
is performed. The whole are bound
together in a remarkable manner by
suitable ligaments, and supplied by
appropriate lubricating apparatus, by
which the most perfect mechanism
and adaptability for motion are se-
cured. Like other joints of import-
ance, in form, position, and function
the hock enjoys no immunity from
strain and injury under severe dis-
plays of power ; and, however per-
fect in symmetry, through the va-
rious arts and devices of man, the order of Nature is often
egregiously opposed or interfered with, and the result is
various forms of disease. The hock is liable to severe sprain

Fig. 274.

The Hock Joint.

a. Os calcis.

b. Astragalus.

c. Cuneiformis.
ci. Cuboid.

e. Small metacarpal.

f. Large „

Hock-joint Lameness. 729

of its lig-aments, and disease of the articulations, as well as
fracture of the bones, to which reference has already been
made. Severe sprain of the ligaments is apt to result in
such inflammation that they are replaced by osseous
material, besides the tendency to involve the whole or part
of the joint in the same process ; but apart from sprain, the
articulations may primarily become the seat of inflammatory
action, each of these giving rise to signs of a special nature.

Simple inflammation of the hock-joint is known by great
lameness, diffused swelling, heat, pain, and tenderness of the
part, with more or less symptomatic fever. The synovial
capsule is distended, and forms a hard, tense tum.our on the
inner aspect of the joint, a condition which has been long
known by the name of “bog-spavin” (Fig. 277). Such may
be caused by kicks, blows, or puncture of the bones by sharp
instruments. Sprain of the ligaments may arise in any animal
from inordinate work, no matter how good the formation of
the joint may be ; but those in which defective formations
exist — as “ sickle hocks having a short os calds (Fig. 274,
a) ; weak cannon bone below the hocks, giving the appear-
ance of being “ tied in” at that point, and causing the legs to
be small and round instead of flat — are very liable to sprain.
Another form of hock consists of a short os calcis, with
general deficiency of surface for ligamentous accommodation,
while the joint is straight, and far under the body ; the pas-
terns are also straight, and the action becomes stilty, by
which a great amount of concussion is communicated to the
bones, and from it the whole of the hock suffers greatly,
being first indicated by mild or chronic inflammation of the
bones and articulations, more particularly the lower, and
towards the inner side, as representing the line through which
weight or concussion is transmitted. At this part the disease
is made known by a gradual hard swelling (Fig. 275)? which
proves to be an exostosis, or bony deposit, the result of

730

Local Injuries.

ostitis, eventually becoming so large as s the bones

of the two rows, and uniting them as c )rominently

from the side oi me animal as he
stands, and forming the charac-
teristic tumour commonly known
as a “ spavin” — a “ bone-spavin,” in
contradistinction to the bursal dis-
tension, “ bog-spavin.”

Simple, or common inflamma-
tion of the hock, as in all cases

Fig 275. — Bojte Spavin —
The bony tumour extends
from a to b.

Fig. 276. — Ebiirnation of the
Astragalus, a a.

of similar joint disease, destroys the articular cartilage, and
ends in uniting the bones between each other, as well as
by formation of outer deposit ; and this process may be
seen sometimes in some horses going on without any evidence
of external deformity, giving rise to severe lameness — the
“ occult lameness” of the hock of earlier writers — the animal
in first starting off catching up the leg as in “ stringhalt,”
and throwing it outwards forcibly and suddenly. In taking
up the lame limb of animals thus affected, we have known

)ck-joint Lameness, 731

the shoein r other person making the examination,

and being of the affection, violently knocked down

by the animai uuiii this peculiarity in the mode of raising
the limb, an effect doubtless due to the extreme pain arising
from motion instituted between bones rendered acutely
sensitive by continued inflammation.

Such chronic form of inflammation may also give rise to
a solidification of the articular surfaces, by removal of carti-
lage, and replacing it by the ivory or porcelainous deposit,
generally termed eburnation (Fig. 276). The articulations of
the astragalus and tibia are the most frequent localities of
this condition, which is characterised by a dense, hard,
enamel-like surface, and exhibiting a profound contrast to
that of the cartilage surrounding it. When this condition is
present the increase of synovia is great, and by it the cap-
sule of the joint is distended, forming the large fluctuating
yet tense tumour, already described as “ bog-spavin,” the
difference in the two instances being — the first is the acute
form, that just described the chronic, and, unlike the first, not
associated with heat, pain, or lameness. This chronic variety
is a common result of rheumatic forms of inflammation.

Blood spavin, so called, consists of distension of the vena
saphena vein as it passes over the inner side of the hock,
arising from some obstruction to the flow of blood, such as
pressure, the deformity of diseased bones and bursal cavities
being the probable cause. Occasionally the vein is varicose.

Diseases of the hock are by no means uniformly present in
both, and even when they are diseased there is generally such
a disparity in form and size of the tumour, &c., that the
precise spot is readily detected by the practised eye, and
manual examination tends to confirm the conclusion. It is
quite common to find horses having odd hocks — that is,
having a peculiarity of formation confined to one of the
inner or outer sides, yet showing no lameness or impediment

732 Local Injtiries.

to motion ; and others exhibit a coarseness or irregularity of
formation in both, which is often ascribed to spavin. Many
instances of these come under the notice of the veteri-
narian in the course of a lifelong practice, and there is no
difficulty in showing that the difference of formation in one
joint may be due to previous periosteal inflammation, exist-
ing probably during the remote period of foalhood, which
has firmly locked the small bones of the hock together, and
so set aside the possibility of lameness ; coarseness of the
hocks alone being doubtless due entirely to an absence of
symmetry. ,

Bone-spavins in young horses rarely produce the incurable
or protracted forms of lameness Avhich are due to the presence
of spavin in the old animal. In the first, the cause is more
likely to produce a vigorous inflammation between the bones
as well as upon their outer edges, and union by anchylosis
is soon complete, thereby destroying the chances of lameness ;
in aged horses, on the other hand, concussion plays an
important part, often aggravated by absurd forms of shoeing ;
and an external or periosteal inflammation is the result,
giving rise to the form of catching lameness alluded to
under simple or common inflammation of the hock, usually
chronic, and therefore not capable of producing perfect union,
but allowing a partial motion, in which roughened and sore
surfaces are continually brought into close apposition by
pressure. The wearing away of the toe of the shoe on the
affected side is a certain sign of spavin. Such cases are
often tedious and harassing, the lameness being constant,
notwithstanding the activity of the measures adopted, blisters,
firing, &c., alike proving abortive ; indeed, we have often seen
cases in which blisters have largely augmented the external
deposit without diminishing the lameness one atom. Expe-
rience in these phenomena has led practitioners to abandon
both blisters and the actual cautery, substituting the cold

Hock-joint Lameness.

733

punch, by which the cancellated structure of the bone is
pierced and internal inflammation set up, causing union of
the bones. Others have performed pyro-puncture with like
success.

The cure of a bone-spavin depends upon effecting a union
between the bones of the lower rows when confined to them ;
but when exostosis involves the astragalus the chances are
against possibility of union, and therefore the lameness
exists. The same remark also applies, but with extreme
force, to the astragalo-tibial articulation, for proportionate
with the range of motion there exists a tendency to irritation,
and exostosis may largely increase ; but union will not, or
cannot, take place.

Whatever may be urged against the barbarous nature of
the operation of firing, it is impossible to reason away the
simple fact that no other remedy has proved so successful in
the cure of diseases of the joints in horses ; not by contract-
ing the skin, as erroneously supposed and hitherto taught,
and thus acting as a permanent bandage in supporting the
parts, nor yet by the amount of suppuration induced by the
violence of the process ; but simply by the power of inducing
a healthy healing action in the parts where the contrary has
existed, and led to the destruction of them. Firing often
succeeds where blisters only irritate, inflame, thicken, enlarge,
and eventually fail ; the heated iron is a severe remedy, but
we think only justly so as an appropriate means of counter-
acting very severe conditions. Some object to firing, on
account of the blemish induced ; but, reasoning on the subject
a moment, we are led to the conclusion that the existence of
malformation and acute lameness from disease is an awkward
blemish also, the worse of the two we leave the reader to
determine.

After firing, horses require a long rest — say of six weeks
or two months ; and instead of turning to grass, we would

Local hijuries.

commend the use of a loose box, a dry yard or paddock, with
a daily allowance of sound oats along with roots, green
food, &c., by which the condition will be greatly maintained
and the healing process promoted, the animal being more
rapidly fitted for work. We have often regarded the practice
of turning to grass, so frequently resorted to almost for
every ailment in working horses, with great regret ; animals
in first-class condition, deprived of good sound food, and weak-
ened by medicines and treatment generally — the trouble and
expense of months literally thrown away — when brought up
to work are as weak as babies, having lost all the strength
and aptitude for it, and requiring months before they are
equally developed as before.

Blistering ointment is generally applied over the fired
surfaces, and to prevent the animal biting them the cradles
should be put over the neck. On the day following, warm
water may be thrown by the hand from a pail, so as to
saturate the cauterised surfaces, and on the third day they
may be dressed with the following application : —

Recipe No. 164.

LEAD LINIMENT.

Take of olive oil ^ pint.

Goulard's extract ^ oz.

Mix, and agitate until the fluid becomes thick and creamy,
and apply by means of a soft brush daily, which will have
the effect of giving ease to the parts, promoting suppuration
and keeping the parts clean, avoiding the accumulation of
incrustations, and preventing the burrowing of matter.

Thorough Pin.

An enlargement of synovial bursa, situated on the upper
side of the hock, visible on both outer and inner surfaces,
and between the point, os calcis and thigh bone — tibia — is

Thorough Pin.

735

Fig. 277.

Thorough Pin, a, and
Bog-Spavin, b.

known by this name (Fig. 277). The tendon of the flexor
pedis perforans muscle, as it glides over the os calcis in a
groove specially designed for it (Fig. 273),
is provided with a synovial sheath, and
sprain of that tendon or the walls of the
bursa at that point, results in inflam>
mation, and of course distension of the
synovial sac. Pressure on one side only
has the effect of causing movement on
the opposite, and erron^eous judgment of
preceding ages led to the belief that the
occurrence was due to a solid body or
pin passing from one side to the other.

From anatomical peculiarities, this sheath
may receive a supply of synovia from
“ bog-spavin,” but not in the contrary di-
rection ; therefore, when bog-spavin exists,
there is great liability for “ thorough
pin” to be present also, but the existence
of the last does not insure the existence
of “ bog-spavin.” Short and straight
hocks are the common subjects of
“thorough pin,” more particularly when
the horses are employed in heavy work
or exertion.

Treatment of these cases is of various
kinds. Mr. Broad, of Bath, recommends
the use of a truss, which he designed for
the purpose of producing pressure and
ultimately adhesion of the walls of the
bursa (Fig. 278). Setons are sometimes
employed, being inserted above the en-
largement and continued over it to the
lower extremity, a blister laid over the

Fig. 278.

Bt'oad’s Truss for
Thorough Pin.

73^ Local Injuries.

whole, and at the end of a month removed. This plan is
objected to on account of the blemish induced by the
seton. Some practitioners open the bursa and evacuate
the fluid, when violent inflammation follows ; and assisted by
injections of weak solutions of iodine or sulphate of zinc,
adhesion of the walls of the sac takes place. Puncture is
made horizontally at the lower portion with a lancet, the
skin being first pulled upwards, that it may act as a valve
when released, closing the orifice effectually.

Capped PIock.

This condition consists of a fluctuating swelling at the
point of the hock. Certain forms exist in which the swelling
is exhibited onb oth sides, when it is due to distension of
the synovial sheath of the gastrocnemius tendon as it glides
over the part ; but when involving the point entirely, it may
be simply a serous sac — a sign of kicking propensities, or
the habit of lying on hard surfaces.

Repeated blisters may be applied in each case, but the
latter being determined, is best punctured and afterwards
treated by pressure. It is, however, apt to recur from the
continuance of the cause.

The ham-stringy or tendon of the gastrocnemius muscle
(Fig. 273, 6), is sometimes cut or torn asunder, when the
fetlock drops under the weight of the animal, and he is
unable to stand or walk upon the limb. Recovery is doubtful,
a few cases only having recovered.

Curb.

By this term is understood a swelling, more or less
extensive, hot, hard, and painful, existing at the back of the
hock, producing severe lameness, very often of a tedious
character, and most commonly found in horses having

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XIII.

THE SUPERFICIAL LAYER OF MUSCLES, TAKEN FROM THE

BODY OF THE HORSE, SO AS TO EXPOSE THOSE MUSCLES

WHICH ARE MORE DEEPLY SEATED.

THE HEAD AND NECK.

“ a, The buccinator ; b, the caninus ; c, the retractor labii
inferioris.

I, I, the orbicularis oris ; 2, 2, 2, the complexus major ;
3, 3, the trachelo mastoideus ; 4, 4, the subscapulo hyoi-
deus ; 5, the sterno maxillaris ; 6, 6, the sterno-thyro

hyoideus ; 7, the jugular vein ; 8, the carotid artery, with
the eighth pair, and sympathetic nerves ; 9, the trachea ;
10, the scalenus.

THE FORE-LIMBS.

I, the scapulo ulnarius ; 2, the caput magnum of the
triceps extensor brachii ; 3, the caput medium of the same
muscle ; 4, the anconeus ; 5, the flexor brachii ; 6, the ex-
tensor metacarpi ; 7, the extensor pedis ; 8, the extensor
metacarpi obliquus ; 9, the extensor suffraginis ; 10, the
flexor metacarpi externus ; 1 1, the perforans and perforatus ;
12, the ulnarius accessorius; 13, the flexor metacarpi in-
ternus ; 14, the flexor metacarpi medius ; 15, the perforans
and perforatus ; 1 6, the extensor metacarpi.

THE TRUNK AND BACK.

