Fiscal Year 1977
Federal Plan
m for Marine
Environmental
Prediction
.S. Department of Commerce
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
^SO*
Cover: An Eagle at sea — the U.S. Coast Guard
Academy bark Eagle was one of the participants in the
American Bicentennial event "Tall Ships." Photo courtesy
of U.S. Coast Guard.
ofiMWite. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
^VPi^ Juanita M. Kreps, Secretary
:;V r^l National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
Robert M. White, Administrator
^MENTOfc° Federal Coordinator for
Marine Environmental
Prediction
Interagency Committee for
Marine Environmental
Prediction
>
D
O
Federal Plan
for Marine
Environmental
Prediction
Compiled and Edited by
Ralph E. Meguire, Jr.
Fiscal Year 1977
8 Washington, D.C.
May 1977
Federal Coordinator
Edward S. Epstein
Interagency Committee
for Marine
Environmental
Prediction
Ledolph Baer, Chairman-
Robert C. Junghans
Department of Commerce
Capt. W. S. M. Arnold, USN
Department of Defense
Robert Schoen
Department of the Interior
Henry S. Andersen
Department of State
Cdr. Martin J. Moynihan
Department of Transportation
William O. Forster
Energy Research &
Development Administration
Brig. Gen. Kenneth E. Mclntyre
Army Corps of Engineers
H. Mathew Bills
Environmental Protection Agency
Morris Tepper
National Aeronautics and
Space A dministration
Feenan D. Jennings
National Science Foundation
Catherine J. Kerby
Smithsonian Institution
James Reisa (Observer)
Council on Environmental Quality
John J. Carey (Observer)
Office of Management and Budget
Ralph E. Meguire, Jr., Acting Executive Secretary
Preface
The Interagency Committer for Marine Environmental Prediction
(ICMAREP) annually summarizes the available environmental serv-
ices and supporting research in the United States. Besides the Basic
MAREP service, th3 Plan describes various Specialized MAREP
Services in support of Maritime Commerce, Water Quality Assessment,
Living and Nonliving Marine Resources, and National Security.
Yearly funding fluctuations are indicators of program priorities
and trends. For most agencies, funding levels remained close to FY
1976 expenditures. As in FY 1976. the greatest emphasis remains in
support of energy-related activities in regions of .he outer continental
shelf.
This FY 77 report differs in format from previous years: It
contains a reference directory of services for ease in locating the
various descriptions. Because these programs change little from year
to year, ICMAREP has decided to have its future reports contain only
this directory, fiscal information, and changes to the programs. Regular
users may wish to keep for future reference this FY 1977 report with
its comprehensive summary.
'Edward S. Epstein f
Federal Coordinator for
Marine Environmental Prediction
iii
Contents
Introduction l
Marine Environmental Prediction (MAREP) Services . . 2
Basic MAREP Services 2
Data Acquisition 2
Communications 5
Data Processing and Information Dissemination ... 6
General Agency Support 12
Specialized MAREP Services 13
Maritime Commerce 13
Water Quality Assessment 13
Living Marine Resources 17
Nonliving Marine Resources 20
MAREP Research and Development 20
Basic MAREP Research 22
Specialized MAREP Service Research 32
International Activities 37
International Service Activities 37
Integrated Global Ocean Station System (IGOSS) . 37
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)
Earthwatch 38
International Council for the Exploration of the Sea
(ICES) 39
International Ice Patrol 39
Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine
Environment (GIPME) 39
International Decade of Ocean Exploration 39
International Tsunami Information Center (ITIC) . . 41
Summary of Fiscal Data 43
MAREP Product Directory 47
IV
Introduction
This Federal Plan summarizes the Marine Environ-
mental Prediction (MAREP) Program for the basic and
specialized MAREP Services.
The Basic MAREP Service provides for the acquisi-
tion, communication, and processing of data and dis-
semination of oceanic information including collection,
transmission, and analysis of data and issuance of ad-
visories, warnings, and forecasts. Specialized MAREP
services draw upon the data output of the Basic Service.
They provide support for maritime commerce, water
quality assessment, living and nonliving marine resource
programs, and national security. MAREP research efforts
are directed toward improving both the Basic and Special-
ized MAREP services.
Also described are plans to improve MAREP serv-
ices through expansion of existing services and research,
and through U.S. participation in programs of inter-
national organizations that are active in MAREP-related
operations or research. Tables summarize funding for
MAREP services and activities by agencies. A MAREP
product directory provides easy reference to the descrip-
tion of each product or service.
The MAREP Plan consists of information on pro-
grams of various Federal agencies that have responsibili-
ties for marine environmental monitoring and prediction.
Each agency provides information on its own programs.
Individual programs are usually described within the
context of how they contribute to the overall MAREP
services and their interrelationships.
Marine
Environmental
Prediction
(MAREP)
Services
BASIC MAREP SERVICE
The Basic MAREP Service involves a composite of
interagency activities that provides environmental data,
forecasts, and advisories, including warnings of hazardous
conditions, for the oceans, coastal zone, and Great Lakes.
Interrelationships among agencies are specified by formal
and informal agreements. Coordination is carried out
by the Interagency Committee on Marine Environmental
Prediction (ICMAREP) and through other interagency
committees. Table 1 summarizes funding for the Basic
MAREP Service operations by each agency. In FY 1977
most agencies plan to maintain about the same level of
funding as in FY 1976. Owing to inflationary trends,
however, the effectiveness of operating funds decreased
within some agencies. Increased efforts to achieve energy
independence, particularly by development of offshore oil
and gas potentials, are reflected in the 47-percent increase
in funding by the Department of the Interior.
Table 1 — Funding of the Basic Marine Environmental
Prediction Service Operations, by agency
Agency
FY 76
FY 77
Difference
-Thousand dollars—
Commerce
50,660
52,032
+ 1,372
Defense
1,342
1,562
+ 220
Interior
18,074
26,500
+ 8,426
Smithsonian
1,362
1,362
—
Transportation
7,619
8,230
+ 611
Total
79,057
89,686
10,629
Data Acquisition
The acquisition of adequate data to describe the
ocean-atmosphere system and its variations is a major
activity. Also, the high costs of operating observational
platforms and obtaining data require optimum utilization
of the acquired data. Observations are taken by many
Federal agencies to support their operations and research
programs. A wide variety of methods, instruments, and
observing platforms are used.
Department of Commerce, NOAA
The National Weather Service acquires meteoro-
logical and oceanographic data for the marine and Great
Lakes services that include: the Synoptic and Basic Ob-
serving Stations, the U.S. Cooperative Ship Program, and
Radar Observing Stations. Tidal and seismic measure-
ments are also made. In addition, trained personnel and
appropriate equipment aboard Ocean Weather Station
HOTEL provide upper air and surface observations.
The National Ocean Survey of NOAA operates a
primary network of 130 tide stations, and 400 to 500
temporary, secondary, and tertiary stations. The stations
are along coasts and within the major embayments of
the United States, Puerto Rico, other U.S. territories and
possessions, and the U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific
Islands. The data are used to monitor sea level, to
determine tidal datums to predict tides, and to support
hydrographic operations. NOS also operates a network
of 54 permanent, year-round, water-level gaging stations
on the Great Lakes and their outflow rivers. About 50
temporary water-level gages are installed in selected har-
bors each year on a seasonal basis. In addition, NOS
measures currents at selected points along the coast and
in estuaries to provide information for predicting tidal
currents and circulation patterns and in support of estu-
arine studies.
Figure 1. — Five New NO A A Prototype Environmental Buoys (PEB) near completion in San Diego, Calif.
All were scheduled to be moored in 1976. (General Dynamics photo)
Environmental buoys (fig. 1) are becoming an
increasingly important source of continuous meteoro-
logical and oceanographic data. The buoys, operated by
the NOAA Data Buoy Office, have designs of three
general types:
• Deep ocean moored buoys
• Drifting buoys
• Continental Shelf moored buoys
Data acquired from these buoys are used to support many
monitoring and prediction activities and special studies.
Meteorological observations are used to improve the
accuracy and timeliness of coastal storm warnings issued
in support of the National East Coast Winter Storms
Operations Plan during the winter seasons and to sup-
port the National Hurricane Operations plan during the
periods of tropical cyclone activity. Buoys off the west
coast help to pinpoint hazardous weather moving in
from the Pacific Ocean. Oceanographic measurements
support water quality monitoring, and exploration and
use of marine resources.
The National Marine Fisheries Service monitors
changes in the populations of important fish stocks and
their environment as part of its Marine Resources Mon-
itoring, Assessment, and Prediction (MARMAP) pro-
gram. To support fishery allocation and management
decisions, this resource assessment program provides
forecasts and warnings of changes in fish and shellfish
stocks. The collected data include oceanographic and
meteorological observations and data used for research
and assessment of living marine resources.
The Shipboard Environmental Data Acquisition Sys-
tems (SEAS) is a meteorological and oceanographic
monitoring system designed for use by merchant ships
and other ships of opportunity, using the GOES satellites
for ship to shore communications. Development of the
SEAS prototype will be completed and field testing will
be carried out in FY 77. SEAS was being developed
partially with funds from Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) and Maritime Administration
(MARAD). The complete system will include several
options to measure and report surface meteorological and
Figure 2. — GOES Data Collection System. The Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite can relay
environmental data from many sources to analysis centers.
oceanographic parameters, subsurface thermal profiles,
surface waves, and ship's position, course, and speed.
The National Environmental Satellite Service of
NOAA on 1 January 1976 was operating two NOAA
polar-orbiting and two geostationary satellites. Pictures
available at 30-minute intervals provide near-continuous
viewing of clouds and aid weather forecasters in warning
the public of impending destructive weather.
The geostationary satellites (fig. 2) are equipped
with a Data Collection System to collect and relay
environmental data via each spacecraft. The system han-
dles the relay of data from 10,000 or more remotely
located, individual observing platforms within each 6-
hour period. In addition, satellite observations of large-
scale synoptic weather patterns over large oceanic areas
add substantially to the forecaster's information on
atmospheric conditions and enhance identification of
oceanic storms. Information on sea-surface temperature,
radiation, clouds, and winds is also obtained. Pictures
of the Great Lakes in the winter season and sea ice
coverage in polar areas are used to prepare ice advisories
on the character and distribution of ice fields. Such
advisories help the shipping and fishing industries.
Department of Transportation
Oceanographic and meteorological observations are
routinely collected by U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) cutters
and ice breakers, on Ocean Weather Station (OWS)
HOTEL as well as on International Ice Patrols. Techni-
cal and scientific support is provided by the USCG
Oceanographic Unit including an extensive communica-
tion network. The International Ice Patrol Vessel Ever-
green continues to operate as an oceanographic research
vessel carrying out descriptive oceanography, current
measurements, and surface meteorology in support of
special projects. Icebreakers also carried out extensive
marine science operations in polar regions during 1976.
USCG also has a marine and coastal weather obser-
vation and reporting system. This program is a coopera-
tive effort with the National Weather Service and Naval
Weather Service. About 200 coastal stations and OWS
HOTEL provide such data. OWS HOTEL is manned
from 1 August to 15 April each year by USCGC Taney
and other 327-foot cutters during relief periods. Data
also are acquired by USCG aircraft using infrared radia-
tion thermometers. Flights are made monthly off both
the East and West Coasts. The presence of marine life,
foreign fishing vessels, and observable pollution is re-
ported. Airborne Radiation Thermometry data are used
in law enforcement, thermal pollution, and weather
forecasting.
Department of Defense
U.S. Navy
The U.S. Navy has an essentially independently
operating system of oceanographic/meteorological serv-
ices that functions primarily in support of national
defense applications. (See National Security Section.)
Corps of Engineers
During 1976, the Army Corps of Engineers contin-
ued to support a wide variety of engineering studies for
the coastal zone and Great Lakes. These activities in-
cluded environmental observations for development of
design criteria for structures, alleviation of beach erosion,
mantenance of navigation, flood control, and minimiza-
tion of the impact of these works on the environmental
and ecological systems. In addition, data were collected
for stream gaging and sedimentation studies.
Department of the Interior
On 773 rivers and streams, Interior's U.S. Geo-
logical Survey (USGS) measures the flow of freshwater
into the oceans, Great Lakes, and Gulf of Mexico. At
many stations a full suite of measurements include inor-
ganic and organic sediment contents, heavy metals,
temperature, dissolved oxygen, specific conductance, and
pH.
USGS also monitors saltwater encroachment at
certain localities of high interest, for example along
Florida's east coast. In recent years, USGS has substan-
tially increased the amount of data collected from coastal
waters and has begun studies of the hydrology and hydro-
dynamics of typical estuaries.
Smithsonian Institution
The Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center
(SOSC) is a national facility for the acquisition and use
of biological collections. In recent years SOSC's capa-
bilities and interests have grown with the national con-
cern for the environment, particularly in relation to the
increasing need for biological data critical to environ-
mental impact statements. Such data and first-stage
analyses provide determinations of both the kinds of
organisms and their relative abundances. These determina-
tions are necessary for ecological assessments.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA)
NASA participates in the aerial mapping of snow
and ice on the Great Lakes in winter. The aircraft use
Side-Looking Airborne Radar in a cooperative program
with the Coast Guard and the National Weather Service.
The information is used for ice advisories sent to shipping
interests in time for them to select sailing times and routes.
Communications
Warnings, forecasts, and advisories of weather and
marine conditions must be widely distributed and readily
available to the user. Therefore, reliable communications
systems, subject only to minimum delays, are necessary.
Environmental observations from a wide variety of
sensors on many different types of platforms must be
transmitted to data processing centers as quickly as pos-
sible. Then products developed from the processed data
must be disseminated as forecasts and advisories to
intended users.
The Basic MAREP Service is vitally dependent upon
the communication systems of the Basic Meteorological
Service for the dissemination of its products as well as
the collection and transmission of observational data.
The communication systems for the Basic Services include
components of different agencies.
Teletypewriter Networks
Department of Commerce1
Department of Defense1
Federal Aviation Administration
U.S. Coast Guard
Radio Transmissions
NOAA continuous VHF/FM radio broadcasts; 75 facili
ties at coastal or inland water locations were opera'
ing on 1 October 1976.
NOAA's National Weather Service has five marine radio
stations in Alaska.
U.S. Navy continuous wave (CW) marine radio broad-
casts.
NOAA/ National Marine Fisheries Service Radio Station
WWD, operated jointly with the Scripps Institution
of Oceanography.
U.S. Coast Guard radiotelephone, radiotelegraph, and
facsimile marine radio broadcasts — 67 facilities make
over 300 broadcasts per day covering essentially all
U.S. maritime areas of responsibility.
