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FARM MECHANICS

FRED D. CRAWSHAW _
Formerly Professor of Manual Arts,
University of Wisconsin

and

EK. W. LEHMANN

Professor of Farm Mechanics,
University of Illinois

THE MANUAL ARTS PRESS
PEORIA, ILLINOIS

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@uassoiss

How L122

Printed in the United States of America “od

PREFACE

HIS book has been prepared to meet the increasing need

for a textbook on the mechanical processes commonly
taught in agricultural high schools and colleges, and in indus-
trial schools. Many teachers of vocational agriculture who
find it difficult to organize suitable projects for their students
will find that the exercises in this text have been worked out
to meet their needs. The book should also be widely useful
2s a reference and instruction book on the farm.

The types of work covered, while primarily representing
the common branches of mechanical activity required under
rural conditions, are, in most cases, applicable to the require-
ments of the industry upon which each type has a bearing.

Each part of the book deals exclusively and comprehen-
sively with one particular type of work, as woodwork, cement
work, forging, etc.; a fact which should contribute to its use-
fulness, both asa text and as areference book. Thru further
divisions into chapters and numbered topics, a greater possi-
bility of locating, at any time, the various details and descrip-
tions is offered.

The treatment thruout the book is thoroly practical. Em-
phasis is placed upon the proper use of tools and materials in
their application to projects. The projects are selected from
the standpoint of the practical application to the needs of the
student. The gradation of projects within each of the parts
has been keptin mind. The plan has been to treat each topic
in such detail that the teacher who has a variety of mechan-
ical work going on in his classes at one time may be largely re-
lieved of the burden of class instruction, and can devote his
energies to the needs of the individual pupil. Working draw-
ings and specifications for many of the projects have been

4 PREFACE

given. Each of these projects is analyzed into its sequential
operations with numerous references to the previous projects
for specific details. Many supplementary projects are pro-
vided.

The authors are indebted to their many friends who have
given freely of their material and advice. They wish partic-
ularly to acknowledge the use of material furnished by the
University of Illinois, the University of Missouri, the lowa

tate College, the Portland Cement Association, and of cuts
furnished by several trade journals and taken from state
bulletins.
FRED D. CRAWSHAW.
EK. W. LEHMANN.

CONTENTS
PAR Lut
WOODWORKING

CHAPTER 1. TREES AND LUMBER ... at ae £5
1. Logging. 2. Milling. 8. Tree growth. 4. Censcnite: 5. Meas-
urements and calculations. 6. Trees.

CHAPTER 1. — WOODWORKING TOOIS =. 2. <6. % 28
7. Classification. :

CHAPTER III. SAWS ANDSAWING .. 33
8. Sawsused. 9. Rip-saws. 10. Crosscut-saws. 11. Riv -sawing.
12. Squaring and measuring for length. 138. Gaging for width. 14.
Marking fan strips. 15. Boring holes. 16. Sawing ends. 17.
Ripping off one-half-inch strip. 18. Ripping tapered edges. 19.
Ripping for fan strips. 20. The buggy axle rest and the measur-
ing crate. 21. The bevel square. 22. Nailing.

CMAPTHR DY.) PLANES\AND PLANING? %. ~. ° . . 46
23. The plane. 24. Care of plane-irons. 25. Grinding the plane-
iron. 26. Whetting the plane-iron. 27. Care of plane. 28. Use
of the plane. 29. Face side. 30. Joint edge. 31. Second edge.
32. Secondsurface. 33. Firstend. 34. Secondend. 35. Boring
holes for rope. 36. Sawing end notches.

CHAPTER V. ESTIMATING MATERIALS; CONSTRUCTING AN

ASSEMBLY ee ee ey it ate 57
37. Calculations of stock. . Roof oarie 39. Fastening front
strips. 40. Fastening back ae 41. Trimming. 42. Check-
ing estimate.

CHAPTER VI. CHISELING; MAKING COMMON FRAMING

JOINTS TG hime iia 2 64
43. Tools. 44. Preliminary smear ec A5. Purpowe of sea tester.
46. Rough cutting. 47. Layingout. 48. Sawing. 49. Chiseling

6 FARM MECHANICS

joints. 50. Fastening corners. 51. Nailing bottom. 52. Marking
edges. 53. Supplementary instructions. 54. Special operations.

CHAPTER VII. USE OF MODELING OR FORMING TOOLS;

SHAPING IRREGULAR FORMS . . . . 13
55. Modeling tools. 56. Squaring the stock; laying out. 57. Using
the turning-saw. 58. Use of the spoke-shave. 59. Scraping and
sandpapering. 60. The wood rasp. 61. The shoulder carrier.

CHAPTER VIII. SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 2 (S
62. Sheep rack and feed bunk. 638. Directions for woodworking
bench. 64. Working directions for dog house. 65. Directions for
corn drier. 66. Making the self-feeder. 67. Making tne egg tester.
68. Constructing a cow stanchion. 69. Making tomato trellis.
70. Feed bunk for cattle. 71. Saw buck. 72. Chicken feeder.
73. Garden marker. 74. Individual hog cot. 75. Feed bunk for
sheep. 76. Plow doubletree. 77. Wagonjack. 78. Heavy farm
sled. 79. Fence post mold.

CHAPTER IX. WoOoD-FINISHING AND PAINTING. . OF
80. Purpose of wood-finishing. 81. Method of preservation. 82.
Classification of wood finishes. 838. Oil stain. 84. Wax. 85.
Water stains. 86. Oil stains; chemical stains. 87. Coal-tar
creosote oil. 88. The brush method. 89. The open-tank process.
90. Shellac. 91. Varnish. 92. Wood-filler. 93. Paint.

CHAPTER X. GLAZING AND SCREENING. . . . 106
94, Definition. $5. Precautions. 96. Cutting glass. 97. Setting a
pane of glassinanewframe. 98. Applying the putty. 99. Screen-
ing.

deat avid Regi

CEMENT AND CONCRETE

CHAPTER XI. HISTORY OF CEMENT sy Sah ihe
100. Preliminary. 101. Pre-historic uses of concrete. 102. Re-
discovery of cement. 103. Natural cement in America. 104.
Portland cement.

CONTENTS 7

CHAPTER XII. PROPERTIES AND USES OF CEMENT . 115
105. Properties. 106. Mortar. 107. Definition of concrete. 108.
Aggregates. 109. Presence of rotten or soft pebbles in the gravel.
110. Presence of dirt in the aggregate. 111. Vegetable matter in
sand.

CHAPTER XIII. PROPORTIONS AND MIXTURES; HAND-

LING OF CONCRETE ce 120
112. Proportions. 1138. Requirements of Sod cen ea.
Standard mixtures. 115. Common errors in proportioning con-
crete. 116. Determining quantities for a job. 117. Require-
ments of good mixing. 118. Hand-mixing. 119. Procedure in
hand-mixing. 120. Machine-mixing. 121. Consistency of mix-
tures. 122. Placing of concrete. 123. Three methods of placing
concrete. 124. Handling concrete.

CHAPTER XIV. FORMS FOR CONCRETE; CURING CON-

CRE years es eS ce (hos poe. SE "e, lee ¢ Oe
125. Necessity of forms. 126. Importance of form construction.
127. Earth forms. 128. Cast, wrought or galvanized iron forms.
129. Woodforms. 130. Requirements of a goodform. 131. Use
of old lumber for forms. 132. Sharp corners informs. 133. Re-
moving forms; care of forms.

CHAPTER XV. REINFORCING CONCRETE; CEMENT WORK-

ING TOOLS. . We ea Bats)
134. The principle of reutonane. 135. Compression and tension
in beams. 136. Kinds of reinforcing. 137. Use of scrap iron for
reinforcing concrete. 138. Tools for concrete work.

CHAPTER XVI. PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 140
139. Study of concrete construction and concrete materials. 140.
Molded concrete. 141. Sidewalk and floors. 142. Constructing
adoor step. 143. Hot-bed, foundation wall, ete. 144. Construct-
ing fence post. 145. Constructing a circular stock tank.

* CHAPTER XVII. SUPPLEMENTARY CONCRETE PROJECTS 166
146. Constructing a garden or lawn roller. 147. A hog trough.
148. Engine or machine foundation. 149. Cistern or shallow well
top. 150. Manure pit and cistern. 151. Feeding floor. 152.

8 FARM MECHANICS

Constructing a scale pit. 153. Vault for privy. 154. Milk-cool-
ing tank. 155. A rectangular water tank. 156. Potato and fruit
storage cellar. 157. Hog wallow. 158. Dipping vat for hogs.

PATE ert
BLACKSMITHING

CHAPTER XVIII. MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL 185
159. Preliminary. 160. Ironore. 161. Pigiron. 162. Wrought
iron. 163. The open-hearth process. 164. The Bessemer proc-
ess. 165. Steel. 166. Tempering steel.

CHAPTER XIX. EQUIPMENT FOR BLACKSMITHING; FUN-

DAMENTAL PROCESSES’-.°> <2 ae
167. Use of the forge on the farm. 168. The forge and anvil.
169. Blacksmith’stools. 170. Supplies for forge work. 171. Use
of wrought iron. 172. The fire. 173. Welding.

CHAFTER XX. PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING . . 199
Problem 1: Drawing and Bending of Iron.
174. Tools to be used. 175. Maintaining the fire. 176. Bending
iron. 177. Drawing iron.

Problem 2: Upsetiing and Punching.
178. Tools needed for upsetting and punching. 179. Upsetting
and punching. 180. Working instruction for punched screw clevis.
181. Open-end wrench. 182. Bolt head. 183. Log hook.

Problem 3: The Process of Welding.
184. Preparations for welding. 185. Preparing the scarfs. 186.
Making the weld. 187. T-weld. 188. Wagon wrench. 189.
Welded clevis. :

Problem 4: Welding and Tempering Steel.
190. Forging steel. 191. Working instructions for cold chisel. 192.
The butcher knife. 193. A cultivator shovel.

CHAPTER X XI. SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS IN BLACK-

SMITHING 06-0398 ce oer a es ee
194. Wagon-box stake irons. 195. Making a ring. 196. Con-
structing a chain. 197. Making ice tongs. 198. A right-angle

CONTENTS 9

weld. 199. Forge tongs. 200. Repointing cultivator shovel.
201. Sharpening plowshare. 202. Pointing plowshare. 203.
Shortening buggy tire without cutting.

PARTS Ly
SHEET- METALWORK

CHAPTER XXII. TOOLS AND SUPPLIES; FUNDAMENTAL

PROCESSES .. . Fe eencgs, 234
204. Need for sheet-metalwork on the £ farm. 205. The process of
soldering. 206. Classes of solder. 207. Soldering fluxes. 208. The
soldering-iron.

CHAPTER XXIII. PROJECTS IN SHEET-METALWORK. 239

Problem 1: Making aLap Joint as Used on Tin Roof.
209. Stock and tools for lap joint. 210. Working instructions for
lap joint.
Problem 2: To Patch a Tin Receptacle.
211. Preparation for patching. 212. Completing the patch.
Problem 3: TFoConstruct a Shallow Watering Pan for a Chicken Coop.
213. Strengthening the edge. 214. Laying out and cutting tin to
shape. 215. Folding.
Problem 4: To Construct a Receptacle Requiring the Assembly of Heavy
Pieces of Tin or Galvanized Iron.
216. Constructing watering trough.
Problem 5: Making a Cylindrical Receptacle with Handle and Rein-
forced Edge.
217. Methods of inserting wire. 218. Shaping bottom. 219. In-
serting wire in the edge. 220. Handle for drinking cup.
Problem 6: To Make a Conical Dish.
221. Laying out conical shapes. 222. Construction of funnel.

CHAPTER XXIV. SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS IN SHEET-
METALWORK. 3°. 209
223. Cylindrical receptacle. 224. Cubical ee with lid. 225. Stove-
pipe collar. 226. Conductor elbows. 227. Roof ridge flange. 228.
A measure. 229. Three-piece elbow. 230. Roof cap and ventilator.
231. Gutter miter.

10 FARM MECHANICS

PARE YW.
FARM MACHINERY REPAIR AND ADJUSTMENT

CHAPTER XXV. FARM MACHINERY AS AN ECONOMIC
FACTOR ; . 262

232. Farm machinery and national progress. 233. Latest ma-
chinery most economical. 234. Influence of farm machinery
on income. 235. The problem of farm power. 236. Wasting
power and machinery on the farm. 237. Three considerations—
housing, repairing and painting.

CHAPTER XXVI. TOOLS AND MATERIALS NEEDED FOR

MACHINERY REPAIR , « «.- «. «+s =eome
238. Necessity for good tools. 239. Wrenches. 240. Vise.
241. Hammers. 242. Chisels. 243. Files. 244. Screw-drivers.
245. Pliers. 246. Hack-saw. 247. Drills. 248. Stock taps and
dies. 249. Materials needed.

CHAPTER XXVII. How To STUDY FARM MACHINERY 276
250. Three methods of approach. 251. Tillage machinery. 252.
Study of seeding machinery. 253. Study of fertilizer drills, ma-
nure and straw spreaders. 254. Study of haying machinery. 255.
Harvesting machinery. 256. Study of power-driven machines.
257. Study of gas engines, tractors and trucks.

CHAPTER XXVIII. PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY OPp-

ERATION: «° «-) o°f m 229 -&) (5 oo. Bee
258. Conditions for carrying out projects. 259. Preparation of
land for planting. 260. Planting corn. 261. Drilling grain. 262.
Harvesting corn for silage. 263. Harvesting grain. 264. Harvest-
ing hay crops. 265. Operating household equipment. 266. Gas
tractor operation.

CHAPTER X XIX. PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY RE-
PAIR. : 298

267. Proper time for checking up needed repairs. 268. Repair
and adjustment of tillage machinery. 269. Repairing a walking
plow. 270. Walking plow. adjustment. 271. Sulky and gang
plows. 272, Adjusting sulky or gang plow. 273. Repair of peg-

CONTENTS 1a!

toothed harrow. 274. Repairing a disc harrow. 275. Repair and
adjustment of planting machinery. 276. Repairing a grain drill.
277. Adjusting a grain drill. 278. Repairing corn planter. 279.
Adjustment of corn planter. 280. Repair and adjustment of fer-
tilizer distributors. 281. Repairing manure spreader. 282. Re-
pairing and adjusting straw spreader. 283. Repairing a lime and
fertilizer sower. 284. Repair and adjustment of harvesting ma-
chinery. 285. Repairing a mower. 286. Repairing and adjust-
ing a binder. 287. Belt-driven machinery. 288. Repairing a
grain separator. 289. Babbitting machine bearing boxes. 290.
Babbitting a solid bearing. 291. Babbitting a split-box bearing.
292. Scraping a babbitted bearing. 293. Repair and adjustment
of a motor. 294. Overhauling an engine.

PART VI

BELTS AND BELTING

CHAPTER XXX. KINDSOF BELTS AND BELT LACES . 329
295. Methods of connecting machines. 296. Four kinds of belts.
297. Cement splice. 298. Cementing belt. 299. Laced joints. 3C0.
The process of lacing.

CHAPTER XXXI. PROJECTS IN LACING BELTS. . 383
301. Single-cross lacing; one row of holes punched on each end.
302. Single-cross lacing; two rows of holes punched on each end.
303. Double-cross lacing; one or two rows of holes punched on
each end. 304. The wire belt lacing. 305. The Annan lacing.
306. The hinge belt lacing. 307. Belt-hook joint.

PART VII
FARM HOME LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT

CHAPTER XXXII. FARM LIGHTING AND HEATING . 341
308. Necessity for good light. 309. The cheapest light. 310. A
more modern lighting plant. 311. Electric lighting plants. 312.
Acetylene lighting plants. 313. Gasoline gas lights. 314. Blau gas
lights. 315. Farmhouse heating. 316. The hot-air system. 317.
Steam and hot-water systems.

12 FARM MECHANICS

CHAPTER XX XIII. FARM WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE

DISPOSAL 52x fag Mane Sen eae
318. Importance of Sane atGn on ite fais 319. Simplest water
system. 320. Gravity system. 321. Water air-pressure system.
322. Hydraulic ram. 328. Selecting a system. 324. The septic
tank. 325. The art of plumbing. 326. Materials used for plumb-
ing. 327. Pipe vise. 328. Pipe cutters. 329. Die stocks and dies.
330. Pipe wrenches. 331. Reamers. 332. Rule. 3338. Pipe-fittings.

CHAPTER XXXIV. DRAINAGE AND PIPE FITTING. 361
334. Fitting. pipe handle for lawn roller. 335. Measuring mate-
rials for handle. 336. Threading pipe. 337. Cutting pipe. 338.
Installing drain from kitchen sink to sewage disposal system. 339.
Establishing grade line for drain. 340. Digging ditch to grade.
341. Laying the tile. 342. Installing kitchen sink and pump. 348.
Maximum depth for pumping water. 344. Location of kitchen
sink. 345. Connecting pipe for pump. 346. Installing plumbing
in country home. 347. Sewer tile. 348. Soil pipe. 349. Connecting
fixtures and vents. 350. Connecting cast-iron and lead pipe.

CHAPTER XX XV. SUPPLEMENTARY PLUMBING PROJECTS 373
351. Piping water to stock tank. 352. Installing hot-water tank
with kitchen range having hot-water back. 3538. To make a stock
water heater. 354. Installing hydraulic ram. 355. Installing drain
tile at foundation of house. 356. Additional jobs on farm.

PAR Watt
ROPE AND HARNESS WORK ON THE FARM

CHAPTER XXXVI. CONSTRUCTION AND USES OF ROPE 379
357. The need for rope work. 358. Materials of which rope is
made. 359. How rope is made. 360. Ropeterms. 361. Care and
treatment of rope. 362. Requirements of a good knot. 363. Theory
of knots and splices.

CHAPTER X X XVII. WHIPPING AND MAKING END KNOTS;

END SPLICES .. 383
364. Tools and material needed oe rope ane 365. crautiaert of
raveled rope. 366. Whipping. 367. Crown knot. 368. Wall knot.

CONTENTS 13

3869. Wall and crown knot. 3870. Manrope knot. 371. Matthew
Walker knot. 372. End or crown splice. 3873. Overhand knot.
374. Blood knot. 375. Figure 8 knot. 376. Stevedore knot..

CHAPTER XX XVIII. TYING KNOTS AND HITCHES . 388
377. Practice in tying knots. 378. Binder knot. 379. Square knot.
380. Granny knot. 381. Surgeon’s knot. 382. Weaver’s knot.
383. Carrick’s bend.

Knots for Fastening Cattle, Tying Hay Ropes, Ete.
384. Bowline knot. 3885. Double-rope bowline knot. 286. Slip
knot. 387. Manger knot. 388. Lariat knot. 389. Hangman’s
noose. 390. Farmer’s loop.

Temporary Hitches.
391. Half hitch. 392. Timber hitch. 398. Rolling hitch. 394.
Clove hitch. 395. Scaffold hitch. 396. Blackwall hitch. 397.
Sheepshank.

Splices.
398. End or crown splice. 399. Loop splice. 400. Eye splice or
side splice. 401. Short splice. 402. Long splice.

CHAPTER XXXIX. PROJECTS IN ROPE WORK . 402
403. Making a halter. 404. An adjustable halter. 405. Making
a non-adjustable halter. 406. The trip rope. 407. Throwing or
casting rope. 408. Rope for casting cattle.

CHAP Ole ARNESS REPAER ie. ° >. o- 409
409. The importance of good harness. 410. The harness room.
411. Harness oil. 412. Repair leather. 413. Equipment for har-
ness work. 414. Splicing worn harness strap. 415. Preparing strap
for sewing. 416. Sewing the splice. 417. Sewing buckle and ring
on harness strap. 418. Instructions for sewing buckle. 419. Over-
hauling a set of harness. 420. Adjusting harness to horse. 421.
The bridle. 422. The collar. 423. Hames. 424. Other adjust-
ments.

PART I

WOODWORKING

CHAPTER 1
TREES AND LUMBER

1. Logging. The student is familiar with wood in two
forms. One is logs and the other is lumber. It is not only
desirable as information that you know the common trees,
but it is necessary for practical purposes that you know dif-
ferent kinds of wood when you see them in boards.

Timber is first “‘spotted’’ by men who go thru the forest to
mark with an ax those trees which are to be cut. It is then
felled (chopped or sawed down) and trimmed by having all
limbs cut off. The body, or trunk, of the tree and the limbs
which are large enough to be sawed into boards are cut to
board lengths of twelve, fourteen, or sixteen feet, etc., forming
logs. These logs are rolled, hauled or skidded into a clearing
to be piled up, measured and later transported to a saw-mill.

While in large piles in the clearing, which is an open space
in the woods where the logs are said to be “‘banked,”’ they are
scaled. This is measuring and estimating the number of
board feet in each log. Each end of the log is measured and
marked with the owner’s number. |

The banking ground is frequently near a river and on a
level above that of the water in the river, so that the logs can
easily be rolled down into the stream, where they are allowed
to drift to some point down stream, to be collected in a bog,

16 WOODWORKING

or set-back, near a mill, and then to be sorted and later run
into the mill and sawed into lumber. In ease it is not pos-
sible to transport logs in the natural way, as just described,
they must be hauled by team or train to the mill.

This description is very brief and is designed merely to give
the outstanding facts in the process of felling trees and con-
veying them cut up to the mill. The reader is referred to
Noyes’ Handwork in Wood, published by The Manual
Arts Press, Peoria, Illinois, for an adequate description of
this process and for a bibliography on logging.

2. Milling. The logs are conveyed from the mill pond
or yard into the mill by means of an endless chain and the
‘ack ladder’ which is an inclined platform running from the
mill into the water of the mill yard. The endless chain which
runs over this inclined platform is fitted with studs which en-
gage with the logs as they are directed toward the jack ladder
by men with long spiked poles. The logs are carried end to
end into the mill and there are inspected for stones which may
be lodged in the bark. A flipper, controlled by steam, throws
each log to the side when the operator of the machine throws
a lever. The log now rolls down an inclined plane to a stop
made of heavy iron which is located at the edge of the saw
table. When the operator of the saw wants a log, he releases
the stop. This operation permits one log to roll onto the saw
table, where it is dogged, or clamped, to the table.

The saw table moves backward and forward. With each
passage of the table, a large circular, or band, saw cuts off a
board. When two or three boards have been removed from
the side, the log is turned completely over by what is called a

TREES AND LUMBER 17

steam “‘nigger,’’ and a similar operation is performed on the
opposite side.

By easily-controlled machinery, the log is revolved or
moved into different positions to be sawed into boards. Itis
sent from the saw to the edger and the cross-cut, or butting,
saw on “live” rollers which revolve on a horizontal table and
transmit the boards at a rate of 200 to 250 feet per minute

Fic. 1. Methods of sawing Fic.2. End of log, showing
lumber. A, slash-sawing; B, annual rings and medullary
quarter-sawing. rays.

from one place to another. Finally, the boards, now known
as lumber, are transferred to a shed, where they are sorted as
to size, quality and cut, and then again transferred out of
doors to be piled for air-seasoning until sold for construction
purposes.

Boards are usually slash-sawed, the term used for parallel
sawing (A, Fig. 1). However, they are also rift-sawed or
quarter-sawed, which means that the saw cut is radial, as
shown in B, Fig. 1. The advantage of the radially-sawed
board is that the edges rather than the sides of the fiber of the
wood form the surface of the board and thereby make a more
even grain and one which wears better. |

3. Tree Growth. Whenatreeissawed down, the sawed
end will show concentric rings (Fig. 2). Those near the cen-

18 WOODWORKING

ter are more compact than the ones near the outside. The
center portion is called heart wood; the outer portion, sap
wood, because it conducts the sap which gives vitality to the
tree.

Each ring, if observed closely, will be found to be made up
of two layers—one denser than the other. These are called
annual rings because one pair of rings is formed each year.
The dense portion of the ring is the result of winter growth,
and the porous part is that formed in the spring and summer
when the growth is most rapid.

Upon closer inspection, it will be observed that these rings
are crossed by radial lines running from the center to the bark.
These are called medullary rays. In a sense, they help to
bind the rings together. Whencut at aslant, as they may be
in radial- or quarter-sawing, these rays, which are very solid,
will appear as light spots in the grain of the wood shown on
the surface of a board. The beauty of quarter-sawed wood
when polished makes certain kinds of it very desirable for in-
terior finish and furniture construction. One of the woods
which has this particular feature emphasized is oak. Other
grain irregularities, such as wanes and gnarls, make attractive
wood surfaces. Curly birch and bird’s-eye maple are con-
spicuous examples.

4. Seasoning. One of the most important parts of the
preparation of wood for construction use is its seasoning or
drying. A properly-seasoned board is lighter than one not
seasoned. It is stronger and is not subject to change of vol-
ume which causes checking and warping. Of the several
methods of seasoning, the best is natural-air-drying, which
takes from two to six years. In this process, boards are piled

TREES AND LUMBER 19

‘up with broad surfaces horizontal and separated one from an-

other by thin strips of wood known as sticks. The boards in
a particular layer are placed so that edges will not touch;
hence, air is permitted to circulate throughout the pile and
come in contact with all surfaces. The piles are set up a foot
or more from the ground, one end being a few inches higher
than the opposite one. They are covered with boards to pro-
tect the drying lumber from rain and sun.

In order to produce lumber quickly for construction use, it
is artificially seasoned or kiln-dried. This reduces the mois-
ure of the wood to perhaps five per cent, whereas, in the
natural process, ten per cent is the approximate minimum.
However, kiln-dried lumber will more quickly re-absorb mois-
ture. As most lumber nowadays is seasoned by some artifi-
cial means, it is advisable to pile it in shops as for air-season-
ing. Incase there is a tendency to warp, it is sometimes ad-
visable to clamp a board to a flat surface, concave surface
down, or clamp two boards together with the concave surfaces
facing each other.

Whenever a board is dressed, it 1s well to plane both broad
surfaces, especially in the case of air-dried lumber, in order to
open the pores, as it were, on both sides and thus make the ex-
posure conditions uniform throughout. If the ordinary
means of overcoming warping are not sufficient, it is some-
times possible to straighten a board by heating the convex
side and, possibly, at the same time moistening the concave
side. The heating can be done by laying the board on top of
a furnace.

20 WOODWORKING

5. Measurements and Calculations. Lumber is meas-
ured by the so-called board foot, which is one foot square and
one inch thick.

There are two satisfactory methods of calculating the num-
ber of board feet in a board or a number of boards:

Rule 1. Multiply thickness in inches by width in inches
by length in feet, and divide by 12. Example: ce
= 16-1/3 board feet. 7

Rule 2. Multiply the thickness in inches by width in feet by

length in feet. Example: aos = 161/38 board feet.

The possibility of cancellation in the second method makes ~
it shorter and, consequently, preferable.

When purchasing lumber, give the dimensions in the order
of thickness, width and length, as: 8 pieces 5’’ x 9" x 12’.

In quantities, lumber should be ordered as follows:

Example 1. 1000’ Norway pine dressed two sides to 7/8’’,
9” andup. This makes the minimum width 9”.

Example 2. 1000’ White Pine S4S 7/8” x 5x12’. This
means all boards are to be surfaced on all four surfaces and
the dimensions are to be uniform, viz.: 7/8” thick by 5’’ wide
by 12’ long.

6. Trees. ‘Trees are divided into two general classes
known as the broadleaf, or hardwoods, and the needleleaf, or
softwoods. In each of these classes, there are many varieties
which are of great value in some one or more forms of con-
struction work. Those listed below are only a few of particu-
lar significance, either because of their general use, or because
of their prevalence in agricultural or industrial communities:

NAME
Oak.

Distinguishing
Tree Features:

Ash,

TREES AND LUMBER

BROADLEAF OR HARDWOODS

VARIETY
White.

Red Oak.

Burr.
Black.

Live.

LOCATION

NorthCentral
and East U.S.

NorthCentral
and East U.S.
East of long.
96, westward
to Mo. and
Tex.

West of
Rockies.

QUALITIES

Durable,
easily
worked.
Does not
warp or
check easi-
ly. Polishes
well.
Same.
Same.
Same.

Durable,
tough.

Sapwood, light brown to yellow.

Height, 75 feet; diameter, 4-1/2 feet.

White.

Black.

Green

Oregon.

Eastern U.S.

North and
Northeast
Wes:

East of
Rockies.

Pacifie Coast.

Tough,
elastic,
straight-
grained,
brittle.
Soft, heavy,
tough, not
strong.

Hard
heavy,
strong,
brittle.
Light, hard,
strong.

USES

Cabinet
work and
Interior
finishes.

Same.
Same.
Same.
Also out-
door con-
struction.
Imple-
ments.

Heartwood, light brown to red or dark brown.

Rough bark.

Cheap in-
terior finish
and cab-
inet work.

Same and
splints.

Same

Furniture,

- cooperage,

carriage
frames.

bo
bo

WOODWORKING

BROADLEAF OR HARDWOODS (Continued)

NAME
Ash (Cont.)

Distinguishing
Tree Features:

Maple.

Distinguishing
Tree Features:

Walnut.

Distinguishing
Tree Features:

VARIETY

LOCATION

Sapwood, light yellow.
Height, 65 feet; diameter, 2-1/2 feet.

Hard.

Silver.

Red.

Oregon.

Northeast

and Hast U.S.

East Up:
Ohio Basin.

East U.S.

Western

Coast.

QUALITIES

Straight-
grained,
strong,
tough,
shrinks.
Light, brit-
tle, easily
worked.
Same.

Light, hard,
strong.

Heartwood, light to dark yellow.

Sapwood, white to dark yellow.
Height, 75 feet; diameter, 2 feet.

Black.

White
(Butternut).

Fast and Cen-
tral U.S.

Northeastand

Central. Ss.

Heavy,
hard,
strong,firm,
easily
worked.
Light, soft,
not strong.

Heartwood, dark brown to reddish brown.

Sapwood, light brown to dark brown.
Height, 80 feet; diameter, 1 foot and larger.

USES

Heartwood, yellow to brown, or reddish-brown.

Furniture,
interior fin-
ish, imple-
ments.

Interior fin-
ish, wooden
ware.
Cabinet
work.
Furniture,
tool han-
dles.

Furniture,
fixtures, in-
terior
finish.

Interior
finish, cab-
inet work.

TREES AND LUMBER

BROADLEAF OR HARDWOODS (Continued)

NAME

Hickory.

Distinguishing

Tree Features:

Chestnut.

Distinguishing

Tree Features:

Beech.

Distinguishing
Tree Features:

Birch.

VARIETY LOCATION QUALITIES

Shagbark. Eastern U.S. Verytough,
elastic,
resilient,
heavy.

Heartwood, light to dark brown.
Sapwood, ivory to cream.
Height, 85 feet; diameter, 2-1/2 feet.

East of Miss- Weak, brit-
issippiriver tle,durable,
exceptincen- easytowork,
tral portion of checksand
this section. warpsin
drying.

Heartwood, brown.
Sapwood, lighter brown.
Height, 65 feet; diameter, 7-1/2 feet.

Eastern and Hard,
CentralU.S. heavy,
strong.
Ironwood Same. Same.
(Blue Beach).

Heartwood, light reddish brown.

Sapwood, nearly white.

Height, 55 feet; diameter, 2-1/2 feet.
ironwood less.)

White. Canada, At- Soft, light,
lantic Coast weak.
to Delaware.

Red. Massachu- Light and
setts and strong.

Florida.

USES

Carriage
and imple-
ment work,
ax handles.

Cabinet
work and
furniture.

Ship and
wagon
work, plane
stocks.
Liners, tool
handles.

(Dimension of

Small
wooden-
ware, cheap
furniture.
Furniture
and wood-
enware.

24 WOODWORKING
BROADLEAF OR HARDWOODS (Continued)
NAME VARIETY LOCATION QUALITIES USES
Birch (Cont.)
Yellow. Eastern U.S. Same. Same,
Sweet. Northeastern Heavy, Furniture,
Des: hard, ships. _
strong.
Distinguishing
Tree Features: Heartwood, light brown.
Sapwood, white to yellow.
Height, 50 feet; diameter, 2 feet.
Whitewood. Yellow. Eastern Light, soft, Boxes,cab-
Coast. dificult to inet work,
season, interior
durable. trim.
Note: The
pine of the
hardwoods.
Poplar. Scattered, Same. Same.
Central U.S.
Basswood. Eastern U.S. Tough, Boxes,
Coast. weak, very cheap fur-
soft. niture, car-
riage
bodies.
Distinguishing
Tree Features: Heartwood, greenish yellow to brownish yellow.
Sapwood, almost white.
Height, 80 feet; diameter, 5 feet.
Mahogany. Central Strong, Furniture,
America, durable, interior
West Indies. easily trim.
warped,
beautiful

polish.

TREES AND LUMBER 25

BROADLEAF OR HARDWOODS (Continued)

NAME VARIETY LOCATION QUALITIES USES
Mahogany
(Cont.) |
White. Mexico and Same. Same.
Central More yel-
America. low.
Spanish. Mexico,Cuba, Same.
: West Indies. Veneers.
Cedar.
Distinguishing

Tree Features:

Heartwood reddish brown, darkens easily.

Sapwood, light brown to yellow.
Height, 50 feet; diameter, 3 feet.

NEEDLELEAF OR SOFTWOODS

NAME VARIETY LOCATION QUALITIES USES
Pine. White. NorthCentral Uniform General
and Eastern grain, carpentry,
USS: strong, boxes and
elastic, — crates.
light, easily
worked,
weakest of
pines.
Georgia South Atlan- Resinous, Heavy and
Collard. tic and Gult strongand outside
“Yellow” or _ states. heavy. construc-
“‘Longleaf’’). Durable. tion floor-
ing.
Norway New England Light,hard, Poles,
(Red). and Lake resinous. masts,
states. flooring.
Note: The
oak of the
softwoods.
Distinguishing

Tree Features:

Heartwood, yellowish to reddish brown.

Sapwood, white to whitish yellow.
Height, 80 feet; diameter, 3 feet.

26 WOODWORKING

NEEDLELEAF OR SOFTWOODS (Continued)

NAME VARIETY LOCATION QUALITIES USES

Spruce. Black. Eastern U.S. Soft,light, Structural
not durable substitute
when ex- for white
posed. pine.

White. Western Close, Lumber,

states. straight- ordinary
grain,soft, carpentry.
light.

Sitka. Pacific Coast. Construc-
tion, inte-
rior finish.

Distinguishing

Tree Features: Heartwood, reddish brown.
Sapwood, nearly white.
Height, 75 to 100 feet; diameter, 2-1/2 feet.

Fir. Great Silver. Washington, Soft,easily Interior
Oregon,Texas — split. finish,
and Mexico. boxes.
Red. Northwestern Light,hard, House
WS: strong. trimmings.

Distinguishing
Tree Features: Weartwood, light red to brownish yellow.
Sapwood, white to yellow.
Height, 200 feet; diameter, 5 feet.

Cedar. Red. Atlantic Fine- Chests,
Coast, South- grained, boxes, pen-
eastern U.S. light, soft, cils.

weak,
durable.

White. Northern Light, soft, Poles,
states,moun- weak, fencing,
tainsot North durable. railroad
Carolina and ties.

Tennessee.

TREES AND LUMBER 27

NEEDLELEAF OR SOFTWOODS (Coniinued)

NAME VARIETY LOCATION QUALITIES USES
Cedar(Cont.) Incense. Southeastern Same Furniture,
U.S. interior
finish, ship-
building.
Distinguishing

Tree Features: Heartwood, reddish brown.
Sapwood, nearly white.
Height, 40 feet; diameter, 2-1/2 feet.

Cypress. Southern Soft, very Cooperace,
Coast. durable. carpentry.
Redwood. Western Soft, dur- Construc-
Coast. able, light tion,
Calitornia. weight. shingles.
Distinguishing

Tree Features: Heartwood, reddish brown.
Sapwood, yellow. .
Height, 85 feet; diameter, 3 feet.
Giant, 250 feet; diameter, 25 feet.

The trees above listed are ‘“‘exogenous,”’ which means that
they grow from the inside out. There are a few trees which
are “endogenous,” or inward-growing. These are the palm,
yucca and bamboo, all of which grow in southern countries,
principally in the tropical region. They have little value in
this country except for novelty furniture and, when shredded
into cane, for chair seats, etc.

CHAPTER 11

WOODWORKING TOOLS

7. Classification. Practically all woodworking tools
are listed below under a classification based on use (Figs. 38, 4,
5,6 and 7). The particular use of each tool is explained in

Fic. 3. a, jointer plane;.b, jack plane; c, block plane; d, smooth
plane; e, hand drill; f, automatic drill.

the instructions given for the several projects. It is believed
that one will learn best how to use a tool by actually using it
in making something of material value.

WOODWORKING TOOLS 29

Dividing Tools: Planes (jack, smooth, block, jointer, rab-
bet, moulding, tongueand groove, router),
Chisels (firmer, paring, framing, mortise),
Saws (rip, crosscut, back, turning, compass,
dovetail),
Knife,

Fic. 4. a, rip-saw; 6, crosscut-saw; c, try-square; d, jig-saw; e, bevel
square; f, hammer; g, auger bit; h, drill bit; 7, brace and bit.

Ax,
Wedge,

Draw-knife,
Spoke-shave.

Boring Tools:

WOODWORKING

Bits (auger, center, Forstner, expansive),
Drills (single- and double-cut),

Gimlet,

Brad-awl,

Fic. 5. a, gouge (inside ground); b, gouge (outside ground}; c, draw-
knife; d, spoke-shave; e, spoke-shave; f, turning-saw; g, compass; h,
wood rasp; 72, hatchet.

Chopping Tools:

Scraping Tools:

Reamer,

Countersink.

AX,

Hatchet,

Adz.

Scraper,

Rasp,

Files (single-cut, blunt, flat, bastard, double-
cut, taper, half-round).

WOODWORKING TOOLS 31

Pounding Tools: Hammers (claw, upholsterer’s, riveting, ve-
neering),
Mallet,
Nailset.

Fic. 6. a, carpenter’s square; b, mallet; c, mortise gage; d, marking
gage; e, nailset; f, tang chisel; g, socket chisel.

Holding Tools: | Bench,
Vise,
Saw-horse,
Bench-hook,
Handscrew,
Carpenter’s clamps,
Pliers (end-cutting, side-cutting),
Pinchers (nippers),
Bit-brace.

32 WOODWORKING

Measuring and
Marking Tools: Carpenter’s square,
Rule (two-foot, steel or scale),
Try-square,
Bevel square,
Marking gage,
Compass.

Fic. 7. Woodworking bench with the tool rack.

Sharpening Tools: Grindstone,
Grinder,
Slip stone,
Oilstone,
Saw-filing machine.
Cleaning Tools: Broom,
Brush,
Buffer.

CHOAPT HR LI,
SAWS AND SAWING

Suggested Projects:
a) Garden marker (Fig. 8).
b) Flower trellis (Fig. 9).
c) Window stick (Fig. 10).
d) Buggy axle rest (Fig. 11).
é) Peck crate (Figs..12, 13, 14).

TL
ci he
Fic. 8. Gar-

den mark-
er. Tlic. 9. Flower trellis. Fic. 10. Windowstick.

8. Saws Used. The tools emphasized in this group are
the crosscut-saw and rip-saw. Auxiliary tools are the hammer,
brace and bit, bevel square, try-square and marking gage.

While there are many saws which constitute a complete
equipment, as indicated in the classification of woodworking
tools (See. 7), there are three only which are used generally

—the crosscut-, rip- and back-saws.
33

34 WOODWORKING

9. Rip-saws. ‘The formation of the teeth on a rip-saw is
shown in Fig. 15. This saw cuts with the grain and, conse-

=, taper
7

-——_____—

Fic. 13. End of peck crate. Fic. 14. Bottom of peck crate.

quently, cuts off the ends of the wood fiber (Fig. 16). dhe:
teeth, filed squarely across the saw-blade, form a series of
chisels. Alternate teeth are set to one side of the blade, one
series being set one way and the alternate series the other way
(Fig. 15). The saw-blade is thus made thicker on the tooth
edge of the blade than elsewhere, permitting the saw to pass
thru the wood without binding while it makes its Cut, or
“‘kerf’’.

SAWS AND SAWING 35

The back-saw is a combination of the rip and crosscut in
tooth formation, and is used for cutting either with or across
the grain, particularly where fine sawing is required, as in the
making of joints.

— POINT ee
i: gece Caen green SRE ee
Fic. 15. Shape of rip- Fic. 16. Position of rip-
saw teeth. saw in action.

10. Crosscut-saws. The teeth of a crosscut-saw are
filed on both the front and back edges at an angle with the
surface of the saw-blade (Fig. 17). This saw cuts across the
grain, and does its work as it makes its forward stroke. The

iv POINT HEEL = |

EXTENSIS

Fic. 17. Shape of crosscut-
saw teeth.

saw is “‘set’’ by pushing all teeth outward from the sides
which are filed. This results, as in the case of the rip-saw, in
forming two series of teeth, those of one series being pushed
toward one side of the blade, and those of the other in the
opposite direction (Fig. 17).

Working Instructions for Flower Trellis.

Suock: 1 piece, 1’ x bx 32":
Soft, straight-grained wood. (Drawing, Fig. 9.)

36 WOODWORKING

11. Rip-sawing. The chief tool exercise in this project
is rip-sawing. It is more difficult to make a series of parallel
rip-saw cuts than to make an individualone. In this project,
the cuts must be made with great care, that one fan strip may
not be weakened more than another. The guide lines must

be followed accurately.

There is a possible element of
difficulty in sawing each edge of
the trellis stock to a taper. The
saw must run at an angle with
the grain. The piece should be
placed in the vise with the end
that goes in the ground at the
top, and the taper line to be fol-
lowed by the saw must be in a
vertical position (Fig. 18). The
saw should run just outside the
y line in the waste stock.

Fic. 18. Correct position when 12, Squaring and Measur-

ere ae ing for Length. Select the
best surface (1) and the best edge (2), asin Fig. 19. With the
try-square blade on one face, called the face side, and its
beam on one edge, called the joint edge, square a line across
the face side near one end (Fig. 19).

With the beam of the try-square on the face side and the ~
blade on the joint edge, run the try-square with the left hand
toward the end of the line squared across the face side until
the blade touches the blade of the knife held in the right
hand, the point of the knife-blade being on the end of this

SAWS AND SAWING 37

squared line. With the try-square in this position, square a
line across the joint edge (Fig. 20).

Measure the board for length from the squared line on the
face side and mark a point with the end of the knife-blade

i)
Fic. 19. Position of try-square Fic. 20. Position of try-square
when squaring face side. when squaring edge.

(Fig.21). Us.ng the try-square as just described and holding
the end of the knife-blade in this point, bring the square up to
the knife, square a line across the face side, and then, as on the

Fig. 21. Marking for length.

—< Knife line

Fig. 22. Board marked for length.
first end, across the joint edge. The board is now marked for
length (Fig. 22).

13. Gaging for Width. Gage two lines on the face side
—one 3-1/2” and the other 4” from the joint edge.

Set the marking gage so that the width of the board is indi-
cated by the distance from the marker to the stop (Fig. 23).
This distance should be measured with a ruler before using
the gage (Fig. 24). Inspect the marker before setting the

38 WOODWORKING

gage to see that it protrudes from the beam of the gage about
1/32” and that it is filed to a knife edge parallel to the surface
of the stop (Fig. 25).

\wiors oF BOARD

Fic. 23. Setting the Itc. 24. Testing gage
marking gage. with rule.

Hold the gage on the face side of the wood with the head
against the joint edge (Fig. 26), and run the gage from the end
of the wood nearest you to the far end, which, in the case of a

Fig. 26. Position of gage
Fic. 25. Correct shape cf when marking on wide
point of marking gage. boards.

long piece, may be rested on the bench (Fig. 27). The rela-
tive position of the gage and the wood is shown in Fig. 28.

Do not roll the gage as it is pushed over the surface of the
wood, as this will make the marker run too deeply into the
wood.

The board is now marked for width (3-1/2’’), with another
mark to guide the rip-saw in its first cut, and to provide a 1/2”
strip along the edge of the board to be used in fastening t’:e
fan strips on the end of the trellis (Fig. 29).

14. Marking Fan Strips. Lay off six points on the fan
end of the board, 1/2” apart. Do this by laying the

SAWS AND SAWING 39

graduated edge of the ruler across the end of the board on the
face side, with the end of the ruler against the joint edge
and the graduated edge on
the squared knife line, and
making a point with a
sharp pencil at each 1/2”

graduation mark on the > -
ruler (Fig. 30).
CS

: .
eee —<—S
Woop
Fic. 28. The correct angle for Fic. 27. Correct method of holding
position of gage. Soe ee

With a straight edge, connect each one of these points with
the center point of the 3-1/2” strip on the other end of the
board. The outside lines only need be drawn the full length.

Fic. 29. The board after gage lines
have been drawn.

All others should be drawn a dis-
tance equal to the depth of the saw
cuts for the fan strips (Fig. 31). The Fic. 30. Measuring for
bottom of these cuts should be located tay are
by a squared pencil line across the face side of the board, as-
should the position of the center line of each of the bolt holes
Gli, 32).

15. Boring Holes. Place the board edge up in the vise.
With a 5/16” auger-bit in the bit-brace, stand squarely before

40 WOODWORKING

the board, placed horizontally edgewise in bench vise, with
spur of bit on center for one of the holes to be bored for bolts
and with bit in a vertical position (Fig. 33). This position
may be tested by the use of the try-square (Fig. 34). With
left hand on knob and
right hand grasping
the handle, turn the
handle clockwise until

Fic. 31. Laying out rip-saw cuts. about Oneololie cnt
hole is bored. Repeat this operation in boring the second
hole. Reverse the board in the vise and bore the second
half of each hole. Great care must. be taken to make all
borings straight to secure holes without shoulders near the
center. |

Fic. 32. The board marked for bolt holes.

16. Sawing Ends. The saw works at an angle to the
surface of the board (Fig. 35). The strokes are taken the
length of the saw without exerting more pressure than to
guide the saw. The squared line on the face side should be
touched by the saw as it goes across the surface (Fig. 35).
The squared line on the joint edge should be touched by the
saw as it finishes its cut thru the board. Ina similar man-
ner saw to the squared lines on the other end of the board.

When sawing, place the board on the top of wooden
horse with its end projecting over the end of the horse and
with face side up and joint edge toward operator (Fig. 36.)
Hold the stock with left knee and left hand, allowing thumb
of left hand to guide the saw when beginning the cut. The

SAWS AND SAWING nel

first stroke should be upward. Very little pressure is used in
downward strokes, and none in upward strokes.

17. Ripping Off One-half-Inch Strip. Place the board
with long dimension vertical in the vise. Have the gage lines

Fic. 34. Testing for squareness
when boring.

Fic. 33. Correct method cf
using auger bit.

Fic. 35. Position of cross- Fic. 36. Correct position of oper-
cut-saw when cutting. ator using a crosscut-saw.

3-1/2” and 4” from the joint edge beyond the end of the
bench (Fig. 37). Stand squarely in front of the board with

A2 WOODWORKING

right hand grasping the handle of the rip-saw (Fig. 18), allow-
ing the index finger to rest on theside of the handle. Grasp the
upper left-hand corner of the board with the thumb and the
first two fingers of the left hand, stand in a bracing position,
and place the saw on the upper end of the board in a position
Vertical line to draw it toward you. Pull the
‘@ eer saw slightly downward without pres-
sure and guide it against the thumb
_of the left hand. Make the stroke
approximately the length of the saw

Fic. 87. Stock putin vise blade. In a similar manner push the

for rip-sawing. f
saw from you, slightly upward. Con-
tinue this backward and forward motion, gradually bringing
the saw to a horizontal position, or nearly at right angles
with the surface of the board. The saw should always be
cutting so that the angle formed between the cutting edge

and the board on the operator’s side

This line vertical

is less than 90 degrees. In this man-
ner saw on the outside of the verti-
cal gage lines on the left (Fig. 37) in
sawing to the 3-1/2” and 4’ gage lines.

18. Ripping Tapered Edges. |
Place the board vertically in the vise Fic. 88. Rip-sawing at an
with fan end downward and marked ae NS eae
surface toward the front. One of the lines indicating a ta-
pered edge of the trellis must be vertical (Fig. 38). Saw to
this line in waste stock, leaving a sufficient amount of
stock to plane finished edge on the board. Reset the board
in the vise so that the second line making a tapered edge is ver-
tical. Saw to this line as to the first one.

SAWS AND SAWING 43

19. Ripping for Fan Strip. Place the board vertically
in the vise and carefully saw on each line, marking the divid-
ing line between two fan strips so that one-half of the kerf is
taken on each side of the line. The end of each of these cuts
must be square with the surface of the board, and must be ex-
actly on the pencil line which limits these cuts.

All sawing on the board is now completed. Plane the two
tapered edges and the back of the board.

To secure a definite thickness, the board may be gaged for
thickness on finished tapered edges be-
fore the back of the board is planed.

Insert a stove bolt in each of the holes

Nall

bored, and fasten in position with a
washer under both the head of the bolt
and the nut.

Plane the strip which was first sawed
from the edge of the board. Saw off
12-1/2” of it, being certain that each end is square. With
try-square and sharp pencil, mark a center cross-line on

Fic. 39. Nailing the
trellis.

one edge of the strip. This line locates the center position
for the end of the middle fan strip. Similarly on this sup-
porting strip locate the center position for each of the
other fan strips. With this line at the center of the middle
fan strip and with trellis in natural position in the vise, nail
the strip to this middle fan strip at the center of its end with
two 1” brads, each about 3/16” from the outer surface of the
trellis (Fig. 39).

Carefully bend each of the outside fan strips to its proper
position, and fasten it with two brads as in the case of the
middle fan strip. In like manner, fasten each of the other

44 ‘WOODWORKING

strips. This work must be done with great care to avoid
splitting either the supporting or any one of the fan strips. A
wise precaution against such an accident is te bore holes with
a brad-awl for each of the nail holes.

Supplementary Instructions.

20. The Buggy Axle Rest and the Measuring Crate
require the use of tools not described in instructions for the
flower trellis.

Fic. 40. Bevel square used Fic. 41. Bevel square used in
with a protractor. geometric construction.

21. The Bevel Square, whichis used to lay off the angles
of the ends of the braces in the buggy axle rest, is shown in
Fig.4. Ithasanadjustable blade. It may beset by placing
it upon a protractor, as shown in Fig. 40, or for the more com-

Framing Sguare

Tia. 42. Setting bevel square to Fic. 43. Laying out with
an angle of 45°. bevel square.
mon angles, it may be set on the edge of a board with a geo-
metrical construction made near this edge with compass and
straight-edge, as shown in Fig. 41. The angie of 45 degrees
is easily secured by placing the edge of the bevel-square blade.
thru two equal graduations on the sides of a carpenter square,

SAWS AND SAWING 45

as shown in Fig. 42. A bevel angle should be laid off with a
bevel-square, much as a right angle is with a try-square.

Each end of the brace in the buggy axle rest should be com-
pletely defined by making bevel-square lines on edges and
try-square lines on broad surfaces (Fig. 43).

22. Nailing. The nailing’ exercise is the principal one in
the construction of the
measuring crate, aside
from the use of the try-
square and crosscut-saw,
asit is assumed that lath
or strips dressed to dimen-
sions will be used as stock.

The hammer should be
grasped in the right hand
near the end of the handle and swung freely from the elbow
in a vertical plane with but slight wrist and _ shoulder
movement. The thumb and finger of the left hand should
hold the nail (Fig. 44).

i Where a good many operations are re-

Fic. 44, Proper use of hammer.

ine <a oie sis
Ae peated, it is often well to use a form, or jig, to
Fic. 45. Jigfor Secure uniform results and to avoid waste of

nailing. time in unnecessary preliminaries in making

each individual operation.

Fig. 45 shows jig which might be used in locating and
driving nails when fastening crate strips on corners. The
holes are sufficiently large so that when the jig is placed over
the end of a crate strip in position to nail, and the nail is
driven thru the jig hole, the jig may be lifted off, the head of
the nail being smaller than the hole in the jig.

CHAPTER IV

PLANES AND PLANING

Suggested Projects:

a) Scouring board for kitchen (Fig. 46).

b) Bread-cutting board (Fig. 47).

c) Bulletin board to hang on wall (Fig. 48).

d) Bill board for filing meat and grocery bills (Fig. 49).
e) Swing board (Fig. 50).

f) Rope wind (Fig. 51).

=
L

ni-

= 7 The tool chiefly emphasized in this
T group of projects is the plane. Other
+2 ag |+}-—_ 4_—__

tools needed are the try-square, ruler,
marking gage, crosscut-saw, rip-saw
and, for some of the projects, the hammer or bit and bit-brace.

Fic. 46. Scouring board.

23. The Plane. There are four principal planes used in
a woodworker’s kit. They are the jointer, jack, smooth and
block. It is not necessary to have all of these in order to do
satisfactory work. The jack plane (Fig. 52) shows the plane
and its parts.
46

PLANES AND PLANING AT

pie AT:

board.

Bread-cutting

Fic. 48. Bulletin board.

yk Fa
Fic. 49. Bill board.

48 WOODWORKING

24. Care of the Plane. ‘The plane-iron must be kept
sharp. Grind it when it is very dull or nicked; otherwise,
whet it on an oilstone. Fig. 53 gives the position of the
plane-iron on a grind-
stone as held by the
operator.. Fig. 54
shows the _ position
of the plane-iron on
the oilstone as held
by the operator.

Fic. 51.. Rope wind.

25. Grinding the Plane-Iron. To grind the plane-
iron, hold it steady and at such an angle that the proper bevel
will be secured. Move it back and forth sideways to account
for any unevenness in the stone, but do not raise or lower it.

PLANES AND PLANING AY

26. Whetting the Plane-Iron. ‘To whet the plane-
iron, hold it so that the bevel formed by the grindstone will be
in contact with the oilstone. Use a circular motion in whet-

Fic. 52. Parts of jack plane:
1A Double plane-iron. 7 “Y’ adjustinglev- 13 Handle bolt &

1 Single plane-iron. er. nut.

2 Plane-iron cap. 8 Adjusting nut. 14 Knob bolt & nut.
3 Cap screw. 9 Lateral adj.lever. 15 Plane handle
4 Lever cap. 10 Frog screw. screw.

5 Lever cap screw. 11 Plane handle. 16 Plane bottom.

6 Frog, complete. 12 Plane knob. 46 Frog adj. screw.

Sj PLANE IRON 3 4.

‘Fic. 53. Position of plane- Fic. 54. Position of plane-

iron on the grindstone. iron on the oilstone.
BEVEL uP

ee)

Fic. 55. Difference in angles for Fic. 56. Whetting the face
grinding and for whetting. side of plane-iron.

50 WOODWORKING

ting (Fig. 54). Finally, raise the hands, slightly continuing
this motion. This will tend to create a whetted bevel made
slightly at an angle with the ground bevel (Fig. 55). The
plane-iron should be held in this position for a few moments
only, when it may be reversed, laid flat on the top of the stone
and given a few circular strokes (Fig. 56).

Fic. 57. Shape of cutting Tia. 58. Shape of cutting
edge for generaluse. edge for jack plane.

The irons for all planes except the jack should be ground at
right angles with the edge, with the corners rounded (Fig. 57).

The plane-iron for the jack plane, if used principally as a
roughing plane, should be ground rounding on the edge as in
Fig. 58. When used
as the only plane in a
kit, it should be ground
very slightly rounding,
if at all. The angle for
erinding, except when
a plane is used exclu-
sively for very hard
wood, should be ap-

Fic.59. Correct way of holding the plane.

proximately 20 de-
grees. The whetted bevel should make approximately 5
degrees with the ground bevel (Fig. 55).

