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FEEDING EXPERIMENTS WITII ^ORSF,3’
DRIED BREWERS' GRAINS VS. OATS.
NEW JERSEY
AGRICULTURAL '
Experiment Station*
92
(,30.-7
A
I l/6> aT
,92
I
NEW JERSEY '
Agricultural Experiment Station:
BULLETIN 92.
FEBRUARY 1, 1893.
Feeding Experiments With Horses.
Dried Brewers’ Grains vs. Oats.
BY EDWARD B. YOORHEES.
LOUIS A. YOORHEES.
The work in connection with this experiment is discussed under six
heads, viz. :
1. Feeding experiments with horses.
2. Plan of the experiment ; results secured.
3. Chemical composition of the rations used.
Jf. Economy of the dried brewers’ grains ration.
5. Composition of wet and dried brewers’ grains ; methods of drying .
6. Estimated output of dried brewers’ grains .
1.
Feeding Experiments with Horses.
A comparatively large number of the American Experiment Sta-
tions have conducted feeding experiments with milch cows, beef
cattle, pigs and young stock of all kinds, and much has been learned
not only as to their needs, but as to the adaptability of the different
fodders and feeds for various purposes of feeding. Practically
nothing, however, has been done in studying the food requirements
of work-horses. That no work has been done in this line does not
prove that the system of feeding in common use is perfect, or that
4
the feeding of the work-horse is a matter of comparative insignifi-
cance. We have abundant evidence that, on the whole, the feeding
of wbrk^hbrses is /unsystematic, if not wasteful ; and the number of
horses on farms in New Jersey is one-half as great as the number of
milcSi &>ws , while the number in towns and cities probably exceeds
that bn farms.
This lack of experimental study in the feeding of work-horses may
be due to the difficulty of accurately measuring the results of experi-
ments, and to the extra care and expense required to secure uniform
experimental conditions.
In experiments with dairy animals the quantity and quality of the
milk produced is a daily guide as to the general effect of the ration
used ; while in those conducted with young and growing stock the
amount and kind of gain made furnishes a fairly accurate statement
of the results secured from the different methods of feeding.
In the work-horse a product of an entirely different character is
required ; it is not a gain in animal product or weight, but rather a
maintenance of weight and vigor under conditions which permit of a
maximum production of muscular energy.
In a product of this character the actual changes due to differences
of feeding are difficult of measurement. A rigid physical examina-
tion may not discover considerable variations in the health or vigor
of the animal, and an increase or decrease of weight within narrow
limits is not conclusive, while the necessary expenditure of muscular
energy cannot be readily distinguished from that of nervous excite-
ment. Under ordinary circumstances, too, the work of the horse is
more liable to sudden and extreme changes than that of the cow or
pig, thus requiring frequent changes in rations, or a greater expense
to secure the uniform and comparative conditions necessary in all
experimental work.
2.
Plan of the Experiment; Results Secured.
The opinion that hay and oats are peculiarly suitable feeds for
horses is universally accepted. In many sections of New Jersey hay
is the main money crop. Oats is not regarded as a highly profitable
crop in any part of the State, and is raised mainly for horse feed.
Under the conditions that exist, therefore, these feeds, though of un-
questionable value, are expensive.
In 1890 a number of farmers of the State, acting on the suggestion
5
of the Station, substituted dried brewers’ grains for oats in a ration
for work-horses. The dried grains were cheaper, pound for pound,
than the oats, and being richer in the valuable nutrients, protein and
fat, permitted of a very material reduction in the cost of the ration.
The work performed by the animals was quite as great, and their
health and vigor quite as good, as when oats constituted the main
part of the ration.
These results, in connection with the recent rapid development of
the business of preparing the dried grains, led the Station to plan and
conduct an experiment in feeding work-horses, in order to secure more
exact data in reference to their food requirements, and also as to the
value of dried brewers’ grains as compared with oats.
The feeds used in the various rations studied in this experiment
were analyzed, thus making it possible to study the effect of different
amounts and proportions of the actual nutrients consumed. The
actual comparisons of the effect of the dried brewers’ grains and oats
are made, however, on the basis of a pound- for- pound substitution.
Through the courtesy of Mr. William F. Price, Superintendent of
the New Brunswick City Railway, the horses were furnished by that
company, and the interest shown by Mr. Price in providing full
facilities for the work, contributed in large measure to the successful
conduct of the experiment. The advantages were a relatively large
number of horses and a practical uniformity in their work.
The dried brewers’ grains for the experiment were furnished by the
Long Island Drying Company, of Brooklyn ; the other feeds were
provided by the City Railway, in such quantities and at such times as
were desired.
Beginning with July 1st, the dried brewers’ grains were fed to all
the horses in the stable ; with but few exceptions the grains were
readily eaten and with apparent relish. The previous ration used at
the stable consisted of oats, ground-feed — corn and oats — and hay ; the
oats were fed alone in the morning and the ground-feed and hay at
noon and night.
On July 12th, all the horses in the stable were examined by Dr. E.
L. Loblein, a veterinary surgeon of New Brunswick, N. J., and eight
animals which showed a sound constitution and vigorous health, were
selected for the experiment. These were numbered consecutively,
weighed, and divided according to weight and age into two lots of
four each. The weight and age of the respective animals were as
follows :
6
Lot No. 1. Lot No. 2.
No.
Age,
Years.
Weight,
Lbs.
No.
Age,
Years.
Weight,
Lbs.
1
10
1,075
0
6
1,150
2
7
1,075
3
6
975
4
7
960
5
6
925
6
7
....... 900
7
10
....... 950
Total weight
4,010
Total weight
4,000
The oats ration which formed the basis of comparison was prepared
with the idea of furnishing the nutrients in sufficient amounts and in
good proportions for horses moderately worked. The dried brewers’
grains ration differed from the oats ration in the proportions, but not
materially in the total amount of nutrients furnished. The propor-
tions of feeds used in the rations were as follows :
Dried Brewers’ Grains Ration.
Hay 6 pounds.
Wheat bran 2 “
Corn, unground 4 “
Dried brewers’ grains 8 “
Oats Ration.
Hay 6 pounds.
Wheat bran 2 “
Corn, unground 4 “
Oats 8 “
The daily rations were weighed by an employe of the Station, but
were fed by the stableman at times convenient for the stable, usually
at 5 A. m., 11a.m. and 5 p. m. ; the hay was given uncut at the night
feeding.
In each lot the two heavier horses were fed 15 pounds and the
others 13.5 pounds per day of the above mixture of feeds.
The daily work of each horse consisted of at least four trips of
about six miles each ; on Sundays and special holidays the trips were
increased to five and sometimes six, though in all cases the work of
the horses in the experiment was increased proportionately. Horses
No. 4 and No. 5 were used in a team ; the others were used singly.
The work done was considered moderate, though it was impracticable
to determine accurately the actual energy expended.
The experiment proper continued three months, though an interval
of twenty days occurred between the end of the second and the begin-
ning of the third periods, during which time all the horses were fed
the stable ration. The horses in lot No. 1 were fed the dried brewers’
grains ration from July 12th to August 11th, and from October 1st
to October 31st, inclusive. They were fed the oats ration from August
12th to September 11th. Lot No. 2 were fed the oats ration from
July 12th to August 11th, and from October 1st to October 31st;
they were fed the dried brewers’ grains ration from August 12th to
September 11th. Both lots were fed the stable ration from Septem-
ber 12th to September 30th, inclusive.
The following tables show the weights of the animals at the begin-
ning and the end of the periods under experiment :
First Period — July 12tli to August 11th.
Lot No. 2.
OATS.
Weights.
Lot No. 1.
DRIED BREWERS’ GRAINS.
| Number of Horse.
Weights.
Gain or Loss for
31 Days.
July 12th.
August 11th.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
1
1,075
1,060
—15
2
1,075
1,060
—15
4
960
950
—10
6
900
915
+15
Total loss for the month 25 lbs.
Average loss per horse 6.25 lbs.
Total loss for the month 25 lbs.
Average loss per horse 6.25 lbs.
Number of Hors
July 12th.
August 11th.
Gain or Loss for
31 Days.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
0
1,150
1,150
0
3
975
975
O'
5
925
975
+50
7
950
990
+40
Total gain for the month 90 lbs.
Average gain per horse 22.50 lbs.
Total gain for the month 90 lbs.
Average gain per horse 22.50 lbs.
Second Period — August 12tli to September 11th.
Lot No. 1.
OATS.
Lot No. 2.
DRIED BREWERS’ GRAINS.
1 ... .....
Number of Horse.
Weights.
Gain or Loss for
31 Days.
Number of Horse.
Weights.
Gain or Loss for
31 Days.
August 12th.
September 11th.
August 12th.
September 11th.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
1
1,060
1,075
+15
0
1,150
1,150
0
2
1,060
1,050
—10
3
975
1,025
+50
4
950
975
+25
5
975
950
—25
6
915
900
—15
7
990
975
—15
Total gain for the month
15 lbs.
Total gain for the month
.... 10 lbs.
Average gain per horse
, 3.75 lbs.
Average gain per horse
... 2.5 lbs.
8
Period from September 13th to September 30tli.
Lot No. 1.
STABLE RATION.
Lot No. 2.
STABLE RATION.
Number of Horse.
Weights.
Gain or Loss for
19 Days.
Number of Horse.
Wei|
*hts.
Gain or Loss for
19 Days.
September 12th.
September 30th.
September 12th.
September 30th.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
1
1,075
1,040
—35
0
1,150
1,110
—40
2
1,050
1,050
0
3
1,025
975
—50
4
975
930
—45
5
950
930
—20
6
900
900
0
7
975
980
+5
Total loss for 19 davs...
..... 80 lbs.
Total loss for 19 davs..
105 lbs.
Average loss per horse
20 lbs.
Average loss per hcrse
26.25 lbs.
Third Period— October 1st to October 31st.
Lot No. 1.
DRIED BREWERS’ GRAINS.
Lot No. 2.
OATS.
Weights.
Weights.
o
0)
in
J-i
o
£
in
Sh
C
HH
sj
£
o
CO
3
<4H
o
3®
CO
O
o
&
Jh
O
X?
o
^ 02
O
. o3
<D
,0
S-c
0>
Fh
<X>
Sh 02
O ^
8
o
o
•§«
a
$
O
o
•3°
£
O
O
Oeo
z
O
O
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
1
1,040
1,120
+80
0
1,110
1,170
+60
2
1,050
1,080
+30
3
975
1,090
+115*
4
930
1,010
+80
5
930
970
+40
6
900
950
1
+50
7
980
1,020
+40
Total gain for the month
... 240 lbs.
Total gain for the month
.. 140 lbs.
Average gain per horse
... 60 lbs.
Average gain per horse
.. 46.7 lbs.
* Horse No. 3 was fed dried brewers’ grains from October 10th to October 31st; his gain is
therefore not included in the total or average.
The weights at the end of the first period showed a gain for horse
No. 6 in lot 1, and for horses Nos. 5 and 7 in lot 2 ; a loss for horses
9
Nos. 1, 2 and 4 in lot 1, and neither gain nor loss for Nos. 0 and 3
in lot 2. With the possible exception of Nos. 5 and 7 in lot 2, the
variations in weight were within the limits of changes due to natural
causes for horses of this size. In fact, the weights secured were sur-
prising in that they showed no serious losses, and their uniformity
furnished evidence of the good character and adaptability of both
rations, as well as of the good management of the horses during the
period, in which the conditions other than feed were extremely severe ;
the mean maximum temperature for the last twenty days was 87.9°.
In the second period lot 1 was fed the oats ration and lot 2 the
dried brewers’ grains ration. The weights at the end of the period,
on September 11th, were again strikingly uniform. Horse No. 3 in
lot 2 was the only one that showed a difference in weight large
enough to be chargeable to changes in the nutritive effect of the
rations.
If the differences in the weights observed for both periods were
entirely chargeable to the rations, then oats are shown to be slightly
more satisfactory than dried brewers’ grains. Still, a comparison
of the weights of the horses of both lots, at the beginning of the first
period and at the end of the second, indicates that the differences may
be due entirely to differences in the character of the individual horses
rather than to the feeds ; for lot 1, fed identically the same as lot 2,
shows a loss of 10 pounds for the two months, due to slight varia-
tions in the weight of each horse in the lot, while in lot 2 there is a
gain of 100 pounds, due to changes in the weights of two horses in
the first period and of three in the second.
At the end of the second period the horses of both lots were fed the
stable ration until October 1st, in order that this entire month might
constitute the third period, thereby enabling a comparison of the effect
of the rations when conditions, other than feed, were as likely to be
favorable as in any season of the year, the previous periods having
been very unfavorable in this respect.
The weights of the horses on October 1st showed a considerable
loss during the nineteen days’ feeding of the stable ration ; the greatest
difference, an average loss of 26.25 pounds per horse, was again shown
in lot 2.
The conditions other than feed during the third period were unusu-
ally favorable, the weather was clear and cool, and free from storms,
and the work uniform. Lot 1 were fed the dried brewers’ grains
10
ration and lot 2 the oats ration for this period. Horse No. 3 in lot
2 developed a sore on his right shoulder, and a necessary surgical
operation on October 10th incapacitated him for work for the
remainder of the period.
The weights recorded on October 31st showed a total gain of 240*
pounds for lot 1, or an average gain of 60 pounds for each horse on
the dried brewers' grains ration. The lowest gain was 30 pounds for
No. 2, and the highest, 80 pounds, for both Nos. 1 and 4. In lot 2
there was a total gain of 160 pounds for three horses, or an average
gain per horse of 1^6.7 pounds on the oats ration. In this period,
therefore, when owing to favorable conditions actual gains were to be
expected, the increase in weight from the dried brewers’ grains ration
was greater by 13.3 pounds per horse than that from the oats ration.
The weight of horse No. 3 was the same at the beginning of the
first and third periods, his weight having remained stationary on the
oats ration, and the gain made on the dried brewers’ grains ration
being lost on the stable ration in which oats was the chief feed. He
was fed after October 10th, 6 pounds per day of dried brewers’ grains
in addition to a liberal ration of hay, and gained while idle 115
pounds in 20 days.
The following tabulation shows the weights of the horses at the
beginning and at the end of the experiment :
Lot No. 1.
FED DRIED BREWERS’ GRAINS 62 DAYS
AND OATS 31 DAYS.
OJ
Weights.
Number of Horsi
July 12th.
October 31st.
Gain or Loss for
93 Days.
1
lbs.
1,075
lbs.
1,120
lbs.
+45
2
1,075
1,080
+5
4
960
1,010
+50
6
900
950
+50
Total gain - 150 lbs.
Average gain per horse 37.5 lbs.
Total gain - 150 lbs.
Average gain per horse 37.5 lbs.
Lot No. 2.
FED OATS 62 DAYS AND DRIED BREWERS’
GRAINS 31 DAYS.
Number of Horse.
Weights.
Gain or Loss for
93 Days.
July 12th.
October 31st.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
0
1,150
1,170
+20
3
975
5
925
970
+45
7
950
1,020
+70
Total gain 135 lbs.
Average gain per horse 45 lbs.
Total gain 135 lbs.
Average gain per horse 45 lbs.
11
On October 31st, after more than three months of severe labor, a
gain is shown greater than could be expected from ordinary causes-
The gain from lot 1 averages 37.5 pounds per horse ; for lot 2, 45
pounds per horse, No. 3 not included, though in the two periods
under experiment he showed a decided gain when fed the dried
brewers’ grains ration, and no gain from the oats ration.
The physical examination of the horses was repeated by Dr. Loblein
at the end of the experiment. He reported as follows : “ I have
watched the horses closely from the beginning to the end of the
experiment and have failed to discover any ill effects from the use of
dried brewers’ grains. The horses fed the grains have been as healthy
as I have ever known them to be.”
The results of this experiment indicate —
1. That in both rations the nutrients furnished were sufficient to
maintain the weight of the animals under average work ; and
2. That on the whole , a pound of dried brewers’ grains was quite as
useful as a pound of oats in a ration for work-horses.
3.
Chemical Composition of the Rations Used.
The two rations used were not intended to furnish equal amounts
and proportions of digestible nutrients. It was, however, the inten-
tion that the composition of the oats ration should correspond as
nearly as possible with the standard ration as given by German
authorities for moderately worked horses of 1,000 pounds live weight,
viz :
Digestible.
Fat,
Protein,
Carbohydrates,
Nutritive
Lbs.
Lbs.
Lbs.
Ratio.
0.6
1.8
11.2
1 to 7.
The analyses of the feeds used were made after the experiment
began, hence the actual composition differed slightly from the
standard :
12
Analyses of Feeds.
Station Number.
FEED.
POUNDS PER HUNDRED OF
PERCENTAGE OF
Water.
Crude Fat.
1
Crude Fiber.
Crude Ash.
Carbohydrates.
Crude Protein.
Albuminoid
Protein.
Nitrogen.
Phosphoric
Acid.
Potash.
732
Timothy Hav
8.64
2.08
28.65
4.90
48.90
6.83
6.24
1.09
0.28
0.96
730
Wheat Bran
11.45
4.50
7.92
7.03
52.12
16.98
14.23
2.72
3.60
1.50
729
Corn
13.46
4.47
1.43
1.29
69.74
9.61
9.61
1.54
0.60
0.32
728
Oats
10.80
5.52
8.54
3.81
59.05
12.28
10.57
1.97
0.79
0.49
731
Dried Brewers’ Grains
9.90
5.54
13.32
3.50
44.03
23.71
21.14
3.79
1.05
0.09
The above analyses show these feeds to have been up to the standard
in quality. The dried brewers’ grains differ from the oats mainly in
showing a much higher content of crude protein and a lower content
of carbohydrates, including fiber. The fat is practically the same in
each. On the basis of dry matter, the dried brewers’1 grains contain
86 per cent, more crude protein than the oats ; the percentage of true
protein or albuminoids is also proportionately greater in the dried
brewers’ grains. These feeds also differ radically in the proportions
and amounts of their ash constituents. The brewers’ grains contain
less than one- tenth of one per cent, of potash, the oats about one- half
of one per cent., while the phosphoric acid is one-third greater in the
grains than in the oats.
The daily rations fed on the basis of 1,000 pounds live weight con-
sisted of 6 pounds of hay and 15 pounds of feeds, according to the
proportions given on page 6. The following tabulation shows the
digestible nutrients furnished by each ration :
Dried Brewers’ Grains Ration.
Fat,
v Lbs.
6 lbs. hay 0.03
24 lbs. wheat bran 0.05
4f lbs. corn 0.12
84 lbs. dried brewers’ grains 0.38
Protein, Carbohydrates,.
Lbs. Lbs.
0.25 2.37
0.27 0.84
0.32 2.87
1.73 3.77
Nutritive ratio, 1 : 4.4.
0.58
2.57
9.85
13
Oats Ration.
Fat, Protein, Carbohydrates,
Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.
6 lbs. hay 0.03 0.25 2.37
21 lbs. wheat bran 0.05 0.27 0.84
41 lbs. corn 0.12 0.32 2.87
8f- lbs. oats 0.37 0.92 4.09
0.57 1.76 10.17
Nutritive ratio, 1 : 6.6.
The dried brewers’ grains ration contained 13.0 pounds of digestible
dry matter, and the oats ration 12.5 pounds. The difference is due
mainly to the amount of protein, the former containing 46 per cent,
more than the latter ; the fat — a very essential nutrient in a ration
for work-horses — and the carbohydrates are practically identical in
both. The oats ration contains 1.1 pounds and the dried brewers’
grains ration 0.6 of a pound less dry matter than the standard, this
loss falling chiefly on the carbohydrates, thus making the nutritive
ratios 1 : 6.6 and 1 : 4.4, instead of 1 : 7, as in the standard. The stable
ration, which was fed from September 12th to 30th, inclusive, con-
sisted of 6 pounds of hay, 2 of wheat bran, 4 of oats and 8 of corn
and oats feed. It furnished 1.51 pounds of protein, 0.46 of fat and
10.56 of carbohydrates, and had a nutritive ratio of 1 : 7.5. The total
amount of digestible nutrients was 12.53 pounds, or practically the
same as in the oats ration.
It has already been shown that the horses on the oats and dried
brewers’ grains rations fully maintained their weights under unfavor-
able conditions and increased in weight under favorable conditions.
It was also shown that under favorable conditions there was a loss of
weight on the stable ration, that is :
1. That rations which contained at least as much of fat and 'protein ,
but less of carbohydrates than the standard , maintained and even in-
creased the weight of the animals ; and
2. A ration that contained less fat and protein but more of carbo-
hydrates than either of the others , resulted in a decrease in weight.
These results verify the usefulness of the standard in reference to
the amounts of protein and fat, and also indicate that the effect of
these nutrients cannot be attained by a substitution for them of the
carbohydrates. There was evidently a waste of protein in the dried
brewers’ grains ration, since the oats ration, containing 30 per cent,
less protein but practically the same fat and carbohydrates, gave rela-
tively as good results.
14
4.
Economy of the Dried Brewers' Grains Ration.
By actual trial a pound of dried brewers’ grains was shown to be
quite as useful as a pound of oats in a ration for work- horses. A
comparison of the composition of the feeds indicates that the reason
for this result lies in the fact that the dried brewers’ grains furnish
more of the valuable digestible nutrients than the oats.
The next question which is of importance to the practical feeder is :
Will it pay to substitute grains for oats?
This point admits of discussion from two standpoints — 1. The
economy of a pound-for-pound substitution as in the experiment, and
2. A substitution based upon the composition.
The actual cost, per ton, of the feeds used in the experiment was,
hay, $18 ; wheat bran, $22 ; corn, $22 ; oats, $30, and dried brewers’
grains, $18. The amount and cost of the feeds consumed by the four
horses in each lot, per period of 31 days, are shown below.
Oats Ration.
Dried Brewers’
Grains Ration.
Lbs.
Cost.
Lbs.
Cost.
Hay
744
$6 69
Hay
744
$6 69
Wheat bran
252
2 77
Wheat bran
252
2 77
Corn
505
5 56
Corn
505
5 56
Oats
1,010
15 15
Oats
1,010
9 09
P0 17
$24 11
Cost per horse per day.
24.3 cents.
19.4 cents
Saving per day per horse from the use of dried brewers’ grains...
. 4.9 cents
The substitution of dried brewers’ grains for oats resulted not only
in a maintenance of the weight of the animals under equivalent work,
but in a saving of 4.9 cents per day per horse, or 25 per cent, of the
cost of the ration. This saving, though appearing small in itself,
means considerable in the aggregate ; if applied to the forty horses at the
car stables, it would represent a saving of $1.96 per day, or over $700
per year, a sum sufficient to pay the interest on a capital of $12,000.
Of course, the saving in any case depends upon the relation between
the cost of the grains and the cost of the oats. The cost of the grains
per ton in car lots has been fixed at $16 for the summer, at $17 for the
autumn, and at $18 for the winter and spring months. The cost of
freight and handling to point of consumption would probably add, on
the average, $2 per ton. The manufacturers of the grains claim that
these prices will not be materially increased.
15
Variations in the cost to the consumer will doubtless occur; the
following table of equivalents shows under what conditions of cost
the substitution of one for the other may be profitable :
Table of Equivalents.
Dried brewers’ grains at
it U U it
$18 00 per ton — oats at
19 00 “ — ‘ “
.... m “
... 30 “
per
u
bushel
ii
u u a c
20 00 “ — “ “
it
U
u u t cc
22 00 “ — “ “
.... 33 “
u
u
« a
24 00 “ — “ “
.... 36 “
u
U
Assuming $24 per ton as a maximum for dried brewers’ grains, they
are then as cheap as the oats at 36 cents per bushel, which is certainly
a minimum price to the consumer for oats of good quality. An increase
of $1 per ton on the grains is balanced by an addition of 1J cents
per bushel for oats.
Another point which should be regarded, especially by farmers who
make the exchange, is the relative content and value of the fertilizer
constituents contained in these feeds. A ton of oats sold from the
farm carries away, on an average, 37 pounds of nitrogen, 15 of phos-
phoric acid and 12 of potash. A ton of dried brewers’ grains will
bring to the farm 77 pounds of nitrogen, 19 pounds of phosphoric
acid and 2 pounds of potash ; a gain to the farm, by the exchange, of
40 pounds of nitrogen and 4 of phosphoric acid, and a loss of 10
pounds of potash, or a net gain of $6.19 on the basis of their fertiliz-
ing values. The gain would be proportionately the same if the feeds
were used on the farm, since under uniform conditions of feeding the
same relative amounts of the constituents would be retained in the
manure. At the same cost per ton for the two feeds, therefore, there
would be a considerable gain in fertility by a pound-for-pound substi-
tution of the dried brewers’ grains for the oats.
A study of the methods of feeding among farmers shows that the
usual custom for horses performing ordinary work is to give about
twelve pounds of grain per day, with as much hay as the animals
will eat. The grain consists usually of corn or oats alone or the two
mixed, and is fed ground or unground, as the case may be.
Careful inquiry indicates that the following tabulation of rations^
would represent average conditions :
^No. 1 hay, 12 pounds; oats, 12 pounds
*To. 2 “ 12 “ corn, 12 “
_ ( corn, 6 “
N0'3 “ 12 “ oats,* 6 “
The variations in the actual nutrients furnished by these rations,
using both timothy and clover, are shown in the following table.
Digestible.
/ * \ Total Digestible
Fat, Protein, Carbohydrates, Dry Matter, Nutritive
Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Ratio.
Ration 1 { Timothy 0.58 1.61 11.76 13.85 1:8
'1 Clover 0.67 2.18 11.23 13.98 1:6
Ration 2. 1 Timot1^ °'51 123 13*70 15‘4i 1 : 12 2
l Clover 0.60 1.80 13.17 15.57 1 : 8.1
RationS {Timothy 0.55 1.42 12.73 14.70 1:9.8
a ion . { clover 0.64 1.99 12.20 14.73 1 : 6.9
All of the rations contain more digestible dry matter than the Ger-
man standard demands. They also contain more than the oats ration
fed in the experiment, which maintained the weight of the horses
under moderate work In the clover hay rations, the different
nutrients are in good proportion, except in No. 2, where corn is the
grain used. The rations containing timothy hay are, with the excep-
tion of No. 1, where oats is the only grain used, poorer in protein
and fat than the standard, or than was found necessary in the
experiment.
The chief criticisms of these rations as a whole are, therefore —
1. That they are too rich in carbohydrates, and
2. That in their preparation the character and composition of the
grains used are disregarded , thus giving widely different proportions of
the various nutrients for the same work.
The same criticisms apply to the rations for horses employed in
government work. These rations consist of 14 pounds of hay and 12
pounds of corn, oats or barley per day, with the addition of 3 pounds
of oats for heavy work. The corn ration for ordinary work contains
0.53 pounds of fat, 1.31 of protein and 12.74 of carbohydrates, with
a nutritive ratio of 1 : 12.2. The oats ration contains 0.60 pounds of
fat, 1.68 of protein and 14.68 of carbohydrates, with a nutritive ratio
of 1 : 8.5. If these rations give equally good results, then either the
carbohydrates may be substituted for protein and fat, or there is a
sufficiency of protein and fat in the corn ration, and a consequent waste
of a part of all the nutrients in the oats ration, and of a part of the
carbohydrates in the corn ration.
17
While it is true that in a ration for work-horses the carbohydrates
may, in part at least, substitute the fat, they cannot take the place of
the protein ; hence, in making a substitution of feeds for the same
works, if widely varying amounts of fat and protein are provided,
there results either a loss of weight by the animal or a waste of food.
The examination of the rations used in the experiment, as well as
those in common use, shows that in what are regarded as the best
rations, the fat approaches 0.6 of a pound and the protein 1.8 pounds
per day, while the carbohydrates range from 10.17 to 14.68 pounds.
It seems clear, therefore, that in the preparation of rations for work-
horses, particular care should be exercised in reference to the com-
pounds protein and fat. The following daily rations furnish as much
fat, and slightly more protein than the oats ration of the experi-
ment, and practically the same amounts of these constituents as are
furnished by the rations now in general use by the farmers of the
State ; the carbohydrates furnished are much less, and with the excep-
tion of No. 4, are practically identical in each case :
Furnishing Digestible
Carbo-
Ration.
Fat,
Protein.
hydrates,
Nutritive
Lbs.
Lbs.
Lbs.
Ratio.
1
( Timothy hay
Dried brewers’ grains,
10 lbs. '
)
No. 1 <
6
U
\ 0.55
1.85
10.05
1 : 6.2
1
[ Corn....
4
U
I
1
f Timothy hay
Dried brewers’ grains,
6
1
No. 2 <
6
[ 0.58
1.84
9.42
1:5.9
1
l Corn
6
“ J
1
f Clover hay
10
“ I
1
CO
o
Dried brewers’ grains,
3
it \
- 0.53
1.85
9.64
1:6
[ Corn
6
“ J
1
1
r Clover hay
6
“ 1
l
No. 4 \
Dried brewers’ grains,
5
« 1
► 0.57
1.90
8.72
1 : 5.3
( Corn 6
Any of these rations is much cheaper than the dried brewers7 grains
ration used in the experiment, at the same cost of feeds as then used
and with clover hay at $12 per ton. The most expensive ration
is No. 1, costing 18.8 cents per day, and the least expensive, No. 4,
costing 14.7 cents. Theoretically these should give quite as good
results, under similar conditions of season and work, as were secured
from the experimental rations. Where horses average over 1,000
pounds in weight the quantity of each of the feeds should be propor-
tionately increased. If it is desirable to have more bulk than is here
given, particularly for winter rations, cut straw may be added to the
feeds used ; thus increasing the carbohydrates.
18
The chief advantages of these rations to farmers are, however, that
their use permits first of a saving of timothy hay, a profitable money-
crop in many sections, and of clover hay, particularly useful for dairy
cows or sheep ; and second, it permits of the sale of oats, where for
various reasons it may be advisable to raise them though not ordin-
arily profitable. A saving of six pounds of hay in a daily ration means
over one ton per horse, per year ; the saving in the substitution of
dried brewers7 grains for oats has already been discussed on page 14.
In many cases it may not be convenient to secure dried brewers’
grains. Rations that will permit relatively the same savings may be
made up from the concentrated
feeds that have already been proved
useful in practice, i. e. —
6 lbs. clover liay,
or
6 lbs. timothy hay,
6 “ corn,
6 “ corn,
4 “ wheat bran,
5 “ wheat bran,
1J “ linseed meal,
H “ linseed meal.
Statistics as to methods of feeding horses have been secured from
street railway companies in New York City and elsewhere, and from
establishments where heavy horses are used. These show that in all
cases the daily rations per 1,000 pounds live weight, and consisting
entirely of hay, corn and oats, furnish practically the same amounts of
fat and protein as are contained in those indicated in this bulletin, but
they vary widely in the proportions and amounts of carbohydrates
furnished. It is believed that rations prepared in accordance with
the suggestions above given, would in these establishments, too, result
not only in a greater economy of food constituents, but in an actual
saving in cost.
5.
The Composition of Wet and Dried Brewers’ Grains.
Methods of Drying.
The material known as brewers’ grains is, as the name indicates, a
by-product from the manufacture of malt liquors, and consists of the
residue from the extraction of the germinated grain, usually barley,
with hot water. It contains, together with the husk of the original
grain and some unconverted carbohydrates, a large amount of fatty
and albuminous substance, upon which its value depends. This
product, as discharged from the brewery, is sweet and fit for food for
cattle, for which purpose it meets with considerable demand. It is,
however, in a very wet condition, containing about 75 per cent, of
water, which renders it extremely liable to fermentation and putre-
19
faction, whereby its fitness for food is diminished or destroyed. To*
obviate this loss to producer and consumer, schemes have been devised
in the past to remove the water to such an extent as to prevent these
destructive processes before they have begun ; and renewed activity
in this direction is noted at the present day with considerable promise
of success.
The utility of drying the grains is undoubted, since, by proper
drying, they are preserved in their original sweet condition, with
keeping qualities equal to any of the various feeds. The distance to
which they may be transported is therefore unlimited, and at the same
time the reduction in weight by the removal of over one thousand
four hundred pounds of water from every ton effects a corresponding
reduction in the transportation charges. A wider market is thus opened
to the producer, and feeders, who, by reason of distance, freights, etc.,
are unable to use wet grains at all, find the same material in a dried
condition within their reach. Thus prepared they furnish nutrients
as cheaply at $20 per ton as the wet grains at twelve cente per bushel,
with the further advantage, when carting and handling are considered^
of concentration to one*fourth the weight.
In a feeding experiment with dairy cows, conducted by this Station
in 1884, it was shown that practically as good a flow of milk followed
the use of the dried grains as of the wet, and this conclusion has been
verified by the experience of practical feeders. At the same time the
health of the animals and the quality of the product are not impaired,
as is frequently the case by the improper use of the wet grains.
In order to study the quality and uniformity of the dried grains,
the losses by drying, etc., the Station secured eight samples of the
dried grains, representing the various commercial processes now in
practical operation, and, for comparison, took a sample of the wet
grains from each of five carloads consigned by the Farmers’ Feed
Company, of New York City, to Mr. Benjamin S. Letson, of Stelton,
a dealer in this article.
In three instances the condition of the latter was excellent, and in
the other two not bad, one having an acid odor and the other a slight
odor of putrefaction, which, however, was not sufficient to affect its
analysis. Weighed portions of each lot were preserved without delay
by careful drying at a temperature not exceeding 130° F. The
results of the analysis of these and of the dried grains are given in
tabular form on page 20, showing the composition of these materials
as received in the laboratory.
COMPOSITION OF THE SAMPLES AS RECEIVED.
20
•qsRioj
0.06
0.11
0.12
0.06
0.09
0.08
0.08
0.06
•qsBjoj
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
•pioy ouoqdsoqj
0.79
0.95
0.91
1.35
1.05
0.94
1.17
1.54
•pioy ouoqdsoq<i
0.23
0.25
0.24
0.27
0.24
•uaSoniN Piox
3.21
3.07
3.00
4.16
3.79
3.05
3.18
4.09
•uaSoxqK iiqoj,
1.24
1.03
0.84
0.99
1.16
•uaSoJiiN
piouxranqfy
3.17
3.00
2.97
3.89
3.38
2.80
3.16
4.01
•naSoiii^
piouimnqty
1.17
1.01
0.83
0.97
1.15
•S8}BipXqoqa,80
44.98
49.20
49.36
37.21
44.03
49.25
46.41
39.66
•saiRjpXqoqiRO
13.05
12.38
12.97
10.85
11.01
•qsy apmo
3.41
4.15
3.90
4.43
3.50
3.47
3.43
4.31
•qsy apnao
0.81
0.92
0.84
0.92
0.93
•npjoij apruo
20.06
19.21
18.74
25.98
23.71
19.08
19.88
25.56
•nppjj apmo
7.78
6.41
5.24
6.21
7.24
•jaqij apruo
]5.88
13.11
13.25
13.28
13.32
13.68
13.50
14.56
•■mqx,* apmo
2.80
3.49
3.35
3.40
3.40
•TBtf apmo
6.16
6.30
6.20
7.36
5.54
5.97
5.65
7.29
•1M apmo
2.58
2.05
1.57
1.82
1.92
J8JBAV
9.51
8.03
8.55
11.74
9.90
8.55
11.13
8.62
72.98
74.75
76.03
76.80
75.50
DRIED BREAVERS’ GRAINS.
Empire Dairy Feed Company
Hill Drying Company
Long Island Drying Company
National Feed Company
02
z
<
Pi
o
"02
Pi
H
>:
W
Pi
M
Ei
Farmers’ Feed Company
•jaqranM uotpis
QOOOOCOCOOOO
Is oo oo oo h
uaqran^ uoipis
10 0 0 10
CD O OO OO O
l> I> I> O
COMPOSITION OF THE DRY MATTER.
21
•qs^OJ
G.07
0.12
0.13
0.07
0.10
0.08
0.10
0.07
•ppy Duoxidsoqj
j
0.87
1.03
0.99
1.52
1.17
1.03
1.31
1.68
•naSojji^ ibjox 1
lO^OOH^^OOf'
iq co cj i> cj w »o
CO CO CC Tjl rjj cd CO TjJ
•uoSojixsr
piouiumqiy
3.51
3.27
3.25
4.40
3.76
3.06
3.55
4.38
•soj'Bjp^qoqi'BO
49.71
53.50
53.98
42.16
48.88
53.85
52.23
43.40
•qsy apaio
3.76
4.51
4.26
5.02
3.88
3.79
3.85
4.72
•ut8?ojj apnio
22.17
20.89
20.50
29.43
26.31
20.87
22.37
27.97
•JtaqM apruo
17.55
14.25
14.48
15.05
14.78
14.96
15.19
15.93
•psx apruo
6.81
6.85
6.78
8.34
6.15
6.53
6.35
7.98
•qsBioj
0.12
0.08
0.08
0.07
0.05
•pioy oxjoqdsoqj
0.83
0.97
0.99
1.15
0.98
•aoSojpM psiox
4.60
4.06
3.50
4.28
4.73
•uaSoaitN
piomumqiv
4.34
3.99
3.46
4.17
4.71
•saiBipXqoqiBO
48.30
49.02
54.09
46.76
44.94
•qsy 9pniQ
2.98
3.62
3.52
3.98
3.80
•upiojj aptuo
28.77
25.40
21.85
26.75
29.55
•jaqij apiuo
10.39
13.83
13.98
14.66
13.89
apruo
9.56
8.13
6.56
7.85
7.82
H = = : =
•jaqmnx uoiibis l§ § « « ®
22
An inspection of the table discloses at once the excessive water con-
tent of the wet grains, and the richness of both wet and dried grains
in albuminoids and fat. A decided variation, however, will be noticed
in their composition. In the dried grains the content of water varies
from 8 to nearly 12 per cent., while the protein and fat vary from
18.7 to 26 per cent., and from 5.6 to 7.4 per cent., respectively. But
this should by no means be considered a serious lack of uniformity,
for all vegetable material varies to a greater or less degree. Wheat
flour shows a variation in moisture of from 8.2 to 13.6 per cent., and
wheat bran from 7.4 to 15.8 per cent., while so uniform a product as
corn meal is considered to be varies from 8.0 to 27.4 per cent, of
moisture.
The variations in moisture in these materials, however, are almost
always accompanied by corresponding variations in the constituents
of the dry matter, the composition of which is practically uniform.
The latter variations, therefore, usually disappear when the analyses
are calculated to the basis of water-free material. The tables on
page 21, in which this calculation has been performed, show that
with grains this is not the case. On the contrary, the samples now
range from 20.5 to 28.0 per cent, of protein, and from 6.2 to 8.3 per
cent, of fat, and the high protein in almost every case is accompanied
by the high fat. In the wet grains, calculated in the same manner,
a corresponding variation exists, the protein and fat increasing
together, the one from 21.9 to 29.6 per cent, and the other from 6.6
to 9.6 per cent. Grains of this higher composition are of but recent
occurrence. High amounts of both protein and fat were first noted
by this Station in No. 568, a sample of dry grains analyzed in 1890,
in which 9.5 per cent, of the dry matter was fat and 29.1 per cent,
protein. Previously to this, a high fat was always compensated for
by a low protein, or vice versa, and, in general, the composition of
grains, both wet and dry, corresponded closely to the lower figures
here given. This higher composition is undoubtedly due to a differ-
ence of process in the brewery, or an admixture of other grain than
barley — possibly corn.
It certainly is not due to any difference in the drying processes of
the different manufacturers, since samples of both high and low com-
position were received from the same drying plant ; nor can any pro-
cess be accused of producing a variable product through its own
defects, for a product just as variable was produced by the process of
23
the laboratory, which, it is believed, had no defects. The variations
in the composition of the dried grains would seem, therefore, to be
due only to variations in the raw material, and therefore, as an argu-
ment against them, would apply to the wet grains as well as the dry.
The chemist of this Station visited three of the plants preparing
the dried samples analyzed in this bulletin, and through the courtesy
of those in charge was allowed to inspect the processes employed.
With the data at hand, the lack of uniformity which has been shown
to exist in the raw material, precludes any comparison of their effi-
ciency. The methods employed were in general to conduct a current
of hot air over or through the material in thin layers, properly
agitated to expose fresh drying surfaces. In some cases a large part
of the water was first removed by mechanical means ; in others pre-
vious treatment was omitted. The use of centrifugals, presses and
similar devices has been believed to be accompanied by a loss of
soluble nutrients, which would remain in the dried product if the
water were removed by evaporation alone. In order to learn the
extent and character of this loss, a separate sample was taken of each
of the wet grains whose analysis has been already given. These were
pressed by hand in a small but comparatively powerful hand-press,
and it is believed, on account of the care taken and the small quan-
tity pressed at a time, that the results with this press were not
widely different from those of more powerful machinery, working
with less care upon larger amounts of wet material.
The amounts of liquor and residue secured by this method from
100 pounds of wet grains, and the actual weights of dry matter and
water in each, may be learned from the following table :
24
FROM ONE HUNDRED POUNDS OF WET GRAINS.
<P
Residue.
Liquor.
<J3
s
►»
Eh
ft
"oS
H
Total Water.
j Total.
Dry Matter.
Water.
Total.
Dry Matter.
Water.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
27.02
72.98
60.63
24.56
36.07
39.37
2.46
36.91
25.25
74.75
54.45
23.70
30.75
45.55
1.55
44.00
23.97
76.03
65.30
23.37
41.93
34.70
0.60
34.10
23.20
76.80
53.25
22.30
30.95
46.75
0.90
45.85
24.50
75.50
51.35
23.61
27.74
48.65
0.89
47.76
24.79
75.21
57.00
23.51
33.49
43.00
1.28
41.72
per cent.
100.0
per cent.
100.0
per cent.
95.0
per cent.
44.5
per cent.
5.0
per cent.
55.5
By the operation of pressing, 100 pounds of wet grains, containing
on the average 24.79 pounds of solid matter and 75.21 pounds of
water, was reduced to 57 pounds, consisting of 23.51 pounds of solid
matter and but 33.49 pounds of water ; or, in other words, in the
pomace was contained 95 per cent, of the total dry matter, associated
with less than one-half (44.5 per cent.) of the water originally in the
grains. The liquor, therefore, contained the losses, consisting of 1.28
pounds of matter dissolved or suspended in 41.72 pounds of water.
In order to learn the effect of this loss upon the composition of
dried grains prepared by such a process, the pomace and liquor were
in each case prepared for analysis by evaporation of the water, the
one at 130° F. and the other at 212° F. The results of the analysis
of the dry matter are given in detail upon page 25.
25
Q
S3
<1
GQ
t-H
<1
O
& H
5 «
t> PL,
w o
H p
fc m
M J
H
gg
Eh ^
3 &
S w
{H
ti
Q
H
w
Eh
go
H
GQ
J
<1
&
<1
•qstqoj
0.12
0.08
0.08
0.07
0.05
0.08
0.05
0.11
0.07
0.07
0.05
i>
©
o
1.02
0.S5
0.62
0.61
0.93
oo
o
•pioy ouoqdsoqj
0.83
0.97
0.99
1.15
0.98
0.98
0.81
0.75
0.81
0.96
0.89
0.84
1.01
3.49
4.51
4.29
2.55
! LVS
•uaSoiq^ pqox
4.60
4.06
3.50
4.28
4.73
4.23
4.95
4.12
3.55
4.42
4.74
4.36
1.27
2.66
2.35
2.87
3.45
<M
oi
•naSoni^ piouinmqxy
4.34
3.99
3.46
4.17
4.71
CO
4.75
3.99
3.50
4.35
4.66
4.25
0.49
1.11
1.41
2,40
1.73
CO
•sa^'BipjCqoqi'eo
48.30
49.02
54.09
46.76
44.94
48.62
43.90
47.40
53.56
46.09
43.96
46.99
86.48
72.19
71.13
66.98
55.88
70.53 j
•qsy sptuo
2.98
3 62
3.52
3.98
3.80
3.58
3.06
3.52
3.33
3.48
3.51
oo
eo
eo
5.28
10.10
12.50
13.80
13.58
11.05 |
umioij epnjo
28.77
25.40
21.85
26.75
29.55
26.46
30.96
25.73
22.19
27.64
29.63
CO
<N
Si
7.92
16.64
14.69
17.91
21.53
i>
iO
•jaqitf 9pruo
10.39
13.83
13.98
14.66
13.89
13.35
12.05
15.24
14.27
14.63
14.83
14.20
0.07
0.11
0.27
0.20
0.14
CD
©
•JR.! apniQ
9.56
8.13
6.56
7.85
7.82
7.99
10.03
8.11
6.65
8.16
8.07
8.20
0.25
0.96
1.41
1.11
8.87
UO
ol
•SUI'BIO
jo aidraug racuj
<1WOOH I j
ANALYSIS OF THE DRY MATTER IN
Unpressed Grains
c< u
Averages
Residue from Pressing
Averages
Liquor from Pressing
Averages
•jaqranK uoipsjs
lOO*OlQI> CO O rH CO CO t-H 03 O
CD CO OO CO O CO CO CO Ci 0 N CO OO 05
I> l> I> l''- l> |> l> t* I> I> 1> 1> !>•
26
By an examination of the analysis of the dry matter in the liquor
it is seen that it drew upon the constituents of the original grain dis-
proportionately. Those soluble in water or easily suspended therein
suffered the greater loss. Its composition is consequently entirely
different from that of dried grains, being richer in carbohydrates,
crude protein and crude ash, especially their soluble portions — sugar,
non-albuminoids and potash — the accumulation of which, from a
mere trace in the original grain, amounts to relatively considerable.
Of the fiber, on the other hand, but a trace appears ; while the amount
of the fat in most instances is also small, the average being raised by
the abnormal content of sample No. 799.
The total amount of this loss, as before stated, is equal to 1.28
pounds from 100 pounds of wet grains of 75 per cent, water content,
or 5 pounds from a normal output of 100 pounds of dried grains. In
a consideration from the consumer’s standpoint of the effect of this
loss upon the dried grains thus prepared, account is to be taken of the
nutrients contained not in the residual 95 pounds, but in 100 pounds
of such a product. The results of the removal of 5 pounds of sub-
stance having the composition of the dry matter in the liquor, and the
addition of 5 pounds of material like the residue after that removal,
may be shown as follows :
ON THE DRY BASIS.
08
pH
<u
'd
o>
jQ
K
a>
'O
a
"3
o
Pi
'P
A
(B
'O
03
|
'd
© .
3 a
li
0
O)
1
2
d
<
o
o
Ph
03
A
02
si
P
P
p
u
g
§
.Q.-S
o
Jd
O
O
O
O
o
O
Eh
Pi
Pi
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
100 lbs. of unpressed grains contain..
7.99
13.35
26.46
3.58
48.62
4.13
4.23
.98
.08
5 lbs. of matter in the liquor re- )
move /
.12
.01
.79
.55
3.53
.07
.13
.16
.04
95 lbs. of residue contain
7.87
13.34
25.67
3.03
45.09
4.06
4.10
.82
.04
5 lbs. like the above residue add...
.41
.71
1.35
.16
2.37
.21
.22
.04
.02
100 lbs. as put on the market contain
8.28
14.05
27.02
3.19
47.46
4.27
4.32
.86
.06
It will be noticed that this calculated analysis of the dry matter of
the pressed grains, as they would be put on the market, is slightly
different from that given in the table, the one having been calculated
from the analyses of the unpressed grains, and of the loss in the
liquor, while the other is the direct analysis of the residue. Such
27
differences as these are to be expected when separate samples of the
same material are taken for analysis, especially when each undergoes
a decidedly different manipulation.
Taking either set of figures as a guide, it is seen that the carbo-
hydrates and ash are not fully replaced ; but as their loss is compen-
sated for by a corresponding increase in the amounts of protein and
fat, the previous pressing of the material does not, from the con-
sumer’s standpoint, furnish an inferior product. The loss which
occurs falls entirely upon the manufacturer, since he produces but 95
pounds of dried grains instead of 100; it concerns him alone whether
it is more economical to lose the 5 pounds of product or evaporate
167 pounds of water. To the consumer the method of manufacture
is of little practical account, since the variations in the composition of
dried brewers’ grains, due to a difference of process, are trivial in
comparison with those due to lack of uniformity in the raw material.
6.
Estimated Output of Dried Brewers’ Grains.
There are at present four different plants engaged in drying the
grains of Eastern breweries, viz. : The Empire Dairy Feed Company,
of New York City ; The Long Island Drying Company, of Brooklyn,
N. Y. ; The National Feed Company, of Philadelphia, Pa., and The
Hill Drying Company, of Newark, N. J. These all employ different
processes, though, as has been shown, the resultant products do not
differ widely in chemical composition.
The total calculated capacity of these plants aggregates about
15,000 tons annually. Their actual production for the past year,
however, has been very much less, probably not more than 6,000
tons, owing to the fact that one of them has just fairly begun to
produce the grains in commercial quantities, and that another, whose
claimed capacity is the largest, is in operation mainly through the
summer season.
The production of the dried grains is likely to be very largely in-
creased in the near future, since the parties interested in the present
methods are now enlarging and extending their works, while parties
representing another process are also engaged in the erection of a
plant with a claimed capacity of 20,000 tons annually, making a
total estimated output, when all are in operation, of 100,000 tons
annually, thus utilizing a large portion of the wet grains produced by
the breweries in the vicinity of New York and Philadelphia. The
28
production of wet grains is not less than 600,000 tons annually, and
used almost entirely for milk dairies located within shipping distance
of these cities. Plants are also in operation in Milwaukee, St. Louis
and Chicago, the product of the latter of which has been used by
farmers in this State. The future supply of dried brewed grains
seems, therefore, to be well assured. According to leading authorities,
the drying of all the grains depends upon two points : (1) An econom-
ical process of drying, and (2) a proper understanding of the nutritive
values of the wet and dry product on the part of the consumers.
The first difficulty seems to have been overcome ; the second will
require more time, because of the difficulty of directly reaching
individual consumers in such a way as to overcome acquired prejudice
in favor of the wet product for dairy cows, and to encourage the use
of the dried grains for horses and other farm stock.
This study of the food requirements of work-horses and of the
preparation of rations suggests :
1. That at the present time too little attention is paid to the
preparation of rations for work-horses. Rational feeding is quite as
important for horses as for dairy cows.
2. That the hind and quality of specific nutrients contained in
feeds, and not their names , should guide in the preparation of rations.
3. That while oats are an excellent horse feed, it it not alone
because they are oats, but because of the amounts and proportions of
the more valuable nutrients, fat and protein, contained in them.
4. That dried brewers’ grains are a wholesome, nutritious and
palatable horse feed, and, at present prices, they may be substituted
for oats, and a decided saving made in the cost of the ration.
5. Timothy hay and oats, at present prices, are expensive feeds. It
does not follow, because a farmer raises these crops, that he should
feed them, when other products, equally useful, may be purchased at a
less cost per pound of actual nutrients.
6. The condition of the markets in this State furnishes abundant
evidence that the selling price of fine feeds and farm products is not
a correct basis for estimating actual feeding value.
7. A farmer who intelligently exchanges farm products for com-
mercial feeds, even at the same prices per ton, may secure not only an
increase in feeding value, but also a gain in fertility. Market condi-
tions do not recognize differences in the fertilizing constituents of
feeds
JAMES NEILSON,
Acting Director.
New Brunswick, N. J., February 1st,' 1893.
2^c . /<$/ r
ANALYSES AND STUDY OF HOME-MIXED FERTILIZERS
AND FERTILIZING MATERIALS.
NEW JERSEY
AGRICULTURAL
ent
m
93
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural Experiment Station.
BULLETIN 93.
JULY 1, 1893.
Analyses and Study of Home-Mixed Fertilizers
and Fertilizing; Materials.
BY LOUIS A. VOORHEES, CHEMIST.
JOHN P. STREET, CHEMIST.
I. The consumption of fertilizers in the State.
II. The preparation of formulas.
III. Home mixtures; their mechanical condition , composition and
valuation.
IV. Comparison of methods of buying fertilizers.
V. Trade values of fertilizing ingredients for 1893.
VI. Average cost per pound of plant-food constituents.
VII. Methods of buying raw materials; chemical analyses.
I.
The Consumption of Fertilizers in the State.
Each year witnesses an increased use of commercial fertilizers by
the farmers of the State, consisting both of the mixtures prepared by
manufacturers and of raw fertilizing materials. Statistics gathered
by the Station show that the use of mixed fertilizers has more than
doubled in the last ten years, while the use of raw or unmixed ma-
terials, not including ground and dissolved bone, has increased about
40 per cent. The figures are as follows :
4
Mixed fertilizers sold in 1882 15,941 tons.
“ “ “ « 1892 33,821 “
Increase 17,880 “
Unmixed fertilizing materials sold in 188.2 6,081 tons.
“ “ “ “ “ 1892 8,544 “
Increase 2,463 “
The total value of all reported sales in 1882 was $1,070,113 and
in 1892, $1,509,921, an increase in 1892 over 1882 of $439,808.
It is observed that the value of the sales made in 1892 is propor-
tionately much less than in 1882. The decrease in cost is due in
large part to three causes — first, to the increased supply of raw ma-
terials, particularly the nitrogenous salts and phosphates ; second, to
improved methods in the handling and manufacture of raw materials,
and, third, to a better knowledge of fertilizing materials and their
proper use, both on the part of the manufacturer and the consumer.
The fact still remains, however, that the cost of fertilizers is a very
considerable item in the expenditures of the farmer ; it is, therefore,
of great importance, in order to make economical purchases, that he
should have very definite knowledge as to what constitutes value in a
fertilizer and of his own particular needs.
II.
The Preparation of Formulas.
While it is now pretty generally understood that the value of a fer-
tilizer depends upon the amount and kind of nitrogen, phosphoric
acid and potash contained in it, on the whole the value of definite
proportions of these elements, for the different crops, is not so clear.
The evidence given by the manufacturers themselves indicates that
even they do not agree as to what constitutes perfect proportions,
since, in nearly all cases, their special formulas for the various crops
are radically different, yet they uniformly insist that their own
formula — for potatoes, for instance — is perfect for all conditions of
soil and season, and will work equally well everywhere. Such claims
have no foundation in fact.
For general farming it is evident that it is more frequently a ques-
tion of amount of plant-food applied, rather than the proportions in
which the different elements exist in a mixture. Still there are many
5
good reasons for the preparation of special formulas for the different
crops, special not only in amount but in kind of plant-food furnished.
Our own experiments have shown this repeatedly. For instance, it
has been shown that early tomatoes require, for the best results, not
only an abundance of nitrogen, but that the nitrogen shall be in
quickly* available forms. A formula, therefore, which contained a
high percentage of nitrogen, derived from slowly-available organic
forms, would not be likely to give as good results as one which con-
tained a lower percentage, existing in the form of nitrates.
Plants have also been classified as to their special needs for plant-
food, and it is a useful classification, yet it seems that there should be
a still further subdivision, since it frequently happens that the ele-
ment which is specifically useful when the object is the largest
mature plant, is not the one that is most useful when the object is a
rapid, early growth rather than maturity. Furthermore, the kind of
soil is an important factor, soils of equal quality in respect to con-
tained plant-food not responding uniformly to equal applications of
the same forms of fertilizer constituents. In the preparation of
formulas, therefore, regard should be had to the character of soil,
whether rich or poor, heavy or light, dry or wet ; the method of the
growth, whether for quick and partial, or slow and full development.
The character of the farming, too, should be regarded. It is obvious
that heavy applications of quickly-available and relatively costly
forms of plant-food would be less likely to prove profitable in general
or extensive farming than in specific and intensive, though in all
methods of farm practice there is some one crop regarded as more
profitable than another. In such cases, frequent applications of dif-
ferent fertilizers may be avoided, if, by heavy applications of good
materials, the more profitable crop is made as large as conditions of
season and climate will permit, trusting to the residues of plant- food
left by it to bring forward the others in a rotation to a maximum.
The duplication of formulas may be avoided, too, by the prepara-
tion of what may be termed a basic formula ; that is, one rich in all
the fertilizer constituents, without particular reference to any single
element, this being applied heavily upon some one crop in the rota-
tion, the other crops being furnished with such specific elements as
they may require. Assuming, for instance, that the rotation is the
common one, of corn, potatoes, wheat and hay, a rational fertilization,
and one which would be likely to be quite as useful as any, would be
6
as follows : For corn, 300 pounds per acre of a mixture made up of
200 pounds of S. C. rock superphosphate and 100 pounds of muriate
of potash, and such barnyard manure as may be available, all applied
broadcast.
For potatoes, apply as a minimum one-half ton per acre of a mix-
ture made up as follows :
Nitrate of soda . 200 pounds.
Sulphate of ammonia 200 “
Tankage (ground fine) 200 “
Bone black or S. C. rock superphosphate 1,000 “
High-grade sulphate of potash 400 “
2,000 “
At least two-thirds of this mixture should be applied broadcast,
the remainder evenly over the row at time of planting. For wheat
and timothy, apply, in early spring, a dressing of from 100 to 200
pounds per acre of nitrate of soda.
By this method of fertilization, the potatoes, frequently the best-
paying crop, would be supplied with sufficient plant- food of all kinds
to insure a maximum growth, under normal conditions of season and
average conditions of soil, and would leave a considerable residue,
particularly of mineral constituents, available for the wheat and hay ;
the total amount of fertilizer constituents, added in the rotation, would
also be more than sufficient to supply the maximum needs of all the
crops, thus insuring a gradual increase in fertility. This system may
also be adopted where more intensive methods are practiced, such
crops as tomatoes, onions, beets, turnips, cabbage, etc., receiving the
constituents particularly useful in forcing early growth, the others
being supplied by heavy applications of the basic formula.
For fruit trees, vines and similar slow growths, the basic formula
may consist of a mixture made up of two parts of ground bone and
one of muriate or sulphate of potash. Nitrate of soda should supply
the extra nitrogen required, which experience has found to be neces-
sary after the bearing period has begun.
One of the best-producing peach orchards in the State, now 10
years old, and still healthy and vigorous, has received a yearly appli-
cation of 1,000 pounds per acre of this mixture and 200 pounds per
acre of nitrate of soda during the period of bearing.
7
FORMULAS USED IN
MAKING
THE MIXTURES.
No. 5036. John S. Collins.
No
. 5147. Swedesboro Grange.
“200 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda.
200 lbs.
of Nitrate of Soda.
200 “
“ Sulphate of Ammonia.
200 “
“ Sulphate of Ammonia.
400 “
“ Peter Cooper’s Bone.
400 “
“ Peter Cooper’s Bone.
400 “
“ Bone-Black Superphosphate.
400 “
“ Bone-Black Superphosphate.
■600 “
“ S. C. Rock Superphosphate,
600 “
“ S. C. Rock Superphosphate.
200 “
“ Muriate of Potash.
200 «
“ Muriate of Potash.
■2000
2000
No. 5090. Runyon Field.
No. 5176. Charles Tindall.
200 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda.
300 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda.
400 “
“ Tankage.
800 “
“ Ground Bone.
1000 “
“ Dissolved Bone.
500 “
“ Bone-Black Superphosphate.
400 “
“ Muriate of Potash.
400 “
“ Muriate of Potash.
mo
2000
No. 5166. M. S. Crane.
No. 5182. Amos Gardiner.
150 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda.
300 lbs.
of Nitrate of Soda.
.200 “
“ Sulphate of Ammonia.
700 “
“ King Crab.
300 “
“ Ground Bone,
300 “
“ Peter Cooper’s Bone.
900 “
“ Bone-Black Superphosphate.
500 “
“ Bone-Black Superphosphate.
450 “
“ High-Grade Sulphate of Potash.
200 «
“ Muriate of Potash.
.2000
2000
No.
5254. Monmouth Co. Grange.
No. 5435. D. D. Denise.
200 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda.
2C0 lbs. of Nitrate of Soda.
200 “
“ Sulphate of Ammonia.
200 “
“ Sulphate of Ammonia.
800 “
“ Bone-Black Superphosphate.
200 “
“ Ground Bone.
400 “
“ S. C. Rock Superphosphate.
1000 “
“ Bone-Black Superphosphate.
200 “
“ Muriate of Potash.
200 “
“ Muriate of Potash.
200 “
“ High-Grade Sulphate of Potash.
200 “
“ High-Grade Sulphate of Potas]
2000
2000
No. 5353. J. H. Denise.
No. 5499. John A. Layton.
200 lbs.
of Nitrate of Soda.
200 lbs.
of Nitrate of Soda.
150 “
“ Sulphate of Ammonia.
1000 “
“ Dissolved Bone.
50 “
“ Cotton -Seed Meal.
200 “
“ Muriate of Potash.
400 “
“ Dissolved Bone.
600 “
Hen Manure.
400 “
“ Bone-Black Superphosphate.
■
400 “
“ S. C. Rock Superphosphate.
2000
200 “
“ High-Grade Sulphate of Potash.
200 “
“ Muriate of Potash.
•2000
III.
Home Mixtures: Their Mechanical Condition, Composition and
Valuation.
With one exception the home mixtures here reported were made up
from high-grade materials, and may be regarded rather as basic in the
sense already stated than as mixtures for special crops, though in
many cases the formulas were adopted after a study of the require-
ments of soil and crop in the section in which they are used. Chemical
analyses were made of all the materials used in the mixtures and are
all reported in this bulletin.
8
The Fineness of the Mixtures.
It has been stated in our previous reports that the samples of home-
mixtures, as well as manufactured brands, were, on the whole, fine,,
dry and of good mechanical condition. It is claimed by manufac-
turers and dealers, however, that a farmer with his ordinary farm*
appliances cannot get that degree of fineness in his mixtures which is
so essential for ease of handling and the best distribution of the
material.
Mechanical condition, though of unquestionable value, is a relative
term ; that is, fineness in a mixture whieh has been made from ma-
terials containing the fertilizer constituents in relatively insoluble
forms, is evidently of greater importance than fineness in a mixture
which has been made from materials containing easily-soluble and
readily-available constituents.
In our studies this year this point was made a matter of actual
investigation. All the samples of home mixtures examined, 10 in
number, were subjected to a mechanical analysis, and as a means of
comparison 12 samples representing the leading brands of different
manufacturers were also included. The standard of fineness or perfect
mechanical composition was made one twenty- fifth of an inch in diame-
ter ; that is, the condition was regarded as perfect if all of the material
passed through a sieve, the holes of which were one twenty-fifth of an-
inch in diameter. The fineness of the samples examined is given in*
the following table :
Home Mixtures.
Manufacturers’ Mixtures,
FINER THAN COARSER THAN
2»5in. in. & in.
No.
per cent.
per cent.
per cent.
5036..
.... 89
7
4
5090...
.... 70
24
6
5147...
.... 83
10
7
5166...
.... 92
5
3
5176...
.... 73
15
12
5182...
14
15*
5253..
... 90
7
3
5254...
.... 74
21
5-
5435...
.... 78
17
5
13-
FINER THAN COARSER THAN
sV Hi-
A in.
12 in.
No.
per cent.
per cent.
per cent.
1...
... 86
9
5
2...
... 81
12
7
3...
... 85
10
5
4...
... 80
16
4
5...
... 78.
17
5
6...
... 81
14
5
7...
... 79
14
7
8...
... 76
17
7
9...
... 69
21
10
10...
... 71
22
0
11...
... 74
17
9*
12...
... 65
24
11
5499,
68
19
9
Of the home mixtures it is observed that in two cases only did the
samples approach closely to perfection, 90 per cent, and over in each
<jase being finer than one twenty-fifth of an inch in diameter ; in one
case the fineness fell below 70 per cent.
In the manufacturers’ mixtures the greatest fineness reached was
96 per cent. ; though on the whole the samples were very uniform, in
two cases the fineness fell below 70 per cent. The average fineness
of the whole number of samples in each lot is as follows :
Home Mixtures.
FINER THAN COARSER THAN
is in. is in. TV in.
iper cent. per cent. per cent.
79 14 7
Manufacturers’ Mixtures.
FINER THAN COARSER THAN
is in. TI in. iV in.
per cent. per cent. per cent.
77 16 7
The statement heretofore made in reference to the condition of both
'home mixtures and manufacturers’ mixtures seems from this study to
have been well founded, though it is further shown that farmers using
the ordinary appliances of the farm do make from the supplies of
raw materials regularly on sale in the markets better mixtures than
the manufacturers.
The superior mechanical condition of the manufacturers’ mixtures,
so strongly urged by interested parties, is not sustained by this inves-
tigation.
The study of the composition of these mixtures, as bearing upon
this matter of condition, is also instructive. The State law requires
that only the potash soluble in water shall be determined in commer-
cial fertilizers ; hence, on the same basis of mechanical condition,
home mixtures and manufacturers’ mixtures are equal in respect to
the availability of potash. In the case of nitrogen and phosphoric
acid, however, both the soluble and insoluble forms are taken into
consideration. The soluble nitrogen, for instance, in all cases consists
largely of nitrates and ammonia salts, while the organic or insoluble
nitrogen may be derived from a whole series of products, ranging
from dried blood to ground horn and hoof ; the distribution and
availability of the former being practically but little iufluenced by
fineness, while the availability of the latter is in direct ratio to the
fineness. In the case of phosphoric acid the mechanical condition de-
termines to a certain extent the possible availability of that shown by
.analysis to be insoluble.
Of the total nitrogen in the home mixtures examined, 72 per cent.
10
consists of nitrates and ammonia salts, and of the total phosphoric
acid 80 per cent, is available. Of the total nitrogen in the manu-
facturers’ mixtures, but 28 per cent, consists of nitrates and ammonia
salts, while 75 per cent, of the total phosphoric acid is available.
It is evident that mechanical condition, so far as it has a bearing
on availability, particularly of nitrogen, may be far more important
in one mixture than in another. Fineness affects but 28 per cent, of
the nitrogenous materials contained in the home mixtures, while in
the manufacturers’ mixtures it affects 72 per cent.
The claim that farmers cannot secure good mechanical condition in
their mixtures must therefore have reference to the use of low-grade
materials, rather than to those used in the home mixtures reported..
It is admitted that low-grade materials do require the use of machinery
for grinding and manipulation in order to secure the requisite fineness.
Composition of Home Mixtures.
The actual analyses of the different mixtures are given in the fol-
lowing table. The cost of the materials used in making them is also
compared with the estimated commercial value of the mixture ati
Station’s valuation :
TABLE OF ANALYSES
Station Number. |
NITROGEN.
PHOSPHORIC ACID.
Potash.
Cost per Ton.
Valuation at
Station’s Prices.
Value Exceeds
Cost.
| From
j Nitrates.
From Am-
monia Salts.
From Organic
Matter.
Soluble in
Water.
Soluble in
Citrate of
Apimonia.
Insoluble.
Total
Available.
5036
1.86
1.92
0.42
8.80
2.16
2.34
10.96
4.96
$30.00
$33.42
$3.42
5090
1.38
0.18
2.16
4.28
4.10
1.83
8.38
10.69
30.70
33.69
2.99
5147
1.59
1.85
0.54
8.28
2.11
2.61
10.39
5.45
27.29
32.56
5.27
5166
0.81
2.18
1.12
7.76
1.76
1.44
9.56
11.78
35.83
39.76
3.93
5176
2.56
0.11
1.41
3.22
4.33
6.24
7.55
9.22
30.47
33.87
3.40
5182
2.42
0.25
2.61
3.34
4.04
2.31
7.38
7.13
31.02
34.42
3.40
5253
138
1.44
0.68
6 26
0i 51
0.93
6.77
13.68
28.21
33.06
4.85
5254
1.21
1.73
0.45
8.86
0.16
0.25
9.02
10.44
29.40
33.20
3.80
5435
1.46
2.09
0.93
8.86
0.91
0.26
9.77
9 61
32.15
37.04
4.8»
5499
2.34
0.12
0.94
3.50
1.05
1.77
4.55
10.60
21.90
27.12
5.22:
11
The chemical analyses of these mixtures compare very favorably
with their theoretical composition, calculated from the analyses of the
raw materials, and from the weights used in the formulas, and thus
verify the claim that farmers, using the ordinary tools of the farm,
do make even mixtures of fertilizing materials.
It will be observed that with the one exception where hen manure was
used as a base, all of these mixtures are high grade, the average com-
position being higher than the average of the same number of brands,
selected as the highest from the whole number of different manu-
factured brands now on the market. This matter of concentration is
too little appreciated by the farmers, and the relatively low grade of
manufactured brands is due in no small degree to a demand on their
part for goods at a low cost per ton.
Ton prices alone are not a safe guide in the purchase of mixed
fertilizers.
The average composition of all the complete fertilizers or manu-
facturers’ mixtures, examined by the Station last year, and the average
of the home mixtures of this year, are as follows :
Available
Nitrogen. Phosphoric Acid. Potash,
per cent. per cent. per cent.
Manufacturers’ Mixtures 2.74 7.70 4 50
Home Mixtures 4.053 8.44 9.36
Assuming that the proportions of plant- food are as good in one
case as in the other, and that there were as many tons of high-grade
as of low-grade brands sold, we can get some idea of the financial
importance of concentration.
There were sold in 1892, 33,821 tons of complete fertilizer; each
ton contained on the average 299 pounds of actual available nitrogen,
phosphoric acid and potash ; each ton of the home mixtures contains
on the average 436 pounds of actual available plant-food. If, there-
fore, manufacturers’ mixtures had contained as much actual food as
the home mixtures, the total amount sold last year would have been
contained in 23,172 tons, instead of 33,821 tons, or a difference of
10,649 tons; that is, the 10,649 tons of material mixed, bagged,
freighted and sold as part of the various brands, contained no plant-
food whatever, and was, therefore, entirely useless. It was shown in
Bulletin 89, of this Station, that the charges of the manufacturers
12
for mixing, bagging, shipping and other expenses were $8.53 per ton.
Since it costs no more to mix, bag, freight and sell a high-grade mix-
ture than a low-grade, the cost to the farmers for handling this worth-
less material amounted in 1892 to $90,835. It has been shown by
the work of this Station, that the average composition of mixed fer-
tilizers and the fixed charges of the manufacturers have not materially
changed in the last ten years. The total sales reported during this
time were 247,000 tons, containing, on the same basis of comparison,
77,000 tons of worthless material, which cost farmers over $656,000,
and from which they could expect no returns whatever. The manu-
facturers are not altogether to blame for this state of affairs ; they
aim to supply the demands of their trade, which are too often for
cheap goods.
Concentration or highness of grade is also important from the stand-
point of quality of plant-food ; fertilizers of a low composition must be
made either from high-grade materials to which make- weight has been
added, or from low-grade materials. This may be illustrated by the
average quality of the complete fertilizers on the market. If made
from high-grade materials the following quantities would furnish the
actual plant- food present, the nitrogen drawn equally from the three
forms, nitrates, ammonia salts and organic matter :
Furnishing pounds of
Quantity of Phosphoric
Nitrate of soda
materials.
.. 115 lbs.
Nitrogen.
18.3
Acid.
Potash.