Facsimile Networks
High-speed civil and military computer-to-computer
data relay and exchange facilities are becoming increas-
ingly important. These facilities include the Defense
global automated environmental data networks and the
five international circuits to exchange meteorological data
that are operated by the Department of Commerce.
NOAA's Radar Report and Warning Coordination Sys-
tem and NOAA Weather Wire Service also distribute
forecasts and warnings to the public press, radio, and
television. The West Coast and the Great Lakes also have
marine teletype circuits.
NOAA operates automatic marine telephone-answer-
ing services throughout the year at 57 coastal locations.
These provide the latest forecasts and warnings for marine
users. Similar local information may be obtained on
request from most Coast Guard (USCG) stations or
' The Departments of Commerce and Defense have systems
with high-speed circuits and both foreign and domestic access
terminals.
Figure 3. — Hurricane Gladys, one of the most powerful Atlantic storms in 15 years, was photographed by the
NASA satellite SMS-1 on 1 October 1975 during a period of extreme intensification. Sustained winds in the
storm were 100 mph. The storm was 500 miles southeast of Cape Hatteras, N.C., when this picture was made.
(NO A A photo)
NOAA's National Weather Service (NWS) offices through
listed telephones.
USCG cooperates with NOAA by making broadcast
of marine weather information and warnings for shipping
and other maritime users. Warnings of hazardous con-
ditions are transmitted upon receipt and repeated periodi-
cally; NWS prepares the texts for these broadcasts. USCG
communications facilities also collate and relay meteor-
ological and oceanographic observations, and jointly
operate USCG/ NOAA radio for buoys in Miami.
The National Oceanographic Data Center of NOAA
operates a network of teletype terminals with selected
scientific institutions. This service includes terminals in
Woods Hole, Mass., La Jolla, Calif., Boulder, Colo., and
Miami, Fla. In connection with the Alaskan, Hawaiian,
and Pacific Tsunami Warning System, communication
support is obtained through a cooperative arrangement
using Federal Aviation Administration, NASA, military,
and other communication channels for data collection and
watch-and-warning services. The Alaska and Hawaii re-
gions also have dedicated communication circuits.
An extensive satellite communication system is avail-
able and is being used increasingly. (See GOES in Data
Acquisition.)
Data Processing and Information
Dissemination
The processing of environmental data includes
analysis, editing, preparation of forecasts and advisories,
and archiving the data. Products are disseminated in
various formats depending on type of data and user
requirements. A directory of information produced as
MAREP services has been provided.
Figure 4. — The 29 November 1975 tsunami caused extensive damage in Hawaii.
Real-Time Data
Department of Commerce — NOAA
NOAA's systems of data processing and information
dissemination include marine meteorological predictions
and warnings. Forecasts are currently available for break-
ers and surf, marine weather, sea ice, seiches, storm
surges, winds, and wind waves.
NOAA operates several centers that provide products
and support to marine meteorology. The National Meteor-
ological Center in Maryland provides broad-scale analysis
and forecasts on a hemispheric basis and graphic products
for facsimile transmission to high-seas users. The Na-
tional Environmental Satellite Service, also in Maryland,
operates the national operational environmental satellite
system to provide global cloud-cover mosaics (fig. 3),
atmospheric and sea-surface temperature data, and inter-
pretive products on a daily basis. There are six Satellite
Field Service Stations, one each in Anchorage, Honolulu,
Kansas City, Miami, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C.
The National Hurricane Center at Miami issues warnings
of tropical cyclones (hurricanes) in the North Atlantic,
Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico. Similar services
are provided at San Francisco and Honolulu for the
eastern and central North Pacific Ocean east of long.
180°. (The Navy provides this information west of
180°.) The hurricanes are tracked by plane, radar, and
satellite. The National Severe Storms Forecast Center
at Kansas City, Mo., issues warnings of severe local
storms (thunderstorms and associated winds, hail, and
tornadoes) over coastal waters as well as for the con-
tinental United States.
Weather Service Forecast Offices (WSFOs) pro-
vide synopses, forecasts, and warnings for all 50 States
and Puerto Rico. Twenty-three WSFOs issue forecasts
and warnings for coastal waters and the Great Lakes.
National Meteorological Center forecasters use nu-
merical models to predict tropical storm surges. In the
case of an extratropical storm surge, statistical techniques
are used to give estimates of storm surge heights for
certain East Coast areas.
High-seas marine forecasts broadcast through Coast
Guard radio facilities are also provided by NOAA. These
forecasts are available on radiotelegraph voice broadcasts
and facsimile.
WSFOs in Honolulu, Miami. San Francisco, and
Washington provide analysis and forecasting in the area
of U.S. responsibility for shipping forecasts and warnings
(which include large designated portions of the North
Atlantic and North Pacific) under the Convention on
Safety of Life at Sea and in response to agreement within
the World Meteorological Organization.
The Pacific Tsunami Warning System, operated by
NOAA-NWS.is international in scope and involves co-
ordination at the international, national, regional, and
local government levels (fig. 4). The National Warning
Center (Honolulu Observatory) receives data from a net-
Figure 5.- — The Coastal Warning System provides visual
displays to warn of impending bad weather. (Tampa
Daily News)
work of 24 seismograph stations and 53 tide stations
around the Pacific rim and on the mid-Pacific Islands.
Earthquake epicenters and magnitudes are computed,
and watches and warnings2 are formulated and dissemi-
nated to 15 nations and territories in or bordering the
Pacific Ocean. Regional watches and warnings are issued
by the Honolulu Observatory for the Hawaiian Islands,
and by Adak and Palmer Observatories for Alaska includ-
ing the Aleutians.
Department of Defense (Navy)
Naval Weather Service communications and com-
puter resources obtain near real-time observations of the
physical environment and input the data into numerical
models that describe the physical state of the ocean
atmosphere. These inputs drive numerical prediction
models that forecast weather parameters and run applica-
tions programs to obtain tactical indices and environ-
mental response factors for both the operating forces and
the Navy's industrial complex.
2 Honolulu Observatory issues two basic types of bulletins —
watch and warning. Watch bulletins are issued when an earth-
quake has been detected that is of sufficient magnitude and in
such a location that a tsunami is possible. Warning bulletins are
issued upon receipt of positive evidence that a tsunami actually
has been generated.
Department of Transportation — Coast Guard (USCG)
MAREP services, in addition to extensive broadcast-
ing, include technical support and participation in the
Coastal Warning System. The USCG Oceanographic
Unit processes data and provides technical and scientific
support for USCG marine programs. To ensure con-
tinuity of its oceanographic programs, USCG also pro-
vides preliminary reduction and processing of environ-
mental data from all of its sources on the East and West
Coasts.
The Coastal Warning System is a cooperative net-
work of visual (flag and light) displays (fig. 5) that sup-
plements the regularly scheduled weather broadcasts. This
System consists of 359 display stations; the USCG has
113 facilities participating, and NOAA has 246. In addi-
tion, small-craft pennants are displayed by State police
patrol craft on Chesapeake Bay, in the New York City
area, and on Lake Michigan.
The Coast Guard (USCG) produces a weekly sea-
surface current-chart for waters off the East Coast
from Cape Canaveral, Fla., to Cape Cod, Mass. By using
satellite imagery, XBTs, and airborne radiation ther-
mometry, a real-time description of sea-surface currents
is developed. These charts, produced primarily for search
and rescue planners, are also used by other USCG units,
other Federal agencies, and the maritime community.
Data are computerized to provide input into the USCG
computer search planning programs. USCG also prepares
and broadcasts iceberg location bulletins for the North
Atlantic shipping lanes during the International Ice
Patrol.
Non-Real-Time Data
Department of Commerce
Much of the Basic MAREP Service does not depend
upon the real-time dissemination of data and information.
These services include data management; publication of
climatological summaries, atlases, and tide and tidal
current predictions; and long-term studies of the environ-
ment, particularly geographical regions.
NOAA's National Ocean Survey predicts the times
and heights of tidal high and low waters for 56 locations
in the United States and its territories and possessions,
and for 40 locations in 19 different nations and the Trust
Territory of the Pacific Islands under U.S. jurisdiction.
Predictions for about 6,000 secondary locations are com-
puted through the application of empirical constants. Tide
predictions based on harmonic analysis are made by
computer and published annually in four volumes. The
U.S. tables also have predictions for 100 reference ports
in foreign countries, received through a cooperative ex-
change program.
Tidal currents are predicted for 36 U.S. coastal and
harbor locations. These predictions include times of
slack waters and the times, speeds, and directions of
maximum tidal currents. Empirical constants provide pre-
dictions for about 2,000 additional locations. U.S. tables
also have predictions for 15 foreign stations, received
Figure 6. — Tidal Current Charts, such as this for Long Island-Block Island Sounds, show expected tidal
currents. Charts are available for nine major U.S. harbors and estuaries.
through a cooperative program. Charts showing the areal
distribution of tidal currents for each hour in the tidal
cycle are available for nine major U.S. harbors and
estuaries (fig. 6). Charts for additional estuaries are being
prepared. Use of satellite data is also being investigated.
The Ocean Services Division of the National Weather
Service issues sea-surface temperature means, anomalies,
and selected bathythermograph data in its monthly
gulfstream (fig. 7). Each issue has information on the
locations of the Gulf Stream axis and warm and cold
eddies, and short articles on Gulf Stream research.
NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service proc-
esses, stores, analyzes, and disseminates marine fishery
data through its Marine Resources Monitoring, Assess-
ment, and Prediction (MARMAP) program. This service
provides forecasts and warnings of changes in stocks of
fish and shellfish. This information is used in part to
assure optimal yields from other stocks (fig. 8). The
fisheries stock forecasts support the United States in
negotiations for management and allocation of stocks
under the terms of 6 international commissions and 10
bilateral agreements. They also support domestic man-
agement programs in cooperation with States in three
interstate commissions and four State-Federal programs.
Data analysis tasks of the MARMAP program combine
survey results, catch statistics, biometric data, and infor-
mation on environmental conditions and food chain
dynamics to produce updated stock assessments. These
analyses are used to measure fishing rates, natural
mortality, .and annual changes in abundance caused by
environmental changes.
The NMFS Pacific Environmental Group generates
a monthly upwelling index for the U.S. west coast and a
monthly Ekman transport index for any latitude.
NOAA's Environmental Data Service provides
marine environmental data, information, and assessment
products and services to users on a cost-reimbursable
basis. These products and services are available through
EDS' network of specialized centers, its field liaison offi-
cers, and its comprehensive referral system.
• The National Climatic Center, Asheville. N.C.. pro-
vides global marine climatic data and data products and
is the largest climatic data center in the world. The Cen-
ter's Satellite Data Services Branch (Camp Springs, Md.)
disseminates marine environmental and Earth resources
data collected by NOAA and NASA satellites.
• The National Oceanographic Data Center. Washington,
D.C., has the world's largest collection of unclassified
oceanographic data and is the primary source of such data
for U.S. users.
• The National Geophysical and Solar-Terrestrial Data
Center, Boulder, Colo., provides tsunami, marine geology,
and geophysics data from U.S. and some foreign sources
45°
MIAMI
85°
Figure 7. — Gulfstream is published monthly by the National Weather Service. It includes information on the
Gulf Stream position and thermal structures, and other in teresting information.
through its Marine Geology and Geophysics Branch.
• The Environmental Science Information Center, Wash-
ington, D.C, disseminates NOAA's marine science litera-
ture and information.
• The Center for Experiment Design and Data Analysis
provides data management and scientific analysis services
for large-scale environmental programs and, through its
Marine Assessment Division, assesses the impact of man's
activities upon the marine environment.
• EDS regional liaison officers stationed in Woods Hole,
Mass.; Miami, Fla.; LaJolla, Calif.; Seattle, Wash.; and
Anchorage, Alaska, make EDS products and services
available to local users.
• ENDEX (Environmental Data Index) provides auto-
mated referral to multidiscipline marine science data files
of NOAA, other Federal agencies, State and local govern-
ments, and private sources. OASIS (Oceanic and Atmos-
pheric Scientific Information System) provides a comple-
mentary literature referral service.
Department of Defense
Corps of Engineers (COE) — Several COE projects
process marine environmental data that relate to marine
engineering studies. Basic and applied hydraulic and hy-
drologic studies include development of stage-discharge
relationships in outflow rivers and determination of their
effects on the levels and outflows of the Great Lakes —
including such factors as natural and manmade changes
in the outflow rivers, diversions into and out of the
Great Lakes Basin, and fluctuations between the Lakes.
General hydrologic studies involve analyses of rainfall-
runoff relations, snowmelt studies, flood forecasting
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Figure 8.- — MARMAP surveys provide data for plotting
fish distribution. The Loligo (squid) plot is an example.
Figure 9. — Plankton sample is prepared for sorting at
the Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center (SOSC).
analyses of past floods, infiltration indexes, unit hydro-
graphs, and the development of flood hydrographs and
other studies related to hydrology. The National Weather
Service prepares meteorological studies for COE use in
planning, designing, and operating water-control struc-
tures.
COE also provides specialized technical services to
State and local governments on request. These services
consist of information on the use of flood plains of the
coastal zone.
U.S. Navy — The Navy's Oceanographic Program
satisfies Naval requirements by providing resources for
oceanographic data collection, processing, analysis, and
production.
Many MAREP observations made by the U.S. Navy
in support of national security operations are disseminated
as civil MAREP services. Included are:
• Unclassified oceanographic and meteorological observa-
tional data
• Atlases, technical reports, and data banks
• Various broadcasts of NOAA products on the Atlantic
Coast
• Analyses and forecasts (including waves, oceanic
fronts, eddies, and thermal structure, as well as meteor-
ological products).
Department of the Interior— The U.S. Geological
Survey (USGS) analyzes and processes data collected at
estuarine and coastal stations in support of its projects
in hydrology and hydraulics. USGS provides data on
stream discharge and water quality that are processed by
its own Computer Center Division. USGS also supplies
water quality information to the Storage and Retrieval
(STORET) Systems, operated in cooperation with the
Office of Water Programs of the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency. These data are available to all users. The
USGS Office of Water Data Coordination coordinates
Federal activities involved in acquiring water data for
estuaries, groundwaters, lakes, reservoirs, and streams. In-
formation dissemination includes a Catalog of Informa-
tion on Water Data for the continental United States.
Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico.
Smithsonian Institution — The marine science activi-
ties of the Smithsonian Institution include study of the
systematics and ecology of marine organisms and inves-
11
Figure 10. — The impact of discharges from supertankers makes a careful environmental assessment, forecast,
and monitoring scheme an important MAREP consideration for Maritime Commerce and Water Quality Assess-
ment Services.
tigations of marine biological and geological phenomena.