27. Care of Plane. In order to protect the edge of the
plane-iron, lay the plane on its side when not in use. Fig. 7
shows the plane and other tools in position on a carpenter’s

PLANES AND PLANING 51

bench, which is a very satisfactory kind to use on the farm.

28. Use of the Plane. ‘To use a plane, the operator
stands in front of the bench in a bracing position, the left
foot in front of the right and the body turned slightly toward
the bench.

Note that the handle of the plane is grasped with the right
hand, with the fingers and thumb wrapped about the handle.
The palm of the left hand is placed on the knob of the plane
(Fig. 59).

The plane is placed upon the
board so that its bottom is in con-
tact with the surface to be planed.
The left hand presses the plane
downward, and the right hand
pushes it forward. When the plane
bottom is fully in contact with the wood, both hands exert
an equal pressure. As the plane projects over the end of
the board in completing its stroke, the right hand exerts the
pressure and the left hand merely serves to hold and guide
the plane.

Fic.60. Planing a wide board.

It is customary in planing a surface to begin the planing at
the edge nearest the operator, and to finish at the opposite
edge. However, if the board is warped or twisted, shavings
must first be taken from the high surfaces to establish a flat
and true surface. Then the finishing shavings should ke
taken as suggested.

Working Instructions for Swing Board:
stock: I piece, 1’’ x 6’’ x 16”.
29. Face Side. Place the board flat upon the top of the
bench with one end against the bench stop (Fig. 60). With

52 WOODWORKING

the plane set to take a light shaving, proceed to surface the
stock, as explained in Sec. 28. The planed surface should be
tested with the blade of a try-square or other straight-edge,
placed in several positions. When testing, place the blade of
the try-square across the surface at different points. The
amount of light shown between the board and the try-square
blade will indicate the low places in the surface. Continue
planing either by taking regular shavings across the board or
by planing high places only until the straight-edge test shows
approximately the same amount of light for all positions of
the try-square. Mark this surface 1.

30. Joint Edge. Place the board in the vise with one
ee edge up. Plane this edge until
it tests straight lengthwise by
the straight-edge test, and
straight and at right angles
with the face surface by using
the try-square, as shown in
Fig.61. The try-square should
ke placed on the edge at

\ ; several points, always having
Fic. 61. Testingedge with the beam of the square against
try-square. the face side. When edge

tests are satisfactory, mark the planed edge 2.

31. Second Edge. Sct the marking gage and gage for
width of the board, using the method described in Sec. 18.
Plane the second edge of the board as you did the joint
edge. ‘Test frequently with the try-square, and keep the
amount of wood to be planed off the same in thickness the en-
tire length of the board. Remember, when the gage line is

PLANES AND PLANING 53

reached, planing must stop and the edge must be straight and
square with the face side.

32. Second Surface. From the face side, gage the thick-
ness of the board on both planed edges. Plane the second
surface as you planed the first, testing frequently for straight-
ness in width and length so that the surface will be true when
the gage lines are reached.

33. First End. Place the board vertically in the vise.
First from one edge and then the other, never allowing the
plane to take a shaving completely across the end, plane the
upper end of the board square with the face side and the joint
edge (Fig. 62).

34. Second End. Measure the board for length, and
square across the face side ¥
and joint edge with knife
and try-square. (See Sec.
12 for instructions on saw-
ing and squaring.) Plane
the second end according
to the directions for plan-
ing the first end.

Note: The face side,
joint edge and first end are
surfaces from which all measurements must be taken in
securing the dimensions of a board or in making surface

Fic. 62. Planing the end.

measurements.

Fic. 63. Layout for boring. Fic. 64. Lines for rip-sawing.

BA WOODWORKING

35. Boring Holesfor Rope. With marking gage, make
a short, light center line on face side of board from each end
thru a point 3” from each end (Fig. 63). By the use of the
try-square and knife, cross each of these center lines with a
short knife line at right angles to the joint edge (Fig. 64).

With 3/4” auger-bit and brace, bore the two holes for the
rope, as shown in Fig. 65. A piece of board must be placed
on the back of the swing board, opposite the auger-bit, to pre-
vent splintering the fibers of the wood in the swing board, or,
the stock must be re-
versed in the vise as

VERTICAL

er;

Fic. 66. Position of board
Fic. 65. Boring on broad side of stock. for rip-sawing.

soon as the spur protrudes on the back side of the swing
board so that the hole may be finished from the opposite side.
36. Sawing End Notches. On each end, measure 1” in

— , each direction of the center
: ~~ lines, Square across the ends
at these points and on the face
side join the end of each of
these lines with the corre-
sponding side of the hole, to
form tangents (Fig. 66).

Place the board in the vise
| e : so that one of these lines is in
Fic. 67. Sandpapering. a vertical position (Fig. 66).

PLANES AND PLANING 55

As previously instructed, saw to this line in waste stock
with a rip-saw.

Sandpaper used over a block and run lengthwise of the
grain may be used to smooth surfaces of the swing board and
round edges slightly (Fig. 67).

Supplementary Instructions:

The “Working Instructions” for the swing board includes
practically all those necessary tor any one of the suggested
projects in this group. However, in the bulletin board and
bill board, the following cee should be made:

In cutting off the corners on
each of these projects, you

Fic. 68. Layout for corner cuts.

should work from the center line
shown in Fig. 68. By measuring
on each side of this line, one will
be sure to make the end symmet-
rical. The lines drawn to show
where the corners are to be cut
should be drawn on the face side
and from each end of these a line
should be squared across the joint
edge or end of board (Fig. 68).

To saw each of these lines, put board in vise so that line
is in vertical position.

To insert bill-board stake at any particular point on the
front of the board, drill or bore a hole slightly smaller than a

Fic. 69. Use of hand drill.

56 WOODWORKING

ten-penny finishing nail thru the board from the front side, as
If a hand drill is not available, use bit

zac 5 ON

Fic. 70. Clothes pin which may
be used with bulletin board.

suggested (Fig. 69).
and brace (Fig. 4).

From the back side of the board, drive thru the hole a ten-
penny finishing nail and set the head under the surface of
the board by the use of a nailset or second nail.

The bulletin board may be equipped either with a spring
clip, as shown in Fig. 48, or with clothes pin (Fig. 70).

CHAPTER V

ESTIMATING MATERIALS; CONSTRUCTING AN ASSEMBLY
PROBLEM

Suggested Projects:
a) Wash bench (Fig. 71).
b) Chicken coop (Fig. 72).
c) Feed bin or wood-box
(Pigs 13).
d) Shipping crate (Fig. 74).
é) Flower box (Fig. 75).

58 WOODWORKING

STRAP HINGE

2x2" CORNER POSTS
MATCHED LUMBER COVERING

Fic. 73. Feed bin or wood box.

SCREWS =

Fic. 74, Shipping crate.

’ CONSTRUCTING AN ASSEMBLY PROBLEM 59

This group of projects does not require the use of tools not
already described. It represents, however, a type of project
slightly different from any of those included in former groups.
The projects in this group are larger and generally include
more distinct parts requiring the use of
more and larger stock. Inasense, they
represent a type of work which is nei-
ther carpentry on the one hand nor
bench woodwork on the other; they
combine the elements of both.

Fic. 75. Flower box.

37. Calculations of Stock. In Sec. 5, rules are given
for finding the number of board feet in one or more boards.
It is essential that we know how to apply this rule, both to
estimate the cost of a project and actually to determine the
amount of material that has gone into it. It is equally im-
portant to form a judgment of what stock to select before a

60 WOODWORKING

project is chosen. For example, small pieces of wood may
sometimes be used up for the smaller parts of a project, while
boards from which pieces for the project may he cut can be
selected carefully with a view to wasting as little material as
possible.

Think carefully of the means of getting out stock, both to
save material and tosavetime. Beassystematic about your
work as possible. When a tool is set for a particular dimen-
sion or use, do all that you can with it, not only on one board,
but on all which are to have similar work done upon them.
Plan ahead so that you know exactly what you should do
next, and how you will proceed from step to step. Think
thru a problem before you begin construction. If you need
to make changes, you can do so better, having once thought
out one solution. Whenever possible, make a complete work-
ing drawing of the project with dimensions and notes.

Working Instructions for Chicken Coop:

Instructions are given below for making the chicken coop.
Use strips of wood, if they can be found, for the slats in the
front, and select boards for the roof and back as nearly as pos-
sible the desired width. For such a project as this, use old
material if available rather than new. Old fence boards are
satisfactory for the back.

38. Roof Boards. Secure lumber free from knots which
will cut economically to make the roof boards. Example:
Two boards, each 9’ wide, or one 12’ and the other 6” wide,
the latter a fence board, possibly. Test the ends of boards
for squareness. Use a carpenter’s square for this, and in case
an end needs to be sawed square, follow the usual method of

CONSTRUCTING AN ASSEMBLY PROBLEM 61

squaring and sawing, substituting the carpenter’s square for
the try-square. If two boards are used, find the center in
length of each one. Square across thru the center points and
saw on lines. Place one 12” and one 6” board, or the two 9”

Fic. 76. First cross cleatin place. F1c.77. Second cross cleat in place.

boards edge to edge with ends flush. Nail a 2” or 3” strip
1/2” from one end of the pair of boards (Fig. 76), and another
3’ strip flush with the opposite end (Fig. 77).

Place the remaining two boards together in a similar man-
ner and fasten at one end only with a strip placed 1/2” from
the end.

Nail the unfastened end of one pair to the end of the other

‘p

\s
H
l
\
Y

Fic. 78. Roof sections nailed together. HIGA to. Attaching side slats.

pair which has the strip attached flush with the end (Fig. 78).
This joint forms the ridge of the roof of the coop. The cleat
should be on the under side, and nails should enter it as well
as the ends of the boards to which it is fastened when the two
pairs of boards are nailed together at the ridge.

39. Fastening Front Strips. Place the roof edgewise
on the ground and fasten the lower ends together with a 4” or
6’’ strip of siding to form the lower front board of the coop

62 WOODWORKING

(Fig.79). The lower edge of this board should be high enough ~
to permit the coop to set off the ground at least 1-1/2”. A
pan of water can then be placed under it and be held by it
when the coop is in use. Before fastening the lower front
board in place, set a bevel-square to 45 degrees. Mark and
saw the ends of the board
to come flush with the out-
side surfaces of the roof
boards. A miter box may.
be used to saw the ends of
this board and other boards
to be fastened on the front
and back (Fig. 80). Stock for remaining cleats may be sawed
by using the method of laying out and sawing, as shown in
Fig. 81.

In asimilar manner, mark, saw and nail the remaining front
strips which may be laths or narrow strips of wood. A
space of from 1” to 1-1/2” should be left between adjacent

Fic. 80. Miter box.

ae er Cc ———-
gee ere Ewer BETWEEN
Board | 1S JUST BELOW BOARD 2 WHEN tf strips
NAILEO IN POSITION

Fic. 81. Method of laying out strips. FIG. 82. Gage for spacing slats.

strips, all of which should be parallel. The space can easily
be determined by the use of a gagé made as shown in Fig. 82.

40. Fastening Back Boards. ‘Turn the coop over, cut
and fasten the back boards, beginning at the bottom. Alter-
nate boards should be reversed in order to save lumber by
taking advantage of the end cut made at 45 degrees (Fig. 81).

41. Trimming. Place the coop on the floor in its nat-
ural position. If it does not set squarely on all bottom edges,

CONSTRUCTING AN ASSEMBLY PROBLEM 63

plane those which are too low until ail surfaces rest on the
floor. In case the ends of the front or back boards project
over the surface of the roof boards, they should be planed
flush with these boards.

42. Checking Estimate. Measure carefully all stock
used, and determine the number of board feet of lumber in the
project. Compare this amount with the original estimate.
If this and the planning at the beginning of a project are both
done whenever a project is constructed, you will gain in eff-
ciency in making close estimates and in planning to save both
material and time.

CHAPTER VI

CHISELING; MMAKING COMMON FRAMING JOINTS

Suggested Projects:
a) Milk stool (Fig. 88).
b) Combination milk stool and pail rest (Fig. 84).
c) Harness rack (Fig. 85).
d) Harness clamp (Fig. 86).
e) Seed tester (Fig. 87). ©
f) Saw horse (Fig. 88).

Fig. 84. Combination milk stool and pail rest.
64

MAKING COMMON FRAMING JOINTS 65

eal

Fic. 85. Harness rack.

Fig. 88. Saw horse.

66 WOODWORKING

43. Tools. The tools emphasized in this group are the
different kinds of chisels. (See Classification, page 29.) Aux-
iliary tools described are the double gage, mallet, and nailset.

tt
is eae
a | ee
Fic. 89. Socket chisel. Fic. 90. Tang chisel.

44, Preliminary Instruction. For carpentry work, a
heavy chisel is required, one in which the handle fits into a
socket in the chisel blade, called the socket chisel (Fig. 89).
For ordinary use, however, even tho the handle of the chisel
will be struck with a mallet
occasionally, but lightly, a
chisel with a spike on the end
of it (a “‘tang’’) which fits into
the handle is used (Fig. 90).

The work a chisel does is
divided into two classes, de-
pending upon the relation of
the direction of cutting and the
grain of the wood cut. When
the chisel cuts with the grain
(Fig. 91), it is said to pare off
a shaving, and the process is called paring. When a chisel
cuts across the grain, whether abruptly or at a sharp angle
with the wood fiber, it is said to be cutting crosswise, and
the process is called cross-chiseling (Fig. 92). In case one
cuts across the grain in a vertical position, the process is
called vertical chiseling. It is in cross or vertical chiseling
that the mallet is much used to force the chisel across the

Fig. 91. Paring with chisel.

MAKING COMMON FRAMING JOINTS 67

grain. Such work is illustrated by the cutting of joints such
as the tenon and mortise joint, in which the mortise js
chiseled out.

A chisel is ground and whetted in the manner described for
sharpening a plane-iron (Sec. 26).

Working Instructions for Seed Tester:
Stock: Four 1” x 3-1/2” x 6” hard pine S28.
Four 1” x 6-1/4’ x 6” matched flooring S28.
Six-penny (6d) nails and 1-1/2” brads.

45. Purpose of Seed Tester. The following instruc-
tions are for the seed tester, or germinating box, which is used
to test the fertility of seeds.
As the soil must be moist for
this purpose, the box must be
made strong to withstand the
effect of the moisture, which
has a tendency to open up
joints and change the shape of
boards by warping or winding.

It is for this reason that the
corners of the box are mace
with a lock joint, and that the
tongues of the joint are glued
and nailed together (Figs. 87
and 98).

The upper surface of the soil ae Chiseling across the
is blocked off into squares that
each one may be used for an individual seed or a group cf
seeds. These squares are determined by a cord strung be-
tween the opposite sides of the box (Fig. 87).

68 WOODWORKING

46. Rough Cutting. If necessary, rip the pieces for the
sides of the box from a board, and square and saw each to the
required length. Plane each board to width (3-1/2’’) and
thickness (3/4’’).

Fic. 98. Corner joint for Fic. 94. First step in lay-
seed tester. ing out joint.

47. Laying Out. On the face side of each board, which
should become the inside surface of a side of the box, square a
knife line 1” from each end, or a distance equal to the thick-
ness of the stock. Continue this as a fine pencil line around
the piece.

FiG. 95. d step.
: Rae aee Fic. 96. Waste wood

marked for removal.

From the joint edge, which should become the upper edge
of aside of the box, gage consecutively on the end and on both
surfaces of each end of each board a line 3/4” from the joint
edge to form the first dovetail line (Fig. 94). Reset the gage
to 1-3/8” (3/4’’ + 5/8’), and in a similar manner gage the sec-
ond dovetail line on each end of each piece (Fig.95). Contin-
ue this process of gaging, adding 3/4” and 5/8” alternately
until all cuts are indicated. On the end of each board, mark
with a pencil the parts of the joint to be removed (Fig. 96).

48. Sawing. Saw with the rip-saw to each line in the

MAKING COMMON FRAMING JOINTS 69

stock to ke removed. Saw witha crosscut-saw, to the shoul-
ders, those corners to be removed (Fig. 97).

49. Chiseling Joints. Lay each board flat on a wooden
surface and chisel out remaining parts of joint to be removed.
The chisel should be held at an angle, and the first cut should
be made near, but not on the shoulder line (Fig. 98). The
last cut should be made by holding the
edge of the chisel on this line, perpendicu-
lar with the surface of the board, the depth
of the cut being about one-half the thick-
Fic. 97. Sawing ness of the board (Fig. 99). Reverse the

Eerie, board, again place the edge of the chisel on
the line, and gently tap the chisel with mallet, or push it
with right hand thru to meet the opposite cut already
formed. This must be done with
great care not to under-cut the joint
to any appreciable extent.

The sides of the tongues formed by fy. 98. Chiseling dove
the rip-saw cuts should not be touch- tails.
ed with a chisel unless the saw has not cut to the gage lines.
In this case, the chisel should be used to pare off this super-
fluous stock (Fig. 91).

50. Fastening Corners. Drivea1-1/2” brad thru each
projecting piece of the joint, as shown in Fig. 100. Before
driving the nails in the corners, cover
each sliding surface of each joint with
cold or hot glue.

51. Nailing Bottom. The bottom
Poona iaihe ire boards may be nailed onto the lower

chisel cut. edges of the sides of the box with six-

70 WOODWORKING

penny common nails (Fig. 101). Each bottom board should
be squared and sawed to length before it is nailed in place.

A more satisfactory box in appearance and in strength, but
one more difficult to make, would have the bottom set inside
of the sides of the box and nailed from
the outside. Such a bottom would be
completely fitted and set in place at
one time (Fig. 102). :

52. Marking Edges. With pencil FG. 100. Position of

oust . nails in joints.
and ruler, divide the length of the inside
of each side of the box into equal spaces—1”’, 1-1/2” or 2’’—
depending upon the distance the strings on the top of the box
are to be separated.

Square a light pencil line across the upper edge of each

Fig. 102. The bottem
Fic. 101. Method of at- fitted inside of side
taching the bottom. pieces.

board at the points located, and place at the center of each of
these lines a 1-1/2” brad (Fig. 103). The brad should be
driven into the wood to allow the head
to project 1/4’ above the surface of
the wood. Continue the process until
all brads are driven in place.

String the cord continuously back Fic. 103, Location of nails
for stringing.

and forth between the opposite sides
of the box, the cord running between one pair of sides to be

MAKING COMMON FRAMING JOINTS (p!

at right angles with that strung between the sides of the
other pair.

53. Supplementary Instructions. In the _ instruc-
tions for the seed tester, two operations in which the
chisel is a principal tool are not fully
described, viz.—(a) paring a broad

surface and (b) cutting a mortise.

Reeds Minkine the Examples of the former are found in

joints for saw horse. the body of the saw horse, where are-

Fic. 105. Method of chiseling Fic. 106. Layout of joint
joints. for milking stool.

cess for the leg is formed, or in the upright of the harness
clamp, where supporting surfaces for the barrel staves are
formed; while the latter is used in working out and cutting a
mortise and tenon for the joint in the milking stool.

54. Special Operations. After the recess for the saw
horse leg is laid out in the body of the saw horse, and the
shoulders are cut with a crosscut-saw (Fig. 104), the waste
stock must be removed. Fig. 105 shows how the chisel is
used in taking paring cuts. The waste stock being removed,
the surface is finally tested with a try-square blade used as a
straight-edge to determine when the surface is perfectly true.

To lay off the tenon on the top of the upright piece in the
milking stool, the try-square and single- or double-marking
gage should be used and lines drawn, as indicated in Fig. 106.

Parallel lines can be made at one time with the double gage
(Fig. 107). The cross-hatched part of Fig. 106 represents the

72 WOODWORKING

end of the tenon. Saw to lines a with crosscut-saw in waste
stock. Saw to lines b in waste stock with rip-saw.

Fig. 108 shows the joint for the milking stool with the rec-
tangle representing the mortise made up of lines marked 6,
corresponding to similarly-lettered
lines on top of upright. The long

)

Fic. 107. Gaging
joint for milking Fic. 108. The joint com-
stool. pleted.

lines of this rectangular hole should be made on both
top and bottom of board with the marking gage, the short
lines with knife and try-square. The extension of the short

Fic. 109. Boring out the mortise.

lines marked b about the edge of the board suggests how the
try-square will be used to secure lines on the under side of the
board corresponding to those on the top side.

The mortise should be bored out by the process illustrated -
in Fig. 109, the ends of the mortise chiseled as described in
Sec. 49, and the sides of the mortise pared out as described in
Sec. 44.

CHAPTER VII

USE OF MODELING OR FORMING TOOLS; SHAPING IRREGULAR
FORMS

Suggested Projects:

a) Hammer handle (Fig. 110).
b) Hatchet handle (Fig. 111).
c) Neckyoke (Fig. 112).
d) Singletree (Fig. 118).
e) Shoulder carrier (Fig. 114).

aries os, ene ee oe ee
ae / ae SET aap aa
EF ee

3-4

Fig. 112. Neckyoke, Fig. 113. Singletree.

522-52 Model to fit shoulders

Fic. 114. Shoulder carrier.

74 WOODWORKING

55. Modeling Tools. Under the classification of tools
(Sec. 7), are listed those in common use. Among these, but
not under a single heading, are those which are used princi-
pally for fashioning irregular surfaces. In such a group are
found the spoke-shave, the draw-knife and similar tools; the
hatchet, ax and adz, and also such miscellaneous tools as the
turning-saw, woodrasp and gage (Fig. 5).

Perhaps in no place where woodworking hand tools are in
common use are the modeling tools more generally used than
on the farm, with the possible exception of the cooper shop.
The cutting edge of any one of these tools, except the turning-
saw and file, is, in form and use, both a chisel and a knife, yet
none of them are used either as the chisel or knife.

Both the draw-knife and the spoke-shave (Fig. 5) are
chisels with a handle at either end of the cuttingedge. Inthe
case of the spoke-shave, the thickness of the shaving is con-
trolled by a gage in an opening in the shoe or bed-plate of the —
spoke-shave. There is also similarity in construction be-
tween this tool and the plane.

On the other hand, the hatchet, ax and adz are chisels, but
controlled differently from either the chisel or the spoke-shave
and draw-knife. The descriptive matter under heading,
‘Working Instructions,’ in the following pages, suggests
the use of each of these tools, and should be studied care-
fully in connection with the illustrations.

The instructions given are for making the hatchet handle.
This project includes the principal modeling exercises for the
majority of the forming tools herein listed.

USE OF MODELING OR FORMING TOOLS 75

Working Instructions for Hatchet Handle:

56. Squaring the Stock—Laying Out. Planestock to
over all dimensions, 3/4’’ x 1-1/2" x 14”.

On the face side, sketch the outline of the handle, as shown
in Fig. 115. Taper the front end of the handle to 1/2” thick-
ness on the end, beginning the taper at a point 4”” from this
end, as shown in the edge view of the mechanical drawing of
the handle.

57. Using the Turning-saw. Place the stock upright
in the vise, one-half its length being above the vise. Stand in
front of the vise in position to saw
(Miesh19)3

Grasp the turning-saw in hands,
as shown in Fig. 115, the teeth
pointing toward the operator.
Move the saw away from you to
start the saw cut, or kerf; then
toward you without downward
pressure, until the saw blade has
& begun to cut. Continue to move

Fic. 115. Correct use of the saw backward and forward the
turning saw. ;
approximate length of the saw
blade, holding the frame vertically except when necessary to
vary from this position in order not to have the frame strike
the stock. Gradually turn the right hand as forward strokes
are made to direct the saw blade on the curve.

Where possible, the saw cut should be taken over the grain.
However, unless the saw can be removed from stock and
started in a new place without much difficulty, it is best to
complete a saw cut regardless of relation of wood fiber to saw

76 WOODWORKING

cut. Continue work with the turning-saw until the complete
outline of the handle is sawed out.

58. Useofthe Spoke-shave. Place the stock in vise, as
illustrated in Fig. 116. Stand at end of vise, bending slightly
over stock with spoke-shave grasped firmly, but not rigidly, in

both hands. Draw or

>" ? push it over the grain,

holding the blade square
with the face side, but al-
lowing one hand to lead
the other slightly, that the
shaving may be cut more
readily. It may be advis-

SSE ee e = able to shift the position
Fic. 116. Using thespoke-shave. of the stock in the vise
from time to time, that the tool may be used with the
least difficulty.

When the spoke-shaved edges are square with the face
side, the corners should be taken off to form a cross-section,
as shown in Fig. 111 and Fig. 117. Care

eS |
must be taken to. remove no more stock
than must be taken off finally to secure a
good oval-shaped handle. The ovalshould WK 4 aa

be an ellipse.

After the first corners are removed, the
process of cutting off corners should be
continued, as shown in Fig. 117, to secure : ;

the closest approximation to an ellipticalFic. 117. Steps in
: : modeling handles.
cross-section. The front end of the han-

dle may now be modeled to fit the hatchet head. This may

USE OF MODELING OR FORMING TOOLS 77

be done with the spoke-shave or the plane, or partly by the
use of each.

59. Scraping and Sandpapering. Finally, all irregu-
’ lar surfaces should be scraped with a piece of glass or asteel
scraper, and sandpapered, first using the sandpaper on a
block and moving the block slowly around the handle as it is
moved back and forth lengthwise with the grain. Finally,
with the sandpaper in the hand, continue to move the paper
lengthwise to secure the finished surface. Cross strokes with
the sandpaper may be taken if followed by strokes with the
grain.

Supplementary Instructions:

60. The Wood Rasp. In some cases, it is advisable to
use a wood rasp (Fig. 5) separately or in conjunction with
the spoke-shave, scraper and sandpaper in modeling a piece
of wood to an irregular form and shape. If a spoke-shave
had not been available for use on the hatchet handle, the
same general procedure could have been followed with the
wood rasp in modeling the form for each of the different
shapes described, viz.—rectangular cross-section, eight-sided
cross-section, ete.

The wood rasp is held like a file. Itis pushed forward with
pressure for the cutting stroke, and lightly drawn back in con-
tact with the wood, or lifted from the wood entirely on the re-
turn stroke. As it is pushed, it is rolled slightly and, also,
moved lengthwise on the stock, thus avoiding rutting or
gouging the wood.

The hatchet, ax or adz may be used to remove a consider-
able portion of stock to secure roughly the desired form or
shape.

(8 WOODWORKING

Of the projects listed in this group, little or no difficulty
should be experienced in securing the result indicated by the
drawings, if the instructions for the hatchet handle are fol-
lowed as a guide.

61. The Shoulder Carrier. The most difficult project
to form is the shoulder carrier. This may be modeled from a
straight-grained, well-seasoned piece of cord-wood, or from a
heavy plank. It is advisable to cut out with the turning-saw
the shape of the carrier shown in the top view, or the one you
would get if looking down on the carrier as it is placed on
one’s shoulders. Next, model the upper surface with a draw-
knife, spoke-shave and wood rasp. Finally, the under surface
should be modeled to fit over the shoulders. This work may
be done with an outside ground gouge (Fig. 5). It is pushed
into the wood with the grain, and, as the right hand is low-
ered, the stock is removed and the desired shape is secured.
The convex, concave and cylindrical surfaces of the carrier
may all be smoothed finally with a wood rasp or sandpaper, or
both.

CHAPTER VIII
SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS

62. Sheep Rack and Feed Bunk (Fig. 118).

Directions:

1) Frame up each end with 1” x 10” boards 3’ 0” long,
cleated together on the outside by the two 1” x 4” strips, and

on the inside by the 1”’ x 3” strip upon which the trough floor
is to rest. Flush with the upper edge of this cleat, and with

each of the outside edges of the bunk end, fasten the 2” x 4”
corner posts or legs.

My
My

»
nae,

phe xy “Sh &

OO IL hhh heheh VL Lah hhheheahekhed

SECTION X-Y
Fic. 118. Sheep rack and feed bunk.

2) Fasten the two bunk ends together by nailing in place
the top and bottom bunk rails.

3) Lay the floor, nailing boards to the floor cleats on the
bunk ends and to the top of the legs. Fit the middle “V”’
feed guides and the outside trough edge boards, nailing ends
of the same from outside of bunk end.

4) From lower edges of feed guides to upper corners of ends
of bunk, draw lines to locate guide boards for the 1’”” x 12”
board and rack which hold feed. Construct and nail these
guides in place.

80 WOODWORKING

5) Cut slats for rack and fasten together at top ends by
means of a 1’ x 8” board, to which all are squarely nailed.

6) Nail 1” x 12” feed boards in position to the inside guide
boards (A).

7) Place feed rack in position, supported by outside guide
boards (B). Toe-nail the bottom of each rack slat to the “V”’

von at A
ae at B

' re

Fic. 119. Woodworking bench.

feed guide board, and nail the top of the rack securely to the
1” x 12” feed board, over the lower edge of which they should
lap by 3’... This should be done after the 1’’ x 6” slide has
been placed in position. This should slide in the openings be-
tween the feed rack and the inside end guide boards with diffi-
culty, that it may be held in any particular position by fric-
tion, or it should be fastened thru grooves in the end boards of
rack by means of wing nut bolts.
63. Directions for Woodworking Bench (Fig. 119).
‘1) Construct the frame by planing for each end:
2 oak boards (uprights), each 1-3/4". x 4""x 2’ 6”.
1 oak board (lower crosspiece), 1-3/ A x3 e225
1 pine board (upper crosspiece), 17x 11’. x 2’4”.

SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 81

2) Lay out and construct the mortise and tenon joints to
join the front and back uprights with the lower crosspiece.
Tenons may be full width, viz., 3’’ wide and 3/4” thick.
Length between tenon shoulders, 2’ 1/2’.

3) Assemble each frame by joining the parts; the lower
crosspiece to be fastened to the uprights by gluing joints, and
clamped for at least twelve hours, and the upper connecting
piece to be nailed in position as soon as clamps are applied to
the lower part of the frame.

4) Construct the front of the vise, planing it to dimensions
as given inthe drawing. Fasten the lower guide piece in with
glue and nail it from each edge of the vise board. The stag-
gered holes in guide piece for vise, in which to insert pin to
keep the lower portion of the vise board the proper distance
from the bench, should each be 1/2” in diameter, in two rows
each about 1”’ from the edge of the guide board, holes to be 2”
apart in each row.

5) Nail front and back side boards, or rails, of the bench
onto the end sections.

6) Purchase a 1-1/4’ iron vise screw. Bore the holes for
this in vise board and bench, and cut the slot for the vise
guide board. Assemble vise.

7) Cut the opening for the drawer 2’ x 8” in upper portion
of center of front board, and fasten in place the runner and
guide boards for the drawer by nailing or screwing into their
ends thru front and back boards. /

8) Lay the top boards on. These may be of oak, altho
dressed pine will suffice. Joints between boards must be
tight. They need not be glued. }

9) Construct drawer, as shown by drawer details of joints,

82 WOODWORKING

and fit in bench to slide freely. The bottom of the drawer
may be nailed onto cleats fastened to the lower inside surfaces
of the sides of drawer.

64. Working Directions for Dog House (Fig. 120).

1) Cut 2” x 4’”s to proper lengths for either sills or plates,
and one-half the number of studs.

2) Rip all pieces of 2’ x 4” into 2” x 2” strips.

Fic. 120. Dog house.

3) Construct sill and plate frames with horizontal half-lap
corner joints, and connect sill and plate frames with studs by
nailing thru frames into ends of studs.

4) Nail on sheathing (fence boards), lapping side boards
over ends of end boards.

5) Beginning at the bottom, cut and nail on siding on sides
and ends.

6) Cut and nail on roof boards (fence boards), allowing
space of 1’ between boards.

7) Shingle roof, beginning at eaves and working toward
ridge, breaking joints for every two consecutive layers or
rows of shingles.

8) Cut, fit and nail ridge, facing, corner, base, and trim
boards.

OO —

SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 83

65. Directions for Corn Drier (Fig. 121).
1) Secure pine lumber 1” thick, 3-1/2” or 4’’ wide, and 16’-

0”” long, dressed.

2) Cut each piece to form lengths for parts of drier with
least possible waste. Example: 10’ and 6’ or 6’, 6’ and 4’ (2

braces).

3) Nail, as shown in
drawing, nailing two
pieces together, surface
to surface for ends.
Toe-nail in braces. Use
six-penny and _ eight-
penny common nails.

4) On end pieces and

Hig. 121..-Corn drier:

vertical center piece, with two-foot rule or carpenter’s square,

lay off points with pencil on front and back for spacing wire.
Drive shingle-nail, or 1-1/2”’ brad at each point.

GROSS SECTION

oe
‘FRONT VIEW END VIEW

Fic. 122. Self-feeder.

5) Wind wire (1/16” annealed iron), taking one turn about

each nail.

66. Making the Self-Feeder (Fig. 122).
1) Cut ends to dimension—10” x 3’ 0’’—bottom end square

84 WOODWORKING

and top end tapered toward the front to make it 2’ 10”’ long.

2) Cut center partition to overall dimensions of end boards.
Bevel front and back edges of lower end to fit to deflector
board on the back, and to the front board, to which the ad-
justable slide is attached on the front.

3) Nail cleat 2’’ wide on inside surfaces of end boards at the
bottom, upon which floor will rest; also 1”’ x 3”’ cleat to hold
slide, as marked in front view of drawing.

4) Nail to edges of end and center partition boards ship-lap
to form vertical portion of front of feeder and all of back of
feeder.

5) Lay floor of ship-lap on inside bottom cleats fastened on
end boards of feeder. Cut deflector board and toe-nail into
2 “pOstblon.

[4 .

6) Cut slanting 12’ board of front
of feeder, bore holes for 1/2’” wing-nut
bolts and nail board in position to

lower front edge of center partition
board. Thru end boards of feeder nail
into ends of this slanting front board.

7) Cut adjustable slide board to dimensions, cut slots for
wing bolts, attach handles and fit board in position.

8) Bevel front edge of floor and attach front board of tray.
Nail on end bottom boards.

9) Nail ship-lap to cleats for top. Hinge at rear with two
4’’ leaf strap hinges.

10) Paint outside of feeder with brown creosote paint.

67. Making the Egg Tester (Fig. 123).

1) Secure stock from one board 8” wide, or from more than
one board of shorter length, but the same width, to construct
the complete box.

2 | Sara
ae eee +—7—|
Fic. 1238. Egg tester.

Pr ..s

SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 85

2) Cut stock to convenient planing lengths, each to cut
finally into a certain number of pieces for the box. A little
must be allowed in length for crosscutting and squaring ends.

3) Plane stock to dimensions. Saw to proper lengths and
square ends.

4) Taper front edges of side boards.

5) Set bevel-square for angle of front edge of top board and
ends of front board. Mark and trim to proper
angles.

6) Bore 1-1/2” hole and 1-1/4” hole in cen-
ters of top and front boards, respectively.

7) Nail box together with six-penny (6d)
finish nails in the following order: Back, bot-
tom, front vertical board, top to sides; front 4.
slanting board. y

68. Constructing a Cow Stanchion (Fig.
124),

1) Select straight-grained hickory, oak or

abuiy

other close-grained, tough wood from 2” or 1
1-1/2” dressed plank.
Fic. 124. Cow

2) Rip stock to width or thickness to secure © stanchion.
strips which will dress to 1-1/2” x 2”.

3) Plane strips to correct width and thickness.

rh
Wy

4) Square and saw strips to correct lengths.

5) Bore 3/8” holes in center of end pieces for chain bolts.

6) Bore 3/8” hole in upper end piece for corner fastening
clamp. (Position of hole depends on length of clamp.)

7) Bevel lower end piece and one side piece, each on one end
to 45 degrees for hinged corner.

86 WOODWORKING

8) Fasten corner angle iron with 1’ flathead screws to in-
side of each end piece to draw tightly to side piece when
screwed to it. - Drill small holes for screws.

9) Fasten remaining side of each angle iron to side piece.
First place in position, mark for screw holes, and then drill
for them.

10) Fasten strap hinge in manner similar to that used in
fastening angle irons.

11) Drill small holes for staples for corner chain.

12) Fasten chain and corner clamp bolts by setting up nuts
over washers and burr ends of bolts slightly.

69. Making Tomato Trellis (Fig. 125).

1) Secure eleven 12’ strips of pine, 3”’ or 3-1/2” wide. Pine

Twine

Fic. 125. Tomato trellis.

flooring or 6’’ pine fence boards ripped in two will be satisfac-
tory.

2) Cut from each of three strips two pieces 5’ 0” long.

3) Two feet from one end of each of the 5’ strips, bore a 1/4”
hole in the middle of the stock.

A) Fasten two of the strips together with a 1/4” bolt, using
a washer under the head and under the nut, to form one end
of the rack. In like manner, make the remaining two sup-
ports, one for the opposite end and one for the middle of the
rack.

SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 87

5) Nail four of the 12’ strips evenly spaced on the 3’ leg of
each support, allowing the strips to project 12”’ on the end of
the frame beyond the end support, and leaving sufficient
space below the strip nearest the hinge for the vines. Place
the middle support centrally in the frame.

6) Put strong screw-eyes at the top of each bar of each end
support, in which to fasten wire or cord to hold the top edges
at a fixed position when the frame is in place.

70. Feed Bunk for Cattle (Fig. 126).

1) Construct each trestle or pair of legs by first cutting to

(Si ae era se : | =
a

2x10x12-0 | -dx6¥ Bolts

———— 2 Flooring eee ee Ree eee

CROSS SECTION
Fic. 126. Feed bunk for cattle.

length the four legs from 4” x 4” stock and connecting each
pair with the four 2” x 4” cross and brace pieces.

First nail in position the two crosspieces on one side of a
pair of legs, then insert and nail securely to this pair of cross-
pieces the two leg frame braces. Now nail on the two re-
maining crosspieces, both to the legs and the braces. Finally,
nail on the 6’, 2’’ x 4”’ block lengthwise of the bunk in the
center of the lower crosspieces, allowing it to rest 1’’ on each
crossplece. |

2) Construct the frame of the box from 1-1/2”’ x 10” or 2’”’ x
10”’ stock. Bore holes to secure the sides to the end pieces.
Note that the end boards of frame rest on floor boards.

88 WOODWORKING

3) Turn box bottom side up. Lay and nail floor boards to
end boards, and nail on 2”’ x 4”’ crosspieces.

4) While box is bottom side up, place leg frames in position
and bore holes thru legs and side rails of box. Insert and
fasten bolts. Fit and nail the four length braces in position,
carefully locating center position for them on the crosspieces.

The lower ends of these braces butt against the 6’’, 2’’ x 4’”

blocks already nailed to the lower leg frame crosspieces.

5) Place bunk in upright position and insert and tighten
end rods.

71. Saw Buck (Fig. 127).

1) Saw legs of frame to lengths from 3”’ x 4” stock.

Fic. 127. Saw buck.

2) Locate, lay out and cut half-lap joints for each end of

frame.

3) Lay out and cut 2” notches for thickness and width of
connecting braces.

4) Bore holes for center rod in each half-lap joint connect-
ing ends of frame. Do this when each end of frame is halved
together.

5) Plane and fit all brace rods.

6) Form center rod, using draw-knife and spoke-shave on

iN ine —)

SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 89

center portion of rod, saw to cut shoulder and use chisel and
wood rasp to form ends of rod.

7) Nail cross braces on each end frame and trim ends with
plane.

8) Place center rod in position and wedge ends with thin
wooden wedge.

9) Nail length braces in place and trim edges.

10) Place saw buck upright on level floor. With open
dividers, scribe line for bottom of legs; saw to lines.

72. Chicken Feeder (Fig. 128).

1) Cut nine pieces from 6” fence boards, each 2’ 6” long.

2) Construct each of the
encs and the partition of the | Raat )
feeder by nailing three of these : ==}

Grit i Ground Fee
= 1A

pieces together with a cleat at L ae us
the bottom and another at the 4
upper edge 2’ 0” from the
bottom.

3) Lay out upon a vertical
center line of each end board thus constructed the shape of
the feeder end according to dimensions. Saw to shape.

4) Saw 6” fence boards to lengths of 2’ 6” for sides.

5) Cut out corners a distance of 3”” on the lower edge of two
of the side boards to fit between the end pieces at the bottom
of the feed box. Nail each in position for lower board of each
side. Nail other side boards on from bottom to top. Dress
with plane upper edge of top side boards at roof angle to allow
roof boards to fit on same closely.

6) Saw, fit and nail on bottom, roof and side boards for
tray. Use 8d. common nails.

Fic. 128. Chicken feeder.

90 WOODWORKING

73. Garden Marker (Fig. 129).
1) Secure stock as follows:
One 2” x4 7x20.
One Fx 6 x8 0.
Short stock for braces and marking pins may be secured
from waste from handle.
2) Plane bed board to dimensions; bevel front edge.
3) Locate centers for marker pin holes on top and bottom
surfaces of bed board by means of marking gage and try-
square. Angle of pin should be about 15 degrees to a vertical

line.

TST 4) Bore 1-1/4” holes for marker
[ol 74 r pins, working from each side of
2}0o if | bed board. With jack-knife, ream
| eee tad out holes on top side to approxi-
emia! | mately 1-1/2”.

5) Shape handle, nail securely in
place, and brace with pieces of
stock ripped from handle on under

Fic. 129. Garden marker. side.

6) From waste stock ripped from handle, or better, from
pieces of 2’’x 4’ ripped to 2”’ square strips, whittle out marker
pins. Drive pins in place and toe-nail from the top, allowing
nail heads to project sufficiently so that the nails may be re-
moved with a hammer.

74. Individual Hog Cot (Fig. 130).

1) Frame floor by nailing four 2”’ x 4’”s edgewise across the
two 2’’x 4” runners, one at each end, front and back, and the
remaining two evenly dividing the remaining space.

2) Cut rafters, three for each side, each 6’ 6” long. Toe-

SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS ot

nail bottom ends on runners, one at each end and one in the
middle. ‘Toe-nail tops of rafters of each pair together.

3) Fasten rafters together on each side by three strips (roof
stringers) of 1’"x 3’ stock. These preferably should be set in
(housed) to upper edge of rafters. If so, housings should be
cut before rafters are placed in position.

Middle
i
Rofter

Fic. 1380. Hog cot.

4) Lay floor of 1’ x 6” matched lumber, matching outside
floor strips to fit around rafters and come flush with outside
edges of them.

5) Erect supports or studs front and back under end rafters
to form framing for door and window.

6) Toe-nail window framings between studs.

7) Cover in ends with 1” x 6” matched siding, resting bot-
tom edge of bottom boards on top of runners.

8) Cover roof with 1” x 6”, 1” x 8” or 1’’ x 10” boards ver-
tically, nailing each to each roof stringer. Cover each crack
with a batten (2” strip), first placing ridge boards in place.

9) Set window and hinge at top so that it may be opened for

92 | WOODWORKING

purpose of ventilation. Place framing strips around door and
window, if desired, to represent casings.

10) Fasten large eyebolt in each end of each runner to serve
as connection in dragging cot from one place to another.

75. Feed Bunk for Sheep (Fig. 131).

1) Cut all 2” x 4”” stock, viz., four corner posts and two
horizontal cross-bar supports for the floor, from a 16’ piece.

GROSS SECTION

Fic. 131. Feed bunk for sheep.

2) Secure five boards, each 1” x 4”’ x 10’ 0”, and cut from
one of them four pieces, each 2’ 4’” long.

3) Frame each end of the bunk.

4) Connect the end frames by nailing the two upper side
strips in position.

5) Lay the floor.

6) Nail in position the two lower side strips to form the
sides of the feed tray.

76. Plow Doubletree (Fig. 132).

1) Select, from gr hickory
or straight-grained oak,
stock for each of the three
parts of the doubletree.

2) Saw and plane each
piece of stock to rectangular shape and to overall dimensions.

3) Plane back edges of each part to the correct taper, first

Fic. 132. Plow doubletree.

SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 93

making lines with straight-edge and pencil defining these
edges.
- 4) Bore holes for metal fittings.

5) Secure in stock, or forge out the tug hooks and bolts to
fasten same to wooden parts; also the iron straps to fasten the
singletree and doubletree together.

6) Attach metal fittings.

77. Wagon Jack (Figs. 133 and 134).

‘
Upricnts

Cre ig ~ | ki
Fic. 1383. Wagon jack. Fic. 134. Another type of wagon jack.

1) Secure hickory, strong, straight-grained oak or other
‘tough wood in following dimensions:
2 pieces 7/8’ x 5’ x 2’ 2” S28, uprights.
2 pieces 7/8’ x 4’’ x 2’ 6”’ 82S, base strips.
1 piece. 7/8” x 3’ x 2’ 6” S28, handle.
1 piece 7/8” x 4” x 5” 82S, block at bottom between
uprights.

2) Saw and plane each piece of stock to shape and dimen-
sions, as shown in Figs. 133 and 134.

3) Bore series of 5/8’ holes 2” apart, beginning 12” from
end of handle, each with center 1/2’’ from upper edge of han-
dle.

4) Saw notches, as indicated in Fig. 133, saw-cut in each
case meeting outer surface of bored hole.

94 WOODWORKING

5) With all pieces fastened together in vise or clamp, bore
holes for 5/8’ bolts to fasten upright to base strips and handle.

6) Bend 3/4” band iron around lifting end of handle; drill
and countersink holes for 1” flat-head screws and fasten band
iron in place.

7) Assemble all parts of the jack, except the iron rod, to
hold the handle in particular positions. The bolts used
should be fastened each with a washer under the head and
under the nut.

8) Measure with a cord the distance from one hole into

Fic. 135. Farm sled.

which the handle holding iron is to be slipped to the opposite
one, thru the first notch from the standard on the handle. In
doing this, lower the lifting end of the handle to the lowest de-
sired position. Make allowance for the ends of the handle
holding rod, which will slip into the holes in the standard.
Add the amount of this allowance to the length of the cord;
the total length will be that of the handle holding rod.

9) Cut a 5/8” round wrought-iron rod to the length of the
cord as calculated. Bend the rod to the desired shape by
heating portion at bend, and working over end of peen of
blacksmith anvil. Cool and spring rod into position.

78. Heavy Farm Sled (Fig. 135).

1) Cut all stock (rough) to overall lengths.

SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 95

2) Lay out, saw and cut all joints on similar pieces. Ex-
ample: Two horizontal parts of runners; two front parts of
runners; two cross-beams, etc.

3) Frame together the two parts of each runner, driving
dowel in with glue, and toe-nailing runner parts together from
top and bottom.

4) Put cross-beams in place, driving dowel in place in glue
and spiking from under side of runner.

5) Nail long boards of runner frames (bed boards) in posi-
tion on each cross-beam and on top of runner.

jo Beveled Stri ps
= 2*z

Fic. 136. Fence-post mold.

6) Place corner uprights in place, nailing from both sides of
bed boards and runners.

7) Nail in position all cross-boards—front and rear of sled,
inside corners of bed boards and uprights, top of uprights.

Note: Letter each set of boards, and use letter in opera-
tion steps.

79. Fence Post Mold (Fig. 136).
1) Lay floor on 2” x 4” cleats, as shown in cross-sectional
side view. Upper surface of flooring material should be sur-

96 WOODWORKING

faced, and joints between boards made close, but not abso-
lutely tight if lumber is very dry.

2) Prepare ends by planing one board 4-3/4” wide and 2’ 9”
long, and the other 6’’ wide and 3’ 5-3/4” long, out of 3/4”
stock. On the first board flush with upper edge, fasten a se-
ries of 3-1/2’ x 3-1/2” blocks, leaving 18/16’”’ between them.
Begin to fix these blocks at the center of the board where a
13/16’ space is to be left for the middle partition. On the
second board, fasten 5’’ x 5’” blocks in a similar way.

3) Prepare seven partition boards dressed on all surfaces,
3/4” thick, 3-1/2” wide at one end, 5” wide at the other end,
and 7’2’’ long. The ends must be square with the center line
of the partition board. |

4) Place the two end boards and the partition boards in
place on the floor and nail into position the 2-1/2” x 5” blocks
noted on the top view of drawing.

5) Nailin position end blocks on each end board thru which
3/8’ rods pass. These should touch, but not bend, the out-
side partition boards. Locate position of holes for rods to
come in center of space on end boards outside of the last par-
tition board. Locate position of hinges on small end board.

6) Remove end boards, bore holes for rod, fasten on hinges
and replace end boards, inserting side rods and fastening
hinges to floor (see end view).

7) Remove partition boards, prepare beveled strips (section
A), fasten them to the floor, and replace the boards.

8) Cover inside surfaces for each individual mould with
linseed oil.

CHAPTER IX

WoopD-FINISHING AND PAINTING

80. Purpose of Wood-Finishing. With few exceptions,
all woodwork, whether exposed to the weather or used under
cover, is given some sort of surface finish. The object of
wood-finishing is twofold, viz.:

First, to preserve the wood. All wood is porous and, con-
sequently, absorbs moisture. With the change of tempera-
ture and amount of humidity in the atmosphere, the quantity
of moisture taken up by wood wili vary. The change in the
moisture content of wood causes a change in its shape, known
as warp (the word used for buckling) and wind (the word used
for twisting).

The absorption of moisture by wood is accompanied by
swelling. As wood dries, it shrinks, thus causing checks and
cracks.

Second, to decorate the wood. Decoration may be natural
or artificial. Any substance such as oil or wax which, when
applied to the surface of wood, brings out its natural mark-
ings and colorings, is regarded as a natural decorative agent.
Any substance such as colored stain or paint, which covers
the grain of wood when applied to it, may be made a deco-
rative agent, but is considered artificial, as it changes the
natural appearance.

81. Method of Preservation. Both the natural and
artificial wood-finishing agents serve to seal the pores of the
wood. Allstains havea tendency to enter the wood fibre and

98 WOODWORKING

to close the pores, but not to fill the cells or larger holes and
openings. Paint, on the other hand, covers the entire sur-
face of the wood and, consequently, fills all openings—both
pores and cells, as well as such artificial openings as cracks
and checks. It must be evident, therefore, that for exposed
woodwork, paint is the most satisfactory physical preserva-
tive covering. However, besides the fact that it obliterates
the material appearance of the wood, it has the possible dis-
advantage of checking and peeling. On the other hand,
when a stain has some inherent preserving quality, chemical
or otherwise, it results in both protecting the wood and pre-
serving its natural beauty.

82. Classification of Wood Finishes.
A. Non-covering agents may be divided as follows:
er sO
2. Wax.
3. tain
a. Water.
b. Oil.

B. Covering agents may be

c. Chemical.
d. Creosote.
divided as follows:

1. Shellac
a. White.
b. Orange.
2. Varnish
De Hiller.
A Past:

83.

Oil Stain is used on work which does not require a

high finish, but which, to present the full effect of the natural

WOOD-FINISHING AND PAINTING oo

grain, neecs a light coat of finishing material. Raw linseed
oil is generally used for this purpose. That it may penetrate
to the greatest extent, the oil should be applied when hot. A
soft cloth, cotton waste or a brush may be used. When the
oil has evaporated, or has set in the wood, a brisk rubbing will
secure a dull polish, which, however, will not long continue ex-
cept by repeated rubbing, which may be done on inside work
in the process of dusting.

Oak, when used outside, as for garden furniture, is pro-
tected somewhat from the weather when given coats of hot
linseed oil two or three times annually.

84. Wax. This may be secured in cans as “prepared
wax.” It is frequently used to give a natural finish of low
gloss. This material is a substitute for oil and serves not so
much as a preservative by means of penetration as by virtue
of its filling up openings. When rubbed with a soft cloth, it
gives a velvet-like polish. Wax hardens with time and,
therefore, makes a very satisfactory wood finish, especially if
new coats are added from time to time and if the waxed sur-

faces are rubbed occasionally.

85. Water Stains are the simplest of all liquid finishes to
apply. They are sold both in powder and liquid form. A
water stain is applied with a brush and, before dry, isrubbed
with a cloth or with waste. If care is taken in mixing and ap-
plying, there is little difficulty in securing a uniform color.
Wax or one of the class B finishes may be used after the stain
has dried.

Before applying a water stain, the wood should be thoroly
scraped and sandpapered, and then “‘wet down” with water.
Water raises the grain as would the water stain if applied first.

100 WOODWORKING

When the wood surface has dried after the application of the
water, it should be thoroly sanded. The application of the
water stain will raise the grain slightly, but not sufficiently to
require sanding, which, of course, would injure the appear-
ance of the stained wood.

86. Oil Stains; Chemical Stains. These are applied
in the manner described for water stains, except that the
previous washing is omitted. An oil stain will strike into
the wood more freely than willa water stain, and, conse-
quently, because of the variation in the porosity of the aver-
age piece of wood, and especially of different pieces of wood
assembled in one unit, difficulty is sometimes experienced in
getting a uniform color. It may be necessary on particularly
porous woods to dilute an oil stain, or to apply a thinner
coat than would be used on a less porous part or piece of
wood. Wax or one of the class B finishes may be used after an
oil stain has dried and the surface oil has evaporated thoroly.

Chemical stains, which now constitute the largest part
of those to be secured in the open market, are prepared
to overcome the disadvantages of poor penetrating qualities of
water stains and the uneven penetration of oil stains. They
prove quite satisfactory in giving a uniform and well-set color
on wood of fairly uniform quality. They may be covered
either with wax or the finishes under class B.

87. Coal-tar Creosote Oil. The preservation of wood
on the farm cannot always be most satisfactorily accom-
plished by the use of wood finishes already described. Wooden
fence posts, bridge and trestle supports, piles or posts used to
support roofs for grain and hay stacks, timbers used in silos,
wooden shingles for roofs, etc., are neither stained nor painted

WOOD-FINISHING AND PAINTING 101

as a rule; they are frequently left unprotected. Moisture,
air and temperature are natural weather elements which per-
mit the development of fungus growths which cause rot and
decay. All wooden structures exposed to the weather should,
therefore, be protected.

Toxic mineral salts or coal-tar creosote oil is used to protect
outside woodwork which it is not desirable to decorate as the
common stains and paints do. Coal-tar creosote oil eradicates
fungus organisms or suspends their destructive growth. Itis
insoluble and, therefore, is impervious to moisture. Present
practical results of treating wood with it have justified its use.

The two general methods of treatment are known as the
pressure processes and the non-pressure processes. The for-
mer are used extensively by large corporations, and the latter
by small consumers, in which class the farmer would be
placed. Of the non-pressure processes, there are two, viz.,
the open-tank system and the brush method.

@8. The Brush Method is the one which the conditions
of the average farm make entirely possible. It consists of
painting refined coal-tar creosote oil, heated to approxi-
mately 150 degrees F., on the wood in the same manner as is
done with paint, or pouring the heated creosote over the lum-
ber, catching the drippings in pans or basins, or applying the
heated creosote with a mop instead of a brush. It is current
opinion that in order to make effective the use of coal-tar cre-
osote oil, it must be applied under pressure; nevertheless, the
fact remains that the brush method of surface treatment re-
sults In a most surprising increase in the life of the material
treated, and in a most satisfactory reduction in the annual
cost of maintenance of structure.

102 WOODWORKING

Two or three coats of coal-tar creosote oil are necessary,
and all surfaces exposed or in contact with moisture-collecting
materials, such as concrete, should be covered. Particular
attention is directed to the covering of surfaces of joints, such
as the sides of mortises and tenons, etc.

89. The Open-Tank Process, while not feasible under
ordinary farm conditions, is here briefly described, that it
may be used where conditions permit. It consists of alter-
nate hot-and-cold treatments of wood with refined coal-tar
creosote oil by immersion and continuous soaking in open
tanks without artificial pressure, requiring no mechanical ap-
paratus other than tanks, hoist (in some cases), and means of

heating the oil.