Sulphate of ammonia
.. 90 “
18.3
Dried blood, or ammonite
... 152 “
18.2
Bone-black superphosphate
... 963 “
15.4
Muriate or sulphate of potash...,
... 180 “
90
Total
...1,500 “
54.8
15.4
90
Per cent
... 2.74
7.70
4 50
It is observed from this statement that it would be necessary to add
500 pounds of make- weight to each ton. That the materials used in
making the complete fertilizers are not all high grade is evidenced by
the fact that less than one* half of the brands contain more than one
form of nitrogen, viz., organic, and that nearly all of them contain a
very considerable percentage of insoluble phosphoric acid.
13
Cost of Home Mixtures.
These home mixtures represent the purchase of about 700 tons; the
average cost is $29.70, and the valuation $33.81, or a gain of $4.11
over Station’s prices, which are intended to represent the retail cash
cost of fertilizer constituents in the raw materials at factory. The
cost of these mixtures may perhaps be better represented by showing
the actual cost per pound of the different constituents. Using the
average composition of the mixtures and the Station’s schedule of
iprices as factors, the result is as follows :
Nitrogen, 14.9 cents; available phosphoric acid, 5.7 cents, and
potash, 4 cents per pound. By this same method of calculation the
average cost per pound of the constituents in complete fertilizers sold
in 1892 is shown to be :
Nitrogen, 24.8 cents; available phosphoric acid, 9.4 cents, and
potash, 6.7 cents per pound. If the constituents in the average home
mixture this year had been bought at these figures the cost per ton
would have been $49.27. This not only illustrates the impossibility
of getting at true values by comparison on the ton basis alone, but
shows the economy in buying raw fertilizing materials in the open
market, and for cash. The difference of $19.50 per ton, applied to
the 700 tons represented, makes a total of $13,699. This is certainly
a good return for cash payments instead of credit, for selecting
materials suited to the needs of the soil and plant, instead of buying
hit or miss, and for using the regular labor of the farm in mixing,
instead of paying others who do the work no better.
IV.
Comparison of Methods of Buying Fertilizers.
This Station does not maintain that it is always better to buy raw
materials and mix at home than to buy the manufacturers’ brands,
though the studies made here give strong evidence that by so doing
money can be saved. This method presupposes in all cases a definite
knowledge on the part of the buyer of the sources of supply, of
market conditions and of his own particular needs. With such
knowledge at command farmers can buy mixtures very much cheaper
on the whole than they are now secured. There may be, and doubt-
less are, too, many cases in which it is preferable, even at a higher
14
cost, to buy manufacturers’ brands instead of raw materials. A great
many farmers object to mixing at home, others to the bother of buying
at a distance, and nearly all to paying cash, and to avoid one or all of
these inconveniences, and at the same time to do business in a more
business-like way, they buy direct from the manufacturer mixtures
prepared to their order. Three samples, representing goods bought
by this method by the Coopertown Farmers’ Club, were received by
the Station this year. Their examination furnishes interesting data
in reference to methods of buying. The mechanical condition of two
samples was good, the third was wet and pasty, the average condition
of the three being much lower than that shown by the home mixtures
or manufactured brands. The average content of soluble nitrogen is
greater than that contained in the manufactured brands, and less than
that in the home mixtures, being 56 per cent, as against 28 per cent.,
in the manufactured brands, and 72 per cent, in the home mixtures*
Mechanical Analyses.
FINER THAN COARSER THAN?
35 in. A in. A in.
No. per cent. per cent. per cent.
5061 74 17 9
5062 82 10 8
5063 45 43 12
Average 67 23 10
The average composition of these brands is much lower for all the
constituents than the average of the home mixtures, and lower in
nitrogen than the average of the mixed fertilizers, sold in 1892; with
the possible exception of the organic nitrogen, the quality of the
materials used was good.
TABLE OF ANALYSES.
Station Number.
NITROGEN.
PHOSPHORIC ACID.
Potash.
Cost per Ton.
Valuation at
Station’s Prices.
| Value Exceeds
j Cost.
From
Nitrates.
From Am-
monia Salts. 1
From Organic
Matter.
Soluble in
Water.
Soluble in
Citrate of Am-
monia.
Insoluble.
Total Avail-
able.
5061
1.48
0.28
1.76
7.04
0.77
1.50
7.81
7.39
$32.00
$29.10
—$2.90'
5062
0.78
0.11
1.03
7.36
1.21
1.61
8.57
3.18
20.00
21.04
-f 1.04
5063
1.18
0.16
0.33
6.92
0.65
1.36
7.57
9.27
28.00
24.09
— 3.91
15
The average cost per ton is $26.66, and the average valuation
$24.74, or a cost $1.92 per ton higher than the Station’s valuation.
The average cost per pound of the constituents is 18 5 cents for nitro-
gen, 7 cents for available phosphoric acid, and 5 cents for potash.
If the average cost per pound of the elements contained in the home
mixtures were applied, the cost would be $22.02 per ton, or $4.64
less than was actually paid ; that is, these farmers paid the manufac-
turers $4.64 per ton for mixing an average- grade fertilizer. If the
amount of plant-food contained in one ton of a mixture of this brand
had been bought in the usual manner, through local dealers, and on
credit, the cost would have been $35.57, or $8.91 greater than was
actually paid. This method of buying, while it is shown to be less
desirable than the buying of materials and mixing at home, since
the mechanical condition is poorer, the composition lower, and the
price higher, is a great improvement on the general method now com-
monly practiced.
V.
Trade Values of Fertilizing Ingredients for 1893.
At a meeting of Stations’ Directors and Chemists, the following
schedule was arranged for use in Connecticut, Massachusetts, Rhode
Island and New Jersey during the season of 1893 :
Schedule ©f Trade Values Adopted by Experiment Stations for 1893.
Cts. per pound.
Nitrogen in Ammonia Salts 17
“ “ Nitrates 15|
Organic Nitrogen in dried and fine ground fish, meat and blood
and in mixed fertilizers 17£
“ “ “ castor pomace and cotton-seed meal 16J
“ fine ground bone tankage 15
“ “ “ fine-medium bone and tankage 12
“ “ “ medium bone and tankage 9
“ “ “ coarser bone and tankage 7
“ “ “ horn shavings, hair and coarse fish scrap 7
Phosphoric Acid, soluble in water 6J
“ “ “ “ ammonium citrate* 6J
*The solubility of phosphates, in ammonium citrate solutions, is seriously affected by heat.
An Act of the Legislature (see Laws of New Jersey, 1874, page 90) provides that in this determi-
nation the temperature used shall not exceed 100° Fah.; in Connecticut, Rhode Island and
Massachusetts 150° Fah. has been adopted. The higher the temperature the larger will be the
percentage of phosphoric acid dissolved by ammonium citrate solutions, and the larger the
amount of this so-called “ reverted ” phosphoric acid in a ton of superphosphate the lower wilb
be the price per pound of said acid. Consequently the Station’s valuations of phosphoric acid,
soluble In ammonium citrate, have been fixed at six cents per pound for Connecticut, Massa-
chusetts and Rhode Island, and at six and one-half cents per pound for New Jersey.
16
Cts. per pound.
Phosphoric Acid, insoluble, in fine bone and tankage 6
“ “ “ “ fine-medium bone and tankage 5
“ “ “ “ medium bone and tankage 4
“ “ “ coarser bone and tankage 3
“ “ “ “ mixed fertilizers 2
“ “ “ fine ground, fish, cotton-seed meal,
castor pomace and wood ashes.... 5
Potash as High-Grade Sulphate, and in forms free from Muriates
(or Chlorides) 5£
“ “ Muriate ..
Valuation of Fertilizing Ingredients in Fine Ground Feeds.
Organic Nitrogen 16£
Phosphoric Acid 5
Potash 5?
The Station’s prices for nitrogen in ammonia salts and for available
phosphoric acid were slightly reduced this year, owing to the lower
wholesale quotations which ruled for materials containing them
during the six months preceding the adoption of the schedule. For
similar reasons the prices for nitrogen in nitrates and organic forms
increased. No changes were made in the prices of the various potash
salts.
VI.
The Average Cost Per Pound of Plant-Food Constituents.
The average cost per pound of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid and
potash, as secured from the tables of analyses, may be fairly assumed
to represent the manufacturers’ retail prices at factory, and admit of a
comparison with the Station’s schedule of valuations, which are
intended to represent the retail cash cost per pound of the fertilizing
ingredients contained in the raw materials before they are mixed to
form complete fertilizers.
A study of the following table shows that the Station’s schedule
agrees closely with the manufacturers’ averages for nitrogen and
potash, while the Station’s prices for available phosphoric acid are 11
per cent, greater than the prices at which farmers have bought direct
from the manufacturers. The average cost per pound of the nitrogen
and phosphoric acid, in the different grades of bone and tankage, is
^also compared with the Station’s schedule, and is shown to agree very
closely :
17
COMPARISON BETWEEN STATION’S SCHEDULE AND MANUFACTURERS’ AVERAGE:
RETAIL PRICES OF PLANT-FOOD IN FERTILIZER SUPPLIES.
MANUFACTURERS’
AVERAGE
RETAIL PRICES
FOR
STATION’S
SCHEDULE
OF PRICES
FOR
1892.
1893.
1893.
cts.
cts.
cts.
Cost per pound of Nitrogen from Nitrate of Soda
14.1
15.5
15%
it
4<
44
44
“ “ Sulphate of Ammonia
16.5
17.1
17
44
if
44
44
“ “ Dried Blood
15.1
17.2
17%
44
44
44
44
“ “ Dried Fish and Ammonite
15.2
16 3
17%
it
44
44
“ “ Cotton-Seed Meal...
14.9
16%
44
44
4 4
44
“ “ Dissolved Bone
16.0
17%
4 4
44
44
fine ground bone and tankage
14.1
15
44
44
44
44
fine-medium bone and tankage
11.3
12
44
44
44
44
medium bone and tankage
8.4
9
44
44
44
44
eearse bone and tankage
6.6
7
44
4 4
44
44
Available Phosphoric Acid from Bone Black
6.5
6.2
6%
44
44
44
44
“ “ “ “ S. C. Rock...
6.2
5.5
6%
it
4 4
4 4
44
“ “ “ “ Dis’d Bone.
6.0
6%
4 4
44
44
44
Insoluble in fine ground bone and tankage..
5.6
6
44
44
44
“ “ fine-medium bone and tankage
4.7
4<
44
44
4 4
“ “ medium bone and tankage
3.8
4
44
44
44
“ “ coarse bone and tankage
2.8
3
44
44
44
44
“ “ Potash from High-Grade Sul-
phate
5.3
5.1
5%
44
4 4
44
44
“ “ “ “ Double Sulph’s of
Pot. and Mag...
5.5
5.7
5%
44
44
44
44
“ “ “ “ Kainit
5.5
4.5
4%
44
44
44
44
“ “ “ “ Muriate
4.2
4.1
4%
VII.
Methods of Buying Raw Materials; Chemical Analyses.
The samples analyzed represent materials bought by farmers’ clubs
or individuals direct from the manufacturers of complete fertilizers,
or from large dealers in fertilizer supplies. A full list of these firms
with their business addresses is always published in the annual reports
of this Station.
18
The nitrogen salts, with the exception of No. 5169, the superphos-
phates and the potash salts, were found by analysis to reach their
guarantees, to be of good quality and reasonably uniform in composi-
tion ; the variations in cost per ton being, as a rule, accompanied by
corresponding changes in the cost per pound of the fertilizing ele-
ments. In standard goods, when average composition is assumed, the
price per ton has, as in the past, proved a safe guide as to the actual
-cost per pound of the element contained. The safest and most satis-
factory method of buying is, however, that which makes guaranteed
composition or the unit system the basis of contracts.
The variations in cost of materials were chiefly due to the time of
buying and the quantity bought. Quotations made on goods bought
early in the year, particularly nitrogenous materials, were very much
lower than those ruling when the season’s work had fully begun and
the demand for materials had become more pressing. Prices for car
lots of the different materials were from 5 to 10 per cent, lower than
when ton lot3 were purchased.
As a rule, quotations were based upon ton lots. Special rates
proved to be no lower than when such claims were not made.
These facts emphasize the importance of a knowledge of the
quality of the various materials, the sources of supply and the market
conditions.
Summary of Practical Conclusions.
1. That the use of fertilizers in the State is increasing , and that
the present annual expenditure of over $1,500,000 may he very materi-
ally reduced by a definite knowledge of what and how to buy.
2. That in the preparation of formulas the quality of plant food is
of prime importance , and that the proportion of the different elements ,
as well as the amount of the application , should be determined by the
object of their use.
S. That farmers can make mixtures which are equal to the best manu-
factured brands and superior to the average— first, in mechanical con-
dition; second , in concentration ; third , in quality , and , fourth , in
point of cost.
Jp. That in buying manufacturers’ mixtures distinct advantages in
quality and cost are secured when bought direct from the manufacturers
instead of from local agents.
19
5, That the trade values of fertilizing ingredients adopted by the
Station are a fair basis for estimating commercial values of manufac-
turers' mixtures .
6. That sources of supply , time of buying and quantity bought , are
the main conditions influencing cost per pound of plant-food in standard
fertilizing materials.
FORMS OF NITROGEN
Readily and Completely Soluble in Water.
NITRATE OF SODA
Furnishing Nitrogen in Form of Nitrates.
Station Number.
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
Percentage of
Nitrogen.
Cost of Nitro-
gen per lb.
Cost of 2,000 lbs. 1
of Nitrate of
Soda.
5028
5113
5076
5086
5139
Moorestown Grange
15.90
cts.
14.5
$16 00
Dennis Crane, Roselle
16.18
18.5
*60 00
Purchased by Station
15.75
15.9
50 00
Runyon Field, Bound Brook
16.17
14.5
47 00
Swedesboro Grange..
15.45
14.9
46 00
5150
J. H. Denise, Freehold
15.87
14.5
46 00
5161
5167
M S Crane Caldwell
15.96
16.3
52 00
50 00
Charles Tindall, Middletown
15.75
15.9
5177
5183
Amos Cardiner Mill lien. Hill
15.92
15.93
17.3
55 00
*56 00
I. W. Nicholson, Camden
17.5
5207
G. S. Voorhees, Mine Brook
16.03
15.4
49 50
5290
Chas. Kraus, Egg Harbor City
15.84
17.4
*54 00
5136
Geo. A. MacBean, Lakewood
16.18
15.5
50 00
5466
J M. White, New Brunswick
15.97
15.7
50 00
5467
Parsippany Grange
15.81
14.9
47 00
5524
John A Lay ton Liberty Corner
15.81
16.4
52 00
Average Cost per Pound of Nitrogen in Nitrate of Soda
15.5
* Retail price at point of consumption.
SULPHATE OF AMMONIA
Furnishing Nitrogen in Form of Ammonia.
Station Number.
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
Percentage of
Nitrogen.
Cost of Nitro-
gen per lb.
Cost of 2,003 lbs.
of Sulphate of
Ammonia.
5029
Moorestown Grange
20.30
cts.
16.5
$67 10
5140
Swedesboro Grange
20.22
16.6
67 10
5151
J. H. Denise, Freehold
20.16
15.6
63 00
5162
M. S. Crane, Caldwell
19.77
18.3
72 50
5168
Charles Tindall, Middletown
19.98
16.8
67 00
5169
“ “
17.95
18.7
67 00
-Average Cost per Pound of Nitrogen in Sulphate of Ammonia...
17.1
20
FORMS OF NITROGEN INSOLUBLE IN WATER
Furnishing Nitrogen in Form of Organic Matter.
DRIED BLOOD.
Station Number.
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
Percentage of
Nitrogen.
Cost of Nitro-
1 gen per lb.
1
Cost of 2.000 lbs.
of Dried Blood.
5077
Purchased by Station
11.52
cts.
20.6
$47 50
5170
Charles Tindall, Middletown.
12.42
19.7
48 90
5297
Chas. Kraus, Egg Harbor City
11.94
17.2
41 00
5500
Theo. F. D. Baker, Bridgeton
12.88
17.5
45 00
5298
Chas. Kraus, Egg Harbor City
10.67
*10.8
25 00
Average Cost per Pound of Nitrogen in Dried Blood
17.2
* Contains 1.91 per cent, phosphoric acid.
DRIED AND GROUND FISH.
«-i
a>
Percentage.
Cost
Per Pound.
.Q
8
3
fc
3
.2
oi
w
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
Nitrogen.
1 Phosphoric
j Acid.
j Nitrogen.
| Phosphoric
Acid.
Cost of 2,000 11
of Fertilizer.
5179
Amos Gardiner, Mullica Hill
9.48
1.06
cts
14.9
cts.
50
*$29 50
5291
Chas. Kraus, Egg Harbor City
8.72
7.77
17.3
5.0
f38 00-
+38 00*
5292
7.46
7.61
20.4
5,0
5293
H U H H << "
5.73
10.14
19.9
5.0
f33 00
5311
I. W. Nicholson, Camden
5.43
9.43
15.3
5.0
26 00'
5501
Theo. F. D Baker, Bridgeton'
7.01
8 58
18.8
5.0
35 00
Average Cost per Pound of Nitrogen in Dried and Ground Fish.
16.3
* King Crab.
f Retail price at point of consumption .
COTTON-SEED MEAL.
21
GROUND BONE AND TANKAGE.
Station Number.
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
Mechanical Analysis.
Percentage.
| Cost of 2,000 lbs.
j of Fertilizer.
Finer than
Ain.
d
sS
.d
M •
o> a
d
cS
A
t-i .
g.s
Coarser than
A in.
Nitrogen.
1
| Phosphoric
| Acid.
Average of three samples
54
17
15
14
1.74
29.24
823 33
Cl CQ
T TT riom’flA TTrPPhnlH .
93
7
3.23
21.52
27 50
OiOo
5168
M S Crane Caldwell TTT.t -
46
50
4
3.78
23.99
28 00
5175
Chas. Tindall. Middletown
54
23
18
8
3.50
23.95
27 75
5088
Runyon Field, Bound Brook
49
30
16
5
6.13
9.24
25 50
5141
Theo. Brown, Swedesboro
77
11
7
5
6.18
16.85
37 00
5299
Charles Kraus, Egg Harbor City
38
31
13
18
7.45
5.66
30 00
5502
Theo. F. D. Baker, Bridgeton
46
22
21
11
5.81
13.87
33 00
GROUND BONE AND TANKAGE.
<D
Cost of Nitrogen
per lb. in —
Cost of Phosphoric Acid
per lb. in—
Station Numb'
d
<33
A
u .
2 d
d-^
d
S3
A
<V pj
d •<-<
E
Finer than
A in.
Coarser than
A in-
d
o4
A
S-l .
<D p
d-r.
EHS
d
os
A
3-1 .
2 <=>
.d •-*
S
Finer than 1
Ain.
d
c3
A
3
la
8-b
Ground Bone (Peter Cooper’s)
cts.
10.0
cts.
8.0
cts.
6.0
cts.
4.7
cts.
4.0
cts.
3.3
cts.
2.7
cts.
2.0
5158
11.5
9.2
6.9
5.4
4.6
3.8
3.1
2.3
5163
“ U
11.5
9.2
6.9
5.4
46
3.8
3.1
2.3
5175
12.2
9.8
7.3
5.7
4.9
4.1
3.2
2.4
5088
Tankage
15.0
12.0
9.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
5141
15.5
12.4
9.3
7.2
6.2
5.1
4.1
3.1
5299
“ # |fffTtt
19.5
15.6
11.7
9.1
7.8
6.5
5.2
3.9
5502
“
17.5
14.0
10.5
8.2
i 7.0
5.8
4.7
3.5
Average Cost per Pound
14.1
11.3
8.4
0.6
5.6
4.7
3.8
2.8
DISSOLVED BONE AND NITROGENOUS SUPERPHOSPHATES.
PERCENTAGE.
Cost per
Pound.
Phosphoric Acid.
o
m
Station Number.
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
Nitrogen.
j Soluble in Water.
I 1
Soluble in Ammo-
nium Citrate.
Insoluble,
Available.
Nitrogen.
Available Phos-
phoric Acid.
Cost of 2,000 Pound
Fertilizer.
5060
Coopertown Farmers’ Club
2.12
10.66
0.80
1.61
11.46
cts.
15.6
cts.
5.9
620 00
5087
Runyon Field, Bound Brook...
2.30
7.94
7.71
0.87
15.65
15.4
5.7
25 00
5157
J. H. Denise, Freehold
1.82
5.46
3.37
2.62
8.83
13.7
5.0
*
5470
Parsippany Grange
2.48
8.80
4.58
3.12
13.38
17.5
6.5
26 00
5525
John A. Layton, Liberty Cor-
ner
1.92
6.68
1.61
3.60
8.29
18.1
6.7
18 00
Average Cost per Pound of Nitrogen
16.1
6.0
* Ammonia, 82.25 per unit ; Available Phosphoric Acid, 81 per unit.
22
PLAIN SUPERPHOSPHATES
Furnishing Soluble, Reverted and Insoluble Phogplioric Acid,
MANUFACTURED FROM
BONE BRACK, BONE ASH, ETC., ETC.
u
Phosphoric Acid.
00
o
a
d
£
a
o
31
OQ
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
Soluble in
Water.
Soluble in
Ammonium
Citrate.
Insoluble.
Available.
Cost of
Available
per lb.
Cost of 2,000 11
of Fertilizer.
5031
Moorestown Grange
13.80
0.04
13.80
cts.
5.8
*
5081
Purchased by Station
15.28
0.53
0.43
15.81
6.3
$20 CO
5143
Swedesboro Grange
13.72
0.18
13.72
5.8
*
5148
J. M. White, New Brunswick
13.18
0.55
1.11
13.73
6.6
18 25
5152
J. H. Denise, Freehold
14.92
0.07
0.19
14.99
6.3
19 00
5164
M. S. Crane, Caldwell
15.46
0.20
15.46
7.3
22 50
5171
Chas. Tindall, Middletown
13.00
0.64
0.79
13.64
5.6
15 40
5180
Amos Gardiner, Mullica Hill
12.42
4.95
0.40
17.37
5.8
20 00
5294
Chas. Kraus, Egg Harbor City
14.30
0.39
1.83
14.69
8.7
f24 00
5468
Parsippany Grange
Theo. F. D. Baker, Bridgeton
16.74
0.15
0.13
16.89
5.9
20 00
5503
16.60
0.15
0.08
16.75
6.9
23 00
Average Cost per Pound of Phosphoric Acid.
6.2
*$1.15 per unit of Available Phosphoric Acid,
f Retail price at point of consumption.
SOUTH CAROLINA ROCK AND OTHER MINERAL PHOSPHATES.
Sh
<D
Phosphoric Acid.
rO
a
d
£
d
o
3
02
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
Soluble in
Water.
Soluble in
Ammonium i
Citrate.
Insoluble.
Available.
Cost of
Available
per lb.
Cost of 2,000 11
of Fertilizer.
5032
Moorestown Grange
14.06
1.76
1.30
15.82
cts.
4.9
*
5069
H. I. Budd, Mount Holly
10.88
1.99
1.78
12.87
6.8
$17 50
5082
Purchased by Station
11.96
2.08
1.41
14.04
4.3
12 00
5144
Swedesboro Grange
12.04
1.29
2.17
13.33
4.9
*
5153
J. H. Denise, Freehold
12.92
0.12
1.36
13.04
4.4
11 50
5295
Chas. Kraus, Egg Harbor City
9,70
1.71
4.02
11.41
9.6
f22 00
5437
Geo. A. MacBean, Lakewood
10.96
1.64
2.27
12.60
6.7
17 00
5469
Parsippany Grange
10.54
1.73
1.51
12.27
5.3
13 00
5504
Theo. F. D. Baker, Bridgeton
9.98
1.70
4.03
11.68
6.8
16 00
Average Cost per Pound of Phosphoric Acid.
5.5
*$0.98 per unit of Available Phosphoric Acid,
t Retail price at point of consumption.
23
GERMAN POTASH SALTS
Readily Soluble in Distilled Water.
MURIATE OF POTASH.
Station Number.
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
Percentage of
Potash.
Cost of Pot-
ash per lb.
Cost of 2,000 lbs.
of Muriate.
5035
Moorestown Grange
48.25
cts.
4.2
$41 00
5084
Purchased by Station
49.98
4.3
42 50
5089
Runyon Field, Bound Brook
51.47
4.1
42 00
5145
Swedesboro Grange
48.84
4.2
41 00
5155
J. H. Denise, Freehold
52.65
3.8
40 00
5172
Charles Tindall, Middletown
48.46
4.1
40 00
5181
Amos Gardiner, Mullica Hill
50.20
4.0
40 00
5184
I. W. Nicholson, Camden
50.76
4 3
*44 00
5185
48.53
5.2
*50 00
5296
Chas. Kraus, Egg Harbor City
51.90
4.5
*46 50
5471
Parsippany Grange
49.89
4.0
40 00
5526
John A. Layton, Liberty Corner
51.52
4.3
44 50
Average Cost per Pound of Potasli in Muriate
4.1
* Retail price at point of consumption.
KAINIT.
| Station Number.
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
Percentage of
Potash.
1
4*
0
s* ft
ce h
0 *
U a
Cost of 2,000 lbs.
of Kainit.
cts.
5018
John W. Kline. New Village
13.67
3.7
$10 25
5085
Purchased by Station
12.70
4.3
11 00
5146
Swedesboro Grange
12.66
4.9
12 41
5149
J. M. White, New Brunswick
12.46
4.4
11 00
5156
J. H. Denise, Freehold
11.25
6.7
*15 00
5186
I. W. Nicholson, Camden
12.40
5.2
*13 00
5208
G. S. Voorhees, Mine Brook
11.70
5.3
12 50
Average Cost per Pound of Potash In Kainit
4.5
* Retail price at’point of consumption.
DOUBLE SULPHATE OF POTASH AND MAGNESIA.
Percentage of
Potash.
Cost of Pot-
ash per lb.
25.41
cts.
5.7
5174
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
Charles Tindall, Middletown.
<Nr
03
o 0^3
6om
$29 00
24
GERMAN POTASH SALTS
Readily Soluble in Distilled Water.
HIGH-GRADE SULPHATE OF POTASH.
Station Number.
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
Percentage of
Potash.
Cost of Pot-
ash per lb.
Cost of 2,000 lbs.
1 of High-Grade
Sulphate.
5033
Moorestown Grange ...
49.19
cts.
5.2
$51 50
5083
Purchased by Station
48.29
5.7
55 00
5165
M. S. Crane, Caldwell
50.00
4.6
46 00
5173
Charles Tindall, Middletown
50.49
5.0
50 00
5154
J. H. Denise, Freehold
50.85
4.5
46 00
5527
J. M. White, New Brunswick
45.88
5.4
50 00
5528
“ “ “ “
48.06
5.2
50 00
Average Cost per Pound of Potash in High-Grade Sulphate
5.1
EDWARD B. VOORHEES,
Director.
New Brunswick, N. J., July 1st, 1893,
Oy
t /t?6
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CUCURBS.
<(MELONS, SQUASHES, PUMPKINS, CUCUMBERS, ETC.)
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural College
94
NEW JERSEY AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE EXPERIMENT STATION
BOARD OF CONTROL.
The Board of Trustees of Rutgers College in New Jersey.
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD.
AUSTIN SCOTT, Ph.D., LL.D., President of Rutgers College, Chairman.
Hon. GEORGE C. LUDLOW, HENRY R. BALDWIN, M.D.
Hon. HENRY W. BOOKSTAVER, LL.D., JAMES NEILSON, Esq.
' STAFF OF THE STATION.
AUSTIN SCOTT, Ph.D., LL.D., Director.
Prof. JULIUS NELSON, Ph.D., Biologist.
Prof. BYRON D. HALSTED, Sc.D., Botanist and Horticulturist.
Prof. JOHN B. SMITH, Sc.D., Entomologist.
ELISHA A. JONES, B.S., Superintendent of College Farm.
IRVING S. UPSON, A.M., Disbursing Clerk and Librarian.
LEONORA E. BURWELL, Clerk to the Director.
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural College Experiment Station.
BULLETIN 94.
JULY 2, 1893.
Insects Injurious to Cucurbs.
(Melons, squashes, pumpkins, cucumbers, etc.)
BY JOHN B. SMITH, ENTOMOLOGIST.
Cucurbs are raised in all parts of the State ; if not always in fields,
for market, at least in the garden, for family use. Cucumbers flourish
everywhere, and so do squashes and pumpkins. Watermelons are
raised in considerable numbers in the southern counties, while in
several districts there are great tracts of cantaloupe or “ citron
melons, ” as they are popularly known in South Jersey.
All these plants are more or less subject to attack from a number
-of species of insects, which always exact a heavy tribute, and not
infrequently appropriate the entire crop. In the report for 1890 I
gave a brief description of the principal species known to attack these
plants; in part from personal experience and observation, in part based
upon reports or letters from farmers or upon published material.
In 1890 and 1891 I made a series of experiments on the squash
borer, the results of which were published in the reports for those
years, and which indicated the possibility of a method of preventing
injury from this insect that would be at once cheap and practical.
The melon louse in 1891 did very serious and widespread injury;
4
but I could not in that year add to the account published in Bulletin
72 of the College Station.
For 1892 the study of the insect enemies of these cucurbs was made
the leading line of investigation ; and while by a peculiar dispensa-
tion of fate, the Aphids, which were so excessively abundant in 1891,
were so scarce as to make it impossible for me to complete their life
history, yet the results of the work as a whole may be considered
quite satisfactory.
It may be well to note here that under the generalferm “ melon n
I intend cantaloupes, muskmelons or citron melons ; never water-
melons, which are always mentioned as such. “ Citron,” or “ citron
melons,” are South Jersey terms for muskmelons or cantaloupes, while
the term “ melon ” alone is usually interpreted watermelon.
Among the minor pests is
The Boreal Lady-bird.
(Epilcichne borealis, Fabr.)
This insect is the single exception, in our State, to the rule that the
lady-birds are carnivorous, feeding largely on plant lice, and there-
fore distinctly beneficial. In all its stages it feeds on the leaves of
the cucurbs, manifesting, however,
a very decided preference for the
squashes and pumpkins. For sev-
eral years past it has steadily in-
creased in number in our State,
and though it can scarcely be
called a really injurious insect
even yet, the damage actually
done could not be carried much
further without affecting the vine.
Indeed, in sending specimens of
the larvae, August 3d, Mr. Charles
T. Adams, Blackwood, N. J.,
speaks of them as the “ worms
that kill our watermelon vines;*7
so that, locally, they are already
destructive.
The imagos or adult beetles are about three- eighths of an inch in
•length, very convex, indeed almost hemispherical; dull yellow in
/O'
Fig. 1.
a, larva ; b, pupa from back ; c, pupa, under
d, beetle. Enlarged two diam-
eters. (From a photo.)
side
5
color, with four black spots on the thorax and seven on each wing
case. Of the latter, two are situated on the suture, or margin where
the elytra or wing covers join, so that twelve spots only are counted
on the two wings. The appearance of the insect is fairly shown at
Figure 1, d .
Fig. 2.
Leaves of squash, eaten by the boreal lady-bird, Epilachne borealis. Three-quarters natural
size. (From a photo.)
The earliest date at which I have seen the beetles on the vines is
June 13th, when I found a single specimen on melons at Swedesboro.
After that time they increased in numbers rapidly, and on June 27th
I found, at Port Monmouth, numerous specimens eating the leaves of
6
melons and cucumbers. The eating done by this insect is unique and
quite characteristic : a semicircular space, from three-quarters to one
inch in diameter, is marked out at the edge of the leaf, and the beetle
then begins its work, feeding on the upper surface. As a rule, the
tissue is eaten rather irregularly, and a more or less complete net-
work remains, when another semicircle is started. The tissue dries
so rapidly, however, that in a day or two the semicircles usually
appear completely eaten out. On a large leaf there may be several of
these feeding-places, depending entirely upon the abundance of the
beetles.
June 27th I found one (the first) batch of eggs, laid on the under
side of the leaf.
July 5th there was a great abundance of these insects at Port Mon-
mouth, very much more numerous, however, on squash than on melon
vines; and now I found egg
masses in considerable number,
each with from fifteen to fifty
eggs. These latter are bright
yellow in color, elongate oval
in shape, and set on end in
loose clusters on the under side
of the leaf. Figure 3 shows
the appearance of the egg clus-
ters and of individual eggs as
well. I noticed here and there
a specimen of Coccinella 9-no -
tata , the nine-spotted lady- bird,
busily engaged in feeding on
the eggs of its degenerate rela-
tive.
We have in these two spe-
cies, the boreal and nine-spotted
lady-birds, two closely-related forms with entirely different food
habits, and a study of the mouth parts, which usually emphasize
quite strongly any difference in feeding habits, may prove interesting.
In Epilachne borealis the mandibles are quite well developed and
pointed at the tip, with two teeth on the inner side ; a mandible
belonging to a carnivorous rather than an herbivorous insect. There
is a distinct though small prostheca. The maxilla is also well devel-
Fig. 3.
Egg clusters of Epilachne borealis. Natural size.
(From a photo.)
7
oped, the lacinia and galea both stout and prominent, the divisions
between the pieces not well marked. The labium, or lower lip, is
conic, ending in a point, and is set with a fine, dense pubescence and
a few longer, tactile hairs. The labrum, or upper lip, is rather
densely clothed on the under side with long, stout hair, set in distinct
fovese.
In Coccinella 9-notata the structure is essentially different. The
mandible, in character, would suggest rather a pollen-feeding insect,
with its small apical teeth, prominent prostheca and distinct molar.
The maxilla is quite different from that of E. borealis ; all the parts
Mouth parts of Epilachne borealis : a, the maxilla ; b, labium ; c, mandible ; d, under side of
labrum, or upper lip. Enlarged. (Original.)
are well defined, and the lacinia and galea are both more or less
excavated or hood-like. The labium is truncate at the tip, and the
surface there is velvety. The labrum is furnished on the under side
with a few tactile hairs only ; but it has a series of little sensory
foveae or pits not found in the other species.
July 13th I found, at Swedesboro, eggs just beginning to hatch,
and on July 15th they had begun to hatch in numbers and to feed
freely.
July 17th, at Jamaica, Long Island, I found a few larvae hatched
from egg clusters, and noticed, in one case, that the first larva hatched
ate into and destroyed a large proportion of the other eggs of the
cluster. This explained an appearance that I had noted elsewhere,
8
but had attributed to other causes. It seems quite probable that this*
is far from being an exceptional habit in the young larvae, and that
the excessive increase of the species is thus checked, to some extent,
by its own cannibalistic tendencies. Though there was an abundance
of eggs, there were, as yet, few larvae here.
July 22d, at Port Monmouth, found plenty of larvae, varying from
just hatched to fully half grown. There are yet a great many un-
hatched egg masses and a few beetles; no signs of pupation, however.-
August 3d, at the same place, many larvae were full grown and
were getting ready to pupate, though there were yet a great many-
broods half grown or less. There seem to be no more unhatched
Mouth parts of Coccinella 9-notata : a, maxilla ; 6, labium ; c, mandible ; d, under side of
labrum, or upper lip. Enlarged. (Original.)
eggs. Of a lot of specimens carried to the laboratory, the greater
number pupated within thirty-six hours, and in less than one week
thereafter imagos had emerged. The larvae are bright yellow in
color, with prominent, black, branched spines. Figure 1 shows the
appearance of the larvae, while at Figure 6, e, is an enlarged figure
of one of its spines. It will be noted that the main process or trunk
has branches from all sides, and that these branches are themselves
jointed, an accessory little spine being set on the basal segment. It&
mouth parts are also shown at Figure 6, a to c.
The larva feeds, unlike the adult, on the under side of the leaf, and
does not eat the entire tissue, but shaves off only the surface and cen-
tral layer of cells, leaving the skin of the upper side intact.
9
August 6th, at Cold Springs, Long Island, found a pupa on the
•wild cucumber ; and on the same day found, at Jamaica, eggs, larvae,
pupae and imagos, some of the latter in copulation. The egg patches
were, apparently, new, while the larvae were of all sizes. What I
«;ould not determine was whether the beetles that mated at this time
were of those that had appeared in the spring, or whether they were
newly- hatched specimens ; nor could I find whether the eggs were of
•the spring brood or from the recently- matured beetles. Those bred
Fig. 0.
Epilachne borealis, larva: a, mandible; b, maxilla; c, labium; d, labrum, under side; e, one of
the spines or processes of the larva. Enlarged. (Original.)
in my laboratory did not attempt to mate, nor did I observe the
process elsewhere after this date. In pupating, the larva attaches
itself by the tail, and the spiny skin is gradually shed and worked to
this point, forming an irregular mass, as shown at Figure 1, b , where
the pupa is seen from the back. A front view is shown at 1, c.
August 31st, at Port Monmouth, there were to be found only a few
scattering larvae and an occasional pupa. No imagos were seen at this
time nor thereafter, nor were either eggs or young larvae to be found.
Life History.
From the above observations the following life cycle can be con-
densed : The beetles come out of winter quarters, beginning about the
middle of June. They become more numerous until July 5th, and
10
continue, in gradually diminishing numbers, until the beginning of
August. Eggs are laid, beginning toward the end of June, and
added to constantly until all the beetles have disappeared. I did not
try to ascertain how many eggs were laid by a single female. The
duration of the egg state is about twelve days, and about the middle
of July larvae appear in some numbers, continually increasing until
early in August, when pupation begins. Imagos emerge about six days
later, and apparently seek hibernating shelter at once, doing little, it
any, feeding. Exceptionally, specimens matured early in August may
mate and oviposit ; but such cases are rare, I believe. By the begin-
ning of September all trace of the species has disappeared from the
fields. For hibernating quarters any shelter answers. They some-
times swarm into barns, sheds or outbuildings of all kinds ; but are
equally content with a bit of loose bark, or a crevice in a fence-post^
or a heap of rubbish.
Remedies.
As the beetle feeds openly, on the upper side of the leaf, it is easily
within the reach of insecticides. Of these, the arsenites are much the
most effective, and should be sprayed on the plants when the beetles
are first making their appearance. Killing off these adults early will
prevent egg-laying and, consequently, the production of larvae. So
the season’s brood may be easily destroyed by a timely application of
the insecticides. The poisons may be used safely at the rate of 1
pound in 150 gallons of water, lime being added as directed in Bulle-
tin 86 of the Station.
The Striped Cucumber Beetle.
( Diabrotica vittata, Fabr.)
This is one of the best known of the insects injurious to the
cucurbs, and in some States is the most destructive. It has never
been as troublesome in New Jersey as it has been in Ohio, Iowa, and
in some other of the Western States; but yet it does considerable
injury each year without causing special complaint. It is one of those
insects to which farmers have become accustomed to pay toll, and^
unless the exactions are unusual, no complaint is made.
11
May 30th, at Swedesboro, I found that melons were well up in
most patches, and were putting forth the middle leaf. Many of the
striped beetles were about, and copulation was quite general. The
seed-leaves were considerably eaten on the under side, and here and
there the stems were scarred ; but this injury was as nothing com-
pared to the destruction caused by the “ damping off,” a disease which
attacks the plant at the surface and kills it in short order.
June 13th the beetles had increased in number; but the plants
were now generally well able to take care of themselves.
June 27th the beetles were plentiful at Port Monmouth. They had
eaten the seed-leaves badly, and had eaten into the stem in some cases ;
but had done no permanent injury.
July 15th I found the beetles very abundant on melons at Esopus,
N. Y., and they were said to have been yet more plentiful early in the
season. At this time they frequent the blossoms of the squash, and
a great many can be found each morning in the closed flowers of the
preceding day.
July 17th the beetles were plentiful at Jamaica, Long Island,
especially on late plantings of squashes, and were busily eating the
seed-leaves and into the stem. I made here a diligent search for
larvae in the roots, but found none, the roots of all the plants exam-
ined being free from all trace of injury of any sort; though there
had been insects enough on the plants, as the eaten leaves testified.
July 21st I found the beetles plentiful at Metuchen. In looking
for other species I sliced up several squash vines, and found no trace
of the larvae of this insect on the roots anywhere; nor did I find
either larvae or pupae in the soil about the roots. I did find, however,
a specimen of the beetle which had been killed by a dipterous para-
site. The larva had, evidently, fed in the body cavity of the beetle,
and in pupating had burst the abdominal walls. The beetle was
attached by its claws to the under side of a leaf, apparently having
fixed itself firmly in place when the internal convulsions approached.
Though I searched carefully then and later, at Metuchen and else-
where, I never found another specimen so parasitized, and the single
example taken I failed to breed. It is not likely, therefore, that we
have here an active ally in the task of controlling the Diabrotica.
July 22d, found one larva on the root of a squash vine at Port
Monmouth. It was lying in a channel which it had eaten through
12
the bark, and there were other similar channels or irregular grooves
on other parts of the root ; though I could find no other specimens.
The larva is white, very slender, with a horny, brown head and
obtuse tail, very well shown in Figure 7.
August 3d I again searched very thor-
oughly in the same squash-field at Port
Monmouth. The crop had been gath-
ered, many of the vines were infested by
borers, and the patch had been left to run
to (weed) seed. I dealt very freely with
T Ilf t m the plants under the circumstances, and
l f . | in dug or pulled up and closely examined a
1 fj large number. The striped beetles were
very abundant, and were mating freely ;
but no trace of a larva was discoverable
on any of the plants — not even an eating
on the roots to indicate that any had ever
been present.
August 6th. Found the beetles very
abundant and mating in the squash fields
at Jamaica, Long Island, and here also I
failed to find larvae.
August 31st I made another attempt to find larvae in a melon field
at Port Monmouth ; but, though there were beetles enough, the roots
were clean and sound, showing no trace either of borings or of surface-
eatings other than such as were near the crown and were due to the
beetles.
October 17th, at Esopus, N. Y., I found the melon vines all off the
ground and the field plowed. Rosettes of wild cruciferae, mustards
and other allied forms were rather abundant, and beneath these I
found a considerable number of the striped beetles, feeding freely on
the under side of the leaves. I saw no mating, and on the roots of
the mustards pulled up I found neither larvae nor signs of their
presence.
The foregoing record, though it adds nothing to our knowledge of
the life history of the insect, is not without interest. It does not
even confirm, nor does it really contradict what has been previously
written concerning it. It proves that there is no reason to fear injury
from the larvae in New Jersey, and that even where the beetles are
Fig. 7.
Larva of striped beetle: 1, from
above ; 2, from side. Enlarged.
13
abundant the cucurbs will run away from or outgrow damage once
they get a fair start. We can condense the life history of the insect
as follows :
Life History.
The beetles appear in May, before the vines are up, and are found
on plants of divers kinds. When cucurbs of any sort appear they
abandon everything else to attack them. They first eat the seed-
leaves, preferably from the under side, hiding quite generally in mid-
day in the soil around the plants, and often eating into the stem at or
near the surface. Eggs are said to be laid on the roots, and the larvae
are said to feed on or in them. Some do so, certainly ; but whether
there is not also some other larval food-plant is perhaps a question.
Beetles are in the fields and on the plants continuously throughout
the summer, and there are probably three or more broods during the
season, beetles appearing as late as the last week in October. Hiber-
nation is probably quite general in the imago stage, perhaps also in
the pupa.
Remedies.
The only time when the plants are in serious danger from the
striped beetle is very early in their life, before they have started
running; afterward the injury is insignificant and easily borne.
In Ohio and Iowa the beetles appear so numerously early in the
season that the plants never get an opportunity to come to the surface
at all, the beetles burrowing down to meet them. In those States
protection by means of screens and nettings, to keep the beetles off
the young plants, is resorted to, and is, of course, effective. A very
much better plan is to start the plants under glass, in good soil, in
baskets, and set them out when they have begun to grow well and the
ground outside is thoroughly warm. This method is not new, but is
practiced by growers who are anxious to get the earliest markets, and
is more intended by them to get high-priced fruit than to circumvent
the beetles. It is very effective for the latter purpose, however, and
exposes to them an established plant, instead of a new and tender
sprout. Where the beetles are not too numerous, or there is an objec-
tion to starting under glass, practical exemption can be obtained by
planting a larger number of seeds in each hill. This will so distribute
the attack that little real injury will be done, and when the plants are
14
firmly established and out of danger it is easy to thin them out as
much as is desired. This is probably all that would be needed in
New Jersey, where the insects always give the plants a chance to get
above ground at least.
In this State, after the plants have started, the beetles sometimes
appear rather suddenly, in large numbers, and considerable injury is
caused before the danger is appreciated by the growers. The practice
in several districts is to “ drive” the insects by using plaster, working
with the wind. The beetles dislike this and fly before it. When
it is noticed that one farmer has begun to “ drive” his beetles, his lee-
ward neighbors take up the work when their land is reached and the
“ drive ” is continued, until some field is reached whose owner is not
in attendance, and there the beetles remain, for a time at least. Instead
of plaster alone, plaster and Paris green or London purple is some-
times used, always with good effect. The arsenites applied in a spray
are yet more satisfactory, for with the underspray nozzle the plant
can be thoroughly poisoned, and the under side of the seed-leaves,
of which the beetles are most fond, are thus effectively reached.
In the report for 1890 I cited cases where the arsenites had been
used successfully, and these need not be more particularly referred to.
One pound in 150 gallons of water should be used, and lime should
be added as before recommended.
The kerosene emulsion has been successfully used (as a repellant?)
by Mr. C. L. Piker, Esopus, N. Y. He writes, under date of June
7th, 1892 : “ We had a little experience yesterday and to-day with the
striped beetle which may be of interest to you. Some days ago I
prepared my kerosene emulsion. * * * This emulsion we applied
to our melon vines (thirty acres) yesterday afternoon, when many of
the beetles had suddenly appeared. This morning, although very
warm, and we had expected a circus, very few presented themselves,
except on plants which had not been subject to the emulsion, where
they were very thick. A sprinkling of the London purple this after-
noon, in addition to the kerosene emulsion, seems to have completely
annihilated them.” I found, later, that there had been no further
serious attack on the plant, and though there were a great number of
the beetles about when I saw the field in July, the vines were then
well out of their way. It was at this time that Mr. Riker was killing
off a great many of the insects by gathering, late in the evening or
early in the morning, the recently- closed flowers of the squash, in
15
which these insects like to hide. There were from two to ten or more
beetles in each blossom, and the number collected and destroyed in
this way was considerable.
The persistent use of tobacco has also been found efficient in keep-
ing vines free from the attacks of the striped beetles.
We can summarize thus as to remedies :
1. Plant under glass, in baskets, and set out after the vines are
well started ; or,
2. Plant an excess of seeds, so as to distribute insect-attack, and
thin out when the danger is over.
3. When plants are established and the beetles appear in dangerous
numbers, spray with the arsenites, or dust with the arsenites and
plaster or dry-slaked lime.
Essentials under 3 are a prompt resort to the remedy when the
beetles are first noticed, and its thorough application, especially on the
under side of the seed-leaves and on the stem of the plant.
The Squash-bug.
( Anasa tristis, De Geer.)
The squash-bug is one of the oldest insects known as injurious to
the cucurbs, and has been so often written about that there is little
left to say concerning it. In our State it does not rank as a very
troublesome inject where the cucurbs are grown on a large scale; but
it is sometimes decidedly destructive in gardens where only a small
number of vims are annually raised. The injury done by this insect
is decidedly different in character from that caused by the species
heretofore treated. In those cases there was an eating of the tissue ;
here there is a puncturing of the vine and a sucking of the sap. The
mouth structure is entirely different, the mandibles, maxillae and
labium being replaced by a rigid beak, in which are four slender
lancets. By means of these the stem, leaf-stalk or other part of the
plant is punctured, and through it the sap is pumped into the stomach
of the insect. The structure of the beak is in all essentials the same
as that of the melon louse, which is figured in the next article. The
mere puncturing and the extracting of a little sap would not in itself
•suffice to affect the plant, for that is very hardy, and readily recovers
16
from even severe cutting and slashing ; but the insect injects into the
wound a little drop of saliva, which seems to be of so poisonous a
character that it causes the death of the tissue around the puncture,
and a consequent interruption in the flbw of sap. Where the insects
are at all numerous, and the stem of a young plant is wounded in
several places, it sometimes causes the death of the vine.
The insect itself is rather obscurely represented at Figure 8, a
and 6, and is of a dull, smoky- brown color. Its general appearance
is sufficiently well shown in the picture to make it unnecessary to
Fig. 8.
The squash-hug: a, b, adult bugs ; c, pupa ; d, e, egg clusters. Natural size. (From a photo.)
waste words in description. When handled it imparts to the fingers
a peculiar, sickening odor, which is supposed to protect it from the
attack of enemies; and surely it must be a curious creature that
would relish a squash-bug ! The insect makes its appearance on the
plants in June, usually not until well along toward the middle of the
month, when the vines are already well started. It hides on the under
side of the leaves or in the soil, and is little seen during the day. I
found them on melons at Swedesboro, in some numbers, July 13th, and
there were then also a few egg clusters.
17
July 15th, at Esopus, N. Y., I found a somewhat greater number
of the bugs and more egg patches. These egg masses are shown at
Figure 8, d and e, and are of a rich light golden-brown color, very
handsome and conspicuous. They are laid on the under side of the
leaves, in clusters of from twenty to fifty, and are quite securely
fastened.
July 17th I found the squash-bugs very abundant at Jamaica,
Long Island, and saw a great many egg masses. Some of these had
hatched, and one brood of the young bugs was almost ready for its
second moult. The young are odd-looking creatures, with small head
and prothorax, and a large, prominent, oval, green abdomen, which is
carried elevated high in air.
Three weeks later, August 6th, some of the old bugs were yet on
the vines laying eggs, and continued there until after the middle of
the month. At this date (August 6th) many of the larvae were well
advanced, and a few had transformed to pupae. The latter begin to
resemble the adults rather more closely ; they are like them in color,
and have the rudiments of wings well developed. Figure 8, c, gives
a very poor representation of this stage.
September 2d I found, at Esopus, N. Y., a few egg masses, a con-
siderable number of larvae and a very large number of pupae and
recently-transformed imagos. The recent imagos, or new squash-
bugs, differed from those found in the spring in their lighter gray
color and much softer texture, the outer skin appearing to harden
very slowly. The number of new bugs continued to increase on the
vines until October 17th, when only a very small proportion of pupae
remained, and no larvae at all were seen. The imagos seek shelter
wherever they can find it, and live through the winter in that stage.
The mortality among them during that season must be excessive, for
out of hundreds seen in late fall only single specimens survive; these
are the solid, brown, hardened sinners who will live on to midsummer
or later. In tilled fields there is, or should be, little shelter to serve
as winter quarters for these insects. In gardens, or near them, there
is usually an abundance. They get into crevices in boards, in fences,
into attics, barns or stables, under or in rubbish heaps or wood-piles,
in the mulch on plants, among the straw with which others are cov-
ered, and in fact anywhere, so that a space large enough to admit
them is found. This explains the relatively greater number of insects
appearing in gardens in spring.
18
Remedies.
Insecticides, as applied to these insects, have been failures, as a rule:;
and no smell disagreeable enough to annoy them and act as a repellant
has yet been discovered ; in fact their own odor is so vile that if they
can endure themselves they can surely endure anything else. They
can be checked in large fields by raking out, carting off and destroying
the vines as soon as the crop is off. Plowing under answers as well
or better. The object is to destroy all the eggs and young then on the
vines, and to force the adults, new or old, to other localities for food
or shelter. In a large field, plowed early in September, a very small
proportion would escape to go into hibernation.
Nothing that may afford a shelter should be left in the field or
around it, so that the insects will be forced to travel some distance
for winter quarters. The further they are compelled to travel, the
less the danger of their finding the way back next spring.
The earlier the plowing can be done, the greater the resulting
destruction of the insects, since only the adult or winged forms can
escape. Nothing more than this seems necessary in our State to
avoid injury to large plantations from these bugs.
In gardens the case is somewhat different; but here also the plants-
should be taken out and destroyed just as. soon as all the desired crop
is taken off. Plants left for seed can be easily looked over when
the others are removed, and the insects on them can be collected)
and destroyed. All the adults seen in spring should be collected and
killed, and the egg clusters should be systematically collected and
burnt. The eggs do not hatch very quickly and are easily seen, so
that twice a week would be often enough to collect and destroy them.
The result of care and thoroughness in this process will be more
evident the year following, in the very much smaller number of bugs
making their appearance in spring.
The Melon Louse.
(Aphis cucumeris, Forbes )
In this State no single insect has caused as much serious injury to
some of the cucurbs as the melon louse. Cucumber and melon.*
cantaloupe or citron vines are the most severely affected ; but water-
melons also are sometimes considerably injured. Pumpkins and
39
squashes are not much troubled, as a rule, though the insect is to be
found on them in small numbers.
I had a few letters complaining of this insect in 1889, and quite
general though not very severe injury was caused. In 1890, when
plant lice in general were abundant, this species became yet more
destructive, and was one of those treated in Bulletin 72 of the College
Station. In 1891 the injury caused was serious and widespread. In
Monmouth, Burlington, Gloucester, Salem and Camden counties the
destruction was almost complete ; acres of melons were plowed out ;
other acres were abandoned, and a few fields only managed to revive
and to produce a late, ill- paying crop.
It was not until late in June and well along in July, when the
aphids had already overrun everything, that requests for remedies, or
for methods of repairing the injury done, began to come in — long
after the insects had gotten beyond all ordinary methods of control.
On July 13th I visited the Swedesboro region, and on July 17th the
Port Monmouth district, finding injury severe in both localities;
later, near Merchantville, I found matters worst of all. I made no
personal observations except on the dates above named, and then the
fields were quite uniformly infested ; wingless viviparous individuals
being much the most common, though winged forms were scattered
about generally. Mr. Edward Burrough, at Merchantville ; Mr. H.
W. Bidgway, at Swedesboro, and Mr. J. S. Carter, at Port Mon-
mouth, were good enough to show me over the infested districts in
their respective localities, and I found everywhere a uniformity of
testimony on one important point : the insects are not noticed in the
fields until the vines have started running, and always on scattered
hills here and there ; sometimes only on one or two in a large field.
These act as centers of infection, and the lice spread from them with
startling rapidity. There was a general tendency in 1891 to charge
the plant lice with all the injury observed on the cucurbs; but in
many a melon field examined by me, though aphids were abundant
enough, they had by no means caused the general dying off among
the vines, which was rather to be attributed to a bacterial disease
attacking them at or a little below the surface of the ground. I
found, at Port Monmouth, that parasites and other insect enemies of
the lice were increasing at such a rapid rate that I felt justified in
saying that the worst of the attack was over, and that there would be
little further spread. My prediction was verified, for Mr. Carter
20
wrote me September 1st : “ Very singular, they did not spread out
on new vines after about the time you were here [July 17th], By
the first of August they were disappearing quite rapidly, and by the
middle of August were about gone, leaving a shed skin on the leaves.
There are but very few to be found now.” September 9th Mr.
Carter again wrote, in answer to a request for specimens : “ I am
unable to send you any melon lice for the reason that there are none
to be found ; all gone.” I attribute this cessation of injury entirely
to the hosts of parasites, lady-birds and syrphus-fly larvae, which
were all busily engaged in their work of destroying the aphids. In
the Delaware counties these insect friends were very much less
abundant, and, though a factor in checking injury, at no time got the
upper hand, so as to really stop the steady increase of the lice.
Attempts to destroy the aphids had been made by some growers,
whale-oil soap and kerosene emulsion being used; and while both
were found effective, the complaint was of the difficulty of reaching
the lice on the under side of the leaves.
In Bulletin 72 of the College Station I hazarded the conjecture
that the species might have an alternate food plant, and also men-
tioned Prof. Forbes’ suggestion that it might winter in the ground.
Both of these theories I resolved to put to the test in 1892, and con-
cluded, also, that it would be better not to rely upon being notified of
the first appearance of the lice by growers.
Field Record.
Field work began May 21st by a visit to Swedesboro. There were
very few melons up as yet, and no signs of aphids on them. Mr.
Weatherby, a large grower, said that the lice are first on the roots,
and that he has frequently seen them there ; that they are attended
by ants, and that he has seen the ants carry the lice from the roots to
the leaves. Mr. Rulon confirmed the statement that lice are to be
found on the roots before they are on the leaves, but confined it to
watermelons. I met with this same statement later in so many
other localities, usually as to watermelons, that I cannot well doubt
its accuracy, though it is probably a very different species from that
under consideration here.
May 30th, at Swedesboro, melons were well up almost everywhere,
and were putting forth the middle leaf. No trace of aphids was
21
'found anywhere. Ants were abundant in the fields on all the plants ;
more plentiful, however, in sweet potato than in melon plantations.
Pulled or dug up a great many plants near ant-hills, and found no
trace of aphids of any kind on the roots ; nor was the investigation
of ants’ nests more fruitful in results. I failed utterly to find any
trace of lice anywhere in the melon-fields, whether in vines for the
first or second year, or in sweet potato fields that had been in melons
the year before.
June 13th. I found here and there on the melons winged speci-
mens of Siphonophora cucurbitce, a much larger species of louse,
more usually confined to the squash, and which had never caused any
trouble ; but saw nothing of the little A. cucumeru.
June 27th I visited Port Monmouth, and here found, in Mr. Carter’s
field, which had been in melons in 1891 as well, isolated winged speci-
mens of the melon louse. Altogether, on over 100 hills examined in
all parts of the field, I found about half a dozen specimens; and of
these, one only had given birth to a single young. Evidently they
could have been on the plants a very short time only. On no plant
was there more than a single louse. Vines were about one foot long.
Mr. Carter thought he had noticed specimens a week ago; but none
were found where he thought he had seen them. Pulled up a con-
siderable number of “ extra” plants, among them some of the infested
ones, without finding any trace of lice on the roots. The specimens
have come on from the outside, without much doubt. In neighboring
fields I found much the same conditions.
On Mr. W. S. Roberts’ farm a different state of affairs obtained.
Here some plants on a small patch of cucumber vines were already
badly infested. One hill, at one corner of the patch, had evidently
been the center of infection, and every leaf was set with specimens,
none of them winged. A few surrounding hills were less infested,
also with wingless forms only; and one on the opposite side of the
patch carried a few specimens. The insects were noticed a week ago,
and Mr. Roberts said there were then winged forms amongst them.
The aphids on the less-infested plants were rather scattered ; usually
there was one large specimen, surrounded by a little group of smaller
individuals, evidently its progeny. On some leaves there were little
groups of three or four, all very much of a size, obviously deposited
there by some parent that had disappeared. I sent Mr. Roberts some
whale-oil soap, to test its killing power on the aphids.
22
June 28th I found the vines at Swedesboro looking well, and'
almost the same state of affairs existing, as to plant lice, that I found
at Port Monmouth the day before. In most of the fields there were
a few plants on which a winged louse was found, and others on which
one or two leaves were set with wingless, viviparous females. Wherever
this occurred the winged forms had disappeared.
There seems little doubt that from somewhere a few winged lice
appear some time in June. These get into the fields and bring forth
a few living young. Sometimes they remain on one leaf, but perhaps
more usually they migrate again, to start another colony elsewhere.
From the colonies thus started the insects spread.
July 5th, at Port Monmouth, all the aphids had disappeared from
the melon and cucumber vines in all the fields examined. Not a
single specimen in any stage could be found anywhere. Since my
visit of June 27th there had been a series of cyclonic storms and cold
rains, which had whipped the vines about rather freely, and now not
an aphid remained. Exactly how much of this state of affairs was to-
be attributed to the weather I cannot say. Mr. Roberts informed me
that he had received and used the whale-oil soap, and that with it he
had checked the spread of the insects on his cucumbers. The general
disappearance of the insects elsewhere made this evidence less valu-
able than it might have been otherwise.
July 13th found the fields at Swedesboro equally free from plant
lice. Not a single specimen, nor any indication of any, could be
found. Mr. Ridgway had not heard of injury being done anywhere,,
and had seen nothing of any himself.
July 15th, at Esopus, N. Y., no lice were seen on that portion of &
thirty- acre field examined by me.
July 17th found at Jamaica, Long Island, a few specimens of the
Siphonophora on squash, but no trace of the melon louse. My chances
for learning anything of the insects that season looked rather slim.
Nothing was found at Port Monmouth July 22d, on fields which
a year ago were swarming with lice, and exemption from aphid- attack
still continued August 3d.
August 24th Mr. C. L. Riker wrote me from Esopus as follows t
“The lice have suddenly appeared on our melons in such numbers
that, if we do not succeed in checking them within a few days, they
are going to completely ruin our crop, even blackening the melons and
the ground beneath the vine.”
23
As soon as was possible — August 31st — I went to Port Monmouth,,
to see if perchance the insects had appeared there; but I found no
trace of them in any form. Melons were a short crop and were
ripening; the best of the early crop perhaps already shipped.
September 2d went to Esopus. I found that on the thirty-acre
field the lice had started on the northwest corner, which I had not
reached on my previous visit, and for a week or ten days after they
were noticed had moved slowly. Then the effect of the injury caused
by them became apparent, and the leaves dried up and became brown
and lifeless. These plants were then abandoned by the lice, and
almost the entire field became infested in a few days. At this date
there were few of the aphids where the start was made, and most of
the plants were dead or nearly so; so far gone, at any rate, that no
more fruit would be matured. Elsewhere in the field there were
aphids in abundance; winged forms were most plentiful in the por-
tions last attacked, while in the places to which they first spread pupae-
were most numerous. Wingless, viviparous forms were the most
abundant everywhere, and there were, of course, any quantity of
young or larval forms. In small numbers the insects were found on
the leaves of squashes, mostly in the winged form, though a few had
begun to breed. I found also a considerable number of specimens,,
largely winged, on the wild cruciferae, mostly mustards, that were
abundant all over the field. Some of these were breeding, and I
found all stages, from the smallest larva to the pupa and winged
form. It was apparent that the species is quite able to support life
on these weeds. Of parasites there were only a few; but there were
considerable numbers of “ lady-birds, ” with their larvae, busily
engaged in feeding on the lice. Of these I collected Coccinella
novemnotata , Cycloneda sanguined, Hippodamia convergens , H paren-
thesis and H. 13-punctata. H. convergens was much the most com-
mon, while H. 13-punctata was the least abundant of the species.
They were, however, far behind the van of the plant lice, and could
not, under ordinary circumstances, so increase as to be of any real use
as a check until late in the season.
I found, also, Siphonophora cucurbiice on the squashes in some num-
bers, yet not in anywise injurious. They also were on the wild mus-
tards in all stages, but none were on melons.
As I had no facilities at New Brunswick for raising melon or
cucumber vines upon which to observe the insects continuously, I
24
arranged with Mr. Riker to send me infested leaves at frequent inter-
vals, in the hope that the first appearance of the sexes might thus be
noted, and that I might then make an attempt to follow the speci-
mens into their winter quarters. Three or four lots of leaves were
received, all containing the usual summer forms, and then no more
arrived.
September 7th I found at Anglesea, N. J., some watermelon vines
on which were a considerable number of these insects, mostly pupae
and viviparous, winged forms. Again I was compelled from lack of
proper laboratory facilities to miss an opportunity for securing mate-
rial to complete the life history of the insect. This find proved,
however, that the conditions causing the destruction of the insects
near Port Monmouth did not extend to all parts of the State.
October 17th made another trip to Esopus. I found that, owing
to the cholera scare, then at its height in New York City, melons
had become almost unsalable, and on this account, and because the
lice still continued their injury, Mr. Riker had raked out all the
vines and had plowed the field. The vines were all piled for com-
posting, and nothing in the way of aphids remained on them. The
cruciferous rosettes starting all over the field were carefully examined,
and a large number of the aphids found on them were collected and,
later on, examined in the laboratory. No specimens of the melon
louse were among them. On a large squash vine under glass, at
some distance from the melon- fields, I found a considerable number of
the species of whieh I was in search, and carried with me two badly-
infested leaves, as well as specimens of all the forms found on the
plant. All these proved to be only the ordinary summer types ;
neither males nor oviparous females were among them.
October 25th I collected over an old melon-patch at Metuchen, and
on the wild mustards then starting I found a few specimens of the
winged lice. Nearly all were the ordinary viviparous forms ; but
two specimens may possibly prove to be males of this species when
more material is secured. No oviparous females were seen, nor did I
find any such later.
The work of the season is inconclusive, therefore, and yet not
entirely without result. It gives us the following
25
Brief History.
Winged, viviparous forms appear in the fields in small numbers*
about the middle of June, starting colonies by bringing forth living
young; sometimes on one leaf only, sometimes on several. These
mature rapidly, and reproduce, in turn, at such a rate that by the end
of the month a considerable spread has been made. If unchecked,
they will soon spread over a very large territory, and injury is pro-
portioned to their number. All during the summer and until well
along in September, or even later, reproduction continues. In mid-
summer comparatively few specimens become winged, but later pupae
and winged forms become more numerous. Sexed forms have not
appeared by the middle of October. Their history between October
15th and June 15th following is yet unknown. I am very strongly
inclined to believe that the late winged forms migrate to some com-
mon weed, probably cruciferous, on the winter rosettes of which eggs
are laid, that will carry the species through the winter. These eggs
probably hatch quite early in spring, and several generations may be
produced before the insects are ready to return to the melons or
cucumbers.
Fig. 9.
Melon louse : Winged, viviparous female. (Original.)
Figure 9 shows the general appearance of the winged louse, with
which melon and citron-growers are, as a rule, sufficiently familiar.
In color it is deep brown, the abdomen often lighter, or even decid-
26
edly green. The young are brought forth alive, and are green or
yellowish of varying shades, but darkening as they grow older. The
wingless, viviparous forms vary in color from dark green to light
brown.
Injury Caused.
The injury by this insect is similar to that caused by the squash-
bug, and is done in much the same way. The plant tissue is pierced
by a stout beak, in which are four slender lancets,
and through this apparatus the plant juices are
pumped. At Figure 10, b , is a representation of
the beak as it appears in this species, while at 10,
o, is shown the peculiar pitting of the antenna of
the winged form. A single specimen could not
cause appreciable injury to a plant; but when
hundreds, and even thousands, are at work continu-
ally, it is unable to bear the strain and succumbs.
Did the insects seek only to satisfy hunger, there
might yet be a chance for the vine; but whenever
they are fully gorged they elevate the abdomen and
eject from its anal extremity a stream of clear
“ honey dew,” and continue anew their work of
pumping sap, only to excrete it again in the same
way a short time after. During a plant-louse
attack, therefore, there is a continual pumping of
the juices from thousands of points, and it is not at
all surprising that the plant dies. It is this “ honey
■B1lg* 10 dew,” or rather a fungus which develops on it, that
Melon louse: a, an- . ° _ . .
tenna ; b, beak of causes the blackening oi the leaves, of the fruit,
^(Orfginai1)1 and even 0I" ground beneath the vines.
Remedies.
With a full knowledge of its life history, it may be possible to reach
this insect in its winter quarters. At present I can only suggest cer-
tain measures to be adopted in the melon- fields. It is fairly certain
that there is a migration from some outside point to the melons in
June, and there is no evidence that there is any later migration, except
from plant to plant within a single field, or to adjacent fields. By
checking the spread of the insects at their first appearance, practical
27
exemption for the season may be obtained. Fields should be gone
over carefully at least twice a week, beginning early in June, and
every leaf at all curled or abnormal in appearance should be examined.
If aphids are found, the leaf containing them should be destroyed;
or, if a vine is at all badly infested, it will be better to pull and bury
it, tramping the earth down well above it.
Should the insects be overlooked until they have begun to spread,
the plants should be very thoroughly sprayed with the kerosene
■emulsion, made as described in Bulletin 86 of the College Station, and
-diluted with from 12 to 15 parts of water; or whale-oil soap can be
used, at the rate of 1 pound in 6 gallons of water; or the fish-oil soap,
the formula for which is also to be found in Bulletin 86, can be used,
at the rate of 1 pound in 8 gallons of water. In either case a knap-
sack pump and an underspray nozzle, such as is made by Boekel &
Co., 518 Vine street, Philadelphia, should be used, and the work
should be very thoroughly done ; extending not only to all vines on
which the insects are actually observed, but to all those near by and
apparently yet free from attack. Thoroughness at this time may
mean complete exemption afterward; while half-way work must
certainly be repeated if any benefit is to be derived. The very
essence of the fight against this insect is to meet and overcome it
while it is weak, and before it gets a start. The difficulty and the
uncertainty of complete success increase rapidly for every day of
delay. Arsenites, it may be said in passing, are of absolutely no
effect as against this insect.
The Squash Borer.
(Melittia ceto, Westw.)
Of the insects infesting cucurbs, this species is the one most partial
to squashes ; for although it is occasionally found in all the others,
yet only in squashes is it injurious. In these, however, it makes
havoc, sometimes rendering it simply impossible to get fruit at all, or
only of inferior varieties ; for the insect has preferences, and its
preferences are for the best. Some growers have never succeeded,
despite their utmost efforts, in getting more than half a crop of Hub-
bards, owing to injury caused by this insect; but even half a crop
pays, and planting them continues. Proportionately less damage is
usually done where the plants are raised on a large scale than where
28
they are raised in the garden or in small patches, for in the latter case
all are quite generally destroyed.
In my report for 1890 I gave a brief account of the insect, and
made such suggestions concerning remedies as our knowledge at that
time indicated, basing my recommendations in large part on the
results of the experiments reported in Bulletin 75 of the College
Station. It was found, in these experiments, that repellants could not
be relied upon to protect, nor could spraying with the arsenites be
counted upon to do more than mitigate injury. Cutting out the
borers was still the most reliable remedy that could be suggested.
During 1891 I carried on a series of observations and experiments
at Metuchen, and the results are given in the report for that year
where, also, the experiences of Mr. D. V. Van Nest afford valuable
suggestions. During 1892 1 made observations over a very much more
extended territory, which, while they modified some of the statements
as to life history, based on the Metuchen results, emphasize the con-
clusion that the insect can be controlled rather by methods of culture
and by mechanical means than by the application of insecticides. In
these observations I have had the voluntary assistance of Mr. J. V.
D. Walker, of Jamaica, Long Island. Jamaica is a great trucking
center, and near it are many acres in squashes. Mr. Walker is a good
observer, with a knowledge of insects, and his records and statements
are to be relied upon.
The details of the observations made have not been elsewhere
reported, and are in place here.
Record for 1892.
May 28th Mr. C. L. Biker, Esopus, N. Y., wrote, offering his ser-
vices in making observations and experiments, adding : “ I have had
considerable experience with the squash borer. In one case a field of
squashes, which had cost me about $500, had arrived at a stage when
the prospect of some mammoth fruit was most excellent, hundreds
weighing more than 100 pounds each, when they were attacked, or
the attack became visible, of the borer. I tried many remedies
against them. On several hills I almost covered the vines with
ground tobacco; upon others used the liquid made by steeping
tobacco stems, with the addition of London purple, and had a number
of men at work endeavoring to extract the borer. Within ten days
after the first appearance of these vagabonds my vines were almost a
29
living mass of maggots, from the size of a needle, an eighth of an
inch long, to that of a full-sized squash borer, as large as a lead pencil
and one and one-quarter inches long. Not one squash on the whole
field ripened ! We also used kerosene, but in what proportions I am
unable just now to state. Also used hellebore and Paris green ; and
so far as the tobacco was concerned, with me it seemed to attract
rather than repel them.”