Support services are provided for sampling, sorting, iden-
tifying, storing, and studying these specimens. The Na-
tional Museum of Natural History (NMNH) maintains
the largest collection of biological specimens and geologi-
cal samples in the world and operates the Smithsonian
Oceanographic Sorting Center (fig. 9). SOSC receives,
sorts, records, curates, and distributes aquatic collections
in order to make the specimens available to specialists.
SOSC also maintains a data bank on these collections.
Research projects vary considerably, but almost always
include the systematic analysis of organisms studied. Also
carried out are studies of species distribution and corre-
lation with revelant physical data, and ecological research
aimed at determining relations between organisms and
their environment. A Scientific Event-Alert Network was
established at NMNH in 1975. It is designed to operate
as a clearinghouse for information on biological, astro-
nomical, and geological events. Oceanographic research
information is registered at the Smithsonian Science In-
formation Exchange, which receives, compiles, cata-
logues, and disseminates information concerning un-
classified ongoing research and development activities in
the marine sciences.
General Agency Support
Logistics
Logistics and general support activities provide for
more effective and efficient MAREP Services and include
the maintenance of equipment and facilities, and the train-
ing of personnel.
Training
Professional-level training in the marine sciences
and meteorology is provided by accredited colleges and
universities.
Training in technical skills such as marine observa-
tions, communications, and maintenance is accomplished
in schools operated by Federal agencies and at several
community colleges that offer associate degrees.
The Naval Postgraduate School at Monterey, Calif.,
has an Environmental Sciences Program that provides
advanced degree studies to qualify commissioned officers
and other selected individuals as oceanographers and
meteorologists. Technicians are trained at the Naval
Air Technical Training Center, Lakehurst, N.J. Instruc-
tion in this school covers oceanographic forecasting and
applied geophysics. At Lakehurst the Navy also trains
electronics technicians to repair and maintain equipment.
12
Coast Guard (USCG) personnel receive advanced
training at USCG and Navy schools to provide the serv-
ice needs of technicians trained in the collection of
meteorological and oceanographic data. USCG provides
an ocean science major within the curriculum of its
Academy.
Selected personnel from the Department of Com-
merce (NOAA) also receive advanced training in their
field of specialization or in complementary areas. Train-
ing of NOAA Corps Officers personnel at the U.S.
Merchant Marine Academy includes instruction in ocean-
ography and meteorology.
SPECIALIZED MAREP SERVICES
Many marine operations require specialized marine
environmental prediction services in addition to the basic
MAREP services. Specialized services are provided for
activities related to maritime commerce, water quality
assessment, living and nonliving marine resources, and
national security. These services, and the products they
provide, rely in varying degrees upon the data output
of the Basic MAREP Service.
Maritime Commerce
The environmental data and information services
provided for maritime commerce support, first, the
safety of navigation on the high seas and in coastal and
inland waters and harbors. In addition to warnings
of storms and hurricanes, they support routing of ships
by predictions of wind wave heights, water current direc-
tions and speeds, and water levels in harbors and their
approaches. Table 2 summarizes funding of specialized
MAREP services for maritime commerce.
Table 2. — Funding of the specialized Marine Environ-
mental Prediction Service for Martime Commerce, by
agency
Agency
FY 76
FY 77
Difference
— Thousand dollars —
Commerce 8,788 8,950 + 162
Transportation 1,393 1,444 + 51
Total
10,181
10,394
213
Ice conditions are especially important to safe
shipping. An interagency Demonstration Program to
extend the shipping season on the Great Lakes and St.
Lawrence Seaway began during the 1974-75 winter
shipping season. The Coast Guard (USCG) operates the
Ice Navigation Center. NOAA's National Weather Serv-
ice provides an ice analyst at the Center and an ice
forecast program at the Detroit Weather Service Forecast
Office (WSFO), and maintains a communications net-
work around the Great Lakes to connect United States
and Canadian forecast offices, the USCG Ice Navigation
Center, and marine broadcast stations. USCG and NASA
provide ice reconnaissance using Side-Looking Airborne
Radar on flights made during the program. Improved
information on ice allowed the participating carriers to
operate throughout the winter of 1975-76.
The need for environmental services has increased
with the shipment of oil and natural gas from Alaska.
The Department of Commerce provides sea ice advisories
through Anchorage WSFO for Cook Inlet and the
approaches to Anchorage, and from Fairbanks WSFO
for operations around Alaska to the North Slope. The
National Ocean Survey is expanding its efforts to develop
an adequate tidal current measuring network in the
Alaska area. USCG is expanding efforts to meet projected
requirements for safe naviga'ion and for protection of the
marine environment along the north coast of Alaska.
Development of oil resources on the Alaska North
Slope indicates the eventual need to ship oil by water
from the Alaska north coast and from the pipeline ter-
minal at Valdez, Alaska (fig. 10). USCG efforts are
focused on improving safe navigation and protecting
the marine environment. They include:
• Developing structural requirements for Arctic oil tank-
ers and barges
• Determining seasonal and all-year navigability of
water routes to the north coast of Alaska
• Developing a routine system for navigation of ships
through ice-covered waters
Another service product for efficiency of maritime
commerce, issued by NWS, is the analysis of the location
of the inner wall of the Gulf Stream from the tip of
Florida to about 38°N. These analyses are based on
satellite- and ship-recorded sea-surface temperatures and
expendable bathythermograph data. They are used by
East Coast shipping to determine optimum tracks rela-
tive to the high-speed core of the Gulf Stream. Optimi-
zation of the routes conserves fuel.
Major NOAA increases in specialized services for
maritime commerce include expanded VHF'FM cover-
age along coastal areas and, to a less degree, production
of climatic data services.
USCG will continue to manage and operate the
International Ice Patrol, which alerts ships to the icebergs
in the North Atlantic shipping lanes (fig. 11). Ice
reconnaissance and observations of currents provide the
International Ice Patrol with a means of predicting
density and movement of icebergs.
Water Quality Assessment
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amend-
ments of 1972 (PL 92-500) and the Marine Protection.
Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 (PL 92-532)
were intended to improve and protect the quality of U.S.
territorial waters, including coastal waters, estuaries, and
the Great Lakes. Implementation of this Federal legis-
lation is continuing with the development of standards.
13
gate * **<■."
Figure 11. — /I twin-peaked iceberg in the North Atlantic shipping lanes. Normally, the Ice Patrol is carried
out by Coast Guard planes. Cutters are called out for standby to warn ships only when heavy concentrations of
icebergs threaten shipping.
regulations, and enforcement procedures. The major
responsibility for protection of water quality rests with
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). EPA
collects data from marine waters to establish a data base
for water quality criteria and reviews other ongoing
monitoring programs for the planned expansion of their
National Water Quality Surveillance system. An area of
special concern is shellfish beds, which are particularly
sensitive to high concentrations of pollutants. EPA's
Gulf Breeze (Fla.) Laboratory has a residual pesticide
monitoring program that assesses long-term toxic effects
of pesticides in marine organisms. NOAA and EPA
laboratories are engaged in projects to describe the fate
and effects of various pollutants.
Funding by the Department of Interior shows a
significant increase for the specialized MAREP service
for water quality assessment (table 3).
Table 3. — Funding of the specialized Marine Environ-
mental Prediction Service for Water Quality Assessment,
by agency
Agency
FY 76
FY 77 Difference
— Thousand dollars —
Commerce 264 264 —
EPA 6,388 6,388 —
Interior 14,250 18,278 4,028
Transportation 694 740 46
Total
21,596
25,670
4,074
NOAA is actively involved in baseline investigations
to determine existing levels of ocean pollutants. Programs
14
are supporting the environmental assessment of the
Alaska outer continental shelf and the Marine Ecosystem
Analysis (MESA) Project in Puget Sound.
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) monitors water
quality in streams at the heads of estuaries as a part of
the National Quality Accounting Network. Samples
taken in estuarine areas are analyzed generally for total
bacteria and fecal coliform bacteria, ion concentration,
pH, temperature, and trace metals. At some sites, bio-
chemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, nutrients, and
turbidity are a'so measured. The flow of freshwater into
the oceans, Great Lakes, and Gulf of Mexico is con-
tinuously measured on 773 rivers and streams. Periodic
or continuous measurement is made of water quality at
435 of these flow gages.
USCG samples tar balls on a regular basis from
seagoing cutters to evaluate distribution of such pollut-
ants and effectiveness of oil control measures. USCG
also has numerical modeling experiments to measure
advection, diffusion, and dispersion of floating and sus-
pended pollutants in U.S. coastal waters. In addition,
information on water movements will be provided for
several major harbors in support of harbor pollution
contingency plans.
Oil and Hazardous Materials
DOT (USCG), EPA, DOC, DOI, and DOD are the
primary agencies involved in efforts to control and pre-
vent discharges of oil and other hazardous materials in
coastal and inland waters. Other Federal agencies provide
advisory services as may be required. Operations in sup-
port of the containment or disposal of discharged oil
require reliable forecasts of surface winds, waves, and
currents. USCG is using wind and wave data in numeri-
cal models for predicting coastal trajectories to aid in the
cleanup of spills and discharges.
The Deepwater Port Act of 1974 has given the De-
partment of Transportation (DOT) responsibility for all
deepwater ports that may be licensed, constructed, and
operated in water beyond the territorial limits of the
United States. The two deepwater port applications that
have been filed will use a number of single-point moorings
connected to a pumping platform by pipelines, and thence
to shoreside terminals. Though the USCG has been
delegated responsibility for most aspects of deepwater
ports (DWPs), NOAA is assigned the task of reviewing
USCG deepwater port environmental impact statements
and making recommendations to the Secretary of the
Department of Transportation concerning any applications
for "adjacent coastal State" status by States not within
15 miles of the DWP or connected by pipeline to the
DWP. Adjacent coastal State status is based on a deter-
mination that the risk of damage to the coastal environ-
ment of such State is equal to or greater than the risk
posed to a State directly connected by pipeline to the
proposed DWP.
USCG, as designated by the National Oil and Hazard-
ous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan, is charged
with the amelioration of containment and disposal dis-
charges of oil and hazardous materials on the high seas
and in the U.S. coastal waters, including ports and
harbors. A National Response Center is maintained by
USCG in Washington, D.C. This continuously manned
operations center receives reports of discharges and co-
ordinates Federal response efforts when they are needed.
During a pollution event, the National Strike Force can
be called to the scene to provide expertise and emer-
gency equipment.
Advanced techniques of monitoring, including air-
borne surveillance and remote-sensing devices, are being
improved and used increasingly. USCG four-sensor Air-
borne Oil Surveillance System, successfully developed in
fiscal years 1973-76, will be miniaturized for installation
in a new medium-range search aircraft. The system, with
proven all-weather, day-and-night, oil-detection capa-
bilities, will continue to be improved by adding the
capability to identify petroleum hydrocarbons. A study
is being made of the system's usefulness in detecting ice,
nonoil pollutants, and suspected violators of territorial
waters.
Other Federal agencies also have various roles in the
prevention and cleanup of oil spills. As Interior continues
to expand Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) oil and gas
operations, concern over water quality in those areas
has increased. The U.S. Geological Survey is involved
in monitoring and supervision of exploration, develop-
ment, and production activities of oil and gas leaseholds
on the OCS. It also maintains an alert system to warn
of potential or actual oil spills and an inspection system
to assure compliance with regulations.
NOAA provides support to the On-Scene Coor-
dinator with meteorological and oceanographic informa-
tion. Environmental data are provided on marine re-
sources, predicted meteorological, hydrological and ocean-
ographic conditions for the high seas, coastal and inland
waters.
NOAA through its National Marine Fisheries Serv-
ice assesses the damage impacts of oil spills on the living
marine resources and their habitats. Routine samples of
petroleum and plastic particulates present in the ocean
water column are taken in conjunction with MARMAP
surveys of ichthyoplankton (fish eggs and larvae). These
surveys are made annually off the East Coast from Cape
Cod to Cape Kennedy, and periodically off the West Coast
in the California Current area. This information is used
to help other agencies in combating emergency situations
created by spills.
By a Memorandum of Understanding between the
Departments of Transportation and Interior, the Coast
Guard has assumed responsibility for spill response activi-
ties within the high-seas area covered by the Outer
Continental Shelf Lands Act.
Ocean Dumping
The Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries
Act of 1972 committed the United States on a National
15
Figure 12. — Elkhorn coral formations photographed at a coral reef of] the coast of Key Largo, Fla.
basis to ". . . regulate the dumping of all types of materials
into ocean waters and to prevent or strictly limit the
dumping into ocean waters of any material which would
adversely affect human health, welfare or amenities, or
marine environment, ecological systems, or economic
potentialities." This Act is organized into three major
titles. Title I deals with regulatory aspects of ocean
dumping. The Act assigns regulatory authority to the
Environmental Protection Agency, the Corps of Engi-
neers, and the Coast Guard. Title II deals primarily with
research aspects of ocean dumping that are needed to
support the intent of the Act. The research responsibilities
described in Title II are to be coordinated by the Depart-
ment of Commerce (NOAA) in consultation and coor-
dination with other Federal agencies. Title III of the Act
provides for the designation of marine sanctuaries. This
title is administered through the Department of Com-
merce in consultation with other Federal Departments and
agencies.
According to Section 201 of Title II, the responsi-
bility for a comprehensive and continuing program of
monitoring and research regarding the effects of dump-
ing material into ocean waters, coastal waters, and the
Great Lakes is to assigned the Department of Commerce,
in coordination with the Coast Guard and the Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA). The Department of
Commerce is responsible for reporting to the Congress on
these research activities, and publishes annually The Re-
port to the Congress on Ocean Dumping Research. This
Report should be consulted for further information as it
not only represents a Federal summary of programs in
ocean dumping, but also contains excellent details of the
technical aspects of the various programs.
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) ocean-
ographers are studying the water mass types, circulation
patterns, and stratification characteristics of Deepwater
Dumpsite 106 over the continental slope off Delaware.
Studies include classical oceanographic measurements and
monitoring of Gulf Stream eddies and rings by satellite
imagery.
Other Federal agencies involved in regional studies
include the Smithsonian Institution study of the Indian
River Coastal Zone in Florida that is attempting to de-
termine sources and effects of various pollutants. Studies
also are being made in the Florida Keys, particularly on
coral reefs (fig. 12). Und^r an agreement with EPA, and
largely funded by EPA, NASA is outfitting an EPA
vessel for automated monitoring in the Great Lakes. This
effort includes development of data management and
display techniques, network and communication strategy,
and mathematical models of transport and dispersal.