A, the scapula ; F, F, the longissimus dorsi ; Gy the
spinalis dorsi ; Uy Uy Uy ay Uy Uy Uy Uy a, ay the intercostals ;

Description of Plate Kill.

b, b, b, by by by by by tHc superficialis costarum ; Cy Cy Cy Cy Cy
the rectus abdominis ; dy dy dy dy the transversalis abdominis ;
e, 6y Cy the obliquus internus abdominis ; f, the hollow in
the longissimus dorsi, which part of the gluteus maximus
once filled.

HAUNCH AND HIND EXTREMITY.

Cy the ilium ; Dy the ischium ; Ey the tibia ; i, the sacro-
sciatic ligament ; 2, sphincter ani ; 3, depressor coccy-

gis ; 4, the muscles of the tail ; 5, 5, the triceps abductor
tibialis ; 6, the vastus externus ; 7, the rectus ; 8, the

gastrocnemius muscles ; 9, the plantarius ; 10, the extensor
pedis; 1 1, the peroneus ; 12, the flexor pedis perforans ;
13, the insertion of the gracilis; 14, the gastrocnemii
muscles; 15, the flexor pedis accessorius; 16, the course
of the perforans tendon, inside the os calcis of the hock-
joint ; 1 7, the insertion of the gastrocnemius externus into
the point of the hock; 18, 18, the popliteus muscles; 19,
the extensor pedis.’^

Navicular Disease.

737

straight, short, and sickle hocks. As we have described it,
curb consists of sprain of the calcaneo-cuboid ligament
(Fig. 279, a) — which unites the os calcis with the cuboid
bone, the swelling existing throughout
its entire length, about four or five inches,
and causing the animal to rest the foot,
or walk on the toe with the heels raised
from the ground. Enlargements of this
locality, existing without heat, pain, and
lameness, are the vestiges of former
acute stages, which at some time again
may give rise to inconvenience. A
roundness merely of the hock at this
part is not necessarily a curb, and the
discrimination of the observer is required
in order to avoid confusion in this re-
spect.

Treatment. — A shoe with raised heels Fig. 279.' — The Liga-
should be applied. Firing is sometimes a, seat of curb.
practised as for spavin, when the animal
is lame, of course after the inflammation has been subdued.
Successful treatment also consists in using repeated applica-
tions of the biniodide of mercury ointment, but is more
applicable to those cases not attended by lameness.

Navicular Disease — Grogginess.

There is probably no disease to which the horse is liable
that has given rise to such an amount of speculative
theory as navicular disease, or the navicular arthritis of
Percivall. At the same time, it is to be admitted that the
inquiry has been good, for no other affection has proved a
greater bane to horseflesh, or more harassing to horse
proprietors.

738

Local Injuries,

Causes. — Peculiarity of conformation, as upright pasterns
and narrow feet ; interference with the functions of the foot,
by imperfect shoeing ; rheumatic form of inflammation of
the bone and articulation ; punctures of the joint, wounding
bone or tendon ; bruises from treading on hard substances ;
too great length of the hoof at the toe as a result of neglect,
whereby sprain occurs in the tendon as it passes over the
navicular bone.

Symptoms. — Severe lameness in the fore-feet, which has
come on gradually, or sometimes suddenly after a long rest,
or after being newly shod ; disappearance of the lameness,
and ultimate reappearance in the same or opposite foot.
When the disease comes on slowly the animal becomes
gradually stilty in action, taking shorter steps, and assumes
the practice of “ pointing,” which consists of advancing the
affected foot or feet,- resting on the toe, and easing the heels
from strain and pressure. As the disease becomes developed
these signs are more distinctly marked, and lameness
immediately after rest is more pronounced, gradually dis-
appearing during moderate work, until the animal is able to
move with a freedom which is simply remarkable.

In order to decide upon the presence of disease in the
navicular-joint, the practitioner first makes a close examina-
tion of other parts in order to satisfy himself that they are
free from disease ; and if, along with such freedom, the horse
exhibits the signs already detailed, his stilty action being
attended by a limited or stiff movement of the whole limb,
especially at the shoulders, together with wasting of the
muscles of this region, there can be little doubt of the
nature of the complaint. There will be added also, in later
stages, contraction of the hoof, giving it a long and narrow
form, with upright sides, exhibiting heat, and also pain on
percussion. Throbbing of the arteries at the pastern is said
to occur, and the tendency to trip or stumble is constant ;

Navicular Disease.

739

the sole becomes concave — a condition rendered more con-
spicuous by the shrinking of the horny frog, and elongation
of the heels.

The parts involved in disease are — the tendon of the
flexor pedis perforans, the navicular bone, synovial mem-
brane, and fringes. The flexor tendon passes under the
navicular bone, just as a rope glides beneath a pulley, to its
insertion in the coffin bone, the situation of which will be
seen in the section of the foot, given on Plate X., Fig. i ; and
further understood by a consideration of the description and
references furnished. The substance of the bone may be
inflamed, or that morbid process may be confined to the
articular surfaces ; the internal inflammation may give rise
to changes upon the articular surface, and diminution of the
integrity of the bone, leading to subsequent fracture under
pressure of the tendon. Prior to this stage being reached,
the tendon may suffer degeneration, be partially torn, and,
by the attempt at reparation going on within the bone, union
is effected between them, and shortly the synovial bursa is
obliterated altogether by the process of adhesion.

Treatment. — We have to bear in mind that the primary
states of this complaint are due to inflammation of the struc-
tures composing the navicular-joint ; therefore the means to
be employed must be those calculated to reduce that process
as soon as possible — the later forms of the disease being
entirely due to the ravages consequent upon continued exis-
tence of the destructive influences of inflammatory action —
purgatives, sedatives, &c., internally ; fomentations, continued
for hours, followed by poultices, and repeated daily for some
time. The animal should be encouraged to lie down as
much as possible, when he must not be disturbed. Reduc-
tion of the inflammation should be followed by blisters round
the coronets, or setons through the frogs ; the latter being
effected as the animal stands, by means of a sharp, curved

47—2

740

Local Injuries.

needle, caused to enter first the heels, at the centre of the
back of the frog (Fig. i, g, Plate X.), emerging from the
horny frog a little behind the point or toe, a piece of tape
being carried through the sensitive frog, the ends of which
are tied together, sufficiently loose to admit of being moved
daily for three weeks or a month ; at the end of which time
it may be withdrawn, and the hoof examined in order to see
whether pus has occasioned any separation of horn by bur-
rowing from the seton. The shoe is then put on, and the
animal prepared by taking regular and gentle exercise.
Simple and incipient cases usually yield to this kind of
treatment ; but, in case of failure, the operation of neurotomy
must be performed.

Neurotomy y or division of the nerve, is a proceeding having
for its object the destruction of the sensation of feeling in
the foot, by which the animal may be assisted to work
without pain and fatigue, arising from irritation of diseased
structures. The animal is first prepared by a cooling diet,
and probably laxative medicine, if such have not been given;
the hair is closely clipped from the surface where the incision
is to be made through the skin ; after which, some practi-
tioners have the leg bathed, or allowed to stand in a tub of
cold water, in order to constringe the vessels of the skin, &c.,
and prevent haemorrhage, which confuses the operation. We,
however, have preferred to use a ligature, placed sufficiently
tight upon the forearm after the animal is cast. The hobbles
are employed to secure the animal, and when he is down the
limb to be operated upon is released, but again secured and
extended by a rope placed round the fetlock-joint, and held
by an assistant. The skin is then divided longitudinally
along the edge of the tendon, a few inches above the fetlock-
joint, and the nerve exposed ; it is then raised from the
orifice by means of a thread which has been passed beneath,
and divided as high as possible. The animal struggles

Navicular Disease,

741

violently from the acute shock of this simple act, and, as
soon as he is quiet, about an inch lower down may be dis-
sected out and cut off, no sensation being experienced. The
wound in the skin is then closed by sutures, and the opera-
tion repeated on the other side of the leg, or upon both legs,
as required. When both are to be deprived of their nerves,
the inside of the lowermost leg becomes the second subject of
operation before the animal is turned over ; after which the
upper and lower legs are deprived of the nerves on the sides
not yet reached, and when completed the animal is liberated,
allowed to rise, and at once removed to the stall, where he
is tied up to prevent his tearing open the wounds. In order
to promote healing by the first intention, the orifices may be
covered with collodion, styptic colloid, or treated by the
antiseptic method.

Some cases are not favourable for the operation — especially
those animals having thin, weak, and flat or convex soles,
exhibiting signs of disease in the feet, or tendency to oedema
of the legs (as such are liable to slough the hoof), or degene-
ration of the diseased structures, fracture of the bone, &c. —
as they bring both the operator and operation into dis-
repute. Those animals having good and strong feet, in which
the disease has not gone too far, and the action neither high
nor violent, are the most promising subjects.

In the shoeing of horses deprived of sensation in the feet,
great care is required, as in wounding the internal, and what
were previously the sensitive, structures, there is no indica-
tion of pain, and the continuance of the source of inflamma-
tion occasions suppuration, eventually ending in sloughing of
the hoof. Other injuries — as a stone in the foot, treading
on nails, &c., producing similar states — are likewise to be
avoided, or their effects mitigated as soon as possible, towards
which end the feet should be regularly examined after work.

742

Local Lijtiries,

LAMENESS FROM DISEASES OF THE COFFIN

BONE.

Injury of the Pyramidal Process.

This part of the os pedis is liable to injury from treads or
blows inflicted on the front of the coronet, or from sprain
of the extensor tendon which is inserted in it (Plate X.,
Fig. I,/). The use of high heels and low toes on the shoes
has much to do with the production of this disease, by con-
stant stretching of the tendon at its insertion. The affection
is common to both hind and fore feet. Sometimes a swell-
ing only exists, at first hard and painful, but eventually
suppuration establishes a wound ; when caused by bruises,
the wound is opened earlier. The horse walks on the heel,
but avoids going on- the toe by snatching up the foot as the
weight goes over. Sloughing of the wound is not uncommon,
and tardiness of reparation follows.

Treatment. — Remove the shoe, and pare down the heels
if they are grown too high ; apply fomentations and poul-
tices, to reduce inflammation and stimulate the wound,
together with suitable internal remedies. The antiseptic
treatment is valuable. Blisters, the actual cautery, or even
neurotomy may be required, and all these will be useless if
the bone has become carious — a state which eventually
renders the animal worthless by complication with the coflin-
joint.

Side Bones.

The lateral processes, or wings, of the coffln bone are sur-
mounted by plates of cartilage, which may be felt upon each
side of the coronet over the heels (Fig. 2, b b, Plate X.).
They serve to maintain the position of movable parts within
the hoof, and ward off the effect of blows inflicted in their
locality. From the effects of concussion in the fore-feet,

Side Bones.

743

they are liable to inflammation, by which they are trans-
formed into hard osseous material (Fig. 280) ; by this the
foot loses much of its elas-
ticity, the action becomes
stiff and stilty, or they
may occasion lameness.

Heavy animals are the
most liable to side bones,
and the hereditary ten-
dency towards their for-
mation is so well known
that sensible breeders re-
ject all animals having
them. In such they seem
to arise without appreciable cause, being found at a few
years old, giving rise to no lameness, and before the animal
works on the roads. When town horses exhibit their for-
mation a protracted lameness ensues, for which often no
account can be given during the first few days. Removal
of the shoe and examination of the nails elicit nothing ;
pressure on the cartilages at the top of the hoof shows they
are still elastic, but probably a little tender; percussion with
the hammer directed over the wall near the lateral cartilages
at once causes the animal to suffer pain ; and in a few weeks
the cartilages are stiff, hard, and enlarged, the action stilty,
the feet alter in shape, become contracted, weak at the heels,
and probably convex at the sole. The toe is put first to
the ground, and the steps are short, resembling those of
navicular disease in a measure. The hind-feet are more
rarely affected, and heavy horses more frequently than
others. Ossification of the lateral cartilages, under persis-
tent causes, seldom stops short of affecting contiguous struc-
tures, and thus the disease assumes an incurable form.
Occasionally one side only is affected (Figs. 281 and 282).

Fig. 280. — Ossification of the Lateral
Cartilages — Side Bones.

744

Local Injuries.

Treatment. — Rest, reduction ot inflammation by usual
means, and application of level shoes ; after which, strong

blisters, or firing. If the animal is a draught-horse and
requires calkins, let them be low and broad, so as to give
ample support and occasion as little shock as possible, the
shoe being thick and strong, and the heel for the affected
side being carried straight backwards, projecting an inch
beyond the heel, the other being only as long as the foot.
This practice, instituted many years ago by the writer’s
father, was found to answer most successfully.

Neurotomy is proposed for the otherwise incurable forms
of this disease, in which the results are generally more
favourable than in navicular and some other diseases. All
affected animals should be confined to slow and steady
work.

Fig. 281.- — Ossification mvolv-
ing the first and secojid Pha-
langeal Articulations.

Fig. 282. — Ossification and
dege7ie7'ation affectmgthe
bo7ies as far as the Fet-
lock Joi7it.

745

Antiseptic Treatment of Wounds.

The method of treating wounds, as known by the above
title, promises to lessen many of the evils which render
lesions of various parts so formidable. The plan was consi-
derably developed by Professor Lister some years ago, but
the principle was enunciated much earlier by scientific men
on the Continent: thus. Dr. Hervieux, in 1850, proposed
to use chlorine water, in support of his statement that sup-
puration is not essential to the proper cicatrisation of wounds.
The results of trials with chlorine water and solutions of car-
bolic acid appear to justify this conclusion. In addition, it has
become evident that, in many wounds in animals, particularly
those about the extemities and feet, a prolific source of aggra-
vation is found in the dirt and filth of the places, as also in
the gaseous products and microscopical fungi, &c., which
result from chemical decomposition among them. Wounds,
when simply covered by a rag or other simdlar substance,
saturated in one or other of these solutions, are at once pro-
tected by an agent capable of destroying the noxifu’s effects
of such known irritants. Suppuration, often the effect of
these products, is thus delayed or altogether retarded ; and
wounds in which burrowing of pus would otherwise most
probably occur, readily heal without any signs of its forma-
tion. A convenient form of solution of carbolic acid, which
is the agent solely in use, is prepared for the pharmacy by
mixing equal parts of the pure crystallised acid and glycerine
together, one ounce of this mixture being used in conjunc-
tion with six or seven of linseed oil, by means of cotton-
wool applied directly to the part, first covered by oiled silk
or thin gutta-percha sheeting ; and, lastly, by bandages or
other suitable adjustments.