June 27th I found at Port Monmouth one apparently fresh female
moth on a cucumber vine. This is later than the insect was observed
in 1891, when I already found eggs on the 26th, but I was not trying
to fix the date of first appearance. 1 am satisfied that this covers a
considerable period, and that moths may be found at any time after
June 1st. In Central Ohio Dr. Kellicott has bred them as early as
May ; but I do not believe that they appear in the field in New Jersey
before the beginning of June.
July 15th, at Esopus, N. Y., found a pair of the moths in copula-
tion about 10 A. M., and saw two other specimens, which I failed to
capture. No eggs were found after careful search.
July 16th, at Jamaica, Long Island, Mr. Walker introduced me to
his hunting-grounds, and between 6 P. M. and dark we picked up
forty moths; all of them sitting in full view on the upper side of the
base of the leaf where it joins the leaf-stalk. They were easy to see,
and were so torpid that there was no trouble in capturing them. If
clumsily disturbed they made no attempts to fly, but j umped to the
ground, where they could be readily picked up.
July 17th the same fields were visited in the early morning. We
found now a number of pupa skins, from which moths had issued
that morning, sticking out of the ground, and found, also, two cocoons
on the surface, where cultivation had thrown them. Before 11 A. M.
the moths were flying freely and ovipositing. The latter is a very
rapid process, and is easily watched. The moth hovers over a plant,
selects a spot, and, scarcely stopping the vibration of her wings,
deposits an egg, darting off like a shot immediately thereafter. Found
the eggs on all parts of the large vines of the summer squashes, on
top of the leaves, on the leaf- stalk, on the flower buds, and, in fact,
everywhere. On small plants they are on the stem only, near the
base. On a small plant with only six leaves I found seven eggs !
These eggs are nearly round, very slightly ovate, disc-shaped,
the bottom flat with sharp margin, the top somewhat convex with
30
round edges. In color they are a light chestnut brown. Under the
microscope they show a very finely-shagreened surface, with feebly-
raised lines forming hexagonal figures. The shell is thick, chitinous
and very brittle.
Fig. 11.
Eggs of Melittia ceto : a , on stalk ; b, on bud ; c. on leaf ; d, on tip of runner ; e, on leaf-stalk ;
f, g, on bark of root. Natural size. (From a photo.)
Mr. Hulst, who has also observed the egg-laying habits, says :
“The female lays her eggs morning and afternoon, mostly on the
stalk of the plant just below the ground. She extends her abdomen
into the crack of the ground about the stem of the plant, and the
most of the eggs that I have seen were from one* fourth to one-half
an inch below the surface. Often, however, they were laid a foot
above the ground, and in a few instances, were observed upon the
petioles.”
Mr. Hulst’s statements agree well with what is usually observed
on the smaller Hubbards ; but on the Crooknecks, or, indeed, on any
other varieties that have attained any size, the eggs are laid indiffer-
ently on almost all parts of the plants.
The moths are easily recognizable ; they are shown at Figure 1 2,
a and 6, with wings expanded and wings closed. It is in the latter
condition that they are to be sought for on the leaves in the early even-
31
ing or early morning. In color the anterior wings and the body are
brown or blackish brown, with a glistening, olive- greenish tinge. The
posterior wings are transparent, glassy, with a broad blackish-brown
fringe. The most striking character, however, is found in the
prominently- tufted, long hindlegs, which are contrastingly orange
colored and thus very easily observed.
July 19th, in separating out the eggs collected on the 17th, found
a young larva, evidently three or four days old, in a leaf-stalk, also a
very small fellow, only a few hours old at most. Several of the eggs
were apparently infertile, and except where they are laid on the stalk,
are so slightly attached that they may be dislodged by a mere touch.
Mr. Walker informs me that the moths do not copulate on the day
Fig. 12.
Melittia ceto : a, b, moth, wings expanded and at rest ; c, larva, from side and from above ; d
cocoon, from which pupa skin is extended. Natural size. (From a photo.)
they emerge from the pupa, and do not lay eggs until the third day.
This statement he bases in large part on observations made on
specimens in confinement, but also on field notes. He has found the
cocoons from eight to nine inches under ground, to which depth
they had been turned in plowing ; normally they lie not more than
one or two inches beneath the surface. The pupa is dark chestnut
brown, furnished with rings of sharp spines on the abdominal seg-
ments and with a sharp, chisel-like projection on the head-case.
When the insect is ready to emerge, the pupa braces itself against the
inside of the cocoon by means of the abdominal spines and by
wriggling about cuts off a circular disc at one end of it with its
32
armed head. It then squirms out of the cocoon through the loose
soil to the surface and into the air, until only the abdominal segments
hold it in the earth.
This usually happens at night, and in the warmth of early morning
the moths issue. At Figure 12, d , is shown the cocoon from which
the empty pupa skin projects. This specimen had been thrown to
the surface by cultivating, and the pupa, finding no earthy covering
to pierce, maintained its hold on the cocoon as shown in the figure.
July 21st I examined Mr. Marshall’s squash-patch at Metuchen,
after 5 P. M., but found no trace of moths and no unhatched eggs;
found several shells, however, from which larvae had emerged.
Several larvae were found, ranging in size from one-eighth to one-
half an inch in length, the latter plump and hearty, and evidently
two weeks or more old. I cut up one plant completely, and found
borers in three joints, one of them three feet from the root. Two
larvae were found in the base of a leaf-stalk, and one egg from which
the larva had emerged was found at the base of the leaf itself, just
where the moths usually rest at night.
July 22d, in a field of early Hubbards at Port Monmouth, found
a short, under-sized crop of squashes ripened, and the vines dying;
partly from borer-attack, partly from a bacterial disease. About 20
per cent, of the hills were infested. No moths were seen; but one
unhatched egg was found, in which the larva was fully developed and
ready to emerge. Egg shells were found in small numbers; larvae
ranged all the way up to those ready for the last moult, but most of
them were about two-thirds grown, much as shown in Figure 12, c.
Most of the larvae were at the base of the vine and were well grown ;
smaller specimens were found in the joints, up to six feet from the
root. A few small larvae were found in the leaf-stalks.
August 3d examined a considerable number of fields near Port
Monmouth. North of that point I found a few patches where borers
were in the hills near the edges, as if an isolated moth had oviposited
here and there. No moths, no eggs, and no young larvae were here
found. In the field at Port Monmouth, from which the crop had
been gathered, larvae were maturing rapidly, and some had apparently
left the vines to go underground. South of Port Monmouth I found
fields in which there was little or no crop prospect. The vines were
badly affected by the bacterial disease, and most of the sound plants
were filled with borers, the majority of which were more than half
grown. Some vines were infested for their full length; some had
33
been abandoned, and the larvae were then, probably, underground.
The borers, apparently, do not care to live in the diseased vines/ for
the latter were almost free from them.
August 6th again visited Jamaica, and again Mr. Walker accom-
panied me to the squash-field. We found quite a number of moths,
one pair in copulation ; but they were very much less numerous than
they were a month ago. They were still most common in the field
now in squash for the second year. Eggs were abundant, and larvae
of all sizes were found everywhere. Many full-grown specimens
were collected from a row of crooknecks which had been planted as
traps, and the appearance of a root-section infested by the larvae is
indicated at Figure 13.
It is easy, though perhaps scarcely
necessary, to describe the larva as a
fat, white, maggot or grub- like crea-
ture, with a black head. At this time
the vines of the later plantings were
being covered at the joints, to insure
rooting. Mr. Walker said (and he
was confirmed by the farmers) that
squashes will mature from these joints
as well as from the main root, even if
the latter is eaten off entirely. Mr.
Walker also mentioned that he had
observed larvse leaving one vine to
attack another on another hill. He
had collected a lot of the larvse that
had matured in July, and these had
gone underground in his breeding
cages some days since. What their
then condition was he could not say.
In the fields we noticed that several
badly-eaten vines had been abandoned,
and there were holes near by, indicat-
ing that the larvse had disappeared
beneath the surface.
There is a much larger acreage of
squashes near Jamaica than there is
in any one locality that I have visited
Fig. 13.
Squash borers in main root of squash.
Natural size. (From a photo.)
34
in New Jersey, and squashes have formed an important staple
there for years past; usually making only a fractional crop through
injury caused by the borers. The soil is decidedly heavier than
it is in those regions where this crop is most grown in New Jersey,
and the practice of plowing very deeply turns under a great many
cocoons, and retards, though it does not prevent, the development
of the moths. I account in this way for the great length of time
during which the moths fly at Jamaica. That the moths found
now are the same that were found a month ago is not probable, for
they have been persistently collected day after day, and few could
have escaped so long a time ; besides, the specimens now found are
fresh, unrubbed and unfaded.
In the warm, sandy soil of New Jersey the moths emerge earlier
and much more nearly together, so that after the middle of July most
will have disappeared. It is universally said by our growers that
vines planted after July 10th are exempt from borer-attack; which
is certainly not the case at Jamaica.
Of the moths collected July 16th six, and of those collected August
6th four females were dissected to ascertain the number of eggs they
contained, and, if possible, whether they matured rapidly or slowly.
The examination of the six specimens collected July 16th resulted
as follows :
No. Developed. Undeveloped. Total.
1 50 60 110
2 94 30 124
3 10 80 90
4. 20 64 84
5 4 10 14
6 20 64 84
The study of the four collected August 6 th gave the following :
No. Developed. Undeveloped. Total.
1 124 88 212
2 10 68 78
3 20 78 98
4 74 44 118
As developed eggs, those were counted that were of full size and
of a light-brown color, showing a chitinized shell. Number 1 of the
lot of August 6th was taken in copulation, and it may be assumed
that no eggs had yet been laid. The very large number of developed
ova — 124 — points to a very rapid oviposition, and this is borne out
35
by observations in the field, the female flitting busily from hill to
hill, leaving an egg at every point.
Dr. Kellicott had recorded the capture of specimens of the moth
late in August, and Mr. Walker claimed to have found them in the
field in September ; so that it became a question whether there was
not a second brood of the insects. I was strongly inclined to doubt
it, but published a record made nearly a century ago by Abbot, which
I unearthed in the British Museum, proving very conclusively that in
Georgia there are two broods. I asked Mr. Walker, therefore, to
collect a large quantity of larvse to test the question for Long Island ;
and as Dr. Kellicott was making definite experiments in the same
line at Columbus, Ohio, I asked him to let me know of his results.
August 25th, the latter wrote me : “ On my return home to-
day, I find three examples of Melittia ceto in breeding cages ; this
absolutely proves a second brood at Columbus.”
I at once wrote Mr. Walker, who replied under date of September
1st: “The Ohio cetos must be a more enlightened lot than we have
here, as all mine are still in the larval stage. I cut open about a
dozen and found them all the same. I caught one fly last Saturday
[August 27th] and four the Saturday before. Will look again next
Saturday. If you wish, I will mail you some cocoons, as 1 have
about 250 of them. They are very easy to raise by feeding them on
squashes, which they bore into and feed upon. I got forty-seven
out of one vine in the old row near the barn, and many of them had
twenty-five and thirty, which goes to show the utility of planting
early rows where you are going to plant later on.”
September 9th, Mr. Walker wrote: “ I did not find any moths on
Saturday [September 5th], and am sure they have all gone. None of
mine have pupated, as far as 1 can see.”
September 26th, he again wrote : “ The Empire State cetos must
keep up with the Buckeye cetos, for I have two imagos which hatched
out yesterday. I cut open a lot of cocoons, but did not find a larva
that had pupated, so I think they must hatch out very soon after
pupation. The two that have emerged are both males. * * * I
think this accounts for my finding them so late last fall, and I think
I will look for them in the field next Saturday. I found caterpillars
in the vines yesterday week [September 18th], but they were nearly
full grown. In my last letter I told you that I found forty-seven
in one vine ; so I did, and did not hunt the vine very closely at that,
else I am sure I would have found more. The vine was one of the
36
row of old vines by the barn, and I took about 600 out of that row,
all nearly full grown, and did not keep count of the little ones which
I killed. I got all these in three evenings. The farmer’s squashes
look fine this year, as he lost very few vines. I believe if he had
paid more attention to killing the flies, and had planted a few more
rows of early squashes in different places, he need hardly have lost a
vine.”
Again, on November 7th, he writes : “ I have been cutting open
about a dozen a week of the cocoons of ceto , but have not found any
pupa yet. I guess I will give over now until spring and go at them
again, for it is not very likely that they will pupate in cold weather.
Mouth parts of the squash borer. From a camera drawing. Enlarged. (Original.)
Mr. Van Siclen tells me that he has about 2,000 barrels of squashes
this year. The growers at Flatlands lost all they had, from the
borers.”
November 21st, Dr. Kellicott wrote me : “ Referring to the squash
borer again, I may say that more than a dozen imagos appeared in
my cages as a second crop. I continued to make captures in the
field, searching late in the afternoon or early in the morning, until
September 16th; larvae were common in the stems until middle of
October. I took one pair in coitu September 6th. While there is
no doubt a second brood here (and I suspect there may be in New
Jersey or on Long Island) it is not certain that all larvae of the first
37
imagos change until the next season. In proof, the following facts :
In a cage in which were placed August 1st twelve larvse, out of it
issued four or five imagos. A few weeks ago I emptied out the earth
and found several cocoons with larvae, which I expect will transform
in the spring.”
It seems certain, from these records, that in Georgia and the South-
ern States the species is double- brooded ; in central Ohio about half
the larvae transform, and the others lie over until the spring follow-
ing ; in New York and New Jersey transformation the same season
is somewhat exceptional, only two out of about 250 larvae making
imagos. For all practical purposes, the insect can be considered
single-brooded in New Jersey.
The head of the larva is small in proportion to the size of the body,
and its food is less the tissue of the vine itself than the juices of the
plant. Half a dozen larvae may lie within a
section four inches in length, in a mass of
fragments and excrement, and they will become
full grown, or nearly so, before eating more
than a small opening to the outside. They
kill the vine by exhausting its vitality, and it
rots off, rather than is eaten off, at the surface
of the ground. In Figure 14 are shown the
fat mouth parts, except the mandibles, which
latter are gouge-like structures, shown at Figure
15. The most interesting feature is the spin-
neret, seen in the center of the mouth structures.
The larva, when it goes underground, spins a
silken cocoon, in which it rests until ready to
change to a pupa. The silk is secreted in two
long glands, situated one on each side of the
body, coiled irregularly, as shown in Figure 1 5,
which represents that of the right side. The two
glands unite into a common duct just inside the
mouth structures, and a chitinous tube, shown
dark in the center of Figure 14, carries the
secretion to the opening of the spinneret.
A consideration of the above record, in Fis* 15-
connection with the observations made in T
previous years, gives for New Jersey the laid over tbe uPPer
following “d-
38
Life History.
The moths make their appearance in the fields at or soon after the
beginning of June, and continue until the middle of July or there-
abouts, ovipositing during that period. Late in June or early in
July, from twelve to fifteen days after the eggs are laid, larvae begin
to appear, and attain their growth about four weeks thereafter. The
larvae begin to go underground late in July, and are yet found on the
vines well along in September or even later. They bury themselves
from one to two inches, and spin a tough cocoon, in which they lie
unchanged throughout the winter, transforming to pupae in spring,
shortly before they issue as imagos. In exceptional cases the change
is completed the same fall, the moths appearing late in August or in
September. The pupa, when ready, cuts its way through the cocoon
by means of the chisel-like armature of the head-case, and wriggles its
way to the surface during the night, the adult emerging in the early
morning. The moths fly only during the day, and are most active
during the hottest part of it, becoming sluggish toward the evening,
when they settle themselves on the upper side of the leaf at the base,
and there remain during the night.
Remedies.
The claims of the various insecticides have been considered in pre-
vious reports, and none have been found reliable. Repellants are
simply of no use whatever, since the insect is not confined to any one
part of the vine, and it has not been at any time proved that the
moths would not dare any but really destructive odors or vapors if no
other place to oviposit could be found. Cutting out the larvae has
proved quite effective; but it is a considerable task on large fields,
though quite practical and perhaps even the best remedy in gardens
or in small patches. In the report for 1891 I recommended rubbing
the base of the plants to crush the eggs, and this is a good plan, for it
keeps the larvae from that vital point ; but it is not so effective as I
was then inclined to believe, because the eggs are much more generally
dispersed over the vines than my observations had led me to conclude.
The remainder of the recommendations there made have been proved
practical and effective, and can be supplemented now by the suggestion
first made by Mr. Walker, that the moths be captured and killed.
39
I would therefore recommend as good practice when squashes are
to be raised for market —
First. Manure or fertilize heavily and evenly ; not in the hills only.
Second. Plant the land to summer squashes, preferably crooknecks,
as early in the season as feasible. If the fruit can be marketed to
advantage, a full set can be planted ; if not, a few rows only will
answer as traps.
Third. Plant the Hubbards, marrowfats or other main crop as late
as advisable without risking the crop, making the hills between
those of the early varieties.
Fourth. Keep a lookout for the moths, and when they are noticed,
go over the field every evening during the twilight and kill all that
are found sitting on the leaves. A little practice will enable one to
cover three rows at one time without missing a specimen, and in less
than an hour a large field can be cleared of moths.
Fifth. When the late varieties need the ground, the crooknecks
will have made at least a partial crop, even if badly infested by
borers, and the vines can be taken out and removed, leaving the
ground to the later varieties. This should be done carefully, so that
all the borers remain in the vines, and the latter should be thoroughly
destroyed in some way that will kill all the contained larvae.
Sixth. As soon as the late vines begin to run well, they should be
covered at the fourth joint, or even beyond it, and the ground should
be kept in such condition that they can readily send down suckers from
all the joints. This will enable the vine to resist injury and to ripen
fruit even if it becomes infested by a few belated borers ; hut there
must he 'plant- food enough where these joint roots are sent downy for
that in the hill may he cut off.
Seventh. When the crop is made, the vines should be at once
removed and destroyed, as were those of the summer squashes, so as
to prevent the maturing of any borers then in them.
This sounds rather formidable, but is all very much simpler than
it reads, and the practice was successfully carried out near Jamaica
during the season of 1892.
In gardens it will be sufficient to keep a watch for the moths and
examine the vines once a week for eggs. If, nevertheless, they become
infested by borers, the latter will have to be cut out. Layering at the
joints should also be done, and, where summer squashes are planted
40
with late varieties, the former should be taken out and destroyed as
soon as all the crop that is desired has been taken off.
Where an early crop of Hubbards is desired, they should be planted
just as early as possible, and should be covered at the joints as soon
as it can be done, and at as many places as may be without interfering
with the fruit. I have seen vines so treated mature squashes even
where badly infested by borers. The moths should be caught off in
this as in the other cases, and as soon as the crop is made the vines
should be destroyed.
The advantage of the procedure above recommended is that it not
only insures a crop for the season in which it is carried out, but, if
faithfully done, it destroys, also, the larvse that would produce next
year’s moths ; and persistently carried on would in a very few years
reduce this insect to the rank of a very secondary pest.
There should not be in future any difficulty in controlling this
species.
THE PERIODICAL CICADA.
( Cicada septendecim , L.)
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural College
NEW JERSEY AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE EXPERIMENT STATION.
BOARD OF CONTROL.
The Board of Trustees of Rutgers College in New Jersey.
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD.
AUSTIN SCOTT, Ph.D., LL.D., President of Rutgers College, Chairman.
Hon. GEORGE C. LUDLOW, HENRY R. BALDWIN, M.D.,
Hon. HENRY W. BOOKSTAYER, LL.D., JAMES NEILSON, Esq.
STAFF OF THE STATION;
AUSTIN SCOTT, Ph.D., LL.D., Director.
Prof. JULIUS NELSON, Ph.D., Biologist.
Prof. BYRON D. HALSTED, Sc.D., Botanist and Horticulturist.
Prof. JOHN B. SMITH, Sc.D., Entomologist.
ELISHA A. JONES, B.S., Superintendent of College Farm.
IRVING S. UPSON, A.M., Disbursing Clerk and Librarian.
LEONORA E. BURWELL, Clerk to the Director.
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural College Experiment Station.
BULLETIN 95.
SEPTEMBER 11, 1893.
The Periodical Cicada.
{Cicada septendecim , L.)
BY JOHN B. SMITH, ENTOMOLOGIST.
a, pupa ; b, pupa shell from which the imago has emerged ; c, imago ; d, punctures in which
the eggs are laid ; e, eggs, enlarged. (From Riley.)
This insect, under the more commonly- used name of the a Seven-
teen-year Locust/’ usually attracts considerable attention when it
appears, and generally causes a flood of literature, much of which is
4
clue to a want of knowledge of the history of the species. The correct-
ness of the popular term is quite frequently disputed by observers who
cite a number of years, of irregular interval, at which they claim that
this insect appeared. The observations are, in most instances, correct,
and the confusion is caused by the fact, not so generally known, that
there exist within the limits of the United States no less than
twenty- two broods, each of which appears at definite intervals, but
counting from different years as a point of beginning. These broods
do not all cover the entire United States, nor are they of anything
like equal extent. Some of them infest a large territory, while others
are confined to one or two States, and in some cases even to parts of
one State ; that is, the broods are sometimes local. Another confus-
ing feature is, that in the more southern part of our country the
period of development of the insect is shortened, and instead of
requiring seventeen years to complete its transformations, thirteen
years only are necessary. In some of the border States the thirteen
and the seventeen-year races overlap, and this produced additional
confusion until the limits of each brood were well understood.
This subject has been very thoroughly studied by and under the
direction of Dr. C. V. Riley, the United States Entomologist, who
gave in Bulletin No. 8 of the Division of Entomology of the United
States Department of Agriculture, a full history, with the distribution
of all the broods known in the United States. As a result of this
work we are now able to foretell, with reasonable certainty, exactly
when the appearance of these insects may be expected, and are also
able to say whether or not the appearance will be in numbers or
whether there will be only a small brood.
In the State of New Jersey, four broods have been recorded, and
these are, according to Dr. Riley’s enumeration, broods VIII., XII.,
XVII. and XXII. Not all of these are equally abundant nor
equally distributed ; in fact, two of them, that is to say, broods VIII.
and XVII., appear only in very small numbers, never injuriously,
and in very limited districts. Brood XII., which last appeared in
1877, is due again in 1894, and this is one that occurs in almost all
portions of the State in very large numbers. Next year, therefore,
will be “ locust year ” in the greater part of New Jersey, and the
insects will appear in great abundance, but more numerously north of
Monmouth county.
For my present purpose it will not be necessary to go into details
5
of structure or the life history of the insect, and its appearance is
sufficiently shown in the figures, which illustrate the pupa, the empty
pupal skin, the egg and the adult. The insects make their appearance
during the last days of May, or early in June, and remain about a
month. Very little injury is done in feeding, the food consisting of
the sap of trees of many kinds ; but there may be quite severe damage
when the insects oviposit. The eggs are laid in the twigs and small
branches of deciduous trees and shrubs, and fruit trees are especial
favorites. When these eggs are laid, deep slits are cut by the
females, and the slits are arranged in series, one above the other.
After the eggs hatch and the young larvse drop to the ground, the
wounds begin to scar over, and, usually before the end of the season,
the twig or small branch withers, dies and is broken off by the winter
winds. On well-established or large trees this is seldom a source of
serious injury, and means in most cases a severe pruning only. In
the case of young trees, and especially with nursery stock, it means
very much more ; sometimes the death of the tree, and much more
frequently destruction to the shape, because the finest leading shoots
are always the first that are attacked. The insects appear in such
enormous numbers, so nearly at the same time, and their habits of
feeding are of such a character that it is impossible for us to use
poisons with a reasonable chance of success. It is, therefore, necessary
to use preventive rather than remedial measures, and it is to call the
attention of the fruit-growers and farmers generally to the danger
that threatens their young trees and shrubs next year that this bulletin
is issued.
Since no remedies can be recommended, and there is no practical
way to keep the insects from the plants except by actually covering
them, it is recommended —
First. That no pruning be done either during the present fall or
next spring. This applies as well to shrubs as to trees, for the insects
will oviposit in both, and their pruning will probably be severe
enough, though perhaps not so well judged as where done by the
grower. By offering them a mass of twigs, the damage will be so
distributed that the plants will suffer no permanent injury.
Second. Do no budding or grafting either this fall or next spring.
The chances are that all young shoots or grafted stock will be severely
injured or destroyed by the insects. Sometimes vigorous young fruit
6
trees overcome the effects of the punctures the first year, but usually
lose the affected branches the year following, destroying the shape or
making it necessary to cut back so as to lose a year or two in growth.
By adopting the above simple precautions the amount of injury done
can be lessened, if not entirely prevented.
These insects have many natural enemies, and chief among these is
the English sparrow. It is seldom that one can justly say a good
word for these birds, but there is no doubt that they give valuable aid
in the destruction of the Cicadas. Wherever sparrows are numerous,
the chances are that they will allow few of the insects to propagate
their kind.
In a general way, it may be said that the brood occurs all over
the State. We have definite information that it occurs in Union,
Essex, Morris, Bergen, Hudson, Middlesex, Monmouth, Warren,
Sussex and Camden counties, and there the insects will probably be
most numerous. They will probably be less troublesome in the south-
ern than in the northern and eastern counties, but it will be well to
adopt the measures above suggested in all parts of the State.
Brood XXII., the fourth of those occurring in New Jersey,
appeared last in 1885, and will appear again in 1902. It is a well-
recorded brood, and the specimens were numerous and somewhat
injurious. This has been recorded from Camden, Mercer, Middlesex,.
Monmouth, Passaic, Morris, Somerset and Hunterdon counties, and
it will be noted that in some of the counties the insects appear in
numbers at intervals of less than seventeen years, though each brood
has that interval of time between the appearance of the individuals
belonging to it.
it; /r?d~;
CORN STALKS AND STRAW AS HAY SUBSTITUTES.
A BULLETIN OF INFORMATION.
NEW JERSEY
AGRICULTURAL
%
96
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural Experiment Station.
BULLETIN 96.
OCTOBER 14, 1893.
Corn Stalks and Straw as Hay Substitutes.
A Bulletin of Information.
In many respects the past season has been an unfavorable one ; the
results are felt now more particularly in those sections where hay has
formed a chief money crop, or where the dairy and stock-feeding
interests are prominent, though all parts of the State are affected
directly or indirectly. The drought of the early summer seriously
reduced the hay crop, and the storms of wind and hail in August
materially injured the crops of corn fodder and stalks. The condi-
tions now existing give rise to questions something like these :
1. What fodders can be substituted for hay in order that the maxi-
mum amount may be sold ?
2. How can hay be utilized in order that minimum quantities need
be bought ?
3. What feeds shall be bought in order to best utilize coarse fodder
so as to retain present herds without loss ?
These questions are virtually one and the same, though they appear
different according to the various conditions of the farmers, and may,
perhaps, be stated more concisely as follows : How shall farmers best
dispose of their produce ?
The problems relating to the feeding of animals are of great
importance, and the investigation of certain of them has formed a
considerable part of the work of this Station, the results of which
3
have been published from time to time, both in bulletin form and in
the annual reports. The object of this bulletin is, therefore, not to
report the work of recent investigations, but to restate facts and prin-
ciples already well established ; to furnish suggestions in reference to
the proper use of farm produce, the buying of feeds and the prepara-
tion of rations ; in other words, to present a bulletin of information.
It is believed that this work will be of value, since farmers are, under
the circumstances, as stated, brought face to face with the practical
bearings of scientific principles in the matter of feeding.
Object of Feeding.
Feeds may accomplish two objects — 1. Maintenance of life, or
*2. Maintenance of life, plus an increase of animal product, the latter
of which, according to the kind of animal, may take the form of flesh,
fat, milk or work. To accomplish either of these objects the food
must possess bulk, palatability and digestible nutritious compounds.
To maintain life, no special attention to these characteristics is
required on the part of the feeder ; to secure the additional animal
product attention to them becomes of the greatest importance. Infor-
mation that will prove of the most immediate usefulness would seem
to be that which concerns — 1. Hay substitutes, and 2. The use of
these substitutes with feeds in the preparation of rations.
Hay Substitutes.
Hay possesses those peculiarities of bulk and nutritious compounds
which make it particularly useful in accomplishing the first object of
feeding, viz., maintenance of life, but lacks in concentration of nutri-
tive matter, and therefore is not the most useful in accomplishing the
second object — rapid increase in animal product. This useful charac-
teristic, bulk, is nothing more nor less than indigestible matter, made
up largely of the woody part of the hay. The digestible compounds
of the hay are identical in kind with those contained in more concen-
trated products. Hay as hay, then, is not so important, provided we
can secure the desired bulk and nutrition from other sources. The
question of substitutes for hay, therefore, resolves itself into a ques-
tion of equivalents; not in the sense that any product may be an
exact equivalent in all respects when fed in the same way, but that
other products may be used in such a manner as to secure an equiva-
lent result.
4
M. Viger, the French Minister of Agriculture, in a circular
recently issued, and called forth by the failure of the hay crop,,
says : “ Now that hay has risen to its present price, this com-
modity can only be obtained by those who keep animals for pleasure.
The farmer cannot buy forage at present prices ; yet it is an error to-
suppose that animals on the farm are condemned to suffer or perish
if the hay crop fails, for there are countries where horses and cattle
never receive any hay, and these countries are renowned for their
cattle.” He also gives equivalents of nutritive materials of various
commodities for cattle, compared to 100 pounds of hay, a number of
which are as follows : “ 100 pounds of hay, of good average quality,
can be replaced by either 170 pounds of oat straw, 237 pounds of
wheat straw, 150 pounds of husks of oats, 193 pounds of wheat
chaff, 150 pounds of fresh leaves (poplar, ash, acacia, mulberry, oak,
lime and elm), 80 pounds of dried leaves of the same, gathered when
green, 275 pounds of pine leaves, 145 pounds of potatoes, 300 pounds
of forage beet, etc.” And in the matter of rations for maintenance,
assuming 20 pounds of hay per day as providing the necessary nour-
ishment for a horse of 1,000 pounds live weight, equivalent rations
are : “ a. 12 pounds of hay, 5 pounds of oats ; b. 6 pounds of wheat
straw, 8 pounds of oats; c. 16 pounds of green leaves, 2 of straw ,
3 of oats and 2 of wheat; d. 16 pounds of green leaves, 2 of straw,
2 of oats and 2 of barley.”
These statements are valuable, not only in giving equivalents
in nutrition, but in showing the wide range of vegetable products
that may serve as substitutes for hay. They are actual substitutes
mainly in furnishing the desired bulk, for it must be remembered
that while these products in the amounts given may furnish the
equivalent of nutrition, it does not follow that they would serve
equally well in maintaining life if fed alone ; that is, no amount of
straw is an exact equivalent of a definite amount of hay, both in
the kind and proportion of the nutritive compounds, fat, protein and
carbohydrates, because of the differences in chemical composition.
The protein of a feed corresponds to the lean meat of the animal
body, and to the casein of the milk, and serves as a direct source of
these products in the body ; the fat corresponds to the fat of the body,
and the butter fat of the milk, and serves as a source of these pro-
ducts, as well as aiding in the maintenance of animal heat and
energy ; the carbohydrates serve chiefly for the production of animal
5
iheat and energy, though under certain conditions are capable of con-
version into fat.
The protein in straw and other coarse products after digestion
is, pound for pound, quite as valuable, and serves its purpose quite
as well as that contained in hay ; this is also true of the other
compounds, fat and carbohydrates, but in the straw the carbohy-
drates exist in much greater proportion to the others than in the
hay, while the fat and protein are in less proportion, and all are com-
bined with a larger amount of the indigestible woody matter in the
straw than in the hay, thus rendering the digestion more difficult.
It is interesting, however, to note the extent to which this matter of
the utilization of what may be regarded as the least valuable parts of
our farm crops or other vegetable products, as substitutes for hay, has
been studied, and the value that is now attached to them in those
countries where they are used, and profitably converted into valuable
animal product. How much more important must be the proper pres-
ervation and use of our more valuable farm products, like corn stalks
and straw, now so carelessly handled and wastefully used, and which
experimental tests have shown to contain almost as much nutriment,
ton for ton, as meadow hay. In our own State, therefore, there seems
to be no special necessity of giving our attention to the less valuable
products until greater care is exercised in the use of corn stalks and
straw. These, for us, are the chief substitutes for hay. In the case of
straw many farmers insist that although it may possess feeding value,
it is more useful as bedding and manure than as feed. Straw has a
decided value for these purposes, but if farmers recognized that straw
trodden into the mire of an open yard is not good bedding, and that
the resultant product is not good manure, there would, in the
majority of instances, be a considerable quantity left for feed, after
the legitimate uses of bedding were served.
Since two of the characteristics of a feed, bulk and nutriment, are
contained in these coarse products, and they are, therefore, hay sub-
stitutes, in so far as they aid in accomplishing the first object of feed-
ing— maintenance of life — the real question comes on how to use
them in order that they may best aid in the second object — increase
in animal product.
Feeds to be Used with Hay Substitutes.
It has already been shown that a feed is a feed because it contains
'elements or compounds corresponding in kind to those contained in
6
the animal body, which the animal organism is capable of converting
into materials that sustain life, and thus increase their product. A
feed is good when it is eatable, and when it contains a high content of
the more valuable constituents, though a good feed is not equally
good for all purposes, because of the various products derived from
feeding, and because even animals of the same kind differ in their
capacities for using feeds. A best feed is one which accomplishes
most economically the object in any particular case. It follows,
therefore, that the best use of a feed is that which best meets the
needs of the animals for any special purpose.
These points have been carefully investigated and have given
rise to what are termed feeding standards, or proportions of
digestible fat, protein and carbohydrates best adapted to the
various purposes of feeding. Feeding standards and their use-
fulness as guides in the matter of feeding, have been fully
discussed in our previous reports, now in the hands of farmers,
and are referred to here mainly to indicate the principles which
underlie the combinations of fodders and feeds in the rations
that may be suggested. It has already been stated that hay, stalks^
straw and other coarse fodders consisted largely of carbohydrates, a
class of nutrients not calculated to cause a rapid increase in flesh or a
large flow of milk. To insure an economical production of these,,
such farm products must be combined with others, rich or richer in
protein and fat, thus approaching a proper balancing of food com-
pounds for specific purposes.
Feeds rich in protein and fat, and thus able to supply the deficiency
in this important respect, are, in the order of their content of protein,,
cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, gluten feed, malt sprouts, buckwheat
middlings, dried brewers’ grains, wheat middlings and wheat bran.
Corn meal should also be mentioned here, for it is one of the best of
feeds, although it is not calculated to balance the coarser products of
the farm, because of its high content of the same class of nutrients,
carbohydrates. The same is also true, though in a less degree, of
hominy meal, rice bran, and cerealine feed.
Reliability of Commercial Feeds.
The chemical composition of these feeds may be found in Bulletin
87, which was distributed to the farmers of the State in April, 1892.
The samples analyzed and reported in that bulletin were secured
from ten local commercial centers, and fully represented the products-
7
for sale in the State; the results showed that feeds of the same
kind, with one exception, were uniform in character, and that all
were free from foreign impurities. This is an important fact, since
many farmers fear that they cannot tell what they are buying, and
that bran and middlings particularly often contain undue proportions
of sweepings and dirt from the mills, and hence they hesitate to buy
that which may prove injurious to their animals. The evidence
gathered by the work of the Station is, that farmers may place
reliance upon the uniformity and purity of these products in the
hands of reliable dealers, though they should in all cases demand a
statement as to the character of those with which they are unfamiliar.
Prices of Feeds.
The average price per ton for the six months preceding January
1st, ] 893, were : Cotton-seed meal, $28 ; linseed meal, $29 ; gluten
feed, $20; dried brewers’ grains, $19; malt sprouts, $18; buck-
wheat middlings, $17.50; wheat middlings, brown, $18 75, and
wheat bran, $18. These prices, of course, may not exactly represent
the facts this year ; the main point, however, is that at these prices, or
slight variations from them, any one of the feeds will furnish the
important constituents, protein and fat, at a less cost per pound than
grain which is now so low. Farmers need not hesitate, therefore, to
sell their wheat and oats at present prices, for while they are excellent
feeds, they are, for the purpose of utilizing coarse farm produce, less
desirable and more expensive than the residues resulting from various
manufactures.
These concentrated products have been shown to possess a
high rate of digestibility, and to give fairly equivalent results
if used in not too large amounts in well-balanced rations. Which
one of the many to buy is then not so important a question as
that of a sufficiency of them, when economy in feeding is alone con-
sidered; one feed may be relatively cheaper than another for a
specific purpose or in particular cases, yet for general purposes, and
in order that animals may have a variety, it is good economy to have
a number on hand. Among dairymen this practice is followed, but
where small herds are kept, it is not so general as it should be. It is
claimed that small lots are expensive, and local dealers do not have a
large variety in stock. This claim is true, yet this difficulty may be
overcome by a number of farmers combining and ordering large lots.
8
Car-load lots may be secured through their dealers at much cheaper
rates than ton lots, and a car lot could be easily distributed in a
neighborhood.
Fertility in Feeds.
The buying of concentrated feeds should also be studied from the
standpoint of fertility. The farmer’s capital stock is fertility, the
main elements of which are nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash ;
these through the agency of plants are converted into products which
have a fertilizing value, regardless of market price; that is, if corn,
oats, wheat, or hay are returned to the land, they will aid in the
growth of other plants by virtue of the manorial elements contained
in them. The average amounts of these constituents in the four
principal farm crops are shown in,
TABLE I.
Pounds per ton Pounds per ton Pounds per ton
of of of
Nitrogen. Phosphoric Acid. Potash.
Wheat 38 20 11
Oats 37 15 12
Corn 33 12 7
Timothy hay 20 7 26
These amounts per ton of fertilizer constituents are removed from
the farm when the grain and hay are sold. When feeds are bought
it is important to know whether anything is gained in fertility by
the exchange, for under equivalent conditions of feeding the same
relative amounts of fertilizer constituents are retained in the animal
products. Table II. shows the amounts of fertilizer constituents
contained in the more concentrated feeds.
TABLE II.
Pounds per ton
of
Pounds^per ton
Pounds per ton
of
Nitrogen.
Phosphoric Acid.
Potash.
Cotton-seed meal
139
65
38
Linseed meal
109
42
29
Gluten feed
76
8
1
Malt sprouts
88
33
37
Buckwheat middlings..
80
43
23
Dried brewers’ grains..
77
19
2
Wheat middlings.
56
42
21
Wheat bran
50
60
31
9
It is observed that all of these feeds greatly exceed the grain and
hay in nitrogen, and with the exception of gluten feed and dried
brewers’ grains, the mineral constituents are also in considerable
excess. When market prices are such as to make the exchange of
farm produce for commercial feeds a judicious proceeding from the
feed standpoint, the inevitable result will be a decided gain to the
farm in fertility. Farmers of this State spend $1,500,000 annually
for these identical constituents of fertility in the shape of commer-
cial fertilizers, and many thousands of dollars more for city stable
manure. These facts furnish sufficient evidence that an increased fer-
tility is desired. A closer attention to this matter of manurial values
in feeds would either materially reduce the expense now incurred in
these directions, or secure a greater increase in fertility at the same
expense, for market prices of feeds are not influenced by manurial
values.
This matter cannot be urged too strongly, particularly where fer-
tility must be imported to the farms in order that maximum crops
may be secured. In our exports of linseed meal, and in the bran and
middlings contained in the whole wheat exported, farmers in other
countries are now given annually an amount of fertility that would
cost us, if bought in other forms, not less than $16,000,000. This
amount of fertility, gathered largely from the rich stores of our
Western States, should be retained for the less fertile lands of the
East. It will be retained only when farmers have learned to apply
more fully those principles which govern the economical use of fod-
ders and feeds, the results of which are a saving of food and of fer-
tility. Finished farm products only should be exported.
Preparation of Rations.
The first point of importance in the preparation of a ration, bulk
and essential nutrients being present, is palatability. The food must
be of such a character as to induce a maximum consumption of actual
nutrients, because profit in feeding for the production of milk flesh or
fat, lies in the excess of feed consumed over that necessary to main-
tain life. Corn stalks and straw in their original state are not readily
and completely eaten by animals. To insure the minimum waste
they must be cut, and the coarser and finer portions imtimately
mixed, and feeds of known relish added. In England, where great
10
progress has been made in feeding methods, the cut hay, straw and
other coarse products are mixed with sliced roots, the feeds added,
the whole mass thoroughly mixed and allowed to remain some time
before feeding. This method doubtless adds to both the palatability
and digestibility of the foods, and it is to be recommended where cir-
cumstances permit. This matter of preparation, however, gives rise
to the question, Will it pay farmers to invest in machinery for this
purpose? For dairy farmers, there can be no question as to the
advisability of such a course, since in feeding corn stalks, whole, in
the usual manner, from one-third to one-half of the food contained in
them is wasted. Where few animals are kept, and simple main-
tenance is desired, if this is ever desirable except in the case of work
horses in winter, it becomes a question worthy of some consideration,
though an increase of feed equivalent to two or three tons of hay at
present prices would pay for a good fodder cutter ; one good cutter
might serve, too, for several farmers in a neighborhood until the
usefulness of the cutter was thoroughly tested.
A few rations are here given which contain the fodders and
feeds in good proportions, and which permit of a wide use of
corn stalks and straw, as substitutes for timothy hay. These
are intended in all cases to be sufficient for a daily feed for
one thousand pounds live weight of animal under average con-
ditions, and may serve a useful purpose as guides in the matter
of amount and proportion of the nutrients. They are not in-
tended as positive rules; animals must be fed as individuals with
peculiarities of appetite, digestion and assimilation, not as fixed
machines. The rations given have in all cases, too, the merit of
having been tried with entire satisfaction, a number at the College
Farm, and others by practical dairymen in the State. Nos. 1 and 2
for horses have been fed in an experiment on horse-feeding at the
College Farm since June 1st, and, so far, are giving very gratifying
results. A large amount of hay seems unnecessary, and other feeds
may substitute oats.
It is not expected that these suggestions will meet all cases, and if
those farmers whose conditions are different, or who desire to use
smaller quantities, particularly of the concentrated feeds, than is
here recommended, will address the Station, giving full details in
reference to kind of animals, feeds and fodders obtainable, and object
of feeding, their inquiries will receive careful attention.
11
Rations for Dairy Cows.
No. 1.
No. 2.
No. 3.
10 lbs. corn stalks.
3 “ corn meal.
3 “ hominy meal.
6 “ wheat bran.
2 11 cotton-seed meal.
8 * roots.
6 lbs. clover hay.
8 “ oats straw.
4 n corn meal.
4 “ malt sprouts.
3 “ wheat bran.
3 “ linseed meal.
10 lbs. corn stalks.
5 “ wheat straw.
4 “ dried brewers’ grains.
3 “ wheat bran.
2 “ corn meal.
2 u cotton-seed meal.
No. 4.
No. 5.
No. 6.
40 lbs. corn ensilage.
6 “ malt sprouts.
4 “ wheat middlings.
2 “ linseed meal.
6 lbs. corn s‘alks.
6 “ clover hay.
6 “ corn meal.
7 “ dried brewers’ grains,
10>lbs. corn fodder.
7 “ dried brewers’ grains.
5 “ corn meal.
. 1 11 cotton-seed meal.
No. 7.
No. 8.
No. 9.
8 lbs. corn stalks. 6 lbs. clover hay
8 “ oats straw. 6 “ wheat straw.
3 “ gluten feed. 5 “ corn meal.
3 “ dried brewers’ grains. 3 “ malt sprouts.
•5 “ buckwheat middlings. 3 “ gluten feed.
3 “ linseed meal.
12 lbs. clover hay.
5 “ wheat bran.
5 “ ground oats.
5 “ corn meal.
Rations for Horses.
No. 1.
No. 2.
No. 3.
8 lbs. timothy hay.
6 “ dried brewery’ grains,
6 “ corn.
8 lbs. timothy hay.
. 6 “ corn.
5 “ wheat bran.
1J “ linseed meal.
6 lbs. clover hay.
4 “ corn stalks.
6 “ corn.
4 “ wheat bran.
1 “ linseed meal.
No. 4.
No. 5.
No. 6.
4 lbs. clover hay.
8 “ wheat straw.
5 “ corn meal.
5 “ wheat bran.
2 “ linseed meal.
6 lbs. timothy hay.
10 “ corn stalks.
2 u wheat bran.
2 “ corn meal.
6 lbs. timothy hay.
8 “ oats straw.
3 “ wheat bran.
2 “ corn meal.
For Fattening Steers.
No. 1.
No. 2.
No. 3.
10 lbs. corn stalks.
5 “ clover hay.
0 “ corn meal.
5 “ wheat bran.
3 “ cotton-seed meal.
5 lbs. clover hay.
10 “ oats straw.
6 “ corn meal.
6 “ wheat bran.
3 “ linseed meal.
10 lbs. corn stalks.
8 “ wheat straw.
6 11 gluten feed.
5 “ corn meal.
3 “ cotton-seed meal.
12
In these rations four pounds of wet brewers’ grains may be sub-
stituted for one of dried grains, and ground corn and cob meal may
substitute corn meal pound for pound without materially affecting
the rations; buckwheat bran free from hulls may also substitute
buckwheat middlings. The rations for dairy cows are intended for
full flow of milk ; for cows approaching the calving period, the feeds
should be reduced and coarse fodders increased. Rations 1, 2, 3 and
4 for horses are intended for moderate work, the others for simple
maintenance, and perhaps will apply equally well for cattle; both
cattle and horses will gain in weight on liberal rations of clover hay.
Where stock is kept, clover hay should not be sold from the farm.
For young and growing stock, as calves and colts, linseed meal, bran
and middlings are the best additions to the rough fodders, stalks and
straw, in the way of feeds, as they are rich in the muscle and bone-
forming constituents; the amounts required should be adjusted by
the feeder according to the age of the animals.
Where farmers have not the appliances for making weights at
each feed, and prefer to measure, the different materials should be
weighed at least once, and the relation between a certain weight and
a certain bulk ascertained. The weights of feed for a day’s ration
for a herd may be mixed together in the proportions given, and in
feeding they should be distributed in such a way as to give animals
of different live weights and capacities for using food that amount
best adapted for them. Where there are a number of dry cows in
the dairy, then the mixtures for each lot had best be made separately.
For horses the rations for work and maintenance may each be mixed
in considerable quantities and placed in separate bins.
Inquiries as to where to buy feeds are frequently received ; a list
of the dealers in this State, from whom samples were received in 1892,
is given in Bulletin 87, to which readers have already been referred
for detailed information regarding the character of concentrated feeds.
EDWARD B. VOORHEES,
Director .
New Brunswick, N. J., October 14th, 1893.
ANALYSES AND VALUATIONS OF
COMPLETE FERTILIZERS, GROUND BONE AND
MISCELLANEOUS SAMPLES.
NEW JERSEY
AGRICULTURAL
97
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural Experiment Station.
BULLETIN 97.
NOVEMBER 6, 1893.
Analyses and Valuations of Complete Fertilizers,
Ground Bone and Miscellaneous Samples.
BY EDWARD B. VOORHEES,
LOUIS A. VOORHEES,
JOHN P. STREET.
Bulletin 93, issued in July, contained the analyses of 95 samples
of unmixed fertilizing materials, and 10 of home mixtures. This
bulletin contains the analyses and commercial valuations of 248
samples of different brands of manufactured complete fertilizers, and
51 of incomplete fertilizers, which include ground bone, dissolved
bone, wood ashes and miscellaneous products.
The purpose of Bulletin 93 is to direct attention to the character
and composition of standard fertilizer supplies, and to show the actual
cost per pound of the constituents contained in them, though it also
suggests economical methods of buying plant-food, gives useful
formulas, and shows that farmers can make mixtures which, in
mechanical condition, concentration and quality, are equal to the best
manufactured brands upon the market. It shows how direct savings
may be made in the purchase and use of fertilizing materials.
The work of this bulletin has reference almost entirely to products
manufactured from the supplies indicated in No. 93. The actual
and guaranteed composition of manufactured brands are compared,
3
which shows whether the manufacturer fulfills his claims, and how
far the guarantee given is a guide as to the actual composition. The
application of the schedule of values, adopted for the various kinds
and forms of fertilizer constituents, also shows whether the guarantee
of a brand warrants the selling price attached, and the commercial
value of the different brands studied in connection with their compo-
sition, permits of a fair comparison of the charges of the different
manufacturers for mixing, bagging and selling their goods.
The value of this work to the intelligent consumer is direct, in
furnishing definite information as to the composition and value of the
different brands forced upon his attention, and of indirect value to all
consumers in that it reduces to a minimum the amount of worthless
products offered for sale.
Inspection of Fertilizers.
It is the aim of the Station to secure a sample of all the different
brands and fertilizer products upon the market. It is believed that
this aim has been practically attained this year ; the number of brands
of complete fertilizers is nearly 20 per cent, greater, while the number
of those of a miscellaneous character is quite as great as in any pre-
vious year. This result is due both to a closer inspection and to the
fact that new brands are constantly introduced, the product of both
old and new firms. For instance, it is shown that while eleven firms
entirely new to the State are represented by one or more brands, one
manufacturer is represented by 14 brands, another by 13, and eight
are represented by 8 or more brands.
It is also shown by the results of analyses that in many cases the
main difference in a brand is a difference in the selling price attached,
the amount and proportion of plant-food constituents apparently
being a less important factor to the manufacturer than selling price.
While the multiplication of brands is not on the whole to be com-
mended, a point worthy of consideration is shown, viz., that where
dealers have brands made to their order by regular manufacturers the
quality is always good and the commercial value is much nearer the
selling price than those sold direct by the manufacturer himself.
Commercial Valuation.
The schedule of values adopted and used in the valuation of com-
plete fertilizers this year as well as that of 1892, are added.
4
1892. 1893.
cts. cts.
Nitrogen from Nitrates 15 15J
Nitrogen from Ammonia Salts 17£ 17
“ “ Organic Matter 16 17 J
Phosphoric Acid, Soluble 7J 6J
“ “ Reverted 7£ 6J
“ “ Insoluble 2 2
Potash as Muriate 4J
Potash free from Muriates 5J 5J
The change in the schedule by the lowering of values for available
phosphoric acid, and nitrogen as ammonia, and increasing those of
both organic and nitrate nitrogen, makes the valuation per ton on the
same basis of analyses slightly lower this year than in 1892. The
work contained in Bulletin 93, however, showed that the schedule
was entirely just to the manufacturer.
Composition of Fertilizers.
The brands examined this year in most cases contain an equivalent
of plant- food guaranteed, though many brands show evidences of
imperfect mixing or carelessness in fixing the guarantee. A guar-
antee means nothing to the farmer from the standpoint of proportion
and amount of plant-food, unless the analysis corresponds to that
guarantee.
In two cases, Nos. 5361 and 5623, the State law, which requires
that a guaranteed analysis shall accompany each package of fertilizer
for sale, was ignored. Sample No. 5361 is a poudrette, and is of a
low-grade character. No. 5623 is of still lower grade, containing
six-tenths of one per cent, of nitrogen, about one per cent, of available
phosphoric acid, and but a trace of potash, and with a commercial
value of only $3.92 per ton, though the selling price is $15. It
may not have been the intention of the manufacturers in either case
to defraud consumers, though ignorance of the law or of the constitu-
ents that constitute value in fertilizers is no valid excuse for the sale
of such products without complying with the law ; the actual result
is, particularly in case of No. 5623, that farmers who buy the product
are cheated. Neither is it any excuse that farmers cheat themselves
in the purchase of fertilizers, by a careless comparison or no com-
parison of guarantee and selling price.
A case of this kind may be illustrated by sample No. 5577. The
5
guarantee calls for, even at the best interpretation, but $8.52 worth of
actual plant-food, while the selling price is $30 per ton. The law
does not fix the selling price, and purchasers should study the relation
of these two factors.
Selling Price.
As has been the custom in the past, the selling price of the different
brands entered in the tables is the price at which they are sold where
sampled. These prices do, of course, vary somewhat, though the
variation is between reasonably narrow limits. The average price is
found in some cases to be lower, and in others to be higher than those
given in the table. The average composition, selling price and com-
mercial valuation for 1892 and 1893 are shown in the following
tabulation :
Total Total Available Insoluble Selling Station
Nitrogen. Phos.Acid. Phos.Acid. Phos. Acid. Potash. Price. Valuation.
1892 2.74 10.38 7.70 2.67 4.50 $34.19 $25.66
1893 2.69 10.23 7.54 2.69 4.58 34.11 24.41
The average composition and selling price per ton are practically
identical with those of last year, while the valuation this year is $1.25
less than in 1892, making the difference between valuation and sell-
ing price $9.70, or the selling price 40 per cent, greater than the
valuation, which represents the average charges per ton for mixing,
bagging and selling. It is evident that the decrease in the cost of
fertilizer supplies has not resulted in a lower selling price per ton for
the mixtures made from them by the manufacturers. It is shown,
too, from a study of the tables, that the difference between valuation
and selling price in nearly half of the brands is above this average,
ranging from $10 to $25 per ton, thus giving a wide opportunity for
selection on the part of the purchaser.
Ground Bone.
The samples of ground bone examined this year are, on the whole,
of good character. A criticism made prominent in previous discus-
sions of the analyses of bone products, however, still holds good,
namely, that the trade terms, bone meal, pure bone, steamed bone and
raw bone, bear no exact relation to the kind of bone, nor do they in-
dicate the method of manufacture. Sample No. 5054 is called a
steamed bone. It contains as much nitrogen as the average sample of
6
ground bone, but less than half as much phosphoric acid as is con-
tained in a pure bone. The simple steaming of bone would not have
a tendency to decrease the amount of phosphoric acid, but rather to
increase it. Samples Nos. 5020 and 5071 are also good examples of
products that contain much less of both nitrogen and phosphoric acid
than would be contained in pure bone, whatever the method of manu-
facture. That the manufacturers did not regard the samples as
pure is evident from the guarantee which accompanied the brands.
In all cases, very much less, particularly of the phosphoric acid, was
guaranteed than is known to be present in a pure bone.
A guarantee of less than 4 per cent, of ammonia and 20 of phos-
phoric acid, or its equivalent in bone phosphate of lime, may well
create a suspicion that the product is not a pure bone. Samples Nos.
5556 and 5558 contain potash. While a mixture of bone and potash
may be a very effective and profitable manure for general farming,
the results of the analyses of these samples indicate that farmers
would do better to purchase the bone and potash separately rather than
together, as in these brands.
Valuations.
The schedule of prices used in computing values in 1892 and 1893,
as well as the average per cent, of fineness of the bone, are added :
Finer than in
(( U 1 u
ZS
(C U 1 u
TZ
Coarser than j2 “
Average per cent. Nitrogen. Phosphoric Acid,
of Fineness. Per Pound. Per Pound.
1892.
1893.
1892.
1893.
1892.
1893.
38
43
15c.
15c.
7c.
6c.
28
27
12c.
12c.
5£c.
5c.
24
20
9ic.
9c.
4£c.
4c.
10
10
7%c.
7c.
3c.
3c.
This year the value of the nitrogen in the coarser grades is re-
duced one- half cent per pound, while the phosphoric acid is reduced
in all cases except the coarser grade. The average per cent, of fine-
ness is this year an improvement over that secured in 1892. The
average selling price per ton, excluding those samples not comparable,
is $32.50, and the average valuation $31.23 per ton.
Miscellaneous Fertilizing Materials.
The analyses of samples of dissolved bone contained in the table
on page 41 are shown to be of good quality. The commercial valua-
7
tions of three out of the five samples bought in the usual manner, by
the ton, are within $3 of their selling price. Sample No. 5621 was
bought on the basis of $2 per unit for ammonia and $1 per unit for
available phosphoric acid. The cost, delivered at consumer’s depot,
including bags, freight, etc., was 14.3 cents for nitrogen and 5.3 cents
for phosphoric acid. These figures for organic nitrogen and available
phosphoric acid are 18 per cent, less than the Station’s valuations.
While the valuation of the other brands is relatively high, the cost
per pound of the nitrogen and the phosphoric acid is in every case
greater than the Station’s valuations. Dissolved bone is an excellent
fertilizer for wheat, and at the present low price of this cereal it is of
the greatest importance that farmers should take advantage of such
opportunities as are afforded by these products to reduce the cost of
the crop. Sample No. 5598 is evidently a mixture of ground bone
and dissolved S. C. rock superphosphate, and is an expensive product
at the selling price given. In sample No. 5060 the superphosphate
has been improved by the addition of sulphate of ammonia, and
doubtless would serve a good purpose as a wheat fertilizer.
The samples called dissolved bone and potash do not contain dis-
solved bone, but dissolved S. C. rock to which potash has been added.
While good, they are not cheap sources of phosphoric acid and potash.
Sample No. 5622 was bought on the unit basis and in car-load lots.
The price paid was 85 cents per unit, or 4£ cents per pound for avail-
able phosphoric acid. This is but another illustration of the advan-
tages to be derived from buying fertilizing materials on the unit basis
and in large lots for cash.
The samples of wood ashes examined this year were, with two ex-
ceptions, below the average quality. The schedule of values adopted
for ashes is 5 cents for phosphoric acid and 5J for potash. The
average cost per pound for potash and phosphoric acid contained in
these samples, not including 5562, is 9.7 and 10.7 cents, respectively..
While the agricultural value of wood ashes is recognized, it is a ques-
tion whether farmers do well in purchasing phosphoric acid and pot-
ash in this form at the prices named.
8
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Furnishing Nitrogen and Insoluble
39
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$36.00
28.00
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33.00
29.00
27.00
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* Contains 4.91 potash and 0.81 chldrine. f Contains 2.94 potash and 1.30 chlorine.
Miscellaneous Fertilizing Materials.
40
•j^quinK noi^is
lO lO lO lO
§ a
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Pm
£
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Miscellaneous Fertilizing Materials.
41
•joqumtf uormiS
5117
5418
5092
5333
5621
5461
5598
5060
5226
5019
5349
5340
5223
5699
1
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$35.00
33.00
33.00
34.00
33.00
33.00
35.00
35.00
30.00
36.00
34.00
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Potash.
•paanrexeno
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Phosphoric Acid.
Available.
•paaXU«a«no
7.00
10.00
5.00
13.00
10.00
13.00
8.00
13.00
13.00
16.00
•putlog
8.30
9.16
13.61
15.69
9.84
13.44
9.30
11.46
9.08
9.11
4.68
15.49
’padjtraximo' rej°X
18.00
15.00
18.00
14.00
14.00
10.00
17.00l
•putlog x«J«x
11.63
13.66
17.66
30.38
14.83
30.35
18.40
13.06
5.58
4.90
13.05
13.43
18.41
17.06
•oxqnxosuj
3.32
4.50
5.05
4.59
4.98
7.91
9.10
1.60
3.97
3.31
13.73
1.57
•ap?Hio
mmuonnnv m oiqntog
1.30
3.56
10.33
15.21
6.68
6.36
3.50
0.80
3.32
7.03
4.68
2.15
uomAV ni axqnxos
7.00
5.60
2.28
0.48
3.16
6.08
5.80
10.66
5.76
2.08
13.34
Nitrogen.
•pae:pre.reno I'ejox
3.05
1.64
3.46
3.05
3.00
3.05
1.64
0.41
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2.63
2.14
3.66
3.14
1.92
1.88
1.10
0.76
2.40
4.34
•s^S 'Biuomniv moijf
0.28
98*1
•SOX'BIXT^I XUOJ^
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a &
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$2 per unit for ammonia ; $1 per unit for available phosphoric acid. f$0.85 per unit for available phosphoric acid, f $15 per ton, in car lots, f. o. b. Pottstown.
42
Canada Ashes.
Station
Number.
MANUFACTURER.
SENT BY.
5022
C. Stevens, Napanee, Ont., Canada.
E. Williams, Montclair.
5027
Forest City Wood Ash Co., Boston, Mass.
W. H. Ellis, Hammonton.
5114
F. Lalor, Danville, Ont., Canada.
D. C. Crane, Westfield.
5426
Monroe, De Forest & Co., Oswego, N. Y.
J. H. Denise, Freehold.
*5562
Winsor Lime Co., Hamburg, N. J.
D. N. Warbasse, Huntsburg.
5620
Allison, Stroup & Co., New York City.
R. Pond, Vineland.
5629
,<
J. Fitzga, Somerville.
5630
A. A. Clark, Somerville.
* Lime kiln ashes.
5032 5037 5114 5426 5563 5620 5629 5630
Phosphoric Acid 1.61 1.22 1.57 1.48 1.13 0.95 1.06 1.21
Potash 5.96 5.92 4.78 4.44 0.54 3.90 4.95 3.32
Lime 34.02 31.53 36.00 26.16 37.08 45.76 35.68 34.74
Valuation Per Ton $8.17 $7.73 $6.83 $6.36 $1.72 $5.24 $6.51 4.86
Selling Price Per Ton... 12.00 12.00 13.00 15.00 f 13.00 11.00 $11.00
t Selling price, 12% cts. per bushel.
Station Number.
From A. H. Hawley,
Vineland, N. J.
j Moisture.
j Organic Matter.
Ash.
!
Nitrogen.
Phosphoric
Acid.
Potash.
Lime.
Valuation per ton.
Total.
Available.
5024
Belgian Hare Manure
50.94
44.35
4.71
1.10
0.58
0.50
0.58
1.01
$5.12
5025
Pigeon Manure
72.66
20.68
6.66
1.34
0.82
0.73
0.43
1.67
6.13
5026
Hen Manure
73.58
16.62
9.80
1.23
1.12
1.01
0.44
2.51
6.11
5021. Wool Waste. J. Story, Philadelphia, Pa. Sent by A.
McCullough, Folsom. It contains 2.42 nitrogen, 0.50 total phos-
phoric acid, and 2.10 per cent, potash. Valuation, $6.41; selling
price, $7 per ton.
5125. Cotton-Seed Hulls. Tennessee Cotton Oil Co., Memphis,
Tenn. Sent by H. I. Budd, Mount Holly. It contains 0.69 nitro-
gen, 0.56 total phosphoric acid, and 1.08 per cent, potash. Selling
price, $9 per ton.
43
5210. Marl. Sent by C. M. Patterson, Red Bank, N. J. It
contains 0,87 total phosphoric acid, 0.11 potash and 0.36 per cent,
lime. Selling price, 50 cents per ton.
5629. Dried Swamp Muck. Sent by H. H. Riggs, Hightstown,
N. J. It contains 1.24 nitrogen, 0.56 total phosphoric acid, 0.22
potash and 0.50 per cent. lime.
EDWARD B. YOORHEES,
Director .
New Brunswick, N. J., November 6th, 1893.
CLUB-ROOT OF CABBAGE AND ITS ALLIES.
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural College
liiil
ent
98
NEW JERSEY AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE EXPERIMENT STATION.
BOARD OF CONTROL.
The Board of Trustees of Butgers College in New Jersey.
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD.
AUSTIN SCOTT, Ph.D., LL.D., President of Butgers College, Chairman.
Hon. GEOBGE C. LUDLOW, HENBY B. BALDWIN, M.D., LL.D.,
Hon. HENBY W. BOOKSTAVEB, LL.D., JAMES NEILSON, Esq.
STAFF OF THE STATION.
AUSTIN SCOTT, Ph.D., LL.D , Director.
Professor JULIUS NELSON, Ph.D., Biologist.
Professor BYBON D. HALSTED, Sc.D., Botanist and Horticulturist.
Professor JOHN B. SMITH, Sc.D., Entomologist.
ELISHA A. JONES, B.S., Superintendent of College Farm.
IBVING S. UPSON, A.M., Disbursing Clerk and Librarian.
CHABLES A. POULSON, Mailing Assistant.
LEONOBA E. BUBWELL, Clerk to the Director.
AUGUSTA MESKE, Stenographer and Typewriter.
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural College Experiment Station.
BULLETIN 98.
DECEMBER 9, 1893.
Club-Root of Cabbage and its Allies.
BY BYRON D. HALSTED, BOTANIST AND HORTICULTURIST.
The Club-root of the cabbage and turnip is an old enemy, having
been known in Europe for more than a hundred years, and, being a
fatal malady, with peculiar and prominent characteristics, it has
received one or more names, often quite descriptive, in several of our
leading modern languages. Thus, in Germany it is called “ Kohl-
hernie;” in France, “Maladie digitoire; ” in Belgium, “ Vingerziekt,”
and Russia, “Kapoustnaja kila;” in Great Britain it bears the names
of “ anbury,” “ hanbury,” “ finger-and-toes ” and other equally ex-
pressive terms, while with us, “ club- root,” “ club-foot” and “ clump-
foot” are the leading names for this trouble, the process being spoken
of as “ clubbing.”
The injury to the crops attacked may be considerable, sometimes
incurring almost a total loss, and in the aggregate the destruction for
the whole country is doubtless represented by millions of dollars. It
is particularly severe in the eastern portion of the United States, but
is not unknown in the West and South, and during the past season
(1893) has prevailed extensively in the truck regions around the
large cities of New York and Philadelphia. New Jersey cabbage
and turnip growers have suffered so heavily of late years as to sug-
4
gest the subject as suitable for special consideration by the Experi-
ment Station. Some facts with a practical bearing upon the question
of how the club-root lives over from one year to another, have been
literally unearthed, which alone might warrant this publication. The
weed plants that harbor this enemy, with engravings showing the
pest, will be considered in their proper places later in this bulletin.
The Nature of Club-root.
In order that the reader may derive the most practical good from
any suggestions as to use of preventives and other treatment of the
disease, it is best to place before him the facts thus far obtained con-
Fig. 1.
Three small cabbage plants badly “clubbed.”
5
cerning club-root. The name of the malady is quite descriptive, for
it is an affection of the roots, which become much distorted. The
roots may begin to show enlargements while they are quite small and
before the plants are more than seedlings. Thus, cabbages while
growing in the hot-bed may show unmistakable signs of “ clubbing/’
followed by a loss of vitality throughout the whole plant. The
affected parts soon begin to decay, becoming very offensive, and, from
places near by, other roots are developed, which, in turn, become
swollen and distorted into various shapes.
Figure 1 shows three young cabbage plants taken from a field that
was nearly ruined by the club-root. Instead of the numerous long
fibrous roots, by means of which the plants are able to obtain the
required nourishment from the soil, there is in each an extravagant
malformation consisting of a much-knotted and enlarged root-system.
The engraving of the three samples is from a photograph, and shows
the general appearance so well that further description is unnecessary.
That which is of the most interest in this connection is the cause of
the peculiar development and consequent destruction of the infested
plants. As in nearly all instances of similar abnormal structures,
these root-galls were long ago assigned to insects. A careful study of
their development failed, however, to convict any species or group of
insects of these depredations, and after much speculation, and no end
of articles in the agricultural journals and elsewhere, it was reserved
for M. Woronin, a European botanist, after three years (1873-76) of
painstaking and exhaustive study, to explain the nature of the subject
before us. From his published results * in particular and a recent
paper f by Mr. A. C. Eycleshymer, the information as to the micro-
scopic structure is largely obtained.
Instead of any insects being the cause, although such decaying
masses usually become the breeding-places for them, Woronin found
that a low form of fungus was constantly present in the affected parts.
This parasitic organism is only seen with the higher powers of the
compound microscope. The family of fungi to which it belongs,
namely, the slime moulds, is widely distinct from the mildews, rusts
and smuts, and some of Woronin’s and Eycleshymer’s illustrations, as
given in two plates which accompanied the latter author’s paper and
* Plasmodiophora Brassicse. Urheber der Kohlphlanzen Hernie. Prmgs. Jahr.
F. Wiss. Bot., Bol. XI., 1878, Plates 6.
t Club-root in the United States; Journal of Mycology, Vol. VII , p. 79, Plates 2.
Plate I.
Plate II.
8
kindly loaned by Professor Galloway, are here reproduced, to make
the nature of the club-root fungus clear. Ordinary fungi, like the
grape mildew, corn smut, wheat rust and celery leaf-spot, have long,
slender feeding threads which work their way through the tissues of
the affected plant. There are no such threads with the cabbage slime
fungus.
In Plate I., the first figure shows a specimen of diseased cabbage,
natural size, and Figure 2 a “ clubbed ” turnip. Figure 3 is a por-
tion of a section of a turnip root, and Figure 4 is a rootlet of diseased
cabbage, seven weeks after infection. At Figure 5 is shown a much*-
magnified view of a section of root (Figure 4) along the line a, b.
A portion of a turnip root, seven weeks after infection, is shown at
Figure 6, natural size, and at 6, a, are shown cells from the section
along the line a, 6, of Figure 6, and two hundred times magnified.
In Figure 5, scattered irregularly midway of the center and circum-
ference, are large cells filled with a slimy substance and differing from
the other and smaller cells. These are infested with the slime mould,
and, on account of the presence of this parasite, the cells undergo
remarkable enlargement, and an influence is communicated to the
outer neighboring cells so that the root becomes much swollen and
even distorted. In its early stages of development the fungus is
simply a semi-liquid substance within the cells of the root tissue ; but
as it reaches maturity the contents of the infested cells become granu-
lar and finally they contain a multitude of minute spherical bodies,
which are the spores of the mould. In short, this fungus, in the form
of a slime or plasma, obtains entrance to the cells of the growing root
and there robs the infested tissue of its vital fluids, and, gathering
new forces to itself, fills the cells with its own substance. This semi-
fluid material then begins the process of spore formation, which results
in the production of millions of minute bodies each of which is capa-
ble of a new growth when conditions are favorable.
The three cells, a , b and c, in Figure 6, a, help to show these
peculiarities, but the second plate is devoted in particular to the points
of development of the fungus. Thus, Figure 9 is a portion of a sec-
tion of Figure 10 at the line a, 6, and magnified six hundred times.
The two cells shown shaded were completely filled with the plasma
or slime of the mould. The spores which form from this semi-fluid
substance are spherical, as shown at Figure 12, and in germination
their contents come out as seen at o, becoming naked bodies capable
9
of movement and change in outline, the latter fact being illustrated at
Figure 11. These motile bodies may unite with their fellows and
form masses of semi-liquid substance, as shown in different forms at
Figure 13. A single cell of the cabbage root is shown at Figure 14,
in the early stage of
the disease, magnified
six hundred times,
while at Figure 15 are
two cells later in the
development and
showing the formation
of the plasma into
spheres. Figures 16
shows the appearance
of the fungus two hun-
dred times enlarged.
We have traced
above the life of the
obscure club-root para-
site, from its appear-
ance in the root as a
slime in certain cells
to the formation of
multitudes of spores
in these same cells.
By the decay of the
roots, which takes
place rapidly, and with
much offensive odor,
the spores are set free
in the soil. These
ciub-root in roots of shepherd’s purse. spores there germinate
by producing moving
bodies capable of penetrating or being absorbed by the thin walls of
the hairs and other superficial cells of the roots. The soil becomes
diseased in the sense that the germs, formed in the swellings and other
distortions of the roots, are set free and the earth holds them for an
indefinite length of time.
10
The Club-root in Weeds.