16
o» Ol en o. a>
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01 en 01 ai
Q D D
■* l/l (O
O <_1 t_>
STRESS MAC
lilt.. .11 ill. .11. . .hit. ill
ilhilllllinilll, iLllill., III l.llllli.Ji, .iimli ..illll ,1
il III!!
EKMRN TRflN
CDI
Ar.. ..»**.... M.. .. .-.f«^mt\VwS?*fci imi m-^™*,tw • ^ft yj ' i^^TT>Jr'0*J I i^~ ' ' V^T* I. . i.mn
I H ' I •
001
II-
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"II
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lllillh Illl Ml h, iii. .ill
....Mill..
II. .11.1.1.
ir r
•IIIIH'
,-.'■,.•
Illl I
•I'll'
II...
Hi
55. 0N. 160. 0U
C0= .0013 HNG= 160.0
Figure 13. — An example of a fishery-oceanography product is the Ekinan Transport computer printout of NMFS.
Data for this example were collected 30 December 1975 at 55 N, 160W.
STRESS MAG surface wind stress
intensity and direction of Ekman transport
coastal divergence index
offshore divergence index
surface barometric pressure
EKMAN TRANS
CDI
ODl
PRESSURE
Living Marine Resources
Federal responsibility for providing a MAREP
service for living marine resources is in the Department
of Commerce and is administered by NMFS. The De-
partment of the Interior, through the Fish and Wildlife
Service, is responsible for MAREP service for living re-
sources in the Great Lakes. These services are provided to
a variety of user groups, including conservation, manage-
ment, and commercial and recreational fishing interests.
Table 4 summarizes funding of specialized MAREP
service for living marine resources by agency. NMFS
has also applied for supplemental funds and an increase
of 246 positions in order to facilitate their new responsi-
bilities under the extended jurisdiction.
Table 4. — Funding of the specialized Marine Environ-
mental Prediction Service for Living Marine Resources,
by agency
Agency
Total
FY 76
FY 77
Difference
— Thousand dollars —
Commerce 10.604 10.285 - 319
Transportation 1,125 1.215 +90
11.729
1 1 ,500
— 229
Stocks of fish off the U.S. coasts are an enormous
renewable resource: the annual harvest by foreign and
17
U.S. fishermen currently averages 1 1 billion pounds. The
retail value is about $6 billion. The potential annual catch
for this resource is estimated between 20 and 40 billion
pounds. Competitive harvesting by foreign and domestic
fishermen has depleted 10 major commercial stocks (ac-
cording to FAO 1974 report). The economic conse-
quences of depletion, exemplified by California sardine
and Atlantic haddock, have resulted in an accumulated
loss to fishermen in excess of one-half billion dollars as
of 1974. Another problem is allocation of this resource
between commercial and recreational fishermen.
NMFS has developed and is implementing a na-
tionally coordinated system of resource assessment to
provide annual forecasts and warnings of changes in and
effects on living marine resources. This effort is called
the Marine Resources Monitoring, Assessment, and Pre-
diction (MARMAP) program.
Principal elements of MARMAP include resource
surveys (fig. 13), analysis of fishery catch data, fishery
oceanography, and fishery engineering. MARMAP sur-
veys of important resource stocks are carried out in the
North Pacific, East Bering Sea, and Northwest Atlantic —
where overfishing problems are acute, assessment data
are scarce, and available information is unreliable.
In addition to the depletion of certain stocks, many
fishery resources are intensively fished and in danger of
being overfished. These resources often involve complex
systems and exploitation by several countries within the
same ocean area. Management of fisheries and allocation
of catches must be based on stock assessments that con-
sider both biological and environmental data. MARMAP
assessments are needed to support U.S. positions on
regulating fisheries in waters adjacent to our Nation's
coasts. NMFS uses NOAA and chartered vessels to
make MARMAP assessment surveys to determine the
distribution and abundance of planktonic, demersal, and
pelagic resources; and to determine how these resources
are related to ambient physical and chemical character-
istics. Information is collected on distribution of eggs
and larvae, abundance and distribution of species of shell-
fish and fish, including pelagic fish.
The Fishery Conservation and Management Act of
1976 gives NMFS the lead management responsibility
for a fishery conservation zone that goes into effect on
1 March 1977. This zone (is contiguous to the territorial
sea of the United States and) extends from the seaward
boundary of the coastal States to an outer limit 200
nautical miles from the baseline from which the territorial
sea is measured. Near-real-time environmental indices
are needed to predict stocks, manage the resources, and
establish quotas for foreign and U.S. fishing fleets. The
Coast Guard is responsible for law enforcement within
the 200-mile limit. Additional funds have been requested
to implement this new act successfully.
MARMAP assessment surveys are also made as part
of energy-related environmental studies in oil and gas
leasing areas. Cooperative vessels of the merchant fleet
(ships of opportunity) are used to obtain data from
distant waters. These ships, with government-installed
equipment for data collection, are ideal platforms for
making oceanwide observations.
In FY 77 several intensive investigations will be
launched to determine environmental influences on living
marine resources. In the Northwest Atlantic, studies will
be initiated on the transport and survival of juvenile
herring to provide a basis for predicting the condition
of the adult stock.
Because many useful environmental parameters lend
themselves to remote sensing, NMFS is cooperating with
other NOAA agencies and with NASA in studying the
apn'ication of remote sensing to fisheries assessment,
monitoring, and prediction. Geostationary satellite data
are being used to study how Gulf Stream meanders in
continental shelf waters are related to the presence of
biological organisms. Satellite-derived and in-situ meas-
urements of surface temperature are used to determine
the relations between sea temperatures, coastal up-
wellings, and fish migrations.
NMFS, State agencies, and private industry are
making a 22-month investigation to demonstrate the
feasibility of using satellite data to improve the manage-
ment and use of coastal fishery resources in the northern
Gulf of Mexico.
Real-Time Products
Several marine environmental services are provided
directly to industry. NOAA's radio station WWD, on
the Scripps Institution of Oceanography campus in La
Jolla, Calif., receives fishery and environmental data
and disseminates daily forecasts of surface weather and
ocean thermal structures. Weather forecasts are prepared
at San Francisco Weather Service Forecast Office. Data
input is primarily from the U.S. tuna fleet in the eastern
Pacific. The NMFS Southwest Fisheries Center processes
the data and generates forecasts. Similarly, information
on ocean surface and subsurface thermal structure, de-
rived in part from satellite data and XBT's, is broadcast
to the coastal albacore tuna fleet in the form of a daily
Albacore Advisory Service.
Non-Real-Time-Products
A monthly publication, Fishing Information Bulle-
tin, depicts the thermal structure of the eastern Pacific
Ocean and anomalies relative to the 20-year mean.
NMFS is developing two annual status reports
through MARMAP. A status of the stocks report en-
titled The United States Marine Fishery Resource will be
issued each year with a section on each species subject
to harvesting. The report will include discussion on the
distribution, biology, harvesting and management, status
of the stocks, and recommendations for each species.
A concurrent report, The Environment of the United
States Living Marine Resources, will be compiled each
year for the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and the Gulf
of Mexico. Contributions will include reports and papers
on ocean and atmosphere climatology, anomalies, and
variations, and monthly summaries for the various
Figure 14. — Offshore drilling platform. (Mobil Oil Corp. photo)
19
physical properties. Prototype reports were generated for
CY 1974 and 1975, and regular reports will start with
OY 1976.
The Coast Guard (USCG) also provides services
to improve the use of living marine resources. As men-
tioned earlier, periodic aerial flights over the Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans record sea-surface temperature using
remote-sensing infrared radiometers. This information
is distributed monthly to various institutions and users
in the form of charts of surface isotherms. These charts,
now in their 12th year of publication, help fishermen
select the best fishing areas. They also provide informa-
tion to scientists studying the coastal waters. USCG
flights also record data on the distribution of large surface
animals (sharks, turtles, whales), schools of fish, and for-
eign fleets. Through the auspices of its Oceanographic
Unit, USCG makes spring and autumn oceanographic
surveys of the northwest Atlantic fisheries area as part
of its coastal monitoring and research effort. Surveys
include bottle and STD casts and neuston net tows.
Sample analyses include examination of biota, inorganic
nutrients, and tar balls.
Interior's Fish and Wildlife Service also has several
programs dealing with living marine resources particu-
larly as they are affected in the Great Lakes Region. The
programs aim at (1) protecting, preserving, and enhanc-
ing natural ecosystems associated with fish and wildlife
that are affected by activities of man and (2) ensuring
full consideration of fish and wildlife resources in the
planning and implementation of land and water develop-
ment projects where a Federal responsibility or interest
exists.
The goals are to ( 1 ) improve sport and commercial
fisheries of the Great Lakes, stocks of coastal anadromous
fish species, and migratory bird populations and the
habitats in which they live, (2) ensure that all mammals,
nonmigratory birds, and other wildlife continue to be
parts of the natural ecosystems, and (3) develop a cen-
tralized national system of biological information to
provide data on key species and environments that are
essential for making biologically sound decisions on plan-
ning and management.
Nonliving Marine Resources
Increased emphasis on developing potential energy
resources has led to expanded interest in the exploration
and use of mineral resources particularly on the Outer
Continental Shelf (OCS).
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) supervises and
regulates the activities of OCS lease holders in the
exploration, development, and production of oil, gas,
and minerals (fig. 14). Objectives are to (1) ensure
safety of industry operations, (2) attain the most efficient
recovery of resources, (3) maintain a clean OCS environ-
ment, and (4) collect revenues due from OCS operations.
Inspections are made periodically to ensure industry com-
pliance with rules, regulations, and operating plans. Data
relating to OCS oil, gas, and mineral operations are com-
piled and published.
USGS, in evaluating the probable worth of petroleum
deposits for public leasing, obtains geophysical and geo-
logical data related to the stability of offshore structures.
About 10 percent of the cost of obtaining high-resolution
seismic and deep geologic data is borne by studies to
evaluate the stability hazards of shallow foundations.
In the Baltimore Canyon and Georges Bank areas,
there are projects to characterize the geologic environ-
ments and identify potential geologic hazards. Offshore
and coastal-zone studies are being made to identify areas
of unstable sediments and to determine the processes
and map the dispersion pathways of sediments and poten-
tial contaminants.
National Security
The Dspartment of Defense (DOD) provides spe-
cialized MAREP services. Though the U.S. Navy has
an essentially independently operating oceanographic-
meteorological services system that functions primarily
in support of military applications it cooperates closely
with the civilian agencies. The Fleet Numerical Weather
Center (FNWC) provides full-service, worldwide, real-
time data processing and dissemination. FNWC provides
continually updated forecasts that are specifically designed
to meet the requirements of fleet operations and other
military needs. Oceanographic activities in support of
national security requirements are provided by the Naval
Oceanographic Office, the several management offices
devoted to ocean science and engineering, and Navy
laboratories with ocean programs.
To increase the effectiveness of its operations, DOD
often uses other available services to supplement its own.
Conversely, many military data observations and products
are made available to civilian users. These include:
• Atlases, technical reports, and data banks
• Daily weather releases from FNWC
• Experimental forecasts of oceanic fronts, eddies, and
thermal structures
DOD increased its operational budget for specialized
MAREP services for National Security from $12,519,000
in FY 76 to $16,744,000 in FY 77.
MAREP RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
The Interagency Committee on Marine Science and
Engineering determines the marine science areas where
thrusts in research and development are needed. This
section of the MAREP report describes ongoing R&D
activities that directly relate to MAREP functions.
Research and development programs to improve the
basic and specialized MAREP services are being carried
out by several Federal agencies. The R&D programs for
basic MAREP services are described by the marine
science disciplinary categories of marine meteorology,
20
DROPSONDE
MERCHANTt
VESSEL
T DROPSONDE AIRCRAFT
CONSTANT LEVEL BALOON
T COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
T RADIOS*
TIROS-N
RESEARCH
VESSEL
^RADIOSONDE
RELEASE
1 LAND STATION
RADIOSONDE
IOMEGA STATION
SATELLITE GROUND STATION
Figure 15.— First GARP Global Experiment (FGGE) Concept.
21
Table 5. — Funding of basic marine environmental pre-
diction research, by agency
• *1 •-» »
Figure 16. — 5ewage sludge tank on the M/V North
River, a sewage sludge vessel. (NO A A photo by Roland
Paine)
physical oceanography, chemical oceanography, biologi-
cal oceanography, and ocean technology. A section on
interdisciplinary activities is also included. The R&D
programs for specialized MAREP services are described
within the context of the several services: maritime com-
merce, water quality assessment, living and nonliving
marine resources, and national security.
Basic MAREP Research
In FY 77, R&D programs for basic MAREP services
are generally continuations of ongoing efforts. Table 5
summarizes funding for basic MAREP research by
agency. The level of funding in FY 77 is slightly less
than in FY 76. Department of the Interior R&D funds
reflect continued emphasis on developing the energy
potential of the outer continental shelf. Increased funding
by the National Science Foundation (NSF) reflects, in
part, the increased costs for three International Decade
of Ocean Exploration (IDOE) field programs — POLY-
MODE, GEOSECS, AND CUEA.
AGENCY
FY 76
FY 77
Difference
— Thousand dollars-
Commerce
24,507
21,475
- 3,032
Defense
6,373
7,503
+ 1,130
Interior
48,494
43,623
- 4,871
Transportation
3,408
3,640
+ 232
ERDA
19,800
21,300
+ 1,500
NASA
780
780
—
NSF
25,360
28,035
+ 2,675
Smithsonian
1,757
1,757
—
Total
130,479
128,113
- 2,366
Marine Meteorology
Improvements in marine meteorology forecasting
usually depend on R&D activities related to larger scale
studies of atmospheric dynamic modeling and climatol-
ogy.
Air-sea interaction research by NOAA and the Navy
is to understand better and to quantify the processes be-
tween the ocean and atmosphere involving transfer of
heat, moisture, and momentum. These energy exchange
processes contribute significantly to the generation of the
world's weather patterns and to the destructive forces of
hurricanes and other severe storms. The Navy is develop-
ing models of dynamic marine meteorological conditions
and updating numerical air-ocean prediction models to
use more satellite data.
The National Science Foundation has several pro-
grams that contribute to MAREP objectives. Research
on air-sea interaction includes studies of large-scale pres-
sure variations and studies of turbulent transfer, includ-
ing comparison studies with the tank facility at Mar-
seilles, France. Additionally, support is provided to
IDOE's CLIMAP project that focuses on describing and
explaining climatic changes over the last million years,
including the transition between what are considered to
be the two stable states of global climate — the ice age
and temperate age periods. The project involves the
study of climatic change from indications of the faunal
record in deep-sea sediment cores. The program has 18
investigators from five institutions.