From extensive observation in veterinary practice, we are
impressed with the belief that much more of the value of
this agent — carbolic acid — is yet to be made known.

SECTION XII.

OPERATIONS.

This Section will be devoted to a brief consideration of
the various operations called for in the treatment of the
diseases of the horse, and which have not already received
more than a simple allusion.

Casting or Throwing.

For the performance of the major surgical operations, and
indeed also some of the simplest, the horse requires to be
put under restraint A limb or other part to be subjected
to the knife, actual cautery, &c., needs to be confined to one
particular position, and as little under the control of the
animal as possible, to insure expedition and success in
the execution of the act ; and, in order to secure this, as
well as avoid useless suffering, casting or throwing is fre-
quently resorted to. The horse, thus deprived of the use
of his limbs, and lying prostrate with the whole of the feet
firmly bound together, loses much of his self-possession and
will, and quietly yields to the infliction of severe and pro-
longed pain, of which, when free, he would not suffer one
hundredth part, nor even allow an operation to be attempted.
It is often therefore a great saving of time and suffering,
while surgical acts are conducted easily, safely, and with
precision, eventually securing the ends desirable in removal
or cure of the existing malady.

750

Operations.

Casting is effected in two ways. Colts are thrown by
means of a rope only, as when castration is to be performed,
as hobbles could not be put on the feet of an animal
unbroken without risk of injury. This course has already
been described at page 438, and shown in Fig. 132.

Older and broken animals are cast by hobbles, which are
so constructed as to admit of the release of one or more
limbs for particular purposes ; they are readily applied ;
they accomplish the act safely and effectively, and the total
release of the animal can be secured in a few seconds.

The required set of hobbles consists of one for each foot,
and a rope about six yards long, having one end surmounted
by a strong chain, with small and close links, about eighteen
inches in length. Each hobble is formed of two straps,
about two inches wide — one, the longer (Fig. 283, ^), having

an oval link, secured by an iron strap at one end, the other
being pierced by holes, to receive the tongue of a buckle on
the second half. The shorter half, b, possesses at one end
a D link, having stops, or shoulders, to prevent the oval link
from going too far over ; on the other end is an iron buckle,
under which a leather chafe is placed ; and outside, the
usual runner, or keep, is provided. To put the hobbles in
place, the strap, a, is first passed through the buckle, b, and
its runner ; thus forming a single strap sufficiently long to
grasp the fetlock, and admit of the oval link being put over

Fig. 283. — The Hobbles.

Casting or Throwing.

751

the D, through which the rope is passed, and this locks
the hobble on the leg. Each leg is thus secured, the D’s
being on the inner side, to prevent fixing with each other ;
and the rope going through each, all are ready for
action. But we need to point out a difference in one —
the first hobble always put on — and to which the rope is
attached. The D of this hobble, r, is provided with an
additional eye, or hole bored in the bow, upon which the
shackle, d, on the end of the chain is secured by means of a
screw ; this hobble being put on, and the foot held by an
assistant above the ground, to guard against movement in
fidgety animals, the chain secured by the screw, the rope
end is carried through the hobble on the hind-foot of the
same side ; next, through the hobble of the other hind- foot ;
then through that of the other fore-foot ; and, lastly, through
the D of the fore-foot first hobbled. The position of the
hobbles and feet will then be as given in Fig. 284. To prevent

Fig. 284. — Hobbles on the Horse.

injury to the eyes, blinds are used ; and being put on as
soon as the horse is led to the operating spot, he is pre-
vented from being uselessly alarmed. A girth, web, or

752

Operations.

rope is passed round the body, and the free end held by one
or two men opposite to those who pull at the hobbles, three
or four being told off for the purpose, one man having charge
of the head.

All being m readiness, the signal is given, and every man
pulls with a will ; the hobble-rope brings all the feet toge-
ther, and lessens the power of the animal ; while that passed
round the body pulls him on his side, the man at the head
instantly falling flat upon it as soon as
the animal is prostrate. The hobbles
are now to be secured, which is to be
effected by means of a hook and screw
(Fig. 285), tightened on the chain as it
is forcibly drawn through the hobble,
the hook being fixed into the link nearest
Fig '’Ss When the animal is to be re-

Screw and Hook fo?' leased the screw is taken out of the
shackle (Fig. 283, d), when the end of
the chain swiftly runs# through the D’s,
the hobbles fall off, and he is free to rise.

As the animal may not always be cast on the same side,
the first hobble must be placed on the fore-foot of that side
which is to be uppermost, that the act of releasing him may
be the more readily accomplished ; thus, when an operation
is to be performed on the near-side, the patient is to be laid
down on his off or right side ; the first hobble then must be
placed on the near fore-leg. If the operation is to be per-
formed on the right, or off-side, then the horse must be
cast on the near, or left side, the first hobble being put on
the off fore-leg.

When a leg is to be released, the s'trap is to be drawn
through the buckle on Fig. 283, b, the D being secured by
the chain ; and at the conclusion, the foot is readily included
in the hobble by again buckling up the strap in the ordinary
way. A leg released from the hobble should first be

Casting or Throwing. 753

secured by the side straps and' leg-rope, the latter being given
to an assistant ; and for securing greater quietness of the limb
it may be propped up by a truss, or bag, filled with straw.

The side straps are three in number, made of two thick-
nesses of stout leather, stitched firmly together, one of which
is buckled on the leg above the hock, the other on the fore-
arm ; the third, being first passed through a ring or link on
each, is used to draw the limbs together, or allow of the
extension of one leg when released from the hobbles.

The leg-rope is simply an ordinary rope, three-quarters of
an inch thick, having a stout strap and buckle firmly
stitched on the end, of sufficient length to go round the hoof,
or fetlock-joint, by which to keep the released leg in a proper
position for the operator, being held by an assistant.

It may be employed to fulfil other important functions : —
1st. The body-strap, or surcingle, being furnished with a
ring about half-way down the chest, the strap of the leg-rope
is buckled into it, and the rope passed over the withers, by
which the assistants pull the animal on his side — acting,
of course, in opposition to those pulling at the hobbles.
2nd. In the absence of a body-strap, the leg-rope may be
looped round the forearm of the leg on which the first
hobble has been placed, the strap serving to secure it, when
it may be used as just described. 3rd. It serves to bind
the hobble-rope neatly together when stowed away in the
practitioner’s gig, or pharmacy cupboard. The body-strap,
or girth, is merely a leather strap, about three inches broad,
packed on each side of the spine, furnished with a ring mid-
way on each side, in which the strap of the leg-rope is
inserted, for pulling over the animal in casting ; and a loop-
strap at the side, which is to go round the forearm, to
prevent turning round during severe pulling.

The Bed. — Nothing answers better than tan, or sawdust,
for permanent operating beds ; but as horses have to be cast

754 Operations.

at other places, where these cannot be obtained, straw, or
refuse hay, the strawyard, and even the pasture, is resorted
to. The strawyard is objectionable, as the feet cannot well
be drawn together ; the straw becomes entangled with the
rope and D’s of the hobbles, so as to prevent security in
fastening up. The pasture is not quite suitable without a
straw bed, as the animal may be hurt in the fall, even if the
ground is very soft. It is safer and wiser, under all cir-
cumstances, to choose a suitable place, and put down a bed
of straw or hay, well shaken out, a foot thick, about three
yards long and two wide. The animal is led to the side, not
np07i the bed — at least, we prefer this plan — and thus avoid
the annoyance of entangling the straw in the hobbles. The
blinds are put on ; then the body-strap and leg-rope to pull
at ; next the fore-foot is held up, first hobble put on, and
the chain and shackle screwed to the D ; the second hobble
goes on the hind-foot of the same side, and the rope
end passed through the D from the outside ; the third
hobble goes on the other hind-foot, the rope end being
carried, as before, through the D, and afterwards through
the D of the fourth hobble of the opposite fore-foot,
and that of the first from which it commenced. The
assistant holds up the fore-foot from the first, nor does he
drop it until the proper signal is given ; at which time,
all acting in concert, the animal is pulled upon the bed, if
the force has been properly distributed, ample power being
placed at the rope pulling from the body-strap. By this
' arrangement the animal stands on free ground, there being
no obstacle to the movements of the chain and straps ; and
the bed, placed as we have described, forms an effectual
means of breaking the fall. When the patient is led on to
the bed it becomes greatly disarranged ; and we have seen
horses sadly bruised by falling on bare, or slightly covered
places. In the plan recommended the bed can be laid

The Side Line.

755

undisturbed in a loose box, or other building, during wet
weather — a practice we have followed many times — and a
conclusive proof that, under proper management, animals
may be thrown in a much smaller space than may be
generally supposed.

The side line (Fig. 286) is chiefly made use of when the
horse objects to have one of the hind-legs raised, as in

48 — 2

756

Operations.

shoeing, for dressing the foot in canker, &c. &c. One end
of the rope is passed round the neck as a collar, and secured
by a fixed knot, to avoid tightening and strangulation ; the
loop is turned so as to place the knot on the side of the
shoulder, or on the withers, when the free end of the rope is
carried along the side, and looped round the fetlock of the
leg to be raised. One or more assistants pulling at the
rope cause the animal to raise the foot ; and in this position
his power of kicking is materially reducejd. The woodcut
represents the practice as now generally followed in
England, as we find it more advantageous to put a hobble
on the fetlock, through the D of which, the rope being
passed, it slides perfectly and easily ; the risk of slipping
off, as when looped according to the French method, being
effectually prevented.

IG. 257. r ICi. 256. . 1

Wooden Twitch. Iron Nose Twitch, a loop just large enoUj,h

. Other means of Re-
straint.— There are many
cases for which minor
means of restraint are
used — and, indeed, to sub-
stitute the side line and
casting ; these are, the
twitch, leg-strap, and the
trevis, or stocks.

The twitch is merely a
stout and tough piece of
wood, a yard or two in
length, as may be re-
quired, having a hole bored
through one end, into
which a small strong cord
is passed double, or if
large, only single, forming

The Trevis, &c.

757

to admit the hand. The nose or an ear is usually selected

on which to apply the loop, when the wooden bar is
twisted, so as to inflict sufficient pain, and thus take the
attention of the animal during the operation to be per-
formed. The twitch is rarely substituted by other means
in England for simple operations ; but in France two
other instruments are still employed, by which pressure on
the nose is induced. These are the morailles en bois, or
wooden nose-twitch (Fig. 287) ; and morailles en fer^ or
iron nose-twitch (Fig. 288). These instruments were in
use by friends of the writer as late as thirty-five years ago ;
since which they have gradually and deservedly gone out.

The leg-strap is used when simple operations are to be
performed, or when the practitioner desires to avoid casting.
It is used to a fore-leg, being passed round the forearm and
pastern-joint, when both are flexed upon each other. The
animal stands on three legs, and feeling in a measure
insecure, is frequently rendered perfectly quiet.

The Trevis, or Stocks. — Among the heavier breeds of horses
used in the northern towns of England, the necessity for severe
operations is frequent, and among them are often found ani-
mals of violent temperament, so that repeated surgical opera-
tions, dressing of wounds, shoeing, &c., would prove an endless
and exceedingly expensive item, as well as being a great
hindrance, and attended with serious risk and loss of time if the
refractory creature were cast on each occasion. The trevis, or
stocks, greatly mitigates all these evils. It consists of four
stout posts firmly imbedded in the ground, corresponding to
the shoulders and buttocks of the animal. At the head they
are connected with a strong bar, which fits the front of the
breast and lower end of the neck ; the sides are also united
by a top and middle bar, and stout rings are fixed in the
posts near the ground. The animal is led between the posts,
and secured by the head to a convenient wall, &c., opposite ;

758 Operations,

hobbles are put upon each fetlock, and the ropes drawn
through the rings in the bottom of the posts, and secured to
others half-way up the sides. Two stout bars, top and
middle, are hinged securely across from one hind-post to the
other when the horse has been led in, which prevents him
going backwards. The top side-bars are provided with a
roller, running the whole length of their outer side, furnished
with a toothed wheel and catch ; and an iron pin projecting
from each end, on which the roller turns in an iron eye, each
being square at the ends, is used as the means of turning
by a winch or handle. The use of these rollers is a highly
important one. As soon as the animal has been secured by
the feet, a canvas sacking is passed underneath the abdomen,
each end being stiffened by a thin, flat rod of iron stitched
between a double fold, and inserted into a longitudinal slit
in the roller. The winches are put on and turned, which has
the effect of tightening the sacking, and eventually taking
the horse slightly off his feet, by which it is found his power
of resistance is greatly diminished. When a hind-foot is to
be raised for shoeing, the rope attached to the hobble is
drawn up by the short roller behind, and strapped to the
lower or middle bar. As it is rare that horses refuse to have
the fore-feet shod, the stocks are seldom called into use for
that purpose ; the hind-feet are mostly the subjects of
difficulty, and they are readily raised in the stocks, and
secured on the lower bar, which is thickly padded to prevent
injury.

The Use of Anesthetics.

The formidable nature of many operations has been
greatly reduced, as well as their performance expedited, by
the use of certain agents which, when inhaled in the form of
vapour, have been discovered to possess the power of pro-
ducing a total insensibility to pain. They are not, however.

The Use of A ncesthetics.

759

without great liability to danger, for it must be understood
that anaesthesia, or loss of feeling, is but one of the forms or
stages of poisoning ; but the practitioner, having full know-
ledge of the properties and actions of these agents, knows
how far their use can be safely applied, and for these reasons
we counsel the reader never to undertake their application
unless guided by the necessary acquaintance with the nature
of such compounds, and their effects on the animal system.
Among the many agents which are known to deprive the
system of the sensation of feeling, chloroform only is now
generally used. About three or four ounces of the fluid is
required, which is poured on a sponge, and inserted within a
suitable vehicle attached to the nostrils, called an inhaler,
and so arranged as to admit atmospheric air at the same
time, and fresh additions of chloroform as required. At
first an amount of excitement is produced, sometimes
amounting to violence, for which ample precautions must
be taken ; subsequently calmness follows, gradual relaxation
of muscles, and at length total insensibility, or a state
resembling sleep, when the inhalation is to be discontinued,
or slightly repeated if the patient recovers too soon.