It is generally known to the students of the club-root fungus that
it is not confined to the cabbage and turnip, and this leads to the
statement of the botanical name of the parasite we have been con-
sidering. Woronin found
it so different from all
the other slime moulds
as to warrant its being
put in a separate genus,
which he named Plasmo -
diophora — that is, the
plasma or “ slime bearer
and, as it infested the
cabbage and turnip, both
members of the genus
Brassica, he made the
species Plasmodiophora
Brassicce , Wor. Since
then two other species of
the same genus have been
discovered, namely, Plas-
modiophora Alniy Wor.,
upon alder-roots and
Plasmodiophora Elceagni ,
Schroet., on the roots
of Elseagnus. Various
works make mention of
the club-root being found
upon many species of the
mustard family, but it is
unfortunate that the par-
ticular species are not
Roots of hedge mustard with club-root. given. Saccardo * States
that it is found in several
cruciferse (Brassica, rarely Iberis umbellata). Dr. Zopff adds to
these, “Levkoje” — that is, the Stock ( Mathiola incana), also mentioned
*Sylloge Fungorum, Yol. VII., p. 464.
f Die Pilztliiere oder Schleimpilze, p. 129.
11
by Woronin. Sorauer* and Frank f simply confirm the above state-
ments. Eycleshymer J says : “ The plants affected are for the greater
part confined to the genus Brassica, including the cabbage, cauli-
flower, turnip, ruta-baga.
Halsted has recently de-
scribed it as occurring in
the radish. In Russia it
effects the genus Mathiola
and Iberis.”
So far as the actual
species of the host of the
club-root fungus can be
determined from the
books at the writer’s dis-
posal, the list is Brassica
oleracea (varieties), B.
rapa, JRaphanus sativusy
Iberis umbellata and
Mathiola incana . This
is only five species, the last
three of which are known
to be but rarely affected.
In view of these facts,
it is interesting to add to
the list two other genera,
each with a single species,
but both are among our
most common weeds,
namely, the shepherd’s
purse ( Bursa pastoris , L.)
cauliflower with ciub-root. and the hedge mustard
(Sisymbrium vulgare, L.).
Figure 4 shows a group of the infested roots of the shepherd’s
purse. It must be borne in mind that the roots of this prevalent
weed are not succulent and the galls are correspondingly small.
However, there is no difficulty in distinguishing a diseased from a
*Pflanzen Krankheiten, Part II., p. 69.
f Die Krankheiten der Pflanzen, p. 238.
X Club-root in the United States; Journal of Mycology, Vol. YU., p. 49.
12
healthy plant, even from the appearance of the plant above ground
when thoroughly infested, it having a dwarfed and sickly-yellow
appearance.
In Figure 5 is seen a similar group of the clubbed roots of the
hedge mustard. The general appearance of these galls is quite differ-
Fig. 7.
Turnips with club-root.
ent from those of the shepherd’s purse, being more regular in form,
standing out like dark warts from the otherwise well-shaped roots.
In this connection, to add to the information concerning the club-
root upon our crop plants, an engraving each of the cauliflower
13
(Fig. 6), turnip (Fig. 7), Brussels sprout (Fig. 8) and kale (Fig. 9)
are added. They were all made from photographs by Prof. Smith,
of fresh specimens collected by Mr. J. A. Kelsey. The cauliflower
and cabbage resemble each other in the general form of the “ club ”
that is produced, and in like manner the kale and turnip galls are
somewhat alike. But there is no uniformity in the matter, and the
size and shape of the malformations are largely determined by cir-
cumstances.
Precautions and Treatment.
From a consideration of the nature of the club- root fungus and a
knowledge of the different kinds of plants infested by it, there may
be some suggestions
gathered as to pre-
ventive measures.
When it is under-
stood that the club-
root and all the
injury to the crop
accompanying it is
due to an internal
subterranean para-
site, it becomes evi-
dent that no treat-
ment to which the
infested plant may
be subjected can
give promise of a
cure. Preventive
measures must be
relied upon, and, in
the first place, all
the refuse of a cab-
bage, turnip or
other infested crop
should be removed
from the soil and
burned. To leave
cabbage stumps in
the field, feed them g
to live Stock or Brussels sprout with club-root.
\
14
throw them in the compost heaps, are three of the best methods of
propagating and spreading the malady on the farm. It is not enough
to destroy the roots, for the Plasmodiophora is found also in the
leaves, as Woronin took particular pains to show by means of an
engraving in his paper.
Seedlings grown in the hot-bed should be examined carefully, and,
if they show signs of the club-root, consigned to the fire. If only a
portion of the plants are clubbed, it may be wise to discard the whole
lot rather than lose the crop in the field. Start with healthy plants.
In view of the fact that the soil may become more or less impreg-
Fig. 9.
Kale with club-root.
15
nated with the germs during the growth of a crop susceptible to the
Plasmodiophora, it is evident that a wise precaution consists in a judi-
cious rotation of crops. Just what that rotation should be is a ques-
tion for each grower to decide for himself ; but, for the best results,
cabbages or any allied crop should not be upon the soil oftener than
once in three years. Cabbage, kale, Brussels sprouts, kohlrabi,
turnips or radishes should not follow each other if club-root is
prevalent.
It is possible to get relief by the use of some of the commercial
fertilizers; but this needs confirmation through trial. It is a fact
that is being acted upon in some of the large truck regions near New
York, that lime is an effective preventive of the club-root, and, by its
constant use, at the rate of seventy-five bushels or so per acre each
year, cabbages have been grown at frequent intervals — almost yearly,
upon the same soil. It is likely that a soil naturally abounding in
lime may be the best suited for cruciferous crops, so far as club-root
is concerned.
Lastly, it has been shown that common weeds harbor the fungous
enemy, and, while the farmer may be thankful for the loss of his
hedge mustard and shepherd’s purse, through “ clubbing,” this is a
case where weeds can be more cheaply destroyed in some other way.
Conclusions.
Club-root, an old enemy to cabbage and turnip in Europe, has
been quite destructive to these crops in New Jersey during the past
few years.
The malady is due to a microscopic parasite which infests the cells
of the roots, causing them to become swollen and distorted.
The spores of the fungus, upon the decay of the part affected,
become scattered through the soil, and from thence the enemy enters
the host plant.
Plasmodiophora Brassicce, Wor., infests several plants of the
cabbage family, including turnip, kale, radish, stock and candytuft.
Two common weeds, namely, shepherd’s purse and hedge mustard,
are now to be added to the list of plants infested with club-root.
Preventive measures must be relied upon, for the affected parts of
a plant are below ground and not readily reached by any fungicide.
16
If the crop is diseased, all refuse at harvest- time of roots, stems
and leaves should be burned.
All seedlings from hot- beds with signs of club-root should be
destroyed, and, if possible, use only plants from beds in which there
is no disease.
Cabbage, kale, Brussels sprouts, kohlrabi, turnip or radishes should
not follow each other on the same land if club-root is prevalent.
Lime added to the land, seventy- five bushels per acre, has proved
effective. It is possible that some commercial fertilizers may be
found to check the trouble.
Keep the land free from shepherd’s purse and hedge mustard, and
other weeds of the same family, as their roots become u clubbed,” and
thereby propagate the enemy.
THE PEAR MIDGE.
(Diplosis pyrivora, Eiley.)
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural College
mm t
tation
99
NEW JERSEY AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE EXPERIMENT STATION.
BOARD OF CONTROL
The Board of Trustees of Butgers College in New Jersey.
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD.
AUSTIN SCOTT, Ph.D., LL.D., President of Rutgers College, Chairman.
Hon. GEORGE C. LUDLOW, HENRY R. BALDWIN, M.D., LL.D.
Hon. HENRY W. BOOKSTAYER, LL.D., JAMES NEILSON, Esq.
STAFF OF THE STATION.
AUSTIN SCOTT, Ph.D , LL.D., Director.
Professor JULIUS NELSON, Ph.D., Biologist.
Professor BYRON D. HALSTED, Sc.D., Botanist and Horticulturist.
Professor JOHN B. SMITH, Sc.D., Entomologist.
ELISHA A. JONES, B.S., Superintendent of College Farm.
IRVING S. UPSON, A.M., Disbursing Clerk and Librarian.
CHARLES A. POULSON, Mailing Assistant.
LEONORA E. BURWELL, Clerk to the Director.
AUGUSTA E. MESKE, Stenographer and Typewriter.
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural College Experiment Station.
BULLETIN 99.
APRIL 4, 1894.
Th.© Pear Midge.
(Diplosis pyrivora, Riley.)
BY JOHN B. SMITH, ENTOMOLOGIST.
The “ Pear Midge ” is one of the insects which has been introduced
into the United States within recent years, and has, in its spread, de-
veloped into the most injurious pest with which the pear-grower has
to deal. Its spread has not been extraordinarily rapid, but it has been
none the less continuous, and it is annually enlarging the area occupied
by it.
The first complaint made came from Connecticut, in 1884, while I
was employed by the United States Entomologist, and under the direc-
tion of Dr. C. Y. Riley I visited the fruit farm of Coe Bros., at Meri-
den, to investigate. I found that the species had probably been intro-
duced from France in pear stocks imported in 1877, some seven years
previously. Two years thereafter, in 1879, the insect was first noticed
in the orchard, favoring Lawrence pears, and it increased annually
thereafter until in 1883 it took almost the entire crop. No variety
was quite exempt, though the Lawrence remained the favorites. Bart-
letts came next and all other varieties seemed affected in the order of
4
the lateness of blossoming ; 1884 was an “ off year ” for pears, and
the Messrs. Coe had resorted to the heroic remedy of picking all the
fruit from the trees and destroying it. Unfortunately the work was
not completely done before the larvae matured, and still worse, it had
already spread to neighboring orchards, where matters were left to
take their course. Yet the insect appeared to be confined to a limited
area, so far as observation went, and it could then have been extermi-
nated by concerted action. Such action was recommended in my report
on the matter and was strongly urged by Dr. Riley in 1885 — without
practical result, of course.
Since that time it has continued to spread, as was predicted by Dr.
Riley and myself, and in 1891 was reported in destructive numbers
from New York and New Jersey. In New York it had extended up
the Hudson river valley in force as far as Catskill, and in isolated
specimens to Albany ; while in New Jersey it was abundant, locally,
in Union and Essex counties. It is more than probable that in our
own State the insect had been present for at least two years, if not even
longer, before it was noticed. I could not learn that there had been
any direct importation with plants from Connecticut, and a normal
spread is therefore indicated.
My report for 1891 contains an account of the insect, and the
report of Dr. J. A. Lintner, the State Entomologist of New York, for
the same year, contains a full history of the species. In 1892 the
insect was present in destructive numbers at New Brunswick, N. J.r
and active experiments were made looking to its control. In 1893 it
had continued its spread in Middlesex county and had extended into
Monmouth county. Experiments and observations made in 1892
were continued in 1893, and a practical method of controlling the
insect has been worked out.
It need not be said that the pear- growing industry is an extremely
important one in this State, and that all horticulturists are directly
affected by this destructive pest. That it will continue to spread is
reasonably certain, and its appearance may be expected in 1894 in
many new localities. This bulletin is intended to inform growers of
what the insect is like, what injury is done, and what measures for its
destruction should be adopted.
5
Appearance of the Fly.
The adult insect or fly much resembles a diminutive mosquito, the
expanded wings measuring less than one-fifth of an inch. It is of a
pale grayish color with a slender body and very long legs, allied to
such pests as the “ Hessian fly,” “ clover-seed midge,” i: cranberry tip-
Fig. 1.
DIPLOSIS PYRIVORA.
The Pear Midge : a, the mature fly, female ; b, tip of abdomen of male ; c, the pupa ; d, the
male, and e, the female antenna. (After Riley.)
worm,” &c. It makes is appearance very early in the season, before
the buds of the pear blossoms open, and remains on the wing for a
week or at most ten days thereafter. Its appearance is shown in
Figure 1, illustrating the female fly from the side.
Egg-Laying Habits.
The insect has been studied in Europe, and its method of egg-lay-
ing has been noted by Schmidberger as far back as 1840. As I have
not had the opportunity of observing this process myself I reproduce
that already published.
6
Schmidberger’s account is as follows :
When the blossom-buds of the pear tree were so far developed that
in the single blossoms a petal showed itself between the segments of
the calyx, I found the first gall-midge in the act of laying it eggs in
the blossom; this was on the 12th of April. It had fixed itself
almost perpendicularly in the middle of a single blossom, and having
pierced the petal through with its long ovipositor, it laid its eggs on
the anthers of the still closed blossom. The female was about seven
and a half minutes in laying her eggs. When she had flown away, I
cut the pierced bud in two, and found the eggs lying in a heap one
upon another on the anthers. They were white, longish, on one side
pointed and transparent, and ten to twelve in number. I afterwards
found several midges engaged in laying their eggs as late as the
18th of April, from which day they ceased to appear in the garden.
I also saw a gall- midge on the side of a blossom with its ovipositor
inserted in it, so that they do not merely pierce the petals but the
calyx also. I even saw one, which having been somewhat long in
laying its eggs, could not draw out the ovipositor from the blossom ^
the cause of which I conceived to be that the wound had begun to
close during the operation and the ovipositor was thereby held.
Schmidberger further states that the eggs are quickly hatched in
warm weather, for on the fourth day after the deposit he had found
the small larvae on the embryo fruit. They bore into it near the
calyx, and before the blossom is expanded they descend to the core, so
as not to be exposed to the rays of the sun. They separate at the
core and begin to devour on all sides.
In its earliest stages the entrance to the ovary or core of the
embryo pear is wide open, and hence no eating or piercing is required
of the minute midge larvae. As the pear sets, the young larvae
develop rapidly, being first white in color and changing to yellow or
orange as they become mature.
Appearance of Larva.
The larva when full grown is of the form shown in Figure 2r
a and b, about one-sixth of an inch in length, pointed toward each
extremity, yellow in color, with a brown, horny “ breast bone ” on
the under side just behind the head. The segments of the body
are well marked, and when removed from the infested fruit they"
7
move about quite rapidly, bending themselves quite double by draw-
ing the tail forward until it touches the head, and then jerking
or springing upward and outward
several inches at a time.
When they are full grown they
remain in the fruit until there comes a
rain, which causes a rapid decay and a
cracking open of the infested fruit.
Through the openings so made they
emerge and drop to the ground. In
the Lawrence the opening to the core
remains quite large for some time after
the pear is formed, and many larvae are
able to make their way out at this
point; for I have seen a number of
pears perfectly sound of surface and yet
abandoned by the larva. The opening
through the blossom end in such cases was so prominent that it seems
to me certain that they made their way out there.
Fig. 2.
Pear-midge larva : a, from above ;
b, from side ; c, head ; d, anal end of
lafva; e, the breast bone. (After
Riley.)
Pupation.
As soon as the larvae leave the infested pears, which is usually
early in June, they drop to the ground and at once make their way
beneath the surface, varying somewhat with the condition of the soil,
from one-half to two inches, and there they lie for some time un-
changed. About midsummer the larvae make oval cocoons of silk
covered with grains of sand, and in these they lie unchanged until early
spring. It is probable that there is some difference in the date of
forming cocoons and in pupation, for Dr. Lintner records his speci-
mens as forming cocoons as early as June 15th, while of the large
number confined by me none had formed such on August 3d, and
some were still naked early in October. It is worthy of notice, too,
that different seasons may make quite a difference in the date at which
the flies appear or the larvae mature. According to Dr. Lintner’s
report, larvae emerged from the pears before the end of May in New
York State, and on June 10th most of the infested pears had fallen
from the trees. On June 10th, 1892, larvae in Middlesex county,
N. J., were not yet mature and none had left the pears. None of my
8
specimens had changed to pupse in October, when my experiments
were concluded ; but some time during the winter the flies matured
and escaped. It is probable that in nature the pupa is not formed
until early spring, and that the flies emerge soon afterward, depending
upon the character of the season. The pupa is shown at Figure 1, c.
The Injury Done.
The character of the injury done has been already indicated. The
midge larvae, numbering from ten to thirty or even more, live on the
substance of the pear tissue around the core, destroying the seed and
checking the growth of the fruit, which in all cases decays and drops
in early summer.
Fig. 3.
Young pears deformed by the pear-midge larvse — natural size. (After Lintner.)
Infested pears can be readily recognized by a peculiar, irregular or
knobby appearance, well shown in the series of outlines under Figures
3 and 4, and this irregularity appears in the fruit almost as soon as it
has set.
On cutting open an infested pear, a large central cavity is seen
within it, occupying most of its interior, quite irregular in form and
often made up of smaller cavities separated by thin walls or by the
remains of the core. Among these the larvse are distributed. No
fruit once infested can be saved.
9
Experiment Record.
It will be at once noted from the above life history that there is no
period at which this insect is within reach of ordinary insecticide ap-
plications. The eggs are laid in the bud before it opens and the young
larvae get into the heart of the fruit before it
is fully formed. The adult fly does not feed
and is hence beyond our reach. It is only after
the injury is done that the insect goes under-
ground and within reach of destructive agen-
cies. Such destructive agencies may be either
mechanical as by cultivation, or chemical, using
a substance killing by contact.
I had seen reason during past seasons to be-
lieve that certain commercial fertilizers were
effective in keeping down various underground
species, and determined to test these by both
field and laboratory tests.
In 1892 the midges appeared in some num-
bers in the orchard of Mr. J. M. White, near
New Brunswick, and in one close adjoining a
considerable proportion of the fruit was in-
fested. On Mr. White’s land the Lawrence
was the main sufferer, a very small proportion
•of Bartletts only being infested ; while in the
neglected land a large percentage of Bartletts
was also destroyed. At my request Mr. White applied a very heavy
top-dressing of kainit to his entire pear orchard in late summer, and
under the infested trees it was applied at the rate of over half a ton to
the acre. In all other respects the orchard was treated as in previous
years.
The result in 1893 was remarkable. Late in May I carefully ex-
amined the entire orchard — finding just one pear that was infested,
though a few others were later found at the edges. The contrast on
the other side of the line was striking. I failed to find even one
Lawrence pear that was not midged, and of the Bartletts more than
50 per cent, were destroyed. I attributed the exemption enjoyed by
Mr. White entirely to the use of the kainit, which killed the larvse
Fig. 4.
Section of a pear containing
the larvae, and a sound one for
comparison of form. (After
Lintner.)
10
under the soil ; but in order to verify my belief the following labor-
atory experiments were made :
On June 10th, the larvae being then nearly mature, I gathered
between 200 and 300 specimens of infested pears. A portion of them
were placed in a breeding-jar for future use and for such experiments
as might be required, while the balance was divided among eight
one-quart jars, half filled with sand. The pears were distributed
among these jars with the idea of getting a nearly equal number of
larvae into each, and a rather careful selection was made of the speci-
mens to that end. These jars were left undisturbed, except that the
sand was occasionally moistened with water and the abandoned pears
were picked out, until August 3d. At this time the jars were all
carefully examined, and it was found that from almost all of the pears
the larvse had made their way, and had burrowed underground a
short distance, although none had, at that time, formed cocoons. A
small number of the pears, however, had not yet either decayed nor
cracked open, and on cutting into these the larvse were found inside,
apparently in good condition. All such pears were cut open and
replaced in the jars, the abandoned specimens being thrown away.
It might be said that a small brood of plum curculios was bred out
of these same pears soon after the midge larvse went underground.
Two jars were selected as checks and set aside, receiving no applica-
tion of any kind. In two other of the jars a small quantity of
nitrate of soda was spread dry upon the surface of the ground, to
represent, in the one case, a fair top-dressing under ordinary field
conditions, and in the other a heavy dressing ; the quantity in the
second jar being exactly double that in the first. The amounts were
not weighed, as they were too small. Two other jars received muriate
of potash, about the same in quantity as in the case of the nitrate,
and here also one jar received exactly double the quantity placed in
the other. A third lot of two jars was treated with kainit, the amount
of kainit applied in jar No. 1 being about the same as the amount of
muriate applied in jar No. 2 ; while in the second kainit jar twice as
much was applied as was contained in the first. These eight jars
received at intervals small amounts of water, sufficient to keep them
moist, until October 6th. On that day all the jars, except one of the
checks, were examined.
The check-jar which was first examined showed numerous speci-
mens of the larvse in the sand, which had not yet formed cocoons.
11
and all of these were alive and apparently quite healthy. There were
also a very large number of cocoons containing unchanged larvae, and
these all seemed to be healthy and in condition to transform in due
time. In none of the other jars examined were there any living larvae
lying free in the soil, although here and there a few dried and
shriveled specimens could be found ; and in none of the other jars
was there anything like the number of cocoons found in the one first
examined.
Jar No. 1, muriate of potash, found no free larvae, but quite a
number of cocoons — in bulk perhaps four- fifths as many as were
found in the check lot ; but of these, nearly one-half of the larvae
examined were dead.
Jar No. 2, containing muriate double in quantity to that contained
in No. 1, showed no free larvae, and of cocoons about as many as in
the first lot ; but of the larvae within the cocoons about three-fourths
were dead.
Jar No. 3, containing nitrate of soda, a small quantity, had no
free larvae, and of cocoons in bulk about two-thirds as many as in the
check lot; but in the cocoons so far as they were examined, not 10
per cent, of the larvae were alive and the very great bulk of them
were dried and shriveled.
Jar No. 4, containing nitrate of soda, double the quantity, had
nearly as many cocoons as in the preceding; but certainly not
more than 5 per cent, of the larvae within these cocoons were alive.
Jar No. 5, containing kainit, a small quantity, had no free larvae,
and of cocoons about two-thirds of the check lot, or about the same
as in the case of the nitrate ; but of living larvae there were less than
3 per cent, within the cocoons.
Jar No. 6, containing kainit, double in quantity to that in the pre-
ceding jar, had cocoons in bulk equal to less than one-third of the
check lot, and I found not a single living larva in the cocoons
examined by me. That is to say, not one-third of the larvae in the
jar ever formed cocoons, and those that did seemed all of them to be
dead.
It may be said that the examination of the jars was made as follows :
The entire contents were dumped into a large pan and water added.
The pan was then shaken carefully, the dirty water with the loose
material floating in it was poured off, and more water was added
until it remained clear. The sand was then gradually washed out,
12
and there remained only the insect larvae and their cocoons. These
were then transferred to narrow vials of exactly the same size, in
order that a comparison might be readily made and then a consid-
erable number of specimens of each lot were examined in order to
ascertain the proportion of living larvae within the cocoons. The
balance of the material remaining in each vial was preserved in alco-
hol for any further or future examination that might be deemed
desirable. During the winter the second check-jar received little
attention, and the rubber band holding the cheese-cloth cover rotted
and broke, giving the maturing midges a chance to escape. Early in
April I found only a lot of empty cocoons and pupa skins and a few
dry and shriveled larvae.
Earlier in the season a small portion of the pears set aside for gen-
eral purposes were selected out, in order to test the effectiveness of
chloride of magnesium. The larvae were placed in a dish containing
sand, which was thoroughly moistened with the solution of one-fourth
of an ounce of the chloride in sixteen ounces of water ; twenty-four
hours afterward the insects had burrowed to the bottom of the dish
and were showing no signs of injury. As the sand was dry, clean
water was added, and yet, in twenty- four hours thereafter, the in-
sects were alive and apparently healthy. Again the sand was moist-
ened with the solution and again it proved ineffective. A sprinkle of
kainit was put on the surface and left to be dissolved by the moisture
already in the sand, and twelve hours thereafter all the insects were
dead or dying.
From Mr. White’s experience and from the results of the experi-
ments above detailed, I feel justified in concluding that we have, in
kainit, used rather heavily, in fertilizing quantity, an efficient remedy
for this insect.
Remedies.
Under previous heads I have already indicated a line of action.
We cannot save the fruit after it has been attacked by the midge
larvae, nor can we prevent the midges from laying their eggs in the
blossoms. It has been suggested that we could by the use of arsenites
blast the blossoms after the midges had laid their eggs and thus de-
stroy the entire brood by sacrificing the fruit. Where the midges are
sufficiently abundant to destroy the crop this may be a good plan ;
but it will be better if possible to prevent their increase to that extent.
13
In the first place keep a close watch on all Lawrence tieos, and
have a few Lawrence trees in the orchard to attract such midges as
may come. In this way the first appearance of the insects' will be
readily noticed.
2. When infested pears are found — and they should be examined
soon after they are well set — if the trees are not too large, pick off
every infested or suspected pear and destroy completely. A very
little practice enables any one to recognize an infested pear at sight.
This is important to prevent increase on your own land.
3. If the trees are too large to be picked over, the soil beneath
those infest* d should be cultivated and then well rolled to compact it,
not later than the last week in May, and about the middle of June
kainit at the rate of 1 ,000 pounds to the acre should be applied as a
top-dressing over the full extent of ground covered by the branches of
the infested tree. The natural moisture of the soil will dissolve the
kainit and will bring a concentrated solution into contact with the
naked midge larvae to their destruction.
4. Instead of kainit on limited areas the kerosene emulsion diluted
ten times may be used, wetting the soil thoroughly so far as the
branches extend. If this is applied before a rain it will be washed
down deeply enough to reach all larvae to their destruction.
5. If an orchard is generally infested, the following practice is
recommended : Cultivate as usual, or, if the orchard is in grass or
clover, plow under after June 15th as soon as may be. Top-dress
with kainit 1,000 pounds to the acre, to benefit trees as well as to kill
insects. As soon as proper, say early in August, sow crimson clover.
This will use up the potash not required by the fruit trees, and will
store nitrogen, as well as occupy the ground. Early in the following
spring turn this sod under as deeply as may be proper. It should be
done before the pear buds are developed, in order to head off and
destroy any midges then in the pupa state near the surface of the soil.
I need hardly say that this practice is, at the same time, the best for
the benefit of the orchard.
If none of the methods advised are adopted, frequent cultivation or
d late, rather deep plowing may be effective to some extent.
The practical benefit to be derived from the suggestions above
made will be in proportion to the generality with which they are
acted upon. If the first and second and third or fourth suggestions
are universally carried out, the fifth will not become necessary ; but
14
it mpst be iemeinbered that one neglected orchard will stock an entire
district, an<Wh'at' th&te is no way of keeping off the midges on the
land oh wbi6h they bcc&d, 'though they will seek their food primarily
where they first * hatch* arid will usually increase in one orchard until
it no lon^ef' suVtaiW them before wandering to another.
Taking" 'out Lawrence trees will not help matters, for though they
are favorites, yet, lacking them, other varieties are taken. In fact, by
concentrating the attack, Lawrence trees are positively advantageous,
and it may often be possible by destroying the entire fruit-set of a few
Lawrence trees to protect the balance of the orchard.
CRIMSON OR SCARLET CLOVER.
ITS GROWTH, COMPOSITION, AND USEFULNESS.
NEW JERSEY
AGRICULTURAL
Experiment Station
100
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural Experiment Station.
BULLETIN 100.
JUNE 11, 1894.
Crimson or Scarlet Clover.
Trifolium Incarnatum.
BY EDWARD B. VOORHEES.
This clover is known under the name of “ Crimson Clover,”
“ Scarlet Clover,” and “ Italian or German Clover.” The color of
the blossom is decidedly crimson, hence the name “ Crimson Clover”
is usually given the preference and should be used exclusively, to
avoid confusion.
In this State this clover has been successfully and extensively
grown by a gradually increasing number of farmers for the past five
seasons, though it is yet a new plant in the sense that its adaptability
and usefulness under the varying conditions of climate, season and
farm practice have not been thoroughly tested.
Experiments that have been previously conducted here, chiefly to
test its hardiness, and the results of the experience of practical
farmers have established for it the following points :
1. That it will grow in any part of New Jersey, and that it is
quite as hardy as the common red variety.
2. That when seeded between July 15th and September 15th it
will mature from three to four weeks earlier than red clover.
4
3. That since it is an annual plant, and differs from other clovers
in its time of growth and development, it cannot be regarded as a
substitute for them.
4. That the quality of the fodder and hay is superior to that of
red clover.
These studies have also indicated that this plant possesses character-
istics which make it particularly valuable for a variety of purposes
in our State, not now fulfilled by any other plant. To test these
points was the purpose of the experiments here reported.
Plan of the Experiments.
The experiments were planned to further study : The adapta-
bility of this clover to different conditions of soil ; and the compo-
sition of the whole plant at different stages of growth, in order to
determine its value as a green manure, as pasture, or as a soiling crop,
when used at different seasons. Samples which would represent the
tops, stubble, and roots, the latter plow-deep, or about eight inches,
were to be taken at four stages of growth : first, in the latter part of
April ; second, in early May ; third, when the plant was in bloom ;
and fourth, after the plant was fully matured. These dates corre-
sponding to periods when it might be desirable to use the crop in
different parts of the State ; for instance, in southern portions of the
State, spring plowing for corn and sweet potatoes is usually finished
the last week in April, while in the central and northern portions,
particularly for corn, plowing may be, and frequently is, delayed
until the second week in May or later. The first samples taken show
the accumulation of food and fertilizer constituents by the whole crop
and its parts, when it is desirable to utilize it as green manure, or as
pasture, while the samples taken later have reference to the utilization
of the plant both as a green manure and as a fodder-crop, when at its
best for both purposes.
Location of Experiments and Description of Soils.
The plots were one acre in area and located as follows :
Plot No. A. Theo. Brown, Swedesboro, Gloucester county.
“ “ 1. J. M. White, New Brunswick, Middlesex county.
“ “ 2. College Farm, New Brunswick, Middlesex county.
5
In the original plan, one plot was located on the farm of Hal
Allaire, Allaire, Monmouth county, on very light land, which had
not been previously cropped. Though a fair catch was secured, the
growth was too light to warrant a continuation of the work, and plot
A was selected in its stead. All plots were seeded with 16 pounds
per acre.
No. A. The land is a sandy loam, with a porous, sandy subsoil ; it
is in a fair state of fertility and produces good crops of red clover.
The clover was seeded in corn August 1st, and lightly harrowed in
one way of the row ; a fair catch was secured, very thick between the
corn rows and thinner upon the ridges. It made a rapid growth,
averaging five inches in height at the beginning of winter, which it
survived without loss.
No. 1 was seeded in an eight-year-old peach orchard. The plot
included four rows of trees across the orchard. Part of the land is
very sandy with sandy subsoil ; the remainder is a sandy loam with
clayey subsoil. The land, though not naturally rich, has been well
fertilized with the mineral constituents, phosphoric acid and potash.
The plot was seeded July 25th and the seed covered with a “ Breed’s
Weeder.” An even catch was secured which grew rapidly in the fall,
and apparently survived the winter without the loss of a plant.
On No. 2 the land is a rather heavy, gravelly clay loam, with tight
clay subsoil and in a good state of fertility, though not well adapted
for clover. It was seeded September 1st, after a potato crop, which
had been dressed with yard manure at the rate of 12 tons per acre.
The weather was very dry at time of seeding and continued hot and
dry, which resulted in an uneven catch, thick in parts of the land
and thin in others. The plants made a rapid growth before winter,
where a good stand was secured — an almost solid mat about five
inches high. A part of the plot was located on a ridge higher than
the surrounding land, and on portions unprotected by snow a number
of plants were frozen.
Methods of Sampling.
The original samples were taken in the following manner :
An area representing a full stand was selected and one square foot
marked off; the soil was removed to the requisite depth, and the
block lifted out entire. The whole mass was then placed in a box
and taken to the laboratory, where the earth and foreign matter were
6
carefully removed. The fibrous roots which became separated from
the main root in removing the soil were collected in a fine sieve.
The samples taken April 24th were separated into tops and roots.
In those taken May 12th, and subsequently, the tops were removed
before separating the earth, and the remainder of the plant divided
into stubble and roots, the proportion of stubble representing, as near
as possible, field conditions. These samples fairly represented the
whole plant, though it was impossible to prevent slight losses of the
finer roots.
Yield.
Although accurate weights were made of the yield of the whole
plant, and of the different portions, per square foot, the object of this
was rather to determine the relation by weight of the different parts
of the plant at different stages of growth, rather than as a basis for
calculating the amount of food or fertilizer constituents in the crop.
In order to arrive at a fair estimate of the yield on a field basis a
square rod, representing full stand in experiments Nos. 1 and 2, was
carefully cut and weighed on May 24th, when the plants were full
grown and before there was any danger of mechanical losses. It was
found that the average yield thus secured was 60.34 per cent, of that
secured from the calculations upon the square-foot basis. This factor
was, therefore, applied to all yields on the square-foot basis, which
converted them into what is believed to be a fair field basis for a com-
parative study. Table 1 gives detailed information in reference to
the different samples taken :
7
Table 1.
Number of
experiment.
Date.
Number of plants
per square foot.
Height of plants
in inches.
1
Weight in grams
of green tops per
square foot.
GRAMS 01
PER
E c
G*
EH
i’ AIR-DRY S
SQUARE FO
«
73
m
UBSTANCE
OT IN
1
M
A
86
7
53.3
27
1
April 24.
18
6
34.0
20
2
66
5
38.0
15
A xrprftccp
1
| 57
6
1
41.8
! 21
1
1
1
May 12.
19
12
453
62
11
18
2
50
14
658
72
13
25
Average
35
13
556
i 67
12
22
1
May 24.
19
22
516
87
12
14
■ 2
37
28
570
105
11
29
Average
28
1
25
543
96
12
22
2 !
May 31.
1
1
35 i
28
658
124
9
18
The particularly noticeable features in this table are, first, the very
wide variation in the number of plants per square foot, though in all
oases the samples represented what was regarded as a full stand for
the field, and second, that the yield of green tops, or air-dry matter,
is not in proportion to the number of plants. The tendency of the
plant to overcome the disadvantages of thin seeding or a poor catch
by stooling largely is, therefore, apparent, though this peculiarity
would doubtless be less marked on poorer soils than those here rep-
resented. Owing to the variations due to differences in locality, kind
of soil, evenness of stand, etc., the samples taken on the same date
are averaged and this average yield used in subsequent calculations
rather than the data from individual samples.
Plate I.
Plate No. I. is a photograph taken April 24th of the present year; its main purpose is to illus-
trate the stooling- capacity of the plant, and to show the. size and number of the main roots.
This single stool has eighty-six branches; the height to the tips of the leaves is twelve inches ;
as it stood in the field it covered more than one square foot.
9
How the Crops Were Used.
The crop on experiment No. A was turned under April 28th and
the field planted with corn, without manure. It was not possible to
make a comparative study of the growth of corn with and without
manure (the green manure), though the crop made a very rapid early
growth and, notwithstanding a severe drouth in July, produced a
good yield.
The crop on No. 1 was plowed under May 28th, and while the
early growth of the peach trees was apparently somewhat retarded by
the crop of clover, they gained rapidly after it was plowed in, and
both the growth and fruitage were more satisfactory than on tho
remainder of the orchard, where an application of two pounds of'
nitrate of soda was applied to each tree, the manuring in other
respects being the same. The crop on the whole orchard was good.
The trees this spring are healthy and vigorous and set full of fruit.
Mr. White was so well pleased with the results of the experiment
that both his peach and pear orchards, in all about thirty acres, were
seeded last fall. A good crop was secured and used as green manure
this spring.
The clover on plot No. 2 was used as a soiling crop for dairy cattle.
Cutting began on May 15th and continued until June 2d. It proved
an excellent forage ; the animals consumed it with relish and increased
perceptibly in the flow of milk. The large yields secured on the
three plots differing radically in character and fertility of soil, and in
methods and time of seeding, indicate a wide adaptability of the
plant to varying conditions.
10
Table 2.
©
a
3
Date of
Sampling.
GRAMS DRY MATTER CON-
TAINED IN ONE SQUARE FOOT.
PER CENT. OF DRY
MATTER IN
.O
ta
m
Number c
Experime
3
o
H
Tops.
Stubble.
Roots.
Tops.
Stubble.
Roots.
821
A
April 24.
u
66.8
45.7
21.1
68.4
31.6
817
1
45.5
28.8
16.7
63.2
36.8
819
2
((
44.6
32.4
12.2
70.3
29.7
A vera p-p
52.3
35.6
16.7
: 67.3
32.7
o
828
1
May 12,
78.0
54.0
8.8
15.2
69.2
11.4
19.4
827
2
«
94.3
63.8
9.9
20.6
67.6
10.5
21.9
A verae^e
86.1
58.9
9.4
17.9
68.4
11.0
20.7
831
1
May 24.
99.6
78.5
9.3
11.8
78.8
9.4
11.8
$34
2
u
125.4
92.5
9.1
23.8
73.7
7.3
19.0
Average
112.5
85.5
9.2
17.3
76.3
8.3
15.4
o
837
2
May 31.
132.8
109.8
8.0
15.0
82.6
6.1
11.3
The data in Table 2 are derived from Table 1, and show the total
dry matter as well as the dry matter contained per square foot in
tops, roots and stubble, for the different samples. The per cent, of
dry matter in the various parts of the plant is also shown.
The important point brought out by a study of this table is that
the amount of dry matter contained in the roots is practically uni-
form for the different dates ; the weight of roots in a given area is
quite as great on April 24th, when the tops are six inches high, as
upon May 31st, when the plant is full grown.
In other words, it is shown that the accumulation of dry matter
after the first date of sampling — over 150 per cent. — was found
almost entirely in the tops and stubble.
11
The Composition of the Dry Matter.
Tables 3 A, 3 B and 3 C show the composition of the dry matter
of the tops, stubble and roots. In 3 A and 3 B both the food and
fertilizer analyses are given, while in 3 C the fertilizer analysis only
is given. The percentage of crude ash does not include the sand and
insoluble matter mechanically adhering to the samples.
Table 3 A.
COMPOSITION OF TOPS.
POUNDS CONTAINED IN 100 LBS. Of DRY MATTER OF
A
a
€
o
5
ft
Cm
O
<D
A
a
s
ft
a
eg
m
cm
O
03
c3
ft
<D
fl
u
<v
ft
(V
T3
A
00
<
<o
>o
3
d
•S3
d o
<v
6 g
Aja
2
o
if
a °
S
9
o
o
ft .
SS
r* o
A
1
w
&
a
o
O
O
Oft
Od5
<!ft
2
ft«J
ft
821
A
April 24.
3.31
16 33
12.73
22.19
45.44
16.30
3.55
0.61
3.75
$17
1
“
4.26
14.84
10.79
22.03
48.08
18.73
3.52
1.00
2.76
819
2
“
4.11
15.19
9.97
24.41
46.32
20.21
3.91
0.93
2.51
AvsrflffP
3.89
15.45
11.16
22.88
46.61
18.42
3.66
0.85
3.01
828
1
May 12.
3.89
16.36
11.91
23.86
43.98
16.76
3.82
1.22
3.19
827
2
ii
3.88
16.51
10.18
1
22.73
46.70
16.37
3.64
0.81
3.14
AvGraere
3.89
16.44
11.04
23.30
45.34
16.57
! 3.73
1.02
3.17
831
i
May 24.
3.38
28.92
7.92
18 56
41.22
13.07
2.97
0.68
1.93
834
2
“
3.39
26.51
8.61
19.50
41.99
13.37
3.12
0.75
1.88
A VPTfl.S'fi
3.39
27.72
8.27
19.03
41.61
13.22
|
3.05
0.72
1.91
837
2
May 81.
3.16
28.53
8.80
17.65
41.86
12.72
2.82
0.67
2.54
12
Table 3 B.
fl
COMPOSITION OF STUBBLE.
Fh
CD
a
o
A
bb
a
POUNDS CONTAINED IN 100 LBS.
OF DRY MATTER OF
«o
a
p
&
a
o
3
0Q
W
o
i-t
Q)
a
p
fc
P,
a
c3
W
U-i
o
o
"3
Q
j Crude Fat.
j Crude Fiber.
Crude Ash.
Crude
Protein.
Carbo-
hydrates.
Albuminoid
Protein.
Nitrogen.
Phosphoric
Acid.
Potash.
830
i
May 12.
2.71
22.66
10.98
13.04
50.61
10.71
2.09
0.96
2.28
826
2
“
1.85
23.36
13.60
12.34
48.85
10.26
1.97
0.55
3.03
Average
2.28
23.01
1
12.29
12 69
49.73
10.49
2.03
0.76
2.66
832
1
May 24.
2.31
28.44
9.34
11.25
48.66
8.85
1.82
0.56
1.22
836
2
“
2.06
31.04
8.80
12.85
45.25
11.06
2.06
0.42
1.04
AvfirftPfi
I
2.19
29.74
9.07
12.05
46.96
9.96
1.94
0.49
1.13
838
1
! 2
May 31.
1.64
31.78
9.67
| 12.21
44.70
10.36
1.95
0.52
2.88
The analyses of the samples of stubble, in addition to their value in
connection with the analyses of tops and roots in showing the compo-
sition of the whole plant, are interesting in indicating a high feeding
value for this part of the plant.
The dry matter is nearly 50 per cent, richer in protein than the
dry matter of timothy hay, and nearly as rich in carbohydrates and
fat. This is accounted for by the lower content of crude fiber in the
clover.
The stems of this plant are less woody than those of timothy or red
clover, thus materially increasing the relative digestibility of the
whole plant.
13
Table 3 O.
o»
rQ
a
£
a
.2
«
m
Number of Experiment.
Date of Sampling.
COMPOSITION OF ROOTS.
CONTAINED IN 100 LBS. OF DRY MATTER.
Crude
Ash.
Nitrogen.
Phosphoric
Acid.
Potash.
822
A
April 24.
15.24
2.71
0.56
2.61
818
1
1C
9.94
3.08
1.17
1.62
820
2
«
9.87
3.04
0.89
1.20
Average
11.68
2.61
0.87
1.81
829
1
May 12.
10.32
3.10
1.29
1.23
825
2
u
9.87
2.72
0.68
1.12
Average
10.10
2.91
0.99
1.18
833
1
May 24.
9.44
2.83
0.88
0.90
835
2
■ !
9.67
2.65
0.63
0.73
Average,
9.56
1
2.74
0.76
0.82
839
2
May 31.
10.73
2.73
0.81
1.45
It will be observed that considerable variations occur in the com-
position of samples secured on the same date from different localities ;
this is particularly noticeable in the ash content and in the percentage
of fertilizer constituents, the sample in Experiment A, April 24th,
showing very much less phosphoric acid and much more potash than
either of the other two.
The composition in reference to food constituents is not widely dif-
ferent upon April 24th and May 12th, though on the former date the
whole top was included, while on the latter the stubble is separated.
The composition after May 12th shows mainly a decided increase
14
in crude fiber and consequent decrease of the other constituents, as
was to be expected in the development of the plant. The percentage
of the ash constituents on May 24th and May 31st, particularly in
the case of potash, differs widely and is not in accordance with what
was to be expected, though it is uniform throughout for tops, stubble
and roots. The chemical analyses were repeated in every particular
and found correct. Samples will be taken again this year at as nearly
as possible the same stage of growth in order to further study this
point, though this part of the analysis does not have any particular
bearing upon a study of the value of the plant from a practical-
standpoint.
Another point of interest is shown in reference to the proportion
of true protein ; the highest percentage — 80.5 — is shown in the
immature plant on April 24th ; on the later dates the percentage is
much lower and practically uniform, ranging from 69.4 to 72 per cent.
The composition of the stubble and roots shows no marked change
other than those indicated from a study of the tops.
Practical Application of the Results.
The results secured permit of a discussion of the usefulness of the
plant from three standpoints :
1. As a Green Manure.
2. As a Pasture.
3. As a Soiling Crop.
1.
AS A GREEN MANURE.
Agricultural writers have for a long time advocated what is termed
“ green manuring,” that is, the growing of crops for the sole purpose
of turning under in order to improve the soil, particularly in its
physical character and in its content of nitrogen. This system of
manuring, in the strictest sense, is not, however, widely practiced in
this State, first, because there is a well- rooted prejudice against turning
under a matured crop which contains good food ; second, because this
method does not permit of the continuous use of the land for money
crops, and third, because of a rather indefinite idea of the true
advantages of such a practice when properly conducted.
15
Conditions that Warrant Green Manuring.
It is a wasteful practice to plow under a matured crop, though
there are special conditions of farming which warrant it, viz , where
the soils are only well adapted for small fruits and vegetables, or are
naturally poor or worn out, upon which the addition of organic or
vegetable matter is essential.
In this State there are just such lands as the former, which receive
annually heavy dressings of yard or city manure, and one of the chief
purposes of which is to supply the requisite organic matter. This
practice is expensive both of money and labor, and the introduction
of systematic methods of green manuring here is well worthy of con-
sideration. In the second case the improvement by means of city
manure is, in proportion to the returns, still more expensive and not
to be recommended as a general practice.
The Advantage of Catch Crops.
The loss of use of the land for a season is a serious consideration in
any case, but more so where high farming is practiced, yet a proper
selection of catch crops, i. e. those which do not materially interfere
with regular rotations, will obviate in a large degree this objection.
As a catch crop for green manuring this clover possesses many
advantages, chief among which is that it takes well without cover
crop in growing corn, tomatoes, orchards, berry patches, etc. ; it also
thrives in late summer and fall after other crops have ceased growing,
and it makes a rapid growth in the early season, furnishing a consid-
erable crop before ordinary spring plowing begins.
Why Legumes Should he Used.
The results secured from green manuring are often disappointing,
because the crops used for the purpose derive their essential fertilizing
constituents, nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, entirely from the
soil ; buckwheat and rye, frequently used for the purpose, belong to
this class of plants, and the only advantageous accumulation in the
soil from their use consists in the carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, from
their organic structure. Green manuring with these crops, while per-
haps of value, is much less so than when those are used which possess
the power of gathering nitrogen from the air ; a fact now well estab-
lished for plants of the legume family, as clover, peas, beans, lupins,
16
etc. ; these plants enrich the soil in the expensive element nitrogen
derived from the air, while the others mentioned only return to the
soil the nitrogen previously existing in it.
Table 4.
YIELD IN POUNDS PER ACRE OF
April 24.
May 12.
May 24.
May 31.
In
Tops...
Roots.
Total..
Tops
Stubble.
Roots
Total.
Tops
Stubble.,
Roots
Total..
Tops
Stubble.
Roots
Total.
21,048
31,526
31,498
37,976
o*
2,040
992
3,032
3,415
547
1,031
4,992
4,967
548
1,004
6,519
,356
870
7,695
1,812
875
2,687
3,038
479
927
4,444
4,557
908
5,963
5,797
424
776
6,997
228
116
344
377
104
548
411
50
96
557
559
45
93
74.6
29.1
103.7
127.3
11.0
30.0
168.3
151.7
10.4
27.5
189.6
179.2
9.1
23.7
212.0
o.s
17.2
61.4
18.0
25.8 79.4
34.6 108.1
1.3
10.1
46.0
35.5
2.6
7.5
45.6
42.5
2.4
7.0
51.9
13.9
12.1
134.1
108.8
160.4
13.5
12.6
186.5
The object of Table 4 is to show the calculated yield of green
clover, and the amount of organic matter and fertilizer constituents
contained per acre, calculated from the data secured and which may
be regarded as good crops, at the different stages of growth. The
height in inches, as shown in a previous table, is a better guide as to
the period of growth than the date of cutting, since in an earlier
season cuttings on April 24th and May 12th would have shown much
larger yields.
Plate II.
Plate No. II shows the size of the clover on April 24th this year ; on the same date in 1893 it
was six inches high, this year it was ten inches high. The five plants here shown weie not sepa-
rated from each other, thus representing the vigor of the growth from a comparatively thick
seeding.
The mass of fibrous roots also indicates a wonderful feeding capacity and explains its rapid
early growth. These plants were taken from a field of four acres upon* the College farm. The
seed was sown in corn July 26th, and though the weather for nearly a month after seeding was
very unfavorable, a good catch was secured, which withstood the winter perfectly.
18
The yield of green clover in the whole top on April 24th is shown
to be practically 10J tons; on May 12th and 24th the yields are
nearly identical at 15.75 tons, while on May 31st the yield is nearly
19 tons per acre. It is observed, however, that as the plant increased
in growth the proportion of dry matter relative to total product also
gradually increased ; the yield of green clover is almost identical
upon May 12th and upon May 24th, while the yield of dry matter
is over 45 per cent, greater on the 24th than on the 12th. The pro-
portion of dry matter increases as the plant matures.
The Relation of Tops to Roots.
The table also shows that by far the largest amount of organic
matter and plant-food is contained in the tops, even at the first cut-
ting, when the plants were six inches high, and that there is practi-
cally no increase in the organic matter and fertilizer constituents
contained in the roots after that time. The roots had then reached
their full development in this respect, and the amount of constituents
contained in them at different periods afterwards remained practically
constant.
The gain of organic matter and fertilizer constituents in the tops,
including stubble, constantly increased until maturity. On April
24th, roughly, two- thirds of the total plant- food was contained in the
tops; on May 12th the proportion had increased to five-sixths, on
May 24th to seven-eighths, and on May 31st to nine-tenths.
These points are important in showing, first, that no good grounds
exist for the statements so frequently heard, that there is as much
fertilizing value in the roots of a clover crop as in the tops, and,
second, that as a green manure this plant increases in value up to the
time of maturity.
Its Value in Early Stages of Growth.
The advantages to be derived from the use of this plant as a green
manure in its early stages of growth are, however, considerable, and
in this State it doubtless will find its widest application for this pur-
pose then, rather than at maturity. It has already been observed that
the gain to the soil from green manuring with leguminous plants,
consists in the addition of organic vegetable matter or humus-forming
materials, the gradual decay of which improves the physical character
19
of the soil, by rendering it more retentive of moisture and plant-food.,
and the chemical character by adding to it nitrogen, an element use-
ful to those plants whose entire source, of which is the soil. The
mineral constituents contained in the crop are derived entirely from
the soil, and hence represent no addition to it, though their change of
location and concentration in the surface soil in a product which
rapidly decays, contribute in no small degree to the good results
derived from green manuring.
The amounts of phosphoric acid and potash contained in the crop
as early as April 24th, are more than sufficient for an average crop of
white potatoes, sweet potatoes, tomatoes or the cereals, or equivalent in
phosphoric acid to 200 pounds of S. C. rock superphosphate, and in
potash to over 600 pounds of kainit. These facts are interesting in
showing the demands of the plant for these constituents, and suggest
that on lands of low fertility they should be supplied in order to insure
a crop. Assuming that the entire amount of nitrogen contained in the
whole crop represents a distinct gain to the soil, the crop harvested on
April 24th added 103.7 pounds, an amount of nitrogen equivalent
to that contained in 648 pounds of nitrate of soda, which would cost,
at present prices, in quantity, $15, or to the amount contained in 10
tons of average- quality manure. City manure costs this year $2.25
per ton delivered at consumer’s depot ; reckoning phosphoric acid at
4 cents per pound, at which price a available” can be bought in S. C*
rock superphosphate, and actual potash at 4J cents per pound, at
which price it can be bought in the form of muriate, the cost of the
nitrogen in the manure is $15, or the same as the nitrate of soda.
City Manure vs. Clover as a Source of Nitrogen.
The cost of the nitrogen in the clover is represented by the cost of
seed and labor of sowing, which need not exceed $2 per acre. This
is balanced by a charge of 20 cents per ton for the labor of hauling
and applying the manure, or about one-half of the usual estimated
cost; the crop, therefore, represents an accumulation of nitrogen
worth $15, free of cost to the farmer.
The amount of organic matter contained in the clover — 2,687
pounds — is also equivalent to that contained in ten tons of manure,,
hence the physical improvement of the soil may be fairly assumed to«
be quite as great from the clover as from the manure.
20
Late white potatoes, sweet potatoes, early tomatoes, melons, citrons
and corn are not, as a rule, planted or set until early in May, and the
growth of clover indicated in the table may be easily attained without
seriously delaying the planting of these crops, upon which city manure
is extensively used.
Are Nitrogen and Organic Matter Necessary?
Statistics gathered by the Station showed that last year New York
horse manure to the amount of 85,000 tons was shipped into sections
of four counties in southern New Jersey, where these crops are largely
grown ; the nitrogen in this amount of manure cost the farmers
$127,500, which sum probably does not represent one- third of the
total expenditure for nitrogen in the manure bought in those counties,
since large quantities are carted and boated direct from Philadelphia
and Camden.
That nitrogen with the accompanying organic matter is believed to
be needed is, therefore, sufficiently evident, since immense sums of
hard cash are paid for it; the nitrogen in the clover is just as good,
and can be had in the clover at a nominal expense of cash and labor,
both very important items.
It may be argued that this nitrogen will not in all cases answer as
well as that contained in the manure, and that it may not be possible
to get sufficient amounts by means of green manures under the system
of farming practiced.
These are legitimate arguments but should not have sufficient influ-
ence to prevent the farmer from securing all that he can in this way
and supplementing by the more soluble forms. It may be, too, that
the present system of farming is not the best ; farmers’ profits in the
future, as at present, must come largely through reducing the cost of
production, which in many cases necessitates changes in practice.
The facts are that nitrogen is needed for these crops, and that it is
the most expensive of the essential fertilizing elements, in whatever
form purchased. No other one question is more important to the
farmers of these sections than the question of a cheap source of nitro-
gen ; it will pay to give it careful consideration.
21
Its Value in Mixed Farming.
The crop cut May 12th shows a decided gain of nitrogen, or a total
equivalent to that contained in 17 tons of manure, and worth $25.50
per acre. On this date the crop as a green manure perhaps finds its
best application farther north in the State for field- corn, potatoes,,
orchards, etc.
Where mixed farming on the extensive plan is practiced, few
farmers find that they have what they regard as a sufficient amount
of manure for their purpose, even when proper care is exercised in
saving and using their home product. They also find that buying
city manure under these circumstances is too expensive, and unless
fertility in some shape is imported the productiveness of the soil i&
not increased.
To grow under the present conditions of farming only such crops
as the natural conditions of soil and season and ordinary methods of
culture will permit is frequently unprofitable, and is certainly unpro-
gressive.
Crimson clover sown in corn takes well under average seasonal
conditions ; it keeps the land occupied during fall and winter, and will,
as is shown, secure large quantities of nitrogen before the middle of
May, or in time for a corn or potato crop. Upon land of good
natural fertility the gain from green manuring alone is often more
marked than upon the poorer soils.
Its Value in Soil Improvement.
The use of the matured crop as a green manure is especially appli-
cable on lands naturally very poor or run down, where the primary
object is really to assist in making soils ; here the larger the amount
of organic vegetable matter added the more rapid will be the improve-
ment, though in such cases mineral manures should be liberally used
in order to get the first crop. The average of the matured crops on
May 24th and 31st contained per acre 200 pounds of nitrogen and
6,500 pounds of organic matter, or equivalent to that contained in
20 tons of city manure, which would cost in that form $30.
An admirable illustration of the advantages of this method of
manuring, both in improving the physical character of soil and in
22
furnishing nitrogen, is shown in an experiment now in progress by
the Station.
A light sandy soil not previously cropped, poor, both in physical
and chemical character, was last spring dressed liberally with potash
and phosphoric acid only, and seeded with the cow-pea, a leguminous
plant ; the crop grew well without the addition of nitrogen or organic
matter, producting 7f tons of green material per acre. The crop was
turned under in September and the land seeded to rye, without the
addition of manure of any kind. The rye this spring is a fine crop,
thick, vigorous and strong in growth, better even than on adjoining
land in a good state of fertility, dressed heavily on the preceding
crop of potatoes with a high-grade fertilizer and top-dressed with
well- rotted manure.
The land was not only improved in its physical character, holding
together and making a solid seed-bed, but was also chemically im-
proved by the nitrogen collected from the atmosphere by the crop of
cow- peas, since the nitrogen contained in it was the only source of this
element available for the rye.
Sources of the Mineral Constituents.
In this discussion the chemical improvement of the soil is claimed
in reference to nitrogen only ; this gives rise to the question as to the
cheapest source of the mineral constituents, phosphoric acid and
potash, both for growing the leguminous plants and for other crops,
since in most cases those elements are also required for both classes of
crops.
At the present price of city manure, phosphoric acid and potash cost
as much as in the best concentrated products containing them, viz.,
superphosphates and potash salts. The phosphoric acid is certainly
less available in manure than in superphosphates, because in the
former the organic matter must decay before the plant can secure it.
The potash is largely soluble in the manure, but a uniform distribu-
tion of it is more difficult, and the expense of applying is much
greater than when contained in the concentrated soluble forms.
Where the required nitrogen and organic matter are secured from
green manures, phosphoric acid and potash can be more economically
secured in these concentrated forms than in city manures. Where
green manures are used for soil-making, liberal dressings of both
23
phosphoric acid and potash are recommended. The application of
lime is also advisable, particularly when a heavy crop is turned under,
both because of the lime, and because it is believed to prevent injury
to the land consequent upon a too rapid decay of vegetable matter.
2.
AS A PASTURE.
The keeping of live stock is an important feature of the farming of
this State ; in this practice whether the stock consists of dairy animals,
young stock, sheep or hogs, the importance of a full supply of food,
in order to maintain a continuous growth, is recognized. In many
cases food-supplies run low in early spring, and food must be bought
or the animals suffer ; too often the latter is the case. Crimson clover
is much earlier than red clover or the grasses, and furnishes an excel-
lent early pasture for all kinds of stock, and its use as a pasture per-
mits of the advantages that are derived when used entirely as a green
manure, though in a less degree. The vegetable matter and nitrogen
oontained in the roots are quite as much a direct gain to the soil in
humus-forming materials when used as pasture as when used as
manure.
The Composition of Clover Pasture.
The analysis of the plant at this time shows it to contain a high
content of water, in this respect resembling mangel-wurzels, beets,
turnips, or cabbage, though the proportions of the food compounds in
it are such as to make it better adapted as a sole diet than these crops.
The average composition on April 24th, on the basis of 90 per cent,
water, is as follows :
POUNDS PER HUNDRED OF
Water.
Dry
Matter.
Crude
Fat.
Crude
Fiber.
Ash.
Carbo-
hydrates.
Crude
Protein.
Albuminoid
Protein.
90.00
10.00
0.39
1.54
1.12
2.29
4.66
1.84
The use of the crop as a pasture is to be recommended, particularly
on dairy farms, only when it is desirable to use the land for corn or
other early spring crops, since protein, the most valuable of the food
compounds derived entirely from the air, and therefore free of expense,
increases very rapidly as the plant matures, and since its use as a soil-
ing crop, or as hay, is much more economical of food than pasturage.
24
Table 5.
DATE.
POUNDS PER ACRE OF FOOD CONSTITU-
ENTS CONTAINED IN TOPS.
POUNDS OF PLANT-FOOD RE-
MAINING IN SOIL FROM ROOTS.
Fat.
Fiber.
|
j Protein.
j Carbohydrates
j Ash.
Organic Matter.
j Nitrogen.
Phosphoric Acid.
j Potash.
April 24
79.3
315.1
466.6
950.6
227.6
875.3
29.1
8.6
18.0
Table 5 shows the average amounts of food constituents contained
per acre in the crops used in the experiment, as well as the plant-food
remaining in the roots. The whole top is included here, since in
pasturing the stubble is an insignificant item and also because it was
impossible at this stage of growth to draw the line sharply between
stubble and tops.
Its Value as Early Pasture.
There is no satisfactory method of valuing exactly food constitu-
ents in products of this kind, and no attempt will be made to do so ;
this, however, does not prevent the drawing of fair comparisons as
to the value of the crop.
In applying the digestion co-efficients of pasture grass we find the
following amounts of digestible food per acre, viz., fat, 50 pounds ;
protein, 327 pounds, and carbohydrates, including fiber, 933 pounds,
a total of 1,310 pounds.
The proportion of the different food compounds is good so far as
nutrition is concerned, though its use exclusively as pasture may not
be the most economical ; so used, however, we find that this amount
will be sufficient to maintain 12 dairy cows in full flow of milk at
least for one week.
A dairy farmer who this year used the crop as an early pasture
reports that he is highly pleased with the practical results secured,
and that he regards the plant as very valuable for this purpose in
dairy districts. He began using it April 15th and the effect was
immediately apparent in an increased flow of milk.
Farmers must determine for themselves what the amount of food
25
here shown means for them, whether used by cows, sheep, horses or
pigs, at a season when there is frequently a shortage of food.
Food furnished by the farm at this time has a greater value than
at other seasons, because it is the exception rather than the rule for
farmers who are not exclusively in the dairy business to buy feeds.
Moreover, early pasture as is thus afforded will diminish the injury
to regular pastures from too early use, which is frequently serious,
owing to a lack of other food. Farmers should remember, too, that
protein, the basis of which is nitrogen, is the most expensive con-
stituent of feeds, and the one which is most liable to be deficient in
the ration, and must, therefore, be purchased. In the clover it is
furnished free of charge.
The residue contained in the roots only of the crop is shown to be
875.3 pounds of organic matter, containing 29 pounds of nitrogen, or
an equivalent of 3 tons of city manure. At least 75 per cent, of the
nitrogen contained in the clover eaten should be found in the manure.
If this is all returned to the land, it is equivalent in nitrogen to that
contained in 5J tons of average manure, a total of 8J tons, or quite
sufficient nitrogen for a corn crop. Thus, even when used as an early
pasture, this crop represents a very considerable gain to the land in
the expensive element, nitrogen.
3.
AS A SOILING CROP.
The analyses of the different samples of green clover are shown in
Table 6
Table 6.
Station Number.
DATE OF SAMPLING.
POUNDS PER HUNDRED OF
0>
o!
£
Dry Matter.
Crude Fat.
Crude Fiber.
Crude Ash.
Crude
Protein.
Carbo-
hydrates.
Albuminoid
Protein.
827
May 12
90.31
9.69
0.38
1.60
0.99
2.20
4.53
1.59
828
May 12..
88.03
11.97
0.47
1.96
1.42
2.86
5.26
2.01
Average
89.17
10.83
0.43
1.78
1.21
2.53
4.90
1.80
831
May 24
84.76
15.24
0.51
4.41
1.21
2.82
6.29
1.99
834
May 24
83.70
16.30
0.55
4.32
1.40
3.18
6.85
2.18
Average
84.23
15.77
0.53
4.37
1.31
3.00
6.57
2.09
837
May 31
83.26
16.74
0.53
4 78
1.47
2.95
7.01
2.13
26
The samples taken on May 12th still show a high content of water,
in composition not differing widely in any respect from those samples
taken April 24th.
The samples representing fall bloom on May 24th, and the fully
matured plant on May 31st, show a much higher content of dry mat-
ter, though still much less than is contained in other green forage
crops. The samples at this time also show a much higher percentage
of crude fiber than on the earlier dates.
Table 7 shows the amount of food constituents, both total and
digestible, contained in the crops obtained from one acre, as well as
the residue of plant-food contained in roots and stubble.
Table 7.
POUNDS OF FOOD PER ACRE.
POUNDS OF PLANT-FOOD
REMAINING FROM STUBBLE
AND ROOTS.
'DATE.
j Fat.
| Fiber.
1
I
a
*5
1 s
Oh
Carbo-
hydrates.
4
<
Organic
Matter.
Nitrogen.
I Phosphoric
j Acid.
Potash.
May 12
132.8
561.3
795.6
1,548.1
377.0
1,406.2
41.1
11.4
25.9
May 24
168 4
1,376.4
945.3
2,066.4
410.8
1,406.2
37.9
10.1
14.2
May 31
200.9
1,874.5
1,121.9
2,660.7
558.9
1,200.2
32.8
9.4
26.1
Average
167.4
1,270.8
915.2
2,091.7
448.9
1,337.5
37.3
10.3
22.1
■Digestible
food per acre.
80.0
610.0
658 0
1,486.0
1
In the use of forage crops, cutting begins as early as a good yield
can be secured, and continues as long as the crop is suitable for the
purpose; in studying the yields, therefore, the average of the thr*e
cuttings will be taken as the basis for calculations.
The digestion co-efficients determined for crimson clover hay at the
North Carolina Experiment Station, and reported in their Bulletin
87d, were used to obtain the amounts of digestible food shown in
the table. The clover in the earlier stages of growth, as represented
by the samples, is too watery to give the best satisfaction as an exclu-
sive feed, though in actual practice the forage would be much drier
27
than is indicated by the analysis. In the sampling no loss of water
occurred between field and laboratory, in practice a considerable dry-
ing is unavoidable, even when fed as soon as possible after cutting.
Its Economical Use.
The highly-nitrogenous character of the dry matter also indicates
that it could be more economically used with cornmeal, which, in
composition, is the reverse of the clover, viz., highly carbonaceous.
Still excellent results, as in the case of pasturage, have been derived
when it forms the entire ration. If so used the average amount of
digestible food obtained per acre, on the basis of 1 5.4 pounds of
digestible organic matter per 1,000 pounds live weight, is sufficient to
feed 10 cows in full flow of milk for 20 days, the time during which,
in average seasons, the product is suitable for the purpose.
If not used exclusively, it should be the aim of the farmer to make
the clover furnish the bulk of the protein, and a ration made up of
from 50 to 75 pounds of clover, depending upon its content of water,
and 8 pounds of cornmeal, is suggested. On this basis the number
of animals that could be fed for the given time would be nearly
doubled, because the carbohydrates furnished by the cornmeal permits
a more economical use of the clover.
Its Value.
As stated in reference to pasturage, it is a difficult matter to fix a
value on products of this kind in dollars and cents that would be
applicable in all cases. It is, however, entirely legitimate in investi-
gations of this kind to give as correct an idea as possible of the
probable value.
Farmers do have very positive knowledge as to the value of well-
cured red clover hay ; they know that it is an excellent feed ; it is so
because of the kind and proportion of the digestible constituents con-
tained in it.
The analyses of crimson clover hay made at this Station, and pub-
lished on page 142 of the Annual Report for 1892, showed that a ton
contained 83.6 pounds more of digestible matter than red clover, and
that over 66 per cent, of this increase consisted of the most valuable
28
compound, protein. On the same basis of water content, the yield per
acre of dry matter here indicated is equivalent to 2 66 tons of hay.
The increased labor involved in using the clover as a soiling crop
is somewhat greater than would be the case if the crop were made
into hay, though this increased cost of food is probably balanced by
the better quality of the product, the dry matter of the green forage
showing a higher percentage of protein and lower percentage of crude
fiber than the hay.
At present prices of feeds a good crop of mature crimson clover
should be worth for forage at least $25 per acre. In order to pro-
vide an unbroken succession of forage crops for the dairy, crimson
clover fits in nicely between rye and red clover, two or three acres
being sufficient for a medium-sized dairy. If more is grown than is
needed for forage, it is suitable for preserving as ensilage, and it also
makes an excellent hay, the chief objection here being that it matures
too early for good hay weather.
That this clover is appreciated as a soiling crop is well illustrated
by the following letter to the Director, dated May 17th, 1891, from
Mr. I. W. Nicholson, a prominent and successful dairyman of Cam-
den county :
“As you are interested in the introduction of crimson clover, I
would like you to see a piece I am now soiling to my stock. You
would see what the possibilities are on a rather light soil, without any
extra labor.
“ I am prepared to say I think very highly of this clover for soil-
ing. It is an early crop, which is eaten by the stock with great
avidity. I had a neighbor who sowed it with corn the last time of
tilling, and had upon 7 acres about four weeks’ pasture for a herd of
25 cows this spring, before plowing and planting in corn.”
The Value of the Manure and Residue in Roots.
When used as a soiling crop the organic matter and nitrogen
remaining in the soil from stubble and roots are equivalent to the
amounts furnished by about four tons of city manure, or but little in
excess of that remaining when the crop is used as a pasture. The
amount remaining in the manure from the crop fed on the assumption
that 25 per cent, of the nitrogen is utilized by the animals, is much
greater, or equivalent to 11} tons of city manure, a total of 15} tons
for the whole crop.
29
The nitrogen assumed to be utilized by the animals when the tops
are used as feed, is 35 pounds, or equivalent to that contained in 3^
tons of manure, which would cost $5.25, hence, when the manure is
properly saved and applied, the manurial value of the crop is not
materially reduced. Used as a manure only, the average crop per
acre is worth $25.50; when used as a feed the value is increased to
$45 25.
This illustrates very clearly the wastefulness of using the matured
crop solely as a green manure, wherever it is possible to use it as a
feed.
These experiments emphasize the points stated in the beginning as
already well established for crimson clover, and also suggest further
important advantages from its proper management and use. These
are summarized as follows :
Summary.
I. Crimson clover is an annual plant, hardy for the whole State ; it
has been successfully grown in every county from Cape May to Sussex.
It is adapted for a wide variety of conditions, both in reference to
character of soil, and method and time of seeding, though not as a
substitute for red clover.
II. Its best use is probably derived when seeded in the summer or
fall for an early spring crop, either for pasture forage or green manure.
The time of seeding may extend from July 15th to September 15th,
depending upon the character of the season and the seed-bed ; good
results have been secured when seeded later than September 15th.
The value of a spring seeding for a summer crop, either upon raw
ground or with oats, has not been thoroughly tested in the State ;
experiments are now in progress here to study this point.
It is the experience of growers that the seed takes better when
lightly covered. Failures to secure a good stand from good seed are
reported as due chiefly to hot, dry weather after the sprouting of the
seed, and to heavy rains immediately after seeding.
III. Crimson clover may be seeded in [orchards, berry patches,
corn, tomatoes, etc., and upon raw ground following after potatoes,
tomatoes, melons or other crops harvested before September. It is
not adapted for seeding with wheat or rye.
30
The amount of seed may range within wide limits — 8 to 16 pounds-
per acre ; larger amounts are usually required when sown with other
crops, and smaller amounts when sown upon raw ground or in
orchards. Twelve pounds per acre will doubtless be found to be
sufficient.
No failures to stand the winter have been reported when good,,
American- grown seed was used. It is more hardy than red clover.
Foreign seed has not proved satisfactory. It contains as impurities-
weed seed and less hardy varieties of this clover. The seed is not as
yet produced in any considerable quantity in this State. That used>
in our experiments was raised in Delaware, where the business of seed-
growing is assuming considerable proportions and is reported to be
profitable.
TV. This crop, in common with all other farm crops, requires good
soils for its best development, though it is well adapted for light
lands, catching readily and growing well where red clover will not
thrive, and also making use of the mineral constituents not available
to the cereals.
The average yield secured from a full stand on May 24th, and
representing soils of a different character, was 15.75 tons of green
clover per acre, or equivalent to 2.7 tons of dry hay. It is believed'
that this fairly represents the yield that may be secured under favor-
able conditions, though very much larger yields have been reported.
V. Regarded as a green manure, particularly as furnishing nitrogen
derived from the air, this crop possesses many advantages due to its*
time of growth and development.
A crop six inches high April 24th, showed an accumulation of
nitrogen in the whole plant at the rate of 104 pounds per acre, an
amount equivalent to that contained in ten tons of city manure or 648
pounds of nitrate of soda, costing $15.
The crop secured at this date may be utilized for early vegetables^
potatoes, melons, etc., crops usually benefited by liberal applications
of nitrogenous manures.
On May 12th, a crop averaging 13 inches high, which in many
sections can be utilized as a manure for late potatoes, corn, and orch-
ards, contained nitrogen at the rate of 168 pounds per acre, worth
$25.50. The plant at maturity showed nitrogen at the rate of 200
31
pounds per acre, or an amount equivalent to that contained in 20 tons
of city manure, which would cost in that form $30.
Good crops of this clover can be obtained on naturally- poor or
worn-out lands when fertilized with the mineral constituents only ;
these soils are rapidly improved by the addition of the nitrogen and
accompanying organic matter contained in the crop.