The NORPAX program, under the joint auspices
of NSF-IDOE and the Office of Naval Research, is a
major climate-related study of long-period, large-scale
ocean-atmosphere coupling in the North Pacific Ocean.
Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP)
activities in the next few years will include analysis of
22
r
*■ ■
? -:
9 • - . * -
■ •' : *
%*
Figure 17. — Satellite observations may be used to monitor sources of water pollution. This image, made by a
multispectral scanner on the Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTA), shows S-shaped pattern resulting
from the dumping of sewage sludge from tug-towed barges just outside New York Harbor.
the oceanographic and air-sea interaction studies that
were made during the GARP Atlantic Tropical Experi-
ment (GATE) in 1974. Planning will continue for the
First GARP Global Experiment (FGGE) (fig. 15), in
which observations of atmospheric and oceanic param-
eters over major portions of the world oceans will play
an important role. U.S. participation in GARP is under
the guidance of NOAA with major NSF support for
participating scientists from universities and the National
Center for Atmospheric Research. Although this pro-
gram primarily concerns the upper air, it also includes
significant studies of ocean-atmosphere interaction
activity.
The Geostationary Operational Environmental Satel-
lite (GOES) is being used to determine cloud and wind
fields in near real time over land and ocean areas sur-
rounding North and South America.
Automated techniques for making forecasts of sur-
face winds on the Great Lakes have been developed by
the National Weather Service. Resulting wind predictions
are used as input to a Great Lake Wave Forecast model;
components are being developed for each lake. These
models will provide forecasts and warnings of hazardous
wave conditions and also advisories on storm surges.
NOAA also does research on hurricanes and other
tropical storms. Models provide insight into the nature
and structure of tropical disturbances. This insight in
turn provides a means to improve forecasts and lessen
storm losses.
Physical Oceanography
The description and theoretical explanation of the
physical processes in the ocean is called physical oceanog-
raphy. The research includes the studies of water circu-
lation and movement such as currents, waves, and trans-
port. It also is concerned with temperature, density, sound
and light propagation, and air-sea interactions.
23
RADAR IMAGE
27 AUGUST 1976
100 kM
PRUDHOE BAY OIL COMPLEX
Figure 18. — SLAR Image/Ice Chart product of Alaska north slope on August 27, 1976.
NSF support is principally for individual unsolicited
projects carried out by scientists from the major U.S.
oceanographic institutions. About 40 to 50 awards are
made annually for open-ocean studies; about 50 percent
are concerned with MAREP objectives. However, NSF
also supports projects of the International Decade of
Ocean Exploration (IDOE). The major projects are the
North Pacific Experiment (NORPAX), the International
Southern Ocean Studies (ISOS), and the Mid-Ocean
Dynamics Experiment (POLYMODE).
NORPAX objectives are to understand large-scale
fluctuations in the upper layers of the North Pacific
Ocean, and their relations to the atmosphere. Scientists
hope that NORPAX will lead to improved prediction of
weather and climate for the northeast Pacific Ocean and
North America. NORPAX is jointly sponsored by IDOE
and the Office of Naval Research (ONR). NORPAX
scientists are actively involved in regional studies such
as the "El Nino" off the west coast of South America.
NORPAX involves 37 scientists from 16 institutions.
The International Southern Ocean Study (ISOS)
program funded by NSF is concerned with the dynamics
and structure of the Antarctic Circumpolar Curren
feature of major importance to deepwater exchanges
tween the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. The c
all objective of ISOS is better predictions of gk
weather and climate.
Under joint sponsorship of IDOE and ONR,
United States and the Soviet Union are developin
large-scale Mid-Ocean Dynamics Experiment Progi
(MODE). The current phase is called POLYMODE
is based on the POLYGON program of the U.S.S.R.
the MODE program of the United States and the Un
Kingdom, and consists of major theoretical and exp
mental efforts to understand medium-scale ocean e>
circulation. The 1-year intense field phase of the progi
will begin in 1978. The U.S. contribution to the pro
includes 30 scientists from 10 institutions.
Some EPA research is directed toward the applic
tion of mathematical modeling techniques to predict 1
fate of pollutants in the marine environment and assi
their effects on marine ecosystems. A model has been <
veloped to predict the time-spatial distribution of sewE
sludge as it is being dumped from a moving barge (1
16).
24
NOAA conducts research on the ocean currents in
order to predict the movement of water, heat, and pol-
lutants. These investigations include: the development
of theoretical local and oceanwidc models, measure-
ments of exchange rates, circulation studies, and current
mappings of currents. NOAA research on wind waves
includes basic observational studies of wave growth and
development of wave forecasting.
Methods are being derived for improved global
mapping of sea-surface temperature detailed from NOAA
satellites. Wind speed, upwelling, seasonal surface water
changes, and other phenomena are also under study
(fig. 17).
Tsunamis are very long ocean waves generated by
earthquakes. Their runup over coastlines has caused great
damage and loss of life. Tsunami research is carried out
primarily by NOAA in support of its Tsunami Warning
System in the Pacific. The major research goals are to
make quantitative warnings and to produce tsunami
hazard statistics for the coastlines of the Pacific Ocean
basin (fig. 18). Developments include an automation
program for the analysis and a satellite communication
system for better observational reliability.
Storm surges are changes in the water levels along
seacoasts or lakes caused by atmospheric events — princi-
pally winds but also atmospheric pressure. NOAA and
DOD study this phenomenon. NOAA's previous research
on surges has included the development of numerical
models applicable to uncomplicated coastlines and storm
movements. The new thrusts are the consideration of
coastline curvature and bridging from the open coast
to bays and other semienclosed bodies of water. The
extratropical surges in lakes and along coastlines are also
being studied.
Certain aspects of fishery oceanography also relate
to MAREP. For example, an index of annual seasonal
ocean upwelling has been developed for the U.S. west
coast. The index appears to be highly correlated with the
fish landings.
Research has been performed on oceanic fronts
and cold- and warm-core eddies that break away from
the Gulf Stream. Long-term observations will establish
migratory patterns and their degradation with time. An
experimental chart of thermal anomalies in the western
North Atlantic is prepared and disseminated twice weekly.
The Coast Guard (USCG) performs experiments to
measure advection and diffusion of floating and suspended
pollutants in U.S. coastal waters. In addition, information
on water movements in several major harbors will be
provided in support of harbor pollution contingency
plans. The leeway and diffusion of various types of oil
under varying conditions of wind and sea will be studied
to improve USCG prediction of movement and fate of oil
spills at sea. USCG programs related to understanding
the structure and motion of the ocean are also directed
toward support of the International Ice Patrol and
search and rescue missions.
The Army Corps of Engineers has a continuing pro-
gram to maintain navigable channels and provide environ-
mental data to alleviate problems of beach erosion.
Navy research in physical oceanography to improve
wave forecasts includes consideration of the turbulent
wind field, the mechanisms of wind-wave generation and
growth, and propagation and modification of shallow-
water waves.
Solution to the problem of wave forecasting on an
oceanwide basis is well underway through use of large
computer facilities. A spectral wave model for the Medi-
terranean Sea, North Pacific, and North Atlantic is being
run twice daily on an evaluation basis. A spectral wave
model for the South China Sea is being converted for
Navy use. A computer program has recently been
formulated for wave refraction analysis over the con-
tinental shelf to the shoreline. Large-scale ocean density
anomalies, which have a substantial effect on long-range
acoustical propagation, are known to develop within a
couple of weeks and to persist for many months.
A significant NAVOCEANO effort has been de-
voted toward the improvement of the Water Mass Data
File and other data banks and atlases. Designed for
use with onboard computer prediction systems, the Water
Mass Data File and associated subroutines allow the
shallow temperature observations from expendable bathy-
thermographs to be merged with historical data taken by
other means.
Another area of Navy research is that of under-
water visibility, which can be restricted by large clouds
of suspended material. The Navy has programs to im-
prove knowledge of coastal energy sources and response
mechanisms of the shore, the sediment, and coastal water
motion systems.
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in coopera-
tion with NOAA-produced experimental topographic-
bathymetric maps as part of an effort to develop a com-
patible series of coastal-zone maps showing the detailed
land/water interface of the coastline. USGS provides
topographic and planimetric information of the land
areas, and National Ocean Survey provides the mean-
high and mean-low water lines and bathymetric detail in
the water areas.
The Energy Research and Development Adminis-
tration (ERDA) sponsors coastal circulation studies at
the Brookhaven National Laboratory in cooperation with
Woods Hole Occanographic Institution. ERDA's interests
here are in the narrow region of the coastal zone out to
about 10 kilometers — the likely sites of offshore nuclear
powerplants. This program, both experimental and theo-
retical, is designed to explore and understand the near-
shore flow regimes induced by winds and tides. The
location of the study is along the straight, relatively
uncomplicated, shoreline of the south shore of Long
Island, N.Y.
25
Chemical Oceanography
Research efforts relative to MAREP services in
chemical oceanography are focused upon the distribution
and changes in the chemical constituents of seawater and
the effects of chemical additives. Corrosive chemical
interactions are not included.
National Science Foundation supports selected pro-
posals dealing with the chemical properties and processes
of seawater, naturally occurring and manmade com-
pounds in oceanic waters, and the chemical aspects of
ocean-atmosphere interactions. It is expected that about
one-third of the 50 to 60 grants awarded in this program
will deal with open-ocean chemistry related to MAREP
objectives.
The International Decade of Ocean Exploration sup-
ports research on the physical-chemical processes. North-
south transects of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans in the
Geochemical Ocean Sections Study (GEOSECS) have
collected a large number of samples of deep ocean water,
which are being chemically analyzed at shore-based labo-
ratories. GEOSECS also serves as a geochemical baseline
survey of the world ocean. An Indian Ocean sampling
program is being planned for late 1977 by the 28 sci-
entists participating in the effort.
Research on pollutant transfer processes determines
the rates and mechanisms by which pollutants are added
to the oceans and the mechanisms by which pollutants are
transferred from one part of the ocean system to another.
The program has 10 investigators from nine institutions.
The Environmental Protection Agency marine re-
search program includes studies on the fate and effects
of trace metals from sewage, dredge spoil, and industrial
wastes. Similar studies are also being carried out on oil
and persistent organics.
The Navy has programs in chemical oceanography
directed specifically to problems, such as acoustic propa-
gation and research to determine the chemical constituents
of seawater, to identify means by which they react, and to
characterize processes they undergo in the marine en-
vironment.
The Bureau of Land Management, Department of
the Interior, studies petroleum toxicity and heavy metals
in the Gulf of Mexico and oil-spill matrices. Major in-
creases in fiscal year 1976 will be used to fund en-
vironmental assessments of relatively virgin areas such
as the Bering and Beaufort Seas.
Biological Oceanography
Research efforts for MAREP Services in biological
oceanography include the study of how pollutants affect
the distribution and environmental interrelationships of
marine biota. However, MAREP biological oceanographic
research is generally exclusive of fisheries activities that
are discussed under the specialized MAREP research
category, Living Marine Resources.
EPA's marine research program includes the de-
velopment of culturing, rearing, and holding techniques
capable of producing quality-controlled marine orga-
nisms for experimental use. Studies are underway on the
fate and effects of oil, heavy metals, and persistent
organics on marine biota.
Operating as part of the Smithsonian Institution,
the Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center provides
a service for processing collections of marine specimens to
expedite their rapid analysis.
The aim of the NSF biological oceanography pro-
gram is to gain an improved understanding of oceanic
organisms and their distribution, behavior, and nutrition
as well as their interactions with the marine envronment.
Studies in fiscal year 1976 were devoted to ecological and
physiological adaptation to environmental and man-
induced stresses.
In the IDOE office of NSF, coastal projects of the
environmental quality program include the study of how
chemical pollutants affect marine life. A major program
in this study is the Controlled Ecosystem Pollution Ex-
periment in which scientists are investigating entire
marine ecosystems that are enclosed in huge plastic bags
in the natural environment. IDOE also supports the
Coastal Upwelling Ecosystems Analysis (CUEA) pro-
gram, whose main goal is to understand coastal upwelling.
Prediction models might then provide the basis for im-
proved management and use of living marine resources.
During 1977, CUEA scientists will carry out a major field
study, called JOINT-II, in the distinctive upweiling
region off Peru. The U.S. effort involves 24 scientists
from 13 institutions, three research ships, and one re-
search airplane.
The main emphasis of Naval research is in the field
of bioacoustics in the Office of Naval Research and with
interactions with sonar performance. The program also
includes studies on the basic sensory capabilities of dan-
gerous marine animals, principally sharks.
The Fish and Wildlife Service of the Department
of the Interior maintains a program of research on coastal
anadromous fish and biological monitoring of marine and
coastal species of fish and wildlife. In addition, studies
are made to evaluate how various Federal construction
activities affect the ecologic balance of fish and waterfowl.
Polar Studies
The Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL) is a
Navy-owned research facility about 4 miles north of
Barrow, Alaska. From NARL the Navy operates several
field stations, including research stations on ice islands.
These programs are supplemented by airborne studies
of the distribution and dynamics of pack ice.
Work is continuing on a system to measure motions
of sea ice in the central Arctic Ocean. Basic measure-
ments of the position of ice flows were acquired by use
of the Navy Navigation Satellite System and a specially
designed acoustic tracking system of bottom reference.
Statistical analyses show that spectral "signatures" can be
correlated with other ice properties, e.g., age and thick-
26
Figure 19.— The NOAA Ship Surveyor in Icy Bay, Alaska, with Mt. St. Elias in the background.
ness. Recent experiments with side-looking radar systems
(fig. 19) provided direct-image maps of ice terrain with
good surface feature resolution and have given en-
couraging results for further development of these remote
sensors.
A study of Arctic sea ice organisms has confirmed
the fact that a visible brown layer appears on the under-
side of sea ice in mid-April. The layer is related to the
increasing light levels of spring. Understanding this cycle
is a key to predicting the sound scattering and sonic tar-
gets that result from organisms feeding on algae.
Analysis of recent oceanographic data taken from
pack ice stations has confirmed the presence of a western
boundary current in the Arctic Ocean. The results of this
analysis will improve our understanding of the ice drift
and the motion of water masses that affect the sound
environment in the Arctic Ocean. The intensified flow
off Point Barrow is considered analogous to the western
currents of temperate oceans (Gulf Stream and Kuroshio).
Field data accumulated during the field investigation of
the Arctic Ice Dynamics Joint Experiment (AIDJEX)
will be used to improve existing models of the flow and
help understand its physical and chemical characteristics.