There are several precautions to be observed in the
employment of chloroform in inhalation. The animal should
not be affected with disease of the brain or heart. The
operation should be conducted in a roomy place, with plenty
of litter thrown down. Some practitioners first cast the
animal, and then cause the inhalation to commence. The
chloroform should be pure. Atmospheric air should be
admitted with the vapour of chloroform.

For local anaesthesia, sulphuric ether may be used by
means of the spray distributor, a modification of which is
given in Fig. 33, p. 150.

760

Operations,

Firing.

The application of the heated iron to the skin of an animal
continuously over a large surface has the appearance of
great barbarity in the estimation of non-professional ob-
servers. It is, however, *a very valuable remedy for many of
the severe sprains and diseases of joints, &c., to which the
horse is a common subject ; indeed, we know not what other
remedy could be substituted with corresponding benefit.
In the selection of cases in which its use is to be adopted
great care should be exercised ; under such provision suc-
cess is the general result, but cruelty and barbarity we
think is pre-eminently displayed in those instances where
quackery adopts it as a common remedy for all manner of
wounds and diseases.

To use an Irishism, the best firing-irons are made of steel.
Experience shows that good shear or cast steel, which should
never be raised above a blood-red heat, provides a smoother
surface, with less liability to form scales, which, as in the
case of iron, are sometimes large, and by adhering to the
skin afterwards give rise to additional irritation. Before
use, the firing-iron should be rubbed over on a soft brick
lying near the operator, or by a smooth file kept for the
purpose. Firing-irons are of various forms. Fig. 289 shows
the form of one kind used for abruptly terminating a line

Fig. 289. Fig. 290.

by means of the heel at a point nearest to the operator.
Fig. 290 shows one used for commencing a line abruptly at
a distal point. When the instruments are forged from cast-
steel, they are constructed to fit into a handle, and secured
by means of a screw ; but when made of shear or blister

Firing, 761

steel, the heads may be welded on iron, of which hollow,
cone-shaped handles have been turned. These are light,

Fig. 291.

and, being readily cooled in water, are very handy instru-
ments (Fig. 291).

Another form of instrument is sometimes employed,
having a sharp point, as shown in Fig. 29, when the object
is to penetrate the skin and bone beneath, as in spavin of
old horses, described at p. 733. Some practitioners use an
iron having several points.

Before the firing-iron is applied the parts should be made
as bare as possible by close clipping, and the animal may be
cast, one leg strapped up, or the side-line used as he stands,
according to the opinion of the operator. The form of
lines may be varied also as the operator thinks fit ; they
may be a cross, perpendicular and parallel, or feathered, but
on no account should the diamond form be practised, as
extensive sloughing is often the result.

Whatever may be the form adopted, let the reader
understand, it is of little consequence, providing the requisite
amount of inflammation is set up. The operation, it is now
satisfactorily understood, does not produce the effect of
contracting the skin and causing it to act as a permanent
bandage ; the good results of firing are manifest in setting
up a healing action in, and union of, bones which before
were undergoing a chronic inflammation, and between which
motion existed, giving rise to great pain and lameness ; or in
tendons, in which the reparative power is deficient, the
beneficial action is aroused.

The feathered form, we believe, admits of the greatest use
of the iron with best effects and least risk, the skin being

Operations.

seared until a brown line is produced, which soon becornes
filled with a glutinous exudation ; deeper than this the iron
should not go. In most cases it is useful to apply a cantha-
ridine blister over the fired surfaces as a means of hastening
and completing the effects, and in no case must the animal
be subjected to the operation on more than two legs at a
time. The idea of firing to prevent disease should never be
entertained ; no greater cruelty and barbarism can be perpe-
trated. If the animal has not good limbs, firing will neither
strengthen nor improve them, and operations based on
such foolish assumption deserve the notice of Mr. J. Colam,
of the R.S.P.C.A., Jermyn Street, St. James’s.

The bones of the' tail are composed of small bodies or seg-
ments {see Plate XI.), having an interposed fibro- cartilaginous
substance forming a means of movement, and when portions
of the tail are to be removed, one of these divisions or joints

Fig. 292. — The Docking Machine.

.should be chosen. The instrument used for this operation,
called the docking-knife, is shown in the engraving (Fig. 292),

Docking.

763

Slinging.

consists of two powerful levers, the lower having a hollow
part to receive the tail, the upper being provided with a
knife to sever the part when the levers are suddenly closed.
Messrs. Burgess, Willows, and Francis have lately submitted
to us an improved form as given above, which admits of the
removal of the cutting part for sharpening or repair. After
amputation of the part, a tubular instrument is employed by
some at a red-heat, to cauterise the flesh around the bone
and stop bleeding from the arteries. We would recommend
a more simple, efiflcacious, and painless plan, adopted by
Mr. Gamgee, sen. Before amputating, tie a ligature upon
the tail immediately above the part to be cut off, using only
just sufficient pressure to arrest the flow of blood ; next turn
the hair back and secure it for the operation, clipping the
part close through which the knife is to pass. All being
ready, amputate the part, after which carefully turn down
the hair and tie it round immediately below the end of the
stump. Next day both ligatures may be removed, when the
clot of blood which formed at the end will drop out after a
time, and healing proceed rapidly.

Among the several purposes for which docking is practised,
it is often very successful in causing the animal to improve the
carriage of the tail when it has been twisted to one side.

Slinging.

When bones of the limbs have been fractured, tendons
sprained, or joints opened, the slings are employed to take
the weight of the animal from the injured parts, and thus
enable him to rest when he would otherwise be unable ;
besides which he may be saved many of the effects of
irritative fever. Quiet and tractable animals only should be
put into slings ; those that are irritable and fiery seldom do
any good, as they chafe, fret, and move about incessantly ; or
hang so heavily that congestion of the lungs may be

764

Operations,

induced, and the original disease considerably aggravated.
The weight of the animal is carried by a piece of sacking
or stout canvas, having a wooden roller at each end ; and to
the four corners, blocks and pulleys, with ropes, are placed,
communicating with others attached above. A breast-strap
and breech-band are required to prevent movement too far
either way, and these are supported by cross straps above.
Occasionally the slings are made use of to raise an animal
from the ground.

Tracheotomy.

When suffocation is

threatened from the for-
mation of abscess in
strangles, or from the

swelling, oedema, &c., of
the throat, this operation
is resorted to in order
to admit the required

amount of air to the
lungs. It is performed
as follows : — The head is
held by an assistant, the
nose being extended so
as to bring the muscles
on the lower side of the
neck in a state of ten-
sion. The operator then
selects that part where
Fig. 293. — Situation of the Windpipe, the rings of the wind-

The spot for opening is at the upper third of the space pipe are beSt felt by being

the least covered by mus-
cles, &c. (Fig. 293), and at once cuts down upon them, making
an incision of two or three inches long, or thereabouts. The

CEsophagoto7ny^ 765

trachea, or windpipe, is next to be opened, one of several
ways being selected. One consists of cutting out a piece
of two rings, so as to leave a round hole an inch in diameter ;
another, in which the fibro-muscular intervention is merely
opened ; and the third consists of making a longitudinal
incision across two or three rings, and into the orifice pro-
duced in one of these ways a suitable metallic tube is
placed, so iong as the animal
cannot breathe through his
nostrils. This fact can be
repeatedly ascertained by
placing the hand over the
orifice of the tube ; if he is
able to respire without signs
of distress, the wound may be closed in the usual manner after
the tube has been withdrawn. Of the various kinds of tube
employed in this operation, the simplest is shown in the
accompanying engraving (Fig. 294). The point being inserted
between the slit ends of the cartilaginous rings, it is then turned
downwards, the curved plate placed against the neck, and
secured by cord or straps. Some inveterate roarers have been
known to work for years with a tube of this kind in the throat.

We have not given any directions for securing and
restraining the animal under this operation. As a rule, he
requires none, for the simple reason that he is too unwell to
resist ; besides, a skilful operator only requires a very short
time for its performance, less than two minutes often serving
to give the animal perfect freedom in respiration.

GEsophagotomy.

An opening is made in the gullet, as a last resource, when
removal of an obstructing body has proved impossible by
other means, and the situation is midway between the jaws

y66 Operations,

and the chest. Such an operation is neither difficult nor
dangerous, but the greatest attention is required in order to
secure proper union of the parts subsequently.

The horse will require the restraint of the twitch, and an
assistant will be needed to elevate and extend the head and
nose as for tracheotomy, while another is engaged in pro-
ducing tension over the region of the obstruction by applying
moderate pressure on the opposite side of the neck. The
offending body being thus distinctly brought into view, the
operator boldly cuts down longitudinally upon it, making
such an incision as will sufficiently allow its escape, which by
surrounding pressure is quickly accomplished if the wound’
is of proper size. -Second cuts should be avoided if possible,
while, on the other hand, the action of the knife should be
firm, rapid, and well directed, so as not to cut more than is
required, or to make the incision too large. Delay and
repetition of acts in surgical operations exhaust the patience
of the animal, and are calculated to irritate and make him
restive ; thus the reader will understand how very necessary
it is to observe the foregoing instructions, in order to avoid
the difficulty which attends such important proceedings after
the patient has become alarmed or impatient.

After the removal of the obstructing body, the wounds
are closed in the ordinary way by sutures, allowing no tow,
hairs, &c., to remain between the lips, as union must be
effected, if possible, without suppuration. The opening in the
gullet is to be closed by the continuous suture, the end of
which must be long enough to hang out of the external
wound, by which it can eventually be drawn away altogether.
The external wound is united by the twisted suture, and
treated by the antiseptic method, or it may be covered by
collodion, styptic colloid, &c. The head is to be tied to
the rack, and all food must be fluid and of the most
nutritious quality, until the wound has become perfectly

Balling. 767

healed; good gruel, milk, hay-tea, &c., forming the most
useful kinds required.

Balling.

The plan of prescribing medicines for the horse in the
form of bolus is attended with many advantages, amongst
which that of expedition is prominent. Waste and difficulty
are apt to occur from balls being too large or too soft, and by
absence of dexterity on the part of the operator, a large
hand militating greatly against his success. Usually the
plan of administering a bolus is as follows : — The right hand
being placed flat over the nose, to secure the head as the
animal is reversed in the stall, the left seizes the tongue,
when he at once opens the mouth, particularly as the tongue
is held firmly and drawn moderately towards or between the
molar teeth of the off-side. The bolus being held between
the lips, or inserted within the vest-pocket, for instant seizure,
is grasped between the tips of the first, second, and third
fingers — the first and third being below, and the second
above (Fig. 295), and rapidly delivered at the back of the
tongue, which is liberated at
the same moment, the effect
being that the bolus is car-
ried within the pharynx, and,
grasped by its muscles, is
passed into the gullet, and at
length to the stomach. Of
course, large horses will re-
quire large doses of medi-
cine, and they are able to

swallow larger boluses than small animals ; but care must
always be exercised in order to suit the capacity of the gullet
of the patient, as choking may occur, particularly in such as
are weak and feverish, the want of peristaltic action and

768

Operations,

secretion often being great. A drink of water should be
allowed afterwards to insure proper passage.

Horses are apt to become very obstinate and cunning
under the operation of repeated balling, rendering it some-
what difficult, especially when the
practitioner is alone. Sometimes the
mouth IS narrow and injures the hands,
and if the surgeon has many patients
to attend, especially in winter, the
scratches do not heal ; they are con-
tinually being torn open, inflaming
and suppurating, and great inconve-
nience arises. To obviate this, the
mouth may be held open by the iron-
gag (Fig. 296).

When the mouth requires to be firmly fixed open, the
dilating-gag may be used (Fig. 297), which is regulated by

Fig. 297 — Regulating
Balling-iron.

a screw at the bottom of the
ment for gagging the mouth

Fig. 299. — Closed.

handle. As a suitable instru-
in balling, examination of the

Balling.

769

teeth, &c., and especially for being constantly carried in the
saddle-bag or pocket, we some years ago designed a folding
balling-iron, as shown in Figs. 298 and 299, by which the
hands are spared many injuries.

When the practitioner, for various reasons — as when the
horse is vicious, the mouth narrow or diseased, or muscles of
the jaws contracted, as in tetanus — cannot pass his hand into
the horse’s mouth, he employs a probang for carrying the
bolus to the root of the tongue. In the army, a wooden
tube (Fig. 300), having a moving rod within, is used. The

Fig. 300. — Balling Probang — Wood.

bolus being pushed into the wide end, the rod protrudes
from the other, and by it the bolus is pushed into the
pharynx when the instrument is applied to the back of the
mouth. A still more ingenious, and, therefore, costly in-
strument, is the balling-pistol (Fig. 301), but this may be

entirely superseded by the simple, inexpensive, and effective,
though old-fashioned, balling forceps, which have been some
hundreds of years in use, and shown in Fig. 302. In order

to render the instrument portable, it is provided with a joint
and screw in the middle, where it can be doubled up for the
pocket or case. For foals and small animals it is especially

770

Operations,

valuable, and as the ball is held between the spoon-shaped
extremities, there is no danger of wounding the mouth, and
the medicine is promptly delivered by pulling the hook,
which allows the jaws to open and loose the hold upon it.

It must be understood that, whenever the foregoing in-
struments are employed for delivering boluses in the horse s
mouth, the tongue should always be taken out on the off
side, as directed in the first instance.

Pointed sticks should never be used. We have seen
many horses die from injury to the throat, in consequence
of wounds inflicted in this rude form of giving a ball.
Lastly, avoid boluses in sore throat.

Drenching.