The procedure is as tollows: Season the lumber suffi-
ciently to expel any excess of moisture. When cut for sizes,
construction, etc.—that is, when completely framed—im-
merse lumber in a bath of coal-tar creosote oil maintained at a
temperature of from 150 to 210 degrees F. for a period deter-
mined as follows: For close-grained wood (naturally resist-
ant to impregnation), one hour in the hot and one hour in the
cold, or cooling, bath for each inch of the largest cross-section.
For species more susceptible to treatment, one-quarter of an
hour for each inch of the largest cross-section, and milled lum-
ber from ten to thirty minutes in each bath; or, if the stock is
in the form of boards, an immersion of a few minutes is suffi-
cient. Frequently, heavy-milled stock is not subjected to
the cold-bath treatment, but allowed to remain in the hot
bath after the source of heat is removed and while the oil
cools. On the other hand, boards are not subjected even toa

WOOD-FINISHING AND PAINTING 103

“cooling” bath as suggested by the use of the word immersion
above.

A project in creosoting may be selected from the buildings
or structures already erected or to be erected. In some cases,
the possibility of creosoting is suggested in the instruction
given for woodworking projects.

90. Shellac isa gum preparation prepared from the secre-
tion of the lac bug. It is procurable in the market in dry
flakes, and is dissolved in aleohol. The consistency for satis-
factory use should be that of thinsyrup. Itis applied witha
brush, which should be of good quality. Shellac evaporates
rapidly; hence, unusual precaution is necessary in applying it
to avoid streaking the surface. Long, single strokes with a
well-filled brush will produce the best results. The brush
should not make a second stroke over the same surface until
the first coat of material is dry.

A dry shellacked surface may be sandpapered and again
shellacked. By repeated coats and careful sandings, a very
smooth and highly-polished surface may be secured which can
be improved by a final light rubbing with a piece of felt or bur-
lap wrapped over a piece of cork or wood, and first dipped ina
shallow dish of rubbing oil, and then into pumice stone.

91. Varnish acts very similarly to shellac. It is the cus-
tomary finishing material for highly-polished woodwork. It
is applied and treated the same as shellac, but dries much
slower.

92. Wood-Filler is used to fill the pores of the grain of
wood. When shellac or varnish is used, both as a filler and as
a finish, many coats are required before the grain is filled and
a finishing surface is built up. Wood-filler is, therefore, used

104 WOODWORKING

to fill holes and level up the surface for the finishing material,
which, ordinarily, is varnish.

Wood-filler is silex mixed with linseed oil, japan and tur-
pentine. It should be thinned with turpentine or benzine to the
consistency of paste and applied by means of abrush. When
it begins to “‘gray,” a sign of its drying, it should be rubbed
across the grain with a handful of excelsior, shavings or waste.
_ Before applying shellac, varnish or other finishing material,
the filler should dry at least forty-eight hours. Colored fillers
are common to produce particular color effects. The white
filler may be mixed with dry pigment colors to secure the color
desired. In case wood is both stained and filled, the stain
should be used first.

93. Paint is made from white lead and linseed oil. It
may be secured in the market prepared ready for use after
being thoroly stirred. It may be made by mixing white lead
and linseed oil with a coloring material. The surface of wood
to be covered with paint should be clean and smooth. Paint
is applied with a brush with the grain of the wood. The
brush should be run back and forth over the same surface sev-
eral times to work the paint into the grain of the wood. Two
or three coats are usually necessary to cover the surface prop-
erly. Each coat may be sanded carefully when dry before
the succeeding coat is applied. Unless a paint has consider-
able drier in it, or is a cheap substitute tor white lead and oil,
it needs at least three or four days to dry before it can be
smoothed with sandpaper, or a second coat of paint can be
applied.

The projects in wood-finishing and painting should be
worked in approximately the order given in the “Classifica-

WOOD-FINISHING AND PAINTING 105

tion of Wood Finishes” in Sec. 82. The projects may be
those given in the several groups under “Woodworking.”
Upon the completion of a woodworking project, the proper
finish may be applied, or all woodworking projects may
first be completed and then finished. In this case, there
will be an advantage in concentrating attention upon the
work, both of using woodworking tools and of applying
wood-finishing materials.

Paint is regarded as easier to apply than shellac or varnish;
hence, the project in painting may well precede that in shel-
lacking or varnishing.

Always keep a “full”? brush of finishing material; that is,
have the lower half of the bristles full of the finishing material,
but do not allow the upper part of the brush to be covered.
As one removes the brush from the material, it should be
drawn upward against the edge of the receptacle on each side,
that not too much material may be left in the brush, and also
that the upper part of the bristles shall be free from material
and the brush kept clean.

Brushes when not in use should be kept hanging in the ma-
terial in which they are used so that the ends of the bristles
will be clear of the bottom of the receptacle. Receptacles
should be covered to prevent accumulation of dust and dirt.
Any wide-necked bottle or fruit jar may be used as a recep-
tacle for brushes, the stopper being made of wood.

The projects given in the woodworking section of this book
suggest the finish which each may be given. It is suggested
that the finishing of these projects in the order presented be
regarded as the desirable wood-finishing projects to secure the
necessary knowledge and practice in this subject.

CHAPTER: X

GLAZING AND SCREENING

94. Definition. Glazing consists of cutting and setting
glass in frames. The chief use of-this art is in cutting, tack-
ing and puttying panes of glass in window sash, hot-bed
frames, etc.

95. Precautions. Window glass may be secured in
single- or double-strength thicknesses. Double-strength
glass is thicker and stronger than single-strength. Glass also
is manufactured in a variety of qualities. That known as
common is used for ordinary purposes. Whatever the
streneth or quality, sheet glass should be handled with care,
both to prevent breaking it and to provide against being cut
by it. It should be grasped by thumb and fingers of both
hands, each taking hold of one of opposite edges. When
working upon a pane of glass, it should be laid flat on a plain
wood surface, such as the top of a bench or table.

96. Cutting Glass. Clean off a flat wooden surface and
lay the glass on it, preferably by sliding the glass upon the sur-
face rather than placing it upon the surface from above. If
an irregular piece of glass-is to be used, place a straight-edge,
preferably of wood, but the edge of a carpenter’s square may
be used, near one edge and run a glass cutter across the glass
and against the edge of the straight-edge with one firm stroke,
using moderate pressure. If the glass cutter is sharp and the
single operation is done carefully, a cut will appear at all
points on the glass where the cutter has run. Slide the glass

106

GLAZING AND SCREENING 107

into a position so that the waste stock projects over the edge
of the wooden surface, table or bench top, on which it is
placed, and so that the line cut in the glass is directly above
thisedge. With the left hand placed flat on the surface of the
glass which is on the table, and with the thumb and fingers of
the right hand grasping the edge of the glass projecting over
the edge of the table, gently press downward with the right
hand.

The glass should crack or make a clean break on the line
made with the glass cutter, thus giving one edge of the piece
of glass desired.

Place one leg of carpenter’s square against this edge and the
other in a position to secure an adjacent edge of the piece of
glass being prepared. Repeat the operation of cutting and
breaking off the waste.

In a similar manner, secure the opposite edges.- First,
measure carefully for the desired width or length at two
points near each end of an edge already formed, and mark in
each measurement by a short line—1/4”’ is sufficient—made
with the glass cutter. Connect these points by the edge of
the blade of a carpenter’s square or wooden straight-edge
against which the glass cutter is run as before.

97. Setting a Pane of Glass ina New Frame. Place
the pane of glass in the frame and very gently fasten it in posi-
tion with three-cornered pieces of tin (glazier’s points) used by
glaziers, which may be secured when purchasing putty. Lay
a triangular piece of tin flat on the glass as it rests in the frame
on a bench or table top. With a finger or thumb, press one
corner of this tin into the frame near a corner of the pane of
glass. With the end of the putty-knife blade resting

108 WOODWORKING

on the pane of glass as the knife is held in the right hand, or
with a square-edged chisel, very carefully drive the point about
3/16” into the wood by letting the edge of the putty-knife or
chisel blade gently strike the point three or four times.

Likewise, insert other points, locating them so as to have
one come near the corner of the frame on each edge of the
pane, and others placed to make the distance between con-
secutive tins about 8’’ or 10’... In case of a small pane, at
least one point should be placed near the middle of each edge
of the pane.

If a pane is being set in a vertical frame, as in a window
sash in a window frame, care must be taken to hold it firmly
in position with the left hand while the right hand is used to
drive the points into the frame. Care must always be taken
to have the pane well seated; that is, firmly resting against
the frame on which the flat surface of the pane rests.

98. Applying the Putty. In order to seal the pane in
the frame, making the joint waterproof, putty is pressed into
the corner between the pane and the frame. Putty as it
comes from the stock receptacle, may need to be mixed witha
little boiled linseed oil to soften it. The oil should be mixed
thoroly with the putty. Unless the putty is quite dry, the oil
need not be added to it, as kneading it in the hands willmake
1b SOLt.

In applying putty, one should practice the following
method: (1) After having beaten and kneaded the putty
to an even consistency, cut off a small amount and form it
roughly into the shape of a ball. (2) Put this putty into the
palm of the left hand and hold the putty knife in the right.
Set the frame to be puttied on an easel or on some similar de-

GLAZING AND SCREENING 109

vice so that the glass slants away from the operator. (3)
Now, with the left hand preceding the right hand, and with
the putty knife in position against the glass, feed the putty
with the thumb and the first two fingers of the left hand from
its position in the palm of the hand and under the corner of
the putty knife. Move both hands slowly from right to left,
feeding enough putty under the knife to fill the triangular
opening formed between the knife and the wood and the glass.
(4) When one complete stroke is made, go back and fill in any
imperfect spaces, and also clean off any surplus putty which
may be left. A little practice is necessary before a perfect
job is made with the first stroke. Care should be taken not
to allow the putty to get smeared on the glass more than is
necessary. The putty should not be high enough to show
above the wood on opposite side of the glass.

If a broken pane of glass is being replaced or the opening in
an old frame is being filled, care must be taken to clean thoroly
the corner into which the pane fits of all dirt, especially old
putty. Use broken panes of glass as far as possible in re-
glazing windows.

The projects in glazing should consist both of replacing an
old pane or panes of glass, and setting the glass in a new
frame. After the putty is thoroly dry and hard, it should be
painted with the frame in which it is set.

99. Screening. Every farm home should be screened as
a protection against the house fly, rightly called the typhoid
fly. Screens for doors and windows of standard sizes can be
bought in stock from most lumber dealers. One who is handy
with tools can easily construct screens.

110 WOODWORKING

During the winter months, the screens should be removed
from the windows and doors and stored away in a dry place.
During spare time, they should be cleaned and painted. Paint
especially prepared for this purpose is obtainable at most
paint stores. Painting the screens keeps them from rusting
and will increase their life many years.

PART II

CEMENT AND CONCRETE

CHAPTER x
HISTORY OF CEMENT

100. Preliminary. The fact that concrete is now being
used so universally, both on the farm and in the city, makes
it desirable, if not necessary, that every one should study
its possibilities and learn at least the first principles of cor-
rect concrete construction. There are too many poor jobs
of concrete work, the failure of which is due to lack of knowl-
edge on the part of the man doing the work. Concrete,
when properly made, has too many good qualities to be
condemned merely because of lack of information and judg-
ment on the part of the man who uses it.

The main reasons concrete is being used to such a great ex-

tent are:
a) It is permanent.

b) It is more nearly fireproof than any other building
material.

c) It is rat-proof.

d) It is attractive.

e) It is sanitary.

f) With the aid of steel, it can be used for most any
purpose in building.

g) It can be used with success by the average farmer
with less special training than is required with
other available materials.

h) It is economical.

ieee

112 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

101. Pre-historic Uses of Concrete. Altho we now
find concrete being used in nearly all types of construction
work, it is only of recent years that the cement industry has
been developed. Some form of cement was used thousands
of yearsago. Theruins of Babylon and Nineveh show traces
of it, as does the Pantheon of Rome. It is said that the pre-
historic people of America—the Aztecs and Toltecs—used a
cement mortar that has been so durable that the mortar
joints are projecting where the adjacent stones have been
worn away by the weathering action during the ages.

There is little evidence of the use of cement during the in-
tervening period from three or four thousand years ago up to
the beginning of the nineteenth century. During this period,
the art of making cement seems to have been lost and the
builders of the Middle Ages had to resort to the use of lime
and silt mortars, which were not very durable, as evidenced
by the ruins of this age.

102. Re-discovery of Cement. There-discovery of the
method of manufacture of hydraulic cement, a cement that
will set or harden under water, was made by John Smeaton,
an English engineer, in 1756. He discovered that limestone
containing clay, when burned and then ground until very fine,
produced a material which would not only set under water,
but also resist the action of water. This we call natural ce-
ment. The manufacture of this natural cement on a com-
mercial basis is credited to Joseph Parker, who established a
factory in 1796 and called his product Roman Cement. Other
factories were established in Europe about the same time.

103. Natural Cement in America. In 1818, Canvass
White established a factory at Fayetteville, New York, for

HISTORY OF CEMENT 113

manufacturing natural cement on a commercial basis. Other
plants sprang up along the canals in New York state; also in
Ohio, and a plant was established near Louisville, Kentucky.
The output for a number of years was very small—about 25,-
000 barrels per year. After the Civil War, during the recon-
struction period, an impetus was given to the cement indus-
try, and the production of natural cement reached its maxi-
mum in 1899, when 10,000,000 barrels were produced. Since
then, the production of cement from natural stone as found
in the quarries has been on the decline. At the present time
practically all cement used in America is artificial cement, or
Portland cement.

104. Portland Cement. ‘The process of making artificial
cement, or Portland cement, was discovered by Joseph Aspdin,
an Englishman, in 1829. The cement was given its name be-
cause it resembles the Portland rocks near Leeds, England.
In the United States it was first manufactured in 1870 at
Copley, Pennsylvania. Its use has increased so rapidly that
now the output amounts to about 100,000,000 barrels per year.
Portland cement manufacturing plants can now be found
thruout the country. Wherever there is an abundance of
suitable limestone and shale, or clay, and a supply of fuel and
labor, acement plant can be successfully operated. Portland
cement is different from natural cement, in that the materials
of which it is made are carefully proportioned and artificially
mixed. The essential components of Portland cement are
silica, aluminum and lime, with small quantities of other ma-
terials. The silica and aluminum are in the clay. The ma-
terial is first ground, then mixed in proportion of three parts
of limestone to one of clay; it is then burned to a clinker and

114 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

re-ground to proper fineness. While there are a great many
brands of Portland cement on the market, the composition
is practically constant and the buyer can feel safe in buying
any recognized brand.

CHAPTER XT
PROPERTIES AND USES OF CEMENT

105. Properties. The properties of cement with which
every builder is most concerned are those of strength and per-
manence. The requirements ordinarily mentioned are proper
fineness, proper setting qualities, purity, strength in tension,
and soundness. A cement that is fresh, free from lumps,
properly packed and stored, is nearly always first-class.

106. Mortar. Mortar is a mixture of (1) cement or hy-
drated lime, or both, (2) sand, and (3) water. It isa plastic
mass, the water content being varied with its use. Lime
mortars are little used at present because they set slowly, will
not set under water, are not very strong, and will deteriorate,
due to weathering action. A small amount of lime, 10 to 20
per cent, is usually added to cement mortar to make it work
well with a trowel and to make it more adhesive.

107. Definition of Concrete. Concrete is often defined
as an artificial stone. It is made by mixing cement with sand
and gravel, or broken stone, and water; or, in other words, it
is a mixture of (1) cement, (2) a fine aggregate, (8) a coarse ag-
eregate, and (4) water. The addition of water causes the ce-
ment to undergo chemical changes forming new compounds
that develop the property of crystallizing into a solid mass.
The strength and durability of plain concrete (that is, con-
crete without reinforcing) varies with:

a) The quality and amount of cement used.
b) The kind, size and strength of aggregate.
c) Correctness of proportioning.

115

116 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

d) Method and thoroness of mixing.
e) The amount of water.
f) Method and care of placing.
g) Method of curing.
h) Age.
108. Aggregates. As ordinarily employed, the term ag-

Fic. 187. Gravel bank.

geregates includes not only gravel or stone—the coarse mate-
rial used—but also the sand, or fine material, which is used
with the cement to form either mortar or concrete. Fine ag-
eregate is defined as any suitable material that will pass a No.
4 sieve or screen (having four meshes to the linear inch), and

PROPERTIES AND USES OF CEMENT Ly

includes sand, stone screenings, crushed slag, etc. By coarse
aggregate is meant any suitable material, such as crushed
stone or gravel, that is retained ona No. 4 sieve. The maxi-
mum size of coarse aggregate depends on the class of structure
for which the concrete is to be used.

The fact that the aggregates may seem to be of good quality
and yet prove totally unsuitable (Fig. 137), shows that study
and careful tests are necessary if the best results are to be ob-
tained. The idea that the strength of concrete depends en-
tirely upon the cement, and that only a superficial examina-
tion of aggregates is necessary, 1s altogether too prevalent.
The man who recognizes the quality of his aggregates, who
grades them properly, sees that they are washed if necessary,
then mixes them in proportions determined by thoro testing,
study or actual experience, is the one who will make the best
concrete.

In the selection and use of sand, more precaution is neces-
sary than for the coarser aggregate, due to the physical con-
dition of sand and a wider variation in properties. A knowl-
edge of these properties and of the method of analysis to de-
termine the suitability of sand for use in mortar and concrete,
may easily be applied to an analysis of the coarse aggregate.

109. Presence of Rotten or Soft Pebbles in the Gravel.
In many cases, gravel from the old glaciers has been used,
which have been so badly weathered that the pebbles can be
crushed between the fingers. In other cases, small lumps of
shale or sandstone are mistaken for gravel. These lumps are
not strong at best, and, under the action of water, especially
alternate wetting and drying, they go to pieces. No pebbles
which can be scratched with a thumb nail, or crushed in the

118 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

fingers, are suitable for concrete. If there are only a few of
them in gravel which is otherwise good, they will not seriously
weaken the concrete, but it is a good deal better not to use
them at all, since a hard concrete cannot be made from soft
materials.

110. Presence of Dirtinthe Aggregate. Most gravels
and sands contain some clay, but clay in amounts up to three
per cent by weight is not especially harmful. More than
three per cent is harmful. Where gravels contain organic
matter of any kind, the concrete made from them is very
likely to go to pieces, and they should not be used unless the
dirt can be washed out. Clay may also be removed by wash-
ing. To test for amount of dirt, shake up four inches of sand
or gravel in a quart fruit jar, three-fourths full of water, for
four or five minutes. Then letitstand three hours. If there
is more than 1/2” of dirt on top of the material, it is too dirty
to use without washing.

111. Vegetable Matter in Sand. A coating of vege-
table matter on sand grains appears not only to prevent the
cement from adhering, but to affect it chemically. Fre-
quently, a quantity of vegetable matter so small that it can-
not be detected by the eye, and only slightly disclosed in
chemical tests, may prevent the mortar from reaching any
appreciable strength, Concrete made with such sand usually
hardens so slowly that the results are questionable and its use
is prohibited. Other impurities, such as acids, alkalis or oils
in the sand or mixing water, usually make trouble.

Where limestone is used in an aggregate, it is well to see
that the pile of limestone is thoroly wet down before using.
This is for two purposes—(1) to remove the coating of dust

PROPERTIES AND USES OF CEMENT £19

which would otherwise prevent the formation of a bond be-
tween the cement and the stone, and (2) to allow the stone to
absorb water before the mixing process. Limestone will ab-
sorb a great deal of moisture, and, if mixed dry, it is liable to
take up part of the water needed in the process of setting or
crystallizing.

CHAPTER XIII

PROPORTIONS AND MIXTURES; HANDLING OF CONCRETE

112. Proportions. The theory of proper proportions is
to use just enough sand to fill the air spaces or voids in the
coarse aggregate, and enough cement to fill the air spaces in
the sand, and also to coat each particle and thus serve as a
binder. The small contractor in actual practice rarely at-
tempts to carry this out; in fact, he seldom accurately meas-
ures the materials that go into the job. He uses a little ce-
ment, some sand and gravel, and, under average conditions,
may get fair results. It is no wonder, however, that we find
sidewalks going to pieces, foundations of buildings cracking
and disintegrating when the work is done in such a haphazard
fashion.

To make a concrete that is strong as well as economical, it
is essential that the materials be well graded from the larger
to the smaller-sized particles so that the voids around the
particles are reduced toa minimum. ‘The absolute elimina-
tion of voids is an ideal condition which we should strive to
obtain. However, the densest concrete is not always the
strongest. In some cases, a rather porous mixture witha
small amount of fine aggregate is stronger than another piece
of concrete with a great deal of fine aggregate and a small
amount of coarse material, although the latter mixture would
be the denser of the two.

113. Requirements of Good Concrete. ‘The proper

proportions to use, under practical conditions, will depend on
120

PROPORTIONS AND MIXTURES 12)

the use to which the concrete is to be put. The three proper-
ties which are most often required are: (1) Strength, as in
bridges, buildings, etc.; (2) resistance to wear, as in concrete
sidewalks and roads; (3) water-tightness, as in water tanks,
silos, etc. The practical mixtures that are ordinarily used
for different kinds of concrete work are as follows:

114. Standard Mixtures. Rich mixture of 1 part ce-
ment, 1-1/2 parts sand, and 8 parts broken stone, or gravel,
commonly called a 1 : 1-1/2 : 3 mixture, is used for columns
of reinforced concrete buildings, for thin water-tight walls
where very dense, strong concrete is required, and under all
similar conditions.

A good, standard mixture of 1 part cement, 2 parts sand,
and 4 parts broken stone, commonly called 1 : 2 : 4 mixture,
is used for reinforced concrete work of all kinds, for water
tanks, thin walls, etc.

Medium mixture of 1 part cement, 2-1/2 paris sand, and 5
parts broken stone, commonly called 1 : 2-1/2 : 5 mixture, is
used for all plain concrete, that is, concrete without rein-
forcing—for foundations, walls, floors, ete. When the walls
are to be water-tight, a 1 : 2 : 4 mixture should be used in-
stead.

Lean mixture of 1 part cement, 3 parts of sand, and 6 parts
broken stone, commonly called 1 : 3 : 6 mixture, is used for
very heavy mass concrete where the loads are wholly com-
pressive. Still leaner mixtures are sometimes used for very
heavy foundations and abutments, but are not recommended
for general use.

115. Common Errors in Proportioning Concrete. A
rather common error that is made by the inexperienced con-

122 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

crete worker is to assume that when mixing one cubic foot of
cement, two cubic feet of sand, and four cubic feet of gravel,
he will secure seven cubic feet of concrete. This is an entirely
erroneous idea, as the sand would simply fill the voids in the
coarse material, and the cement would fill the voids in the
sand and coat the particles of sand and gravel or stone. Since
the amount of cement and sand used is more than enough to
fill the voids in the gravel, the resulting concrete will be
slightly more than four cubic feet, about 4.25 under average
conditions. ‘The same error is often made when unscreened,
bank-run materials are used. In attempting to secure the
equivalent of a 1 : 2 : 4 mixture, the contractor will use one
part of cement to six parts of bank-run material, when, in
reality, he should use only about 4-1/4 cubic feet of bank-run
material to one cubic foot of cement to get the equivalent of a
1:2:4 mixture. This is assuming that the bank-run mate-
rial is of the correct proportion of one part of fine aggregate to
two parts of coarse aggregate, which should be accurately ce-
termined by testing. The only safe method of using bank-
run materials is to screen them before using. Then when the
materials are used, the proportions can be definitely secured.

116. Determining Quantities for a Job. In detcr-
mining the quantities of material for a job, one must remem-
ber that the volume of concrete is only a little greater than
the volume of coarse aggregate; in fact, this is often taken asa
basis for estimate of materials needed. For example, sup-
pose it is required to make 54 cubic feet of concrete ofal :2:
4 mixture. It is assumed that 54 cubic feet of coarse aggregate,
27 cubic feet of sand, and 18-1/2 cubic feet, or 13-1/2 sacks
of cement are required. Another rule which may be used

PROPORTIONS AND MIXTURES 123

for all standard proportions is to take the sum of the propor-
tions and divide into the number 11; the quotient will be the
number of barrels of cement required to make one cubic yard

of concrete of the particular proportion. For example, eer

= 1-4/7 barrels of cement, or 6-2/7 sacks (4 sacks to a barrel)
for one cubic yard of concrete. Since 54 cubic feet, or 2 cubic
yards, of concrete is required in the above job, it will take
2 x 6-2/7, or 12-4/7 sacks of cement, 25-1/7 cubic feet of sand,
and 50-2/7 cubic feet of coarse aggregate. For a small job,
the first method may be used, but with the larger job, the
latter method, which is more accurate, should be adopted.

117. Requirements of Good Mixing. The require-
ments of good mixing are: (1) That every particle of sand and
stone is coated with cement paste, (2) that the sand and stone
are evenly distributed through the mass, and (8) that the
whole mixture is of a uniform consistency. A poorly-mixed
concrete may be known by its lack of uniformity in color and
the separation of fine and coarse material. It is just as im-
portant to have materials thoroly and carefully mixed as to
have them properly proportioned. It is considered so impor-
tant by well-informed concrete contractors, that they require
the materials to be mixed for a definite period of time, if
mixed by machine method, or turned a definite number of
times if mixed by hand. Up to a certain limit, it has been
found that the strength of the concrete is directly propor-
tional to the length of time it has been kept in the mixer.
(In the specifications for the construction of some concrete
work, the time of mixing is definitely stated.)

118. Hand-Mixing. A water-tight platform is the first
requirement for successful hand-mixing. In mixing by hand,

124 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

there is always a tendency to mix in small units, which is
sometimes a mistaken idea. It is usually best to mix at least
enough so that one sack of cement or one cubic foot can be
taken as a unit because, if the sack is emptied and only a.
part of a sack is taken, the cement will fluff up and form
more than one cubic foot.

119. Procedure in Hand-Mixing. In the actual process
of mixing, it is usually best to spread the sand on the mixing

Fic. 138. Spreading cement on sand.

board, and on top of this spread the sack of cement (Fig.
138); then two men using square-pointed shovels turn this
sand and cement over several times until the streaks of color
are merged into a uniform shade throughout the entire mass.
The coarse aggregate is then added (Fig. 138-a), and during
the first turning, water is added by means of a hose or from a
bucket (Fig. 189). Care must be observed to prevent wash-
ing the cement out of the mass. It is best to turn the mate-
rials several times (Fig. 1389-a), adding a small amount of water

PROPORTIONS AND \

IXTURES

Fic. 1389. Adding water to mixture.

126 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

each time until it reaches the proper consistency. The only
objection to the hand method of mixing is that a great deal
of labor is involved, and this, in some cases, reduces the qual-
ity of the concrete because of the fact that the materials are
not mixed as thoroly as when mixed in a mixing machine.

Fic. 139-a. Turning the mixture.

Fic. 140. Batch mixer.

120. Machine-Mixing. There are two types of ma-
chine mixers in use—the batch mixer (Figs. 140 and 140-a) and
the continuous mixer. The latter type is not as satisfactory
as the batch mixer and is seldom used except on small jobs.

PROPORTIONS AND MIXTURES 127

Better results can be obtained with the batch mixer, because a
definite quantity of materials is added and thoroly mixed be-
fore any concrete is discharged from the mixer. By allowing the
materials to remain in the mixer for a definite period of time,
they are more completely mixed, and all parts are of uniform
proportion. In the continuous mixer, the dry materials are
fed automatically from a hopper into a mixing trough where
water is added and where the entire mass is mixed and carried
along by blades to the discharge end, where the concrete is
discharged continuously.

Fic. 140-a. Another batch mixer.

121. Consistency of Mixtures. The amount of water
used in making concrete will depend on the use for which the
concrete is intended. There are three consistencies ordi-
narily referred to in discussing concrete. They are generally
called the “dry,” “quaky” and “wet” mixtures. The dry
mixture is of about the consistency of damp earth and is used
where the concrete is tamped into place. The quaky mixture
is so named because it is wet enough to quake when it is
tamped. It is used in molded products requiring reinforcing,
such as fence posts, beams, columns, etc. It is also used in
sidewalks, floors and foundations. The wet mixture contains

128 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

enough water to permit its flowing from the shovel or convey-
ors from elevators to various points in the construction of
large buildings. There is a tendency on the part of some
contractors to make the mixture very wet so as to make it
flow more easily. This will cause the separation of the coarse
materials from the finer and reduce the quality of the concrete.
One main point to remember in connection with the proper
consistency is that the materials must not be too dry nor too
wet; either condition will cause the separation of the coarse
material from the mortar.

122. Placing of Concrete. No time should elapse be-
tween the “mixing”? and the “‘placing.’’? One’s judgment
must be used in placing; the method adopted will depend on
the particular job. The essential feature in placing is to pre-
vent the separation of the stone from the mortar.

123. Three Methods of Placing Concrete.

1) A dry mixture of concrete is placed by thoro tamping or
by pressure. ‘The density and the final strength of a dry mix-
ture will depend on the extent of tamping. This method of
placing concrete is used in making concrete products that are
not reinforced, such as blocks, bricks and jardinieres. The
material must be carefully tamped as the mold is being filled,
either by hand or by power machines.

2) A quaky mixture can be placed by agitation or slight
tamping. This method is used in making reinforced prod-
ucts, such as posts, large tile and tanks; also for slab work,
such as floors and sidewalks. Some forms are designed so
they can be vibrated to settle the concrete into place.

3) A wet mixture is simply deposited into place, and re-
quires no tamping. A spade or board should be used for

PROPORTIONS AND MIXTURES 129

working large stones back from the forms and leveling the
surface so that no large stones are left uncovered (Fig. 141).
This mixture and method of placing is used in nearly all re-
inforced structures where the reinforcing is put in place be-
fore the concrete is poured. For large structures, special ap-
paratus is used for elevating the material.

Fic. 141. Working stones away from surface.

124. Handling Concrete. There are three common
ways of conveying the mixture: . |
a) It may be shoveled off the board directly into the
work.
6) It may be shoveled into wheelbarrows and wheeled
to position and dumped.

130 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

c) It may be elevated by buckets and hoisting appa-

ratus.
Where the concrete is mixed by hand, it is usually trans-
ported by wheelbarrow (Fig. 142). For machine-mixed con-
crete where the work is of some magnitude, some flexible

Fic. 142. Moving concrete with wheelbarrow.

method of handling it is best, usually a tower with elevating
equipment. Derricks and bucket elevators are also used.
The one objection to the use of tower and chutes is the tend-
ency, in order to secure easy flow, to use too much water,
causing a separation of the fine and coarse aggregate.

CHAPTER XIV

FORMS FOR CONCRETE; CURING CONCRETE

125. Necessity of Forms. ‘The plasticity of concrete,
and the readiness with which the material can be adapted to
all shapes and sizes of construction, which are two of the chief
merits of the material, make necessary the use of forms in
connection with it.

126. Importance of Form Construction. The design
and construction of forms is one of the most serious problems
of concrete work. As arule, on small work, the expense of
the forms is from one-fourth to one-half of the total cost of
the work in place. Many people do not appreciate this fact
and neglect the forms with the result that the finished work is
of poor quality, or else the forms have cost too much. The
shape, dimensions and finish of the work all depend on the
forms, and it is not possible to do good concrete work with-
out good forms:

127. EarthForms. In foundation walls, where care has
been observed in excavation and the earth stands up prop-
erly, it can be used. Earth can be used also in making well
tops, etc., where the work can be fashioned out in the clay.
The earth must be wet down thoroly to keep it from absorb-
ing too much moisture from the concrete. A combination of
wood and clay can be used. Molds of wet sand are used in
ornamental work. Frequently, colored sands are used for
this purpose, providing both the finished surface and color to
the concrete.

131

132 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

128. Cast, Wroughtor GalvanizedIronForms. These
are used where a smooth surface is desired without further
treatment after removal of forms. In construction work,
where the same type of form is used a great number of
times, it is economy to have a material which will not go to
pieces, warp, swell and crack, even tho the first cost may ke

Fic. 148. Commercial post mold.

higher. Steel forms, if strongly built, will meet these condi-
tions. Forms made of iron are more easily cleaned, and can
be used a great number of times. Rusty iron is not good for
forms; the concrete will stick badly. There are steel forms
on the market for concrete posts (Fig. 148), water tanks, silos,
etc.

129. WoodForms. Wood forms are most common, and
are used most for concrete work on the farm. The chief rea-
son for this is that lumber can be obtained easily in small
quantities, and there is always a certain amount of old lumber
around every farm.

130. Requirements of a Good Form.

a) One that can be used a number of times.
b) One that is strong so it will not bulge or crack.
c) One that is tight and free from leaks.

FORMS FOR CONCRETE; CURING CONCRETE 133

d) One that is true and properly aligned.
e) One that is made of good material suited to its use.
Soft woods are better than hard because they (a) are cheaper,
(b) do not crack so badly, (c) are an easier material to work.
Spruce and yellow pine make good forms; the boards used
should be sound and free from knot holes. Partly green lum-
ber is better than either green or kiln-dried, because it will
swell just enough to make tight joints without buckling.
Dressed lumber has several advantages over undressed: (a)
It makes truer work, (6) tighter joints, (c) smoother surfaces,
(d) forms are easier removed, and (e) forms are easier cleaned.

131. Use of Old Lumber for Forms. Where old lum-
ber is to be used, it should be sorted and listed so that new
lumber can be ordered of proper sizes that will work in best.
Care must be observed in the use of old lumber to see that it
is strong enough to support the load put on it by the con-
crete. A great deal of expense can be avoided by taking ad-
vantage of old lumber.

132. Sharp Corners in Forms. Sharp corners should
be avoided as much as possible in concrete work. It is best
to bevel the corners by setting strips in the forms, especially
on inside angles. This gives both greater strength and better
finish to the work.

133. Removing Forms; Care of Forms. Forms should
not be removed until the concrete is thoroly set. The time of
setting varies with the wetness of the mixture, and with the
weather. Concrete sets much faster in warm, dry weather
than in cold or damp weather. On foundation walls or simi-
lar work, where the concrete is used in direct compression, the
forms may be removed ina few days. Under floors or beams,

134 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

which are subjected to bending, the forms should be left two
weeks or longer.

Care of Forms:

Forms for concrete posts, etc., should be oiled with a heavy
oil before they are used. As soon as they are removed, they
should be thoroly cleaned with a stiff wire brush. Oiling
metal forms or molds after using is better practice than to
wait, as a coat of oil prevents rust. In removing wooden
forms, care must be observed to avoid splitting boards. All
boards -should be cleaned, the nails pulled, and boards
stacked to prevent warping. ;

Curing Concrete:

Proper curing of concrete is very essential to success. It
must not be allowed to dry out toorapidly. If freshly made
and exposed to the intense heat of the summer’s sun, it must
be protected. The drying out not on'y produces check
cracks, but hinders the setting action of the concrete, making
it weak. Floors and walks that are protected and kept moist
for some days will harden into a very dense and almost dust-
less material, while those not adequately protected will wear
rapidly and be dusty.

CHAPTER XV
REINFORCING CONCRETE; CEMENT-WORKING TOOLS

134, The Principle of Reinforcing. Plain concrete is
strong in compression, but will not resist a very great load
when in tension. Steel is a material that has a great tensile
strength, as well as compressive strength, so, by combining
the two, we have a resultant material which is strong in both
tension and compression, and can be adapted to most any
use.

The design of reinforced concrete structures is quite tech-
nical and has no place in a text of this character. For simple
types of construction, such as reinforcing for a silo, water
tank, retaining wali, fence posts and well tops, the student
can refer to tables in hand-books, or use his best judgment,
bearing in mind that the amount of reinforcing will vary from
3/4 to 1-1/2 per cent of the cross-section of the member being
reinforced.

135. Compression and Tension in Beams. A con-
sideration of the basic principles underlying simple reinforced
concrete construction may be of interest. Consider a simple
beam of uniform cross-section like a2” x 4’’, supported at each
end, with a load applied at the center (Fig. 144). It will be
found that the upper part of the beam will be in compression,
or tending to crush together, and the lower part will be tearing
apart, or in tension. It will be noted that there is a plane
perpendicular to the force applied and cutting the beam in
half where there is neither tension nor compression. ‘This is
called the neutral plane or neutral axis.

Now, since the lower part of the beam is in tension, and

135

136 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

since concrete is weak in tension, it is apparent that to make
the lower part of the beam as strong as the upper part, we
must imbed some material in the beam that is high in tensile

No kr einforcing
Broke at \40#

LD
Reinforcing in Top
_ Broke-at \45*

Reinforcing in Middle
Broke at 290* ;

ett ee ee ww me ee we me ee ee eee ee ee

Reinforcing in botlom
Broke at 855*

Fic. 144. Results of different placing of reinforcing.

strength. Steel is not only high in tensile strength, but its
co-efficient of expansion is the same as that of concrete, so a
strong bond between the two can be maintained. It must be
kept in mind that the steel must be placed as far as possible
from the neutral axis to be most effective. It must not be
placed too near the surface of the concrete. It must be kept
in mind, further, that in any reinforcing job, the steel must be

REINFORCING CONCRETE; CEMENT TOOLS Lot

placed where it will be under a tensile strain. Fig. 144 shows
the relative strength of a concrete beam with reinforcing
placed in various positions.

136. Kinds of Reinforcing. As to the kinds of rein-
forcing, probably square twisted steel rods, or the deformed
bars, are best. Round rods are sometimes used, but they
should be carefully anchored to give the best results. Some
engineers specify either the twisted or the deformed rods,
since a better bond is secured between the concrete and the
steel with this type of reinforcing. Some contractors claim
that a small amount of rust on the reinforcing is advanta-
geous. A very small amount of rust may be of some value in
forming a bond between the concrete and the steel. How-
ever, if the steel is left outside until it has become pitted with
rust, the resultant piece of work would be weakened, as the
bond between the steel and concrete would be a poor one.

137. Use of Scrap Iron for Reinforcing Concrete. It
is thought by some that scrap iron will make good reinforcing.
It is seldom true that as good a job can be secured by using
scrap iron, old gas pipe, etc., as by using regular reinforcing
steel. Gas pipe that is of value as pipe is expensive rein-
forcing material.

138. Toolsfor Concrete Work. Very inexpensive tools
are required for concrete work; in fact, few tools that are not
found on the average farm. For special work, special tools
will be required, which may be secured from any good hard-
ware supply house. A panel containing many of such special
tools is shown in Fig. 145. The tools commonly used in farm
concrete work and such as will be needed in the following pro-
jects are as follows:

CEMENT AND CONCRETE

Fic. 145. Tools used in concrete work.
1, Tamper; 2, level; 3, finishing trowel; 4, shovel; 5, groover; 6, edger;
7 and 8, trowels; 9, hand float.

REINFORCING CONCRETE; CEMENT TOOLS 139

a) For screening aggregate—a moulder’s riddle for
small work, or a screen, as shown in Fig. 138.

b) For washing aggregate—a trough in which dirty
aggregate can be freed from clay.

Fic. 145-a. Mixing concrete. Measuring boxes and other equipment.

c) For mixing and placing—a platform, as shown in
Fig. 142; shovel, spade, hoe, tamper, striking
board and wheelbarrow (Figs. 142, 145 and 147).

d) For measuring ingredients—a measuring box, as
shown in Fig. 145-a.

e) For finishing—trowel, edger, groover, hand float,
etc: , (Wig 145).

f) Water container—a barrel or, for large construc-
tion, a water tank, to which is attached a hose.

Tools for wood construction—carpenter’s square,
hammer, saws (rip and crosscut).

Note: To these tools there may be added a mixer, either hand or
power, depending upon the extent of the work to be undertaken.

CHAPTER xvi
PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

Project No. 1

139. Study of Concrete Construction and Concrete
Materials (Figs. 146 and 146-a).

Requirements: 'To investigate as many types and classes of
concrete work as are available and as time will permit.

Fic. 146. Defective concrete walk.

The following are suggested: Concrete tanks—one
circular and one rectangular—sidewalks, feeding floor,
foundation wall, retaining wall, fence posts, roads, tile,
and block. These should be studied with the idea of
noting the results obtained by use of poor materiais
and poor workmanship, and the use of good materials
and careful workmanship, and also to determine
140

PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 141

quantity of material needed for certain jobs. Make a
written report on results obtained.

Tools Needed: Rule for taking dimensions.

Preliminary Instruction: Carefully read the preceding para-
graphs. Keep in mind the general principles of con-
crete construction. Remember the requirements for

Fic. 146-a. An attractive walk.

well-made concrete, good aggregate, proper propor-
tions, carefulmixing and placing, and correctreinforcing.
Working Instructions:

a) Examine at least one of each of the different types of
concrete work listed under requirements and report on the
following:

1) General condition of the job.

2) If cracks are forming, to what are they due?

3) Where cracks have formed, note if there is a clear
fracture, or, if the aggregate is pulled out of the
mortar. |

4) Was the coarse aggregate worked back from the
form when placed?

5) Was a dry, quaky or a wet mixture used?

142 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

6) Does the job indicate that the forms were well
made?

7) If the forms were not well made, what was wrong
with them?

8) Why do poor foundations often cause cracks in con-
crete walls?

9) Examine the foundation and note if care was ob-
served in its preparation.

10) Is the foundation well drained?

11) What is the effect of poor drainage under a founda-
tion wall? Under a sidewalk? Under a road?

12) What precaution should be taken in constructing an
earth-retaining wall?

13) If cracks have formed, were they due to lack of or
insufficient remforcement?

14) Where should reinforcing steel be placed in such a
wall? Why?

15) Why should a wet or quaky mix be used where the
concrete is reinforced?

16) Write a brief statement about each piece of work,
giving your opinion as to what should be done to
make a first-class job.

b) Examine concrete material, note the quality, etc.

1) Examine a sack of cement. See if it is free from
lumps and is fresh.

2) Note the brand of cement examined.

3) Note the condition of the bag.

4) Why is it important to take care of the bags and not
allow them to get wet?

5) Examine availablesand. See if itis clean, free from
clay, coal or other organic matter.

PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 143

6) Test a small quantity of sand for clay by putting
about 4” or 5” in a fruit jar, adding water and
shaking until clay is in solution. Set aside and
let clay settle on top of the sand. Determine the
per cent of clay present.

7) What per cent of clay is allowable in average con-
crete work?

8) Examine available gravel or broken stone. See if it
is free from clay, organic matter or soft particles.

9) Can you scratch the stone with your thumb nail?

10) What would the effect be to use soft stone in making
concrete?

11) Is the coating of fine dust ordinarily found on lime-
stone detrimental in making concrete?

12) Examine some bank-run sand and gravel as in Nos.
5 and 8.

13) Why ‘is it poor practice to use ordinary bank-run
material for making concrete?

14) Suppose it is required that a piece of concrete work
be made of bank-run material that has 50 per cent
as much sand as gravel, and that it is to be equi-
valent in strength to a1 :2 : 4 mixture where the
sand and gravel are graded. How much would
be required for each sack of cement?

c) Problems:
Assume a 1 ;: 2 : 4 mixture and determine the amount of
materials needed; also cost:
1) To make a circular tank 6’ 0’’ inside diameter at the
top and 5’ 4” diameter at the bottom, and 2’ 0”
deep. The wall of the tank to be 4” thick at the

144 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

top and 8” thick at the bottom, the bottom of tank
to be 5” thick.

2) To make a rectangular tank with the same capacity
as No. 1, to have same thickness, walls and bottom,
and to be 4’ 0” across inside at the top.

3) To make a sidewalk 40’ long, 3’ wide, and 4” thick.

Fic. 147. Making block.

4) Tomake six concrete fence posts. Assume 20 cents
a post for steel.

140. Molded Concrete (Figs. 147 and 147-a).
Project No. 2

Requirements: 'To make tile of different sizes, block, flower
boxes, and other pieces of concrete work requiring a
dry mixture.

Tools Needed: Shovels, bucket, measuring box, screen, mix-
ing platform, trowels, and suitable molds.

Material Needed: Cement, sand and water.

Preliminary Instructions: The principles outlined in the dis-
cussion on selection of sand must be kept in mind.
Only the best sand should be used. In the kind of
work outlined in this project, a relatively dry mixture
must be used, one about as wet as damp earth when

PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 145

plowed; with such a mixture the molds may be re-
moved immediately. Good results cannot be obtained
if the materials are either too wet or too dry. The

Fic. 147-a. Making flower box.

product will stand up due to the adhesiveness of the
concrete, and it must be allowed to set thoroly before
handling. Careful measurement of materials is an
essential requirement of all concrete work.

Working Instructions:

1) Use a 1 : 8 mixture; that is, one part of cement and
three parts of sand, for the various jobs outlined.
Where coarse aggregate is available, the block may be
made of a 1:2: 4 mixture witha 1 : 2 face.

2) After measuring the sand, spread it out in a thin layer
on a water-tight platform; then spread the cement on
top of the sand and mix together dry, continuing the
turning until the color is uniform and without streaks.
Water is then added slowly from a sprinkling can or by

146 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

a hose, the mixing being continued until all parts of
the mass are of the same color and wetness.

3) Carefully clean the molds and apply a thin film of oil
after using, so they will be ready for the next job. See
that they are absolutely clean before placing any con-
crete.

4) Tile, block, etc., are made by thoroly tamping or press-
ing the concrete in the molds to be used. Any dry
mixture must be thoroly tamped to make dense con-
crete.

5) Extreme care must be observed in removing the molds
to avoid cracking the product or causing it to get out
of true shape. Tapping the mold slightly will often
prevent failures.

6) After the product has set for twenty-four hours,
sprinkle it carefully with water, repeating this fre-
quently for ten days. It should not be used for one
month or more. Where such products are made ona
commercial scale, they are often cured in a steam kiln.

7) Write a report on each product made. Give the gen-
eral method of procedure and why. Carefully deter-
mine cost of materials in each.

Project No. 8
141. Sidewalk and Floors (Figs. 148 and 148-a).
requirements: 'To prepare foundation, construct forms to
proper grade and position, and construct sidewalk and
floors of various kinds requiring a quaky mixture.
Tools Needed: Shovels, buckets, measuring box, screen, mix-
ing platform, trowels, edger, groover and float. Wood-
working tools suitable for constructing forms.

147

PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

"UOTJINIYSUOD Y[VMOPIS

TIMOYL ON/HSINIS

SPT ST

770, 2 ws ON HALIM

ID ISWT

FIAI LHOIVELS

Fx 9K%

JIMOUL ON/HINY CEL

148 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

Materials Needed: Knough cement, sand and gravel or broken
stone, and water to complete the job. Foral:2:4
mixture, 1 sack of cement, 2 cubic feet of sand and 4
cubic feet of gravel should make 4-1/4 cubic feet of

Fic. 148-a. Boys constructing sidewalk.

concrete, or 13 square feet of walk or floor 4 inches
thick. Material for forms must also be provided—
2 x 4’s with suitable stakes are very satisfactory.

Preliminary Instructions: The general principles of proper
proportioning, mixing and placing should be carried
out in constructing sidewalks the same as in any other
type of concrete construction. In work of this class, a
quaky mixture should be adopted. A walk should
not be made by putting down coarse material and
pouring over it a cement-sand mortar. Because of

PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 149

the close resemblance between other types of floor con-
structions, such as feeding floors, barnyard pavements,
basement floors, garage floors, etc., and concrete walks,
only a detailed description of the construction of one
type will be given. The location and drainage of any
walk or floor must be considered.

Working Instructions:

1) In laying out a walk, the first consideration is its loca-

tion with reference to buildings and the road. If it is
to be located with reference to a certain building,
either parallel or at a right angle, it should be definitely
located by careful measurement. Stake out the posi-
tion of the walk and draw a tight string so that the
surface may be properly leveled to a uniform grade.
This surface should be thoroly tamped to prevent any
settling after the walk has been placed.
Under certain conditions, where there is a tendency for
water to collect under a walk, cinders or gravel may be
used as a sub-base. Ordinarily, the concrete will be
placed directly on the well-tamped soil.

2) Make the forms of 2’” lumber, either 4” or 5’’ wide, de-
pending on thickness to which walk will be made; 4” is
satisfactory for most conditions. Place the forms
carefully to grade, and fill in with earth and tamp any
low places before placing any concrete. Proper and
careful alignment of the forms is the most important
feature to insure a good-looking job. Definite meas-
urements must be taken to locate carefully the posi-
tion of the forms. A level should be used in order to

_ see that the forms are properly leveled.

CEMENT AND CONCRETE

To support the forms, drive stakes every 3’ or 4’. It
is considered good practice to put in alternate sections
of the walk, and, after this has set, remove the end
form and fill in the section not built. For short pieces
of walk, however, this is unnecessary. If it is desired
to give the walk a slight slope to one side, this can be
done by use of a level and straight-edge, placing one of
the 2 x 4’s lower than the other—1/4” to 1’ is a good
side slope for a walk, and will cause it to shed the water
very quickly. To make such a slope on a walk to be
4’ wide, the form in the direction of the slope will be
set 1” lower than the upper one.

3) For a one-course walk, nothing leaner thanal :2:4
mixture should be used; that is, one part of cement to
two parts of sand and four parts of broken stone. Both
sand and gravel, or broken stone, should be clean and
free from clay or other foreign material. If bank-run
materials are used, careful screening to get the proper
proportions is necessary.

4) After measuring the sand required for one batch,
spread it out in a thin layer on a water-tight platform ;
then spread the cement on top of the sand and mix to-
gether dry, continually turning until the color is uni-
form and mixed together without streaks. The ce-
ment and sand is then spread out and the coarse mate-
rial placed on top. It is then again mixed and water
is added until it is of a quaky or jelly-like consistency.
Such a mixture can be quickly spread about in the
forms and easily leveled with a strike-board resting

PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 151

upon the top of the forms. Avoid using too dry a
mixture for floor construction.

5) The concrete may be shoveled directly from the mix-
ing board into the form, or handled by means of a
wheelbarrow.

6) Level the material off and tamp it enough to force the
coarse material in from the surface, and bring enough
cement-sand mortar to the surface to make a smooth
finish. Slght tamping is also done to remove any air
or water bubbles from the material. A spade or board
should be pushed in along the side of the form so that
all coarse material will be worked back from the edge
of the walk.

7 If the walk is to be 50’ or more in length, an expansion
joint should be placed approximately every 50’. This
expansion joint can be provided by putting ina board
1/2” thick at intervals of 50’, which should be removed
after the concrete has properly set, and the groove
filled with heavy asphalt or Tarvia. To leave the
board in place is worse than no expansion joint. This
practice is sometimes followed.

8) It the material has been mixed to the right consistency,
the surface can usually be given its final finish within
one-half hour after placing. The first part of the
finishing should be done with a wood float, merely to
level off the surface and make a smooth job. If it is
desired to make a very smooth surface, continue the
finishing by using a steel trowel. The troweling proc-
ess tends to bring an additional amount of cement and

152

CEMENT AND CONCRETE

fine sand to the surface, making it very slick. Ordi-
narily, this practice is not desirable.

The edges of the walk must be finished with the edger
to give a rounded corner. ‘To line the walk off into
sections, use a straight-edge and groover. This must
be done before the concrete has begun to set because it
is sometimes necessary to force coarse material farther
below the surface to make a good groove. Lay off the
walk so that the length of the sections will be about
one and one-half times the width; that is, a walk 2’

—

— or
Sy

Fie. 149, Form for double step.

wide should be divided into sections 3’ long, or a walk
3’ wide into sections 4-1/2’ long.

9) If the walk is built where it is exposed to extreme dry-

ing from the sun, it is well to protect it until it has set.
The protection may be in the form of moist sand or a
tarpaulin of some sort. The hot sun and dry winds
will tend to remove the moisture from the concrete
and prevent it from hardening. Sprinkle the surface
for a week or ten days, after which the walk may be
put into use.

PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 153

142. Constructing a Doorstep (Figs. 149 and 149-a).
Requirements: To prepare foundation, construct the form
and place the concrete for a step and platform at some
door, or a step at the curb, walk or driveway entrance
to the house. A 1:2 : 4 mixture should be used for
such a job.
Tools Needed: Same as in Secs. 140 and 141.

Material Needed: Enough cement, sand or gravel or crushed
stone, and water to complete the job, using a 1:2 :4
mixture. A sufficient quantity of fence boards and
2x 4’sto construct the form. Boards 1-1/2” thick are
preferred to light ones.

Preliminary Instructions: In constructing each piece of con-
crete work, the requirements of good concrete must
be ever kept before you. In a job of this kind, the
construction of the forms deserves a great deal of at-
tention. If a carriage step or small step at curb is to
be built, it will require little foundation; the ground
should be leveled and well tamped. Fora doorstep, a

154

CEMENT AND CONCRETE

sub-base should be provided, and if it is a large one,
the central portion may be tamped full of clay to serve
as a filler; in this case, not less than 6’’ of concrete
should surround the filler.

Working Instructions:

1) Follow general instructions given for concrete con-

struction. Carefully prepare the form for the step to
secure correct dimensions as planned—the proper area
of platform, the correct width of tread and the correct
height of riser. It is suggested that the riser be 8”
high and the tread 10” wide; then stock 8” boards can
be used as the part of form for riser. Have each part
of form properly braced so there is no danger of its
bulging.

2) For a solid step, a1 : 2-1/2 : 5 mixture is adequate. If

the step is to be made from one level to another with-
out backing, and is to be reinforced, a1 : 2 :4 mixture
should be used; in fact, for small jobs, such a mixture
is best.

3) Carefully mix the concrete to a quaky consistency as

outlined in Sec. 141. Place the material in the form
and tamp it lightly, working the coarse aggregate back
from the surface to secure a smooth finish.

4) The finishing coat of one part cement to two parts sand

for the platform and the treads should be placed im-
mediately after the surfaces have been leveled off.
Where it is not desired to give an extremely smooth
finish, enough fine material can be worked to the sur-
face by troweling, and this can be leveled off. The
risers and sides of the steps can be finished only after

PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 155

the form has beenremoved. Forty-eight hours should
elapse for the ordinary job to allow for setting. To
finish the risers and sides of steps, remove all marks
made by forms by the use of a stiff brush. If care has
been observed in working the coarse material back
from the form and no air pockets have been formed,

Ix2°Cleat an sash
SFt-6in

oe
Poa

Bou

Fic. 150. Section thru hot-bed.

this method of finishing is sufficient. If the wall is left
quite rough on removal of the forms, they should be
wet down and a cement mortar of the same propor-
tions as used on the treads should be applied with a
brush. Keep the step moistened for a week or ten
days until ready for use.

143. Hot-bed, Foundation Wall, or a Similar Type of

Construction (Figs. 150, 151, 152).

Requirements: To build a form such as needed for the wails
of a hot-bed or the foundation for a small building.
Determine the quantity of material required. Prepare
and place the concrete, remove the form in due time,
and finish the job. A mixture of wet consistency
should be used.

Tools Needed: Same as in Secs. 140 and 141.

Materials Needed: Enough cement, sand and gravel or

156

Preliminary Instructions:

CEMENT AND CONCRETE

crushed stone to complete the job, using a 1 :2 : 4 mix-
ture, a sufficient quantity of boards, and 2 x 4’s to
make and brace the
form, and pieces of
wire with which to
fasten it together.

Concrete is the best
material available
for foundation wall
construction. The

super - structure
may be built of some
other material, but usually concrete will be used for
the foundation. The particular location of hot-bed
or foundation wall should be definitely decided so the
work will not be held back at the beginning of work

: period. To lay outa
rectangular foundation,
one should be careful to
have all intersections of

Fic. 151. Foundation wall form.

walls exactly 90 degrees.
This can be easily
checked by the “8, 4, 5”

Fic. 152. Wall form above ground. method. This rule is

applied by measuring along one wall a distance
from the corner equal to 3 feet; then measure from the
same point along the other wall a distance of 4 feet;
then, if the two lines form an exact right angle, the dis-
tance between the ends of the 3- and 4-foot lines will

PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 157

be exactly 5 feet. For convenience and accuracy, any
multiple of 3, 4 and 5 may be used.
Working Instructions:

1) Carefully excavate all soil to proper depth. If the soil
is firm, it may be used as the outside form up to the
surface, above which a double form will be necessary.
For all kinds of foundation walls, it is always essentiai
that the footing be wider than the wall proper, and
that it be carried deep enough to be below the frost
line. If double forms are necessary, due to the soil
caving it will have to be excavated to a greater width.