The AIDJEX program took place between March
1975 and March 1976 in the central region of the Beau-
fort Sea in the Arctic Ocean. The goal was to provide
predictions of Arctic weather and ice conditions. Par-
ticipating agencies were NSF, Navy (ONR), DOI, DOC
(NOAA and MarAd) of the United States and the De-
partment of Energy, Mines, and Resources of Canada.
For its studies of the development of an ice dynamic
model, the AIDJEX program made extensive use of data
from NOAA and NASA satellites as well as information
obtained from aircraft flights.
Projections on the development of the Alaska north
slope oil resources indicate the eventual need to ship
oil by sea from the Alaska north coast. This has caused
several agencies to initiate research in the area. NOAA
has begun field work (fig. 20). Coast Guard research to
develop this capability includes:
• Determination of extent of seasonal and year-round
navigability of the water routes to the north coast of
Alaska
• Development of a routing system for navigating ships
through ice-covered waters
NSF's planned oceanographic programs in Antarctica
include completion of the Antarctic circumpolar survey,
research on the formation of Antarctic Bottom Water
under the International Weddell Sea Oceanographic Ex-
pedition, and a physical oceanography program in the
Ross Sea and a complementary program under the Ross
27
I
1L
Figure 20.— Two new Prototype Environmental Buoys (PEB) being readied for tow to station by the USCG
Cutter Yocona. (General Dynamics photo)
Ice Shelf project. Through its U.S. Antarctic Research
Program, NSF is analyzing the Antarctic marine eco-
system with emphasis on the dynamics of food chains
and populations. The aim is to obtain data to improve
techniques of conservation and management. Also, an at-
tempt is being made to determine how commercial har-
vesting of krill affects the marine ecosystem.
Ocean Technology
Research and developments in ocean technology are
constantly improving the MAREP services. More reliable
instrumentation along with more demanding procedures
for quality control and better systems of management
are reflected in more reliable and more widely available
user products. Technological advances in communica-
tion, computers, and platforms also help provide im-
proved MAREP products and services.
NASA has a wide variety of research and develop-
ment programs generally related to the use of remote-
sensing techniques. SEASAT research satellite mission is
the first major step in developing and demonstrating a
global system of ocean dynamics monitoring. Specific
SEASAT-A mission objectives are to:
1. Demonstrate a capability for:
(a) Global monitoring of ocean temperature, surface
wind, and wave height and directional spectrum,
Measuring precise sea-surface topography; de-
tecting currents, storm surges, tides, and
tsunamis
Charting ice fields and leads
Mapping global ocean geoid
(b)
(c)
(d)
2. Demonstrate the key features of an operational
system for:
(a) Global sampling
(b) Near-real-time data processing dissemination
(c) User feedback for operational programming
SEASAT-A is scheduled for launch from Vanden-
burg AFB, Calif., in May 1978. The satellite will be in-
28
Figure 21. — 5ewfl^e sludge being discharged at a dumpsite in the N.Y. Bight by the MIV Owl's Head.
jected into an Earth orbit that provides near-global cov-
erage. NOAA works closely with NASA in developing
remote-sensing capabilities, and has begun to plan ex-
periments to use SEASAT-A data. Four remote sensors
are being added to the satellite: (1) a radar altimeter,
(2) a microwave scatterometer, (3) a synthetic aperture
radar, and (4) a visible and infrared radiometer.
NOAA's National Ocean Survey (NOS) is deter-
mining the accuracy expected for orbits of SEASAT,
which will carry an altimeter with an expected 10-
centimeter precision. NOS also is studying new methods
to accurately determine geodetic control and to monitor
temporal variations in horizontal and vertical positions,
pole locations, and Earth rotation.
Development of the third generation polar-orbiting
satellite, the TIROS N series, is continuing. This satellite
series is destined to replace the current ITOS system.
TIROS N, the NASA prototype, is scheduled for launch
in early 1978.
Because of its higher data rate, its fully digital
data system, and the demand or timely delivery of proc-
essed data, NOAA's National Environmental Satellite
Service (NESS) is building a new ground system to
accommodate the TIROS N series. NESS will use unique
data processing facilities and a portion of the large-scale
central computing capability of NOAA.
Nimbus-G, also scheduled for 1978. will carry a
Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) with five color
and one thermal infrared scanner. By selective absorption
and scattering, chlorophyll, pollutants, gelbstoffe, sedi-
ments, and other materials can be detected in coastal
ocean waters. NOAA and others are supporting prepara-
tions for data analysis and interpretation of CZCS data.
NASA is also applying its technology toward more
specific problem areas. One major area of concern is
water quality and its effect on living marine organisms.
NASA is determining the feasibility of using its
technology to develop environmental monitoring systems
for the Great Lakes Basin. In support, a comprehensive
effort will be undertaken on the development of data
management and display systems and transport and dis-
persal models for Great Lakes application together with
network strategy and communications.
For the past few years, the U.S. Geological Survey
has had a research project in the Sapelo Island, Ga.. area
to evaluate requirements, procedures, and costs of various
remote-sensing techniques for mapping and interpreting
coastal wetlands.
29
The Office of Naval Research has several ocean
technology programs designed to provide direct tech-
nological support of scientific research and to support new
areas of technology that hold promise for both future
Navy programs and direct naval application by the Naval
Oceanographic Office in evaluating its experimental fore-
casts of oceanic fronts, eddies, and thermal structure, and
determining how each affects naval operations.
NOAA has established an Office of Ocean Engi-
neering (OOE) for research technology development to
develop services related to ocean engineering and under-
sea operations and to serve as a national focal point for
knowledge related to civil ocean engineering. In ocean
instrumentation, OOE develops and implements programs
in standards, calibration, and testing. It develops and
carries on programs for data intercomparability in na-
tional and international programs, develops and imple-
ments an instrumentation information center, and spon-
sors critically needed development.
NOAA is the Federal agency with primary respon-
sibility for developing buoys to obtain marine environ-
mental data. NOAA's Data Buoy Office (NDBO) de-
velops buoy technology; tests and evaluates prototype
buoy systems for acquisition of marine envirinmental
data; and procures, deploys, and operates buoys on a
reimbursable basis as specified by users. NDBO serves as
a national and international source of technical informa-
tion and advice on environmental data buoys and their
associated technology (fig. 21). Contractors are used to
carry out developmental projects and to refurbish, retro-
fit, and maintain deployed buoys. Coast Guard ships
are used to tow, retrieve, and service buoys.
NDBO is developing prototype buoy systems, in-
cluding an air-deployable ice buoy and an oceanographic
and meteorological ice buoy. NDBO also is developing
drifting buoys for use in the open ocean in support of
the Global Atmospheric Research Program. Data from
these buoys will be relayed to analysis centers by the
Nimbus-6 satellite.
NOAA's NOS Office of Marine Technology (OMT)
acts as the focal point for knowledge of technology re-
lated to the testing, evaluation, and calibration of in-
strument sensor systems for ocean use, and disseminates
associated technical information to serve the national
oceanographic community. OMT's Systems Analysis Divi-
sion assesses requirements and formulates the design of
marine environmental data systems to collect and process
oceanographic, marine meteorological, and related marine
environmental data. The Engineering Development La-
boratory (EDL) develops, tests, and evaluates systems
and system components; provides necessary testing,
logistical, and operational documentation; and translates
research results into operational systems. The Test and
Evaluation Laboratory (T&EL) complements the EDL
effort in providing laboratory and field evaluation of sen-
sors, instruments, and complete systems to establish the
sensor characteristics relative to expressed operational and
scientific requirements. It also provides standards and
meteorology services and consultation to support NOAA
programs and to assist other agencies — public and private
— on a reimbursable basis.
In 1976, OMT provided calibration and meteorology
services to the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office and to
the Bureau of Land Management in support of the
MESA New York Bight Project. EDL is also providing
engineering developmental support to MESA and to the
Environmental Protection Agency in support of their
Outer Continental Shelf Energy Assessment Program.
Interdisciplinary Activities
The NOAA Marine Ecosystems Analysis (MESA)
program includes studies of the ecology of the marine
environment and changes that result from human activi-
ties and natural forces. The New York Bight was selected
as the first experimental area for intensive investigations
because of the magnitude and urgency of its problems,
including waste discharge and various offshore develop-
ments (fig. 22). Field work is scheduled for completion
in FY 1978.
A cooperative, interdisciplinary research effort to
study the marine environment in the Pacific Northwest
began in FY 1974. The cooperators are the Canadians,
other Federal and State agencies, and universities. This
effort was in response to concern over the expected in-
crease in oil tanker traffic and the discharge of treated
sewage effluent into Puget Sound. The information gained
in this preliminary effort will contribute significantly to
development of a future MESA regional project.
NOAA's Great Lakes Environmental Research Labora-
tory provides a focus for environmental research on the
Great Lakes and their watersheds. A major task to be
continued in the next year is the analysis of data col-
lected from Lake Ontario in 1972-73 during the Inter-
national Field Year for the Great Lakes (IFYGL).
IFYGL will terminate in late 1977 with the completion
of eight international summary scientific reports and a
wrap-up workshop to synthesize and critique this major
United States and Canadian project.
The NOAA Sea Grant program supports Sea Grant
colleges and education and research in fields relating to
development of marine resources and marine environ-
mental prediction in the United States.
The Energy Research Development Administration
(ERDA) supports multidisciplinary studies on the en-
vironmental effects of siting and operating nuclear and
fossil-fuel powerplants. Research is directed toward
learning how marine processes affect the accumulation of
energy-related pollutants in the marine environment. This
enables us to ascertain better the probable effects of
powerplants and large-scale oil drilling.
The ERDA marine program is based on the phi-
losophy that part of its contract research must be
devoted to a basic understanding of the ocean as a
complete system. This necessarily requires work of a
30
Figure 22. — Liberian-flag tanker Argo Merchant floundering off the coast of Nantucket, Mass. (U.S. Navy photo)
more long-term nature than many agencies typically sup-
port. Scientists at Battelle Northwest Labs and University
of Washington are studying the fate and effects of petro-
leum hydrocarbons in Pacific Northwest areas that are
likely to be affected by oil from Alaska.
The U.S. Geological Survey's geography program
entails land-use and land-cover mapping of coastal areas
of the United States in support of coastal-zone manage-
ment efforts of the States. Information developed is of
immediate use in environmental impact statements,
equalization of tax assessments, management of public
lands, planning for urban growth, preservation of wild-
life habitats, recreational development, and water re-
sources planning.
The Environmental Protection Agency's research
and development programs relating to marine environ-
mental prediction fall into four general areas:
• Studies to determine how various pollutants affect
marine ecosystems
• Development of standardized methods and monitoring
techniques to assess the effects of various wastes on
marine ecosystems
• Design of simulations and mathematical models to aid
in predicting the environmental impact of wastes on
marine ecosystems
• Research to investigate and technology to control and
limit the adverse effects of oil and hazardous materials
on the marine environment
The National Science Foundation's International
Decade of Ocean Exploration sponsored the Coastal
Upwelling Ecosystem program, JOINT-I, off northwest
Africa in 1974. Preliminary results suggest that precise
description of water movement outside an upwelling
region is essential for a proper description of the total
upwelling circulation and that this outer motion may be
strongly affected by the shape of the continental shelf
and slope. These findings are the basis for planning the
operations of JOINT-II 1976 and 1977 in the upwelling
region off Peru.
The National Museum of Natural History has an
integrated project involving the marine environment —
the Investigations of Marine Shallow Water Ecosystems
program. This study encompasses the physical, chemical,
and biological aspects of an undisturbed coral reef ad-
jacent to Belize, Central America, and can be used as a
baseline against which to compare polluted or otherwise
disturbed reef systems.
31
Specialized MAREP Service Research
Besides having direct applications to the basic
MAREP services, several research programs have been
identified as providing support to the specialized MAREP
Services.
Maritime Commerce (table 6)
Data and information services are operated to meet
the requirements of shipping for safety in navigating the
high seas, coastal and inland waters, and harbors. Rou-
tinely included are routing services to ships including
predicted height of sea waves, the direction and velocity
of water currents in the oceans along the coast and in
harbor areas; and the water levels in harbors and their
approaches.
Major NOAA increases in Specialized Service for
Maritime Commerce are reflected by expanded VHF/FM
coverage along the coastal areas and, to a less degree,
the production of climatic data services.
The Coast Guard is expanding research to meet the
projected capability requirements to provide safe naviga-
tion and marine environmental protection along the north
coast of Alaska.
The Coast Guard manages and operates the Interna-
tional Ice Patrol which alerts traffic in the North Atlantic
shipping lanes to the presence of icebergs. Ice reconnais-
sance and current studies provide the International Ice
Patrol with a means to predict iceberg density and
movement.
Table 6. — Research funding for the improvement of the
specialized Marine Environmental Prediction Service for
Maritime Commerce, by agency
Agency
FY 76
FY 77 Difference
Commerce
Transportation
— Thousand dollars —
2,341 2,390 +49
409 455 +46
Total
2,750
2,845
+ 95
Water Quality Assessment (table 7)
Research on water quality assessment is actively
performed by many Federal agencies in conjunction with
their marine program initiatives. In FY 77, the area of
greatest emphasis is the outer continental shelf. This
research is primarily provided in support of the Depart-
ment of Interior's programs related to oil and gas explor-
ation and production.
The Bureau of Land Management subcontracts for
needed research in water quality determinations in many
areas of the U.S. continental shelf. This information is
used when considering potential oil and gas leaseholds
and is a vital concern in determining environmental im-
pacts. A new U.S. Geological Survey program of con-
tract research was initiated in 1976 to develop and
improve techniques and devices for assuring safe pollu-
tion-free operation of offshore drilling rigs, production
platforms, and pipelines.
With several coastal States, USGS also has initiated
cooperative research projects on local water quality. Usu-
ally funded on an equal matching basis with State or
local government funds, these investigations focus on
solutions to specific problems faced by the States in their
coastal zones. A few examples are:
Saltwater encroachment of ground water — Florida and
Texas
Deep-well waste injection — Florida
Sand dune aquifiers — Oregon
Table 7. — Research funding for the improvement of the
specialized Marine Environmental Prediction Service for
Water Quality Assessment, by agency
Agency
FY 76
FY 77
Difference
—Thousand dollars
Commerce
7,173
5,701
- 1,472
Defense
—
—
—
Interior
500
500
0
Transportation
181
197
+ 16
EPA
5,075
5,075
0
NASA
650
650
0
Total
13,579
12,123
-(1,456)
The Energy Research and Development Adminis-
tration is an active participant in water quality research.