The bolus, or solid form of medicine, is not suitable for
administration in every case, and we are compelled to resort
to fluid mixtures, which, for the purposes in view, have cer-
tain advantages over the former. The various forms of
mixture so employed are designated by the common terms
draughts, drenches, and more inappropriately “ drinks.” The
evils attending these are often allowed to interfere with their
beneficial effects, and should be strictly guarded against by
the operator: — ist. They are too large. 2nd. Too strong,
being nauseous, or too powerfully acid, astringent, or
alkaline, and, therefore, caustic, producing serious interfer-
ence with swallowing. One great object in fluid medicines
should not be lost sight of — viz., the means of diluting or
weakening their effects.

Draughts or drenches are usually administered by means
of a horn or bottle, as the animal’s head is raised to a
higher level ; and here we would warn the reader against
known dangers in this stage of proceedings. The head
should not be raised higher than a horizontal position, by

Drenching. 771

which the fluid gravitates to the back of the throat. The
medicine should be given in moderate quantities, and each
portion swallowed before another is given. Avoid the use
of all kinds of gag for the mouth, and do not pull out the
tongue — these are efficacious means of choking the animal.
Use a horn havinp- the opening at the wide end (Fig. 303),

Fig. 303. — Drenching Horn.

and pour the fluid into a pouch, formed by pulling away
the cheek by the left hand, thus avoiding the practice of
cramming the instrument between the teeth to the danger of
the mouth, &c. If these precautions are observed, a glass wine
bottle answers very well, as we can be sure of
its cleanliness beforehand ; but, if preferred, a
tin bottle, having a similar capacity (Fig. 304),
may be used. All such efforts as stopping
respiration, by holding the nostrils, &c., are
useless to cause swallowing, and even dan-
gerous ; much greater advantages will be de-
rived by manipulating the neck, or pressing in
the hollow space between and under the jaws
of refractory animals. When a fit of coughing

ensues, the head should be immediately drop- Oval

’ g ^ Im Drenching

ped ; it is better to lose the medicine than Bottle.
risk the life of the patient. Draughts should
never be given vhen the throat is swollen, sore, and swal-
lowing difficult.

The Method of holding the Horse. — A very common, but
often decidedly objectionable, method is practised in Scot-
land. By means of a loop-rope, passed through a ring,

49—2

772

Operations,

hanging from a beam in the stable or shed, the head is
elevated, often too high, by which violent fits of coughing
and risk of choking are induced. The plan naturally recom-
mends itself on account of the ease with which the head is
held up, as with heavy horses the operation otherwise proves
tiresome. When such means are employed, the h€.?d ought
never to be raised beyond the horizontal position, and the rope
.should be slackened instantly on the slightest signs of cough.
Another plan consists of passing a cord through a hole in
the end of a stout stick, and forming a loop large enough to
take the upper jaw. By means of the stick the head is
elevated by one or two persons, while the operator admi-
nisters the mixture from the bottle as he stands on a pail.
A similar loop may be hung on the stable-fork, and used in
the manner described, when a proper drenching-staff is not
at hand, but this plan is sometimes attended with danger ;
and where a number of horses are employed, it is better to
have a proper staff, about five feet long, in readiness. With
quiet horses the operator may, unassisted, administer a
drench in many instances, but we think even with such it is
better to use the staff, if possible, and thus facilitate the
operation. Besides these methods, the stomach-pump is
sometimes used to carry fluids to the digestive organs, as,
for instance, in cases of locked-jaw, and some practitioners
even pour the fluid down the nostrils, for, as will be seen by
a reference to Plates I. and IX., there is little objection to
be raised on account of anatomical peculiarities, the fluid
readily finding its way into the pharynx, if poured with care
along the floor of the nasal chambers. When this course
is adopted, it must be understood that no solid substances,
powders, &c., are to be used. The fluid must be a per-
fect solution, dilute, cool, and possess no irritating effect
whatever.

773

Enemas, Lavements, or Clysters.

Three kinds of enemas are in use for the lower animals,
and generally adopted for the horse. They are — simple^
medicated, and gaseous.

Simple Enemas are used to soften hardened accumulations
of faeces within the rectum, and assist in their discharge, as
well as promote the general action of the bowels. They are
usually composed of simple warm water, at a temperature
of 96° F. to 100° F., or in which soap or common salt has
been dissolved by pouring on them boiling water, and subse-
quently reduced by adding cold. A solution of soap in
warm water is readily formed by rubbing the former on a
small bundle of straw held in one hand, and alternately
washed in the water until the required strength is obtained.

Medicated Enemas are intended, as a rule, to induce a
remote effect. In diseases attended with inability or difficulty
in swallowing, as locked-jaw, &c., certain medicinal agents
are added to water, or special mixtures are compounded —
opium, prussic acid, turpentine, &c., being employed to
produce their particular effects on the nervous system, as
well as in other ways. In diarrhoea, dysentery, colic, &c.,
they are useful — starch, gruel, and astringents being used
in the former ; opium, belladonna, ether, chloroform, &c., in
the latter. Articles of food are sometimes the basis of
enemas by which animals are mainly supported, until their
recovery from many diseases.

Eiiema apparatus. — Various instruments are in use for the
administration of enemas. The ancient form consists of a
bladder tied upon a wooden tube, suitably turned and
rounded off at the extremity to avoid injury. The bladder
may be filled by placing it in water after being closely com-
pressed, when it fills by the process of gravitation ; a funnel

774

Operations.

may be used to fill the bladder if preferred, and the process
of emptying is effected by pressure on the outside after the
tube has been inserted in the rectum.

Gamgees Enema Funnel, — This is a simple and useful in-
strument (Fig. 305). The tube is inserted within the rectum,
and the fluid, poured into the funnel part, descends with a

bubbling sound. Mr.Dick-

inson, M.R.C.V.S., of Bos-
ton, has greatly improved
the instrument by having
the funnel made much
smaller and flat, to carry
in the pocket, &c., as
shown in the figure.
Made of block or common tin, such a contrivance proves inex-
pensive, and should be provided by every proprietor of horses.

Ried's Patent Syringe is a very useful instrument
(Fig. 306). The pump is used to force the fluid through

Fig. 305. — Gaftigee's Enema Funnel., as
modified by Dickinson.

Enemas, Lavcjnents, or Clysters. 775

the tube from the pail, which is placed on the ground at a
distance. The tube, provided with a stilette, forms a pro-
bang for passing down the throat to relieve tympanitis,
removing of obstructions from the gullet, or conveying fluids
to the stomach ; and by means of the flexible catheter
(Fig. 1 1 7, page 401), or smaller tube, fluids may be forced
into the bladder or abstracted therefrom.

Gaseous Enemas consist of the smoke or vapour of burning
tobacco, opium, &c., which is conveyed to the rectum by
means of the syringe and tube, and used in colic or severe
spasm, strangulated hernia, tetanus, worms, &c. For this
purpose, Ried’s Syringe is fitted with a proper barrel
(Fig. 305, a) or receptacle for the tobacco, &c., with which a
few hot ashes are placed before the cap is put on ; after
which continuous strokes of the piston are sufficient to induce
combustion of the tobacco and emit a copious supply of
smoke (Fig. 307).

Fig. 307. — Ried's Syringe, fitted with (d) the Barrel for
burning Tobacco,

7/6

Operations,

The Endermic Method, or Subcutaneous Injection,

In certain diseases attended with total inability to swallow,
the efforts of the attendant practitioner may be greatly frus-
trated by the absolute impossibility of passing medicines into
the stomach ; in others, it may be desirable to produce an
effect even more immediate than could be obtained if the
remedies were given by the mouth, as the action of the saliva
and gastric juice, it is admitted, have the power of modifying,
weakening, and even destroying the properties of some reme-
dies ; and for these purposes the endermic method, or sub-
cutaneous injection, happily favours these ends. In tetanus,
malignant sore throat, strangles, suppurative catarrh, rheu-
matism of joints, &c. &c., the process is found to be of
immense service. Lastly, in destroying animals by very
powerful poisons, more particularly the small ones, when
there is risk of waste in giving them by the mouth, the plan
is ready and effective.

The instruments necessary are a small glass syringe, suit-
ably mounted, being fitted with hollow needles, and the
barrels graduated, by which a known quantity of the drug
can at any time be minutely administered. Such a con-
trivance is shown in the accompanying engraving (Fig. 308).

When required for use, the syringe is filled by drawing up
the piston, while the opposite end is immersed in the fluid.
The needle is then screwed on, and the whole held firmly in

The Eiidermic Method.

Ill

the right hand. A fold of skin being taken up by the left
hand at a desirable part, the point of the needle is caused to
penetrate it, when the piston is pressed down and the barrel
is emptied. When the instrument is withdrawn, the skin is
lightly smoothed over ; and, in repeated injections, another
spot at some little distance is to be selected. All solid
remedies and powerful irritants must be excluded ; none but
perfect solutions are to be employed.

•f !

f \

,4. ' . f.

SECTION XIII.

POISONS.

The lower animals are more frequently the subjects of
absolute poisoning than is generally supposed ; and the fact
so repeatedly disclosed in the post-mortem examinations,
strongly points to the advisability of continued investigations,
in all cases of death, by competent men, which will not only
result in immediate personal satisfaction, but further the ends
of science in extending its benefits for the general welfare
of those concerned in the breeding, rearing, and keeping of
all kinds of live stock. The subject of toxicology, or the
doctrine of poisons, is as comprehensive as that of disease
generally ; and, were we to do it the justice it deserves, the
whole of this treatise would fail to exhaust it. In the limited
space even of this Section, the reader will not fail to recog-
nise its importance, and, we trust, endeavour to promote its
application to the spread of information in rega'd to the
diseases of our domestic animals, by affording opportunities
for investigation on all suitable occasions.

Noxious substances coming within the meaning of
“ poisons,” are derived from the animal, vegetable, and
mineral kingdoms, and are thus subdivided : —

I. Simple Irritants. — Substances that irritate and
inflame the parts with which they are in contact.

II. Chemical or Corrosive Irritants. — Substances
which enter into chemical combination with the tissues,

782

Poisons.

forming definite compounds, and otherwise carbonise, dis-
organise, or destroy them.

III. Nervine Poisons.— These act in several ways.
I. Upon the brain; these are called cerebral poisons. 2.
Those which act on the spinal cord are known as spinal
poisons. 3. A combination of these effects in one substance
stamps it as a cerebrospinal poison. 4. Other agents, not
only possessing the foregoing qualifications, but, in addition,
through the agency of an acrid volatile principle contained
within them creating obvious irritant effects, are denominated
narcotico-acrid (or irritant) poisons.

The death of animals is caused by poisoning in three
ways — viz., empirical practice, by accident, and with malicious
or ivilfid intent.

In empirical practice, farriers, grooms, farmers, and others,
often exceed the proper use of remedies, the action of which
they do not sufficiently comprehend, and death results from
conditions that are not only misunderstood, but more fre-
quently unobserved until too late. Thus, mercurial ointment
and white precipitate are extensively used to destroy skin
parasites, and, either from absorption, or the animal being
allowed to lick himself, fatal mercurialism is produced.

Arsenic and corrosive sublimate are used for similar pur-
poses, and, in the form of ointment, as a specific for the
so-called cancers and warts, fistulous openings, poll-evil, &c. ;
also for sloughing purposes in various other diseases, from
which, now and then, fatal absorption of the poison ensues.
Common salt may be given so long as to induce a dangerous
plethora. Aloes and opium are often prescribed by druggists
who can know nothing of the nature of the diseases of ani-
mals, and from which losses have taken place. Tartar emetic,
we know, is purchased by some quacks in quantities of half
a hundred weight annually, to form the bulk of their horse
and cattle powders as specifics for almost everything. Nitre

Poisons.

783

and sulphur constitute the sole ingredients sent out from
some learned establishments in alarming parcels, and the
druggist improves the compound by adding black antimo7iy.
Acetate of ammonia — erroneously believed to be a stimulant
— accomplishes, in unskilful hands, most deadly acts.
Aconite is equally, if not more, dangerous, although many
profess to guard its powers ; and sulphate of iron, the best of
mineral tonics, from careless administration may be caused
to produce rapid wasting.

Accidental poisoning occurs in a variety of ways. Those
who are in the habit of prescribing for, and treating their
own animals, are frequently very careless in allowing packets
of medicine, &c., to lie about on the corn-bins, accessible
shelves, beams or projections of wood, stone, &c. The poison
for rats and mice is incautiously placed, and when animals
roam at will through buildings, or when mischievous boys
commence their gambols, such dangerous articles are dis-
persed, and not unfrequently fall among the food. Some-
times from the absence of proper labels or marks, poisons
are substituted for simple remedies ; at others they are thrown
upon the manure heap, and if not speedily consumed, are
conveyed to the land and work irreparable mischief on some
future and unlooked-for occasion. Animals returning from
long journeys are turned hungry on bare pastures, or after
long scarcity of food in dry summers, break into neighbour-
ing shrubberies or copses, and browse upon poisonous plants,
or at least upon those unnatural and unfitted as food ; when
trees have been thinned, their branches are carelessly thrown
in the way of animals which devour them, and in one or other of
these ways, the yew, laurel, rhododendron, hollyhock, and oak
prove fatal. Acorns, after having fallen to the ground in dry
seasons, are sometimes taken in large quantities, and with col-
chicum, beech-nuts, cow parsnips, sow thistle, hemlock, poppy-
plant, upas antiar, &c., produce serious, if not deadly, effects.

784

Poisons.

Wilful and malicious poisoning is not uncommon. It may
be generally traced to ignorant and spiteful eniployh^ dis-
charged workmen, &c., who rarely execute the details of
their foul practice in a clever manner. Ordinary and avail-
able poisons are mostly employed, as arsenic, phosphor-paste
(phosphorus), rat powder (strychnia, baryta, corrosive sub-
limate), savin, mineral acids, terchloride of antimony, &c.