2) Construct the form with care, duplicating the inside
and outside wall dimensions as desired. See that cor-
ners are square, walls are well braced, vertical, and
carefully aligned. If walls are to be more than six
feet high, tie wires should be used in addition to the
supporting braces (Fig. 152). If this precaution is not
followed, a bulged wall is likely to be the result. The
inner form on a hot-bed or other small! piece of con-
crete work, may be supported by braces on the inside,
running from one wall to the opposite one.

3) For thin walls up to six inches,al:2 :4 mixture should

be used. Walls more than eight inches thick may be
made of al : 2-1/2 : 5 mixture.

4) For a job of this kind, the concrete may be mixed to a
slightly wet consistency. Care must be exercised to
avoid the separation of the coarse material from the
fine, which is possible in a wet mixture. Shovel the
concrete into form and force the coarse aggregate back
from the surface of the wall by means of a spade or a

158 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

thin board. When the job isa fairly large one, do not
mix less than the amount produced when a sack of ce-
ment is taken as a unit. It is desirable to complete
the job without interruption after it is started. In
case it is necessary that the work be discontinued for a
period, see that the surface of the dry concrete is
cleaned and thoroly wet down before fresh concrete is
poured.

5) To insure against cracks in a concrete wall, a few rein-
forcing rods bent at right angles and placed at succeed-
ing heights of 12 to 18 inches in the corners, will be in-
valuable. Reinforcing placed around openings is also
recommended,

6) The forms on a wall of more than six feet in height
should stay on several days. The forms on walls only
two or three feet high may be removed in forty-eight
hours. As to finishing the surface of the wali, follow
instructions given under this heading in Sec. 142.

Note: When a wooden superstructure is to be built on a
concrete foundation, it is advisable to set some bolts in the
concrete at intervals of every five or six feet, to which the sills
may be fastened.

144. Constructing Fence Post (Fig. 153).

Requirements: 'To construct line fence posts and corner and
end posts requiring quaky or wet mixtures and rein-
forcing.

Tools Needed: Shovels, buckets, measuring box, screen, mix-
ing platform, straight-edge, flat trowels and suitable
forms or molds, or woodworking tools suitable for con-
structing same.

PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 159

Materials Needed: Cement, sand, gravel or broken stone and
reinforcing steel. For line posts, provide 1/4” to 3/4”
stone; and corner and end posts, 1/4” x 1-1/4” stone.

Preliminary Instructions: There is nothing that adds more
to the appearance and usefulness of a fence than a. good

ese —_ ae
We )
a “a
At

yy. SECTION oF Coe NER
Th Sowa rejifort ing

End Fosr
Fic. 153. Corner post.

line of uniform posts, and there is probably nothing
that adds more to the appearance of a farm lay-out
than a good, serviceable fence. A good fence is a real
necessity on every farm.

Many of the early concrete posts were failures because

160 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

they were not properly made. People tried to make
posts without knowing the first principles of correct
construction. Posts were made of poor material, lean
mixtures, and incorrectly reinforced. To make good,
uniform posts, provide well-made forms. There area
lot of good patented forms on the market, but home-
made forms are just about as good. A very satisfac-
tory form for posts is outlined under woodworking
projects, Sec. 79 and Fig. 136.

The chief difference between the construction of line
posts, and corner and end posts is that the corner and
end posts are usually made right in place, as shown in
Fig. 153. The hole isexcavated, the form built over it,
and the steel tied in place, and the concrete then
poured. The method of constructing line posts will
be definitely outlined.
Working Instructions:

1) Place forms so they will be level. Clean them with a
brush, and apply a thin film of oil before placing con-
crete.

2) For corner and end posts, a 1 : 2 : 4 mixture may be
used. For line posts, use a1 : 2 : 2-1/2 mixture, the
stone not to be larger than 3/4’”’".. Where materials are
not screened, use one part of cement to three parts of
sand and pebbles for line posts.

5) Mix the materials to a quaky consistency and fill the
form half-full of material. 'Tamp until the material is
free of water and air bubbles.

4) Press two 1/4” twisted steel rods into the concrete so
that they will be within 1/2” of the corners of the post.

PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 161

Then fill the form full of the mixture, tamp it lightly,
and smooth off the surface. Press two more rods in
place-at each corner about 1/2” under the surface;
then smooth the surface to proper finish.

5) Leave the posts in the molds at least forty-eight hours
under most conditions. If the weather is extremely
dry and hot, they may be removed earlier. To take
out the post, turn down the hinged end of the form,
lift the dividing boards between the posts, then grasp
the post and slide it on the bottom of form by a pulling
motion; after it is loosened, it may be lifted out. Han-
dle the posts with care when green as they are liable
to be broken.

6) Set the post on end in sand to cure. Sprinkle daily
in dry weather fora week. Do not use until the posts
are one month old.

145. Constructing a Circular Stock Tank (Figs. 154,
154-a and 155).

Requirements: To construct form according to plan, prepare
foundation and construct a circular stock tank to
be provided with inlet pipe with float control and
outlet. Plumbing work is outlined in Sec. 351 under
head of “Plumbing.”

Tools Needed: Same as in preceding projects.

Materials Needed: Enough cement, sand and gravel, or
crushed rock, to construct tank of a1 :2:4 mixture
according to plan. Enough heavy hog wire 30” high to
extend around tank and lap 30”, and enough to extend
twice across the bottom and up the sides. For a tank

162 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

6’ inside diameter, it will require about four rods of
fence.

Preliminary Instructions: A stock tank is a needed piece of
equipment on every farm. It should be carefully lo-
cated with reference to lots for convenience; in fact, it

Toe WeEw OF FORMS

——_— —
—
— —=

Lower Pleces,
2x8 Radius 2-7

Top Pleces 51
LF) Raolus Ag.

v, vw
ie Zz

2X4. hegge

/ Preces 25 ‘Long
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pores (Rip orn abled /ine
eas VnA-B°5 Long

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2x10" Radius 3°42 SECTION OF

IWs/IDE FORT

Fic. 154. Circular tank forms.

may be placed between two lots or where four lots cor-
ner. A drainage outlet must be provided which must
be given consideration when the tank is located. Ex-

PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 163

treme care must be observed in mixing, placing and
reinforcing to insure a strong water-tight construction.
Working Instructions:

1) Like every other piece of concrete work, the water tank
must be constructed on a solid foundation. ‘The soil
should be firmly tamped before the form is set in
place. In the preparation of the foundation, the
proper placing of the outlet and inlet pipes must be
given consideration, since both should be brought
thru the bottom of the tank. For a large tank, it is
well to excavate and form a sub-base of cinders or
gravel.

2) The form for a circular tank is the most difficult part of

the tank to build. [onan ne ©
However, by sil
carefully study- Be Jo be recu?

¢ Yor inner si///
ing the plan, one \)9

should experi- For jnnersil/ at fop
ence little
trouble. It will

be noted on plan

The radius of
botlor si// would
l Se 27:

that both the in- ~
side and outside I
forms are made

; P ; Fic. 154-a. Detail of sill for circular form.
in slx sections.

This makes the length of each section equal to one-half
the diameter of the tank. If the inside diameter of
the tank is to be 6’, the outer length of section for in-
side form will be 3’, less the thickness of boards used.
The inner length of outside section will be equal to one-

164 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

half the diameter of tank plus the thickness of wall
and thickness of boards used. If the wall is to be 5”
thick at the top and boards 1” thick are to be used,
then the sections would be 3’ 6” long at the inner
length. Since the outside surface of the wall of the
tank is vertical, both sills for the outside form will be
cut the same. The inner surface should be given a
slope of 2”’ to the foot, or, for a tank 2’ deep, the bot-
tom sill for the inner form will be 4”’ shorter than the
top one. The sills for this form are best cut from a
2" x 10” or 2”’ x 12” timber when a jig or band saw
isavailable, making it possible to get both the innerand
outer sills from the same piece, as shown in Fig. 154-a.
After sills are cut, the
boards must be carefully
fitted to make a tight wall.
The boards for the inner
section are made 5” short-
er than those for the outer

FiMisHED Jann WiTH farts DAGRANMED

} i section to allow for thick- -
ie a i!
| t ioe aI-" ness of floor. After these
ave eel \\ :
i |
v fencine nent. nee sections are completed,
| ae | Over low Pipe they areassembled in place
eee Ye 70 Aran
ee ed =
Suipy Pipe 70 and can be fastened togeth

Fic. 155. Circular tank complete. €F by strips across ends.

3) For concrete construction such as this, never use a .
mixture leaner than1:2:4. For small tanks, al :2:
3 mixture is better.

4) Follow method of mixing and placing as outlined in
Sees. 141 and 148, with the exception of the following:

PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 165 |

Set the outer form in place and put in floor first.
Spread about 3” of concrete on floor; then put two or
three strips of the hog wire fence across the floor and
extend it up the sides. Place balance of concrete for
floor and tamp in place. Put a strip of hog wire in
place for wal! reinforcing, lap the ends, and wire to it
the strips that were placed across the floor. Then
place inner form in position, carefully center it, and
fasten in place with boards nailed across the top. Pour
the rest of concrete, keeping the reinforcing near the
center of wall. It is desirable to provide a concrete
box in the center of the tank to provide protection for
the iniet pipe and automatic float. A form for this
box should be constructed, set in place and the concrete
poured as the tank is being completed. For the outlet
pipe, a drain with a 1-1/2” coupling should be set in a
low place in the floor. A short piece of pipe screwed
into the coupling and extending to aheight that it is de-
sired the water should stand, will act as an overflow.

5) Remove the forms from the tank in about forty-eight
hours, and, after wetting it thoroly, apply a cement
paint to the entire surface. Allow this coating to set,
then wet down again, after which the tank may be
filled with water. It should not ke put into use for
a week or ten days, as the green concrete can easily be
broken by stock.

CHAPTER: 2YV il

SUPPLEMENTARY CONCRETE PROJECTS

146. Constructing Garden or Lawn Roller (Figs. 156,
sol

Requirements: 'To make a garden or lawn roller, as illus-

trated, complete with handle for pulling or pushing it.

Fic. 156. Garden roller.
Instructions:

1) Secure a length of drain tile of size desired. If drain
tile is not available, an old carbide can or other cylin-
drical can may be used.

2) Secure lengths of 1/2’”’ pipe and fittings for axle and
handle.

3) Construct a platform on which to make the roller.

4) Lay out a circle on platform slightly larger than tile.

5) Bore a hole in platform, the diameter being equal to
outside diameter of pipe for axle.

6) Make cross-frame of two 1’ x 4”’ pieces.

166

SUPPLEMENTARY CONCRETE PROJECTS 167

7) Center and bore hole in cross-frame as has been done
with platform. Nail blocks on ends of cross pieces to
hold in place when assembled.

8) Place tile on platform and center axle in place with
cross-frame. Nail blocks on platform to hold tile in
place.

Fic. 157. Details of forms for garden roller.

9) Axle should extend out of the tile at least two inches.

10) Mix concrete 1 : 2-1/2 : 4 proportion to a quaky con-
sistency.

11) Place concrete in tile around axle. Leave in place .
for a week or more before using.

12) For handle, assemble pipe and fittings, as illustrated in
plumbing project. This makes a very good elemen-
tary pipe-fitting exercise. See Sec. 334.

147. A Hog Trough (Fig. 158).

Requirements: 'To construct form, mix and place concrete,
and properly reinforce a trough that will be suitable
for feeding slops to hogs.

Instructions:

1) Construct form as illustrated. The inner part of form
may be made of heavy clay if it is desired to make the
bottom of trough with a curved surface.

168 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

2) Provide reinforcing. If the trough is to be more than
4’ in length, 1/4”” rods should be used in addition to
the wire netting.

3) Useal :2 :3 proportion, and mix to a wet consistency.

4) Place concrete and reinforcing.

forr? claps
ee,

GENERAL VIEW
OF FORM

Fic. 158. Hog trough.

GENERAL vi£Ww
OF TROUGH.

148. Engine or Machine Foundation (Fig. 159).
Requirements: The requirements of this job will depend on
the particular machine. A machine subject to a great
deal of vibration should have a heavy foundation.
The proper-sized foundation can best be determined
by the maker of the machine. The structural details
would be about the same for all machines.
Instructions:
1) Excavate and prepare footing for foundation.
2) Construct form according to plan.
3) Provide bolts to fasten machine to base.
4) Provide a template to locate bolts in base.

SUPPLEMENTARY CONCRETE PROJECTS 169

5) Provide pieces of 1” gas pipe for bolts.
6) Mix concrete of 1 : 2-1/2 : 5 proportions to a quaky
consistency.

Fic. 159. Machine foundation.

7) Place concrete in form.
8) When form is practically full, set pieces of gas pipe
with bolts approximately in place.

rr +: “ar ae a ts

Bolts and re ee oem,
a2 COncrele 15 poured

Fic. 160. Earth form for cistern or well top.

9) Fill forms, finish surface, and adjust bolts into correct
position by aid of the template.
10) When initial set has been taken, remove template and
trowel to a smooth level finish.
11) Remove form after several days and finish surface.
12) Bolt machine in place.
149. Cistern or Shallow Well Top (Fig. 160).
Requirements: To make a circular top for a well or cistern.

170 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

Instructions:
1) Describe a circle the exact size of top desired on a
smooth level place on the ground.
2) Carefully excavate inside of the circle to a depth of 4’.
3) Cut out a cylindrical wood block and locate where
| pump pipe will pass through.
4) Provide four bolts to fasten pump to top.
5) Cut two pieces of hog wire for reinforcing across top,
and two pieces of large, smooth wire for the edge.
6) Mix concrete of 1 : 2 : 3 proportion to a quaky con-
sistency.
7) Sprinkle form so it will not absorb water from con-
crete.
8) Place concrete in bottom half of form.
9) Place reinforcing and set bolts in place.
10) Fill form with concrete.
11) Build up ccncrete where pump is to stand. |
12) Finish surface with slight slope toward one side so
water will drain off.
13) Sprinkle top from day to day. Remove at the end of
a week or ten days.

150. Manure Pit and Cistern (Fig. 161).
Requirements: To excavate for manure pit and cisterr, con-
struct form, and place the concrete and reinforcing
where needed.
Note: Refer to project in Sec. 148.

Instructions:
1) Excavate for both pit and cistern, and prepare founda-
tion.
2) Construct outside form if needed.

SUPPLEMENTARY CONCRETE PROJECTS mye

3) Construct inside form for pit in place.
4) Provide tile from pit to cistern.

5) Arrange reinforcing for cistern. Heavy hog wire may
be used instead of rods.
6) Construct inner form for cistern.

GENERAL VIEW
OF MANURE PIT

Sep emi”
Marhole cover ess 2 ii
G

12 6-1n Tile S —Y i
=| Gutter £8 4 S 7

cos Yo =~ Slope: £17 to lft o, XS ;

Az aw Gees N :

Well compacted earth
6in SECTION

24 feet

#-n round rods spaced 617
Aorizontally and vertically —

ae
8
\e
Q
617.

Fic. 161. Manure pit and cistern.

7) Use1:2:4 proportion and mix concrete to a wet con-
sistency.
8) Place concrete in walls.
9) Remove wall forms.
10) Place concrete in floor.
11) Construct form for cistern top, providing place for
pump, also for manhole cover.
12) Place concrete for top with reinforcing, and also for
manhole cover.

172 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

13) Remove form from cistern thru manhole.
14) Remove form from manhole top.
151. Feeding Floor (Fig. 162).
Requirements: To prepare foundations, construct forms and
place concrete for feeding floor for ten hogs. It takes
12 to 15 square feet of space per hog.
Note: Refer to Sec. 141.

Fic. 162. Feeding floor.

Instructions:

1) Prepare foundation by leveling the spot where floor is
to be built. Remove all vegetable matter and have
soil thoroly tamped.

2) Construct form to grade so that floor will be at least 4’’
thick. Have a slope of 1/4” to 1’ in one direction.

3) Mix concrete of 1 : 2 : 4 proportion to a wet consist-
ency.

4) Place concrete in floor; complete one section at a time.

5) Remove forms.

6) Excavate for curb around floor. —

7) Construct form for curb.

8) Place concrete in curb.

9) Remove eurb form.

SUPPLEMENTARY CONCRETE PROJECTS 173

152. Constructing a Scale Pit (Fig. 163).
Requirements: To excavate for scale pit, construct form, and
place the concrete.

Note: Refer to project under Sec. 148.

Slope floor to drain
a

Fic. 163. Scale pit.
Instructions:

1) Excavate pit to dimensions to be determined from size
of scale.

2) Provide drain for center of pit.

3) Construct outside form if needed.

4) Construct inner form so wall will be at least 6” thick.

5) Use 1:2 : 4 proportion and mix to a wet consistency.

6) Place concrete in wall.

7) Provide bolts at top of wall to fasten angle iron.

8) Remove forms from wall.

9) Place concrete in floor with slope toward center drain.

174 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

153. Vault for Privy (Fig. 164).

Requirements: 'To construct a sanitary vault for privy with
partition as illustrated in plan. As many sections can
be made as desired. This is a dry type of vault, dry
earth or ashes being used to absorb liquids.

Instructions:

1) Prepare footing for vault so its lower level will be no
lower than the surface of the ground.

2) Construct form in place.

3) Provide pieces of wire for reinforcing to insure against
shrinkage cracks.

4) Mix concrete of 1 : 2 : 8 proportion to a wet consist-
ency.

5) Place floor and wall of vault as one unit.

6) Remove inner form after twenty-four to forty-eight
hours, and paint up any holes with 1 : 2 cement-sand
mortar.

7) Paint inner surface with a cement wash.

8) Remove outer form after several days.

9) Finish outer surface. |

154. Milk-Cooling Tank (Fig. 165).

Requirements: 'To excavate, construct form-and place con-
crete and reinforcing for a milk-cooling tank to be 2’ 6””
wide, 20’ deep, length as needed, bottom 8’’ lower
than floor of milk room. The bottom to be corru-
gated to allow free circulation of water with drainage
outlet.

Note: Refer to Sec. 148.

175

SUPPLEMENTARY CONCRETE PROJECTS

Y3ddOH YOo4 g-
Wao IWLaAW LasHoC =

o1Ld3as Mek aCe

go
, wat ee.

eZ lck oy deo
NV id YOO dd.

THS UQDOOM JOf 2100s

LIAVA SLABINOD SO
BAILODAdSAag

SPYE IL Oe *

L094 YE
AUEOG*, D2

Fic. 164, Plan of sanitary privy.

176 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

Instructions:

1) Excavate to a depth of 14’ below floor level.

2) Construct outside form in place.

3) Construct inner form, to be put in place after floor
is made, so wall will be 4” thick.

4) Provide reinforcing material, either rods or heavy hog
wire.

5) Put drain in place so coupling will be at surface of low
place in floor.

6) Asa protection to top of inner wall, provide a 4” chan-
nel iron with 3/8” by 6” anchor bolts threaded into it,
as illustrated.

7) Mix concrete of 1 : 2 : 4 proportion to a quaky con-
sistency.

8) Place concrete in floor to a depth of 6” with reinforcing
in place.

9) Form corrugations in bottom of tank sloping toward
outlet.

10) Adjust inner form in place, with reinforcing extending
up from floor and entirely around wall of tank.

11) Place concrete in walls of tank.

12) Firmly seat the channel iron with anchor bolts on inner
wall, hammering it into place with a wood maul.

13) Remove inner form at the end of twenty-four to forty-
eight hours, and finish surface with a cement wash. If
there are any holes, use a 1 : 2 cement-sand mortar to
fill them.

14) Remove outside form after several days, and finish
surface with a stiff brush.

177

SUPPLEMENTARY CONCRETE PROJECTS

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178 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

155. A Rectangular Water Tank (Figs. 166, 167, 167-a).
Requirements: 'To construct form according to plan, prepare
foundation and construct a rectangular water tank,

to be provided with inlet pipe with float control

and outlet pipe. . )

Fic. 167. Inside form for rectangular water tank.

Note: This project is quite similar to that described in
Sec. 145, with exception of shape.
Instructions:
1) Prepare foundation. Set inlet and outlet pipes in
place.
2) Construct outside form in place 38” high (Fig. 166).
3) Construct inner form ready for use so that tank will be
2-1/2’ deep with 6” Aoor, and 5” wall at top and 10”
wall at the bottom.
4) Construct form for float box.

SUPPLEMENTARY CONCRETE PROJECTS 179

5) Mix concrete and place floor of tank with reinforcing.
Uses: 2-3-4: mixture.

6) Set inner form in place.

7) Place form for float bex.

8) Put wall reinforcing in place. Use at least four
twisted 1/4” rods 3’ long, bent at right angle at corner,
in addition to hog wire.

9) Place balance of concrete.

10) Remove forms after concrete is thoroly set.
11) Finish surfaces.

Fic. 167-a. Cross-section of finished tank.

156. Potato and Fruit Storage Cellar (Figs. 168, 169).
Requirements: 'To excavate, construct forms, and place con-
crete and reinforcing for storage cellar as illustrated.

Note: Refer to project under Sec. 145. ©

Instructions:

1) Lay out, excavate and prepare foundation for storage
cellar according to plan.

2) Construct end forms in place.

3) Construct inner side form in place. The sills support-
ing top section of inner form to be divided into three
parts, the length of each part to be equal to one-half
the width of cellar.

4) Provide wedges at bottom of form support to make the
form easily removed.

180 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

<Vent i lalar

C Concrete floor fo be said aie ;
arrer cellar ’s finished eS pho

ARCH “CENTERING

Space trusses 2 “3 aparr

Fic. 168. Fruit storage cellar.

Dera!

Section of y I- LDetai/
Cursive ff. Section
; of (Inside

Cufpside ond lnside 2irul se be

Ke wired every 2-6 7o prevery speading

INSIDE FORIY FEAR WALL

Fic. 169. Inside form of fruit storage cellar.

5) Construct outer side form so wall will be 10” thick at
bottom of arch and 6” thick at top. When excavation
is carefully done, the outer form will be required only
above the ground surface. Be very careful in bracing
both the inner and outer forms to get best results.

SUPPLEMENTARY CONCRETE PROJECTS 181

6) Mix concrete 1 : 2 : 4 proportion to a wet consistency,
except for the top of arch, which should be to a quaky
consistency.

7) Place concrete in lower side wall.

8) Place heavy hog wire from lower walls over arch to in-
sure against snrinkage cracks.

9) Place concrete over arch.

10) Keep concrete from being exposed to extreme heat of
sun and moisten each day.

11) Remove forms after a period of about one week.

12) Finish job by smoothing off rough places with a brush
and by plastering where necessary.

157. Hog Wallow (Fig. 170).

Requirements: To excavate for hog wallow suitable for 20 or
30 hogs weighing 200 pounds each. To construct
form and provide overflow drain and inlet pipe similar
to drain and inlet for tank described in Sec. 145.
To reinforce floor and side walls of wallow with wire
mesh.

Note: Refer to project under Sec. 145.

Instructions:

1) Excavate and prepare foundation for wallow.

2) Place inlet and overflow pipes.

3) Construct inner form ready for use.

4) Construct form for box to protect inlet and overflow
pipes.

5) Use a 1:2 :4 proportion and mix concrete to a quaky
consistency.

6) Place floor about 4” thick.

7) Put reinforcing in place across the floor and extending
up the wall, as illustrated in cross-section.

182 CEMENT AND CONCRETE

8) Place balance of concrete in floor.
9) Put forms in place.

10) Place concrete in walls.

11) Remove forms and finish job.

/2 feet
Gyn. i/feet (Wa

faeces SUE)
Hae ‘OL SL aire mesh

| Si} reintorcernent
i pSieSlove of en Sy,

Over flow.
Orain

pay Teepe =

CENERAL VIEW

4 feet 20 feet

SECTION LENGTHWISE
Fic. 170. Hog wallow.

158. Dipping Vat for Hogs (Fig. 171).
Requirements: 'To excavate for dipping vat, to construct the
forms according to plan, and to place the concrete and ~
reinforcing.

SUPPLEMENTARY CONCRETE PROJECTS

Note: Refer to project under Sec. 143.
Instructions:

Spaced /0 apart on cEenrers

1) Excavate main part of vat first, which is 8’ 6’’ long and
2’10’’ wide. Witha5” wall, this gives 2’ in the clear.

2) Excavate sloping incline for outlet, this to be 8’ long
and same width as body of tank.

“

INCLINE Z

His
DETAIL OF Gy a

FREINFORCEMENT IN WALLS 5;
Horizontal rods 3 Aiameter

Vertical rods 3 aamerer
Spaced 24 goarl on cenrers

G
6x6 Fos? 6%*6 Posts

R CC —— — ee
== SN =

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Filchg Yo / foot Curbing CZ; — ‘ CZ 8° O"—
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LONGITUDINAL SECTION
18:0" 8:0 ——+

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\ aa
a “a

aN
——<———

Fic. 171. Dipping vat for hogs.

3) Excavate sloping “‘step-off’’ incline; this to have 2’
drop and be 2’ long.

4) Construct an inner form so that floor and walls will be
at least 5” thick.

184

CEMENT AND CONCRETE

5) Outside form should be unnecessary if care is observed
in excavation.
6) Construct form for curb and floor of dripping pen.
7) Provide reinforcing to insure against cracks. Heavy
hog wire is sufficient.
8) Useal : 2:4 mixture and mix to a quaky consistency.
9) Place concrete in floor first with reinforcing in place.
10) Put in inner forms.
11) Place concrete in walls.
12) Form treads on incline before concrete sets.
13) Place concrete floor and curb in dripping pens.
14) Remove forms.
15) Coat surface with cement wash to insure water-tight-

ness.

PART III

BLACKSMITHING
CHAPTER XVIII
MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL

159. Preliminary. ‘There is quite as great need on the
farm and in the house for a knowledge of metalwork and |
facilities to carry it on as for woodworkand cement work. The
house-owner and home-maker is more independent if he can
do the ordinary things about the home premises which de-
mand the use of metalworking tools for the simpler construc-
tions and repairs.

Under the general head metalwork, we shall consider,
under separate parts, the following special branches
of metalwork: Forging, Sheet-metalwork, and Farm Ma-
chinery Repair and Adjustment.

Under the sub-heads given above, the first will deal chief-
ly with steel, wrought iron or cast iron, while under the
second, tin, zine or lead, or sheet iron, will be the material
handled.

160. Iron Ore. ‘The commercial varieties of iron are pig
iron, wrought iron and steel. Iron is found in the ground in
natural deposits as ‘“‘ore,’’ which consists of metal imbedded
in mineral and extraneous matter of no value. If the ore
contains 50 per cent or more of metal, it is called ‘‘rich.”” It
cannot be worked commercially with profit if it contains less
than 30 per cent of metal. The valuable ores are oxides, hy-

185

186 BLACKSMITHING

drates or carbonates of iron. Ores appearing as sulphides are
poor, as it is difficult to remove the sulphur. However,
weathering ore—allowing it to stand in the open—will change
sulphides to sulphates, which are largely dissolved out by
rain.

One of the richest ores is magnetite, or black ore, which,
when pure, contains 72.4 per cent iron and 27.6 per cent oxy-
gen. Hematite, or red ore, when pure, contains 70 per cent
iron and 30 per cent oxygen.

161. Pig Iron is made by crushing ore to uniform size and
heating it in a blast furnace until it can be drawn off at the
bottom in a molten condition. The blast furnace is a long,
vertical cylindrical shaft which is fed from the top with ore,
fuel or flux. Air under pressure is introduced at the bottom
for purposes of combustion. The metal when molten is
drawn off at the bottom, usually twice during twenty-four
hours, and run into sand molds or iron chilled molds to form
“pigs” of cast iron. Cast iron has 4 or 5 per cent of impuri-
ties such as carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, manganese and sili-
con. The amount of carbon present determines whether the
iron is gray or white. If the greater part of the carbon is free
as graphite, the iron is knownas gray. If the greater amount
of carbon present is combined, the iron is known as white.
White iron, or iron with low combined carbon, is soft.

162. Wrought Iron is pure carbonless iron produced in a
pasty condition. It is the converse of cast iron, as it is fairly
tenacious and extremely ductile. When heated, it can be
welded better than any other iron or steel. When heated to
full red and quenched in water, it will not harden.

Wrought iron may be produced from iron ore in one opera-

MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL 187

tion, but this is costly, as the yield is low. Commercially, it
is produced by indirect methods, by purification of pig iron,
removing impurities by oxidation. This can be done in an
open hearth or reverberating furnace, the methods being
known as the open-hearth and Bessemer processes, respec-
tively.

163. The Open-Hearth Process oxidizes the impurities
of the pig iron by means of adding iron ore to a bath of molten
pig iron. The fuel is, therefore, in contact with the metal,
and the oxygen of the blast combined with the impurities are
eliminated as oxides. This isa comparatively slow process of
refinement, taking from seven to twelve hours to complete.
Its advantages are a fine quality of iron produced and a large
amount of material which can be handled at one time.

164. The Bessemer Process also is an oxidizing one, but
the metal and fuel are not in contact. The oxygen is fur-
nished by means of a large volume of compressed air blown
thru a bath of molten pig iron. The oxygen combines with
the carbon to evolve as gases while it combines with other im-
purities to form slag. The process requires but a few min-
utes—from twelve to twenty.

165. Steel. It is practically impossible to define steel
accurately. Itis an alloy of iron and carbon, but as alloys of
iron and carbon include cast iron, this definition is not a
technical one. Ordinary steel may be said to be iron con-
taining from 0.1 to 2.0 per cent of carbon in combined form
which has been subjected to complete fusion and poured into
an ingot or mold for the production of forgeable metal. Such
a metal—steel—has the composition of wrought iron, but it
has been produced in a steel-melting furnace.

188 BLACKSMITHING

166. Tempering Steel. The greater the amount of car-
bon in steel, the harder it is, but the more ductile. The
amount of carbon in steel practically determines the purpose
for which steel may be used. Steel is hardened when heated
to redness and quenched in water or oil.

When steel is heated and allowed to cool, naturally, it soft-
ens. Itis upon this fact that tempering, which is the process
of getting the proper combination of hardness and ductibility,
is based. As the hot steel cools, surface oxides are formed
which range from faint yellow thru straw, full yellow, brown,
purple and full blue to dark blue. The lightest of these colors
indicates the highest degree of hardness.

Machine and Tool Repairs

Under this heading is considered such work as one may be
called upon to do in constructing tools and machines made of
iron or steel, and which does not require the heating of the
metal. For the most part, such work will be done with hand
tools, as hammer, chisels, files, drills, taps, dies, rivets, ete.
Work which requires the careful shaping or fitting of cold
metal will need to be done in a machine shop and is not con-
sidered here.

Tools and Equipment

For general use about the premises, a small out-building or
room should be equipped with the following:

One wooden bench made of well-braced 2” x 4”” uprights
and stringers covered with plank and fitted with a spring
serew vise, or machinist’s vise.

One hand forge and anvil, with the common forge tools.

MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL 189

One grindstone, hand- or foot-power type, about 24’ in
diameter and 3-1/2” thick.

One bench hand emery grinder and oilstone.

In the room should be stored:

Wooden horses, wooden and metal blocks, skids, a block
and tackle, and, possibly, a chain block, crowbars, pinch bars,
rollers and pieces of iron pipe, rope and rope lashings with
ends tied or wound, and jacks of the adjustable top and simple
and heavy erecting types. The bench tools should consist of a
simple equipment, some of which can be made and others
purchased, such as:

Machinist’s hammers with ball, straight and cross peens,
each weighing from 1 to 1-3/4 pounds.

Hand hack-saw and blades.

Center and prick punch.

Machinist’s chisels, principally the flat or cape chisels.

Files, handled, of the rough and middle-cut grades prin-
cipally, and both single- and double-cut in flat, round,
hali-round, square and triangular shapes. The total
number need not exceed 12.

Drills in sizes ranging from 1/16” to 3/4” graded to six-
teenths.

One drilling ratchet and one breast drill.

A variety of wrenches, including a good pipe wrench,
monkey, alligator and a variety of single-end and solid
or closed wrenches such as those included in a first-
class automobile tool kit. A variety of socket wrenches
will also be found very handy.

Two or three sizes of outside and inside calipers and

dividers.

190

BLACKSMITHING

One scriber.

One surface gage.

One surface plate, about 2’ square.

One 2’ rule, carpenter’s folding.

One 6” and one 12” steel scale.

One 6” screwdriver, one 12’ screwdriver.

A variety of machine screws, bolts and nuts, washers,
rivets and cotter pins.

One small set of taps for cutting machine thread.

One small set of dies for cutting machine thread.

One pair 6” end pliers.

One pair 6” side pliers.

One 4” spirit level.

One carpenter’s level.

One plumb bob.

One gasoline blow-forge.

Such supplies as the following should be accessible:
Waste, cotton wick, emery, emery cloth, lard and ma-

chine oil, and cup grease.

It will be well to keep in stock a small supply of bar strap
and sheet iron.

MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL 191

Fic. 172. Arrangement of forge and tools, showing position of
blacksmith at the forge.

CHAPTER’ XIX
EQUIPMENT FOR BLACKSMITHING; FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES

167. Useof the Forge on the Farm. The village black-
smith shop has always been a place of both first and last re-
sort in helping to solve the many construction problems of a
community. Likewise, the blacksmith’s forge on the farm
may be made the means of developing and repairing many
tools and machines. The farmer who would save both time
and expense may very well, therefore, be familiar with the
work of the blacksmith.

It is suggested that the forge be a part of the equipment of
the farm shop and occupy one end of a room, along one side of
which may be placed the metalworking bench, thus bringing
the vise near the anvil. It is frequently desirable to grasp a
hot piece of metal in the vise when it 1s taken from the forge.

168. TheForgeand Anvil. The forge which will be as
serviceable as any on the farm, is one of the hand-operated
fan, or bellows, type (Fig.172). In front of it should be placed
the anvil at easy-turning distance from the forge (Fig. 172).
It may be mounted on the end of a heavy hardwood block or
piece of the trunk of a tree, or it may be mounted upon a con-
crete pillar, to which it should be lagged. The height of the
face of the anvil from the floor should be approximately 30”.
It should weigh from 150 to 200 pounds.

169. Blacksmith’s Tools. In addition to the forge and
anvil, the following general equipment of tools should be at
hand:

192

EQUIPMENT FOR BLACKSMITHING; PROCESSES 193

One each 1 to 3-pound cross-peen, straight-peen and ball-
peen hammer.

One sledge, 5 to 10 pounds.

One pair of flat-jawed tongs for general work.

One pair of hollow-bit tongs for holding rod stock.

One pair of anvil or pick-up tongs for holding short
pieces of heavy work while upsetting.

One bell tong for flat or scroll work.

_One short-piece tong.

One handled top and bottom swage.

One handled top and bottom fuller.

One handled punch.

One handled flatter.

One handled hardie or hot chisel.

One heading tool.

One hardie for anvil.

Figs. 173 and 174 show photographs of a number of these
tools. Tools other than those listed above and ordinarily in-
cluded in a blacksmithing kit, are listed under the head of
“Farm Machinery.”’

Of these, the most essential are:

Carpenter’s square.

Calipers.

Dividers.

Scriber.

Folding steel rule.

Tire measurer.

Vise (solid box blacksmith).

Cold chisels, one on handle in shape of hammer.

194

BLACKSMITHING

Fic. 173. Forge tools: a, hollow-bit tongs; b, flat-jawed tongs;
¢, pick-up tongs; d, ball-peen hammer; e, handled chisel;
f, hardie for anvil; g, chisel,

en, ae le

EQUIPMENT FOR BLACKSMITHING; PROCESSES 195

C d

Breet 7A. Forge tools:

a, flatter; b, heading tool; ¢,
Swages; d, handled punch; e, fullers.

196 BLACKSMITHING

170. Supplies for Forge Work. It is well to carry in
stock a small supply of wrought iron and steel in the following
sizes:

3/8” rods.
5/8" rods.
1/A” x*b/8" bars:
1a ea ans:
(Note: Also material for buggy tires, bolts and rivets.)

171. Use of Wrought Iron. Wrought iron will be used
chiefly. It can be worked either hot or cold. When worked
cold, it becomes denser, harder, more elastic and brittle, but
can be brought to its original condition by heating to red and
cooling slowly.

The ordinary processes of tool construction are described
in the instructions for projects. For ordinary work, a “‘red”’
heat is given the stock. When pieces are to be joined to form
one solid piece by welding, however, the stock is brought to a
“‘white’’ heat.

172. The Fire. The blacksmith’s forge is a pan with a
grate at the bottom which admits the air pumped for the pur-
pose of creating a draft. The pan, or fire pot, contains the
coal. This must be bituminous, or soft, coal of the very best
quality. It is very important that it be free from sulphur
and phosphorus.

To build the fire, remove all clinkers, slate, stone and other
foreign material. Push the coal and coke to one side to ex-
pose the grate, tuyere, or wind box. Upon this, place a few
shavings, some straw or paper, and cover with a little kindling
as the match is applied.

EQUIPMENT FOR BLACKSMITHING; PROCESSES 197

Use a very light blast at first. As the fire burns, add green
coal. When the fire gets strong, surround it with a ring of
green, dampened coal, except toward the front, which should
be kept open for the insertion of the iron to be heated and
used to hold the iron while being heated, and for the tools.
These should be kept in a horizontal position. As the work
proceeds and the fire extends into the ring of green coal, it
may be dampened to hold the fire to a limited area. Green
coal may be added at the
rear and the sides, but the
fire should not be disturbed
by poking it. As it burns
from underneath, cinders

GREEN GOAL- =

should be raked out to
Fic. 175. Cross-section of forge.
keep the fire clear, and
the coal should be gently patted down with a small shovel.
Continuing this process will keep a clean, well-confined and

fresh fire. Fig. 175 shows a cross-section thru the fire-pot.
As iron heats in the fire, the following shades of color will
appear, indicating the proper condition of the iron for certain
classes of work:
a) Dark blood red (block heat).
b) Dark red, low red (finishing heat).
c) Full red.
d) Bright or light red (scaling heat).
e) Yellow heat.
f) Light yellow heat (good forging heat).
g) White heat or welding heat (beyond this, iron willkurr).
173. Welding. Upon continued heating of wrought iron
or mild steel, the temperature increases, the metal becomes

198 BLACKSMITHING

increasingly soft, and, if another piece equally soft is touched
to the first, the two will stick; light tapping will complete the
weld. The greater the range of temperature thru which the
metal remains pasty, the more easily may it be welded. The
greatest trouble in welding is in heating the metal properly.
The fire must be clean and bright; otherwise, small pieces of
cinder, etc., will stick to the metal. The heating must be
slow enough to get the metal heated thru. Have all tools in
place before taking a piece of metal from the fire. Hold the
tongs on metal so that pieces can be easily placed in position
without difficulty. When “‘stuck,” first tap the thin parts of
the pieces to be welded, as these cool first and most rapidly.

Do not have an oxidizing fire in welding; that is, not too
much oxygen going thru fire.

In the welding process, the oxide formed is really a flux. In
welding, steel will burn before the oxide becomes white hot;
hence, a flux is used made of sand and borax; this is put in at
yellow heat and protects the surfaces to be welded, preventing
the forming of oxide. The oxide melts at a much lower heat
when combined with the flux. This is the principal object of
using a flux. Sal ammoniac seems to clean the surface, so a
flux is sometimes made of one part sal ammoniac and four
parts borax. |

The following typical welds should be familiar:

a) Fagot or pile. f) Chain-making.
b) Scarfed. g) Butt.
c) Lap (flat). h) Jump.
d) Lap (round). 2) Split.
e) Ring (round stock). j) Angle.

k) “T” (round stock).

CHAPTER XX
PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING

Problem No.1: Drawing and Bending of Iron.
Projects Suggested for this Group:

a) Staple (Fig. 176).

b) Gate hooks (Fig. 177).

c) Hay hook (Fig. 178).

d) Eyebolt (Fig. 179).

e) Stove poker (Fig. 180).

174. Toolsto Be Used. The tools needed to make proj-
ects in this group, aside from the forge and anvil, are a black-
smith’s hammer (light) and a pair of flat-jawed or hollow bit
tongs.

175. Maintaining the Fire. Every operation at the
forge requires the maintenance of a good fire, the heating of
iron to the proper temperature, and the proper handling of
the blacksmith’s tools to accomplish satisfactory results. Be-
fore beginning work on this project, read carefully the instruc-
tions on preparing the fire (Sec. 172). While work is pro-
gressing, green coal should be added from time to time, but
always on the rim or edge of the fire, not on the live fire. The
fire should be prevented from running into the green coal far-
ther than desired by occasionally dripping water on the inside
edge of the rim of green coal. This coal should be kept well
packed down, thus forming a wall around the fire to be kept
confined to the grate only. As the coal in the fire is con-
sumed, remove clinkers and draw in fresh coal from the rim.

199

200 BLACKSMITHING

ee
ne

| 3 | oe eae eS) ae
4 2 eee | 14
ES = GS —

ed
Fic. 176. Staple.

~|N

Fic. 177. Gate hook.

Fic. 179. Eyebolt, showing steps in construction.

PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 201

The operator must at all times keep his tools in good order
and near at hand. The hammer to be used may well be laid
in position on the anvil (Fig. 172) to be grasped by the right

[i ica eT aes
Fic. 180. Stove poker.

hand immediately when the iron taken from the forge reaches
the anvil. The tongs may be laid on the top of the forge at

Toor Hote + FACES Horn

Fic. 181. Anvil and block.

the left side of the fire, so that they may be handled by the
left hand in removing the iron from the fire.
Working Instructions for the Gate Hook:
Stock: One piece of 1/4”’ round wrought iron 10” long.
176. Bending Iron. Place one end ot the rod in the

202 BLACKSMITHING

tongs held in the left hand, with which place the opposite end
of the rod in the front and at the base of the fire in a horizon-
tal position. Heat this end of the rod for 3” to a light yellow
or lemon color.

Withdraw the iron with tongs in the left hand and place on
anvil with the heated end projecting over the horn 2-1/2”.
Fig. 181 shows anvil
with parts named.
Grasp the hammer well
toward the end of the
handle with the right
hand. Raise the ham-
mer above the iron and
strike it a light blow just
beyond the point where
it is in contact with the
edge of the anvil (Fig. 182). Continue this process until the
iron assumes the form shown in solid lines at the right in Fig.
183. This form should be made without reheating the iron.

Reheat the same end of the iron, again to lemon color.

Fic. 182. Method of bending iron.

omen
oN
-s,

v
, *
yt

’

zal
rie
2

Fic. 183. Steps in making gate hook.

Grasp as before with the tongs, but with the iron turned over
in the tongs so that the part made at a right angle with the
rod in the first operation is upward. Place on the horn of the

PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 203

anvil, as shown in Fig. 184, and, by striking the end at an
angle with the hammer, shape this end to a complete circle
centrally located on the end of the rod. The dotted lines at
the right end of the rod (Fig. 188) show this finished shape.
The hole in the ring should be 1/2” in diameter. It can be
made the right size and circular by forming it over the end of
the horn (Fig. 184).

177. DrawingIron. Heat the opposite end of the rod to
lemon color, and form 1” of it to a cone (B, Fig. 183). The

Fic. 184. Making the eye on gate hook.

cone is formed by resting the heated end of the rod at the
angle of the cone on the face of the anvil and gradually rolling
it from side to side while the hammer -_,
strikes the iron lightly a repeated ‘i
number of blows. This end of the rod
is to form the hook.

Reheat the hook end of the rod for <
3’’ to lemon color and bend it over the eT am ena Te
horn of the anvil to form a2-1/2’’right- —_ point on gate hook.

204 BLACKSMITHING

angle shoulder. This operation is the same as the first one
described in forming the ring end of the hook.

Now, grasp the tongs, as shown in Fig. 185, and proceed as
in forming the ring of the hook to bend the hook end in the
middle of the 2-1/2’’ portion of the L-shaped end to a half-
circle (Fig. 177). Bend the point of the cone outward slightly
over the end of the horn of the anvil. Lay the hook flat on
the face of the anvil and straighten with a few light blows of
the hammer.

If it is desired to have the hook twisted in the center (Fig.
177), heat the central portion of the hook to a light yellow
color, grasp the hook end with the tongs, place the ring end in
the vise, and twist or turn in one direction until the desired
number of twists are formed and until the hook and the ring
are in the same plane.

Each of the projects in this group is made so nearly the
same as the gate hook, that they require no special instruc-
tions. The handle both for the hay hook and the stove
poker is formed of two half-circles jomed by straight por-
tions of the handle. A little care on the part of the operator
after making the gate hook will enable him to make either
of these handles. The iron may need to be heated a few
more times, but this will not be serious unless the number
of heatings is sufficient to weaken it or unless the tempera-
ture approaches that for welding heat and the iron is burnt
in consequence. It is always desirable to heat iron as few
times as possible to secure the desired shape and form in
order not to weaken the metal or burn it, as well as to save
as much time as possible in the work.

PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 205

Problem No.2: Upsetting and Punching.
Projects Suggested for this Group:

a) Open-end wrench (Fig. 186).

b) Punched screw clevis (Fig. 1&7).

c) Machine bolt (Fig. 188).

d) Log hook (Fig. 189).

178. Tools Needed for Upsetting and Punching. The

same tools as those named for the group of projects in Prob-

rig. 186. Open-end wrench.

Fic. 187. Punched screw clevis.

lem 1 will be required in this group, and in addition, the up-
setting tool and punch.

179. Upsetting and Punching. It is frequently neces-
sary to enlarge some portion of a piece of iron. This is done

206 BLACKSMITHING

by upsetting. To upset stock, heat it at the point to be en-
larged, place it on end on the anvil, and pound it on the other
end with a hammer. Repeat this process for each reheating
until the stock is of the desired size where it is to be upset.

ae
Fic. 189. Log hook.

At times, to make a hole thru a piece of iron with forge tools,
it is only necessary to drive a punch thru it when hot. At
other times, the stock will need to be bent around to lap
back on itself, when it must be welded as described in the
next group in this section, or the hole will have to be drilled.

180. Working Instructions for the Punched Screw
Clevis. One piece of 1/2” wrought iron 12’ long will be
used for this project.

1) Heat one end of the iron to light red and bend 1-1/4” of

PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 207

it to right angles with the rod over the back edge of the anvil
(Fig. 190).

2) Reheat the same end to lemon color, place on the face of
the anvil with bent end upwards and upset by pounding on
this upturned end with quick,
sharp blows of the hammer.
Roughly shape to approximate cir-
cular form by working the cylin- ~ ~ 2-7
drical surface on the surface of the P!¢-190- Upsetting for clevis.
anvil and over its corner. Reheat and continue to upset and
shape until thickness of flattened end is approximately 3/8”.

3) Reheat to welding, cr white, heat, using extreme care
not to burn the iron. Remove the iron from the forge the
co moment it becomes white. Place it quick-

ly on the face of the anvil in former posi-

tion for upsetting, and strike quickly with

Fic. 192. Appearance of finished

Fic. 191. A flatter. job of upsetting.

the hammer two or three times. Finish flat surfaces with the
flatter (Fig. 191). Turn the iron on edge over the corner of
the anvil, and strike quick, sharp blows to form circle. If the
iron is at welding heat and the work with the hammer is done
quickly, the iron will weld or become a solid mass. Any
seams which may have formed in the upsetting process will be
obliterated. Fig. 192 shows the finished end. In a similar
manner, as described up to this point, forge the other end of
the rod.

208 BLACKSMITHING

4) Reheat each end separately to yellow color, mark center
with prick-punch and punch 1/4” hole one-half way thru iron
on this prick-punched mark with punch, shown in Fig. 193.
Reverse the stock, place the end over the hardie hole, and

<= drive the punch thru from the other side. Re-
heat the stock, if necessary, and drive the
punch thru from each side to enlarge the hole
0-3/6 (Pig, 194).

5) Punch a hole in the other end in a similar
manner (Fig. 195).

6) Heat the stock in the center for a space
Fic. 198. Han- of 3’, and bend it over the horn of the anvil
dled punch. : ;
to the shape shown in Fig. 196. The cen-
tral portion of the curved end of the clevis should be
straight.

7) By laying the clevis on the face of the anvil with the
punched ends hanging over the edge of the anvil, and striking

(
ASS 7

Fic. 195. Clevis ready to be bent
Fic. 194. Using the punch. into shape.

the two legs of the clevis with light hammer blows, it may be
straightened. The two punched holes must be in line. Fig.
187 shows the finished clevis.

PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING

Supplementary Instructions:

181. Open-End Wrench. Heat 4” of one end of 1-1/2”
x 7/16” soft steel to lemon color, and draw it out to shape and
dimensions shown at A, Fig. 197. Mark the stock 1-1/2’
from the point where
the forging of the han- =
dle was begun, as shown
by the dotted line (A,
Fig. 197). Cut the stock
off on the anvil hardie
(Fig. 198), or with the
handled hardie (Fig.
173), cutting, first, from
one side and, then, from the other, and, finally, breaking off
over the edge of the anvil by striking the stock not to be used

Fic. 196. Completed clevis.

a sharp blow with the hammer just beyond the anvil edge.

Fic. 197. Steps in making wrench.

circle.

Heat the stock to lem-
on color and forge to
shape, as shown in Jb,
Fig. 197. The wrench
end should be rounded
up, keeping stock to
original thickness, by
first forming an octa-
gon, then a sixteen-sid-
ed figure, and, finally, a

This work should be done over the corner of the anvil

and by moving the edge being formed into different positions

as the hammer strikes the iron.

Reheat the metal and punch

a hole 1/2” out of center toward the wrench end and expand

210 BLACKSMITHING

it until it is 5/8” in diameter (B, Fig. 197). Cut the end out

with a hot chisel or handled hardie to 60 degrees, keeping

same centrally located, as shown at C, Fig. 197. Reheat and

forge to shape and dimensions, shown in Fig. 186. This

should be done by holding the wrench edgewise

on the face of the anvil with the handle held

downward at an angle and striking the wrench

end an angle blow on the end of each prong

of this end, finally flattening the inside of jaws

me ige. ae and their surface on the heel end of the anvil.
die foranvil. Smooth up with flatter.

The wrench should be hardened to make it serviceable.

Heat it to lemon color and plunge it in water for a few mo-

ments. This cools the outer surface. When the metal is

Fic. 199. Upsetting and shaping bolt.

withdrawn from the water, the heat of the center will draw
out toward the surface. While still quite warm, put in water
_ to completely cool.

182. Bolt Head. The construction of the square bolt
head involves upsetting (Fig. 199). Care must be taken not —

PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 211

to upset too far, however. When the approximate dimen-
sions given in Fig. 200 have been secured, heat the upset end
to lemon color and place the bolt thru the hole in the heading
tool (Fig.200-a) and into the hardie hole in the anvil, as shown
in Fig. 200-6. Proceed to up-

set the head and to keep it eee ss
circular in form by occasion- . ++ ‘aa

}.— J —_ +}
feces am cee a

ally removing it from the
heading tool, and, by rolling
it in the tongs on the face of the anvil (Fig. 199), hammer
_ the head into a true cylindrical form. When the diameter
of this cylinder is slightly less than the distance between

Fic. 200-a. Heading tool.

Fic. 200. The upsetting completed.

Fic. 200-b. Using the head-

ing tool. Fic. 201. Steps in making log hook.

corners of the finished head, reheat the stock on the head end
to lemon color and forge the square head (Fig. 188).

183. Log Hook. Heat 2” of one end of 1/2” x 1” wrought
iron stock 5-1/2” long to a yellow glow; place over outside
edge of anvil with 1” overhanging, and forge to shape, shown
in A, Fig. 201. Reheat and forge to shape, shown in B, Fig.

212 BLACKSMITHING

201. Reheat and punch hole, as shown in C, Fig. 201.

Round corners of hole over horn of anvil to shape, shown at
C, Fig. 202.

‘ 7 re
Bee

“On anvil

lic. 202. Further operations in constructien of log hook.

Heat the other end and taper to shape and dimensions,
shown in A, Fig. 202. Bend the point slightly over horn of
anvil. Reheat center of stock and form over horn of anvil, 2s

Sb
4

4 7
3)
aoa

p 7
4 ‘
ee i a :
4

Fic. 204. Position of pieces when welding.

shown by dotted lines at B, Fig. 202. Finish to dimensions
given in Fig. 189.
Problem No.3: The Process of Welding.
Projects Suggested:
a) Two-piece weld (Figs. 203 and 204).

PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 213

Oy a =weldv(Wigw205).
c) Welded clevis (Fig. 206).
d) Wagon wrench (Fig. 207).
184. Preparation for Welding. ‘The same tools as
those named for the previous grcups, in addition to which the
| -®

: ete

Fic. 206. Welded clevis.

Fic. 207. Wagon wrench.

operator should have available the hardie and two pairs of
flat-jawed and two pairs of hollow bit tongs. Some of the
work in this group should be done by two people working to-
gether at the forge; hence, the desirability of two pairs of
tongs. The top and bottom swage, the flatter and the top
fuller will be needed for some projects.

214 BLACKSMITHING

While it is true that the punched screw clevis required a
welding heat, the exercise of welding on it was comparatively
simple. Welding is probably the most difficult forge work.
It requires a perfectly clean fire, exactly the proper tempera-
ture of heated metal, and both accurate and rapid manipula-
tion of tools. The end weld is one of the simplest of all the
welds. It should be practiced until it can be made upon first
trial, when other welds will be accomplished with compara-
tively little difficulty.

It is necessary always to have the two pieces of metal to be
welded first hammered into the proper shape. Both must
then be given the welding heat’at the same time, taken out of
the fire together, quickly placed one on the other, and then
immediately hammered with light, quick blows, while the
stock is changed in position on the anvil to permit the ham-
mer to strike all portions which must be joined.

Just before taking the iron from the fire, it is well to put
some kind of flux on each of the surfaces to be placed to-
gether. Sal ammoniac or rosin is generally used.

Working Instructions for Two-Piece Weld:
Stock: Two pieces of wrought iron or soft steel, each
about 5/8” in diameter and 4” long.

185. Preparing the Scarfs. Heat one end of each piece of
stock to lemon color and upset it to 3/4”” from theend. Thisis
done by setting the stock on end on the face of the vise and
pounding the end to be upset (Fig. 208), then rounding the
enlarged part of the stock on the face of the anvil (Fig. 199).

Reheat each piece of stock to lemon color and scarf the
up-set end to shape, shown at A, Fig. 203. Each scarf
should be one and one-half times the diameter of the stock.

PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 215

186. Making the Weld. Place scarfed surfaces of each
piece of stock down in the fire and heat to white or welding
heat. Grasp one piece with the hollow-bit tongs in the left
hand, and the other with the
flat-jawed tongs in the right
hand. Take both pieces from
the fire, quickly turn the one
held by the right hand as it is
moving toward the anvil, so
as to place it quickly on the
anvil under the scarf of the
piece held with the left-hand
tongs, as shown in Fig. 204.
Instantly drop the right-hand
tongs and pick up the ham-
mer which should be lying \ _
near at hand. Strike quick, Fic, 208. Upsetting for two-

piece weld.
sharp blows on the ends to
be welded, at the same time turning the pieces with the left-
hand tongs. Continue until the two pieces are thoroly joined,
then until the diameter is reduced to that of the original
stock and the surfaces of the stock at the weld are smooth.