VI. This plant provides a good pasture before other crops are
available. An early pasture is not only valuable for the food con-
tained in it, but also because it helps to insure proper feeding and to
prevent too early use of other and later pastures. It was pastured
this year in central New Jersey as early as April 10th. The crop
when six inches high contained over 1,300 pounds of digestible food
per acre, sufficient to properly nourish twelve cows for one week.
The fertilizing value per acre of the residue in the roots, is equiva-
lent in nitrogen and organic matter to that contained in three tons of
city manure.
VII. Crimson clover in average seasons provides a soiling crop
excellent both in yield and quality of product ; it is satisfactory for
the purpose for about twenty days, and at a time when other forage
crops are not abundant.
On the basis of the yield of digestible food secured in the experi-
ments— 2,934 pounds per acre — it will provide sufficient for ten cows
in full flow of milk for twenty days, worth at present prices of feed,
at least, $25 per acre.
The composition and digestibility of this plant show it to be
superior to red clover, and when seasons are favorable for early hay-
making, the product thus secured is not excelled by any of our farm
crops as a feed for all purposes.
The advantages derived from the crop when used solely as a green
manure are but slightly reduced when the crop is used for food, pro-
vided the resulting manure is properly saved and applied.
EDWARD B. VOORHEES,
Director.
New Brunswick, N. J., June 11th, 1894.
Wl r /t? 5
THE USE OF KOCH’S LYMPH IN THE DIAGNOSIS OF
TUBERCULOSIS OF CATTLE.
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural College
Experiment Station
101
NEW JERSEY AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE EXPERIMENT STATION.
BOARD OF CONTROL.
The Board of Trustees of Rutgers College in New Jersey.
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD.
AUSTIN SCOTT, Ph.D., LL.D., President of Rutgers College, Chairman.
Hon. GEORGE C. LUDLOW, HENRY R. BALDWIN, M.D., LL.D.
Hon. HENRY W. BOOKSTAVER, LL.D., JAMES NEILSON, Esq.
STAFF OF THE STATION.
AUSTIN SCOTT, Ph.D., LL.D., Director.
Professor JULIUS NELSON, Ph.D., Biologist.
Professor BYRON D. HALSTED, Sc.D., Botanist and Horticulturist.
Professor JOHN B. SMITH, Sc.D., Entomologist.
ELISHA A. JONES, B.S., Superintendent of College Farm.
IRVING S. UPSON, A.M., Disbursing Clerk and Librarian.
CHARLES A. POULSON, Mailing Assistant.
LEONORA E. BUR WELL, Clerk to the Director.
AUGUSTA E. MESKE, Stenographer and Typewriter.
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural College Experiment Station.
BULLETIN 101.
JULY 2, 1894.
The Use of Koch’s Lymph in the Diagnosis of
Tuberculosis of Cattle.
BY JULIUS NELSON, BIOLOGIST.
§ 1. Brief Record of Operations at the College Farm.
Early in June, 1893, I was asked to examine, with the microscope,
the milk of a Holstein cow, Tryntje von Hollingen by name, a mem-
ber of the College farm herd. This cow had been suspected of being
tuberculous, although at this time she was in fair condition, coughed
only occasionally, but was somewhat languid and the right hind quar-
ter of her udder presented the symptoms of garget — being hard and
swollen.
A thorough and extended microscopical study of her milk by num-
erous methods failed to give me any evidence of the presence of the
germ of tuberculosis. The milk was of excellent quality.
Finally it was decided to test her by the Koch test, which consists
in the hypodermic injection of a 10 per cent, solution of Koch’s lymph
(or tuberculin) in a 1 per cent, solution of carbolic acid. Experience
had abundantly proven to previous observers that if this is done on a
healthy cow no change of her temperature results, but if she have
tuberculosis in the slightest degree there is a fever reaction, the tem-
perature rises in from six to twelve hours after injection and remains
up for a number of hours before falling back again to the normal.
4
It is well known to veterinarians that the normal temperature of a
cow in the early morning is lowest, so that if the injection be made in
the evening the reaction, if any, will occur when the temperature should
be lower than the initial temperature observed in the experiment.
When it is found that the morning temperature, after inoculation
with tuberculin in the evening, is higher than the evening tempera-
ture, a reaction is at once predicated and this reaction is all the more
certain in proportion to the absolute rise. So certain is it that a cow
which shows a reaction is tuberculous that the State would risk little
if any money, should it promise to pay for every cow showing reaction
which on being killed failed to show the presence of tuberculosis.
Accordingly, on the evening of July 24th Tryntje was injected with
80 minims of tuberculin solution — a large dose, determined by the
large size of the cow. The temperature record observed was as
follows :
8:00
10:00
12:30
3:00
5:00
7:15
10:00
11:30
p. m.
p. m.
a. m.
a. m.
a. m.
a. m.
a. in.
a. m.
103 35° F.
103.1
103.2
102.2
102.2
101.2
101.5
102
It is plain that the above record is not a reaction, and I so reported ;
but in the light of subsequent experiments, it now seems possible
that a reaction took place.
August 11th. A cow from the farm, on being slaughtered, showed
abscesses in lungs and near kidneys, which, on microscopic examina-
tion, showed the presence of the germs of tuberculosis. At this date
the milk from the gargety quarter of Tryntje’s udder suddenly
changed for the worse ; it became watery, coagulated and had little
fat or cream content. Microscopic examination showed it to be full
of decomposing cells and various bacteria, among which the tubercle
germ was found to be present. The cow was then isolated from the
other members of the herd, and a continued observation made of her
milk, which was thrown away so far as it was not used in experi-
ments.
October 29th a normal, apparently healthy, calf was born to
Tryntje. This was isolated and fed by milk from the three teats
which produced milk of good quality. The cow had been dry for
several weeks before calving. The right hind teat continued to give
a small amount of abnormal milk. November 9th the calf was
killed and specimens taken of its different organs for microscopic
examination and the rest of the carcass was buried, although to the
eye it presented a wholesome appearance. At this time it was noticed
5
that the milk of the right front quarter of Tryntje’s udder was also
becoming abnormal. Experiments were continued, and I was greatly
interested in studying certain physico- chemical reactions which I
supposed might possibly be used in determining whether the milk of
a cow is affected by tubercle bacilli or not, when the news came,
November 30th, that Tryntje was dead.
The autopsy was held that afternoon, in a field distant from the
barn, and it showed clearly that death was the result of tuberculosis.
The muscles seemed to be the only tissues not yet converted into
tuberculous masses, so extreme was the invasion of this mysterious
and irresistible disease. After the birth of the calf, the failure of
health of the mother was rapid ; the change during the last week was
so great that whereas a few days before, the cow seemed likely to live
for many months, after death (I meanwhile had not seen her) she
presented an appearance of emaciation which, had I seen before,
would have determined her immediate slaughter.
Meanwhile, the farm management had called in Dr. E. L. Loblein,
veterinary surgeon, to examine the herd. Two cows presented unmis-
takable signs of tuberculosis, and it was determined to test Koch’s
lymph again. November 8th, Tryntje’s calf was injected with 20
minims tuberculin, and Maria Starr, a Holstein, received 50 minims,
the temperature record being as follows for the calf :
6:00
8:45
2:00
5:00
7:15
12:00
4:00
p. m.
p. m.
a. m.
a. m.
a. m.
m.
p. m.
102.6 (before injection).
102.8
103.2
103.2
104
104.8
103.6
102 (immediately after).
This appeared like a reaction, although the normal temperature of
young calves is much higher than of cows, and is readily disturbed,
so there is some doubt. The record for the cow was :
6:30
8:55
2:15
5:00
7:30
12:00
4:00
p. m.
p. m.
a. m.
a. m.
a. m.
m.
p. m.
102.5 (before).
102.6 (after).
103.4
106.3
106.3
105.8
103
103.3
This is a decided reaction.
A week later, the other cow, Marion Perkins, a native, was injected
with 40 minims and gave this record :
5:00
8:00
2:00
5:00
8:00
12:00
3:30
6:00
8:00
p. m.
P. ID.
a. m.
a. m.
a. m.
m.
p. m.
p. m.
p. m.
102.4
103.4
105
104.4
105.8
106
105
105.8
105.6
6
Next morning at 6 A. M,, 101.8, or more than two and a half
degrees (2.5°) lower than on the previous morning, when the tuberculin
was acting ; hence, an evident reaction. After the death of Tryntje,
the slaughter of these two cows, which had been isolated as soon as
the reaction was shown, was decided upon, but the desire to continue
certain researches upon the milk of Maria Starr delayed the execution.
Her milk was fed to a calf born to Fillpail November 8th (the
mother at that time not suspected, but later proved to be tuberculous).
This calf was injected with 15 minims lymph December 11th, and
gave this record :
5:30
9:00
2:00
5:00
9:00
12:00
4:00
8:15
10:00
p. m.
p. m.
a. m.
a. m.
a. m.
m.
p. m.
p. m.
a. m.
103
101.8
104.2
104.6
104
104.5
103 6
104
103.6
While this appeared to be a reaction, the fact of the youth of the
creature caused a doubt to remain. Accordingly, on the night of
December 15th, Mr. E. A. Jones, the College Farm Superintendent,
who had taken the above record, observed, at my request, the tem-
perature of the calf when it was not under the influence of tubercu-
lin, with the following results :
6:00 p. m. 10:00 p. m. 2:00 a. m. 5:30 a. m.
101.8 102 101.6 101.8
A comparison with the corresponding hours of December 11th, after
injection, shows an evident reaction. This calf was butchered January
15th ; it was in prime condition, without a flaw to the eye, neverthe-
less specimens of various organs were taken and prepared for micro-
scopic examination. December 23d, the two cows whose records we
have presented, were killed and autopsied near the grave of Tryntje,
with the following results :
In the case of Maria Starr (66), the membrane lining the chest
walls was studded with tubercles (pearl disease), the bronchial glands
were enlarged with tubercles, the lungs were filled with large cheesy
bunches, the liver was covered with similar tubercles, and the caul,
mesenteries, and intestines showed small scattered tubercles or pimples,
known as miliary tubercles.
In the case of Marion Perkins (73), the left lung was nearly solid
and the right partly invaded by tubercles ; the bronchial and medias-
tinal glands were enlarged and converted into a bright-yellow cheesy
material. She was evidently not so tuberculous as the former case.
7
but leaving Tryntje out of comparison, would be still considered as in
an advanced stage of tuberculosis.
The results of these autopsies determined the farnTmanagement on
a thorough inspection of the herd. Dr. Loblein examined the herd,
keeping his results to himself temporarily, and I injected the herd
with tuberculin, Mr. Jones taking the temperatures. Sufficient tuber-
culin (thirty dollars’ worth, or 240 minims, equals 15 cubic centime-
ters) was secured, and on the 29th day of December, nineteen cows,
and January 2d, sixteen others were injected, the records of which
will be found in the tables accompanying this report. Two heifers
and a bull were left uninjected, the lymph having been exhausted.
The bull was killed without injection, but found to be healthy. The
two heifers were injected by Dr. Loblein at a later date. (See Tables.
Nos. 7-43.)
The general results may be summarized as follows : Nine cows are
apparently sound, four are doubtfully sound; two are doubtfully
tuberculous, six are probably tuberculous, while eighteen may be
safely killed as tuberculous.
The veterinarian’s inspection showed fifteen cows as “ suspicious ”
cases, varying from “ very suspicious ” to “ slightly suspicious.”
When these suspicious cases were compared with the classification
under the Koch test it was found that two cases came under the
“ apparently sound ” group, one under the “ doubtfully tuberculous ”
group, two under the “ probably tuberculous ” group and eight under
the “ certainly tuberculous” group. The other eight tuberculous
animals were pronounced O K.
The cows were killed in the order of their certainty of reaction,
and every member of the certainly- tuberculous and probably- tubercu-
lous groups was seen to be decidedly tuberculous, except two cases in
the “ probable” class, about which there is doubt until the micro-
scopic evidence is in.
Thus there has been a thorough weeding out of the tuberculous
cattle, which, but for the use of the Koch test, would have been im-
possible. Every new cow now added to the herd is first tested by
injection, and she is purchased only when her temperature record is
unaffected by the injection. The evidences that such cows are sound
are discussed in a later section of this report.
The stables and quarters which the College herd has used have
been thoroughly cleaned and disinfected, and the Koch test will be
used from time to time in the future to detect any case of tuberculosis
8
arising in the herd in its incipiencv. In this way the herd can be
kept clean and reliable. The reason for all this care and expense
will appear evident to one who considers the points presented in the
next section.
TABULATION OF RESULTS OF DIAGNOSIS BY KOCH TEST COMPARED WITH
DIAGNOSIS BY PHYSICAL EXAMINATION.
Diagnosis by Koch’s Lymph.
Certainly tuberculous.
Probably “
Doubtfully “
“ sound
Probably “
Evidently “
18
6
2
2
2
9
! Of which, I
; y i
i i
1
V respect- \
ively, j
i\ [
J
l i; j
Were declared “sus-
picious” from the
physical
examination.
§ 2. What is Known about Tuberculosis,
Tuberculosis, also known as phthisis, pearl disease or consumption,
has hitherto remained incurable ; it is the most widely spread scourge
that mankind has to deal with. The proportion of adult deaths due to
this cause has been placed at a third, while at least a fifth of the infant
mortality has been traced to this cause. Some authorities say that
about a seventh of the whole population is carried off prematurely by
this disease. There are many persons who die of other diseases, and
again many whose bodies are not examined, who in all likelihood
have developed tubercles to an unknown extent. Then, too, there are
other diseases, evidently closely related, but in just what way science
has not yet discovered, such as scrofula and lupus ; even syphilis and
leprosy have been suspected of having relationship here. With all
due reserve, the most conservative of physicians admit the prime
importance of studies relating to this prince of maladies.
In 1882 Robert Koch definitely settled the question of the cause of
tuberculosis by discovering the parasite, the presence of which in the
animal tissues causes those degenerations and growths of abnormal
tissue known as tubercles. This parasite is a bacterium or bacillus , a
rod- like living organism less than one seventy- thousandth of an inch
thick and averaging one eight-thousandth of an inch in length. Like
other bacteria it grows and multiplies by feeding on the juices of the
body and reproduces by continual breaking into halves, each of which
is a complete organism from its birth. We can easily calculate
the immense numbers that would exist in a short time if the condi-
tions for feeding and reproduction continued favorable. Fortunately
our tissues fight these parasites and it is probable that the tuberculous
mass results from an attempt on the part of the tissue to imprison
9,
these marauders, because the blood-supply is cut off from the gland
or locality of growth by the formation of fibrous material, so that the
internal parts of the tubercle gradually change into cheesy material or
undergo other degenerative changes the nature of which is obscure.
Since this discovery by Koch, physicians have separated into three
divisions on the question of the cause and nature of consumption.
The first class says, let the germ once invade a healthy man and he
will contract the disease ; hence the full cause of the disease is the
presence of germs ; therefore we must combat them, kill them, isolate
all consumptive persons and animals, destroy all tuberculous meat
and food products ; in short, as soon and as thoroughly as possible,
eradicate this germ. This group of physicians is giving way, in part,
to a second group, now largely increasing in numbers, who believe
that an appropriate soil is necessary, a weak condition of constitution,
produced by poor feeding, bad habits and especially by poor ventila-
tion. Such a constitution presents appropriate conditions for the in-
vasion of disease germs. Science has considerable to say on this
point just now, and it seems likely that the “ proper soil ” theory will
narrow down to this, viz., the body is too weak to combat the entrance
of germs or to restrict them after entrance . This is done in various
ways, the most usual being the eating (to use a popular expression) of
the germs by the white cells of the blood, the lymph corpuscles ; also
the secretion of special poisons by certain tissues, inimical to the
germs, which are thus met by their own weapons, for it is now
recognized that bacteria produce disease by means of the poisons they
excrete while trying to gain their own subsistence. Scientific investi-
gation will doubtless discover other methods the body has of fighting
against these germs, the sum total of which powers constitutes good
health.
The third group of theorists is loth to give up the old view of
disease, that it is a condition of constitution produced by failure of
life forces to keep up a certain “ vital force ” in face of external
changes. Thus it follows that the environment causes disease in the
weak, e. g. a cold is produced by exposure. The products of dis-
ease, mucous or tubercle or what not, become breeding-grounds for the
bacteria which may or may not find their way thither. Certain
cases of tubercle, in which investigators failed to find the germs, are
brought up in evidence, and the reply of their opponents that the
2
10
bacilli must have been present originally is ridiculed as begging the
question.
It seems apparent that the members of the second group hold all
that is valuable in the evidence supporting the first and third classes
of views, and those who are familiar with disease germs by actual
experiment with them belong overwhelmingly to the middle class.
Thus the present verdict of authority emphasizes hygienic as well as
germicidal and quarantinal methods.
Are all tubercular growths due to a single species of germ ? From
what we know by analogy of germ investigations in general, we
might expect that the varieties of tubercle and of consumption are
due entirely to individual peculiarities of the person reacting on one
species of germ. Thus, the germ of quick consumption, when trans-
planted into another person, need not produce this variety of disease,
and similarly, the germ of chronic tubercle, in all likelihood, does not
change its nature when transplanted into a person who, as a result,
suffers from quick consumption. It is rational to believe that when
a person who has suffered for years from the “ slow ” variety suddenly
develops the “ quick ” variety, that his constitution has finally given
up the struggle. We all give up the struggle of life sooner or later,
and these germs are only a specific form of the varied forces that
cause death universally. The burden of proof lies with those who
assert that there are various distinct species of consumption germs.
Some tubercles, which are produced apparently without the agency of
germs, may be due either to ultra-microscopic spores, or the germs
may have disintegrated, possibly forming spores, which we know are
difficult, if not practically impossible, to demonstrate in certain cases.
The germ of tuberculosis in animals differs slightly as to size from
that thrown up in the sputum of consumptives, yet the character-
istic forms of tuberculosis have repeatedly been produced in animals
inoculated with tuberculous germs taken from man and from other
species of animals at will. Science has, indeed, shown that other
germs, as in actinomycosis, for example, do produce forms of tubercle
that have been mistaken for tuberculosis, but the same science that
demonstrates this specific difference is competent, by means of similar
methods, to pronounce upon the question of the unity of the disease
tuberculosis. While we admit that the question is not finally closed,
we must act on the evidence already in, and that evidence is in favor
of such unity.
11
To what extent are our domestic cattle affected with tuberculosis ?
Statistics of slaughter-house and meat inspection in various countries
rand cities give as an average about 3 per cent., but locally the
.percentage may rise far higher or may be lower ; 16 per cent, and 26
per cent, are some of the figures quoted. One authority has stated
that 50 per cent, of the cattle of Holland was infected. The entire
College herd of fifty-seven animals of the Maine State Agricultural
•College was slaughtered and buried as the result of physical examina-
tion alone. Our herd has been found tuberculous to the extent of
70 per cent. A herd at Burlington, N. J., injected with tuberculin
last autumn, was found affected to the extent of 60 per cent. A herd
of high-bred Jerseys at Villa Nova, Pa., was tuberculous to the
extent of 50 per cent. The Willard Asylum, N. Y., lost nearly two
hundred high-bred Holsteins. And, as inspection goes on, cases of
similar great infection are continually being reported. When once
tuberculosis has gained foothold in a herd, it rapidly spreads through
the entire lot. Our statistics show that by the use of tuberculin
twice as many cows were discovered infected as physical examination
;alone would have revealed. Statistics gathered in the past, based on
physical examination alone, are undoubtedly too small. Even those
based on meat inspection are probably under the truth. The majority
•of the cows shown to be tuberculous by our use of the Koch test had
tuberculosis in either incipient degree or so slightly that very thorough
examination of entrails and the lymphatic structures connected with
the lungs became needful in order to diagnose the disease from
autopsy. Are we sure that such examination of structures, usually
thrown on the refuse pile, though sometimes used in the manufac-
ture of sausages, was absolutely thorough ? As regards the carcass,
trimmed of these organs, it has been shown that only in the severest
oases, and then only to the extent of 10 per cent., is the muscular
portion invaded by bacilli, and then only to microscopic extent,
requiring inoculation experiments to demonstrate. Most observers
have failed utterly to find the bacilli in the meat of tuberculous
animals after the most careful work, consisting of inoculation
experiments.
How far are other animals affected? The domestic fowl is even
more subject to tuberculosis than the cow. Zurn found sixty- two
oases in six hundred examinations. More than ten per cent. Cats,
Hogs and especially swine are susceptible to this contagion, as are, in a
12
greater degree, captive animals. Rabbits, guinea pigs and mice are
so very susceptible that they are used in all delicate inoculation ex-
periments to test the presence of bacilli.
This disease has been termed both contagious and infectious, but
both these terms grow out of the fact that it is due to a germ, and
thus the old distinction between these terms is seen to be of secondary,
perhaps trivial, value. Certain it is that no matter how susceptible
a person or animal may be, if the germs are not introduced into the
system no disease of this sort will result. It is this conviction, rest-
ing on sure foundations, that is the real animus in the work of
physicians as they agitate in favor of methods for stamping out or
restricting the disease, on the one hand, by a quarantine of con-
sumptives, with extreme care in dealing with sputa ; and on the
other, by the destruction of tuberculous animals and care in the dis-
posal of their carcasses.
What conditions favor the state of susceptibility to consumption ?
First and foremost is bad ventilation. Naturally this weakens the
life-forces, and at the same time presents the germs in increased num-
bers in every breath. While in cultures, and in very susceptible
bodies, a single germ can generate millions of offspring, it is found
that the question of numbers of these parasites counts for much.
There is plenty of evidence to show that tuberculous subjects, whether
human or animal, are almost exclusively or at least in great majority
produced in ill-ventilated habitations. Next, if not of equal import-
ance, is sunlight. I find this point not sufficiently emphasized in the
numerous reports and hygienic recommendations that have been sent
out. People, as a rule, are afraid of the light. This is one of the
most sinful of unhygienic practices. The shady side of streets receives
more visits annually from the physicians than do the sunny side, in
spite of numerous sun shutting-out devices. Koch states that a few
hours of sunlight acting on a tuberculous germ will destroy it, and a
few days of diffused daylight are germicidal. Why neglect this chief
of disinfectants? We have bacteria classified as aerobic and anaerobic,
according as they thrive with or without access of air. We need to
classify bacteria as photic and aphotic. A next fertile source of sus-
ceptibility is heredity. I find this word used hardly a single time, by
writers, in its proper sense. The transmission of a germ from a mother
to a foetus is congenital transmission of disease (or congenital infection)
and never is itself true heredity, which word means the sum total of
13
the species characteristics as modified by the special environment in
which the individual is produced and to which the individuality is
due. Thus, if the tissues, by heredity, are strong, the tendency to
contract consumption at any period of life, prenatally or postnatally, is
slight. But if they are weak, the susceptibility in this regard is
strong or certain. This explains why consumption runs in families.
Possibly in these cases, many times, the foetus is infected from a con-
sumptive mother during gestation, or even from a father, before con-
ception, but such transmission is simply early infection. The acquir-
ing of consumption by infection in later life is as truly due to heredi-
tary influence as is foetal infection, in such cases. In this sense all
cases of consumption are always both hereditary and due to infection ;
but the special sort of infection termed “ hereditary” should always
be designated as “ congenital ” infection or transmission.
Finally, we have to enumerate general unsanitary living, overwork,
bad feeding, lack of exercise, dissipation and all bad habits that tend
to weaken the organism. It has been stated that a healthy lung can-
not be infected with tubercle germs, but there must exist some abrasion
or lesion, an inflammation, perhaps, due to the irritation of dust par-
ticles. Statistics show that workers in an atmosphere filled with dust
of various sorts suffer proportionally more from consumption. Such
abrasions and inflammations are less apt to arise in one who takes
good care of his health, original hereditary endowment being equal.
But we all have our special weaknesses, and at those points the fortress
is taken by some germ species or other. The weakest are first weeded
out. It is our duty to fight disease germs by scientific methods, as
well as by our phagocytes and toxalbumins ; thus our energies are
available in other lines and last longer. But it must never be for-
gotten that our present immunity from many of the germs about us,
at least for the average lifetime of man, has been purchased at the
expense of the weeding out of susceptible ancestors, so that we who
remain are the descendants of the strongest.
I point out a danger that may arise could we really succeed in ex-
tinguishing this species (which is not probable), viz., the evolution of
a weakened race, into which, at some future time, some germ now
restricted in its operations, shall suddenly make an incursion as a
Xi scourge of God.” We, in fact, aid the beneficent work begun by
these bacteria when we hasten the death of the animals which we are
responsible for having produced, with their weak constitutions : a
14
weakness due to our forcing methods of feeding, with brewers’ grains,,
for example, our overcrowding and, above all, our close inbreeding.
Biology teaches us that the great use of crossing is to produce vigor,,
but in the evolution of our dairy breeds this is, to a large extent,
neglected.
We should always emphasize the importance of hygienic methods of
life without lessening that fear of the germs which leads to cleanliness.
The promotion of aseptic and antiseptic conditions is only a particular
branch of hygiene. In what ways do the germs enter the body —
human and animal ? Some cases are undoubtedly due to congenital
infection or transmission. A case has been clearly established in
which a foetus was tuberculous, while the mother had tubercle in the
lung only. It is presumed that at some period a few bacilli or spores
had been carried by the blood to the placenta and had been trans-
ferred to the foetal circulation. Possibly, certain leucocytes had been
the carriers of the germs, for they, by diapedesis, it seems to me,
could be the only agents in such a transfer, as these bacilli are not
known to possess locomotor powers. That bacilli multiplying in one
part of the body may be transferred to distant portions of the body is
evident from an inspection of the evidence presented by numerous
histories of cases. It is also shown by the experiment of a Greek
physician, who inoculated a man in the thigh, and in a few weeks the
lungs, hitherto sound, were thoroughly infected. It is a plausible
supposition that the intrasomatic distribution of the bacilli is due to
the lymphatic circulation, although we have no evidence as yet that
the blood does not also aid. Tuberculosis is primarily a lymphatic-
disease : the lymph glands are the first to show signs of its presence.
We must also remember that the serum currents flow from the blood
vessels into the lymphatics.
A second method of infection is through abrasions or wounds of the-
skin and mucous membranes. Of this several cases are recorded. A
third method is through the breathing of air containing the bacilli.
In some way due to a lack of proper vigor of the cells lining the
bronchial tubes the bacilli are not carried out, but lie and probably
breed on the surface before penetrating into the interior. It seems to
have been taken for granted that every case of lung consumption has
arisen in some way similar to this. But it may be that the lung is
frequently infected through intrasomatic distribution. A fourth point
of entrance is through the walls of the alimentary canal. The pres-
15
ence of miliary tubercles on the intestine is supposed to point to this
conclusion. But we must not forget that intrasomatic distribution
may have followed a primary lesion in the lungs which may have
gone no further than a localized abrasion or inflammation of the air-
passages. If infection through the food be granted, we must assume
that the gastric and intestinal juices have failed to destroy the germ.
Then we have still to get it through the mucous membrane, and in
this instance the possibility of leucocytal infection and diapedesis must
likewise be granted. It is plain that the inference of the method of
infection from location of tubercular lesions is a complex one. That
infection may be produced both by inspiration and by ingestion, has
however, been abundantly proven by experiment.
Next as to the method of intersomatic transmission. We know
that in the human subject the expectorations are the prime source of
contagion. “ Millions of bacilli ” have been estimated as the daily
output from a single patient. The sputum, dried and turned to dust,
is in fit condition to contaminate both air and food. The atmosphere
in a room occupied by a small-pox patient is no more filled with dis-
ease germs than that occupied by a consumptive. But, of course, we
have to take many modifying circumstances into account when we
calculate the relative amount of “ risk ” of contagion or infection in
the two cases. These circumstances have been discussed in the pre-
ceding pages ; they are : light, air, cleanliness, vigor, heredity, close-
ness of contact, length of exposure and many others. Instances of
infection introduced by accessions of consumptives to healthy schools
could be cited.
A number of cases are on record of pet animals catching consump-
tion from their masters and mistresses. Even hens fed by a con-
sumptive have become infected. On the other hand, what risk is
there of transmission from animals to one another and to man ? They
do not, as a rule, expectorate, still it has been frequently noticed that
the introduction of a tuberculous animal in a herd has been followed
by the gradual spread of the disease throughout the herd, beginning
with the cows nearest to the source of contagion. In such cases it is
said that the drinking vessels receive the germs. This presupposes
that there is a gradual working up of small quantities of mucus con-
taining the bacilli. The excrement has been examined and is gener-
ally free from these bacilli. It has been suggested that the expiratory
16
breaths carry out the tuberculous germs, but we certainly need more
careful study of these points.
Finally, we have to ask, Does the milk of a tuberculous animal
contain tubercle bacilli ? This is important because milk is univer-
sally used, and is generally taken uncooked. Cooking destroys its
digestibility ; four per cent, of the fat of raw milk fails to be assimi-
lated ; this rises to six per cent, in the case of boiled milk. The non-
assimilable nitrogenous ingredients are similarly raised from seven to
eight per cent., and the milk-sugar also undergoes a change. These
changes do not take place if the milk be heated for a moment up to
185° F., a temperature which is germicidal, provided the milk be not
allowed to cool too rapidly.
The high percentage of infants showing intestinal tuberculosis has
been thought due to the use of contaminated milk. Older persons
using the same milk may not become infected. Other things being
equal, the number of germs per volume of milk is very important.
The subject has been investigated by feeding experiments, by culture
experiments, by inoculation of susceptible animals and by micro-
scopic examination. It was for some time believed, on the statement
of Koch, that the milk of a tuberculous cow would not contain
tubercle bacilli until the udder tissue became the seat of a tuberculous
process. But plainly the bacilli must be transferred thither before
the udder can become diseased. In the early stages of tuberculosis
very few, if any, bacilli are carried to the udder ; but in more ad-
vanced cases, showing tuberculosis by physical examination, Ernst
and Peters have found bacilli in the milk of one-half of the cases (the
udders apparently healthy), although other observers have secured
less striking, or more often negative, results. Even with inoculation
it is found that if milk which is tuberculous be diluted to a consid-
erable extent, forty or fifty to one hundred parts water being added
(or less if milk be added), it loses its infectious properties. Mixed
milk is therefore safer than the milk from a doubtful cow, provided
only one or two cows in a herd are affected.
Feeding experiments with calves and pigs have given positive
results with Ernst and Peters and others, and less positive or negative
results with still other observers. Microscopical examination, espe-
cially of milk, is the least satisfactory of all methods, because the germs
must be sufficiently numerous to give at least one germ for each drop
of milk, otherwise the chance of finding the germ is so small as to
17
increase the tediousness of search beyond practical limits. Ernst and
Peters, however, were successful in demonstrating the presence of the
germs in one- fourth of the cases.
In the light of these experiments the milk of a tuberculous cow must
be regarded with suspicion until proven pure . It is probably easier to
sterilize the milk than to have it examined. It is certaibly risky to
use it for feeding animals without boiling. It may, however, be
safely used as a whitewash on the outside of buildings, as when prop-
erly salted it makes a valuable paint. The germs have been found
equally in the cream and in the milk, so that we are as open to infection
through our butter as through our milk. It is the belief of some physi-
cians that if all tuberculous cows were destroyed consumption would
disappear from the human family. This is based on the observation
that where cows are absent there is no consumption. By the use of
Koch’s lymph we are now able to detect twice as many tuberculous
cattle as was possible by former methods. Should it prove infallible,,
succeeding in demonstrating every tuberculous animal (when used in
connection with physical examination), we have the means wherewith
to test the truth of the belief that human consumption is derived from
bovine tuberculosis. Nothing but good can be the ultimate result
from an attempt to weed out the tuberculous stock in our dairies, and
doubtless the breeder and the dairyman will find it to their highest
interest to effect this result as promptly as necessary.
§ 3. Detailed Record of Operations Relative to the Diagnosis of
Bovine Tuberculosis.
This section supplements section 1, and presents the scientific data'
of the experiments and observations which are to be discussed in
section 4.
The following order of work was followed as nearly as possible, in
the case of each cow in the herd :
(1) Physical examination by a veterinarian.
(2) Temperature per vaginam by means of a self- registering clinical
thermometer.
(3) Washing (with warm water and soap) of the right shoulder
and rinsing.
(4) Washing with a 4 per cent, solution of creoline, an antiseptic
claimed to be superior to carbolic acid.
3
18
(5) Injection, hypodermically, of approximately 50 minims (=3 cc.)
of a 10 per cent, solution of tuberculinum Kochii in a 1 per cent, solu-
tion of carbolic acid — the puncture swabbed with creoline solution.
(6) Temperature tested approximately every three hours for a
period of twenty-four hours.
(7) Examination of the records made by each cow and ascertain-
ment of the amount of reaction, as measured by the highest record
compared with the highest normal record. The latter, presumed to
be about at evening time, was given by the first two readings taken
before the tuberculin had time to act. In some cases a curve of the
temperatures was plotted, and in doubtful cases the temperatures
were observed again when the animal was not under the influence of
the “ lymph.”
(8) The assignment of each animal to a certain rank, determined
by the extent and certitude of the reaction ; the order of rank from
highest to lowest being taken as determining the order of slaughter.
We also determined, in case any doubt remained as to the stopping
point, that the occurrence of two successive cases of tuberculous-free
autopsies be the signal for stoppage.
(9) Samples of milk were drawn into clean tubes stopped with cot-
ton, the milk being taken from each teat separately.
(10) A portion of the milk was prepared by Thorner’s method for
determining the presence of tubercle bacilli by microscopic examina-
tion, after the use of the centrifugal machine. This method consists
in first alkalinizing the sample in a test tube with potash to the extent
of 1 per cent., next heating until the milk turns brownish and the fat
is partly saponified and the casein rendered soluble in acids, then
adding an equal amount of glacial acetic acid and heating until a
tolerably clear liquid results. This liquid is then whirled with four
thousand revolutions per minute, the sediment, containing tubercle
germs in a concentrated or aggregated mass, is washed in hot water,
which is again whirled for ten or fifteen minutes, and the new sedi-
ment is prepared for microscopic examination. The object is, first, to
get rid of the fat globules which always rise in a centrifugal machine
and drag at least half the bacteria with them ; second, to gather the
germs from a relatively large quantity of milk into a small compass,
so as to insure their being found under microscopic examination.
Our centrifugal machine was a Babcock tester, run by hand-power,
capable of giving only one thousand revolutions per minute, and after
19
thoroughly testing its ability to separate bacteria, and discovering that
•even after an hour’s whirling no appreciable diminution of germs
resulted near the surface, while only the coarser sediment (which,
however, dragged down a few bacteria) gathered at the bottom of the
tubes, I dropped this link in the series of tests.
(11) A portion of the milk was evaporated on glass slips and slides
in an incubator at 104° F., and some at 70°. All samples thus pre-
pared were inclosed, when dry, in envelopes and stored for future
work.
(12) A final portion of the milk was preserved, either by addition
of corrosive sublimate or of bichromate of potash, and stored in
cotton-plugged tubes for examination.
(13) The animals were next led to execution, killed, skinned and
opened by a butcher, under guidance of the observer.
(14) Samples from each quarter of the udder were preserved in a
weak alcohol, saturated with corrosive sublimate. To each piece of
tissue was pinned a number, and a record was kept of the reference
of each number to the proper kind, location, etc., of specimen. The
udder was, in each case, split down into the middle of each side to
note if any lesions were present. The inguinal glands were also
examined. Specimens of tissues other than udder were usually not
taken, except they presented either doubtful features, or something
peculiar, or possessed typical value.
(15) The trachea, heart, lungs and mediastinal glands were next
removed and thoroughly examined. Note was made of the extent to
which these structures were tuberculized, and often samples were pre-
served for microscopic examination.
(16) The liver and intestines and other abdominal organs were
next inspected. If tuberculosis was evident in the thorax, as our
object was primarily to test the diagnostic value of the lymph and to
destroy the diseased animals, we allowed only a superficial examina-
tion of the abdominal viscera to pass. We learned, however, soon to
look for lesions in certain favored localities, and these were quickly
inspected. These regions usually furnished the largest number of
specimens preserved for microtomic work.
(17) The uterus was examined, and if any foetuses were present, if
of small size, they were preserved, and if too large for the museum
jars, samples of their organs were taken. In the later cases, but, I
regret to say, not in the earlier ones, the ovaries were examined and
samples preserved.
20
We have, therefore, material for study which will throw light on
the following points :
(a) What tuberculous lesions can be diagnosed by physical exami-
nation, and what cannot ?
(b) What peculiarities characterize a tuberculous reaction with
Koch’s lymph — that is, can we certainly, by this test, select all tuber-
culous cattle ?
(bb) What may be expected as the normal range of temperature of
a cow?
(c) To what extent is the milk or udder involved in cases of bovine
tuberculosis ?
( d ) To what extent is congenital transmission or " foetal infection
operative ?
(dd) Does the feeding of milk from tuberculous cattle to calves-
produce infection ?
On all these points we have already more or less evidence, but not
so much but that we require more light before any consensus of
opinion and legal activity will result. While the primary object has
been the removal of tuberculous animals from the College herd, the
work has been so done as to enable us to increase our knowledge of
this disease, and it is expected that the publication of these results
will serve to increase any efforts now made in augmenting scientific
knowledge by others who are engaged in a similar work. Science
depends on a “ multitude of witnesses.” The reports we now have,.,
in many instances, give only one or two “ supposed ” cases, on the
strength of which important conclusions are made.
Finally, I must call attention to the fact that this is a report of
progress and is partial. The study has not gone far enough to allow
of publication of results under the heads of (bb), (c), ( d ), (dd) ; special
bulletins or reports will appear on these subjects as fast as the work
is completed. The main object of the present report is to introduce
the subject, to record the outline of work, to test the exact value of
Koch’s lymph and to indicate the rules for its use and the interpreta-
tion of “ reactions.”
In chronologic order, the work progressed as follows :
June 22d, 1893. First examination of Tryntje’s milk.
July 14th. First conference with Dr. Pearson.
July 24th. Injection of Tryntje. See Tables, Case 1.
21
August 11th. Milk from right hind quarter of Tryntje’ s udder gargety ; micro-
scopic examination shows tubercle bacilli.
August 15th — September 15th. During my absence in the West, Mr. Jones
•observes milk from each separate teat at each milking of Tryntje, and reports at the
close of the month that no change in the quality of the milk had taken place. The
milk from the one teat remained uniformly “gargety.”
October 7th. Second conference with Dr. Pearson. Doubt having been expressed
as to the conclusiveness of the evidence presented by my microscopic preparations,
I was asked to send sample of milk for study at the Laboratory of Hygiene, under
Dr. A. C. Abbott, University of Pennsylvania.
October 9th. Milk sent to Dr. Abbott. Misunderstanding having arisen as to the
use to be made of the sample, explanatory correspondence ensued.
October 18th. Dr. Abbott reported that microscopic examination showed presence
•of tubercle bacilli in said sample of milk.
October 29th. Tryntje gave birth to heifer calf.
November 8th. Tryntje’s calf and cow 66 injected, See Table, Cases 2 and 3.
November 9th. Tryntje’s calf killed. Dr. H. E. Baldwin, Dr. A. Y. N. Baldwin
and Mr. E. A. Jones assisted at the autopsy. Specimens preserved as follows : Lung,
tmse of left lung, apex of right lung, thymus gland, submaxillary salivary gland,
spleen, mesenteric glands, Peyer’s patches, liver, kidney capsule, kidney, small colon.
No microscopic lesions visible.
November 10th. Milk from right front quarter of Tryntje’s udder becomes
gargety. Kecommended that samples of milk from different teats be analyzed
•chemically.
The chemical analysis was made under direction of Dr. E. B. Voorhees, in the
€>tate Laboratory, with the following result, comparison being made with normal
milk and cases published by A. W. Blyth :
Solids.
"oi
&
Albumens.
Sugar.
Ash.
f Eight back teat
621
0.20
5.13
0.13
0.75
Case j “ front “
7.79
1.81
4.33
0.60
1.05
1. ] Left back “
8.83
1.93
3.92
2.11
0.87
L “ front “
9.79
2.58
3.93
2.24
1.04
Cow 73, entire bag
15.88
8.11
3.34
3.69
0.74
Cow f Normal milk (Blyth, p.
A. \ 221)
water.
86.87
3.50
4.75
4.00
0.70
qow f Five-year-old cow, right
p, < lung tuberculous
l (Blyth, p. 263)
s. gravity.
1.029
2.77
4.51
2.82
0.86
Dates.
Dec., ’78.
1.034
3.83
5.76
3.34
0.77
Feb, ’79.
p ( Two-year-old cow ad-
n < vanced phthisis (Blvth,
1 i c.) :....
1.033
2.60
3.00
2.89
0.91
Jan.
1.033
3.28
4.00
4.10
0.78
Feb.
f Cow with tubercular (?)
Cow j gargety udder (Blyth,
D. | 1 c.)
water.
94.64
0.49
3.60
0.47
0.76
s. gravity.
1.018
22
Remarks on above table: Fat content of tubercular milk is progressively reduced,.
The albumens vary considerably, the main change being in reduction of casein and
increase of “ albumen ” Sugar is greatly decreased, the ash is nearly unchanged, the
specific gravity is also reduced. The carbonaceous constituents suffer most change^
(reduction).
November 15th. Received letter from chairman of Farm Committee stating that
Dr. Loblein had examined cow 73 and diagnosed tuberculosis, locating the lung
deposit behind the left shoulder. The milk of this cow had been used to feed Fill-
pail’s calf (Case No. 5). Isolation and trial of tuberculin on both the cow and the
calf was recommended.
November 16th. Cow 73 injected; showed reaction. See Case 4.
November 30th. Tryntje died this morning. Autopsy held at 3 p. m., at which
were present Dr. Austin Scott, Director of the Agricultural College Station ; Dr. H.
R. Baldwin, Dr. A. V. N. Baldwin, Dr. E. L. Loblein, P. Calydon Cameron and the-
writer, besides the butcher and farm hands. The following notes were made.
Specimens numbered were preserved :
(1) Posterior part right hind quarter of udder, when cut, pus issued from,
milk ducts. (2) Middle portion of same quarter. (3) Right fore quarter of udder.
(4) Left fore quarter of udder. (5) Left hind quarter of udder. (6) Peritoneal
tubercle from left side. (7) Tubercles from pleura. (8) Spleen. (9) Omentum*
[caul]. (10) Small colon near ileocolic valve. (11) Tubercle from small colon.
(12) Mesenteric gland near small colon. (54) Left lung. (312) Liver. (119) Kid-
ney. (107) Base of right lung. (68) Muscle tissue, subscapular. The lumen of
small intestine and small colon practically obliterated by presence of a large sausage-
shaped tubercle that had grown into it. Thoracic and abdominal viscera adhered to.
pleural and peritoneal walls. Tubercles seen on the meninges of the cerebellum.
Part of posterior cerebral lobes also preserved. A heavy, peculiar odor arose from
the tissues, which had a very depressing effect on the author and was felt for several
days, although he has been accustomed to the dissection of “ rank” carcasses.
December 11th. Injected Fillpail’s calf, born November 8th, and fed on milk of
66. See Case 5. Calf strong and thrifty.
December 15th. Mr. Jones observed record of calf again without injection. See-
Case 5a.
December 23d. Held autopsies of Cases 3 and 4, Dr. H. R. Baldwin and Dr. E.
L. Loblein assisting. For general description, see section 1.
Tag 73. (1) Isolated tubercle from left lung. (2) Thymus gland, tuberculous;
mediastinal glands breaking down in center. (3) Apparently healthy tissue from-
right lung. (4) Right fore quarter of udder. (5) Yellow spot from surface of kid-
ney. (6) Nodules from liver ; four months’ bull foetus present preserved, also the-
amnion and placenta.
Tag 66. Right pleura studded with tubercles, of which (7) is a specimen ; left
pleura ditto ; both lungs tuberculous throughout; anterior and posterior mediastina
solid with tubercles. (8) Right front quarter udder. (9) Left front ditto. (10)
Right hind ditto. (11) Left hind ditto ; liver lead colored, studded with tubercles
and tubercle masses all through ; bile abnormal. (12) Pedunculated tubercle from*
liver. (13) Friable tissue of liver. (14) Omental tubercle. (15) Part of smalb
colon.
23
December 28th. Dr. Loblein begins thorough physical examination of herd.
December 29th. Injected cases 7 to 25, inclusive. See table. Time occupied,
6 p. M. to 8 p. M. One assistant washed the right shoulder, followed by second
assistant, who applied creoline. Two men held the animal in place by means of
rails on both sides. Mr. Jones took the temperature. Amount of dose for each case
determined by rough guess at relative size of cow.
January 2d, 1894. Injected cases 26 to 41, inclusive. Time, 6 p. m. to 7 p. m.
January 5tli. Received a bottle of milk from cow in herd of George VandrufF,
Deckertown, N. J., which differed in no microscopic respect from the “gargety”
milk of Tryntje. At this time I was engaged in certain microscopic investigations
bearing on the interference of chromatic aberration of bacteria with diagnosis by
staining, so did not study this milk microscopically, but determined to visit the
herd and test it with tuberculin first. I had hitherto supposed that Trjntje’s milk
received its characters from the presence of tubercle in her udder, but after investi-
gating this herd I adopted the opinion that the condition of Tryntje’s milk was due
to garget, and not to tubercle. The correctness of this view would be somewhat
shaken should microscopic examination of Tryntje’s udder show that tuberculous
lesions were present only on the right side. At this date this conclusion was not
fully matured, and I expected to find evidence of tuberculosis in the VandrufF herd.
January 6th. Asked Mr. Jones to retake the temperatures of cows 11, 68, 244, 4,
16 and 71 without injection. This was done January 9th, and repeated January
10th, making two records for each cow.
January 12th. Held autopsies on cows 15, 13, 39 and 77, being Cases 27, 17, 23
and 15, respectively, Dr. Loblein directing.
Tag 15, Case 27. Lungs were sound, anterior and posterior mediastinal glands
tuberculous, liver friable. (1) Inguinal gland. (2) Right hind quarter of udder.
Tag 13, Case 17. Large tubercles in left lung, bronchi filled, mediastinal glands
tuberculous, liver leaden and friable. (6) Left front quarter of udder. (7) Left
hind ditto. (9) Right front ditto. (10) Right hind ditto.
Tag 39, Case 23. Posterior lobe of right lung has large tubercle ; many small
tubercles attached to pleural membrane of luDgs, of which (4) is sample. Small
tubercles on and in left lung. Mediastinal glands decidedly tuberculous, liver
leadeD, friable and with its surface covered with small tubercles. Surface of intes-
tine covered with miliary tubercles. (3) Left front quarter of udder. Eight
months’ foetus present. (40) Thymus of foetus.
Tag 77, Case 15. Miliary tubercles on intestines, liver leaden and friable, medias-
tinal glands with incipient small tubercles, lungs apparently sound. (35) Inguinal
gland. (36) Right front quarter of udder. (37) Left front ditto (38) Right hind
ditto. (39) Left hind ditto.
Inspected the VandrufF herd, thirteen animals Six, on physical examination,
were supposably sound. Eight were chosen for injection at 9 p. m., each with 50
minims tuberculin. The herd seems to have been invaded by a disease, either con-
tagious or due to conditions affecting all, or nearly all, the cattle alike. Swellings
had appeared at the joints of the legs, the coat was rough, considerable coughing
was heard, one or more of the quarters of the udders had swollen and the milk had
become wheyey, with clots. In fact, the symptoms of garget were typically exhibited,
together with pneumonic troubles. The disease had come and subsided in some of
the cases, and at times re-appeared. The attack had begun with the advent of cold
24
weather. One animal, sick in November, had been purged and was found dead next
morning. This was dug up and an examination of its lungs made, January 13th, 3
p. m. These organs were in a highly-inflamed and congested condition, being dark
purple in color, but showed no lesions of a tubercular nature. In detail, the animals
injected were as follows : Black heifer, sound ; range, 2.5°. Jumbo, left front quarter
first affected two months before ; still somewhat hard, but milk all right again ; on
auscultation, heard slight murmur ; range, 1.2°. Yellow heifer, left hind quarter of
udder began to show signs of disease December 22d ; the swelling has disappeared
from the legs ; the left hind quarter of udder is still hard ; no especial sounds heard on
auscultation ; range, 1.4°. Gray heifer, left front and left hind quarters of udder have
been affected six weeks ; legs had been swollen and bowels loose ; slight murmurs
heard on right side ; range, 1.6°. Ollie is lean, coughs a good deal, muzzle ‘ sweats ; ”
entire udder enormously swollen and hard ; cow lies down a great deal ; legs not
swollen, hair rough ; initial temperature, 103.2°, is highest ; range, 1.2° ; samples of
milk secured; respiratory murmurs very strong; evident lung trouble; record re-
sembles that of Tryntje, and many physical signs seem to point to same conclusion ;
nevertheless, did not diagnose a case of tuberculosis, owing to the records shown by
other cows and the evidence for garget and pneumonia. I reasoned that probably
one affection was present. The absence of tubercular reactions from the other sick
members as well as from Ollie, shows that tuberculosis is not present in the herd,
for if present, the likelihood would be that all cows would have it and some reaction
would be shown. Hence, the high initial temperature of Ollie points to the presence
of a disease other than tuberculosis. Brown cow, whole udder swollen ; right hind
quarter hard, pressure causes shrinking ; left horn is warmer than right ; left hock is
swollen and painful ; range, 0.2°. Star cow, right side and left hind quarter of udder
swollen and hard; respiratory soughing heard; range, 2.1°; the initial temperature,
102,1, is highest. Brindle, was very bad, but now the milk is coming down ; the legs
were sore and swollen ; now much better ; range, 0.8°.
The temperatures of these cows were taken at 9 to 10 in the evening, before injec-
tion, again at 6 in the morning, at 9:30 A. m., at 2:30 p. m. and at 4 p. m. (See Table
XVI., at close of this report.)
In February, a letter from Mr. Vandruff tells us that there has been slow improve-
ment and only in case there is a decided change for the worse will he consent to have
a cow killed, without compensation, by the National Bureau of Animal Industry,
which has become interested in the case through notice given by Dr. Hunt, Secretary
of the New Jersey State Board of Health.
January 15th. Held autopsy on cow 6. Case No. 39. Left lung, anterior lobe, has
a large tubercle. (1 ) Small tubercles on ventral lobe of right lung ; liver leaden, friable
with tubercles on surface and within it. Mediastinal glands greatly enlarged and
tuberculous; numerous miliary tubercles on small intestines. (41) Right front quar-
ter of udder. (43) Left front ditto. (44) Right hind ditto. (45) Left hind ditto. (5)
Small intestine.
Fillpail’s calf (Case 5) autopsied in the afternoon, shows no macroscopic lesions of
tubercle. (11) Glands from ileum near ileo-colic valves. (12) Thymus. (13) Pos-
terior mediastinal gland. (14) Anterior mediastinal gland. (15) Encysted blood
clot(?) on stomach. Also a dark lymph gland from liver preserved.
January 16th. Autopsied cows 51, 8, 5 and 71, i. e. Cases 40, 19, 18 and 36. Dr.
Loblein, examiner.
25
Cow 51, Case 40. Several incipient tuberc’es fc und on all three lol es of left lung;
mediastinal glands apparently sound, liver slightly leaden. (68) White spot on
liver. (55) Posterior mediastinal gland. (64) Lung. (56) Mesenteric gland, also (o).
(70) Peyer’s patch.
Cow 8, Case 19. Left lung with incipient tubercles, right, marbled, pneumonic; pos-
terior mediastinal glands tuberculous, yellowish green; liver apparently sound ; five
months’ foetus present. (28) Small intestine. (51) Left front quarter of udder. (59)
Left hind ditto. (63) Right hind ditto. (66) Right front ditto.
Cow 5, Case 18. Congested area on right lung, posterior mediastinal glands tuber-
culous, right side of udder at base, tuberculous ; miliary tubercles on intestine and
liver; seven months’ foetus present. (71) Inguinal gland. (27) Left hind quarter
of udder. (61) Left front ditto. (50) Right hind ditto. (52) Right front ditto. (23)
Thymus of foetus.
Cow 71, Case 36. Inflammations and miliary tubercles on pleura of libs, left side;
mediastinal glands extremely hypertrophied, with tuberculous deposits; large tubercles
on superior part of anterior lobe, right lung, while posterior lobe of same side presents
gangrenous and congested condition, with miliary tubercles; left lung more tuber-
culous than the right; pancreas appeared abnormal; liver is tuberculous, and some
miliary tubercles present on the intestine ; three months’ foetus present. (60) Pan-
creas. (17) Left hind quarter of udder. (58) Left front quarter. (21) Right hind
ditto. (19) Right front ditto.
January 20th. Autopsies of cows 9, 12 and 16, Cases Nos. 14, 12 and 28, Dr,
Loblein assisting.
Cow 12, Case 12. Posterior mediastinal glands tuberculous; anteiior apparently
absent or rudimentary; lungs apparently sound ; liver leaden, has large tubercles;,
ovaries abnormal ; miliary tubercles on intestine. (53) Left ovary. (16) Right hind
quarter of udder. (83) Left hind ditto. (88) Right front ditto. (91) Left front
ditto. (62) Bronchial gland.
Cow 9, Case 14. Posterior lobe of left lung very tuberculous; liver apparently
healthy ; miliary tubercles on small intestine ; left ovary abnormal ; mediastinal
glands rudimentary; apparently garget-like condition in left hind quarter of udder.
(20) Left hind quarter. (84) Left front ditto. (22) Right front ditto. (87) Right
hind ditto. (26) Left ovary. (25) Small intestine.
Cow 16, Case 28. Posterior mediastinal glands tuberculous, and one broken down
in center to fluid condition ; spot on lung congested and gangrenous ; pimples
(miliary tubercles?) on colon ; abnormal growth on left ovary. (33) Udder. (86)
Broken-down mediastinal gland. (57) Posterior mediastinal gland. (89) Congested
pait of lung. (18) Lymphatic gland from stomach. (32) Tubercle pimple from
colon. (65) Small intestine, with pimples. (69) Colon, with pimples. (54) Left
ovary. (29) Upper part of Fallopian tube.
January 22d. Autopsies held on cows 68, 244, 56 and 4, Cases 20, 21, 32 and 25.
Cow 68, Case 20. Lungs sound, bronchial glands tuberculous, miliary tubercles on
intestine. (94) Right front quarter of udder. (115) Right hind ditto. (103) Left
hind ditto. (82) Left front ditto. (104) Bronchial gland. (24) Left ovary. (98)
Right ovary.
Cow 244, Case 21. Posterior cephalic lobe of right lung one mass of small tuber-
cles; posterior mediastinal glands tuberculous. (110) Right hind quarter of udder.
(92) Right front ditto. (113) Left hind ditto. (106) Left front ditto. (107) In-
guinal gland. (96) Left ovary. (85) Right ovary.
4
26
Cow 56, Case 32. Large tubercles on principal lobe of left lung ; bronchial and
mediastinal glands highly tuberculous; tuberculous (?) papillae on intestine; left
ovary bears papillae that require investigation ; very large tubercle in dorsal medias-
tinum, near diaphragm. (Ill) Inguinal gland. (67) Left front quarter of udder.
(101) Left hind ditto. (109) Right front ditto. (80) Right hind ditto. (93) Intes-
tinal papilla. (31) Left ovary. (102) Right ovary.
Cow 4, Case 25. Very fat ; inguinal glands perhaps abnormal ; dorsal mediastinal
glands very tuberculous ; right lung a mass of small tubercles ; liver abnormally soft
and leaden ; miliary tubercles on intestine ; twin foetuses present in uterus. (105)
Left hind quarter of udder. (114) Left front ditto. (112) Right front ditto. (108)
Right hind ditto. (97) Inguinal gland. (81) Intestine. (100) Right ovary.
(99) Left ovary.
February 5th. Autopsy of cow 11 (Case 16) imperfect, due to ignorance of
butcher, who failed to keep the parts most needed for examination ; no responsible
parties being present during the slaughter. The butcher reported pleural adhesions
of lung walls. A portion of lungs recovered failed to show macroscopic tuberculous
lesions. (A) Bronchial gland. (AA) Part of lung.
February 6th. Writer and Mr. Jones present during slaughter of cow 75 (Case 13).
Principal lobe of right lung showed large tubercles (size of a fist) ; mediastinal glands
tuberculous, inguinal glands enlarged ; no macroscopic tuberculous lesions seen on
section. (B) Left hind quarter of udder. (C) Inguinal gland. (D) Small bronchial
gland.
February 8th. Lungs and inguinal glands of cow 17 (Case 26) were brought to
the laboratory by Mr. E. A. Jones. He reported that he saw no tubercles on the
intestines. Examination of material brought showed inguinal glands rather larger
than normal, but on section no tuberculous lesions visible ; lungs were apparently
sound. Samples preserved were marked XVII.
February 15th. Dr. Loblein injected 52 and 53 (Cases 42 and 43), the results
plainly showing a reaction with 52 and a doubtful reaction with 53.
February 24th. Lungs of 52 (Case 42) and liver and lungs of 2 (Case 8) left by
Mr. Jones to be examined at the laboratory ; animals killed the day before.
Cow 2 (Case 8) showed extreme tuberculosis of the brochial glands ; milk taken,
but udder was thrown away. Liver congested and with incipient tubercles. (2a)
Liver.*
Case 42. Mr. Jones reported that the lungs and intestines had been examined by
him and no lesions discoverable. Dr. Loblein joined me in examination of these
lungs. Near the surface were local areas of superficial inflammation, in which were
very small tubercles, with cheesy deposits in their centers. The bronchial glands
presented small pus (?) cavities within. (52a) Lung tissue. (52 b) Bronchial gland.
Samples for desiccation also taken.
February 28th. Mr. Jones brought portions of intestine, udder, liver and lungs
of 55 (Case 24) to the laboratory. On posterior part of main lobe of right lung, a
spherical tubercle of the size of a hazelnut was found, otherwise the lungs appeared
sound ; liver was peculiarly pitted, otherwise tuberculous lesions appeared absent ;
the intestines were well covered with miliary tubercles the size of small peas and
caseous in center. Samples preserved.
27
§ 4. Summaries of Data , Tables and Discussion of Same.
Milk has been preserved from the four teats, separately, in the
•cases of cows 66, 77, [Ollie, yellow heifer, brown heifer and Jumbo,
of Vandruff herd], 6, 8, 71, 5, 14, 20, 9, 30, 25, 22, 23, 56, 4, 68,
244, 2 and 55, or more than twenty cases.
Foetuses have been found in cows 73, 39, 8, 5, 71, 4, and Tryntje
and Fillpail also had each a calf that were used in feeding experi-
ments.
Excluding the bull and a cow sold early in the season of experi-
mentation and including the tuberculous cow slaughtered early in
August, and the heifers and calves, 43 animals are to be counted as
included in this investigation, and of these, 28 animals have been
under autopsy, in which two calves and two cows did not show macro-
scopic tuberculous lesions and are therefore still in doubt ; the others
were decidedly tuberculous. The temperature records of the calves
and the doubtful cows are in themselves not decisive, although run-
ning as high as some cases showing decided tuberculosis, but every
case of undoubted reaction proved to be undoubtedly tuberculous,
whether diagnosed “ suspicious ” or as “O. K.” by physical examina-
tion. These and other facts become more strikingly apparent from
inspection of the succeeding tables.
College Farm Herd, Injected December 29th and January 2d, 1893-94.
28
•ainiuiaduiax
umnnx'Bft jo aanj,
8 p. m.
12 m.
5 a. m.
12 m.
5 am.
10 p. m.
6 p. m.
1 p. m.
4 p. m.
4 pm.
6:30 p. m..
1 p. m.
4 p. m.
6 a. m.
1 p. m.
1 p. m.
6 a. m.
4:30 p. m.
5 p. ni,
•amvBjadutax
umtmxBj\[ oj auttx
£© CO 00 OO CM ^ ©00<N CM©00^>CMOO 00 CM CM CM
£ rH t-H iH HW <N rtCIHH HrlN ^
•ampsiaduiax umunxBj\[
103.35
104.8
106.3
106.0
101.6
102.0
101.8
103.1
102 6
102.6
102.4
105.2
103.4
105.4
105.3
103.6
106.5
106.2
1054
amjBiadutax
XBijiui xnojj osiy
CM CM OO CO © CM CO ^ © rH nj< CM © T* i-h CM CO CM CM-
rH CM CO CO rH © r-i CO CM ©TjilOCMCO^* CO©© lO
1 1 1
•oSubh
CM CM CO © 0O ^ OO H ^ CM rj« -H* l> CM CO TfJ C>
rH CM CO CO CM © rH CO CO CM CO r*1* lO © © l6
24 hours.
Period
VIII.
•ui d i-9
•smoq QZ-fZ
6 p. m.
105.8°
6:30 p. m
100.5
101.7
100.0
101.8
100.8
104.2
101.8
101.2
103.3
103.4
105.2
105.0
7:30 p. m.
1Q3.5
21 hours.
Period
VII.
•ui d f-z
•smoq ZZ-QZ
4 p. m
103.6°
103.3
3:30 p. m.
105.0
4 p. m.
103.6
4 p. m.
101.1
102.4
102.6
102.6
100.0
105.2
103.4
101.5
104.0
102.0
105.0
106.2
5 p. m.
105-4
18 hours.
Period
VI.
•ui -d z-Zl
•smoq 61-81
11:30 a. m.
102.0°
12 m.
104.8
103.0
106.0
1045
1 p. m.
100.7
103.1
101.4
100.2
99.6
105.2
102.7
103.7
105.3
103.6
105.5
105.0
2 p. m.
104.6
15 hours.
Period
V.
•ut *B it -i
•smoq 81-SI
7:15 a. m.
101.2°
7:15 a. m.
104.0
7:30 a. m.
105.8
8 a. m.
105.8
9 a. m.
104.0
9 a. m.
101.4
102.6
101.0
102.0
101.0
104.6
101.6
104.5
105.2
101.2
106.0
104.9
10 a. m.
104.8
12 hours.
Period
IV.
•ut ”8 i~q
•smoq 81-ix
5 a. m.
102.2°
5 a. m.
103.2
106.3
101.4
104.6
5:30 a. m.
101.8
100.0
100.8
101.0
101.8
99.8
104.6
100.8
105.4
103.6
100.4
106.5
103.2
6:30 a. m.
101.3
9 hours.
Period
III.
•ut -b f-z
smoq u-8
3 a. m.
102.2°
2 a. m.
103.2
106.3
105.0
104.2
101.6
6 hours.
Period
II.
•ui -b z~Zl
smoq 8-S
12:30 p. m.
103.2°
1 a. m.
101.0
100.0
100.0
101.2
98.0
100.8
100.0
101.8
100.6
98.4
101.8
101.8
2 a. m.
100.4
3 hours.
Period
I.
ui d oi-8
smoq f~z
10 p m.
103.1°
8:15 p. m.
102.8
8.55 p. m.
103 4
8 p. m.
103.4
9 p. m.
101.8
10 p. m.
102 0
9 p. m.
101.2
100.8
99.2
101.4
100.6
101.2
100.2
101.0
100.6
101.6
101.0
99.8
10 p. m
100.6
<
« w
H 2
w 2
05 2
o 3
w s
a ^
H
•ut d 8*S
amj
-Biadutax iBiqui
8 p. m.
103.35°
6 p. m.
102 6
6:30 p. m.
102.5
5 p. m.
102.4
5:30 p. m.
103.0
6 pm.
101.8
6:15 p. m.
101.8
100.0
100.6
6:30 p. m.
102.2
102.4
100.0
101.4
302.0
101.2
7 p. m.
100.4
100.2
100.0
7:15 p. m.
100.2
sramiH— asocr
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•asBQ jo laquintf
I rH <N to ■H' m Q 1>0C® ©HNM^o ©l>00 ©>
.o HHHHHH HHH tH
Not under influence of injection.
29
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30
EXPLANATION OF TABLE I.
The eight periods of three hours each cover the night and day,,
twenty-four hours in all ; but, of course, it was impossible to inject
and to observe all the cows simultaneously, so that there is some de-
parture from fixed hours. The earlier cases were not observed with
the regularity of the later ones. Cases 42 to 50 were injected by Dr.
E. L. Loblein, the last eight cases being the new cows added to the
herd to date of beginning work on this report. Case 9 ii is case 9 in-
jected a second time. Case 5 a properly belongs to Table III., but does
not fit into its period so well as here. Dotted lines represent absence
of observation. The column headed “ rise from initial temperature n
is the “ approximate reaction ” as usuaily calculated. When a minus
sign precedes a number in this column it represents a fall from initial
evening temperature, calculation being made to the lowest record ; thus
the range and negative reaction are the same. For dates of injection
see later tables.
TABLE II.
Showing College Herd, With Data From Autopsies, Etc.
31
Result of Autopsy.
1 OOlNOiH^
•sisoinojeqnx I*?ox p* 01 ^
i> : :
ABDOMEN.
•o?3 | 50
rH <N ;
CO
cm : : jco :
: j • **" lw
‘sonijsajui ^r-1 ^ ^
tji ^ : : tp : tp :
t* id ^ : : co
•lOAri
■<*03 :
in : :
T*<
OW ;M^O j ;
ec iH (M ico
THORAX
•SpUBJO
io : :
CO CO © CM i ^ CO CO CO CO
t* : io : ^ tp
'Binojj
puB sSanq;
^ : © © :
cm :rH :
«" 1 j
OiOO^^HMO^
afjioooH
•ss30xa fBnnxuH jsoqSiH
^ CM CO ^ CO
ri* CO ^ Tji* CM* .
tOCMT^t^©iO©OOOtO
CO rH CO CO CM lO TP CO CM CO
OM' <33 50 00
rfi ’ <N CS .-H
qsoj, qoos j£q sisouSbiq;
Probably Tuberc...
Rpfl.nt.inn
Tuberc
Tuberc
Reaction
O K
Probably Tuberc...
Possibly Tuberc. (?)
Possibly 0. K. (?) ...
Prohablv O. K
Tuberc
Probably Tuberc...
Tuberc
Tuberc
Probably Tuberc...
Tuberc
Tuberc
Tuberc
Tnherc
Tuberc
O K
Tuberc
Probably Tuberc...
Tuberc
Probably Tuberc. ...
Tuberc
Tuberc
L
i ,
IC
Probably 0. K
0. K
•UOHOBOa IB^Oi ispot;
C© t> CM CM : 05 t-I rH 1
CM ^ CO : ;
:05!>©iOiO’*fiCOOOOOQO©©'^OOOOiO©
: to CO ^ OOI>IO CM l> t'* CO cc to CM
■noijBniTU'Bxa;
IBOisTqj jo 'unsay;
Tuberc
O. K
Tuberc
Tuberc
O. K
Suspected...
0. K
Suspected ..
0. K
0. K
Suspected...
Suspected ..
Doubt
Suspected...
Suspected ..
O. K
Tuberc
f> K
Tuberc
O K
33 J’O : :
u : <y ; :
: gW & :w
O k
;PPO co :d
Ky
C
0. K
0. K
•miB.j j'B Shot; ayoh
2 yrs. 4 mos...
1 mo
2 yrs. 8 mos...
2 yrs
9 weeks
2 yrs. 2 mos...
2 yrs. 1 mo....
2 yrs 8 mos...
2 yrs. 6 mos...
2 yrs. 11 mos..
2 yrs. 2 mos...
2 yrs 9 mos...
1 vr. 2 mos
2 yrs 2 mos...
2 yrs. 3 mos...
1 yr. 3 mos
2 yrs
1 yr. 11 mos...
2 yrs. 9 mos...
2 yrs 1 mo ...
2 yrs. 9 mos...
2 yrs. 11 mos..
2 yrs. 6 mos...
2 yrs 4 mos...
1 yr. 11 mos...
1
>
1
■ C
ia
2 yrs. 11 mos..]
TO mos 1
•ooanos
U. P
Bred
I IM ; ;d j jd*
idmmd^dmQoo^EH^aQcc^^o-
: ;H|>0 | ;
!<=
ip.
D. H. V...
P. D
*8§Y
.
9 yrs
1 mo
10 yrs
2 yrs
9 weeks
13 yrs
7 yrs
2 yrs. 6 mos...
12 yrs
12 vrs
• a
7 yrs
10 yrs
6 yrs
9 yrs
6 yrs
8 vrs
9 yrs
2 vrs
9 yrs
7 vrs
9 yrs
2 yrs. 4 mos...
1 yr. 11 mos...
)
i
■>>
< a
9 yrs
6 yrs
•poaig
Holstein
Jersey Holstein...
Holstein
Shorthorn
Jersey Holstein...
Ayrshire
Holstein
Holstein
Shorthorn
Holstein
Holstein
Ayrshire
Shorthorn
Shorthorn
Jersey
Guernsey
Holstein
Shorthorn tirade
Holstein
Native
Jersey
Shorthorn
Holstein
i
12
\s
Grade Holstein...
[Native
NAME OF ANIMAL.
Tryntje No. 2
Trvnt.ie’s Calf
Maria Starr j
Marion Perkins
Fillpail’s Calf.
Mary Gold
Woodland Caphea
Edith Thompson
Fillpail
Chine
>
£
s
>r=S
Miss Cornelia 8th
Kitty Clay 2d 1
Chautauqua Bell 1
Lily Champion
Bertha Hadley
Ada Neilson
Winifred
Miss Thompson
Rena
Grace Buttercup
Kittv Clay 3d
Hulda Chloe
i
>
b
l
i
> a
» £
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ii
Pauline
Marjory
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32
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Result of Autopsy.
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s
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ABDOMEN.
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THORAX
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<©c*ooc^So<oSoabiOiO>
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os
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o : >,p-.
5 : © <t\
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«- . OJ
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og^s
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* No tag.
33
EXPLANATION OF TABLE II.
This table gives tag and name, the breed and age of the cows in
the herd. The column headed “ source ” gives the initials of the man
from whom the cows were bought, the locality of his residence being
reserved for later tables. The next column shows how long the cows
have been at the College farm, then follow the results of physical
examination.
The succeeding columns were calculated from the temperature
figures and the autopsies. The first three columns have been borrowed
from tables to be hereafter discussed, and need not now receive further
attention; the columns under “ result of autopsy” were calculated
as follows :
0=no tubercle.
l=suspected microscopical tuberculosis.
2=incipient tuberculosis.
3=several small or few large tubercles.
4=miliary tuberculosis, many large, or very many small tubercles.
5= thoroughly- advanced tuberculosis of an organ, seriously injuring
its functions
6=extreme tuberculosis ; on the verge of death.
Each lung and each pleuron counted as a separate organ, the thoracic
lymphatic glands, the liver, the intestinal canal and mesenteries, spleen,
caul, etc., and finally the ovaries, kidneys, etc., each received counts
by itself— judged on the above scale — and the sum is the “ total tuber-
culosis ” — necessarily rough, and not so valuable as if we had given
the values at the time of autopsy, this evaluation will still help to
give indications of a general nature in succeeding studies.
5
TABLE III.