It is particularly concerned with the development of
energy in the coastal zone and ascertaining the probable
effects of large-scale oil drilling and oil spills on the
continental shelf and the effects of locating nuclear
powerplants both onshore and offshore in the coastal
zones.
The U.S. Coast Guard is studying sea-surface cur-
rents and developing computerized models of these
currents for the entire U.S. coastline. These models will
have applications in pollution control and studies of deep-
water ports. Estuarine pollution is also being studied.
NASA research has been extended toward applica-
tions using remotely sensed data to measure coastal zone
conditions relevant to the monitoring of pollutants
dumped into oceans. Under development is a joint plan
to apply NASA technology to the monitoring of ocean
pollution. The plan will be implemented with NOAA
and other users. The determination of spectral signa-
tures of pollutants in water is underway with emphasis
on signatures of special significance for ocean dumping.
32
Spacecraft sensor data, particularly those obtained by
the LANDSAT satellite, are being used to evaluate
changes in estuarinc water quality and the occurrence
and areal extent of red tides in the coastal zone.
These investigations will provide the basis for a
remote-sensing program to monitor the onset and growth
of red tides and the dumping and dispersion of pollu-
tants. They include definition of optimum spectral inter-
vals and selection of data processing methods to improve
the quality and quantity of information obtained from
remotely sensed measurements.
NOAA is continuing research in the New York
Bight. Principal objectives are outlined under Inter-
disciplinary Activities.
NOAA is acquiring baseline environmental data at
selected, representative deep-ocean mining sites for
manganese nodules before commercial mining begins.
NOAA's Office of Sea Grant sponsors several
research projects on water quality including:
• Sediment dispersal in New Bedford Harbor and
Western Buzzards Bay
• Oil slick control in offshore environments
• Input, transport, and fate of petroleum hydrocarbons
in sewage effluents
• Monitoring hydrocarbons on and in seawater
• Effect of crude oil on nitrogen flux in salt marshes
• Hydrocarbon effects on estuarine carbon flux
• A biochemical model for coastal waters with an
application to red tide outbreaks
• Water and sediment chemistry
• The use of cannery wastes to enhance water nutrient
quality.
Living Marine Resources (table 8)
NOAA's Office of Sea Grant sponsors research on
the living resources of the oceans and Great Lakes.
These projects include:
• Reef fish populations of Hawaii and their commercial
exploitation
• Phytoplankton and red tide as a food source for inshore
communities
• The energetic role of amino acid and protein metabo-
lism in the kelp bass (Paralabrax clathratus)
• Chemical ecology of a cypress swamp
• Mode of uptake and rate of release of petroleum
hydrocarbons by shellfish in relation to their physio-
logical conditions
• Hydrocarbon concentrations in food chains
• Accumulation, transport, and fate of persistent chlor-
inated organics in Lake Michigan food chains
• Sources, types, and seasonal fluctuations of microbial
pollutants and aquatic zoonoses in Humboldt Bay, Calif.
• Pathogenic enteric viruses in Hawaiian Ocean environ-
ment: viability and die-off
• Quantitative estuarinc and shellfish virus enumeration
The Smithsonian Institution, through its National
Museum of Natural History, has two projects relating
to living marine resources.
The Chesapeake Bay Center for Environmental
Studies has a long-term ecosystem study of the Rhode
River estuary and watershed on the western shore of the
Chesapeake Bay.
The Smithsonian Tropical Research Institution in
Panama is primarily concerned with basic scientific ques-
tions of the evolutionary and ecological adaptations of
tropical organisms. This year there were studies of the
buoyancy adjustment of seasnakes, history of coral reefs,
sex change in fishes, social behavior of squid and sea
urchins, and of the structure and dynamics of benthic
communities.
The Department of Interior's Fish and Wildlife
Service performs: (1) field and laboratory research on
anadromous and Great Lakes fish species focusing pri-
marily on fish husbandry, pest control, and ecosystem
studies and (2) research devoted to endangered wildlife
species, migratory bird habitats, and the effects of pol-
lutants on them. They also make recommendations for
water use and waste discharge permits, and maintain a
national surveillance system to identify apparent illegal
construction activities in navigable waters that can dam-
age estuarine and related resources.
Table 8. — Research funding for the improvement of the
specialized Marine Environmental Prediction Service for
Living Marine Resources, by agency
Agency
FY 76
FY 77
Difference
— Thousand dollars —
Commerce 7,841 6,188 - 1.653
Interior 7.500 10.100 + 2.600
Total
15.341
16,288
+ 947
Nonliving Marine Resources
In support of the national effort to obtain energy
independence, research is being performed on possible
development of marine energy sources. In addition, pro-
nounced shortages of other natural resources are forcing
commercial interests to consider marine sources for fu-
ture development.
The U.S. Geological Survey has several ongoing pro-
grams including a study of sediment instabilities in re-
sponse to past drilling platform failures in the Gull ol
Mexico: and an assessment of tectonic hazards for nuclear
reactor siting along the southern California coastline.
Studies are made on the impact ol proposed regulations
that control geological and geophysical exploration on
33
Figure 23. — Manganese nodules being recovered from the seabed.
the outer continental shelf. Impacts that might result from
further oil and gas development are also investigated
(fig. 23).
Some of the Energy Resource Development Adminis-
tration programs are also concerned with developing
marine-related energy sources and studying potential ef-
fects of energy-related pollutants on the marine environ-
ment.
The initial phase of the DOMES Project (DOMES
I) centers on the establishment of baseline environmental
data in the general area of likely industrial mining interest
(fig. 24) and the establishment of preliminary environ-
mental guidelines for control of this activity. During
DOMES II, changes in the environment will be docu-
mented, such as the development, extent, and decay of
sediment plumes created during tests of prototype mining
equipment. In addition, predictive models of environ-
mental changes developed during DOMES I will be tested
and refined. Biota in the operations area will be studied
both before and after testing of prototype equipment to
establish the effects of mining and rate of recovery of the
environment. This project will be accomplished under
contracts with private organizations and other institutions
including universities, as well as by NOAA organizations.
DOMES I is essential to ensure that deep-ocean mining,
taking place either under a Law of the Sea Treaty or
U. S. regulation, is carried out in an environmentally safe
manner.
A multidisciplinary interagency study of the off-
shore Arctic has been formulated to assess the unique
environmental characteristics of the Arctic and to carry
on research on the problems expected to result from
energy development there. The Geological Survey has
completed the first season's data collection in conjunction
with the environmental assessment of the Gulf of Alaska.
34
IS
£
a:
a
o
a
X
SB
to
2
35
National Security (table 9)
The Office of Naval Research (ONR) supports re-
search on the improvement of instrumentation and its
ocean technology program, which addresses two goals:
research in support of the Ocean Science and Tech-
nology Division of ONR, and research in support of new
technological developments that will benefit Naval opera-
tions.
Table 9. — Research funding for the improvement of
the specialized Marine Environmental Prediction Service
for National Security, by agency
Agency
FY 76
FY 77
Difference
Defense
ERDA
Total
— Thousand dollars —
6,750 8,605 + 1,855
1,000 1,000 0
7,750
9,605
+ 1,855
36
International
Activities
International programs designed to increase man's
understanding and predictive capability have continued
to expand. The United States has actively participated in
many of these programs that were initiated largely by
the United Nations and its members. U.S. participation
in worldwide marine science activities is coordinated
among interested national agencies, and foreign policy
consideration is administered by the State Department.
INTERNATIONAL SERVICE ACTIVITIES
International service and support research programs
and activities provide a wide variety of service-oriented
data and information for unrestricted international use.
Observational data from these programs are used for
environmental monitoring and prediction and prepara-
tion of advisories. They also support research projects.
The information is generally made available to all inter-
ested countries.
Integrated Global Ocean Station System
(IGOSS)
The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
(IOC) and the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO) approved the Integrated Global Ocean Station
System in 1967. This service-oriented multinational co-
operative program promotes the unrestricted exchange of
oceanic data, information, and services. The primary
role of IGOSS, which in many respects is comparable
to an international MAREP service, is to provide opera-
tional ocean monitoring and prediction services for a
broad spectrum of users. Technical coordination of U.S.
participation in IGOSS is led by NOAA; however, there
has been extensive interagency cooperation in data acqui-
sition, communication, and policy considerations.
IOC and WMO have both agreed that IGOSS is the
system for the exchange of BATHY (bathythermograph
data) (fig. 25) and TESAC (temperature, salinity, and
current data) reports in real time, and have established
procedures for the regular international exchange of these
data on a permanent operational basis as of 15 June
1975. The BATHY Program now has 27 nations partici-
pating to some extent. Efforts are being encouraged to
expand international participation to include less devel-
oped countries in IGOSS.
A second IGOSS activity, the Marine Pollution
(Petroleum) Monitoring Pilot Project, was started in
January 1975, with an initial phase aimed at monitoring
petroleum hydrocarbons in selected ocean areas. Thirty-
three countries have expressed their willingness to partici-
pate in this initial project, which is scheduled to run
through 1978. A Workshop on Marine Pollution (Petro-
leum) Monitoring, held in Monaco in mid- 1976. reviewed
the progress of the Pilot Project, acknowledged that it
was giving promise of useful results, and considered
further actions required for the development of marine
pollution monitoring. Additional scientific and technical
details for further development of Marine Pollution
Monitoring components of the IGOSS Program are to
be provided by the newly established IOC Working Com-
mittee on the Global Investigation of Pollution in the
Marine Environment.
An Ocean Current Observation Program is also
under consideration, and joint IOC/ WMO studies are
continuing on possible operational measurement pro-
cedures and uses for ocean current data. These studies.
to be completed by the end of 1977. may lead to the
establishment of an Ocean Currents Observation Report-
ing Pilot Project.
37
trrrr 90" N
45 N
90 E
I I Glaciers
l/7-\ Sea Ice
|=j Land
18,000 Years Ago
\W\ Warm Waters
[•■] Temperate Waters
177] Cool Waters
Figure 25. — C LI MAP Project. Comparison of surface
features 18,000 years ago and today.
Further development and improvement of IGOSS
operational programs depend on continued expansion of
multinational cooperation and an increase in the number
of ship observations as well as the incorporation of data
observations from other selected sources. Under develop-
ment is a Basic Observational Network Design plan
that identifies management requirements needed to im-
plement the network. An oceanic monitoring subprogram,
within the framework of the observational system, is to be
designed to meet the oceanic data requirements of world
climate studies, particularly in support of the Global
Atmospheric Research Program. An IGOSS Data Proc-
essing and Services System is planned and includes world,
national, and specialized oceanographic data-processing
centers for operational analysis and prediction of ocean
data. The United States and U.S.S.R. already have in-
dicated their willingness to assume responsibility for one
World Oceanographic Data Processing and Services
Center. The operational system may be implemented dur-
ing 1977.
An IGOSS General Plan and Implementation Pro-
gram for 1977-82, a guide for further expansion of the
IGOSS Program, has been approved by IOC and WMO.
It incorporates guidance for new techniques and the re-
sults of program development experience gained thus far.
The next phase will be directed toward program expan-
sion through such advances as the incorporation of ocean-
ographic data gathered via satellites and additional en-
vironmental data buoys, the automation of shipboard ob-
serving techniques, the implementation of a synoptic
analyses and prediction system, and the monitoring of
additional marine pollutants for assessment of marine
environmental quality.
United Nations Environment Program
(UNEP) EARTHWATCH
EARTHWATCH is a functional component of
UNEP. It is a global environmental program that in-
cludes global monitoring, assessment, exchange of in-
formation, and research. Within EARTHWATCH are
components to assess the impact of pollutants upon the
environment and the impact of the environment on
man, and to give early warnings of potential hazards so
that corrective measures can be taken.
Information Referral Service
A major information exchange function within
EARTHWATCH is the International Referral System. It
provides a means by which Member States can exchange
technical information on EARTHWATCH monitoring,
assessments, and studies that have been made.
Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS)
GEMS is the global monitoring component of
EARTHWATCH. The objective of GEMS is "to provide
the information necessary to ensure, in conjunction with
evaluation and research, the present and future protection
of human health, well-being, safety, and liberty, and the
wise management of the environment and its resources."
The program goals include, inter alia, (1) an assessment
of global atmospheric pollution and its impact on climate,
and (2) an assessment of the state of ocean pollution and
its impact on marine ecosystems.
The Governing Council of UNEP, during April-
May 1975, made the recommendation "to accelerate
the development of the Global Enivironmental Monitor-
ing System by convening small groups of governmental
experts to work in close harmony with the relevant
United Nations bodies for designing and implementing
the first stage of the GEMS." The Governing Council
also decided that the ocean program of UNEP should
include the establishment of ocean monitoring baseline
stations and should assist in the expansion of the IGOSS
marine pollution monitoring program. UNEP is looking
to the IGOSS program to serve as the basis of its marine
environmental monitoring component of GEMS. As a
first step. UNEP has requested WMO and IOC to assist
in the setting up of pilot programs.
In addition, UNEP has supported the development
of a pollution research and monitoring program in the
38
Mediterranean. To ensure the development of an inter-
national capability to assess marine pollution, UNEP
has also provided assistance to IOC for the development
of the Global Investigation of Po'lution in the Marine
Environment program. The UNEP Governing Council
has approved the continuation and expansion of UNEP's
support to these programs.
International Council for the Exploration
of the Sea (ICES)
In September 1975, the International Council for
the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) approved the con-
tinuation of two programs relevant to marine environ-
mental prediction. One, the Joint North Sea Data Acqui-
sition Program (JONSDAP), is cosponsored by ICES
and the Joint North Sea Information Systems Group —
an international, nongovernmental group of scientists.
JONSDAP, carried out during March-June 1976, con-
sisted of two parts: (1) an investigation of interacting
biological, chemical, and physical processes in the Fladen
Ground area of the North Sea, and (2) a study of the
inflow, outflow, and residual circulation of the North
Sea, as well as the modeling of tides and storm surges.
The other program approved by the Council is the
continued coordination of oceanographic observations
by North Atlantic Ocean weatherships. The ocean ob-
servations by these ships provide unique, long-term, time-
series data that are invaluable both for studies of long-
term climatic fluctuations and for studies of air-sea
interaction. Observations at ocean weather stations A, I,
J, K, and M are taken, and inventories of the data
published annually. Taking into account the new inter-
national agreement on the continued maintenance of four
North Atlantic weatherships, signed in 1974, the Council
recommended that ICES Member States operating these
stations continue to make oceanographic observations and
that all Member States make observations whenever
possible at the locations of discontinued North Atlantic
Ocean Stations and submit these observations to ocean-
ographic data centers.