Fic. 209. One member of Fic. 210. The second mem-
the ‘‘T’’-weld. ber shaped for welding.

Supplementary Instructions: 'To form and weld the parts of
the other projects listed in this group, a few special
instructions are needed beyond those given for the
two-piece weld.

216 BLACKSMITHING

187. “‘T’’-Weld. The center of one piece and the end of
the other must be upset, as shown in Fig. 209. Fig. 210 and
Fig. 211 show how these pieces must be swaged to form the
welded joint. A difference of 1/8’’ between the thickness of

= _ + ; a

=16

Fic. 212. Effects upon piece
Fic. 211. Position of weld on anvil. of iron from upsetting.

stock and the upset portions of stock will be sufficient to form
the welded joint to the thickness of stock, as shown in Fig.
2uh.,

188. Wagon Wrench. ‘The preliminary steps of heat-
ing and upsetting the two pieces of stock for this project are
similar to those already de-
=e scribed. A little more diffi-
mR — ‘ culty may be experienced be-
ee al cause of the dimensions of the
Fic. 213. Preparing wagon stock and the lengths of the
wrench for welding.
upset portions of same. When
the rectangular stock is fully upset, it must be laid flat on the
face of the anvil and pounded on the upper surface near each
end to flatten the lower surface (Fig. 212). This will make
the additional thickness of the upset portion of the stock off-
set on the top surface. Heat this part of the stock and
make a groove 1/4” deep with a 5/8” fuller (Fig. 218).
The remaining exercises involved in making this project
should be clear by a study of Figs. 214, 215 and 207. Mark
the points where the bends are to be made on the rectangular

PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 217

stock of the wagon wrench with prick-punch or hardie before
heating to make either bend over the edge of the anvil.

a Sa
2

Fic. 214. The handle of the Fic. 215. The pieces ready
wrench prepared. for welding.

189. Welded Clevis. The drawings for this projectshow
in detail the succeeding steps in forming one end of the clevis.
The offset at C, Fig. 216, should be made by striking light
blows just over the edge
of the anvilwith the peen

9)
i ~\
Fic. 216. Operations in making Fic. 217. Bending iron
welded clevis. for welded clevis.

of the hammer 1-1/2” from the end of the stock. The form
shown at FE, Fig. 216, is made over the end of the horn of the
anvil, as shown at D, Fig. 217. When the
ring for the end is nearly completed, the
stock should be reversed on the horn,
placed over the end and rounded up care-

fully with the hammer, leaving the joint to

be welded in perfect condition. One end Fic. 218. Dipping

of the clevis should be welded before the iron in water pre-

1 . . tory t ld-
other is formed. Before taking the welding fee OE ENS

218 BLACKSMITHING

heat, dip the end to be welded in water, as shown in Fig. 218,
and then, when the heat is completed, make the weld over
the edge of the anvil, as shown at E, Fig. 216. Reheat and
drive a 5/8”’ punch in each eye from each side (Fig. 219).
Finish over end of horn (Fig. 220).

Fic. 219. Punching the clevis.

Fic, 220, Finishing eye of clevis.

PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 219

Problem No. 4: Welding and Tempering Steel.
Suggested Projects:

a) Butcher-knife (Fig. 221).

b) Punches (Fig. 222).

c) Cold chisel (Fig. 223).

d) Sharpening cultivator shovel (Fig. 224).

a ee
OL OF D0

Fic. 222. Punches.

190. Forging Steel. Tools needed are those required
for ordinary work at the forge, including flatter and swage.

The forging of tools which are not of unusual shape de-
mands only the use of simple exercises in forging. The new
exercise is that of tempering.

220

BLACKSMITHING

191. Working Instructions for Cold Chisel.

Stock: One piece 3/4’, six- or eight-sided tool steel,
7-1/2” long.

1) Heat 1” of one end of stock to lemon glow and round to

Fie, 224. Cultive-
tor shovel.

Fic. 223. Cold chisels.

cone shape, leaving 3/8” flat on end in
form of circle. Keep circular flat end cen-
tered on axis of stock (N, Fig. 223).

2) Heat 3” of opposite end of stock to
lemon glow. Forge to shape and dimen-
sions, as shown at M, Fig. 223. Care
must be taken to keep taper uniform on
both sides and to keep width of stock
unchanged.

3) Reheat chisel end of stock to bright red and smooth with
hand hammer, and, if necessary, finally with flatter.

4) Heat entire stock to dull red, plunge each end for entire

length of forged part in water for a few moments. Remove

stock from water and allow color to run to light blue at ex-

PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING rival

treme end, then plunge in water to harden completely. It
may be well to temper each end separately.

5) Grind chisel end of tool to a cutting edge, with ground

surfaces making angle of about SAW ON THIS LINE —~
a? Tia

G0 degrees. If the flattened SE

= - —— S =|

surfaces forming the chisel end | |
ah F

and the conical end are rough, ne

grind them smooth. All grind- 4

ing should be done on an ee ik

emery wheel if available; other- Fic. 225. Handle for
wise, on a grindstone. Keep pa ae ts

the tool from overheating and, possibly, burning if it is
ground on an emery wheel running dry, by frequently plung-
ing tool in water.

192. The Butcher-Knife. The butcher-knife is made
from 1/16” or 3/32” tool steel, forged thin on one edge to form
cutting edge of knife. The handle should be made in two
halves, or, better, in one piece (Fig. 225), to be cut in halves.
The two halves of the handle should be held in place on knife-
blade when holes are drilled thru both knife-blade and handle.
Soft-steel rivets placed in each hole can be riveted down cn
each side of the handle over a rivet washer, to fasten the
knife-blade and handle securely together. The knife-blade
is tempered by heating to dull red, plunging in water, or, bet-
ter, oil, and almost instantly withdrawing and allowing a
light blue color to draw to edge. The knife-blade can then be
ground for use.

193. A Cultivator Shovel. This is sharpened by heat-
ing, forging and tempering in the general manner described
for the cold chisel or the butcher-knife.

222 BLACKSMITHING

More difficulty may be experienced, however, in forging to
shape. Fig. 226 suggests the position of the cultivator shovel
on the face of the anvil. Position, as shown at A, is the one
taken after first heating when point of shovel is drawn to a

Fic. 226. Steps in sharpening cultivator shovel.

sharp point by quick blows of the hammer. Position, as
shown at B, is the one taken after a second heating when the
side of the shovel is drawn to an edge. Care must be taken
to keep the surface of the shovel free from hammer marks.

CHAPTER xXx I
SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING
194. Directions for Making Wagon-Box Stake-Irons
(Wigs: 227 and 228).

1) Secure 1/4”’ strap band iron of proper width, or use as
substitute old wagon-wheel tire.

Fic, 228. A lighter stake-iron.

2) Cut to length as per dimensions with cold chisel or over
anvil hardie.
5) Heat in center portion and make inside bends over cor-
ner of anvil
4) Heat between center and end, and make each outside
bend over corner of anvil.
223

224 BLACKSMITHING

5) Prick-punch for center of holes, and drill or punch, heat-
ing metal in latter case.
6) Straighten on surface of anvil with hammer and flatter.
195. Making a Ring (Fig. 229).
1) Cut calculated length from band or rod iron.
2) Heat one end to light red and draw out, as shown in A,
Fig. 230.

SFE Raita
: Fic. 230. Ends of metal prepared

Fig. 229. A ring constructed for welding.

from rectangular stock. 8) Repeat operation on

second end, making drawn-out taper on reverse side.

4) Reheat entire rod to light red and round over horn;
bring ends together on face of anvil (B, Fig. 231), ready for
welding heat.

Fic. 231. Thering shaped for welding.

5) Heat ends of ring to welding temperature, and weld over
horn of anvil.

6) Reheat welded part to light red and smooth up over
horn and on face of anvil.

SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 225

196. Constructing a Chain (Fig. 232).

1) Cut to link lengths 1/4” round, soft steel or wrought
iron.

2) Heat and swage ends of link, forming same roughly, as

Fie, 232. Chain links.

shown in perspective in A, Fig. 233, and B, Fig. 234.
3) Put link into last one welded, heat and form carefully on
face of anvil (C, Fig. 235), ready to weld.

A
Fic. 234. Link ready for
Fic. 233. Preparing the weld. welding.

—

Fic. 235. Link inserted in chain.

4) Heat to welding heat, weld on face of anvil, and smooth
over end of horn.

197. Making Ice Tongs (Fig. 236).

1) Cut to estimated length two pieces 3/8” x 3/4” rectan-
gular rod.

2) Heat one end and form handle.

3) Heat center and flatten, and form portion for joint.

4) Heat remaining portion of hook end, form over horn of

226 BLACKSMITHING

anvil to semi-circular shape, and forge end over corner of
anvil to shape of blunt-pointed spur.

5) Heat flattened portion to light red and punch for 3/8”
bolt.

Fic. 236. Ice tongs.

6) Straighten and smooth on face and horn of anvil.
7) Insert bolt and burr-end over nut.

Fic. 238. Metal prepared for welding.
198. A Right-Angle Weld (Fig.

31).
| | 7
= Po ee 1) Heat both pieces 1-1/2” on one
Fic. 237. Right-angle end to lemon color. Upset 1/8” thick-
weld. er than rest of stock 3/4” in length.

2) Searf both pieces, using peen of hammer (Fig. 238).
3) Heat both pieces, scarfs down, to welding temperature
(white heat). Lay together and weld with quick, hard blows.

SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 227

4) Finish to perfect right angle. Round inside corner and
keep outside corner square (Fig. 237).

199. Forge Tongs (Fig: 239).

1) Heat one end of stock, 18”’ x 3/4’’ x 3/8”, to lemon color.

Fic. 239. Forge tongs.

Fic. 240. Bending iron for Hre.. 241. Shania iiesint of
forge tongs. forge tongs.
2) Lay flatwise over round corner right angle to anvil,
forge jaw 2’ long, 3/4’’ wide, and taper
from 3/8” to 5/16” to dimensions, as in
A, Fig. 240.
3) Reheat to lemon color. Place on an-
vilat an angle of 45 degrees, as in B, Fig.
241; finish to 7/8” wide by 5/16” thick.

Place stock edgewise and use fullers (Fig. ae,

242) as shown in Fig. 243, to secure shape,
asat H and J, Fie. 241.

4) Reheat to lemon color. Place over
anvil 7/8” from shoulder, jaw down, as

mG sig 240. ‘strike: at); forging Ae eae
3 1G,:242." Top an
shank to E, Fig. 244. bottom fullers.

228 BLACKSMITHING

5) Heat other end of forging to lemon color. Forge to
5/16” round to form the handle; cut to 18” over all.

6) Reheat the jaw to lemon color. Put 1/4” fuller length-
wise on inside of jaw and fuller 1/8” deep (F, Fig. 245).

Fic. 243. Using the fullers.
7) Reheat eye atG, Fig. 245, to lemon color. Punch 5/16”

hole for rivet in center of eye.
8) Repeat operations for other half.

Fic. 244. Another step in con- Fic. 245. Punching for
struction of tongs. rivet.

9) Heat one end of piece cut from handle to lemon color.
Cut off 1” for rivet. Reheat and insert rivet and rivet with
hammer (Fig. 239).

SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 229

Tongs for special uses are shown in Fig. 246. Bottom and
top swages (Fig. 247) may be used to finish handles, as at A,
BCand D, Fig. 246.

C4
2 =

FLAT JAWED
FY
VY 2 Pee es a SB
HOLLOW BIT

:
: PICK-UP

18)
BELL
Fic. 246. Several types of tongs used in forge shop.

200. Repointing Cultivator Shovel (Fig. 248).
1) Mark new stock for lines A and B under shears (Fig.
249).

2) Heat to bright red. Cut on lines C
with hot chisel (Fig. 249).

3) Reheat to bright red; scarf inside
edges (C) to dimensions in drawing.

4) Heat old shovel to bright red.
Straighten shovel.

5) Reheat shovel, place borax on back
side of section to be welded; leave it there
until dissolved.
Kie., 247. Top and
6) Place new point on shovel (Fig. — bottom swages.

250), allowing it to project 1/2’’ beyond old point.

230 BLACKSMITHING

7) Rake coke (good supply) in fire hole, place shovel on it,
add more coke on top of shovel, then spread a shovelful of wet
coal on top of this. Heat slowly to welding temperature.

8) Remove to anvil and strike series of blows all over new
point.

9) Reheat other side to welding temperature.

~ a 3 Bs
ay
=
a. ~iny
; Bi we S
% :
; —— =
i = age

Fic. 248. Cultivator Fic. 249. New piece of stock
shovel. for cultivator shovel.

Fic. 250. Correct placing
of new points.

10). Remove to anvil and weld this side onto point.

11) Reheat to lemon color, hammer on edges at B, Fig. 250,
until sharp. Grind off irregular edges.

12) Reheat to bright red. Bend shovel over horn to shape
as at the beginning (Fig. 248).

13) Draw color to straw and plunge in water to harden.

SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 231

201. Sharpening Plowshare (Fig. 251).

1) Place share on floor and mark around outside lines with
chalk.

2) Heat 4” of share, starting at A, Fig. 251, to a bright red.

3) Place on anvil, as shown in Fig. 252, and forge to sharp
edge.

4) Reheat 3” or 4” at a time, and forge to sharp edge until
share is finished from A toB, Fig. 251.

Fic. 252. Position of plowshare on
Fic. 251. Old plowshare. anvil when sharpening.

. 5) Heat point to bright red, place on anvil and forge to
sharp point.

6) Grind off irregularities.

7) Reheat point and set share so it will have correct suction
and landside, which are 1/8” and 1/4”, respectively.

SS
Fic. 253. Piece of steel Fic, 254. Steel for point
for new point. shaped for welding.

8) Reheat to bright red and case-carbonize with potash.

9) Share should fit as nearly as possible to outline on floor.

202. Pointing Plowshare (Figs. 253 to 256).

1) Heat 3” of new stock on one end to lemon color.

2) Scarf end, as shown at A, Fig. 253.

3) Heat other end to lemon color. Searf and split, as shown
abs, Pigs 2o5.

232 BLACKSMITHING

4) Heat center of stock to lemon color. Bend into shape
of V, as in Fig. 254, having bottom, or split, side 1’” longer
than top side:

5) Heat old share (Fig. 255) to red heat.

6) Place on anvil and apply borax on both sides of share.

7) Heat new point to red heat.

8) Place new point on share, as in Fig. 256. Reheat to

Fic. 255. Plowshare to be re- Fic. 256. The point in place for
pointed. welding.

welding heat. Apply a little borax to share while it is heat-
ing.

9) Remove to anvil and strike a few blows until point is
welded. Reheat to welding temperature. Continue to weld
on both sides until finished. Cut surplus stock off sides and
erind.

10) Reheat as much of share as possible and set to have cor-
rect suction and landside, which are 1/8” and 1/4’, respec-
tively.

11) Reheat to bright red and case-carbonize with potash.

203. Shortening Buggy Tire Without Cutting (Fig.

1) Heat several inches of tire, holding same in vertical posi-
tion, to light red.

2) Bend heated portion inward over horn of anvil (A).

3) With aid of helper, grasp tire either side of bent portion
with flat-jawed tongs over and against rough surface of horse-

SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 233

shoeing rasp (Fig. 258); place crosswise over surface of anvil,
and hammer.

4) Repeat operation No. 3 until stock is upset sufficiently
to shorten tire.

Bu6ey TIRE
A

Tones Woop Rasp
Fic. 257. Shortening Fic. 258. Details of method of
buggy tire. shortening tire.

Fic. 259. Tire-measuring tool.

5) Measure outside of felly and inside of tire with tire-
measuring tool (Fig. 259). Tire measurement should be
about 1/4” less than felly measurement.

6) Heat tire to red, one-half way around. Slip tire over
felly, and shrink on by immediately running in water. If tire
is too short, it will ‘‘dish’’ wheel too much. Wheel should be
dished (out of true plane) not more than 1”.

PART IV
SHEET- METALWORK
CHAPTER XXII

TOOLS AND SUPPLIES; FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES

204. Need for Sheet-Metalwork on the Farm. There
are many opportunities about the farm for sheet-metal re-
pairs and construction, especially in tinwork. Kitchen uten-
sils, the equipment of the dairy and creamery, farm machines,
water and sanitary systems, and roofs and gutters oa build-
ings, all furnish problems in sheet-metalwork.

The chief operation in sheet-metalwork, aside from calcu-
lating sizes and cutting the metal, is that of fastening, which
may be divided into three classes, viz., soldering, brazing and
riveting. Welding is not included, as it seldom is used in
working sheet metal, and, besides, it is considered under the
heading of Forge Work.

205. The Process of Soldering. Soldering is the process
of joining two pieces of metal by means of a more fusible
metal or metallic alloy. The metal, or alloy, called solder,
should be selected with the following considerations in mind:
(1) Its strength should be as great, or greater, than that of
either of the pieces of metal it joins; (2) its color should be as
nearly as possible that of the joined metals, and (8) its fusing
point should be considerably lower than that of either of
them.

206. Classes of Solder. Solder is classed as soft or
hard, depending upon the degree of fusibility, and, to some

234

TOOLS AND SUPPLIES; FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES 235

extent, upon the class of metals to be joined by it. Soft
solder, sometimes called white or tin solder, is made of soft,
readily fused metals or alloys. Such metals as tin, lead-tin
and alloys of tin, lead and bismuth are usually used. A
good formula for the composition of soft solder is: Lead,
207 parts; tin, 118 parts. ‘To weaken the solder increase the
number of parts of tin. Increasing the number of parts of
lead will strengthen the solder. The solder may be prepared
in a graphite crucible at a low temperature by mixing with
an iron rod and then running into iron molds.

207. Soldering Fluxes are substances used to remove
the oxide which forms on the surface of a metal. They are
melted and run on the metal where the soldered joint is to Le
formed. The fluxes generally used are powdered rosin or 2
solution of chloride of zinc, used alone or combined with szl
ammoniac.

A soldering fluid is a liquid flux and may be prepared
by mixing 27 parts neutral zine chloride, 11 parts sal
ammoniac, and 62 parts of water; or 1 part sugar of milk,
1 part glycerine and 8 parts of water.

A very common liquid is prepared by dissolving in an
earthenware vessel small pieces of scrap zinc in commercial
muriatic acid. Dissolve one piece at a time to prevent too
rapid generation of heat, which might break the jar. Finally
secure a saturated solution by adding more zine than will
dissolve. For use in soldering, the solution should be diluted
with the addition of its own bulk of water, mixed and filtered.
The addition of a tew drops of liquid ammonia will increase
the activity of the flux, which should be kept in a wide-
mouthed bottle and applied to the joint to be soldered, just

236 SHEET-METALWORK

before the soldering operation begins, by means of a stick or
brush. This flux may be used on almost any metal except
aluminum, zine or galvanized iron.

pas

Fic, 261. Equipment for soldering.

The Soldering Process. Certain metals require special
solders and fluxes. For most purposes, however, the solder
and fluxes described are serviceable.

The best of tools and materials, however, will not secure
good results unless used in the hands of a good workman.
To solder successfully the metals to be joined must be fitted
accurately and cleaned thoroly, either by some means of
mechanical cleaning, such as scraping or grinding, or by re-
moval of dirt and grease with acid.

It is dangerous to use the latter, however, as it may injure

the metal surfaces, besides its possible injurious effects upon
the workman.

TOOLS AND SUPPLIES; FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES 237

When the metal is clean, apply the flux to all surfaces
which will come in contact, join these as planned and run
the soldering iron over or against the joint.

208. The Soldering-Iron, which is made of copper,
must be “‘tinned’’ to serve as a solder carrier. Fig. 261
shows the shape of a soldering-iron. The end is kept filed
to form well defined edges and a point. When thoroly
clean, heat and rub on solder, then wipe with a cloth, a piece
of felt serving the purpose very well.

To use the soldering-iron heat it in a clean fire, using a
gasoline torch, a blacksmith’s forge, or a tinsmith’s gas
forge, and place it against a bar of solder, when a little will
adhere to the soldering-iron.

Another method of using the soldering-iron is to provide
an open-mouthed bottle of chloride of zine fluxing solution
and when the iron is heated, dip the point of it into the so-
lution to clean it. Then place the iron against the bar of
solder, and if properly heated a little solder will adhere to it.
This is the customary method of tinsmiths. Fig. 261 shows
an open-mouthed bottle of the fluxing solution, together with
a can of cleaning material, a block of sal ammoniac and a
wiping rag. The Bunsen burner shown in this picture is
frequently used to heat the tinner’s iron when gas is avail-
able.

The iron is now run on the joint and the solder which the
iron holds will fill the joint, cool, and effect a union of the two
pieces of metal. The bar of solder is used to hold the tin
in position. In ease a long joint is to be made, the iron may
be run slowly against the metal with the bar of solder held
_ against the iron. ‘The solder will thus melt, run down and

238 SHEET-METALWORK

off the iron and fill the joint. Care must be taken not to
flood the joint by using too much solder. While an iron
may be run over a joint several times, it is advisable to run
it over but once. Superfluous solder and the extended use

Fic. 262. A clean joint.

Fic. 262-a. A joint where too much solder has been used.

of the soldering-iron are signs of a poor workman. When
the soldering-iron is run over the joint many times, the solder
will flow out on the surfaces of the metal near the joint, re-
sulting in a “smeared” joint. Fig 262 shows a soldered
joint on which no superfluous solder has been used; Fig. 262-a
shows one which has been smeared with too much solder.

CHAPTER XXIII ;

PROJECTS IN SHEET- METALWORK
Problem No. 1:
Making a Lap Joint as Used on Tin Roof.
209. Stock and Tools for Lap Joint. The stock
needed is two strips of medium weight, clean new tin, each
about 10” long and 3” wide.

Fic. 263. Tools for sheet-metalwork: a, cutting pliers; 6, flat-jaw pliers;
c, straight snips; d, curved snips; e, compass; f, tinner’s hammer; g,
flat file; h, cold chisel; 7, punch; 7, scratch awl.
A limited number of sheet-metalworking tools suitable

for ordinary work on the farm is necessary. The equipment

may consist of:

239

240 SHEET-METALWORK

1 gasoline soldering torch,
1 soldering iron,
1 pair straight snips,
1 pair curved snips,
1 tinner’s hammer,
1 wooden mallet,
1 carpenter’s square,
1 pair cutting pliers,
1 pair dividers,
1 punch,
1 scratch awl,
1 bar solder,
1 piece sal ammoniac,
1 bottle cleaning solution,
and tools shown in Fig. 263.
210. Working Instructions for Lap Joint. On one
long edge of one piece of tin, scribe a mark 3”’ from the edge

ee ea

+
Lk uk
be

Fic. 264. Gage for making _ Fic. 265. Position of pieces for
joints, lap joint.

with gage of tin made as shown in Fig. 264. This 3”’ surface

will form the joint (Fig. 265). Clean this surface and a cor-
responding one, not necessarily determined by a scribed line,
on the second piece of tin, by wiping clean and applying the
flux. Place the two pieces of tin together flat on a board so
that the surface of one piece of tin laps over on the surface
of the other, the edge of the first coinciding with the scribed
line on the second. The two pieces of tin now lap 34”.

PROJECTS IN SHEET-METALWORK 241

Grasp a short piece of wood about the size of a screw-driver
handle with a square or beveled end in the left hand, and with
it press the two pieces of tin together (Fig. 266). This may
also be done by using the bar of solder in place of the stick.
With the right hand, grasp the handle of the hot, well-tinned
soldering-iron, wipe the

iron on a cloth or piece of

felt conveniently placed on

the bench or table on which

you are working, touch

Fic. 266. Holding two pieces of tin thisirontoa piece of solder

for soldering. : é

and immediately run the

end of one of the four “‘flats’”’ of the iron on the joint (Fig.
267) and near edge of the lap. The holding-stick or bar
of solder must be
kept near the part of
the joint being sol-
dered. It must be
moved from point to
point as the iron is
moved along the
joint. The heat of
the iron should heat
the joint sufficiently
to run the solder on

Fic, 267. Running solder.

the iron between the lapped surfaces of the two pieces of tin.
As the iron moves from one point to another the heated
surfaces will cool, forming a soldered joint. The iron must
be touched against the solder frequently to renew the sup-
ply of solder on the iron. When the joint has been formed,

242 SHEET-METALWORK

run the iron slowly the entire length of the joint with one
stroke, to make a smooth finish.

ple exercise should be repeated, if necessary, until a
perfect joint can be
madewithafewstrokes
of the soldering -iron.
Problem No. 2: To
Patcha Tin Receptacle
(Figs. 268 and 269).

Stoeck—Any tin re-
ceptacle with a hole

inate
Fic. 267-a. Correct position of soldering Tools—Those used
ee for Problem No. 1.

211. Preparationfor Patching. Perhapsoneofthe most
general uses of the soldering-iron in the home is for patching

Finished job

Fic. 268. Patching small hole. Fic. 269. Patching large hole.

tin utensils. Such work may be listed under two heads, viz.,
small-hole patching, where an additional piece of tin is un-
necessary, and large-hole patching, requiring a piece of tin to
cover the hole.

In the first case, the hole is first closed as far as possible by
pounding the tin around it with a mallet over a surface as
nearly the shape of the tin surrounding the hole as possible.

PROJECTS IN SHEET-METALWORK 243

The tin is then cleaned by scraping if very dirty, or by the use
of a little muriatic acid, which may be put onto the surface of
the tin with a stiff feather. The flux is then applied and
solder run into the hole with the soldering-iron used as in sol-
dering a seam (A, Fig. 268).

If the hole is too large to be closed with solder, a pateh
must be applied and soldered on. B, Fig. 268, shows the hole,
and Fig. 269 shows it patched.

212. Completing the Patch.

1) Secure a receptacle with a cracked seam or a small hole ~

Fic. 270. Shallow watering pan.

and with a large hole 1/2”’ or more in diameter. Prepare the
small hole (A, Fig. 268) for soldering, as described in Sec. 210,
and solder, as described there.

2) Trim the large hole (B, Fig. 268) with a pair of tinner’s
snips (Fig. 263), either straight or curved, depending upon the
shape of the hole and the tin, whether flat or curved.

3) Cut a piece of tin from an old can orapiece of sheet
tin the shape of the hole, but enough larger than the hole to
provide for a 1/4” or 3/8” lap all around the hole. Clean the
tin on the receptacle, and that of the patch also; apply the
fluxing material and solder, as described in Sec. 210.

Problem No. 3: To Construct a Shallow Watering Pan for a
Chicken Coop (Fig. 270).

244 SHEET-METALWORK

Other Projects Suggested for this Group:
Any low, straight-sided tin dish not requiring a wired
edge.
Stock—Tin of medium weight cut to size and the same
as, or similar to, pattern shown in Fig. 271.
Tools—Those used for Problem No. 1, Sec. 209, and a
wooden mallet and ruler, or carpenter’s square. It
will be necessary, also, to have a sharp-edged piece of
hard wood or a straight-edged piece of iron as long or a
little longer than the longest edge of the pan.
213. Strengthening the Edge. Ordinarily, it is de-
sirable to strengthen the upper edge of a tin receptacle by

Fic. 271. Tin cut to shape for watering pan.

running a wire around this edge under the tin which is rolled
over the wire, as in the case of a tin drinking cup or a funnel
(Fig. 278).

This portion of the receptacle may be strengthened, but
not so well, by folding a small portion of the upper edge over

and pounding it down against the surface of the tin (Fig.
PA a

PROJECTS IN SHEET-METALWORK 245

214. Laying Out and Cutting Tin to Shape. With
carpenter’s square, or with try-square and rule, lay out
rectangle, 10-1/4” x 8-1/4’. Inside of this rectangle, scribe
lines with scratch awl and straight-edge (leg of carpenter’s
square), 1-5/8’ from and parallel to outside edges of this
rectangle. Scribe lines in the corners for portion to be cut
out. Turn the piece of tin over and scribe lines 1/8” inside
the rectangle and parallel to the outside edges.

With straight snips, cut out the corners, as shown in the
drawing (Fig. 271): also cut to the corners of the inside rect-
angle, formed by the first lines scribed, on the lines marked
heavy on the drawing and lettered a.

Se @)
Surface folded under i
and 1n contact with the tin

Fic. 272. Details of soldering watering pan.

215. Folding. Over the edge of the piece of hard wood
or straight-edged piece of iron, fold with a mallet the 1/8” of
tin between the outside edges and the lines scribed 1/8” from
same. These surfaces must be folded toward the surface of
the tin on which the lines were scribed 1/8” from the outside
edges. Fig. 272 shows the folding operation. Pound these
surfaces down until they are in contact with the sheet of tin to
form the strengthened edges of the pan (Fig. 270).

In like manner, but in the opposite direction, fold over the
corner of the piece of hard wood or straight-edged piece of

246 SHEET-METALWORK

iron the 1-5/8” surfaces to form right angles with the sheet of
tin and to make the vertical surfaces on the edges of the pan
(Pigs. 271 and 272).

Carefully fold the corner laps, lettered b, Fig. 272,tocome |
in contact with the long, or 7’’, edge of the pan (Fig. 271).

Place each corner of the pan over a square corner of a hard
piece of wood and square up and smooth with the mallet.

Solder the inside of each corner of the pan between the end
and side edges, and also the edge of the corner lap (a, Fig.
272). Apply fluxing material and use soldering-iron, as de-
scribed in Sec. 209.

Problem No.4: ‘To Construct a Receptacle Requiring the
Assembly of Heavy Pieces of Tin or of Galvanized Iron.

Projects Suggested for this Group:
a) Watering trough (Fig. 273).
b) Flower box (Figs. 274, 274-a, 274-6).
c) Drip pan (Fig. 275, 275-a).
Stock for watering trough: 2 pieces heavy tin, 12” x 5”;
1 piece heavy tin, 26” x 12”.

Note: Galvanized iron may be substituted.

Tools—A full set of sheet-metalworker’s hand tools (Fig.
20a).

¢16. Constructing Watering Trough. Mark and cut
the ends of the piece of metal to form the trough, as shown in
Fig. 273. Fold the ends up on lines shown dotted in the fig-
ure, and then turn the piece of metal over, laying it along the
eorners of a square-edged timber on the center line shown as
the long dotted line in the drawing (Fig. 276). Bend the
metal down over the timber until the surfaces on either side of

PROJECTS IN SHEET-METALWORK 247

the line are in contact with the surfaces of the timber, thus
forming the trough.
Lay out lines on one surface of each end piece of the trough,

Serle 24 7 — be =
— Se

Fic. 273. Watering trough.
: eee a

S32 Gylinder | long o—|
ZINC OR HEAVY TIN

Fic. 274. Flower box.

\Z DRAIN HOLE

Fic. 274-a. Details of flower box.

to form slits into which the folded
ends of the trough piece may be

Suecestion ror wooven Inserted that it may hang on the
BOX IN WHICH FLOWER BOX

MAY BE SET ends (Fig. 277).
Fic. 274-b. Perspective of Lay each end piece of tin with
flower box.

the lined surface up, flat on a
smooth, hard board. With a sharp cold chisel and hammer
or mallet, cut along each scribed line.

248 SHEET-METALWORK

Carefully insert the end laps of the trough into the slits in
the end pieces of the trough from the side on which the cold
chisel cut, and gently pound into shape with a mallet over the

24 si. Fic. 277. Completed trough.
Fic. 276. Layout for watering trough.

corner of a board. Solder all these joints and run solder in
the intersection between end pieces and trough near bottom
of trough, where the end laps on trough were not cut, to make
trough water-tight.

5 — 2R—-S—
oe

a
p-

PROJECTS IN SHEET-METALWORK 249

Problem No. 5: Making a Cylindrical Receptacle with Handle
and Reinforced Edge.
Suggested Projects:
a) Drinking cup (Fig. 278).
b) Small pail (Fig. 279).
c) Cylindrical pan (Fig. 280).

Fic. 278. Drinking cup.

\ SB wire
LOCK JOINT

Fic. 280. Cylindrical pan. Fic. 279. Small pail.

Stock for drinking cup—1 piece circular tin, 3-3/4’ diam-
eter; 1 piece rectangular tin, 11-1/4”’ x 2-3/4’’; 1 piece
rectangular tin, 5’’ x 1-1/2”.

Tools—A full set of sheet-metalworker’s hand tools.

217. Methods of Inserting Wire. The customary
method of strengthening the upper edge of a tin receptacle is
to roll the edge of the tin over a piece of wire in what is known
as a wiring machine. The wire may be inserted by hand, as
described below, altho with less likelikood of securing a per-
fect job.

218. Shaping Bottom. Pare the end of a round piece
of stove wood with a draw-knife to a diameter of 3-1/2”.

25) SHEET-METALWORK

Sandpaper the surface smooth and saw the end off square
(Fig. 280-a).

Place the stove wood in a vise with the cylindrical end up.
Over this place the circular bottom for the cup so that.the

!
| AAA
Ne |
STOVE WOOD SHAVE TIN BOTTOM BENT

TO CYLINDER OVER END OF WOOD

Fic. 281. Sheet-metal
shaped on wood form.

Fic. 280-a. Piece of wood
for shaping iron.
1/8” surface to be folded projects evenly around the piece of
wood (Fig. 281). Hold the tin with the left hand and gently
pound the edge of it down around the piece of wood with a
mallet. It may be necessary to snip the edge of the tin ina
few places to prevent it from
buckling. The bending must ke
done carefully. When the ecge
is finally bent over in contact
<pine ever or With the cylindrical surface of
CUP FOR WIRE the wood, pound the folded
Fic. 282. Bending sheet-metal portion firmly against the wood
over piece of wood. ae : :

until it fits like a cap (Fig.

251). The tin may now be pried off.

219. Inserting Wire in the Edge. Over a slightly-
rounded corner of a piece of hard wood, pound the 1/4’
surface for the wire to strengthen the upper edge of the cup
(Fig. 282). When this has been done, place the proper length
of 1/16” wire in the rounded corner turned upward as the tin

ae [ Harow? oD

PROJECTS IN SHEET-METALWORK 251

lies flat on the bench, fasten the bent edge of tin over the wire

at each end with a pair of pliers, then carefully pound the re-

maining portion of the bent edge over the wire until it lies

smooth and hugs the wire the entire length (Fig. 283). Fig.
284 shows the process of
folding a wire in the edge
of a piece of tin.

EDGE OF TIN
FASTENED AT EACH END over wire Fold the end laps of
Fic. 283. Inserting wire. the pattern in opposite

directions to form the lock joint seam for the cup, as shown
in insert, Fig. 279. Roll the entire surface over the cylin-
drical end of the piece
of wood used to form
the bottom of the cup,
having the wire on the
outside; lock the joint,
pound down with the
mallet and, atthesame
time, slip the cylindri-
cal surface from the
wood.

Solder the inside and
outside of the lock
seam, slip the body of
the cup into the bot-
tom, and solder around Fic. 284. Folding metal over wire.
the bottom edge. The cup is now complete except for the
handle.

220. Handle for Drinking Cup. Fold the two 1/8”
outside edges of the strip for the handle (Fig. 285) as in the

252 SHEET-METALWORK

case of the upper edge of the watering pan (Problem 3). With
the folded edges on the inside, form the handle, as shown in
the drawing for the drinking cup (Fig. 278), and solder both

ROLLED TOP

PVIRE

LOCK SEAM

BOTTOM

SIDE PATTERN

a an

Fic. 285. Details cf drinking cup.

ends to the cup—one against the wire and the other against
the bottom seam—over the lock seam of the cup. First,
gently pound the ends firmly in contact with the cup over the
seam. This may be done by putting the cup over the end of a
cylindrical stick, such as a tool handle.
Problem No.6: To Makea Conical Dish.
Suggested Projects:

a) Funnel (Fig. 286).

PROJECTS IN SHEET-METALWORK 253

b) Flaring pan (Fig. 287).

c) Flaring pail (Fig. 288).

d) Cream dipper (Fig. 289).

Stock for the funnel—1 piece of tin, 12’”’ x 6’’; 1 piece of
ies oA

Tools—A full set of sheet-metalworker’s hand tools.

Fic. 287. Flaring pan.

RWET HOLES —

5
Fic. 289. Cream F :
dipper. Fic. 288. Flaring pail.

254 SHEET-METALWORK

221. Laying Out Conical Shapes. The pattern for a
cone or for a frustum of a cone is made by describing an arc of
a circle with a compass or a pair of dividers, the distance be-
tween the points being the slant height of the cone and the
length of the outside are being circumference of the base of
the cone.

222. Construction of Funnel. Lay out the pattern
for each of the two parts of thefunnel (Fig. 290), producing the

" Fic. 291. Piece of wood for shap-
ing funnel.
side lines of front view to locate
the apex of each cone part, in
order to secure the radius to
strike the proper arcs (Fig. 290).
As in the case of the cylindrical part of the cup, insert a
1/16’ wire in the space marked 1/4” on the outside of the
large pattern, and fold in opposite directions the laps for the
lock seam joints. Carefully form each portion of the funnel
over a cylindrical piece of stove wood tapered on one end toa
cone (Fig. 291). Lock and solder the joint for each part, slip
the upper part into the lower, first spreading out the upper
opening of the lower part over the surface of the cone-shaped
piece of wood, and solder the two parts together. The ear
may be made as shown in Fig. 286, and a small piece of wire
formed to slip into it to form a hanger. The ear may be sol-
dered on or fastened with rivets.

Fic. 290. Metal cut for funnel.

‘

CHAPTER XXIV
SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS IN SHEET-METALWORK

223. Cylindrical Receptacle (Fig. 292).

1) Lay out pattern for bottom, leaving 1/8” for fold.

2) Lay out pattern for body of receptacle, leaving 1/8” lap
on each end for lock joint.

3) Solder lock joint of eee ave
body of pattern. eae era >

Fic. 292. Cylindrical
receptacle. Fic. 293. Cubical box with lid.
4) Place bottom in position on body of receptacle and sol-
der in place. (See instructions for Problem No. 5.)

224. Cubical Box with Lid (Fig. 293).

1) Lay out pattern for body of box—a rectangle 3’” wide
and 12-1/4”’ long. The 1/4” added to the 12” is to provide a
lap which should be formed on one corner.

2) Lay out pattern for bottom of box—a square 4-1/4” ona
side. The 1/4’ added to the 4” is to provide two 1/8” laps—
one on each side of the square.

255

256 SHEET-METALWORK

| 3) Solder seam on box after it is folded into shape of square.

4) Fold edges and corner laps on bottom, place in position
on box, and solder in place, including corner laps.

5) Construct cover for box by following description for
making the body of box.

225. Stovepipe Collar (Fig. 294).

1) Lay out pattern for cylindrical part of collar, allowing
3/8” for lap to be riveted. Rivet joint.

01) fie et ten Sy sea. em | 7 Or fe NG ee ee AY
“soul VW \V/ Ve Wy Wi ivi

Vowy *

Fic. 294. Stovepipe collar.

2) Lay out pattern for flange of collar—a ring, outside
diameter, 6’’, and inside diameter, 4’’.. Scribe a 4-7/8” circle
on this ring. Clip several narrow notches on inside of ring
limited by the scribed circle.

3) Fold notched part of ring into cylindrical part of collar
and pound in contact with same over cylindrical stock.

4) Solder or rivet two parts of collar together.

SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 257

226. Conductor Elbows (Fig. 295).

1) Lay outeeach section of elbow, as shown at A. Divide
the end view (circle) into twelve parts, each point to be re-
garded as the end of a line on the cylindrical section drawn

LOCK SEAM

i 2 Ss 4°55 6G 7 as “io it ie 1

Fig. 295. Conductor elbow.

opposite the point. Space the length of the section of the
pattern into twelve parts, and lay off on line thru each point
the length of same line in drawing A.

2) Form lock seams, as indicated, and allow for flange for
joint between sections.

3) Form each section and solder seams. Place the parts of

258 SHEET-METALWORK

elbow together and solder. Note that seams of sections are
placed on opposite sides of elbow. a

227. Roof Ridge Flange (Fig. 296).

1) Lay out cylindrical pattern (Fig. 297). Determine
length of lines, as in pattern for conductor (Fig. 295).

Fic. 296. Roof ridge flange.

2) Lay out pattern for flange, notch and punch holes for
rivets, unless solder alone is to be used to fasten it to cylinder.
3) Fit cylinder and flange together, bending flange to proper

Fic. 297. Details of roof flange.

angle for roof. Rivet or solder cylinder seam and rivet or
solder flange to cylinder. (These joints may be both sol-
dered and riveted.)

228. A Measure (Fig. 298).

1) Lay out pattern for bottom, as in Problem 5. Fold over
edge.

2) Lay out pattern for body, as in Problem 6, for upper por-
tion of funnel. Solder lock seam.

3) Lay out pattern for rim of measure, regarding it as a cone

SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 259

with apex (a, Fig. 299). (See pattern, Fig. 290.) Note radii
distances lettered similarly in Figs. 298 and 299. Begin at b
(Fig. 299) and meas-
ure the distance hb
six times in each di-
rection. This will lo-
cate points g and g.
Draw lines ag and ag,
and extend both tod.
Also extend ab to ¢.
To secure the are
thru ¢ (Fig. 299), con-
nect points ¢ and d
and erect perpendicu-
lar to this line at center point e to intersect line acat f. Use f
as a center and draw are dcd. Angles between radii ad and
ac, ac and ad, reading from left to right in Fig. 299, are
equal.

4) Make short and nar-
row V-cuts with snips in
lap surface on lower edge
of pattern for rim. Bend
this lap to fit into top of
body of measure. Bend
end laps, form rim and
solder to top of measure

body after soldering rim- ;
seam at d. Fic. 299. Details for measure,

Fic. 298. A measurc.

5) Place bottom in position on body, pound firmly in con-
tact with body over end of evlindrical stick and solder seam.

260 SHEET-METALWORK

6) Lay out handle, as in Problem 5; form and solder in
piece of tin h cut to fit. Solder on handle over seam of body.

229. Three-Piece Elbow (Fig. 300).

1) Lay out pattern for each part of elbow, first making full-

Fic. 300. Three-piece elbow. Fic. 301. Roof cap and
ventilator.

sized bench drawing. Use methods given in cases of con-
ductor elbow (Sec. 226) and roof ridge flange (Sec. 227).
Allow laps for lock lap joint on each section of elbow. Allow
3/32” lap on each end of central section of pipe to fit over,
and solder onto, end sections.

2) Solder lock joint on each section and solder sections to-
gether.

230. Roof Cap and Ventilator (Fig. 301).

1) Lay out and construct 8” cylinder, as in case of roof
ridge flange (Sec. 227).

2) Lay out and construct conical cap for ventilator, as for

SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 261

funnel (Problem 6). (Seam should be riveted for ventilator
of size given.)

3) Fasten conical and cylindrical parts of ventilator to-
gether with four strips of 1/2” band iron or heavy tin. Ends
should be riveted.

231. Gutter Miter (Fig. 302).

1) Lay out pattern for each part of gutter. This will bea

+-—— LONG EDGE OF GUTTER |

Fie. 302:

rectangle, length the long edge of the gutter and width one-
half the circumference of a 2” circle, plus 1/2” to roll over
heavy wire on outside edge (A, Fig. 302). Cut one end of
pattern square and other edge at 45 degrees (C, Fig. 302).
Leave lap on square end to fold, and solder against end of
gutter. Leave joint lap on end cut at 45 degrees.

2) Fold edge of gutter over wire. Form gutter (A, Fig.
302). |

3) Solder end of gutter in position.

PART V

FARM MACHINERY REPAIR AND
ADJUSTMENT

CHAPTER XXV

FARM MACHINERY AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR

232. Farm Machinery and National Progress. It is
not the purpose of this section to furnish information on each
type of machine used on the farm, but to present a few gen-
eral statements, followed by outlined studies of a few ma-
chines and their uses, and a few definite problems of repair
and adjustment. For amore complete discussion, the reader
is referred to the list of books and bulletins given below.

Farm M pehitery and Farm Motors. By Davidson and Chase. Orange
Judd Co.

Agricultural Engineering. By Davidson. Webb Publishing Co.

Equipment for the Farm and Farmstead. By Ramsower. Ginn & Co.

Farm Machinery. By Wirt. John Wiley & Sons.

Bulletins from the U. S. Department of Agriculture and State Agri-
cultural Experiment Stations.

_ The greatest growth in agricultural development is marked
by the use of modern machinery. We find the plow substi-
tuted for the crooked stick; the binder, reaper and mower sub-
stituted for the cradle and scythe; the threshing machine sub-
stituted for the flail, and steam and gas power for man and
horse power. Every country that is backward in the use of
these modern farm machines, is backward also in every
other phase of its development. The most striking difference

262

FARM MACHINERY AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR 263

between the American farmer and the Chinese farmer, or the
American farmer of today and the American farmer of fifty
years ago, isa difference mainly of equipment and the efficient
use of that equipment.

The effect of the use of modern machinery on our people
is many fold. It has really made possible our high stage of
development. In fact, the development of any country is
measured by its ability to produce an adequate food supply.
It has been only a few years ago that people of this country
thot that starvation was staring them in the face. That was
in times of peace. It has been estimated that in 1800, 97
per cent of the people of the United States lived on farms,
and many of them felt the bite of hunger. |

Our farm population decreased slowly until 1850 from 97
per cent to 90 per cent. This was during a period of a half-
century. There was no marked development of farm ma-
chinery during this period, and our development along other
lines was equally retarded. It was the imaginative minds of
such men as John Deere, who gave us the first steel plow in
1837; McCormick, who gave us the binder in 1834, and Pitts,
who gave us the threshing machine in 1837, that made a start
for modern farm machinery. Few of these machines were
built before 1850, but after this period, when factories were
established and the number of machines built began to in-
crease, the production of food on a muchlarger scale was made
possible, and during the next fifty-year period the population
decreased from 90 per cent to about 40 per cent on the farm,
or a little over one-third of the total population was on
farms.

We can easily imagine the condition that we would be in at
the present time if 97 per cent of our people were on the farms

264 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

without modern equipment. We would be one of the most
backward people of the world. We would not have any of
the things which go toward making life pleasant and the farm
a good place on which to live.

The use of more and better farm equipment has changed
the mental attitude of the farmer, it has increased the wages
of the farm laborer, it has decreased the necessary labor of
women in the field and home, it has increased the production
per capita many fold, decreased the cost of production, and
improved the quality of products produced.

An abundance of food has made possible our cities, our in-
dustries, the arts and sciences, our very civilization. It has
made America the greatest nation of the world. These things
are made possible because one farmer is capable of producing
enough food for three families instead of just his own. Many -
farmers at the present time are producing even more than
this, and doing it with a minimum of labor.

233. Latest Machinery Most Economical. (Fig. 303.)
Agricultural production is quite similar tofactory production.
We find in the factory certain machines for certain particular
operations. For example, when we go into a cotton mill, we
find a carding machine for making the cotton suitable for use
on the spindle. The same thing is true on the farm; we find
certain equipment for preparing the soil, special types of seed-
ing machinery for planting, and special equipment for har-
vesting. The tendency has been too great on the part of
many farmers to try to get along without buying the latest
improved machines. The farmer can no more get the best
results without the latest modern machines than can the
manufacturer.

FARM MACHINERY AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR 265

The difference between modern cotton-mill operations and
the hand-power method of former days is quite comparable
to the modern farmer as compared with the farmer of seventy-
five yearsago. Production in both cases requires machinery,
and without machinery of the right kind and properly taken
care of, neither will be successful. The effect of machinery on

Fic. 303. Motor cultivator, two-row.

production per capita is very marked. In those sections
where poor equipment is used, the people simply exist and sel-
dom are in a position to improve their living conditions.

The following data collected several years ago illustrates
the effect of machinery on the production per capita:

234. Influence of Farm Machinery on Income.

INFLUENCE OF FARM MACHINERY ON INCOME*
Value of Farm

Annual Income of Implements for

State Each Worker Each Farm

TOMO RUA eas oe oy le) ae LO ae os Rens oh b Secrest ee $ 30.43
PUA WAMA sn tn. reels Sass ey oS ae aoe tae ee aie Aen een 33.40
NS ire et hn ec a en a ae 8 9 ae od Bite as weg ae I 196.55
North Dakota ly...) 223. EE Oe een UAT pc oth. Rh, PE Rey, ee 238.84

The use of machinery and modern equipment has not only
brought about a greater production per capita, but has also

*From Circular 21, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

266 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

influenced our agricultural conditions along almost every
line.

235. The Problem of Farm Power. The farm power
problem is one that is being given much more attention at the
present time than ever before. To show the tendency to-
ward mechanical power, the census of 1914 shows that the
power from horses and mules is equal to 14,230,000 H. P.,

eee

Fic. 303-a. Two-row cultivator with team.

while the power from mechanical sources is equal to 9, 675,-
000 H. P. This vast amount of power is more than that

used by all other industries combined. The investment is
also much larger than that invested in other forms of power
in the United States.

236. Wasting Power and Machinery on the Farm.
Some of the greatest losses and wastes on the farm are due to
the use of inadequate machines, poor operators, and to lack

FARM MACHINERY AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR 267

of care of the machinery. All three of these factors should
have the serious attention of every farmer at the present
time. Every machine should be adequate for the use for
which it is intended. It is very easy to get a machine that

Fic. 804. Checking up machinery for repairs.

is too small or too large to be efficient for a particular use.
A great many tractor failures have been due to either the
tractor’s being too large or too small for a particular farm
operation. To use a tractor of 20 to 30 H.P. to drive a
pump requiring only 2 H. P. is a mistake often made. It
is also as poor economy to operate a single-row corn planter

263 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

when a two-row planter might be used equally well. In
selecting a piece of equipment of any sort, the following
points should be kept in mind:

1) It should be the most satisfactory for the particular
work at hand.

2) It should be easy to operate with least danger.
3) It should be efficient.
4) It should ke capable of easy adjustment.

Fic. 304-a. Unprotected machinery.

5) It should be designed so all parts are accessible and easily
replaced.

6) It should be well built of good material to resist break-
age and wear.

7) It should not cost too much.
Wasting Machinery Thru Ignorance.

The lack of knowledge on the part of the operator has been
the cause of many failures with modern machines. This is

FARM MACHINERY AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR 269

especially true of power machinery. There have probably
been more tractor failures due to this one thing than all
other causes combined. Many machines are bought and
taken into the field and operated untilsome trouble develops.
It is then found that a wearing part was without lubricant
or was not properly adjusted. Every machine should be
carefully studied before it is used. An instruction book
should be secured with each machine, and it should be
studied as a text. With a thoro knowledge of the working
parts of a machine, there is little danger of accident, and the
best results are assured.

The lack of knowledge of a machine usually results in lack
of care and lack of adjustment. It goes without saying that
the man who leaves his binder outside to rust and decay does
not appreciate its fine points. ‘The same is true of the trac-
tor. If the farm machines were given the attention they de-
serve, they would be cared for as machinery is cared for in the
factory and as the sewing machine is cared for in the home.

Many machines are being run that should be undergoing
repairs. The farm machine, as a general rule, is allowed to
get in a run-down condition and is not repaired until abso-
lutely necessary, and often such repairs must be made when
the machine is in the field and when the work should be in
progress. We cannot expect the best results from machines
that have been neglected, that have been left in the fields for
months, or, if under shelter, are not examined until the day
before they are to be used. The farmer would be greatly
shocked to see a sewing machine left on the porch for a week
at a time where the rain and sun would affectit. Yet, many
farmers allow the binders with their delicate tying mechan-

270 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

ism to stay out in the weather for months. These machines
depreciate in value, become rusty, and are weakened, and
there is a loss of time when they fail to give service after they
are taken into the field; also, a loss in production.

237. Three Considerations—Housing, Repairing, and
Painting. The proper care of machinery might be classified
under three heads—(1) housing, (2) repairing, (3) painting.
In the housing of farm equipment, we do not have to provide
an expensive building. ‘The implements are not affected by
cold weather. In sections where the dust is bad, the walls
and roofs of the buildings should be made tight enough to pre-
vent its entrance. It has been estimated that the value of
machinery on the average farm at the present time is about
$1,000. For such an amount of machinery, the farmer can
well spend $400 or $500 for a good machinery house. Plans
for such a shed can be secured from the U. 8. Department of
Agriculture or nearly every state agricultural college.

In the repairing of farm equipment, the farmer should be
systematic. If the machines are examined on completing a
job, and there is not time to repair them at that time, each
part should be labeled so that parts can be ordered, and ata
later date they can be replaced. The time to repair equip-
ment is not when a machine is needed in the field, but during
the time when the machines are in the machinery shed.

In regard to painting, it is well to repaint all wooden parts of
farm implements, as it not only increases the life of the imple-
ments, but improves their appearance, and where a machine
is sold after it has been in use a number of years, the cost of
the addition of paint isrepaid many fold. Quite often, where
the farmer looks after his equipment properly, he will find

FARM MACHINERY AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR 271

that discarded machines can be repaired at slight expense and
be made to give as good service asanew machine. ‘There are
many farmers who discard a machine after it has seen three
or four years’ service, when it really needs only a few slight
repairs. Such machines can often be found standing in fence
corners and are used to supply bolts, etc., about the farm.

CHAPTER XXVI

TOOLS AND MATERIALS FOR MACHINERY REPAIR

238. Necessity for Good Tools. Every man who farms
will find use for a good kit of tools. In fact, suitable tools will
often give an inspiration to do repair jobs that would not be
attempted when inadequate tools are provided. Many of

Fic. 305. Principal tools needed in implement repair:

1. Die-stock. 11. Hammers. 20. Cutting pliers.
2. Dies. 12. Punches. 21. Screw-driver.
en ape 13. Cold chisel. 22. Flat files.

4, Stock. 14. Monkey wrench. 24. Round file.

5. Hack-saw. 15. Crescent wrench. 25. Triangular file.
7. End wrenches. 16. Stillson wrench. 26. File handle.

8. Crescent wrench. 17. Trimo wrench. 27. Knife.

9. Rule. 18. Tin snips. 28. Breast drill.
10. Drill bits. 19. Pliers.

the tools described in the sections on woodworking and metal-
working are needed for machine repair and adjustment. There
Zila

TOOLS AND MATERIALS 213

are a few not included in either of these lists that will be men-
tioned here. All the tools of this group are used without a
forge. In fact, the great majority of machinery repair jobs
on the farm are “‘cold jobs” that are made in the field or in the
machinery shed. Fig. 305 shows a photograph of the tools
which are most likely to be useful in making these repairs.

239. Wrenches. Wrenches for turning nuts and screws
are made in various shapes and sizes suited for different uses.
They are classed as (1) movable-jaw wrenches adjustable for
turning different-sized nuts, the monkey wrench and the
crescent wrench being common examples, and (2) fixed-jaw
wrenches (the distance between jaws being fixed), the straight-
end wrench, the S wrench and the alligator wrench being ex-
amples. The alligator type can be used on different-sized
nuts, but is not as satisfactory as either the fixed or adjust-
able type.

Socket wrenches with 7'-shaped handle are designed for use
where the nut cannot be reached with an ordinary wrench.
Socket wrenches can be secured in a set of different sizes with
a ratchet handle.

Pipe wrenches are made for gripping pipes or cylindrical
rods.

In the use of wrenches, one should always be careful to se-
lect a wrench that will fit the particular nut snugly. If an
adjustable wrench is used, screw the jaw down on the nut
tight before attempting to screw it. Always remember to
exert force on the handle toward the adjustable jaw.

240. Vise. A bench vise such as described in section on
metalwork is well suited for machinery repair.

274 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

241. Hammers. A ball-peen machine hammer and a
light-weight riveting hammer are needed for many repair
jobs.

242. Chisels. The flat chisel, usually referred to as a
cold chisel, is useful for cutting rivets or old bolts. Other
special-shaped chisels are useful for cutting key ways and oil
grooves.