Temperatures of Tuberculous Cows After Influence of Tuberculin Has Ceased.
34
•apiaqnj, jo lunoniv |
: : t> :
8
L
01
96
11
91
L
TIIA pouaj uiojj 8sih |
«ooqeor-<i«eoeo<o05-IoDooto^;i-i^H-H^H^iftc<no i
(NOHHdo'odd'Sdfio cjd'S'S’So'ddo :
| fe fcPufc
•ajtuBjeduiax
tnmnix'BK jo atmx
a a a a a a a a g a a a a a a a a a g g a a ;
« p, o3 (i, oj o3 oj <S <N fi «8 08 «3 P. ft ft ft ft to <N aj o3 :
os n« os to os os os os ,_l to os os os to to to 1-1 r"H to os •
•aim
-madniax xntunix'BK
100.6
101.0
co © oi os > ■*» i-j in os o ao os o i> eo © ^ t> iq oo to :
§ S § § ^ :
•sSubh
!OOMH>»iOH05050«OOOn<0>tOUiWMMto •
<n‘ rt fi h o o’ o h o o h d o' h h ri o h d r4 rA rA ;
•in -dg
TIIA poiJ9d
o«ooixoHiocoo5Cioeooo«o^!Ootoo :
•nt *d f
TIA poiiaj
tooioootoi>05oaoto05i>coini>05oc<it^iot^o '
™zi 1
TA P0TI9J 1
1
,
!8
I
100.4
99.9
100.5
co • oa : Tf 2 oo :
§ j§ I| ji i
•nr n 6
*A po laax
to<Neoo5C^05Tj<r^oi>;ooqo5i>e<5'«#i>otoaoiqtq j
SSoSoSoooS 08 o" o' 3 o § o S o *' S j
•m "8 og:Q
•AI POII8J
99.5
100.0
99.0
100.6
98.9
i lni.o
> Tf T* l-H O O to O O ■<* TjH TP O 1> 01 00 t* I
§§||§lill’g|§||s’g’ i
DATE.
January 9
“ in
• • •
• • •
• J •
• • •
2*5
• • •
• • !
• • J
) CO TT C5 c
«<N<M f-
••••••••••••*••••
• •
•••••••••••••••a,
• • • • . ••••*•**•••*
• • • • •
5(^dcioa5da>dco^ccVco^co«i* :
i f-H rH r-t HdCl OUNd •
j ’8S80 jo laqnmM
I 8at)'8eae«8loe*5oeoeoe'oe'0 8
* See Table I.
TABLE IV.
Temperatures of Non-reacting Cows After Influence of Tuberculin Has Ceased.
35
*IIIA poua j moij asin
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.1
Fall.
Fall.
0.6
Fall.
•amjBiadtnax
umunxBK jo amix
6 a. m.
9 a. m.
6 a. m.
9 am.
6 p. m.
6 p. m.
4 p. m.
4 p. in.
•ainj
-Bjadniax nmnnxBK
100.7
101.2
101.2
101.9
100.8
100.7
101.2
101.0
•aSuBg
inionoot'Ot'ia
ooodHHod
•at -d 9
*IIIA pouaj
100.4
100.8
101.0
101.8
100.8
100.7
100.6
101.0
•in *d f
*IIA pouaj
100.5
101.0
101.2
101.3
99.9
102.2
101.2
101.0
•in zi
*IA pouaj
<N I> © .H ^ t> ifi
8§3S§ig§§
•in "B 6
•A poxiaj
100.5
101.2
101.2
101.9
100.0
100.7
100.8
100.8
•Hi -B os:g
*AI pouaj
100.7
100.9
101.2
101.6
99.9
100.0
100.5
100.5
:
:
: : : !
3- = = = = r =
a
•asBQ jo laqnmtf
36
EXPLANATION OF TABLES III. AND IV.
Table III. gives the temperatures of cases at first considered doubt-
ful in their reaction, taken after the influence of the injection ha&
ceased and for two days, the hours chosen being those at which the
apparent reaction took place. By comparison with the corresponding
temperatures under Table I., we can gain important information as to
the presence of reaction. As will be seen, reaction took place in*
every case, and the autopsies justify the conclusion. The “approxi-
mate reaction ” (that is, the difference between initial evening tem-
perature and the maximum, though, of course, no real reaction can be
present in absence of injection) could in these cases be calculated from
the evening temperature at close of day. Of course, this is just as
allowable as to use the temperature of the evening of the previous-
day, as is ordinarily done. It could be used in tubercular cases, except
that the reaction often lasts over into the night, thus disturbing this
temperature; but, as a rule, previous observers have not extended
their observations to the second evening. Cases 9 and 10 of Table IV.
seem to show small reaction, and have, therefore, been included with
reacting cases in subsequent tables.
Cases Arranged in Order of Absolute Height, Giving Class, According to Koch Test, Based on
Height, Apparent Reaction and Range.
37
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CD GO I> CD t> I>
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>> 32 >, b>,b 32 b>»
s- gsn aihai anJi-
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g > g 32 (332 >32 g
§ O.S ®§® 5®§
a> v
&h”&h S5£h>
•aioisqnx jo junoniv
» IT* g^.. r-| Qw. O 00 t> O*
•uotioalui jo 9i^a
05 CO Os i45 <D Os C4 03 Os Os' 05 C4 C4 00 rH 05 os'
CN 04 rH rH 04 04 04 04 04 t-i (N (M
04 <N <N rH 04 04 4
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ihHO >42 4> CO iO 4>rHt^iO ;
; : t>< h* oo i> to -j i« rH C4 to cc o hj< as
• *HH (OHHHt* lOrHr-140
! <24
Cases Arranged in Order of Absolute Height, Giving Class, According to Koch Test, Based on
Height, Apparent Reaction and Range.
38
•UOI10B8H IBJOX
•isdojny jo a yea
•apiaqnx jo ynnouiv 00
•uopaafai jo a^a
<jj <D <U
J3 >. ,Q >> pO
S 3 _ S o3 _ „ _ ^ S
a> a> 3 : : s - a>
o a « a o
Q " Q>
•uotyBninrBxa;
reaisiqj Aq sisouSbiq
•ajtUBjadraax
XBiyiui aAoq* asta
•ysax qoox
aqj Iq sisoudBia
. c >»
.o £
«8
■g &5
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OhCW
as o>:
pQ-Cl
P'S
•aSu^a
oOOI OAoq'B asxa
eoocsooooi>i>t'iiO'^c^ex
c4 pi r-i IH rH r-i rH i-H rH rH i-i rH
•as^o
•Sbx
iCI>iQ «OiOi O
39
EXPLANATION OF TABLE V.
After the perceding tables were prepared in the rough, a chart of
temperature curves was plotted (Chart I.), from which, by taking the
absolute height of the curves as a basis, the cases were arranged as in
Table V., in the order of the maxima, by comparing the rise above
the initial temperature, and the entire range of the temperatures for
maxima between 102° and 103° (the chart apparently showing that
everthing above 103° is tuberculous), I could arrange these doubtful
cases in sequence, and characterize them as doubtful, probably, or
possibly tuberculous or O. K., as the case might be. So little has
this order been disturbed by introduction of a more accurate method
of determining the reaction that the old table has been introduced
here without change, except slight new choice of words, and that the
order of maxima has given the succession. The killing has been
done in accordance with the column headed “ diagnosis by the Koch
test,” no great effort being made to take up the cows in the order here
given, except to keep to the order of the groups, “ decidedly,”
“ evidently ” and “ probably,” tag 6 excepted. (The “ possibly ” and
“ doubtful” [9 and 43] have at this writing not yet been killed.) This
marks the limit, so long as cases 16 and 26 remain doubtful in the
autopsy. The last column shows they have a very low total reaction.
They will, however, receive further study, and may yet pay the
penalty.
It will be noticed that I ignored the ordinary method of calculating
the reaction, viz., by taking the difference between the initial tempera-
ture and the highest later observed temperature. Such a procedure
seemed to me to be extremely inaccurate, but careful studies of my
data have shown that this method is not so bad as it at first sight ap-
pears. I have, therefore, called it the “ approximate reaction.” It is
easy to see that in some cases it is too great, and in others too small,
thus the cases are not treated alike, and it is impossible to grade them
in proper order. Fortunately the majority of cases react so markedly
that the margin of inaccuracy is more than swallowed up, so that if
the operator chooses a sufficiently high reaction as his limit, he has no
difficulty in showing that the verdict rendered by the injection of
Koch’s lymph is infallibly justified by the autopsy. Practice seems
to have settled on this limit as 2.5° above initial evening temperature,
experience having shown that to take a smaller limit is apt to include
40
some sound animals which result is of course naturally avoided ; but
experience has equally shown (our own in particular) that tuberculous
animals have given a smaller “ approximate reaction,” and thus we
may be certain that Koch’s lymph as ordinarily used fails to stamp
out tuberculosis, root and branch , from large herds. I believe that
evidence sufficient has been accumulated to make any experimenter
certain that every reacting animal has tubercle , but the trouble lies in
determining what is a reaction in certain exceptional instances. Case 1 ,
the most tuberculous of all our herd, gave no approximate reaction,
in fact it resembled the healthy cows in giving the uninfluenced
maximal temperature at evening ; though to be sure this temperature
was relatively high, it was no higher than dozens of normal tempera-
tures recorded in tables by other observers, such as those recorded by
Dr. Leonard Pearson, for the Pennsylvania State College herd
(Bulletin 21) ; Dr. E. P. Niles, for the Virginia State Station herd
(Bulletin 26) ; and Dr. Conrow, for the Taylor herd, Burlington N.
J. (Vet. Mag., Jan., ’94). Case 1 was, however, so advanced as to
make error of physical diagnosis impossible; but, unfortunately,
there is no absolute relation between amount of reaction and amount
of tuberculosis ; while some “ incipient ” cases give an extremely high
reaction, others give low and doubtful reactions. It is, therefore,
worth while to study into this matter closely, to see if a more equable
reaction determination be possible.
Now, what causes the “ fever reaction ” — the rise of temperature ?
Evidently an increased oxidation, accompanied by increased activity
in the tissue cells, due to increased stimulation. How does Koch’s
lymph secure this result? The subject is practically a mystery. The
best answer yet made runs somewhat as follows : The lymph is an
extract of tuberculous tissue, and hence, among other matters, con-
tains the toxines which the tubercle bacilli have produced. A small
amount of these toxines is readily excreted from the body before they
can produce any serious effect on the tissue cells. This explains why
a small dose injected into a healthy animal produces no effect. But
if the tubercle germs have been for some time at work, they have
manufactured an additional amount of toxine (or ptomaine). If this
amount is very great, the small amount added by injection increases
this amount by so small an increment as to be unnoticed ; but when
the ptomaine in the tissues is less, the increment is noticeable. Ac-
cording to this explanation, the healthy cow receives the maximal
41
increment, and so we see a fault in the theory. I would offer this
amendment, viz., the presence of the bacilli, and of the poisons they
excrete, causes an increased activity of the tissues, both in the work of
getting rid of the poison by excretion and in the work of secreting
toxalbumens inimical to the germ, and we may also include the work
of producing tubercle. This increased work is so little, or is dis-
tributed over so long a time, as at no period to seriously influence the
general temperature until the disease has reached an extreme point.
That is, there is always a reaction present in a tuberculous animal , but
usually so small as to be unnoticeable. The rate at which the bacilli
secrete the toxine is so uniform as not to present any special breaks or
accessions that may serve as stimuli, but the injection of a quantity
bearing an appreciable relation to that which the tissues are already
responding to, is such a sudden increment that the tissues respond by
a sudden increase in the work they are already engaged in.
The tissues of a sound animal are not adjusted to take any special
notice of a slight and temporary accession of poison. It requires the
presence of this slight amount for such protracted periods as the
bacilli supply, to develop this sensibility of the cells.
It follows that any observed temperature is a resultant of two sets
of forces — first, those that produce the normal temperature, or the
temperature that would be present if the injection lymph were absent ;
second, the sensibility of the tissues to the particular increment of
stimulus. Both this sensibility and the magnitude of this increment
are unknown quantities, and if injection be made, the normal curve of
temperature for all the time the lymph is acting is, of course, also
unknown. We possess simply the observed temperature, and no one
is competent to declare how much of this temperature is " reaction.”
That is, the exact amount of reaction in any given case is, on a priori
grounds, absolutely unknown now, and perhaps impossible of knowl-
edge to future science.
We may, however, approximate to this quantity by gaining some
idea of the probable normal temperature at the particular time the
temperature was taken, i. e. what would the temperature have been
if injection had not been made?
It becomes first and foremost necessary to study the behavior of
temperature curves for normal cases. This work we did not at first
realize the importance of, so that the data herewith presented are neces-
sarily less full than is desirable. We may include as “ normal tern-
42
peratures” all those temperatures, of cows under injection, which
manifestly have not been disturbed by injection, viz., the initial tem-
perature, and all subsequent observations up to the point where the
reaction becomes manifest. As our injection was made on a falling
thermometer, such point of reaction is in the majority of instances
easily discoverable. There is a latent period after injection, before
the lymph produces its effects. As to the law of this latent period
we refer to later pages.
Of course, the entire series of observations, for sound cows under
injection, becomes available, and also the data collected in Tables III*
and IV.
TABLE VI.
Showing Relative Distribution of Normal Temperatures.
43
<£> TfNOOO®^NOOO«^NqoO(O^NOOO(D^NO o
' * ’ ' —'o^ 00 C-H
•MOI
■wiia
•S8in^j9dm8x
■Sn 'nSm *8iPP*re ’MOri
RVLf;.— JLigast concentration of temperatures occurs at minimal periods, and vice versa ,
44
EXPLANATION OF TABLE VI.
In accordance with the reasoning just presented, these data of normal
temperatures were plotted into a table shown in No. VI. The tem-
peratures on each side (above and below) 99° are grouped as “ ultra-
low,” those about 100° as “low,” those about 101° as “ middle,”
those about 102° as “ high,” and those above 102.5° as “ ultra-high.”
Only the even tenths are presented. All readings falling on odd
tenths have been shoved up one-tenth of a degree.
Following these temperatures are the figures representing the
number of times this reading was presented in each period. The
percentage of cases for each group was calculated, and a study of the
table shows that neglecting the period from 2:30 A. M. to 5 A. M.,
called “ foredawn,” for which we have scarcely any readings, the
other periods present three columns in which the temperatures range
lowest, two in which they range highest and two connecting, “ middle ”
periods. The highest maximal and the lowest minimal periods are
numbered “ 1 ” respectively, and fall at evening and at morning
respectively. The other maximal period is shortly before noon,
which is itself the second minimum (minimum No. 3, coming at mid-
night). At the top of the columns are the maximal temperatures for
normal cases, so that any cow presenting a higher reading at these
periods than these maxima, must be considered “suspected.” The
“ minimum ” periods are produced by a certain number of cases drop-
ping, some further than others, and the maximal periods by the
reverse process, so that viewed from above downwards, the maxima
show a much better concentration of the temperatures than do the
minima, but all these periods give us a range of four degrees or more
within which the temperature of a cow may occur and still be normal.
But this is for the entire herd ; no one cow is apt to run the gamut
of these four degrees. What may be considered the highest range to
be expected of any particular animal ? We have data bearing on this
point, but unfortunately the number of observations are less exten-
sive than should be required, and future work along this line has been
planned. We may, however, present what facts we have as follows:
45
TABLE VII.
Showing Highest Variation in Temperature of Same Animal
in Each Period.
Calculation of the vari-
ation of single animal in
evening temperatures, for
successive evenings, for
thirty cases, gave the
maximum variation as
2.2°.
<u
O
o
bb
o
o>
a
o
§
*8
u
o
a
£8
8
0.6
1.2
9
0.3
0.7
10
0.6
0.7
11
0.2
1.0
13
0.8
0.9
16
1.6
1.4
20
2.1
0.3
21
0.0
0.3
25
0.1
0.3
26
0.0
1.2
28
0.6
0.2
36
0.0
0.2
1 Maxima :
2.1
1.4
j Noon.
c
c
o
c
S
<1
bb
*3
a>
>
w
1.8
1.8
1.4
0.7
1.4
0.8
0.9
0.1
0.8
0.6
0.3
0.1
0.4
0.8
0.4
0.6
0.8
22 (30)
0.1
0.1
1.2
1.0
0.2
0.6
0.9
0.2
0.7
0.2
2.2
0.3
0.7
1.8
1.8
2.2 (?)
From Table VII. we may conclude that the greatest departure any
animal is likely to show from any observed temperature of any day,
on any preceding or succeeding day, at the same hour, is in the neigh-
borhood of two degrees for the morning and evening, and less than
two degrees during the day. This must guide us in any comparison
we may make between a supposed reaction temperature of any period
and a known normal temperature for same period twenty-four hours
removed therefrom.
TABLE VIII.
Normal Temperatures of Critical Periods, Associated with Evening Temperatures, in a Herd.
46
<N <M
<N|t »o|2
<*1,4
•sairn'Biadniax
3nm8Aa
to o oo to
<N ® GO to
o o o o o
s s
•sdnoj£)
•iiox
•aippiK
TABLE VIII.— Continued.
Normal Temperatures of Critical Periods, Associated with Evening Temperatures, in a Herd.
47
a .9
q. >
a ^
ft o
h •-
g> £
i§ s' 3
•soiniBjadniax
SaiuaAa
^ o aoo
8 8 8 88
■sdnojf)
*qStH
•AVOl-TUim
48
TABLE IX.
Showing the Maximal Departure from Initial Evening Tempera-
ture, of Temperatures of Critical Periods.
Evening Tempera-
tures.
Period IV.
Morning.
Period V.
Forenoon.
Period VI.
Noon.
Period VIII.
Evening.
©
.00
2
3
N
©
1 L
2
13
a5
to
2
'3
©
to
2
102.6°
102.4
102.2
102.0
101.8
101.6
101.4
101.2
101.0
100.8
100.6
100.4
100.2
100.0
99.8
99.6
99 4
98.0
Maxima ....
2.2°
1.6
1.0
1.4
1.7
0.9
0.6
0.7
1.6
0.5
0.6
0.9
2.2
(3.8°)
1.0
1.8
1.8
1.6
0.2
.8
1.0
1.0
0.6
0.2
0.2
1.0
.
2.0°
0.2
1.2
0.4
1.2
0.4
0.6
0.4
0.8
1.0°
2.0 (4.6)
1.6
1.2
1.4 (2.8) ?
2.6
1.0
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.6°
0.8°
0.4°
0.7
0.5
0.9
0.8
1.6
1.4
0.6
1.6
1.7
1.0°
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.4
1™
1.2
0.8
0.2
0.6
1.2
1.0
1.4
0.4
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.2
1.4
0.8
1.8
1.0
1.0
0.8
1.6
2.2
2.6
2.8
—2.6
+18
—2.8
—2.0
1.4
2.8?
—2.2
2.2
Laws for occurrence of max-
ima and minima of normal tem-
peratures calculated from the
initial evening temperature.
Above 101° (initial) the
normal coincides; below
this temperature, count
from 101°.
Runs below 100 6° in pro-
portion as initial exceeds
100.6°.
Below 102° (initial) runs
a degree above initial, but
does not exceed 102.4°.
Averages a degree below
initial temperature.
oj
S2
p
i «
o
o
>*
'©
a5
a
8
&
"s
3 '
a
i
©
©
£1
&
to
a
p
Runs 1.5 above initial
temperature, but does not
exceed 102 6°.
Averages 1.5° below ini-
tial temperature.
Max.
Min.
Max.
Min.
Max.
Min.
Max.
Min.
Suppose, however, we have but one series of observations for less
than a twenty-four-hour period. What departure from any initial
temperature may be expected in any subsequent period ? Our data
must be judged from the initial evening temperatures. Table VI II.
shows the temperatures for the critical periods (when reaction is
measured) that were associated in the same animal with the evening
temperatures shown in the first column. From this table and other
data we have prepared Table IX., which shows the greatest amount
of departure from the initial temperatures which the various cases
presented, both in an upward and downward direction. From this
49
table we see that we have departures from the initial temperature
ranging from 1.4° to 2.8° (neglecting one or two very aberrant cases).
The general average of these departures is about 2.5°, which has
already been independently chosen by operators as the limit of legiti-
mate variation from the initial temperature. An examination of
these tables shows further that the general tendency of these associa-
tions is to keep within still narrower limits of the initial temperature,
so that a degree, or at most two degrees, limit of variation is more
nearly approximately the true normal departure. Thus we have now
seen the strongest evidence that can be offered in favor of using this
method for “ approximate ” determination of the reaction.
When, however, the initial temperatures are relatively high, it is
manifestly wrong to allow any margin in an upward direction. Our
data show that in such cases the subsequent temperatures are corre-
spondingly lower than they would be if the initial temperatures were
low, and the reverse rule also holds good. Thus it follows that we can
use, with equal certainty , a fixed standard of reference , and this was
employed in Table V. with marked success. After finding how much
the initial temperature was a guide to the subsequent normal, I con-
eluded to calculate the reaction from rules discoverable by inspection
of Table IX. These rules combine the advantages of both methods
in such a way as to eliminate some of the factors of error present in
each. The rules are in place on Table IX., and need not be repeated
here. It will be noticed, however, that there is some variation in the
rules for the different periods. The difference between the maximal
normal, as calculated by these rules, and the actual record may be
termed the u supra-maximal excess,” or simply “ maximal excess,” it
being understood that no reaction is to be predicated if the recorded
temperature falls below the calculated normal. As this maximum is
based on data from all the herd, and up to which only a few animals
come, there is left a wide zone in which individual cases of normal
temperature may occur, clear down to the minimal normals of a herd.
That is, the maximal excess is the “ least actual reaction,” while it is
possible that the real reaction may also include this wide zone (greatest
downward departure to greatest upward departure). When so in-
cluded, we have the “ possible excess.” To determine the probable
location of the real reaction between these limits, it is necessary to
observe the individual cow for a protracted period, in order to learn
the most usual associations with the initial temperature, or to deter-
50
mine the usual habit of variation at the hours the reaction occurred.
Such a calculation will give the “ mean reaction,” which, of course,
is only the nearest approximation which it is possible for us to make.
Unnecessary as it is in the majority of cases to go to all this trouble,
it is necessary , if we wish to determine all the cases of reaction. Let
the reader emphasize this point. We see just what care must be exer-
cised if we would reduce the present element of uncertainty which all
operators realize exists, and which has been well expressed by Dr.
Pearson as follows (italics his) :
“ But we have not yet reached the time when it will he possible to give
each animal in a herd the same dose of tuberculin, measure the tem-
perature and blindly declare each animal which reacts , tuberculous and
the others healthy. v
So far as our experience goes, the above quotation may be revised
to read :
“ We have not yet sufficient knowledge of the true normal tempera-
ture which we may expect of any particular cow so that we can de-
clare what, if any, the reaction in her case is.”
I think, however, that we can attain a closer approximation to this
knowledge by proceeding according to the rules laid down in this
paper.
51
TABLE X.
Giving* a Comparison Between the Least and the Possible
Reactions, as Calculated by General Rules and
from Individual Records.
ts ft
'a a
i-h a>
-cH
a .
S’S |>
55 W a8
16
December 29.
January 9.
“ 10.
“ 23.
“ 24.
100.4
101.6
98.4
Approx, react.,
3.2
100.4
99.5
100.0
99.0
100.6
101.2
100.6
100.2
101.3
103.6
99.8
100.4
99.9
102.0
100.6
100.0
100.5
100.8
103.4
98.0
100.2
100.0
101.0
{Least excess
Possible excess.,
Mean excess
3.2
3.8
1.2
2.0
1.5
2.4
5.4
3.4
/Least excess.
General 1 Possible exce
2.0
4.2
101.0
101.0
101.4
102.6
100.0
100.7
100.5
100.2
100.5
100.4
100.9
101.2
100.7
101.0
100.8
100.9
101.0
101.9
100.4
1.5
December 29.
January 23.
“ 24.
March 20.
loo.e
fto
<lhlN
99.2
100.0
100.2
100.6
{Least excess
Possible excess.
Mean excess
07
2.1
1.5 |
General j
^ Least excess
0.4
December 29.,
January 23.,
“ 24.
100 0 100-8
1000 100.0
Approx, react.,
3.1
100.8
100.7
100.2
(Least excess
Individual. ...k Possible excess..
(Mean excess
102.6
100.6
101.8
103.1
100.7
102.5
0.8
2.0
1.4
0.6
2.4
1.5
102.4
100.7
102.5
101.7
100.6
102.0
'General.
f Least excess,
I Possible
1.6
1.5
3.1
0.2
10
December 29.
January 23.
“ 24.
- 102 2 101*4
*5 i02.2 1Q12
ft °3
101.8
101.2
101.6
102.0
101.2
101.9
100.2
101.0
101.1
102.6
101.2
101.3
101.8
101.0
101.8
[Individual.... •{ Least excess (nearly mean and possible).
1.3
General j
^ Leas
it excess
0.4
11
i December 29
[January 23
I “ 24
102 4 100-6
102,4 98.0
99.8
99.9
100.0
101.0
100.0
100.7
99.6
99.1
99.7
100.0
99.9
100.2
100.8
100.8
100.7
13
December 29
January 23
“ 24
. 100.2
4* 101,4 100.0
< 25 w
100.8
100.4
100.0
101.6
100.7
101.0
102.7
100.4
100.0
103.4
101.0
100.2
101.8
101.0
101.4
Individual.... *j
( Least excess
[ Possible excess
0.6
0.9
| 2.3
2.7
2.4
3.2
0.4
0.8
General -1
(Leas
1 Poss
st excess
1 1.1
3.3
1.2
ible excess
52
TABLE X. — Continued.
Giving a Comparison Between the Least and the Possible
Reactions, as Calculated by General Rules and
from Individual Records.
20
December 29.
January 9.
“ 10.
I— I Q
Si >
■£'2 ®
S|s
£5 W ^
100.4
100.2
101.0
<
101.6
98 9
101.0
104.2
101 2
100.9
101.4
100.5
100.4
100.6
100.7
100.2
100.7
100.6
Individual....
Least excess ,
Possible excess.
2.7
3.0
3.3
General
Least excess
Possible excess.
2.8
3.8
18
21 [December 29.
January 9.
“ 10.
ioo.e
‘l
101.0
102.4
104.6
100.4
100.4
104.1
101.4
101.1
102 5
101.3
101.2
100.9
100.0
101.5
101.1
100.5
Individual.... < Least excess. 1.4
4.2
27
1.2
General j
f Least excess
[ Possible excess
3.6
2.5
4.5
0.9
3.0
December 29
January 9
“ 10
- 100 6
.g iUU b 100 6
SI eo
102.4
100.1
100.0
104.0
101.0
100.7
104.3
101.2
25
104 4
100.8
100.6
103.4
100.3
100.9
Individual.
Least excess.
23
3.0
31
36
2.3
General.
( Least excess
1 Possible excess.
1.4
1.8
2.4
44
2.7
4.7
2.2 |
1.3
26 [January 2.
21.
“ 24.
102.2
. &
£ g”
102.4
104.0
102.0
1004
100.4
101.5
100.3
101.4
| 103.8 | 101.8
100.4 I 101.7 I 101.6
1015 101.9 102.3
llndividnal J Least excess
j individual.... j Possible excess
! General,
( Least excess
(Possible excess.
1.6
~2.2~
1.6
0.1
1.2
3.6
0.3
28 [January 2.
I “ 9.
.s
-I **<3 P-t CM
101.3
101.8
101.8
103.5
100.0
100.6
104.0
101.0
100.8
1.9
1.6
100.4
104.0
100.9
100.7
101.8
100.2
98.0
Individual.
f Least excess
( Possible excess
2.9
3.5
3.0
3.1
3.8
General
f Least excess
(Possible excess.
1.2
2.6
1.7
3 7
[January 2.
! “ 23.
“ 24.
101.5
101.0
98.0
100.0
100.5
100 5
100.4 .
100.8 i
100.8 I
100.5
100.7
1010
101.2
101.0
101.0
100.6
101.0
36 January 2.
! " A
101.0
101.6
100.6
103.6
100.0
100.0
105.1
100.9
100.7
100.8
103.5
100.8
100.5
103.7
100.3
101.0
Individual,... 4 Least excess..
3.6
42
2.7
2.7
I General.
f Least excess
(Possible excess
2.6
3.2
3.1
5.1
1.7
53
Not any of our cases have been observed long enough to determine
the probable reaction. The few records we have on this line we pre-
sent in Table X., an inspection of which table serves to show how
great the difference is in the application of these various methods.
The “ approximate reaction” compared with these figures shows how,
atone time, the coincidence is with the “least excess;” at another,
how it falls in with the greatest “ possible excess.”
However, the best that can be done is to take the “ general rules ”
and to determine the maximal excess, if any, for each period. Of
that much reaction we are at least sure, and we are also sure that the
figures more equably represent the true state of things than if we had
used the approximate reaction. Accordingly we have Table XI.
TABLE XI.
Showing Excess of Temperatures for the Different Periods ; and Comparison of Total Tuberculosis with
54
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55
EXPLANATION OF TABLE XI.
This table was calculated by the methods jUst discussed; for bed-
time period we added a degree to the initial to get the normal, not to
exceed 102.2° ; for midnight we chose the maximum 101.8° as a fixed
normal; for afternoon the fixed normal maximum of 102.2° was
chosen.
The first thing that strikes us is that by these rules the period having
the highest temperature need not be the one necessarily which gives
the highest reaction. Thus we discover that No. 1, which had a con-
tinuously falling temperature, shows a decided reaction at midnight.
We also learn that the reaction period is one of varying length, and
that the highest point in it, is not necessarily at its middle, although
there seems to be a general tendency towards a regular curve, whose
height increases with the length, but not directly so, the longer curves
being much flatter than the shorter ones. In calculating the “ dura-
tion of a reaction,” we have been guided largely by the general nature
of the few curves that are complete, as most of the longer ones have
both ends disappearing in periods where no observation was taken.
Thus the figures on this head are probably rather roughly approxi-
mate. The total reaction was calculated by multiplying the average
reaction into the “ duration.”
*
TABLE XII.
Showing Duration of Reactions, and Height and Location of Their Maximal Points.
56
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57
EXPLANATION OF TABLE XII.
This table is partly also a chart showing by means of lines the
length of the reactions, the height of the highest reaction, and the
point in the line where this maximum occurs. The main object of
the chart is to show that observation at morning, forenoon and noon
strikes most (though not all) the reactions at some point where reaction
can be determined. These periods are, therefore, the most “ critical ”
in importance ; but the midnight and afternoon periods are needed to
include all the cases, while if one desires to get a proper idea of the
“ duration ” from which to calculate the total reaction, it becomes need-
ful to observe, not only in all the periods of the first night and day,
but indefinitely into the second night. For practical purposes this is
not needful, as the long reactions are easily diagnosed from a single
observation, which is likely to strike them anywhere. It is the short
reactions that may escape us ; these, as can be seen, occur late in the
day. Thus in selecting cows for purchase, if on being tested for
twelve or fifteen hours, and no reaction occurs, it is not safe to stop at
this point, because a reaction may be found at eighteen or twenty-one
hours after injection.
58
TABLE XIII.
Showing the Co-Variants of H, M. E.
I Highest Maximal
j Excess.
Time from Initial
Temperature to
Beginning of Re-
action.
Duration of Re-
action.
Maximal Tempera-
ture.
j O’clock of M. T.
Total Reaction.
Rise from Initial
Temperature.
Amount of
Tubercle.
Number of Case.
1
5.5
6 hrs.
+21 hrs.
106.5
6 a. m.
84
6.3
11
17
4.6
3
21
106.8
2 p. m.
65
4.7
7
27
4.4
3
24
106.0
12 m.
72
3.6
21
4
4.3
3
18
106.3
5 a. m.
47
3.8
29
3
4.0
6
21
106.2
4 p. m.
69
6.2
15
18
4.0
6
18
105.8
10 a. m.
70
4.6
20
23
4.0
6
21
106.2
8 p. m.
63
5.2
3
42
3.7
+6
18
105.3
12 m.
45
4.1
9
15
3.7
6
18
105.5
6 a. m.
50
3.7
4
40
3.6
6
18
105.2
1 p. m.
59
5.2
14
12
3.6
6
18
105.4
5 p. m.
58
52
6
19
3.6
+3
15
104.6
6 a. m.
28
4 0
7
21
3.4
6
12
105.4
6 a. m.
30
3.4
11
14
3.2
3
18
104.8
12 m.
27
2.2
2
2
2.8
12
3
104.2
10 a. m.
8
3.8
7
20
2.7
9
18
104.4
5 p. m.
38
3.8
16
25
2.6
—6
18
104.6
5 a. m.
32
1.6
2
5
2.6
+6
18
105.1
11 a. m.
43
4.1
26
36
2.5
12
15
105.0
11 a. m.
34
3.5
16
32
2.2
3
+6
104.0
12 a. m.
33
1.6
1
26
2.0
15
3
103.6
1 p. m.
5
3.2
?
16
1.8
9
12
104.0
11 a. m.
20
2.7
ii
28
1.8
9
9
103.0
11 a. m.
14
2.4
19
39
1.6
12
9
103.1
1 p. m.
9
3.1
7
8
i.4
0
12
+103.3
8 p. m.
8
48
1
1.2
15
6
103.4
4 p. m.
7
2.0
10
13
.7
15
6
102.3
2 p. m.
4
2.9
8
24
.5
6
3
102.7
8 p. m.
+1
1.9
43
.4
18
3
102.6
4 p. m.
+1
2.0
9
.4
18
3
102.6
4 p. m.
+1
4.0
10
A STUDY OF CO- VARIANTS AND DI- VARIANTS.
We have now, from direct observation and from calculation, quite
a number of facts pertaining to each case, and it behooves us to com-
pare these facts to see how they are related.
DISCUSSION OF TABLE XIII.
This table has the highest maximal excess figures placed in the
order of their magnitude, beginning with the highest. In succeeding
columns are placed the facts that are associated with each “ H. M. E.
number,” and from a diligent study of them the following laws
appear :
59
(1) The higher the reaction the sooner it occurs. Should this law
be definitely established, it would show that the calculated reaction
for No. 1 gives a greatly too low figure.
(2) The higher the reaction the longer it lasts. Should this law
be shown to be absolute, we have but to determine the duration of a
reaction to enable us to judge of its probable height.
(3) Naturally, the maximal temperature will directly co-vary with
the H. M. E.
(4) Naturally, also, it follows from (1) that the o’clock of the
occurrence of the maximal temperature is later in the day, the smaller
the H. M. E.
(5) Naturally, the total reaction will vary, but not uniformly, with
the H. M. E. If we had a true record of maximal excesses and of
“ durations,” I believe that the “ total reaction,” as calculated from
their product, would be a valuable set of data from a purely physio-
logical standpoint, for this alone would really express the “true
reaction.”
(6) The next column gives the “ approximate reaction,” and shows
how far this varies from the order of the H. M. E., although a gen-
eral co- variation is naturally to be expected.
(7) The amount of tuberculosis seems to be thoroughly disvariant
with H. M. E., and about everything else in the table. This shows
that the reaction is in no wise directly dependent on the amount of
tuberculosis. Sometimes the high reaction indicates a small amount,
and in other cases a large amount of disease, and vice versa for low
reactions. What is to be ascertained is the presence of a reaction.
Let no one think that he may allow a few cows to go scot free, as
“probably not much affected,” because the reaction was “low or
doubtful.” Herein lies the real reason for emphasizing work of this
sort. Let us have all the light we can ; let the observations be ex-
tended ; let the slaughter be extensive until sound animals are sacri-
ficed ; let the facts be carefully and fully observed, and with great
detail and accuracy, and above all, let them he published. Are we to
be treated to the spectacle of men going about injecting herds of cattle,
making a few temperature observations, killing the cases most obviously
reacting, finding, naturally, that their diagnoses were correct, and then
pocketing their data, no one knows what they may be ? The scientific
world gets only the brief mention, “ such and such a herd was injected,
so many animals were diagnosed as tuberculous, and have been
60
slaughtered, the diagnosis confirmed, and the carcasses have been
buried.” Will any one dare believe that tuberculosis has been stamped
out of these herds f And yet that is what the public are led to think.
TABLE XIV.
Showing Co-variants of Age.
Breed.
AGE.
Highest Maximal
Excess.
Total Reaction.
Amount of
Tubercle.
| Initial Tempera-
j ture.
<L>
C3
t-
s
o
02
Locality.
Range.
Number of Case.
A.
13 years
1.6
9
7
100.0
i J. O. M.
N. J.
3.1
8
S. H.
12 years.
3.6
59
14
1000
s. s.
N. Y.
5.2
12
H.
12 years
1.2
7
10
101.4
M. P.
N. J.
3.4
13
H.
10 vears
4.3
44
29
102.5
G. W. T.
N. B.
3.8
3
S. H.
10 years
2.0
5
?
100.4
s. s.
N. Y.
5.2
16
N.
10 years
2.6
43
26
101.0
D. H. V.
N. B.
4.5
36
G.
10 years
1.8
14
19
100.6
L. P. M.
N. Y.
2.4
39
H.
9 years
1.4
8
48
103 3
M. P.
N. J.
1.2
1
H.
9 years
3.4
30
11
102.0
T. C.
N. B.
4.4
14
J.
9 years
4.0
69
15
100.0
J. O. C.
Conn.
6.4
18
H.
9 years
3.6
28
7
100.6
J. N.
N. B.
4.0
21
H.
9 years
4.0
70
20
101.2
G. W. T.
N. B.
4.6
23
J.
9 years
2.7
38
16
100.6
A.H C.
N. Y.
3.8
25
N.
8 years
2.8
8
7
100.4
P. D.
N. B.
4.0
20
H.
7 years
0.4
+1
100.6
G. W. T.
N. B.
3 4
9
A.
7 years
3.7
45
9
101.2
L. S. D.
Vt
4.7
15
N.
7 years
0.7
4
8
109 4
D. H. V.
N. B.
3.7
24
S. H.
6 years
5.5
84
11
100 2
s. s.
N. Y.
6.3
17
G
6 years
3.6
58
6
100.2
w. A. R.
Mass.
5.2
19
G. H.
6 years
2.5
34
16
101.5
G. W. T.
N. B.
4.2
32
H.
2 vears 6 months
0.4
+1
102.2
Bred.
N. B.
27
10
S. H.
2 years 4 months
2.2
33
1
102.2
Bred.
N. B.
2.3
26
S.H.
2 years
4.4
72
21
102.4
Bred.
N. B.
3.6
4
H.
2 years
4.6
65
7
102.1
Bred.
N. B.
4.8
27
J.
1 year 8 months
1.8
20
11
101.3
Bred.
N. B.
2.7
28
G. A.
9 months
3.7
50
4
101.8
Bred.
N. B.
4.1
40
G.
9 months
4.0
63
3
101.0
Bred.
N. B.
5.2
42
G.
9 months
05
+1
100.8
Bred.
N. B.
1.9
43
J. H.
2 months
2.6
32
2
103.0
Bred.
N. B.
2.8
5
J. H.
1 month
32
27
2
102.6
Bred.
N. B.
2.2
2
STUDY OF TABLE XIY.
I
This table exhibits the co- variants of the age of the animals. We
see first that the different breeds are pretty uniformly represented for
the different ages. The highest maximal excess seems also to be dis-
tributed without reference to age. The total reaction preponderates
in amount with the younger animals. They have a greater power to
react. They also have a less amount of tubercle, and this of itself
may explain why the reaction is higher ; for, while from Table XIII.
we saw that the amount of tubercle did not vary per individual with
the reaction, on summing up the amount for a number of cases, we
61
get indications that a small amount of tuberculosis produces a greater
total reaction (not necessarily a greater a approximate reaction” or
even H. M. E.) than does a more advanced state of the disease. Cows
over nine years old have three times as much tuberculosis as those
under three years of age. The initial temperature also seems to be
higher with young animals, averaging about 102° for those under
three years and 101° for those above nine years. This fact is easily
observed. Almost any temperature chart where the young animals
are exhibited by themselves shows this, and, coupled with the fact
that they are less tuberculous, no wonder veterinarians are cautious in
diagnosing reaction. But age is one factor to be considered in such a
judgment.
The next column of this table shows that the older animals have
come from other herds, while all the youngest (below three years of
age) have been bred on the farm. The column giving locality shows
that not only this State but New York and several of the New Eng-
land States had their representatives in the herd — all tuberculous.
Are we to judge that these States are also saturated with tuber-
culosis ?
TABLE XV.
Showing Variations of Amount of Tubercle with other Co -Variants and Di- Variants.
62
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63
STUDY OF TABLE XY.
First let us ascertain if the length of time the cows have been
members of our herd has influenced the amount of tuberculosis.
Cows over two years at the farm, average in tubercle, 19 ; in
age, 8.
Cows two years at the farm, average in tubercle, 12 ; in age, 7.
Cows under two years at the farm, average in tubercle, 10; in
age, 3.
The age relations show that the tubercle relations should increase
no faster than they seem to have done, so that we may conclude that
these cattle were infected before coming here.
With reference to the breeds, it is apparent that no one breed has
any advantage over the others except the natives. Of course, age
must also be taken into consideration. It will be noticed that all the
cows added to the herd after being first tested are natives.
The physical examination compared with the amount of tubercle
shows, of course, no co-variation. We should expect, however, that
the amount of lung tuberculosis would co-vary with the physical
diagnosis, and, to a certain extent, this is true. But some individuals
remarkably free from lung lesions were “ suspected,” while others
pronounced O. K. had a very high state of lung tuberculosis. The
average amount of lung tubercle in O. K. cases is 2 ; in “ suspected ”
cases 4, and in “ very suspicious ” cases it is 7. There is, however,
a marked preponderance of tuberculous cases among the suspected
animals.
Unfortunately in this matter, general averages and tendencies and
“ majorities” count for nothing, so long as the object is to discover
individual cases. Each animal has its own strong individuality ; it
should not be judged by its fellows. I suspect, too, that each herd
has its own individuality.
64
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65
OTHER HERDS.
Table XVI. shows the data observed on the Vandruff herd, near
Deckertown, N. J. This certainly presents a remarkable case in Ollie,
who, in many respects, suggested our Case 1. The temperature curve is
almost identically similar. No doubt would have remained in my mind
of this cow being tuberculous had she been alone. But so many other
members of this herd had been sick “ like her ” and were recovering,
and showed no reaction, that I concluded that this herd was free from
tuberculosis — pneumonia and mammitis being probably the true dis-
eases present, and accounted for the high temperature of Ollie. Never-
theless, the possibility remains that this one animal may be tubercu-
lous, although from the evidence I had, I was not justified in diag-
nosing a case of this disease.
I have already referred to the work of other men, and three or
more sets of their temperature tables lie before me. Were these tem-
peratures recorded in connection with those presented in my tables, I
would be justified in putting the mark of condemnation upon many
cases that have been ,l passed” as sound. But I dare not go so far
as to pronounce judgment against these creatures whom, in the first
place, I have never studied, and, in the second place, are members of
herds with peculiarities different from our own. I merely mention
this to emphasize the point that we need to experiment along these
lines with greater care than ever.
There should be no unscientific haste. For thousands of years
have we battled with these unseen and undreamed-of germs, and now
that we know them, let us study them more carefully. If legislation
be needed to aid in the stamping out of this disease, let the work be
done thoroughly and not superficially. It is not for the experimenter
to pronounce on the advisability of certain features of a law on this
subject, e. g. the matter of pecuniary reimbursement by the public to
the loser of tuberculous animals. I would merely suggest that if the
matter be brought properly before the public, the people will insist on
getting milk from herds that have stood this test. Thus will dairy-
men be compelled, for their own interests, to call in the veterinarian —
first, to test the herd ; secondly, to disinfect the premises ; thirdly, to
suggest sanitary modifications in the stables, and lastly, to test all new-
comers. This work no doubt is expensive, but it will 'pay .
66
I would also suggest that if the State assume control of this busi-
ness of stamping out tuberculosis, that first of all the temperature
record of each cow be published, and that all suspected cases be quar-
antined until we know about how many cases there are, then it will
be easier to judge what strain the treasury will stand. But, seriously,,
these cows should not be slaughtered until they have been properly
studied. We need to know a good deal more about many points ; all
those studied in connection with our rather meager data should be
viewed from a broader standpoint, but especially do we need to know
more about the methods of infection and the presence of bacilli in
the milk. We ought also to know to what extent it is true that a
second injection produces a greatly reduced reaction, as suggested from
the work of Dr. Pearson. There should also be a series of analyses
made of the meat of tuberculous animals to see to what extent tuber-
culin may be stored in the tissues, so as to be an element of danger as
presupposed by Dr. Low in his recent pamphlet issued from the Cor-
nell Station, N. Y. A pamphlet, by the way, which gives an
admirable synopsis of what is known about tuberculosis, in more
detail than our section 2.
SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS.
In summarizing this paper only the last section will receive extended
attention. Section 1 outlines the work done in stamping out tuber-
culosis at the College farm. Forty-one animals were injected with
tuberculin ; twenty- four showed reaction, and the autopsies revealed
tuberculous lesions in all except two doubtful cases. Half, only, of
these cases had been " suspected ” from physical examination.
Section 2 considers among other things the question of liability to
infection, in man, from the milk of tuberculous cows ; discussion of
the work of other observers on these subjects being presented.
Section 3 is a record or journal of the operations in connection with
the autopsies. Samples of milk and of various organs were preserved
for microscopic work, to be prosecuted later.
Section 4 presents the tables of data, both those ascertained by direct
observation, and those from calculation, together with a detailed com-
parison of the facts to discover co-variants. The following results
are those most clearly indicated :
67
(1) A “ reaction” consists in the recognition, by the body, of the
presence of toxines, to which the previous presence of tubercle bacilli
has rendered the tissues sensitive. It is incapable of exact measure-
ment and can best be determined from a calculated normal, the loca-
tion of which can be approximately fixed from an extended series of
temperature observations on the individual whose record is in doubt.
It can also be located as being certainly below a fixed maximum
determined for the herd, and, finally, the initial temperature gives a
clue to it, because the latitude of individual variation is only half
that of the herd as a whole, viz., about 2.2°. Furthermore, the
associations of normal temperatures with the initial evening record is
such that a yet closer approximation may be made. The special rules
governing this for the different hours of the day and for various tem-
peratures are presented with Table IX.
(2) Thus, the determination of the reaction reduces itself to a revi-
sion of the ordinary method (that, viz., by taking the difference
between the initial temperature and the maximum record) by incor-
porating the principle that the temperature of an animal tends to
vibrate about a fixed mean, with fixed maximal limits of oscillation,
beyond which any excess must be certainly predicated as a reaction.
Furthermore, that this reaction is an extended affair, the true total
reaction being the integral of the reaction curve.
• (3) The duration of a reaction is proportional to the greatest height
thereof.
(4) The higher the reaction the sooner it occurs.
(5) The height of reaction is no index to the amount of tubercu-
losis present.
(6) The amount of tuberculosis increases regularly with the age of
the victim.
(7) There is little difference between the different breeds of high-
bred cattle, so far as their susceptibility to tuberculosis goes; but
grades, crosses and especially “ native ” cattle appear somewhat less
subject to its development.
(8) The total reaction tends to be greater in cases of slight than in
cases of well- developed tubercle.
(9) The normal temperatures of young animals range higher than
those of the older ones.
68
(10) While the diagnosis of tubercle from physical examination is
dependent on the presence of tubercle in the lungs, there is no cer-
tainty that even well-advanced cases can be thus discovered, nor does
it necessarily follow that all suspected tuberculous animals have
lesions of the lungs. In the absence of lung lesions, however, the
chance of discovery of advanced cases of this disease by physical
means is but slight. It also happens that a number of cows not suffer-
ing from tubercle are usually included as “ suspected ” by this sort of
diagnosis. Certainly at least twice as great accuracy in discovering
tuberculous cattle results from the use of Koch’s lymph as from all
other means combined.
(11) Slight cases of reaction may occur later than fifteen hours
after injection ; and, to be certain that all cases have been given a
chance to make a record, the observations following injection should
be continued for twenty- four hours at least.
(12) If the object of injection be to eradicate the disease utterly
from a herd, the reacting cases should be arranged in the order of
the certainty of the reaction (in a few cases it will be needful to
continue the temperature observations for several days to gain a
knowledge of the probable “ normal ”) and killed seriatim until
among the doubtful cases there occur at least two in immediate suc-
cession which are adjudged sound after extremely thorough examina-
tion of all lymphatic structures and places where connective tissue
abounds. Then the premises should be thoroughly cleaned and dis-
infected, and no new animals admitted until they have passed the
“test.” Finally, to keep the herd “clean,” the animals should be
tested annually or biennially.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
In conclusion, I desire to acknowledge, with thanks, the various
services rendered me by the different persons named below. These
services have been of material aid to me and to the securing of the
data for this publication. Dr. Leonard T. Pearson, of Philadelphia,
Professor in the Veterinary Department of the University of Penn-
sylvania, for kindly granting me several audiences in which confer-
ence was had on my work and valuable directions given as to pro-
cedure ; Dr. Henry R. Baldwin, for much general direction, counsel
69
and interest in the autopsies ; Dr. A. V. N. Baldwin, for assistance
at several autopsies; Dr. E. L, Loblein, veterinarian, for personal
conducting of many of the examinations ; last, though not least, Mr.
E. A. Jones, who observed nearly all the temperatures — perhaps the
most important and arduous portion of the work.
( I ■% f I • • 1 • ' 1 ^ * *
/c //' /Ji / *z & & j*- & 7 $ Hott>Us
CHART
EXPLANATION OF CHART I.
Chart showing temperature curves for twenty-four hours after in-
jection of the members of the College herd, each curve kept separate
from its neighbors.
While two main courses are pursued by these curves, namely, the
upward course in Period III. of most of the reacting cases, and the
lower course for those not reacting, we find many cases that vary
widely from the average, and some cases of late reaction. The
numbers at the top of the plate are the hours of the night and the
daytime. The degrees of temperature are shown at the sides from
99° to 106°.
CHART
EXPLANATION OF CHART II.
Chart showing the association of temperatures at critical periods,
with initial evening temperature, for non- reacting cases in the College
herd. Morning, forenoon, noon and evening, periods are shown.
The central vertical line in each period represents the scale of initial
evening temperatures, the degrees of which are shown at the left of
the plate. On the right-hand side of each period the rising lines
show the highest temperatures associated with the particular evening
temperature, and on the left-hand side the lines slanting down from
the middle vertical one show the minimal associations.
A general parallelism in these lines suggests the law which for all
periods may be stated as follows : The highest expected temperature
for any period does not exceed 102.6°, nor fall below 100.2°, and
between these points is roughly 1° above the initial evening tempera-
ture. Especially in the morning is a rise of more than a degree above
the initial evening temperature (between 100° and 102.6°) to be
looked at with suspicion, if injection has taken place.
(73)
•Ill
EXPLANATION OF CHART III.
Chart showing ranges of temperature in individual cases. Six
equal scales are drawn. The heavy vertical lines show the ranges,
the dotted “ curves ” represent injection temperatures, the unbroken
ones are normal temperatures, the broken vertical lines show the
extent of the probable reaction, positive or negative, for the different
periods.
In Case 9, the lower dotted line represents the second injection.
In Case 10, the noon reaction is greater than that of the afternoon,
even though the temperature was rising.
In Case 43, the injection occurred in the morning, so that only a
small part of the reaction curve coincides with the other curve periods,
the record not being begun before 6 p. m.
Case 8, compared with Case 24 (both tuberculous), shows, first,
that a true reaction curve may lie below the normal of a different
case, and secondly, that a rise of only half a degree above normal, if
the latter be already high, indicates a true reaction. In this instance
there was a rise of more than two degrees above initial temperature,
but a higher initial was possible, and such would have probably had
a lower normal at noon, thus tending to increase the “ real ” reaction
while lessening the “ calculated ” one.
In the sixth scale, three cases (20, 26 and 28) have been plotted,
the reaction curves being shown for two of them (20 and 26).
(75)
CHART IV,
ft
EXPLANATION OF CHART IV.
Chart showing the temperature curves of Pennsylvania State Col-
lege herd, injected by Dr. L. F. Pearson. The dotted lines in the
right-hand set of curves show the temperatures for calves. The
curves C, G, M, B are of cows injected twice. The right-hand set
of curves shows the effect of a second injection on these curves.
Only C and G were condemned, but according to our formula
four or five others besides M would have been suspected. It is to be
noted, however, that all the temperatures average a degree higher than
with our herd, possibly due in part to a different method of taking
temperature, viz , deeper insertion, for longer time, and to the fact
that these were taken in midsummer, ours in midwinter. It also
seems likely that a few cases reacted later in the day. These sug-
gestions are with diffidence put forward only as possibilities, and as
incentives to increased carefulness for future observers.
(77)
CHART
EXPLANATION OF CHART V.
Chart showing temperature curves of the older members of the
Taylor herd, injected by Dr. Conrow. See “ Veterinary Magazine,”
January, 1894.
It will be seen at a glance that the temperature averages higher
than in our herd and that a higher limit for condemnation was set.
The dots show curves of uncondemned cases, which had they occurred
in our herd would have been certainly tuberculous. The general
effect of these charts upon the observer is to make it seem a difficult
task to draw the line between a normal and a “ reacting ” case.
(79)
£ /r?6"
ANALYSES OF FERTILIZING MATERIALS AND HOME
MIXTURES.
THE EXPERIENCE OF FARMERS WITH HOME
MIXTURES.
NEW JERSEY
AGRICULTURAL
Experiment Station
102
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural Experiment Station.
BULLETIN 102.
JULY 30, 1894.
Analyses of Fertilizing; Materials and Home
Mixtures.
The Experience of Farmers with Home
Mixtures.
LOUIS A. VOORHEES, CHEMIST.
JOHN P. STREET, CHEMIST.
I. Trade values of fertilizing ingredients for 1894, •
II. Average cost per pound of plant-food constituents.
III. Chemical analyses of fertilizing materials .
TV. Home mixtures ; Formulas , analyses.
V. Home mixing ; The experience of farmers.
I.
Trade Values of Fertilizing Ingredients for 1894.-
It is the custom in many States where a fertilizer control is exer-
cised, to affix a commercial valuation per ton to the various brands
analyzed. This ton valuation is derived by applying to the various
kinds and forms of fertilizer ingredients values previously determined
upon for them. These values are fixed from year to year ; they vary
according to the cost of the standard materials containing them,
which are the sources of the constituents contained in mixed fertilizers.
4
At a meeting of Stations’ Directors and Chemists, the following
schedule was arranged for use in Connecticut, Massachusetts, Rhode
Island and New Jersey during the season of 1894 :
Schedule of Trade Values Adopted by Experiment Stations for 1894.
Cents per pound.
Nitrogen in Ammonia Salts 19.0
“ “ Nitrates 14. J
Organic Nitrogen in dried and fine ground fish, meat and blood,
and in mixed fertilizers 18.J
“ “ castor pomace and cotton-seed meal 15.0
“ “ fine ground bone and tankage 16. J
“ “ fine-medium bone and tankage 15.0
“ “ medium bone and tankage 12.0
“ “ coarser bone and tankage 7.0
“ “ horn shavings, hair and coarse fish scrap 7.0
Phosphoric Acid, soluble in water 6.0
“ “ “ “ ammonium citrate* 6.0
“ “ insoluble, in fine bone and tankage 5.J
“ 1 “ fine-medium bone and tankage 4.J
“ “ “ ‘ ' medium bone and tankage 3.0
“ “ “ coarser bone and tankage 2.0
“ “ “ <! mixed fertilizers 2.0
“ “ " “ fine ground fish, cotton-seed meal,
castor pomace and wood ashes... 5.0
Potash as High-grade Sulphate, and in forms free from Muriates
(or Chlorides) 5.£
“ “ Muriate 4.^
Valuation of Fertilizing Ingredients in Fine Ground Feeds.
Organic Nitrogen 15.0
Phosphoric Acid 5.0
Potash 5.0
The Stations’ value for nitrogen, both in ammonia salts and in
most organic forms, including bones, was considerably increased this
year, owing to higher wholesale quotations which ruled for the
materials containing it during the six months preceding the adoption
of the schedule.
* The solubility of phosphates, in ammonium citrate solutions, is seriously affected by heat.
An Act of the Legislature (see Laws of New Jersey. 1874, page 90) provides that in this determi-
nation the temperature used shall not exceed 100° Fah. ; in Connecticut, Rhode Island and
Massachusetts 150° Fah. has been adopted. The higher the temperature the larger will be the
percentage of phosphoric acid dissolved by ammonium citrate solutions, and the larger the
amount of this so-called “ reverted ” phosphoric acid in a ton of superphosphate the lower will
be the price per pound of said acid. Consequently the Station’s valuations of phosphoric acid,
soluble in ammonium citrate, have been fixed at five and one-half cents per pound for Connecticut,
^Massachusetts and Rhode Island, and at six cents per pound for New Jersey.
5
In the case of phosphoric acid, both as “ available” in super-
phosphates, and as insoluble in the form of ground bone, and in the
case of potash in the form of sulphate, the Stations’ prices are slightly
reduced, because of the lower wholesale quotations. No changes were
made in the price of potash derived from muriate or kainit.
Owing to the greater relative proportion of phosphoric acid in
mixed fertilizers, and in ground bone, these changes in the schedule
of prices will doubtless result in slightly lower ton valuations, on the
same basis of composition, than last year.
II.
Average Cost Per Pound of Plant-Food Constituents.
The cost per pound of the actual constituents in fertilizing materials
is readily derived by dividing the selling price per ton by the number
■of pounds of the constituents contained in it, as determined by
analysis. In the following tables of analyses the prices per ton of
the various materials represent actual transactions for cash, the
amounts purchased ranging from less than a ton to carload lots. In
most cases the prices are for goods free on board cars at factory,
though in a number of cases these prices include cost of delivery.
The average cost per pound of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid and
potash, as secured from the tables of analyses, may, however, be
fairly assumed to represent the manufacturers’ retail prices at factory,
and admit of a comparison with the Station’s schedule of valuations,
which is intended to represent the retail cash cost per pound of the
fertilizing ingredients contained in the raw materials before they are
mixed to form complete fertilizers.
A study of the following table shows that the Station’s schedule of
prices is, with two exceptions, higher than the manufacturers’ average,
viz., in the case of “available” phosphoric acid from bone-black
superphosphate, and potash in the form of kainit. The application
of the schedule prices to the constituents in mixed goods is, there-
fore, perfectly fair to the manufacturers in showing the relative com-
mercial value of the different brands.
The samples analyzed represent materials bought by farmers’
elubs, or individuals, direct from the manufacturers of complete
fertilizers, or from large dealers in fertilizer supplies. A full list of
these firms, with their business addresses, is always published in the
.annual reports of this Station.
6
COMPARISON BETWEEN STATION’S SCHEDULE AND MANUFACTURERS’ AVERAGE:
RETAIL PRICES OF PLANT-FOOD IN FERTILIZER SUPPLIES.
MANUFACTURERS’
AVERAGE
RETAIL PRICES
FOR
stations’
SCHEDULE
OF PRICES
FOR
ft* tea
1893.
1894.
1894.
cts.
cts.
cts.
Cost per pound of Nitrogen from Nitrate of Soda
15.5
14.2
14.5
“
it
ii
“ “ “ Sulphate of Ammonia
17.1
18.8
19.0
“
a
ii
“ “ “ Dried Blood
17 2
16.7
18.5
a
a
ii
“ “ “ Dried Fish and Ammonite....
16.3
17.5
18.5
a
a
ii
“ “ “ Cotton-Seed Meal
14.9
13.9
15.0
<<
a
ii
“ “ “ Dissolved Bone
16.0
< <
u
ii
“ fine ground hone and tankage
14.1
15.1
16.5
t 1
ti
ii
“ fine-medium bone and tankage
11.3
13.7
15.0
a
it
ii
“ medium bone and tankage
8.4
11.0
12.0
44
i t
ii
“ coarse bone and tankage
6.6
6.6
7.0
it
ii
<4
“ Available Phosphoric Acid from Bone Black.
6.2
6.5
6.0
ii
a
a
“ “ “ “ “ S. C. Rock...
5.5
4.5
6.0
it
a
(4
“ “ “ “ “ Dis’d Bone..
6.0
ii
a
ii
“ Insoluble in fine ground bone and tankage..
5.6
5.0
5.5
ii
n
H
“ “ “ fine-medium bone and tankage.
4.7
4.1.
4.5
ii
tt
“
“ “ “ medium bone and tankage
3.8
2.7
3.0
i i
it
44
“ “ “ coarse bone and tankage
2.8
1.9
2.0
a
44
“ “ “ Potash from High-Grade Sul-
phate
5.1
4.9
5.25
a
4 4
“ “ “ “ “ Double Sulph’s of
Pot. and Mag...
5.7
<<
it
«
“ “ “ “ “ Kainit
4.5
4.7
4.5
“
“
“
“ “ “ “ “ Muriate
4.1
4.1
4.5
In the purchase of raw materials the advantages of a knowledge
of the markets, and method and time of buying, are shown in the
variations in the cost per pound of the different constituents. Those
who carefully study the sources of supply , and make up their orders
early , and purchase considerable quantities , are able to get better quota-
tions than those who buy at the busiest season of the year, in small lots
at a time, and of the nearest dealer.
It pays quite as well, proportionately, to use good business methods
in the purchase of fertilizer supplies, as in the sale of produce.
7
in.
Chemical Analyses of Fertilizing Materials.
FORMS OF NITROGEN
Readily and Completely Soluble in Water.
NITRATE OF SODA
Furnishing Nitrogen in Form of Nitrates.
Station Number.
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
j Percentage of
Nitrogen.
Cost of Nitro-
gen pel* lb.
Cost of 2,000 lbs.
of Nitrate of
Soda.
5640
"Edward Reelrman Middletown...
15.94
cts.
13.2
$12 20
38 03
5646
Mnorestnwn Granae
15.94
11.9
5658
J. FT. "Denise, Freehold
15.80
12.7
40 00
50 00
5673
Station
15.94
15.7
5709
"FT. Van f!leef, .Tr., Cliff'wood
16.02
14.7
47 00
5711
Runyon Field. Round Brook
15.95
14.1
45 00
5717
J. M. White, New Brunswick (ground)
*15.09
15.2
46 00
5741
A. D. Anderson, Trenton
15.88
13.9
44 00
5745
Mullica Hill Grange
15.74
12.4
39 00
5802
W. S. Riggs, Hightstown
16.06
15.6
50 00
5822
C. Kraus, Egg Harbor City
15.85
16.6
52 50
5866
Philip Lindsley, Raritan
15.53
15.1
47 00
6024
Henry C. McLean, Red Bank
15.92
13.3
42 50
■6057
M. S. Crane, Caldwell
16.03
14.8
47 50
Average Cost per Pound
14.2
* This sample contained impurities due to grinding.
SULPHATE OF AMMONIA
Furnishing Nitrogen in Form of Ammonia.
[ Station Number.
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
Percentage of
Nitrogen.
Cost of Nitro-
gen per lb.
Cost of 2,000 lbs.
of Sulphate of
j Ammonia.
cts.
5672
Moorestown Grange
20.89
16.9
$70 45
5746
Mullica Hill Grange
20.70
20.5
85 00
5808
H. C. Randolph, Plainfield
19.79
18.5
73 00
6058
M. S. Crane, Caldwell
19.65
19.1
75 00
Average Cost per Pound
18.8
8
FORMS OF NITROGEN INSOLUBLE IN WATER
Furnishing Nitrogen in Form of Organic Matter.
DRIED BROOD.
Station Number, j
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
j Precentage of
Phosphoric Acid.
Percentage of
Nitrogen.
Cost of Nitro-
gen per lb.
Cost of 2,000 lbs.
of Dried Blood.
cts.
5641
Edwin Beekman, Middletown
0.24
13.83
19.8
855 00
6651
Moorestown Grange
1.24
13.19
16.5
*
5659
J. H. Denise, Freehold
0.29
13.85
16.0
44 65
5674 Station
1.87
8.37
16.8
30 00
5712 Runyon Field, Bound Brook
1.23
12.39
14.0
36 00
5747]Mullica Hill Grange
0.33
12.61
16.7
42 50
6025 H. C. McLean, Red Bank
2.48
11.73
16.8
42 00
Average Cost per Pound
fl6.7
*82.70 per unit of Ammonia.
f In calculating the cost per pound of Nitrogen the value of the Phosphoric Acid contained-
in the samples was regarded.
DRIED AND GROUND FISH.
Station Number.
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
Percentage.
Cost
Per Pound.
Cost of 2,000 lbs.
of Fertilizer.
Nitrogen.
| Phosphoric
| Acid.
j Nitrogen.
Phosphoric
Acid.
cts
cts.
5748
Mullica Hill Grange
9.96
1.23
15.9
5
833 00
5424
C. Kraus, Egg Harbor City
8 18
6.83
19.7
5
39 00
5827
6.51
9.98
17.6
5
33 00
5845
il “ “ “
6.51
10.07
16.8
5
32 00
5846
“ “ “ “
8.60
7.98
17.4
5
38 00
Average Cost per Pound
17.5
COTTON-SEED MEAE.
Station Number.
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
Percentage.
Cost
Per Pound.
| Cost of 2,000 lbs.
of Fertilizer.
Nitrogen.
Available
Phosphoric
Acid.
Potash.
Nitrogen.
Available
Phosphoric
Acid.
Potash.
5649
H. I. Budd, Mount Holly
7.45
3.15
1.44
13.9
6
5
826 00
9
GROUND BONE AND TANKAGE.
Station Number.
Cost of Nitrogen
per lb. in —
Cost of Phosphoric Acid
per lb. in —
5
,d
6 rt
a-’-
d
a3
a> d
•S'”
S,-ls
d
c3
£
a>
E"h
Coarser than
iVin
03
.a
a> o
n— 1
SHs
a
o3
£
Sh .
a) a
KHS
d
o3
£
i-s
d
c3
■d
£ .
S.2
cts.
cts.
cts
cts.
cts.
cts.
cts.
cts.
5714
Tankage
14.8
13.4
10.7
6.3
4.9
4.0
2.6
1.8
5803
19.1
17.4
13.9
8.7
6.4
5.2
3.5
2.3
5844
“ tff
17.7
16.1
12.8
7.5
5.9
4.8
3.2
2.1
6026
a
12.6
11.5
9.2
4.2
3.4
2.3
6032
«
19.9
18.1
14.5
”8.4”
6.6
5.4
3.6
2.4
5638
Ground Bone
14.3
13.0
10.4
6.1
4.8
3.9
2.6
1.7
5941
(< **
19.9
18.1
14.5
8.4
6.6
5.4
3.6
2.4
5652
i( a
11.1
10.1
8.1
4.7
3.7
30
1 2.0
1.4
6027
n a
14 3
13 0
10.4
6.1
4.8
3.9
2.6
1.7
5660
ft! ftft
11.7
10.6
8.5
4.9
3.9
3.2
2.0
1.4
6059
ftl ftft
13 8
12.6
10.0
4 6
3.8
2.5
5749
n u
13.6
12.4
9.9
5.8
4.5
3.7
2.5
1.7
5804
(ft iC
15.8
14.3
11.5
6.7
5.3
4.3
2.9
1.9
5864
H ((
12.8
11.6
9.3
5.4
4.3
3.5
2.3
1.6
Average Cost per Pound
15.1
13.7
11.0
6.1
5.0
1 4.1
2.7
1.9
GROUND BONE AND TANKAGE.
Station Number.
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
Mechanical Analysis.
Percentage.
Cost of 2,000 lbs.
of Fertilizer.
d
03
£
o> a
d”
SHS
d
oS
rg
<D p
d
d
c3
A
M .
d-<H
d
oS
jd
S
w •
sa
Nitrogen.
Phosphoric
Acid.
5714
Runyon Field, Bound Brook
48
25
18
9
5.95
13.14
826 00
5803
W. S. Riggs, Hightstown
14
46
36
4
6.92
6.25
28 00
5844
C. Kraus, Egg Harbor City
29
41
13
17
7.97
7.51
30 00
6026
H. C. McLean, Red Bank
54
41
5
0
5 77
12.15
23 00
6032
W. Vreeland, New Brunswick
11
18
25
46
5.18
15.62
25 00
5638
E. Beekman, Middletown
32
30
26
12
4.04
24.60
27 20
5941
H. C. Randolph, Plainfield
35
18
19
28
2.86
26.07
33 00
5652
Moorestown Grange
64
22
12
2
2.63
26.94
23 35
6027
H. C. McLean, Red Bank
56
27
15
2
2.11
23.42
25 00
5660
J. H. Denise, Freehold
43
27
27
3
3.02
25.68
22 50
6059
M. S. Crane, Caldwell
43
39
18
0
4.05
22 80
28 00
5749
Mullica Hill Grange
47
22
17
14
1.65
29.30
24 98
5804
W. S. Riggs, Hightstown
41
18
19
22
1.95
28.20
27 00
5864
Philip Lindsley, Raritan
58
24
13
5
2.73
26.44
26 00
10
PLAIN SUPERPHOSPHATES
Furnishing Soluble, Reverted and Insoluble Phosphoric Acid,
MANUFACTURED FROM
BONE BRACK, BONE ASH, ETC., ETC.
o
Phosphoric Acid.
00
_Q
a
3
5
a
o
31
CO
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
Soluble in
Water.
Soluble in
Ammonium
Citrate.
Insoluble.
1
Available.
Cost of
Available
per lb.
Cost of 2,000 11
of Fertilizer.
5642
E. Beekman, Middletown
17.74
0.59
0.51
18.33
cts.
5.9
$21 45
5661
J. H. Denise, Freehold
14.28
0.81
0.69
15.09
5.3
16 00
5676
Station
13.08
0.95
1.19
14.03
7.1
20 00
5718
J. M. White, New Brunswick
15.52
1.13
0.98
16.65
5.6
18 75
5739
A. D. Anderson, Trenton
16.24
0.07
16.24
13.02
7.1
23 00
18 40
5750
Mullica Hill Grange
9.82
3.20
6.40
7.1
5805
5825
W. S. Riggs, Hightstown
C. Kraus, Egg Harbor City
16.24
14.88
0.42
0.10
2.59
16.24
15.30
7.0
8.3
25 00
*25 00
5940
H. C. Randolph, Plainfield
13.56
0.41
1.61
13.97
7.1
20 00
6028
H. C. McLean, Red Bank
13.36
1.99
4.07
15.35
6.5
20 00
6060
M. S. Crane, Caldwell
17 00
0.20
0.23
17.20
6.5
22 50
Average Cost per Pound
6.5
* Cost per ton at retail.
SOUTH CAROLINA ROCK AND OTHER MINERAL PHOSPHATES.
14
<D
Phosphoric Acid.
GO
n
a
s
fc
a
0
01
CO
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
Soluble in
j Water.
Soluble in
Ammonium
Citrate.
j Insoluble.
Available.
Cost of
Available
per lb.
Cost of 2,000 11
of Fertilizer.
5647
Moorestown Grange
10.86
1.45
2.79
12.31
cts.