Symptoms of poisoning, — Great similarity exists in the
form in which many diseases are presented, and the signs
by which poisons are denoted. There are, however, par-
ticular distinctions of importance — viz., the sudden appearance
of the symptoms, generally after a meal, or in combination
with turning upon a certain pasture, connexion with some par-
ticular operation, as the use of a medicinal preparation, &c.
&c. There are additional signs special to each poisonous in-
gredient : thus sudden diarrhoea or dysentery may characterise
arsenical and mercurial poisoning, while salivation and loosen-
ing of the teeth belong especially to mercury ; and saliva-
tion with swelling of the eyelids, foetor of the breath, &c.,
are seen as special tokens of arsenical poisoning. Veratrum
album produces a copious discharge of ropy saliva with cor-
responding prostration, and possibly also violent abdominal
irritation.

The various mineral acids and caustic alkalies produce
erosions of the mouth, &c., staining of the teeth, inability to
eat, gastro-enterites, and death. Aconite causes profuse
foaming at the mouth, champing of the jaws, hiccough,
besides abdominal pain ; strychnia developes the most violent
spasms and contractions. In the vicinity of lead works,
paralysis is common, from an absorption of lead in a minute
state of division, and more acute signs, as phrensy, occur
after large quantities are taken. Arsenic also finds its way
into the system under similar conditions, by being deposited
on the vegetation in the locality where copper smelting is

Poisons. 785

carried on, and gives rise to enlargement of the joints, great
lameness, emaciation, and eventually death.

Treatmeitt of poisoning depends greatly upon the
nature of the substance which has been administered.
The desirable object of treatment in most cases is to follow
such administration by another agent, which, having the
power of entering into chemical combination with the first,
produces a third, totally different, and inert compound. Such
an agent is known as an antidote, and for each of the poisons
a special antidote is required.

It is impossible to treat cases of poisoning properly with-
out a knowledge of the nature and properties of not only
the noxious agent, but also of that used as a destroyer of the
poison. Much evil is apt to result from the agency and
selection of antidotes, for, being in themselves capable of
chemical action, the production of even a more poisonous
compound may be the inevitable consequence. This fact at
once points out the profound nature of the department we
are briefly considering, and how dangerous a little knowledge
may be. To the horseowner a good knowledge of the
domestic treatment required will be of infinite service, which,
being carried out with energy, will in many cases bridge
over sufficient time until proper aid can be obtained. It
should always be the practice to send to a practitioner suit-
able information connected with the known case of poisoning,
otherwise he may arrive unprepared. The safest way is to
send a written note^ or an eye-witness of the case from the
beginning, and thus prevent the wrong delivery of important
messages.* When sudden cases of disease arise, and they are
attributed to the presence of poison, attention should be
directed to the alleviation of symptoms as much as possible.

* See The Horseowner and Stableman’s Companion. London : F. Warne
and Co.

786

Poisons.

Thus, when profuse diarrhoea and dysentery prevail, large I

quantities of thick flour or starch gruel, milk, and even eggs I

beat up are valuable. If arsenic, corrosive sublimate, calomel,

&c., are present, the above, also broths and soups, are valuable
agents to restrict and weaken the powers of the poisons.

When acute abdominal pains ensue in addition, doses of
tincture of opium, or the extracts of belladonna, hyoscyamus,

&c., are of efficacious service. This treatment also answers :
well after animals have taken many vegetable poisons, as
colchicum, hellebore, &c. ; subsequent depression and prostra- “ ^
tion should be met by ammonia, or sweet nitre, &c.

When acids have been swallowed, plenty of milk, or large
quantities of carbonate of soda in water, should be given ;
and when the caustic alkalies, as potash, soda, or ammonia ||

are present, linseed or rape oil may be given plentifully, or |

vinegar in water, when at hand ; soups and broths are also l|i

valuable. The veterinary surgeon will readily supplement 7

this treatment on arrival, if all the facts are laid before him ;
and nothing paralyses his hands so much as to request his
assistance in an urgent case, when known facts as to causes j

are withheld from him.* ■

* A mass of concise information relating to the various subjects of this and
preceding sections, will be found in the Author’s work : Memoranda for Emergen-
cies. London : John Churchill and Sons. '

SECTION XIV.

THE DISPENSATORY.

50—2

‘■'I:

• - V

THE DISPENSATORY.

A List of the Remedies employed in the Treat-
ment OF THE Diseases of the Horse, with their
Combinations, Doses, etc.

In stating the dose of each remedy — i.e.^ the quantity
which may be given for specific purposes — when more than
one are named, the smallest is intended to represent that
which is intended to produce the mildest effect, and, con-
versely, the larger quantity for the most powerful. These
also have been arranged for adult animals of medium size ;
therefore the reader will bear in mind that allowances must
be made for others, young and small — one-fourth, one-half,
&c., being deducted, as the case may require. Thus, an
adult waggon-horse, i6J hands high, may require 9 or
10 drams of aloes ; a large carriage-horse, y or 8 ; a
hackney, 6 ; and ponies, ranging from 5 to 3. Large,
young, and growing animals also require a modification.
Thus, Burgelat has stated, that a two-year old colt requires
one-third the quantity of medicine prescribed for the adult
animal of his breed ; the two-year old, one-half ; and the
three-year old, two-thirds. These are, however, merely
approximative, and must suffer modification, on account of
size, in many instances.

Acetate of Ammonia. — See Ammonia.

Acetic Acid. — A powerful vegetable acid, obtained by
the destructive distillation of wood. It is employed as a

790

The Dispensatory.

caustic to warts, and for the repression of too-luxuriant gra-
nulations, fungoid growths, &c. Diluted with seven times its
bulk of water, it forms, with ammonia, the valuable sedative,
Mindererus’s spirit ; in the same form of dilution, it forms an
antidote against poisoning by the caustic alkalies ; and with
water and sal-ammoniac it makes a very effective cooling
lotion. Its forms are : —

Recipe No. 165,

Dilute Solution.

Take of acetic acid i part.

Distilled water 7 „

Mix.

Recipe No. 166.
Cooling Lotion.

Take of dilute acetic acid i pint.

Sal-ammoniac ^ i oz.

Spirits of wine 2 fl. oz.

Mix.

Recipe No. 167.
Cooling Lotion.

Take 'of dilute acetic acid i pint.

Acetate of ammonia 4 fl. oz.

Spirits of wine 2 „

Impure acetic acid is known as pyroligneous acid, and in
a dilute form it is sold as vinegar.

Aconite (Wolfsbane, Monkshood). — An excellent remedy
in acute febrile states ; but requires great watchfulness in its
use, as poisoning is apt to take place if continued too long,
or when given in large doses. The most reliable prepara-
tion is known as “ Fleming’s tincture,” the dose of which is
from ten to twenty drops, the larger dose being given at the
commencement of the case, and each one subsequently re-
duced until withdrawal ; thus — suppose we give at first
twenty drops, at the time required for the second only
fifteen should be given ; at the third, ten ; and at the fourth.

791

The Dispensatory .

five ; by which time fifty drops will have been given in six-
teen, twenty, or twenty-four hours, according to the arrange-
ment at the outset and requirements of the case. Being a
powerful sedative on the heart’s action, and having great
control of febrile states, it is one of the most valuable drugs,
yet so dangerous in the hands of inexperienced persons, that
we caution the reader against its too liberal employment
without professional advice.

^GYPTIACUM. — A mixture of honey, verdigris, and
vinegar, in the following proportions : —

Recipe No. i68.

^GYPTIAC.

Take of acetic acid, dilute or strong vinegar 17 parts.

Honey 14 „

Verdigris 5 „

Mix.

Used by some practitioners as a corrective to unhealthy
wounds, thrush, canker, &c.

Alcohol. — When sugar, or any kind of grain, is distilled,
a clear, volatile, ethereal fluid is obtained, termed alcohol ;
being first distilled from wine, it was known as spirits of
wine. Its principal use is for the making of tinctures, and
evaporating as well as cooling lotions. The former is thus
compounded : —

Recipe No. 169.

Evaporating Lotion.

Spirits of wine 2 fl. oz.

Water i pint.

Mix, and apply to the inflamed part by means of a thin
rag or bandage, which should be kept continually wet.

Other forms of alcohol will be again alluded to under
Ethers.

Aloes. — An extract of the aloe plant. Various kinds are
met with in the market — as Cape, Socotrine, and Barbadoes.

792

The Dispensatory.

The last is most generally used, being most powerful and
certain. Aloes are powerful excitants of the alimentary
canal, and in moderate doses prove laxative, or mildly pur-
gative, and in large doses cathartic, or violently purgative.
They are eminently useful in reducing inflammation of local
and general characters, removing worms and obstructions
from the stomach and intestines, overcoming ordinary con-
stipation, relieving congestions of the liver, kidneys, &c. &c. ;
and from the fact of the bowels being the great outlet for
waste and unused substances, their increased action is largely
conducive to the relief of overcharged organs, and other
parts. To act upon these aloes prove the best remedy, and
may be given in doses varying from 6 to lo drams.
Laxatives and purgatives are thus prepared : —

Recipe No. 170.

Laxative Bolus.

Take of aloes, finely powdered 3 or 6 drs.

Ginger, powdered i dr.

Soft soap sufficient.

Triturate the aloes and ginger together first ; then add the
soap in successive quantities during further trituration, until
a paste is produced ; then form a bolus, and wrap in thin
paper.

Recipe No. 171.

Purgative Ball.

Take of aloes, powdered 8 to 10 drs.

Other ingredients and directions as above.

As a more ready and convenient plan, a form of “ mass”
is used, aloes being melted with some other agent — as treacle,
lard, oil, &c. ; and when required, the requisite dose is cut
off. Such is only applicable in a large practice.

In some instances a watery solution is required, which is
compounded as follows : —

The Dispensatory. 793

Recipe No. 172.

Solution of Aloes.

Take of aloes, powdered 20 oz.

Water i pint (20 fl. oz.)

Dissolve the aloes in the water at 112° F., and when cool
add I fluid ounce of spirits of wine, 2 drams of concentrated
essence of ginger, and make up the loss by water to one pint.
Set aside in a well-corked bottle, and in apportioning the
doses, it must be remembered that each fluid ounce is equal
to one dram of aloes.

Tincture of Aloes. — Employed only as an external remedy
for wounds. — See Tincture of Myrrh.

Alum. — Lotions of alum are useful for various purposes,
and are therefore made of different strength ; i or 2 drams
to a pint of water will constitute those of the stronger
kinds, while for the weaker forms, 10 to 20 grains may be
sufficient. When burned and afterwards reduced to powder,
it forms a strong caustic, and has been employed for the
treatment of thrush and canker in the feet, and for repres-
sing granulations. With treacle or honey the simple powder
is used as an electuary for sore throat, aphtha, &c., or with
water as a lotion, to which a few drops of sulphuric acid
have been added ; it forms an excellent wash for the mouth,
unhealthy wounds, &c.

A most valuable preparation has of late been introduced
named chloralum, which when diluted with water in the
proportion of i part to 16 or 32 forms an excellent
astringent lotion or wash ; and in its concentrated state
arrests bleeding in a marvellous manner.

Ammonia. — Several compounds are in use. The sesqui-
carbonate (sal-volatile or hartshorn) is a valuable stimulant
in all the forms of low febrile disease. It may be given in
doses of 2 to 4 drams in the form of bolus, when finely,
powdered, or in solution, largely diluted. Being a powerful

794

The Dispensatory,

irritant and caustic, it requires great caution in use, as the
mouth may be considerably damaged ; and when given too
long in solution, it is apt to derange the kidneys.

Spirits of Ammonia (Spirits of Sal-Volatile). — A solution
of ammoniacal gas in spirit. A useful stimulant ; doses,
I to 2 fluid ounces, largely diluted.

Liquor AmmonicB. — Solution of ammoniacal gas in water.
A powerful stimulant and caustic ; requires large dilution.
Doses, I to 4 drams.

Acetate of Ammonia (Mindererus’s Spirit). — A compound
of acetic acid and sesquicarbonate of ammonia, forming a
valuable sedative and solvent of the blood in inflammation,
fever, &c. Doses, 2 to 4 ounces, combined with aconite,
neutral salts, &c. Externally, with spirits or water, it is
used as a cooling lotion.

Sal-Ammoniac (Muriate of Ammonia). — Reduced to
powder, and used with acetic acid and water, it forms a good
application to inflamed and swollen surfaces. Such lotions
should only be made as required, the salt being added from
time to time, as the greatest amount of cold is obtained
only during its solution.

Arnica. — Tincture of arnica, diluted with water in the
following proportion, is used to bruised and abraded sur-
faces : —

Recipe No. 173.

Arnica Lotion.

Take of tincture of arnica i or 2 fl. oz.

Distilled water i pint.

Mix.

We have had repeated cause for questioning the value of
this remedy, and believe that the above proportions of
simple spirit and water are of equal efficacy.

Antimony. — The following are its compounds : —

The Terchloride^ or Butyr of Antimony^ is a powerful

795

The Dispensatory,

caustic, used for warts, canker, thrush, poisoned wounds, &c.
It must be used alone, as it will not bear dilution without
suffering decomposition.

Tartar Emetic^ or emetic tartar, is rarely used as medicine
for horses, except by farriers, quacks, and grooms. It is
now known to be a most uncertain and dangerous remedy,
and has therefore been discarded from the list of the
experienced veterinarian. It forms a powerful sloughing
ointment by which some empirics do wholesale work among
all kinds of warts and tumours, which they conglomerate in
their category of cancers.”

Sulphiiret of Antimony (Black Antimony). — Now dis-
carded for similar reasons to the foregoing.

Arsenic. — Internally a useful agent in various skin
affections, and as a tonic in certain diseases of a debilitating
character. It is supplied as an insoluble white powder, and
may be given in daily doses of 5 grains, combined with
the sulphate of iron and carbonate of soda. Fowler’s solu-
tion— the arsenite of potash — is a valuable preparation,
having, no taste, and may be given in half or one ounce doses,
sprinkled over the food, or mixed with the drinking water.
In unpractised hands, arsenic is a very subtle and dangerous
remedy, but fortunately its effects are readily discovered.