243. Files. Thereisanumber of types of files designed
for different uses. Files are used either for smoothing down
pieces of work or for sharpening tools such as saws and tools
with cutting edges like hoes. Files can be secured of all de-
grees of coarseness from the rasp used by the horseshoer to
the very smooth-cut file used for finishing hard metals. A
rasp, one or two flat files, one or two triangular, and several
round files should be provided for general repair work.

244, Screw-drivers. Several screw-drivers of different
sizes are needed. Keep sides of point of the screw-driver
filed parallel to prevent injury to slot in screw.

245. Pliers. Cutting pliers as well as holding pliers are
needed. Do not use a pair of pliers where a wrench should be
used, or for cutting extremely hard wire when a file will give
best results.

246. Hack-Saw. The hack-saw is very useful for cut-
ting pipes, bolts or other pieces of soft metal. It may also be
used for cutting slots in screw heads or for similar work.

247. Drills. The most common drills are the breast, post
and ratchet drills. The breast and ratchet drills are best
suited for general repair work since they can be used at any
place without taking a machine apart. The breast drill is de-

TOOLS AND MATERIALS 275

signed for small holes, while the ratchet can be used for mak-
ing holes of almost any size.

248. Stock Taps and Dies. ‘Taps and dies are useful
for cutting threads on bolts and for threading nuts. Pipe
taps and dies are not to be used for bolt work. Machine
screw taps can be used for tapping for screws when desired.

249. Materials Needed. For machinery repair, it is
essential that there be kept on hand an assorted lot of ma-
chine, carriage and stove bolts with nuts and washers; an
assorted lot of copper and soft iron rivets; an assorted lot of
screws of different kinds and sizes; an assorted lot of cotter
keys and pieces of iron rods of different diameters; pipe and
pieces of strap iron for general use.

CHAPTER XXVII

How To STuDY FARM MACHINERY

250. Three Methods of Approach. Three classes of
projects can be worked out to meet the need of the student
when studying farm machinery. The first class can hardly be
termed projects, but exercises or studies of various types of
farm implements and power machines. In taking up these
exercises, students will be expected to obtain a general know!-
edge of all kinds of machinery and make a careful study of
those machines used on the home farms. They will be ex-
pected to secure booklets describing particular machines un-
der discussion; these booklets may be obtained from manu-
facturers or from local dealers. The machines are studied on
the implement dealer’s floor, in farm-machinery sheds, or in
tteschoolshop. Most of this work would be done during the
time of year when the weather will not allow outdoor work.

The second type of project is the study of the machine
while operating under actual farming conditions, the student
being given a chance to make adjustment as well as actually
operating the machine. A study of the cost of doing the job
is carried out in this connection. It may be preparing the
the seed bed, planting the grain, or harvesting. Each step
is studied, the work is actually done, the time required for
it and the cost noted.

The third type of project is a study of the care, adjustment
and repair of machinery. Not only can this problem be
studied by visiting various farms and studying conditions,

276

HOW TO STUDY FARM MACHINERY 200

but actual repairs can be made. Many machines are left in
the shed without checking up repairs at the end of the sea-
son’s work. Such machines can be inspected, parts ordered
and repairs made. Gas engines can be overhauled, tractors
gone over and put in first-class shape. The instruction books
furnished by manufacturers are an excellent source of infor-
mation for this work.

A few general exercises and projects such as suggested
above will follow, with additional ones briefly outlined. It is
suggested that a machinery laboratory manual* be available
for student reference for additional subject-matter, it being
impossible to cover the subject in this section.

251. Tillage Machinery.

Requirements: To make a careful study and make a com-
plete report on each of the chief tillage machines, includ-
ing a walking plow, a sulky, a gang and a tractor plow; a
peg-tooth, spring, and disc harrow; a disc and a shovel
riding cultivator; and a smooth and a corrugated roller.

Tools Needed: Monkey wrench, screw-driver, rule and pair
of pliers.

Preliminary Instruction: The importance of a careful study
of all types of farm machines is well justified by the part
machinery plays in farm production. The lack of knowl-
edge and lack of care of many machines on the farm with
the resulting losses should be an example for every boy in
his preparation for future farm work. The study of til-
lage machinery is just as important as the study of the
tractor and other power machines, altho it may not be so
interesting.

*Valuable suggestions can be obtained from Farm Machinery by Wirt,
John Wiley & Sons, New York.

278 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

Working Instructions: After being assigned a group of ma-
chines, the student will read carefully description in text
references assigned by instructor. In addition, he should
secure catalogs and booklets describing such machines.
Next, from a catalog cut out, with a pair of scissors, an
illustration of each of the machines being studied. Paste
the illustration on a blank sheet of paper. Then, while
going over the machine being studied, label all the prin-
cipal parts. As a report, with the illustration give a
statement of the function of each part, its construction
and adjustment. These facts may be determined from
reference text, from catalogs, from discussion in class-
room, by examination, removing parts and taking meas-
urements, or from the instructor in the laboratory.

252. Study of Seeding Machinery.

Requirements: Tomakea careful study of the different types
of seeding machines that the particular type of farming
demands, including a study of grain drills, corn planters,
cotton planters, broadcast seeders, pea and bean plant-
ersand drills. To make atest of the accuracy of planting
of the machine studied and calibrate it to plant a definite
amount, and make a report.

Tools and Materials Needed: Monkey wrench, screw-driver,
rule, pair of pliers, scales for weighing, seed for testing,
and paper bags or other containers.

Preliminary Instruction: The accuracy of planting deter-
mines to a great extent the final yield of the crop. So
every one should know how to test a planter, drill or
other seeding device. One should not only know how,
but should actually make a test before using the machine
in the field. |

HOW TO STUDY FARM MACHINERY 29

Working Instructions: Follow instructions under exercise in
Sec. 251, and, in addition, the machine may be tested
as outlined in Secs. 277 and 279.

253. Study of Fertilizer Drills, Manure and Straw
Spreaders.

Requirements: To makea careful study of different types of
fertilizer and limestone drills, including the agitator,
force-feed and end-gate type. To study manure spread-
ers and straw spreaders; also straw-spreading attach-
ments for manure spreaders.

Tools Needed: Sameasin Sec. 251.

Preliminary Instruction: Keeping up the fertility of the soil
is one of the greatest problems of a permanent agricul-
ture. The use of fertilizer drills, manure spreaders
and straw-spreaders for distributing materials on the
soil greatly facilitates this work.

Working Instruction: Follow instruction in See. 251.

254. Study of Haying Machinery.

Requirements: Tomakea careful study of the various classes
of haying machinery—the mower, rakes of different
types, tedders, loaders, stackers, presses and other hay-
ing machinery such as is used in the community.

Tools Needed: Sameasin Sec. 251.

Preliminary Instruction: The hay crop is one of the most
valuable of the American farmer. By many it is given
little consideration; much hay is lost due to lack of care
in handling. Modern machinery has made it possible to
handle the hay crop with a minimum amount of labor.

Working Instruction: Follow instruction in Sec. 251.

280 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

255. Harvesting Machinery.

Requirements: 'To make a careful study of grain-harvesting
machinery, corn binders, grain binders, shocking attach-
ments, push binders, headers, combines and such har-
vesting machinery as is used in the immediate neighbor-
hood.

Tools Needed: Sameasin Sec. 251.

Preliminary Instruction: The modern harvesting machinery
on the farm plays a similar part in production to the au-
tomatic machines in the factory. They make possible
greater production per capita, allowing more people to en-
ter other lines of endeavor. The cost of production
where modern harvesting machinery is used is a great
deal less than where harvesting is done by hand method.

Working Instruction: Follow instruction as outlined under
Sec. 251.

256. Study of Power-Driven Machines.
Requirements: To make a careful study of power-driven
machines used on the farm, such as grain separators,
silage cutters, feed grinders, corn shellers, limestone
grinders, cane mills and other machines in that section.

Preliminary Instruction: With the advent of the stationary
engine and the tractor on the farm, power-driven ma-
chines in greater numbers will be used each year. Many
farmers are already buying small threshing outfits where
formerly the grain was threshed by a large threshing out-
fit. Such practices make for greater efficiency and bet-
ter products. The grain can be threshed when in the
best condition, and the corn cut for silage when at the
proper maturity if the farmer has his own equip-

HOW TO STUDY FARM MACHINERY 281

ment. A careful knowledge of such equipment is neces-
sary for its efficient use.

Working Instruction: Sameas in Sec. 251.

257. Study of Gas Engines, Tractors and Trucks.

Requirements: To become thoroly familiar with at least one
type of gas engines, one type of tractors and one type of
trucks. :

Preliminary Instruction: There is more power used on the
farm than in all other industries combined. The total
horse power has been estimated to be more than 25,000,-
000. More than one-half of this is mechanical power.
Altho the farmer is one of the greatest power users, it is
only within recent years that he has paid any attention
to this phase of hisfarm problem. Every farmer should
become familiar with the construction of an internal-
combustion engine.

Working Instruction: Follow instruction as outlined in Sec.
251. Pay especial attention when studying a stationary
engine to its general construction, the ignition system,
system of carburation, method of cooling, oiling devices,
type of governor, and determine for what type of work
the engine is best suited. In addition, for tractors and
trucks, note how the power goes from engine to drive
wheels, the clutch, transmission, differential and drive
shaft and observe the lever control. Note the wheel
construction, fenders for protection, seat, arrangement of
fuel tanks, ete.

CHAPTER XXVIII

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY OPERATION

258. Conditions for Carrying Out Projects. While
this series of projects can be carried on at the same time with
the study of machinery, they are better adapted for home
projects and can be carried on as outside assignments under
actual farm conditions along with production projects, such

Fic. 306. Plowing with horse-drawn riding plow.

as growing five acres of corn, an acre of potatoes, ete. It is
not essential that the particular projects that are outlined be
followed; the chief thing in mind should be to study the ma-
chinery that is being operated on the farm with the idea of,
first, becoming familiar with the general method of doing the
job; second, determining if the method used is the best or
most efficient, and, third, determining how muchit costs. For
those students who do not live on farms, this work can be
done by visiting a farm when a particular operation is being

carried on.
282

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY OPERATION — 283

259. Preparation of Land for Planting. (Figs. 306
and 306-a.)
Requirements: 'To operate horse-drawn and tractor-drawn
implements in the preparation of a seed bed. To become
familiar with all the details of operation, determine cost

Fic. 306-a. Disking with tractor power.

of preparing land for planting by the two methods, and
compare the results obtained.

Tools and Equipment Needed: Implements and power avail-
able for the particular job.

Preliminary Instruction: A well-prepared seed bed is essen-
tial to a good crop, and the work done at the least ex-
pense means the greatest income to the operator.

284 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

Working Instructions:

1) Each student should harness team and hitch to plow;
should lay out a field under supervision of instructor or
farmer, and plow at least one acre of ground, noting time
required to do the job. The team should then be hitched
to harrow, and field harrowed, noting time required.
Make all adjustment necessary to make the plow operate
effectively and with the least draft.

2) Each student should get tractor ready for field work,
make proper hitch to plow and carry out work of plowing
as outlined in previous paragraph. Proper adjustment
for proper depth and adjustment to avoid side draft
should be made. Note time required to plow and harrow
one acre.

3) Considering cost and depreciation of the two outfits and
all other expense entailed, calculate cost of doing the
work by the two methods. In report, compare quality
of work done by two outfits.

260. Planting Corn. (Fig. 307.)

Requirements: 'To operate acorn planter. To select proper
plates for particular corn. To make all adjustments
necessary to have planter drop and cover effectively.
Determine cost of planting corn per acre.

Equipment Needed: Planter complete and team.

Preliminary Instruction: Careful grading and selection of
seed corn is as important for good results as proper seed,
preparation and careful planting.

Working Instruction:

1) Select proper plates for planting and test them out upon
going into the field.

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY OPERATION = 285

2) Drive in stake, attach check wire and unreel it from the
drum the first trip across the field. Place stake at oppo-
site side of field so it will be directly behind the planter
tongue after it has been turned into position, and draw
check wire up to proper tightness as directed by in-
structor.

3) Place check wire in trip, set the openers in position,

Fic. 307. Planting corn.

lower marker in place and drive across the field. Note
if planter is dropping.

4) Observe extreme care to make a straight row the first
time across the field. After turning into position, change
stake and draw check wire up to proper tightness. Follow
marker track with tongue directly above it for second
trip across field, and continue as outlined above.

286 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

261. Drilling Grain. (Fig. 308.)

Requirements: To operate a drill in drilling grain. To set
seeding devices for a definite rate of seeding, and drilla
definite area, determining the cost of the operation.

Tools Needed: Drilland team.

Preliminary Instruction: Same general instruction with ref-

Fic. 308. Drilling grain.
erence to selecting seed corn also applies to small grain.
In general, it should be remembered to plant across the
slope instead of along the slope. This is to check erosion
and avoid starting a small gully by washing at the wheel
tracks.
Working Instruction:

1) Adjust feeding device for a definite rate of seeding. It is
best to do this by test rather than to be guided by dial.

2) After drill is driven in position, lower the furrow openers
into ground.

3) Drive across field, noting that the openers do not clog
and that the seed is passing down into the soil.

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY OPERATION — 287

4) On all following trips, be careful to note where the last
track was made in order that no ground will be missed
or gone over twice.

262. Harvesting Corn for Silage. (Fig. 309.)

Requirements: To assist in harvesting corn and putting it
into the silo. To operate each machine for a period long
enough to become familiar with each detail of the work.
To determine the cost of each operation in harvesting
the corn from the field to putting it into the silo as silage.

Fic. 309. Cutting silage.

Equipment Needed: Corn binder, wagons, silage cutter,
teams and engine for power.

Preliminary Instruction: Due to the fact that corn as silage
is so highly palatable and nutritious, practical, successful
dairymen and cattle feeders have silos. When corn is

put into the form of silage, practically none of itis wasted.
Working Instruction:

1) Operate binder in cutting the corn.

288 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

2) Note the rate of cutting and estimate the number of acres
cut per hour and cost of cutting per ton.

3) Compare cost of cutting by machine and cutting by
hand.

4) Haul a load of corn from field to silage cutter.

5) Determine the cost of hauling per ton.

6) Operate silage cutter.

7) Note special safety devices on cutter.

Fic. 310. Harvesting grain with tractor power.

8) Note the rate of cutting in loads and in tons per day.
9) Note the type of engine used to drive cutter.
10) Determine the cost of operating engine.
11) Note the method of elevating the silage into the silo.
12) Assist in packing the silage in the silo.
13) Note the total number in the crew on the various types
of work.
14) Determine the total cost of getting the silage into the silo.
15) Determine the capacity of the silo.
16) Determine the cost per ton in getting the corn from the
field into the silo as silage.

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY OPERATION _ 289

263. Harvesting Grain. (Fig. 310.)

Requirements: 'To assist in the various operations of harvest-
ing grain, from cutting with a binder and shocker
through threshing. To determine the cost as far as
possible for each operation, to beable finally to determine
cost of producing a bushel of wheat or a bushel of corn.

Equipment Needed: Binder, teams or tractor, wagon, and
threshing outfit.

Preliminary Instruction: It is just as essential that the
farmer know how much it costs to grow a bushel of grain
as that the manufacturer know how much it costs to mill
100 pounds of flour. The harvest season on the farm isa
season when labor is in demand. It is essential that the
grain be cut when at the proper stage of ripeness and
threshed when properly cured. For these reasons it is
important that some study be made of the processes
of harvesting grain.

Working Instruction:

1) Get binder ready for cutting, with a satisfactory hitch
and properly adjusted and lubricated.

2) Operate binder and note the rate of cutting.

3) Learn to shock the grain properly so it will not fall down
or blow over.

4) Note the number of men required behind the binder.

5) Determine the cost of cutting and shocking per acre.

6) Later, when grain is ready for threshing, load grain on
rack and haul to threshing outfit.

7) Pitch grain from rack onto threshing feed table.

8) Note each operation that takes place in the threshing
machine, from the time the grain bundles are on the feed
table until the grain is weighed. |

290 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

9) Determine amount of grain produced per acre.

10) Make a summary of the cost of each operation in pro-
ducing an acre of wheat, the total cost per acre, and the
cost per bushel.

264. Harvesting Hay Crops. (Fig. 311.)
Requirements: 'To assist in the various operations of har-
vesting hay from cutting to baling. To ‘determine the
cost of each operation as accurately as possible, and,
finally, to determine cost of producing a ton of hay.

Fic. 311. Using a hay loader.

Equipment Needed: Mower, rakes, loaders, balers and power.

Preliminary Instruction: Hay is a crop that has to be made
while the sun shines. It must be cut at the right time,
and cured to the right degree before it can be stacked,
stored or baled. Handling of the hay depends much on
the weather. The condition of the crop must also be
considered. ‘The proper time to cut alfalfa and other
hay crops will be taken up in the study of crops.

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY OPERATION) 291

W orking Instructions:

1) See that mower is properly oiled and that the sickle is
sharp. A steady team is essential to the best success in
mowing.

2) Lay out land for cutting, size and shape depending on
area to be mowed.

3) If ground is rough, adjust cutter bar so it will not cut
into the ground.

4) Locate stumps or other obstructions in the field. This
is to avoid accident.

5) Drive at a uniform speed. It is the slowing down which
causes clogging in heavy grass.

6) Observe care in judging width of swath; cut a os width,
but do not leave any uncut.

7) When a side-delivery rake is used, follow in same direc-
tion as with mower.

8) Ordinarily, rake after dew is off and before leaves have
dried to a point where they shatter.

9) With a dump rake, practice care in dumping so the rick
or wind-row of hay will be reasonably straight. This
makes loading easier.

10) The loader is best used when the hay has been raked with
a side-delivery. Hook the loader on back of wagon and
drive straddle of the rick.

11) Keep one man on the wagon to distribute hay on load,
and another to drive.

12) If slings and earrier are to be used in unloading, put on
three or four slings to the load.

13) If fork and carrier are to be used, put on one sling at bot-
tom of load to clean off the rack in unloading.

292 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

14) If hay is baled, carry out each operation in this work,
feeding the hay, putting in dividing block, placing wires,
tying, ete.

15) Determine as accurately as possible cost of harvesting
hay by the ton.

265. Operating Household Equipment. (Fig. 312.)

Fic. 312. Gravity water system,
with gas engine.

Requirements: 'To operate each of the various machines
about the household under the supervision of some one
thoroly familiar with their use. To make a report on
value of equipment in the home from the meee of
time- and labor-saving.

Equipment Needed: The equipment for this project can be
found in any modern farmhouse. It is simply a matter
of the instructor or students obtaining permission to use
equipment in the home as a laboratory.

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY OPERATION = 293

Preliminary Instruction: So many farm homes are now
being equipped with modern lighting, heating and water
systems and sewage-disposal plants, that it is essential
that every farm boy, and girl as well, become acquainted
with the use of this equipment. The best way to become
acquainted with its use is to use it. Follow instructions
furnished by manufacturers.

Fic. 312-a Farm lighting plant with storage battery.

Working Instruction:
1) Lubricate plant, put in fuel and fill radiator.
2) Start electric plant.
3) Turn lights off, and on.
4) Stop plant.
5) Turn lights on so they use power from storage battery.
6) Charge storage battery, note rate of charging.
7) Stop plant; note automatic stopping device.
8) Operate acetylene light plant.
9) Remove water and sludge from plant.
10) Put in a charge of carbide and fresh water.
11) Operate Blau gas plant.
12) Disconnect and replace a container of Blau gas.
13) Operate gasoline plant.

294 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

14) Fill tank with gasoline.

15) Crank up pressure motor or pump air into tank.

16) Fire a furnace and clean out all ashes and clinkers.

17) Note use of special devices for controlling draft and tem-
perature.

18) Start and operate different water systems.

19) Note the difference in amount of work required when
water is carried in and-when it is pumped by machinery.

20) Study washing equipment.

21) Note difference in amount of time required to do the
washing when a power washing machine is used and
when a scrub board is used.

266. Gas Tractor Operation. (Fig. 313.)
Requirements: To become thoroly familiar with the method
of operation of as many types of tractors as possible.
Tools and Materials Needed: Set of tools secured with tractor.

Fuel, oil and extra spark plugs.

Preliminary Instructions: In operating and handling a trac-
tor, one should be very careful to avoid breaking any
parts. Always be sure—then go ahead. Do not attempt
to start a tractor for the first time unless under the direc-
tion of some one who knows. Remember, that there is
more danger in starting a tractor than in starting a small
stationary engine, on account of danger of personal in-
jury and of damage to the tractor and buildings. Re-
member, also, that you are handling an expensive ma-
chine when operating a tractor.

Working Instructions:

A. Getting tractor ready and starting it.
1) See that the tractor is completely lubricated.

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY OPERATION) 295

2) See that the clutch works freely.
3) If brakes are provided, see that they are released.
4) Study the manipulation of the various controlling levers.

Fic. 313. Plowing with a tractor.

5) See that the gears are not in mesh.
6) See that the clutch is not engaged.
7) Turn on gasoline.

8) Open needle valve on carburetor.
9) Retard the spark.

296 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

10) Trip the impulse starter, if any.
11) Prime the motor with gasoline if weather is cold.
12) Crank the motor.

B. Tractor operation.

1) To start the tractor forward or reverse, (a) see that the
pulley wheel is not revolving; (b) see that clutch is not
engaged; (c) shift gears slowly—if they do not mesh, en-
gage the clutch slightly, then disengage it—continue the
process until gears mesh; (d) engage clutch and the trac-
tor should run.

2) To stop tractor, (a) disengage clutch; (b) apply brake if
necessary; (c) shift gears to neutral position.

3) Take tractor outside and practice starting and stopping.
(a) Run forward a few yards in low, then stop; (6) reverse,
run backward a few yards, then stop; (c) run forward a
few yards in high, then stop; (d) turn the tractor around,
as in plowing, and note the space required to turn it in.

4) Examine the tractor carefully and see that it is in perfect
condition. Clean off dust or dirt.

5) Drive tractor back into building under supervision of
some one who has had experience.

C. If possible, make study of a tractor while plowing in the
field, and obtain the following information:

1) Number of plow bottoms.

2) Size and type of plow.

3) Length of furrows.

4) Width of furrows.

5) Depth of furrows.

6) Time required to plow a furrow.

7) Time required for turning.

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY OPERATION 297

8) Kind and condition of soil.
9) Acres plowed per hour.
10) Acres plowed per ten-hour day.
11) Fuel used and cost per ten-hour day.
12) Fuel cost per acre.
13) Lubricant used and cost per ten-hour day.
14) Lubricant cost per acre.
15) Labor cost per ten-hour day.
16) Labor cost per acre.
17) Depreciation cost per acre.
18) Interest on investment per acre.
19) Repair cost per acre.
20) Total cost per acre.
Assume the following condition with reference to a one-
man outfit—operator cost, 50 cents per hour; 10 per cent
depreciation on original cost of outfit; interest on invest-
ment at 6 per cent; cost of repairs, 4 per cent; all three
charged to 100 days’ service.

D. Write a report on this exercise, giving the information
outlined under A, B and C and also:

1) Name of tractor.

2) Where manufactured.

3) Rated brake H. P. and drawbar H. P.

4) Number of cylinders in motor.

5) Arrangement of cylinders.

6) Make and type of carburetor.

7) Make and type of magneto.

8) System of lubrication.

9) Method of cooling.

10) Describe the clutch and transmission system.

CHAPTER XXIX
PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

267. The Proper Time for Checking Up Needed Re-
pairs. The repair and adjustment of machinery is best car-
ried on during the winter months when the weather is not
suitable for outdoor work. Especially is this true of the re-
pairs; the final adjustment must often be done after the ma-
chine is taken into the field.

It is best to go over a machine carefully when the work is
finished for the season and tag all broken or worn parts. By
so doing, the work of putting the machine in condition for field
use is much easier. One is always more familiar with the
condition of the machine just after using it than nearly a year
later when it is being taken into the field the first time for the
season. When worn and broken parts are not tagged the
year before, a careful inspection is very essential. This part
of the work should be done some weeks before the actual re-
pair work is to be done and a longer time before the machine
is needed in the field. This will give a chance to order parts
needed, which often cannot be obtained from the local dealer. |
This work is best done in the school shop where there are
plenty of tools and material. Many students can bring old
implements in from the home farm for overhauling. Gas en-
vines can be cleaned up, valves ground, and new piston rings
put in place, the cutter bar on the mower can be straightened
and the sickle sharpened, and other jobs can be done, a few
of which are outlined merely to suggest the possibilities along
this line. Such work is of immediate value in putting the ma-

298

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR Zoo

chinery in repair, and the practice is of untold value to every
student who later is to farm for himself.

The projects in this chapter are arranged in six groups ac-
cording to the general type of machine. Additional minor
groups might be added, but these are the machines in which
all farmers are interested: First, tillage machinery; second,

Handles

Braces

oe Detachable Shin Piece

Beam
Clevis

Moldboard

Fic. 314. Walking plow.

~ planting machinery; third, fertilizer distributors; fourth, har-

vesting machinery; fifth, belt-driven machinery; sixth, sta-

tionary engines and tractors. Projects in the repair of only
one or two machines in each group are outlined.
268. Repair and Adjustment of Tillage Machinery.

(Fig. 314.)

Requirements: 'To repair and adjust ready for field use the
chief tillage machines, including plows, harrows, rollers
and cultivators.

Tools Needed: It is well to have access to a complete set of
shop tools. The exact number of tools required will be
determined by the repairs needed.

Preliminary Instruction: ‘The plow is the principal imple-
ment in the preparation of the seed bed. Because it is

200 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

simple, it is often neglected and used very inefficiently.
Plows not cared for are hard to operate, and a poor job of
work is the result. The same principle holds true to a
greater or less extent with all other tillage machinery.

269. Repairing a Walking Plow. (Fig. 315.)
1) Share—Badly-worn cast-iron shares must be renewed;

_ BEARING AT

HORIZONTAL suction! |

Bottom or PLow Sipe oF PLlow

Fic. 815. Detail showing horizontal and vertical suction.

steel shares may be sharpened. Provide bearing at
wing of 3/4” for 10” bottom to 1-1/4” for 16’” bottom,
and vertical suction of 1/8’ and horizontal suction of
1/8” to 1/4’’, as shown in figure.

2) Landside—If heel is detachable and worn, renew entire
landside.

3) Moldboard—See that moldboard is well bolted to frog.
If badly worn, renew.

4) Bracing—Tighten all bolts and brace rods.

5) Handles—See that handles are tight and rigid thruout.

6) Beam—See that beam is bolted tightly to the frog. Ifa
steel beam, be sure it is not sprung.

7) Jointer—Renew or sharpen the jointer. Bolt tightly
to beam.

8) Gauge Wheel—Renew bearings if badly worn. Bolt
standard rigidly to the beam. Adjust to proper height.

PROJECTS IN FARM-MACHINERY REPAIR 301

270. Walking Plow Adjustment.

1) Depth of Furrow—Raise or lower clevis hitch vertically.
For variable soil conditions, regulate by changing wheel
gauge.

2) Width of Furrow—Change the clevis hitch in a horizon-
tal position. Position of beam may be adjusted on some
plows. Itis usually changed to accommodate a different
number of horses.

3) Handles—Change height to suit operator.

4) Jointer—Set so its point is just above the point of the
share, slightly to the landside of the shin and 1-1/2” to 2””
deep into the soil.

5) Hitch—Plow runs best when hitched to form a straight
line from a point on moldboard 2” from shin thru the
hitch at beam clevis to a point midway between the tug
rings at harness. A proper hitch means easy operation
and less draft for the team.

271. Sulky and Gang Plows. (Fig. 316.)

1) Wheel Bearings—If worn, put in new bearings when
possible. Clean thoroly, repack with heavy grease and
make adjustments.

2) Frame Beam and Frog—Tighten all bolts. Straighten
any part of frame that is twisted.

3) Levers—Tighten all connections, take up lost motion,
straighten levers, replace new springs.

4) Share—Sharpen or replace with new share.

5) Landside—Renew entire landside if badly worn. Renew
heel when provided.

6) Rolling Cou!ter—Clean bearings and oil. Tighten stand-
ard rigidly to frame.

302 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

272. Adjusting Sulky or Gang Plow.

1) Depth—Change depth by lowering bottom in the frame.

2) Width of Cut—Change hitch on frame, change landing
of furrow wheel.

3) Jointer—Adjust as on a walking plow.

FRONT Furrow WHEEL LEVER

LAND f f AUXILIARY LEVER
_——S

Kick OFF

LANDING LEVER

v4
S

FRAME

AXLE BRACKET

VERTICAL CLEVIS
EVENER
CLEVIS
<a
=
Cross

CLEVIS

REAR
Furrow WHEEL

= FRONT
Botroms ; ; FURROW AXLE
> mal
pe Ye" FRONT

FuRROW WHEEL A Front Bal

Fic. 316. Gang plow.

A) Rolling Coulter—If used with a jointer, set ahead of it.
If used without jointer, adjust to the position of jointer
when it is used alone and about one-half the depth of

furrow, depending on the soil.

5) Wheels—Adjust land wheel to run straight to the front.
Give the front and rear furrow wheels a slight lead from
the land. Set rear wheel 1” to 2” outside of landside of
plow.

6) Hitch—Point of hitch can be changed to take more or
less land; and so the load is carried by wheels.

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 303

273. Repair of Peg-Toothed Harrow. (Fig. 317.)

1) Frames—Straighten all bent parts and tighten bolts.

2) Teeth—Adjust to uniform depth. Re-sharpen worn
teeth, and renew lost ones.

3) Levers—Straighten all levers, renew worn parts and
tighten connections

Tilting Lever
=

a a
Sc AEs
“<r Pe
‘ xy

Rocker Arm Adjusting Quadrant
Draft Hook
es

et “Tooth Bar
i ~~~ Tooth Fastener
Frame ; ~~Tooth

Fic. 317. Peg-toothed harrow.

4) Draft Connections—Renew if badly worn. Straighten if
bent.

274. Repairing a Disc Harrow. (Figs. 318 and 318-a.)

1) Frame—See that all bolts are tight and all braces are
straight and rigid.

2) Bearings—Clean out bearings by washing with kerosene.
Replace if worn, pack grease cups and see that grease
gets to bearings.

3) Dises—Sharpen discs on regular sharpener or on emery.

4) Gang Bolts—See that gang bolts are straight and the
discs are tight on bolts so they will not wobble.

5) Bumpers—Adjust so they carry end thrust.

304 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

6) Scrapers—Replace if badly worn. See that they come
in contact with disc without causing undue friction.

7) Snubbing Blocks—Adjust so gangs run level.

8) Levers—Straighten bent levers. Replace worn parts.

9) Draft Connection—If worn, renew.
Adjustment—Change angle of disc to increase or de-

Spring
: _ Pressure f
( — Lever f Scraper Gang

\ fi Lever Frame
i Grease
Cups

Levers for
Angling Gangs

Tongue

Tongue
Truck

Drawbars

Fic. 318. Disc harrow.

crease amount of suction. Weighting is sometimes re-
sorted to in hard ground to increase the depth.
275. Repair and Adjustment of Planting Machinery.

Requirements: 'Torepair and adjust ready for field use plant-
ing machinery such as used in.the particular locality. A
corn planter and drill are outlined.

Preliminary Instruction: Every planting machine should be
in first-class repair when taken into the field, to avoid a
poor stand due to its poor condition.

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 305

276. Repairing a Grain Drill. (Fig. 319.)

1) Grain Feeds—Clean out old grain and dirt. Examine
grain feed cup or fluted cylinder, and grain cells. Renew
badly-worn or broken parts. Examine method of chang-
ing rate of seeding.

LEVERS BENT BACKWARD
WITHIN Easy REACH Se ae,
THE OPERATOR
if

SPRING PReEssurn

LEVER i;
\ ae
Ng

Dous_ké BRaceD
SEAT SPRING Ant Sree
RATCHETS

HEAVY PREsSuR
SPRIN'

. PIVOTEL
PKESSURE YOKE

Fic. 318-a. Details of construction of disc harrow.

2) Chains, Drive Shaft and Gears—Trace power from
wheels thru chains, shaft and gears to. feeding device.
See that there is no lost motion due to loose, broken or
worn parts.

3) Openers—Sharpen opener if dull. If disc opener, exam-
ine the bearings and replace if badly worn. See that
they are properly lubricated. Adjust springs so enough
pressure 1s on openers.

306 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

4) Seed Tubes—Test seed tubes to see that they do not clog
easily.

5) Wheels—If wheels are of wood and are dried out so that
the tire is loose on the rim, they should be soaked in water
until swelled tight. The pawls in the hub are an impor-

Tilting oe

Grass Seed Attachment

Wood or Stee! Wheels

d Tube
Weight of Frame, Etc., See

Carried on Wheel Hubs
— Not on Axle

DiscOpeners

Fic. 319. Grain drill.

tant part of wheels to give positive drive. See that the
pawls engage and start the seeding device as soon as the
wheels turn.

6) Frame and Levers—See that all bolts are drawn up
tight and the frame is rigid. Examine levers and see
that they are straight and function properly.

7) Attachments—See that attachments such as surveying
device and devices for setting rate of seeding are tight.
Check their accuracy if they are to be depended upon.

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 307

8) Miscellaneous—See that all covering devices, hitch,

braces, etc., are in place and properly adjusted.

277. Adjusting a Grain Drill. Calibration—The prin-
cipal adjustment on a grain drill is the one for accuracy of
planting when the indicator is set at different positions on
the scale. The adjustment is accomplished by calibrating
the machine. The drill must be calibrated for each kind of
grain. The method is as follows:

Set the drill on stands or saw horses so that the wheels
clear the ground. Put the grain in the hopper, place the in-
dicator for certain rate of seeding per acre, put paper bags
under each of the spouts, throw in the clutch and you are
ready to begin. Turn the drive wheel thru 100 revolutions.
Weigh the seed caught under each spout. By measuring the
circumference of drive wheel in feet and multiplying by 100,
the number of turns, the distance traveled isfound. Multiply
this by the width of seeded strip in feet and the area is ob-
tained. Knowing the area and the total pounds of seed drilled,
the rate of drilling is easily obtained. By comparing the rate
from test with the actual setting of indicator, the accuracy of
the machine is determined. By making several tests at differ-
ent settings of indicator, the proper adjustment for a certain.
rate of planting can be established. Unless a drill is care-
fully tested, the rate of planting is not definitely known, due
to the inaccuracy of the indicating device.

278. Repairing Corn Planter. (Fig. 320.)

1) Seed Box and Plates—See that a full set of plates is
available and suitable for planting seed at hand. Ex-
amine the parts in bottom of seed box and the plates to
see that they are not worn. Renew parts as needed.

308 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

2) Sprockets, Chains, Gears and Clutch—Trace the power
from wheels thru axle, chain, sprockets, drive shaft and
clutch to the plate. See that there is no lost motion due
to loose, worn or broken parts.

83) Openers—See 3 under Drills.

=a)

oes

ws
Hy
SH
ge
fj
ag?
jaar!

Check Fork

Open Wheels

Fig. 320. Corn planter.

4) Valves—Examine valves in feed shank and see that they
function properly when the drive wheels are turned.

5) Frame and Levers—See 6 under Drills.

6) Check Wire and Trip—See that the check wire is free
from kinks and in good condition. See that the trip
works.

7) Miscellaneous—Examine marker, hitch, etc., and see
that they are in good condition.

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 309

279. Adjustment of Corn Planter.

1) Depth—Adjust for proper depth by setting the tongue;
also, by means of the lever, just in front of the seat.

2) Width—The width of rows can be adjusted by shifting
the boxes and shoes as a unit on the frame. Shift the
position of the wheels on the axle and move the wheel
scrapers accordingly.

3) The Drop—the drop is changed by moving the lever to
point indicating two, three or four grains per hill.

4) Drilling—Most planters can be adjusted to drill by open-
ing the valves and holding the trip back. A lever is often
provided so that the change to drilling can be made from
the seat.

5) Accuracy—Proper plates should be selected for the par-
ticular seed and the accuracy of drop tested before the
planter is taken into the field. If the plates are of the
type where one kernel is selected at a time, try out sev-
eral by taking some kernels of corn and fitting them into
the spaces. If they do not fit—are too tight or too loose
—try other plates until one is found that fits fairly well.
Place this plate in position in box, partially fill it with
the corn to be planted, place the planter on a stand or
saw horses, and you are ready for test. Set the lever to

‘position of number of grains to be dropped at each hill.
Trip clutch and turn drive wheel; catch the grains as they
drop out at each hilland count them. ‘Trip for 100 hills;
if lever is set for three grains, it should test at least 90
per centaccuracy. Out of 100 hills, if there are 60 threes,
30 twos, 8 ones and 2 fours, a plate should be selected
with slightly larger openings. The correct selection of

310 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

plate is very important from a standpoint of accuracy in
planting. The careful grading of seed and proper selec-
tion of plate are big factors in securing a good test.
280. Repair and Adjustment of Fertilizer Distri-
buters.

Requirements: 'To repair and adjust ready for field use the
principal fertilizer distributers, including manure spread-
er, straw spreader, fertilizer and lime drills (Fig. 321).

Preliminary Instruction: 'The manure spreader is a machine
that is found on most farms where there is stock. Straw
spreaders, fertilizers and limestone drills are becoming
more common thruout the country.

281. Repairing Manure Spreader. (Fig. 321.)

1) Box and Apron—Tighten all bolts in box so that it is
rigid. Examine apron for broken places or damaged
chain. Replace broken or worn parts. See that the
rollers that carry the apron turn easily and offer little
resistance.

2) Frame—Tighten all loose parts on the frame of spreader
and renew all broken parts.

3) Beater—See that bearings are in first-class condition.
Tighten the bars and see that the teeth are straight and
firmly in place. Replace all broken teeth.

4) Driving Mechanism—Examine carefully the drive chains,
gears and sprockets that transmit the power from the
drive wheel to the beater and to the apron. Weak parts
should be replaced. Adjust chains to proper tightness.
See that all bolts are drawn up tight.

5) Wheels—Take off drive wheels and examine the pawls.
Examine bearings on rear axle and on trucks.

LEVER OPERATES

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 311

e =
2 Se,
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z an
= ae
= n>
a —
a la oe
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z \Bs
5 1 x
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7)
s i
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o<cx r=)
“>=° zo
Sas So
x<Oe r=
uk Oo Ls
ao Fw
Cw
t& 2h
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ni “3
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Pa <
we
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sw >
=o z
mo 5
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7) > = .
a
n” nis - =
oS <3)
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= au S
_— 2 = =
2o= or . = =
gue Bo = £ on
<Se az <x a wn
jo Fea oS = ><
teary S= a < =
ee rT]
ae 2 23 2
c = Bis
Se - om Ss
a<2 9 25 8
= =<
~ =< a
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——— °
ae
SEN
oO
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= °
~
cs

BEATERS AND WIDE-SPREAD

SPROCKET WHICH OPERATES

RIGHT WHEEL OPERATES BEATERS
AND WIDE-SPREAD SPIRAL,

LEFT WHEEL OPERATES
CONVEYOR FEED.

UPPER STEEL BEATER

CONVEYOR FEED GEAR &@

LOWER STEEL BEATER

WIDE-SPREAD SPIRAL

312 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

6) Miscellaneous—Straighten levers and connecting rods.
Tighten all nuts and put in new bolts where needed.

282. Repairing and Adjusting Straw Spreader. (Fig.
322.) Most straw spreaders are either an attachment for a
manure spreader or an attachment for a wagon.

1) Tighten all chains by adjusting idlers, and renew worn

links.

2) See that sprockets are centered on wagon wheel.

Fic. 322. Straw spreader.

3) Go over entire feeder, tighten bolts and renew broken
parts.

4) Straighten levers and see that they work easily.

5) Follow instructions of manufacturer in making adjust-
ment.

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 318

283. Repairing a Lime and Fertilizer Sower.
1) See that feeding device is free from old lime or fertilizer
and rust.

2) Renew badly-worn gears, sprockets or chains.

3) See that adjusting levers work properly.

4) Examine wheels and axles.

5) Repair box or hopper if needed.

6) Renew feeding device if badly worn or broken.

284. Repair and Adjustment of Harvesting Ma-
chinery. _

Requirements: To repair and adjust a mower, a binder and
other harvesting machines such as are used locally. The
mower and binder are outlined, as they represent the
two most common harvesting machines thruout the
country. The tools needed are the same as in previous

projects.

Preliminary Instructions: To avoid loss at harvest time, all
equipment should be in a first-class condition. Harvest
season is a time when delay may mean a great loss. So
every farmer should realize the importance of having
such equipment ready. The best time to inspect har-
vest machinery is just at the end of the harvest season
rather than the beginning. If the inspection has been
properly carried out and parts ordered to take the place
of broken and worn ones, the work of repair will be very
simple.

285. Repairing a Mower. (Fig. 323.) Place the ma-
chine where there is plenty of room and where all sides are
accessible.

Working Instructions:
1) Align Cutter Bar—Block tongue to normal position of

314 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

running with inside shoe just floating. Test alignment
by stretching a string from center of pitman bracing thru
center of knife head bracing to outer side of cutter bar.
If properly aligned, the outside end of knife will lead
string by 1” for five-foot bars and 1-3/8” to 1-1/2” for

Deocsereeel

‘ees,

Lifting Lever——_ |

Tilting Lever

Thrust Bar

Divider Board

Shoe
Drag Bar Protects Pitman

Fic. 823. Mower.

six-foot bars. If not properly aligned, examine machine
for special provision for alignment and make proper ad-

justment.

2) Aligning Guards—Remove blade and sight along guards,
or use a straight-edge to detect the ones that are high and
the ones that are low. Drive guards that are out of
alignment back into place by a sharp blow with a ham-
mer.

3) Adjusting Cutter-Bar Clips—Examine knife bar to see
that it is straight; then putitin place. The knife should
have little play, and the clips should fit snugly. Adjust

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 315

all clips by tapping each with hammer until it ‘begins to
tighten; then loosen it, and begin on the next. When all
are adjusted, tighten them.

4) Putting on New Guards—Bolt new guards in place
where old ones are damaged. If the new guard brings
the ledger plate too high, remedy this by putting pieces
of tin between the guard and the bar.

5) Shoes—Examine both the outside and inside shoes on
cutter bar. If parts are badly worn, replace them. See
that they are adjusted for proper height.

6) Knife Sections—Broken or badly-worn knife sections can
be easily removed by placing the vertical edge of bar on
an anvil or heavy piece of iron, with a square, straight
corner. Strike the back of the section with a hammer,
making it cut the rivet off. Use soft steel rivets of proper
size for putting on new sections. Test the knife to see
that sections center properly. The sections are properly
centered if each is directly under a guard when the pit-
man is at either end of its stroke. Examine to see if a
centering device is provided on machine. When steel
pitmans are used, they are usually made adjustable for
length. This makes centering easy.

7) Pitman—Adjust both the knife head and wrist pin bear-
ing to secure the least amount of lost motion.

8) Gears—If badly worn, make adjustment so they will work
properly where possible. If gears are badly worn, replace
with new ones.

9) Bearings—Examine all bearings for wear. Free them of
all grit, dirt and vegetable matter. Lubricate all parts
with new oil.

316 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

10) Drive Wheels—Take up all end play by adjustable collar
or washers. Examine pawls for wear. Some are re-
versible, making possible longer use. Renew springs if
weak.

11) Miscellaneous—Tighten all nuts, straighten levers, and
see that all bolts, cotter keys, etc., are in place. Replace
worn parts where needed.

Ree! Slats
Reel

Levers
Lever
Outer Reel Support i _ Butt Adjusting Lev:
7
a
,
; tie Packer
i eS Bevel Gear Binding Attachment
a

\ JOHN DeFep if

hain /
Twine Can
Drive Wheel

Platform » ~Bundie Carrier

Fig. 324. Grain binder.

286. Repairing and Adjusting a Binder. (Fig.324.)
Practically all the suggestions for the mower also apply to
the binder with the following additions:

1) Canvases—See that all rollers work easily, are in good
repair, and are properly aligned. Anything wrong with
the rollers will cause trouble with the canvases. Test
the frame of the machine (either by means of a square or
by measuring the diagonals) to see that the canvases are
properly squared to it. If canvases are not squared,
trouble will result. Replace all broken slats and straps
on canvases with new ones.

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 317

2) Chains and Sprockets—Replace badly-worn or broken
sprockets. See that they are aligned by sighting along
the face. Adjust chain tightener so there will not be too
much play.

3) Reel—Renew slats if broken. Examine bearings. If
they are badly worn, renew them. Take up all lost mo-
tion in reel levers.

4) Gears and Bearings—Examine all gears for wear, and if
badly worn, replace with new ones. Adjust to mesh

- where possible. Renew bearings where badly worn.

5) Binder Attachment—The binding attachment is the
most complicated device on the binder. Replace all
broken or badly-worn parts. See that the tying device is
timed to work properly in tying bundles. Use instruc-
tions for particular machine furnished by manufacture”.

287. Belt-Driven Machinery.

Requirements: 'To repair and adjust at least one belt-driven
machine. It may bea threshing machine as outlined, or
another type of machine. The feed mills, silage cut-
ters and corn shellers, all come in this class. The tools
needed are the same as in previous projects.

Preliminary Instruction: A separator that has not been care-
fully overhauled will cause loss of time and waste of
grain. This isa job that should be done some weeks be-
fore the threshing season is on, in order that if there is
need of any parts, they can be secured and installed
without causing a delay. The same general principles
as outlined for overhauling a separator apply to other
belt-driven machines. It is always a good idea to study
carefully the instruction books furnished by the manu-

FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

facturer before beginning to repair or adjust any part of a
belt-driven machine. The points suggested here under
working instruction can then be carried out with a much
greater degree of intelligence.

288. Repairing a Grain Separator. (Fig. 325.)
Working Instruction:
1) Cylinder—Renew all badly-worn, bent or otherwise dam-

aged teeth. Tighten all loose teeth, and see that the
cylinder is firmly keyed to the shaft. If cylinder bearings
are worn, they can be made to fit snugly by removing
shims. If the bearings are badly worn, they should be
re-babbitted or new bushings putin. (See instructions
on babbitting at end of this exercise.) Examine the shafts
for rough spots. If necessary, smooth them up with a
fine file and emery cloth. After the cylinder shaft and
bearing are in first-class condition, the cylinder should be
carefully balanced before the bearings are adjusted. This
is necessary when a number of new teeth have been
added. To balance the cylinder, provide two saw horses
or other suitable stands to support the ends of the cylin-
der shaft. Level up the supports and place on them
pieces of smooth steel, on which the cylinder is to rest.
Place the cylinder on supports and allow it to revolve.
Mark the top of cylinder where it came to rest and roll it
over again. If it comes to rest in the same position as
before, it willindicate that the opposite sideis heavy. Pro-
vision is made on some cylinders to counterbalance this
by driving slugs of lead into the holes in the ends of cylin-
der. Where no provision is made, new teeth can be put
in on the opposite side, or wedges can be driven in under

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 319

the center band. When cylinder is put back in place,
adjust to the bearings so there is no lost motion. It
should make a snug fit, but should not bind. Avoid too
much end play. The thickness of wrapping paper at
each end of cylinder will be sufficient.

2) Concaves—Replace badly-worn concave teeth. Be care-
ful to avoid breaking the concave bars. Adjust the con-
caves so the teeth are centered as far as the cylinder
teeth are concerned. If the concave and cylinder teeth
come closer together than 1/8’, cracking of grain is liable
to result. Teeth that are out of line or bent should be
brought back into place by the use of a hammer. In-
spect the device for raising and lowering the concaves.
If badly worn, put in new parts.

3) Separating Grates—See that all bolts are tight and there
is no loss motion. Straighten all bent rods or bars. See
that all parts work without undue friction.

4) Feeding Attachment— Inspect the frame for looseness,
badly-worn or split parts. Tighten all bolts and screws.
Tighten the carrier chain; see that slats or canvas is in
good repair. Examine band cutter knife; replace it if it
is broken or badly worn. See that all bolts are tight and
bearings are in good condition on retarder and shaking
feed bottom.

4) Beaters and Apron—See that there is no play or lost mo-
tion in the beater. If the blades are wood, replace those
that are split or badly worn. See that there are no
rough surfaces on the blades. See that apron or check
board works freely.

FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

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PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 321

5) Racks—Inspect the racks for broken slats. See that the
bearings are tight. Replace or adjust worn links and
pitmans.

6) Conveyor—See that all parts are tight to avoid wasting
grain. Renew metal if it is badly rusted.

7) Screens—See that frames are in good shape. If screens
are damaged, renew them. Examine theshoetosee that
the castings that carry the screens are in good condition
and fastened to the shoe. See that bearings and pitmans
are in good shape.

8) Fan—Inspect the fan housing, the bearings and the
blades. Replace worn parts where needed.

9) Grain Augers and Elevators—Examine the auger troughs
and elevator housing, and all bearings. Replace badly-
worn parts. See that the chain is in good condition; also,
that the chain tightener is in good working order.

10) Stacker—See that fan, fan housing.and bearings are in
first-class shape.

11) See that all adjustments are made to insure efficient
operation.

Note: Bushing can usually be secured to take care of
badly-worn bearings on power-driven machines, but in some
cases, babbitting must be resorted to. The following on bab-
bitting will be of interest under such conditions:

289. Babbitting Machine Bearing Boxes. Machine
bearings become loose with wear. If the bearings are made
in two parts in the form of a split box, adjustments may be
made to tighten the bearing until it is practically worn out.
If the bearing is in one piece in the form of a solid box, little,
if anything, can be done when it is worn to tighten it except

322 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

to reline or refill it. The process of repairing a bearing by
pouring in new metal is called babbitting.

Babbitt is a soft metal consisting of one part of copper, two
parts antimony and twenty-two parts tin, melted together.
Some of the cheaper grades of babbitt contain some lead and,
sometimes, a little zinc.

290. Babbitting a Solid Bearing. Chip or melt out all
of the old babbitt and clean out the retaining holes. Warm
the box to prevent the babbitt cooling too rapidly when it is
poured. This may be done by holding the bearing in the fire
or by placing a hot iron against it. Clean the shaft and place
it in line in the bearing, first wrapping one thickness of
writing paper about the shaft just the length of the bearing,
and fastening it by winding twine about it in a spiral shape.
The paper will prevent too tight a bearing, and the space occu-
pied by the twine will form oil grooves. Close up the bearing
at each end by placing a heavy cardboard over the shaft at
each end and puttying up the holes or filling them with soft
clay. Reserve the oil hole to pour in the babbitt, or, if it is too
small, drive a wooden plug into it clear to the shaft and form
a funnel-shaped opening at one end of the bearing with clay.

Heat the babbitt in an iron ladle until it burns or chars a
stick, and gently pour it, if necessary, by means of a funnel,
thru the hole reserved for the purpose, first making a few vent
holes thru the end protections with a wire. When the bab-
bitt is set, and before it thoroly cools, remove the end protec-
tions, the plug that fills the oil hole and the shaft. Wipe out
the hole formed by the shaft to remove the burned twine and
any foreign matter, and the bearing will be ready for use
when the babbitt is cold.

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 323

291. Babbitting a Split-Box Bearing. Place the shaft
in the lower part of the box which forms the bearing and
block it in position. Place liners on the box to touch the
shaft the full length, first cutting two or three notches on the
liner next to the shaft thru which the babbitt can run from
the upper half of the box to the lower. Bolt the top part of
the box in position, stop the ends and pour the babbitt. When
the babbitt is set, drive a cold chisel between the boxes to
break the babbitt formed in the notches of the liner, bevel
the edges of the babbitt next to the shaft, and cut oil grooves
in the babbitt of each half of the box with a diamond point or
round nose chisel. These grooves should cross on the oil hole
and run to the ends of the box to form carriers for oil.

A split box may also be babbitted by pouring the babbitt
on the shaft when placed in the lower half of the box only.
When the babbitt reaches the level of the top of the half box,
place the liners in position, then the upper half of the box, and
pour it full.

292. Scraping a Babbitted Bearing. With the split
bearing, it is nearly always necessary to fit the bearing to the
shaft by scraping. This is done by coating the surface of the
shaft with lampblack and oil, or Prussian blue, and adjust-
ing it in the bearing; then revolve the shaft. Open the
bearing and note if it formed a good contact with the shaft;
if it only touched the shaft at spots, scraping is necessary.
Scrape the high places in bearing with regular bearing scra-
pers or with a triangular file that has been ground for this pur-
pose, until practically the entire surface of bearing is in con-
tact with shaft.

324 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

293. Repair and Adjustment of a Motor. (Fig. 326.)

Requirements: 'Torepair and adjust a gasoline engine, either
a simple type or a tractor, truck or automobile engine.
The tools needed are the same as in previous projects.

Preliminary Instructions: The gas engine is the most com-
mon type of mechanical motive power on the farm.
Every boy needs to know how to make the simple repairs
and adjustments, because the gas engine that is not in
good adjustment will waste fuel, will develop only a frac-
tion of its power, and will waste the time of the operator.
First become thoroly familiar with the engine before try-
ing to repair it. Study it carefully, analyze its troubles
before trying to remedy them. In the work of disman-
tling and putting an engine in shape for operating, the
workman must observe extreme care to avoid breaking
or marring any part of the machine. Do not use pliers
where a wrench should be used, nor a screw-driver where
a cold chisel is best suited. Be careful not to tear or de-
stroy the packing. Do not screw the coupling on fuel
line too tight, as the threads are liable to be stripped.
Clean all parts as they are removed. Place small parts,
as nuts and screws, in a box provided for that purpose.
Where timing gears are removed, see that they are marked
so they will be meshed properly when re-assembled. Se-
cure instruction book on engine as furnished by manu-
facturer.

294. Overhauling an Engine. The method of proce-
dure will vary slightly with different engines, but the follow-
ing steps will indicate the general procedure:

1) Disconnect the wiring.

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 325

2) Remove the magneto.

3) Remove the igniter block or spark plug.

4) Remove the cylinder head.

5) Scrape the carbon from the face of the cylinder head.

EXHAUST VALVE @==
SPRING WASHER =

fT VALVE ROD CONNECTOR
Cah

iad! ee

EUBLIGNITOR TRIP ROLLER

IGNITOR TRIP CLAMP

SIGHT FEED

LUBRICATOR VALVE ROD

CONHECTING ROD

BINION

PULLEY FLYWHEEL
GOVERNOR FLYWHEEL

Fic. 326. Gasoline engine.

326 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

6) Remove the valves and free them from all carbon.

7) Note the valve seats to see if they are free from carbon
and not pitted. .

8) If valves are in poor condition, they should be ground as
follows: (a) Apply a little coarse valve-grinding com-
pound to the valve seat, put the valve in place and grind
it by inserting the point of the screw-driver in the slot, or
use a valve-grinding tool, and grind by revolving back
and forth about one-fourth turn, exerting a little pres-
sure. Lift the valve occasionally to reseat it. Continue |
the process until the rough surface on the valve is re-
moved. (b) Apply alittle fine valve-grinding compound
to the valve seat and repeat the process as outlined under
(a). Continue process of grinding until the valves are all
seated. (c) Clean the valve and valve seat to prevent
any compound from entering the cylinder.

9) Disconnect the connecting rod from the crank shaft, and
remove the piston from cylinder. (a) Clean all carbon
from the piston. (b) Examine all piston rings; note if
any are stuck or broken. (c) If necessary to put on new
rings, use three or four thin pieces of tin with which to
slip on the rings. Rings are very brittle and must be
handled with care.

10) Note the wall of the cylinder to see that it is not scored.