4.5
$11 10
5648
10 50
1.66
3.46
12.16
4.6
11 10
5662
J. H. Denise, Freehold
13.84
1.03
1.46
14.87
3.9
11 60
5677
Station
12.32
1.36
2.22
13.68
4.8
13 00
5751
Mullica Hill Grange
11.20
1.48
3.24
12.68
4.4
11 10
5843
C. Kraus, Egg Harbor City
Philip Lindsley, Raritan
9.64
2.44
3.79
12.08
8.3
*20 00
5867
13.76
1.01
1.45
14.77
4.4
13 00
5894
W. Pettit, Salem..
11.26
1.32
2.97
12.58
4.6
11 50
6095
F. S. Newcomb, Vineland
10.44
1.43
4.08
11.87
5.1
12 00
Average Cost per Pound
4.5
* Cost per ton at retail.
11
GERMAN POTASH SALTS
Readily Soluble in Distilled Water.
MURIATE OF POTASH.
Station Number.
FROM WHOM RECEIVED
Percentage of
Potash.
Cost of Potash
per lb.
Cost of 2,000 lbs.
of Muriate.
5639
E. Beekman, Middletown
50.83
cts.
4.0
840 20
5645
Moorestown Grange
52.27
3.7
38 25
5679
Station
49.23
4.2
41 00
5682
J. Fitzga, Somerville
54.33
4.0
43 50
5684
J. H. Denise, Freehold
52.90
3.8
40 00
5715
Runyon Field, Bound Brook
48.87
4.0
39 00
5742
A. D. Anderson, Trenton
52.30
4.0
42 00
5752
Mullica Hill Grange
52.16
3.7
39 00
5806
W. S. Riggs, Hightstown
49.65
4.4
44 00
5826
C. TC rans, F.gg Harbor City
47.99
4.8
46 50
5868
Philip Lindsley, Raritan
51.57
4.0
41 00
6096
F. S. Newcomb, Vineland
49.78
4.2
42 00
Average Cost per Pound
4.1
GERMAN POTASH SALTS
Readily Soluble in Distilled Water.
HIGH-GRADE SULPHATE OF POTASH.
Station Number.
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
Percentage of
Potash.
Cost of Potash
| per lb.
Cost of 2,000 lbs.
j of Sulphate.
cts.
5643
E. Beekman, Middletown
48.54
5.2
850 00
5650
Moorestown Grange
49.35
4.4
43 50
5663
J. H. Denise, Freehold
49.41
4.4
43 50
5681
Station
48.30
5.2
50 00
5716
Runyon Field, Bound Brook
48.18
5.0
48 00
5719
J. M. White, New Brunswick
48.84
5.0
48 40
5865
Philip Lindsley, Raritan
49.12
4.9
48 00
6061
M. S. Crane, Caldwell
48.62
4.7
46 00
Average Cost per Pound
4.9
KAINIT.
Station Number.
FROM WHOM RECEIVED.
Percentage of
Potash.
Cost of Potash
per lb.
Cost of 2,000 lbs.
of Kainit.
5680
Station
11.58
1350
cts.
5.4
812 50
14 00
5708
H. Van Cleef, Jr., Cliffwood
5.2
5811
Runyon Field, Bound Brook
12.06
4.1
10 00
5893
W. Pettit, Salem
12.44
4.4
11 00
6137
J. M. White, New Brunswick
12.45
4.4
11 00
Average Cost per Pound
4.7
12
IV.
Home Mixtures; Formulas; Analyses.
The home mixtures here reported were made up from high-grade
materials, the analyses of which appear in the previous tables. The
formulas used were in most cases adopted after a study by the farmers
represented of the conditions of soil and the needs of the crop,,
in the localities in which they are used. A number of the mixtures
prepared according to these formulas have now been used for several
years with entire satisfaction. With the exception of No. 5809,
which is intended for fruit trees, they are largely used for potatoes
and market-garden crops.
FORMULAS USED IN
No. 5743. A. D. Anderson,
Trenton.
200 lbs. Nitrate of Soda.
700 “ Dissolved Bone.
700 “ Bone-Black Superphosphate.
400 “ Muriate of Potash.
2000
No. 5807. W. S. Riggs,
Higlitstown.
300 lbs. Nitrate of Soda.
400 “ Tankage
400 “ Ground Bone.
400 “ Bone-Black Superphosphate.
500 “ Muriate of Potash.
2000
No. 5925. D. D. Denise,
Freehold.
200 lbs. Nitrate of Soda.
300 “ Dried Blood.
200 “ Ground Bone.
900 “ Bone-Black Superphosphate.
200 “ Muriate of Potash.
200 “ Sulphate of Potash.
2000
No. 5777. G. W. F. Gaunt,
Mullica Hill.
150 lbs. Nitrate of Soda.
100 “ Sulphate of Ammonia.
200 “ Dried Blood.
200 “ Ground Fish.
500 “ Ground Bone.
300 “ Bone-Black Superphosphate.
400 “ S. C. Rock Superphosphate.
350 “ Muriate of Potash.
2200
No. 5809. H. C. Randolph,
Plainfield.
200 lbs. Nitrate of Soda.
800 “ Ground Bone.
400 “ Bone-Black Superphosphate.
600 “ Muriate of Potash.
2000
MAKING THE MIXTURES.
No. 5812. Runyon Field,
Bound Brook.
200 lbs. Nitrate of Soda.
400 “ Tankage
1000 “ Dissolved Bone.
400 “ Muriate of Potash.
2000
No. 6094. H. C. Randolph,
Plainfield.
200 lbs. Nitrate of Soda.
150 “ Sulphate of Ammonia.
250 “ Dried Blood.
1100 “ Bone-Black Superphosphate.
300 “ Muriate of Potash.
2000
No. 6062. M. S. Crane,
Caldwell.
150 lbs. Nitrate of Soda.
200 “ Sulphate of Ammonia.
300 “ Ground Bone.
900 “ Bone-Black Superphosphate.
450 “ Sulphate of Potash.
2000
No. 5926. Monmouth Co. Grange,
Freehold.
200 lbs. Nitrate of Soda.
300 “ Dried Blood
200 “ Ground Bone.
500 “ Bone-Black Superphosphate.
400 “ S. C. Rock Superphosphate.
200 “ Muriate of Potash.
200 “ Sulphate of Potash.
2000
No. 6039. J. S. Collins,
Moorestown.
200 lbs. Nitrate of Soda.
ICO “ Sulphate of Ammonia.
300 “ Cotton-Seed Meal.
500 “ Ground Bone.
600 “ S. C. Rock Superphosphate.
300 “ Muriate of Potash.
2000
13
It is claimed by manufacturers of mixed fertilizers and by others
who have not given the matter attention, that farmers cannot make
mixtures that will compare favorably in mechanical condition with
those produced by machinery made expressly for the purpose.
A careful study of this point was made last year and reported in
Bulletin No. 93 ; the results obtained showed that the ten home mix-
tures examined exceeded in fineness and condition the leading brands
of the manufacturers themselves. It is not disputed that the manu-
facturers can make better mixtures ; the fact is that, on the whole,
they do not.
A mechanical analysis was made of the samples of home mixtures
received this year. The standard of fineness or perfect mechanical
composition was made one twenty- fifth of an inch in diameter; that
is, the condition was regarded as perfect if all of the material passed
through a sieve, the holes of which were one twenty- fifth of an inch
in diameter.
The average fineness of the home mixtures examined this year is
here shown in connection with the results obtained last year :
FINER THAN. COARSER THAN.
in. in. ts in.
per cent. per cent. per cent.
Home Mixtures 1894 78 17 5
“ “ 1893 79 14 7
Manufactured Brands 1893 77 16 7
The fineness of the mixtures examined this year is practically
identical with that obtained in 1893, and it is evident that this meas-
ure of fineness, in connection with dryness, which all the mixtures
possessed, permits of ready and even distribution, the chief consid-
eration when the quality of the mixtures is not regarded. It must
be remembered, however, as suggested last year, that fineness or
mechanical condition is a relative term ; that is, fineness in a mixture
which has been made from materials containing the fertilizer constitu-
ents in relatively insoluble forms, is evidently of greater importance
than fineness in a mixture which has been made from materials con-
taining easily- soluble and readily-available constituents.
Composition of Home Mixtures.
The actual analyses of the different mixtures are given in the fol-
lowing table. The cost of the materials used in making them is also
compared with the estimated commercial value of the mixture at
Station’s valuation :
14
Table of Analyses.
Station Number.
NITROGEN.
PHOSPHORIC ACID.
Potash.
Cost per Ton.
Valuation per Ton at
Station’s Prices.
Value Exceeds Cost.
DO
©
"3
Sh
2
a
o
£
From Ammonia Salts, j
From Organic Matter.
Soluble in Water.
Soluble in Citrate of
| Ammonia.
Insoluble.
I
Total Available.
5743
1.42
0.10
0.96
8.48
0.06
0.17
8.54
14.03
$31 00
$31 00
5777
1.10
1.25
2.36
3.38
4.47
4.13
7.85
8.16
29 81
35 08
$5 27
5807
1.69
2.57
3.76
4.29
2.14
8.05
11.96
32 07
35 69
3 62
5809
0.74
0.11
1.83
1.74
5.75
9.47
7.49
11.48
33 40
32 43
—0 97
5812
1.34
0.12
2.10
5.14
3.34
1.74
8 48
10.84
30 00
32 76
2 76
5925
1.37
0.14
2.97
6.68
2.47
0.81
9.15
10.41
28 49
36 60
8 11
5926
1.61
0.12
2.14
5.84
1.88
1.32
7.72
14.23
27 61
36 90
9 29
6062
0.92
1.90
1.41
8.52
1.04
1.57
9.56
9.74
35 74
37 84
2 10
6039
1.82
0.93
2.20
3.42
4.10
5.72
7.52
3 53
29 00
31 44
2 44
6094
1.76
1
1.52
1.34
6.64
0.94
1.21
7.58
7.13
31 33
31 84
1
0 51
The chemical analyses of these mixtures, with two exceptions, com-
pare very favorably with their theoretical composition, calculated
from the analyses of the raw materials, and from the* weights used in
the formulas. The majority of them agree remarkably well with
their calculated guarantee. This point of evenness of mixing is
important both in home mixtures and manufactured brands, particu-
larly when the needs of the crop are understood, though variations
in this respect are not so serious as may be inferred from the labored
calculations of certain writers.
In the majority of cases the amounts used per acre are too small
to make the variations in composition apparent in the growth of the
crop.
In the use of concentrated manures, the first consideration is qual-
ity of the constituents ; second is quantity applied, and the third is
proportion of the constituents.
A study of the manufactured brands shows that wide variations
occur between the guaranteed and actual composition, much wider in
15
a large number of cases than has ever been shown in the home mix-
tures examined by this Station.
If farmers in their application of manufactured brands use the
guarantee as a guide as to the proportions of plant-food for the vari-
ous crops, they are, on the whole, led much farther astray than in the
use of home mixtures, yet writers who state, without foundation of
fact, that farmers cannot mix evenly, and condemn home mixtures on
that ground, entirely ignore this point.
Quality of the Mixtures.
All of the mixtures are high grade ; they contain large amounts of
the best forms of plant* food. On the average fifty per cent, of the
total nitrogen exists in forms soluble in water, while the organic
nitrogen is largely drawn from the best sources. The “ insoluble ”
phosphoric acid, a form of this constituent which varies in “ avail-
ability ” according to its source, is largely drawn from animal bone, a
product more highly regarded as a source of this element in its un-
treated state than mineral phosphate.
The potash is in all cases derived either from high-grade muriate
or sulphate of potash.
The question of concentration is also important ; in this respect the
mixtures this year are fully equal to those previously examined,
though slightly differing in the proportion of the plant-food contained
in them.
The average composition of all the complete fertilizers or manu-
facturers’ mixtures examined by the Station last year, and the average
of the home mixtures for 1893 and 1894, are as follows :
Available.
NITROGEN. PHOSPHORIC ACID. POTASH,
per cent. per cent. per cent.
Manufacturers’ Mixtures 1893 2.69 7.54 4.58
Home Mixtures 1894 3.99 8.19 10.15
“ “ 1893 4.03 8.44 9.36
High-grade mixtures cannot be made from low-grade goods. This
fact indicates either that a large number of the manufacturers’ mix-
tures must contain low-grade materials or that “ make- weight ” has
been added to the high-grade products used.
16
This point has been discussed in former reports, where it was
shown that, in the purchase of low-grade and cheap fertilizers, enor-
mous sums are spent annually for mixing, bagging, shipping and sell-
ing material that is absolutely worthless. In purchasing high-grade
raw materials and mixing at home, high-grade mixtures are the
legitimate result, and expenses in this direction are avoided.
The statement of the fact that the value of a fertilizer depends
upon the kind, quality and amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and
potash contained in it will bear frequent repetition even at this late
day. True progress in the use of manures depends largely upon the
thorough appreciation of this principle by the consumer.
Cost of Home Mixtures.
These home mixtures represent the purchase of at least 800 tons ;
the average cost is $30.85 and the average valuation $34.16, or a gain
of $3.31 per ton over Station’s valuations, which are intended to, and
actually do, fairly represent the retail cash cost of the fertilizer con-
stituents in the raw materials at factory. The cost per ton is 10.7
per cent less than the valuations ; in the manufacturers’ mixtures
examined in 1893 it was shown that the cost per ton was 4,0.0 per
cent, greater than the valuations.
v.
Home Mixing; The Experience of Farmers.
The main object of this study of fertilizing materials by the Station
is to furnish farmers with detailed and accurate information in refer-
ence to the sources, composition and value of the various products
which enter into the manufacture of commercial fertilizers.
In connection with this work, the conditions under which the pur-
chase of raw materials is advisable, either for home-mixing or for
direct use unmixed, have in the past been pointed out.
Many farmers have adopted this method of purchasing their sup-
plies, and their experience, particularly in the making and using of
home mixtures, which in many cases now covers a series of years, has
been reported to the Station in answer to our inquiries. These
farmers, numbering sixty, whose replies were received in time to be
17
included in this bulletin, and representing ten counties, are making
farming their business, and are among the most successful in the
State. The questions asked covered in the main the following points :
1. The number of years that home mixtures have been used?
2. The amount used yearly ?
3. Whether the quantity of fertilizers used was greater or less than
when this method was first adopted ?
4. Whether they had any difficulty in getting good mechanical
condition ?
5. The cost of mixing per ton ?
6. Whether the results obtained were satisfactory ?
7. Whether it pays to buy raw materials and mix at home ?
8. The advantages or disadvantages of this method of purchasing
fertilizers ?
1. Three report having used home mixtures for 20 years; twelve,
from 10 to 12 years; twenty- three, from 5 to 10 years; seventeen,
from 2 to 5 years ; and five, this as their first year.
2. Seven farmers use over 25 tons per year — one as high as 40
tons; sixteen use 15 tons or more; fourteen use 10 to 15 tons; six-
teen use 5 to 10 tons ; and six less than 5 tons.
3. Forty-two of the sixty use more now than when they began ;
five, three to four times as much, and eleven about the same quantity,
varying according to the area of the best-paying crop.
4. Fifty-four state that they do not have any difficulty in getting
good mixtures ; four had some difficulty at first, while one states that
his home mixtures excel in mechanical condition any manufactured
brand he has ever used.
5. Considerable variation is reported in the cost of mixing ; two
report an expense of $1.50 per ton; fifteen say that it costs $1 per
ton; sixteen estimate the cost at 75 cents; nineteen at 50 cents; one
at 60 cents ; two at 25 cents, and two do not regard the mixing as an
extra cost. They all report the mixing as being done by the ordinary
labor of the farm, when other work is not pressing, and therefore no
extra expenditure.
6. Fifty-four farmers report that the results are thoroughly satis-
factory, both in regard to the yield and quality of crop. Five report
18
this year as their first year, though their crops are looking quite as
well as where other brands were used.
7. Fifty-three state that it pays them well to buy raw materials and
mix for themselves ; five have not yet secured results, and one thinks
he can do about as well in buying the regular brands.
8. With two exceptions all agree that the main advantage derived
is that the actual constituents cost much less than in the same grade
of goods purchased either directly from manufacturers or from
dealers. Twenty-six state that the saving is from $6 to $10 per ton*
and that further advantages are —
First, that they know exactly what they are using. Second, that
they can use the best forms of plant-food. Third, that the essential
constituents can be varied to suit the requirements of various soils
and crops.
One farmer reports that the third point alone has been of the
greatest service to him, enabling him to make profitable, crops which
were formerly considered almost impossible to raise.
But three farmers report any disadvantage. One states that there
is considerable loss from handling; another that it is difficult to
procure the materials in small quantities at a reasonable price, while
a third considers it a disadvantage to pay cash.
The above summary of the practical experience of farmers is,
perhaps, sufficient evidence of the value of home-mixing, and the
strongest argument that could be presented for the adoption of this
method of purchasing supplies.
The main conditions to be observed, and which are necessary, in
order to make the method entirely feasible and truly economical, are —
first, that the supplies should be purchased in considerable quantities ;
second, that they should be purchased early, and prepared before the
beginning of the busy season on the farm; third, that contracts
should be on a cash basis.
These reports also show indirectly that it pays to use fertilizers,
since thirty-seven out of the sixty use more than a carload annually ;
sixteen use a half carload or more, and nearly all use a great deal
more than when they first began.
Such a large and increasing annual expenditure for fertilizing
materials, reaching as high as $1,000 in a number of cases, could not
be continued for any great length of time at a loss. It is a fact that
19
those who use the largest amounts are among the most prosperous
farmers. They use large amounts because they know it pays to
provide sufficient food to insure, as far as possible, maximum produc-
tion, under the existing conditions of climate and season.
No stronger proof than the above is required to show that in farm-
ing, under present conditions, it is of the greatest usefulness to know
what constitutes plant-food, the best methods of buying, and how to
use to the best advantage.
EDWARD B. VOORHEES,
Director.
New Brunswick, N. J., July 30th, 1894.
w f w
SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SHADE TREES.
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural College
Experiment
103
NEW JERSEY AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE EXPERIMENT STATION.
BOARD OF CONTROL.
The Board of Trustees of Rutgers College in New Jersey.
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD.
AUSTIN SCOTT, Ph.D., LL.D., President of Rutgers College, Chairman.
Hon. GEORGE C. LUDLOW, HENRY R. BALDWIN, M.D., LL.D.,
Hon. HENRY W. BOOKSTAVER, LL.D., JAMES NEILSON, Esq.
STAFF OF THE STATION.
AUSTIN SCOTT, Ph.D., LL.D., Director.
Professor JULIUS NELSON, Ph D., Biologist.
Professor BYRON D. HALSTED, Sc.D , Botanist and Horticulturist.
Professor JOHN B. SMITH, Sc.D., Entomologist.
ELTSHA A. JONES, B.S., Superintendent of College Farm.
IRVING S. UPSON, A.M., Disbursing Clerk and Librarian.
CHARLES A. POULSON, Mailing Assistant.
LEONORA E. BURWELL, Clerk to the Director.
AUGUSTA E. MESKE, Stenographer and Typewriter.
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural College Experiment Station.
BULLETIN 103.
OCTOBER 8, 1894.
Some Insects Injurious to Shade Trees.
BY JOHN B. SMITH, ENTOMOLOGIST.
“A barren, detested vale, yon see, it is ;
The trees, though summer, yet forlorn and lean ”
— Titus Andronicus.
Nothing makes a worse appearance than shade trees injured by
disease or insects — trees without or with but ragged foliage, or
with leaves that are seared and brown in midsummer. In many
of our New Jersey cities, towns and villages, in which shade
trees form an important element of beauty, insect injury has
been so marked for two or three years last past as to bring me
many letters of inquiry. During the season of 1894 matters
were so much worse than ever before that- even the authorities
were aroused in some instances and sufficient general interest
developed to make it seem desirable to prepare a brief account
of our most troublesome species for general information, and as
.a guide to methods for their destruction.
Chief among all the troublesome forms is
The Elm-Leaf Beetle.
( Galeruca xanthomelsena , Sell rank.)
This insect makes its appearance early in spring, just as soon
^s the elms leaf out, and sometimes almost as soon as the buds
begin to unfold, in the form of an oblong beetle about one-fourth
4
of an inch in length, yellowish in color, and with a black stripe
on each wing-cover. This period is usually a little after the
middle of May in the latitude of New Brunswick, varying with
the season, and about ten days earlier or later at the extreme
south or extreme north of the State.
The first indications of their presence are small round holes in
Fig. 1.
Elm-leaf beetle: a, eggs; 6, larvae; c, adult; e, eggs, enlarged; /, sculpture of eggs;.
g, larva, enlarged; h, side view of greatly-enlarged segment of larva ; i, dorsal view of same;
j, pupa, enlarged ; k, beetle, enlarged ; l, portion of elytron of beetle, greatly enlarged. (After
Riley.)
the more mature leaves. These rapidly increase in number as
the foliage develops, until the tree looks as if loads of small shot
had been fired through it in every direction.
Late in May oviposition begins, and soon thereafter, in early
June, patches of little yellow eggs, somewhat bottle-shaped and
set on end in a double row, make their appearance on the under
side of the leaves in all parts of the trees. They continue to
increase in number until after the middle of June, decreasing
afterward until, before July 1st, very few living eggs remain.
At about the same date the beetles that laid the eggs, having
accomplished their life work, disappear completely, and are suc-
ceeded by their larvae, which began hatching from the eggs first
laid, early in June. These increase in number rapidly, and soon
the trees show the effects of their appearance. Unlike their
parents, they do not eat the entire leaf tissue, but scrape from
cither the upper or under surface only the superficial layers of
cells. This causes such injury that the eaten spots in the leaf
turn brown and die, the foliage eventually becoming dry, burnt
by the sun and falling in midsummer.
The larvae causing this injury are small, blackish slugs, soft
and a little moist to the touch, yellowish underneath and with
six little black legs anteriorly. They are, when full grown, about
three-eighths of an inch in length and furnished with little black
tubercles, giving rise to tufts of stiff blackish hair. In Figure 1,
b and g, the larvae are well and characteristically shown. In
from twenty-five to thirty days they become full fed and ready
to transform to pupae. They cease feeding and begin their
journey to the surface, crawling down twig to branch, to trunk,
and down the trunk to the ground, where, among the grass or
whatever rubbish may be handy, they cast their larval skins and
appear as soft, bright-yellow pupae. These pupae are inactive
and helpless, with all the members of the future beetle separately
encased and closely tucked in. Thousands of them may be
easily found at the base of a very medium-sized elm, and up the
trunk, under all loosened bark scales, and in all other crevices,
hundreds may be found, representing the ill or weary that be-
come discouraged or otherwise unable to reach the ground. This
brings the time to the end of June, and a week later, or about
July 7th, new beetles begin to make their appearance, increasing
constantly in number until the end of that month or later, and
again eating round holes in such foliage as escaped earlier in the
season. Early in August the earliest beetles begin to seek winter
quarters and gradually decrease in number ; though stragglers
will be found throughout September, especially at lights, to which
they are readily attracted. Winter quarters are found in lofts
and attics, in out-houses, barns or other shelter, in the cracks of
posts and fences, or even of telegraph poles ; in fact wherever
6
cover is attainable. The College belfry at New Brunswick is a
favorite lodging place, quarts of the beetles having been found
there in early September.
Further south, at Washington, D. C., there is a second and
sometimes even a third brood, but in New Jersey we have only
one, and, occasionally, a very partial second brood.
Quite usually, where a tree has been almost or entirely stripped
of foliage, a second growth makes its appearance late in August,
and this is again riddled by such beetles as remain. They prefer
this to the less succulent foliage that has passed the summer,,
even if entirely uninjured. On such new foliage may be found
the few eggs and larvse of the partial second brood already men-
tioned. I greatly doubt whether on the mature foliage they
could come to full growth.
There is no necessity for any further description of the injury
inflicted, which is obvious to all, and we may proceed at once to
the question of
Remedies.
These insects can be controlled, and the trees entirely pre-
served by two or three sprayings with either London purple or
Paris green, at the rate of one pound of either in one hundred
and fifty gallons of water, one pound of stone or shell lime, or
two gallons of milk of lime, being added to prevent possible
injury to the foliage. Two quarts of glucose or molasses adds
greatly to the sticking power of the poison used.
Arsenate of lead is a new material which may, eventuallyr
replace Paris green or London purple for insecticide purposes, as
it is absolutely insoluble in water, and may be applied in almost
any strength without danger of injury to foliage. It is formed
by adding four ounces arsenate of soda and eleven ounces acetate
of lead to one hundred gallons of water. The chemicals dis-
solve readily and unite to form a white precipitate which is
arsenate of lead and which remains in suspension a long time,
settling very slowly, and thus requiring less stirring than either
Paris green or London purple. Two quarts of glucose or molasses
to one hundred gallons of the mixture will add so greatly to its
sticking qualities that even a heavy shower will not wash it off
completely.
If less than one hundred gallons are desired, the mixture can
be made in the same proportions, or the material may be dis-
solved and the precipitate formed in one gallon of water, stirring
thoroughly to secure complete combination of the chemicals.
This concentrated mixture can then be added in proper propor-
tion to the tank or other vessel from which spraying is done.
Care must be taken to have it well stirred before pouring out.
If the chemicals are purchased in quantity, the arsenate of lead
will be somewhat cheaper than either Paris green or London
purple. Purchased at retail, the cost will be greater.
Spraying should be first done when the beetles are beginning
to feed in spring, and when the little round holes, already
described, become noticeable. This spraying is intended to
reach the adult insects and to kill them off, in large part, before
eggs are laid. The second spraying should be done as soon as
the larvae begin hatching from the eggs, which can be known by
direct observation or by the appearance of scraped leaves. This
is intended to reach the young larvae, which succumb very
readily. As egg-laying and hatching continue through a long
period, a third spraying ten days after the second is advisable,
especially if it has rained during the interval, and this should be
sufficient to protect the trees. The third spraying is not a neces-
sity unless it rains ; but is desirable.
On large trees, it will be impossible to reach all points so as to
kill all insects, and some will become full grown and will make
their way down the trunk to the base of the tree. When this is
noticed, a strong brine, whale-oil soap-suds, kerosene, kerosene
emulsion diluted nine times, or even hot water, should be poured
on the ground around the base of the trees for a distance of two
feet, and this should be repeated at intervals of five days as long
as new additions are noticed.
For trees in gardens or on private grounds I would recommend
the three sprayings and the destruction of the larvae and pupae
at the base of the trees. In public parks and for street trees, the
two, or, if it rains, three sprayings will be sufficient.
It looks like a great task to spray a large elm, or a large num-
ber of trees in a park or town, and yet it is easier than it seems.
The elms on the College campus at New Brunswick are probably
as large as most of those to be found in the State, and they have
8
been, during the past season, sprayed twice and fairly well pro-
tected. They have, indeed, been sprayed almost every year since
I have been at the Station, with good results, one year only being
entirely omitted to give a basis for comparison.
Any good spraying outfit will serve for small trees or where
only a few trees are to be protected. For large trees and for pro-
tecting street trees there should be a tank, mounted on a wagon,
and holding from 100 to 150 gallons of water. To this should
be attached a double-acting, brass-cylinder force-pump, with full
hose couplings, capable of supplying a good pressure to two lines
of hose. Such pumps can be obtained from almost any manu-
facturer. That in use at the Station is made by the Gould’s
Pump Company, but others, equally good, are made by other
manufacturers. Two lengths of hose are required, sufficient to
reach well into large trees, and, in addition, a bamboo pole or
other light rod should be used to carry the nozzle into the foliage
and away from the person holding it. A light ladder reaching
to the point of branching will complete the equipment except as
to nozzles. Spraying can be done by two men from among the
branches of one or two trees to the extreme tips of those 75 feet
in height, one man at the pump being sufficient.
The nozzle to be used is an important feature. For small
trees, the Nixon nozzle, made by the Nixon Nozzle and Machine
Company, Dayton, Ohio, or the Yermorel nozzle, made by most
of the makers of insecticide machinery, are entirely satisfactory
and most economical. For large or street trees, where a full hose
is used, a graduating nozzle, such as is used in lawn sprinkling,
is as satisfactory as anything I have found. It is more wasteful
than the nozzles above mentioned, but can be changed from a
spray to carry a long distance or to throw a solid jet, if desirable,
almost at once. It is capable of making a very fine spray at
close quarters and there is no danger of clogging.
Varieties Attacked.
Not all species of elms are equally susceptible. The insect is
an imported one, its original home being in Europe, and, nat-
urally enough, European elms are most troubled, though none
are exempt. According to observations made by Prof. C. V.
Riley, at Washington, Ulmus campestris is the greatest favorite,
9
and next to it come U. suberosa, U. effusa and U. montana. The
latter is the least infested of the imported varieties, except
U. parvifolia ( siberica ), on which the larvae seem to be unable to
live at all. Ulmus americana was only a little attacked, and
was found to be the most desirable form so far as its freedom
from insect pests is concerned. In setting out elms, therefore,
our American varieties should be preferred. The most sus-
ceptible are those having thin, smooth leaves.
Next in order, in some localities at least, is
The Wood Leopard Moth, or Imported Elm Borer.
(Zenzera Pyrina, L )
This is also an imported insect, and its appearance in the
larval and adult condition is well enough shown in the figures
Fig. 2.
The wood leopard moth : a, b, larva from above and from side ; c, male moth ; d, female
moth ; e, larval burrow. All natural size.
herewith given, which are reproduced from “ Insect Life ” by the
courtesy of the United States Department of Agriculture. It is,
so far as my records go, confined at the present time to Jersey
10
City, Hoboken and Newark, and to the immediate vicinity of
these cities. It occurs as a serious pest in the park and shade
trees of New York and Brooklyn, and has caused the death of
numerous trees of quite a wide range of species. In the city of
Newark, it is distinctly the most serious of the tree pests, attack-
ing all the species of maple and elm and also, less seriously, the
sweet gum, tulip tree, the lindens and several others. The
horse-chestnut and Ailanthus are not attacked, though the former
is also infested in Central Park, New York.
The moths make their appearance in May or June, continuing
through July and into August, and are readily attracted to light.
It has become the most common species seen around the electric
lights in the cities named, and each moth represents a larva that
has fed for at least two years in the wood of a neighboring tree,
while every female represents the possibility of hundreds of
other larvae to follow the same life history.
The eggs are laid by the female moth on the branches, prob-
ably placed just into the bark, and the young larvae bore at once
into the wood, usually at the crotch of a small branch, or at a
node, and work downward ; sometimes just under the bark,
sometimes in the solid wood. They grow apace and get intb
larger branches, still working downward as a whole, but often
varying in course ; sometimes making it circular, so as to girdle
the stick they feed in. For at least two years they feed, rarely
emerging from the burrow, though they do occasionally come-
out for the purpose of changing their quarters and beginning
their destructive work elsewhere. Then they change to some-
what slender, brown pupae, and these wriggle themselves through
the bark in due season, and soon after the moths emerge.
Remedies.
An insect with the life history above given is beyond the reach
of ordinary insecticides. There is no period in its life history
when we can reach it by any application made on the trees. I
have already stated that a great many moths are attracted to the
electric lights, and there meet death. It is to this, I believe, that
we owe the failure to spread more rapidly from Newark and
other cities into the surrounding country.
11
Active measures are possible in one direction only. Every
badly-infested tree should be cut down and burnt, as its death
would be a mere matter of time at the best. Trees infested
toward the tip only should be cut back hard in winter, and what-
ever is taken off should be burnt.
Unlike some of the other introduced species, this insect is also
a sad pest in its native home. Mr. J. W. Tutt, in a little book
recently issued, says : “ Then the caterpillar of the wood leopard
moth, whose almost transparent wings are covered with bright
metallic, greenish-black dots, does immense damage to trees in
our London parks. Almost all the branches that come tumbling
about our ears during a high wind are snapped, owing to the
damage done by this dreadful scourge, whilst it is estimated that
one female alone lays above a thousand of her minute salmon-
coloured eggs.”
Mr. E. B. Southwick, Entomologist to the New York Park
Commissioners, says that this is the most troublesome of all the
insects infesting the New York City parks. Wagon-loads of
twigs and branches are trimmed off in Central Park annually,
and the insect seems now to have been somewhat checked. The
openings to the burrows made by the larvae are easily seen by
the trained eye, and where they are in the trunks of valuable
trees or shrubs, or in branches that cannot be easily spared, a
few drops of bisulphide of carbon are forced into the burrow by
means of an ordinary oil can holding half a pint, such as is used
by mechanics, and a little dab of putty closes the opening. The
vapor of the bisulphide will penetrate the full length of the
tunnel, and will kill the larva wherever it may be in it, without
injury to the tree.
I would recommend, wherever this borer has gained a footing,
cut down and burn all badly-infested trees where the trunk and
larger branches are involved. Where the trunks are free and
the larger branches are not badly infested, cut back as hard as
the tree will easily bear, and burn all the cuttings. The tree
should then be carefully examined, and wherever a hole is
noticed, bisulphide should be forced into it and the opening
should be closed with putty. All this can be done during the
winter. During the summer the trees should be kept under
12
inspection and wherever signs of borers are noticed, either the
infested wood should be cut out or the borer destroyed by means
of bisulphide of carbon as above described.
The White-Marked Tussock-Moth.
( Orgyia leucostigma, S . & A )
The most abundant caterpillar to be found in our shade trees
is that herewith figured, and it attacks a very great variety of
species, very few only being exempt. When it is full grown it
is a very pretty creature and quite striking in appearance. The
head and two little elevated spots on joints nine and ten are bright
vermilion-red ; the back is velvety and there are three bright-
yellow lateral lines. The whole body is thinly clothed with
long, pale-yellow hairs, originating from small, wart-like eleva-
tions. Four cream-colored or white dense brushes of hair are in
a row on the back, on the middle of the fourth, fifth, sixth and
Fig. 3.
Larva of white-marked tussock-moth. (After Riley.)
seventh joints, while from each side of the head arises a long,
plume-like tuft of black hair, projecting forward and outward.
A similar plume projects upward from the last joint.
These caterpillars are found scattered all over the trees in
June, move about freely and, when suddenly disturbed, they
drop from their perch, suspending themselves by a silken thread
which is attached to the leaf from which they were started.
Toward the middle or end of June they become full grown and
begin to spin whitish cocoons, intermixed with their own hairs,
in all sorts of convenient places. The angles of wooden tree-
boxes become filled with them, every projection is made use of as
a shelter, and on the trunks of trees themselves great numbers
13
make use of every crevice. In this cocoon the larvae change to
pupae, the male much the smaller and showing rudiments of the
future wings. Less than two weeks thereafter, the final change
takes place, and the adult insects emerge — the sexes strikingly
dissimilar in appearance. The male has two pairs of broad,
dusty-gray wings, the anterior crossed by narrow black lines and
with a white spot toward the hind angle. The feelers or antennae
are broadly feathered and the fore -legs are plumed and tufted.
The female, on the other hand, is entirely without wings and
somewhat slug-like, consisting principally of an abdomen which
is enormously distended with eggs. When she emerges from the
Fig. 4.
White marked tussock-moth : a, female on its egg-mass ; b, young larva suspended by its
thread ; c, pupa of female ; d, pupa of male ; e, male moth. (After Riley.)
pupa she crawls upon the cocoon, to which she clings for the bal-
ance of her life. Egg-laying begins soon after the male has
found her, and the eggs are laid upon the old cocoon and cov-
ered with a frothy mass, which soon becomes hard and brittle
and is snow white. From these eggs a second brood of cater-
pillars emerges in July and the same life history is repeated, the
adults of the second brood appearing in September. The eggs
laid at this time remain on the trees during the winter. White
at first, they gradually darken by exposure to dust and rain and
before spring resemble their surroundings fairly well.
Remedies.
We can keep this insect in check with comparatively little
trouble. All the egg masses on the trees should be removed
early in the winter, while they are prominent on the bare trunks
and limbs, and every tree that is thoroughly cleaned will be
14
exempt for the season to come, except for such larvse as may
crawl on it from adjoining trees. As the females are incapable
of flight, there can be no spread from them, and the wandering
habit of the caterpillar just before pupation provides for the
spread of the insect. The egg masses, as they are taken off,
should be placed in a basket and afterward burnt in a furnace.
A few men employed in cleaning trees during the winter in
the cities, towns and villages of our State would perhaps relieve
distress in some cases, and would certainly pay well in the im-
proved appearance of the trees during the ensuing summer.
Elms that are sprayed for the beetle need no special treatment
for this insect, which will be killed off by the same application
which destroys the major pest.
If winter treatment is not resorted to, a spraying with either
of the arsenites, as recommended for the elm-leaf beetle, should
be made about the middle of June.
General Considerations.
All trees have their insect enemies, and all parts sustain their
own peculiar pests. Some attack them in life ; some only when
they are weakened by disease, age or other adverse circumstances,
hastening death and giving room each year for other species
which, eventually, if not interfered with, reduce them to dust.
Not all species of trees suffer equally, however, and in many cases
trees and insects are so adapted that both live and flourish, while
in yet other instances the insects find it difficult to flourish in
surroundings in which the trees yet do fairly well.
It should be remembered as a matter of primary importance
that, other things equal, healthy trees are least susceptible to
insect attack, and the effort should be, in all cases, to have
healthy, clean, well-fed trees. All shade trees should be scrubbed
each winter with a stiff brush and whale-oil soap-suds, to destroy
the numerous insects hibernating in the crevices, and to remove
fungous growths, mosses or other parasitic vegetable life. Sickly
or infested shoots or branches should always be cut out promptly
when noticed, and the cuttings should be, in all cases, burnt to
prevent the transformation of any larvse that the}^ may contain.
15
Classified List of Shade Trees.
The following list of shade trees, based on that prepared by
Mr. B. E. Fernow, Chief of Division of Forestry, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, for the Brooklyn Tree Planting and Foun-
tain Society, is arranged in the order of least susceptibility to
insect attack, though none are entirely exempt. It is not in-
tended to suggest that they are the best in the order named,
except so far as freedom from insect attack in New Jersey is con-
cerned. Dr. Halsted has kindly marked the list for fungous
troubles, and the numbers in parenthesis following the names
indicate the order of their freedom from disease, No. (1) indi-
cating the species least affected.
Tree of Heaven. Ailanthus glandulosus. (3)
Ginko, or Maiden-hair Tree. Ginkgo biloba. (1)
Tulip Tree. Liriodendron iulipifera. (6)
Sweet Gum. Liquidamber styracifiua. (2)
American Linden. Tilia americana. (7)
European Linden. Tilia vulgaris. (8)
Small -leafed Linden. Tilia microphylla. (9)
Cottonwood Poplar. Pop ulus monilifera. (19)
Horse-chestnut. JEsculus hippocastanum. (18) •
Oriental Plane Tree. Platanus orientalis. (20)
American Plane Tree. Platanus occidentalis. (21)
Box Elder. Negundo aceroides. (10)
All Oaks. Quercus Sp. (11)
All Maples. Acer Sp. (12)
All Willows. Salix Sp. (13)
American Elm. Ulmus americana. (17)
Slippery Elm Ulmus fulva. (16)
Scotch Elm. Ulmus montana. (15)
European Elm. Ulmus campestris. (14)
Black Locust. Robinia pseudacacia. (5)
Honey Locust. Gleditschia triacanthos. (4)
W r/r^:
ANALYSES AND VALUATION OF
COMPLETE FERTILIZERS, GROUND BONE AND
MISCELLANEOUS SAMPLES.
NEW JERSEY
AGRICULTURAL
Experiment Station
104
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural Experiment Station.
BULLETIN 104.
NOVEMBER 19, 1894.
Analyses and Valuations of Complete Fertilizers,
Ground Bone and Miscellaneous Samples.
BY EDWARD B. VOORHEES,
LOUIS A. VOORHEES,
JOHN P. STREET.
Two bulletins containing fertilizer analyses are issued by this
Station annually, each having a specific purpose. Bulletin No.
102, issued June 30th, contained the analyses of 90 samples of
fertilizing materials and 10 samples of mixtures made from such
materials by the farmers themselves. The main object of this
work was to show the sources and composition of the materials
•containing the best forms of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and
potash, the cost per pound of the ingredients, and the advantages
of making home mixtures.
A large number of these samples were, however, examined for
the purpose of determining for the purchaser the number of
pounds, or “ units,” of nitrogen, phosphoric acid or potash con-
tained in the products bought, the purchaser agreeing to pay for
the actual amount of plant-food found by the Station. It is
obvious that the analyses for this purpose were of direct useful-
ness in protecting both the dealer and the purchaser, in case of
unusual variation in the composition of the products.
4
In this bulletin the analyses and valuation of 224 samples of
mixed fertilizers, 29 samples of ground bone, 17 samples of mis-
cellaneous products, and 9 samples of wood ashes are reported.
The main object of this work is to show whether the actual
composition of thg various products corresponds with their guar-
antee as required by law. It is, therefore, of direct value in de-
tecting fraud and in showing carelessness on the part of the
manufacturer in the preparation of the mixtures, though the
analyses are sufficiently complete to give definite information
as to the kind of materials used in making the different brands,
and also in showing whether there is sufficient variation in the
composition of the brands now offered to fulfill special soil and
crop requirements.
Chemical Composition of Mixed Fertilizers.
The samples examined this year represent the product of sixty-
four manufacturers and dealers, and were, in most cases, taken
by regularly-appointed inspectors, many of whom have performed
this work for the Station since 1884.
On the whole the products are of fairly good quality, and as a
rule contain as much total plant-food as is guaranteed. In many
cases, however, it is not distributed in the proportions stated by
the guarantee, which indicates either a lack of skill or of careful-
ness in their preparation.
In two cases only the consumer receives less of all of the
plant-food constituents than is guaranteed. One product, repre-
sented by sample No. 5710, is decidedly fraudulent in character.
It shows but fifty-five hundredths of one per cent of nitrogen,
and less of phosphoric acid and potash than is contained in good
marl, which evidently forms the basis of the mixture. Its com-
mercial value is $3.68 per ton, and its selling price is $25.
The sample represented a car-load lot bought directly from the-
manufacturer. The analysis was reported early in the season to
the purchaser, with the statement that the product was practically
valueless.
Guarantees and Their Uses.
A careful comparison of the actual composition of the various
brands, with their accompanying guarantee, shows that the chief
difficulty in respect to keeping the guarantee is in the case of
phosphoric acid.
Ninety-six of the 224 brands, or 43 per cent., contain less
phosphoric acid than is guaranteed ; 27 brands contain less
potash and 20 less nitrogen. In the case of nitrogen, particu-
larly, the actual amount contained is in many cases greatly in
excess of the guarantee.
As already stated, the object of the guarantee is to indicate to
the purchaser the amount and proportion of the plant-food con-
stituents contained in the different brands. If the brand con-
tains less of any one constituent than is guaranteed, the consumer
may secure damages under the law. The fact that the brand
contains the amount guaranteed is, however, of but little import-
ance in itself, since there is no obligation placed upon the manu-
facturer to guarantee any specified amount. It is useful only in
connection with intelligence on the part of the purchaser, who
understands the relation that should exist between guarantee
and selling price.
The importance of this knowledge may be illustrated in the
case of two brands from the same manufacturer, and reported in
this bulletin : Brand No. 1 is guaranteed to contain 2 per cent,
of ammonia or its equivalent, 1.64 per cent, of nitrogen, 8 per
cent, of “ available” phosphoric acid and 1.50 per cent, of actual
potash, and sells for $28 per ton. Brand No. 2 is guaranteed to
contain 3 per cent, of ammonia or its equivalent, 2.46 per cent,
of nitrogen, 10 per cent, of “ available ” phosphoric acid and 10
per cent, of actual potash, and sells for $32 per ton. The com-
mercial valuation of No. 1, when reaching its full guarantee, is
$17 per ton. The valuation of No. 2, on the same basis, is
$30.10 — a difference of $13.10 per ton, though the selling price
differs by only $4. In other words, though the guarantee is
reached in each case, the manufacturer offers in brand No. 2
55 per cent, more plant-food for the same money than in brand
No. 1.
The above illustration is not an isolated example of how the
keeping of guarantees may mislead those who compare brands
only on that basis. It is obvious, therefore, that an inspection
which shows that the brands reach their guarantee is limited in
6
its usefulness. Consumers must study the relation of guarantee-
to selling price.
The importance of a strict conformity of guarantee and com-
position in reference to proportion of the constituents, is also
worthy of notice.
A farmer buys a special fertilizer for potatoes, or other crop,
because he believes from experience and experiment that certain
proportions of plant-food constituents are better than others. He
must trust to the guarantee for guidance in this respect ; if the
actual composition does not correspond to the guarantee in pro-
portion of the constituents, his results in the field may be quite as
disappointing as if he received less plant-food than was offered.
Station's Valuations and Selling Prices.
The Station’s valuation per ton is derived from applying to
the different ingredients the schedule of prices published in Bul-
letin No. 102 ; it is intended to show the retail cash cost of the
amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash contained in
one ton if they were bought at factory in the form of raw
materials, unmixed. The difference between selling price and
Station’s value shows, therefore, the charges that are made for
mixing, bagging, shipping and selling the different brands.
The selling price per ton, entered in the tables, is the price at
the point where sampled. These prices differ in the various
localities of the State, due mainly to differences in freight rates
from point of production to consumers’ depot, the amount sold
and commission charged.
In certain States a definite though arbitrary sum for these
charges is fixed by the Station and added to the valuation. This
method has not been adopted here, since the only effect is
to reduce the difference between valuation and selling price.
Farmers know what is a fair charge for freight from shipping
points to their localities, and can make such calculations them-
selves, with the further advantage that they apply to their own
conditions.
The average composition, selling price and commercial valua-
tion per ton of all the brands of mixed fertilizers examined in
7
1891, 1892, 1893 and 1894, as well as the percentage difference
between valuation and selling price, or the charges for mixing,
bagging and selling, are shown in the following tabulation :
Total Total Available Insoluble Selling Station Percentage
Nitrogen. Phos. Acid. Phos. Acid. Phos. Acid. Potash. Price. Valuation. Difference.
1891....
. 2.71
10.12
7.29
2.83
4.21
$34.23
$25.31
35.2
1892....
. 2.74
10.38
7.70
2.67
4.50
34.19
25.66
33.2
1893....
. 2.69
10.23
7.54
2.69
4.58
34.11
24.41
39.7
1894....
. 2.87
10.40
7.37
3.03
4.94
34.17
24.83
37.6
It will be observed that the average composition for the four
years is remarkably uniform, with an apparent tendency toward
a higher content of nitrogen and potash, and a decrease in avail-
able phosphoric acid. The selling price is also very uniform ;
the difference between highest and lowest is but 12 cents per ton.
The percentage charges for mixing, bagging and selling are,
however, much greater in 1893 and 1894 than in 1891 and 1892.
If these charges were sufficient in former years, the selling
price now should be reduced, in order to correspond with the de-
crease in cost of both fertilizing material and other supplies.
The purchaser, however, has, even under these conditions of
apparent extravagant average charges, an abundant opportunity
for selection. In 34 brands the average charge is less than 20
per cent., while in 90 others it does not reach 30 per cent.
It was shown in Bulletin No. 102 that manufacturers were
willing to sell the fertilizing ingredients in raw materials at less
prices per pound on the average than those used in computing
Station’s values. If the charges here shown are legitimate, then
it appears that in a large number of cases the laborers who mix,
bag and handle these goods, the railroads which carry, and the
dealers who sell are entitled to greater returns for their labor than
the farmer who uses the product. At the average cost per pound
of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in these fertilizers,
it would cost the farmer 36 cents to return to the soil the fer-
tilizing ingredients carried off in every bushel of wheat sold, 28
cents to return the amount contained in a bushel of corn, 30
cents to return that contained in a bushel of rye, 18 cents for that
contained in a bushel of oats, and $7.16 to return the fertilizer
constituents removed in a ton of timothy hay.
8
Prices for these crops are low, and those, too, which remove rela-
tively less of the expensive fertilizer constituents — potatoes, vege-
tables and small fruits — and which require for their production a
larger expenditure for labor, and proportionately more available
plant-food, in order to secure maximum crops, also bring much
less now than formerly.
It is clear that at these prices for plant-food a very narrow
margin is left to the farmer in the sale of crops for legitimate
charges for labor of growing, handling, selling and other
expenses.
Farmers cannot completely change their methods of practice
if they would, and, furthermore, it is advisable to increase the
productive power of their soils to the maximum point. To do
this at a profit they must know not only what their soils and
crops need in the way of plant-food, but they must get what they
need at a much lower cost per pound than is possible in the
average mixed fertilizer.
The Station has repeatedly stated that it paid to use fertilizers,
and it reiterates that statement now, even under the existing
unfavorable conditions of farming, since the opinion is based
upon the indisputable testimony of actual facts. The main con-
ditions are, however, economy in their purchase, and rational
use both of natural and artificial supplies.
Farmers may accomplish this — I. By reducing the cost per
pound of plant-food constituents in mixed fertilizers. II. By
limiting the exportation of plant-food from the farm. III. By
purchasing less of the expensive element nitrogen.
I. The cost of plant-food in mixed fertilizers may be reduced
by purchasing on the “unit” basis. The “unit” means 1 per
cent, on the basis of a ton, and is 20 pounds. For example, a
unit of “ available ” phosphoric acid means 20 pounds, and a
superphosphate guaranteed to contain 12 units means that it
contains 240 pounds per ton.
An illustration of the advantages of this method may be
shown by applying it to the brands referred to on page 5. Brand
No. 1 contains — according to guarantee — 2 units of ammonia, 8
of “ available ” phosphoric acid and 1 J of potash ; and No. 2
9
contains 3 units of ammonia, 10 of “ available” phosphoric acid
and 10 of potash. Assuming $3.50 per unit for ammonia, $1.30
for “available” phosphoric acid and $1 for potash — which would
be fair prices this year at point of consumption — No. 1 would
cost $18.90 and No. 2 $33.50 per ton, as against $28 for No. 1
and $32 for No. 2, the prices now charged under the present
system of buying on the ton basis.
That is, agree to pay for what the mixture actually contains at
a definite price per pound or “unit” of plant-food constituents
contained in it, the number of pounds or “units” to be deter-
mined by an analysis at the Experiment Station, as is now done
in the case of unmixed goods.
Where 20 tons or more are purchased, and agreements are
made on this basis, the Station will make the analysis free of
charge.
A number of the leading manufacturers have signified their
willingness to sell on this plan, and it is quite likely that all
would do so, since it is eminently fair* to both parties to the
transaction, and because manufacturers now buy their supplies
on this basis.
II. The exportation of plant-food, particularly in general
farming where stock is kept, may be reduced by a judicious ex-
change of grain and hay for concentrated feeds, rich in the fer-
tilizing constituents, coupled with careful saving and intelligent
application of the manure made.
III. Sixty per cent, of the price of the average fertilizer is
now paid for nitrogen. The necessity for purchased nitrogen,
particularly in general farming and fruit-growing, may be
greatly decreased by sowing larger areas of leguminous crops,,
which gather nitrogen from the air.
Crimson clover, which does not interfere with regular rotations,
and which may be sown under a wide variety of conditions, is a
valuable crop for this purpose.
These facts have been pointed out again and again in the Sta-
tion’s reports and bulletins, and are worthy of careful study.
Successful farmers do study them and act accordingly.
10
Ground Bone.
The samples of ground bone examined this year, on the whole,
reach their guarantee, show a good degree of fineness, and with
few exceptions a relatively high valuation. A larger number
than usual, however, belong to the class “ steamed bone,” which
is not indicated by the manufacturer in the naming of the brand,
and is liable to mislead as to the composition if guarantees are
not carefully examined. Steamed bone contains less nitrogen
and more phosphoric acid than raw bone.
A number of these samples doubtless represent local products,
which are limited in quantity.
Valuations.
The schedule of prices used in computing values in 1893-4,
as well as the average per cent, of fineness of the bone, are shown
below :
Finer than in,
u « 1 ((
5 ■
U U 1 (C
T 2
Coarser than “ .
Average per cent. Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid
of Fineness.
Per Pound.
Per Pound.
1893.
1894.
1893.
1894.
1893.
1894.
43
43
15c.
16Jc.
6c.
5£c.
27
27
12c.
13c.
5c.
4£c.
20
22
9c.
12c.
4c.
3c.
10
8
7c.
7c.
3c.
2c.
The average per cent, of fineness is practically identical with
that shown in 1893. The schedule prices of the nitrogen in the
three finer grades are considerably higher, while those of phos-
phoric acid are lower in all the grades this year. This change
in the schedule has the effect of relatively increasing the valua-
tion of the pure bone, and of decreasing that of the steamed
bone. The Station’s average valuation and the selling price per
ton are practically identical, showing that on the average the
nitrogen and phosphoric acid contained in bone are obtained at
the prices per pound indicated in the schedule.
Miscellaneous Products.
The miscellaneous samples, which on the whole represent good
products, require notice particularly* in regard to the brand
11
names. The name “ Improved Superphosphate,” for instance,
•doubtless conveys the idea to many that the superphosphate con.
tained in it is an improvement on other superphosphates, while
the obvious intention of the manufacturer in so naming the
brand is to signify that it differs from mineral superphosphates,
the addition of nitrogenous material making it correspond with
•dissolved bone in composition. The correct name for such a
product is “nitrogenous superphosphate.”
The term “ bone phosphate,” applied to purely mineral phos-
phates, is also misleading, since it is liable to give the impression
that animal bone has been used in making the product.
Wood Ashes.
The number of samples of wood ashes examined this year is
somewhat larger than usual, and they show the usual wide varia-
tion in composition. The valuations are based entirely upon the
content of potash and phosphoric acid.
Sample No. 5634 represents a small product sent to the “ Fruit
Growers’ Union,” of Hammonton, and guaranteed to be un-
leached. It was submitted for analysis previous to purchasing,
and hence a contemplated large order was not given.
Samples No. 6090 and No. 6148 represent products guaranteed
to contain as a minimum 5 per cent, of actual potash and 1 per
cent, of phosphoric acid, and the price, delivered, to be $11 per
ton, on the basis of guarantee. The dealers also agreed that if
it did not reach the guaranteed composition, a proportionate price
■should be paid for such amounts as it did contain. On the basis
of guarantee and selling price given, the charge for potash was
9.24 cents per pound, and for phosphoric acid 8.8 cents per pound ;
-or 76 per cent, greater than on the average is charged for the
:same elements in high-grade sulphate of potash and in super-
phosphates.
The high prices charged, though the consumer only paid for
the actual amounts present, illustrates forcibly the importance of
.studying the relation existing between the guarantee and selling
price. With but one or two exceptions the prices charged for the
plant-food constituents contained in the samples of wood ashes
•examined are excessive.
Complete Fertilizers
Furnishing Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid and Potash.
12
6
<o
a
o
< „
A
H
© o
PQ 2
fl >
« -5J
<U .O
.Q oS
?3 be
CO > 2
g X
a °
« s
£ ns
◄ s
◄ &
m
•asquint uoii'Bjg
Complete Fertilizers
Furnishing Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid and Potash.
13
•laqran^j uoipjg
1
6011
5996
6006
6012
5721
5720
5753
5754
5937
5938
6019
5968
5970
5969
5986
5971
•iodaa
,80:910118003 :jb *sqi
ooo‘3 jo ooj-ia: sanies
$41.00
41.00
35.00
38.00
38.00
30.00
34.00
34.00
22.00
40.00
42.50
42.00
40.00
37.50
37.50
32.00
•AatpaB j; %vt *sqi
000‘8 jo ootJdL Soni»S
•saotoj; s^uoi^bxs
J« *sqx O00‘o jo ani«A
$28.86
30.55
27.00
30.61
29.11
23.15
32.00
31.18
13.67
32.90
34.22
32.87
27.54
28.03
31.04
22.81
•anuomo
3.94
2.51
0.60
5.00
2.93
2.73
5.94
6.18
0.16
3.38
3.23
4.39
5.29
3.85
0.34
5.47
Potash.
•paapiBJBti*)
9.00
5.00
3.78
9.00
10.00
2.00
6.00
6.00
1.00
10.00
7.00
7.00
8.00
12.00
2.00
2.25
•ponoj;
7.48
4.98
3.67
9.45
5.59
2.74
6.37
6.42
0.23
11.04
11.37
8.30
9.20
12.87
3.33
2 91
Phosphoric Acid.
,2 , •paapre.iBno
i 1
7.00
10.00
9.00
9.00
5.75
6.25
5.00
6.00
5.50
10.00
8.00
*s
4 ‘ponoj;
7.72
6.92
8.96
7.80
9.35
8.46
8.85
6.90
1.45
5.65
5.97
5.51
6.46
5.67
10.51
8.62
•paapiB-iBno i«jox
8.00
8.00
10.00
7.00
10.00
11.00
4.00
•ponoj irjox
9.73
9.20
10.94
8.90
11.45
13.23
12.82
12 53
1.84
7.95
7.69
9.21
8.62
8.40
11.53
10.16
aiqniosni
2.01
2.28
1.98
1.10
2.10
4.77
3.97
5.63
0.39
2.30
1.72
3.70
2.16
2.73
1.02
1.54
•apjpo
mninouinxy ut ajqniog
3.12
3.22
3.84
4.30
3.03
3.50
4.05
3.10
1.45
1.13
2.59
3.17
3.70
3.01
1.49
2.14
•I8PAV ni aiqntog
4.60
3.70
5.12
3.50
6.32
4.96
4.80
3.80
4.52
3.38
2.34
2.76
2.66
9.02
6.48
Nitrogen.
•paa^oromo ib^ox
®o^ooet<«®®4e|H^®e«90
w ^ « r w « eo w ei m ei h ei h
•ponoA irjox
3.14
4.51
3.15
3.18
3.69
2.59
3.96
4.17
3.10
3.89
4.07
4.66
2.74
1.97
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Complete Fertilizers
Furnishing Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid and Potash.
24
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Complete Fertilizers
Furnishing Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid and Potash.
25
•jaqum^ noijBis
6065
5880
6030
6038
6068
6069
5790
5764
5874
5876
5875
5977
5991
5990
5979
5992
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$28.00
35.00
35.00
32.00
28.00
28.00
34.00
42.00
28.50
26.00
28.00
22.00
39.00
30.00
39.00
26.50
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6.29
5.73
7.18
4.14
6.59
16.00
1.73
6.49
1.78
2.16
1.56
2.12
8.24
3.61
6.60
3.53
Potash.
•Xiaojunaunf)
2.00
6.00
6.00
4.00
7.00
6.00
1.50
7.00
1.50
2.00
1.50
2.00
7.00
4.00
7.00
3.50
•pnnoj
3.29
5.76
6.78
4.03
5.34
6.03
2.02
7.02
1.54
2.22
1.61
2.09
7.56
3.78
7.62
3.90
Phosphoric Acid.
Available.
*X>a3jur.nmo
8.00
8.00
8.00
7.00
10.00
7.75
9.00
9.50
8.25
7.00
7.50
7.50
7.00
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7.79
6.85
8.39
8.18
7.98
4.65
9.90
8.26
9.08
9.59
9.06
7.10
7.24
9.70
7.36
7.91
•paajurjrno ibjox
9.00
10.00
10.00
12.00
12.00
11.00
8.00
9.25
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8 97
9.77
9.33
10.15
9.94
10.35
12.68
9.06
12.07
12.68
12.05
9.47
8.40
12.00
8.56
9.47
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1.18
2.92
0.94
1.97
1.96
5.70
2.78
0.80
2.99
3.09
2.99
2.37
1.16
2.30
1.20
1.56
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0.83
2.49
3.39
1.42
2.88
4.65
2.24
1.58
2.88
1.27
2.40
4.10
2.00
3.40
1.48
5.47
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6.96
4.36
5.00
6.76
5.10
7.66
6.68
6.20
8.32
6.66
3.00
5.24
6.30
5.88
2.44
Nitrogen.
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1.64
1.64
2.46
1.64
3.00
3.00
2.34
3.69
1.80
1.23
1.80
1.31
3.69
1.80
3.69
1.64
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2.35
2.12
3.18
1.64
1.17
2.20
2.63
3.77
2.07
1.52
2.11
1.64
3.79
1.91
3.69
1.77
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1.66
1.49
3.06
1.64
0.69
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2.20
2.13
1.63
1.31
1.79
1.42
1.80
1.69
1.74
0.83
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1
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0.12
0.43
0.31
0.44
0.21
0.32
0.22
0.18
0.22
0.19
0.11
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0.69
0 53
0.48
1.30
1 81
1.76
0.83
Great Eastern General Wheat Special
Hess’ Potato, Tobacco and Truckers’ Man.
“ Plain Potato Manure
“ Fish and Potash
Hopler’s Potato Fertilizer
“ Grass Fertilizer
Lister’s Standard Pure Bone Superphos
“ Vegetable Compound
“ Ammon. Dissolved Bone Phos
“ Standard Success Fertilizer
“ Buckwheat Fertilizer,.
“ Standard U. S. Phosphate
“ Celebrated Corn Manure
“ Corn Fertilizer, No. 2
“ Cauliflower and Cabbage Fert
“ Lawn Fertilizer
•jaqnmsj uoixbxs
6065
3880
6030
3038
3068
5069
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3764
3874
3876
3875
3977
3991
3990
3979
3992
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Furnishing Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid and Potash.
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Complete Fertilizers
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11
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5788
5928
6022
5952
5892
5793
5860
5931
6103
6077
5954
5885
5854
6101
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$42.00
35.00
38.00
42.00
27.00
40.00
43.00
43.00
40.00
41.00
40.00
35.00
38.00
40.00
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$28.55
25.35
27.60
31.31
19.18
29.54
33.11
33.42
29.93
30.72
30.63
27.00
29.99
29.51
18.62
•auuoxqo
6.37
3.50
7.04
0.81
0.87
0.72
0.48
5.92
6.23
6.36
5.90
2.96
8.05
4.12
1.34
Potash.
•paajii'Ba'BnO
7.00
4.00
7.00
6.00
1.00
10.00
3.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
5.00
2.50
8.00
4.00
1.50
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7.51
3.63
6.69
7.85
1.02
10.75
3.76
6.69
7 39
7.04
6.29
3.46
9.17
4.76
1.82
Phosphoric Acid.
Available.
•paaxuu.i'eno
7.50
7.00
8.00
7.00
5.00
8.00
6.00
6.00
8.00
7.00
10.00
6.00
8.00
8.00
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7.40
10.43
9.56
7.15
8.33
7.08
9.08
6.62
6.26
8.08
6.97
10.18
8.68
9.20
7.25
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9.25
8.00
8.00
7.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
10.00
7.00
12.00
8.00
10.00
10.00
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8.48
12.25
11.68
9.21
9.89
8.66
11.68
8.58
8.01
10.91
8.95
12.74
10.07
11.29
10.16
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1.08
1.82
2.12
2.06
1.56
1.58
2.60
1.96
1.75
2.83
1.98
2.56
1.39
2.09
2.91
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2.12
2.59
3.22
4.63
4.89
1.82
1.88
4.00
1.72'
3.96
2.49
4.26
3.34
3.48
1.35
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5.28
7.84
6.34
2.52
3.44
5.26
7.20
2.62
4 54
4.12
4.48
5.92
5.34
5.72
5.90
Nitrogen.
•paajuBjeno x«jox
3.69
1.80
3.28
3.69
2.05
1.64
4.92
4.92
4.10
3.69
4.10
2.46
2.46
3.28
2.46
•panoj i«Jox
3.75
2.38
2.89
4.11
2.18
2.61
4.96
5.46
4.42
3 96
4.55
3.03
2.89
3.84
1.92
•laxx'BH oxncSjo raoj j
1.80
2.13
1.10
1.63
1.52
1.70
1.57
1.59
1.67
1.99
2.30
1.97
1.19
1.53
1.80
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0.19
0.25
0.68
0.11
0.38
1.85
1.75
1.01
0.54
0.86
0.33
1.59
1.10
0.12
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1.76
1.79
1.80
0.55
0.53
1.54
2.12
1.74
1.43
1.39
0.73
0.11
1.21
Lister’s Potato Manure
“ Potato Fertilizer, No. 2
Ludlam’s Cecrops Fertilizer
Mapes’ Potato Manure
“ XXV. Phosphate
“ Fruit and Vine
“ Complete for Heavy Soils
“ “ “ Light “
“ Cauliflower and Cabbage
“ Corn Manure
“ Grass & Grain, Spring Top Dr..
“ Complete “A” Brand
“ Economical Manure
“ Complete for General Use
Millsom’s Buffalo Fertilizer
•jaqrantf uoiqexs
5788
5928
6022
5952
5892
5793
5860
5931
6103
6077
5954
5885
5854
6101
5956
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Furnishing Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid and Potash.
28
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1
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10.00
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Available.
•paaxurarno
9.00
8.50
9.00
7.00
8.00
10.00
8.00
10.00
8.00
10.00
8.00
10.00
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10.02
4.89
7.75
9.13
7.80
4.27
7.57
8.47
5.30
6.89
6.67
7.69
6.27
7.45
6.87
6.05
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12.00
9.00
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10.50
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12.30
10.68
9.00
11.45
8.98
5.55
8.47
10.23
7.62
9.21
8.63
10.34
9.08
10.00
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2.28
5.79
1.25
2.32
1.18
1.28
0.90
1.76
2.32
2.32
1.96
2.65
2.81
2.55
2.24
1.34
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3.44
3.77
0.99
1.37
0.74
2.63
1.37
1.03
3.90
4.11
3.25
2.69
3.59
3.95
4.07
3.95
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6.58
1.12
6.76
7.76
7.06
1.64
6.20
7.44
1.40
2.78
3.42
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3.50
2.80
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2.74
2.66
3.88
2.20
3.69
8 60
4.18
3.44
6.60
3.27
2.80
3.16
3.25
2.33
3.58
2.47
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1.88
1.91
1.98
1.39
2.22
2.35
3.32
2.33
3.29
2.30
2.21
1.32
2.53
1.77
2.60
2.00
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0.21
[0.28
4.27
0.14
0.12
0.25
0.14
0.11
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0.86
0.75
1.74
0.60
1.19
1.98
0.72
0.99
3.06
0.83
0.59
1.81
0.72
0.56
0.87
0.47
Taylor’s H. G Pot., Truck and Tob,.
“ Potash Mixture.
Thomas’ Potato Manure, No. 1
“ Wheat Manure
“ Potato and Tomato Man....
“ High-Grade Bone Phos
“ King Crab Compound
“ Tip-Top Raw Bone Super...
Trenton H. G. Truck and Cabbage...
“ Potato Fertilizer
“ Ammon. Dissolved Bone....
“ Atchley’s Special Potato
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“ Standard Fertilizer
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5.72
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4.00
5.00
1.00
1.00
3.50
5.00
8.00
5.00
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7.00
8.00
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7.91
1.30
1.88
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8.82
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1.99
3.77
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7.00
7.00
11.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
8.00
7.00
9.00
8.00
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9.00
9.00
12.00
6.00
11.00
8.00
7.00
9.00
8.00
10.00
9.00
8.00
10.00
10.00
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11.72
13.19
14.18
14.59
9.56
8.59
12.68
10.24
12.04
10.80
12.93
11.55
12.00
9.35
9.34
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6.08
4.42
6.34
3.98
2.62
3.05
4.88
4.62
2.28
3.68
4,15
4.01
5.38
0.83
2.24
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5.58
2.27
1.70
2.29
1.28
0.86
6.40
4.36
3.68
5.36
6.27
4.78
6.00
3.46
1.72
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0.06
5.50
6.14
8.32
5.66
4.68
1.40
1.26
6.08
1.76
2.50
2.76
0.62
5.06
5.38 j
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5.74
3.28
3.38
1 64
1.64
2.05
1.03
2.46
1.64
3.69
3.46
2.05
1.03
1.23
4.10
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5.75
2.94
3.45
[ 1.97
2.34
3.38
1.46
2.73
1.92
3.78
2.59
3.36
1.64
3.17
3.95
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5.75
2.94
3.45
1.97
2.34
1.44
1.32
2.34
1.69
2.40
1.90
1.41
1.44
3.04
2.76
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0.14
0.13
0.23
0.67
0.15
0.19
0.20
0.13
0.13
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0.94
0.26
0.71
0.54
0.76
1.06
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37.10
37.86
37.78
30.01
30.33
38.17
33.09
37.11
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19.57
33.10
38.96
19.77
Chemical
Analysis.
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26.44
22.80
26.10
22.04
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25.60
29.30
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25.52
26.72
17.88
13.24
24.80
25.34
14.68
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1.65
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3.16
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3.89
3.66
1.78
Mechanical Analysis.
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22.06
20.80
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46
Canada Ashes.
Station Number.
MANUFACTURER.
SENT BY.
5634
Jas. Thomas, Williamsport, Pa. (Shipper )
W. H. Ellis, Hammonton.
6090
The Forest City Wood Ash Co., London, Ontario.
W. M. Simonton, Asbury.
6148
“
T. T. Hoffmann, Bloomsbury.
5821
Munroe, Lalor & Co , Oswego, N. Y.
J. Scullion, Hammonton.
5862
“
C. Kraus, Egg Harbor City.
5863
“
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6151
“
P. Q. Hoagland, Frankford.
•6153
Allison, Stroup & Co , New York City.
P. J. Staats, Bound Brook.
6166
Chas Stevens, Napanee, Ontario.
B. M. Field, Bound Brook.
5634 6090 6148 5831 5863 5863 6151 6153 6166
Phosphoric Acid 1.34 1.28
Potash 0.51 4.08
Lime 34.26 24.88
Valuation per Ton $1.88 $5.56
Selling Price per Ton 11.00 11.00
1.16
1.57
1.43
1.54
1.45
1.75
1.67
3.26
3.82
6.93
4.97
8.81
4.10
4.19
23.71
28.76
31.26
35.24
32.90
33.06
38.10
$4.58
$5.58
$8.71
$6.76
$10.70
$6.06
$6.07
11.00
13.00
12.50
12.00
13.00
12.00
15.00
EDWARD B. VOORHEES,
Director.
New Brunswick, N. J., November 19th, 1894.
/LA * Sr?*'-
GLUTEN FEEDS.
THEIR SOURCE, COMPOSITION AND METHODS OF USE,.
NEW JERSEY
AGRICULTURAL
Experiment Station
105
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural Experiment Station.
BULLETIN 105.
NOVEMBER 20, 1894.
Gluten Feeds— Their Source, Composition and
Methods of Use.
In recent years there has been a considerable addition to the
number of concentrated, or commercial feeds, upon the market ;
many of these products are extremely valuable, not only because
they are concentrated in bulk, but also because their purchase
and use serve to make more palatable and economical the feed-
ing of the coarser and more bulky products of the farm ; in
many cases, too, such a practice diminishes the exportation of
plant-food constituents consequent upon a direct sale of grain
crops, or of beef, pork or milk.
The better utilization of the coarse products, particularly
corn stalks and straw, by means of concentrated feeds, and the
economic bearings of such methods of feeding, were discussed
at length in Bulletin No. 96, distributed in November, 1893.