Belladonna (Deadly Nightshade). — In the form of
extract, this proves a serviceable remedy in severe pain or
spasm, cough, and inflammation of internal organs, also for
dilating the mouth of the womb and allaying spasm of the
neck of the bladder. The extract being a plastic compound,
it requires reduction by water, with which a portion is rubbed
in a mortar, to form an emulsion, when it may be injected
by means of a syringe, or carried in a small piece of sponge
to the part. Poisoning may take place from too extensive
use. As an antispasmodic, it is given in doses of half or
one dram two or three times a day.

The Dispensatory,

Blisters. — See Cantharides.

Blue Vitriol. — See Copper.

Butyr of Antimony. — See Antimony.

Calamine. — See Zinc.

Calomel. — See Mercury.

Camphor. — In small and repeated doses — half a dram
to a dram — this proves a useful stimulant ; as a sedative 2
drams may be used. For external use, it should be dissolved
in oil or spirits of wine, when it forms a good application to
wounds of unhealthy condition and tendency to gangrene,
and for the restoration of the circulation in parts extensively
bruised. The proportions are i dram to each ounce of
oil or spirit. Camphor enters into combination with other
agents, as follows, for the production of a stimulating appli-
cation for staked or punctured wounds : —

Recipe No. 174.
Healing Fluid.

Take of spirits of camphor

Tincture of aloes

„ myrrh

equal parts.

Mix. Water must not be added, as the efficacy of the
mixture will be destroyed.

Cantharides (Blistering or Spanish Flies). — These are
the active ingredients of vesicatory or blistering ointments,
forms of which have already been given at page 44. As
an internal remedy, cantharides prove useful in debility of
the bladder, &c. ; but must be rigidly discarded when any
irritation of the urinary or generative organs exist. When
too largely used as blisters, they are liable to produce
nephritis, or strangury, &c., by absorption. The doses are
3 to 10 grains. — 5^^ Mylabris Cichorii.

Caraway Seeds. — These, when sound, dry, and fresh,
are very suitable agents in promoting tone of the stomach,
and, being reduced to powder in a suitable mill, are

The Dispensatory,

797

advantageously combined with iron, ginger, gentian, and
other seeds for tonic purposes. — See Iron.

Carbolic Acid. — Two forms of this preparation are
met with — the pure or crystallised, and the brown fluid.
The nrst is employed for internal administration as an anti-
septic in doses of 20 .to 30 grains, and in solution for
external purposes. — See Antiseptic Treatment, page 745.

Mix, and dissolve. One part of this mixture may be
added to six of glycerine or linseed oil, when it forms a
valuable agent in the healing of all kinds of wounds. The
solution in glycerine readily mixes with water, and by
admixture with lead, tincture of opium, or zinc, various
useful lotions may be extemporised for cooling, healing,
astringent, or sedative and soothing purposes. The brown
solution of carbolic acid is a suitable form of disinfectant
for applying to the clothing, harness, woodwork and floors
of buildings when contagious diseases are present, details
for which will be found at pages 15 i and 628.

Carron Oil. — See Linseed Oil.

Castor Oil. — An uncertain and nauseating remedy,
now disused for the horse.

Catechu. — A vegetable astringent of great value in
sore throat, aphtha, and affections generally of the mucous
membrane of the mouth. Gum kino is a similar substance,
and is usually combined with catechu for the like, purposes,
as follow : —

Recipe No. 175.
Solution of Carbolic Acid.

Take of crystallised carbolic acid,
Glycerine, pure

I part.

Recipe No. 176.
Electuary for Sore Throat.

Take of powdered catechu
„ kino

I oz.

Honey or treacle

798

The Dispensatory.

Mix. A dessertspoonful to be placed on the tongue

two or three times a day. Other forms are also used in
which alum, nitre, opium, belladonna, &c., are respectively
added.

Caustic Alkalies. — These are, liquor ammonix*, liquor
potassae, and liquor sodae, with their solid forms. > As
medicines, they require large dilutions, as extensive erosio
of the mouth, or even poisoning, may result. The dos
are lo to 30 drops in 6 or 8 ounces of water. Ammon
is a stimulant ; potash and soda are antacids.

Charcoal. — Two kinds of charcoal are used in veteri-
nary practice. Atiimal Charcoal prepared by subjecting
bones to close or smothered combustion, is a deodoriser and
antiputrescent, likewise a useful antidote in poisoning by
strychnia, opium, and other vegetable substances containing
an alkaloid. It requires to be given largely mixed with
milk, rapidly agitated, and administered while in a state of
suspension.

Wood or Vegetable Charcoal is prepared by subjecting
branches of trees to the same process as mentioned above,
and when powdered is employed for similar purposes, but is
of considerably less value, though obtained at much less
cost. Mixed with bran, it forms a useful poultice for
wounds of the feet and legs which give off offensive odours,
and strewed over the stable floors it acts as a deodoriser in
the absence of more powerful and efflcient substances.

Chloral Hydrate. — A substance possessing remarkable
powers in the human subject, but not sufiflciently proved to
be of the same value in the lower animals. Professor
Williams estimates it as inferior to opium as an anodyne. It
is given in doses of 2 or 3 drams in solution, in colic ;
or of I dram for troublesome cough, asthma, &c., such
doses being repeated as desired.

Chloralum. — See Alum.

The Dispensatory.

effects are common. The oil is used for’ conferring
tional strength to blisters, but on account of its pow
action it is liable to produce ugly blemishes, if used in
large quantities : one or two drops to the ounce are fair
safe proportions. The celebrated Danish remedy cont'
croton oil dissolved in ether and alcohol {see p. 178).

Digitalis. — Powdered leaves of the digitalis purpura,
common foxglove, are used as a sedative in heart diseas
and dropsies. The doses are fifteen to thirty grains, con.
bined with nitrate of potash. The powerful influence of thi.
substance over the heart, together with the uncertainty of it
action, calls for great care and watchfulness in its adminis-
tration, as early stoppage of that organ has been known to
take ':)lace. It is given two or three times a day, during
which the pulse should be frequently examined.

Drenches, erroneously styled Drinks. — These have
already been alluded to at p. 770.

Emetic Tartar. — See Antimony.

Enemas, Enemata, Clysters, Lavements, Injections.
— Already fully described at p. 773.

Epsom Salts. — See Magnesia.

Ether, Chloric. — A solution of chloroform in spirits of
wine. A useful remedy in spasms ; but having a powerful
sedative effect, like chloroform, requires care. It suitably
replaces chloroform for internal use. The doses are one-
half to two fluid ounces.

Ether, Nitric. — Sweet spirits of nitre, similar to chloric
ether. Doses, one to three ounces.

Ether, Sulphuric. — A powerful sedative, in large doses
acting upon the brain, producing coma and death. It is
prescribed for similar ra^^es as chloroform, in doses of three
to eight fluid c eing a good solvent for oils, it is

used as a vehic application of croton oil externally

Extract 01 See Lead.

The Dispensatory,

MENTATIONS. — The value of these agents is not gene-
known. They have been fully discussed at p. 40.
ENTIAN. — A good stomachic and tonic. It should
ys be fresh and finely powdered, and free from flour,
which it is freely adulterated. It improves the appetite,
restores strength without affecting the pulse ; promotes
le action of purgatives, and prevents the tendency to
ostration which sometimes ensues. Ginger is properly
bmbined with it. The doses are 2 to 4 or 6 drams.

Ginger. — Another indispensable article of medicine.
Being carminative, stomachic, and tonic, it usefully enters
into the combination of purgative drenches and balls. The
concentrated essence forms a very valuable preparation.
Glauber’s Salts. — See Soda.

Hartshorn, Solution of (in water). — See Ammonia.
Hellebore, White and Black. — These vegetable
substances possess very dangerous properties, and are now
wisely discarded from use in the preparation of remedies for
the diseases of equine animals. As they are sometimes
employed by quacks and grooms, who do not know their
effects but as fancied specifics, poisoning sometimes takes
place, giving rise to the folllowing signs : — Great depression,
copious discharge of ropy saliva, exhaustion, small, weak, and
frequent pulse, attempts to vomit, diarrhoea, dysentery, abdo-
minal pain, &c.

Honey. — A convenient vehicle for administering medi-
cines in the form of electuary. — >See Catechu.

Hyoscyamus. — This extract possesses similar properties
to belladonna, and is given in corresponding doses for similar
purposes.

Iodine. — This substance is very useful in creating a more
vigorous and perfect assimilation, and is used in those cases
in which a want of that power results in diabetes, and other
irregularities arising from similar causes. It is rendered

The Dispensatory.

soluble in water by means of iodide of potassium, an
should always be prescribed in combination, a\
starchy food for a time afterwards. The doses of
half a dram to two drams. Iodine, in the form of tinct
ointment, is employed for the reduction of enlarger
after inflammation.

Iodide of Potassium. — This must be viewed more
compound of iodine than of potassium, but possesses
action on the kidneys. {See Iodine) It is recommende
a lotion for the removal of opacity and ulceration of
cornea. — See Nitrate of Silver.

Iodide of Lead. — Used in the form of ointment ^ <
dram to an ounce of fresh lard, carefully worked together,
the removal of tumours and other abnormal growths,
produces large sores and great pain ; and from the grea
tendency to become absorbed, poisoning by lead is apt to
take place, if largely used.

Another compound, the biniodide of mercury, will be
described under compounds of that metal.

Iron. — Various compounds of this metal are used as
tonics ; their well-known influences have called them into
an extensive use, and frequently to inconvenience. The
writer has witnessed animals suffering from emaciation, &c.,
produced by preparations of iron, when they were used with
the object of producing tone and vigour. They should
never be prescribed too early after acute inflammations,
especially of the lungs, as not only may the above con-
sequences ensue, but relapse of the original disease. The
compounds are : —

Perchloride of Iron. — See Muriate of Iron.

Sulphate of Iron. — Doses, i to 4 drams, given once
or twice a day, in the form of powder or drench.

Saccharated Carbonate of Iron. — A mild prepara-
tion, given in similar doses to the sulphate.

51—2

The Dispensatory.

)IDE OF Iron. — A useful agent
ilative organs, as diabetes, &c.

in disorders of the
Doses, one half to

Irams. — See Iodine.

URIATE OF Iron (Perchloride of Iron, Tincture of
&c.). — A solution of iron in muriatic acid and alcohol,
aluable tonic and astringent, but possessing powerful
^ properties. It is apt to produce violent derangement
the bowels. It is given with quassia and gentian in-
^ions, nitric ether, &c., in recovery from debilitating
seases. Externally, it is employed to arrest haemorrhage
^ee Styptics), but is not superior to chloralum.

Kino. — A vegetable astringent, allied to catechu, and
.sed for the same purposes, in similar proportions and
:ombinations.

Laudanum. — See Opium.

Lead. — A few compounds of lead are employed in vete-
rinary practice. The iodide has already been alluded to.

Acetate^ or Sugar of Lead. — This salt is used as a lotion —
one ounce to a quart of water — for sprains, bruises, and
inflamed surfaces of the skin particularly. A few ounces of
spirits adds to its cooling powers.

Diacetate of Lead (Goulard’s Extract). — This is a solution
of greater strength than the above, being used for the same
purposes. Being fluid, it is mixed with olive oil, to form
lead liniment — one or two ounces to a pint of oil — which
proves a good application to burns and scalds, as well as
blistered or fired surfaces. — See Linseed Oil.

Linseed. — As an article of the sick dietary this has
been fully described at page 21.

Linseed Oil. — A bland, slow purgative, very useful in
low typhoid and other diseases, as a substitute for stronger
and more depressing remedies. With laudanum, it answers
very well for suppressing diarrhoea which results from the
presence of irritants, and precedes many debilitating affec-

The Dispensatory.

tions. The addition of a few drops of croton oil is
when a speedy effect is to be obtained. In small d
promotes assimilation, and forms an excellent substitu
cod-liver oil.*

Lunar Caustic.— Silver.

Magnesia. — The only compounds in use among h
is sulphate of magnesia, or Epsom salts. It forms one
the class of neutral salts, having a combined action on
intestines and kidneys, being used by some practitioners
the commencement of influenza, &c., in doses of about fo
ounces in solution. It is, however, of less value th
others.

Mashes. — See page 20.

Mercury. — The following are the compounds in use

Calomel. — A purgative and liver stimulant in larger doses ;
but in small ones is used to disperse enlargements, promote
absorption of dropsical effusions, and overcome internal in-
flammations. It is not so commonly used as formerly, being
superseded by aconite, as a more efficacious remedy. Doses,
10 to 30 grains.

Corrosive Sublhnate. — A powerful caustic externally, and
dangerous medicine for internal use. The principal use to
which it is now applied is as an injection for troublesome
sinuses, but requires great care. The proportions are as
follow : —

Recipe No. 177.

Injection for Quittor.

Take of corrosive sublimate i dr.

Muriatic acid lo drops.

Distilled water i fl. oz.

Mix, and when the sublimate is dissolved the solution is
ready for use. The glass syringe (Fig. 129) is needed- for
injecting the mixture.

* See The Horse-owner and Stableman’s Companion. London : F. Warne
and Co.

The Dispensatory,

ate of Mercury^ Omtment of. — As usually compounded,
too powerful for general use, and requires six or
parts of lard for its dilution, when it is used for
ous diseases of the skin. In its original strength it is
imes used as a caustic to warts, &c.