11) Remove all oiling devices and see that oil or grease passes
thru to the points lubricated.

12) Examine crank-shaft bearings.

13) Remove governor. Examine the spring.

14) Remove push rods and lever.

15) Examine cam shaft and gears.

PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 327

16) Disconnect pipe line from carburetor to fuel tank. See
that it is not clogged.

17) Remove carburetor or mixing valve and examine the fol-
lowing points: (a) Type of air valve, if any; (b) how the
gas is drawn to carburetor; (c) how it is controlled at the
carburetor; (d) screw out the needle valve and note its
condition.

18) Clean out any dirt or other material that may be col-
lected in the cooling system.

19) Reassemble the engine in the reverse order in which it
was dismantled.

20) Adjust the engine by timing the valves and the ignition
and setting the governor for rated speed.

General Questions to Answer in Report on this Exercise:
1) Does the engine have high- or low-tension ignition?
2) Draw a diagram of the wiring.
3) Why is insulation provided on the wire?
4) Is the fixed or the movable electrode insulated on the
igniter block? Why?
5) If a spark plug is used, draw a sketch ae its con-
struction.
6) How far apart are the spark plug points?
7) Why are the points on the spark plug separated and
those on the igniter block brought together?
8) Why is it necessary to clean the motor cylinder occa-
sionally?
9) Why grind the valves?
10) What causes carbon to collect in the cylinder?
11) How is the carbon best removed?
12) What happens if a piston ring is broken or stuck?

328 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR

13) What happens if the valves are not seating properly?

14) What happens if the oil line is stopped up?

15) What happens if bearings are too loose?

16) What happens when bearings are too tight?

17) What are shims? |

18) What happens if the governor spring gets weak?

19) What happens if the governor sticks?

20) What is the result if the valve stem sticks?

21) What causes the valves to open too late or too early?

22) About when should the valves open and close on a small
stationary engine?

23) What happens if the fuel pipe is partially clogged?

24) What is the effect when the air valve is closed?

25) What is the result if the carburetor is not fastened to the
intake manifold with an air-tight joint?

26) The feed to carburetors on most tractors and automo-
biles is controlled by means of a float. What happens if
the float becomes soaked full of gasoline? How remedied?

27) What is the effect of using dirty water in the cooling
system?

PART VI
BELTS AND BELTING

CHAPTER XXX

KINDS OF BELTS AND BELT LACES

295. Methods of Connecting Machines. There are
three common methods of connecting machines—(1) by shaft,
known as direct-connected; (2) by gear wheels, the one on the
driving machines being known as the driver and the one on
the driven machine being known as the follower, and (3) by
belts, in which case the names of the machines are those given
when gears are used as connectors.

296. Four Kinds of Belts. There are four common
forms of belts—chain, canvas, rubber and leather. Chain
belts, except for slight wear in link joints, remain constant in
length; hence, need no tightening as they grow old. The
other three materials named, however, stretch, and, conse-
quently, belts made from them need tightening from time to
time to prevent their slipping. The usual method of tight-
ening is to cut the belt, remove a piece and fasten the ends
together.

Canvas, rubber and leather belts may be cemented to-
gether. However, the result with canvas belts is not very
satisfactory. When rubber cement is used, a rubber belt, if
not too old, may be cemented successfully. However, the
method of fastening the ends of a belt is applicable princi-
pally to leather belts.

329

330 BELTS AND BELTING

297. Cement Splice. The most satisfactory splice is
one which keeps the belt at the joint the same in shape and
general conditions as at any other point. Such a splice is
made by squaring the ends (Fig. 327), and then carefully
dressing the joining surface, as
indicated in Fig. 328, making
the thickness at the squared
end as thin as possible—a
feather edge.

A cement splice can easily be made without removing belt
from pulleys. Tighten belt with a belt clamp (Fig. 329), fit-
ting it squarely on the belt.

The length of the splice should be 1’’ greater than the
width of the belt, up to
12”’, which is regarded as
the maximum length for SS aa
splicing a belt, no matter
how wide it is. When the
clamp has pulled the belt to the desired tension, cut
one end to make the lap 1” longer than the width of
the belt. Lay the end of the belt on a board, the end
| of the two coincid-
ing, and plane the
lap jointow tthe
sharp, small plane

until it has the shape
Fig. 329. Belt clamped for gluing. shown in Fig. 328.

Fic. 327. Squaring a belt.

Fic. 328. Tapering for glue-joint.

298. Cementing Belt. The surfaces may be joined
with any good belt cement procurable at leather and harness
shops. Tack the belt at the joint down to a board, and then

KINDS OF BELTS AND BELT LACES 331

securely clamp it to the board to dry for at least twenty-four

hours (Fig. 330). When the clamps are removed and the
tacks withdrawn, the belt is ready for service. The particular
advantage of this splice is that it forms a continuous belt with
no extensions to interfere with smooth-running.

A canvas belt is usually
laced, altho it may be
cement-spliced. Ifso, how-
ever, the joint should be
Fic. 330. A glue-jointinclamps. cut, as shown in Fig. 331.

299. Laced Joints. ‘These are common for leather belts
up to 6” to 10” in width. A laced joint is made by calcu-
lating the length desired and cutting the belt a little short of
this length to allow for stretching.

300. The Process of Lacing. Projects in belt-lacing
may be selected from the practical problems of the farm as
belts need tightening. It will be
well to precede the first lacing of
a belt in service by the lacing to-
gether of two scrap pieces of belt. Fic. 331. Joint on can-
Holes are punched in both ends of ie
the belt. Thru these is drawn a lace, usually a strip of
untanned hide known as rawhide, in some manner to fasten
the two ends securely together and to permit the lacing to
pass over the pulleys with as little thumping and wearing as
possible. Laced joints are usually classed as single-cross-
laced and double-cross-laced, of which the former is the
most used except for heavy belts.

Single-cross lacing gets its name from the fact that a single

332 BELTS AND BELTING

strand of lacing, or whang, joins the holes punched to receive
it, and, also, because these strands cross each other on the
side opposite the pulley but once, as shown in Fig. 332.

Patent Belt Fastenings. Many patented belt fastenings
are on the market. Some of them are very good, and most of
them can be applied in less time than it takes to lace a belt.
The pattern which is easily applied and removed consists of a
series of metal loops extending thru each end of the belt, thru
which a rawhide stick is passed (Fig. 337).

CHAPTER XxX XI
PROJECTS IN LACING BELTS

301. Single-Cross Lacing ; One Row of Holes Punched
on EachEnd. (Fig. 332.)

Tools and Stock: A 6’ leather belt or (for practice) two short
pieces of 6’’ belting, 56” of lace, belt punch, square and
knife.

Note: A narrower belt can be laced by modifying the fol-
lowing instructions accordingly:

Working Instructions: Square the ends of the belt to make
its length 1” less than that calculated or measured.

2 IS 20
lO 12 14 16 24 22

OUTSIDE PULLEY SIDE

Fic. 332. Single-cross lacing; one row of holes.

Square a pencil line across each end of the belt 1’’ from
the end and punch 3/16” holes to dimensions given in A,
Fig. 333. Point the end of the lace and pass it thru hole
00 (Fig. 332) from the outside, leaving 1/2” of the end
protruding. Pass the lace up thru hole 0 and down thru
hole 1, then across to hole 2 and over to hole 8, con-
tinuing to pass the lace down thru the odd-numbered
holes from the outside of the belt and up thru the even-
333

BELTS AND BELTING

numbered holes. Continue the lacing, passing thru the
holes in rotation, finally returning to hole No. 1, which is
also marked 15 and 25. The lacing will now be double.
Care must be taken to pass the lacing back to 7 the first
time it comes thru 8 in order to get it double at the end.

Fic. 333. Position of holes for various laces.

It should be tight and straight. In passing thru a hole
the second time or the third, as in case of hole No. 1, use
anawltoenlarge the holeslightly. After passing the end
of the lace thru hole No. 1, coax it thru holes 0 and 00,
leaving the end extending with the first one. Pull these
ends thru and level with the belt, cut half-way thru the
lacing at an angle with the lace. This forms a notch in
each end of the lace to hold it from slipping thru to the
pulley side of the belt.

PROJECTS IN LACING BELTS 335

302. Single-Cross Lacing; Two Rows of Holes
Punched on Each End.

Note: The instructions given below are for a 6” belt. It
will be noted by referring to Fig. 334 that the lacings on the
pulley side of the belt do not lap one on another. The holes
being staggered, cause the lacings to lie singly, which is a de-
cided advantage in overcoming noise in running, and wear.

7 ee

J 3 2 Bel

30
OUTSIDE | PULLEY SIDE

Fic. 334. Single-cross lacing; two rows of holes.

Working Instructions: Punch two rows of holes with a belt
punch parallel to the end of the belt. The diameter
should be about two-thirds the size of the lace to be
used. The first row is placed about 3/4” from the end of
the belt, and the second row about 1-1/2” from the end.
In case the belt is old, these distances are increased
slightly. The holes are from 3/4” to 1” apart with one-
half this distance separating the end holes from the
edges of the belt. Determine these outside distances first
and then divide up the intervening space so that the
distances between points will be as nearly as possible
3/4" (B, Fig. 333). Beginning with the end points on
the first row from the end of the belt, punch a hole at
every other point. Only one-half the number of holes

336 BELTS AND BELTING

may be used, as indicated in C, Fig. 333. This will make
a less substantial lacing. To lace the belt, place a lace
thru the middle holes from the pulley side—holes 1 and
2 (Fig. 8334)—allowing the two ends of the lace extending
on the side of the belt opposite the pulley to be as nearly
as possible the same length. The end which extends
thru hole No. 2 is put thru hole No. 3, then thru holes
Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8, passing thru the first row of holes on
one part of the belt and thru the second row on the other
part; then to No. 9, crossing the belt joint, and back
thru holes Nos. 10, 11, 12, 18 and 14; then thru hole No.
15, and, finally, thru a tie hole, No. 16, when the end
should be cut off about 3/8” from the belt. Thesecond end
of the lacing should follow a similar course, and, upon its
return, should go thru hole No. 2, and, finally, thru the
tie hole, No. 30. Note that on the side opposite the pul-
ley, the large crosses or plies are over the short ones.
This is desirable to reduce friction and wear. Always
pull the lacing taut, but do not buckle the belt.

303. Double-Cross Lacing; One or Two Rows of Holes
Punched on Each End. For this problem, two laces rather
than one must be used. It is not deemed necessary to give
detailed instructions for a double-cross lacing, as the instruc-
tions given for Problem 1 and Problem 2 apply, except as in-
dicated below.

Double-cross lacing is similar to single-cross lacing except
that two strands of lace are drawn thru each hole and that
the holes are spaced twice as far apart across the belt. It is
necessary that the two strands be drawn equally tight.

This method of lacing a belt is quicker than the single-

PROJECTS IN LACING BELTS 337

cross lacing, but is more bulky and, consequently, is noisier
and causes more vibration. It is particularly adaptable to
the canvas belt because it does not weaken the material as the
single-cross lace does, since there are only half as many holes.
These should be punctures rather than cut holes, to still fur-
ther preserve the strength of the material.

304. The Wire Belt Lacing. Wire lacing is now gen-
erally used. It is strong, and the strands are not as large as

Fic. 335. Wire lacing.

rawhide lacing. The holes are placed nearer the ends of the
belt and nearer together, also. The end holes are about 1/4”
from the edge of the belt, and the remaining holes about 1/4’
apart. The row of holes is about 5/16” from the end of the
belt.

A No. 18 soft copper wire may be used for lacing. If it is
hard, it can be annealed by heating it to red and plunging in
water.

There are now several good makes of patented wire lacing
on the market. These are made up from several metals in a
proportion which will give a maximum degree of service.
Generally, they will be found superior to the copper wire.
When using patented wire lacing, care should be taken to fol-

338 : BELTS AND BELTING

low the directions which are given on the box in which it
comes. The size and length of lacing should be selected ac-
cording to the width of the belt.

When lacing, start at hole No. 1 and pull one-half the wire
thru. Then, using the end extending on the pulley side, lace
as indicated by Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., in Fig. 335, returning thru
No. 15. Now, use the other end which is protruding on the
outside of the belt thru hole No. 2, and pass it thru 16, 17, 18,
etc., returning to 25. The ends are now in the same holes,

THIS 15 THE SAME
AS OTHER SIDE

EITHER Sipe ls PuLLtey Sve

Fic. 336. The Annan lacing.

but in opposite directions. ‘To fasten the ends, make a small
hole with a nail, as shown by No. 26, and pass both ends thru
this. Make another small hole and pull the wire which is
now on the pulley side up on the outside. Cut both ends
about 1/2” from the surface of the belt. Make square hooks
on the ends of the wires and clinch them thru the belt in a
similar manner to that indicated for the hinge lace in Fig.
Bol.

Pliers are used for pulling the wire thru when lacing. Itis
better to take hold of the wire at the extreme end so as to

PROJECTS IN LACING BELTS 339

avoid nicking it in order to get the maximum durability in the
lacing.

305. The Annan Lacing. This lacing (named after the
man who designed it) is very satisfactory, and has the advan-
tage of making the belt reversible on the pulley if necessary,
as the lacings on both sidesarethesame. Besides, the lacings
do not cross; thus, the disadvantage of a double thickness of
lace is avoided. Fig. 336 shows the steps in making the

lacing.
Start the lace as for the single-cross lacing, and continue by

RawHIDE STicK

Fic. 337. Hinged belt lacing with wire hooks.

following thru holes as numbered, fastening the last end of the
belt at hole 21.

306. The Hinge Belt Lacing. Hinge lacing consists of
using practically the same layout of holes as described for the
single-cross lacing, but the lace is brought between the edges
of the belt where the ends come together and thru the next
hole from the opposite side of the belt. In this manner, the
plies form a sort of a hinge between the belt ends. They tend
to chafe at this point, however, and, consequently, have a
short life; therefore, this lacing is no longer popular. Fig.
337 shows method of lacing.

340 BELTS AND BELTING

307. Belt-Hook Joint. Belt hooks are obtainable in
various sizes and shapes. Some are made to the required
shape and are inserted into slits made in the ends of the belt,
while others are bent to shape and fitted, as shown in Fig.
338.

Fic. 338. Wire hooks used in lacing.

PART VII

FARM HOME LIGHTING AND SANITARY
EQUIPMENT

CHAPTER XXXII

FARM LIGHTING AND FARMHOUSE HEATING

308. Necessity for Good Licht. During the long win-
ter nights, those on the farm who would spend a part of the
evening in reading the current events of the day, studying
the various farm problems, and planning for the next year’s
work, feel the need of a modern lighting system. On farms
where there are boys and girls in school and where they are
required to prepare lessons at night, there should be the best
lights possible. Shortsightedness in school children is a very
common defect, which increases with age. It is due princi-
pally to poor school room and home lighting.

A good lighting system improves the sanitary condition in
the home and makes for better health and higher efficiency.
The farmer should give a great deal of throught and attention
to the proper lighting of his buildings. The dairy farmer,
especially, should have his house and barns well lighted. A
well-lighted barn and dairy makes possible the production of
a higher quality of products, makes work more pleasant and
decreases the danger from fires, thus reducing the insurance
rate.

309. The Cheapest Light. Probably the old-fashioned
flat-wick kerosene lamp is the cheapest from the standpoint

341

342 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT

of cost of fuel. This is not true when one considers the cost
of operation, however. Again, a consideration of the poor
quality of the light produced by this lamp, its effect on the
eyes, its danger, and the fact that no workman can do his best
work under poor lighting conditions, makes this pioneer
means of home-lighting an expensive one.

The kerosene tubular lamp is an improvement over the
flat-wick type in the amount of illumination, especially when
it is provided with a mantle which improves the quality and
increases the amount of light produced.

310. A More Modern Lighting Plant. The farmer
who would install a truly modern lighting system in his home
has four kinds of plants from which to make his selection,
namely, the electric, acetylene, gasoline gas and Blau gas
plants.

311. Electric Lighting Plants. (Fig.339.) There are
definite advantages that the electric light has over other forms
of lighting that are recognized by every one. It is clean, safe,
its cost is not prohibitive, and it does not make the air impure.

Where the power for electric lights can be secured at a rea-
sonable price from power-distribution lines passing the farm,
the situation is ideal. Many farmers do not care to be bur-
dened with the chore of looking after a lighting plant.

Until recent years, there were few unit plants on the mar-
ket; that is, an engine and generator built together. Most
of the generators were formerly belt-driven by a small engine
that could be easily used for some other purpose. There is
a number of unit plants on the market that are arranged
with a belt pulley for power purposes. Some farmers use a
power windmill to drive the generator.

FARM LIGHTING AND HEATING 343

In the installation of a small low-voltage electric plant, be
sure that all wire is of ample size. The mistake is often made
of using the same size wire as used in wiring city residences
where a higher voltage is used. All wiring should be prop-
erly inspected to see that it meets all insurance require-
ments. The National Board of Fire Underwriters of Chicago
will provide rules for this work.

In operating a small electric plant, pay especial attention

Fic. 339. Farm electric plant.

to the care of the storage batteries. The upkeep and replace-
ment cost of the storage battery is the most expensive item in
the cost of operating an electric plant.

312. Acetylene Lighting Plants. Many farmers pur-
chase the acetylene light plant because it is cheaper to oper-

344 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT

ate than the electric plant and requires less attention. Most
farmers like the outdoor type of plant best, because it is safe,
easily charged, easily cleaned out, and where a 100-pound
capacity plant is secured, it does not require re-charging
oftener than three or four times during the year. Any acety-
lene plant that is constructed or located so that the gas will
escape into a closed room is dangerous. Acetylene gas is a

AIR INDUCTION oft

Fic. 339-a. Gasoline gas generator.

little more dangerous than gasoline; both must be handled
with great care.

313. Gasoline Gas Lights. Most of the gasoline equip-
ments are either of the small portable-lamp type or the one by
which the gas is piped thru small tubes to the individual lamp.
These types of gasoline lamps are objectionable from an in-
surance standpoint. Only where the gas is produced outside
of the building (Fig.339-a) and piped in like ordinary city gas,
is the gasoline system really safe. The greatest danger of
gasoline lights comes from taking gasoline inside the house.

From a standpoint of economy, the gasoline gas lamps are
really cheaper than either acetylene or electric lamps.

FARM LIGHTING AND HEATING 345

314. Blau Gas Lights. Blau gas is an oil gas that is
liquified under high pressure. It is freed from all poisonous
gases and is practically non-explosive. It is sold in tubes
similar to presto-lite—twenty pounds of gas to the tube. The
light produced by Blau gas is quite satisfactory and not pro-
hibitive in price.

315. Farmhouse Heating. A well-heated house makes
for comfortable living. It has been only during rather recent
years that much development has been made in farmhouse
heating. Many progressive farmers are now installing sys-
tems of heating that will maintain an even temperature thru-
out the house, and provide an abundance of fresh air. Heat-
ing and ventilation go hand-in-hand.

The modern heating system is located in the basement. It
keeps the litter and dirt from the main floors, which are diffi-
cult to keep clean when fuel and ashes are handled over them
in caring for a stove.

316. The Hot-AirSystem. There are two types of hot-
_air systems found on the market. One is the pipeless furnace,
which is essentially a special type of stove located in the base-
ment and surrounded by a jacket which carries the heat to
theroomsabove. A down shaft is provided to keep the air in
circulation. This type of furnace can be easily installed in
any home already built that is provided with a basement or
cellar. The other type of hot-air plant is provided with large
pipes that carry the hot air direct to the various rooms. These
pipes, or “‘leaders’’, as they are sometimes called, must run as
direct to the rooms to be heated as possible, and they should
be wrapped with asbestos to prevent loss of heat. A house
can be heated more quickly with hot air than with water or

346 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT

steam, but it will cool off more quickly when the fires die
down. During extremely cold, windy weather, it is difficult
with a hot-air system to heat rooms on the side of a house
from which the wind is blowing.

317. Steam and Hot-Water Systems. The steam-
heating system can be installed as a single-pipe or a two-pipe
system. The hot-water heating is a two-pipe system. The
two systems are quite similar as far as installation is con-
cerned, and ean be installed fairly easily in a house already
built. The hot-water system works on the principle of water
being lighter when hot than when cold. The heated water
rises to the various radiators, the heat is given off in the
rooms, and the water at a lower temperature flows back to the
boiler. Care must be observed in installing the pipes to get
proper circulation.

Most steam systems are for low-pressure steam. The
steam is generated in the boiler; it rises thru the pipes to the
radiators, where it loses its heat, and is condensed and flows
back to the boiler. In the one-pipe system, the condensed
steam flows back to the boiler thru the same pipe thru
which the live steam flows to the radiator.

A house can be heated much more quickly with steam than
with hot water, but in a hot-water system the water will hold
the temperature more uniformly and a more even heat is
maintained. This is the big advantage of the hot-water sys-
tem over all other systems.

The installation of most lighting and heating equipment
should be left to an experienced man. ‘To install a pipeless
furnace, however, is not a very great task, and can be done by
a person with little experience.

CHAPTER XXXIIl

FARM WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL

318. Importance of Sanitation on the Farm. It is
high time that every farmer give serious thought to the sani-
tation problems of farm life. Water is thought to be cheap
and thus little value is put upon it; this is the chief cause of
neglect. Many shallow farm wells are contaminated due to
poor protection at the top, poor surface drainage, seepage
and general neglect. Cistern water is often made unfit to
drink by impurities washing in from the roof due to lack of a
good filter, or to one improperly cared for. It is sometimes
impure because the cistern is not properly built and seepage
water gets in.

The first consideration for health on the farm should be a
pure and wholesome water supply of capacity to take care of
all the needs of the place. A deep well is about the safest
source of water supply. Shallow wells and cisterns, however,
can be made safe by proper protection at the top, careful sur-
face drainage, and by preventing the entrance of seepage
water. For cisterns, the water should be collected only after
the roof has been thoroly washed off. A well-built filter,
cleaned out and refilled with filtering material at regular in-
tervals, will go a long way toward purifying such water.

319. Simplest Water System. Thesimplest system of
water supply is an ordinary suction, or force, pump attached
to asink in the kitchen. The pipe leads from the pump thru
the floor and into the well or cistern. The source of water for
a system of this kind must be near the house and not very

347

348 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT

deep. For satisfactory service, there should not be more
than twenty-five feet between the pump cylinder and the
lowest level of the water. A drain must be provided to take
off all waste water from the sink. Such a system can be
easily installed.

320. Gravity System. The simplest gravity system is
one that has a small tank located in the attic and is connected _
by means of a pipe to a force pump in the kitchen. Sucha
system makes possible the installation of all other plumbing
equipment. Fig. 340 shows a system with a sixty-gallon
tank in the attic. Water is pumped to the tank by means of
a force pump and a small gasoline engine. The overflow
from the storage tank runs to the stock tank in the lot. A
good feature of this system is that all of the water for stock is
pumped thru the house tank, thereby keeping it always fresh
and cool. In Fig. 340 is shown also the installation of
complete plumbing connections. Where there is a hill or
slight elevation near the house, a tank can be placed on the
ground. The concrete tank shown in Fig. 341 is a farm
storage tank. It is large enough to supply the house, hog
house, hog wallows, barns and garage, all of which are pro-
vided with faucets. With the tank placed on the ground and
provided with a good foundation, there is no danger of sup-
ports giving away as with an elevated tank and the danger of
the pipes that lead to the tank freezing is eliminated. Wherea
satisfactory means of elevating the tank is at hand, the grav-
ity system is the most satisfactory for average farm condi-
tions. A tank supported by concrete or masonry walls is a
very good arrangement. A room underneath the tank can
thus be provided to be used as a milk house.

FARM WATER SUPPLY. AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL 349

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Fic. 340. Gravity water system.

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300

LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT

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Concrete Reservoir
Lo etd Fs

Se ee ee

Fic. 341. Concrete reservoir for water storage.

FARM WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL 351

321. Water Air-Pressure System. Thissystem, shown
in Fig. 342, is usually called the hydro-pneumatic system.
In it the water is stored in an air-tight steel tank and is forced
thru the pipes to the fixtures by air pressure. As the water is
used, the pressure is gradually reduced. In some systems of
this type there is both a water and an air pump. ‘The most
common type is equipped with only a water pump with air in-
take. To operate the system, the tank is filled with air, the
water is pumped in, and the air pressure increases as the vol-
ume of the air decreases. Only about two-thirds to three-
fourths of the volume of the tank is effective for water stor-
age. This is one of the principal objections to this system,
because to avoid pumping so often, an extremely large tank
must be provided if the water requirements are very large.
However, with electric power available, an automatic con-
trol can be provided and a smaller tank be used. Complete
equipment for a system of this kind includes an air-tight
tank, a force pump, pressure gauges, and other fittings, and
plumbing fixtures.

322. Hydraulic Ram. Where there is a large quantity
of water with sufficient fall, a hydraulic ram is the cheapest
means of providing water pressure in the home. The first
cost is small, there is practically no upkeep, and it will run
continuously without any attention. Under ordinary condi-
tions, a ram will elevate about one-seventh of the water that
flows to it thru the drive pipe. A rule that can be used to de-
termine the approximate amount of water that will be deliv-
ered with a certain flow is: Multiply the number of gallons
of flow per minute by the number of feet of vertical fall be-
tween the source of water and the ram. Divide this by the

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Fic. 342. Hydro-pneumatic water system.

FARM WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL 353

height it. is desired to elevate the water, and reduce the result
by one-third to take care of friction and losses in the pipes.
The remainder will be the quantity of water delivered. For
example, if the flow is 4 gallons per minute, the fall is 9 feet
and the water is to be elevated 24 feet, we have four times 9
equals 36; 36 divided by 24 equals 1-1/2; reduce this by 1/3,
and we have 1 gallon per minute delivered, or 1,440 gallons
per 24 hours.

323. Selecting aSystem. In selecting a water system,
many make the mistake of installing one that does not furnish
sufficient water. It is much better to have a cistern or tank
with greater capacity than actually needed than to have one
too small. The same is true in selecting a pressure tank for
the hydro-pneumatic system or an air tank for the fresh-water
system. The first cost will bea little greater, but the expense
will be less in the end. Asa basis for estimate, one must re-
member that after a modern water system is installed, much
more water will be used than before. For each person, one
should estimate at least 25 or 30 gallons per day; for each cow,
15 gallons; for horses, 10 gallons, and hogs and sheep, 3 gal-
lons per day, allowing for an additional supply to care for
chickens, for watering the garden, washing the car or buggy,
sprinkling the lawn, etc.

324. The Septic Tank. No modern water system is
complete without proper disposal of the waste water and sew-
age. Oftentimes the sewer is simply tile that leads down to
the field or into a ditch or small stream. This method of
sewage disposal is not sanitary, nor is it safe from a stand-
point of health. If a large stream is at hand, into which to
discharge the sewage, it can be used with safety; a small
creek, however, would soon become contaminated.

LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT

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FARM WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL 355

The septic tank is a means of disposal of sewage from the
farm home. The septic tank alone will not purify sewage; it
will partially purify it and put it in condition to be completely
purified by means of a filter or thru a system of tile. The
septic tank illustrated in Fig. 343 is a one-chambered tank.
Its action is as follows: In the septic tank the sewage
is acted on by bacteria—minute organisms that thrive under
conditions where there is neither air nor light. The solids in
the sewage are broken down and put into solution. It must
be remembered that only one or less than one per cent
of the sewage is solids—the rest is all water. Soon a thick
leathery scum forms on the surface of the tank; this indicates
that it is working properly. The solid part that is not dis-
solved settles to the bottom of the tank. It is necessary to
clean this out every few years.

To completely purify this sewage, it is discharged onto a
filter or into a system of tile arranged to allow it to filter away
into the soil. In the filter or in the surface soil, there are bil-
lions of bacteria that thrive in the presence of air and light.
These are called the nitrifying bacteria. They completely
purify the sewage. This is nature’s method of purification.

325. The Art of Plumbing. Plumbing has been called
a sanitary art and defined as the art of placing in buildings,
pipes and other apparatus used for introducing water supply
and for removing wastes.

The Plumber as a Specialist: In big jobs in large building
work, there are special plumbers for doing the heavy rough-
ing-in work, putting in the large pipes and the general net-
work of smaller pipes. Then there are other plumbers to do
the finishing work.

356 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT

There are certain essentials in handling a house-plumbing
job. The man in charge should be thoroly competent to see
that the connections are properly made. A plumbing job
that is poorly finished may be a source of a great deal of dan-
ger, and should be thoroly inspected. Simplicity in the
laying out of piping and fixtures will tend to eliminate plumb-
ing troubles. The principles of drainage must be ever in mind
when installing a plumbing system. Allsupply pipes, as well
as drains, must be installed so they have an outlet and with a
gradual slope toward this outlet. There must be no low
points or pockets where water will collect when the system is
drained. Such a defect would cause stoppage in drain pipes,
and the supply pipes, when exposed, would freeze at these
points. Main soil pipe made of 4” pipe should extend 5’ from
outside of the cellar wall to act as a sewer connection into the
house and thru the roof. This pipe should be straight from
the cellar to the roof. All fixtures should discharge thru the
main soil pipe, and should be provided with traps thoroly -
ventilated to prevent the escape of sewer gas into the house.
In some plumbing jobs, an additional ventilation pipe is car-
ried from each trap into a main 2” pipe which is independent
of the soil pipe and is also carried thru the roof. This pre-
vents leakage of the seal or trap.

Plumbing materials and fixtures should be of good quality,
simple in design, with all joints and connections made air- and
water-tight. They should be of entirely non-absorbent ma-
terial.

All plumbing should be as nearly accessible as possible.
Removable wooden panels over the soil pipe and other main
pipes are worth considering. Fixtures near main drain and

FARM WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL 357

all bath and kitchen fixtures should be open work. Free ac-
cess of air and light should also be obtained. Boxed-in sinks
and bath tubs are insanitary because dirt and moisture are
bound to collect around the base.

326. Materials Used for Plumbing. For sinks, the
solid porcelain is the most expensive. The iron enamel is
just about as good as the solid porcelain and @& —
can be obtained much cheaper. For laundry
equipment, the slate, reinforced concrete and
enameled iron can be used. Slate tubs for
laundry are very satisfactory. The most san-
itary equipments are those which are in one
plece with all parts properly rounded. The
general equipment is usually listed as to
quality as No. 1, No.2 and No.8. No. lis Fic. 344. Pipe
usually guaranteed and is very expensive; ieee
No. 2is very satisfactory. Itis usually not advisable to buy
the No. 3 quality.

The person who would do the simple plumbing jobs herein
described should become familiar with the more common
plumbing tools and their uses; also, the various pipe fittings
required. The following tools are needed for even the
simplest job: Vise, cutter, die-stock and dies, wrenches,
reamer or half-round file, and rule.

327. Pipe Vise. The hinged type of vise (Fig. 344) with
gravity pawl is about the best to secure. The reversible type
may be secured. The latter can be thrown open either to the
right or to the left, with a clutch on either side to engage
the pawl. Such a vise has a distinct advantage when cut-
ting a pipe which has fittings that will not pass thru the frame
of an ordinary vise.

358 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT

328. Pipe Cutters. Pipe cutters (Fig. 345) are divided
into two general types—the three-cutter wheel and the one-
cutter wheeltypes. The one-cutter wheel can be secured with
solid back or with two rollers; the latter type is probably in

Fic. 845, Tier eek pipe cutter,

most general use. The three-cutter wheel type has the ad-
vantage of being used in close quarters. This type of cutter
forms a burr on the outside of the pipe which must be re-

Fic. 346. Stock and die.

moved with a file before the threads can be cut. The pipe
does not need to be reamed out, however.

329, Die-stocks and Dies. It must be remembered that a
different die is used for threading a pipe than for threading a
bolt. The pipe thread is a taner thread, making possible a
tight joint. The solid type of die is most commonly used
(Fig. 8346). A number of dies for different-sized pipe can be
secured and used in the same stock. Theadjustabletype of die
is used in a special stock. A ratchet stock is sometimes used.

FARM WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL 359

330. Pipe Wrenches. The Trimo and Stillson wrenches
are the two types of wrenches in most common use. At least
two sizes of wrenches should be provided—one for small pipes
and fittings and one for larger sizes. For extremely large

Fic. 347. Pipe wrench.

pipe, chain tongs are usually used. (See Fig. 347 for picture
of pipe wrenches. Fig. 847-a shows many of these tools in a
group.)

Calking Chisei

——[ =

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hitstencessesasserese IRI
Pipe Wrench Pipe Cutter Ladle

Fic. 347-a. Several common plumbing tools.

331. Reamers. The reamer is used to remove the burr
formed on the inside of pipe by cutting the pipe. A reamer
fitted in a hand wheel is quite satisfactory. A one-half round
or a round file can be used.

332. Rule. A folding rule should be provided. For a
neat job of pipefitting, careful measuring is necessary.

360 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT

333. Pipe Fittings. Pipe fittings are used in joining one
pipe to another, te change direction, to reduce size, and to

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Fic. 348. Fittings for supply Fic. 348-a. Fittings for waste
pipes: pipes:
1. Elbow. 1. Ventilating cap.
Ze Lee. 2. Sanitary T-branch.
3. Union. 3. Closed bend
4, Nipple. 4. Quarter bend
5. 45° elbow. 5. Tapped T-branch.
6. Street elbow. 6. Trap with hand hole.
7. Reducer. 7. Roof flange.
8. Valve. 8. Drum trap.
9. Faucet. 9. 90° elbow.
10. Tee.

branch off. Fittings are made of malleable, cast and wrought
iron; the latter are usually galvanized. There are also brass
and nickel fittings for special uses. Figs. 348 and 348-a give
the names of the principal fittings for supply and waste pipes.

CHAPTER XXXIV
DRAINAGE AND PIPE-FITTING

334. Fitting Pipe Handle for Lawn Roller.
(Fig. 349.) (See concrete project, Sec. 146.)
Requirements: 'To cut, thread and assemble pipe and fitting
to form a handle of proper dimension for a concrete roller
as outlined under Concrete Projects, Sec. 146.

EVO OF axle TE 70
lasime OF 7 Ce

Fic. 349. Pipe handle for garden roller.

Tools and Materials Needed: Pipe cutter, vise, die-stock and
die, wrenches, and arule. Pieces of 1/2’ pipe, lengths
depending on requirements of particular handle; two

361

362 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT

1/2” elbows, two 1/2” tees, one 1/2”’ union, and two 3/4”
x 1/2’ tees. The latter is to serve as bearings for axle
of roller. The size specified is sufficiently large where a
1/2” pipe is used for axle.

Preliminary Instruction:

335. Measuring Materials for Handle. Extreme care
must be observed in making measurements to have the handle
fit smoothly. The distances A and B (Fig. 349) will depend
on the length and diameter of roller. The distance A should .
be made about 1/2” greater than the length of roller. The
distance B between center of fittings should be about 2”
greater than the radius of roller. The distance C should be
made a length that will make the roller convenient to opera-
tor. Measurements are usually taken from the center of one
fitting to the center of the next. ‘To make accurate measure-
ments, each fitting should be made tight before the next piece
of pipeiscut. The1/2” union can be eliminated if one of the
tees in which the cross pipe is threaded has a right-hand
thread and the other a left-hand thread.

Working Instructions:

336. Threading Pipe. Placea piece of 1/2” pipe in the
vise. If not threaded, thread it with a right-hand die as fol-
lows: Note that proper die is placed in stock; place guide
bushing in place; oil end of pipe with lard oil; place bush-
ing end of die-stock on pipe and start die with hands near cen-
ter of stock by pressing hard on handles and rotating one-
fourth turn ata time. After die has taken hold, move hands
out to the ends of handle and continue rotating with less
pressure. After each complete turn, rotate backward slightly
to allow chips to drop. Continue this process until thread of

DRAINAGE AND PIPE-FITTING 363

sufficient length is cut. It is often necessary to remove die
and try on fitting to get the best results. The fitting should
go on at least three threads by hand. Screw fitting No. 1 on
end of pipe by means of the pipe wrench.

337. Cutting Pipe. Draw the pipe thru the vise and
lay off length B with rule. Place pipe cutter on pipe so that
the cutting wheel comes on the mark. Drop a little lard oil
on pipe and cutting wheel, screw the handle in until cutting
wheel begins to cut, then rotate cutter. At each revolution
of the cutter, feed the cutter wheel inward by screwing in on
handle; continue until pipe is cut off. Place the pipe B in
vise and thread blank end, after which screw on fitting No. 2.

Proceed by cutting and threading pipe length C and screw-
ing into fitting No. 2and No. 8. Make up other side of handle
in the same manner; then cut, thread and assemble pipe
lengths D, E and F so that the two sides of handle will be
parallel.

After handle is assembled to proper dimension, unscrew
union No. 7 and spring handles apart until fittings Nos. 1 and
A will slip over the ends of axle, after which tighten union.

Ls es Sconting 4'lg

ee
/block 2

Fic. 350. Establishing a grade for tile.

338. Installing Drain from Kitchen Sink to Sewage
Disposal System.
Requirements: To install drain pipe and tile from kitchen
sink to outlet or disposal system. (See Figs. 350, 351,
352.)

364

LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT

Tools and Materials Needed: Plumbing tools and tiling spade,

hook and scoop, and a carpenter’s level are required.
Obtain one trap, sufficient 1-1/4”’ pipe to carry water
from sink to a point 5’ outside house, suitable fittings,
white lead, 50’ of 4’’ sewer tile, and sufficient farm drain
tile to reach outlet.

ai ee i
an Z=

ta BL A: he ens RAS RY

ia ier ie er
; | tie |

Fic. 351. A, tile properly laid; B, tile poorly laid.

Preliminary Instruction: The first requirement of every

drain is an adequate outlet or point of discharge. This
point must be low enough so the tile can be given ample
fall to prevent the sewage or water backing up in the
drain. Itis considered best practice to discharge sewage
from sanitary fixtures thru sewer tile direct to septic tank
while the kitchen waste water is usually taken care of by
ordinary drains. A smooth, uniform grade must be pro-
vided for every drain. In farm drainage work, this is
usually established by means of a drainage level.

Working Instruction:

339. Establishing Grade Line for Drain. Determine |
point of outlet and establish a grade line by which to dig the
ditch. For a small job such as this, when there is a decided

DRAINAGE AND PIPE-FITTING 365

slope of the ground, place the grade parallel to the slope. If
the ground is practically level, a grade line can be established
by means of an ordinary carpenter’s level. Drive in a series
of stakes from 4’ to 5’ long at intervals of 25’; for long drains,
stakes are placed every 50’. By using long stakes, a guide
line to dig by can be placed as the grade is established. If it
is desired to have a fall of 1/4” to the foot, take a straight 1’’ x
2’’ scantling 4’ long; tack a
1’”’ block under one end,
and fasten to lower side of
level with block on lower
side. ‘Tie a cord to stake
at the outlet at a point
about 3’ above the surface
of the ground, stretch the cord to the second stake, and test it
for grade by placing the level in position so the block will be
down grade (Fig. 350). When the bubble of the instrument.
indicates that it is level, it shows that there is a rise of 1’’ to
every 4’ along the cord.

340. Digging Ditch to Grade. Use a gage rod of defi-
nite length, and dig ditch so its bottom will be parallel to the
cord. If it is desired to have the drain 4’ deep at the outlet,
the gage rod should be 7’ long since the cord was placed 3’
above the surface of the ground at the outlet. If the soil is
heavy and sticky, an open spade can be used to advantage;
use a round-nose spade or a tile scoop for cleaning the bottom
of ditch to receive the tile.

341. Laying the Tile. Lay the tile as the ditch is com-

pleted, beginning at the outlet. The ordinary farm tile can
be laid either by hand or by means of the tile hook. The tile

Fic. 352. Sewer tile made tight.

366 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT

must be made to fit closely together in the ditch (A, Fig. 351);
this is best accomplished by rotating the tile until it is in
place. The sewer tile (Fig. 352) is provided with bell end
or bell mouth, and the joints are made tight. Place the tile
in place so the direction of flow will be into the bell end; place
the spigot end of each tile into the bell end of the preceding
tile as itislaid. A small piece of oakum or tarred rope forced
in between the spigot and the bell with a flat stick will make
possible a smooth job. Place cement mortar in the joint
after properly adjusting the tile. The use of a swab, as indi-
cated, is advisable. Place tile toa point 5’ outside of building.
Cut, thread and fit pipe to discharge into the sewer that has
been laid. The depth to place this pipe and slope to give it
will depend upon the sewer outlet.

342. Installing Kitchen Sink and Pump.
Requirements: To install a kitchen sink and pump so that
water may be pumped directly from a well or cistern to
kitchen (Fig. 353). The installation of drain for this
sink is outlined under Secs. 338-341.

Tools and Materials Needed: The tools needed for the project
are the same as in Sec. 334. The following materials
are needed: Pump, sink, trap and sufficient 1-1/4”
pipe to reach from pump at sink to cistern or well, as
illustrated (Fig. 353). Such elbows and couplings as
needed and a check valve for suction pipe. White or red
lead for making joints.
Preliminary Instruction:
343. Maximum Depth for Pumping Water. It mustbe
remembered that the vertical distance from cylinder of pump
to low level of water must be 25’ or less to give satisfaction.

DRAINAGE AND PIPE-FITTING 367

Where there is a likelihood of water in pipe freezing dur-
ing cold weather, the check valve in suction pipe should be
omitted to allow the water to drain back into well. The only

1 257%: orless

Fic. 353. Kitchen pump and sink
installation.

difference in the work in this and the preceding project, See.
304, 1s that the pipe joints must all be made absolutely tight.
Working Instructions:

344. Location of Kitchen Sink. Locate sink in the
kitchen so that it will be convenient and have ample light.
Most sinks are fastened to a wall by means of hangers or
brackets which can be easily installed. Adjust height of sink
to convenience of user.

368 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT

EXxcavate for pipe from cistern to point underneath sink.
If a basement is under house, excavate from cistern to wall.
The pipe should be placed below frost line. ‘Take measure-
ments from the cistern to the sink, determining the exact
length of each piece of pipe needed and the necessary fittings.

345. Connecting Pipe for Pump. Cut and thread
pipe as outlined under Secs. 336, 337. In making the various
joints, apply a small amount of white lead to the first three
threads in fitting or on the pipe. Begin at the pump and
screw each fitting and piece of pipe perfectly tight. before be-
ginning on the next.

346. Installing Plumbingin Country Home (Fig.354).
Requirements: To install rough plumbing, including soil

pipe, vent pipes and various drains for fixtures in wall
partition while house is under construction. (See Fig.
354.)

Tools and Materials Needed: Plumbing tools, plumber’s fur-
nace, ladle and caulking tools. Soil pipe and soil-pipe
connections, vent pipes, drains for fixtures and traps.
Lead and oakum for joints.

Preliminary Instruction: Every plumbing system should be
designed with an idea of simplicity in the layout of piping
and fixtures. If possible, the bath room should be di-
rectly above the kitchen, and with the laundry room be-
low, as shown in Fig. 354. This will make it possible for
one soil pipe to take care of the discharge from fixtures on
each floor. Fig. 354-a shows a system in a three-story
house with a bath room on each floor. The soil pipe
should extend from a point 5’ outside the wall, where it
connects with the sewer, up thru the house roof. It

DRAINAGE AND PIPE-FITTING 369

ln,

F1G.354. Waste
and ventilat-

Vent Ppes ing pipe.
<2

4m oSeto ta MI. «¢"
HA, 080l2 F254 AP

Con rere Block

= Outlet io Sewer
LS ie

Siete
69

370

LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT

| He,

t—) t=
|
!
i!

aS 1 ces | ia naaeneicareseeree fo 5
wen
C7
Ni
ee b
= Kk]

Fic. 354-a. Waste pipe without ventilating pipe.

DRAINAGE AND PIPE-FITTING 371

should be straight from cellar to roof. Tight joints are
an essential requirement of every plumbing system.
Provide a trap for every fixture; the best practice pro-
vides a 2” ventilation pipe with connection to each trap.
The location of each fixture should be carefully con-
sidered with a view to convenience for the user and to
make a simple, efficient layout.

Working Instructions:

347. Sewer Tile. Lay a sewer tile from sewer connec-
tion, or from septic tank, to a point 5’ outside of building. |
Follow instructions as outlined under Secs. 338-341. Make
connection of soil pipe with sewer, and extend it to a point
in the basement where it will be most convenient to fixtures
and where it will pass thru partition to roof.

348. Soil Pipe. The joints of soil pipe are similar to
joints of sewer tile. Each section of pipe is provided with a
bell end into which is placed the spigot end i
of the next section. The joints must be ~~ |
perfectly tight; to make them so, oakum 3
and lead are used. The pipe is set in place,
a roll of oakum is packed into the bottom ot ee ae ve
joint, after which molten lead is poured into joint caulked with
the joint, filling it completely (Fig. 355), c#kum and lead.
To pour the lead where a joint is made in a horizontal pipe, a
sort of collar must be provided with opening at the top. If
the oakum is not carefully packed into place, the lead will run
thru. After the lead has cooled, pack it solidly into the joint
with a hammer and caulking tool. Well-caulked joints are
absolutely tight.

372 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT

349. Connecting Fixtures and Vents. Provide suit-
able Ys and Ts for all fixtures, as illustrated. Connect the
vent pipe from a point below the bottom fixture and extend it
up, and connect back into the soil pipe at a point above the
highest fixture. Give all horizontal soil pipes, whether for
drainage or ventilation, a fall of at least 1’ to the foot. To
support soil pipe, provide suitable concrete or stone footing at
the bottom. Support all horizontal lines with suitable hang-
ers to prevent line from getting out of place.

350. Connecting Cast-Iron and Lead Pipe. Tomake
a connection between a cast-iron pipe and a lead pipe, first
connect the lead pipe to a brass ferrule by means of a sol-
dered joint; the ferrule is then caulked into the cast-iron hub
or bell end, as outlined above.

CHAPIN XXXV
SUPPLEMENTARY PLUMBING PROJECTS
351. Piping Water to Stock Tank.

Requirements: 'To construct a pipe line from source of water

at well or storage tank to stock tank in barnyard, as
shown in Fig. 356.

ef | ———

ss
=
it]

Stock Tarrk

“e
—t

XY
——-
Sy)

9;
a

USTUNSG ANG
/ w\ WIS 11'S Mh

coe
OX

VIS
WN

XY
SS
SN

\
WZ
SS

ZS
SS

cs
or ad
Y
as

AX
4

<7
%
SS

ee
ey

Fic. 356. Piping for stock tank.

Tools and Materials Needed: Plumbing tools, as in Sec.

334. Pipe and fittings determined by particular job.
373

374 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT

Instructions:
1) Take measurement for pipe.
2) Cut and thread pipe not threaded.
3) Excavate for pipe line.
4) Connect pipe with fittings above ground.
5) Place pipe in ditch.
_ 6) Provide cut-off and means of draining lines to prevent
freezing.

Fic. 357. A hot-water tank installation.

352. Installing Hot-Water Tank with Kitchen Range
Having Hot-Water Back.

Requirements: To install a hot-water tank in kitchen with
proper connection to water supply, and to hot-water
back in kitchen range, as shown in Fig. 357.

Tools and Materials Needed: Tools as in Sec. 334. Mate-
rials dependent on particular job. Tank, hot-water
back, pipe fittings and white lead or pipe cement.

Instructions:

1) Locate tank so it is out of the way and convenient for
connection to mains and to range.

SUPPLEMENTARY PLUMBING PROJECTS

375

2) Take measurements for pipe. Cut and thread pipe not

threaded.

3) Tap main water line with a tee.

4) Make all connections.

Note: Cold water must enter at the
bottom of the tank, and hot water is
drawn off at the top. Remember, also,
that the bottom connection from water
back must enter tank at the bottom, and
the top connection must enter the tank
several feet above the bottom and at a
point above the back so the water will rise
on being heated and will have proper circu-
lation. |

353. To Make a Stock Water

Heater.

Requirements: To make a stock water
heater when steam pressure and a
supply of water under pressure is
available. (See Fig. 358.)

Tools Needed: Plumbing tools as in Sec.
- 834. One breast
drilland 1/8” bit.

Materials Needed: 3’
of 1-1/2” galvan-
ized pipe, 4-1/2’
of 1/2’ galvan-
ized pipe, three

Cola Waler Fipe

ij. Sit Olen js
Fic. 358. Stock water heater.

valves, two 1/2”

(2 XP COVED COGP//AZZ
]
: Pal
7 = HH

tearre Fipe
Ss

eer

__ i

Cornrecrior7

Za,

Jee with

iL]
at

6 ie,

SPI /0? D
oA

“eB -2

Fipow

warrer ta@ler Oul/et.

376 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT

elbows, one 1/2” cap, one 1-1/2” to 1/2”” bushing, one
1-1/2” x 1/2” tee, one 1-1/2” to 1/2’”’ coupling reducer,
one 1-1/2” x 3” nipple.

Instructions:

1) Cut and thread all pipe to dimension indicated on plan.

2) Drill 1/8” holes at 3” intervals on opposite sides of 1/2’
pipe.

3) Assemble 1/2” steam pipe in following order: Screw 12”
pipe into valve on steam line, elbow onto 12” pipe, 3”
nipple into elbow, 1-1/2” x 1/2” bushing onto nipple, 33’
pipe into opposite side of bushing, screw cap on end of
pipe.

4) Assemble water jacket as follows: Screw tee on 1-1/2”
bushing, connect 6” nipple into tee, screw valve onto
nipple, connect valve to water main. Screw 1-1/2” pipe
into tee, on opposite end screw 1-1/2” x 1/2” reducing
coupling, connect 3’’ nipple, elbow, another 3’’ nipple
and valve to control flow of warm water.

Note: The temperature and flow of water can be con-
trolled by regulating the flow of steam and cold water. Where
a boiler is used in connection with dairy room, this is a good
way to heat the water for the cows.

354. Installing a Hydraulic Ram.

Requirements: To install a hydraulic ram for elevating
water from a lower to a higher elevation for household
consumption, as shown in Fig. 359.

Tools Needed: Plumbing tools asin Sec. 334.
Tiling tools as.in Project No. 3, Sec. 338.

Material Needed: Sufficient drive and discharge pipe of
proper size and length, with necessary fittings; this de-
pending on the individual installation.

SUPPLEMENTARY PLUMBING PROJECTS 377

Instructions:
1) Locate position of ram.
2) Make measurements and lay out position of drive pipe
and discharge pipe.
3) Excavate for drive and discharge pipes.

Die chorgae

Fig. 359. Hydraulicram.

4) Proper length and slope of drive pipe depends on partic-
ular ram. Secure proper information from manufac-
turer.

5) Connect drive pipe from ram to source of water.

6) Connect discharge pipe from ram to storage tank.

7) Provide drain for waste water at ram.

8) Cover drive and discharge pipes.

9) Protect ram from high water.

Note: A hydraulic ram is practical only where there is a

large quantity of water flowing with several feet fall.

355. Installing Drain Tile at Foundation of House

(Fig. 360).
Requirements: To install a drain tile at foundation of house
to intercept any seepage water that flows into basement.

378 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT

Tools and Materials Needed: Tiling tools as in See. 338.
Sufficient drain tile to extend along side of house and
to outlet. Actual amount depending on local conditions.

Instructions:

i 1) Stake out location of drain.
2) Establish grade line.

Gravel or
Cinderss\., 3) Excavate to grade.
Ore 4) Lay tile.
, 5) Check grade.
| se | ) Check grade

House 6) Back-fill.
Note: Drains should be placed
a little below the level of base-
brain ment floor. If trench above tile
Fic. 360. Location of tile to 1s filled with a porous material
drain house foundation. —_ jie gravel, the tile will be much
more effective in intercepting the water. This tile should
be placed in addition to drains for down-spouting and for

basement floor.
356. Additional Jobs on Farm.
a) Install drain to septic tank.
b) Install farm drains.
c) Install tile for down-spouting on barnyard buildings.
d) Install an automatic waterer for stock.
e) Re-charge an acetylene light plant.
f) Put a new pump in a well or cistern.
g) Repair a farm pump.
h) Construct and install a filter.

- PART VIII

ROPE AND HARNESS WORK ON THE
. FARM

CHAPTER XXXVI

CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF ROPE

357. The Need for Rope Work. A working knowledge
in the use of rope is of value to every one on the farm. Rope
is used in a great many ways, and often much time may be
saved by knowing how to make a simple splice, or tie a satis-
factory knot or hitch for a particular purpose. Accidents are
often averted by knowing how to tie the right knot for the
right place. ‘To become expert in tying and splicing rope re-
quires a great deal of practice. One can learn this kind of
work only by actually doing it. The work outlined under
this head is to give the reader an idea of the principal knots
and splices and their applications. Practice work is grouped
into several projects. The student should not expect to make
progress in rope work without carrying thru these projects.

358. Materials of Which Rope Is Made. ‘The greater
part of rope is made from either manilla or sisal fiber. Manilla
fiber, a product of the Philippine Islands, is obtained from a
plant similar to the banana. The sisal fiber, from which most
binder twine is made, a product of Yucatan, is secured from a
plant similar to the American aloe. The two kinds of rope
are ordinarily known as hemp rope. ‘The sisal is neither as
strong nor as durable as manilla fiber. A distinguishing

379

380 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK

characteristic of the best quality manilla fiber is its glossy
appearance. The poorer quality of manilla is of a brownish
color, and its glossy characteristic is only slight. Sisal has a
dead, lifeless color. The difference between the two might be
compared with enamel paint and flat paint. Cotton rope is
little used at present, altho, at one time, it was used almost
exclusively in some localities.

359. How Rope Is Made. In the actual process of
s making a rope, the fibers are
\ twisted right-handed into yarns;

D
\ YW 4 several yarns are twisted right-
U

handed into a strand, and the

ZEEE strands are twisted left-handed

Y into a rope. |
V}
al) 360. Rope Terms.
/ Fiber — material as obtained
Fic. 361. Parts of rope: A, rope;
B and C, strands; D, fiber from plant.
Psiee aaLeert, Yarn—twisted fiber.

Thread—two or more small yarns twisted together left-handed.
(Usually cotton, wool and silk.)

String or Twine—same as thread, but made of a little larger
yarns. (Jute and hemp also used.)

Strand—same as string, but with larger yarns, for making
rope.

Cord—two or more threads or strings twisted together.

Rope—two or more strands twisted together right-handed.

Hawser—a rope of three strands.

Shroud-laid—a rope of four strands.

Cable—three hawsers twisted together left-handed.

Standing part—long end of rope not used.

CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF ROPE 381

Bight—is formed when the rope is turned back on itself, form-
ing the letter U.

E'nd—part used in leading.

Loop—is formed by crossing the sides of a bight.

Lay—-to twist the strands of a rope together.

Unlay—to untwist the strands of a rope.

Relay—to twist strands together that have become untwisted.
Whip—to bind the end of the rope to prevent raveling.
Splice—to join two ends of a rope by interweaving the strands.
Crown splice—to interweave the strands at the end of a rope.
Pay—to paint, tar or grease a rope to resist moisture.
Haul—to pull on a rope.
Taut—drawn tight or strained.

361. Care and Treatment of Rope. A new rope that
is kinky when unwound can best be straightened out by draw-
ing it across the floor or over a sod-covered field. If it is very
stiff, it should be immersed in raw linseed oil, tallow or lard,
and boiled. This treatment not only makes the rope more
pliable, but serves as a lubricant, preventing internal wear.
The wear inside a rope is the result of the fibers slipping back
and forth over each other, frequently caused by using a pul-
ley that is too small. This wear in a rope can be easily seen
by pulling the strands apart. Often a rope is greatly weak-
ened before the wear is noticed. External wear is the result
of drawing the rope over rough surfaces which tears the fibers.
This source of wear can be easily detected and removed.
Where it is desired to protect the rope from dampness, as well
as to prevent external wear, the application of an exterior
coating such as tallow, graphite, beeswax, or black lead and
tallow, will lengthen the life of arope. Always keep rope ina

382 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK

dry place. Ifit does get wet, stretch to dry it. Do not allow
the end of the rope to unravel.