Among the list of useful feeds, those which consist of the
parts of the cereal grains, as wheat bran, middlings and brewers’
grains, with the manufacture of which the farmers are familiar,
and into which no foreign or deleterious substances enter, have-
reached a wide use ; their value is well established ; while those-
which result from the manufacture of vegetable products with
which they are not familiar, and which in some cases are not
strictly food products in their original form, are slowly accepted,,
and even now sparingly used in many sections of the State,.
4
Such has been the case, for example, with cotton-seed meal, not-
withstanding its very great value, both from food and fertility
standpoints.
In other words, a familiarity with the value of the original
product as a feed, coupled with a knowledge of the processes by
which the by-products have been secured, are factors which
largely influence introduction and use.
It is well understood by many, that the removal of a part of
the whole grain does not destroy, though it may modify, the
value of the residue, but that greater skill may be required in
order to obtain satisfactory results in its use, because it may be
less perfect, or complete, in itself as a general food than the
original product.
Foods one-sided in the sense that one or more of the digestible
constituents may be in too great excess, or too deficient, are not
necessarily very good or very poor, though such may be the
case ; they are, however, less likely to prove valuable as exclusive
diets than the entire grains. For instance, oats, wheat bran and
linseed meal are all excellent horse feeds, yet of the three, oats
is the only one that can be fed exclusively with safety ; the total
value of the food compounds in one ton of linseed meal is, how-
• ever, quite as great, if not greater than in the oats ; the main
fact is that it is not as perfect in its proportions of food com-
pounds, or in its physical character, for the purpose of horse-
feeding.
Illustrations of this kind could be multiplied to show that it
is physical character, or bulk of the product, and proportion, as
well as kind and amount of constituents, that gives value in a
complete diet.
Gluten Feeds.
These feeds have been introduced in our Eastern markets
recently in large quantities, under the general name of “Gluten
Meal” or “Gluten Feed.” The fact that they are relatively
new, and because the various products differ in their appearance,
their feeding value and price per ton, there has arisen frequent
inquiries as to their composition and value, particularly from
those progressive dairymen who closely study economical
methods of purchasing and using feeds.
The analyses of certain of these feeds have been published by
a number of Experiment Stations, a few have conducted feeding
experiments to test their value, and the results secured indicate
for them a high position among the concentrated feeds. A diffi-
culty, however, still exists in that the names attached are too
indefinite, and do not indicate the true composition of the vari-
ous products.
The object of this bulletin is, therefore, to publish an analysis-
of all of these products, to indicate their sources and method
of manufacture, and as far as possible, from a study of tho
analyses, to classify them according to their composition and
relative feeding value. In prosecuting this work representative
samples were secured both from dealers in the State and directly
from the manufacturers. In some instances it was possible to
secure a number of samples of the same kind, thus permitting a
study of possible variations in composition.
How the Products are Derived.
These feeds occur as residues in the manufacture either of
starch, or of glucose (grape sugar), from maize or Indian corn.
It is the aim of the manufacturer to secure from the corn a maxi-
mum product of starch or sugar ; the whole resultant residue,
therefore, is relatively low in starch, and varies in composition
according to the excellence of the method of manufacture, and
the variation in the composition of the original raw material —
corn.
The average of a large number of analyses shows that one
hundred pounds of the dry matter of corn contain :
Crude Fat 5.59 pounds.
Crude Fiber (cellulose) 2.46 “
Crude Protein 11.52 “
Crude Ash 1.68 “
Carbohydrates (chiefly starch) 78.75 “
A glance at these figures shows that corn is made up chiefly
of the class carbohydrates, or starch ; it is evident that the re-
6
inoval of any part of it must increase the proportion of the other
constituents in the residue.
The constituent contained in corn next in amount to carbo-
hydrates is protein — a collective term which includes all of the
albuminoids — and to which the name “ gluten” is commonly
applied ; hence, the partial or complete removal of the starch
makes this constituent the most prominent, and the general
name “ gluten” has been applied to the feeds so derived, and
in point of amount the protein is the most important constituent
in many of the products.
The starch in the class carbohydrates is, however, not entirely
separated even under the best methods of manufacture now
employed ; hence, the total residue still contains a large portion
of carbohydrates, often amounting to more than one-half of the
total dry matter.
Parts of Corn.
The accompanying enlarged cut of a corn, or maize, kernel
will assist in locating the four distinct parts which are of interest
in this study.
a is the husk, or skin, which covers the whole kernel ; it
(consists of two distinct layers, the outer and inner, which when
removed constitute the bran, and contain practically all of the
crude fiber of the whole grain.
b is a layer of gluten cells, which lies immediately under-
neath the husk ; it is yellow in color, and cannot be readily sepa-
rated from the remainder of the kernel. This part is the richest
of any in gluten.
c is the germ, which is readily distinguished by its position
.and form ; it also contains gluten, though it is particularly rich
in oil and mineral constituents.
The large portion, d, is composed chiefly of starch ; the dark
color indicates the yellowy flinty part, in which the starch-hold-
ing cells are more closely compacted.
A perfect separation of the corn kernel into its ‘parts as de-
scribed is difficult, if not impossible. It was found possible,
however, to partially separate 100 grammes of kernels of new
corn, so as to secure for analysis the skin and the germ in a state
of comparative purity. To do so it was necessary to leave por-
tions of each attached to the starchy and hard part of the corn.
The parts analyzed as follows :
Station Number.
Amount Secured from
100 parts of Original
Corn.
Per cent, of Water.
COMPOSITION OF
THE WATER-FREE MATERIAL.
J Crude Fat.
Crude Fiber.
Crude Protein.
Crude Ash.
. 1
Carbohydrates.
Nitrogen.
Phosphoric Acid. 1
Potash.
905
Original Corn
100.00
24.71
4.31
2.02
12.65
1.73
79.26
2.02
0.83
0.47
906
Skin
5.56
15.29
1.59
16.45
6.60
1.27
75.36
1.06
0.23
0.38
907
Germ
10.17
29.62
29.62
2.83
21.71
11.13
45.79
3.43
6.16
2.91
939
Starchy and hard part....
84.27
24.66
1.54
0.65
12.23
0.68
1
85.58
1.96
0.35
0.17
The germ, although only about 10 per cent, of the wdiole
kernel, contains 65 per cent, of the fat, 61J per cent, of the
mineral matter, 71 per cent, of the phosphoric acid, 60 per cent,
of the potash, and 16 J per cent, of the nitrogen, or protein. The
8
remaining portions are characterized, the skin by its content of
fiber, 51 per cent, of the whole, and the starchy part by its carbo-
hydrates, of which it contains nearly 90 per cent, of that in the-
whole grain.
The processes by which the starch is obtained, while perhaps
differing somewhat, consist essentially in the separation first of
the germ and hull from the starch and albuminoids contained in
the remainder either directly by machinery, or by soaking in warm
water, crushing into a coarse powder, and separating by gravity,
the hulls floating on the surface, and the germs sinking to the-
bottom ; and second, the final separation of the gluten from the-
starch, which is effected by allowing the fluid containing them to
run slowly through long troughs, the heavier starch settling to
the bottom, and the lighter yellow substance, containing the pro-
tein and fat, floating off.
The residue in this manufacture may, therefore, consist either
of one product, a mixture of the gluten, germ and hulls, or of
three, when the gluten, germ and hulls are each separated. In
any case, however, the feeds are parts of the original corn,
though when dried for market they differ in appearance, in pro-
portion of food constituents, and in physical character.
The entire residue is in color brighter yellow than corn meal,
and of a much more bulky character, owing to the presence of
a larger proportion of bran ; the trade name of this product is.
“ Gluten Feed.” The gluten is distingushed by a higher content
of both protein and fat, and a bright-yellow color, and is called
“ Gluten Meal.” The germ is more bulky than the meals,
shows a high content of crude fat, and is called “ Germ Meal”
or “ Germ Food.” The hulls are very bulky, show a high con-
tent of crude fiber, and are usually sold as “ Corn Bran.”
Gluten Feed.
Table I. shows the composition of the- feeds of the various-
manufacturers, and with one exception they consist of the entirn
residue.
The samples are arranged in the order- of their richness in fat
and protein — the two compounds of highest value in foods of
this class. No. 862 is much less valuable in this respect than
the others, though much richer in carbohydrates, which appears
to be due in large part to a less perfect extraction of the starch.
TABLE I.
Gluten Feeds.
POUNDS PER
HUNDRED
OF
Name and Address.
j Water.
Crude Fat.
1 Crude
| Fiber.
Crude
Protein.
j Crude Ash
| Carbo-
| hydrates.
871
Chicago Gluten Feed
American Glucose Co.,
Chicago, 111.
7.61
14.18
6.31
24.03
0.87
47.00
883
Peoria Gluten Feed
Peoria Grape Sugar Co.,
Peoria, 111.
6.91
14.84
7.11
22.64
0.97
47.50
903
Buffalo Gluten Feed
American Glucose Co.,
Buffalo, N. Y.
10.20
13.67
7.17
22.65
0.84
45.47
859
Buffalo Gluten Feed
American Glucose Co.,
Buffalo, N. Y.
8.74
11.91
7.75
23.39
1.01
47.20
899
Buffalo Gluten Feed
American Glucose Co ,
Buffalo, N. Y.
9.82
13.44
6.98
21.38
0.82
47.56
813
Buffalo Gluten Feed
American Glucose Co.,
Buffalo, N. Y.
8.62
12.83
7.20
19.54
0.93
50.88
862
Dry Gluten Feed
National Starch Mfg. Co.,
New York City.
6.33
8.31
5.34
17.61
0.59
61.82
875
Chicago Maize Feed *
Chicago Sugar Refining Co.,
Chicago, 111.
8.50
8.28
7.43
25.91
1.20
48.68
Average
8 32
12.74
6 84
21.61
0.86 1
49.63
* Not included in average.
No. 875, “ Chicago Maize Feed,” is claimed to be a mixture of
the hull and yellow portion, without the germ, and is less rich
in fat ; it is included because in chemical composition it corre-
sponds more nearly with the whole . residue than with any of the
separate parts.
In Table II. the samples have been reduced to the “water-free
basis,” and the average composition of the dry matter compared
with that of the corn kernel of the yellow dent variety, and
also with the calculated composition of the total residue from it,
10
when 75 per cent, of the class carbohydrates has been removed
in the form of starch.
TABLE II.
Composition of Dry Matter.
Name.
Crude Fat
POUNDS
V !_•
•c D
S-l ’W
PER HUND
a
a -a
-c d
3 O
- Sh
CPh
RED OF
■d
<
<D
rO
3
O
Carbo-
hydrates.
871
Chicago Gluten Feed
15.35
6.83
26.01
0.94
50.87
883
Peoria Gluten Feed
15.95
7.64
24.33
1.04
51.04
903
Buffalo Gluten Feed
15.22
7.98
25.22
0.94
50.64
859
Buffalo Gluten Feed
13.05
8.49
25.63
1.11
51.72
899
Buffalo Gluten Feed
14.90
7.74
23.71
0.91
52.74
843
Buffalo Gluten Feed
14.04
7.88
21.38
1.02
55.68
862
Dry Gluten Feed.
8.87
5.70
18.80
0.63
66.00
Gluten Feed, Average Composition...
13.91
7.47
33.58
0.94
54.10
Corn, less 75 per cent. Starch
13.66
6.01
38.15
4.10
48.08
Corn, Average Composition
5.59
1 3.46
1 11.53
1 1.68
i 78.75
A study of this table shows that, as compared with corn, the
dry matter of the gluten feed contains higher percentages of fat?
protein and fiber, and lower percentages of carbohydrates and
ash, that is, with the exception of ash, all of the classes of food
compounds have been increased by the removal of starch.
Assuming that 75 per cent, of the class carbohydrates con-
tained in the average sample of corn may be recovered as starch
and that all of the residue can be recovered as feed, the average
composition of such residue should be much richer in protein
and ash, and poorer in fat, fiber and carbohydrates, than any of
the samples examined which are claimed to represent the total
residue.
This disagreement in composition is mainly due to the fact
that in the methods of manufacture now carried out, in which
water is freely used, a large part of the mineral constituents and
a portion of the albuminoids are extracted, though, of course,
other losses, perhaps largely mechanical, are possible.
From the feeders’ standpoint, the extraction of the mineral or
11
ash constituents is of some importance as affecting both food and
fertility values ; for instance, in feeding young stock and dairy
cows the ash elements in a food are not only generally useful,
but very necessary for the building up of the bone and frame-
work of the body, and in furnishing mineral salts for the animal
product — milk ; while in the exchange of farm products for con-
centrated feeds, the fertilizer constituents in the feeds are worthy
of consideration. These residues are, however, much richer than
the original corn in the more valuable constituents, fat and pro-
tein, and the more expensive fertilizer element, nitrogen, and
may, therefore, be quite as valuable from the standpoint of both
food and fertility, though in a different way.
The next question of importance is : Are the same food con-
stituents in the corn residue — gluten feed — as useful as when
contained in the whole corn ?
The usefulness of a feed depends chiefly upon the three char-
acteristics, palatability, digestibility, and the proportion of food
compounds contained in it, no one of which is sufficient in itself
to accomplish the purpose.
In the corn these characteristics are fairly well combined,
making it one of the most useful feeds we have. There is a
sweetness and a flavor which are attractive to animals, and this
palatability is accompanied by a high rate of digestibility. The
proportion of the three classes of constituents is such, however,
as to make it less valuable as a sole grain ration, even for fatten-
ing purposes, than when mixed with products containing a
higher content of protein.
The gluten feed, or total residue from the corn, is slightly less
palatable than the original product, since in many cases animals
do not eat it greedily when first offered to them, though it is in
the main readily eaten.
The co-efficients of digestibility of the gluten feed were shown
by experiments conducted with ruminants at the Massachusetts
Experiment Station to be slightly less for the carbohydrates and
fat and greater for the protein than those commonly used for
corn meal. They are for crude fat 81, crude fiber 43, crude pro-
tein 85, and 81 for carbohydrates. The direct experiments on
digestibility are too few to warrant any positive statements in
12
reference to this point ; nevertheless, since the experience of
practical feeders indicates that the actual food compounds in the
gluten feed have not suffered any injurious change due to the
methods of manufacture, it is believed that these co-efficients
may be safely used until further data are secured.
The Use of Gluten Feed.
The chemical analysis shows that gluten feed should be classed
as a nitrogenous, or flesh-forming, rather than a carbonaceous, or
fat-forming, food, though much richer in fat than the corn meal ;
hence, its usefulness lies in an opposite direction. Its best use is
accomplished when fed in connection with products deficient in
protein, of which meadow hay, corn stalks, straw and corn meal,
the general feeds of the farmer, are good examples.
Our reports have pointed out from time to time the results of
feeding experiments, which show that the proportion of the
digestible constituents in a feed should be varied according to
the object of the feeding.
In a ration for simple maintenance the proportion of the fats
•and carbohydrates together, or fat-formers, may be greatly in
excess of the digestible protein, or flesh-formers, while for the
production of milk, or of flesh, products rich in albumen and
casein, protein, the direct and only source of these compounds,
should be increased. The proportion of the one class to the
other is called the “nutritive ratio.”
If the sum of the digestible carbohydrates and two and one-
fourth times the digestible fat is divided by the digestible protein
in the ration, the quotient gives the nutritive ratio. If the
•quantities of digestible fat and carbohydrates are large relative
to the protein, this number will be large and the ration is called
n “ wide ration if the quantities of digestible fat and carbo-
hydrates are relatively small, the quotient is a small number and
the ration is a “ narrow ” one. A ration where the nutritive ratio
is much more than 1 to 6 may be called a “wide ration if much
less, it may be called a “narrow ration.”
The calculated rations given in this bulletin are intended for
dairy cows, and therefore show a narrow nutritive ratio approxi-
13
mating 1 to 5.4. The average composition and digestibility of
the various feeds used, other than gluten, were obtained from
the tables given on pages 174-177 of the Annual Report of
the Station for 1893.
The effect of corn meal and gluten feed in influencing the
nutritive ratio, or the proportion of protein to fat and carbo-
hydrates in a ration, may be illustrated as follows, the valuable
■coarse product, crushed corn stalks, serving to furnish the
requisite bulk :
CONTAINS POUNDS OF DIGESTIBLE
Fat. Protein. Carbohydrates.
.47 1.45 18.63
Nutritive ratio 1 to 13.6.
CONTAINS POUNDS OF DIGESTIBLE
Fat. Protein. Carbohydrates.
1.41 2.72 11.60
Nutritive ratio 1 to 5.4.
The nutritive ratio of No. 1 is shown to be very wide ; in other
words, there is a deficiency of protein. The substitution of 12
lbs. of gluten meal for 12 lbs. of corn meal changes or narrows
it from 1 : 13.6 to 1 : 5.4, corresponding very closely with our
standard for milk cows.
The addition of the corn meal to the corn stalks simply results
in increasing the proportion of that class of compounds already
in excess in the coarse fodder, while the addition of an equal
weight of the gluten feed instead adds the constituents that are
deficient in the coarse products.
The use of No. 1, which practice has shown can be safely fed,
would obviously result in a waste of carbohydrates, while No. 2,
which is satisfactory from the standpoint of nutritive ratio, could
hardly be recommended either on the ground of entire safety as
•a steady diet for dairy animals, or as the most useful ration that
■could be compounded with the gluten feed as an important part.
The following is given as a substitute, though it perhaps does not
mark the limit in the amount of gluten feed that may be safely
used :
1.
Corn Meal Ration.
Corn Stalks 15 lbs.
Corn Meal 12 u
2.
Gluten Feed Ration.
Corn Stalks 15 lbs
Gluten Feed 12 ‘
14
3.
CONTAINS
POUNDS OF DIGESTIBLE-
Gluten Feed Ration.
Corn Stalks
... 10 lbs. ]
Fat.
Protein. Carbohydrates..
Clover Hay
Buffalo Gluten Feed
Wheat Bran
... 5 “ 1
... 6 “
... 5 “ J
.97
2.50 12.21
Nutritive ratio 1 to 5 8.
The main purpose in the foregoing is to show the influence of
the feed in preparing rations which shall show the proper pro-
portion of food compounds, rather than to suggest the best pos-
sible use of the feed, though it is believed that the last given will
be satisfactory. Where it seems desirable to use a larger number
of feeds the following is suggested :
4.
Gluten Feed Ration.
Corn Stalks 10 lbs,
Clover Hay 5 “
Wheat Bran 3 “
Buffalo Gluten Feed 3 4 * * * * * * 11
Diied Brewers’ Grains 3 “
Cott n-Seed Meal 1 “
CONTAINS POUNDS OF DIGESTIBLE
Fat. Protein. Carbohydrates..
1
I
\ .88 2.53 11.27
l
Nutritive ratio 1 to 5.3.
Gluten Meal.
The samples of gluten meal examined represent the product
of five different firms, and are claimed to consist largely of the
gluten of the corn, separated from the germ and hull, as indi-
cated on page 8.
15
TABLE Ilf.
Gluten Meals.
POUNDS PER
HUNDRED
OF
Name and Address.
j Water.
j Crude Fat.
| Crude
Fiber.
Crude
Protein.
| Ciude Ash.
a>
6
||
C A
869
Cream Gluten Meal
Chas. Pope Glucose Co..
Chicago, 111.
7.37
15.64
1.45
41.76
1.58
32.20
885
King Gluten Meal...
National starch Mfg. Co..
New York City.
9.36
19.77
1.47
35.09
1.90
32.41
872
Iowa Golden Gluten Meal
Firmenich Mfg. Co.,
Marshalltown, Iowa.
7.61
12.65
3.60
30.47
1
1.00
44.67
881
Gluten Meal (Flour)..
Continental Food Product Co ,
Waukegan, 111.
8.51
11.78
0.67
30.27
1.09
47.65
892
Hammond Gluten Meal
Stein, Hirsh & Co.,
Chicago, 111.
7.85
10.48
1.12
26.56
1.00
52.99
Average
8.15
14.06
1.66
32.83
1.31
41.99
876
Chicago Gluten Meal
Chicago Sugar Refining Co.,
Chicago, 111.
8.70
6.52
1.42
42.96
0.94
39.46
856
Chicago Gluten Meal
Chicago Sugar Refining Co.,
Chicago, III.
8.95
4.98
1.45
33.70
0.83
50.(9
878
Chicago Gluten Meal ;
Chicago Sugar Refining Co.,
Chicago, 111
10.82
5.18
1.64
30.71
0.81
50.84
Average
9.49
1 5.56
1.50 i
! 35.79
0.86
46.80
An examination of the chemical composition of these samples
shows considerable variation in the proportion of the nutritive
compounds, fat, protein and carbohydrates, though they all agree
with each other in showing much less crude fiber than the gluten
feeds, as a result of the more or less complete separation of the
hull and germ.
The product of the Chicago Sugar Refining Co. is less rich in
fat than any of the others, and therefore belongs to a separate-
class, and is distinguished from the others by adding the name
“ Chicago.” It contains less than half as much fat, and about
60 per cent, more protein than the feeds.
The gluten meals are calculated to serve the same purpose as
16
tlie feeds in the preparation of rations, though in a still greater
degree — i. e., it will require less amounts to accomplish the
purpose.
Gluten meal has an attractive appearance and a pleasant
flavor, though, as with the gluten feed, animals do not eagerly
eat it at first. In case of one meal it was reported that animals
refused to eat it altogether ; a sample was carefully examined
and found to be in good condition, perfectly sweet, and, as far as
could be discovered, free from any objectionable qualities.
The co-efficients of digestibility of the meal were shown by
experiments conducted at the Maine Experiment Station to be
88 for fat, 87 for protein and 91 for carbohydrates, somewhat
higher for all of the food compounds than those reported for the
gluten feed, and higher for protein than American digestibility
experiments have shown for the whole corn.
Use of Gluten Meal.
Because of its high content of proteiti and fat, gluten meal re-
quires to be more carefully used than the gluten feed. Its use
should be similar to that of old-process oil meal, with which the
“ Chicago Gluten Meal ” compares, or cotton-seed meal, to which
the others are similar. In our experience four pounds per day
may be used with entire safety.
It is shown by the following tabulated ration that four pounds
of gluten meal furnishes practically the same amounts of fat and
protein as are furnished by six pounds of the gluten feed, since
^witli this amount the total digestible nutrients in the ration are
nearly identical with those shown in ration No. 3, when the
-other products are the same in. amount and kind :
Corn Stalks .
5.
Gluten Meal Ration.
... 10 lbs 1
CONTAINS
Fat.
POUNDS
Protein.
OF DIGESTIBLE
Carbohydrates.
Hav
•Gluten Meal.
Wheat Bran.
... 5 “ [
... 4 “ |
... 5 “ j
1.15
2.55
11.16
Nutritive ratio 1 to 5.4.
17
The “ Chicago Gluten Meal,” containing less fat and more-
protein, would show practically the same nutritive ratio if used
as follows :
6. CONTAINS POUNDS OF DIGESTIBLE
Chicago Gluten Meal Ration. Fat. Protein. Carbohydrates.
Corn Stalks 15 lbs. 1
Chicago Gluten Meal 4 “ .55 2.57 12.53
Wheat Bran 6 ‘‘ j
Nutritive* ratio 1 to 5.4.
It is, therefore, observed that in the preparation of rations one
pound of gluten meal is as efficient as one and one-half pounds
of gluten feed in narrowing the nutritive ratio of a ration, or in
furnishing the nutrients deficient in coarse products.
As in the case of the gluten feeds, other rations than these,
which are used for the sake of example, may be more desirable,
using either larger or smaller amounts of the meal to suit the
conditions of the feeder.
Grano Gluten Feed.
This feed, while not strictly a corn product, being the residue
from the manufacture of alcohol from corn, barley and oats, will
answer practically the same purpose as the gluten meal in the
preparation of rations.
TABLE IV.
Grano Gluten Feed.
POUNDS PER
HUNDRED
OF
Name and Address.
Water.
1 Crude Fat.
1
Crude
Fiber.
Crude
Protein
Crude Ash
Carbo-
hydrates.
884
Grano Gluten Feed
H. H. Shufeldt & Co.,
Chicago, 111.
5.17
13.91
10.82
31.51
2.71
35.88
888
Grano Gluten Feed
H. H. Shufeldt & Co ,
Chicago, 111.
6.86
13.72
11*49
30.38
2.58
34.97
Average
6.01
13.82
11.15
30.95
2.65
35.42
The two samples examined are practically identical in com-
position, showing a high content of fat and protein, but less of
carbohydrates than the gluten meal, owing to the relatively high
percentage of crude fiber.
18
Corn Oil Meal and Cake.
These products consist of the corn germ, from which the oil
has been partially extracted by pressing. The samples differ
-considerably in their composition, owing, doubtless, to the more
or less complete extraction of the fat.
TABI/E V.
Corn Oil Meal and Corn Oil Cake.
POUNDS PER
HUNDRED
OF
Name and Address.
Water.
Crude Fat
Crude
Fiber.
Crude
Protein.
A
ce
<
a)
TS
3
U
Carbo-
hydrates.
873
Corn Oil Meal
Chicago Sugar Refining Co.,
Chicago, 111.
8.12
17.11
5.60
23.69
2.20
43.28
877
Corn Oil Cake
Chicago Sugar Refining Co.,
Chicago, 111.
8.08
12.72
7.62
25.83
2.37
43.38
90U
Corn Oil Cake
Chas Pope Glucose Co ,
Chicago, 111.
10.87
10.67
7.00
24.80
2.50
44.16
Average
9.02
13.50
6.74
24.77
2.35
43.62
On the average these products contain slightly higher per-
centages of fat and protein, considerably more ash, and less fiber
and carbohydrates than the gluten feeds. We have no extended
data in reference to the palatability of these products, our ex-
perience being limited to feeding one lot of two animals ; it was
absolutely refused by one, however disguised by mixing, and
•eagerly eaten by the other. Nothing in the appearance, mechan-
ical condition or taste would lead to the suspicion that these feeds
were not quite as palatable as the products already discussed.
As yet no results of digestion experiments have been reported ;
assuming the same co-efficients of digestibility as those found
for the gluten feed, their influence in supplying the constituents
fat and protein is shown in the following tabulation :
7.
CONTAINS
POUNDS
OF DIGESTIBLE
Corn Oil Meal Ration.
Corn Stalks
.. 10 lbs. 1
Fat.
Protein.
Carbohydrates.
Clover Hay
Corn Oil Meal
Wheat Bran
• 5 “
.. 5 “ |
,. 5 “ 1
.90
2.46
11.53
Nutritive ratio 1 to 5.6.
19
With the same amounts and kinds of other feeds as in ration
iNo 3, it is shown that five pounds of “ Corn Oil Meal ” furnish
practically the same amounts of fat and protein as six pounds of
the “ Gluten Feed it is, however, less rich in carbohydrates,
thus giving a slightly narrower nutritive ratio.
Since there is some doubt as to the palatability of these feeds,
It is perhaps desirable that in the first trials of them small
amounts, not more than two pounds per day, be used in con-
nection with products of known palatability. The following is,
therefore, recommended as a trial ration :
8.
Corn Oil Meal Ration.
Corn Stalks 10 lbs.
Clover Hay 5 “
Malt Sprouts 4 “ !
Corn Meal ; 1 “ J
CONTAINS POUNDS OF DIGESTIBLE
Fat. Protein. Carbohydrates.
.62 2.47 11.97
Nutritive ratio 1 to 5.4.
Corn-Germ Meal and Corn Bran.
These products, as their names signify, consist in part, at least,
•of the germ and hull, or bran, of the corn.
TABLE VI.
Corn-Germ Meal and Corn Bran.
POUNDS PER
HUNDRED
OF
Name and Address.
Water.
Crude Fat.
Crude
Fiber.
Crude
Protein.
Crude Ash.
Carbo-
hydrates.
i
870
Corn-Germ Food
Chas. Pope Glucose Co.,
Chicago, 111.
4.94
16.90
7.96
12.07
0.76
57.37
880
Germ Meal
Continental Food Product Co.,
Waukegan, 111.
9.52
4.81
7.70
10.63
2.32
65.02
842
Corn Bran
Chicago Sugar Refining Co ,
Chicago, 111.
8.96
7.84
10.10
11.83
0.83
60.44
874
Corn Bran
Chicago Sugar Refining Co.,
Chicago, 111.
8.07
8.32
12.90
10.92
0.79
59.00
879
Corn Hulls
Continental Food Product Co.,
Waukegan, 111.
9.15
3.75
10.88
10.16
0.93
65.13
20
A study of the table of analyses shows that all of the products
examined agree very closely in their content of protein.
Samples Nos. 870 and 880 are claimed to he mixtures of the
germ and hull ; they, however, differ widely in composition, par-
ticularly in their content of fat. It is quite evident that 870
contains relatively more germ than bran, and that 880 contains
more bran than germ.
Samples 842 and 874 agree with each other in composition,
showing a much higher content of fat than the corn hulls, and
a much lower amount than is contained in the “ Corn-Germ
Food.”
Samples Nos. 879 and 880 agree closely in their content of fat,
protein and carbohydrates, differing only in their content of
crude fiber and ash. It is quite evident, therefore, that the germ
meal consists more largely of hulls than germ.
The manufacturers claim that the corn hulls are separated
from the whole corn entirely by machinery, which may account
for the difference in composition of the hulls and bran. It is-
apparent, however, that the common name as applied to these
products does not give definite information as to their compo-
sition.
These products, too, while differing in the relative amounts of
their constituents, practically correspond with the original pro-
duct, corn, in the ratio of the flesh-formers to fat-formers ; hence,
their usefulness in the preparation of rations lies in the same
direction, viz., in widening rather than narrowing the nutritive
ratio by furnishing chiefly carbohydrates.
In the following table an average analysis of “ Corn Bran ” is
compared with “ Hominy Chop” and “ Cerealine Feed,” products
derived in the manufacture of hominy and cerealine from corn,,
and consisting largely of the germ or hull :
21
TABLE VII.
Corn Bran, Hominy Cliop and Cerealine Feed.
POUNDS PER HUNDRED OF
Name and Address.
j Water.
j Crude Fat.
| Crude
Fiber.
Crude
Protein.
Crude Ash.
Carbo-
hydrates.
Corn Bran (Average Analysis)
8.52
8.08
11.50
11.37
0.81
59.72
868
Hominy Chop
Baltimore Pearl Hominy Co.,
Baltimore, Md.
11.80
11.17
'2.58
11.00
2.92
60.53
860
Hominy Chop
Hudnut Co.,
Terre Haute, Ind.
8.50
8.72
3.35
11.30
2.66
65.47
808
Cerealine Feed
Cerealine Mfg. Co .
Indianapolis, Ind
9.39
7.82
5.01
10.12
2.50
65.16
The composition of these three products, in reference to fat
and protein, is very uniform, and for most purposes of feeding
will answer the same end in the preparation of rations, though
the hominy and cerealine feeds are much superior in that they
-contain less crude fiber than the corn bran. They may all be
made to serve a very valuable purpose as substitutes for corn.
The effect of the substitution of any of these products for corn
meal is illustrated in the two rations given below, which are well
.adapted for milk dairies :
9.
' CONTAINS
POUNDS
OF DIGESTIBLE
Corn Meal Ration.
Fat.
Protein.
Carbohydrates.
■Corn Stalks
10 lbs.
'\ '
Hay
5
(C
1
i
Corn Meal
5
u
.61
2.45
12.46
Malt Sprouts
3
u
i
Cotton-Seed Meal
2
u
j
Nutritive ratio 1 to 5.6.
10.
CONTAINS
! POUNDS
OF DIGESTIBLE
Hominy Meal or Corn Bran Ration.
Fat.
Protein.
Carbohydrates.
Corn Stalks
10 lbs.
l
Hay
5
u
i
Hominy Meal or Corn Bran
5
a
|
.78
2.47
12.28
Malt Sprouts
3
u
i
Cotton-Seed Meal
2
u
j
Nutritive ratio 1 to 5.6.
22
Suggestions.
A careful review of the composition and uses of the various
products shows that, while all are valuable feeds, there is, in the-
case of gluten meal, oil cake meal, germ meal and corn bran, or
hulls, the uncertain factor of variability in composition, and in
case of gluten meal and corn oil meal the further disadvantage-
for general feeding of too great concentration in fat and protein.
In the gluten feeds, or total residue from the manufacture of
starch, these criticisms do not apply, since they are practically
uniform in composition, and possess a physical character which
permits a generous use for most purposes of feeding.
It would seem, therefore, that unless some good, reason exists
from the manufacturers’ standpoint for the separation of the vari-
ous parts of the corn that general use would be promoted by
making but one product, which should consist of the total
residue. It would relieve the purchasers of the uncertainty as
to composition, reduce the danger liable to result from the care-
less feeding of the more highly concentrated parts of the residue,
and abolish the necessity of a study of comparative values as
now manufactured.
As before stated, the nutrients contained in the various residues
described are similar in that they have all been derived from the
same source. The fat is corn fat, and the protein is corn protein,
whatever the name may be that is given to the product. That
these nutrients do virtually have practically uniform nutritive
effects is shown by the studies of digestibility already made.
The Ash Constituents of Feeds.
In addition to the organic food compounds in feeds, the mineral,
or ash, constituents are of considerable importance, though they
are seldom taken into consideration, because in most natural food
products the amount present is always more than sufficient* to
supply the needs of the animal for them.
It has already been noted that in many of the processes of
manufacture of starch there is a very considerable extraction of
the ash constituents ; this is shown by the following tabulation :
23
POUNDS PER HUNDRED OF
Ash.
Phosphoric Acid.
Potash.
Corn
1.50
0.70
0.40
Buffalo Gluten Feed
87
.31
.08
Gluten Meal
1.29
.56
.07
Chicago Gluten Meal
89
.35
.06
Corn Oil Meal
2.28
1.36
.14
Corn Bran
81
.24
.06
With one exception the original corn contains more total ash,
and more phosphoric acid, and in every case more potash than
any of the products derived from it as feeds.
The effect of this exhaustion upon the feeding value of the
residues might not be noticeable, except when used as a large
part of the total ration for milch cows or growing stock ; when
the products are used in connection with other feeds no trouble
is liable to result from this source.
Fertility in Feeds.
The composition of the ash is of importance, however, when
feeds are considered from the standpoint of fertility. In the feed
products derived from the manufacture of flour from the cereal
grains, wheat and rye, the ash constituents — phosphoric acid and
potash — exceed in amount those contained in the original grain.
From this standpoint, therefore, they are valuable because of
mineral constituents and nitrogen, while the gluten feeds are
mainly valuable because of nitrogen alone. The average amount
of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash contained in one ton of
the various grains, the gluten or corn products, and of wheat
bran and cotton-seed meal, clearly illustrates this point :
POUNDS PER TON OF
Nitrogen.
Phosphoric Acid.
Potash.
Wheat
37.8
18.6
12.8
Corn
33.0
14.0
8.0
Oats
37.0
17.0
13.4
Bye
34.0
17.0
11.2
Gluten Meal
10.5
11.2
1.4
Chicago Gluten Meal
11.4
7.0
1.2
Buffalo Gluten Feed
'69.4
6.8
1.6
Corn Oil Meal
79.2
27.2
2.9
Corn Bran
37.2
4.8
1.2
Hominy Meal
35.8
28.4
14 6
Wheat Bran
49.2
57.8
32.2
Cotton-Seed Meal
135.4
61.6
38.0
24
When it is remembered that a pound of any one of the fer-
tilizer constituents contained in these feeds is quite as useful, as
far as fertilizer effect or the prevention of soil exhaustion are
concerned, as when contained in the original grain, it is apparent
that in the exchange of grain for commercial feeds— when the
exchange on the basis of food values alone is advisable — a very
considerable increase in fertility values may be obtained without
any direct expenditure.
A number of these feeds have been used with satisfaction by
our farmers ; if they are not obtainable from local dealers they
may doubtless be secured from the manufacturers, whose addresses
are given in the tables of analyses.
In purchasing it should be remembered —
1. That while all are derived from corn, the gluten feed con-
sists of the whole corn less a large part of the starch, and that
because of its good physical character and richness in fat and
protein, it is well adapted for use with coarse farm products in
the preparation of rations either for dairy cows or for fattening
stock.
2. That the gluten meal, which does not contain the hull or
germ, is still more valuable as a source of fat and protein than
the feed, and because of its concentration in bulk and richness,
in these constituents, should be fed with greater care.
3. That the corn oil meal and cake, which consist of the
pressed germ, are very rich in fat and protein, and should not
be fed in excessive amounts.
4. That the corn bran and corn germ, wdiich consist chiefly of
the hulls and germ, are rich in fat and carbohydrates, and are
excellent substitutes for corn meal.
EDWARD B. VOORHEES,
Director .
New Brunswick, N. J., November 20th, 1894.
7^. £ /W
O
/
THE SAN JOSE SCALE IN NEW JERSEY.
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural College
tatton
106
NEW JERSEY AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE EXPERIMENT STATION.
BOARD OF CONTROL.
The Board of Trustees of Rutgers College in New Jersey.
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD.
AUSTIN SCOTT, Ph.D., LL.D., President of Rutgers College, Chairman.
Hon. GEORGE C. LUDLOW, HENRY R. BALDWIN, M.D., LL.D.,
Hon. HENRY W. BOOKSTAVER, LL.D., JAMES NEILSON, Esq.
STAFF OF THE STATION.
AUSTIN SCOTT, Ph.D., LL.D., Director.
Professor JULIUS NELSON, Ph.D., Biologist.
Professor BYRON D. HALSTED, Sc.D , Botanist and Horticulturist.
Professor JOHN B. SMITH, Sc.D., Entomologist.
ELTSHA A. JONES, B.S., Superintendent of College Farm.
IRVING S. UPSON, A.M., Disbursing Clerk and Librarian.
CHARLES A. POULSON, Mailing Assistant.
LEONORA E. BURWELL, Clerk to the Director.
AUGUSTA E. MESKE, Stenographer and Typewriter.
NEW JERSEY
Agricultural College Experiment Station.
BULLETIN 106.
NOVEMBER 22, 1894.
The San Jose Scale in New Jersey.
BY JOHN B. SMITH, ENTOMOLOGIST.
The above species, Aspidiotus perniciosus, Comstock, is said by
its describe!* to be “the most destructive of the scale-making
Coccids.” It is supposed to be a native of Chile, or to have been
first brought from that country to California about 1870. It was
noticed at San Jos6 in 1873, the popular name being derived
from this fact, and spread rapidly until 1880, when Prof. J. H.
Comstock, then U. S. Entomologist, collected it in Santa Clara
county and first gave it a scientific name. The specific name,
perniciosus , was intended to express the author’s estimate of its
character, as he found it swarming in countless numbers in cer-
tain orchards, infesting all deciduous fruit trees except the apricot
and Black Tartarian cherry. In 1892 the insect had spread
through all the fruit-growing regions of California, through
Oregon and into the State of Washington. It has caused great
pecuniary loss, many crops of fruit have been ruined and thou-
sands of trees have been killed.
The insect enemies of farmers more than a thousand miles off
do not greatly interest the agriculturists of New Jersey, who have
enough to attend to at home ; hence, naturally, no one ever con-
4
sidered the San Jos6 scale as a creature which it was necessary
to know ; and this proved unfortunate.
In the summer of 1893, Dr. C. V. Riley, then U. S. Entomolo-
gist, announced to the Association of Economic Entomologists,
meeting at Madison, Wisconsin, that the insect had been found
infesting a small orchard at Charlottesville, Virginia. At that
time the source from which the infection came was not known,
and an accidental introduction on infested fruit was deemed
probable. Radical measures were to be adopted to stamp out
what was then supposed to be a solitary plague-spot.
In April, 1894, a circular was issued from the Division of
Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, calling the atten-
tion of fruit-growers to this scale, stating its history and spread,
enumerating the points in the East at which it was known to
occur, and closing one paragraph with the words : “ The owner
stated that the scales were first noticed three years ago, and
expressed himself as of the opinion that the insect was brought
into this orchard on nursery stock purchased from a New Jersey
dealer.”
This attracted my attention at once, and I decided to find the
offending nursery or nurseries, to check, if possible, further dis-
tribution of the pest. Letters were sent to the leading establish-
ments in our State, and I made excursions in rapid succession to
those points where horticulture is a leading industry, examining
the stock in the hands of dealers, and also many orchards recently
set out. I soon located two nurseries, both large and well known,
which were infested by the scale, and these, so far as I have been
able to ascertain, are the only distributing centers in our State.
It is not deemed necessary to name at this time the establish-
ments which have unintentionally introduced the scale into New
Jersey and into a number of surrounding States. The gentlemen
concerned acted in ignorance and not in bad faith ; they are
taking active steps to stamp out the insect on their bearing trees,
and have adopted measures which will, if faithfully carried out,
prevent the shipment of other infested stock. It is also con-
sidered advisable to induce farmers to examine all fruit stock
carefully before setting it out, and to that end they should be
suspicious of all nurseries.
This is perhaps as good a place as any to say that there are
several nurseries on Long Island in which the scale is present ;
that one at least, in another part of New York State, is suspected,
and that in Missouri we know of another which has distributed
scaly stock. All material, therefore, whether received from our
own or foreign nurseries, should be critically looked over before
being set out.
Introduction of tlie Scale.
The history of the introduction of the scale is practically the
same at both the infested nurseries in our State. In either 1886
or 1887 each imported from California a lot of Kelsey plum
trees, the fruit of which was said to be “ curculio-proof,” and
otherwise desirable, and with them other Japanese varieties were-
also received. In both cases the trees looked bad, wrere weak,
made little growth, and after remaining in the nursery for two<
years were taken out and destroyed. It was afterward remem-
bered that they seemed scaly ; but no especial attention was paid
to this at the time, and the nature of the scale was not suspected.
It is almost certain that these trees carried this scale in large
numbers, and from them the insects spread to the nearest bear-
ing fruit trees, on which they multiplied exceedingly. In one
case a row of Bartlett pear trees adjoined the block in which the-
Kelsey plums were grown, and these I found to be covered from
base of trunk to the tip of the twigs ; scarcely a bit of bark being
visible. The trees were nearly dead, and were at my suggestion
taken out at once and burnt. From this row of trees the scales
annually spread to the nursery stock round about, so that in an
entire block, containing thousands of young fruit trees, scarcely
one could be found without a few scales fixed on it. At all
events, in both instances, the scale spread rapidly, and about
1889 or 1890 the first scaly stock was distributed. Since that
time every year has continued the distribution of the insects,,
though it is probable that in the majority of instances they failed
to establish themselves in their new homes. There is reason to
believe that some Idaho pear stock, received from Western
nurseries and shipped without further growth to purchasers, was
also infested when set out.
6
Spread of the Scale in New Jersey.
It was considered important to ascertain just how far the scale
had been distributed in our State, and to what extent the insect
had spread from the points at which it was introduced. The
nurserymen could and did give me willing and efficient assist-
ance here, and furnished lists of names of persons to whom
suspicious stock had been sent for five years past. These lists
aggregated nearly 1,000 names, and to each individual a letter
was written, inclosing a copy of the circular above referred to as
published by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. A supply
of these circulars was kindly furnished the Station at different
times by the Department, through Dr. C. V. Riley and Mr. L. 0.
Howard, each at the time holding the position of U. S. Ento-
mologist, and these gentlemen have in all ways facilitated my
work by suggestions, information and assistance. Replies to my
letter were received in considerable number, and I soon located
a number of infested orchards and centers of infection. I real-
ized that I could not depend upon correspondence alone in this
matter and spent more than twenty days in active field work,
examining thousands of trees and visiting a very large number
of orchards. My plan was to visit one of the horticulturists on
my list, and have him drive me about in his neighborhood ;
especially to those places where young orchards had been recently
.set out. Thus, I found a large number of places where the scale
was present, and owe thanks to the gentlemen who so willingly
gave their time and local knowledge to aid my investigations.
The result has been, on the whole, encouraging. In one case
only had the scale spread beyond the trees that were infested
when received from the nurseries ; and while many of these were
so badly infested that I advised taking them out immediately, I
believe that in most instances they can be easily cleaned. I
found, curiously enough, that all the infested orchards are south
of the red shale. This formation crosses the State obliquely
from Island View, opposite Staten Island, on the Atlantic Coast,
to Trenton, on the Delaware, and extends northward ; clay, marl,
loam and sand succeeding it to the south. I do not mean to
assert that the scale does not exist on the red shale or northward ;
7
but simply that I have not found it there, and have not had any
information which leads me to suspect its presence. South of
the border indicated I have located the insects in every county.
It is certain that climate has nothing to do with the absence of
the pest in the northern half of our State, because it is known
to exist on Long Island and in an orchard in Columbia county,
N. Y., and it may be accident, merely, that is responsible for the
.apparent exemption from attack of the region mentioned. It
wTill not do for farmers to assume that the scale cannot maintain
itself in localities thus far uninfested ; but, on the contrary, they
should be especially cautious not to introduce it where it does
not already exist. Nothing will be gained by enumerating the
orchards in which this insect occurs, or even the townships in
wdiich they are located ; there are nearly one hundred of them
known to me, and probably there are more in places not visited,
;and from which I received no replies to my letter. It is prob-
able, also, that the insect exists on fruit trees in some of the
gardens in the many towns and villages along the Delaware, and
within a short distance south and west from Camden on all the
;railroads. Its absence should be nowhere assumed.
California Fruit Infested.
While, so far as we know at present, all the existing scales in
Yew Jersey are traceable to nursery stock, yet there exists a con-
tinuous danger from California fruit, and especially pears. I
found in the markets of Philadelphia, Newark, New York and
Brooklyn any number of pears with this scale conspicuously
present, and noticed it on some of the fruit sold on the trains
out of Philadelphia and New York. At the meeting of the
Association of Economic Entomologists, at Brooklyn, N. Y.,
during August, 1894, this insect was discussed, and I purchased
at the first handy fruit stand half a dozen California pears and
exhibited them. Every fruit was infested mpre or less, male and
female scales being equally abundant, and on one fruit the active
yellow larvae were found in some numbers, crawling about and
.seeking a place to fix. Should a pear of this kind, or the peel-
8
ings from it, find lodgment near or on any plant suitable for its
existence, there would be nothing to prevent the establishment
of a colony.
Life History.
As the study of this insect is a matter of national importance,
it has been taken in hand by the Division of Entomology of the-
U. S. Department of Agriculture. Indeed, the insect had been
SAN JOSE SCALE.
a, California pear, moderately infested— natural size; b, female scale — enlarged.
studied, and its life history ascertained in California years agor
so we are quite familiar with its general habits and development.
I deemed it unnecessary to duplicate work, and have made no
attempt at an original study. I have confined myself to observ-
ing the development and habits of the insect in our State, and
9
to ascertaining those points that are practically important in its
treatment. The life history that follows is therefore taken in its
•essential features from Circular No. 3, Second Series, of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture, Division of Entomology, supple-
mented by my New Jersey observations. The illustrations are
also from the above-mentioned circular, electrotypes being pro-
cured by the courtesy of the officers of the Department.
The San Jose scale belongs to the group of armored scale in-
sects to which the common oyster-shell bark-louse of the apple
belongs. It differs from that species in that the scale is perfectly
round, or at most very slightly elongated and irregular. In
these particulars it resembles the “scurfy scale,” Chionaspis
furfurus, or “ Harris louse,” as it seems to be quite universally
called in this State ; but it is decidedly smaller and more convex
than the latter species. Its round shape and small size dis-
tinguish it at a glance from all the other species infesting decid-
uous fruit trees in our State. It is quite flat, a little raised in
the center, pressed close to
the tree around the edges,
resembles the bark of the
twigs in color, and when full
grown is decidedly less than
one-eighth of an inch in
diameter. Perhaps the ma-
jority of the scales do not
equal one-sixteenth of an
inch wdiere they are closely
crowded together ; but where
a few only are found on the
succulent shoots, or on fruit,
they become larger, and the
females may in extreme
cases reach nearly one-eighth
of an inch. The males
rarely exceed one-sixteenth
inch in diameter. At or near the middle of each scale is a small,
round, slightly elongated black point ; or this point may some-
times appear yellowish.
Fig. 2.
SAN JOSE SCALE.
Apple branch, with scales in situ — natural size ;
enlarged scales above, at left
10
When occurring upon the bark of twigs or leaves in largo
numbers the scales lie close to each other, frequently overlapping,
and they are at such times difficult to distinguish without a mag-
nifying glass. The general appearance which they present is a
grayish, very slightly roughened, scurfy deposit. This is much
more prominent on trees like the peach, or those varieties of
apple and pear that have a reddish color, and when these are
thickly infested they seem to be coated with dust or ashes.
When the scales are crushed by scraping, a yellowish, oily liquid
will appear, coming from the soft yellow insects beneath the-
scales, and this will at once indicate to one who is not familiar
with their appearance the existence of healthy living insects
beneath the scaly covering.
They are easily scraped off with the finger nail, and the bark
beneath them will be seen to he darker in color. The natural
larger ones, and sometimes appear quite black ; while on the
other hand, those that are just set may be white or yellowish.
During the winter the insect is to be found in the half or
SAN JOSE SCALE.
a, young larva— greatly enlarged ; b, antenna of
same— still more enlarged.
Fig. 3.
color of the bark is also
somewhat changed, as will
be seen by comparing the
places from which the scales
have been removed with the
spots upon which the scales
do not occur, while the cir-
cumference beyond the scales
frequently becomes changed
in color to a somewhat
purplish or crimson shade.
Where the scales do not
occur so thickly they are
more perceptible, and upon
young, reddish twigs the
contrast is quite noticeable
as the scales there appear
light gray. Younger and
smaller scales are darker in
color than the older and
11
nearly full-grown condition, and as soon as the trees resume
activity in spring the insects resume their feeding. In New
Jersey they reach their full growth during the latter part of May,
and the young begin to hatch and to crawl from under the
female scales during the first week in June, and from this time
through the summer there is a constant succession of generations.
The first living larvae that I received reached me June 11th,
having been gathered June 10th, and at that time I found on
the twigs a number of young scales that had just set, indicating
that active larvae had been about at least three or four days
previously. Up to June 15th every infested tree examined
showed active young larvae, and after that time there seemed to
SAN JOSE SCALE.
Male adult— greatly enlarged.
be a period of about a week or ten days during which no larvae
were noticed. Early in July, however, young larvae were again
active and crawling about everywhere, and this condition of
affairs continued throughout the balance of the summer, extend-
ing through October, and even into the first part of November ;
until, in other words, the trees had become quite dormant. The
young louse is an active, crawling creature, very minute and
yellowish in color. The young spread out upon the new growth
of the tree, settle down, and each begins to secrete a scale. The
male is an active two-winged insect, while the full-grown female
loses her legs and antennae, and bears a very slight resemblance
to a living creature.
SAN JOSE SCALE.
c, adult female containing young— greatly enlarged ; d, anal fringe of same— still
more enlarged.
The insect affects not only the young twigs and limbs, but
covers as well the trunk to the surface of the ground, and exists
upon the leaves and upon the fruit. When it is abundant the
fruit is destroyed, or at least rendered unfit for market. One of
the most characteristic points in the appearance of the insect
upon fruit is the purple discoloration around the edge of each
scale. So far as we know, this result is confined to this species
alone. Upon the leaves the insects have a tendency to collect
along the midrib on the upper side of the leaf in one or more
quite regular rows, and also to some extent along the side ribs.
The infested leaves turn brown ; but do not have a tendency to
fall as a result of the damage.
13
There are two points of interest and importance to be noted
in this life history. The first is, that the insect passes the winter
beneath the scales in a partly-grown condition. Usually they
are about half grown ; but some will be younger and some will
be older. They seem to continue reproduction until the tree is
entirely dormant, and no further food is obtainable. On the
other hand, they do not seem to renew growth very early in
spring, but are slow to begin reproduction ; no larvae having
been noted until June, as has been already stated. The second
point is, that once they begin there is practically no period dur-
ing the summer at which the young, active, crawling lice are not
to be found upon the tree. The length of time during which a
given female will continue to reproduce has not been ascertained ;
but it seems likely from what has been observed that breeding
continues for quite a long time, and that the female scales that
have lived during the winter may continue to live on and repro-
duce during the greatest portion of the summer, when their
daughters and grand-daughters are already full grown, with
nearly full-grown progeny. There may be, therefore, upon a
plant at one time, young born of as many as three or even four
distinct generations. As nearly as I have been able to ascertain
from my observations during the present season, a little less than
a month is required to bring an insect to maturity. That is, a
larva hatched to-day will be ready one month hence to bring
forth living young in turn, and this will allow at least four if
not five distinct broods during the summer and fall.
How the Insect Spreads.
It has been stated that the male of this species is a winged
insect. It is very minute, scarcely noticeable without a lens,
very light and frail, at the mercy of the least puff of wind, and
incapable of any great journey. The female has no perceptible
legs, and is utterly incapable of motion. She resembles a yellow-
ish or orange, flattened seed, in bulk many times that of the
male ; but firmly fixed to one point by the scaly covering wThich
is at once her protection and her grave. The young are active
for a very brief time, two or three days at most, and they crawl
14
with considerable rapidity and great persistence, so that they
might possibly descend from one tree and crawl for a number of
yards to another ; but the spread in this manner is insignificant.
Where trees are close together they may pass from the branches
of one to the branches of another ; but I have found that they
rarely crawl long in any one direction ; they rather move around,
rapidly enough, yet irregularly and at random. Usually they
do not go farther than is necessary to find a good place to fix,
and at once begin to form a scale. This process is rather interest-
ing and can be watched. As soon as the young louse has inserted
its beak into the plant, and has begun to feed, a change comes-
over it, and within a few hours it is entirely covered by a fine,
white, waxy film. This turns first yellow and then gray or even
black, and the creature is a fixture, absolutely incapable thereafter
of shifting its location under any possible circumstances. Strong
winds may carry the young bodily from' one tree to another ;
but the principal method of spread is by means of other insects
which are winged, and by birds. The active young lice will
soon crawl upon any small winged insect, particularly if the
latter is of a dark color, and they may be carried by it to con-
siderable distances. They also crawl upon the feet of birds which
visit the trees, and may thus be carried for miles. They are-
often found upon ants, and ants, as everyone knows, are great
travelers. This difficulty in moving from one place to another,
and the dependence upon external agency for their distribution,
will account for the fact that trees here and there in an orchard
newly set out, may be very badly infested, while not a trace will
be seen on the trees on either side. Few birds or insects visit a.
young orchard that is at all well kept, and the distance between
the trees, especially if the land is cultivated, is altogether too-
great to be covered by the young lice, even did they know enough
to make a bee-line for the nearest point. The result is that every-
thing fixes upon the tree on which it was hatched, killing it more
rapidly than would otherwise be the case ; but at all events
confining and preventing spread to points not theretofore infested.
This also explains why nursery stock is so evenly troubled :
here the trees are grown just as closely together as is possible, in
rows, and there is no hindrance to crawling from one to the other.
15
As the insects must feed for a time in spring before attaining
their full growth, it follows that only such as are fixed to the-
tree itself have any chance of reproducing their kind. Those-
that fix to the leaves fall with them, and as these dry or decay
the insect dies for want of food before attaining maturity. We-
have, thus, to consider only the wood, free of all leaves, when
attempting the destruction of the insect.
Varieties of Fruit Infested.
All our deciduous fruit trees are attacked by this insect ; though
not to the same extent. In addition, currant, gooseberry and
rose-bushes are infested, and it is probable that the entire natural
order Rosacese will support the species. In addition, a single
specimen of a European variety of elm was found densely cov-
ered by it, and I found a few specimens apparently of this species;
on an English walnut, growing next an infested pear tree. Com-
paratively few scaly peach trees were found in my observations.
This is due to the fact that the infested nurseries do not grow
their own stock of this fruit, but have it grown elsewhere. It is.
shipped to them in bulk, heeled in, and reshipped as ordered.
Anything left over is destroyed. Apples, pears, plums and
cherries are the usual victims, and pear trees more than any
others. Quince is more rarely troubled. Among the plums the
Japanese varieties are favorites, while those of American and
European origin suffer much less. The apples seem to be equally
affected, and I noticed no markedly exempt varieties. Pears
differ greatly in susceptibility. European stocks and varieties
are nearly equally subject ; Idahos, in my experience suffer most,
closely followed by the Lawson, Garber, Madam von Siebold,
Sin-Sin, Lawrence and Bartlett. The varieties of pears are legion,,
and all of them support the scale. The Japan Golden Russet is
a vigorous grower, and is not a favorite with the insect. Still
less infested is the Leconte, while the Keiffer is almost exempt.
A striking example of this difference I found in a tree upon
which both Lawson and Keiffer were grafted ; the Lawson
branches, leaves and fruit were completely covered, while the
Keiffer portion was entirely free from scales. In several instances
16
where Keiffers were set in trial-rows with other varieties, the
branches intermingling, the Keiffers were entirely clear, while
all the others were more or less infested. The Leconte was nearly
as fortunate, and where there is opportunity for choice these
varieties will be exempt. I was inclined to believe that the
Keiffer was scale-proof until October, when I received specimens
of infested twigs of this variety, and learnt of an orchard of
these trees in which the insects were abundantly present. I
have learnt since that time of several instances where this variety
has been more or less troubled, and no further doubt exists,
therefore, that under proper conditions — unfortunately we do not
yet know what these conditions are — the insects will exist and
multiply on it as readily as on any other. Yet withal, the
Keiffer is least likely to be attacked in my experience where other
varieties are at hand. But it is not exempt, and no variety is
•entirely immune.
Natural Enemies.
I have been asked on several occasions whether this insect
had no parasites. It has. I have bred specimens of Aphelinus
Juscipennis, Howard, a very minute, yellowish, parasitic wasp,
from the scales in moderate numbers, and this same species has
been bred from it in California. I am informed by Mr. Howard,
U. S. Entomologist, that up to September no parasites had been
bred in the East by any investigator other than myself, and also
that this little Aphelinus occurs all over the country, and is a
foe to scale insects generally. Not one per cent, of the scales
collected by me and carried through in the laboratory were
parasitized, and in the field it was difficult to find a destroyed
specimen. As a slight check to increase, this little species has a
value ; but no actual reduction, or even a restriction to present
numbers, is to be hoped for from its efforts. It is only fair to
add, however, that in one case in California the insect “ had
been found doing such effective work in subduing the species in
an orchard in the neighborhood of Los Angeles that a complete
restoration of the orchard was confidently expected.”
Two species of lady-birds were also observed in some num-
bers feeding on the scale. The most prominent was Chilocorus
17
bivulnerus, the “ twice-stabbed lady-bird,” which is black, almost
hemispherical above, one-eighth of an inch in length, and has a
blood-red spot in the middle of each wing-cover. The other
species is Pentilia misella, to which no common name has been
applied, and which is a minute black creature, scarcely as large
as the scale itself. These beetles and their larvae undoubtedly
devour many of the scales and their larvae ; but they do not
occur in numbers great enough to check the increase and further
spread of the pernicious scale.
No trust can he safely placed in these natural enemies. A
little active winter work now, will benefit the farmer more than
all the “natural enemies” can possibly advantage him in ten
years to come.
Remedies.
This scale can be so much more satisfactorily treated in winter
that I strongly urge an attack upon it during the present season.
No fruit-grower, on ever so small a scale, can afford to allow this
insect to remain on his trees, and all farmers should carefully
examine every tree received and set out within the six years last
past, to make sure that the pest does not exist upon any of them.
Our large orchardists are, as a rule, careful of their trees, and
many are in the habit of winter-treating them. In two or
possibly three instances, I feel convinced that the scale has been
killed off where it was present without the knowledge of the
owner. In one case the trees were washed with a saturated
solution of commercial potash ; in another the trees were kept
constantly whitewashed ; in the third, and doubtful case, whale-
oil soap was used, and here I am not so certain that the scales
had been really present. In another instance I found a number
of apple trees with a few scales near the tip of the twigs, and a
very few on the fruit. In this case the arsenites and Bordeaux
mixture are used each year, and whenever the trees are sprayed
the trunks and larger branches receive a special coating. No
scales were found there, and though the trees had been set out
five or six years, and must have been infested when received,
they were thrifty and vigorous. The scale had barely main-
18
tained itself, and there were probably fewer specimens than when
the trees left the nursery.
If such good results follow from what is considered by some
of our horticulturists merely proper care of an orchard, we may
reasonably hope that special treatment directed to the extermina-
tion of this particular scale may be even more successful.
In selecting materials to use for the destruction of scales, we
liave to consider, first, the character of the creatures to be
reached, and second, the way in which we expect to reach them.
The insect itself lies close to the bark, completely covered and
protected by the scaly secretion which is closely applied to the
surface by its entire circumference. We must, before we can get
at the living creature, either corrode or dissolve the scale ; we
must employ an agent subtile enough to penetrate any minute
opening, able also to kill the specimens when it reaches them ; or
we must coat the scale with a wash which will fix it permanently
to the tree and which cannot be penetrated by the males when
they seek to emerge, or by the larvse should the female scale be
fertilized.
As a solvent or corrodent, lime is of some use ; but only when
freshly slaked and to a small extent. It is not sufficiently
certain for use in this case. Caustic soda and crude potash are
very much better and more reliable. Potash is used by a number
of our growers as a winter wash, and it has proved effective in
destroying the scurfy scale, and the oyster-shell bark-louse. In
California, so it is stated in Dr. Riley’s Report as U. S. Entomo-
logist, for 1893, “A seriously infested orchard was treated with
absolutely complete success, by means of a wash composed of
one-half pound of commercial potash, one-half pound of caustic
soda, and five quarts of water. This was applied when the trees
were in a dormant condition.”
Both potash and soda corrode the scales, and when they reach
the insect, burn through it as well. Potash is used in my labor-
atory practice to destroy rapidly all muscular and other tissues
of the insects I wish to prepare for study, leaving only the
chitinous framework, and even this is dissolved in time. This
substance is, therefore, theoretically and practically a good one for
the destruction of scale insects. Potash alone will act as well as
19
in combination with soda, and may be purchased in one hundred-
pound lots at seven cents per pound. If this is used, it should
be as a saturated solution ; i. e., use only water enough to fully
-dissolve all the potash, and this will be facilitated by heating the
water. Apply thoroughly to the entire tree when it is dormant.
As a penetrating material nothing is better than kerosene. It
will find its way through the smallest opening, and where used
pure, will kill every insect with which it comes into contact.
To dormant trees it may be applied pure, and where thoroughly
used will prove effective. It is, however, even more effective
wrhen emulsified with soapsuds and somewhat diluted. The
formula is as follows :
Hard soap, shaved fine J pound.
Soft water 1 gallon.
Kerosene 2 gallons.
Dissolve the soap in boiling water, add to the kerosene, and
<diurn with a force-pump until a smooth, white, butter-like mass
is formed which adheres to glass without oiliness. The hotter
the liquids are when they are joined, the sooner the emulsion
wrill be formed. If the kerosene is warm, the soapsuds boiling
hot, the pump or syringe not cold, from three to five minutes
will perfect the emulsion. Stirring with a stick will not answer,
nor will any agitation less violent than that obtainable with a
syringe or pump produce a satisfactory result.
For application against this scale dilute with five parts of
water and apply liberally. The kerosene in this mixture does
not evaporate so readily as when applied pure, and more oppor-
tunity is given to penetrate the scale. The caustic of the soap
is also of use in loosening the scale and facilitating the entrance
of the oil. An excess of soap in the emulsion is therefore no
fault, and the emulsion is apt to be more readily made. The
water should be soft for best results in making the emulsion ;
but hard water can be used to dilute.
The resin washes, which are general favorites in California,
act by forming an impervious coat over the insects, and also
through the caustic they contain. They would not be as satis-
factory with us, because our frequent rains would wash off the
20
mixtures before they had an opportunity to become fully effective..
They are also better for use in summer, when the young are-
active, than in winter, when, in my opinion, the most radical
measures are possible.
A great many experiments have been made by the United
States Department of Agriculture with all the substances recom-
mended for use in California, and which have proved more or
less successful there. In all cases they have proved very much
less effective in the East. Mr. L. 0. Howard, United States
Entomologist, wrote me November 19th, “I have pretty well
determined, however, that we will be obliged to abandon the lines
generally worked on in California — that is, lime, salt and sulphur ;
lime, sulphur and blue vitriol ; winter resin wash, and strong
kerosene emulsion. None of these killed off all of the scales,
although all reduced their numbers to a greater or less extent.
There is unquestionably, a more perfect dormancy on the part
of the scales here than there is in California, which probably
alone accounts for the comparatively poor success of these washes.
The only thing which I have found, so far, which I can say is
almost absolutely complete in its work, is a solution of two
pounds of whale-oil soap to one gallon of water. A tree which
Mr. Coquillett sprayed with this mixture the third week in
October was examined by me yesterday, and although I spent
nearly an hour going over the tree, I failed to find a single
living scale. Even those which had worked their way down
between the scales of the buds were killed.” Whale-oil soap is
rather expensive, and especially if it is to be used at the strength
recommended — that is, two pounds to one gallon of water. A
fish-oil soap can be made, however, without difficulty by farmers
themselves according to the following formula :
Crystal potash lye 1 pound.
Fish oil 3 pints.
Soft water 2 gallons.
Dissolve the lye in the water, and when brought to a boil add
the oil. It should boil about two hours, and when done can be
filled up to make up the loss by evaporation.
21
This will make a batch of about twenty-five pounds, or enough
for thirteen gallons of water. It should be applied with very
great thoroughness, so as to wet to dripping every portion of the
tree. The cost will be about one cent per pound.
It remains, finally, to mention the gas treatment. This has
been much used in California against scale insects infesting
^Citrus trees, and is extremely effective. It is also quite expen-
sive ; not so much in the materials used as in the outfit required.
Essentially it means inclosing the tree to be treated by an oiled
•canvas tent, and producing in this confined space hydrocyanic
acid gas, by means of the action of diluted sulphuric acid on
fused cyanide of potassium. The proportions are, one ounce by
weight of not above sixty per cent, cyanide of potassium, one
fluid ounce commercial sulphuric acid, and three ounces water.
This is sufficient for an inclosed space of one hundred and fifty
•cubic feet. After a tree is inclosed, the water is first poured into
any glazed earthenware vessel ; the acid follows and the receptacle
is placed under the tent. The cyanide is then added, and the
gas at once begins to arise. It is lighter than air, and displaces
the latter in a very short time. It is also excessively poisonous,
and deadly to all animals, including man, and care should be
taken not to breathe it. The trees should remain exposed to the
action of the gas about one hour, and this will generally kill all
the scale insects infesting it, and will rid it also of all other sorts
of insect life that is not in the egg or pupa stage.
It has been found that warmth and daylight affect the action
of the gas, making it more dangerous to plants and less deadly
to insects. Fumigation, therefore, is best made at night, or late
in the afternoon of a cool day, when its action on insects is at
its maximum and its effect on plants at a minimum.
This treatment is not recommended in New Jersey, because no
orchard known to me is sufficiently infested to authorize the
-expense required to supply the necessary outfit.
A modification of it, however, should be adopted by the
. nurseries. All stock infested or suspected of infestation should
be fumigated before being sent out. The trees should be either
heeled in or made up in bundles, the roots wrapped to retain
znoisture, and the mass, covered by oiled canvas or other gas-
22
tight material, should be fumigated one hour. The material1
should he used at the rate given — i. e ., one ounce of cyanide to»
one hundred and fifty cubic feet of space.
Recommendations.
On consideration of all that has been said above, concerning
life history and available remedies, the following suggestions for
practice are made :
First. Every orchard that has been set out within the last six
years should be thoroughly examined to ascertain whether or not
the scale is present.
Second. If it proves to be present and is confined to a few trees, .
the trees had better be taken out and destroyed, unless the infesta-
tion is so slight that the trees can be gone over with a stiff brush
and all the scales actually brushed off.
Third. If the orchard is young, and the trees are not too large -
to be handled, it will he best to use a stiff brush and, taking each
tree separately, brush off all the scales. This looks like a good
deal of mechanical work ; but it will pay in the end. It can be
done at any time during the winter ; it will be absolutely effec-
tive and, with care, there need be no further trouble from this
insect in an orchard so treated.
Fourth. If the trees are too numerous to be treated by hand, or
are too large to be conveniently handled, prune back liberally,
removing as much wood as the tree can easily spare. The cut-
tings should be carted off and burnt as a matter of precaution,
and what remains of the trees should be washed with the potash
solution above described. This should be done as soon as may
be, and a month later, during a moderately mild spell, the trees
should be again treated, this time with the kerosene emulsion,
made as above described and diluted five times. The object of
this double treatment is, first, by means of the potash to dissolve
or corrode the scales to a greater or less extent, and to kill off a
considerable proportion of the insects themselves. At the end of
a month the potash will probably have been washed down and
all dissolved away, so as to exert no further action. The scales*.
'however, will be thinned down, riddled or loosened from their
hold, and an application of the kerosene emulsion then made
will give it abundant opportunity to reach the insect. If both
these materials are applied thoroughly, the kerosene will finish
any work left undone by the potash and not a single specimen
need escape.
Fifth. Large or bearing trees should be treated much as de-
scribed under the previous heading — that is to say, they should
be cut back as far as it is possible to do without endangering the
tree. If the bark of the tree is rough, it should be first scraped
in order to get rid of all loose material. Then the potash should
be applied, and afterward the kerosene emulsion, as described
under the previous heading. Properly carried out, these recom-
mendations should enable any orchardist to rid his trees com-
pletely, not only of the San Jose, but of all other scale insects
infesting his orchards.
In place of the suggestions above, made, the whale-oil soap
treatment, described in a previous paragraph, may be adopted ;
but this also should be applied twice in order to make it certainly
effective.
All these recommendations are, of course, for winter treatment,
when there is no foliage to interfere with the application of the
material. If for any reason winter treatment is not possible,
then spring treatment should be delayed until the young larvae
are observed crawling about. The kerosene emulsion should
then be used, diluted with nine parts of water, and the spraying
should be thorough. Two additional sprayings should be made
at intervals of not more than a week, in order to kill off the
young that are continually hatching, and to destroy the young
scales that have just set. Three such applications, properly
made, should be effective, and should be all that is necessary ;
but if young larvae are again noticed later on, and it is evident
that scales are still alive, the application should be repeated as
often as may be necessary until no further larvae are seen on the
tree. I would again, however, urge most strongly immediate
attention to orchards, and the winter treatment above outlined.
The trees when dormant will stand a great deal more than when
24
they are active, while the insects are not more resistant than they
are during the summer. Applications, therefore, that are im-
possible in summer can be readily made in winter, and the winter
treatment is not only more effective, but is on the whole cheaper.
This scale is in some respects the most important insect that
has been introduced into our State within recent years. Its wide
range of food plants, its marvelous powers of multiplication, and
its deadly effect upon the infested trees, all make it a pest of the
first rank. No farmer ought to consider the matter unimportant
enough to neglect, even though he has only a single tree. It is,
I think, still possible to exterminate this insect in our State, and
by care to prevent its re-introduction, and this leads me to my
last, which was also my first, recommendation : carefully and
thoroughly examine every tree and every shrub received from
nurseries before setting them out, and whenever anything sus-
picious is noticed reject the stock rather than put it into the field,
and run the risk of losing not only that which has been just
planted, but also everything else that may be in the vicinity.
£j|ffe3 n
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