'ntment of Mercury (Blue Ointment, Trooper’s Oint-
t, &c.). — Not often employed, except as an extem-
neous form of the biniodide of mercury, by mixing
it two parts of the ointment of iodine, for reducing
'onic enlargements. When used alone, the animal should
tied up, to prevent him licking himself ; and, if used for lice
fleas, there is danger of absorption and fatal mercurialism.
Mineral Acids. — These comprise Nitric Acid (aqua-
rtis) ; Muriatic or Hydrochloric Acid (spirits of salt) ; and
tdphiiric Acid {o\\ oi \[\\x\o\). Each of these is astringent
land caustic when used -externally, and tonic and astringent
internally. Their external use is generally confined to the
dilute state, when, with water, they form washes or lotions
for foul ulcers, wounds, &c., for the mouth in aphthous
diseases, and as a gargle in sore throat. The proportions
are from i to 2 drams to a pint of cold water. Tincture of
myrrh may be usefully combined in the proportion of one
ounce to each pint. In the pure and undiluted form the
mineral acids are employed in canker, to restrain excessive
fungoid granulations, to destroy warts, and slough out por-
tions bitten by rabid dogs, venomous reptiles, &c. Bones
exposed by injury and undergoing morbid inflammation
are stimulated to healthy action by their use. Internally
they are given in doses of half a dram to one dram in a
pint of cold water, infusion of gentian, quassia, or columbo,
and sometimes combined with nitric ether, in recovery from
wasting diseases, liver complaints, &c., sufficient care being
exercised not to contract disorder of the bowels by their too
long-continued use.

The Dispensatory,

Muriatic Acid. — Its special use is that of a
affections of the liver, besides being a solvent for c
sublimate and quinine. — See Mineral Acids.

Mustard. — An excellent substance for employmei
counter-irritant in inflammation of internal organs
throat, &c. Mustard should always be used alone,
with tepid water to the consistence of cream, and
rubbed on the parts, being gently sponged off afte
effects are obtained. Turpentine, vinegar, and other
substances, destroy the active principle of mustard, and
perly should not be combined with it. — See Cantharides.

Neutral Salts.— These are Epsom salts, sulphate
soda, with the nitrate, chlorate, and sulphate of potash
which see.

Nitre. — See Potash.

Nitric Acid. — See Mineral Acids.

Nitrate of Mercury. — See Mercury.

Nitrate of Potash. — See Potash.

Nitrate of Silver. — See Silver.

Oak Bark. — A useful astringent in diarrhoea, dysentery,
&c.,.a decoction of which may be made by pouring a pint of
boiling water upon one or two ounces of the bruised bark.
Catechu or kino may be combined. — See Tannic Acid.

Oak Galls. — See Tannic Acid.

Opium. — A valuable remedy as astringent and calmative,
or anodyne, in diarrhoea, and abdominal pain arising from
poisoning by acrid vegetables, &c. It allays the spasm of
tetanus, and restrains the violent efforts of the mare in diffi-
cult parturition ; but one great drawback attends its use —
the after-effects on the brain. For these latter purposes it
has been substituted in many places by chloroform, chloral
hydrate, nitrate of amyl, &c. The dose of opium is from
I 5 grains to i dram ; and of the tincture (laudanum), half
a fluid ounce to two ounces.

The Dispensatory.

.ANUM, Oil of (Oil of Thyme). — Usually added to
and liniments of the old school, on account of its
and supposed stimulative properties.

PERMINT Water. — A warm aromatic stimulant and
native, usefully combined with bland purgatives for foals.
.RMANGANATE OF PoTASH (Condy’s Fluid.) — An effec-
detergent and corrective in foul and tardy wounds,
'ed with five or six times its bulk of water. The qualities
is important article, as a disinfectant, have been described
.age 153.

PODOPHYLLIN. — On account of the well-known action of
s agent on the liver of the human subject, it has been
ggested to use it for similar purposes in the horse — viz.,
ngestion of the liver, and dyspepsia generally. Some
iractitioners, having used it, attach no importance to it.
'urther experiments are needed to establish its reputation.
The doses which have been used are — of the powder, 2
drams ; of the resin, 12 to 20 grains.

Potash, Compounds of. — These are as follows : —

The Carbonate. — A useful antacid in dyspepsia, combined,
with great benefit, with linseed oil and laudanum, in
diarrhoea of foals. Dose, 4 to 8 drams.

CJilorate of Potash. — Same as the sulphate.

Nitrate of Potash. — Sedative and diuretic ; given in doses
of 2 to 8 drams. Valuable in all internal congestions, in-
flammations, &c., but requires care in low typhoid diseases.
With acetate of ammonia and aconite, it forms one of the
most powerful depressants of the heart’s action. Being
highly soluble in water, it may be administered in that
allowed for drinking ; but the practice is not a safe one.
Combined with iron and gentian, and given in the form of
powder, it assists in carrying off effused fluids, and assists in
the reduction of enlargements due to the existence of recent
diseases, while the other agents guard against weakening
effects of the salt.

The Dispensatory.

Sulphate of Potash. — A salt of similar, but less efi
powers than the nitrate ; usually employed for the
poses, and in the same combinations.

Poultices. — These have been discussed at some
at page 41.

Quassia. — A vegetable tonic bitter, used in the fc
infusion — one ounce to a pint of boiling water — principa
a vehicle for other tonics, as perchloride of iron, the mi
acids, nitric ether, &c.

Quinine. — A powerful tonic and bitter, usefully comb
with gentian, in recovery from low forms of disease — as
fluenza, &c. Doses, half a dram to two drams.

Resin. — Used to stiffen ointments, and internally as
diuretic, to replace nitrate of potash, in debilitating diseas
grease, farcy, &c.

Rye, Ergot of, — A medicine having a supposed actio
on the womb, inducing contraction, and favouring deliver}
when the natural throes are weak or absent. Great caution
is required in its use, as poisoning is known to have taken
place from its uncertain effects. Some practitioners give
one or two drams in gruel every quarter of an hour until
the effects are obtained ; others rely on a stronger dose, four
to eight drams given at once, and repeated at somewhat
longer intervals. Ammonia, quinine, the ethers, &c., in
various states of combination, are far more reliable.

Sal Ammoniac. — See Ammonia.

Salt, Common. — See Sodium.

Silver, Nitrate of (Lunar Caustic). — A very valuable
remedy for foul wounds, ulcers, bites of rabid dogs, veno-
mous reptile, &c., applied in the solid form. In solution,
3 to 10 grains to the ounce of water. It is used to remove
opacity and ulceration of the cornea.

Sodium, Salts of. — The medicinal salts of this metal
are as follows : —

Carbonate of Soda. — Antacid, usefully combined with

The Dispensatory.

i of iron, by which its irritant effects are reduced,
to 8 drams.

ride of Sodium (Common Salt). — A good condi-
it sharpens the appetite, and promotes digestion and
dation, but should not be used too frequently, as a
irous plethora is sometimes induced. — See Wind-
ing.

^ulphate of Soda (Glauber’s Salt). — An uncertain pur-
jve for the horse, but may be employed as one of the
tral salts, in doses of i to 3 ounces.

Soft- Soap. — A useful article in making up boluses,
ansing the skin after oily liniments or ointments have
,en applied, and forms the principal agent in the constitu-
on of ordinary enemas. — See Treacle.

Spirits of Ammonia. — See Ammonia.

Spirits of Salts. — See Mineral Acids.

Spirits of Wine. — See Alcohol.

Squills. — An expectorant of great value in recovery
from catarrhal influenza, pneumonia, &c. It is usually com-
bined with ammonia and the extracts of belladonna or hyos-
cyamus, and with such relieves the troublesome cough of
asthma.

Styptics. — Agents which arrest haemorrhage. The most
efficient are — chloralum, perchloride (muriate or tincture)
of iron, lunar caustic, the mineral acids, tannic acid, cold
water, German tinder, &c.

Styptic Colloid. — Several forms are in use : one con-
sists simply of a solution of shellac in spirits ; the second,
collodion, having an admixture of the perchloride of iron ;
and the third contains tannic acid, in place of the iron. The
uses are to cover and close wounds, and, when haemorrhage
is present, to arrest it by forming a plug at the mouth of
the bleeding vessels.

Sulphur. — An alterative, so-called. A useful remedy

The Dispensatory.

in skin affections, combined with nitre or carbonate o
Dose, 2 to 6 drams once or twice daily.

Sulphuric Acid. — See Mineral Acids.

Tannic Acid. — A crystalline astringent principle of
power, obtained from oak galls ; very useful in arre.
excessive mucous discharges, diarrhoea, dysentery, hae
rhage, &c. {See Styptics.) Doses, 30 grains to i dn
of oak galls, powdered, i to 4 drams, once or twice da
made into bolus, or given in linseed mucilage.

Tar, Barbadoes or Stockholm. — These are forms
tar largely used empirically among horses. Barbadoes tar
a bituminous product obtained from the surface of water
the lakes of the island bearing the name, having a suppose
poisonous action on worms, as well as being stimulant an<
diuretic ; externally it has been used in skin diseases, and a.
a stopping for feet. Stockholm tar is the produce of distil-
lation of turpentine, and is now more generally employed
than the former for conveying strong dressings to the feet in
canker, thrush, &c., protecting the feet against the wet of
strawyards, pastures, &c.

Terebane, Phenyline, or Cresillic Acid. — A prin-
ciple of analogous chemical constitution to carbolic acid, but
more powerful ; used in canker, thrush, &c.

Thyme, Oil of. — See Oil of Origanum.

Tincture of Aloes. — Mixed with an equal bulk of
tincture of myrrh, a valuable healing fluid is obtained.

Tincture of Benzoin, or Benjamin. — Used as the
preceding.

Tincture of Cardamoms. — A valuable stimulant and
stomachic. Doses, i or 2 ounces.

Tincture of Myrrh. — A good addition to astringent
lotions, mouth washes. — See Tincture of Aloes.

Tincture of Opium. — See Opium.

Tobacco. — See Enemas, p. 337.

The Dispensatory.

res. — Agents which improve the tone and vigour of
lole body — as iron, gentian, quinine, quassia, v..'-
&c.

EAGLE. — A suitable vehicle for compounding medicines
form of electuary and bolus when soft soap is inadmis-

JRPENTINE, Spirits or Oil of. — Used externally as
imulant, counter-irritant, &c., in internal inflammations ;
added to blisters to increase their action. The ordinary
)entine liniment, or white oil, is thus made : —

Recipe No. 178.

White Oil.

Take of olive oil i pint.

Liquor ammonia i fl. oz.

Turpentine 2 „

Mix, and apply with smart friction. Sometimes vinegar,
.he white of eggs, .and other articles are added ; and under
the name of somebody’s “ essence,” “ oils,” and “ liniment,” or
“ embrocation,” largely advertised, and well recommended, are
eagerly purchased by stud-grooms and others, who know
little about them, five times the proper value being paid for
the mixture.

Common Turpentine is used, with lard, as a “digestive”
ointment, to promote the discharge from wounds — a pro-
ceeding now almost discarded by experienced practitioners.
Turpentine, in both forms, is employed to destroy worms.
Linseed mucilage, or oil, forms a good vehicle for its
administration. Dose, half an ounce to four ounces, accord-
ing to size. When given largely internally, turpentine is
used to arrest haemorrhage from the bowels in purpura, &c.

Verdigris.-7-5^^ Copper.

Vinegar. — See Acetic Acid.

Vitriol, Blue. — See Copper, Nitrate of.

„ Green. — See Iron, Sulphate of.

Chloric Ether. — See Ether, Chloric.

Chloride of Lime. — About 2 drams of th*
stance constitute a dose for large horses, mixed in
with a thick mucilage of gum or linseed tea, and
poured down the throat in cases of dysentery and
of blood diseases. With flour gruel it is used as an er
for the same purpose. As a lotion for unhealthy an
>oflensive wounds, 2 drams are mixed with a pint of wate
or thin mucilage, and this preparation is highly useful
destroying the foetor, correcting morbid states, and promotin
the healing powers. As a disinfectant this substance h
been described at page 152.

Chloride of Zinc. — See Zinc.

Chloroform.— A valuable antispasmodic and calmat
in suffering from pain, particularly of the bowels, and
attended with diarrhoea. Opium, belladonna, hyoscya
&c., may be advantageously combined with it, and to
insure its beneficial effects, small and repeated dose-
best, diluted by spirits, or water containing such,
doses are one-half to two drams. A convenient for|n
dispensing this drug is chloric ether. !

Clysters.— Enemas, page 773.

Collodion. — A solution of gun-cotton in sulphuric
ether and spirits of wine. The advantages of this agent are
embraced for the closing of wounds, open joint, &c., in
order to avoid the action of the atmosphere, and stop the
flow of synovia. Painted over the surface, it quickly evapo-
rates, leaving a white film, which may be increased or thickened
according to pleasure, having the power of resisting the
action of water. Sometimes, however, great irritation arises
from the effects of the ether. — See Styptic Colloid.

Colombo. — A valuable stomachic and tonic, given in
cases of debility with loss of appetite, &c., combined with
gentian, quassia, &c. Doses same as gentian.

MMON Salt. — See Soda.

?ER, Compounds of. — There are but few compounds
metal in use as a medicine.

xte of Copper (Verdigris) is used as a caustic in the
f povvder, and as the old-fashioned remedy, ^Egyptiac,
7hich see.

Iodide of Copper^ a compound thought to possess the com-
bined properties of iodine and copper, and therefore em-
ployed as a stimulating tonic in nasal gleet, glanders, farcy,
'hronic grease, and old-standing lymphangitis. It is, how-
ver, decided that beyond the actions of copper it has no
commendation.

Nitrate of Copper y when dissolved in the proportion of
drams to a quart of water, forms an astringent lo^i n for
ase and ill-conditioned wounds of the feet and vicinity.
^tdphate of Copper (Blue Vitriol) is used for the same
•)oses, also as a caustic in the form of powder, and in-
illy as a tonic. It has not the same recommenda-
tions! as other remedies, being neither so safe nor efficacious.
Its use requires very great care. Dose one-half to two
drams for the largest horse.

Cordials are very commonly used by men of the old
school, and often to the serious exclusion of more suitable
remedies. They comprise the various seeds, as anise, cara-
way, cummin, coriander, with ginger, ale, porter, wines,
spirits, &c.

Corrosive Sublimate. — See Mercury.

Croton Oil and Seeds. — A valuable addition to lin-
seed oil, aloes, &c., in order to insure a more prompt action
during excessive states of constipation. The seeds (when
sound) are deemed equal to the like number of drops of
the oil, the doses of either being 3 to 10. The seeds
require thorough reduction to powder, and neither should be
given alone, but always in combination, as violent irritant

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Full text of "Every man his own horse doctor"

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