362. Requirements of a Good Knot. The three re-
quirements of a good knot have been stated as follows: (a)
Rapidity with which it can be tied, (6) its ability to hold fast
when pulled tight, (c) the readiness with which it can be un-
tied.

363. Theory of Knots and Splices. Method of making
various types of knots can be acquired only by practice. The
method of making many good knots is obtained by close ob-
servation. There are no very definite rules that one can fol-
low. The following principles should be kept in mind:

“The principle of a knot is that no two parts which move in
the same direction, if the rope were to slip, should lie along-
side of and touch each other.”’* . . . “A knot or hitch must
be so devised that the tight part of the rope must bear on
the free end in such a manner as to pinch and hold it, in a knot
against another tight part of the rope, or in a hitch against
the object to which the rope is attached.” +

The student should try to apply these two principles re
they are thoroly mastered.

*Wm. Kent, Mechanical Engineers’ Hand Book.
tHoward W. Riley, Cornell Reading Course.

CHAPTER XXXVII
WHIPPING AND MAKING END KNoTS, END SPLICES

364. Tools and Materials Needed for Rope Work.
Tools and Materials Needed: A knife and a large nail or marlin
spike (Fig. 862) which can be whittled out of a piece of
hard wood, are the only tools needed for this work. A
few pieces of 3/8’’ rope and
some pieces of cord will com- ee
plete the equipment. Fic. 362. Marlin spike.
365. Treatment of Raveled Ropes. In ropes that are
raveled, the strands should be twisted and carefully relaid to
the point where the knot is to be formed. In unlaying the
end of a new rope in preparation for making a knot, care must

Fic. 363. Whipping end of rope.

be taken not to untwist the strands. Neither whipping nor
down crowns can be called knots, but they serve the purpose
of a knot and can be used to advantage where it is desirable to
have a knot on the end of a rope.

366. Whipping. Place the piece of cord on the rope,
allowing one end to hang loosely over the end of the rope
about 2” (A, Fig. 363). Make a loop by passing the other

383

384 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK

(B) end of the string along the rope to make a loose end of
about 2’’.. Hold the rope and cord with left hand, as shown
in 2, Fig. 363. Grasp the loop of cord with the right hand
and wrap it tightly down the rove over itself, as shown in
third sketch. When wrapped as much as desired, draw up
the loop by pulling on the ends A andB. This will complete
the job of whipping.

367. Crown Knot. The crown knot (Fig. 364) in itself
is of little value, but it is
the first step in making a
crown or end splice. First

unlay several inches of
rope, then bring strand
No. 1 between strands

2 5 Nos. 2 and 3, forming a
Fic. 364. Crown knot.

loop, as shown in sketch 1.
Pass strand No. 2 across the loop, as shown in sketch 2.
Pass strand No. 3 over strand No. 2 and thru the loop. Pull
the strands down tightly and complete the crown.

1 ie ae 5 i
Fic. 365. Wall knot.

368. Wall Knot (Fig. 365). Unlay several inches of rope
as in previous case. Hold rope with left hand and with right

WHIPPING AND MAKING END KNOTS, SPLICES 385

hand bring strand No. 1 around, forming a loop as in 1.
Strand No. 2 is passed around No. 1, as indicated by arrow in
1. Strand No. 3 is passed around No. 2 and up thru loop
formed by No. 1, as indicated in 2 and 3. The loose
ends are then drawn up, as shown in 4.

369. Wall and Crown Knot (Fig. 366). As the name
would imply, the knot is a combina-
tion of the two previous knots. The
wall knot is made and then the crown
knot, as shown in 1 and 2, Fig. 366.

370. Manrope Knot. (Fig. 367.)

This knot is also a combination of the vie 66. i :
wall and crown knot, but is made just crown knot.
the reverse of the wall and crown knot. The crown knot is

(
f 4

_ first made and the wall knot drawn down
over it.
371. Matthew Walker Knot (Fig.
368). This is a very permanent end
a 367. ee knot. Itis made by first making a loosely-
rope knot. constructed wall knot, then by passing A
thru the loop with B, B thru the loop with C, and C thru the
loop with A, as shown in 1, Fig. 368. Bs
When drawn up tight, we have knot,
as shown in 2, Fig. 368.
372. End or Crown Splice (Fig.
369). Thisis one of the best end fas-
tenings for lead ropes. It is made

}

2
E Fic. 868. Matthew
by making a crown knot and then Walker knot.

splicing back the loose ends. A large nail or marlin spike is
best for weaving the loose ends back. Each loose strand is

386 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK

passed over the adjacent strand in a diagonal direction and
under the next one, as shown in 1, 2 and 3, Fig. 369.

373. Overhand Knot (Fig. 370). The overhand knot is

— ae

Fic. 370. Overhand knot.

I fa 5
Fic. 369. Crown splice.

one of the most common and the simplest of end knots. It
forms a part of many other knots and hitches. It is made by
making a loop in the rope and passing one end thru it. Either
a right- or left-hand knot may be made.

374. Blood Knot (Fig. 371). This knot is larger than
the overhand knot, but made in the same way, except that

ESS

QV
[FSS SESSISSSS
WN —
NossssssS

SSS

a °>

Fic. 371. Blood knot. Fic. 372. Figure 8 knot.

the end of the rope is passed thru the loop several times before
it is pulled tight. A similar knot is made by the seamstress
by rolling the end of the thread between the finger and thumb.
375. Figure 8 Knot (Fig. 372). This knot is a good one
to use on the ends of ropes to prevent them from being pulled

WHIPPING AND MAKING END KNOTS, SPLICES 387

thru a pulley ora hole. It is made by forming a loop, then
passing the short end A of the loop over the standing part of
the rope B at X and bringing it back thru the loop at Y.

Fic. 373. Stevedore knot.

376. Stevedore Knot (Fig. 373). This knot is the same
as the figure 8 knot, but instead of one turn around the stand-
ing part of rope, three turns are made, as shown in 1 and 2,
Pig. 313.

CHAPTER XXXVIII

TYING KNOTS AND HITCHES

377. Practice in Tying Knots. Whip the ends
of each piece of rope. Study each knot carefully, and
make the same knot several times for practice with and
without sketch. Be sure the knot is correctly tied before at-
tempting a new one.

378. Binder Knot. This knot (Fig. 374) is one of the
simplest for fastening two pieces of
rope together. It is made by taking
the two rope ends, placing them
side by side, and tying an overhand —

knot.

379. Square Knot (Fig. 375). This is a smooth knot
that is easily tied and easily untied. It is used a great deal
for tying packages; also, for fastening the ends of binder twine

=X
WES SSS> NY) SS
ee =<
> WG

Fic. 375. Square knot.

when threading the binder. To make this knot, first make a
right-hand overhand knot, then cross the strand and tie the
left-hand overhand knot. This knot will not hold if the two

ropes are of different sizes.
388

TYING KNOTS AND HITCHES 389

380. Granny Knot (Fig. 376). The granny knot slips
easily and is therefore a very poor knot. The difference be-
tween the granny knot and square knot can be easily noted by
comparing Fig. 375 and Fig. 376. A great many make the
granny knot when attempting to make the square knot.

wot

. Surgeon’s knot.

381. Surgeon’s Knot (Fig. 377). This knot is practi-
cally the same as the square knot, except that when making
the right-hand overhand knot, the rope is twice wrapped in-
stead of only once. The second part of the knot is completed
by making a left-hand overhand as in completing the square
knot.

Fic. 378. Weaver’s knot.

382. Weaver's Knot (Fig. 378). This knot is one of the
best, due to the fact that it holds well, is easily tied and easily
untied. To tie this knot, grasp the ends of the rope with left
hand, as shown inl. With end A under B, grasp rope at X
and pass it around end A, forming a loop as in 2; complete the
knot by passing end B thru loop asin 38. Draw it up tight.

390 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK

383. Carrick’s Bend (Fig. 379). This knot is used as a
fancy knot in braids. It is also a very satisfactory knot to .
fasten ropes together. In tying this knot, form a loop with
the end Y under the standing part A, as shown in 1. Pass

Fic. 379. Carrick’s bend.

the other end of rope under the loop X, over the standing
part A, under end Y, again over A, under standing part B and
over A, the final knot being completed asin 4. When drawn
tight, it will assume the shape of a double bowline.

Knots for Fastening Cattle, Tying Hay Ropes, Etc.:

A point to be considered in use of rope is the correct selec-
tion of knot for right place; this is especially true where a
knot is to be loosened often, or where it is desired to have a
knot that will slip.

384. Bowline Knot (Fig. 380). This is one of the best
knots for fastening the end of a rope as in hitching. ‘There
are several kinds, but the overhand is probably the easiest
and quickest to make. To make the knot, form a small loop
(C) in 1 near the end of the rope, as in Fig. 380. Hold the
loop with the left hand, grasp the end A with the right hand,

391

TYING KNOTS AND HITCHES

pass it thru the loop C and around the standing part B, and

back thru the loop, as in 2 and 3.

This

Rope Bowline Knot (Fig. 381).
but is used

Double
knot is quite similar to the knot just described

385.

Fic. 380. Bowline knot.

Fic. 381. Double rope bowline.

when made in the middle of a long rope or at the end when
doubled. A loop (X) is formed and part A passed thru as in

392 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK

previous case. Part A is drawn thru far enough so that the
double loop B can be drawn thru it, as shown in 2 and 8. This
knot is especially useful in throwing horses and cattle.

386. Slip Knot (Fig.
$62). The slip knotvisea
very common one and often
used when a different type
of knot would be much more
satisfactory. To tie this
knot, form a loop, grasp
rope B and draw it thru, as
shown in 1 and 2 in Fig. 382.

387. Manger Knot (Fig. 383). This knot is quite simi-
lar to the ordinary slip knot, but much better on account of

Fic. 382. Slip knot.

Fic. 883. Manger knot.

being easier to untie. To tie this knot, form a loop C, grasp
the bight B and pass it around the standing part of the rope
and thru loop C; then complete the knot by bringing end A
around the standing part and thru B.

TYING KNOTS AND HITCHES 393

388. Lariat Knot (Fig. 384). As the name would indi-
cate, this knot is used in forming a lariat. It is tied by first
forming an overhand knot near the end of therope, asat C in1,

Fic. 384. Lariat knot.

Fig. 384. Theend A is then passed around the standing part
B and thru the loop twice. The overhand knot is then drawn
tight and the knot is complete.

389. Hangman’s Noose (Fig. 385). This is another
knot withaslip loop. Itisa knot that is easy to tie and holds

Fic. 385. Hangman’s knot.

well. Make a double loop, as in1; then wind theend of rope
back the number of rounds desired, passing it thru loop Y, 2.
By drawing on the noose, the knot is completed, as in 3.

394 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK

390. Farmer’s Loop (Fig. 386). If it is desired to tie a
loop in the middle of a rope when both ends are fastened, the
farmer’s loop is suitable. It is easily tied and easily untied.
Make two turns in rope and hold it, as in 1, Fig. 886. Pass

FASSSSSS >
a

Fic. 386. Farmer’s loop.

loop A under loop B between B and Cin 2. Next pass loop
C under loop A, as in 8. Now, pass B under loop C and up
between A and C in 4. The knot is completed by drawing
the standing part tight.

Temporary Hitches.

Note: A hitch should be selected for a particular use. One
should be very careful in making a scaffold hitch where life is
in danger. It must be kept in mind that the hitches here
outlined are for temporary use. ,

391. Half Hitch (Fig. 387). The half hitch is one step
in making other hitches and knots. It is useful, however,
when the standing part of the rope is drawn tight and pinches
the end against object tied, as in Fig. 387.

TYING KNOTS AND HITCHES 395

392. Timber Hitch (Figs. 388 and 389). This hitch is
one step in advance over the half hitch. The end of the rope
is wrapped several times instead of simply drawn under once

Fic. 387. Half hitch. Fic. 388. Timber hitch.

as in the half hitch. A combination of the timber and half
hitch is much more secure. (See Fig. 389.)

Fic. 389. Timber and half
hitch.

Fic. 390. Rolling hitch.

393. Rolling Hitch (Fig. 390). This hitch is very easily
and quickly made, and is a suitable fastening for most any
purpose. Wrap rope three times about the object to which
it is to be fastened, then make two half hitches about the
standing part.

394. Clove Hitch (Fig. 391). This is one of the simplest
and yet one of the most secure methods of fastening tent
ropes, guy ropes or any rope when there is to be a direct
pull against it. There are several methods of making the

396 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK

clove hitch, but probably the farmer’s method is best. Cross
the arms, the left in front of the right; grasp the rope, as in 1,
Fig. 391; then bring the hands to position. shown in 2; then

{ 2
Fic. 391. Clove hitch.

complete the hitch by turning both hands to the right, as in 8.

395. Scaffold Hitch (Fig. 392). The scaffold hitch isa
modified form of the clove hitch. Make a rather loose clove

a
Fic. 392. Scaffold hitch.

hitch and place over the end of scaffold, as in 1, Fig. 392.
Draw the ropes tight in opposite direction, turn the plank
over and fasten short end to the standing part by means of a
bowline knot, as in 3.

396. Blackwall Hitch (Fig. 393). This hitch can be
used only when the pull on rope is continuous and a hook is
provided. Make a bight in the rope and pass around the

TYING KNOTS AND HITCHES 397

hook; the free end is then passed thru the hook, and the
standing part passed over it from the opposite side.

397. Sheepshank (Fig. 394). The sheepshank is not a
hitch in the same sense as the other hitches described. It is

FIG. a Blackwall hitch.
used as a means of shortening ropes. To tie this hitch, a loop
is formed that is large enough to reduce the rope to desired
length (see 1, Fig. 394) and held in the left hand; a half hitch
is formed of the standing part of the rope and passed over

Fic. 394. Sheepshank.
each end of the loop,asin2. Tomake this hitch permanent, the
standing part is drawn thru the bight at each end of the loop.
Splices:
398. EndorCrown Splice. Thistype of splice has been
described under head of means of preventing rope from
raveling (Fig. 369).

398 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK

399. Loop Splice (Fig. 395). This splice is used when a
permanent loop is to be constructed at any point of the rope
other than the end. The size and location of the loop is first
determined, then two strands are raised on the short end and

Fic. 395. Loop splice.
the lead rope passed under them. ‘To complete the splice,
two strands in the long part of the rope are raised, asina, 1,
Fig. 395; and the short end b is passed thru and drawn up,
AS iio.

Fic. 396. Eyesplice. :

400. Eye Splice or Side Splice (Fig. 396). The eye
splice is used when it is desired to form a loop at the end of a
rope or as aside splice where it is desired to fasten one rope to
another at any point other than the end. Unlay the end of
the rope for several inches, determine the size of loop to form,
then place the two outside strands to straddle the main rope

TYING KNOTS AND HITCHES 399

and the center strand to run along the top of the rope, as in 1,
Fig. 396. Now, by means of the marlin spike or large nail,
raise one of the strands A and pass the center strand No. 1
under it. Pass strand No. 2 over A and under B, and pass
strand No. 3 thru from the opposite side so that it comes out
where No. lenters. Draw all ends up snug and weave in the
strands, as described for the end splice.

401. Short Splice (Fig. 397)... The short splice is used
for joining the two ends of rope together when it is not desired

SSSSSSSEES PPS Ess
Cnt

Fic. 397. Shortsplice.

to draw it thru pulleys. This splice is not as smooth as the
long splice, but it is strong and quite easily made. To make
the splice, unlay the ends of the two ropes for a sufficient dis-
tance, depending on size of rope and load—for a 3/8” rope, at
least 6’... Bring the ends of the rope together so that the
strands of one pass alternately between those of the other, as
in 1, Fig.397. Take each pair of strands from opposite sides
and tie a right-hand overhand knot, draw the knots tightly
and pass each strand diagonally to the left, then weave itin as
in making the end splice (1, 2 and 3, Fig. 397).

402. Long Splice (Fig. 398). This type of splice is so
nearly the same size as the other part of the rope, that it can
be used thru pulleys without hindrance. Every user of rope

400 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK

Cty?

ogve Pp.

tn od
Foe a test!

ON a
4

Fic. 398. Long splice.

TYING KNOTS AND HITCHES AOL

should know how to make the long splice. Unlay the end of
the rope, as in making a short splice. A 1/4’’ rope should be
unlaid about 12”, a 3/8”’ rope 16”, a 1/2” rope 24”, and a 1”
rope 36”, to obtain best results. Lock the strands as in the
beginning of the short splice, pair the strands from each end,
as in 1, Fig. 398, twisting two of the pairs together. As for
the remaining pair, unlay one strand and relay the other
strand in its place. Continue until within a few inches of the
end of the relaid strand No. 1, asin 2. Repeat the process
with either pair of the other strands. Untwist the last pair;
the rope should appear, as in 3, with each strand coming from
the left and passing in front of the strands from the right.
To complete the splice, tie each pair of strands with a right-
hand overhand knot, asin 4. Weave the loose ends into the
rope by passing one end over the adjacent strand and under
the next, as in 5. Cut the ends of strands off and pound
down the uneven ends to make finished splice, as in 6.

CHAPTER SOO
PROJECTS IN ROPE WoRK

403. Making a Halter.

Preliminary Instructions: There will be 12’ or more of rope
needed for this project. Temporary halters are much
more satisfactory for leading an animal than is a rope
placed about the animal’s neck. To make a temporary

I
Fic. 399. Temporary halter.

halter, it is necessary to know how to make a few of the
various knots and hitches described in previous pages
and referred to in this project.

Halter No. 1 (Fig. 399). To construct this halter, first
make a loop in the end of the rope A, tying it with a simple
overhand bowline, as described in Sec. 389. Pass the end of
rope with loop about animal’s neck and form a second loop B
in the standing part of the rope thru which draw loop A and
place around the animal’s nose. The slack is drawn out with
the free end of the rope, as in 2.

Halter No. 2 (Fig. 400). This type of temporary halter is
usually called the Hackamore. It is used for leading either
cattle or horses, and is made by passing one end of the rope

402

PROJECTS IN ROPE WORK 403

about the animal’s neck and tying with a bowline knot. A
half hitch is thrown in the standing part of the rope and
passed over the animal’s nose, as in 1, Fig. 400; a second half

Fic. 400. Temporary halter (Hackamore).

hitch is made below the first and passed over the nose, as in 2.
The first half hitch is wrapped about the second and passed
over the aninal’s head, asin 3. To complete the halter, the
standing part of the rope is passed thru the loop C below the
half hitch, as indicated in 4.

404 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK

404. An Adjustable Halter (Fig. 401).

Preliminary Instructions: ‘To make a satisfactory adjust-
able halter, it is necessary to be familiar with the method
of making the eye splice, loop splice and end splice. The
size of rope to use will depend
on the use of halter. Most
halters are made from 1/2’ to
3/4’’ rope. The length of rope
needed is 12’.

Working Instructions:

1) Make an eye splice in end of
rope as ata, Fig. 401 This
splice should be only large
enough to allow the standing
part of rope to pass thru it

Fic, 401, Adjustable halter. freely.
2) Measure from the loop of the

eye splice the distance (d) that will be required to reach
nearly around the animal’s nose. At this point make a
loop splice (b) with loop the same size as that of the
eye splice.
3) Pass the standing end of the rope thru loop a and loop b.
4) Complete halter by making end splice on end ¢.

405. Making a Non-Adjustable Halter (Fig. 402).
Note: The only difference between this balter and the one
described in Sec. 404 is that the head piece and nose piece
are made of definite length, depending on the head dimen-
sions of the particular animal for which the halter is made.
1) Determine the necessary length of head piece and nose
piece by measuring animal’s head.

PROJECTS IN ROPE WORK A405

2) Make loop splice (6, Fig. 402), leaving ¢ long enough to

form nose piece.

3) Side splice end of ¢ into standing part of rope at a, mak-

ing head piece d of suitable

size.

4) Thread end c thru loop 6.

5) Make end splice e in end of
standing part of rope to com-
plete the halter.

406. The Trip Rope (Fig. 403).
Materials Needed: “Thirty feet of
1/2’ rope, three 2’”’ rings, and
two heavy straps with buck-

les to go around ankles.
Preliminary Instructions: In
handling young horses, it is

Fic. 402. Non-adjustable
halter.

sometimes very essential to have some means of tripping
them when the horse does not obey the command of the

Fic. 403. Trip rope.

trainer. Knee pads should be provided when the trip

rope is used.

406 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK

Working Instructions:

1) Place ankle straps on front ankles with a ring on each
strap.

2) Place surcingle with ring at bottom around horse just
back of shoulders, or tie around the body at this point a
piece of rope, using a single bowline knot.

3) Take long rope provided, pass thru ring on ankle strap of
near foot, up thru ring at bottom of surcingle, and down

-- USE HALTER

aS
y
Sy,
<—

“"" Lier THis Foor
Fic. 404. Throwing rope.

to other ankle ring where it is tied. The trip is then
ready to use by pulling on standing part of long rope.
407. Throwing or Casting Rope (Fig. 404).
Materials Needed: Thirty feet of 1/2” rope and straps.
Preliminary Instructions: In handling horses, it is some-
times necessary to throw the animal for the purpose of an
operation or otherwise. To avoid chafing or burning the
animal with a rope, straps should be provided for those
places where a rope would rub.
Working Instructions:
1) Tie a double rope bowline knot, as described in Sec.
385, in middle of rope to serve as crupper.

PROJECTS IN ROPE WORK 407

2) Adjust crupper in place, run to withers and tie a square
knot (Sec. 379).

3) Pass rope about body at withers just back of front legs;
tie with another square knot, forming a surcingle and

Fic. 405. Casting rope.

crupper properly adjusted to the animal. Provide ring
or girth, as shown in Fig. 404.

4) Run the free end of the rope from top of surcingle thru
the ring in halter back thru ring on girth. The rope is
then ready for use.

5) Instead of rope under No. 8, a regular crupper and sur-
cingle may be used. |

6) To use rope, lift the front foot of the animal on the side
opposite that on which the rope is passed and pull on the
free end of the rope.

408. Rope for Casting Cattle (Fig. 405).
Material Needed: Thirty-five feet of 1” rope.
Preliminary Instructions: The instruction for throwing a
horse should be kept in mind in throwing a cow or steer.
Care must be observed to avoid hurting the animal. One

408 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK

need be acquainted only with the bowline knot and the
simplest half hitches to adjust a rope for throwing cattle.
Working Instructions:

1) Place one end around the animal’s neck and tie rope with
a bowline knot (a, Fig. 405).

2) Pass the rope about the animal’s body just back of the
fore legs, forming a half hitch at withers, as shown at ),
Fig. 405.

3) Pass the rope about the body (c) at the hips, forming an-
other half hitch.

A) If acow is to be thrown, the rope should be placed just in
front of the udder.

5) To throw the animal, pull to rear and toward side upon
which it is to be thrown.

GHAPTER, Xs
HARNESS REPAIR

409. The Importance of Good Harness. Nothing
adds more to the appearance of a well-groomed horse than a
neat, clean and properly-fitting harness. A good set of har-
ness not only adds to the appearance of a team, but makes the
team more efficient in its operation. A first-class teamster
will take pride in keeping his team properly fitted. Such
negligence as allowing the harness to be bound up with pieces
of baling wire and with binder twine is inexcusable. Often
the hame straps are allowed to loosen, the breeching to hang
too low, resulting in sore shoulders and chafed sides and back.

The farmer cannot afford to neglect the care and upkeep of
his harness. In fact, each farmer should be provided with a
simple harness repair outfit and keep on hand a few supplies
for adding a strap by sewing or riveting where one is worn.

The life of a harness can be greatly increased by systematic
care. ‘The practice of oiling the harness at least once a year
should not be overlooked. Take the harness apart and wash
it thoroly in warm, soft water and soap; allow it time to dry;
then apply a coat of good quality harness oil. Allow the oil
to soak in before it is rubbed off. Before the harness is re-
assembled, each part should be gone over carefully and
needed repairs made. This work can easily be done on the
farm on rainy days.

410. The Harness Room. A conveniently-located har-

ness room is of great value in caring for the harness. It is
409

410 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK

very objectionable to store the harness in most stables due to
the effect of the moisture and the ammonia from the manure.
When the stable is kept thoroly cleaned and is well ventilated,
harness can be kept with little damage and are thereby much
more conveniently located for use.

411. Harness Oil. Be careful not to use a mineral oil
for the harness or leather belts. Mineral oils will cause the
leather to dry out and crack. Buy only standard brands
found on the market. A good oil can be made by melting
three pounds of tallow without letting it boil, and gently add-
ing one pound of neat’s-foot oil. Stir continuously until cold
so that it will be perfectly mixed. Color by adding a little
lampblack.

412. Repair Leather. Leather for repairing can be
bought from any harness shop. It is best to buy a fairly
large piece, as it can be secured much more cheaply that way.
Some men buy a half hide, and, thereby, secure some of
both the best quality leather from the back of the hideand the
poorer, cheaper belly leather. The latter can be used where
there is little strain.

413. Equipment for HarnessWork. A clamp is needed
for holding the work. This can easily be made at home.
Some men prefer a vise toaclamp. A common type of clamp
is illustrated and described under woodwork. (Fig. 86.)
In addition to the clamp, the repair outfit should consist of
the following: One dozen sewing needles, different sizes; a
sharp knife, half dozen awls, ball of shoe thread, two awl
handles, one revolving punch, one small riveter with rivets.
The entire repair outfit can be purchased for less than $2.
Instead of shoe thread and wax, the prepared thread can be

HARNESS REPAIR 411

secured. An advantage of the shoe thread and wax is that it
can be prepared to meet the requirement of the special job.
414, Splicing Worn Harness Strap.
Requirements: To make a satisfactory splice that will be
smooth and not chafe, and if used thru a ring, will not
catch or bind. It must also be strong enough to resist

the force applied to it.
Materials Needed: Suitable leather strip for repair, thread,
wax. '

Tools Needed: Clamp (such as shown in Fig. 86), one select-
ed awl, two selected needles, one sharp knife.

415. Preparing Strap for Sewing. Prepare the worn
strap for splice by cutting away the worn part. Thin the
ends down with a sharp knife to a gradual taper for about 3”.
If the strap is one that can be shortened, it is then ready for
splicing; otherwise, an insert will have to be prepared and a
double splice made. Small wire tacks are useful in holding
the straps together while the stitching is being done. Prepare
thread for sewing by waxing it. To do this, the thread must
first be broken with aragged end. Pull the thread out of the
center of the ball, hold it on the knee, and roll it to take out
the twist. When the twist is out, give the string a pull and it
should break with long ragged ends. Give the end a twist
around the first finger of the left hand and draw it thru the
right hand. When about 6’ have been drawn out, throw the
center over a hook in the wall and pull until the ends are
about even and each about 3’ long. Keep the string tight
with the left hand, and with the right hand rub it on the knee
as before and break it. Repeat this until the required num-
ber of strands have been secured, depending on the work to be

412 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK

done. Make the ends of the strands slightly uneven in length
to provide a long tapering point for threading the needle.
Wax the free ends before twisting. Twist the thread care-
fully and wax it thoroly. Put the two needles on the thread

ready for sewing.
Beno Here

fae]

Bevecep Eoce

Fic. 406. Sewing buckle or strap.

416. Sewing the Splice. Put the splice in the clamp,
using extreme care to keep edges perfectly even. Mark off
holes a definite distance apart. Make hole with the awl, in-
sert needle and draw the thread half way thru, leaving one
needle on each side. Make another hole with the awl, insert
the needle thru and draw the thread thru a few inches; then
put the other needle thru the same hole from the other side
and pull both threads up tight, being careful to avoid knots.
Continue this process along both sides and across the ends of
the splice. ‘To do a good job, keep the stitches straight and
of uniform length. 'To complete the job, draw the ends of the
thread out between the splice and tie.

417. Sewing Buckle and Ring on Harness Strap. Suit-
able buckle, ring and strap for the work intended are the re-
quired materials for this job. The proper selection of strap

and buckle for the particular job is very essential. The
buckle should be slightly wider than the strap to insure ease
in buckling and to reduce the amount of wear on the strap.
The strap should be prepared for sewing as in preceding exer-
cise. Fig. 406 illustrates this operation.

418. Instructions for Sewing Buckle. If strap is
wider than buckle, trim it down until it is a very little nar-

Fic. 407. Single harness, breast collar type.

rower than the buckle. Double end of strap back thru buckle
at least 2” for a 1” strap; cut a slot for the tongue of buckle
long enough to move the tongue thru 180 degrees. Next
shave the inner surface of the end of the strap to a beveled
edge to make a smooth joint when it issewed. Cut a narrow
strap of leather to pass around the strap, as shown (Fig. 406),
to hold the opposite end of the strap when buckled. Put buckle
in place, fold strap back, and clamp tightly in sewing clamp.
Proceed to sew, as in preceding problem. Riveting and sew-
ing can often be employed together on such work.

414 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK

419. Overhauling a Set of Harness (Figs. 407 and A08).
Preliminary Instructions: Soap and water, oil, harness dress-
ing and metal polish must be provided for this work.
Harness in poor repair means a loss of time during the
busy season. Inspect and repair all harness before the

1-BRioLe CROWNPIECE , 2-BROWBAND , 5- BLINDSTAY ,4~BLINDS,
S-THROATLATCH, 6- CHEEKPIECE , 7-NOSEBAND, 8-BiT, 9-REIN,
1O-HAMES, 11-NECKYOKE CHAINS, 12> BREAST STRAP, I5-BELLYBAND,
14-BACK STRAP, 15-SADDLE, 16-HiIPSTRAPS, 17~BREECHING, I8-LAzY-
STRAG -I9~HEELCHAIN, 20-HOLDING BACK STRAP , 21-LINES, 22-COLLAR

Fic. 408. Double harness.

spring season work begins. The best time to do this is
when the weather is bad and outside work cannot be
done to advantage. ‘To keep the harness in best condi-
tion, they should be gone over at least twice each year.

Working Instructions: First take the harness apart so that
each strap, buckle and ring can be carefully inspected.
Carefully clean with a little warm soft water. If the
harness is very dirty, soak for a few minutes in warm
water; then scrub with a brush, using soap freely; wipe
and hang up to dry. When dried, apply oil, prepared as

HARNESS REPAIR 415

outlined in Sec. 411, or a special harness oil. Make
several applications and rub the oil into the leather to
get the best results. To give the harness a good, glossy,
black finish, it is necessary to apply some good standard
harness dressing as recommended by the harness-maker.
Ordinary black shoe polish may be used, but would prob-
ably be a little more expensive than the material pre-
pared for the purpose. After application, rub vigor-
ously with a polishing cloth to get the best results. To
clean the metal mountings, use some form of metal pol-
ish or cleansing compound, like Old Dutch Cleanser or
Bon Ami. Careful polishing is a big factor in giving the
harness a good appearance. Lastly, put harness back
together, making all necessary repairs, adding new straps,
buckles or rings where needed, following instructions out-
lined in Sees. 415-418.

420. Adjusting Harness to Horse. Every one who
handles a team should realize the importance of a well-fitted
harness. A poorly-fitted harness not only hinders the horse
in working, but is liable to make a balker out of a good
worker, and, in addition, is liable to damage the horse by
causing a sore mouth, shoulders or back. Well-fitted harness
insures more work done during the busy season.

421. The Bridle. The fitting of the bridle will depend
on the individual animal. Adjust the check pieces so that
the bit will not hang too low in the mouth or so high that it
will raise the corners of the mouth, thereby causing soreness.
Each part of the bridle should fit snugly, but not so tight as to
cause pinching. The blinds should fit snugly up to the head.
Do not adjust the throat latch too tight.

416 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK

422. TheCollar. Pay especial attention to the collar, as
it must bear the load. Test the fittings of the collar by press-
ing it back against the shoulder when the horse is holding its
head in working position. The collar should have an even con-
tact against all parts of the shoulder and have ample space at
the wind pipe for the place of one’s hand. Collars often need
to be readjusted after the animal has been worked a while in
the spring, due to its losing flesh. Adjust breast collar to a
height where it will neither hinder movement nor interfere
with breathing.

423. Hames. After the collar is adjusted, adjust the
hames at the top to fit the collar and then buckle or tie as
tightly as possible at the bottom.

424. Other Adjustments. All other parts of the har-
ness should be adjusted to make them fit snugly, neither too
tight nor too loose. Adjust the breeching the proper height.
Fit the saddle to the back at the low place just back of the
withers. Adjust the crupper strap, back straps, hip straps,
holding back straps and traces to proper length in the order
mentioned.

Note: Avoid accidents in hitching the team to implement
or vehicle by taking down the lines and adjusting them first.

INDEX

Page
A
Aaustine, binder ...5 «5,4 ¢.-...316
COM DlANvehsa ak. 68 se 309
fertilizer distributors. ..... 310
PANNE gk Ge eee ese 324
ro CES os Pe, x Sc ew 307
Sram SeParacOr.. ) s.c. as... 2018
RNOMCT Ota Rie sot ale ot Pos ch udta 313
LOWS hed i Pace koe 301, 302
Adjustmenttimefor machinery 298
Acetylene lighting..........348
PROPVEC ALES oc ee kas ee LLG
PMOTUAULON o. cst 2. eke Wea se « 128
Agricultural, engineering... . 262
MEOQUCHION.. 62s. 4 Acne tees 264
Air-pressure water system... .351
LANCE VECO Re ae 157
Artificial ceement............ 113
ASPOIN, J OSCDN ae. c4. ca a: 113
ALC 0') O21 as, 151
Attachment, binder . oe
PEUPACUOM ss yi..c 2 as Sos mae
Automobile, engine. . . 324
PUSAN Ve 2 eho erg i. nao 166
B

Battin: 53 Fea oo eo
solid bearing... . ee
split bearing... ... .829

Back saw, use of... .. 40

Bags; cement... ......... ee
Bank-run gravel..... 122,143
Barnyard pavement......... 149
Barenemixeha tn 209457 oo ee 126
BCA Pe Rak eee eaten as 300, 301
Bearing, babbitting Sey Al
SERA Os, Aetna o2o
PA Cneh 20: cehee wee uPne Ree BS 8 319
Belt, clamping and gluing. 330
Belt-driven machinery.......317
Belts, kinds. . cat 329
Bevel oe setting (ae, oe ae 44
Binder. . -280;, 289, 263, 316
@anvases ..0.... 00.0... 316
reel . pont
repair and adjustment. . 316

Page

Blacksmith’s fire, the. ...... 197
Blacksmith’stools....... 192-195
BU aS os op oa ees alee 293, 345
Board feet, calculationfor |... .59
PSO JOUM ge eis sas os 3 abn od. aches 68
Pn ACCs Gy nee hk ons ac ale S 156, 157
8) 2) (2 a es ae 295
Bumpers, disc harrow........ 303

Calibration, corn planter. .... 309
ras. ste od es do, 307
Carbon, cleaning cylinder..... 326
Careofmachinery....... 267-271
Carriagestep............... 153
Cellar, fruitstorage...... 179, 180
POU AGO ge fae ois Gas 179, Le0
Cement, artificial. ...<:..... Eis
PPV CRETE Lose, ie tna aes ven -g DATS
POPElAMG wy o. 2hn os & care ene 113
properties.......... galolig
requirements... ... 115
Romans 6... Ee i 4
Channeliron.... .176
Chemica] stains. . ee 0
Chick wire... 2.00... 6.05. 285, 308
CRISIS sce icra Met bat an whl, 274
use of woodworking.........66
Cistern, contamination...... .347
filter. .... Be 847
Clay, test for. 118, 1438
Cleaning form.............. 134
CVCVISM aire ok ee ye kt 301
Compression............... 135
Coal-tar, creosote oi! . 100
Concaves......... in i, ebeeeie eee LO
Concrete... .. ao alld
definition of 115
blaine Sees: 115
requirements of 120
strength of... . eS
Consistency... . eae 1A
Construction +45 ..:/s Js. th ooh. EEL
Continvous.amixer sc... <. 127.
Conveying....... een cts 4!)
Corn DINGEer ec 22 ak es + ke 287

418 INDEX
: ; Page Page
Corn, harvesting for silage... ..287 — Elevating... ...... 1. Sosa 130
Com planter.) 34 2622444557 S07 Engine, cas... 2:0. oe 324, 325
Corn plantings =. .250.02 40", 284 Questions. ...3423).5e 327, 328
et ea Rey ome a ie Equipment .- =.2. 7... ne 262, a
eT eRe Nee : OMG ...6 2.2... 3.0 eee 2
Creosote oil, treatment of wood, Errors, 2 4.4 3..7 oe 121
brush method.2. 2... 725. -: 101° Expansion... ...... ee 136
a cas method........ Pi Expansion joint: .... 22 151
TET) at te -7 2, tn as oe, et
Curing. wes ness » LOS LAG F
Cutter bar, mower........... a13 :
Cutter, pipe. - 22. 4 sence 358. Feeding floor... ....:. 23 149
Cutting WDC s 4.24, se Baten 363. Weed mills.... 2... 4302 Bu Yl
Cutting silage: .7.5.0%s:s.7ee-200 Fertilizer drill... ... 279, 310, 3138
OS MNCET asics ule tae ee ca $26 Fittings, pipe... ....2 eee
FileS:.-. ..4..:..0<< 0 2 eae 274
D Fire, blacksmith’s,maintaining.199
Deere, JON... 6 estes vee 4 aes 263 Sais FS 8 9 nes ee ae
Definitions, concrete......... nee Foo “feoding..... . ae Ee
Depreciation of machines... ..270 Fluted SORE ee 5
PCETICKS eatin hes ee eas 130 Flu = i ee deri . Sa ue
Die-stock and dies, pipe... .. .358 ¥ uxes forsoldering....... +. 22
OFMS).5...: -6s ac. eee 131, 132
Dipping vate: és yey anes k Lae 182 F ae h 168
Discarded machines.........271 ve ation, Mache. yea 79
DIS@ harrow. w.a 825406 a4 305 OOF 5 «ae
Disposal ofsewage...........853 Walls, 2 soy Sins ee eee 155,
. Frost line. .. 4/24) 20
DPA 46a oo oy ee nee oe L6S.h76 Frui
nage ruitstorage...........179,1380
digoinet0...44 2.40640 vee- 365 F
establishing.............. 364 UTNACE cos ens c3se es a 294
gradelinefor............. 364 .
outlet... 00.2.0 364 G
Drainage, additionaljobs.....378 Garage floor.............-.. 149
eee CaeRo wnat 361 Gas engines... ..:... 0. See 281
Rie, cee oun a on. 77 overhauling . vie uoea woe
installing forkitchensin. 363 g duestianson..------- ee
Drilling Conia. $2 oes ees 309 a8 Tene
a Gauge, wheel—plow......... 300
Drilling Oran. - 3b sss 3: eee 286 .
Drills O74 Glass, cutting... >. 47 gees
ee step eee See 152.153 settingin frame. . 7-6. a.. 107
Dry mixture... __ |) 4977 144 pasta PS. 120
rading corn ./..<...5.0. 2 eee 284
E Grain Pate 224 ets eee 316
Grain drill. ........ : 24 a eeeeeoe
Earth 1Ormis. 34....5.5 .5.. 0 131 repairing: .... 4.9. eee 305-807
Heo enea Socaedaevienrsedld Grain separator... =e 318
GER, caw oe en he 138, 152 Tepairing...... 2. eee 318
Effects of machines...... 263-265 Gravel..... 0. ...<.) eee 116
Electric lighting plant... .293, 342 Gravity watersystem.. . .348-350
belt-driven............... 342 installation of)... 348
UNIG() 6 24 ahead % ope Aen 842 Groover........ 1.) 2.) slsosmlen
Windmills, - 6572 cs. 342 Grinding valves........-e00s 326

Page
H
RC KeSOWiaratees tneetas ss Genco os 2 srs 274
Halter, makingrope...>..... 402
WT ATININETS Geet Sods Sie ac aes!
HWarness=..... 409-416
adjustment. Ry eae AN 415, 416
[ore (c hele vtec fea 8 eee uerae 415
COMATH See Wit Ae el 416
MAINES eRe ees = oe feds 416
HERG Chetek cre ole Sighs ae 410
CE MOR ye Ret ore wn. a, 410
OVERNAUNING fy o3 s 414
ie OPN eee ee eae eee 409, 414
LOONEY ites ease teh oF 409
Harness strap, sewing buckle

412, 413
Splicing er pote Borer we: 411
Harness work, equipment for. . 410
PUNTGOWS Mead ao nas Oh sesy be 303
HAnVeSstIne Stall. 5.5.. 8k L. 289
Harvesting machinery.......313
ay Narvesting. . 04 2%. ns 290
Haying machinery...........279
iteater, stock water.....-......31)
THeATING WOUSES ©. ..o4 es ek 345
NOLWAUCE a4 ues 5k oe e. 346
pipelessfurnace........... 345
SEC AM iat, ate clare oa Arh na? 346
EU TIANA gers nee Pbk, hanna. 8 Bs 345
Heel plows 2. a... 2204... 008
PASUOTICE AN hawk oe Peles 1 dee
PTOIS CUM Cin ees eh ih aS 130
HOP IWaAlOWies Aso eas 6.2 170
TGt- DCG e544 uss ae 155
Hotewavertank.) ..2. s.0 +. \. 374
Housing machinery.......... 270
Ebydraniiceurrent: 2. > 4a. 112
Elbyarauligramr.12 2... Jes... ool

Hydro-pneumatic water system
Sag Psy
automatic controlof....... 351
ODETACION Ol. oh eee es 351

impulsestartern<... 7.7.4. 50. 296
Iron and steel, manufacture of .185
Tron? bendingsame. =... 52. 20
drawing SAMC ty. ss 203
pigand wrought...........186

WIPSECCIN Ge. cee Mee os ee 205

419
Page
J
Jointer . .300, 301
Joint, expansion. 2, teers ON
Joints in belt lacing. - ger are Oars 300
K
Kitchensink...........366, 368
heCIQhG Seis ho taiive.c. ba eo ON
Installine 6 yucca 2 4 30. 806
locations <2 50.54 OOK
L
Tacinga belt. 26-328. 12¥ 830
Lamp, kerosene flat wick... ..341
kerosene tubular . 042
portable gasoline......... 344
Mandside, plows... =. 4445 x 300
Lap jointin soldering........240
Lighting, acetylene.......... 343
Bla CAS soa gules oi se eO4O
CHES DCSE. Avs tiie Moe oi 28 a 341
PEs sr gh Ms pd eos, 2 341
gasoline. . Pre Aleck soy aati ae
GlECtTIC a & 2. RRs ees x erase 342
THOGEHM 4s Sn a.d 4 have Soren aes ee 342
necessity forgood.........341
BAGNE DIAN GS. oe vac uen » seat 293
Iimestone. =. shes: ..0.-118, 143
TIME SOW! "sas oe ew: ee obs
[Te yea al ob see ee eee eee ee 15
HUOTICARION 2. © osru a o< Riko PAS |
M
Machine, mixing............ 126
requirements of........... 268
Machinery, careof.......... 267
PELL TENe hae Sao eos cur akin es. ee
ATISPCCLL ORME thoi8 Hee Gnas oes 298
Manhole cover.............. i aa
Manurespreader... .279, 310, 311
Marker, corn planter . .285

Marking gage, gaging: for width
useof.... a)
Marlin spike. Soe Le 383
Materials, for machine repair. RAT
Materials, rope.

COLLCONMEH =. Fone be ..319
MANMAMIDEE cho cs, wets. con 379
Sisal ers cen nee aes ILO
MeCormicks 3 2224.4 see. 263
Measurement........... 139, 140

420 INDEX
Page Page
Measuring and calculating lum- Pipe, “wrenches. .... 25 359
Delia. 2 ao eee Ue eee: Pit; manure’. . = .5. See 170
Mechanical power........... 266 Scale... a4. eee 173
Malling se. ent ae 16 - Pitman. ... = .2 2.3 315
Miter. box-use of. ...5.25s 62° Pitts... 2+ eee 263
Mixer,continuouss) 2... y. os: 12( Placing concretel, 7-7 ee 128
bateh= >... 0.-......4....126 °° Plane-iron; grindineana whet-
i: BO ah soca ces OM eer Re Ge CA es 123 Ling. 5 ee ee 48, 49
WHXTURCSte co Noe Se eee 121 Planesand planing. 46
Modeling tools, woodworking. .74 Planing upa board, rule for . 51-53
Moldboards3 2 eee 200 Planting corn... i5. 5 eee 284
Molded concrete............144 Planting machinery. .-....20304
NOLS oper ar ee cu nme eee iaeds 131, “Plasticity: :< 4222.2 13l
INIOrtat ny oi ore ate ene lis Plates, corn planter...) se 285
NiOrtise jolt: . fate cin ets (2. Platform: 32... eee 153, 154
layne OULAa eee ae: (2° Pliers. ...23.) ic 332.33 274
WiOCOrs,barnie wey eg ee 262 Plow, repair and adjustment
repair and adjustment of. . .324 300, 302
Miowetesc. >. co leols, ol4olD sulky... oe ee 301
repair and adjustment of. . .313 walking... 2. eee Zoo
MO WwINe hays i) wate eens 291 Plumber, asa specialist) 3e— 355
N Piumbing, country house
ie S imstalhnge in...) eee 368-372
Nailing, use of hammer....... .45 requirements'Of .. 94. 4. 368
INaGuUral: Current te. 112. Plumbing... 2 355
Neutral axisint sc sane hes 135 essentials... 356
O materials and fixtures. 356, ee
+ COONS 2! Ove .357,3
Oilinge fopni: o she os ee ety 146
Gilstaine Each 98, 100 Portland cement oo hee oe
One-course walk... [50 a a ee 144° 158.159
Operating household ci Bata RtORiee: 2 : 179° 180 3
. . Power... 18.) 3 266
Operation of machinery......282 :
Operation of tractor.........296 ies “driven mace ts
OVeETHOWao id ts fe ee ee 165 ower machinery. ..........2
Preparation of seed bed... ... 284
P Preserving Wood... eee 97
1 E251 6 ae oie Ree IN a 104 Privyvault:.... 5.) 33 Rei
Painting machinery.........270 Properties of cement......... 115
Parker: JOSepie.- = pee. 112°: Proportions:...2.2 eee 1205421
Patchingin aera .....242 “Protection = ae + nae
Pebbles, soft. -:;.+~-.t16, (Pomping, maximum aes suc-
Permanent . ates hd kes eee tion pump. i. 2a eee
Pig=ron fc es ee 186 Putty and puttying ones 108
Pipe, cast- ironandlead..._. .372
Pipe, cutter . .358 Q
CULLING at ee, -......+. 28638 Quaky mixture. --, 273i Zee
MCUNGS!.2 stk 860 Qualities of cement. .°....... Pi
TEAMED 55.276 iis a09 Quantities... ....... eedZeeieas
SOU gs A 5 yd ee 371
threading. . ea eee OOR R
WISE Mie che a 0 ee aot Ratproof.... : 1.2 eel ot |

INDEX 421

Page
Reamer pIpCr a ual ties os 359
Reinforcing... . .135, 187, 158, 160
Removing forms........133, 146
Repairs, checking up... ...........298
Requirements of cement......115
Reservoir, water storage. . 348, 350
ebaimine walle sk Ga 2s 142
este Gl Vetegh aie eee te ihe ge 139
FCO SS ISUON@ yale sa oom <i 326
ROMIMCIN Get eR) ono. 326
Rip-saw, useof............ 41,42
UL RGTS Eo a ge 153, 154
teller. lew ee a os tens 166
Roman cement . ee Ge
Rope, care and treatment. ool
CONSUEUGLION 25.4 Sines 379
MNO WAIMAGC haste hs «oe kd Fes 380
materials . a19
raveledtreatment......... 383
METIS tet lea Ghat 380-381
VAS) Sh ope Spe ae ee Blo
RVING corny kus eae eho ae 383
Rope end knots
MIOOdKNOGH., 6 ac. o 44.8 ate 386
CLOWN KWMOGr oot: dc vim 4 secede ets 384
CLOWMISDIICE So oe Landini 385
TEU OM rs ate 2 5 he seen 0 386
Matthew Walker..........385
MANTODE.s. 4. 25 fo 56 ceed wat 385
MVEDMANGs 8 oe he ye kt xe a 2 386
Sun ohvfere Ke) ee 387
walland crown............385
VW u A £6010) ae al a 384
Rope hitches:
blackwallhitch........... 396
Clove MlGeiin. 2.8 tyes: 395
Hneuitnela Sent aos oe eg Sa he a 394
rollime hitch) sees 4...'. 4 395
Sentlold ste) Se. at. ak Be 396
sheepshank 29.2 .2i.5.5...89T
iimaber ites 22 ccs. ba 395
Rope knots, requirements cf good
382
LHCORY: Ole = c4 tat see. Pea 382
Rope splices:
end OF CLOWN... 22s 7.c O09 VOL
17S SEES AS PP oa 398
MONG sk. arnt ae ue 399-401
FOOD EES. SS ches etehuln te eel ee 398
<1 G10) ge Ree me GE Meee RT ya 399
BAG a. ch scene ieee aetaeae es 398

2 Page
Rope tying:
binder knot. .............388
DOWN 2 oe. ee a co, 390
Carrick’s bend «3.02/24... 390
double bowline............ 391
farmer’sloop.............394
STAD Y KNOL «cans Stes aes 389
|G ole arte ee ae ee 393
manger knot... .%4.244i44. 392
DIACHEC.. ) 644 ee a. 388
slip knob. oi. oa ee 392
Square knob. 2. oss ook 388
surgeon’sknot............ 389
weaver’sknot............389
TLODC WOLEK cieee's cae ss seus. 378
adjustablehalter.......... 404
casting TONE... <.- 1. .a- 406, 407
making halter............402
materials needed.......... 383
non-adjustable halter...... 404
tools needed.............. 383
EET POU sit seapeteon ha ts 405
NY
Sandpapering wood........... 77
21 6 12 1 ah dig Ge eae RS iti
SaMiGallONe ts 4. Wie< aes deci oh 347
Saws, woodworking,
classification and use of.. .33—36
Scarfing for weld............ 214
Scrap ITON. giu5s 628 1 eas eek ee 137
Serapers, discharrow........ 304
Seraping bearing 7. 2.2224), 323
PCTAPINE WOOE. wi adie a eo TL
Screening, making screens . 109
Screwdriver. .......5...0.5. 274
Seasoning wood..-............ 18
Seed-bed preparation. .......284
Seeding machinery.......... Pat he
OPAL AU OL a sm ets eee! he 317,318
SOP tank... sea «ao ses 353-355
Sewage, disposal............353
purificationof............855
Shares, DIOW..2...i0022024%: 300
Sheet-metal, use of onform. . .234
ShellaG3 steno. a are een 103
Shock, grain................ 289
SNOVOGl Siete oc eh et accae ne eee 138
Side -draiite 27.5 sack ¢ Paacte Se 284
SIGG WANG. 4.4 cot.s ae oes 144, 146
UATE. Bos eas ap eti tee oe: 287

422
Page
SilOti Sse te eee ae 287
Simkwkitehen.<. <a. nee pe 366
Smeatone vont: fe ene 112
Snubbers, disc harrow........304
Sole pep blesei. 2 eee aea ee 116
Soil pipe, makingjoints...... Sia
polderclasses’s). cise shee 234
Soldering, equipment . He ee Soe
DIOCESS aut wc ar ae ee 236
Special beltlacing....... 338-340
SplTCes PONE. 2c ths eo eee 382
LOCORY Oli te ee pee 382
Spokeshave, useof............ 76
Spreader,manure...........
SURAW. She ee 219
Squaring withtry-square...... 36
RLF 212) ae Neti el OO Gar eal ela)
open-hearth and Bessemer
DIOCESS. be eee eee 187
GEM PETINE 14 oe aha es 188
SteD a ee soe aura ation eae 152, 153 -
Stock; tapanddies.21.. 2748-215
Storage battery... s...:4 293, 342
Straw spreader. . 2hOvole
repair and adj ustment of. . 312
Studying farm machinery... ..276
DUD=Daser ae is eee, 154, 163
SUCtIONS Plows so -}easae ee ae 300
CIBCR tek iret: hoy. oer is 304
sulky plow .<60:).: [aes meee 301
Tt
MAMDPCE wt atesss aaeonen eae 138
PROTAPIN OS, sae ete = 128, 146
Ranks circulars.122-.143, 161 soo
milkiceolingsees- seas ot eae 174
rectangular......*:. 144, 178, 179
Tankinstallation
NOUAWALERS «carte ee oe O14, oho
Sstocketankes: 4 aati eo ge
harpauline sc! we eee ee eee 152
CEVA Ane ea ee ee eae ake 151
Pap and: diese ya aie ee 275
MRENStON'>, it uae ee eet. cts ee 135
REM plate eats eoatate see 168
SOS tl OPI CHAE asm os on te 118,143
Threading pipe. ee .3862
hres ieee sete aoe 263, 289
Threshing machinery. ...318-3821
Tile
LayAN Ore eee clos oe 365
poorly laidw 24.0 ae eee 364

INDEX

Page
Tile, properly laid. 364
sewer. @ es ..<?5 se 355, 366, 371
Tillage, machinery...... 277,299
Tools, concrete... 72 3) 137
for machineryrepair....... 242
PIPE, 6.5 Sa ee 357-359
woodworking, their classifica-
TiON..| |... Se 28
Top, astern wall .. >) 3 eee 169
Tractor... ...-> 20. eee 294, 824
management >...) eee 297
operation... -../.)5 eee 296
problem........:-3.2 aoe 29%
study. . oct eo
Treads . MPORPER ss allay, 5a)
Trees, growth . lines a eae
their classification 3 14 ee 20
Trough... 2 eee 129-1167
Troweling 3. 2.3.) Loe:
Trowels... ......3 Sa eos
TUCK 425.05 ee : 8 eee 324
Turning saw, use of... oe 75
V
Valves, grinding... 2) eeieae
Varnish ......\.:..) se eee 103
Wat. sates <3). eee 182
Vaultaprivy.. /... eee W745 475
Vegetable matter... >>) 2 is
VISE. os oa.s cn ane eee eee 273
PIpe. . 3. io ee 357
Voids) 22) 000. ui eee 120
W
Walking plow)... 2) 33a 300
Wall, foundation’+.... 4-0 155, 156
Wallow, hog. ... 4.5 40-eeee 170
Washing machine.... 294

Water, estimated amount used. Sac

Water: stains... i¢).0os)) eee 99
Watersupply. .< : ee 347
Water system, air-pressure.. ..347

STAaAVItYy. 2)... eee 292, 348-350

selecting. i... sae te OS

simplest.:.. .; 5.4 347
Wax for wood-finishing........99
Weldingiron.. 23a 197,215
Well contamination......... 347
Wet mixture. 354) ee VALS
Wheelbarrows... eee 129

INDEX 423

Page Page
Ware lacing of, belts. =). «42... 33% Wood finishes...............97
Wirereinforcementintinwork.249 Woodrasp.................. ch
Wirinetonlichtss 252 .¢a.-. 0.343, Wrenches. ... +3. ce... ».. 273

WWOOG MIGr ate aw es Hoey Wrought Ironss 2g. tess 186

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9. be preteens

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Tretiter beac aes
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Uiligecestes brterteterts i eit (ies
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ernie aia
Roitesate $: i r
So tiphabe? : Tasik Tyistshetyh tet ia be Re hasat a4 Ses ese 3eH!
*ortyets Je
a e304 z
4

ait rageeat int
y ‘7 feos abt 104

oes 3

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