International Ice Patrol
From February to August each season, the Inter-
national Ice Patrol warns of ice and iceberg intrusion in
North Atlantic Shipping Lanes and the Grand Banks
fishing region. There is statutory and treaty obligation for
the U.S. Coast Guard to make studies and observations
of ice and currents in the North Atlantic Ocean. Aircraft,
ships, and other units are deployed each season for ice-
berg detection and research. Sophisticated detection and
tracking systems such as SLAR, drift models, iceberg
tagging, and airborne radiation thermometry are used.
Global Investigation of Pollution in the
Marine Environment (GIPME)
The United States actively supports and partici-
pates in the IOC's Long-Term and Expanded Program
of Oceanic Exploration and Research (LEPOR).
GIPME, still largely in the planning stage, is a major
area of U.S. involvement.
The ultimate objective of a comprehensive investi-
gation of marine pollution is to provide a sound scien-
tific basis for the assessment and regulation of pollution,
including sensibly planned and implemented monitoring
programs. While monitoring, in a regulatory context, is
not a part of GIPME, its proper planning and execution
depend on the successful outcome of GIPME activities
that eventually provide understanding of processes, their
scales and variability, and the significant measurements.
(Refer also to sections on IGOSS and EARTH WATCH.)
The Comprehensive Plan for GIPME provides an
international framework within which national and re-
gional research programs on various aspects of marine
pollution may be coordinated and lead to an understand-
ing of global pollution problems. A first priority in
GIPME is to make baseline studies on three levels:
national, regional, and open-ocean. Equal priority is given
to a number of more specific research activities dealing
with inputs, pathways, sinks, effects, and dose/response
relations. Studies are also proposed on the transfer proc-
esses at the air-sea interface, and on river inputs and the
exchange of pollutants between the water and seabed
sediments. These tasks, when successfully completed,
should give a systematic picture of the level and spatial
distribution of major ocean pollutants, quantitative esti-
mates of the transfer of major pollutants to and within
the marine environment, a sound scientific basis for
measuring the introduction of pollutants to the ocean,
and a basis for development of a predictive capability to
assess the potential effects of pollutants on the marine
environment.
Included with the implementation plan are guidelines
on the conduct of baseline studies; recommended actions
to enable participants to assess, promote, and coordinate
the required research activities; a statement of the need
to develop recommendations on future research; and
encouragement to WHO and FAO to develop research
programs on human exposure standards.
A Task Team on Marine Pollutant Input Data will
evaluate the needs for and quality of pollutant input data
for mass-balance studies; recommend necessary actions
required to obtain quantitative data on rates, locations,
and releases of potential pollutants to the marine environ-
ment; and recommend research on transfer processes as
they affect pollutant inputs into the marine environment.
DDT will be used as the test-case for obtaining input data.
International Decade of Ocean
Exploration
The International Decade of Ocean Exploration
(I DOE) is a U.S. -initiated, long-term, international, co-
operative program to improve understanding and the use
of the oceans and its resources for the benefit of mankind.
U.S. activities in the IDOE actuallj began in ll)hc>.
when the National Science Foundation (NSF) was
charged with the responsibility to explore goals relative
39
LU
o
DC
LU
Q_
PERCENT OF TOTAL
MAREP
FUNDS BY DEPARTMENT
OR AGENCY
1971-1977
TOTAL MAREP FUNDS
BY
AGENCY OR DEPARTMENT
1971-1977
uu
>
I I
INTERIOR
- SMITHSONIAN
NSF
80
EPA
ERD/>
\TION
-TRAN
SPORT/
60
DEFE
NSE
40
20
n
COMI
dERCE
INTERIOR
I
SMITHSONIAN
ERDA-
"TRANSPORTATION"
DEFENSE
COMMERCE
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
71
72
73 74 75 76 77 71 72 73 74 75
EST.
FISCAL YEAR FISCAL YEAR
Figure 26.- — Total and percent of total MAREP funds by department or agency, 1971-1977.
76
77
EST.
CO
DC
_i
o
Q
LL
o
co
o
to man's involvement with the oceans. The NSF Office
for IDOE has encouraged foreign institutions and re-
searchers to participate in IDOE directly and through the
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of
UNESCO. Scientists and institutions of more than 40
nations are now participating. To encourage greater
international participation, the Office for IDOE provides
funds that enable IOC to convene international scientific
workshops to consider and, when appropriate, recom-
mend new projects for IDOE.
Geochemical Ocean Sections (GEOSECS) Study
This IDOE cooperative program involves geochem-
ists from 14 United States universities and from Belgium,
Canada, France, Germany, India, Italy, and Japan. Water
and suspended material samples collected at selected
geographic locations and depths are being analyzed for
more than 40 physical and chemical parameters. Main
survey cruise tracks were along the approximate paths of
bottom water currents. Information gained from study
of the data is expected to improve our understanding of
ocean mixing processes. The data also will serve as base-
40
lines for assessing future concentration levels of radio-
active and other pollutant wastes that are being added
to the sea.
Coastal Upwelling Ecosystems Analysis (CUEA)
This 7-year IDOE program is designed to investigate
the complex physical and biological processes in coastal
upwelling ecosystems. The first integrated biological and
physical field studies were those of JOINT-I off the north-
west coast of Africa during spring and summer 1974.
JOINT-II is planned as an intensive international study of
the Peruvian upwelling ecosystem between 1975 and
1977. An intensive period of field experiments in 1976
and 1977 is being planned by scientists from Chile,
Colombia, Ecuador, France, the Federal Republic of
Germany, Peru, Spain, and the United States. Observa-
tions will be made from vessels in a major multiship
effort. Representatives of those nations are collaborating
also with the planning directorate of the International
ERFEN project (Regional Study of the El Nino phe-
nomenon).
Climate: Long-Range Investigation, Mapping,
and Prediction (CLIMAP) Study
CLIMAP research focuses on describing and explain-
ing climatic changes over the last million years (fig. 26).
Accurate descriptions of climatic change over this period
will improve research along three distinct lines:
• Global Climate Reconstruction Program
• Regional Climate Dynamics Program
• Climatic Time-Series Program
Controlled Ecosystem Pollution Experiment
(CEPEX)
The purpose of these IDOE studies is to investi-
gate the effects of pollutants on marine organisms and
ecological communities. Field studies are integrated into
the Controlled Ecosystem Pollution Experiment
(CEPEX). This cooperative research project of inter-
national scope involves trapping water and natural com-
munities in large plastic enclosures. The effects of low
levels of pollutants are determined by perturbing an
enclosure while maintaining another as a control medium.
CEPEX involves United States, Canadian, and United
Kingdom scientists and is being carried out in waters
off Vancouver, British Columbia. The CEPEX project
has 10 U.S. investigators from five institutions.
Joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. Midocean Dynamics
Experiment (POLYMODE)
The United States and the Soviet Union are devel-
oping a large-scale mid-ocean dynamics experiment,
POLYMODE. It is based on the U.S.S.R. POLYGON
program and the earlier MODE project of the United
States and the United Kingdom. The POLYMODE ex-
periment is under the direction of a Joint U.S.-U.S.S.R.
POLYMODE Organizing Committee, established under
the Agreement between the Governments of the United
States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on
Cooperation in Studies of the World Ocean.
North Pacific Experiment (NORPAX)
The long-term objective of NORPAX, a joint NSF
(IDOE) and Navy project, is to understand fluctuations
in the upper layers of the North Pacific Ocean with
time scales of months to years and distances in excess of
1,000 kilometers, and to determine the relation of these
fluctuations to the overlying and adjoining atmosphere.
Achievement of this goal should lend to improved pre-
diction of weather and climate for the northeast Pacific
Ocean area, the Gulf of Alaska, and North America.
NORPAX is jointly sponsored by IDOE and the Office
of Naval Research.
"El Nino"
An important regional study linked with NORPAX
and within the IDOE is the large-scale oceanographic
and meteorological phenomenon known as "El Nino."
It has a drastic effect on the equilibrium of the eco-
systems in the South Pacific, especially off the western
coast of South America. Statistics also show that this
phenomenon has an important connection with abnormal
rainfall in the Tropics. During the past year, scientists
successfully predicted, 6 months in advance, the onset of
El Nino conditions off the west coast of South America.
International Southern Ocean Studies (ISOS)
ISOS, another component of the International Dec-
ade of Ocean Exploration, began in 1974. The results of
its experiments on ocean dynamics and monitoring and
accompanying modeling will contribute to the understand-
ing of the long-term, large-scale response and variability
of the ocean/ atmosphere system in the polar regions — a
basic element in understanding climatic variability. The
program is concentrating on two major phenomena: ( 1 )
dynamics of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and (2)
the processes and variability of the polar frontal zone.
Future studies may include investigation of the processes
of bottom water formation and their variability.
The First Dynamic Response and Kinematic Ex-
periment (F DRAKE), the first field experiment of the
ISOS project, was carried out in January-March I0"
Three ships measured physical and chemical properties
in sections across Drake Passage. These experiments will
also be directed toward meeting the First GARP Global
Experiment objectives during 197S-80. Specific activities
associated with international involvement include the de-
velopment, by NOAA's National Data Buoy Otlice. of
open-ocean drifting buoys, air-sea interaction buoys to
support large-scale experiments in very large oceanic
areas, and specially designed ice buoys.
International Tsunami Information Center (ITIC)
The International Tsunami Information Center
(ITIC) of UNESCO's Intergovernmental Oceanographic
41
Commission (IOC) monitors the international dissemi-
nation of warnings and the collection of tsunami
information . The ITIC performs a coordinating,
monitoring, and advisory role to the Member States of
the International Coordination Group for the Tsunami
Warning System in the Pacific (ITSU) and others to de-
velop and maintain an effective international system of
warnings to reduce the hazards from tsunamis. In support
of this overall objective, it performs an educational role
through a visiting scientist program; translating, printing
and distributing educational materials; and sponsoring
workshops. It provides technical advice to developing
countries on observational equipment and national warn-
ing systems. According to bilateral agreements, watch
and warning information is disseminated to countries and
territories throughout the Pacific Basin.
42
Summary of
Fiscal Data
The total Government expenditure designated for
MAREP in FY 1976 was $300,264,000. The planned FY
1977 budget level is $313,074,000 (table 10), an increase
of $12,810,000. Funding levels by individual agencies for
FYs 1976-77 are listed in table 10. There were increases
in total funding for all agencies except Commerce. How-
ever, the increases in services and research must neces-
sarily account for the impact of inflation.
Funding by Service area is shown in table 11 for
both operation and research activities. Operational ex-
penditures for MAREP by function are shown in table
12. Major increases are shown by Defense and Interior,
whereas decreases are apparent in the Commerce budget.
Expenditures for research are shown in table 13; increases
are shown for Defense, ERDA and NSF.
Operational expenditures for MAREP by function
are shown in table 12. Major increases are shown by
Defense and Interior, whereas decreases are apparent in
the Commerce budget. Expenditures for research are
shown in table 13; increases are shown for Defense,
ERDA and NSF.
Figure 26 depicts the changes in MAREP funding
in terms of total funds and percentage by department or
agency during the 7-year period 1971-77. Commerce
(NOAA) shows a gradual but constant increase through
FY 1974, then shows a steady decline. A decrease in
Commerce funding from 1976 to 1977 occurred in both
operations and research. It is primarily due to less spend-
ing for data acquisition and processing particularly for
data taken using aircraft. The Defense Department, pri-
marily Navy interests, shows a constant decline after FY
1974, a result of Navy reprogramming toward more
mission-oriented research and operations. The most dra-
matic change is shown by Interior, as their funding base
has expanded rapidly since FY 1974.
The most significant trends are found in the redirection
of national MAREP goals. In 1971, when ICMAREP was
formed, the Department of Defense reported the largest
percentage of MAREP funding (32%). From 1971
through 1973 funding for the other member agencies re-
mained essentially level, with only Commerce (NOAA)
showing major increases (1973: 46%). Decreases by De-
fense after 1973, essentially level funding by Commerce,
and major increases by Interior are reflected by the grow-
ing concern and redirection of priorities toward energy
exploration on the outer Continental Shelf. Projected 1977
percentages show Defense providing only minor MAREP
support, Commerce down slightly, and Interior continu-
ing its expansion.
43
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45
MAREP Product
Directory
Products and Services (Operational)
Forecasts, Warnings, and Advisories Communications
Automatic Weather Telephone Service 5
Facsimile Networks 5
NOAA VHF/FM Radio 5, 13
NOAA Weather Wire 5
Teletypewriter Networks 5, 6
U.S. Navy Marine Radio 11
USCG Marine Radio 5, 6
International Services and Products
IGOSS BATHY and TESAC Data 37
IGOSS Marine Pollution Monitoring 37, 39
International Ice Patrol 13, 25, 40
Living Marine Resources
Fisheries Forecasts and Stock Advisories
Albacore Advisory Service 18
Ekman Transport Index 9, 17
Fishing Information Bulletin 18
Radio Station WWD 5, 18
Upwelling Index 9, 25
Marine Conditions Forecasts and Warnings
Coastal Warning System (Visual Displays) 8
EPA Sludge Model 25
Great Lakes Ice 13
High Seas Forecasts 7
Iceberg Warnings and Advisories 4
Oil Spill Models (USCG) 15
Sea Ice Forecasts and Advisories 5, 13, 27
Storm Surge Warnings 6, 25
Tsunami Warnings 6, 7, 25
USN Marine Forecasts 11
Supporting Services
NOAA Satellite Products 4, 7, 29
Other Products and Supporting Services
Charts and Tables
Great Lakes Ice Charts — NESS 4
Gulfstream Publication 8
Gulf Stream Wall Bulletin 13
Sea Surface Temperature Charts — USCG 8, 18
Tidal Datums 2
Tidal Current Charts 8
Tidal Current Prediction Tables 2, 8
Tide Tables 2, 8
Climarological Information 9
Hydrographic and Water Quality Data
Catalog of Information on Water Data 11
Coastal Water Movement Information 15, 25
COE Technical Services 5, 10
Flood Plain Utilization Information 10
National Water Quality Accounting System 14
National Water Quality Surveillance System 13
Oil Spill 15
STORET System 11
Stream Discharge and Water Quality 5, 11, 15
Tar Ball Samples 15
Information Exchange
Scientific Event Alert System 11
Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center 5, 11
Smithsonian Science Information Exchange 12
International Services
International Referral System 39
Living Marine Resources
Marine Specimen Collection 5. 15
MARMAP Reports 9, 17, 18
Oceanographic Data
ENDEX — Environmental Data Index 10
OASIS 10
USN Data 25
Water Mass Data File— Navy 25
Supporting Services
Data Management and Analysis 9
Sea Grant Services 33
47
NOAA--S/T 77-2609
usir
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11